Full text of "The farmer's dictionary : a vocabulary of the technical terms recently introduced into agriculture and horticulture from various sciences, and also a compendium of practical farming : the latter chiefly from the works of the Rev. W.L. Rham, Loudon, Low and Youatt, and the most eminent American authors"

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^ ORIGINAL

Y THE

FARMER'S DICTIONARY:

A VOCABULARY

OF TBB TECHUnCAL TERMS RBCBNTLT INTRODUCED IJilTO AGRX«

CULTURE AND HORTICULTURE FROM TARIOUB SCIENCES,

AND ALSO A COMPENDIUM OF

PRACTICAL FARMIIG:

THE LATTER CHIEFLT FROM THE WORKS OF THE RET. W. L,
RBAM, LOUDO>r, 4.0W, AND TOUATT, AND THE

MOST EMINENT

AME RIC ANUUTHORS.

BDXTBO BT

D. P. GARDNER, M.D.,

HOXOBAKT MBMBKB OF SErBBAL AOB^^VLTVBaX SOCIBTIBI.

WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS.

NEW YORK:

HARPBH it SaOTHSaS. PUBLISBSaS,

389 * 331 PEARL STREET.

FEANKinr 8QVABK.

1854.

r w*)

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1846, by

Haspbb dc Bbothbrs,
In the Cleric's Office of the Sentheni District of New- York.

^1. K i^ ^

A'jrtC

G-

G-2.

^:Si PREFACE.

The FARMEs'a Dictionary was undertaken originally for
the purpose of supplj^ing a want long felt b^ the editor, in
common with the agricultural community, of'^a short expla-
nation of the many technical terms introduced into the works
written on farming. Much opposition has arisen to the use
of technical words in these productions, and our journals are
full of complaints, from respectable men, against the innova-
tion. If, however, words having so precise a meaning, and,
in many instances, conveying so much iuformation, be dis-
carded, what shall be substituted in their place? It is obvi-
ously impossible fbr every writer who has occasion to use
the terms hybrid, hydrogen, or eremacausis, to explain in de-
tail what tnese mean ; and if the attempt were made, our
treatises would present the most tiresome examples of tau-
tology. Each farmer may satisfy himself with a set of arbi-
trary terms, which convey all the information he desires ; but
they will not answer if he wishes to impart that information
to others. There is, perhaps, no greater drawback to the
advancement of our art than the indefinite words used amonff
us — words which are often peculiar to a small district, and
which are used to designate a variety of objects in different
parts of the country. We find one writer usin^ the word
'* withers'' for the shoulders of an animal, another for the
womb.

The friends of agricultural improvement, and especially
our journalists* should use all exertions to establish a suitable
nomenclature. The art has arrived at that stase that this is
the greatest object to be accomplished. It will open to the
practical man the extensive information of the scientific world,
and will enable the theorist to study his generalizations by
consulting the works of the true farmer. I have not, in at-
tempting to carry out my original design of preparing a
vocabulary, thought it advisable to insert every provincial
phrase, but have taken only those words in common use
among fsiraiers, and which have become somewhat fixed by

'■W» ■■'■"' ••■■■ m^^m^^m^im^mm .-?«P

ir PREFACE.

being frequently introduced into essays. I have thought it
useful, when words were occasionally met with a strange
sis^nificationt to omit them as an error in language ; nor has
it appeared conformable with my object to introduce the well-
known words of our language which have a place in the
common dictionaries. In this compilation I am necessarily
under infinite obligations to others, especially to Loudon,
Rham, Youatt, Stephens, Johnson, Deane, Young, Buel, Arm-
strong, Ellsworth, Colman, Low, Brande, Clater, <&c., &c.,
and our journalists. My task has not been, however, with-
out labour; for I could find no vocabulary such as that I
desired to produce already in existence, to serve me as a
model ; and if any merit should be awarded me for this un-
dertaking, it may be claimed on the ground that the Fabm-
er's Dictionary is the first book of its kind. This will also,
I trust, avert much of the criticism to which I know the work
is obnoxious. So much for my design, and the manner in
which it has been accomplished.

Ip addition to the vocabulary, my friends have suggested
the introduction* of short and practical essays on the opera-
tions of farming; and .these have been introduced the more
readily, from the facilitv with which they were procured from
the works of the Rev. \V. L. Rham, one of the best practical
writers of Britain, and others, as Loudon and Low, of great
merit, and but little known in the United States. In this part
of the work, care has been taken to edit the essays so as to
make them of practical value in this country. To the jour-
nalists of the United States I am also deeply indebted for the
matter introduced, and for which I have uniformly given
them credit.

To most of the crops raised in the United States, an Ap»
pendix has been made of the composition of the ashes^ and
remarks offered on the special manures. This has been
done in consideration of the existing desire for information
on the topic, and the impression that the most suitable ma-
nures for plants are discoverable by a studv of their ashes.
The best theories of the chemical school of agriculture are
also introduced. In this part of the work, I am indebted to
the labours of Chaptal, Davy, Braconnot, Saussure, Berthier,
Berzelius, Sprengel, Hermbstaed, Payen, Johnston, Boussin-
gault, Dumas, Thaer, Liebig, Mulder, Fowncs, Frcsenius,
Will, Hertwig, Kane, Shephard, and other chemists.

*D. P. GARnmsB.

THE

PARMER'S DICTIONARY.

ABO

ABATTOIR. A buflding for tbe
•iaaghterinf of animals.

ABDOMEN. The region of the
body containing the stomach, intes-
tines, liver, spleen, dec. In insects it
is the third division of the trunk, in
spiders the second.

ABIES. The Fir genus of trees.
See PituLs.

ABNORMAL. Irregular or una-
sual: applied to deviations from the
ordinary development of parts of an-
imals or plants.

ABORTION. Miscarriage. In
Yeterinary surgery, miscarriage, slip-
ping, slinking, casting, or warping,_all
meaning the expulsion of the young
' at so early a period of pregnancy as
to reDder it impossible tor it to live.
The immediate causes appear to be
the death of the fetus, or derange-
ment in the functions of the womb or
its dependencies, arising from some
external cause or causes operating
on the mother. Among these causes
may be reckoned too much or too
little lood, producing luUness or ema-
ciation; sudden fright or sympathy
with certain smells or sights, such as
the smell or sight of blood, of bones,
of horns, and particularly of the abor-
ted fetus of another animal. Acci-
dents, also, such as falls, bruises,
over- driving, or fatigue, and the like,
may frequently bring on abortion.

The signs of approaching abortion
are. great languor, uneasiness, and
restlessness, sometimes a discharge
of bloody matter, and the sudden fill-
ing of the udder, similar to the signs
of approaching delivery.

AiiortioH in the Mare. — Abortions
Tei7 frequently happen among mares.
This often arises in consequence of
over-exertion during th^ latter period
of pregnancy. Mares are liable, also,
. very frequently, to various accidents

• AS

ABO

in their pastures, which may be the
cause of their slipping their foal, such
as kicks, tumbling into holes and
ditches, over-exerting themselves to
get over fences, and the like. On
this acconnt, when a mare is near
her time, she should be kept by her-
self, in some convenient place. But
there is another, and, we suspect, a
very general cause of these accidents
in mares ; we mean a stinting of them
in their food, either in quantity or
quality. It appears, indeed, that some
imagine that the mare, when she is
in foal, may be turned out almost any-
where ; but this opinion is ill-found-
ed ; for, although' she does not require
to be kept so high in condition as
when she is at hard work, yet she is
not to be turned out into a pasture
where she may be in a manner starv-
ed : but how often do we see the
mare in foal on the worst piece of
ground in the whole farm, exposed,
during the rigorous winter season, to
endure the cold, as well as to put up
with scanty food ! On the other hand,
when the mare is not worked at all,
and indulged with too high keep, she
is almost equally in danger of abor-
tion, her high condition having a ten-
dency to cause inflammation and oth-
er disorders ; and these, deranging the
reproductive organs, frequently pro-
duce miscarriage. It would seem,
then, that moderate exercise and diet
are best suited as means to avoid the
misfortune of the premature exclu-
sion of the foal.

Abortion in the Cow. — Abortion. oc-
curs oflener in the cow than in all
other domestic animals put together.
Perhaps it is one of the greatest an-
noyances the proprietor of cows has
to encounter. The causes are fre-
quently involved in obscurity ; but it
may be mentioned that an extremely

ABO

hot and foal cow-house will now and
then produce abortion^ uud similar to
those in mares. Anything whatev-
er, indeed* that seriously affects the
health of the animal in general, or
the state of the reproductive organs
in particular, may do so. But abortion
occurs again and again when no such
causes as those enumerated can be
traced. The disease, if such it may
be called, as we think it may, is even
said to be infectious. No sooner does
it show itself in one animal than it is
seen in another and another, till it
has spread over the most part of the
cow-house. Some say this is to be
attributed to the odour arising from
the things evacuated. Possibly it
may be so ; there can be no great
harm, however, in acting as if we
were assured that the miscliief has its
origin in the source so commonly sup-
posed, provided we do not shut our
eyes to any other which accident or
investigation may reveal. In the
mean time, the number of abortions
may be diminished by carefully avoid-
ing all those causes which are known
to be capable of producing it. Let the
cows be regularly fed ; let their food
be good, and in proper quantities ; let
them have water as often as they will
take it ; avoid sudden exposure to
cold or heat ; and, above all, let the
cow-house be well ventilated. Pro-
hibit all manner of rough usage on
the part of those who look after the
cows, whether they be pregnant or
not. If any of them accumulate flesh
too rapidly, gradually reduce their al-
lowance ; and, on the other hand, if
any become emaciated, discover the
cause and remedy it, always by slow
degrees. Sudden changes in the mat-
ter or mode of feeding should also be
avoided. The same sort of diet does
not agree equally well with all the
cows, and this, in general, is indica-
ted by undue relaxation or constipa-
tioir of the bowels ; this should be
watched, and removed at once. At-
tention to these, and many other mi-
nor circumstances, will amply repay
the proprietor for the little additional
trouble.
It is a remarkable feature in the his-

I tory of this complaint, that those an-
imals that have once miscarried are
I particularly liable to do so again at
the same period of their succeeding
pregnancy. Greater care is therefore
requisite to guard against those caus-
es which do. Or are supposed to excite
it. The treatment of abortion, when
it does take place, differs not from
that adopted in cases of parturition,
only that the cow which miscarries
should be removed, with all that be-
longs to her, from among pregnant
cows.

If the signs of approaching abortion
be discovered early, the accident may
sometimes be prevented. If the cow
i3 in good condition, then immediately
let it be bled to the extent of five or
six quarts, and the bowels opened
with half a pound of Epsom salts, two
ounces of Glauber's, or three or four
ounces of castor oil, administered in
a quart of gruel; but if the cow is in
very poor condition, and the miscar-
riage is anticipated from her having
been exposed to cold, avoid bleeding,
and give her a warm gruel drink, with
an ounce of laudanum in it. Ifafler
this abortion does take place, let her
be kept in a comfortable place by her-
self; and if the after- birth has not
passed off, let no injudicious and un-
necessary administration of violent
forcing medicines be given. Nature,
with a little assistance, is generally
equal to the perfect restoration of the
animal.

Abortion in the Sheep. — Ewes are
subject to abortion, in consequence
of the numerous accidents they are
liable to. A pack of hounds in pursuit
of a hare got among a flock of sheep
belonging to a farmer, and so hurried
and alarmed them, that thirty out of a
flock of two hundred ewes premature-
ly dropped their lambs. It is the same
in sheep as in the other cases of do-
mestic animals ; scarcity of food, and
exposure to severe cold, having a
great tendency to make the ewes pre-
maturely drop their lambs, or produce
them weakly and crippled at the full
time ; and although there may be a
little danger in giving too much food,
such as allowing them to feed all the

ABS

AUV

vinter on tarnips, the danger is tri-
fling compared with the starviDg sys-
tem.— (MiiUr.)

ABORTIVE. Deficient A com-
mon term in botany, and signifying
the absence of stamens or pistils,
whereby fruit cannot be produced;
but also used to designate the partial
or complete obliteration of any other
organ, as the leaf, petals, carpels, dec.

ABRAXAS A genus of baUerfly
(Lepidopterous) insects of the family
of geometers ; one of which, the A.
grtutsidariatOy is the well-known goose*
berry moth, the caterpillar of which
destroys the leayes of currant and
gooseberry bashes.

ABSC£SS. A gathering or tu-
mour containing pus ; it is the result
of accidents or impaired health ; and
is only of moment when it affects
internal organs or is produced near
joints. Abscesses in joints, especial-
ly the hock joint of the horse, oft-
en produce incurable lameness, and
those of internal organs destroy life
by enfeebl'mg the system. SupeHi-
cial abscesses are to be opened freely
at their lowest point when the pus is
well formed ; and poultices are to be
applied to encourage the discharge :
the wound must he kept clean, and
dressed daily. It is advisable to hind-
er the formation of the abscess by low
diet, and scarifjring the part with a
lancet ; but this is only serviceable in
the first stages.

ABSORBENTS. In. veterinary
medicine^ drugs that are given inter-
nally for the purpose of neutralizing
any acid which forms in the stomach
and bowels, in consequence of impair-
ed digestion. Prepared chalk is gen-
erally used for this purpose ; or car-
bonate of soda. Those med icines are
likewise termed absorbents which
are applied externally for absorbing
moisture. Starch, calamine, flour,
and the like, are employed in this way.
They are sometimes dusted betweea
folds of the skin when galled, and raw
from friction, blisters, or grease.
They are likewise useful in canker
of the borse*s foot, foul in the foot of
cattle, foot-rot in sheep, and sores
between th6 toes of dogs ; and they

are beneficial in some forms of
mange, in staying bleeding, and as-
sisting the cure of a wounded joint.

AsBoKBSifTs. In physiology, a
class of vessels whose office is to
convey the product of digestion and
the residue of nutrition into the cir-
culation, to be mixed with and repair
the waste of the blood. They are
divided into lacteals and lymphatics.
The former are all situated in the cav-
ity of the abdomen ; and by extreme-
ly minute months, opening on the in-
ner surface of the stontach and intes-
tines, they receive the nutritious por-
tion of the food, and carry it to a ves-
sel which runs along the left side of
the spine, and which, in its turn,
empties itself into the left jugular
vein.

The lymphatics are distributed over
every portion of the frame . The uses
of the lymphatics are to remove the
residue of nutrition ; and, when the
supply of food is deficient, to remove
such portions of the body as can be
spared and converted into blood. The
lymphatics ultimately empty their
contents into the same vessel as the
lacteals, and they foUow, in their dis-
tribution through the body, the same
course as the veins. In the horse
they are liable to a disease termed
farcy; and in all animals they are
frequently inflamed in the neighbour
hood of a sore.

ABSORBENT SOILS. Soils in
soch a state of improvement, or of so
good a quality as to absorb moisture
from the air.

ABSORPTION. The imbibition
of fluids. In ^ants this takes place
chiefly by the swelling terminations
of the rootlets (the spongioles). In
Yery damp weather, leaves and the
green stems also absorb moisture
from the air. Fluids and gases only
can be absorbed, no insoluble matters
entering plants. Absorption in ani-
mals is carried on by the lacteals and
lymphatics.

ABSTERGENTS. Medicines used
for resolving tumours. They are usu-
ally stimulating.

ABUTMENT. The solid part of a
pier from which an aixA spnngs.

ACI

AGI

ACACIA. Spinous legmniomis
trees, with small flowers collected in
spikes or heads ; they are usoaily of
amail siie. Two or three insig-
nificant species belong to the Unit^
States. The locast is oiten improp-
erly called by this name.

AC ARI. The family of mites.

ACCIPITRES. The order of birds
eontaining the hawks, eagles, and
similar birds of prey.

ACCLIMATE. To accustom or
mure animals or vegetables to a par-
ticular climate.

ACER. The generic name of the
maples.

ACERANS. A family of wingless
insects withoat antennae.

ACEROSE. In botany, leaves
which are thin and sharp, such as
those of the pine-trees.

ACETABULUM. In anatomy,
aeetabtUum signifies the cavity of the
hip joint. In entomology, it is the
socket on the trunk in which the leg
is planted.

ACETARIOUS PLANTS. Salad
plants.

ACETATES. Salts containing
acetic acid, of which the acetate of
lead or sugar of lead is the most im-
portant in the arts.

ACETIC ACID. See Vintgar.

ACHENIUM, AKENIUM. A small
bony fruit, containing a single seed,
which does not adhere to the shell or
perirarp, nor open when ripe.

ACHLAMYDEOUS. Plants which
have neither calyx nor corolla, and
whose flowers are consequently des-
titute o1:'n covering, or naked.

ACICULAR. Sharif, like a needle.

ACIDS. For the most part, sharp,
sour bodies, which redden litmus, and
combine with metallic oxides or bases
to form salts. Many are, however,
destitute of sour taste. They are di-
vided into organic and inorganic : the
latter constitute the mineral acids.
The organic acids are divided into
vegetable and animal acids. The fol-
lowing are interesting in agricoltnre :
Mineral Acida.

The ■Qlpharie. See Stflp&itr.
M«ri«tie. See CAIertne.
Silicio. Sea Bmd.,

VtgttabU Acids.

Nitric See Ifilrogen,
Acetic. See Timtg^r.
CarboLte. See Carbarn,
Tannic. See IVmiiw.
Gallic. See Tammim,
Pronic. See Hydroofrndc acid,
Hamic See JfH

Oxalic acid in the free state is found
in the hairs of the Cicer arietinuni, or
chick pea. It is very common in com-
bination with potash, in sorrels, docks,
rhubarbs, dtc, and with lime in lich-
ens. It is a very soluble, crystalline,
colourless solid, of intense sourness,
and highly poisonous. The composi-
tion is C2 O3 + HO, the HO (water)
being replaced by bases. A solution
is used as a test for lime, which it
precipitates from its solutions as a
white, insoluble oxalate of lime.

Tartaric add. Combined with pot-
ash, it abounds in the juice of the
grape, and is also found in tamarinds,
bilberries, &c. It is a white, crys-
talline body, of the composition Cg
H4 O2 + 2 HO, and is bibasic. The
racemic acid is isomeric. A solu-
tion precipitates potash in the form
of the white crystalline bitartrate
(cream of tartar).

Benzoic acid gives an aroma to
many balsams, sweet-scented grass,
&c. Its formula is C14 Ha O3 + HO,
and it is considered an hydrated oxyde
of benzoyl, or Bz. O -{- HO.

Citric acid. This is the sour prin-
ciple of lemons, cranberries, cherries,
gooseberries, 6ui. It is a very solu-
ble, crystalline solid, of the composi-
tion Cw Hs On -f 8 HO ; but the crys-
tals contain I and 2 atoms of water
of crystallization besides.

Malic acid is the acid body o( un-
ripe apples, pears, plums, dec. In the
insulated condition, it is a deliques-
cent crystalline substance of intense
sourness, composed of Cs H4 Os +
2 HO.

Besides these, all oily bodies con-
tain one or more acids. See OUs.

The animal acida are enumerated
under that head. The acids in plants
are, for the most part, combined with
bases : potash and lime are the most
common ; but magnesia, soda, alu-
mina» and iioa are also found. Og-

AGI7

AGA

easionaOy they are united with refe-
table aUulies.

As food, the acids are not of much
moment ; they do, however, serve to
sustain the heat of the body by fur-
nishini^ carbon for the respiratory
function.

ACINACIFORM. Of a curved fig-
ure, like the cimeter.

ACINUS. The small and separate
carpels of a compound succulent fruit.

ACONITINE. The poisonous al-
kaloid of Monk's-hood.

ACORN. The fruit of the oak.
That of the Jive oak and other species
ia sweet and agreeable : it is an ad-
mirable food for pigs, and in England
commands 37| cents the bushel.

ACOTYLEDONS. Plants desti-
tute of seed-lobes, the ciyptogamia
of Linneus, including fungi, mosses,
aea-weeds, ferns.

ACRE. A standard land roeas-
nre. The imperial acre is subdivided
into

4 roods, each rood 40 perches.
100 perches, 16 feet and a half
each.
4840 square yards, 9 feet each.

43,560 square feet, 144 inches
each.

174,340 squares of six inches each,
36 inches each.
6,272,640 inches, or squares of one
inch each.

From this table the fhrmer can
readily discover how many plants can
be set in the acre, according as they
are one yard, one foot, dec, apart
each way.

ACROGENS The same as cryp-
togam ia or acotyledons.

ACRID. A biting, nauseous taste,
often producing blistering, belonging
to many poisonous plants.

acrolein: See Glycerine.

ACROSPIRE. The young up-
ward shoot of germinating seeds.

ACRYDIUM. A genus of locusts.

ACTINOLITE. A variety of horn-
blende.

ACTINOMETER. An instrument
to measure the intensity of the sun's
rays.

ACULEATE. Furnished with
piicklea.

ACULEATES. The insects of the

bee and wasp kind, furnished with
stings.

ACUMINATE. Tapering to a
point.

ADDUCTORS. Those muscles
which draw the parts to which they
are attached together : they are op-
posed to the abductors.

ADEP3. Lard-

ADI ANTUM. A genus of elegant
ferns: the fructification is in short
marginal lines.

ADIPOSE. Fatty, as the adipose
tissues.

ADNATE. Adhering, growing, or
attached to the surface.

ADVENTITIOUS. Occurring in
an unusual manner, as when a bud
arises from the root of a plant.

ADULARIA. A briUiant crystal-
line feldspar.

AERATING. Introducing air or
gases.

^ESTIVATION. The manner in
which the parts of the flower bud are
folded together.

JETHEOG AMOUS PLANTS.
The cryptogamia.

AETHER See Ether,

AETIOLOGY. The study of the
causes of disease.

AFFINITY. In natural history,
the close resemblance of animals or
plants in their organization.

Affinity. In chemistry, the force
which combines dissimilar bodies to-
gether in precise proportions. See
Atom.

AFTER-GRASS. The second crop
of grass from lands mowed the same
year.

AFTER-MATH. The second mow-
ing of permanent meadows the same
year. It is free from flower stems,
and often much more nutritious than
the first crop ; but it is customary to
feed it off by sheep or cattle instead
of cutting.

AGAMOUS. Cryptogamic plants.

AGARICUS. A genus of mush-
rooms distinguished by plaits or gills
under the cap, which are arranged
nearly parallel. Several are nutritious
and of a delicate flavour, as A. cam^
I pestri${the common mushroom), cAaw-

AGE

AIR

tareUutj delieiosm, cinnamonuus, pra-
ientiSt vioUceus. The poisonous
kinds hare usually a narcotic or acrid
odour.

AGAVE. The Mexican aloe. The
juice yields pulque, and a good hemp
is made from the leaves.

AGE OF ANIMALS. For that of
the horse, see Horse.

Age of Neat Cattle. — The age of
eowst oxen, and hulls is known by the
teeth and horns. At the end of about
two years they shed their first fore-
teeth, which are replaced by others,
larger, but not so white ; and before
five years all the incisive teeth are
renewed. These teeth are at first
equal, long, and pretty white ; but as
the animals advance in years, they
wear down, become unequal, and
black. When three years old, neat
cattle also experience a considerable
change in the structure of their horns,
after which period tt\ese appendages,
Ifte the second or permanent teeth,
preserve the same character. Du-
ring the first year of the animal's age,
two small, smooth, pointed, and neat-
ly-formed horns make their appear-
ance, attached to the head by a kind
of button. This conformation con-
tinues during the first three years,
after which the button moves from
the head, being impelled by a homy
cylinder. Thus the horns continue
growing as long as the animal lives,
as is indicated by the annual joints,
which are easily distinguished in the
horn, and by which the age of the
creature may be easily known, count-
ing tliree years for the point of the
born, and one for each of the joints
or rings. Dishonest dealers some-
times obliterate these rings by shaving
or filing the horns, in order to conce^
the age of the beast. — {Johnson.)

Age of Sheep. — ^The age of these
animals is known by their having, in
their second year, two broad teeth;
in their third year, four broad teeth ;
in their fourth year, six broad teeth ;
and in their fifth year, eight broad
teeth before ; after which none can
tell how old a sheep is while its teeth
remain, except by their being worn
down.

About the end of one year, rams,
wethers, and all young sheep lose the
two fore-teeth of the lower jaw ; and
they are known to want the incisive
teeth in the upper jaw. At eighteen
months, the two teeth joining to the
former also fall out; and at three
years, being all replaced, they are
even and pretty white ; but as these
animals advance in age, the teeth
become loose, blunt, and afterward
black.

AGI, or AGY. Chilian pepper,
Capsicum baccahtm^

AGISTMENT. Payment for pas
turage on another's lands.

AGRICULTURE. The whole art
and science of husbandry. For the
history, see Loudon's Encyclopedia of
AgrieiUture.

AGRIMONY. The genus Agri^
monia, perennial, unimportant weeds
of small size.

AGRIONID^. The family of in-
sects called dragon fiies (Libellula,
Agrion).

AGRONOMY. The cultivation of
land, agriculture.

AGROSTIS. The genus of bent
grasses. They grow chiefly in wet
places, and flower late; most are
perennial, stoloniferous, or creeping,
and are therefore diflScuIt to extir-
pate, and unsuited to rotations. The
Agrostes siricta is the red top, or herd
grass. A. stofovifcra is Richardson's
fiorin, and, when grown in rich, wet
pastures, is very superior.

AIGRETTE. The down or pap-
pus of the seeds of composits.

AIR. Any gas, but usually the at-
mospherey which see.

A IRA. The genus of hair grasses.
They are perennial, usually grow in
wet places, and are of little moment
in agriculture.

AIR CELLS. In plants, enlarged
cavities in the cellular tissue, to pro-
duce buoyancy in aquatic plants. In
birds^ membranous cavities commu-
nicating with the lungs, and traver^
sing all parts of the bird, even to the
interior of the bones and quills. In
some insects the air vessels are en-
larged into cells.

AIR PLANTS. Those which grow

AIR

ALO

without striking their roots into the
soil. They usually derive snstenaoce
from other plants.

AIR PUMP. A machine for remo-
▼ing the air out of a vessel. The
principle of this important philosoph-
ical instrument is very simple, and
may be easily comprehended from a
brief explaoation. The essential part

of the machine con-
sists of an exhaust-
ing syringe (a),
formed of a tube
or barrel of brass,
closed at one end,
with the exception
of a small oriAcei to which a valve
(&), opening inward, is attached. An
air-tight piston is worked up and
down in the barrel by a rack and pin-
ion turned by a winch. The piston
has also an orifice with a valve (c),
which opens upward, or in the same
direction as the valve of the tube.
The syringe cMnmunicates, by means
of a small pipe {d) fitted into the open-
ing at its lower extremity, with a ves-
sel («) called the receiver, from which
the air is to be extracted.

The receiver is placed on a brass
plate (/, g), over a small hole, into
which the other end of the pipe is in-
serted ; and, in order that the contact
may be air-tight, the edge of the glass
is previously rubbed with lard or some
unctuous matter.

Suppose the piston at the bottom
of the tube. As it begins to be drawn
up, the valve c of the piston is imme-
diately shot by the pressure of the ex-
terior atmosphere, so that no air can
enter the barrel, and a perfect vacu-
um would be left under it, were it not
that the valve at the bottom of the
barrel is forced open by the pressure
of the air in the receiver, which rush-
es into the barrel till its density he-
comes the same both in the receiver
and barrel. When the piston has been
drawn to the top of the barrel, the
whole of the air which occupied the
barrel has been removed, and the re-
ceiver and barrel are now both filled
with the air which was previously
contained in the receiver alone. —
{Brtmde't Encydapadia.)

I AIR VESSELS. Spiral vessels^
tracheae.

ALATE (from o/a, a wing). With
lateral expansions, winged.

ALBUMEN. One of the important
azotized principles of animals and
plants. In the solid state it consti-
tutes the principal component of
membranes, and in the fluid form is
found in the serum of blood and the
white of egg. The juice of all plants
contains a small quantity. In the
moist state it is readily putrescible,
and coagulates at about 180° Fahren-
heit ; but when dry it is a transpa-
rent, brittle substance, which resists
decay. For its composition, see Pro-
tein.

Albuven, in botany, is the fleshy,
mealy, or horny substance forming
the substance of the seed, and lying
between the embryo and testa.

ALBURNUM. The sap wood.
The ascending sap rises along its
pores. It is usually of a different
colour, and much more perishable
than the heart wood.

ALCOHOL, Spirit of wine. It is
formed during the vinous fermenta-
tion. The pure spirit has a specific
gravity of .792, and consists of C^ He
(\. It is present in brandy, whiskey,
and strong spirits to the extent of
fifty per cent., twenty-five per cent,
in strong wines, ten per cent, in ci-
der and ales, and six per cent in beer.
It is of great use in the laboratory as
a solvent of resins, dec, and for the
hot flame it produces when burned in
lamps.

ALDER. Shrubs of the genus ^^
niM, which is closely allied to the
birch. The common swamp alder is
the A. serrulata. The A. glauca (black
alder) is used by dyers for the produc-
tion of a black.

ALE. A strong beer made from
light malt.

ALE-HOOF. Ground ivy.

ALEMBIC, A retort with a move-
able cover or cap.

ALEXANDERS. An umbellifer-
ous plant, formerly cultivated like
celery.

ALG.£. The family of sea-
weeds and fresh-water weeds (poti-

ALL

/crvtf). They are ceUular and eiypto-
gamic.

ALIMENTARY CANAL. The
passage from the mouth through the
stomach and intestines.

ALITRUNCK. ALITRUNCUS.
In entomology, the posterior segment
of the thorax of an insect, to which
the abdomen is affixed, and which
bears the legs, properly so called, or
the two posterior pairs, and the
winffs*

ALIZARINE. The red colouring
principle of madder.

ALKALI, ALCALI. A term ori-
ginally applied to the ashes of plants,
now generally used to designate pot-
ash, soda, lithia, and ammonia, which
are also termed vegetable, mineraU
and volatUe alkali. These substan-
ces have certain properties in com-
mon, such as neutralizing and form-
ing salts with the acids, reddening
aeveral regetable yellows, and chan-
ging some blues to green, and ready
solubility in water. Lime, baryU,
atrontia, and magnesia have been
called alkaline earths, from their an-
alogous action on yegetable colours.
Lithia is also one of the alkalis. A
singular class of bodies have been dis-
covered in vegetables, which have
been termed alkalis, or alkaloids,
chiefly in consequence of their pow-
er of saturating, and forming definite
salts with the acids. Morphia, quin-
la, &c., are substances of this descrip-
tion.

ALKALIMETER. A graduated
glass tube employed in determining
the quantity of real alkali in commer^
cial potash and soda, by the quantity
of dilute sulphuric acid of a known
strength which a certain weight of
these saturates.

ALKANET. Anchiua tinetorw.
The root of this plant, which is a na-
tive of the warmer parts of Europe,
contains a red resinous colouring
matter, which it imparts to alcohol
and oils; it is used to tinge some
ointments, especially lip-salves, of a
red colour.

ALLANTOIS. A membrane at-
tached to the extremity of the ali-
mcntaiy canal in the fetal ealf and

AIM

other animals. It contains the a
toic fluid.

ALLSPICE. The pimento.

ALLUVIUM, ALLUVION. A soU
formed by the deposites of ancient
rivers, or washed from hill-sides by
floods. The character of the soil dif-
fers with the country through which
the flood has pass^ ; but it is al-
ways rich, because it contains matter
finely divided, and much organic re-
mains. It is not to be confounded
with diluvium, which signifies an an^
cient gravel.

ALMOND. Amy f dolus argentea
and nana. The silver and dwarf al-
mond ornamental shrubs.

ALMOND-TREE. Amygdalugrom-
munis. Varieties : bitter, sweet ten-
der shell, sweet hard shell, long fruit,
and peach- almond of large size. Tlie
tree is of small size, bears an abun-
dance of flowers, and may be grown
advantageously south of Maryland.

Propagation. — All the species and
varieties are propagated by seeds,
budding, grafting, layers, and occa-
sionally they will produce suckers,
which may be successfully planted
out When stocks for budding or
grafting upon are wanted, or new va-
rieties desired, these are obtained by
sowing the fttiit stones* though they
may be budded or grafted on massel-
plum stocks.

The stones of the last season's
produce should be sown in October,
upon a bed of light, rich soil, about
three inches apart, and covered four
inches deep with fine soil. This is
indispensable ; for when the soil is
left in lumps, the shoots are often
forced into a crooked direction, and
this caases the trunk to be deform-
ed, and unfit to become a fine tree.
When the surface of the seed-bed
has been smoothed, a covering of rot*
ten tanner*8 bark or leaf mould, to
the depth of two inches, must be laid
upon It, which being light, prevents
the fruit-stones from being damaged
by any severity of winter. At the be-
ginning of May this coTering of bark
or leaves roust be raked clean oflT the
bed. The stones might be reserved
till spring, and be sown at the end of

ALM

ALU

Mareb,t>at tbe plants do not cone bo

certainty as when sown in autumn.
An additional advantage of an au-
tumn sowing is, that the plants come
up about six weeks or two months
earlier than those sown in spring;
consequently, the plants become vig-
orous and well rooted tbe first year,
and thereby not liable to be thrown
imt of the ground by thaws succeed-
ing frost in the following winter.

During summer, care must be ta-
ken to pull up all weeds when very
youngT ^f*' if they be allowed to get
strong before pulling out, this opera-
tion is apt to injure tbe roots of the
almond plants.

When almond stones have been
sown in spring, it will be necessary,
at the approach of the succeeding
winter, tu have the beds covered
with rotten tanner's bark, or leaf
moald, scattering it an inch deep or
more among the plants : a cover-
ing which will tend to prevent the
plants being injured or thrown out
by frost.

In the seeond spring a/ler the sow-
ing» the plants should be taken up,
carefully preserving all the fibrous
roots : a care which, as they are but
sparingly produced, will be essentially
necessary. The plants must be trans-
planted in rows, two feet apart row
from row, and a foot and a half dis-
tant in the rows. Here they may be
trained to form standards, half stand-
ards, or dwarfs, and be regulated and
prepared either for wall training or
shrubbery plantations. For both pur-
poses, attention will be requisite du-
ring summer and wniter to thin out
the branches, reserving only a suita-
ble number for the future limbs of the
tree, and these so far apart that they
may not, in any future stage of growth,
be liable to rub against each other,
which standard tre^s would be liable
to ; for if this be not avoided, gum
would be exuded at such injured
pttrts, and the speedy decay of the
tree be the consequence.

Almond plants intended for train-
ing against walls should have some
stakes fixed in the form of a trellis,
to which the branches should be se-

cnred m a proper form, so that they
may be suited to the position of the
wall on their final removal. — {Millers
Dictionary.)

A LO £ S. The dried juice, or an
extract of numerous species of Aloe^
particularly the Aloe spieata. The
plants inhabit arid countries in the
tropics, and have long, rather fieshy
leaves, and a liliaceous inflorescence
arranged in spikes.

The drug is a nauseous, bitter, and
warm purgative. It is administered
to horses in balls of six to eight
drachms.

ALOPECURUS. The genus of
fox-tail grasses; they resemble the
cat*s-tail. Many are of great agricul-
tural value. See Grasses.

ALPACA, The Llama, or Peru-
vian sheep. It is cultivated in the
Andes of Pern for its long fleece, and
as a beast of burden. The flesh is
also good. These animals are of the

same family as the camel, and are ex-
tremely hardy and abstemious. Their
wool is largely imported into England
from Peru.

ALTERATIVES. Medicines
which improve the health without
any active effects.

ALTERNATE HUSBANDRY
The system in which one part of the
farm is in pasture and part arable;
and these are changed every few
years.

ALUDEL. An implement used in
sublimation, and resembling an alem-
bic.

ALUM. The sulphate of alumina
and potash. The powder is a power-
ful styptic, and used to arrest bl'^ed-
ing. In lotion it is astringent and

AMI

ANA

stimulating. When barned» the pow-
der becomes caustic.

The f^uion may be made with six to
eight drachms of alum to a quart of
water. It is used for grease, cracks
ID tlic heels of horses, and ulcers
afler the inflammation is subdued.

The alum is used by dyers, but the
solution of acetate of alumina is su-
perior for most purposes.

ALUMINA. Pure base of clay,
argil. It is a sesquioxide of alumi-
nium, white, insoluble ; but it possess-
es a great affinity for water. In the
crystalline state it forms the sap-
phire and emerald. It is a feeble
base, uniting with acids. The hy-
drated silicate of alumina forms the
bulk of clay,

ALUMINIUM. The metallic base
of alumina.

ALVEOLATE. Covered with lit-
tle pits ; honey-combed.

ALVINE. Relating to the bow-
els.

AMALGAM. A com pound of mer-
cury with a metal.

AMANITA. A genus of poisonous
mushrooms.

AMAUROSIS. Total blindness,
without loss of brilliancy in the eye.

AMBLE. The same as the pace
m horsemanship.

AMBtJSTION. A scald or bum.

AMELIORATING CROPS. Root
crops, clovers, and grasses, fed on
the land.

AMENDMENTS. Sand, marl, and
other substances applied in large
quantities to amend the tilth.

AMENTUM, The catkin ; a de-
ciduous spike, such as that of wil-
lows, poplars, 6lc. Trees Mrith this
inflorescence are called amentaceous,
«nd usually contain much potash in
their ashes.

AMENTABOLIANS. Insects
which do not undergo metamorpho-
ses

AMERICAN BLIGHT. The wool-
ly or 4tiealy aphis. Aphis lanigeray
also called Eriosoma mali : it is very
destructive to apple and pear trees in
England. See Imects.

AMIDOGENE. A theoretical ba-
sis of ammonia, composed of N H3 :

its compounds with metals are termr-
ed amides, or am id ides.

AMIDINE. The soluble, internal
portions of the starch globules.

AMMONIA. Volatile alakli, spir-
its of hartshorn. See Nitrogen.

AMMONIACAL GAS. The gas-
eous state of pure ammonia before it
is dissolved by water, in which it is
extremely soluble ; it is also rapidly
absorbed by charcoal, clays, rust, <Scc.

AMMONIUM. A hypothetic base
of ammonia, consisting of N H4. The
oxide of ammonium is the common
base, as found in the sails of ammo-
nia, and consists ol' N H4 O.

AMNION. The delicate membrane
which surrounds the fetus in utero :
it contains the amniotic fluid, or li-
quor amnios.

AMNIOS. The fluid within the
nucleus of the young seed, on which
the embryo feeds.

AMORPHOUS. W^ithout regular
figure or form.

AMPHIBOLE. A variety of horn-
blende.

AMPHITROPAL. In botany, an
embryo which is turned round in the
albumen, or curved upon itself in
such a manner that both its ends are
presented to the same point.

AMPLEXICAUL. Claspingor
embracing the stem.

AMYGDALUS. The generic name
of the peach and almond.

AMYGDALOID. Rocks in which
other minerals are imbedded, pudding-
stone.

AMYGDALIN. A white, sweet-
ish, soluble matter in bitter almonds,
changeable into oil of bitter almonds
by the action of emulsin.

AMYLACEOUS. Starchy, fuU of
starch.

AMYLIN. Pure starch.

ANAL GLANDS. Glands for the
secretion of various substances, sit-
uated near the anus.

ANALYSIS Ihe separation of
the components of any substance. It
is quuntitatine when tlie amount of
each ingredient is to be known, quaii-
iative when the nature only.

Analysis of soils is of no value un-
less rigorously performed with per-

ANALYSIS.

feet means. It is best, however, for
agricultural purposest to discover the
presence or absence of a given sub-
stance, as lime or bone earth, rather
than enter into the complete solution
of the substance. The ordinary means
«f distinguishing the components of
a soil is given under Soils. The
following, from Boussingault, is of a
)iigher character :

In examining a soil, attention ought
to be directed, 1st, to the sand ; 2d, to
the clay ; 3d, to the humus which it
contains. It would farther be useful
to inquire particularly in regard to
certain other principles which exert
an unquestionable influence upon ve-
getation, such as certain alkaline and
earthy salts.

Vegetable earth dried in the air
until it becomes quite friable may
nevertheless still retain a considera-
ble quantity of water, and which can
only be dissipated by the assistance
of a somewhat high temperature. It
is therefore proper, in the first in-
stance, to bring all the soils which it
is proposed to examine comparative-
ly, to one constant degree of dryness.
The best and quickest way of drying
such a substance as a portion of soil,
is to make use of the oil bath : a quan-
tity of oil contained in a copper ves-
sel is readily kept at an almost uni-
form tempecature by means of a lamp.
A thermometer plunged in the bath
shows the degree to which it is heat-
ed : the substance to be dried is put
into a glass tube of no great depth,
and sufficiently wide ; or into a por-
celain or silver capsule, if the quan
tity to be operated upon be somewhat
considerable : these tubes or vessels
are placed in the oil so as to be im-
inerBed in it to about two thirds of
their height. For the desiccation of
soils, the temperature may be carried
to 160° or 160° C (334° or 352° F.)
The weight of the vessel is first ac-
curately taken, and a given weight of
the matter to be dried is then thrown
into it, aAer which it is exposed to
the action of the bath. If we oper-
ate upon from 600 to 700 grains, the
drying mast be continued during two
or tl^ee hours; the weight of the

capsule with its contents, ader hav-
ving been wiped thoroughly clean, is
then taken. It is placed anew in the
bath, and its weight is taken a sec-
ond time after an interval of fiAeen
or twenty minutes ; if the weight has
not diminished, it is a proof that the
drying was complete at the time of
the first trial. In the contrary case,
the operation must be continued, and
no drying must be held terminated un-
til two consecutive weighings, made
at an interval of from fifteen to twen-
ty minutes, show anythingmore than
a very trifling difference. I)avy points
out another and much more simple
method, which, although far from ac-
curate, may nevertheless suffice in
many general trials. The soil to be
dried is put into a porcelain capsule
heated by a lamp, and a thermome-
ter, with which the mass may be stir-
red, is placed in its middle, and shows
the temperature at each moment.
Lastly, in many circumstances the
marine bath may suffice. In drying,
the main point is to do so at a known
temperature, and one which may be
reproduced ; for the absolute desicca-
tion of a quantity of soil could not be
accomplished except at a heat close
upon redness, and this would, of
course, alter or destroy the organic
matters it contains.

The organic matters contained in
ordinary soils consist in part of pie-
ces of straw and of roots, which are
usually separated by sifting the earth
through a hair sieve ; the gravel and
stones which the soil contains aro
separated in the same way.

The earth sifted is now washed.
To accomplish this, it is introduced
into a matrass, with three or four
times its bulk of hot distilled water ;
the whole is shaken well for a time,
the matrass is left to stand for a mo-
ment, and then the liquid is decanted
into a wide porcelain capsule. The
washing is continued, fresh quanti-
ties of water being added each ttme,
until the whole of the clay has been
removed, which is known by the fluid
becoming clear very speedily; the
sand which remains is then washed
out into another capsule. The argil-

ANALYSIS.

lacecKis particles, or the day and all
the matters held in suspension in the
water, are thrown upon a filter and
dried ; the desiccation is completed
by the same process, and under the
«anie circumstances as that of the
^oil had been. The sand is, in like
nanner, dried with the same care.

If we would ascertain the nature
and quantity of the soluble salts, the
whole of the water used in the wash-
ing must be put together and evapo-
rated, which may be done upon a
sand bath. The evaporation is push-
ed to dryness, and the salts that re-
main, having been previously weigh-
ed, are thrown into a small platinum
capsule, in which they are heated to
a dull red by means of a spirit-lamp,
in order to burn out the organic salts,
and thus distinguish, by means of a
subsequent weighing* between them
and the inorganic salts.

The sand may be silicious or cal-
careous. The presence of carbonate
of lime is readily ascertained by treat-
ing it with an acid which will form
a soluble salt with lime, such as hy-
drochloric, nitric, or acetic acid. Ef-
fervescence shows the presence of
a carbonate, the quantity of which
may be estimated by weighing the
sand dry before and after its treat-
ment with the acid, particular care
being, of course, taken to wash the
remaining sand well before setting it
to dry. This, however, is an opera-
tion of little use ; the great object is
to ascertain the quantity of sandy
matter. Had we a particular inter-
est in ascertaining the presence and
estimating the quantity of the earthy
carbonates contained in a sample of
soil, it would be advisable to make a
special inquiry, inasmuch as the fine-
ly-divided calcareous earth being car-
ried off along with the clay in the
course of the washing, the sand ob-
tained never contains the whole of
the carbonate of lime.

The argillaceous matter procured
by the washing is far from being pure
clay ; it contains a quantity of ex-
tremely fine sand, particles of calca-
reous earth, and if the soil contain
humus, U)e more delicate particles

I of this substance will also be inehi*
ided.

I To determine the quantity of hu-
I mus, recourse is generally had to its
I destruction by heat. A known weight
of dried earth is heated to redness in
a capsule, and constantly stirred for
a time, and when no more of those
brilliant points or sparks, which are
indications of the combustion of car-
bon, are observed, it is set to cool,
and then weighed. This is the meth-
od which has been generally followed
by Davy and others. It would be
difficult to find a method more ctm-
venient than this, but it is, unfortu-
nately, very inaccurate. Soils dried
at a temperature at which organie
matter, such as humus, &c., begins
to change, still retain a considerable
quantity of water in union with the
clay. This water is disengaged at
the red heat required for the combus-
tion of the organic matters ; and as
their quantity is estimated by the loss
of weight on the subsequent weigh-
ing, it is obvious that the loss from
the dissipation of water is added to
that which proceeds from the de-
struction of the humus. It is un-
doubtedly to this cause of error that
we must ascribe the large proportions
of humus mentioned in the soils ex-
amined by Thaer and EinhoflT; it is
therefore better to restrict the exam-
ination to the determination of the
presence or absence of humus than
to attempt to ascertain its quantity
by so imperfect a method.

Priestley and Arttiur Young were
already aware that a more delicate
operation was required to determine
the quantity of humus. Tliey recom-
mend calcination of the soil in a close
vessel, and that the gaseous products
should be collected. This mode of
proceeding, however, would have but
slight advantages over that which I
have just criticised, inasmuch as the
volume of gas collected varies with
every difference of heat employed.

The only method, in my opinion,
which we have of learning the quan-
tity of humus, of organic debris,
which is contained in a soil, is that
of an elementary analysis. It is by

ANALYSIS.

bumtng a Icnown qaantitj of earth
thoroughly dried by means of the ox-
yde of copper, aided by a current of
oxygen, that the carbon and hydrogen
may be determined. Bat the most
important point of all is to ascertain
the amount of azote included in the
organic remains of the soil ; and we
have, happily, precise means in our
elementary analysis of ascertaining
the quantity of azote from which the
amount of azotized organic matter
may be accurately inferred.

It may be very useful to determine
the presence or absence of carbonate
of Ume in a soil; this knowledge
would, of course, guide us in our ap-
plications of lime, marl, 4cc. Two
modes maybe employed for this pur-
pose ; Ist, the soil may be treated by
nitric acid slightly diluted with water.
Any effervescence will denote the
presence, in all probability, of carbon-
ate of lime. I say in all probability,
because the disengagement of car-
bonic acid gas under such circum-
stances generally indicates the pres-
ence of carbonate of lime ; it is not,
however, a special character, because
the disengagement may be due to the
presence of any other carbonate. It
is well to boil the acid solution upon
the sample of soil that is analyzed ;
the part which is not dissolved is
thrown upon a filter and washed with
distilled or rainwater boiling bot.
Into the clear filtered liquor which
results from all the portions of water
used in the washing, a little ammonia
is added ; if any precipitate falls, it
is collected upon a filter and washed :
to the new liquors obtained by this
washing, a solution of oxalate of am-
monia is added. If there be any lime
present, it is thrown down in the
state of oxalate, and the liquor, hav-
ing been left at rest for five or six
hours, becomes completely clear ; the
addition of a few drops of the solu-
tion of oxalate of ammonia to this
clear fluid satisfies us whether the
whole of the lime has been precipita-
ted or not. The oxalate of lime is
received upon a filter, washed, and
dried ; it is then thrown into a plati-
num capsule along with the piece of

filtering paper upon which it was col-
lected, and is heated to a dull red, un-
til the paper of the filter is complete-
ly consumed and no farther trace of
carbon appears ; the capsule is then
taken from the fire, or from over the
spirit lamp, and cooled ; when cold,
the matter which it contains is moist-
ened with a concentrated solution ot
carbonate of ammonia.

The matter is then dried, great
care being taken that nothing is lost
by particles flying out, and the cap-
sule is again heated to a dull red;
when cold, it is weighed accurately,
and the quantity of matter contained
then becomes known. This matter
is carbonate of lime, 100 of which
represents 66-3 of lime and 43-7 of
carbonic acid. I have said that in
arable soil other carbonates may be
met with besides that of lime ; calca*
reous soils, for example, very com-
monly contain carbonate of magne-
sia. If we would ascertain the quan-
tity of this earth, the mode of pro-
ceeding which I have just particular-
ly indicated enables us to do so ; we
have but to evaporate the liquid from
which the oxalate of lime was depos-
ited, and then to calcine the product
of the evaporation in a platinum cap-
sule. Any nitrate of magnesia which
may exist there will be decomposed
at a dull red heat, as well as any ox-
alate of ammonia which may have
resulted from ammonia added in ex-
cess. By treating the residue of the
calcination with water, we obtain the
magnesia, which, being washed, has
only to be calcined, and its weight
ascertained by weighing.

2. If we would be content with a
simple approximation, we may judge
of the quantity of calcareous carbon-
ate contained in a vegetable soil by
measuring the quantity of carbonic
acid which we obtain from it. We
counterpoise upon the scale of a bal-
ance a vial containing some diluted
nitric acid ; we weigh a certain quan-
tity of the earth to be analyzed, and
this is added by degrees to the acid.
If the earth contains carbonates, ef-
fervescence ensues. The liquid is
shaken with care, and having waited

ANALYSIS.

a few minutes in order to let the car-
bonic acid whicii is mixed with the
air of the vial escape, the viaJ with
its contents is again put into the bal-
ance. If there has been no disen-
gagement of carbonic acid, it is clear
that, to restore the equilibrium, it will
be sufficient to add to the opposite
scale the weight of the earth which
was put into the vial ; whatever is
wanting of this weight represents
precisely the weight of carbonic acid
which has been disengaged. Presu-
ming this acid to have been combi-
ned with lime, the weight of the cal-
careous carbonate can be calculated
exactly.

Sulphate of lime is an occasional
constituent of soils ; to ascertain its
presence and quantity, the following
is the method of procedure :

The earth, well pulverized, is first
roasted for a considerable time in a
crucible or platinum capsule until all
the organic matter is completely de-
stroyed ; it is advisable to operate on
about 100 grammes, or about 3-2 oun-
ces troy of soil. ARer this operation,
the matter is boiled in four or five
times its weight of distilled water for
some time, water being added to re-
place that which is dissipated by
evaporation ; we then filter, rewasb,
and having added all the liquors, we
evaporate in a capsule until the vol-
ume of the liquid is reduced to a few
drachms. To the liquid thus concen-
trated we add its own bulk of alcohol.
If the solution contains sulphate of
lime, it will be deposited, and the de-
posite being received upon a filter
and washed with weak alcohol, its
weight is taken ader having been
dried and calcined This salt is fre-
quently seen deposited in the form of
fine colourless needles on the cooling
of the sufficiently concentrated solu-
tion ; but the addition of alcohol is
always useful, because the sulphate
of lime, which is not very soluble in
water, is altogether insoluble in weak
spirits, which, on the contrary, dis-
solves certain alkaline and earthy
salts whose presence would interfere
with the accuracy of the result.

It may be matter of great momeat

• to determine the rxij<tpnce and tha
quantity of phosphates contained in
a soil destined for cultivation. Al-
though the searcli for phosphoric acid
may perhaps require a certain famil*
iarity with chemical analysis, I shall
nevertheless indicate the method of
procedure. It is much to be desired
that enlightened agriculturists should
not remain strangers to manipula-
tions of this kind.

The soil to be analyzed must be de-
prived of all organic matters by cal-
cination. After having reduced it to
a very fine powder, it is to be boiled
for about an hour with three or four
times its weight of nitric or hydro-
chloric acid. The solution is then
diluted with distilled water, and filter
ed ; the matter which remains upon
the filter is generally silica or alumina
which has escaped the action of the
acid. After havmg reduced the wash-
ings by evaporation, and added them
to the acid liquor, ammonia in solu-
tion is poured in. Taking the sim-
plest instance, the precipitate which
falls upon the addition of this alkali
may contain, 1st, phosphoric acid in
union with the peroxide of iron and
lime ; 2d, oxide of iron and of man-
ganese ; 3d, silica. Tliis precipitate,
which is usually of a gelatinous ap-
pearance, is received upon a filter,
well washed and diied, when the pre-
cipitate is readily detached from the
filter. It is thrown into a platinum
capsule which is raised to a white
heat, after which the weight of the
residue is taken. The precipitate af-
ter calcination is thrown into a small
glass matrass, and dissolved by hot
hydrochloric acid. If there is any sil-
ica undissolved, its quantity is merely
estimated if it be very small ; if it be
a larger quantity, it is to be collected
upon a filter and weighed. To the
new acid solution about three times
its weight of alcohol is added ; the
mixture is shaken, and pure sulphuric
acid is then instilled drop by drop un-
til there is no longer any precipitate.
The precipitate is sulphate of lime,
which is thrown upon a filter, where
it is washed with diluted alcohol ; it
ifl thea dried, caicioed, and the weight

ANALYSIS.

of the sulphate of lime obtained per-
uiiUs us to calculate that of the lime
which formed part of the precipitate
thrown down by the ammonia in the
first instance. 100 of sulphate of lime
are equivalent to 41-5 of pure lime.
The alcoholic liquor is concentra-
ted in order to expel the spirit ; as it
Is acid, it is saturated with ammonia
until a slight precipitate begins to be
formed, which is not redissolved upon
shying the mixture. A few drops
of the hydrosulphate of ammonia are
then added, upon which the iron and
the manganese fall in the state of sul-
phurets. As a part of the metals has
been precipitated in the state of ox-
ide by the ammonia added in the hy-
drosulphate, it is well to digest for
eight or ten hours, because the hy-
drosulphate of ammonia always ends
by changing the metals present into
suipburets, which being washed,
dried, and reduced to the state of
oxides by calcination in a platinum
capsule, are weighed.

If the first ammonlacal precipitate
did not contain phosphoric acid, its
weight ought to be reproduced by
adding that of the lime to that of the
metallic oxides proceeding from the
calcination of the sulphurets. Any
loss which is noted after this, is due,
if the process has been well conduct-
ed, to phosphoric acid, which had not
been collected, but which has remain-
ed in the state of phosphate of ammo-
nia in the liquid treated by the hydro-
sulphate. To determine with pre-
cision the presence of phosphoric
acid, the liquid in question must be
evaporated to dryness, and the resi-
due heated strongly in a platinum
capsule. After the dissipation and
decomposition of the ammoniacal
salts, there remams watery phos-
phoric acid, distinguishable by its
powerful acid reaction, its sirupy con-
sistence, and its fixity.

By way of example, I shall give the
results obtained in an analysis of this
kind :

From the Mad liquor, ammonia threw down
ef: gr*. troy.

yiMMpbatei and meUlHo oxides . Biili

rbeee gaTe of eulpfaate of lime
" inuealtaUmie

, 8-769
. 3fti3

I Hyt2riw(i]phiitf* of emmntiia raiii(>d a pre-
rtpiiatp, which, calcined, gave of mo*
laliic oxidee .....

Lime and meiuilfc ozidra tognthftr

DiflTerence due to phosphoric acid

The analysis for phosphoric acid
may be simplified by employing a pro-
cess conceived by M. Berthier, and
which is founded upon the strong af-
finity of this acid for the peroxide of
iron, and the insolubility of the phos-
phate of the peroxide of iron in dilute
acetic acid. If to a fluid containing at
once phosphoric acid, lime, peroxide
of iron, alumina, and magnesia in so-
lution, ammonia be added, the precipi-
tate will contain the whole of the plios-
phoric acid. The acid will be in greal
part combined in the state of phos-
phate of iron, if the peroxide of iron
be in quantity more than sufficient to
neutralize it : a condition which must
be frequently expected in an arable
soil ; however, to make sure of this
point, it is well to add a certain quan-
tity of the peroxide of iron to the soil
which is to he analyzed. Besides the
phosphate of iron, the precipitate may
contain phosphate of lime, phosphate
of alumina, and certainly ammoniacal
magnesian phosphate. Finally, with
these phosphates will be found asso-
ciated alumina and oxide of iron, the
latter especially, if it has been intro-
duced in excess. The precipitate, col-
lected upon a filter and washed, must
then be treated with dilute acetic acid,
which will dissolve the lime, the mag
nesia, and the excess of the oxides of
iron and alumina ; and there will re-
main phosphate of iron or phosphate
of alumina, because the latter salt is
as insoluble as the former in acetio
acid. Whenever the precipitate in
question, therefore, leaves a residue
which is insoluble In vinegar, the
presence of phosphoric acid may be
inferred ; this residue may consist of
basic phosphates of iron or alumina,
or of a mixture of the two salts, and
no great error will be conunitted if
one hundred parts of this residue, cal-
cined, be assumed as representing
fifty of phosphoric acid.

The presence of silica in the pre-
cipitate insoluble in acetic acid inay»

ANALYSIS.

however, lead to error. To make
sure that the precipitate is formed by
a phospliatCt it must be redissolved in
hydrochloric acid, and the acid solu-
tion evaporated to dryness, so as to
render the silica which may exist in
it insolable. By treating the resi-
due with hydrochloric acid again, the
phosphates alone will be dissolved.
The presence of phosphoric acid may
otherwise be determined by treating
the phosphate of iron in solution in
the way which I have already indi-
cated.

From what precedes, it must be ob-
vious that the most carefully conduct-
ed chemical analysis of a soil only
leads us to the discovery of certain
principles which exist in very small
quantity, although their action is un-
questionably useful to vegetation. As
to the determination of the relative
quantities of sand and loam, this rests
upon simple washing ; and a chemist
would spend his time to very little
purpose in seeking, by means of ele-
mentary analyses, to determine the
precise composition of these substan-
ces. The finest part, carried ofT by
the water, will always show proper-
ties analogous to those of clay ; the
Band, which is generally siiicious, will
exhibit the characters of quartz ; and
the calcareous fragments which are
mixed with it will exhibit those that
belong to carbonate of lime. It will
be sufficient, then, in connexion with
the mineral constitution of arable
soils, to expose very briefly the gen-
eral properties of clay or loam, of
quartz, and of carbonate of lime, sub-
stances, in fact, which form the bases
of all arable lands. Pure day, com-
posed of silica, alumina, and water,
does not contain these substances in
the state of simple mixture. The in-
quiries of M. Berthier have satisfac-
torily shown that clay is a hydrated
silicate of alumina. When we re-
move a portion of the alumina from
clay, for example, by treating it with
a strong acid, the silica which is set
at liberty will dissolve in an alkaline
solution, which would not be the case
were the silica present in the state
of quartzy sand, however fine.

! Pnrc clays are white, tinctoons to
the touch, stick to the tongue when
dry, and when breathed upon, give
out an odour which is well known,
and is commonly spoken of as the
argillaceous odour. This property of
dry clay to adhere to the tongue is
owing to its avidity for water. It is
known, in fact, that dry clay, brought
into contact with water, first swells,
and finally mixes with it completely.
Duly moistened, it forms a tough and
eminently plastic mass. Exposed to
the air, moist clay, as it dries, shrinks
considerably ; and if the drying be
rapid, the mass cracks in all direc-
tions. It is to an action of this kind
that we must ascribe the cracks and
deep fissures which traverse our clay-
ey soils in all directions during the
continuance of great droughts.

The constitutional water of clays
is retained by a very powerful affin-
ity, and does not separate under a red
heat ; pure clay has a specific gravity
of about 2 '5 ; but the weight is fre-
quently modified by the presence of
foreign matter, for it contains sand,
metallic oxides, carbonate of lime,
carbonate of magnesia, and frequents
ly even combustible substances, from
bitumen to plumbago, all of which ad-
mixtures of course modify the prop*
erties which are most highly esteem-
ed in clays, such as fineness, white^
ness, in fusibility, &«.

Quartz is abundantly distributed
throughout nature, and is met with in
very difierent states : in the form of
transparent colourless crystals, con-
stituting rock crystals, as sand of dif-
ferent fineness ; finally, in masses,
constituting true rocks. Quartz is
the silica of chemists, and a com-
pound, according to them, of oxygen
and silicon, in the proportion, Berze-
lius says, of 100 of the radical to 108
of oxygen.

Silica, in a state of purity, occurs
in the form of a white powder, and
having a density of 2-7. It is infusi-
ble in the most violent furnace ; but
it not only melts in the intense heat
which resulto from the combustion
of a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen
gas, but it is even dissipated in va-

ANALYSIS.

|MMir. As generally obtained, silica
IS held insofuble in water ; still, when
in a state of extreme subdivision, it
is soluble ; and then its insolubility is
probably not so absolute as is gener-
ally supposed, for M. Payen has found
notable quantities in the water of the
Artesian well of Grenelle, aod in that
of the Seine. Silica exists especially,
in very appreciable quantity, in cer-
tain hot springs, where the presence
of an alkaline substance favours its
aolution ; the water of the hot springs
of Reikum in Iceland contain about
f^lf^th parts of its weight of st4ca ;
and the thermal spring of Las Trin-
cheras, near Puerto Cabeilo, depos-
ites abundant silicious concretions.
The water of this latter spring, which
is at the temperature of 210° Fahren-
heit, besides silica, contains a quan-
tity of sulphureted hydrogen gas, and
traces of nitrogen gas. Rock crystal,
when colourless and transparent, may
be regarded as pure silica ; in the va-
rieties of quarts which mineralogists
designate as chalcedony, agate, opal,
6lc., the silica is combined with dif-
ferent mineral substances, particular-
ly oxide of iron and of manganese,
alumina, lime, and water.

Carbonate of lame, considered as
rock, belongs to every epoch in the
geological series, and frequently con-
stitutes extensive masses. When
pure, it is composed of lime, 66-3 ; car-
bonic acid, 43-7 ; and its density is
then from 2-7 to 2-9. It dissolves
with effervescence, without leaving
any residue in hydrochloric or nitric
acid. Exposed to a red heat, its
acid is disengaged, and quick-lime re-
mains. Carbonate of lime is insolu-
ble in water, but it dissolves in very
considerable quantity under the influ-
ence of carbonic acid gas. When
such a solution is exposed to the air,
the acid escapes by degrees, and the
carbonate is deposited, by which
means those numerous deposites of
carbonate of lime are produced which
we see constituting tufas and stalac-
tites. The solubility of carbonate of
lime in water acidulated with carbon-
ic acid enables us to understand how
plants should meet with this salt in

the soil, imwmoch as rainwater al-
ways contains a little carbonic acid.

llie mineral substances which we
have now studied, taken isolatedly,
would form an almost barren soil ;
but, by mixing them with discretion,
a soil would be obtained presenting
all the essential conditions of fertil-
ity, which depend, as it would seem,
much less on the chemical constitu-
tion of the elements of the' soil than
on their physical properties, such as
their faculty of imbibition, their den-
sity, their power of conducting heat,
dec. It is unquestionably by study-
ing these various properties that we
come to form a precise idea of the
causes which secure or exclude the
qualities we require in arable soils
This has been done very ably by M
Schubler; and his admirable papei
will remain a model of one applica-
tion of the sciences to agriculture.*

The researches of M Schubler were
directed to the mineral substances
which are generally found in soils,
viz. : 1st. Silicious sand ; 2d. Calca-
reous sand; 3d. A sandy clay con-
taining about ^ths of sand ; 4th. A
strong clay containing no more than
about -Pfths of sand; 5th. A still
stronger clay containing no more
than about ^V^h of sand ; 6th. Near
ly pure clay ; 7th. Chalk, or carbon-
ate of lime in the pulverulent state ;
8th. Humus; 9th. Gypsum; 10th.
Light garden earth, black, friable,
and fertile, and containing, in 100
parts, clay 62*4, quartzy sand 36-5,
calcareous sand 1*8, calcareous earth
2*0, humus 7'3 ; llth. An arable soil
composed of clay 51-2, silicious sand
42*7, calcareous sand 0-4, calcareous
earth 2-3, humus 3-4 ; and, 12th. An
arable soil taken from a valley near the
Jura, containing clay 33-3, silicious
sand 63-0, calcareous sand 1*2, caica*
reous earth and humus 1-2, loss 1*3.

The object of these inquiries was
to ascertain, Ist. The specific grav-
ity of soils ; 2d. Their power of re-
taining water; 3d. Their consist-
ency; 4th. Their aptitude to dry;

* Schfiblar, Annala of Fraach AgTicnUoTO«
voL zl., p. 13S, Sd Miias.

ANA

Cth. Tlieir disposition to contract
wliile drying; 6th. Tlieir hygroinetric
force ; 7th Their power of absorbing
oxygen ; 8th. Their faculty of retain-
ing beat ; and, 9th. Their capacity to
acquire temperatnre when exposed
to the 8un*s rays.

SpeciJU Gravity of SaiU. — The
weight of soils may be compared in
the dry and pulverulent state, or in
the humid state ; or the specific grav-
ity of the particles which enter into
their composition may be determined.
This last information is easily obtain-
ed by the following method : Take
a common ground stopper bottle ;
weigh it, stoppered and full of distil-
led water ; let it then be emptied, in
order that a known quantity of the
soil, in the slate of powder and quite
dry, may be introduced into it. A
quantity of VTiter is now poured in,
and the vial is shaken to secure the
disengagement of all air bubbles ; the
vial is then filled with distilled water,
and, when the upper part has become
clear, the stopper is replaced ; the
vial is then wiped dry and weighed
again. The difference between the
weight of the vial full of water plus
that of the matter, and the weight of
the vial containing the matter and
the water mixed, gives the weight of
the water displaced by this matter.
Thus :

Weight oflhe vial fall of water . . . <IO-0
Weight of the matter MO

Weight of the vial cqataiaing the min-

gleii earth and water 74'4

Difference of water dieplaned .... 9-6

which is the weight of the volume of
water equal to that of the matter in-
troduced into the vial ; we have, con-
sequently, for the specific gravity of
the earth J! J = 2-6, the weight of the
water havmg been taken as 1.

This number represents the mean
specific gravity of the isolated parti-
cles of the powder whicli has been
examined ; but we must not, from
this density, pretend to deduce the
weight of a particular volume of soil
— a cubic foot or a cubic yard, for in-
stance : we should come to far too
high a number. The weight of a

ANB

given volume of earth mast be deter-
mined immediately by ramming it
into a mould or measure of a known
capacity.

From M. Schubler's experiments
it appears, 1st. That silicious and cal-
careous sandy soils are the heaviest
of any ; 2d. That clayey soils are of
least density ; 3d. That humus or
mould is of much lower density than
clay ; 4th. That a compound soil be-
ing generally by so much the heavier
as it contains a larger proportion of
sand, and so much the lighter as it
contains a larger quantity of clay, of
calcareous earth, and of humus, it is
pos^ib!e, from the density of a soil,
to infer the nature of the principles
which prevail in it. In the course of
his experiments, .M. Schiiblcr found
that artificial mixtures always gave
higher densities than those that ought
to have rcbulted from the several den-
sities of each of the sorts of substance
which formed the mixture.

ANASARCA. A dropsy in the cel-
lular tissue of the limbs.

ANASTOMOSING. Growing to-
gether, uniting.

ANASTOMOSIS. The interlacing
and union of small veins or arteries
pn>ceeding from different parts.

ANATROPOUS. A very common
kind of embryo, produced by one side
of the ovule growing upon itself,
while the other remains immoveable,
till, at last, that part of the ovule
which was originally next the apex
is brought down to the hilum, the
base of the nucleus in such cases
being at the apex of the ovule. The
common apple, and the greater part
of plants, offer an example of this.

ANBURY. In farriery, a spongy,
sofl tumour, commonly full of blood,
growing on any part of an animaPs
body. Substances of this kind may
be removed either by means of liga-
tures being passed round their bases,
or by the knife, and the subsequent
ap{)lication of some caustic, in order
to effectually destroy the parts from
which they arise.

Anbury, ilm^ury, Club-root : Jlngcrt
and toes. A swelling formed on the '
roots and ground-stems of cabbageBy

ANB

ANE

radishes, turnips, ^c, by the maggot
of a weevil.

The maggot found in the turnip an-
bury is the larva of Cureulio pleuro-
stigma of Marsbam, and Rhynchanua
sulcieollis of Gyllenhal. " I have bred
this species of weevil," says Mr. Kir-
by, " from the knob-like galls on tur-
nips, called the anbury, and I have
luUe doubt that the same insects, or
a species allied to them, cause the
clubbing of the roots of cabbages.*'
Marsham describes the parent as a
coleopterous insect of a dusky, black
colour, with the breast spotted with
white, and the length of the body one
line and two tbirds.

The general experience of fanners
and pirdencrs upon the subject testi-
fies that the anbury of the turnip and
cabbage usually attacks these crops
when grown for successive years on
the same soil. This is precisely what
might be expected ; for the parent in-
sect always deposiles her eggs in
those situations where her progeny
will find their appropriate food ; and
in the fragments of the roots, dtc., of
preceding crops, some of these em-
bryo ravagers are to be expected.
That they never attack the plants
upon a fresh site is not asserted :
Mr. Marshall's statement is evidence
to the contrary. But it is advanced
that the obnoxious weevil is most
frequently to be observed in soils
where the turnip or cabbage has re-
cently and repeatedly been cultiva-
ted. Another general result of ex-
perience is, that the anbury is most
frequently observed in dry seasons.
This is also what might be anticipa-
ted, for insects that inhabit the earth
just beneath its surface are always
restricted and checked in their move-
ments by its abounding in moisture.
Moreover, the plants actimlly affected
by the anbury are more able to con-
tend against the injury inflicted by
copious supply. In wet periods, also,
the affected plants show less the
extent of the injury they have sus-
tained, for their foliage does not
flag.

In considering the best modes of
p^venting the occurrence of the dis-

ease and of palliating its attacks, it
is apparent that any addition to the
soil that renders it disagreeable to
the weevil will prevent the visits of
this insect. The gardener has this
in his power with but little difficulty,
for he can keep the vicinity of his cab-
bage, cauliflower, and broccoli plants
sprinkled with soot, powdered tobao-
co, or other oiTensive matters.

ANCHUSA. See Alkaiut.

ANCHYLOSIS. A stiflT, immovea-
ble joint.

ANCIPITOUS. Having two edges.

ANDES GRASS. Avena tlatior.
Tall meadow oat ; a perennial grass ;
flowers in May, and ripens its seeds in
July. It is hardy, early, and makes
good hay. It is difiicult to root out,
and lasts a long time. A clay loam is
the best soil. Sow two and a half to
three bushels with oats.

ANDROCEUM. The male parts
of the flower.

ANDROGYNOUS. Hermaphro-
dite : a union of l)oth sexes.

ANDROPORU.M: An elevation in
the middle of a flower, formed in part
by the union of the filaments of Che
stamens.

ANELLIDES, ANELLATA. The
class of articulated animals formed
of ring-like segments, as the eaith-
worms.

ANELYTROUS. Without elytra
or wing cases.

ANEMOMETER. (Gr. dve/ioj-, the
unndj and fierpovt measure.) An in-
strument for measuring the force or
velocity of the wind ; a wind gauge.

Dr. Lind's anemometer consists of
a glass tube, bent into the form of the
letter U, and open at both extremi-
ties. One of the extremities, Af ib
also bent round to the

horizontal direction,
in order that the
wind may blow into
it. The tube being
partially filled with
water and exposed
to a current of air, the
water in the branch
at which the wind en-
ters is depressed ; for
example, to B, and consequently ri-

9)1

I . .J

AN6

ANN

868 in tbe other branch to 0; and
tli€ difference at C, of tbe levels at
which it staoda in the two branch-
esi is the height of a column of wa-
ter, the weight of which forms a
counterpoise to the force of tbe wind.
The relative velocities of the wind
are thus ascertained, the variation of
the velocity being nearly proportion-
al to the square root of the resist-
ance. The bore of the tube is di-
minished at the bottom to check the
undulations of the water caused by a
sadden gust of wind. Various other
contrivances have been proposed, of
which one of the simplest is to ex-
pose a flat board of given dimensions
to a current of wind, and observe to
what extent it will force back a spring
attached to it, and resting against an
immoveable obstacle.— {Braniftf.)

ANEMOSCOPE. An instrument
showing tbe direction of the wind ; a
Weathercock

ANEURISM. In farriery, a throb-
bing tumour, produced by the dilata-
tion of the coats of an artery in some
part of the body of an animal Aneu-
risms in the limbs may be cured by
making an incision, exposing the ar-
tery, and tying it above and below
the tumour with a proper ligature.

ANGINA. In farriery, a name
sometimes applied to the qqinsy, or
what in animals is termed anticor;
sore throat.

ANGIOSPERMOUS. Having the
seeds enclosed within a covering or
pericarp.

ANGLE BERRY. In farriery, a
sort of fleshy excrescence, to which
cattle and some other animals are
subject under difllerent circumstan-
ces, and are supposed to proceed
from a rupture of the cutaneous ves-
sels, which give vent to a matter ca-
pable of forming a 9arcoma^ or fleshy
excrescence. They frequently ap-
pear upon the belly and adjacent
parts, hanging down in a pendulous
manner.

ANGUSTATE. Narrow, dimin-
ishing rapidly in breadth.

ANGUSTURA BARK. The bark
of the Cusparia fehrifuga of South
America : used as a tonic.

ANHYDRITE. Aahydioss gyp.
sum.

ANHYDROUS. Without water ;
a chemical term to express the en-
tire absence of water in a salt or acid
substance.

ANIMAL. Any object capable of
voluntary motion ; a function de-
pendant on the nervous system,
which is peculiar to animals and ab-
sent in plants.

ANLMAL ACIDS. Acids existing
in animals, or produced from tbeir
tissues. The principal are the oily
acids, choleic, lactic, and uric, which
see

ANIMALCULES. Infusorials.

ANIMAL MANURES. See Urine,
Manure.

ANIMAL POISONS. The bites
of venomous reptiles, rabid dogs, the
contagious diseases produced by de-
caying meat, cheese, infected cattle,
glanders, are all called animal poi-
sons. They usually produce great
prostration, and call for the use of
ammonia and stimulants.

ANIONS. See EUctrode.

ANISE SEED. PimpineUaamsum.
The aromatic seeds of a well-known
umbelliferous plant. The oil is a
grateful aromatic to the stomach.

ANISOTOMIDiE. A family of co-
leopterous insects, having monili-
form or beaded antenns, sub-elon-
gate, slender at tbe base, gradually
increasing towards the apex, with a
terminal club-shaped multiarticulate
joint; palpi various, generally Ali-
form : head small and ovate ; body
convex, never linear.

ANKER. A small wine barrel of
10 gallons, or 8^ imperial measure.

ANNOTTA, ARNOTTA. Roucon,
A red dye, obtained by fermenting the
pulp of the seeds of the Biza ortUuna^
a tree of the West Indies. In the
dairy a colouring matter is used un-
der this name, which is manufactured
from madder or carrots.

ANNUALS. Plants which perfect
seeds in one year and die, as wheat,
rye, &c.

ANNULUS. An organ resembling
a ring, as the collar which surrounds
the stem of some mushrooms.

ANT

APH

ANODE. The way by which elec-
tricity enters substances through
which it passes : opposed to cathode,
the roatl or way by which it goes out.
ANODYNE. A drug which allays
pain, as opium, camphor, henbane,
&c.

ANONA. The custard apple-trees.
The cherimnver is of this genus.

ANTACIDS. Medicim-s which
neutralize the acid of tlie stomach in
disease, as chalk, carimnate of soda.
ANTENNA, Ahtbnn^. The hair-
like, jointed organs on the heads of
insects. They are very moveable,
and are supposed to be organs of sen-
sation.

ANTEPECTUS. In insects, the
under side of the main trunk, in which
the first pair of legs is inserted

ANTS. The family Formicidcty
hymenopterous insects. They are
injurious to meadows by their hills,
and also devonr fraits. The anthill
is readily destro3'ed by digging it up
in the depth of winter and scattering
the earth ; the exposure will thus de-
stroy the entire colony.

ANTHELMIxNTfCS. Dmgs which
are used to destroy intestinal worms.
Turpentine, wormseed oil, pink-root,
and aloes are the most important.

ANTHER. The bilobate organ,
containing pollen, situated at the
summit of the filament, the two con-
6titutin<r the male organ, or stamen
of plants.

ANTHODIUM. A head of flow-
ers, as in the thistle or sunflower :
a capit Ilium.

ANTHOZANTHU\f . A genus of
grasses, o( which A. odoratum is the
sweet-scented vernal grass. See
Grasses. , It is an annual, and of Ut-
ile importance.
ANTIBKACHIUM. The forearm.
ANTICLINAL AXIS. The hne
lying between strata which dip in op-
posite directions.

ANTICOR. An inflammation uf
the throat and gullet in horses, at-
tended with fever and prostration ; a
kind of quinsy.

ANTIDOTE. A remedy against
a poison.

ANTIMONY The snlphnret ; a

black metallic drug, used in the dis-
eases of cattle as an alterative in
skin diseases. An ounce is given to
a horse.

ANTIMONY TARTRATE. See
Tartar Emetic.

ANTIPHLOGISTIC. Remedies
opposed to an inflammatory state.

ANTISEPTIC S. Substances
which prevent putrefaction.

ANTISPASMODICS. Remedies
which cure spasms or cramps, as
opium, camphor, asafonida, &c,

ANTITROPAL. When in a seed
the radicle of the embryo is turned
to the end farthest away from the
hiium. This, although a compara-
tively unusual position of parts, is
nevertheless the normal position, if
the exact nature of the development
of an ovule is rightly understood.

ANTRUM. A cavity.

AORTA. The great arterial ves-
sel which issues from the left ventri-
cle of the heart, and by its branches
distributes blood to every part of the
body. '

APATITE. A greenish, crystal-
line mineral found in primary rocks,
consisting of a phosphate and silicate
of lime. It is found in the Eastern
and Northern States, but only in small
quantities. In Spain and Norway
large quantities are developed. It
has been spoken of as a manure in
the place of hones.

APERIENTS. Gentie purgatives.

APETALOUS. M^ithout corolla.

APEX. The summit.

APH.\NIPTEKA. An order of
apterous insects, with rudimentary
elytra, and widergoing a change of
form. Tho flea (Pulex irritonis) is of

this kind-

APNIS, APHIDES (pi). A fami-
ly of hemipterous insects, common-
ly called " plant-lice," inhabiting trees
and plants, and living on their juices ;
remarkable for the anal saccharine
secretion, but more especially for a
peculiarity of their generative econo-
my, particularly described by Bonnet,
and which consists in the first fecun-
dation of the female influencing not
merely the ova immediately develop-
ed thrrcafter, but those of the females

APP

resatting from that development, even
to the ninth gencrntinn, which are
successively impregnated and pro-
ductive without any intercourse with
the male insects. Certain coleopter-
o.us insects which prey upon and keep
in check the aphides, are termed aph-
idiphagi and aphidivora (^ayw, / caty
voro, / devour). For a figure, see In-
sects. Aphides are very numerous
in species, most plants having a dif-
ferent kind. They are readily de-
stroyed by fumigations with tobacco,
Cayenne pepper, or sulphur, a solu-
tion of whale-oil soap, or water-slack-
ed lime sprinkled upon them.

APHYLLUS. Leafless, vnthout
fully-developed green leaves.

APIARY. A bee-house.

APIS. The generic name of the
bee.

APOCARPOUS. When the car-
pels of a fruit do not adhere together.

APOCRENIC ACID. See Humus.

APOPLEXY. The staggers. See
Horse, Sheept Ox.

APOPHYSIS. A protuberance,
process, or projection. In anatomy,
restricted to processes of the osseous
system.

APOSEPADINE. A white crys-
talline body obtained from decayed
cheese

APOTHECIUM. The shield of
lichens.

APPETITE. Want of appetite
and voracious appetite are important
symptoms in t\e diseases of horses
and cattle ; exerti^e, change of sta-
ble, ventilation, an^ a new kind of
food and gentle purgiition should be
tried for the first; th6 second may
arise from worms, and should be in-
vestigated.

APPLE. The cultivated fruit of
the Pyrus malus^ or crab ; the tre^ be-
longs to the natural family Rosacta..
The apple, like most other hardy
trees, may be propagated by seeds,
cuttings, suckers, layers, or ingraft-
ing ; by seeds for obtaining new va-
rieties, and by the other modes for
extending the number of such as are
in esteem.

The following kinds are of dilTer-
ent values, bot ripen at different

times, and represent the best set in

cultivation.

Summer Apples, ripening from July
to September:

Early H.iBVE5T, Princess Yellow
Harvest, July Pippin. — Fruit medium
size; bright straw colour; flavour
iinc : ripe in July and August.

Early Rsd Juneatino, JRcd Mar-
garette. Strawberry. — Ratiier small ;
very rich and fine : ripe in August.

Summer Quee^t, Early Queen. —
Fruit large and oblong ; striped with
red on a yellow ground ; high fla-
voured and fine : ripe in August.

Summer Pearmain, American Sumr
mer Pearmain, Early Summer Pear-
main. — Too well known to need any
description : ripe in August.

Williams Apple. — A beautiful
fruit, of medium size aud oUong
form ; colour deep red ; flavour live-
ly and very pleasant. First of Au-
gust. A native of Roxbury, Massa-
chusetts.

Maiden's Blush. — One of the hand-
somest fruits in the country. Size
large, roundish shape ; skin palo
greenish-yellow, tinged with a blush ;
excellent for table use, drying, or
cooking : ripe in August and Septem-
ber.

Autumn Apples.

Porter Apple. — Fruit large ; ob-
long shape ; skin bright yellow, with
a red blusli : ripe in October, and
commands the highest price in the
Boston market.

Fall Pippin, Golden Pippin, Hoi'
land Pippin, CobhctCs Fall Pippin,
Vandine. — Of all fall apples, this
stands at the head of the list. Fruit
large, and of a roundish oblong form ;
skin smooth and yellowish- green, tinr
ged with orange ; flesh tender, with
rich juice : ripe in October, and keeps
till January and February.

Seek-no-farther, JRambo, or Rth
mtinile. — ^This fruit is much cultiva-
ted about Philadelphia. Shape flat,
resembling the Vanderveere, but is a
better fruit ; skin pale yellow, streak-
ed with red ; flesh tender and spright-
ly during the fall : is both a fall and
winter apple.

APPLE.

STROAf, StratU. — A fine fall apple,
introduced by the Iat« Judge Duel, of
Albany : in use from September tu
De<«;nibej-.

Winter and Spring Apples.

Esopus Spitzshtburo. — Fruit lar^
and oval shape ; colour red, covered
with light yeUow spots ; flesh of the
finest flavour for desssen or cooking,
and keeps till February.

Baldwin, Baldwin Pippin. — ^In the
Boston market this fruit has long
brought the highest prices. Colour
bright red, tinged with yellow ; flesh
juicy, rich, swjcet, and most agreea-
ble flavour: ripe in November, and
keeps till March.

BGLL-ruowER. — A beaatiful fruit,
long celebrated about Piiiladelphia as
their finest winter fruit ; ripe in Oc-
tober, and keeps till March.

Blue Pearmain. — A well-known
fniit about Boston. Large size ; col-
our red, covered with a blue bloom ;
flavour delicious, and keeps till Jan-
uary.

HuBBARD8T0^r Nonesuch. — A most
popular new fruit, lately brought out
ia Massachusetts, often commanding
$5 per barrel in the Boston market :
ripe in November, and keeps till Feb-
ruary,

Ladt Apple, Pomme d'Api. — Fruit
email ; of pale yellow colour, deeply
tinged with red on one side ; flesh
crisp and pleasant : ripe in Novem-
ber, and keeps till April.

MoNSTRoos Pippin, Gloria Mundi,
Ox Apple. — Fruit of enormous size,
sometimes weighing 28 ounces ; of a
pale yellowish-green colour ; spright-
ly flavour : ripe in October, and keeps
till January.

* Newton Pippin. — Of this most val-
uable apple there are two varieties,
the yellow and the green ; no differ-
ence in quality ; keeps till May, and
retains its flavour : the most valuable
variety for shipping to Europe.

Rhode Island Greening. — Fruit
large; skin greenish yellow; flesh
slightly acid and of fine flavour : keeps
Orom November till April.

RiBsToN Pippin, also called Formo-
sa I'ippiu, and G! ::y of York. In

England esteemed very highly ; me-
dium size, and globular form ; colour
yellow, mottled with red next the
sun : keeps till February. '

RoxBUKv RussETiNo. — A flnc old
native of Massachusetts ; fruit large
and of a slightly flattened form ; col-
our brownish-yellow russet, with an
occasional blush next the sun ; skin
rough : keeps well till June and July.
Raised in great quantities near Bos-
ton for exportation, 4tc.

SwAAR Apple. — A celebrated win-
ter fruit in some parts of New-York ;
of fine flavour; skin greenish-yel-
low, tinged with a blush : keeps till
March.

Wine Apple, Hay's Winter, Large
Winter Red, Fine Winter. — A beauti-
ful fruit, highly esteemed in the Phil-
adelphia market : keeps till February.

Hollow-cork Pippin. — A new va-
riety raised in Jefferson county, Ohio.
It resembles the yellow Newton pip-
pin in its fine flavour : keeps till April
and May.

Ohio Pbaruain. — A new and beau-
tiful variety in Ohio ; good size ; stri-
ped red and yellow ; quality excel-
lent : keeps till May.

Cider Apples.

Harrison and Camfield. — Both
long raised in the neighbourhood of
Newark, New-Jersey, and Hugh's
Virginia Crab, much cultivated in
Pennsylvania and Ohio, are decidedly
the most valuable varieties for cidei
to be found in the country.

In the west and other portions of
our widely-extended country many
new varieties of choice apples are
constantly coming into use. The
above are varieties found at most of
the nurseries in the Eastern States.
I Besides these, there are a large
! quantity cultivated throughout the
I country of every shade of merit. The
Newton pippin, Baldwin, Rhode Isl-
and greening, and Roxbury rosset-
ing are the most valuable for expor-
! tation, both on account of their fla-
vour and hardihood. They command
from $9 to $15 the barrel in Eu-
rope

Directions for plafUing and mana-

APPLE,

fting apple orchards, chiefly from Ken-
rick :

•* The seeds of the apple should be
sown in Autumn in a rich soil. When
the young plants appear in spring,
thoy should be carefully thinned to
the distance of 2 inches asunder, aod
kept free from weeds till of sufficient
size to be removed.

** At I or 2 years of age they are
taken up, their tap-roots shortened,
that they may throw out lateral roots ;
they are transferred to the nursery,
set in rows about 4 feet asunder, and
at 1 foot distance from each other in
the row, in a rich and loamy soil. In
the summer following they are inoc-
ulated, or they are ingralled or in-
oculated the year following.

" Size and age for tran.'^planting to
the Orchard. — An apple-tree, when
finally transplanted to the orchard,
ought to be at least 6 or 7 feet high,
with branches in proportion, and full
2 years from the bud or graft, and
thrifty. Apple-trees under this size
belong properly only to the nursery.

" Distance. — The distance asunder
to which apple-trees should be finally
set, when transplanted to the orchard,
depends upon the nature of the soil,
and the cultivation to be subsequent-
ly given. If the soil is by nature ex-
tremely fertile, 40 feet distance may
be allowed, and even 45 and 60 feet
in some very extraordinary situa-
tions ; for before the trees become
old, they will completely shade the
ground. If, however, the soil is not
very extraordinary by nature, or so
rendered by art, this distance would
be too great ; for the trees would be-
come oM, and their growth would be
finished before the ground could be
covered by their shadow : 30 feet only
may therefore be allowed in land usu-
ally denominated of good quality, and
but 20 to 25 feet in land of ordinary
quality. Bnt where economy of time,
of land, and of all things else is con-
sulted, but one half this distance will
answer for a series of years.

'♦The quincunx mode is recom-
mended for close arrangement, and
short-lived trees may be set in the
intervals.

** The period of growth, or the dnrft*
tion of the apple-tree, is comparative-
ly limited ; this is sufficiently evident
from the perishable nature of its tim-
ber.

" Sod and Siluation.-^A. rich soil,
rather moist than dry, is that adapted
to the apple-tree.

"On such a soil, whether on the
plains, or in the valley, or on thB
sides and summits of our great hills,
and even in situations the most ex-
posed, the apple-tree will flourish.

" Management of the Land. — If the
ground intended for the orchard can-
not conveniently be kept wholly in a
state of cultivation during the first
years, a portion, at least, ought to be.

" A strip of land to each row of 8
or 10 feet in width, well manured,
may be kept cultivated, and the vege-
tables which may here be raised will
amply repay the expense and labour
bestowed during the first 4 or 5 years.
After this, if ihe trees have grown
well, as they probably must have
done, cultivation at a distance in the
intervals becomes even more impor-
tant than within the limited distance
of a very few feet from the trunk of
the tree ; for, on examination, it will
bo found that the small fibres or
spongclets, by which alone the tree
derives all the nourishment it re-
ceives from the earth, are now re-
mote from the trunk of the tree ; they
arc now to be found seeking food be-
yond the limits of its shade, and it
becomes necessary that the whole
ground should be kept in a high state
of cultivation for the 4 or 6 following
years. After this period it may oc-
casionally be laid to grass, which,
however, should be broken up at fre-
quent intervals, the land being always
kept in good heart.

*• Pruning. — If the branches of a
young tree, issuing at and above the
requisite height, be made, by pruning,
to diverge from the trunk in every di-
rection above the horizontal, and the
interior of these be carefully kept
from any interference with each oth-
er for a few years, little pruning will
ever afterward be necessary.

Heavy pruning is scldoju neces

APPLE.

sary or advisable ; bat when, as in
the case of grafting, or of heading
down for a new growth, it becomes
nnavoidable, it should always be per-
formed in that interval between the
time the frost is coming out of the
ground in spring and the opening of
the leaf.

•• For that moderate pruning, which
Hlone is generally needful, June and
July, and during the longest days of
summer, is the very best time ; for
wounds of all kinds heal admirably at
this period, the wood remaining sound
and bright ; and even a tree debarked
at this season recovers a new bark
immediately.

*' Trees ought not to be pruned in
February and March, at the time the
frost is coming out of the ground.
This is the season when most trees,
and particularly the vine and sugar-
maple, bleed most copiously and in-
juriously. It causes inveterate cank-
er, the wounds turn black, and the
bark, for perhaps several feet below,
becomes equally black, and perfectly
dead in consequence' of the bleed-
ing."

Mr. Pell, who has an orchard of
20,000 Newton pippins, has succeed-,
ed, by the following method, in indu-
cing the trees to bear crops every
year :

" Three years ago in April, 1
scraped all the rough bark off from
several thousand trees in my orchard,
and washed the trunks and limbs
within reach with soft soap, trimmed
out all the branches that crossed
each other early in June, and paint-
ed the wounded part with white-lead
to keep out moisture, then split open
the bark by running a sharp-pomted
knife from the ground to the first set
of limbs in the latter part of the
same month, which prevents the tree
from becoming bark-bound, and gives
the inner wood an opportunity of ex-
panding. In July I placed one peck
of oyster-shell lime around each tree,
and left it piled about the trunk un-
til November, during which three
months the drought was excessive.
In November the lime was dug in
thorooghly. The following year

(1842) I cdlected from those trees
1700 barrels of* fruit, some of which
was sold in New-York for $4 pei
barrel, and others in Londoji for $9
After gathering the fruit in' October
I manured the same trees with sta-
ble manure, and covered it imme-
diately with earth. Strange as it
may appear, this year they are lit-
erally bending to the ground with the
finest fruit I ever saw. The other
trees in my orchard, not treated as
above, are barren, next year being
their bearing year."

Fruit for exportation and spring
use must be allowed to ripen well,
be plucked with the hand, and care-
fully exposed on the barn floor to dry
for 15 to 20 days ; they should then
be placed in clean barrels, and stored
in a dry cellar not subject to frost.
In shipping, they should never be
jolted. They should be placed be-
tween decks, in an airy situation.
Fruit grown in dry seasons always
keeps best.

The products of the apple-orchard
are so numerous that there is no lo-
cality in which it may not be made
profitable. Not only does the fruit
command a good price, but cider and
vinegar are easily obtained, while
hogs flourish on the fallen fruit, de-
stroying, at the same time, the fruit
caterpillar. The pomace, or refuse
of the cider-mill, is very acceptable
to cows and swine, or contributes to
enrich the manure heap. See Culer.

Indeed, the value of apples as food
for hoj;s is little appreciated ; but
there is abundant evidence furnished
by practical men that they are almost
as valuable as potatoes. The flesh
is very firm and fine in swine thus
fattened.

InsecU. — Numerous insects affect
the apple and pear tree, either bo-
ring the trunk, destroying the young
leaves, or inhabiting the fruit. The
fruit caterpillar {Tortriz pomonana)
causes the fall of many apples before
the ripening season. The m(»th {/ig-
j), whose eggs produce the destruc-
tive worm, is to be seen in the even-
ings of June and July flying about the
trees, or on the windows of the house.

APPLE

Its ooter wings are marked with
gray and brown lines anranged in del-
icate waves, with one large brown
spot on each, surrounded with a yel-
low margin ; the head and thorax are
browiiish-gray, striped ; the under
win^s and abdomen are of a satin
orange colour. They deposite an
egg on several young fruit, and pre-
fer early varieties. A worm is pro-
duced In 4 days, which enters the ap-
ple, eating towards the core, and
finally through the fruit. In three
weeks or more the caterpillar (a) es>

capes, but before this the apple qsq-

ally falls to the ground, and it seeks
a shelter among the rough bark of
the tree or other suitable place to
spin a cocoon (c). The chrysalis, or
grub (//), is of a mahogany colour ; it
remains concealed until the next
spring before leaving its nest as a
moth. It is stated by European wri-
ters that there is another moth, which
produces two generations annually,
in the spring and fall.

Smoking the trees during the ap-
pearance of the moth with tobacco,

pitch, and other pungent vapours, is
used with some success. The col-
lection of fallen fruit once or twi^e a
day secures the worm, which may
be destroyed ; but they instinctively
leave the apple soon af\er its fail.
Rags, or straw bands tied around the
stem, serve as a decoy to the cater-
pillar to form his cocoon uncter their
shelter. The figures from Kollar rep-
resent this troublesome insect, which
infests pears and other fruits like-
wise : it is the codling moth of Euro-
pean writers.

The caterpillars which exist in
such large quantities in webs at the
i unction of the branches, and devour
the spring foliage of apples and most
trees, are the larvae of the Clissio-
campa neustriat Americana, and other
species ; they are readily destroyed
by either collecting the nests and
burning them, or by applying a sponge
dipped in strong hartshorn, a solution
of sulphuret of lime, or any other
powerful poison. They are called
lackey or tent caterpillars by Euro-
pean writers.

The Canker worm, green looper cat-

crpillar. destructite to the buds of ap-
ples and other trees, is the larva of
the Geometra brumata (or Phalana),
the winter moth. The figure repre-
sents {a) the male, and {b) the female

moth. The male is winged, but the
female crawls only ; she may be seen
ascending the trunk of trees in the
fall to deposite her eggs in the. au-
tumnal buds : and is of an ash-gray
colour. The caterpillars are at first
gray, but afterward light green ; they
devour flowers, leaves, and fruit ;
and when they take up their abode
on any part, construct a small web

APR

or cell Ibr protection. About May
they begin to leave the tree, descend-
inj^ by a thread to the soil ; here they
bHry themselves to become pappse,
and reappear as moths from August
to November. The destruction of
the fea\a]e moths is attempted by
fastening strips of paper smeared
with tar round the trunk, which ar-
rests their ascent. Kollar recom-
mends the construction of a box
around tlie lower part of tlie trunk,
covered on all sides with a projecting
top, to be kept smeared with tar. The
caterpillars are also fumigated with
tobacco, &c., smoke. O^her geome-
ters also infest fruit-trees.

Apple-borer. The Saperda bivit-
laia^ Say. Sec Borers.

The Applb-wbkyil, Curculio {Ait'
Ikonomus) pomorum, is of a grayish

I lutttfBliiie.

colour, dcposites her eggs in the
flower budis in spring; the grub is
small, white, with a black head, it be-
coming yellow. The flowers and fruit
are de'stroyed by them. ♦ The curcu-
lio may be shaken from the tree in
spring, and destroyed by chickens.
The trees are also subject to aphides,
American blight, other caterpillaxs,
6lc.

APRICOT. (Armeniaca vulgaris.)
The following remarks are by Mr.
Pell:

*' This fruit does exceedingly well
when budded towards the end of Ju-
ly, on plum stocks two years old.
The peach answ^ers very well like-
wise. When three years old, I set
them out in a very rich black mould.
I find they- do much better under
glass Ihan in.the open air. In either
case they should be disbudded in the
month of May, and ail the superflu-
ous shoots taken off In November
they should be shortened to sixteen
inches ; by so doing tue trees will be

ARA

kept vigorous and healthy. Their
principal enemies are the carcolios,
wasps, and flics, which may be kept
off by means of nets."

The Moorpark and Turkey are both
esteemed varieties, as also the fol-
lowing : breda, gold blotch, musk
Schuylers, orange, peach, and violet,
Lindley recommends grafting on the
mussel plum stock. The position o.
the tree ought to be sheltered and
late. It answers admirably in the
South, where it is grown as a stand-
ard, but in New- York it requires a
warm wall.

APRIL. This is the great month
for ploughing and scedmg crops in
the North; the land should be pre-
pared for potatoes, beets, and root
crops, as well as corn. Tobacco seed
is sown early, and farther south the
young plants of cotton and sugar-
cane arc hoed and weeded. The gar-
den and orchard arc to be closely at-
tended to.

APTERANS, APTERA. Wing-
less insects.

APYREXIA. The cool or quiet
stage of intermittent fevers.

AQUA FORTIS. Nitric acid, uau-
ally dilute.

AQUA REGIA. A mixture of ni-
trie and muriatic acids.

AQUATIC PLANTS. Such as
gn^vv submerged.

AQUEOUS HUMOUR. The fluid
in the anterior chamber of the eye.

ARABLE LAND, so called from
the Latin w^ord arare, " to plough," is
that part of the land which is chiefly
cultivated by means of the plough.

Land in general is divided into ara-
ble, grass land, wood land, common
pasture, and waste. The lirst of these
is by far the most important in agri-
culture. In this article we shall brief-
ly explain the principles on which are
founded the most improved methods
of cultivating arable land, by which
the natural produce of the soil is great-
ly increased, and many productions
arc obtained in perfection which are
foreign to the soil and climate.

1. We shall consider the nature and
properties of various soils.

2. The best modes of preparing and

ARABLE LAND.

improving the natural soil, so as to
increase its produce.

3. The most advantageous succes-
sion of crops, so as to obtain the
greatest returns with the least dimi-
nution of fertility.

1. Soils. — When the surface of the
earth is penetrated, we generally find
that the appearance, texture, and col-
our vary at dilferent depths. There
is a layer of earth nearest the surface,
of greater or less thickness, which
covers the more solid and uniform
materials which lie below it. This
may be particularly observed wherev-
er there are natural or artificial exca-
vations or pits. A distinct line, near-
ly parallel to the surface, generally
marks the depth of the upper soil, and
separates it from the subsoil. The
soil is more or less composed of mi-
nute parts of various kinds of earth,
mixed with animal and vegetable sub-
stances in different states of decom-
position ; and to these, in a great
measure, it owes its colour, which is
generally darker than that of the sub-
soil. Except where iron, peat, coal,
or slate abound in the soil, a dark
solour is an indication of correspond-
ing fertility. The rich soil of gardens
long cultivated and highly manured is
nearly black. As the soil is the bed
in which all vegetable productions are
to be reared, and in which they are to
find their proper nourishment, its tex-
ture and composition become objects
of great importance to the cultivator ;
and, without a competent knowledge
of these, no practical rules can be laid
down or depended upon.

All soils are composed of earthy
and metaUic oxides, saline substan-
ces, vegetable and animal matter, and
water. The earths are chiefly clay
or alumina, flint or silica, and lime.

Magnesia, barytes, and other earths
are occasionally met with, but in so
few instances that they may be omit-
ted in the list.

Of the metals, the most abundant
is iron in the state of peroxide. The
other metals are rarely found near the
surface.

Saline substances form a small part
of a soU, but an important one.

Potassa exists in almost every vd-
getable, soda in a few, and ammonia
is produced by the decomposition of
animal matter ; but, from its volatile
nature, it is not long retained in the
soil, except when it forms a fixed
compound with other substances.

The vegetable acids, as a general
rule, are perhaps limited to small por-
tions of acetic acid in combination
with some base, as lime or potash.

The mineral acids are found united
with earths and alkalies, in the state
of neutral compounds.

These saline substances have a
powerful efll^ct on vegetation ; and a
knowledge of their proportions in the
soil, and of their various qualities, is
indispensable in order to modify or
correct their action by other substan-
ces for which they have an affinity.

Water, in a slate of combination,
or of mere mechanical diffusion, is
essentia] to the growth of all plants :
without it and atmospheric air there
is no life, either animal or vegetable.

The Earths. — Clay is called alumina
because it is obtained in its purest
state from alum, in which it is com-
bined with the sulphuric acid : it is
the basis of all strong and heavy soils.
When clay is minutely divided, it is
easily suspended in water ; when
dried slowly, and stirred while^ dry-
ing, it becomes a fine powder, sofk
to the feel ; and when kneaded with
water, a tough, ductile mass, easily
moulded into hollow vessels which
retain liquids. This property of being
impervious to water gives the specific
character to clay as an ingredient of
the soil. In a pure and unmixed state
it is absolutely barren. When clay is
heated to a great degree it parts with
the water combined with it ; it is then
said to be baked, as we see in bricks.
It is no longer diffusible in water.

Silica, or the earth of flints, suffers
no change in waier. It consists of
crystals, or fragments of very hard
stone, forming gravel or sand accord-
ing to their size ; and the finest sili-
cious sand, when examined with ai
magnifying glass, has the appearance
of irregular fragments of sione wjih-
out any cohesion between them.

ARABLE LAND.

SQictons sand holds water in its in- j
terstices by simple cohesive attrac-
tion in proportion to its fineness. It
lets water pass through it rapidly, ei-
ther by filtration or evaporation. Its
use in the soil is to keep it open, to
let the air and water, as well as those
other substances on which the growth
of plants depends, circulate through
it. Unmixed, it dries so rapidly tHat
no vegetation can continue in it, un-
less a constant supply of moisture be
given by irrigation. A small addition
of clay much improves light sands.

Limd In its pure state is familiar
to every one as the feasis of the mor-
tar used in building. It is produced
by burning marble, chalk, limestone,
or shells with a great heat. In the
stones which are formed principally
of lime it is combined with some acid,
most generally carbonic acid, which
separates from it by the operation of
burning, in the form of an air or gas,
hence called jixti, airj from its being
thus Jixed in a stone. These stones,
of Yarious degrees of hardness, are
now all classed under the oame of
carbonates of iime.

Lime unites readily with water,
which it also absorbs from the atmo-
sphere. It then becomes slacked. By
uniting with carbonic acid, it returns
to its former state of carbonate, with
this difference, that, unless much wa-
ter be present, it remains a fine im-
palpable powder. Pure iime is solu-
ble in water, though sparingly ; a pint
of water cannot dissolve more than
about twenty grains : the carbonate
is not soluble in water. Carbonate of
lime has a powerful efifect on the fer-
tility of a soil, and no soil is very pro-
dnctive without it. It is consequently
used extensively as an improver of
the soil, otherwise called a manure ;
but its use in this respect, and the
mode in which it acts, will be given
in the articles Manors and Limb.

Carbonate of lime, as ah earth, is
neither bo tenacious as clay nor so
loose as sand. In proportion to the
fineness of its particles, it approaches
the one or the other ; when the parts
are large and hard, it takes the name
'»<" limestone or calcareous gravel.

Its distinguishing feature is its sol
ubility in acids, which it neutralizes,
depriving them of their no.Yious qual«
ities in the soil, A proper mixture
of these three earths, in a due state
of mechanical division, forms a soil
well fitted to the growth of every
species of plants, especially those
which are cultivated for food ; and
nothing mqre is required than a prop-
er climate as to heat, a proper degree
of moisture, and sufficient nourish-
ment, to make all the plants generally
cuUivated thrive most luxuriantly in
such a mixture, which is usually call-
ed a loam.

But there are some soils which, be-
sides a proper mechanical texture and
mixture of earths, contain a large pro-
portion of a natural manure, which
renders them extremely fertile. Tliis
is a substance produced by the slow
decay of animal and vegetable mat-
ter. It can be separated from the
other parts of the soil, and has been
accurately analyzed and described by
many of the most experienced chem-
ists, particularly by Fourcroy, Davy,
Chaptat, and Theodore do Saussure.
(See Rcckerches Chimiquea sur la Vi-
gilatiany Paris, 1804, 8vo.) This
substance has been called vegetable
mould ; but, as this is not a very dis-
tinct term, we shall, after Thaer and
other eminent writers on agriculture,
adopt the name of humus when speak-
ing of it. Humus is a dark, unctuous,
friable substance, nearly uniform in
its appearance. It is a compound of
oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitro-
gen, which are the elements of all an-
imal and vegetable substances. It is
the result of the slow decomposition
of organic matter in the earth, and is
found in the greatest abundance in
rich garden mould, or old, neglected
dunghills. It varies somewhat in its
qualities and composition, according
to the substances from which it has
been formed and the circumstances
attending their decay.

Besides the four essential elements
in its composition, it also contains
other substances in smaller quanti-
ties, viz., phosphoric and sulphuric
acids combined with some base, and

ARABLE LAND

also earths and salts. It aflbrds food
to plants. It is diminished by the
process of vegetation, and wasted by
being carried into the ocean by the
waters, or it is carried into the atmo-
sphere by the agency of the oxygen
of the air, which converts it into gas-
eous matter, chiefly carbonic acid.

Humus, in the state in which it is
usually found in the earth, is not sol-
uble m water, and we might have
some difficulty in comprehending how
it enters into the minute vessels of
the roots of plants ; but here the ad-
mirable provision of nature may be
observed. Humus is insoluble and
antiseptic ; it resists farther decom-
position in itself, and in other sub-
stances in contact with it. It re-
mains for a long time in the earth un-
impaired ; but no sooner is it brought
into contact with the atmosphere by
the process of cultivation, than an
action begins. Part of its carbon,
uniting with the oxygen of the atmo-
sphere, produces carbonic acid, which
the green parts of plants readily ab-
sorb ; while its hydrogen, with the
same, forms water, without which
plants cannot live ; and in very warm
climates, where this process goes on
more rapidly, the moisture thus produ-
ced keeps up vegetable life when rains
and dews fail. The residue becomes
a soluble extract y and in that state is
taken up readily by the fibres of the
roots. Hence we see the great impor-
tance of frequently stirring the sur-
face uf the earth between vegeta-
bles.

We can now readily understand
tho great importance of humus, and
of those rich manures which are
readily converted into it, when not
immediately absorbed by plants. But
it has still another property, highly
important to fertility : it renders stifiT
clays porous, and consolidates loose
sands. It does so more than lime or
any other earth. Hence a soil with
a considerable portion of humus is
much more fertile than the quantity
of alumina or of sand in its compo-
sit*'jn would lead one to expect, as
we shall see when we come to the
analysis of soils of known fertility ;
34

I and we see the great advantage of
animal and vegetable manures, not
only as nourishment to vegetables,
but as mechanical improvers of the
texture of soils.

The greatest enemy of humus ia
stagnant water : it renders it inert
and astringent, as we see in peat;
and soils abounding with vegetable
masters, from which water is not
properly drained, become soury as is
very justly said, and produce only
rushes and other useless and unpal-
atable plants. The remedy is simple
and obvious : drain well, and neutral-
ize the acid with lime or marl; by
these means abundant fertility will
be restored.

In very light soils humus is seldom
found in any quantity, being loo much
exposed to the air, and rapidly de-
composed ; tho extract is washed
through them by the waters, and, as
they waste manure rapidly, they are
called hungry. Such soils are very un-
profitable until they are improved and
consolidated by clay or marl, which
makes them retain their moisture.

With calcareous earths humus acts
well, provided they are pulverized
and of sufficient depth.

In order to ascertain the probable
fertility of a soil, it is very useful to
analyze it, and find out the propor-
tion of its component parts. To do
this with great accuracy requires the
knowledge of an experienced chem-
ist. See Analysis.

Mr. Thaer has given a clasfsifica-
tionof soils of known qualities, which
we think worthy of notice. Ii is as
follows :

•X

•1

^1^

/•J

• c

•i"

C 2

E C

No.

>- ~ ».

■a

1 (

•«>»

iiSt luo

-i

. Fir»tcbui«»of»tronj
f wlirat autla . .'

f>^.' M

7'.»

(^>^! M

1 I

2«

( Rirh li|^it rand io
{ nntar.ll fjit»» . )

Fiii Ji \<s\T\ry lunil •

•rr

10 ' 7S

Onotl wheat Und .

.««

3»i

4 1 77

Wbcmt UnJ .

:;o

•i 75

•a» 1 r^H

•^

•: i TO

+^ I Wl

t .

3 ' ti'.

(i« w

h %

■i 1 '.-O

Good nnrl4>j land

.W C/i

w ^

C ' fiO

Do. Mcoad quJtUtjr

83 , KV

— a

i 60

8« 70

•i 40

Oat land .

Vi% Tft

t«^

\}i\ 30

Do. . . •

\m w

IK 20

ARABLE LAND.

Below this are veiy poor rye lands.

in all these soiis iUc depth is sup-
p\/6ed the same, and the quahty uni-
form to the depth of at least 6 inch-
es ; the subsoil sound, and neither
loo wet nor too dry.

Nos. 1, 2, and 3 are allavial soils,
and, from the division and the inti-
mate union of the liumus, are not so
heavy and stiffas the quantity of clay
woukl indicate.

No. 4 is a rich day loam, neither
too heavy nor too loose : a soil ea-
sily kept in heart by judicious culti-
vation.

No. 6 is very light and rich, and
best adapted for gardens and or-
chards, hut not for corn ; hence its
comparative value can scarcely be
given.

Nos. 6, 7, and 8 are good soils ;
the quantity of carbonate of lime in
No. 8 compensates for the smaller
portion of humus. This land requires
manure, as well as the others below.
In those from No. 9 downward lime
or marl would be the greatest im-
provement. Nos. 15 and 16 are poor
Lgbt soils, requirinir clay and much
manure ; but even these lands will
repay the cost of judicious cultiva-
tion, and rise in value.

The last column, of comparative
value, is the result of several years'
careful valuation of the returns, after
labour and seed had been deducted.

Few old soils contain more than 4
or 5 per cent, of humus, even when
in very good heart ; and 2 per cent.,
with a good loamy texture, will ren-
der a soil fit for corn with judicious
cultivation. The texture is of most
importance, as may be seen by com-
paring Nos. 7 and 8 with No. 6. If
this is of good quality, dung will soon
give the proper supply of humus.

The depth of the soil and the na-
ture of the subsoil greatly affect its
value. However rich it may be, if
there is only a thin layer of good soil
over a sharp gravel or a wet clay, it
can never he very productive : in the
first case, it will be parched in dry
weather ; and in the latter, convert-
ed into mud by every continued rain.
If the subsoil be loam, six inches of

I good soil will be sufficient. With a
, foot of good soil, the subsoil is of lit-
tle consequence, provided it be dry,
and the water can find a ready outlet

The exposure, with respect to the
sun, and the declivity of the ground,
are very important circumstai)»res,
and equivalent to an actual differ-
ence in the climate. A gentle de-
clivity towards the south, and a shel-
ter against cold winds, may make as
great a diflference as several degrees
of latitude.

2. Cultivation of tub Soil. — ^The
better the soil, the loss culiivation it
requires to produce tolerable crops;
hence, where the land is very rich,
we find in general a slovenly culture ;
where the ground is less productive,
more labour and skill arc applied to
compensate for the want ol" natural
fertility. The simplest cultivation is
that of the spado, the hoe, and the
rake, and on a small scale it is the
best ; but spade husbandry cannot
be carried to a great extent without
employing more hands than can be
spared from other oc('U|)ations. The
plough, drawn by oxen or horses, is
the chief instrument of tillage, and
has been so in all ages and nations
of which we have any records. Its
general form is familiar to every one,
and requires no minute description.
The various kinds of ploughs in use
at different times, and the improve-
ments which have been made and
are attempted daily, will be noticed
in a separate article (see Plough).
Suffice it to say, at present, that a
plough should, as much as possible,
imitate the work done with a spade.
It should cut a slice from the land
by its coulter vertically, and by the
share horizontally lift it up, and turn
it quite over by means of the mould-
board ; and the art of the ploughman
consists in doing this perfectly, and
with such a depth and width as
suit the soil and the intended pur-
pose. In tenacious soils the slice
will be continued without breaking,
especially if bound by the fibres and
roots of plants ; the wholo surface
will be turned over, and the roots
exposed to the air. It is of great

Z9'

ARABLE LAND.

consequence that each slice be of the
same width and thickness, and the
sides of it perfectly straight and par-
allel. The plane of the coulter must
be perfectly vertical, and that of ihe
share horizontal, in order that tlie
bottom of the furrow may be level,
without hollows or balks, which are
irregularities produced by the rising
T sinking of the plough, or inclining
i vo either side. There are various
ii. des of ploughing land, either quite
flat, or in beds or stitches — that is,
in portions of greater or less width,
with a double furrow between them,
somewhat like beds in a garden.
Sometimes two ridges are set up
against each other, which is called
ridging or boutivg ; the land then is
entirely laid in hiph ridges and deep
furrows, by which it is more exposed
to the influence of the air, and kept
drier: this is generally done before
winter, especially in stiff, wet soils.
Sometimes two or more ridges are
made on each side, forming narrow
stitches. When the ground is to be
ploughed without being laid in stitch-
es, and all the ridges inclined one
way, the mould-board of the plough
is shifted at each turn from one side
to the other. The double mould- board
plough of Barnaby and Mooers does
this effectively. When grass land or
stubble is ploughed, care must be ta-
ken to bury the grass and weeds com-
pletely, and the slice cut off by the
plough must be turned over entirely,
which is best done by making the
width of the furrow greater than the
depth. When the grass and weeds
are rotten, and th^ ground is plough-
ed to pulverize it, a narrow, deep fur-
row is best ; the c^rth ploughed up
is laid against the Bide of the prece-
ding ridge, which forms a small fur-
row between the tops of'the ridges,
well adapted for the seed to lodge in
and to be readily covered with the
harrow.

Nothing has ^vided both practical
and theoretical agriculturists more
than the question whether the land
should be ploughed deep or shallow ;
but a very slight attention to the pur-
poses for which land is ploughed, and
36

to the nature of the soil, will readily
reconcile these apparently contradic-
tory opinions. A deep, rich, and siiif
soil can never be moved too much
nor too deep : deep ploughing brings
up rich earth, admits the air and
water readily, and gives room for
the roots to shoot, while the rich
compact soil affords moisture and
nourishment. Wherever trees are to
be planted the ground should bestir-
red as deep as possible, even in a poor
soil : for grass and corn, this is not
always prudent ; their roots seldom
go above three or four inches deep,
and if they find sufficient moisture
and humus, they require little more
depth.

Whenever the soil below a certain
depth is of an inferior quality, there
can be no use in bringing it up ; and
where the soil is li^ht and porous,
the bottom had much better not be
broken.

The great object in ploughing land
is to divide it, expose every part of
it to the influence of the elements,
and destroy every plant or weed but
those which are sown in it. To do
this perfectly requires several plough-
ings.

Where the soil is good, with a po-
rous subsoil, the greatest care should
be taken not to go too deep ; but
where the subsoil is compact and im-
pervious to water, but not wet for
want of outlet or draining, it is use-
ful to stir the soil to a great depth,
but without bringing it to the sur-
face, which may be done by a plough
without a mould-board following a
common plough in the same furrow.
This is an excellent mode of drain-
ing, and, at the same time, keeping
a reservoir of moisture, which in dry
weather ascends in vapours through
the soil and refreshes the roots.

The mode in which the soil is pro-
pared most perfectly for the recep-
tion of the seed is best shown by fol-
lowing the usual operations on fal-
lows : After the harvest, the plough
is set to work and the stubble plough-
ed in. The winter's frost and snow
mellow it, while the stubble and weeds
rot below« In spring, as soon as the

ARABLE LAND.

weather permits, it is ploughed attain, '
the first ridjEres being turned over as
they were before : this completes the ,
decomposition of the roots and weeds.
It is then stirred with harrows or oth-
er instruments, which tear up the
roots which remained, and sonic of •
these, not being easily destroyed, are
carefully gathered and bunied, or put
in a heap to ferment and rot, a por-
tion of quicklime being added. An-
other ploughing and stirring follows,
at some interval, till the whole ground
is mellow, pulverized, and free from
weeds ; manure is put on, if required,
and immediately spread and ploughed
in : the land is then prepared for the
seed.

Various instruments have been in-
▼ented to stir the earth and mix it
without so often using the plough,
and also to loosen and separate roots
and weeds ; of these the principal
are the cultivator or scarifier, which
enters but a few inches into the
ground, and moves a great surface
by means of iron teeth of various
constructions.

This instrument divides the soil,
but does not turn it over ; it is well
calculated to destroy roots and weeds,
and let in the air ; but, evidently, is
only adapted to tolerably loose and
mellow soils, where there are no
large stones.

\Vhen the s^il turned up by the
plough is in large, hard lumps, a roll-
er, sometimes with spikes in it, is
drawn over the land to break the
clods ; but this is seldom necessary
e.xrept where very siiffsoils have been
ploughed when too wet, and the ridges
have dried, and been plouglied again
in dry weather. Deep wet clay soils
should be carefully watched, to know
when is the proper time to plough
them. Nothing pulverizes them like
frost ; and if they are kept from wet
by careful draining and numerous
water-furrows in autumn, they will
be loose and friable in spring ; they
had better not be touched than work-
ed when too wet. On light soils the
plain roller is used to advantage to
produce firmness, without which the
plough cannot so well turn the ground

over completely, but merely pushes
il to the ri;j:i»t and left.

Tlie influence of the atnmsphc^re
on the soil, and the intTca.scd fertili-
ty produced by pulverizing and stir-
ring heavy lan<ls, has led to the no-
lion adopted by Jethro Tull, that la-
bour might entirely supersede tl."
necessity of manure ; hence the ori-
gin of the horse-hoeinj? husbandry,
which at one lime was so hi;,lily
thought of as to be called, by way of
distinction, the new hn.sbandrv.

There are some soils which are
so mixed with pebbles and stones
that the foregoing observations will
scarcely be applicable, and the in-
struments must be adapted to their
texture. The only inconvenience
found from tlicm in good soils is that
they occupy the room of better earth,
and wear out the instruments used,
which, in consequence, are made
stronger and blunter. When there
is a crop to be mown with the scythe,
the stones must be removed from the
surface.

When the land has been duly pre-
pared, the seed is sown. This is
done sometimes before the la^t
ploughing, but then the manure
should have been ploughed in be-
fore ; for, except in planting the po
ta.to, which is not a seed, but a bulb,
the manure should always be deeper,
and not in contact with the s<ed.
When the seed is plougt»cd in, the
furrow should not be above two or
three inches deep and eight or nine
wide ; and it is only in particular
soils that this mode is to be recom-
mended. The most common method
is to sow the seed on the land alter
the last ploughing, and draw the har-
rows over to cover it. When the
land has been well ploughed, the seed
will mostly fall in the small furrows
made by two adjoining ridj^es, and
rise in regular rows ; but by far the
most perfect way is to sow it at a
regular depth, by means of a ma-
chine, and in rows at regular di.-^tan-
ces. See Drill.

The proper season for sowinu' each
kind of grain, the choice of seed, and
other parti, dars, will be given under

ARABLE LAND.

the name of the difl^rent seeds usu-
ally sown. As a general rule, it may
be observed, that the smaller the
seed, the less it must be covered,
and clover or grass seed is not usu-
ally harrowed iu, but only pressed in
with tlje roller.

3. Succession of Crops, or Rota-
tions.— It has been found by expe-
rience that, besides the general ex-
haustion of humus, each kind of crop
has a specific effect on the soil, so
that no care or manure can make the
same ground produce equal crops of
the same kind of grain for any length
of time without the intervention of
other crops. Whether this be owing
to any peculiar nourishment neces-
sary to each particular kind of plants,
or because plants not indigenous de-
generate in a foreign soil, the fact is
certain with respect to most crops
usually raised, and particularly red
clover. This points out the advan-
tage of varying the crops, according
as they are found to succeed best
after each other. In general, all
kinds of grain succeed best aller a
crop which has been cut before the
seed has ripened or the stem is dried
up. Those plants which have a na-
ked stem with few leaves thrive best
aAer leguminous plants, which have
more succulent stems and more
leaves, and which bear their seeds
in pods, as pease, beans, tares, or
vetches ; or after esculent roots,
which strike deep into the ground, as
carrots, parsnips, beet-roots, and tur-
nips. From this circumstance, con-
firmed by universal experience, the
different systems of rotation have
had their origin, taking the nature of
the soil into consideration.

The Norfolk rotation is, 1. Tur-
nips, well manured ; 2. Barley ; 3.
Clover ; 4. Wheat ; by which a suf-
ficiency of food for sheep and cattle
is obtained without natural pastures,
and the land, manured every fourth
year at least, is kept in a regular
state of progressive improvement.

A very common rotation in Scot-
land is, fallow, wheat, clover, or
grass, fed one, two, or three years ;
then oats, pease, or beans, and wheat

again, if the land is clean and in goad

heart ; for there is no rule better es*
tablished than that of never allowing
the soil to be exhausted beyond a
certain point, where manure and til-
lage can readily recruit it. The
greenly cultivator is sure to pay dear-
ly in the end for every crop forced
from the land unreasonably.

The Flemish husbandry proceeds
much on this principle. The great-
est attention is paid to manuring and
weeding. Much more manual labour
is bestowed, and the crops seem
more certain, varied, and abundant.
That it is not unprofitable, we may
conclude from the wealth of the peas-
ants, the comfort of the labourers,
and the sleek appearance of the cat-
tle. From the very interesting ac-
count of Flemish agriculture in the
work of Mr. Van Aelbroek, of Ghent,
we learn with what great care the
soil is cultivated in Flanders. After
ploughing lands, every intervening
furrow is deepened and cleared with
the spade, the earth being thrown
over the bed sown. Liquid manure,
chiefly the urine of animals and drain-
ings of dunghills, is carefully col-
lected, and is carried on and distribu-
ted over the poor light soils by means
of water-carts, before sowing, and
again when the crop is come up. By
this means such lands are made to
yield crops of rape seed, clover, lu-
cern, flax, and corn, equal in luxn-
riance to those on the richest soils.
Fallows are rendered unnecessary by
the careful destruction of weeds ; in
short, it is a garden culture on an ex-
tended scale. All the land is in till-
age, except where rivers occasion-
ally overflow, and render the mead*
ows rich and profitable. The cattle
are mostly kept in stables, and fed
with green food cut and brought tc
them, by which means one .acre ol
clover, lucern, or other artificial grass
will maintain five times as many
beasts, or more, as an acre of the
best pasture. But the great object
is to increase manure, especially in a
liquid state, which is carefully pre-
served in reservoirs, without loss or
waste, till wanted for the land. Thif

AUB

ARO

system is also ftoUowed in Swiizer-

In Holstein, on moderately good
soil, ihey adopt the following course :
1. Oats, on newly broken-up grass
land ; 2. A fallow to destroy grasses
and weeds, and accelerate the de-
composition of their roots; 3. Wheat,
with or without manure, according
to the state of the land ; 4. Beans,
barley, or oats ; 5. Wheat, manured,
unless it has been done for the beans
the year before ; 6. Qrass seeds pas-
tured for three years or more» when
the rotation begins again.

W'e have now given a brief outline
of the manner in which arable land
may be cultivated and improved. If
we should be asked whether so much
attempt ion and labour upon land of a
proper quality will be repaid by the
value of the produce, we shall an-
swer, without any hesitation, in the
afilrmative, provided the cultivator
is possessed of knowledge, judgment,
and experience, and devotes all his
time to the superintendence of his
farm — (VV. L. Eham.)

ARAC.CAR0ID-£. The natural
family of plants, including the arum,
Indian turnip, and skunk cabbage.

ARACHXIDANS, ARACHNIDA.
A class of apterous, spider-like con-
dylupes, having the head coufluent
with the chest, and the body, conse-
quently, consisting of but two seg-
ments, with eight legs, smooth eyes,
and the sexu^ orifices situated on
the thorax, or anterior part of the
abdomen.

ARATION. Ploughing.
ARBOR. The princip^ spindle or
axis of a machine.

ARBORESCENT. Inclining to,
or becoming woody.

ARBORICULTURE. The culti-
valion of trees.

ARBORETUM. A place for the
cultivation of trees.

ARBOR VIT.^. Thuja occidenta-
lism A well-known coniferous ever-
green, of small size, but very durable.
It abounds in the Northern States.
ap'J has oeen much recommended as
8 hedge. The plants are best raised
from seed. There is a species from

China much admired in the shrub-

beries of Europe.

ARBUSTUM. An orchard or vine-
yard.

ARBUTUS. A genus of handsome
evergieea shrubs of the natural fam-
ily Ericaceae. The fruit is succulent,
but austere, and in the A. uncdo a
beautiful object. The Arbutus an-
drachie is the most admired of this
genus. The A. uva ursi yields a use-
ful medicine. They are much cul-
tivated as shrubbery plants in Eu-
rope, and belong to the first class for
beautv

ARCESTIIIDA. A small succu-
lent cone, as the juniper berry.

ARCHIL. A purple dye-stuff pro-
cured from the Rocella tinctoria and
fudfarmis, lichens growing on the
rocks of the Canary Islands.

ARCHITRAVE. The chief beam
or structure resting immediately upon
the columns of an edifice, the lowest
member of the entablature ; also call-
ed the epistylium.

ARCUATE. Bent like a bow.

ARECA. An East Indian palm, the
nut of which is chewed with the betel.

ARENACEOUS. Sandy, relating
to sand.

AREOLAE. In entomology, the
small spaces between the nervures
of the wings.

AREOMETER. An instrument for
taking specific gravities. See Hy'
dromctcr.

ARGIL, ARGILLACEOUS. Clay,
cl&vev

ARILLA, ARIL, ARIEL. A mem-
branous prolongation of the placenta
over a seed, as the mace of the nut-
meg.

ARM OF A HORSE. The upper
part of the fore legs.

ARMILLA. The coloured circle
of the lower end of the fore leg, above
the tarsus of birds.

ARMY WORM. See Collcm, Dis-
eases of.

ARNOTTO. See Armotta.

AROMA, AROMATIC. A pleas-
ant spicy odour, usually due to a vol-
atile oil.

AROMATIC REED. Aeorus eala-
mus. Sweet flag, a common indige-

ARU

I10U3 water plant, the rhizome of
whifh is of a 5picy odour. It is the
Calamus aromaHcns «»f the druggists.
ARPKNT. Tlie French acre of
51,6i)l sqare feet.

AKRACACHA. The South ifracr-
ican name for an umbelliferous plant,
the Arracucia cscuUnta of botanists,
whose fleshy sweet roots are cultiva-
ted in Columbia and Jamaica, in the
mountainous parts of those countries,
in the same way as parsnips and car-
rots in Europe. The roots are of
large size, and in quality are, when
cooked, between a sweet chestnut
and a parsnip. Attempts to intro-
duce it into common European cul-
tivation have uniformly failed. —
(Brande.)

ARRACK. A whiskey of unpleas-
ant odour, obtained by distilling the
liquor of the fermented mush of rice.
It is sometimes applied to other spir-
ituous liquors. .

A R R O W-G R A S S. The genus
Triffhchin. They are small marsh
grasses, perennial, and flowering in
July; some grow on salt marsh.
They are eaten by cattle.

ARROW-HEAD. SagiUaria sa-
gittifoiia. A common indigenous,
perennial, tuberose plant, with ar-
row-shaped leaves, growing in brooks.
It is cultivated by the Chinese for its
roots, which are mealy.

ARROW-ROOT. Maranta arun-
dtnacea. A herbaceous plant of the
family Canne, with fleshy perennial
roots, readily propagated by root-cut-
tings, which should be set a foot to
eighteen inches apart, in drills. It is
cultivated in Bermuda, the West In-
dies, and P^lorida. The roots are dug
when a year old, washed, beaten into
a pulp, then mixed with water, and
agitated ; the stringy parts are then
sef>aratcd by the hand. The starch, or
arrow-root, remains suspended in the
water ; this is next strained through
a Imcn clotb, and then allowed to set-
tle, by which the starch subsides, and
the water is removed ; it is washed
a socond time, and dried. Arrow-
root is a nearly pure starch, of agree-
able flavour, but little nutrition. Good
potatoes, rasped into a pulp and treat-

AKT

ed the same way, prodoce a starch,

which is often nscd to adulterate the
genuine article.

ARROW- WOOD. Viburnum dtn-
latum. A small shrub with straight,
stifl!* branches and blue berries : the
wood is said to have been used by
the Aborigines for arrows.

ARSENIC. Arsenious acid, white
oxide of arsenic. A violent irritant
poison, used injudiciously to destroy
rats, and as an application to ulcers
The safest antidote is the recently-
prepared hydrated oxide of iron : by
precipitating a solution of per^nitrate
of iron by solution of potash. Lime-
water is much less certain.

ARTEMISIA. The genus ol
wormwoods.

ARTERIOTOMY. The opening
of an artery to let blood.

ARTERY. The vessels which
convey red blood are so called.

ARTESIAN WELLS, or fount
ains, are those springs or wells which
constantly overflow their summits.

ARTHRODIC. An articulation of
bones, in which the head of one is
received into a shallow cavity of the
other, so as to permit considerable
motion. This is the case with the
upper arm and shoulder.

ARTICHOKE. Cynara scolymut.
A plant having the appearance of a
gigantic thistle, cultivated for the
flower- head, which is cut before flow-
ering, boiled, and served with butter.
They are propagated by seed and ofl*-
sets. If by the former, sow the seed
in rows, a foot apart, as soon as the
frost is out of the ground. Thin the
plants to a foot apart in the row,
and, in the fall of the year, put out
the plants in clumps of four in rows
three feet apart, and the rows six
feet asunder. They will produce
their fruit the next year. When
winter approaches, earth the roots
well up, and, before the frost sets in,
cover all well over with htter from
the yard or stable. Open at the
breaking up of the frost ; dig all the
ground well between the rows ; lev-
el the earth down from the plants.
You will find many young ones, or
oflTsets, growing out from the sides :

ART

ASH

pull these otT, and, if you want a new
plaatation, put'them out as you did
the original plants : they will bear,
though later than the old ones, that
saioe year. By great care, they may
be made to bear three years.

ARTICHOKE, Jerusalem. Hcli-
anlhus luberusxu. A small sunflower,
with nutritious tubers. It yields
from 150 to 200 bushels of roots, less
in size than potatoes ; the tops, cut
before flowering, also produce abun-
dant fodder. Hogs root up the tu-
bers greedily, and thrive well upon
them. When steamed or boiled, they
are palatable. It is one of the plants
found by Boussingault to draw its
nitrogen almost entirely from the
air ; hence it is recommended as an
ameliorating crop, when turned in
before the tubers are formed.

It is usually propagated by sets
from the roots in April, grows in any
moi^t soil, especially such as is sandy
and light : the cultivation is the same
as for the potato. "When raised for
its tuber, it is liable to become
troublesome, from the germinating
power of even the smallest pieces
'eft in the soil. Tt keeps in the ground
adl winter, or may be preserved un-
der sand. In the Middle States it
thrives well. It is extensively used
in France as provender for cattle,
hogs, (kc, and is equal to potatoes in
nourishment.

ARTICULATA, ARTICULATES.
A term applied by Cuvier to a primary
division of the animal kingdom, char-
acicrizcd by an exlernal skclrton in
the form of a series of rings artic-
ulated together and surrounding the
body ; by an internal gangliated ner-
vous system, the ganglions being ar-
ranged symmetrically along the mid-
die line of the body, and by having
distinct respiratory organs. Insects
and various worm.s are of this order
ARTICULATED. Jointed In
botany it signifies a slight connexion,
such as tb'it of the leaf with the stem
in exogens, which allows them to fall
off when dead.

ARTICULATION. The connex-
ion of the bones of the skeleton by
joints.

ARUM. TliC genus of the Indian
turnip.

ARUNDO. The reed plants. Sev-
eral species, growing on sand, bind it
together : arundinaccous, reed-like,

ARVICOLA. The genus of liold-
mice.

ASAFCETIDA. A fetid gum res-
in obtained from the root of the Ferula
asafatida, whence it exudes, by m-
cision, in the form of a milky juice,
which, when dried by exposure to
the sun, acquires a mottled appear-
ance and pink colour. It is a native
of the south of Persia, and is used in
medicine as a stimulant and antispas-
modic in hysteric and nervous disor-
ders, and in spasmodic cough, asth-
ma, and flatulent colic.

ASCARIS,(pl.)ASCARIDES. In-
testinal worms. See Worms.

ASCI. Little membranous bags
containing sporules. Ascidium, the
leaf-pitcher.

ASCITES. Dropsy of the bell v.

ASH-TREE. Fraxinus exccUior.
European ash, a hand.sorae tree, with
valuable timber. The weeping ash
is a variety. This tree is a native
of America, but not very abundant.
The white ash {F. acuminata) is a val-
uable and common tree of the United
Slates. A sweet gum {manna) exudes
from many species, especially from
the F. ornus of Italy, and commands
a high price at the druggists as a lax-
ative medicine.

ASHES. The incombustible part
of animal and vegetable subatanfcs.
In agriculture several varieties are
used, which will be briefly described.

Wood ashes are most abundant from
leaves, bark, and young twigs. The
composition differs with the tree and
soil. The following analyses from
Sprengel will serve as a general guide :

1<«d

^ . Si'.lch P.tLli J'liiO.

Bee<li.

^''^- Fir.

CDt^rtliitT.)

Silica . • .

5-6J

W-yj (rjy j

?mO

Aluriiiita . .

':-\:\ )

Oxide of Iron . .

a-77<

814

i7<n

1110

Oxide ol'M.'uigHne?'o

3*j)

-•7'>

I.ICIM!

2.".-(«l

17MI -iriMH 1

i;w-)

Magnesia

fiOO

6lU

4-.l.'>

FoliLsh .

aj-ii

Iti-.'O

':-i>)

J4U)

Sixla .

3:u

tlTJ

2-H

20-7. >

Sulphuric Acid .

7-»>4

3:i«

\:i.i

;ji'.

Pljojiiilioric AciJ

ft1J2

1 ->-'

•2-7 r,

0'<0

ChUiTine

J-S*4

2^^

«Mll

Cwbotuc Acid . .

1H»

i;:)7

mi^."

17..»0

lOU

IWJ

W..0

ASHES,

Ashes are used with advantage to

every crop, but especially as a dress-
ing tu that intended for gramineous
plants and the ccrealia ; but turnips,
potatoes, the white field carrot, and ev-
ery crop, has been benefited by them.
The application should differ with
the object in view ; six bushels are
enough to advance a clover or lucern
crop in the spring, but 15 to 20 bush*
els are sown as a dressing for an an-
nual crop, as grain, barley, 6cc. Large
doses should not be applied to the
land with seed or upon young ^wth,
as the carbonate of potash present
sometimes injures them. They tell
best on land rich in vegetable mat-
ter, upon which the potash and soda
acts. On clayey soils ashes general-
ly produce more rapid effects than
on lighter kinds.

I'he action of all ashes is twofold,
partly due to the soluble portions,
and partly to the insoluble. The
chloride of sodium, or common salt,
the carbonate and sulphate of potash,
are soluble, and produce immediate
effects on the crop ; but the phos-
phates and silicates, as well as car-
bonate of lime, require time to dis-
solve and benefit the crop. Hence
it has been observed that some lands
are permanently improved by ashes,
and some crops immediately benefit-
ed, as Ihe leguminous plants. — (Spren-
gcl.) In those soils which already
contain much alkali, as the detritus
of primitive and transition coun-
tries, seashores, lands near salt
springs, the soluble parts of ashes
will be of little moment ; and the
leached remains may be altogether
superior, for few soils contain so
much phosphoric acid as not to be
improved by an addition as manure.

Lcackcdf or Wasfied Wood Ashes. —
Where wood ashes are washed for
the manufacture of the pot and pearl
ash of commerce, this insoluble por-
tion collects in large quantities. It
is also present in the refuse of tlie
soap-makers, where wood ash is em-
ployed for the manufacture of soft
soap. The composition of this insol-
uble matter varies very much, not
only with the kind of wood from

which the ash is made, but ateo with

the temperature it is allowed to attain
in burning. The former fact is illus-
trated by the following analysis, made
by Berthier, of the insoluble matter
left by the ash of five different spe-
cies of wood carefully burned by hun-
self:

sirtc*

Lim*

Oiiile of Iroo
Uxitle or Man|;miMM«
Phoftfihonc Acid .
Cifbonic Acid
C«rboo .

3-8
0-6

0«f5
99-6

61 H
3-2
01
0-<i

3R-8
100

6-5

a-o

0-5

3-6

4<J

31-0

13-0

8T-2
8-7

«2-3
6-ft
l-»

Sl-d

100

4t>

44-3

10-5

O-I

0-4

1-0

Sli-0

4-8

6-8
4i^
7-0
1«
4«
6T

- :

SWf.

1(W

yy7

LOU

The numbers in these several col-
umns differ very much from each
other ; but the constitution of the in-
soluble part of the ash he obtained
probably differed in every case from
that which would have been left by
the ash of the same wood burned on
the large scale, and in the open air.
This is to be inferred from the total
absence of potash and soda in the
lixiviated ash, while it is well known
that common lixiviated wood ash con-
tains a notable quantity of both. This
arises from the high temperature at
which wood is commonly burned,
causing a greater or less portion of
the potash and soda to combine with
the silica, and to form insoluble sili-
cates, which remain behind along
with the lime and other earthy matter
when the ash is washed with water.
It is to these silicates, as well as to
the large quantity of lime, magnesia,
and phosphoric acid it contains, that
common wood ash owes the more
permanent effects upon the land, which
it is known to have produced. When
the rains have washed out, or thu
crops carried off the more soluble
part from the soil, these insoluble
compounds still remain to exercise
a more slow and enduring infiuence
upon the after-produce.

Slill, from the absence of this sol-
uble portion, the action of lixiviated
i wood ash is not so ap| arent and en-
ergetic, and it may therefore be safe-
ly added to the land in much larger
quantity. Appliea at the rate of two

ASHES.

tons an acre, its effects have been
ol>servecl to continue for fifteen or
twenty years. It is most beneficial
upon clay stuis, and is bald especial-
ly to promote the growUi of oats.

Keip is the name given to the ash
lelt by sea-weecls when burned. As
a natural mixture, which can be ob-
tained at a cheap rate, and has been
pruveU to be useful to vegetation in
a high degree, it is very desirable
that accurate experiments should be
instituted with the view of determin-
ing the precise extent of its action,
a^ well as the crops and soils to which
it can be most advantageously and
most economically applied.

Like wood ashes, kelp varies in
composiiion Witii the species and ago
of tiie sea- weeds from which it js
prepared, and like them also, it con-
sists of a soluble and insoluble por-
tion. Two samples, analyzed by Dr.
Ure, consisted of

Carbonate of fimSvk, with
Sulphurat <>f SiMJiam
Suipli.tte of SoJa .
C<»mnu>n Salt .
Cblurtiie of Potassium

buo/tMt Forrton,

Cartionate oT Lini«
SU:c<i . . . .
AJnmiiia and Oxide of j
Imn . . . ]

SoTpburaiMi loM

H«»ker.

r^~'Normiiod>.
Gay LuR'^MC.

8-0

36-6

09-0

S4-0
8-0

9-0

frO

6-5
liH)
37-6

(W-0

UXi

ft-5

8-6

UK>

Besides these constituents, how-
ever, the soluble portion contains io-
dide of potassium or sodium in va-
riable quantity, and the insoluble
more or less of putash and soda in
the state of silicates and phosphates.

Kelp may be applied to the land in
nearly the same circnmstances as
wood ash, but for this purpose it
would probably be better to burn the
sea*weed at a lower temperature than
is usually employed. By this means,
being prevented from inehing, it
would be obtained at once in the
state of a fine powder, and would bo
richer in potash and soda.

It might lead to important results
of a practical nature were a series of
precise experiments made with this
finely-divided kelp as a manure, es-
pecially in inland situations ; for

thoQgh the variable proportion of ita

con:>tituents will always cause a de-
gree of uncertainty in regard to the
I action of the ash of marine plants,
yet il the quantity of chloride of po-
tassium It contains be, on an average,
nearly as great as is stated above in
the analysis of Gay Lu&sac, kelp will
really be the cheapest (orm in which
we can at present apply potash to the
land.

Stiaw Ashes. — The ashes obtained
by burning the straw of oats, barley, •
wheat, and rye contain a natural
mixture of saline substances, which
is exceedingly valuable as a manure
to almost every crop. The propor-
tion of the several constituents oi
this mixture, however, is different,
according as the one or the other
kind of straw is burned. Thus, 100
parts of each variety of ash, in the
samples analyzed by Sprengel, con-
sisted of

PMa»h
Soda . .

LiUM .

Mn»nesia •

Aliimina . .
Oxititturiron .
Oxide of Man^-

Plii>-»pboric Acid
ISiilpliuric AchI .
Cliioritje . .
CitrlxiiiH' Ac id .

Out*. Barley. fWhfnt. (Kve.| »L«pt<.

3-1
S-1

«-9
13-0
11-4
11-0

16-J

trace

2-6

0-4

KH)

; trace

I tract-
or
l.-i

Itr.)

lUO

0-0

erH

0-9

81 -S

4-8
1-0
0-*)

lUO

1-:

0-4
6-4
0-4

8i~Z

0-9

1«
6-1
U-6

mi ' lui

The most striking differences in
the above table are the comparative-
ly large quantity of potash in the oat
straw ; of lime in that of barley ; of
phosphoric acid in that of wheat ; of
sulphuric acid in that of rye, and
of all the saline substances in ra{}e
straw. These differences are not to
be considered as constant, nor will
the numbers in any of the above col-
umns represent correctly the com-
position of the ash of any variety of
straw we may happen to burn, but
they may be safely depended upon as
showing the general composition of
such ashes, as well as the general
differences which may be expected
to prevail among them.

'ITiat such ashes should prove use-
ful to vegetation might bo inferred,
not only from their containing many

ASHES.

aaVine substances which are known
to act beneficially when applied to
the land, but from the fact that they
have actually been obtained from
Tegetable substances. If inorganic
matter be neoessary to the growth
of wheat, then surely the mixture of
such matters contained in the ash of
wheat straw is more likely than any
other we can apply to promote the
growth of the young wheat plant. A
question might even be raised wheth-
er or not, in some soils rich in vege-
table matter, the ash alone would not
produce as visible an effect upon the
coming crop as the direct application
of the straw, either in the dry state,
or in the form of rotted farmyard
manure ; and this question would
seem to be answered in the affirma-
tive by the result of many trials of
straw ashes which have been made
m England. In that country the ash
of five tons of straw has been found
superior in efficacy to ten tons of
farmyard manure. This is perfectly
consistent with theory ; yet, as vege-
table matter appears really essential
to a fertile soil, and as the quantity
of this vegetable matter is lessened
in some degree by every corn crop
we raise, it cannot be good husband-
ry to manure for a succession of ro-
tations with saline substances only.
The richest soil by this procedure
must ultimatelv be exhausted. On
the other hand, where much vegeta-
ble matter exists, and especially what
is Usually called irttrt vegetable mat-
ter, it may be an evidence of great
skill in the practical farmer to apply,
fur a time, the ashes only of his straw,
or some other saline mixture to hie
land.

The practice of burning the stubble
on a windy day has been found in
Yorkshire to produce better clover,
and to cause a larger return of wheat :
for this purpose, however, the stub-
ble must be left of considerable length.
In Germany, rape straw — which the
above table shows to be so rich in
saline and earthy matter, and there-
fore exhausting to the land — is spread
over the field and burned in a similar
manner. The destruction of weeds

and insects which attends this prac-
tice is mentioned as one ol its col-
lateral advantages.

It is not advisable, as I have al-
ready said, wholly to substitute the
ash for the straw in ordinary soils,
or in any soils for a length of time ;
yet that it may be partially so sub-
stituted with good effect, or that
straw ashes will alone give a large
increase of the corn crop, and there-
fore should never be wasted, is shown
by the following comparative expcri-
ments, conducted, as such experi>
ments should be, during an entire ro-
tatittn of four years. The quantity
of manure applied, and the produce
per imperial acre were as follows :

1«. Tumipt

'.i lb*.

f 4- S

3 t S
— • o

e «

li\ baali

h.S, cwt i|««i cwt.
0«. narley \\4\ t)U*h.;3n^^ butb. :jn>^ bull.
S«. Clover IHcwt. 118 rwt. la) cwt jai c»rt.
4*. Oaf. 02 ba»b. jlSboah. J38 biwh^ |40 ba<^h.

The kind of soil on which this ex-
periment was made is not stated, but
it appears to show, as we should ex-
pect, that the effects of straw ash
are particularly exerted in promoting
the growth of the corn plants and
grasses which contain much siliceous
matter in their stems ; in short, oi
plants similar to those from which
the ash has been derived.

Theory of I he action of Straw Ash.^^
That it should especially promote
the growth of such [dants appears
most natural if we consider only the
source from which it has been ob-
tained, but it is fully explained by a
farther chemical examination of the
ash itself The soluble matter of
wood ash, in gcneraly contains but a
small quantity of silica, while that
part of the straw ash which is taken
up by water contains very much.
Thus a wheat ash, analyzed by Ber-
thier, contained of

fmttvmXm

Soluble salts ... 19

Insoluble matter . . _81

100

and that which was dissolved by wa«

ter consisted of

Cblorino
Potaab and soda
Sulpburic acid .

100

Sn that it was a mixture of soluble
silicates and cblorides with a little
Biiiphate of potash and soda. These
soluble silicates will lind an easy ad-
iDission into ttie roots of jilants, and
will readily supply to the young alems
of the cum plants and grasses the
silica which is indispensable to their
heallhj growth ,

Turf or peat aiket, obtaiaed by the
burning of peat or various qualities.
are also applied with advantage to
the land in many districts. They con-
sist of a misliire in which gypBum is
iiaually the predominating useful in-
gredient, the alkaline satis heing
Present in very small proportion,
lie following table exhibits the com-
position of some varieties of ashes
from the peat of Holland and from
the heath of Luneburg, examined by
Sprengel :

In the most nsefi
these aabea it appears, from tin
analyses, that lime abounds, partly
in combination with sulphuric and
phosphoric acids, forming gypsum
and phosphate of lime, and partly
with carbonic acid, forming carbon-
ate. These compounds of lime, there-
fore, may be regarded as the
ingredients of peat ashes.

Ypt the small quantity nf

sidered as wholly without effect ; for
u^ihiL'ii arc olicn applied to the
1 to Ihe extent of two tons an
;, a quantity which, even when
proportion of alkali does not ex-
1 one per cent., will contain 46
lbs. of potash or soda, equal to twice
" ' weight of sulphates or of coiu-
sall. To the minute quantity
ilme matters present in them,
^lore. peal ashes may owe a por-
tion nt their beneficial influence, and
he almost total absence of such
ipounds from the less valuable
sorts their inferior estimation may.
have in pari arisen.

In Holland, when applied to the
com crops, Ihey are either ploughed
'~ drilled with the seed, or applied
a lop-dressing to the young shoots
aulumn or spring. Lucern, clo-
', and meadow grass are dressed
with it in spring at the rale of 16 lo
IB cwt. per acre, and the latter a
second lime with an equal quantity
alter the lirst cutting. In Belgium
the ashes are applied to clover, rape,
potatoes, flax, and pease. In Lune-
burg. the turf ash wliich abounds in
oxide of iron is applied at the rate of
4 tons per acre, and by this
a the physical character of Iha
clay soils, as well as their chemical
islitution, is altered and improved.
.0 England peat is in many places
burned for the sake of Ihc'Habcs it
yields. The soil from beneath whicll
the turf is taken abounds in time,
and the aahes are said to contain
from ore fouTlh lo one third of Iheir
weight of gypsum. They are used
largely both in Berkshire and Hamp-
shire, and are chiefly applied lo green
crops, and especially lo clover, ai iho
te of 50 bushels.

Coal athii are a mixture of which
e composition is very variable ;
they consist, however, m general, of
lime, often in the state of gypsum, of
silica, and of alumina, mixed with a
quantity of bulky and porous cinders
or half-burned coal. The ash of a
coal from St. Etienne, in France, af-
ter all the carbonacQous malter had
been hnrncd away, was found by Ber-

ASI

ASP

Alumina, insoluble in acids
Alumina, soluble

Lime

Magnesia

Oxide of Manganese .
Oxide and Sulphuret uf Iron

percent.

62
5
6
8
3

100
Such a mixture as this would no
doubt benefit many s^)ils by the alu-
mina, as well as by ihe lime and mag-
nesia it contains ; but in coal ashes
a small quantity of alkaline matter,
chiefly soda, is generally present.
The constitution of the ash of our
best coals, therefore, may be con-
sidered as very nearly resembling
that of peat ash, and as susceptible
of similar applications. When well
burned, it can, in many cases, be ap-
plied with good effects as atop-dress-
ing to grass lands which are over-
grown with moss, while the admix-
ture of cinders in the ash of the less
perfectly burned coal produces a fa-
vourable physical change upon strong
clay soils.

Cane Ashes. — I may allude here to
the a'lvanta^e which in su/rar-grow-
ing countries may be obtained from
the restoration of the cane ash to
the fields in which the canes have
grown. After the canes have been
crushed in the mill, they are usually
employed as fuel in boiling down the
sirup, and the ash, which is not un-
frequently more or less melted, is, I
believe, almost uniformly neglected ;
at all events, is seldom applied again
to the land. According to the prin-
ciples I have so oflcn illustrated in
the present lectures, such procedure
must sooner or later exhaust the soil
of those saline substances which are
most essential to the growth of the
cane plant. If the asU were applied as
a top-dressing to the young canes, or
put into the cane holes near the roots
— having been previously mixed with
a quantity of wood ash, and crushed if
it happen to have been melted — this
exhaustion would necessarily take
place much more slowly.— (JoAn^an.)
ASfLUS. A Linnsean genus of
dipterous insects, in which iTie mouth
» furnished with a horny, projectingt

straight, two-valved sucker, and gib-
bous at the base: antj^nnae filiform,
approximate, of two articulations .
body oblong and coni(;aI in shape
The iiisects of this genus prey on
other insects, especially those of the
dipterous and lepidopterous orders.

ASPAR.AGIN. The white crys-
talline principle found in the juice of
the asparagus, supposed to be a di-
uretic. It is resolved, by bculiiig i;i
water with magnesia, into ammonia
and aspartic acid.

ASPARAGUS. Asparagus officitm
lis. A perennial plant growing on
sandy meadows near the sea. The
young shoots {torus) form an esteem-
ed vegetable, and are susceptible of
high cultivation. They may be raised
from roots or seed. The seed is sown
in April, in rich soil an inch deep, in
rows eighteen inches apart, and the
ground kept clean. In two or three
seasons the roots will be large enough
to transplant to permanent beds. The
new plantation is made in March or
April ; the ground must be light, deep,
and rich, and well dug. The beds are
made six feet wide, with alleys of two
feet between them ; three rows of
root-stools are placed in each bed, at
the depth of six inches and distance
of a foot. Every spring the bed is
forked or loosened, and a dressing
of well-rotted stable manure mixed
with the upper soil The roots send
up abundant shoots when kept moist
with water during the season, if suf-
ficient rain does not fall. A eprink*
ling of salt with the manure is a very
great improvement Indeed, in Spain,
asparagus is cultivated in beds sub-
ject to inundations of the sea. All
animal manures increase the growth.
To enlarge the size of the shoot, they
place, in Germany, small flower pots
or other tubular vessels over the eart h
as soon as the shoot appears ; it grows
into these, and, beingdeprived of light,
remains white and tender, attaining
the size of the vessel in some cases.
Sixteen rods of bed will yield 200 to
300 heads a day during the season.
The beds last, with management, a
long term of years ; indeed, some are
known forty years old.

ASP

To force Asparagus. — Such plants
must be inserted in hot-beds as are
five or six years old, and appear of
sufficient strength to produce vigor-
ous shoots ; when, however, any old
natural ground plantations are intend-
ed to be broken up at the proper sea-
son, some of the best plants may be
selected to be plunged into a hot- bed,
or any^pare corner of the stove bark-
beds. The first plantation for forcing
should be made about the latter end
of September : the bed, \{ it works
favourably, will begin to produce in
the course of four or five weeks, and
will continue to do so for about three,
each light producing in that time 300
or 400 shoots, and affording a gather-
ing every two or three days. To
have a regular succession, therefore,
a fresh bed must be formed every
three or four weeks, the last crop to
be planted in March or the early part
of April : this will continue in pro-
duction until the arrival of the nat-
ural ground crops. The last-made
beds will be in production a fortnight
sooner than those made about Christ-
mas.

The bed must be substantial, and
proportioned to the size and number
of the lights, and to the time of year,
being constructed of stable dung or
other material. The common mode
of making a hot-bed is usually follow-
ed. It is the best practice to plant
the asparagus in mould laid upon the
tan, which, or some other porous
matter, is indispensable for the easy
admission of the heat from the linings.
The bed must be topped with six or
eight inches of light, rich earth. If a
small family is to be supplied, three
or four lights will be sufficient at a
time ; for a larger, six or eight will
not be too many. Several hundred
plants may be inserted under each, as
they may be crowded as close as pos-
sible together ; from 500 to 900 are
capable of being inserted under a
three-light frame, according to their
size. In planting, a furrow being
drawn the whole length of the frame,
against one side of it the first row or
course i« to be placed, the crowns
upriglit, and a little earth drawn on

to the lower ends of the roots ; th^^n
more plants acrain in the siime nan-
ner, and so continued ihrou^liuui, it
being carefully observed to ktep them
all regularly about an inch below the
surface : all round on the edjL'e of the
bed some moist earth must be bank-
ed close to the outside roots.

If the bed is extensive, it will
probably acquire a violent heat : the
frames must therefore be coniinueii
off until it has become regular, oth-
erwise the roots are liable to be de-
stroyed by being, as it is technical-
ly termed, scorched or steam-scalded.
When the heat has become regular,
the frames may be set on, and more
earth be applied, by degrees, over the
crowns of the plants, until it acquires
a total depth of five or six inches.
The glasses must be kept open an
inch or two as long and as often as
possible, without too great a reduc-
tion of temperature occurring, so as
to admit air freely and give vent to
the vapours, for on this depends tlie
superiority in flavour and ap[}earanoe
of the shoots The heat must be kept
up by linings of hot dung, and by cov-
ering the glasses every night with
mats, <Scc. The temperature at ni^'ht
should never be below 50^, and in
the day its maximum at 02°. In
gathering, for which the shoots are
fit when from two to five inches in
height, the finger and thumb must be
thrust down into the earth, and the
stem broken off at the bottom. This
excellent vegetable posses.ses some
diuretic properties. Its juice contains
a peculiar crystallizable substance,
which was discovered by Vauqueiin
and Robiquet, and named by them
Asparagin.

ASPARAGUS STONE. A variety
of apatite. See Apaiite.

ASPEN. Populus tremula and
tremuloidesy species of the great ge-
nus of poplars, remarkable for their
lightness and shade. The timber is
white, soft, and readily decays

ASPERGILLUM. One of the
commonest mildew plants. See Mil-
dew.

ASPIDIOTUS. A genus of insects
resembling the bark-lice, or scale in-

ASS

AST

sects, and of the same habits asd
. family. They are found ou the ole-
ander, rose, bay, cactus, and other
plants.

ASPHODELE^. The family of
plants to which the onion belongs.

ASS. A well-known and useful do-
mestic animal, whose services might
be rendered even still more useful for
various purposes of husbandry if be
were properly trained and taken care
of.

He is extremely hardy, both with
regard to the quantity and quality of
his food, contenting himself with the
most harsh and disagreeable herbs,
which other animals will scarcely
touch. In the choice of water he is,
however, very nice, drinking only of
that whidti^ is perfectly clear, and at
brooks with which ho is acquainted.

Animals of this sort require very
little looking aAer, and sustain labour,
hunger, and thirst beyond most oth-
ers. They are seldom or never sick,
and endure longer than most other
kinds of animals. They may be made
useful in husbandry to plough light
lands, to carry burdens, to draw in
mills, to fetch water, cut chaff, or
any other similar purposes. They
are also very serviceable in many
cases for their milk, which is excel-
lent for those who have suCercd from
acute diseases, and are much weak-
ened. They are used for the purpose
of breeding mules.

The structural difference between
the horse and the ass is trifling: in
all essential points the organization
is the same ; and, with the exception
of the lengthened ears of the ass,
their form, size, and proportions in a
wild state, they differ but little ; con-
sequently, they possess conditions
more favourable to the multiplication
of species than those afibrded by any
otlier nearly allied animals. The ass
is, properly speaking, a mountain ani-
mal : bis hoofs are long, and furnish-
ed with extremely sharp rims, leav-
ing a hollow in the centre, by which
means he is enabled to tread with
more security on the slippery and
precipitous sides of hills and pre<upi-
ces. The hoof of the horse, on the

contrary, is round, and nearly flat

underneath, and we accordingly lind
that he is most serviceable in levrl
countries ; and, indeed, experience
has taught us that he is altogether
unfitted for crossing rocky and steep
mountains. As, however, tne more
diminutive size of the ass rendered
him comparatively less important as
a beast of burden, the ingepuity of
mankind early devised a means of
remedying this defect, by crossing
the horse and ass, and thus procu-
ring an intermediate animal, uniting
the size and strength of the one with
the patience, intelligence, and sure>
footedness of the other.

The varieties of the ass, in coun-
tries favourable to their development,
are great. In Guinea the asses are
large, and in shape even excel the
native horses. The asses of Arabia
(says Chard in) are perhaps the hand-
somest animals in the world. Their
coat is smooth and clean ; they carry
the head elevated, and have fine and
well-formed legs, which they throw
out gracefully in walking or gallop-
ing. In Persia, also, they are finely
formed, some being even stately, and
much used in draught and carrying
burdens, while others are more light-
ly proportioned, and used for the sad-
dle by persons of quality, frequently
fetching the large sum of 400 livres,
and, being taught a kind of easy, am-
bling pace, are richly caparisoned,
and used only by the rich and luxu-
rious nobles. With us, on the con-
trary, the ass, unfortunately, exhibits
a stunted growth, and appears rather
to vegetate as a sickly exotic than to
riot in the luxuriant enjoyment of life
like the horse.

The diseases of the ass, as far as
they are known, bear a general re-
semblance to those of the horse. As
he is more exposed, however, and left
to live in a state more approaching to
that which nature intended, he has
few diseases — {Johnson.)

ASTRINGENT. In farriery, a
term applied to such remedies as
have the property of constringing, or
binding the parts, as oak bark, sugar
of lead, cVc.

ATO

ATMOSPHERE, the bulk ot air

which surrounds our globe, sapposed
to reach forty-five miles above its sur-
face. It is the receptacle of every
volatile substance rising from the
earth ; but, in virtue of its peculiar
composition, vapours and gases dif-
fuse themselves throughout the mass
with great rapidity, so that the com-
position of the whole is maintained
nearly uniform at all times and places.
Its chemical composition is 79 parts
nitrogen, 20 8 oxygen, 4 to 6 parts in
ten thousand of carbonic acid, about
one part in sixty thousand of ammo-
nia, according to Liebig, besides mi-
nute quantities of various vapours,
microscopic seeds, and saline mat-
ters. Water, in the form of vapour,
is also an important constituent, fluc-
tuating in quantity with the tempera-
ture of the air, and increasing as the
warmth. In the development of plants
the air is as important as the earth,
indeed more so, since many vege-
tables can live suspended, without
contact witli the earth, while none
can exist without a full supply of air.
The loosening of soils is in a great
measure- beneficial from the intro-
duction of air. The various ingre-
dients enumerated have not an equal
importance in agriculture ; for the ni-
trogen is almost inactive : the oxy-
gen is the great agent of destruction
as regards plants, causing the decom-
position of all vegetable structures ;
the carbonic acid ^nd ammonia are
the great sources of food*, and al-
though they are present in minute
proportions, they are abundantly dis-
tributed for the purposes of vegeta-
tion. For the history of these gases,
see them severally.

ATOM. In chemistry, the ultimate
particle of a body, which combines
with other atoms. Theoretically,
these are of a determinate magni-
tude In every case. The figure of
the atom is not worthy of consider-
ation, some supposing it spherical,
others elipsnidal. Atoms are simple
or elementary when they cannot be
separated by chemical forces, and
compound when they are liable to de-
oomposition. Chemical compounds

ATO

ooTOiBt of a definite number of atoms,
bound together by chemical force or
affinity ; but the value of this force is
different in different compounds. In
consequence, however, of the union
of atoms in invariable weights, deter-
mined by experiment, each chemical
body has attached to it a distinct pro-
portional weight, termed its atomic
weighty equhalentf or canUnning ntem-
her. The study of these is the es-
sential of all chemical inquiries : it is
this remarkable adherence to a pre-
cise weight in all cases of combina-
tion which gives exactness to our in-
vestigations, and forms the difference
between a mere mixture and chem-
ical union. The foUowing are the
atomic weights or proportionals of
the various elementary bodies inter-
esting to agriculture :

Hydrogen (H.) . . . . 1-

Oxygen (0.) 8-

Nitrogen (N.) 14-

Carbon (C.) 6-

Sulphur (S.) 16-

Phosphorus (P.) .... 31-
Chlorine (CI.) ..... 36-5

Silicon (Si.) 22*

Potassium (K.) . . . . 39-

Sodium(Na.) 23-

Calcium (Ca.) 20-6

Magnesium (Mg.) . . . 12-7
Alummium (Al.) .... 13-7

Iron (Fe.) 27-

Manganese (Mn.) . . . 27-7

These are on the basis that hydro-
gen is I', and may be understood by
the following case : Water is a com-
pound of one atom of hydrogen and
one atom of oxygen ; and, supposing
a given quantity weighs nine grains,
we know, by the laws of chemical
combinations, that it contains one
grain of hydrogen and eight grains
of oxygen ; or, if the weight of water
be other than nine grains, these con-
stituents are united in the rigorous
proportion of 1 to 8.

Another scale is constructed on
the basis of oxygen as 100. In this
the equivalent numbers are altered,
but not their proportions.

Chemical combinations are not,
however, always in the simple ratio.

ATO

Atro

ui one atom of euch cooiponent, but
aru ollen in bigUei ratio, as 1 to 2, 3,
4. 5, 6, 7, or 2 to 3, 6, 7, 6us. These
are. for tlie most part, less permaneot
than the simpler compouoas.

The atomic weight is not only fixed
for tiie first product of two element-
ary bodies, but for all other second-
ary, tertiary, or quaternary com-
pounds resulting therefrom. Thus,
anmonia consists of one atom nitro-
gen (14) and three atoms of hydrogen
(3), and its equivalent is therefore 17.
Being a strong alkali, it combines
with many substances, and always in
the proportion of 17.

in the above table, the letters in
parentheses designate the signs or
symbols used in chemistry for the va-
rious bodies against which they are
86t. Whenever any of theni are used
alone it always means one atom :
thus, N, C, H, mean one atom of ni-
trogen, carbon, hydrogen. In com-
plicated bodies, as oxidic acid, a for-
mula is written with the symbols,
and numbers set against each to des-
ignate the number of atoms, thus :
(HO, C« Oa); or, sometimes, (H+O,
2 C-f-S O), the parentheses indicating
an intimate union ; or one of the
components of a complex bodv, thns :
(2C-f 8 0)4-(Ca-f 0)-|-2(H+0)
means a compound consisting of ox-
alic acid, which is the first term, uni-
ted to lime, which is the second, uni-
ted to two atoms of water, which is
the last term, the whole formula rep-
resenting the exact composition of
oxalate of lime. Whenever the pa-
rentheses enclose a formula, and any
figures are placed without it, the fig-
ure represents the number of atoms
of the compound, thus : (S-{-3 O) is
sulphuric acid ; 2 (S+3 O) is two at-
oms of sulphuric acid ; 3 (S-|-3 O)
three atoms, &/0. The use of sym-
bols greatly reduces the labour of
writing and reading chemical pro-
qesses.

AJPUIC THEORY. The theory
of Dr. Daitoa, that chemical union
takes pl^ce only in definite atozns.

ATOmIc WEIGHT. Tbe«qui¥ap
lent or cpmbining weight. See Atom.
60

ATROPIA. The iioisonons alka-
loid of the deadly night-slsi: Ic.

ATROPHY. In farrieo^' a mor-
bid wasting and emaciation, attended
with a great loss of strength in ani-
mals.

ATTRACTION. In physics, the
force which draws bodies together ;
it is usually, if not always, of electri-
cal origin. Attraction is divided into
mechanical, as gravity and cohesion ;
and chemical, as affinity; the first
being the force tending to unite mass-
es and similar particles, the latter the
force producing chemical union. In
chemistry it is so far supposed to be
an electrical eflfect, that one of the
atoms or groups of every compound
is supposed to be in an opposite state
of electricity from the other, and they
are respectively termed the electro-
negative and electro-positive ele-
ments or components. Acids, oxy-
gen, chlorine, are electro-negative
bodies ; metallic oxides electro-posi-
tive. Chemical attraction acts only
at insensible distances, and is assist-
ed by heat, solution, and minute di-
vision; it is, indeed, frequently de-
stroyed by the hardness and insol-
ubility, as well as gaseous form, of
bodies.

AUCHENIA. The region of the
neck, in mammals, below the nape.

AUGER, BORING. An implement
for boring into the soil. An auger of
the above kind, when made of a large
size, and with diflf^rent pieces to fix
on to each other, may be very useful-
ly applied to try the nature of the
under soil, the discovering springs,
and drawing oflf water from lands,
&c. In order to accomplish the first
purpose, three augers will be neces-
sary ; the first of them about three
feet long, the second six, and the
third ten. Their diameters should be
near an inch, and their bits large,
and capable of bringing up part of
the soil they pierce. A^ iron handle
should be fixed crossways to wring it
into the earth, from whence the in-'
strument must be drawn up as often
as it has pierced a now depth of about
six inches, in order to clean^o the bit
and pxaiiiine Iht: boil. — {Juhni^un.)

AUG

AUGER, 1>RAINING. An instro*
mcnt employed for tlic purpose of
bonng inio the bottoms of drains or
other places, in order to discover and
let oflT water. It is nearly similar to
that made use of in searching for
coal or other subterraneous minerals.
Tlie auger, shell, or wimble, as it is
Tarioualy called, for excavating the
earth or strata through which it pass-
es, is generally from two and a half
to three and a half inches in diam-
eter ; the hollow part of it is one foot
four inches in length, and constract-
ed nearly in the shape of the wimble
used by carpenters, only the sides of
the shell come closer to one another.
The rods are made in separate pieces
of lour feet long each, that screw into
one another to any assignable length,
one alter another, as the depth of the
hole requires. The size above the
auger is about an inch square, unless
at the joints, where, for the sake of
strength, they are a quarter of an
inch more.

There is also a chisel and punch,
adapted for screwing on, rn going
through hard gravel or other metal-
lic substances, to accelerate the pas-
sage of the auger, which could not
otherwise perforate such hard bod-
ies. The punch is often used, when
the auger is not applied, to prick or
open the sand or gravel, and give a
more easy issue to the water. The
chisel is an inch and a half or two
inches broad at the point, and made
very sharp for cutting stone ; and the
punch an inch square, like the other
part of the rods, with the point sharp-
ened also.

As it is remarked by Johnstone, in
his account of £Hcington's mode of
draining, to judge when to make use
of the borer is a difficult part of the
bosiness of draining. Many who have
not seen it made use of in draining
have been led into a mistaken no-
tion, both as to the manner of using
it and the purposes for which it is ap-
plied. They think that if, by boring
indiscriminately through the ground
to be drained, water is found near
enough to the surface to be reached
by the depth of the drain, the proper

directfen fhr It is along these hotoe
where water has been found, and thus
make it the first implement that is
used. The contrary, however, in
practice, is the case, and the auger
is never used till after the drain is
cut, and then for the purpose of per-
forating any retentive or impervious
stratum lying between the bottom of
the drain and the reservoir or strata
containing the spring. Thus it gveat-
ly lessens the trouble and expense
that would otherwise be requisite in
cutting the trench to that depth to
which, in many instances, the level
of the outlet will not admit. The
manner of using it is simply thus : In
working it, two, or, rather, three men
are necessary ; two stand above, on
each side of the drain, who turn it
round by means of the wooden hin-
dies, and when the auger is full they
draw it out ; and the man in the bot-
tom of the trench dears out the earth,
assists in pulling it out, and directing
it into the hole ; and he can also as-
sist in turning with the iron handle
or key, when the depth and length of
rods require additional force to per-
form the operation. The workmen
should be cautious, in boring, not to
go deeper at a time, without drawing,
than the exact length of the shell,
otherwise the earth, clay, or sand
through which it is boring, after the
shell is full, makes it very difficult to
pull out. For this purpose, the exact
length of the shell should be regular-
ly marked on the rods, from the bot-
tom upward. Two flat boards, with
a hole cut into the side of one of
them, and laid alongside of one an-
other over the drain in the tnne of
boring, are very useful for directing
the rods in going down perpendicu-
larly, for keeping them steady in bo-
ring, and for the men standing on
when performing the operation.

AUGUST. In this month the
stacking of hay and other crops har-
vested is to be attended to. Root
crops have been laid up, and the land
cleared of weeds. Turnips for an af-
ter crop may be sown, if the weather
be not too dry. Budding may be done
with advantage. Prepara&iona are to

AVE

be made for oolleettnff tsotten. The
tobacco crop begins to ripen by the
end of the month. Kice is cut.

AURELIA, AURELIAN. The
pope or nymph of the higher in-
Beota.

AURICLE. The external ear.
The venona chambera of the heart

AURICULAR. Appertaining to
the ear.

AURICULATE. When the baae
of a leaf ia iobed on each aide the
midrib.

AUSCULTATION. The exami-
nation of the aounda within the body
to detect diaeaaea, dec.

AUTOPSY. Examination by the
eye. It ia generally uaed to desig-
nate examinations of the body after
death, for the discovery of the causes
of disease.

AVENA. The generic name of a
family of greases, of which the A.
stUivat oatSf and A, tlatior^ Andes
grass, are best known. Several spe-
cies, as the A.flaveteens and pubes-
cent, are found in English meadows,
and the latter is well worthy of cul-
tivation ; it is the downy cat graat of
agriculturists.

AVENUE. Any broad, gravelled,
or properly-made road, honored by
trees. A side road, or approach to
a house.

AVERRUNCATOR. In arbori-
culture, an instrument for cutting off
the branches of trees, consisting of
two blades fixed on the end of a rod,
one of which has a moveable joint,
which, by meana of a line fixed to it,
operatea like a pair of scissors. In
the improved forms of this instru-
ment, the point on which the moving
or cutting blade turns, instead of be-
ing confined to a circular opening,
worka in a longitudinal one ; in con-
sequence of which, instead of a crush-
ing out, like that produced by com-
mon hedge shears, a draw cat is form-
ed, which leaves the section from
which the branch or shoot has been
amputated as clean as that produced
by a pruning knife.

AVERSE, A VERSUS. Turned
back.

AVES. See Ormtkciogy.

BAG

AVIARY. A place to iBMp liMs

in. Green-bouses are usoaUy ae-

lee ted

AVOIRDUPOIS. A weight hav-
ing sixteen ounces to the pound, in
distinction to Troy weight, which has
only twelve. The following is a tab-
ular view of this weight :

16 drams make 1 ounce.
16 oaneea 1 pound.

28 pounds 1 quarter.
4 quarters 1 cwt.
90 cwt. 1 ton.

dra. oz».

16= 1= IbM

266= 16= 1 qra.
7.168= 448= «8= 1= cirt.
28,672= 1,792= 112= 4= 1 ton,
573,440=35,840=2240=80=20=1

5760 Troy grains make 1 pound
Troy, and 7000 Troy grains 1 pound
Avoirdupois ; hence 175 pounds Troy
are equal to 144 pounds Avoirdupois.

AWN. The stiff beard or bristle
of some grasses, arisfa.

AWNING. A covering of some
kind of cloth, to protect plants, du?.,
from sun or rain.

AXIL, AXILLA. The armpit.
The angle between a leaf and the
stem. Buds placed here are termed
axillary.

AXIS, AXLE-TREE. The spindle
or central rod around which parts of
machinery, dec., revolve or are de-
veloped.

AZALEA. A genus of small or-
namental shrubs with large, trumpet-
shaped flowers, of the family of the
honeysuckles.

AZOREAN FENNEL. Anetkum
azoricum. A kind of fennel

AZOTE. Nitrogen.

BACCA. A berry.

BACCIFEROUS. Bearing berries,
as the currant.

BACK. The spine. The back of
a horse shoald be straight, in order
that it may be strong ; when it is hol-
low, or what is termed backed, the
animal is generally weak.

BACK, SORE. A complaint which
is very common to young horses when

BAL

ftf f first travel. To prerent it, their
backs should be cooled eTerr time
Ibaj are baited, and dow and Iben
wished with warm water and wiped
dry with a linen cloth. The best cure
Art a Bore back is ■ lotion of 1 drachm
ofsagai of lead with 1 pint of Tioegar
and water.

BACK SINEWS, SPRAIN OF
THE, This is oIleQ occasioned b?
tt« horse being orerweigbted, and
then ridden far and fast, especially if
his pasleraa are long ; but it may oc-
our from a false siep, or from the
heels of the aboea being loo much
lowered. Spre.iD of the hack sinews
is detected by swelljag and beat at
the back of the lower part of the leg,
puffioess along the course of the sm-
ews, extreme tenderness so far as
the swelling and beat extend, and
Teiy great l^jncpess.

The first abject is to abate the in*
flammation, and this should be at-
tempted by bleeding from the plate
vein, by means of which blood is
drained from ibe iDdamed part -, next,
local applicactans should he made to
the back of tbe leg, in the fonu of
fomentations of water, sufficiently
hot, and frequenlly repealed ; at the
Bamc time, as much strain as possible
should be taken from tbe sinew, by
putting a high calkin on the heel of

BACK-RAKING. An operation
in farriery, by which hardeoed feces
are withdrawn from the rectum.

BACON. See Jfog.

BAGGING, A mode of reaping
cora or pulse with a book, in which
the operator effects his object by stri-
king the straw, or hauhu, instead of
drawing the hook tbruagh it ; in oth-
er words, it is separating the straw,
or haulm, from the root by chopping,
instead of by a drawing cut.

Baking of land. Clayey
lauds, when plougbed wet, become
Incrusted or baked : seed cannot
break Uirougb tbe CTust, and should
be again sown.

BALANCE FOR ANALYSIS.

This important insttument may be

considered aa conaisting of an inflei'

lUe rod, or lever, called the beam,

fhmished with three axes : one, tha
fulcrum or centre of motion, situated
in the middle, upon which the beam

tremities, and at equal distances from
the middle ; these last are called the
points of support, and serre lo sus-
tain the pans or scales. The points
of support snd the fulcrum ahouhl bo
in the same right Ime. The arms of
the lever being equal, it follows that,
if eqnnl weights be put into the scales,
no effect will be produced on the po-
sition of tbe balance, and the beam
wil! remain horizontal.

If a small addition he made to the
weight in one of the scales, the hori-
zontalitjof the beam will be disturti-
ed, and after oscillating for some time,
it will, on attaining a state of rest,
form an angle with the horizon, the
extent of which is a measure of the
delicacy or sensibility of the bal-

What we have now staled will
serve to illustrate the principle of the
balance. Its mode of construction
will be best understood by a dia-

le of the best form is here repre-
sented. The parts are all so arran-
ged that it can, at pleasure, be lilted
off the points of support. This is ef-
fected by aid of the two uprights,
which ere elevated by a small lever
at the bottom. Tbe scale pans are
made of brass or platlna.

In order to try the goodness of a
pair of scales, the scales should bo
taken off tbe beam toaBcertain if the

BAL

BAR

beam balances without tbam; tbey
eliould ihen be put on again and afler-
M'ard reversed, or each scale hung
on the end of the beam opposite that
which it before occupied. Equal
weights should then be put into the
opposite scales, and these should, in
like maDner, be reversed or changed ;
aad if the beam maintains its hori-
xootal position under all these chan-
ges, it may be relied on as being good
and perfect. The pivots or fulcrum
upon which the beam turns ought to
be sharp, or knife-edged, as it is termr
ed, and they should be of steel well
hardened, as well as the interior of
the ring in which they move : this
confines the fulcrum to a minute line,
and prevents friction. In beams for
*Bice purposes, the pivots ought not
to be too much elevated above the
centre of gravity ; for, although this
centre will generally be found an inch
or two below the pivots in strong
warehouse beams, in order to bring
them to a speedy equilibrium, by
which time is saved, yet, for accurate
weighings the nearer the centre of
gravity is brought into the straight
fine that would connect the tops of
the two scale eyes and the under
side of the pivot the better, although
such a beam will occasion great loss
of time by its vibrating a long time
before it becomes stationary.

BALL, or BOLUS. In farriery, a
well-known form of medicine for
horses or other animals, which may
be passed at once into the stomach.
They should be made of a long, oval
8hape> and about the size of a small
egg, being best conveyed over the
root of the tongue by the hand. This
method of administering medicines is
preferable, in most cases, to that of
drenches. I subjoin the recipes for
a few of those balls most commonly
used by the farmer :

Mild Physic Ball.

Barbadoes aloes . . 6 drachms.
Powdered ginger . . 2 "
Castile soap ... 2 '*
Oil of cloves ... 20 drops.
Sirup of buckthorn sufficient to
form a balL

Strong Pk^

€jMi,

Barbadoes aloes .

. 8 drachms.

Ginger, powdered

. 2

Castile soap . .

. 2 »*

Oil of cloves . .

. 20 drops.

Sirup of buckthorn sufficient to
form a ball.

Calomel Ball for a Horse.
Calomel i dradmi.

««

«(

Aloes, powdered . . 6
Ginger, powdered . 8
Castile soap ... 2
Oil of Cloves ... 20 drops.
Sirup of buckthorn sufficient t»
make into a ball.

Diureiic BalL

Castile soap . . . . i ounces.
Nitre, powdered . . 2 «•
Spirit of turpentine .4 "
Anise seed powder and treacle suf>
ficient to make into aight balls.

Cordial BalL

Cummin seed, powdered 4 ounces.
Anise seed, powdered • 4
Caraway seed, powdered 4
Ginger, powdered . . 3
Honey sufficient to make into balls
tlie size of a hen*s egg.

BALM. The plant Melissa offici-
nalis t of a pleasant aromatic odour ;
its medicinal virtues are trifling.

BALSAMS. Exudations from cer-
tain trees of a resinous nature.

BANANA. A tall herbaceous, en-
dogenous plant, the Musa sapientum
of botanists, having broad convex
leaves with fine oblique veins, and
growing in a tuft from the top of a
stem formed by the union of the broad
bases of the leaves. The fruit ri*
pens in succession in large clusters
weighing many pounds. It is of the
same nature as the plantain. It is a
native of the West Indies, where it
contributes essentially to the food of
all classes.

BANKS OF RIVERS. See Em^
bankmenl.

BANNER, VEXILLUM. The op
per petal of pea flowers.

BARB. A general name for horses
imported from Barbary. The barb,
one of the most celebrated of the AjP*

BAR

riean racers, ia to be met with throat-
out Barbary, Morocco, Fez, Tripoli,
and Bornou. It seldom exceeds four-
teen hands and a half in height. The
countenance of the barb is usually
indicative of its spirit, and the facial
line, in direct contradiction to that of
the Arabian, is often slightly rounded ;
the eyes are prominent ; the ears,
though frequently small and pointed,
are occasionally rather long and
drooping ; the neck is of sufficient
length; the crest is generally fine
and not overladen with mane; the
shoulders are flat and oblique ; the
withers pr6minefit, and the chest al-
most invariably dieep ; the back is
usually straight t the carcass mod-
erately rounded only ; the croup long,
and the tail placed rather high ; the
arms and thighs being commonly
niuscQlar and strongly marked ; the
knee and «hock are broad and low
placed ; the back sinews singularly
distinct and well marked from the
knee downward ; the pasterns rather
long, and the feet firm, and but mod-
erately open.

The barb requires more excitement
to call out his powers than the Ara-
bian; but when sufficiently stimula-
ted, his qualities of speed and endu-
rance render him a powerful antago-
nist, while the superior strength of
his fore band enables him to carry
the greater weight of the two. The
Godolphin barb, which was imported
from France into England at the con-
clttstoo of the last century, about 25
years after the Darley Arabian, was
one of those most worthy of note.
The former appears to have rivalled
the latter in the importance of his
get. He was the sire of Lath, Cade,
Babraham, Regulus, Bajazet, Tar-
quin. Dormouse, Sultan, Blank, Dis-
mal, and many other horses of racing
note ; and, without doubt, the English
blood-breeds were more indebted to
the Darley Arabian and the Godol-
phin barb than to all the other East-
ern horses which had previously en-
tered the country. — (^Blaim't Encyc.
Mural Sports, p. 243.)

BARBERRY BUSH. Berbcrisvul-
gtait. An indigenous thorny shrub,

BAR

bearing bonches of pale yoBow droop*
ing flowers in May, which are suc-
ceeded by oblong scarlet berries, ri-
pening in September. Sharp, three-
cleft thorns rise at the base of each
leaf-bud. The barberry makes good
hedges. It may be propagated by
seed, or by layers, which should re-
main two years before they are re-
moved. The gross shoots, if the
shrub stands singly, should be pruned
away, and it will fruit better. The
berries are gratefully acid, and the
juice, when diluted with water, may
be used as lemonade in fevers. The
fruit, made into conserve, is good.
It is also excellent as a pickle and
preserve.

There is no good reason for sup-
posing that this bush produces mil-
dew in wheat. It is very liable to
rubigo, a parasitical fungus, but not
the uredo of grain. The root con-
tains a good yellow dye, and is emetic.

BARiLLA. The ashes of sea-shore
plants, containing about 20 per cent,
of soda. The cheap manufacture of
soda has nearly destroyed the culti-
vation of barilla plants. It is jased to
manufacture hard soaps. See Soda,

BARK. The rind or covering of
the woody parts of a tree. The bark
of trees is composed of three distinct
layers, of which the outermost is
called the epidermis, the next the so-
renchyma, and the innermost, or that
in contact with the wood, the cortical
layer. The epidermis is a thin, trans-
parent, tough membrane ; when rub-
bed off it is gradually reproduced, and
in some trees it cracks and decays,
and a fresh epidermis is formed, push-
ing outward the old : hence the rea-
son why fio many aged trees have a
rough surface. The parenchyma is
tender, succulent, and of a dark green.
The cortical layer, or liher, consists
of thin membranes encircling each
other, and these seem to increase
with the age of the plant. The liber,
or inner bark, is known by its white-
ness, great flexibility, toughness, and
durai>ility : the fibres in its structure
are ligneous tubes. It is the part of
the stem through which the juices
descend, and the organ in which the

BAH

BAR

generative eap, ftom vbence aD the
other parts or(einate, is received from
the leaves. "Hie bark in its intersti-
ces contains ceils, which are filled
with juices of very varying qualities :
some, like that of the oak, remarka-
ble for their astringency ; others, like
the cinnamon, abounding with an es-
sential oil ; others, as the Jesuits'
bark, containing an alkali ; some mu-
cilaginous, many resinous.

M. Saossure found in 100 parts of
the ashes of the barks of various trees
the following substances :

Soluble Mitt

Xuthy pbofphfttM
Bwttiy ewbOMit—
oiiiCH • • . •

Oak.

Haa«L

Poplar.

Mm-

berry.

Horn-
beam.

12-6

4-6

6-ft

fi-S

8-5

4«

9Sr

60*

46-

»■

1-5

(Wft

1512

1-5

S-

J -76

1*6

IIS

0-W

From this analysis the farmer will
see that the earthy and saline ingre-
dients of the bark of forest trees must
be considerable fertilizers : it is only
to the slowness with which refuse
tanner's bark undergoes putrefaction
that its neglect by the cultivator must
be attributed. It might certainly,
however,' be mixed with farm-yard
compost with very considerable ad-
vantage ; and in its half putrefied, or
even fresh state, it produces on some
grass lands very excellent efiTects as a
top dressing ; and in instances where
carriage is an object, even its ashes
would be found, from the quantity of
earthy carbonates and phosphates
which they contain, a very valuable
manure.

The different uses of barks in tan-
ning and dyeing are numerous and
important. The strength or fineness
of their fibres is also of consequence :
thus woody fibres are often so tough
as to form cordage, as exemplified in
the bark of the lime, the willow, and
the cocoanut ; the liber of some trees,
as, for example, the lime and the pa-
per mulberry, is manufactured into
mats ; and it is scarcely requisite to
refer to hemp and flax for spinning
and weaving. The bark of the oak
is used for affording tannic acid in the
manufacture of leather. The follow-
ing table of Davy will show the rela-
tive value of different kinds of bark

to the tanner ; it gives the quantity
of tannic acid afiTorded by 480 lbs. of
different barks in that chemist's ex-
periments :

ATengo from tb« entire bark of UMb

Middle'siwd o«k, cut in spring . » t9

, cut m autama . . St

Elm IS

ConuBoo willow (laigv) .... 11

Ask 16

Beech 10

Sjrcamora II

Ltwabmrdf poplar 15

Birck a

Blackthorn . .16

WkJto interior cortical layers of oak bark 7^

The difference of seasons makes a
considerable variation in the produce
of tannic acid : it is the least in cold
springs. The tannic acid most abounds
when the buds are opening, and least
in the winter ; 4 or 5 lbs. of good oak
bark, of average quality, are required
to form 1 lb. of leather.

Cork is the bark of a species of
oak (Querctf« suher) Which grows abun-
dantly in the south of Europe.

The Quercitron bark is the produc-
tion of black oak (Quercu* tinctoria).

BARK CLEANING. Fruit-treea
sometimes become infested with li-
chens or moss ; the rough bark offers
an asylum for ^rubs, eggs, and cater
pillars, all which injure, and oflen
destroy the tree. * To prevent these^
the bark should be scraped in the
apriDg with an old hoe or cooper's
knife, and aAerward washed with
strong lye, brine, whale oil soap dis-
solved in water (1 lb. to 3 gallons),
lime-water, soft soap, &c.

BARK-BOUND. Trees, the bark
of which appears stretched over the
wood, and which does not split off"
kindly, are said to be bark-bound.
Cutting a slit through it from the
branches to the root relieves the
tree, and, when the wound is kept
clean from insects, does good. It
should be done in March or AprO,
when frosts are over.

BARKING IRONS. Instruraente
for removing the bark of oak ana
other trees. They consist of a blade
or knife for cutting the bark, while
yet on the trunk, across at regular
distances, and of chisels or spatuls,
of dififerent lengths and breadths,

15 AH

BAR

for separating the baric from the
wood.

BARKING OF TREES. The oper-
ation of stripping off the bark or rind.
It is common to perform the opera-
tion of oak-barking in the spring
months, "when the bark, by the rising
of the sap, is easily separated from
the wood. This renders it necessa-
ry to fell the trees in these months.
The tool commonly made use of in
most countries is made of bone or
iron. If of the former, the thigh or
shin bone is preferred, which is form-
ed into a two-handed instrument for
the stem and larger boughs, with a
handle of wood fixed at the end. The
edge being once given by the grind-
ing stone, or a rasp, it keeps itself
sharp by wear.

The cutters shoald be provided with
ripping saws, widely set, with sharp,
light luitchets, and with short-handled
pruning hooks. The barkers are pro-
vided with light, short-handled ashen
mallets, the head being about eight
inches long, three inches diameter in
the fhce, and the other end blunt,
somewhat wedge-shaped ; with sharp
ashen wedges, somewhat spatula-
shaped, and which may either be
driven by the mallet, or, being formed
with a kind of handle, may be pushed
with the hand.

The large pieces are set ap on end,
or they are formed into small pyrami-
dal stacks. Dae attention must be
paid to turning the bark according to
the state of the weather. Good hay
weather is good barking weather.
It is chiefly by the high brown colour
of the inner rind, and by its astrin-
gent eflbct upon the palate when
tasted, that the tanner or merchant
jadges of its value. If these proper-
ties be lost through neglect, or by the
vicissitudes of the weather, the inner
bark becomes blanched, or rendered
#hite.

After it is in a proper state, that
is, completely past fermentation, if it
cannot conveniently be carried off
the ground and housed, it must be
stacked. An experienced husband-
maa who can stack hay can also stack
baik ; bal it may be proper to warn

him against building his stack too
large, and to caution him to cover it
well.

BARK LICE. Scale insects. In-
sects of the genus Coccus, many of
which yield a rich dye, as the C. cacHi
or cochineal of Mexico. They are of
an oval or roundish form, and small in
size, rarely exceeding one fourth of
an inch. They infest the young bark
commonly, but are also found on the
leaves and roots of some plants. The
female undergoes no winged trans-
formation, but the male does. In the
spring the lice are found like dead
shields on the young branches, ar-
ranged in rows; under these appa-
rently inanimate bodies the eggs of a
new generation are concealed,. which
shortly put on life, and come forth
of the oval figure of the family ; they
insert their slender beaks into the
young bark or leaves, and begin to
draw the sap with such activity that
it drops from them and the punctures
to the ground, attracting ants to as-
cend the tree. After a season, the
cocci attach themselves to some spot
on the bark, and emit downy threads
to make fast. Here a transformation
ensues, which gives wings to the
male, and only a new coat to the fe-
male. After a time, differing with
the species, the male comes forth re-
'duced in size, but the female is sta-
tionary. Impregnation ensues, her
body sweBs, the eggs are placed un-
der her, she dies, and the crust of her
body forma their winter protection.
But in some varieties two generations
appear in one year. The apple-tree
louse hatches ffom the end of May to
the middle of June : they are whitish ;
in ten days they fasten themselves,
and begin to throw out bluish down ;
and there appears two broods in the
year.

They are destroyed by birds of the
ttren genus, ichneumon flies, and by
washing the bark early in June. See
Bark Cleaning. When they infest the
roots, applications must be made to
those parts.

BARK MILL. See MiU.

BARK, SPENT, from the tanners,
forms a good manure when rotted

irtth fann-TBTd maanre, or nada into
■ cDiApoot witb lime, die. Il is also
08ed for hoUiede,

BARK 6T0VE. A glaied bouae
for tropical [danta, lieated by baik
bea>.

fiARI.EY. HtrtlturMtluliekam. It
is reidit^r distingoi^Ad from otbai
eratn by iu painted extremitiet, and
by th* roogli appetmics of its onter

Ffg.l.

BAR

BotaiiBla place bariey ia (be laai-

ilynfthe G'raminrir. and LmncuBbU
classed it in the second order of his
IhinlclBBB ITiianina iigfaUy having
Ibree Btamina and two styles in the

Of all the coliivat^d gnum, barlej
is perhaps thai which comes to pe^
feclioD in the gnatetit irarieiy of cli-
mates, and is. cunaequenClr, found
over the icreatest extent of ilia habi-

(kh put at lilt hb] pulled alT Ibi ruJiil.

potlKlatfllwnritIa

n the aliurt
which verge on ilie fngiil aunc. In
Senial climates iwu crops uf bailey
aiay be lenped in the same year : one
in apritig, Inim seed sown llie precc-
tling autumn, and une in autumn from
a epring auwrng,
Apicul

I general

bave dlsti<ig;uUb«il the diflereni epe-
ciea of baiiey, either from the lime
of sowing them, into winter barley
end spring barley, or, from the num-
ber of rows of grains in tlieeara.iniu
Bii- rowed, four- rowed, and two- row-
ed or Sal barley. Another distinclion
may be made between iliose wbicli
have the corolla alrongly adhering to
the aeed and those in which it separ-
ates from it, leaving the seed naked,
froni which circumstance these arc
called rmied barieya. There seem,
in fact, to be only two very distinct
species of barley generally cultiva-
ted : one which produces three per-
fect floweiB, and as many seeds uni-
ted at the base, at each joint of the
rathir, or middle of the ear, alternate-
ly on each aide (fi^. 1)^ and another,
in which the middle flowrel is perfect
and the two others barren, funning a
flat ear, with only one row nf grains
on each side, as spring barley {Fip.
3). The first spocies has sometimes
the middle flowret small or abortive,
and conse<)uently only four raws of
grains, giving the ear a square ap-
pearance -, but that this ia only an
occasional deviation ii proved by its
returning to the perfect ear with six
rows, in rich soils and Doder proper
cultivation.

In some vnrtetiea oTboth kinds the
seeds Bland mor« apart from eac>'
other, and at a greater
lacbts; ihs ear it a''
ing it the Bppr*~

w ence '-_ ^^^ -^^ ^_^^^ BalUedore
..ley; it is also known by the he
of Sprat barley. In others the
ToUa sepaiaica from the seed when
ripe, and the awns fall off; these are
the naked barleys, Enpb nf these
has been.ii\ repute Mt flifleroi't t' —

Winte'.- barley |j ^•^\\f il•^

.Jiththe

■\*

».>iKl<(

lai^nJrpuLlAdoT

those countrip-, „here the wintera
"".'.J and the springs dry, as in
south of France, Italy, and Spain,
,. -n those where the snow lies deep
ail the winter, and where the sun ia
powerful immediately after the melt-
ing of the snow in spring. In cli-
mates where the winter consists of
altBrnalB frost and Ihsws, and Iho
early part of spring is usually wet.

D suf-

fer from these -(icissiiuilea, and Iba
spring-sown barley gives ^ more
cerlwn pco^aot of a good crop i but

Um gnin oT tbe latter U

beav7 u thai which baa atood the

Tlie SiUrian baitiy, a TSTJelr "t
which, with naked seeds, haa been
highly el to] led by foreign agricultunil
writers, especially b? Tliaer, under
the name of Hordatm caUiU, set
to be a superior sort in rich soils,
only for ite heavy and nutritious gn
in which particulars it is said to ap-
proach to the quality of rye, bat also
for its Bueculent atems and leaves,
which make it by far the best sort to
■ow for the purpoae of green food fa
cattle and sheep ; and if fed off early
the roots will, in a rich soil, shoot ou
■n abundance of fresh stems, and pro
duce a good crop of grain at harvr.sl
The barley most commimly cult!
TBted ia that which haa only two
rowa. It ia ahnost uni»Drsally so'
Id spring.

Particular Tarietiee have been
Creat repota at diSereot timea, when
first introduced, and then seem to
have degeuemted and lost their su'
periority. Of this kind is the Miidt-
ctm barley. This barley was much
sought after some years ago ;
lately the ChnalitT barley l,Fig.
Bo called from the gentleman who
first brought it into notice. It ia said
that, having obaerved an ear of bar-
ley in his field greatly superior to Ihe
rest, he carefully saved, the seed, and
cultivated it in bis garden till he had
a sufficient quantity to sow it in a
field. It has since been extremely
multiplied and di&^sed through the
country. Some eminent maltsters
and brewers have declared that it
contains more saccharine matter than
any other sort ; and the trials liitber-
to made have convinced many agri-
culturists that it ia not only heavier
in the grain, but also more produc-
tive. In 1S3S, Mr. Coke, of Norfolk,
vrho wa* always foremost in all agri-
cullursl experiments and imprave-
ments, sowed a considerable portion
or land with this barley, and the re-
salt ii said to have been perfectly
satisfactory. In tbe year 1S33 the
writer of this article aowcd two acres
of Chevalier barley in the same field
GO

Kime of the best of the comn^an
barley. The soil was poor, lifht sand,
l;;;t in Rood order, and very clean.
The produce of the whole was nearly
the Bome, four ijuarters per acre ; but
the Chevalier barley weighed fiT lbs
per bushel, while the common weigh-
ed only 63. This gives the farmer
an advantage o( nearly ten per cent.
The sample was very fine, and tbe
whole that he could spare was eager-
ly purchased by his neighbours, for
seed, at bis own price. It is long in

r and very plump, and the plant*

tQIer* sorooch.thatbslf KhnshelmB]'
be saved per acre in ihe seed. This
is probably owing lo its grsins being
all perfect, and vegetating rapidly.
The slraw, liks dat ofUie oCker long-
eared barleys, appears weak ia pro-
portion 10 the ear ; It ia aaid also to
be harder, and not ao palatabhi to cat-
tle. Theae are circumstances which
experience alone can ascertain. Tliat
hitherto it has liad a decided superi-
ority oTei the common aorta, no one
ivbo has tried it fairly in w^-pre-
pared land seems to deny; bul
less great care be taken in cnl
ting picked parcels for seed, selecting
the finest ears and plumpest grain, it
will probably share the fate of its pred-
ecessors— degenerate, and lose its
reputation. Mlgtil not the cnltivation
of the TartoQs kinds of grain pnrpose-
ly for seed be more generally prac-
tised, and form a distinct branch of
agriculture! Thosthe good qualilies
of any grain might be perpetuated,
new Tarietiea might be produced, aad
the defects corrected by cultivation,
as is the case with boriicultaral

The sprat or battledore barley ( Fig.
iy, alao called Putney barley, from
haring been once extensiTCly cul-
tiTated near that place, is in macb
esteem in Genaany. It is the Hor-
Awn Zeocrilmi; also called Gennan
ria, or rict hrria/, not from any re-
semblance it bears to rice, bat be-
cause, when deprived of its skin and
made into pot barley, it swells by
boihng, and makea a good substitute
for rice in broths an^ puddings.

AH kinds of barley require neatly
the same soil, and, whether they are
sown before winter or in spring, the
gronnd must be well prepared, and
theaoil palrerized by repeated ploogh'
iiqs and harrow ings, or by the opera-
lion of those instruments which have
been invented for this especial pur-
pose, in order tbat the fibres of the
roots, which are very minute and del-
icate, may penetrate the soil easily in
ssarch of DOurUhment.

■ A pint « mkI I" tilldr whan i< iwikJUM.
•n*n] lUiiialiaM ItH cmra gf Uh mitutlif

[Spnl [ot BaUladne) Bukr-]
The soil can aearcely be too dry
1 the surface at the time of sowing ;
and, provided a few showers supply
the moisture necessary to make tlie
seed vegetate and spring up, there is
DO great danger to be apprehended
from too dry weather. Barley has
been known to grow and ripen when
not a single aha wer refreshed the soil
Irom the day it was sown lo that in
which it was reaped.

The iinantity of barley sown for-
merly was four bushels per acre i
bnt if the land is duly prepared and
the seed good, from two lo three
bushels are an ample allowance, espe-
lally if sown hy the drilling machine.
The proper time for sowing barley

and the

BARLEY

state of the land. The best practical
rule is, to sow as soon in March as
the ground is dry. The early-sown
crops are In general the heaviest, es-
pecially the sorts which ripen later :
they require less seed, having more
time to tiller before the hot weather
draws up the stems. There are, how-
ever, seasons when the later-sown
crops are the best. A good rule is to
sow a quick-growing sort when the
sowing is unavoidably deferred, and
in this case more seed must also be
allowed.

The depth at which the seed should
be deposited depends on the nature
of the soil and on the season. Win-
ter barley need only be slightly cov-
ered, and will tiller astonishingly in
good light soils. But in stiff soils the
seed, buried deep, may Lave much
difficulty in genninating, the air not
having sufficient access, and the first
shoot not being able to pierce the
compact soil above it. As a general
rule, a depth of one inch and a half
is most likely to enable the seed to
sprout well, and give a sufficient hold
of the land by the roots to avoid the
danger of lodging. After sowing bar-
ley it is useful to pass a light roller
over the land, across the beds, i|»
there are any, to press the earth on
the seed, and prevent too great evap-
oration of the moisture. When the
plants begin to tiller, another rolling,
and in some cases a slight harrow-
ing, to loosen the surface and thin
out the plants where they grow too
close, are very useful. This also is
the best time to sow clover and grass
seeds, if not done with the first roll-
ing. After this no attention is re-
quired to the crop till harvest, unless
some docks or thistles should make
their appearance, which must then be
carefully pulled up.

The practice of sowing clover, rye
grass, or other seeds wi& the barley,
is almost universal, and is considered
as one of the great modern improve-
ments in agriculture. There is no
doubt a great advantage in having a
profitable and improving crop to suc-
ceed the barley without farther till-
age; and clover prepares the land
62

admirably for wheat. Still there are

some doubts whether this be profita-
ble in all cases. There are seasons
when the clover materially injures
the barley by its luxuriance ; and in
wet seasons at harvest it is very dif-
ficult to dry the straw sufficiently,
mixed as it is with the succulent
stenos of the clover, or to prevent its
heating in the stack. The clover, as
far as the barley is concerned, may
be looked upon as a weed, which, like
aU other weeds, must take a part of
the nourishment from the crop, and
check ite tillering. If the clover is
sown late among the barley, the dan-
ger is less. It will not be able to
grow so high as to do much injury,
but the fear of losing the plant of clo-
ver makes most farmers prefer sow-
ing it soon after the barley.

In Flanders, clover is seldom or
never sown with barley, but chiefly
with rye ; but they sow a species (kf
white carrot instead in the sandy
soils. These push out very little of
the green top, but shoot their fibres
downward, which form the rudiments
of the carrot. After harvest, tho
ground is well harrowed, and water-
ed with liquid manure. The carrots,
which could scarcely be observed
above ground, soon spring up, and a
good crop is secured before winter,
extremely useful for feeding cattle
and swine, and greatly increasing the
urine of cows and bullocks, the fa-
vourite manure for light soils in that
countiy.

As soon as the ears of the barley
begin to droop and lose their purple
hue, acquiring a light straw colour,
before the grain is quite hard, it should
be reaped. This is usually done by
mowing it with a scythe, having a
cradle fixed to it so as to lay the
swathe regularly ; hut where there ia
a sufficient supply of labourers, at
reasonable wa^es, it is far more prof-
itable to have it reaped with the sick-
le, or, what is better, with the Hai-
nauU scythe, a short, broad scythe,
used with one hand, while a light
hook is held in the other ^o lay the
straw even, so as to be readily tto<)

up into sheaves. A little pr^

^tice

enaUes » man to reap twice as roneh
corn in the same tim<r with this in-
strument as with thp reaping hook.
Binding into sheaves is a great ad-
vantage ; much le»# <:orn ia shed,
which, in the common method of ra-
king into heaps, niten amouatB to
more than would ruily sow the some
extent of land The nhesTes set np
on end arc in less danger from the
weather, and when the stat^ ia butit
all the ears may be laid inward and
much grain saved, which, if or
oniside, irould soon be the prej of
birds : smaller stacks may be made,
and the danger of heating entire-
Ij aToided. The stacks should be
built on frames, supported by stone
or cast-iron pillars, with flat caps on
them to keep ont vermin ; and. in
lai^e stacks, it is useful to have a
kind of open cage in the middle, to
allow the ailniission of air to the cen-
tre. This dries the gram better than
a kiln, and when the stack is proper-
ly thatched with straw, the crop may
be considered as safe till it is carried
into t lie barn to be thrashed.

Barley requires care in thrashing,
to break off" all the awns close to the
grain. A thrashing machine does not
accomplish this perfectly by only once
passing the straw through the roll-
eta ; it is consequeotly usually put

tinj«, B .

1 into sbpaves.' It
., after the barley
la thrashed, to efi^ct this by another
operation, which ia called AtimmtCitig,
for which purpose seTeral dilTereDt
kinds of iostrumeots are used. A sim-
ple one consists of a cylinder com-
posed of small bars of iron, and placed
on an axis, which is rolled backward
and forward orer the grain ; or,
where a thrashing machine is used,
a plate of iron, perforated [ike a nut-
meg grater, ia fixed to the ioaide ot
the drum in which the beatera re-
Tolre, and the awns are effectually
bToken oB'bj thia rough surface

'nediseaaeito which barley is sub-
ject while growing are those which
attack all other grain — the smut, Iha
homed ear. blight, and mildew ; but
it is leas liable to these than wheat
The greatest enemy is a wetharvesl.
It IB BO apt to germinate with ths
least continuance of moisture, thai,
ETen before it is reaped, it often ex-
hibits an ear in full Tegeiatioo. every
having sprouted (see figure)
then of little value, and even
this is checked by dry weather
he kiln, the grain is su impaired
be fit only to feed fowls and
pigs. A strong plant of clover, by
keeping the wet longer ^out the bar-

[Pnaatim ftrnfBUicia (f umif butor-l

i5AK

BAR

ley, often contributes to increase this
evil, as lias been hinted before.

The principal use of barley In this
country is to convert it into malt for
brewing and distilling. The best and
heaviest grain is chosen for this par-
pose, and, as it must have its germi-
nating power unimpaired, the least
discoloration, from rain or heating in
the stack, renders it saspected, and
consequently not so saleable. It is,
however, stHI fit for being ground
into meal for feeding cattle and pigs.

The produce of barley, oft land
well prepared, is from 80 to 50 bush>
els and more per acre, weighing from
45 to 55 lbs. per bushel. It is said
to contain 65 per cent, of nutritive
matter ; wheat contains 78 per cent.
A bushel of barley weighing 00 lbs.
therefore contains about 32 lbs. of
nutriment, while a bushel of wheat
weighing 60 lbs. contains 47 lbs.
Good oats weighing 40 lbs. contain
about 24 lbs. of nutritive substance,
80 that the comparative value of
wheat, barley, and oats, in feeding
cattle, may be represented by 47, 32,
and 24, the measure being the same.

than tbe vsoal spring pliyslc, as it aa«
swers the purpose of gently clearing
the intestines without any risk of ir-
ritation. For sheep it is more nour-
ishing than rye, and comes earlier ;
when fed off quite close in April, it
will spring up again, and, on good
land, produce a fair crop of grain.

M. Theodore de Saussure has care-
fully analyzed the ashes produced by
burning barley and its straw, and we
shall close this article with the re-
sult of his experiments. — {Rechercku
ChimiqueM 9ur la Vigetation^ Pahs,
1804.)

The grain reduced to ashes imM iu
•kin gave, out of 100 paits, 16 of ash-
es, which contained :

Potass ....

Phosphate of potass

Sulphate of potass .

Muriate of potass .

Earthy phosphates .

Earthy carbonates .

Silica ....

Metailie oxides .

Loss ....

1000 parts of the straw produced 42

The experiments on which this cal-L^ ^jf ^ .

cnlation is founded were carefully I potass *

made by Einhof and confirmed, on a< ' Sulphate of iotass

large scale, by Thaer, at his estab-
lishment at Mdgelin, the account of
the results being accurately kept.

On all ^ood loamy soils barley is a
more profitable crop than oats, and
is supposed to exhaust the soil less.
On stifiT, cold clays it does not thrive
so well, and there oats are to be pre-
ferred. In some districts, where the
best barley is grown, the farmers sel-
dom sow oats, and many prefer buy-
ing them for their own use, with the
additional expense of market and car-
riage.

Barley in its green state makes ex-
cellent spring food for milch cows ;
it comes in early, and greatly increas-
es the milk. It is also very good for
horses, provided it be given sparing-
ly at first, as it purges them ; but af-
ter a little time, when the stomach
becomes accustomed to it, it increas-
es their flesh and condition wonder-
ftally, and la much more wbolesome

Sulphate of potass

Muriate of potass

Earthy phosphates

Earthy carbonates

Silica

Metallic oxides .

Loss

026

82-5

35-5

0-25

2-8

100
Kluced i

775

125

225

100

These produots no doubt vary in
diflf^rent soils ; but the proportion of
silica in the straw and in the skin of
barley is remarkable. This barley
grew in a chalky soil. — ( W. L. Rkam,)

BARLEY, POT. Barley of which
the outer husk or skin has been re-
moved.

BARLEY, PEARL. TliesmaU
round kernel which remains aAer the
skin and a considerable portion of the
barley have been ground off.

BARLEY GRASSES. Grasses of
the genus Hordeum. They are coarse,
and of little moment in agriculture.

BARM. Leaven, yeast.

BAKK.

BARN. A iMilldiiigiA which prod-
Qoe is stored to protect it from the
weather and keep it in safety. In all
ooantries Mrhere the climate does not
permit the corn to be thrashed in the
field and immediately put into a gran-
ary, it 18 necessary to protect it
from the weather ; and the most ob-
TioBs method is, to have capacions
buildings for that purpose. Accord-
ingly, ail well-appointed farms have
one or more of these buildingB, which
formerly were made of such dimen-
sions as to be capable of containing
the whole produce of the farm, wheth-
er hay, Gomt or straw. A great sa-
ying has been effected by the mode
of stacking bay and corn in the open
air, protected only by a alight cover-
ing of thatch. In consequence of
this improved practice, modiem barns
are made of smaller dimensions, and
their principal use is to contain the
wheat in the straw which is intended
to be thrashed out immediately ; so
that if the ham is capable of contain-
ing a thrashing floor and as much
wheat in the sheaf as is usually put in
a single stack, it answers all the pur-
poses of a larger bam : and thus the
expense of the farm buildings is great-
ly diminished.

The principal use of a barn being
to thrash the com in, its construction
must be adapted to the mode in which
that operation is performed. As many
smaller seeds, such as clover and the
grasses, cannot so well be thrashed
by a machine, a floor, upon which
they may be tlirashed with the Hail,
is an indiapensable appendage to a
farm ; and the bam is the most con-
venient place to have it in. This floor
is eommonly placed in the middle,
with its length equal to the width of
the barn. It also allows the wagons
Or earts, when, loaded with the prod-
uce of the harvest, or of the corn
taken from a stack, to be drawn over
it and unloaded immediately in the
bam. For this purpose, large double
gates are placed at each end of the
floor, of such dimensions as to allow
a loaded wagon to be drawn in on
one side, and, when unloaded, taken
out at the other. When the width

of the barn is not snfllcient for the
length of the floor, a porch is added
on one side, or both, and in these the
gates are placed. Those parts of the
barn which are on one side of the
thrashing floor are called the bays,
and in these the corn is placed till it
is thrashed. Where there are porch-
es, the roof of the barn is generally
brought down to the line of the porch ;
and thus convenient sheds are formed
OB each side. One of the defects of
this construction is, that the drawing
of loaded wagons on the floor mate-
rially injures it, even where the pre-
caution is taken of spreading straw
over it. In consequence of this, many
barns have been constracted without
the large gates, and the corn is thrown
from the wagon outside, through an
opening called a jnUh hoU, into the
barn. This has the inconvenience of
loss of time, and the risk of damaging
the corn in showery weather. The
best plan, therefore, is to have a
passage for the wagons under the
roof, at the end of the barn, where
they can with ease and safety be un-
loaded ; and if a thrashing machine
is used, a floor raised about seven
feet above the ground will contain
the machine at one end, and the un-
thrashed corn at the other : the low-
er part may be appropriated to va«
rious useful purposes ; that part which
is immediately under the machine
receives the corn and straw afier
they are separated, and contains the
winnowing machine. (See Fig. I.)
A, the place for unloading the corn ;
B, a floor seven feet from the ground,
on whicn the wheat in the straw is
stored ; C, the place of the thrash-
ing-machine at the end of the floor ;
D, a chamber under the floor, into
which the thrashed corn and the
straw fall, and the corn is winnowed ;
£, the shed for the horses to work
under ; F, a place under the floor, in
which agricultural implements are
kept : it may be converted into a sta-
ble. Double gates at each end of A
will shut the whole up ; or the end B
mi^ be closed by a partition with
double doors in it. The windows arc«
latticed.

In this ease the seeds may bf
thrashed on tlie raised floor, which
muGt be innde strong and well joint-
ed, to prevent the dust beating
through, and steadied by pillars or a
partition beiuw. In small Tarma.
where there is no thrashing machine,
this eonalruction is not so adranta-
geouB, Ihfi raised floor being unneoc*-
sary ; still, it would he better not to
draw the wagons on the floor. The
thrashing floor may be placed at one
end or the bam, the wagons unloaded
at the other, and the corn deposited
between tbem,

A common thrashing floor is usu-
ally from eighteen to twenty feet
long, and from twelTe lo fourteen
wide ; the size mast depend on the
number of men who thrash at the
same time, this operation being more
rapidly performed by three or four
men, beaiin? in regular time, than if
they worked aeparaiely.

Thrashing floors are usually made
of stone, brick, oHh. or tempered
earth. The first are the most dura-
ble, and where atone can be obtained
at a reasonable prioe, they are, in the
end, the cheapest ; but they are apt
to braise the corn, and on that ac-
count are nut so generally adopted.
Brick floors have the same inconve-
nience, besides that of readily imbi-
bing tnoiature, and malting the grain
feel cold and damp, which diminishes
the value of tlie sample. Earthen
floors, when carefully laid, and the
materials well incorporated, are both
M

cheap anil diirnlile. provided the soil
on which they are laid is dry natural-
ly or made so artilicially. But earth-
en flours have always the inconve-
nience of wearing into dust of a grittf
natnre, which, mixing with thv iurn,
deteriorates it, and renders it Icaa fit
to be ground into fine flour. Hence,
in spite of the first cost and frequent
repairs, wood floors are preferred.
Some nicely is required in laying
floors, that they may not be subject
to rapid decay, owm^ to the (wnfiae-
ment uf moist air below them. Tho
planks should be two inches and a
half thick, the edges well joined by
damlling, or plmfliiiif and tonpviing:
Dowelli arc pins uf half an inch di-
ameter and six inches long, driven
three inches deep into holes of the
same diameter in the edge of the
planks, and received into correspond-
ing holes in the adjoining planks, so
as to keep them close together uid
their surfaces even. Plooghing and
tongueiog is done by means of •
groove ill each edge, into which a
slip of latii is driven, half in each
groove. Thui produces the same ef-
fect or joining the planks close, be-
sidea completely preventing any dust
from passing between the jointa.
The planks are driven close by n^ana
of wedges, and are laid on sleepers,
to which Itii-y ate fautened by a few
iron spikes driven into each, and
which rest on a foundalioo of brick-
work, so that the floor ia eight or tea
incbea from Uie ground. TbI* iatw.

▼■1 hka been unMtimei Glled up with
stones or gravel, under the idea of,
preventing the neBtliiijc of rata ; hut |
this is not a good practice. A Tree I
current of air under the floor ia the i
only method orsccuTing it from damp, I
and consequent dry rot. Thisehould
be provided bj means of openings
through the vrnUa or under the sills.
Iron gratings will keep out the rats;
but even should they find their way
under the fluor, they must be huuled
out and destroyed by dogs.

The outer walla of bams ars. built
of stone or bcLck, or consist only of

The roof of a bam should be con-
structed according to the approved

rules uf carpentry, so as lo produce
the greatest strength with the smaU-
est quantity of timber. This is a
point seldom attended to by country
carpenters, who imitate the old rouls,
in which sttooi; beams, resting on
the wal)s horizontally, generally bear
the whole weight of the roof without
regard to the advantage gained by
proper triuising. Even in the most
temporary shed the slrenph may be
greatly rnereased by using tlic male-
rialB judiciously. It is usually shin-
gled. The common covering in Eng-
land ia thatched straw, which has the
great inconvenience of affurdiug shel-
ter for rats, who soon nestle in it,
and are not easily driven out.

The more the air circulates the
better the corn is preserved. Barns
should, therefore, have numerous
openings, and the wheat, when put

them, should not be pressed
down close to the walls, ss recom-
mended in many agricultural works,
hut so plared as to allow the air lo
circulate freely. In this manner it
will keep well, wRhout acquiring the
close and niusiy amoll which so much
deteriorates that long kept in a barn.
Hay is now seldom put into a close
barn. expeMcitce having shown that
it keeps much better in the open air
in Ticka. But where a considerable

Suantity of bay is tied np in trtisses
]r the market, it is extremely useHil
to have a building with a roof to pro-
tect them from the wet. and to Inaij
the carta under shelter. For this
purpose, a kind of barn is contrived,
whicli some call a Dutch barn, but
which may very properly be called a
iktltton barn, lieing the frame of a
barn without the boarding. The an-
nexed figure will convey a better idea
of it than any description. At the
time of haymaking, this barn is ex-
tremely useful to draw a load n( hay
in suddenly on the appearance of a
shower ; and hay put into either side
wilt be preserved as well as in s slack.
But for Ihls purpose another building
is in use in Holland, to which the
naine of Dutch barn is more appro-
priate, and of which we also annex a
figure. This consists of a rouf sup-
ported by strong poles, libo masts,
A A, on which it can he raised or
lowered at will. The usual form is
that uf a pentagon : tUa poles are at
the angles, and kept upri;i;ht by means
of a stroug aLill on a brick fouadation.

■DdpieceB.B, acting as apurs, framed
into the polea. Tbe roof La light and
covered with tbatcli. At each angle
is a strong block of wood, with s
round hole in it, aufficienl to let the

Clea paea through ; these blocks are
pt at any desired height by means
of iron pina paaaed throu^ boles
made in tbe poles, and on which the
blocka rect. To rsiae the roof, a
small jack is uaed, an instrument well
knuwn bj ita uae in raising heai;
vagona wben the wheela ars taken
atf. This is placed on an iron pin at
acme distance below the roof, and the
comers are raised grailuaily, one after
the other, at opposite angles, the pina
being moTcd each time one hole high-
er. The chief use of this Dutch barn
ie to contain hay, which may be pla-
ced in aafety. in any email quantity,
aa soon as made, the roofbeing raised
ai the quantity increases, and grad-
ually lowered as il IB taken off for the
cattle, which ia always from the top.
In small dairy fanns in Hcjland, thia
building is fousd so useful tbal few

are without one. Four poata ara
quite enough.

BARN OWL. This bird is a t^-
uahle destroyer of rata, mice, and

BAROMETER. Of all tbe mete-
orological instruraenta tbe barometer
ia the most uaeful to the cultivator.
Although its principal object is to in-
dicate the pressure of a column of air,
the Tarialiuns of this same pressure
are so intimately connected with dl-
Ters other atmospberic phenomena,
that one can almost daily recur to ita
indicaiiona with profit.

The barometer in ita simplest form
is a tube curved into a siphon (Fig. I),
closed al tbe upper end. with a pear-
shaped enlargement at the lower end,
completely *oid of air, and partly Ail-
ed with mercury. When the tube i*
placed in a perpendicnlar position, the
metal, after some osciltationa, settles
itself at B height which represents the
weight of the atmosphere, and which
varies more or leas, according as that
weight augments or diminishes

BAROMETER.

By an Ingeni
TiceJIi adapted Co the siphon barome-
ter a dial iFig-. 2), upon which a nee-
dle indicates the movemenCs or the
tnercur;. This instrument, which ib
quite common, can nevertheless be
consulted with sdvaniage.

The barometer ( Fig . 3) presents thi«
difference from the preceding, that
the tube, ioMead of being recurved,
plunices perpendicttlarly into a basin
partly Oiled with mercury. It ia fix-
ed to a scale, graduated on one side
ID inches and tentha.

The mercury in the barometer is
•eldom to be seen ao low as 38 inch-
ea, or higher than 30i. It indicates
■s follows :

niocliu . . V(rrclrr>-«lbfr,l..Tdfrart.

m . . . . S«ll«l btr, HUM fr»(.

Ml ... ! Ctu^nbta.

|»; : : :^«C™i.™w.

The atraight barometer ia better
Ihin the weather-glass. In mount-
ains the meraury never reaches 30i
Inches, bat mmaina alwaya at a dii-

, I taooe below, proportionate to the
heigbi of the place ^wve the [evel of
tlie sea. In foreleUing changes of
weather, the act of faUing or rising in
"le mercury ia better than an inspec-
tion of its height. The fullawtng rules
by Mr. Walker are as good as aoy

1. The baronteter riaing, ma; be
considered as a general indication that
the weather, comparatively with the
stale of it at the time of observation,
is becoming clearer.

2. The atmosphere apparently be-
coming clearer, and the barometer
above ran, and rising, show a dispo-
sition in the air for fair weatber.

3. The atmosphere becoming clear,
and the barometer above changeable,
— ' "ising, indicate fair weatber.

The atmosphere clear, and the
barorneter near fair, and rising, de-
ile continued fair weather.

5. Our prognostic of the weatber
to be guided relatively, thus : If,

notwithstanding the sinking of tbe
barometer, little or no rain follow, and
' afterward rise, we may eipect con-
tinued dry weather,

6. If, during a series of cloudy,
rainy weatber, the barometer rise
gradually, though yet below rain, es-
pecially if tho wind change from the
south or west towards the north or
east points, clear and dry weather
ma; be expected.

''. Tlie weather for a short period,
.,from morning uiilil evening, may
otnonly ba foretold with s consid-
erable degree of certainty. U tbe ba-
' las risen during the night, and
itng, the clouds are high and
apparently dispersing, and the wind
calm, eapecially if it be in or about
the north or east points, a dry day
be confidently expected. Tbe
rule applies for predicting tbe
weather from evening till morning.
", The barometer should be ob-
red occasionally thrice in tbe day,
oftener* when the weather ia
cbaogeable, in order to notice wheth-
~ ~ the mercury be stationary, rising,
sinking; for, from this circom-
Btaoce, together with the direction of
the wind and the appareDt atau of

BAR

the air at the time, is tnformation to

be collected, and a continuance of the
same, or a sudden change of the
weather, to be foreseen.

Lastly, observe always, the higher
the mercury shall stand in the scale
in each instance, and the more regu-
larly progressive its motion shall be,
the stronger will be the indication ;
likewise, the more the wind inclines
towards the north or east points, the
greater will be the disposition in the
air for fair weather. The indications
of rainy weather will obviously be
the direct reverse of those rules which
predict fair weather. Frost is indi-
cated in winter by the same rules
that indicate fair weather ; the wind
being in or about the north or east
points, and the thermometer sinking
towards SO. A fall of snow seldom
comes without a previous frost of
aoroe duration, and is indicated by
the sinking of the barometer, espe-
cially if the mercury be below change-
abU^ and the thermometer at or near
the freezing point. When the tem-
perature of the air is about 35, snow
and rain sometimes fall together ; at
a warmer temperature than 85 it sel-
dom snows, or rains at a colder tem-
perature. Thunder is presaged by
the same rules which indicate rain,
accompanied by sultry heat, the ther-
mometer being up to 75. Storms,
hurricanes, and high winds, are indi-
cated by the barometer falling sud-
denly, or sinking considerably below
miich rain. The barometer is known
to be rising or sinking by the mercu-
Ty having either a convex or concave
surface, or by the perceptible rise or
descent of the mercury, if at the time
of observation the barometer be gen-
tly rapped. If at any time the weath-
er should differ widely from the in-
dications of the barometer, it may be
presumed, as it is sometimes known
to happen, that a particular spot is
affected by local circumstances. Af-
ter a long-continued series of wet
■weather, we may, when the weather
becomes line, expect an uninterrupt-
ed continuance of dry weather. If,
after a long series of wet weather,
the barometer me aboTe ekangeabU,
70

and the wind veer steady to the iKnUi
or east points, a continued duration of
fair weather may be expected. Slow
and progressive variations in the
barometer, with a fzed and steady
state of the wind, indicate permanen-
cy with the change. The barometer
standing at or above /atr, denotes
generally fair weather, although the
atmosphere wear at the time an an-
favourable aspect.

The greater coincidence there is of
the circumstances enumerated in the
rules above mentioned, the stronger
may our confidence be in the expec-
tation of fair weather ; and in the
continuance of it when present, by
the barometer, while high, remaining
stationary, or varying but little, and
the state of the atmosphere and di-
rection of the wind disposed to be set-
tled. In this variable climate there is
no reliance to be placed on any roles
beyond those above mentioned, for in-
dicating the weather for any length of
time together, or for any distant pe-
riod. Combined with a careful exam-
ination of the direction of the wind,
and the amount of vapour in the air,
barometrical observations become a
valuable means of forming an opinion
on the state of the weather a few
hours in advance.

DARKAS. The resin which flows
from the bark of fir-trees.

BARREL. An English beer meas-
ure of thirty- four gallons. In the
Southern States, a measure of corn
equal in the ear to ten bushels, or five
bushels shelled. A barrel of flour con-
tains 196 pounds.

BARREiN FLOWERS. Those
which contain stamens only ; they
are easily known by the absence of
the swelling under the {ovarium) flow-
er. By high cultivation flowers be-
come barren, and contain no stamens :
when these bear fruit, it is without
seeds ; hence the well-known seedless
varieties of orange, grape, dec.

BARREN LAND. In agriculture,
land in which the plants general-
ly cultivated do not prosper or arrive
at maturity. This barrenness may
arise from yarious causes. The tex-
ture of the soil may be sueh that the

BARREN LAND.

moisture essential to vegetation can-
not be retained, or that the fibres of
the roots cannot penetrate in search
of food. The ^rst is the case in loose
sillcious sands, the second in rocks
and indurated clays. It is seldom
that either of these soils can be ren-
dered productive, so as to repay the
expense of cultivation, unless under
particular circumstances. The most
barren sands will become productive
by Irrigation, and in that case the la-
bour applied to Improve their texture,
by the admixture of more tenacious
earth, may be occasionally repaid.
The vine may be made to grow in the
fissures of the hardest rocks, where
the climate is favourable ; and ter-
races may be formed, by which the
soil brought on may be retained ; but,
in fjoneral, loose sands and rocks ought
to be left to their natural state of bar-
renness.

We shall endeavour to give, as
briefly as possible, an outline of the
yarious means by which even the
poorest sods may be rendered capa-
ble of adding something to the gen-
eral stock of food. The question as
to the policy of cultivating such lands
is not here considered. Our object
is to show how barren lands may be
improved whenever such improve-
ment may be deemed expedient.

Some lands are barren in conse-
quence of noxious ingredients in the
soil, which, by their chemical action
on the food of plants, or on their mi-
nute fibres, prevent their growth and
render them sickly and abortive.
Theae, having been ascertained by
careful analysis, must be deprived of
their noxious qualities by chemical
means, one of the most obvious of
which is liming. Nature.has supplied
a general and complete antidote to
acid combinations, in lime, one of the
most abandanf mineral productions.
There are few bad soils which lime
will Bot improve. The most com-
moB Bubsfcaoees found in barren soils
are difiereat eoBabinations of metals,
priacipaliy iroa, with sulphur and
acids ; quiaklime either decomposes
ail these or readers them innocuous.
Aaotber substance is tannin, ur the

astringent princijrfe, which is of vege-
table origin, and, by preventing the
solubility of vegetable fibres, trans-
forms them imo an inflammable sub-
stance well known by the name of
peat or mo5>s. This, likewise, is
readily corrected by the same means.
But the different substances of which
a soil is composed may be perfectly
innocuous to vegetation, and yet i!m
barrenness may not be the less, if tlie
supply or circulation of moisture be
deficient or excessive. This must,
therefore, be the first consideration,
before any improvement is attemi)t-
ed ; and if sufficient moisture cannot
be supplied, or superfluous removed,
all other attempts will only be lost
labour. In tropical climates, irri ca-
tion is the chief source of fertility ;
and the most expensive works have
been constructed, both in ancient and
modem times, to supply the land with
water as occasion requires. In north-
em and moister climates, the founda-
tion of all improvements in the soil is
a proper outlet to superfluous water.
These two subjects will be treated
in the articles Irrigation and Drain-
ing.

Supposing, then, that the moisture
has been regulated, and that the land
IS to be brought into cultivation, the
first thing to be done is to remove ob
slructions and impediments, whelhrr
they be rocks, stones, trees, or shrubs,
or only the heath and coarse grasses
which generally cover waste lands.
Rocks may be quarried or blown, and
so may stones too large to be remo-
ved whole, and the fragments will
often be useful in building the neces-
sary farm offices, or making fences to
divide the land into fields of conve
nient dimensions, and especially to
keep off animals from destroying the
crops. A simple method of getting
rid of large stones is to dig a deep
hole by the side of them, as near as
possible, and roll them in, so that
they may be buried at least two feet
below the surface. If the nature of
the stones is lamellated, and they
will split, wedges of iron driven into
holes made in the direction of the
layers readily divide them into flat

BARREN LAND.

pieces extremel; conienient Tot

A very powerrul wtid^u for llijs ,
puae la au iron cyliniler cut through
the axis into two pieces, belwe
which 8 thin iron or steel wedge
inserted ; a hole is bored in the aio
of B diameter equal Co that of the
cylinder, aod when this cylinder and
wedge are put into it, the wedge is
driTen in with repeated smart strukes
of a hammer. Several such wedges,
placed in a line, will split large mass-
es of the hardest granite, and, next to
gunpowder, are the moat efficacious
a for that purpose. Trees

luust he grabbed up by the roots ; and

it suveB laliour lo cut the roots below
the ground while tbe tree ia standing,
and draw the tree over by means of
ropes fixed to tbe top ; the stem be-
comes a lever, by which the roots
are more easily drawn out. Useieai
shrubs are readily cut down, and
serve for fuel ; their roots are si^Idom
difficult lo grub up ; a simple and
powerful instrument for this purpose
is a very strong iron three-pronged
fork, havingthe prongs twenty inches
long, and a strong ashen handle,
twenty feet long, fixed firmly jtito iti

to the end of which a rope is fasten-
ed ; this is driven obliquely under the
roots, and, by means of a log as a
fulcrum, it fonns a lever when pulled
down by the ropes.

There are two methods by which
the heath and grass of the surface
may be got rid of^ by mowing ihem
close to the ground and ploughing in
the roots, or by paring tbe surface
and burning it. Each mode has had
its strenuous advocates, and has been
alternately praised and reprobated.
A little consideration will soon settle
this point. If the soil coaslsts of clay
or loam containing the yellow ore of
iron, and if the ashes, after the sods
have beea bunted in heaps, are of a

bright red colour, the effect of burn-
ing the surface will be generally ad-
vantageous, even where the soil is
already deficient in vegetable matter ;
for the fire will do more good in cor-
recting the crude qualities of tbe soil
than ihe small quantity of vegetable
matter which is dispersed would have
done had it been decomposed in the
most favourable manner ; end the
tough roots which are reduced to
ashes would have taken a very long
lime 10 decay, and would have been
a constant impediment to the plough.
But if the soil is a sharp sand, asd
the ashes are white and loose, burn-
ing destroys the Binall portion of ve-
getaWe matter in the soil, without

BARREN LANS.

OimpensatlnK the losa by anyadran-
tage, and in Ctiia case hurning the sur-
face is Jnf^xpedient- The giaaa must
be ploughed in. nnd nnl loo deep at
first, that it may soon rot ; a coaling
of lime ploughed in will accelerate
the decay of the grass. This kind
of soil requires Ibe addition of Tege-
table and animat matter to supply the
bntnua in vhtch it is deficient, aivd,

tho principal attention mnat be direel-

ed to this object.

When the aurface is very aneTwi,
W) as to form billocka and hollows, in
which water ta apl to stagnate, ler-
elting is a necessary process. If Iho
Boil is loose and sandy, it may ba
very expeditiously levelled by an in-
strument in use in Flanders, which
they call a nmlltbari. It is a largs

irooden sboTc!. shod with iron, hav-
ing a long handle ; about tl)e middle
of this shovel, which is convex at the
bollom, are two books, one on each
tide, to which chains are fixed, which
anite at the bar to which the tracea
of H horse ur horses are to be attach'
ed 1 a rope fixed to the end of the
handle completes the instrument. A
man accustomed to the use of it
raises the handle, and the shovel en-
ters the ground, and ia filled by the
horse going on. By depreastng the
handle, the load is made to slide on
the rounded bottom of the sbovel till
it arrives at the place where it is to
be deposited. By letting the handle
go. retaining the rope, the whole is
upset instantly, turning over on the
edge ; Uie handle strikes on the bar,
and the load is left behind in a heap.
By palling the rope the whole instru-
ment resumes its original position,
and is brought back to the place from
which the earth is to be taxeo again,
without any loss of tin^e or the slight'
e«t stoppage of the horses. About
five cwts, of loose earth may be thus

at each time. By means of
;binc the small fields in Flan-
3 raised about two feet or
the centre, and the ground
IX, sloping in every direc-

illbe w

nolT.

The land being now enclosed, fen-
ced, and drained where requisite, ob-
stacles to the plough removed, and
in a tolerably level stale, it remains
only to consider how it may be most
advantageously cultivated, so as in
the end to repay the first and great
outlay. Some lands which have lain
waste fur ages for want of a proper
spirit of enterprise are found to con-
sist of a tolerable depth of moderate-
ly ferliic earth. These must be treat-
ed like a garden newly formed, and
trenched as deep as possible ; mere
exposure to the air and frost will oft-
en make them highly productive, and
in tbis case the only caution neces-
sary ia not to exhaust them at first.
It is too common an error with those
who have made a great outlay to be
impatient, and expect loo rapid a
replacement of the capital laid out
TO

BARREN LAND.

This makes them sow grain erops in
preference to roots and legumes ; and
as fresh earth is generally very pro-
ductive, especially in straw, Ihey im-
agine the land to be of a better qual-
ity than it really is, and soon exhaust
it, by which they lose infinitely more
in the end than if they began with
roots and green crops, and raised a
quantity of manure by the stock fed
on them. Lime excites new land
wonderfully, and no manure is more
active, provided there be vegetable
matter in the soil, or added at the
same time. Bone-dust will raise a
better crop of turnips than lime alone,
and is chiefly of use in raising the
£rst crop of turnips. It should there-
fore be used sparingly, unless obtain-
ed cheap, and only on light loams or
sands. Mixed with ashes in a heap,
and allowed to heat, it becomes much
more efficacious.

Nothing has so rapid an effect in
removing sterility as the free use of
the urine of cattle, and the draining
of dunghills, collected and allowed to
ferment in covered tanks ; but this
can only be obtained by keeping cat-
tle stalled and fed with provender
brought to them. This is the great
secret of the fertility of the once poor
barren heaths of Flanders. In differ-
ent situations it may not be practica-
ble to procure sufficient manure, at
least at first, and the progress will be
much slower. In this case the seeds
of rye, tares, beans, buckwheat, and
other succulent plants must be sown,
and the crop ploughed in when in blos-
som : potatoes and other roots may
be raised, to be consumed by cattle
and swine, in sheds built for the pur-
pose near at hand, and every means
that ingenuity can devise must be re-
sorted to in order to make as much
manure as possible. This is not to be
applied to the land at once, but mixed
up in heaps with parings of the sur-
face, with the ashes of roots burned,
and with lime, and when thoroughly
incorporated by frequent turning, mix-
ing, and repeated watering with li-
quid manure, a good coat should be put
on tlie land at once, as far as it Mill
go ; for one acre brought into a tol-

74 *

erably fertile state will repay the*
better than many imperfcclly impro-
ved ; and by proceeding gradually in
this way, more land will be brought
into a state fit for cultivation at the
end of a few years, and at less ex-
pense, than could have been done by
beginning with too much at first.

what has been said of poor land,
or sandy loam, is applicable to every
kind of unproductive soil, difference
of composition and texture being kepi
in view. Poor, wet, stiff lands must
be divided by deep ditches, ploughed
in high ridges, and be as much as pos-
sible exposed to the wind and frost :
grasses must be sown such as suit
the soil. Paring and burning the sur-
face are here generally useful in the
first instance, and may sometimes he
repeated with advantage. Such soils,
in the end, are best calculated for per-
manent meadows ; but it is essentia]
to get them into a sound and fertile
state by tillage and manuring, and by
clearing them of all the roots and
seeds of weeds before they be laid
down with grass seeds, which must
therefore be done with a first crop
after a clean fallow, or, which is stiu
better, without any crop of corn at
all, and kept free from coarser grasses
by hand-weeding. Inoculating grass
is by far the readiest way of produ-
cing a permanent sward. See Qra^s
Lend,

There Is another kind of barren soil,
which extends over large tracts, well
known by the name of peat, or moor.
This, being chiefiy composed of ve-
getable matter, is too loose in its tex-
ture for any vigorous vegetation *, but,
besides, it is of an insoluble, astrin-
gent nature, highly unfit for the in-
crease and nourishment of plants.
Moors being generally situated in val-
leys between mountains, draining off
the superfluous water is the first and
indispensable operation before any
improvement of them can bo thought
of. The next thing is to compress
the soil soil into a more solid state,
and for this purpose any kind of earth
or gravel is useful by its mere me-
chanical pressure. The surface may
be burned in sods, and the ashes wiU

BAR

freatly improve the remainder. Lime,
tnarl, and shells are the specific cor-
rectors of the quality and texture. By
the help of these, the soft mass is
gradually condensed, and a more com-
pact soil formed. The great object
is to prevent the absorption of too
much moisture by the still unconsol-
idated mass, which is effected by cut-
ting numerous and deep ditches in
every direction, with proper outlets
kept carefully open, at the same time
guarding against the opposite extreme
of drying this spongy substance too
much. If it is dry at top, and moist,
but not boggy, a foot below the sur-
face, it will be in the best state to im-
prove and consolidate. It is surpri-
sing how soon a peat moss, of little
more solidity than a bog, can be ren-
dered perfectly firm, and bear even
loaded wagons on its surface. It
often happens, where there is a com-
mand of good water which can be
brought above the level of the old peat
moss, that it may be converted into
a most productive water meadow.
All that is required is, that the upper
soil, artificially produced, be not bro-
Ken through, and that the bottom be
well drained. The great value of the
peat and muck as a manure is a stim-
ulus to the ditching.

We have only given brief hints and
outlines to those who may be inclin-
ed to render lands productive which
have hitherto been barren. The cer-
tain cost and probable improvement
must be well calculated and compa-
red to avoid disappointment and loss.
As these depend on the peculiar cir-
cumstances of each case, it is impos-
sible to give any general idea of them ;
but, by beginning on a small and ex-
perimental scale at first, and proceed-
ing cautiously, new modes of lessen-
ing the expense of many of the oper-
ationa will be suggested, errors will
be avoided, and some certain practi-
cal ground of calculation will be ob-
tained.—(W. L. Rham.)

BARROW. In agriculture, a
mound of earth, sometimes called
pies, or camps, under which potatoes
or other roots are stored for protection
fio;a itust. They u.w usually made

BAR

by excavating the ground, which
should be high and dry, about one foot
and a half deep, from four to five
wide, and of a length proportionate
to the number of bushels to be stored.
The earth dug out is thrown evenly
on both sides the hole. Before sto-
ring, a layer of straw is put down by
some farmers ; but this is unnecessa-
ry : the potatoes, dec, are next piled
up in a rounded form, with the great-
est height, of three or four feet, in the
middle of the mound ; straw is laid
over them, and the dry earth of the
excavation piled on from two to two
and a half feet, and flattened with the
spade. Round the barrow a ditch is
dug, deeper than the floor within, to
drain off water. Whatever is stored
should be sound, and previously well
aired. Where the crop is large a
number of barrows are made. They
should be placed in a northeastern
exposure, for it is not frost that is
injurious to vegetables so much as
sudden thaws, produced by the direct
rays of the sun. In taking out pota-
toes, &c., for the market or use, if
they be found frozen, thaw in spring
water before selling.

{In machines.) Barrows are light
carriages to be moved by the hand.
When furnished with a wheel they
are termed wheelbarrows, and are of
many forms.

BARS. In farriery, those portions
of the crust or hoof of horses that
are reflected inward, and form the
arches situated between Uxe heels
and the frog.

Bart of a Horse's Mouth. — The
fleshy rows that run across the upper
part of the mouth, and reach almost
to the palate. They form that part
of the mouth on which the bit should
rest, and have its effect.

BAR-SHOE. A particular kind of
shoe, which is sometimes of necessi-
ty used to protect a tender frog from
injury, the hinder part of the shoe be-
ing thickened and hollowed over the
frog ; but unless it is made exceed-
ingly heavy it will soon be flattened
down, and in the mean time it will
most injuriously press upon the heels.

BARYTA. The oxide of barium»

BAT

BEA

an alkaline earth closely resembling
lime, but not very abundant. Many
of its salts are isomorphous with those
of lime.

BASALT. A rock of great hard-
ness and volcanic origin, containing
iron, lime, and sand. It does not dif-
fer from trap except in colour, and
occasionally in putting on the colum-
nar form. The Palisades of the
Hudson are a range 40 miles long of
this rock.

BASE. In chemistry, a term used
to designate those substances which
readily combine with acids, as alka-
lies, metallic oxides, <Scc. In general
terms, all substances which readily
combine with others.

BASE. In architecture, a pedes-
tal.

BASIL. A fragrant, aromatic, her-
baceous plant, the Oeymum basilicum^
a natiTO of India, whose leaves are
much used in cookery for the purpose
of giving a savoury flavour to dishes.

BASKET. A vessel made of in-
terwoven twigs of willow, osier, birch,
splits of white oak, or of straw, grass,
or rushes.

BASS. The inner bark of the lime
or linden tree (Tilia glabra), used by
gardeners to bind plants, and, in the
form of mats, to protect trees, frames,
dbc.

BASSORIN. A peculiar gum, re-
sembling gum tragaeanih; insoluble,
but swelling in water. It is sometimes
called Ceeabin.

BATH. In chemistry, sand, wa-
ter, or oil heated in a metallic vessel
for the purpose of communicating a
steady and regulated heat to chemi-
cal vessels in distillation, drying, or
evaporation.

BATRACHIANS, BATRACHIA.
(Gr. ftdrpaxoc, a frog.) An order of
RepHUOf includingthe frogs and toads,
and all reptiles which, like them, have
naked skins and external branchie in
the early stage of existence ; those
batrachia which retain the gills or gill-
apertures throughout life are called
** perennibranchiate," or " amphib-
ious."

BATTATAS. A name for the
sweet potato.

BATTENS. Slips of wood two to

four inches broad.

BAULK. A piece of whole timber
squared. In ploughing^ strips of un*
ploughed land between furrows.

BAUME»S AREOMETER, or HY-
DROMETER. A hydrometer, the 0
of which is pure water at 68** Fahr.,
and the 15^ the density of a mixture
of 15 parts common salt and 85 parts
water, by weight. See Hydrometer,

BAY. The term for a colour in-
clining to chestnut. In reference to
a horse, this colour has various shades,
from the very light bay to the dark
bay, which approaches nearly to the
brown ; but it is always more gay
and shining. There are also coloured
horses that are called dappled bays.
Bay horses have black manes, which
distinguish them from the sorrel, that
have red or white manes. There are
light bays and gilded bays, which are
somewhat of a yellowish colour. The
chestnut bay is that which comes near-
est to the colour of the chestnut.

BAY. A common name for the
laurels, especially Laurus nobUu,
Bay-berry is the Myrica cerifera.

BAY OF A BARN. The place
where the mow is stored.

BAY SALT. Salt made by evap-
orating sea water in the sun. The
best is from Turk's Island. It is pre-
ferred for putting up pork and provis-
ions.

BEAGLE. The old hare-honnd,
now becoming superseded by the har-
rier.

BEAK. Rostrum, the prolonged or
sharp termination of a fruit.

BEAM. A stout, horizontal tim-
ber used to resist or sustain weight.

BEAM OF A PLOUGH. The up-
per shaft to which the irons are fasten-
ed. It should be of good ash or oak.

BEAM-TREE. Pyrus aria. A
small tree with tough wood.

BEANS. Plants belonging to the
natural family Leguminota. Two
genera are commonly included under
tlus name, Vicia and Phatedus, of
which several species and numerous
varieties are cultivated. The genus
PhatcoluM produces generally run-
ners, or pole beans, hot this depends

BEANS.

nrach on soil, for the Pk. nanu9 is a
bush bean. Tho Viciafaba is the pa-
rent of many yarietiea known nnder
the generaJ title of English dwarfs.
English dwarfs : Yarieties :

Early Mszag:
~ "Vindi

Gram Nonkpurnl.

Bone.

Heligolsnd.

Bnnd Windaor.
Sword Long Pod.

Of these, all but the last two are
cnltivated in the garden, and the
horse and Helgoland in the field.
They are sown as soon as the frost
is oat of the ground, for the late
plants are destroyed by heat before
they bear veil.

All the varieties thrive best on
strong clay soils, heavy marls, and
deep loams of a moist description.
In such soils the produce is some-
times 30 to 60 bnshels per acre, but
an average crop on moderate land is
about half that quantity. On very
rich land beans have inroduced extra-
ordinary crops by being sown broad-
cast and ve^r thick, the stems beiug
brought up to a great height in fa-
vourable seasons. A smsS fi€dd of
very rich land, in the county of Sus-
sex, EIngland, was sown in the year
1832 with four bushels of the small
tick bean, which came up so thick
that the proprietor thought of thin-
ning out the plants by hoeing, but he
was advised to see what the produce
would be, and when they were thrash-
ed out there were eighty-one bushels
of beans. He had the ground accu-
rately measured, and it was found to
be one acre and twenty-nine perches,
which makes the crop above sixty-
eight bushels per acre.

Beans are propagated by seed,
which may be sown broadcast, drill-
ed, or dibbled ; if sown broadcast,
three or four bushels of seed per
acre will be required, which should
be ploughed or h&rrowed in ; if drill-
ed, two or two and a half per acre
will be sufficient. Beans are tolera-
bly hardy, and will bear moderate
dry frosts, but they suffer much from
alternate frosts and thaws.

The following, from the late Judge
Buel's agricultural tracts, gives all the
necessary information on the culture
and produce of this valuable crop :

F^d Culture of Beans. — Beans
may be cultivated in drills or in hills.
They are a valuable crop, and with
good care are as profitable as a wheat
crop. They leave the soil in good
tilth. The China bean, with a red
eye, is to be preferred. They ripen
eariy, and are very productive. I
cultivated beans the last year in three
different ways, viz., in hills, in drills,
and sowed broadcast. I need not
describe the first, which is a well-
known process. I had an acre in
drills, which was the best crop I ever
saw. My management was this : On
the acre of light ground, where the
clover had been frozen out the prece-
ding winter, I spread eight loads of
long manure, and immediately plough-
ed and harrowed the ground. Drills
or furrows were then made with a
light plough, at the distance of two
and a half feet, and the beans thrown
along the furrows about the 25th of
May, by the hand, at the rate of at
least a bushel on the acre. I then
gauged a double mould- board plough,
which was passed once between the
rows, and was followed by a light,
one-horse roller, which flattened the
ridges. The crop was twice cleaned
of weeds by the hoe, but not earthed.
The product was more than forty-eight
bushels by actual measurement."

A sprinkling of three or four bush-
els of gypsum is advantageous.

The beans are collected with a
plain scythe or sickle before they are
fully ripe, but turned yellow. In this
way loss by scattering seed is avoid-
ed. The whole is cured by exposure
in swarth and cock, and made into
light stacks, until the time serves for
thrashing. The beans are obtained
either with the flail, treading out, or
passing through the thrashing ma-
chine, set sufficiently coarse for the
purpose. If the straw, or haulm, be
well cured, it answers as good coarse
food for cattle and pigs during the
winter.

Beans are also raised in Germany
for soiling, and cut during the sum-
mer season when in pod. They are an
exceedingly acceptable food, and may,
by proper management in sowing

BEANS.

several lots at dltTerent times, be kept
in cutting order for three months.
The Heligoland, horse, and English
tick bean are the favourites for field
culture.

Value of Beans. — ^This crop is not
so extensively cultivated as it de-
serves. In common with other legu-
minous crops, it is of advantage in
opening the soil by its long roots, in
absorbing much of its food from the
atmosphere, and leaving the soil in ad-
mirable tilth, preparatory to a grain or
tobacco crop ; but these good points
are insignificant in comparison with
the great valoe of beans and pease as
food for horses, ^eep, and, indeed,
all animals.

The proportion of nutritive matter
in beans, compared with other grain,
is, according to Einhof,

WhMt

Ryo

Barlojr

Oats

Beans

Pease

By weight. Or tn » Bntbel.

. 74 per c«nt» about 47 lbs.

, 70 " " S9

. 65 " *• S3

. 58 " •* M

. 68 «« " 45

. 75 " " 4»

Kidney bean* . 64

Not only is there so great a propor-
tion of nutritive matter, bat that pres-
ent is remarkably rich in the azotized
or flesh-making ingredients, often as
much as twenty to thirty per cent, of
casein being present in seeds grown
on a rich soil. Yon Thaer, as the
result of his comparative estimate,
obtained by (feeding cattle, gives to
field beans a value equal to one third
of rich wheat and two thirds of In-
dian Mom or barley. In feeding, it is
best to crush or grind the beans and
pease.

Kidney beans^ or French beans
(PkoMeolKS vulgaris). Of the dwarf
kidney, the varieties are

Early China.
Early Cluster.
Early Dan-oolovred.
Early Half Moon.
Early Mohawk.
Early Rachel.
Early St. Valentifie
Early Yellow
Weeks.

The pole, or runners, are varieties
of the PA. limenM and mnUiJtorut.
They are

Red Cranberry.
Warnnffton,or Marrow.
Refugee, or Thousand

to One — good for pick-

linf or laying down in

salt.
Rob Roy.
Six, Large White Kidney,

or Royal Dwarf.

Saba, or Camliaa. Red CranberrjN
Dotch Ca»e Knife. White Cranberry.
Large White Lima. White Dutch Run-
Speckled PruliSe Lima, ners.
Asparagus, or Yard Scarlet Runners.
Long. Loudon Horticultural.

A choice new variety, under the
name of turtle-soup bean, has been
recently ctdtivated with great suc-
cess.

Nearly all of these are confined to
the garden except the refligee and
China, the cultivation of which last
is similar to that already detailed for
beans. I therefore only introduce
such observations as belong to garden
cultiuie.

The soil for them may be anything
rather than wet or tenacious ; for in
such the greater part of the seed tle-
cays without germinating, while those
plants which are produced are con-
tracted in their produce. A very
light mellow loam, even inclining to
a sand, is the best for the earliest
sowings, and one scarcely less sili-
cious, though moister, is preferable
for the late summer crops ; but, for
the later ones, a recurrence must be
made to a soil as dry as for the early
insertions. For the early and late
crops, a sheltered border must al-
ways be allotted, or in a single row
about a foot from a south fence, other-
wise the situation cannot be too open.

Dwarfs. — The sowing commences
with the year. They may be sown
towards the end of January, in pots,
and placed upon the flues of the hot-
house, or in rows in the mould of a
hot-bed, for production in March ; to
be repeated once every three weeks,
in similar situations, during Februa-
ry and March, for supplying the table
during April, May, and June. At the
end of March and April a small sow-
ing may be performed, if fine open
weather, under a fhone without heat,
for removal into a sheltered border
early in May. During May, and thence
until the first week in .August, sow-
ings may be made once every three
weeks. In September, forcing re-
commences : at first, merely under
frames without bottom heat, but in
October, and thence to the close of
the year, in hot-beds, dtc, as in Jan-

BEANS.

oary. Sowings, when a removal is
intended, should always be perform-
ed in pots, the plants being less re-
tarded, as the roots are less injured,
than ^vhen the seed is inserted in
patches or rows in the earth of the
bed. It is a good practice, likewise,
to repeat each sowing, in the frames
without beat, after the lapseof a week,
as the first will often fail, when a sec-
ond, although after so short a lapse
of time, wdl perfectly succeed. In
every instance, the seed is buried one
and a half or two inches deep. The
rows of the main crops, if of the
smaller varieties, may be one and a
half; if of the larger, two feet apart,
the seed being inserted, either in
drills or by the dibble, four inches
apart ; tlie plants, however, to be
thinned to twice that distance.

If any considerable vacancy occurs,
it may always be filled by plants care-
fully removed by the trowel from
where they stood too thick. A gen-
eral remark, however, may be made,
that the transplanted beans are nev-
er so productive or continue so long
in bearing (altliough sometimes they
are earlier) as those left where rais-
ed. The rows of the earlier crops
ire best ranged north and south. The
seed inserted daring the hottest pe-
riod of smnmer should be either
soaked in water for five or six hours,
laid in damp mould for a day or two,
or the drills be well watered previous
to sowing. The only after-cultiva-
tion required is the destruction of
weeds, and earth to be drawn up
round the stems.

The pods of both species are al-
ways to be gathered while young ;
by thus doing, and care being had not
to injure the stems in detaching them,
the plants are rendered as proUfic and
' loog-lived as possible.

Runners. — As these are more ten-
* der, and the seed is more apt to de-
cay than those of the dwarfs, no
open ground crop nmst be inserted
before the close of April, or early in
May, to be continued at intervals of
four weeks through June and July,
which will ensure a supply from the
middle of this last month, until Octo-

ber. Some gardeners force them In
a similar manner to the dwarfs ; they
certainly require similar treatment;
but they will endure a higher temper-
ature by a few degrees. They are so
prolific, and such permanent bearers,
that three open-ground sowings of a
size proportionate to the consump-
tion will, in almost every instance, be
si|fficient.

The runners are inserted in drills,
either singly, three feet apart, or in
pairs, ten or twelve inches asunder,
and each pair four feet distant from
its neighbour. The seed is buried
two inches deep and four inches apart
in the rows, the plants being thinned
to twice that distance. If grown in
single rows, a row of poles must be
set on the south side of each, being
fixed firmly in the ground ; they may
be kept together by having a light
pole tied horizontally along their tops,
or a post fixed at each end of a row,
united hy a cross-bar at their tops ; a
string may be passed from this to
each of the plants. If the rows are
in pairs, a row of poles must be placed
on each side, so fixed in the ground
that their summits cross, and are tied
together. They are sometimes sown
in a single row down the sides of bor-
ders, or on each side of a walk, hav-
ing the support of a trellis-work, or
made to climb poles which are turn-
ed archwise over it.

As the plants advance to five or
six inches in height, they should have
the earth drawn about their stems.
Weeds must be constantly cleared
away as they appear. When they
throw up their voluble stems, those
that straggle away should be brought
back to the poles, and twisted round
them in a direction contrary to that
of the sun : nothing will induce them
to entwine in the contrary direction,
or from left to right.

For the production of seed, forty or
fifty plants of the dwarf species will
be sufficient for a moderate-sized fam-
ily, or thirty of the runner. They
must be raised purposely in May, or
a like number from the crop in that
month may be left ungathered from ;
for the first pods always produce the

finest aeed, aod ripen more perfect-

Sr. In autumn, as soon aa the plants
eca;, tbe; must be pulled, and, wlien
tboioughly dried, the seed beaten nut
BDd Btored.— ('!. W. JeAuen'i Kiuh-
en Gardtn.)

The bean, as an esculent Tegeta-
ble, is wholesome and nutritious in a
IVesh state, and ma; be resdJy pre-
served for niater store or sea voy-
ages b; sailing in caaka. For this
purpose, ibe Isrge, flat-podded, Dutch

white ninner ia preferred. In Hol-
land and Germany, where large quan-
tiliea are salted in almost every fam-
ily, a machine isused for cutting them
expedilioualy. which greatly resem-
bles a turnip- slicer, and may. with
a slight alteration, be used also for
slicing cabbages when making the
national Genoan preparation of sour
krout (HUfT trnW).- It oousisis of a
wheel or disk (see ./t^re). A, in which
two or four knives are aet at a tioall

an^ with the plane of it, so at to
abave off a thin slice obliqaely from
the beans, which are held in a box, C,
with several partitions, in which Ihey
are kept upright, so as to alide down
In propoTtioD as they are cut : thus
SO

six or eight beana are sliced at once,
and very rapitliy, merely by turning
the handle, 6, and supplying the box
with beans in succession. A much
more economical means would be to
throw the beana into a hopper hold-

BEA

fi£E

ing two or three pecks. The sliced
heans fall on the table below, and are
immediately put in a cask with alter-
nate layers of salt. When the cask
is full and well pressed down, a board
and heavy weight are placed on them.
As the beans ferment, the liquid pro-
duced is poured off, fresh salt added
to the surface, and a linen cloth press-
ed close to keep out air ; afterward
the top of the cask and its weight are
returned, and the whole kept for use.
They are washed in fresh water when
used, and form a wholesome vegeta-
ble dish in winter.

BEANS, DISEASES OF. The dis-
eases are the mst, or mildew, which
is a minute fungus that grows on the
stems of leaves, attributed to cold
fogs and frequent sudden transitions
of weather, and the black dolphin or
fly, also called the eoUier^ an aphis of
a bluish colour : it is devoured by
lady-birds {CoecineUa septempunctata,
and other species). For the mildew
no remedy has yet been found. When-
ever it has attacked the plants, gen-
erally before the pods are filled, the
best method ia to cut down the crop
in its green state ; and if it cannot be
consumed in the farm-yard, to plough
it into the ground, where it wUl de-
cay rapidly, and be an excellent ma-
nure for the succeeding crop of wheat.
If allowed to stand, the crop will not
only be unproductive, but the weeds
will infest the ground, and spoil the
wheat crop by their seeds and roots,
which will remain in the soil. When-
ever the tops of the beans begin to be
moist and clammy to the feel, it is
the forerunner of the aphis. They
should then be immediately cut off,
and this, if done in time, may save
the crop from the ravages of the in-
sets ; but the most effectual way to
prevent any disease from attacking
the plants in their growth is to have
the ground in good heart, and well
tUled ; to drill the beans at a suffi-
cient distance between the rows to
allow the use of the horse-hoe, and
thus to accelerate the growth of the
plants, and enable them to outgrow
the effect of incipient disease, which
seldom attacks any but weak plants.

BEANS, SOUTHERN. Several
varieties are cultivated in Virginia,
Georgia, and Southern States, under
the name of pease, as cow pea, corn-
field pea, Indian pea, Ace. They are
hardy, grow on stiff lands, and ame-
liorate their condition ; planted with
corn, they twine about the stem with-
out hinderance to it. On rich soils
they run too much to leaf; but in
poorish clay may be cultivated as a
field-crop without support, if in a
well-drained situation. The yield is
large, and the bean agreeable to
horses and all animals. The green
plant IB occasionally turned in as a
fallow crop.

BEAR BERRY. The Arctostaph-
ylits (arbutus) uva urn. A small ever*
green shrub of northern America and
Canada, used as an astringent and
tonic.

BEARD. The awn of barley, Ac.

BEARER. In building, any upright
which supports timbers.

BEAR'S FOOT. The hellebore.

BEASTS. In fanning, neat cattle.

BEDS. In geology, seams of stra-
ta, as coal beds.

BED STRAW. The Galium te-
runif yellow goose-grass, a perennial
weed, the juice of which is acid, and
sometimes used to curdle milk in the
place of rennet.

BEECH. Fagus aylvatiea, var.
Americana^ white beech, and F.fnrU'
pruoj red beech, are handsome Amer-
ican trees, especially the latter, which
is the larger, and more like the Euro-
pean tree. The wood is firm, but li-
able to insects ; the bark yields suffi-
cient tan for leather ; but the mast,
or nut, is the most valuable, from the
excellent oil it contains, which is ex-
pressed in Europe for table use. Hogs
fatten more rapidly upon beech mast
than any other common food ; the fat
is, however, oily. The beech prefers
rich alluvial soils, and yields a large
amount of potash in its ashes. The
timber cut m the sap is said to be the
most durable.

BEER. The fermented infusion
of malt, flavoured with hops. But
other sweet infusions, treated in the
same way, or without hops, are also

tenned been, as pcreimmon beer, sas-
•arras, liquorice, and aargaparillil root
fceer

BEES. Apia meUifira. A familiar
, insect, much admired for its iniliaDt

ard industry. fftUural ITatory.

Tiiere are three orJors of bees in
each hive ; the queen (a), drone (i),
and labouring bee (c) ; there ia bat
one queen, disCinimiahed by a longer

bodf and greater %\i» than all (he
other inhabitants ; she is the onlj fe-
male in the hire, and is, Iherefore,
watched with ^eat interest b; the
others, who attend lier in her duties,
and live only in peaee while assured
of her presence. The drones are the
males : they are larger and nearer
spherical than (he laboorers, and
without stings. After their duly is
performed in autumn, the drones are
expelled from the hive by the labour-
ers, and killed or driven abroad to die.
There are from 300 to 1000 drones in
the hire. The labourers form the
rest of the inhabitants, and vary in
number from 6000 to 20.000. They
are smaller than (he rest, armed wi(h
a sting, and neuter in sex. or, more
correctly, they are females in which
tlie ovaries are undeveloped. The
neuters divide themselves in compa-
nies to carry on the business of (lie
hive ; some collecting honey, others
building the comb, and another body
nursing the young. The bees which
go abroad seek for three distinct kinds
of matter, viz. : honey, farina or bee
meat, and propolis. The first, which
also contains mure or less wax, is
obtained from flowers, and in part
converted into wax by ibo insect it-
self. The farina is stored up in cells
as food for the young, and is of a
whitish colour, altogether differing
from hone-; propolia is a resinoii>

exudation gathered from diflerent
trees, as (he black gum, wherew*ith
the bee closes crevices io the liivo
and stops the cells of the young. Aa
soon as flowers begin 10 expand, the
labourers and queen bee are aroused
from the lethargy of winter and rC'
commence the labours of the hive.
The queen lays ahoul 50 eggs a day,
for SIX or eight weeks : these are all
neuters. Having finished (his depos-
ite. she then lays the eggs of drones,
and lastly, those for queens. At thii
season ahe produces but one egg a
day ; the number of queen eggs va-
ries from 3 to 30 ; they are deposited
in large conical cells called royal
cells. The working community in
the mean time introduce food into
each cell, taking care to furnish (ha
future queens with regal fare. difTer-
enl from (hat of the neuters. In
three days the eggs are batched and
produce a worm, which feeds upon
(he bee bread stored in its cell, and
end of a few days spins itself

s or

transformations, ending, in 31 days
from the deposits of the egg, in the
production of a young bee ; this cats
its way through the propolis that clo-
ses its cell, and is nourished by the

lo enter on the labours of the hive.

rtnd i

s the

BEES.

M queen perceives evidence of this,
bhe becomes uneasy, and communi-
cates lier apprehcnision to the neu-
ters, many of wliich share in her
anxiety : thus she collects many faith-
ful followers, and leaves the hive,
carrying off the Jirst swarm, which is
always led by tlie old queen. The
first young queen now comes forth,
and quickly discovers the cells of her
Bisters, wtiich she attempts to de-
stroy, but is hindered by the bees ;
whereon she runs to and fro amon^^
the hive and succeeds in carrying off
another swarm. After this, the next
queen usually succeeds in destroying
her rivals, and remains in the old hive.
The first swarm may be known by
the presence of drones in June, soon-
er or later, z^cordtng to the season.
Ttiis is the swarming season, and
measures are now to be taken to re-
cover the bees and form new hives.
The two swarms come out at in-
tervals of a few days ; occasionally
there are more, but they are not suf-
ficiently numerous to form a new
hive, and should be returned. The
bees come out in large numbers, and
make their way to an adjoining bush
or tree, where they accumulate in a
dense cluster, usually on one branch.
The loaded branch is now to be care-
fully cut without disturbance, and the
whole swarm laid" upon a white cloth,
or a table, on the ground, and a hive
inverted over the bees ; if everything
is favourable, the swarm enters the
new hive, and may be removed in a
few hours to the stands ; but this is
not always tlie case, for should there
be more than one queen present, the
swarm is kept in great turmoil, and
battles ensue until the number is re-
duced to one ; but in these conflicts it
sometimes occurs that all the queens
are killed, and the young swarm re-
turns to the parent hive to wait for a
new sovereign. The skilfbl apiarian,
therefore, always takes care, before
hiving a swarm, that the queen is
present, and only one, removing ev-
ery other and putting her to death
instantly. In the swarming season,
certain ancient practices prevail, of
beating iron pans, shouting, blowing

trumpets, and throwing sand into the
air, intended as a means of frighten-
ing the bees and hindering them from
flying too far from the hive ground ;
but it is unnecessary if sufficient
shrubs be in the neighbourhood. The
hive in which the new swarm is re-
ceived should be provided with cross
sticks in the upper part, to afford
them a starting point for their archi-
tecture ; it should be without chinks
or crevices, for these have to be fill-
ed by the colony with propolis, and
cause a waste of time ; moreover, to
give them a fair start, they should be
fed with sirup for a few days. The
labourers begin at the roof with their
comb, arranging a nnmber of different
parallel structures in the direction
marked out by the slicks introduced.
The cells have an hexagonal section
and arc prismatic in form, so arran-
ged as to admit of the introduction of
honey until full, when they are sealed
with wax : in the lower division of
the hive, the cells for eggs are arran-
ged ; these are filled with the farina,
or bee bread. About August, the
bees of the preceding year die, the
drones are expelled, and the hive is
fully under the control of the new
generation ; honey is stored as long
as flowers are abundant, and where
buckwheat and clover abound this
takes place into October. As soon,
however, as flowers become scarce,
the colony begins to consume its own
sweets, and should be supplied with
sirup. The position of the apiary
should be sheltered from the great
heat of the day, and rapid alternations
of temperature ; they love plenty of
free air, but should not be liable to
chilly winds. In the winter they
should be removed to a dry cellar,
lest, being tempted by an occasional
gleam of sunshine, they leave the
hive and suffer death. The temper-
ature should be above the freezing
point. As then they require less food
to sustain life, it is advisable, also, to
keep the hives covered with straw,
&.C., provided always there be a free
draught of air, for an entire colony is
frequently suffocated by stopping up
the door of the hive. The hives

B£ES.

should not be taken out until the
weather is becomiog settled and flow-
ers are expanded.

The quality of the honey made de-
pends upon the food suppfted. Many
plants are reputed to yield poisonous
honey, as the dwarf and great laurel
(JTa/mia anguetifolia and lalifdia), the
mounuin laurel {Rhododendron maxi-
mus), the moor wort (Andromeda ma-
ritMo), wild honeysuckle {Azalea Ttudi-
flora)f Jamestown weed {Datura stron
mottum), 6cc.

Fruit-trees, the linden, tulip-tree ;
▼arieties of clover, especially white
cIoTor; aromatic herbs, as thyme,
mint, and marjoram ; turnip, mustard,
and cabbage blossoms, are extremely
grateful ; buckwheat imparts a harsh
taste. Water is also relished by these
insects, so that they prefer a position
near a limpid rill. It is also advised
by some to place a vessel of water
near their hive, into which floating
sticks should be introduced to serve
them as standing places to drink from.

The quantity of honey varies with
the season and the size of the swarm.
Thirty pounds is a good yield where
the bees are not destroyed ; of this,
from a pound to a pound and a half
will be wax.

The honey is removed with or with-
out the destruction of the insects ;
the latter method is accomplished by
suflbcating the colony with the fumes
of burning sulphur, but is rarely prac-
tised in the United States, and is,
moreover, without economy.

Partial deprivation with the com-
mon barrel hive is performed about
the beginning of September. Having
ascertained the weight of the hive,
and, consequently, the quantity of
honey-comb which is to be extracted,
begin the operation as soon as even-
ing sets in, by inverting the full hive
and placing an empty one over it;
particular care must be taken that
the two hives are of the same diam-
eter, for if they differ in their dimen-
sions it will not be possible to effect
the driving of the bees. The hives
being placed on each other, a sheet
or large table-cloth must be tied round
them at their junction, in order to

prevent the bees flrom molesting the
operator. The hives being thus ar-
ranged, beat the sides gently with a
stick or the hand ; but particular cau-
tion must be used to beat it on those
parts to which the combs are attach-
ed, and which will be found parallel
with the entrance of the hive. The
ascent of the bees into the upper hive
will be known by a loud humming
noise; in a few minutes the whole
community will have ascended, and
the hive with the bees in it may be
placed upon the pedestal from which
the full hive was removed. The hive
from which the bees have been driven
must then be taken into the house,
and the operation of cutting out the
honey-comb commenced. Having ex-
tracted the requisite quantity of comb,
this opportunity must be embraced of
inspecting the hive, and of cleaning it
of any noxious matter. In cutting
the combs, however, particular atten-
tion should he paid not to cut into two
or three combs at once, but, having
commenced the cutting of one, to pur-
sue it to the top of the hive ; and this
caution is necessary for two reasons :
if you begin the cutting of two or
three combs at one time, were you
to abstract the whole of them, you
would, perhaps, take too much ; and,
secondly, to stop in the middle of a
comb would be attended with very
pernicious consequences, as the hon-
ey would drop from the cells which
have been cut in two, and then the
bees, on being returned to their native
hive, might be drowned in their own
sweets. The bees, also, in their re-
turn to their natural domicil, being
still under the impression of fear,
would not give so much attention to
the honey which flows from the divi-
ded cells ', and, as it would fall on the
board, and from that on the ground,
the bees belonging to the other hives
would immediately scent the wasted
treasure, and a general attack on the
deprivated hive might be the conse-
quence. The deprivation of the hon-
ey-comb being efi*ected, the hive may
be returned to its former position,
and, reversing the hive which con-
tains the bees, and placing the depri-

BEE

nted hiT« ovet it, tbej miy be lell

in tliat situation till marniog, when
tlie bees will be (oanA to have taken
posaesaioa of tbi^ir native hive, and,
if the season proves fine, may replen-
ish what they have lost.

BEES, DISEASES OF. In the
sprine they are subject to a dysen-
tery, known by the abundance of ref-
use, and an odour uf piitiefaction
within the hive, which should smell
like wax. II is said that a little bran-
dy added to their sirup food cures
this complaint. They are also at-
tacked by a louse, which makes them
irritable, but which may be removed
from their bodies by bnisbjng them
with the Teather of a pen.

BEE HIVE. The dweQing of
the bees. The simplest form is a
small barrel of four gallons, or the
hollowed part of the trunk of a tree,
or a thimble of rye straw holding
about three pecks, and of a conical
figure. Whatever the structure, it
should be tight, solid, and dry, and so
arrangad as to admit of inspection
There is no subject on which so much
ingenuity has been expended as the
construction of beehives, the ohjecl
being the separation of honey willi-
ouldislurbance tothelabourers. The
atmeved is as good as any of these
improved hives, as it has the follow-
ing tecommendations : 1st. It is ca-
pable of enlargement or contraction ;
Sd, May be opened withOut disturb-
ance, for cleaning, taking honey. &c.
It is known as the section hive, and
eonsisiH of two, three, four, or more
trays of similar size, fitting one above
the other, as C C D (Fig. 1). These
Irays maybe fourteen inches square
and fire deep {Fig. 3). the uppermost
being provided with a cover to keep
olTrain. Through the bottom of each
tray or box, slits, or holes about three
fourths of an inch large, are perfo
ted, the number being such that
bees may pass readily into an upper
compartment lo manufactare. The
apertures, C C. represent doors for
the bees, as welt as windows through
which lo examine their work,
should be corered when not used.
is the entrance first used, until the

bees are settled in the upper divis-
ions. The compartments are fasten-
ed together temporarily by buttons,
and should be made tight by cement
or eoarae wax. To use this hive, the
doors are all closed but the lower-
most, into which the bees enter ; they
ascend from tray lo tray, until they
reach the uppermost, and here begin
their work upon sticks properly pla-
ced ; or, instead of making this divis-
ion open, there are placed over the
chinks jars, small boxes, or other re-
ceptacles, into which the honey is to
be collected : the bees work in these.
As soon as they are engaged, an upper
door can be opened for their accom-
modation, ana the progress of tho
work can be watched through proper
openings of glass, and by removing the
top. AsaoonastheaeboxesarefiUed,
they can be taken out by passing a
sharp knife between the lowest edg*

BEJS

ftnd the bottom of the dirision. The
bees are now occupied in the com>
partment below, and, should the sea-
son be propitious, may also fill that
with honey. Under these circum-
stances, it wiU be advisable to liA up
the hive, after closing the doors, and
add another tray beneath. If this
hive be sufficiently enlarged in spring,
the young bees can be prevented from
swarming, or the fresh swarm can
be separated with the upper divisions,
and carried to a new stand. The
hive should be kept perfectly clean,
and free from insects, and every crev-
ice tight.

BEES, INSECTS THAT INJURE.
They are troubled with a louse (Brau-
U eaca) of the size of a flea, and re-
sembling the Hippobosca. These pro-
duce great uneasiness. They may be
removed by brushing a feather over
the bees infested. The most impor-
tant enemy is, however, the Miller,
or Honey^comb Moth ( Galleria cereana),
the caterpillar of which, of a dirty
white colour {Fig. l) and brown head,

rig. 1.

CkterpiUtT OD A piece of lioney-comU

eats the honey-comb. The caterpillar
grows to twelve lines* length, protects
itself from the stings of the bees by a
tubular web, and eats only at night.
It is changed to a brown grub in ten
to twenty-eight days, and the moth in
fourteen more days, two generations
occurring in the year. One moth
appears in the spring, the other gen-
eration in July. The male {Fig. 2) is
smaller than the female {Fig. 3) ; he

BEE
Fig. 3,

is of a clay yellow above, and yellow-
ish brown on the abdomen ; the col-
our of the upper wings ash-gray ; the
under wings lighter, and of a brown-
ish tint. The female has a rusty
brown back and head; the under
wings ahnost white ; she lays her
eggs in the dirt, at the lower part of
the hive, and in chinks, from whence
the young crawl into the hive. The
miller and its caterpillars are to be de-
stroyed by repeatedly inspecting the
hives in spring, and clearing them,
out. Hives are also constructed with
inclined or wire gauze bottoms, from
which all the feculent matters of
the bees fall, so that the miller can-
not lay her eggs ; for she will not ven-
ture within the hive. Ants, spiders,
and wasps are also very destructive
to hives.

BEE-STING. The bee leaves its
sting in the wound. It should be ex-
tracted, and the part rubbed with soap
and a little dilute spirit of hartshorn
(ammonia).

BEET. A plant of the genus Beta,
in the natural order Chcnopodea of
Jussieu.

There are two distinct species of
beet commonly cultivated, each con-
taining several varieties ; tlie one call-
ed Beta cicla or kortensisy producing
succulent leaves only ; the other, the
Beta vulgaris, distinguished by its
large root. The cicla is chiefly cul-
tivated in gardens as a culinary ve-
getable, and forms one of the princi-
pal vegetables used by agricultural la-
bourers and small occupiers of land in
many parts of Germany, France, and
Switzerland. A variety known by the
name of Swiss chard produces numer-
ous large, succulent leaves, which
have a very solid rib running along
the middle. The leafy part, being
stripped oflf and boiled, is used as a
substitute for greens and spinach, and

BEET.

the rib and stalk are dressed like as-
paragus ; they have a pleasant, sweet
taste, and are more wholesome than
the cabbage tribe. In a good soil the
produce is very abundant ; and if cul-
tivated on a large scale in the field,
this species of beet would prove a val-
uable addition to the plants raised for
cattle.

The second species, the Beta vul-
garisy or beet-root, has been long cul-
tivated in gardens, especially that va-
riety called the red beet. It thrives
best in a rich, light, dry soil, and, from
the length of its tap-root, requires a
considerable depth. The white beet
is an excellent root, and is preferred
by many to the larger and more com-
mon intermediate varieties. It has
been lately in great repute in France
and Belgium for the manufacture of
sugar.

The common field beet for cattle
has been long known in Germany.
The German name i9 mangold wttrzeli
or mangold root, but it is commonly
pronounced mangel vmrzel.

The improved variety of this beet,
which grows to a very large size in
good soil, has a red skin, and, when
cut through, appears veined with red
in concentric circles. The principal
part of the root rises often a foot
and more above the ground, and the
leaves, which are large and succulent,
spring from the crown of the root.
There is a limit, however, beyond
which the root does not improve in
quality as it increases, and the roots
of a moderate size contain more sac-
charine and nutritive matter in the
same bulk than the larger. This is
particularly the case with those vari-
eties iirom which sugar is extracted.
The soil best adapted for the beet-
root is a deep, sandy loam, naturally
rich. The application of liquid ma-
nure during the growth of the plant
greatly increases the roots ; but it is
also said to make them more watery,
and for the sugar beet it is not recom-
mended. It has been clearly demon-
strated that azotized manures dimin-
ish the sugar of beets. The seed,
which should be chosen from the
most perfect plants, is sown in May,

at four to fire pounds the acre; it
should be steeped three or more days
in water before planting. It is found
by experience that those plants of
beet which grow (torn seed sown
where they are to remain have larger
roots, in general, than those which
are transplanted ; the seed is there-
fore nsually drilled, or dibbled, in
rows, from twenty-four to thirty inch-
es distant ; the seeds are put in about
an inch deep, and when they are dib-
bled the holes are about four inches
asunder, and two or three seeds are
put in a hole. After they come up
and are out of danger or frost or in-
sects, they are thinned out so as to
leave the plants a foot asunder. If
the ground be well prepared there is
little fear of the plants not coming up,
or of their being destroyed by the fly,
as is too often the case with turnips.
A sprinkling of liquid manure along
the rows, about the time that the
plants -first appear above ground, will,
in general, secure an abundance of
them; and this may be done with
much less trouble than would be im-
agined by those who have never prac-
tised it. It requires only a water-cart,
with a large cask and two leathern
hose, kept at a proper distance from
each other by a stick between them,
so that they may pour the liquid ma-
nure over two rows at once. If the
Held be not above a mile from the
tank, a man and horse will water two
acres in a day ; and if the distance is
half a mile, four acres ; the expense
will be amply repaid in the crop.

On a very large scale this may not
be so practicable; but wherever a
field of beets is near the home-stall, it
should never be omitted ; the evident
advantage of it will soon remove any
objection arising from trouble or ex-
pense. When the plants are three
inches above ground, and thinned,
the intervals between the rows may
be stirred with the plough, grubber,
or horse-hoe, and the intervals from
plant to plant in the row with the
hand-hoe. The groond cannot be
kept too fine and open, provided the
soil be not extremely porous, and the
weather very dry. It is a common

BBET.

fmctioe to throw the earth from the
rows against the roots ; but the most
experienced cultivators do not ap-
prove the method ; on the contrary,
ihey recommend drawing the earth
from the plants, or at least laying the
whole ground level. Where the soil
IS naturally rich and deep, the drills
may be made on the level ground ;
but if the soil is shallow, or the sub-
ooil of a barren nature, it is best to
raise small ridges, as is done for tur-
nips, and bury the dung under them,
by which means the roots have more
room to strike downward. As soon
as the outer leaves begin to droop,
they may be gathered and given to
cattle, but a tufl should be left in the
centre to carry on the vegetation, or
else the roots will not increase. This
practice of gathering the leaves is
strongly recommended by some, and
they assert that the root does not suf-
fer in the least, although the leaves
are reproduced ; but here we would
give this caution, founded on experi-
ence and observation. The drooping
leaves, if not gathered, will decay and
fall off; they have performed their
office, and therefore to gather them
before they wither is a real economy ;
but to strip off fresh and growing
leaves must iiyure the plant, and the
juices required to replace them are so
much taken from the growth of the
roots. When fodder is very scarce,
this may be a sacrifice worth making ;
bat if the object is to reserve the roots
for winter food, the leaves should re-
main on the plant as long as they look
fresh and growing, until near the time
of taking up the whole crop ; the top
may then be cut off an inch above the
crown of the root, and will be excel-
lent food for the cows and pigs.

The roots are generally taken np
and stored for winter some time be-
fore there is any danger of consider-
able frost, the top having been remo-
ved. The roots are then either stack-
ed in a barn or root-house, with al-
ternate layers of straw, and the sides
and top protected from the frost by
straw placed all round, in which way
they will keep well and fresh till
spring ; or they are placed in trench-

es two feet deep and six feet wide,
with a layer of straw at the bottom
and against the sides : they are heap-
ed up in these trenches to the height
of three feet above the ground, form-
ing a ridge at top, and then covered
all over with straw, over which the
earth taken out of the trench is spread
and made smooth, sloping like the
roof of a house. A small trench is
dug all round this heap, with a prop-
er outlet to prevent any water from
soaking in ; the heaps are made of
any length, according to the quantity
of roots to be stored, and the two ends
are secured with straw and covered
with earth like the sides. When it
is required to take out the roots for
use, an opening is made at the end,
a sufficient quantity is taken out, and
the end is secured again with straw
and earth as before. When the roots
have been put in dry, and some time
has been allowed for a slight fermen-
tation, and the steam produced has
been allowed to escape before the
heap was finally covered in, they will
come out quite fresh and juicy till late
in spring ; but if the proper precau-
tions are neglected, they will often rot
or become musty, and then the cattle
will not readily eat them. There are
few crops so valuable for winter food
for cattle as the beet.

" Expense of an Acre of Sugar Beets.

Use of an acre of land well prepftred for
beets, and xnanured or managed in the
previoaa crop $1S 00

PIoa|rliinff ^00

Cultivating, horse caliiTator and hand,

2houra 50

Twice more before aowing . . 1 00
Seed, $S 9d ; Bowing with a machine,

75 oenu 8 00

First hneing 4 00

Second hoeing, thinning, and transplant-
ing, to su^ljT defidencles . 4 00
Hoeing again, and looeeuing the ground

'wirh machines 3 00

Harvesting 9 00

$39 50

" Make the rows two feet four inch-
es apart, and then a cultivator can be
used in hoeing. If the beets stand one
foot apart in the rows, and weigh two
and a quarter pounds each, the yield
wiU be twenty tons. In rich ground,
at that distance, a great number wiQ

BEE

«reigh four or five pounds each ; twen-
ty tons is a good crop, probably a large
crop, but not extremely large, for in
some cases twenty-five or thirty tons
to the acre have been raised in this
oonntry. At the above expense of
$39 60 to the acre, with a yield of
twenty tons, the cost would be two
dollars per ton. We make this esti-
mate to show how cheap beets may
be raised under favourable circum-
stances, such as good land at a fair
price, convenient machinery and im-
plements, and the most prudential
management in the culture, with la-
bour at a moderate price, and a fa-
vourable season."— (Cu/ttvotor.)

It is said that oows fed entirely
on beets become too fat, and give
less milk ; but this would be no objec-
tion with the cow-keepers, who unite
the fattening of their cows with the
mUking, and like to have them ready
for the butcher as spon as they are
nearly dry. For bullocks they are
excellent ; for horses, Swedish tur-
nips are preferable. The proportion-
al value of hay, potatoes, Swedish tur-
nips, and beets, in feeding cattle, ac-
ci'itling to Einhof, whose statements
Tnaer haa found to agiee with his ex-
periments, is as follows : 18 tons of
mangel wurzel are equal to 15 tons
of ruta baga, or 7^ tons of potatoes,
or 3| tons of good meadow hay, each
quantity containiDg the same nourish-
ment ; but the roots may be grown
upon less than an acre, whereas it
will take two or three acres of good
meadow land to produce the equiva-
lent quantity of hay ; and of all these
root crops, the least exhausting for
the land is the beet. The white beet
has been chiefly cultivated for the ex-
traction of sugar from its juice. It
is smaller than the mangel wurzel,
and more compact. We have given
it to cattle, and are satisfied with the
resuH ; but we have not made suffi-
ciently accurate experiments to de-
cide which sort is the most advanta-
geous. The crops vary from 600 to
1200 bushels. The beet, especially
the white Sicilian, is better than man-
gel wurzel. They are improved by
steaming, but must be fed up in two

H2 •

or three days, or they ferment. Seed
plants are set out in May and gather-
ed in September. It will probably be
found that the nature of the soil will
make the scale turn in favour of the
one or the other ; but for the manu-
facture of sugar, the smaller beet, of
which the roots weigh only one or
two pounds, are preferred by Chap-
tal, who, besides being a celebrated
chemist, was also a practical agricul-
turist, and a manufacturer of sugar
from beet root.

BEET SUGAR. This manufac-
ture sprung up in France, it having
been found that from the juice of the
beet root a crystallizable sugar could
be obtained. We here give a brief
account of the process : The first op-
eration is to clean the roots ; some
effect this by washing, but Chaptal
prefers scraping and paring them
with a knife, although by this means
one sixth part of the root is wasted,
as the scrapings mixed with earth
cannot be safely given to cattle, and
even the pigs eat but little of it ; but
it adds to the manure, and is there-
fore not altogether lost. Six tons of
beet root are thus reduced to five,
which are next to be rasped and re-
duced to a pulp. This is done by a
machine consisting of a cylinder ot
tinned iron, two feet in diameter, and
eighteen inches in the axis, on which
it is turned by machinery. On the
circumference of this cylinder are
fixed, by means of screws, ninety
narrow plates of iron, rising three
fourths of an inch from the surface
and parallel to the axis, at equal dis-
tances all round ; the outer or pro*
jecting edges of these plates are out
into teeth like a saw ; a slanting box
is fixed to the frame on which the
axis of the cylinder turns, so that the
roots may be pressed against these
plates. The cylinder is made to re-
volve rapidly, and the roots are thus
scraped, the pulp falling into a vessel,
lined with lead, placed below. When
two such cylinders are made to re-
volve 400 times in a minute by a suf-
ficient power, whether water, wind,
or horses, two and a half tons of roots
are ground down in two houis. It ia

BEET SUGAR.

necessary that this oporatioo should
proceed rapidly, or else the pulp ac-
quires a dark colour, and aa incipient
fermentation takes place, which great-
ly injures the future results. As the
pulp is ground it is put into strong
canvass bags, and placed under a
powerful' press to squeeze out the
juice. The residue is stirred, and
subjected to a second and third press-
ure, if necessary, till every particle
of juice is extracted. As the liquor
is pressed out it runs into a copper
until it is two thirds filled. The
strength is ascertained by Baume,
which shows the specific gravity of
the liquid. The fire is now lighted,
and, by the tinne the copper is full,
the heat should be raised to ITS'" of
Fahrenheit's thermooieter, but no
higher.

In the mean time, a mixture of lime
and water has been prepared by grad-
ually pouring as much water upon 10
pounds of quicklime as will make the
mixture of the consistency of cream.
This is poured into the copper when
the heat is steadily at 178^, and is
well mixed with the juice by stirring
it. The heat is then increased till
the mixture boils, when a thick and
glutinous scum rises to the surface.
As soon as clear bubbles rise through
this scum, the fire is suddenly put out
by water poured on it, or by a proper
damper. The scum hardens as it
cools, and the sediment being depos-
ited, the liquor becomes dear and of
a light straw colour. The scum is
then carefully taken ofiT w^ith a skim-
mer having holes in it, and is put into
a vessel till such time as the liquor
remaining in it can be pressed out.
A cock is now opened about five inch-
es above the bottom of the boiler,
and all the clear liquor is drawn oflT.
Another cock lower down lets out the
remainder until it begins to appear
cloudy: what still remains is after-
ward boiled again with what is ex-
tracted by pressure from the scum.
The clear liquor is now subjected to
evaporation in another boiler, which
j9 wide and shallow. The bottom is
wt slightly covered with the juice at
drst, and it boils rapidly. As the wa-

ter evaporates, fresh jnioe ie let in.
When a certain degree of inspissa-
tion or thickening has taken place, so
as to show five or six degrees of
strength on Baume, animal charcoal
is gradually added till the liquor ar-
rives at 20^. One hundred weight of
charcoal is required for the juice of
two and a half tons of beet, which is
now reduced to about 400 gallons.
The evaporation by boiling continues
till the saccharometer marks 25°, and
a regular sirup is obtained. This is
now strained through a linen bag,
and the liquor is kept flowing by
means of steam or hot air, and assist-
ed by pressure. In two or three hours
all the olear sirup will have run
through.

The sirup thus prepared is agaia
boiled and skiomied until it is suffi-
ciently concentrated, which is known
in the following manner : The skim-
mer is dipped into the sirup and drawn
out ; some of the thick sirup which
adheres to it is taken between the
thumb and forefinger, and held there
till the heat is reduced to that of the
skin ; the finger and thumb are sep-
arated, and if the sirup is of a proper
strength, a thread will be drawn out,
which snaps, and has the transparen-
cy of horn, or, rather, barley sugar :
this is called the ftoof. The fire is
then put out and the sirup is carried
to the cooler, which is a vessel ca-
pable of containing all the sirup pro-
duced by four operations or boilings.
Here the sugar is to crystallize ; as
soon as this commences, the whole is
well mixed and stirred, and, before
it becomes too stifi*, earthen moulds,
of the well-known sugar-loaf shape,
and of the size called grtat bastards,
arc filled with the crystallizing mass,
of which a little at a time is poured
into each. When they are full, they
are carried to the coolest place on
the premises. As the crystallization
goes on, the crust formed on the top
is repeatedly broken, and the whole
is stirred till the crystals are collected
in the centre : it is then allowed to go
on without farther disturbance. In
three days it is so far advanced, that
the pegs which were put into the

BKE

BEK

boles at the pohtt of the mooMs may
be removed and the molasses al-
lowed to run out. In a week this is
mostty ran off. White sirup is now
poured on the top of the moulds,
whiah filters through the mass and
carries part of the colouring matter
with it. The process that follows is
exactly that in common ase in refi-
ning West India sugars.

Although most of the operations
are nearly the same as those by which
the juice of the sugar cane is pre-
pared for ase, much greater skill and
nicety are required in rendering the
juice of the bieet root crystal! izable,
on account of the smaller quantity
of sugar that it contains. But when
this sugar is reHned, it is impossible
for the most experienced jadg-e to
distinguish it from the other either
by the taste or appearance. Five
tons of clean roots produce about 4^
cwt. of coarse sugar, which give
aboat 160 lbs. of double-refined su-
gar, and 60 lbs. of inferior lump sugar .-
the rest is molasses. The dry resi-
due of the roots, aAer expressing the
juice, consists chiefly of fibre and mu-
cilage, and amounts to about one
fourth oftbe weight of the clean roots
used. It contains nearly all the nu-
tritive part of the root, with the ex-
ception of 4 J per cent, of sugar, which
has been extracted from the juice.
Two pounds of this dry residue and
half a pound of good hay are consid<
ered as sufficient food for a moderate-
sized sheep for a day, and will keep
it in good condition, and cattle in
proportion.

By allowing the juice of the beet
root to undergo the vinous fermenta-
tion, and by distilling it, a more prof-
itable result will be obtained in a very
good spirit. A kind of beer may also
be made of it, which is said to be
pleasant in warm weather and whole-
some.

Another mode of making sugar
from beet root, practised in some
parts of Germany, is as follows, and
is said to make better sugar than the
other process. The roots, having
oeen washed, are sliced lengthways,
Strang on packiluead, and hong op

to dry. The object of this is to let
the watery juice evaporate, and the
sweet juice, being concentrated, is
taken up by macerating the dry sli-
ces in water. It is managed so that
, all the juice shall be extracted by a
very small quantity of water, which
saves much of the trou&le of evapo-
ration. Professor Lampadius obtain-
ed from 1 10 pounds of roots 4 pounds
of well-grained white powder sugar,
and the residuum aflbrded 7 pints of
spirit. Achard says that about a ton
of roots produced 100 pounds of raw
sugar, which gave 55 pounds of re-
fined sugar and 25 pounds of treacle.
This result is not very difi[erent from
that of Chaptal.

The manufacture of beet sugar in
the United States cannot be made
profitable, but may be useful in fami-
lies, as the remaining mush is so val-
uable for cattle and pigs. They may
be cultivated between 39 and 44 de-
grees north advantageously.

BEETLE. A common terra used
to designate the larger CoUoptera^
with hard wing cases. See Insects.

BEETLE. A large mallet used to
drive stakes, &c. ; it is furnished
with two or more handles, so as to
be driven by several persons.

BELLADONNA. The deadly night
shade, Atropa belladonna.

BELT. Trees arranged for shel-
ter. Belting in the West is the prac-
tice of chopping away the bark of a
tree around the stem to the extent of
some inches. The wound should
pass freely into the sop wood, other-
wise the tree will not be killed.

BELVIDERE. A small place at
the top of a house for a lookout.

BEN NUTS. The seeds of an
Arabian plant called Moringa apiera ;
they yield an oil called oil of ben,
and have been employed in syphilitic
diseases.

BEN, OIL OF. The expressed
oil of the nut of the Moringa aptera.
This oil is remarkable for not becom-
ing rancid by age ; and as it is per-
fectly insipid and inodorous, it is used
for extracting the fragrance of cer-
tain fiowers, such as jessamin, or-
ange, &c. The same tree furnishes

BEN

BET

the Lignum nephriticumt supposed to
be useful in certain afTections of the
kidneys.
BENE. The Sesasum orientale.

An annual plant of the family Big-
noniaeea. It is successfully cultiva-
ted south of Pennsylvania. The seeds
abound in oil, which is readily ex-
pressed. They are very nutritious,
and eaten by the Italians roasted,
boiled, and made into flour resem-
bling buckwheat. The oil is good,
and may be substituted for common
olive oil. The seed is sovirn in drills
three or four feet apart, in April. The
plant grows like cotton, and attains
the height of four or five feet, bearing
numerous seed-vessels, full of the
small seed, which is not larger than
flaxseed. The crop ripens gradually,
and is taken in September ; 15 to 20
bushels are given per acre, from which
40 to 50 gallons of oil may be obtain-
ed. The oil may be sold for $1 to
$1 25 the gallon. Negroes are fond
of the seeds in any form. The ex-
pressed oil-cake would be admirable
food for fattening hogs and cattle.

BENOT. A double mould-board
plough.

BENT GRASS. The genus il^To*-
tUt the stem of which is much bent,
and inclined to become creeping and
subterranean. Creeping grasses are
best exterminated from arable lands
by heavy liming and the introduction
of two or three crops of corn, or such
other plants as are frequently tilled.
92

BENTS. Withered grasa stems
remaining in the pasture after the
seeds have dropped.

BENZAMIDE. A compound of
benzoyl and amidogene.

BENZOIC ACID. A vegetable acid
found in balsams and some grasses.

BENZOIN. The concrete exuda-
tion of the Styrax benzoin of the East.
It is a resin combined with benzoic
acid.

BENZULE, BENZOYL. The hy-
pothetical radical of benzoic acid and
other compounds, formula Cu Hs Og
=Bz.

BERBERRY. See Barberry.

BERGAMOT. The Citrus berga-
mia. Cultivated in the south of Europe
for the fragrant oil of the rind of ita
fruit. The oil is volatile, and consists
of IOC 8H. It is a species of lemon,
and might be introduced into Flori-
da.

The Mentha citrata, a common spe-
cies of mint, easily cultivated, yields
an oil nearly as fragrant as the ber-
gamot.

BERMUDA GRASS, DOUB
GRASS. Cynodon detetylon. A tall, re-
pent grass, flourishing on sandy lands,
and an object of cultivation in the
South. It aflbrds abunda nt pasturage
for sheep, and binds together the loose
soil. The levees of the Mississippi are
planted with it. Many distinguished
farmers on the south shores of the
Mississippi speak highly of this grass ;
it is, however, diflScult to eradicate.
Mr. Affleck considers it most nutri-
tious, and in his latitude (Washing-
ton, Miss.) it yields three cuttings, or
from *' five to eight tons of hay per
acre from a moderately good mead-
ow." It is destroyed by frost and
IMTopagated by roots, as it does not
ripen seeds in his locality.

BERRY, or BAGCA. In botany,
a fruit filled with pulp, in which the
seeds are imiiedded, as the currant,
gooseberry, &c.

BETEL. The leaf of an acrid nar-
cotic pepper, chewed by the natives
in the East Indies.

BETULA. The generic name of
the birch family. The pojmlifolia
(white), exccUa (yellow) rubra (red).

BIL

filR

and ienia (black or cherry), are all
fine trees, especially the red, the tim-
ber of which is roach used for cabi-
net purposes ; and the black or cher-
ly, which has the colour of mahog-
any, and is both used here and ex-
ported to Europe. B. pajfyracea, or
paper birch» yielded the bark for the
canoes of the Indians. The wood of
all is durable, and less affected by
changes of temperature than most
timbers. The juice of the European
B. alba is sweet and easily ferment-
ed ; it forms their birch wine. Va-
rioos parts of the plant are put to a
Tanety of economical uses ; the bark
forms paper, vessels, dec. ; the twigs,
brooms and rods, while the leaves
are considered good fodder.

BEVEL. An instrument to take
angles.

BEVEL GEER. In mechanics,
a species of wheel-work, in which the
axles of two wheels working into
each other are neither parallel nor
perpendicular, but inclined to one an-
other in a certain angle. Wheels of
this kind are also called conical, be-
cause their teeth may be regarded as
cut in the frustum of a cone.

BI. From bU^ twice, a common
prefix to words meaning two, or
twice, as bi-partite, bin-oxide.

BIBULOUS. Absorbent In chem-
istry, blotting paper is often termed
bibulous paper.

BIENNIAL. This term is usual-
ly applied to plants which grow one
year and flower the next, alter which
they perish. Many biennials, if sown
early in the spring, will flower in au-
tumn and then perish, thus actually
becoming annuals.

filESTINGS. The first mUk after
calving.

BIFURCATE. Two-pronged, or
forked.

BIGNONIAS. The trumpet flow-
ers. Bignonia radieam, and other
•hrubby dimbing plants, belong to
this handsome genus.

BIGG. A winter barley.

BIKH. AconUurtn ferox. A very
poisonous Eastern monkhood.

BILABIATE. Two-lipped, or pe-
talled, api^ed to flowers.

- BILBERRY. Whortleberry.

BILE. The secretion of the liver.
It is intended, according to Liebig,
to prepare certain portions of matter
to furnish fuel for the maintenance
of the animal heat ; any interruption
in its production is attended with
great lassitude, sickness, fever, and
yellowness of the eyes and skin.
Moist, marshy places, and food rich
in oil, as butter and fat, produce bil-
ious attacks. Calomel is the best
medicine in these cases, 10 grains at
first, and more if it does not quickly
relieve. Fall and spring are the sea-
sons most obnoxious to bilious at-
tacks in new countries. Sometimes
biliary calculi or stones are form-
ed.

The composition of the bile is very
complex, according to the analyses of
some physiologists. Liebig, howev-
er, regards it as a natural soap, near-
ly consisting of choleate of soda.

BILL. A hatchet with a curved
point.

BILLET. A small log or block of
wood.

BIN. A box for com, oats, 6lc.

BIND- WEED. A common name
for most climbing plants, but espe-
cially directed to the convolvulaceous
species.

BINES. Running stems.

BIOCELLATE. When an insect's
wing is marked with two eye-like
dots.

BIPINNATE. Leaves that are
doubly pinnate ; in which the second-
ary stalks or petals are pinnated.

BIRCH. See Betula.

BIRD. The preservation of birds
as a means of destroying insects has
lately attracted some attention. It
is proposed to destroy the hawk tribe
only, leaving crows, ravens, sparrows,
wrens, bluebirds, and all others ; for,
although many of these occasionally
take seed and injure fruit, they, for
the most part, live on insects and
small vermin, and the farmer is much
more assisted by their labours than
injured by their depredations. Mr.
Swainson remarks that whereas nu-
merous crops are devastated by in-
sectSy no one has ever heard of such

BIT

evils being brought about by birds.
To the apiarian the bee martin is,
however, an unquestionable source of
annoyancef although the saoae bird
and all the genus are destructive to
other insects.

BIRDLIME. A glutinous sub-
atanee extracted by boiling the bark
of the hoUy-tree ; a similar subsUnce
may be obtained from mistletoe, from
the yonng shoots of elder, and some
other plants.

. BIRD PEPPER. The small pep-
per. Capsicum haccatum^ growing on a
shrub : it yields the hottest Cayenne
pepper. It is cultivated in Florida
and the Indies.

. BIRD^S FOOT TREFOIL, A Eu-
ropean genus (Lotus) of small clovers,
growing in pastures, and preserving
their verdure in the hot weather from
their long roots. They are inferior to
clover, and, with the exception of L.
villomst which is an object of cultiva-
tion in France upon light soils, are nev-
er raised artificially. There does not
appear to be any true species of this
genus in the United States, and its in-
feriority to clover does not make it
desirable to introduce them.

BIRD'S CHERRY. The Prunus
fodu*. A small, wild cherry, indige-
nous in Eiigland.

BIRD'S MOUTH. In building, an
interior angle or notch, cut across
the grain at the extremity of a piece
of timber for its reception on the
edge of another piece ; as a raRer,
for instance, is received on a pole
plate. Bird's mouth signifies, also,
the internal angle of a polygon, its
external angle being called a bull's
nose.

BIRD'S NEST. Indian pipe. Jtfo-
nolropa uniflora.

BISEXUAL. In plants, having
stamens and pistils in the same flow-
er.

BISIIOPING. A cant word for
disguising the age of a horse.
BISON. Bee Bvffalo.
BISTORT. The Polygonum bit-
torta. An acrid plant when fresh.

BISULCATE. With two fissures,
two-hoofed.
B I T. The iron part of the bri*

BLA

' die, which goes into the month of m
horse.

BITTER ALMOND. A variety of
the almond of a hi iter taste.

BITTER PRINCIPLE. An obso-
lete term in chemistry, signifying that
the dried juice of a plant contained a
bitter ingredient. The bitterness does
not depend upon any general princi-
ple, but upon a particular body, some-
times present in no other plant, as
quinine, strychnine, &c

BITTERN. The residue after
evaporatmg sea water and removing
the salt. It contains sulphate of mag-
nesia and chloride of magnesia, as
well as small quantities of soda, pot-
ash, and bromides. It would unques^
tionably be a valuable manure, and
should be tried in small quantities
wherever the opportunity offers.

BITTER SPAR. CrysUllized dol-
omite. Carbonate of lime and mag-
nesia.

BITTER SWEET. An extensive
genus(Sol(umm), the berries of which,
of a red and dark colour, are veiy
poisonous.

BITUMEN. A mineral pitch. Sev-
eral varieties, as petroleum, asphal-
tum, mineral tar, and naphtha, are dis-
tinguished.

BIX A- The genus yielding the R
orellana or arnotta.

BLACK. As a colour for horses,
this is not preferred : there are said
to be fewer good animals of this colour
than any other. It is supposed that
those of a high gloss and while legs
are the best kind.

BLACKBERRY, or BRAMBLE.
This term is generally used to indi-
cate the Rubrus villosutt or common
erect, and R. trivia list creeping dew-
berry. The fruit is wholesome, and
commands a good price in cities, so
that near Boston they are cultivated.
It makes excellent jam and preserves,
as well as a good wine. The tail
bramble is a good adjunct to the com-
mon rail fence in arable land ; but its
decaying branches injure meadows.
In other parts of the field they are a
serious nuisance, especially the creep*
ing plant, and require grubbing for ex-
termination, followed by a su^oieat

BLA

ploughing to break np the smaller
roots. The roots are astringcDt.

BLACKBIRD. Notwithstanding
bis occasional depredations, he is a
▼aluable friend to the farmer, by the
destraction he makes among insects.
The most common species is the
Quiscalis versicolor.

BLACK CANCER. The decayed
blotches on turnips.

BLACK DOLPHIN. The dark-
coloured aphis, which injures beans,
pease, cabbages, and nume reus garden
vegetables. Dusting with lime is a
teiy valuable remedy, as well as cut-
ting ofi*the infested stems, when it is
practicable, and burning them.

BLACK DYES. The substances
used in dyeing blacks arc logwood,
weld or woad, fustic, sumacb, gall-
nuts, and oak apples, with copperas
or sulphate of iron ; but any other
astringent may be introduced. The
linest blacks are first dyed of a deep
blue.

BLACK FLY. The smaU black
beetle {Halticanemarum) which infests
cruciferous plants, and especially the
turnip. See InsecU.

BLACK GUM. Nytta mvltifiora,
A tree sometimes attaining fifty to
seventy feet, and twenty inches in di-
ameter. It grows south of Philadel-
phia. The wood is solid, and little
liable to split ; hence it is used for
oaves or hubs, and in ship-building for
the caps of masts. The berries are
dark, and relished by birds. The N.
aquatica, or tupeio^ is less in size, and
grows as far as New-Hampshire. It
is valuable as a dense Wood, and used
by carriage-builders.

BLACK LEGS and BLACK MUZ-
ZLE. See Sheepj JHseasts of.

BLACK OATS, are more hardy,
and npen earlier than the common
grain. They are otherwise inferior.

BLACK THORN. The European
sloe {Prunus spinota). Sometimes the
Cratagus fiava is called by this name
in America.

BLACK TWITCH, or COUCH.
Agrostis alba. Marsh couch grass.

BLACK W ALN UT. See Walnut,

BLACK WASH, A loUon of cal-
omel and Umewater.

I BLACK WATER. See Sheep.

BLADE. A shoot or spire of grass,
wheat, &.C.

BLADE BONE. The scapula, or
broad bone of the shoulder.

BLAIN. In farriery, inflammation
of the tongue, a disease in cattle,
which frequently affects them in the
spring of the year or beginning of
summer. The disease is neither so
frequent nor so fatal in the horse
as it is in cattle ; but it does some-
times occur, and the nature of it is
frequently misunderstood. The horse
will refuse his food, hang his head,
and a ^considerable quantity of ropy
fluid will be discharged from the
mouth. On examining the mouth,
the tongue wiU be found considerably
enlarged, and, running along the side
of it, there will be a reddish or dark-
ish purple bladder, which sometimes
protrudes between the teeth. The
neighbouring salivary glands are en-
larged, and the discharge of saliva is
very great, while the soreness of the
swelled and blistered part causes the
horse obstinately to resist every mo-
tion of the jaws. The cure is very
simple : the bladder must be deeply
lanced from end to end ; there will
not be any great flow of blood. This
will relieve or cure the horse in twen-
ty-four hours. If he can be spared
from his work, a dose of physic wiU
remove the stomach aflTection and any
slight degree of fever that may have
existed. If the disease is neglected,
the swelling will at length burst, and
corroding ulcers will eat deeply into
the tongue, and prove very diflicult to
heal. — ( Clater's Farriery).

BLANCHING. In gardening,
the whitening of the stems, stalks, or
leaves of plants, by tying them togeth-
er, or earthing them up so as to ex-
clude the light, an# thus to diminish
the intensity of their native proper-
ties and make them sweet.

BLAST. A flatulent disease of
sheep.

BLASTEMA. The embryo.

BLASTING. The art of removing
portions of rock by the explosion of
gunpowder. *For this purpose, a cy-
iindrkal hole is mad^ i« th<5 roi^k in a

BLE

direction corresponding with the stra-
ta, and of greater or less depth, ac-
cording to the material. The diame-
ter varies from one to one and a half
inches, as the rock is harder. Into
this is next placed a charge of pow-
der occupying ahout one third of the
depth, and furnished with a tin tube
containing the fuse or slow match.
AAer the powder, small pieces of rock
or paper are rammed, and then sand
is driven in, to fill the hole, and the ex-
tremity of the fuse lighted ; the work-
man retires to a place of safety, and
allows the explosion to take place.
In this way boulders, which impede
cultivation, and are too large to be
lifted away, may be broken up, and
the fragments removed for fences, du;.
Stumps of large trees may also be
torn up by blasting, the charge being
contained in a tin case, and introdu-
ced beneath the stump ; or the wood
may be bored with an inch auger, and
the charge inserted into the wood it-
self.

BLATTA. The cockroach genus.

BLAZE. A white mark 01:. star in
the face of a horse or other animal.

BLEACHING. This process con-
sists in a series of operations, by
which the natural colours of various
substances are discharged so as to
whiten them. It is effected either
by the action of various solvents, aid-
ed by exposure to light, air, and moist-
are, upon the bleaching ground, or by
the aid of chlorine. Cotton is more
easily bleached than linen, in conse-
quence of its being originally whiter,
and having a less powerful attraction
for the colouring matter. In bleach-
ing these goods upon the old princi-
ple, warm water is first liberally ^p-
plied to remove the weaver's paste
or dressing ; they are then bucked, or
boiled in a weal^ alkaline lye ; and
after having been well washed, are
spread out upon the grass, so as to be
freely exposed to the joint agencies
of light, air, and moisture ; the buck-
ing and exposure are alternately re-
peated, as often as necessary ; the
goods are soured, that is, immersed in
water slightly acidulated by sulphuric
acid ; lastly, they are very thoroughly
96

washed and dried. By these opera-
tions the texture of the goods is, to a
certain extent, impaired, and much
time is required to complete the pro-
cess, which, also, cannot be carried
on in the winter months. But the
exposure upon the bleaching ground
is now, to a great extent, discontinu-
ed ; and the same eflhct is obtained,
after the process of bucking, by the
action of weak solutions of chlorine,
or of chloride of lime, which, if skil-
fully used, can scarcely be said to in-
jure the goods more than the long-
continued exposure. The theory of
bleaching has not been satisfactorily
develop^; but, from such experi-
ments as have been made in refer-
ence to it, it appears to be a process
of oxidation, and to depend upon some
peculiar influence of nateeni oxygen
upon the colouring matter.

The colour of manufactured wool
depends partly upon its own oil, and
partly upon the applications made to
it in the loom. These are got rid of
in the fulling-mill by the joint action
of fullers' earth and soap ; the cloth
is then well washed and dried, and 10
tolerably white ; if the slight yellow
tint which it retains is objectionable,
it is prevented by adding a little stone
blue to the washing water, or by ex-
posure to the fumes of burning sul-
phur ; this latter method, however,
gives it a harsh feel, and if afterward
soaped, its yellowishness returns.

The colour of raw silk depends up-
on a natural yellow varnish, which is
got rid of by boiling it in white soap
and water, and by repeated rinsings.
Certain articles of wove cotton, such
as stockings, are bleached as usual,
and finished liy the action of tulphu*
rout acid, or the fumes of burning sul-
phur. Straw is also whitened by a
similar operation ; and hence bleach-
ed straw hats are apt to have a disa-
greeable sulphurous smell.

BLEACHING POWDER. Chlo-
ride of lime.

BLEEDING. An operation fre-
quently necessary in the disorders of
dififerent kinds of cattle, particularly
horses. Such horses as stand much
in the stable, and are fuK-frd, require

BLI

Ueediog mare than those wluch are
in constant exercise ; but especially
wbeo their eyes look heavy and dull,
or red and inflamed ; and when they
look yellow, and the horse is inflamed
in his lips and the inside of his mouth ;
or when he seems hotter than usu-
al, and mangles his hay. These in-
dications not only show that bleed-
ing is required, but likewise lower
diet. The spring is the common sea-
aon for bleeding horses ; but period-
ical bleeding should never be prac-
tised. In summer it is oflen neces-
sary, to prevent fevers, always choos-
ing the cool of the morning for the
operation, and keeping them cool the
remaining part of tha day. Some
Hurriers bleed horses three or four
times a year, or even oflener, by way
of prevention, taking only a very
small quantity at a time, as a pint or
a pint and a half. There is, howev-
er, this inconvenience from frequent
bleeding, that it grows into a habit,
which, m some cases, cannot be easi-
ly broken off without hazard; and,
besides, horses become weak from
frequent bleeding. The vein in the
neck is usually opened, but that un-
der the eye or in the leg is better,
when Uie inflammation is near those
paru.

BLEMISH. In farriery, any kind
of imperfection in a horse or other
animal.

In horses, blemishes consist of bro-
ken knees, loss of hair in the cutting
places, mallenders and sallenders,
cracked heels, false quarters, splents,
or excrescences which do not occa-
eion lameness; and wind galls and
bog spavins, where they prevail to
any great degree.

in forestry, the knots on the out-
side of trees, and shakes internally,
are termed blemishes.

BLIGHT. A general term for the
diseases of trees and crops, whether
produced by temperature, moisture,
insects, or parasitic fungi. See Rtut^
Mildew. Smui, PUuU lace, &.C.

BLIGHT, AMERICAN. The Eri.
ototna (aphis) lardgeroy or woolly plant
lice ; they infest the apide and pear
tree occasionally.

BLI

BLIND, MOON. Cloudiness of
the eye, ending in cataract.

BLINDNESS. A deprivation or
want of sight, originating from vari-
ous, causes; a complaint more fr»-
qiietit in horses than in neat cattle or
sliecp.

Blindness tn horses may be discern-
ed by the walk or step being uncen>
tain and unequal, so that they dare
not set down their feet boldly; bat
when they are mounted by an expert
horseman, the fear of the spurs will
frequently make them go resolutely
and freely, so that their blindness can
hardly be perceived. Another mark
by which horses that have lost their
sight may be known is, that when
they hear anybody enter the stable^
they prick up their ears, and move
them backward and forward in a par-
ticular manner.

Blindness in Sheep. — A complaint
that sometimes occurs in these ani-
mals from their being much exposed
to either great dampness or long-con-
tinued snows.

BLINKERS. The leathers attach*
ed to the bridle of carriage-horses to
direct their sight forward.

BLISTERING. In farriery, the
operation of stimulating the surface
of some part of the body of an ani-
mal, by means of acrid applications,
so as to raise small vesications upon
it. It is frequently employed for the
purpose of removing local aflTections
of difierent kinds, such as hard, indo*
lent tumours.

BLISTER FLY. The bright
green and golden fly usually employ-
ed is the Cantharis veHcaioria, im-
ported from Europe; but there are
several insects indigenous which pos-
sess equal power, as the potato flies
(C vitata and einsrea) and the black
cantharis (C. atraia).

The potato flies are seen in Au-
gust, morning and evening, among
the foliage of the potatoes ; the head
is red, atid the back black, with a yel-
low stripe ; and in the cinerea the
whole is black, with a gray hair, or
down. The wing cases {elytra) are
hard. They are shaken 00*1116 vines^
killed by being thrown in hot water,

BLO

BLU

and then dried in the eun. When
well dried, they keep for years in
dosed bottles.

BLISTER LIQUID. A liquid com-
posed by adding a gallon of spirit of tur-
pentine to a pound of powdered flies,
and macerating the whole for a month,
when the clear fluid will form a strong
liquid blister. If so powerful an ex-
ternal stimulant be not required, this
liquid may be diluted with an equal
part of spermaceti oil.

BLISTER OINTMENT. One
ounce of powdered blistering flies;
four ounces of lard. One ounce of
this, w^l rubbed in, is sufficient to
blister a horse's leg.

BLOOD. The fluid which circu-
lates through the body, giving nour-
ishment to all parts. It consists of
albumen, flbrin, red globules, fatty
matters, water, and saline substan-
ces. As a manure, its importance
depends on the large quantity of am-
monia it exhales. It is always pref-
erable to use it in eompost, with ash-
es, charcoal, fine earth, and vegeta-
ble matters. Its efi*ects are principal-
ly stimulant when used alone. The
composition of blood is nearly identi-
cal with that of flesh.

BLOOD-I-iOOT. Sanguinaria Can-
tuktuis. This root is of a red colour.

BLOOD-SHOT. In farriery, a pop-
ular term for that red appearance
which the eye exhibits when infla-
med. The best treatment is to bathe
the eye with a lotion composed of one
drachm of white vitriol (sulphate of
sine) dissolved in half a pint of water.

BLOOD SPAVIN, or BOG SPAV-
IN. In farriery, a swelling of the
Tein that runs along the inside of the
bock of the horse, forming a soft tu-
mour in the hollow part, ollen attend-
ed with weakness or lameness of the
hock. Clater {Farriery, p. 372) says,
a blister is the proper application.

BLOOM, or BLOSSOM. The flow-
er, in the most perfect state, consists
of an outer green envelope (the calyx)^
u the interior of which are the col-
oured leaflets (petals), surrounding
a number of thread-like bodies {the
stamens), and containing a central
body or pistil. Of these parts, the
98

stamens and pisttb are eaaeotial, al-
though they do not always grow in
the same flower. The calyx and pe-
tals {corolla) serve only to protect the
inner organs from rain, which de-
stroys their function when excessive.
Other plants, however, have none of
the envelopes, but are furnished with
especial means of preserving the sta-
mens. The name of a plant is, for
the most part, known by the figure
of its blossoms. Large numbers of
genera possess flowers of the same
kind, and are constituted into Natii*
ral families ; as the CaryophyllaoeaB»
with flowers like the jnnk ; Rosace**
with flowers like the single rose;
Crucifers, with flowers like the rad-
ish; Umbeliifers, with flowers lika
the parsnip, dec.

BLOW FLY. The Musca eama-
ria. It deposites eggs upon meat»
which in a few hours become mag*
gets, and hasten the decay rapidly ;
gauze cloths are used to keep them
oflT; salt or Cayenne pepper serves
as a preventive, by indisposing the
fly to lay eggs on surfaces smeared
with them.

BLOWN. In farriery, a diseased
state of the stomach and bowels of
cattle, caused by the sudden extrica*
tion of air in large quantities from
some of the grosser kinds of green
food. See Hoten.

BLUBBER. The cellular sub-
stance in which whale oil or fat is
stored. It is often used with advao^
tage in composts of ashes and peat,
and yields ammonia during decay.

BLUEBIRD. Sjflvasudis. A
familiar insectivorous bird that should
be encouraged on farms.

BLUE DYES. These are indigo,
Prussian blue, logwood, bilberry, mul-
berries, elder-berries, privet-berries,
and some other berries whose juice
becomes blue by adding a little alkali.
Indigo, Prussian blue, and logwood
are principally used, and are prepared
for tbe purpose. When the berries
are used, one pound is boiled in water
and mixed with one ounce of alum,
of copperas, and of blue vitriol, and
the stuflb passed through sufficiently
oAen to acquire a proper colour.

BON

BLUE GRASS. The TBliuUe per-
ennial Kentucky grass, or Poa vra-
tensis, is considered the best indige-
nous grass of the United States. It
fbrms a thick, dense sward, yielding
a fair amount of veiy notritious hay.
It is adapted especially for permanent
hfllside meadows, growing well in a
drained soil. Half a bushel of seed
is sown either with a fhll crop or with
oats in spring : it is eastomary to mix
eloTer or timothy with it, which fur-
nishes grazing sooner, and preserves
the young grass. In two years it
takes entire possession, and forms a
etose mat of delicate herbage. It
flourishes wrell in New- York State and
1^ to the oooth. In Kentucky they
sometimes grow it in wood land as
well as in open pasture. The wood
Wue grass is a variety (P. syhcMtris).
There is another grass {Poa earn-
jN^ia), ateo called blue grass, and
flsommon in the Northern States ; but
it is scanty, and very inferior to the
rich Kentacky kind.

BLUE STONE and BLUE VIT-
RIOL. The sulphate of copper. It
is used as a caustic to sores, and as
a steep for wheat, to save it from
■mot.

BOG. This term is commonly used
in agriculture to designate a hole or
■wrass containing much vegetable
mud or muck ; often the deposites are
extensive, and many feet deep. A
peat bog contains peat chiefly.

When bogs become ooosolidated
or oompreswd, they are called peat
Bioases. See Peat.

BOG EARTH. This earth oden
oontains twenty or thirty per cent, of
▼egeCable matter, aod when well bro-
ken with lime, and by exposure to air,
forms a rich soil.

BOI L, or, commonly, BILE. A
tomour containing matter, or pus. It
is the result of local inflammation.
It should be brought to a head by
poultices of flour or linseed, and,
when soft and fluctuating, opened
freely with a lancet. The wound
ahonki be kept clean, and closed with
sticking plaster, or protected by a rag.
BOILING POINT. The tempera-
tm« at which fluids boO. Thus, wa-

ter at S1S«, alcohol ITS^, oU of tur-
pentine 816°, Kthe^ 96°, mercury
663° Fahrenheit.

BOLE, or BOLL. A Scotch meas-
ure of four bushels.

BOLE OF TREES. The trunk.

BOLETUS. Fungi, forming fleshy
masses, attached to the trunks of
trees, and filled with holes on the
lower side. One species, B. bomnut,
is said to be eaten by cattle. The B.
ignariut and fimutUaruu, dried and
prepared with saltpetre, forms th6
German tinder, or amadou.

BOLTER. A sieve used to sep*
arate bran from flour or meal, urged
by machinery in grist mills. For
coarse purposes, wire-work is some-
times used ; but bolting cloths for
flour are of linen or hair, and of sev*
eral degrees of fineness.

BOLT-HEAD. A glass vessel, or
flask, used in the laboratory.

BOLTING FOOD. This is a prac-
tice which brings about indigestion in
asimals as well as in men, and must
be hindered by feeding the animal
separately, and at shorter intervals,
and using chopped food or meals.

BOLUS. See BaU.

BOMBAX. A genus of hirge trees
producing a short cotton.

BONES. The frame-work of the
higher animals. Bones consist of
fifty-six per cent, mineral, and the
rest gelatinous and destructible mat-
ter. The mineral portion contains,
on an average, fifty per cent, of phos-
phate of lime, or bone earth ; of this,
twenty-four per cent, is phosphoric
acid, and the rest lime. The destrno-
tible animal matter is partly removed
by long boiling, and used as a size.

The value of bones as manure ari-
ses from the combination of animal
matter and phosphate, but is chiefly
due to the latter. They are applied
usually in coarse powder, ground at
suitable bone mills, which are now
to be found near all our large cities.
The price in Baltimore and New-
York is forty cents the bushel. Soro(»-
times, pieces, or broken bones, from
half an inch to an inch long, are used
as a permanent dressing.

The amount of dust to be applied

BON

Ser acre is ten or twenty brohels Ibr
re years' rotation, or, in composts,
two or four bushels annaaUy. The
effects are most remarkable on sandy
and liffbt soils ; but all lands are im-
proved by it when the addition is in-
dicated. The test, when bones are
necessary, is easily discoTored ; for
soils which produce defective grain
are always much benefited by them.

The value of bone dust arises from
the fact that all seeds contain a large
quantity in their ashes, and the soil
is naturally but poorly supplied. Seed
crops are well known to exhaust
lands rapidly, and chiefly because they
remove the bone earth or phosphates
of the soil. Those lands which are
well ftimished with this substance
naturally produce rich clover and
wheat : such are marls, some second-
ary limestones, and stiff clays, and
show leas the application of bones.

The dust is to be scattered with
seed, and not ploughed in deep ; for it
has a tendency to sink naturally, and
as it is very slowly dissolved by rain
water, it should not be placed out of
the reach of plants. Compared with
farm-yard manure, one bushel is
equivalent to three cart loads, wher-
ever it is well applied.

AH plants, the shells of lobsters
and eggs, and the fine shell marl of
ponds contain bone earth ; and in
Spain a mineral is extensively found
consisting of nearly pure phosphate
of lime ; but the principal source is
from bones. Guano often contains
twenty-five per cent, of phosphates.
The action of this substance, in what*
ever combination it may exist, is al-
ways the same.

Bones which have been boiled be-
fore grinding are very little inferior
to the recent, except when applied to
very poor soils, where the putrescent
animal matter is required. Recent
bones are best for turnips, cabbages,
and similar crops ; but the boiled va-
riety answers for grass, grains, pease,
beans, dec, the manure being adapted
for every crop cultivated for seeds.

BONES, DISSOLVED. For the
purpose of obtaining the full action
of bone dust in the shortest time, it

100

BON

is dissolved in o3 of vitriol (snlphnrio
acid) or in muriatic acid, llie strong
acids are nsed ibr this porpose at the
rate of fifty to sixty poands of aoid
to two bushels of dost. The aeid
should be slightly diluted if it biaek*
ens the bones. They should be stir-
red with a wooden stick, and the o|>-
oration conducted in a large onck
of coarse earthen*ware. llie great
causticity of the acid renders it a
nice process. The solution should
be taken up with fine soil or mould,
and one half applied to an aere as a
top dressing, care being always taken
that before use it has lost its acid
qualities.

In this way a soluble phosphate of
lime and sulphate of lime are formed :
the latter remains at the bottom of
the vessel, and is a fine plaster of
Paris ; it should be stirred up with
the mixture when the soil is added*
When freshbones are used, the gel-
atin also thiokens the solution. This
preparation of bones is now soperee*
ding the common application in Eng-
land and Scotland for turnips. When
employed, it should be sown with th*
seed, or used as a top dressing to
young plants. It will be found an
admirable ingredient for composts in-
tended to bring forward seed crope.

BONE EARTH. Phosphate of
lime chiefly.

BONE MILL. The following •<►
count of a mill for breaking bones inle
small fragnleots is from Mr. Rham :

The mill to break and grind bonea
consists of two iron or steel cyKit*
ders, with grooves running roand
their circumference, the projeotiona
being cut so as to form strong teeth.
These turn upon one another by
means of machinery, so that the
teeth of one run in the groove be-
tween the teeth of the other, as may
be seen in the annexed cut.

The bones put in the hopper, O, are
sei2ed by the teeth of the two upper
cylinders, and broken in pieces, which
fall in between the lower pair, where
they are reduced to a smaller size.
From these they fhU on a slanting
board, D, and slide into the wire cyl-
inder. All the smaller pieces pass

through l)ie tnteraticet of the wire ; i can be attached to a water or -wind
tboM which hsTS n«t ^een sufficient- mill, ot to a gteam-englne, the bones
\j broken come out at the end, and are broken at a sraall expense ; nbea
are Tetomed Into the opper hopper, hones are used the expense is greah
Where a maofaine of this description | er ; and a band mlU can onlj bo or

Boa

BOR

Dse where there is a great 8Q]>er-
abundance of manual labour, and only
a small quantity of bones required.

A A is the frame of a bone mill
strongly fixed to the floor; B, the
axis of the machinery, which is turn-
ed by the lever O C, to which the
power is applied ; E E is a horizon-
tal wheel with bevelled teeth moving
a vertical wheel, F, on the axis of
which one of the cylinders with
grooves and teeth is fixed. At the
other end of the axis is a smaller
wheel, O, turning a similar one, H,
on the axis of the other cylinder, ma-
king the toothed surfaces turn to-
wards each other, and thus crushing
between them the bones which the
hopper, O, supplies. Another pair of
cylinders, similar to the first, but with
smaller teeth, are turned by means of
the intermediate wheel, I, working in
the wheel, L, fixed to the axis, on
which is a larger wheel, M, working
in a pinion which turns the cylindri-
cal sieve, N. The arrows indicate
the direction of the motion.

BONE SPAVIN. A disease of the
hock joint in horses, brought on by
over exertion. While forming there
is continued lameness. Blisters and
rest sometimes effect a perfect cure.
Spavined horses are useful for slow
work ; they are most inconvenienced
in the act of rising.

BORAGE. Borago qficinalit. A
rough weed growing two feet high.
It is used as a fallow crop in Ger-
many, and, according to Lampadius,
contains nitre. It seems to be admi-
rably adapted for this purpose.

BORAX. Borate of soda, used as
a flux in welding steel, 6lo.

BORDER. In gardening, the edg-
es of beds. They are frequently well
trenched and manured, so as to be
made the richest parts of the garden ;
hence, when we are directed to plant
in borders, it is usually meant that
deep, good soil, and free space are re-
quired.

BORECOLE, or KALE. A species
of winter cabbage with divided leaves
and open heads. The principal varie-
ties are, Green Scotch KaU, German
Curled^ Purple^ Jerusalem, Catarean

102

KaU^ and ThauMand^kMiei CMhUg*.
The last two grow to four feet, and
yield large numbers of aproats.

The Med is sown in May ; plants
are set out in July. They will be
found best after slight frost, and may
be kept like cabbages during winter.
The stocks, in spring, send out abun*
dant tender shoots. An ounce of
prime seed will yield neariy foor
thousand jdants. They are so infe-
rior to other pUinta of the cabbage
kind as to be scarcely worth cultiva-
tion.

BORERS. Beetles and other in-
sects, the worms of which burrow
into the bark, wood, or roots of trees.
There is a large number of genera
and species, some peculiar to one tree
or shrub, others common to several.
The perfect beetle is usually seen in
June and July, either about the trunk,
or searching for food in flowers, dLC
Their place while buried in the tree
is known by the holes they leave
through the bark. They reside often
two years in this way as worms and
grubs. Where woodpeckers are en*
couraged in orchards, the trees are
kept pretty free from their ravages ;
but in New-England they do much
damage, and are sought for, and de-
stroyed by iron wires, small aagers,
and other direct means. Catching
the mature beetle is much more ad-
vantageous, and tsdcing care to have
the bark well cleaned, and washed
with whale oil soap, lime-water,
pitch, strong lye, dec, at the time
the eggs are deposited in July. The
eggs are usually deposited on th«
trunk near the ground.

Many of the borers bekmg to the
Capricorn family, having long anten-
ne. The fol-
lowing figures
represent two
common bo-
rers. Af the
female apple-
tree borer. 3,
the peach-tree
borer.

The locust, J Apple-tf^ BOW

and all the vari- (Svrdm bMumuj,
etiea-of pine and fir trees, are aevexely

"!«

mleated with peonliar borera. These
alao Jeposite their e^a about Julj.

BORING. In draining, rodg are
freqnently thrast into the aubsoil for
the purpose ofaseertaiDingthe nature
«f the earth, or the existcDce of wa-
ter or springs. See Argtr,

BOS. "ne generic name oframi-
nating qnadrapeds, faaviag tbe cbu-
aoters of tbe ox uid buCblo. Tbe or-
ifia af tbe domestio ox is nnknown.

BOTANY. That depBrtmeot of
knowledge which imMtigatea the
fbnns, Ttrietlna, and functiene of
plants in a nalu^ state. It is de-
rfred frtun: ffcrani, an herb.

StnietQiat botany, or Organogra-
pby, detaib the Ggnres of the diflbr-
BDt parts of piants, hoUi internal lad
eocHumal. We ham from this de-
pannwBt that ttw iBteriar of vegeta-
Uee is eiAer made np of rai^ oella,
Teaembting the oaviUes of the honey-
comb (eeUularesfv «r eoasist also of
tafeea and Tmw, aa the fairer plants
(Tssatlares). The ceUs are destined
either to atore op starch, wood, rea-
ins, or otber products of vegetation ;
tiie tabes to convey sap and fluids.
In a complete system o( organogra-
phy, tbe minutest ahodes of dilfHrence
between leaves, roots, Ac., are detail-
ed with unialeresting proUxity.

Pbyaioluglcal botany teaohes the
vae oftheteaf, root, flower, seed, du;.
It will be fully illustrated under the
varioas parts of the plant.

Poaar^TO boUnj ia that portion

of the science whidi is devoted to de-
scribing and reoognwiikg plants. In
this tbera are two methods of pn>o»>
dure, the Linnnan and Jussienan :
thD former is the simplest, the latter
the most perfect, and will be intro-
duced in tbe cases of tbe lesding sgri-
cultural fsmilies, as the bean trUie,
cabbage tribe, dce-

To understand LinnKOs's classiS-
eation, it is necessary lo state that
psrfect Sowers consist of four psrts :
Ist, SD external greea or o^onred
wrapper seen on the bud, called tbe
cojyi, consisting of one or more leaf-
lets ; Sd, an inner similar syaten
of flower petals, called the cvroUa ;
Sd, a numljer of thread-like bodies
carrying a bead : these are the < t*-
nuw, the bead being called the aa-
tlier ; 4th> a central thread-like body,
single, or divided into several par^
called the pistil, whereof the extrem-
ity is the stigma. The pistil is only
the npper part of tbe youog friut, or
ovarium. In all these points there is
naueb diversity : sometimes neither
calyx nor corolla is present; again,
the stamens, which are also consid-
ered the male organs of the flower,
may be in one plant, and the pistii,
or female organ, in another, or in dif-
ferent parts of the same plant. It is
welt known tliat unless the yellowish
dust, or pollen, given oJT by stamens
can reach the stigma, no seeds are
formed, and that frail is only produ-
ced in female plants, or such as eon-

BOTANY.

tiiepislib. Uaomu divided the
TegetaUe worid aeoonding to the
number of stameiM and' pistils io the
flower; so that» to* know to wbat
tribe a specimen belongs, we have
only to count theae parts» and search
for the name io the proper works un-
der the general division ascertained.

IV.

VII.

VIII.

IX.

XI.

XIL

xnr.

• XV.

XVL

XVII.

XVIII.

XIX.

XX.

XXi.

XXU.

XXilL

XXIV.

1 atMBAIl

ttUmeM Diandrii

These diviaiens are idao enUed
classes and orders, the first being
constructed from the number and po-
sition of the stamens, the orders by
the number, dus., of the pistils. Ev-
ery plant, therefore, belongs to a
claaa and order, unless it be discious.
The claases are as follows :

Mrmmndnm.

3
4
6

7
8
9
10

(I
fi
It
<«
a
1*
i«

Triandrm.

Totnadria.

Peaundria.

HezKndria.

HepUndria.

OctMdrift.

Ennvandrin.

D«cftndria.

18 to 19 ■teiBent IXnlecandria.

iO or mora •tamena, insertad into tha ca)^ leoMmdria.

to or mare •taroenSi inserted into the raoe|itaela . . . , Potjrandria

9 long and S ahnrt statnena DiUyuanua.

4 loof and t than stamens Tetradynamia.

ataomna tmitad into a tube Monadelphia.

stamens united into two parcels by filaments Diadeipbia.

stamens anited by their filaments inui several parcels . . . Pulyadelphia.

stamens united by their anthers into a tube Syugenesia.

stanena united with the piatH Cyvandria.

stamens and pistils in separate flowers, but on the same plant .
Btamena and pistils in separate flowers and on separate planta, one

male, the other female

•tameaa and pistils, separate m aome flowen and united in others,

either on on* plant or oa two

stamena and pistils not clearly dereloped

MoMMia.

DiBcia.

Polyganiia.
Crypli^yamia.

1 style or ati^pan

9 a^lea or sUfiaas

«•

•

«(

«l

The orders are as follows :

. MouufKjUM.
. Difyuia.
. Tngrynia.
. Tetragynia.
. Pentaf ynia.
. Hexagynia.
. Heptagynia.
. Octagynia.
. Enneagynia.
. Decagynia.
. IXxlecagynia.
More than 19 styles . . Polygynia.

. Besides these, which are ascertain-
ed by simple enumeration of the
styles, Linn»us divided some of the
classes below the thirteenth into pe-
culiar orders. Thus,

The orders of the class Didynamia
are two : 1st. Gymnogpermiat in which
the seed vessel or ovary is divided
into four lobes, each giving one style
or pistil, and containing one seed ;
3d. Angiosperma, with a perfect ovary,
two-celled, and many-seeded.

In class fifteenth, Tetradynamia,
the orders are : Ist. SiliquMa^ plants
with long pods, as the cabbage ; 2d.
SiUculo$€Bf with short pods.

104

Class nineteenth, SyngeneaiSt is
divided into five orders : 1st. Pdfgm-
mia aquaiist each flower of the coU
lection is famished with stamen and
pistil; 2d. PUygamia twpefjUm^ the
florets round the circmnference or
disc hermaphrodite, but the central
female only ; 3d. PolygmmiafruHnuuM^
the disc florets hermaphrodite, the
central steril; 4th. Polygmmia n«ce#-
«arta, the florets of the raya or cir-
cumference male, those of the centre
female ; 6th. Pdygania tgregaia baa
several florets, either simple or com-
pound, but with a proper calyx, in-
cluded vnthin one general calyx.

Glass twenty-third, Polygamia, is
divided into two orders, as the planta
are monscious or diaocious.

In Cryptogamia there are five or-
ders, which are, however, in no way
connected with the female organs:
1st. FUiceSf or ferns ; 2d. Musci, or
mosses ; 3d. Hcpaitca^ or liverworts ;
4th. Alga, or sea-weeds ; and, 5th.
Fuiigi, or mushrooms.

To discover the name of any plant.

BOT

Of ueertaiii if It agrees wHh a par-
ttoater description^ the first step is to
learn luvw many stamens it contains ;
tUs gives as the ciass. Under tliis
head, in tlie Flora {EaUm% Tarrey*^,
or any eikir dietumary iffplanU)^ we
find a eertaiB nomber of orders : the
pisce of the friant among these is
knowcT by examining the pistils.
Thus we have reached the class and
order nnder wfach wiO be arranged
a deseriplion of all the known or com-

BOU

mon genera ; these are to be read

carefaUy, each point of structure be-
ing compared with the specimen;
thus the genns is known, and under
this the species are found, which usu-
ally differ in the form of the leaf and
stem.

The ibUowing general view of the
regetable kingdom is an iotrodac-
tioa to the natural ystem of Jus-
sieu, improTed by Dr. Lindley and
others:

PLANTS.

AccorSUtf to Uieir FVvU* nd Plowrs.

f. HftTing Ibwen and Mxet (PAcfMroifa- } ^^

MMIfV • . . • • ^

(a). LMttBanber cf Mtd lobM (C»- f __
ifttJmf) t . . . S
Clam 1. Dicoifledtmt (2 w«d lubea ftlwayi) or
9. GymMapernu (■c«ds Baked) or

(fr). I.«aa» aaoJwr of Mcd^Iobet, 1 | or

daw a. UmocstvUdmkB (1 M«d lobe) or

(c). Acefyle^MW ... or

Claai 4. HMMvdh$ .... or

n. Haviag neither flowera nor aezei . | or

CUa* ft. Crypto^ OBMC fZojitt . ur

. AceoriiAg U ihtir Dtviiofmuit.

S Their stemi (axie) iaeivattof tTmnietrioanr
in denaity and breadUi, aa wau aa in laafu
(Ploro^eiw).

I Stem in oonoantrie baiida {Exogtna).

Veins of Uovta imttsi.

Veim$ of Ua^ta matted arferhed.
I Slant a ownfaaed naaa af oallalar tiana and
i wood.

Veiiu ^ IcovM paratM, md aal netted.

Vegetation like moahiooiBa.

Faufoid floweia.
I The aCema, or azia, ineraanaf by aimpto
( elongation, or irregtilar expasaion.

Aerogens,

BOTRTOID AL. From fiorpvc, a
banch of grapes. In botany, any fiow-
ers, te., dostered together.

BOTS. A family of two-winged
or dipteMras inseets, the larv9 or
maggots of which infest the intes-
tlaes, wounds, dco., of domestic ani-
mals. The maggots are whitish and
conical, of half an inch or more in
length, sad tOben with great force
to the maw of horses, dee. They are
taken into the stomaoh in the form
of eggs, whieh the insect lays on the
knees (Gasteroj^tilut eysi) and other
parts of the anmial, which, being bit-
ten off; are swallowed, and deretoped
in the body. The animal attacked
leases appetite, becomes restless,
bites his sides,congbs, becomes stiff
in the neck, staggers, breathes with
diflkcoltyt and may die in the worst
stages.

They are to be hindered by order-
ing the groom to remove the eggs
in the fhU, as soon as they are laid.
It is also SflTisable, as a preventiTe,
to administer, in the spring, a quart
of milk with a good dose of molasses,
aad, shortly alter, a quarter of a pound

of Glauber salts, by which the hots
are pretty fredy eracuated.

Sheep are pestered with a bot fly
(Cepkalemyui osu), which deposites its
eggs in the nostrils ; the worms
hence crawl into the upper parts of
the nose and produce great irritation.

BOTTOM. In horsemanship, en-
durance.

BOTTOM HEAT. In horticul-
ture, heat produced by fermenting
dung, leaves, bark, dto., applied under
beds of earth, dec., for raising or
forcing plants requiring a temperatnre
higher than that of the air.

BOUND. In veterinary medicine,
a term applied to the bowels, to indi-
cate want of natural action ; to the
skin or hoof, to indicate tiglitness or
constriction. A tree is said to be
bark bound when the bark cracks
and is constricted.

BOULDER. A massive rock, dis-
similar from the adjacent rocks in
mineral character, and supposed to
hsTO been transported by great floods,
icebergs, dtc.

BOUT. In ploughing, one course
of the plough.

105

BRA

BOWEL DISEASES. Th« most
prominent are inflammations. These
are of two kinds, of the interior and
of the outer membrane of the intes-
tines. The first is produced bj bad
food, inattention to diet, and is at-
tended with a hot skin and pnr^ng ;
the animal is in some degree weak-
ened, but may be restored by the use
of moderate bleeding ; gruel is also
administered with soothing medi-
cines and astringents : it is seldom
fatal. The second kind (peritonitis)
is extremely violent ; it is brought on
by sudden application of cold, when
heated, to the stomach, as in passing
a small stream in winter, &c. In
farriery it is called the red colic, and
is oflen fatal in twenty-four hours.
Ttie animal paws violently, is ex-
tremely sensitive over the stomach,
struggles, groans, lies on his back, is
costive, the legs and flanks are cold,
he shivers involuntarily, and sweats.
These violent symptoms soon sub-
side, and he becomes so weak and
anxious as scarcely to stand. As
soon as the disease appears, copious
bleeding must be had to produce al-
most fainting, blistering fluid must
be well rubbed over the skin of the
stomach, and Glauber salts given.
He should be kept quiet, and clothed.
This treatment will soon show its
good effects, after which he must be
fed scantily, and kept warm and quiet.

BOX DRAIN. A drain with square
sides, presenting the section of a box :
it is usually of ules or bricks.

BOX-TREE. The Buxum umper-
virent and balearica produce the dense
yellow wood used by engravers, and
also for making rules, combs, but-
tons, flutes, dec. The best wood is
obtained from Southern countries, as
Spain and Turkey. The dwarf box
is a variety of B. semptrvirefu.

BOX OF WHEELS. tTie iron
cylinder in which the axis turns.

BRACCATE. Bracca, breeches.
In ornithology, when the feet are con-
cealed by long feathers descending
from the tibise.

BRACHALYTRA from Ppaxvc,
shorif and t^vrpov, sheaih). The name
of an extensive group of coleopterous

10(i

BKA

insects, inchidifig an Meli asliave the
elytra so short as not to exceed one
third the length of the abdenen.

BRACHINU6. Agennsofooleop-
teroos insects, now the type of a iiun-
ily {Braekimda), inelnding those sin-
gular beetles which, from their defen-
sive anal explosioiit, an termed
** bombardiers." •

BRACHIUM. The lower portion
or forearm of the fore extremities.

BRACT. In botany, the small
leaflet situated under the flower.
The flowers of grasses, sedges, &c.,
are bracts which receive the names
of glumes and palee.

BRAIRD. In Scotch books, the
starting of young seedlings.

BRAKE. An implement to bruise
flax and hemp. The wooden pincers
used by coopers and others, llie
snaflle usdtt with horses. A large
harrow.

BRAMBLE. The genus Buhnu,
See Blackberry.

BRAN. The outer membrane of
wheat, dec, rubbed oflT in the mill.
When first used, bran produces a lax-
ative effect on horses and other aiii«
mals. For milch cows and calves it is
an admirable fodder, in consequence
of the large amount of bone earth it
contains ; it is fattening, as it yields
four per cent, of oil. As a genera]
article of food, Bousaingault makes
nine pounds equal ten pounds of prime
hay. The quality of bran will, how-
ever, difler with the economy of the
mille'r. From good wheat, well bolt-
ed, there should not be more than
seven per cent, of bran.

BRAND IN CORN. See BumU
Ear.

BRANDT. Liquor distilled from
the dregs of wine : it contains filly per
cent, alcohol ; the colour is fictitious,
as the spirit is nearly transparent
Burned sugar is the usual colouring
matter.

BRASSICA. Tlie generic name
of the cabbage, rape, broccoli family ;
they belong to the Cruci/ertt of Jua-
sieu, and Tetradynamia silijuosa of
Linnteus.

BRAWN. The salted and pre-
pared flesh of the wild boar.

BIt£

BREAD. Then an three vsrle-
tie* axlsnaively used in tbe United
States, wbeat, con, ind brown or
Gnham broad. Wheat br«ad is lear-
ened. or rendered li|^t and apongy by
yeast, wbtob ia worked jnto the dongh.
and coounuaicatea to the starch of
tbe flour, at a teuperatare above 60°
Fabr., a fermentation ealled the pen-
ary fermentalioD, in which Micar and
alcohol are fortned in small qoaDtity,
and the ghiteo or tiie Socr dinuniahes
eren to two per eent. Id tlwse ehan-
gee. carbouio acid gaa is giren off,
and, riaiDg throegfa the dough, pro-
dacea the ceHutar testnre. ^Vllen
th« prooeae gee* on too long, vinegai
is prodaoed, and the dough becomea
■our. The heatortbeoTen stops the
panaryferffleDtation, and hinders ftr-
ther change. Town balieia, by using
every expedient to aceuiUDlate gaa in
Ibelr loaves, prodnee a spongy, taste-

Cora bread contains IK) glnten, and
will Bot Tiaewith yeast. It isBiere-
ly mixed with enough water to be al-
most as salt as sticking pasta, and
bttkaiJ at ooee.

Graium bread ia comnMaly bread
" — """' — 1 little brae, but

of w
■te added.
BREABFRDIT. Artitarputn

i salt

M. A tree of the Euteni Areliipel-
■go, now cultivated in the West In-
dies also, the frnit of whinh, cut into , _

slicea and roasted, resembles bread, | try in which they _

nd is much used as a substitute. I and domettication also produce vi

BRE

BREADROOT. The J>*«raJiBM.

calmttt, and other species, indigenous
inMisBOuri and throughout the West.
Ths roots are eaten boiled and raw
by the Indians. They are of a [coa-
ciau9, solid stractnre, and insipid.

BREAKING. The education of
horses and other snimala. It should
not commence too young, or they
want spirit ; or loo lala, or they be-
come uomanageable,

BREAKING UP. The ploughing

BREASTING. Breasting up a
hedge is cutting the face of it on one
side, so as to lay bsre the principal
upridht siems of the plants.

BREASTPLATE. A strap run-
nine across the chest of the horae,to
hold the saddle light.

BREAST PLOUGH- A Isrge
spade or ehovel, tbe handle of which
is furnished with a cross-piece,
■gainst which a man presses, and
drives the implement forward through
peat or turf, cutting off long slicea.
It is used chiefly in paring turf to be
honied for im[«0TenieDt.

BRECCIA. A conglomerate form-
ed with angular fragments of stones.
Some are calcareous, others silicioua.

BREECH WOOL. The coarse
short wool of the breech of common

BWXCHINO, or BREECHIN.
That part of the horse's harness at-
tached 10 the saddle, and hooked on
tbe shafts, which enables him to push
back the cart or other machine to
which he is hamesaed.

BREED. A variety among ani-

The following is
from Mr. Rham :

Breeding is the att of mnltiplying
the domestic aoimala rapidly, and, at
the same time, improving tbeir quali-
ties.

Any breed of animals will perpetn-
— e itself, provided there Is a aulB-
ciency of proper food for them ; and
tike varieties found in a wild state
most depend in some degree on the
■■ ■ -■ products of the ooun-

BREEBINQ.

rieties wkicb are lAQch more natefol
or profitable than the wild breeds ;
and in the selection of the beat indi*
Tiduids to propagate a aseful race,
and in the rearing of the young, con>
Bist the art of the breeder.

Without entering into particulars,
which Tary with every species of
aoimal, and with the different Tarie-
ties of the same species, we shall lay
down certain principles whieh expe-
rience has proved to be correct, and
which, being attended to, will greatly
promote the improvement of all the
different animals usually bred for the
use of man, whether for his suste-
nance or for his pleasure. The first
thing which is to be kept in view is the
chief purpose for which the animal is
reared, whether for labour, strength,
or for speed ; whether merely for a
supply of animal food, or to produce
the raw materials of manufbeture. In
each of these cases distinct qualities
are required, and it is seldom that
two of these objects can be combined
in the greatest perfection.

Having then determined the pur-
pose for which any species of domes-
tic animal is designed, every quality
must be attended to which furthers
this view; and, ezeept under very
peculiar circumstances, the animals
intended to keep up the stock by their
proiluce must be chosen with those
qualities in the greatest perfection
wh ich are essential to the end. In all
animals a perfect conformation of the
bodily frame isessential to the due per-
formance of the vital functions. The
skeleton of the animal should there-
fore l>e as perfect as possible. The
capacity of the chest, and the healthy
nature of the lungs, are points which
must never be overlooked, whatever
may be the purpose for which the
animal is bred ; for although a defect
may be in some measure counteracts
ed by a judicious choice of tbe indi-
vidual e(»upled with the defective an-
imal, it is only where there is no al-
ternative or choice that any defect in
the bodily frame of an animal kept
for breeding should be overlooked.
In spite of every care, the defect will
appear in the ofispring ; sometimes
108

not tin after Mveial gMKxattMM. If
it were possible to find individuals
without fault or defect, no price wouki
be too great for them ; and for those
that have been caiefoUy selected for
several generations, it is real econo-
my to give a very liberal price. In
horses bred for ractng or for the
chase experience has AiUy proved the
truth of this rule ; and no one who
pretends to breed race-horsea would
breed from a aiare which bad a nat-
ural defect, or a horse whose whole
pedigree was not free iromiauU. For
mere swiftness, the shape of the ani-
mal, whether horse or greyhound,
must combine strength with great
activity. The chest must be deep,
the lungs free, and the digestive or-
gans sound but small, to tuld as little
weight to the body as is consisteut
with the healthy functions of nature.
The legs should be long and slender,
and the bones compact and strong;
bat the prinoipal thing to be attended
to is tbe courage, and no quality is
so hereditary. A horse or hound of
a good breed, if in health, will die of
exertion sooner than give up the
chase. Any defect in courage in an
animal intended for great occasional
exertion rendere him unfit to be se-
lected to continue an improved breed ;
and, whatever may be his pedigree,
he has degenerated.

With respect to animals whose
strength and endurance are their
m08t desirable qualities, a greater
compactness of form is required, a
greater capacity of the digestive or-
gans, and, aocording to the climate
to which they may be exposed, a
more suitable covering. Whether it
be to ward ofif cold or great heat, a
thick covering of hair is equally ser-
viceable in both cases. Hardiness
of oonstitution is hereditary, like oth-
er qualities ; and the manner in which
the young are reared tends greatly to
confirm or diminish this. An animal
of which the breed originally came
from a warm climate, like a tender
exotic plant, wants artificial warmth
for the healthy growth of its limbs ;
while the indigenous and more hardy
breeds may be lefl exposed to the

nSEDINOl

t^&aXfhUf. An abondaiBoe of whoie-
eetne fcxid and pore waier is eaaen-
tial to the healthy «ute of every ani-
mal, afi well as exercise proportioned
to its strength. These are circoai-
stances which it is obTions must he
carefully attended to. There are
others, the r^nslt of hmg experience,
whieh are equally neoessary to be
known, but; whieh are not so obvioos.
These vary aooording to the species
and Tariety of the animals bred, and
it te eeidoxn that the same breeder is
equally sueoessful in rearing different
species of aairaais.

In the animals selected to breed
from, there are jtomis, as they are
caHed, which are peeoliar eoBfonna-
tions, some of which are connecled
with the natural formation of the
skeleton, and others appear to be the
result of an assotnation derived from
the known qualities of eeitain indi-
viduals. That high withers and a
freely-moving shoulder-blade in a
horse are connected with his speed,
is readily peroeived, and that the
length of Che muscles of the quarter,
and the manner of their insertion,
should afllhec his power, is equally
evident ; but it is not so apparent
that the manner in which the ears
are placed on the head, the shape of
the nose or jaw, and the insertion
of the tail hi^er or lower, has an im-
portant effect on the value of the an-
imal, independently of any aibttrary
idea of btsauty . A breeder who should
not attend to these circumstances in
the animals chosen to perpetuate the
breed would find, to his cost, that it
is more than mere taste whieh has
determined these points. It is the
result of observation and experience
that certain breeds are invariably
distinguished by certain pecuhahties,
and that these are almost as invaria-
bly connected with good qualities, ap-
pareotly quite independent of the
parts on which these points appear.
There is an indication of the dispo-
sition of an animal in the eye, in the
shape of the head, and in the manner
in which it is carried, which seldom
deceives an experienced judge. He
win not risk introdttoiBg a vicioaa ot

61^ disposition into his bceed, whieh
might couDi^rbalance all the good
qualities the animal might possess,
and introduce a greater hereditary
fault than any imperfection of furm.
But nothing is so (leccitful as the
prejudices which exist with respect
to peculiari lies and colou rs. In some
countries no ox or cow would be
thought good of its kind that was not
red or brown without spots ; in oth-
ers a certain j[>ortion of white is es-
sential. This IS owing to the common
colour of the breeds most esteemed
in each country. The reason of the
prejudice is the association of the
colour with some defect, and those
who breed for profit by sale must be
ruled by the taste of their customers.
The rational mode of proceeding is
to be well acquainted with the anat^
omy of the kind of animal which we
make the subject of our attention ; to
learo by experience what are the pe-
culiar qualities of the diflerent breeds,
distinguished by any particular fea-
ture, and whether these qualities
have any apparent connexion with
the peculiarity in make or colour.
We may then be guided by the knowl-
edge thus aoquired in our choice of
individuals to perpetuate the' breed,
and not only preserve the useful qual-
ities which they already possess, but
gradually improve them. No greater
mistake can be committed than that
of making what are called violent
croeseSf such as coupling a very spir-
ited male with a sluggish female, an
animal with large bones with one of
very slender make, a long-limbed
animal with a compact one. By such
crosses the first produce has often
appeared much improved ; but nature
is not to be forced, and if the breed
is continued, innumerable deformi-
ties and defects are certain to follow.
The safe way is, to choose the ani-
mals as nearly alike in their general
qualities as possible, taking care that
where there is a defect in one it ex-
ist not in the other, which would in-
fallibly perpetuate it. A defect can
aever be remedied by means of an-
other of an opposite kind, but, by
gieat attention* it may be diminished

109

v«4.-.» i.l'

tirely. This reiefs, however, to de^
feeiMf not to peculiar qualities. Ctows,
for example, nuijr produce either milk
or ftt in abundance from similar food ;
and a breed of cow which secretes
too much fat, so as to be deficient in
the milk necessary to rear the calf,
may be improved by selecting such
as give more milk, and by ciossing
the breed with these ; but we must
be careflil not to choose individuals
which difl^r much in shape from the
breed to be improved. £very at-
tempt to unite opposite qualities is
generally attended with a bad re*
soft. If a breed has too great an
aptitude to fatten, so as to endanger
tbe fecundity of the mother or the
health of the oflbpring, the only rem-
edy is to diminish the oily nature of
the food ; and if, on the other hand, |
a difficulty is found in fattening cows
which are of a peculiarly good breed
for the dairy, the loss 00 the old oow
sold half fat will have been amply
repaid by the milk she has given;
and the bull-calves which are not
wanted to rear for bulls, if they are not
profitable to fhtten as oxen, must be
fatted oflT young and sold for veal.
But it is not a necessary consequence
of an abundant produce of milk that
the cow, when dry, will not fatten
readily, although a great propensity
to fatten renders the breed less fit
for the dairy. The Ayrshire, which
are good milkers, fatten well when
dry, and the oxen of that breed are
as kind feeders as any.

Many breeders have an idea that
coupling animals which are nearly
allied in blood produces a weak race ;
others consider it as a prejudice, and
among those who held the latter
opinion was the famous breeder
DakeweU. Without deciding this
point, we should recommend avoid-
ing too near a relationship, provided
individuals equally perfect can be
found of the same breed more dis-
tantly related. Every individual has
some peculiar defect, and his de-
scendants have a tendency to this
defect. If two immediate descend-
ants are coupled, this deiiBct will

profcahfrf be eomfinods
uniting the descendants of difi^reot
individuals the defect of either of the
parents mny never break out; but
sooner than retrograde by coupling
an inferior animal with one in an im-
proved state, we should not hesitate
to risk the consequences supposed to
arise from what is called breeding in
and in, that is, coupling animals near-
ly related in bkMxl. especially if only
on one side, such as the proiduce of
the same male by different females,
or of a female by different sires*

The qualitiea which distinguish
animals in which tbe muscles and
bones ara required to he much exer-
cised, as dogs, horses, and working
oxen, are very different from those
of animals destined to accumulate
mere tender flesh and fat for human
food. In the former there roust be
sphrit, activity, and quiek digestion ;
in the latter, indolenoe and proneneas
to sleep are advantageous. In the
first, the lunge rauat play with ease,
and the mn^es be strong, and not
encumbered with fat. In the second,
the lungs must be sound, as they are
essential to all the secretions, and
the digestive power must be good,
but slow. The food must not he ac-
celerated through the bowels by ex-
ercise, but the absorbent vessels of
the intestines must draw all the nour-
ishment from the digested food. The
more the muscles are impeded with
fat, the better the animal will repay
the food given him. To chfN>se an
animal to breed from whose produce
shall get fat readily, we must attend
to this part of the constitution, and
care little about spirit and activity.
The tendency to secrete bone, and
those parts which are called offal by
the butchers, as being of inferior val-
ue, is a defect. Good flesh and fat
are the great objects.

Tbe manner in which the more sol-
id parts of the body are fonned, and
the greater consumption of food, in
proportion to the increase of weight
which takes place in young animals,
while bones and horns are growing,
prove that it ia much more expensive
to predoce boas than itoshtaad mos-

BREENNG.

«flnrti»rt t1i«n ftt. Beaeii It is ev-
ident that the greater profit is in fat-
tening animals that have finished their
growth ; and also that there is a svi-
perterity in those breeds which have
small bones and no horns. This is
an important point to be attended to
by a breeder, as is also the time when
the bony secretion is eompleted. A
breed of antnaals that will eease to
grow, or have attained their fall sixe
of bone at an early age, will be mach
more profitable to the grasier than one
of alower growth. It is in this respect
ebielty that eertain toeeds of sheep
and cattle are so far superior to oth-
ers. The principles which apply to
cattle are equally applicable, muttuig
imuiandut to sheep. In no case are
strong bones or horns of mnch im-
portauoe to the sheep in its domestic
state. The principal objeets are wool
and tiesh, which appear to be depend*
aat on distinct add, perhapa, iaoom-
patible qualities. The attempt to
imiite the two is perhaps the reason
why the Spanish breed, which has
been improved when transported into
Saxony, has degenerated in England,
so that even its crosses are not in re-
pote. It is a matter of mere catcnla-
tion, whether sheep kept for their
wool chiefly are more profitable than
those which give an increase of meat
at the expense of the quality of the
wool. A breeder of sheep who at-
tends only to the quality of the wool
wfil not have his attention taken off
from the main object by any deficien-
cy in the carcass, or tbe disposition
of the animal to increase in flesh and
fat. It is possible that mixed breeds
may be more profitable than the pure.
Fine wool may not repay the breeder
and rearer of sheep so well as mod-
erate wool and good meat. But the
principle we contend for is that of
producing the most perfect animal of
any one variety existing, by correct-
ing individual defects gradually, and
avoiding fanciful crosses, which may
destroy in one generation all the ad-
Tsatages obtained in a great many.
Hence it is a matter of great impor-
tance to oonsider well the qualities of
the fakUTtthmte with wMehyoa begial

and to know thai
these qnalities have existed in their
progenitors, and are not flaerely aoci-
dentaL If croaaing appear neoessa-
ry, let it be dono very gradnaJly and
cantiooaly. No experienced breeder
would ever expect to improve the
fleece of a sheep of the Leicester
breed or the carcass of the Merino by
a direct cross between these two
breeds. The oflbpring would most
prohaUy lose all the good qualities
for which each breed is noted, and
produce a mongrel breed worth little
in comparison. But a cross of Meri-
noes with South Downs, or Leicester
with Costwold, might prodoos new
and useful breeds, and these, carefully
selected, as has been done, have pro*
daeed mixed breeda, which by great
attention may beeome very valuable.

When it is detenniaed what breed
of aaimala you wish to perpetuate and
improve, the individuals which are to
be the parents of the stock cannot bo
too carefoUy selected. The more
nearly they are aUke in form, ooloar,
and extorior appearance, the more
likely they are to produce a distinct
race. They should neither be above
nor under tbe usual size. They should
be of such an age as to have entirely
ceased growing, and be arrived at
perfect maturity ; and, whatever may
be theur good qnalitiea, they shoukl
not be selected, if they are the prod-
uce of very aged parents, at least on
the female si&.

In horaea and homed cattle many
breeders prefer a male rather less in
siie than the female, and pretend that
the fmtns has more room to develop
its members in what they term a rMjny
female. There may be some truth in
thia, but equality of sise, or rather the
due proportion estabUahed in nature,
seems most likely to prodoce a well-
formed oflbpring. Any considerable
deviation from this is generally at-
tended with defect. Nothing is more
common than for a country gentle-
man who has a naefel, favourite mare,
not particularly well bred, when any
aocideat has rendered her unfit for
work, to have her covered by aome
very higbteed sullioa, expecting to

111

BRE

hK9ht^VBrfnpmiorinA. SmnalliiieB
tya sueceeds, but in general it ends
ia dieappoiDtment, especially if the
mare be small. A modi more certain
way is to choose a half-bred stallion,
nearly of the siae of the mare, aad
hating those good points which the
nare already possesses. In this ease
there is every probability of rearing a
well-proportioned and nsefol animal,
instead of a erauMiutie one, as the
bleeders call them, probably from the
very cirenmstanoe of these crosseg not
siseceeding in general. We advert to
this as a fact whioh many of our read-
ers may know from experience.

To give in a few words the rules
which result from what we have very
briedy stated :

Choose the kind of animal which
you wish to breed from, having dia-
tinguishing qualities ; keep these con-
stantly in view, and reject ali individ-
uals in which they are not as perfect
at least as in the parents. Select the
most perfect forms, and let the- de-
fects be corrected gradually. Have
patience and perseverance, and avoid
all attempts at any sudden alteration
by bold crosses. If possibte, breed
two or more families of the same
kind, keeping them distinct, and only
occasionally crossing Uie one with the
other. In this manner a very impro-
ved breed may be produced. The near-
er you approach to perfection, the
more difficult will be the selection,
and the greater the danger of retro-
grading. Hence in very highly bred
stocks it is often almost impossible to
kMp up the perfection of the breed,
and a fluctuation in the quality of the
produce will take place. The more
improved the breed is, therefore, the
greater attention must be paid in the
selection of those which are to con-
tinue it. And for want of this, al-
Host every breed, however reputed
It may have been at one time, grad-
ually degenerates, and loses its great
superiority.

As every farmer and occupier of
land is more or less a breeder, if he
be only a breeder of pigs, these ob-
servations may be useful. In the ar-
tiolea on each paitionlar apeeiea of
113

BRB

I anfmel, thaao genaMd ptiMiplM «»
applied, and more pariieiilar diiee«
tions are given.

BREEDING IN AND IN. Thie
is very injurious ultimately both ul
animals and man.

BREEDING PONDS. Ponds for
raising young fish ; they sboald hav»
shallows with reeds and sedges. Pike
and pickerel are in the habit oi devoui^
ing the spawn when they can rea^ tt«

BREEZE FLIES. The bot lUea,

BREWING. The making of beer«
This consists of the following operar
tions : 1st. The malt, properly gnaad
or crushed, is put into a laige tub
with a false bottom, perforated by nu-
merous holes, and furnished with a
faueet. Over the malt, water, heated
from 170'' to 185°, is poured, and the
whole well stirred or mMhed together
for some time. It is then allowed ta
settle* and the infusion drawn oflT into
another tub. If two varieties of beer,
ale and smaU beer, be desiied, this
first portioii is kept separate, others-
wise it is mixed with the aeceed
infusion. The second mash-water
should be nearly 900'' Fahrenheit
Four bushels of malt are treated to
one and a half bazrel, or fifty-one gal-
looa of water, each aoashing. 'i'he
second infusion, after standing to set-
tle, is also drawn off, and the two to*
gether form the sweet wort.

9d. The worts, mixed or separate^
and even mixed with a third infosion,
are next transferred to the boiler, and
hops added. The amount of hops de-
pends partly on the taste and partly
on the strength of the beer ; for oonti-
mon beer four pounds to the four bosh-
els will answer. For the strongest
alas as much as twenty-eight pounds
are used. This mixture is boiled an
hour and a half or more, until the
fluid begins to assume a bright colour.

3d. It is then drawn off into cool^
ers^ or at onoe into the fermenting
tuns. When oooled to about 60*^
Fahrenheit, two pounds of fresh yeast
are added to every thirty-four gallons
of wort, and the tun kept at the same
temperature. As soon as iermenta--
tion ia ftirly estabhahed, aad its AnI

BBI

qaor is fmiislienvd to suitftUe casks,
ths baof^iole of which is left open ss
ls0g as yeast is cast up, and aflerwafd
■acurely fastened. As soon as the
beer ST ateoholic ferniODtation ceases,
'vinegar begins to form, and the whole

^ A wort may be prepared from any
sweet juice or germinated seed, and,
treated in the same way, will make
bMV. The stiength of ales depends
on the Urge quantity of sugar in the
wort. Port^n are coloured by brown
maHy moiasaes, dee. Nomeroos bit-
ten, floany very injorious* as CveeuUu
inticuf , are used instead of hops.

BRICKS. BkKsks of bamed day
eight inches long, four wide, by two
and 8 hslf deep. Larger moulds are
made for particular purposes. Build-
iiigs have been recently erected of
unbumed iHrickB, which appear to be
oheap, substantial, and durable when
protected on the outside by cement
or mortar. The following account
of the method employed in Geneva,
New- York, gives all the neceesary
details:

The materials are two parts day,
one sand, with straw and water, as in
ofdinary bride-making. It is well
trodden or worked by oxen until
sticky. With the materials for one
thousand bricka three hundred pounds
of straw are mixed. The bricks are
moulded with an ordinary wooden
IhnBe^ of the sise intended for the
wall, so as to form it one brick deep.
For a buiUhng thirty feet in height,
brtoks eighteen inches square, and six
deep ; for lower cottages, twelve inch-
es square will answer. The mould is
dipped in water, eanded, and then filK
ed with day, and struck with a pieoe
of wood. The fresh-made brickshouid
hesandedifthedayfoehot. They are
aet flat on the dry ground on boards,
and towards night the sets are cov-
ered with boards. The next day they
are set on end, with spaces between
the bricks, and after four days of fine
vreather they are piled up with air
spaces, and covered with boards. In
a fovtnigbt they aro ready for use.

The fooodatioBs are >set in stone or

boraed biieks, two feel ab«ve the
earth, and the lirat oourse of Mocks put
down in water>Ume. Interior parti*
tkms are pat upvrith bricks of the ordi-
nary size. Windows and doors should
not be fixed permanently at once, bat
left until the building is well-set. Fix-
tures to the wall are fastened into
timbers inttroduoed during the builds
ing. Ftre-plaeea must be of bnmed
biiek. The roof must project suffi-
ciently to keep water from running
into the materials.

A coating of water-lime or cement
completes the building, which is said
to be warm and perfectly free irom
dampness, and veiy much cheaper
than wood. **A house in Geneva,
New- York, twenty-one by twenty-
seven feet, sad two stories high, cost
less, when completed, than four hun«
dred dollars." For a fuller account,
see the Home Mit$i(mary for Septem-
ber, fSii.

BRICK EARTH. Any stiff day,
containing fifty to seventy per cent,
of real day, and the rest sand : the
latter of these answers also for tiles.
It is either blue or red.

BRIDL£. A contrivance made ot
straps or thongs of leather, and pie-
ces of iron, in order to keep a horse
in subjection, and direct him in trav-
elling. The several parts of a bridle
are the bit or snaffle ; the bead-stall,
or leather from the top of the head to
the ringa of the bit ; the fillet, over
the forehead and under the fore-top ;
the throat-band, which buckles from
the head-band under the throat ; the
nose-bands, going through the loops
at the back of the head-stall, and buck-
led under the cheeks ( the reins, or
long thongs of leather that come from
the rings of the bit, and which, be-
ing east over the horse's head, the ri-
der holds in his hands.

BRIMSTONE. Roll sulphur, made
by melting and casting common su^
phur. See Sulphur.

BRINING GRAIN. Grain and the
seeds of grasses, (Sec, are often pre-
pared, before sowing, by being intro-
duced into a strong brine, which may
be heated to 160^ Fahrenheit, or even
higher. The brine is made by adding

118

mtf

eoBimmi eosne or reftase Mit to wa-
ter until it is Btnmg enoagfa to float
an egg. The brined seed is aflerward
dusted with newly-slacked lime, and
sown. The great benefit is the de-
struction of the seeds of smut, rust,
mildew, and other blights : when heat
is added, the eggs of many inseets
are also killed. Stale urine is also
used with great effect in the same
way, as weU as strong wood-ash lye.
The plan of brining is extensively
resorted to throughoat England and
Scotland with great success ; indeed,
so beneficial does small doses of salt
appear, that on the seashore, and on
farms where refuse salt is used, smut
is almost unknown. A solution of one
pound of salt to one gallon of water is
recommended as a wash or sprinkling
fbr plants infested by mildew and oth-
er fungi by the late Mr. Cartwright. It
is, however, injurious to some vege-
tables. Brining has been often iS>und
to save a field from rust and smut
when all other grain was infested.

BRISTLES. The stiff hair of hogs.
Independently of their economical val-
ue, they constitute a manure as good
as old woollen rags, containing, in-
deed, the same substances, and yiehl-
ing ammonia by decay. Where they
can be had in sufilcient quantities,
one half to three fourths of a ton is a
heavy manuring for five years for hope,
turnips, cabbages, tobacco, hemp, fiaz,
wheat, corn, and rich plants gener-
ally. The same applies to all kinds
of waste hair or wool.

BRITISH GUM. Starch heated to
800° Fahrenheit, by which it becomes
brown and soluble in cold water.

BRIITLE HOOF. An affection
of the horse's hoof, very common, es-
pecially in summer, in England, from
bad stable management. A mixture
of one part of oU of tar and two of
common fish oil, well rubbed into the
crust and the hoof, will restore the
natural pliancy and toughness of the
horn, and very much contribute to the
quickness of its growth. — {Youati on
the Horse.)

BRIZA. The generic name of
the quaking grass (B, media). It is a
poor perennial grass.

« BI10AIM)A8T SOWSie. Tim
distribution of seed or maMnes ovev
land by casting with the hand or by
a machine. The sower carries a bas-
ket on the left arm, and throws with
his right hand as he wa&es along be*
tween the lands or ridges of the field*
sowing one half its wklth in goiag^
and the other half in returning on the
other side. Small seeds are uanallf
cast with some eaitb. It requires ex*
perienoe and good ploughing to seed
well, for unless the ri^^es between
each furrow are well marked, so ae
to present grooves to receive seed*
they will not grow in rows ; but wbea
the furrows are nicely laid the plants
appear as regularly as if drilled. Of
late it has been customary to diaper-
age sowing by broad-cast, in cons»»
quenoe of the waste of seed, the te»»
dency to weeds in the ground, and
the difficulty of exterminating them*
To avoid these evils, drills are intro-
duced. The broad'Cast method is oer**
tainly altogether inapplicable to tor*
nips or any other crop requiring hoe*
ing, or liable to destruction from
weeds, and is now seldom practised in
such cases ; but wheat, grains, grass-
es, fallow crops, dec., are thus sown
most readily and very effectively.
Machines for broad-casting are of lit-
tle utility where the farmer has a lit-
tle experience^

BROCCOLI. An improved variety
of cabbage, the flower buds of which
are eaten. It differs from the cauU-
flower only in the looseness of the in-
florescence. The varieties are nu-
merous, the early white and white
cape being best ; but the purple cape
is the only kind mucli cultivated. The
seeds of the last are sown towards
the end of May in the Middle Stetes,
and later in the South; for winter
supplies later sowing will be neces-
sary. An ounce of seed produces
3000 to 4000 plants. Transplant in
July, or when the plante are large
enough, into very rich, dunged, and
mellow earth ; plant 18 to 24 inches
apart each way; moisten the earth
frequently with fluid manure; hoe
and keep clean during their growth.
They will be in season in September

BRO

nd October. Torwinterkiods^itwill
be necessary to take plants ap as
soon as slight frosts appear, lay them
HI light soiC and place them in frames,
to ripen during winter and early
spring. In the Southern States the
winters are mild enough to allow of
their growth abroad.

BROKEN KNBES. See Horse,
Disetises of.

BROKEN WIND. Prof. Youatt
altrihotes this incurable nuisance in
horses to stuffing them with too much
coarse provender, and working soon
after meals. Horses are graoivor-
oos, and should rest at least one hour
alter food, be fed tiiree times daily,
and not once or twice.

BROMINE An elementary brown
Huid, of a viie odour (fipoiinc)^ extract-
ed from salt-water and sea-weeds.
It is very similar to chlorine in its
properties ; hitherto used only by Da-
guerrian artists. Its scarcity makes
it very expensive.

BROMIJS. A genus of grasses, of
which B. seealinust common cheat, or
chess, is most famous. Many species
exist in America, but they are not of
value in permanent meadows.

BRONCHIA. (Spoyx^c. the throat.)
The ramifications of the windpipe in
the loners.

BRONCHITIS. Inflammation of
the bronchia. See Hor»e, D\oea»C9 of.

BRONCHOTOMY. The operation
of openinff the trachea low down.

BROOD-MARES. Marcs should
not breed till three years old. When
taken care of they bear twenty years.
They heat in spring, and carry young
about eleven months. May is the
best month for covering.

BROOM. The European shrub
BjfOTtium Mcopariumy which bears
briffht-yeUow papilionaceous flowers,
ana is hence cultivated in shrubber-
ies. It is used also as a cover for
game and shelter to young planta-
tions. 8. juneeum^ Spanish broom,
is prettier, and fragrant. S. mono-
tpermum bears white flowers. These
are eommon, except the last, through-
cut the United States.

BROOM-CORN. The Sorffhu'm
nechartttum. Another plant, the S.

BRO

dora, is the Indian mfllet. The eat
tivation of broom-corn for the manu-
facture of brooms and for seed is of
great profit iu the Valley of the Con-
necticut, Mohawk, and in New-Jer-
sey. It would be still more profita-
ble in the South, as in these localities
the frost sometimes hurts the plants
before the seed ripens.

The best variety is the New-Jer*
sey, which yields upward of 1000 lbs.
of broom, and mu^h seed, per acre.
The North River yields 720 lbs. Tho
pine-tree variety is earliest, hut small
and thin. The seed crop averages from
50 to 80 bushels. The best alluvial
soils are chosen, and well manured.
The seed is planted in May, at the rate
of a tea-spoonful to the hill, the hills
being three feet by eighteen inches
apart, so as to allow the cultivator to
run between the rows. The hills are
dunged with old compost immediate-
ly before sowing. It is hoed or work-
ed three times, like com. Seven to
ten plants are left in the hill; the
thinning takes place at the first hoe-
ing. The crop is harvested at the
first frost. The stems are bent, or
partly broken 2i feet from the ground,
and left to dry for a few days ; the
stalks are next cut, at six or eight
inches from the brush. The produce
is next dried in the bam on scaflblds,
or in any convenient way. The best
broom is cut when of a yellowish
green. The seed is removed by pull-
ing the panicles or brooms through a
scraper, which tears them off. Mr.
Allen, of Massachusetts, who has had
much experience in this matter, reo-
oDunends the following contrivance :

The lower board rests on the bara
floor; the upper is moveable by a
hinge, and can be set at any height ; it
is intended to grasp the three upright
rods, B ; the central is of stout iron,
the side ones of elastic steel. The

116

VBXJ

piiycleB ara forced down between
these rods, and then pulled towards
A i thus the seed is torn off, and slides
down the upper board into the barn.

The seeds are worth twenty-five to
thirty cents the bushel, and are con-
sidered equal to oats. The broom
aeUs at from four to six cents the
pound. It is a very profitable crop,
and will remain so, from the large
expor^tions of brooms. The large
quantity of seed it produces consti>
tutes it a very exhausting crop.

BROOM GRASS, or STRAW.
The genus Andropogon, so called from
the little tufts of hair or beards on
their flowers. They are not introdu-
ced into culture, and have little eco-
nomical value.

BROWN DYES. The common-
est are the decoctions of oak bark,
common bastard marjoram, walnut
peels, horse-chestnut peels, and cate-
chu. Oak bark and walnut (English
walnut is best) give dyes without
mordants, but are brightened by al-
um. Catechu (1 lb.) combined with
blue vitriol (4 oz.) gives a bronze
when used in a boiling solution. The
tints of brown are, however, so nu-
merous, that it is more common to
use. madder as a basis for the red
tints, fustic for the yellows, and use
solution of iron and copper as mor-
dants, and even a gall-nut bath after-
ward, to reach the proper shade.

BROWSE. The young branches
of trees, shrubs, dec. (v.) To feed.

BRUCHUS. A Linn«an genus
of coleopterous insects, of the tribe
Rhyneophora, now the type of a fam-
ily iBmehidiB), with the following
characters : upper lip distinct ; head
produced anteriorly into a broad, flat-
tened snout; palpi filiform ; antenns
filiform or serrate ; eyes notched ;
wing-sheaths not covering the ex-
tremity of the body. The insects of
this family deposite their eggs in the
young grains .or seeds of legumin-
ous plants \ the time of the hatching
of the eggs is when the seeds have
approached to maturity, and then the
larvae begin to feed voraciously upon
them. One species, the Bruchusgra^
narnuj infests our pease ; and the rav-

116

ages of this insect and the Bnu3^
pisi have been so extensive as to czH
for legislative interference.

BRCJCIA. A vegetable alkaloid,
similar to strychnine, and poisonous.

BRUMAUS. {Bruma, winter.) Ap-
pertaining to winter.

BRYONY. Bryonia dimca. A climb*
ing herb, of a poisonous nature.

BUCK. The male of deer, rab-
bits, &c.

BUCK-BEAN. Menyanthei tHfoti-
Ota, A swamp plant, with handsome
flowers and bitter leaves. The latter
are used as a substitute for hops, and
are a mild tonic.

BUCK-EYE. Two western trees
bear this name, the Pavta hitea and
Ohioetuis; they belong to the same
family as the horse-chestnut. They
are whoUy ornamental, the wood beh
ing of no value as timber.

BUCK-THORN. The JRJkatrmut ea-
thartictu. A prickly shrub, suitable for
hedges. It is indigenous in New«
York, and easily cultivated by seeds,
slips, or suckers. The berries are ca^
thartic and griping. The R. infecto-
niu, a similar shrub, produces the fa-
mous French or Persian yellow ber-
ries used in dyeing. It might be read-
ily cultivated sooUi of Maryland, as it
grows in Provence.

BUCKWHEAT. The grain pro-
duced by the Polygonum fagopyrum
(a), tartaricum (6), and a few other
species. In the United States the
first only is cultivated ; but it is said
a new wild Italian species yields more
abundantly. The seeds are small,
dark, and angular. From twenty to
thirty bushels are obtained from the
common kind per acre. Buckwheat
is usuaUy sown on rocky places or
poor soils, of a silicious or calcare-
ous nature ; but it grows well nearly
anywhere. It may be sown in May
for a full crop ; or immediately after
wheat, rye, or oats, for a fall crop ; or
still later, to be fallowed in the fall.
From 1 to 1| bushels are necessary to
the acre. It soon starts in a dry,
warm soil ; flowers in July or earlier,
and continues producing flowers for
some time. As it is a native of Per-
sia, the least frost is injurious ; it

AonM therefore b« eat eaily in Oc-
tober, or at the end of September.
Ab the seeds scatter, some recom-
meDi) polUng by the roots -, but a era-
dle-ecythe ins were every purpose. In
coDseqaenee of the Kacculenc« of He
Btems, it requires to be sweated in
cock when dried for fodder, and
sbonid be thresbed ae early as con-
Tenient. The stalk, well cured, is a
good rODf h Ibdder, and forms e valu-
able addition to the catite-jard.

Antoine has shown, on the most

thentio data, that it is vety superior
to common straw, and of half the
Talue of prime hay.

As a fallow crop, it is very yatua-
Ue, from the liie (S feel) it attains
on poor unds, and the ease with
which it fermeuta and yields food to
tbe next crop. Hie flowers are
Bought by bees, bat form a dark, rath-
er harsh hooey. It i« also cut in
f ower for soiling milch cows, and ie
Very ffood mixed with clover, but too
moch is apt to produce drowsioeaa
Ponltry and all cattle eat the seeds oi
meal It is rather eoperior to oats
a» the ftdlowing composition shows

woody Qhre S6

Slapch BO

Atbomen, &o hb

Oil 0*

lu ashe* somitHiiaa eontain m
exeass of potash salts, Bomelimea of
lime, tbeee being isomorphous.

The eeeds are ground into meil
for making: buckwheat cakes, which
are highly relished throoghoui the
coonlry. In Germany malt is made
with them, and beer and apirita.
Birds, especially pheaaants, are verr
fond of them. The Maine Ihrmer
recommends the oultiTalion of buck-
wheat to destroy cooch grass ; the
first crop is to be ploughed in when
flowering, snd another seeded upon
it at once ; from tbe last, grain may
be collected.

SooM apeoiee of polygonum yield
Jtood yellow dyes, as the Siitntiti
others, as the bUtorta, are acrid and
poisonooB.

BUD. The growing point of*
branch, consisting of young unex-
panded leafiets or flower petals.
Winter buds contain a amalt store of
stsrch and albunten at their base te
saslain the leaflets in spring. Floaer
biuU are usually developed on spurs or
in the axils of leaves, while Utf bada
are seen on the vigorous shoots. AH
bade are in eonUct with tbe inner
bark of trees, and with the young
wood, from which latter they derive
sap for development. AdcenlUioua
or latent budw are such as break out
from the baA of trees without hav-
ing any external siffn or eye ; they
are, however, marked on willows by
roughnesses on the bark, in other
trees by knaura. In ell that respects
elructuro and function, the eyes of
potatoes, dahlias, the bulbs of tnlips,
onions, and all seeds are perfect buda,
these diflferent parts being modifica-
*''3ns of the same general plan.
The development of lower buds in
ees or brunches is readily efTected
by culling away tbe upper, which, as
they are more eicitable, usually take
the finil start, and, using all the sap,
hinder the growth of the lower eyes.
BUDDING, The insertion or t».
oaUation of the buds of one tree into
the branches or stock of another.
The buds are lo be taken from the
shoot about midway, and from
a healthy, full-hearing tree. The

time k from Juiy to ^pteoftber,
•8 80on 88 buds are well formed.
The xaciskm into the stock is through
the bark down to the new wood and
in the fonn of a T; this can be made
with any knife* but the following is
called a budding knife :

z::^

The bark must be raised at the an-
gles, and should separate readily from
the wood. I'he bud is cut along with
a h about half an inch of bark
£i n (^)* ^^^ slightly into the
J\ II wood, so that the part im-
"W I ^w mediately below the eye
1 1 If may be so furnished, and
1] \ not hollow. The wood re*
" moved is only to ensure

the heart of the bud, and as little as
possible is left in the insertion. The
part above the eye is then cut straight
(&), and the bud introduced between
the lips of the wound on the stock,
down to the new wood, and pushed
in firmly, the upper cut part corre-
sponding very nicely with the hori-
zontal incision. A bass riband, a
strip from the shuck of com, or any
other bandage that does not hold wa-
ter, is then cast round the stock two
or three times above the bud, and
gradually brought round so as to bind
the insertion tightly, except over the
eye. The riband must be loosened
in two or three weeks if the bud
swells, so as to give room for growth.
S^ng budding is also practised, the
winter's bud of a tree being inserted
at the time of sap rise ; the only dif-
ference in this case is, that the inci-
sion is inverted thus i, and care is to
be taken that the bua has been cut a
few days, so as to be rather behind
the vegetation of the stock.

The stock or branch after budding
Is to be lopped down by a clean trans-
verse cut at about three buds above
the insertion, all the lower buds being
removed. In spring, or when the in-
sertion starts, it is to have full room,
and as it gathers strength, the upper
natural shoots from the ^ds left are
to be pruned, and finally cut altogeth-
er away towards midsummer, if the
insertion has taken well

118

Boddtng 18 praetited to
choice varieties of fruits, to mix or*
namental kinds on the same tree, and
to improve shrubbery. But the pro-
cess is seldom successful unless the
stock and variety are of the same
species or nearly allied. The only
difllculty in the way is the entrance
of rain water into the wound of the
stock ; to hinder this efiectively, it is
well to add a little cement of udlow
and wax over the incision, or to use
bass dipped in such a mixture while
warm.

In the dahlia, orange, and some
other trees cultivated for dwarfs, the
bud is inserted on a piece of the root
instead of a stock ; this is, however,
termed grafting, as it is introduced in
the cleft fashion.

BUFFALO. The American bufili^
lo or bison {Boa Americanu»\ once in-
habiting the central portions of the
United States, are now driven be-
yond the Mississippi. They are found
in immense flocks, and are very timid
and retired, except in the rutting sea-
son, when the bulls become fierce and
pugnacious. The animal is remark-
able for a hump on the back between
the shoulders, for a long nuine, broad
chest, and great strength of head aud
neck. The buffalo breeds readily with
domestic oxen, but the young of the
bull buffalo is too large for the pelvis
of the common cow ; hence the mix-
ture can only be made by crossing
the wild cow by the domestic ox.
Captain Jenkins, of Missouri, has sev-
eral half-breeds of this kind, which
promise to be capital draught ani-
mals, large, heavy, hardy, and easily
sustained.

The skin is handsome, black, and
glossy, and a considerable article of
trade. The hide, tanned, is said to
be softer, thicker, and less pervious
to water than the ox hide.

BUFFALO BERRIES. The fruit
of the Shepkardia (or Hippopha) argen*
tea^ silver-leafed shephardia. A hand-
some, thorny, small tree of Missouri.
It is diaecious, the fruit scarlet, of the
size of currants, in profuse clusters.
It is said to be rich in flavour, and ex-
cellent for pies and preserves.

Bun

BITS

BUTFALO GRASS. A Western

indigenous grass of small size, form-
ing a delicate mat, and growing on
dry, gravelly soils. The ^ama grass
is sometimes called by this name.

BUG. A common word, meaning
any insect, but properly applied only
to the bedbug {Cimex Uctvlarius),
which is the type- of an extensive
family of filthy insects which accumu-
late from neglect of cleanliness and
laadness. Solutions of corrosive sub-
Umate in ^ivater, ointments with the
same poison, and fumigations with
tobacco are used with success in de-
stroying these insects. Boiling wa-
ter poured into the crevices of beds,
and repeated every week during
spring, is very efficacious.

BUHJUSTONE. The mill-stone for
flouring ; it possesses great hardness
with little brittleness, is cellular, of a
bluish gray, and feebly translucent.
The best kind has a texture nearly
half cellular, and is entirely silicious ;
the pieces or panes of rock ara bound
together by hoops of iron when set
up for use. The great and valuable
supply of bubr^tpne is from near Par-
is in the lacustrine deposite, above the
gypsum. It is the latest rock forma-
tipn known.

Buhr-stone has been discovered in
Georgia, near the South Carolina
boundary, about forty miles from the
sea. It lies above shell limestone.

BULB (from i3oA6of). A rounded
body, having the properties of a bud,
usually growing in the ground, but
sometimes produced by the flower
stalk. Bulbs are tunicaud, as the
onion, and squAmtms or scaly, like the
Uly. Many bulbs, when cut down
through the centre, and planted in
pieces, prodnce several plants. On-
ions are cultivated in this way in
Kussia. The adjectives buiboiut ^f^
hotuMy are formed from bulb. The
fleshy, solid root^stock of orchis is
not a bulb, but comuts.

BULBODIUM. An underground
stem resembling the root-stock.

BULL. The excellence of thA*bull
should be well considered in breeding.
BULLACE. A wUd plum of a light
eokMir.

BURDOCK. Arctium lappa, and
bordana. Troublesome, long-rooted
weeds, diflScuU to eradicate. Their
medicinal qualities are imaginary.

BURNED CLAY. See Clay.
^ BURNED EAR. The disease pro-
duced in grain by the Uredo carbo. It
resembles smut, but does not attack
the interior of the seed. It is most
common on heavily-dunged lands in
moist situations. Brining^ especial-
ly in a brine containing a little blue
vitriol, is efficacious in destroying its
effects on grain.

BURNET SALAD. Poiernuniam'
guiaerba. It grows on the poorest
calcareous soite, and is perennial. It
may be propagated by cuttings or
seeds. The leaves taste and smell
like cucumbers ; hence its use in
salads. It is relished by sheep.

BURNS. A lotion of clear lime-
water and linseed oil applied with a
rag, and cautiously guarding from ex«
posure to air, dust, or to injury, by a
bandage, is the best treatment.

BURSA MUCOSA. Small bags
containing a fatty mucus, situated be
tween the joints in all animals.

BUSH. Any shrub which natural-
ly throws out branches near or under
ground. Wild bushes are destroyed
by grubbing, by cutting down during
summer, or by tearing up with oxen.
July is the best month for cutting
them down.

BUSH DRAINING. Placing bush-
es in the water-way of drains : the
tops should be against the current.
It answers well enough for twelve or
more years, but is not so permanent
as other means.

BUSH HARROWING. l/awing
a bush attached to a chain over bro-
ken lands or seeded fields ; or, when
a weight is used, and thorny branch-
es, it is sometimes employed to scar-
ify meadows and prune the grass
roots. An old gate may be used as
a frame, or the more suhstantial con-*
trivance figured on the next pag:e.

BUSHEL A measure containing

4 pecks, 8 gallons, or 32 quarts. It

should contain 80 pounds of water,

, or 2218-192 cubic inches of capacity,

i to constitute an iovterial bushel. The

119

old WinchBBter bushel contained only
SieO'dl cubic inchee,

BUSTARD. Chi* tarda. A Ibt^
gallinaceous fowl indigenaus to Eu-
rope and Alia, oHen weighing twen-
tj-tive to tnenly-MTeti pounds, and
of delicioua flavour. It baa not ;M
been domeatioated.

BUTTER. The preparation of
butter ia nn important part of rural
economy. Butter ia tbe fat or oleagl-
Dona part of tbe milk of rarioua ani-
inala, priaclpailj ofthe domestic cow.
The milk of tbe cow ia oompoeed of
tbree distinct ingredients : tlie curd,
tbe whey, end tbe butter ; the two
first fonn the largest portkin, and tbe
last tbe moat valuable. Tbe oompar-
Btiie value of the milk of dilTeretit
cows, or of the same cows fed on
different pastures, is eatimaied ofaief-
ly by the quantity of butter contained
in it ; and in this reapeot some breeds
of cows are far superior to others.
Tbe union of the component parts of
milk ia chieBy mechanical, aa the;
■efnraie by subsidenoe according to
their apecMc gravities, the cream be-
ing the lighteat, and the curd the
heaviest ; the curd, however, ro-
quirea a alight chemical change for
He separation from the whey, which,
St the same time, produces a peculiar
aoid, called the lactic acid. From the
moment that milk ia drawn fiaia tbe
cow it begins to be aflkoted by the
air and obanges of temperatBre, and
oiroumsiances alnaost hnperceptible
to our senses will materiaUy aObct
its quality J bencetbe importance of
extreme oare and attenlion in every
step of the process of tbe dairy, ee-
peoially In making butter.

The cows should be milked in the
O0OI of tha uoming and Bveniag;
IM

they should rrat be much driven int'
mediately before milking, and it is
best to bring them to the piece of
milking some lime before the opera-
tion begins. In some situationa it is
better lo milk them in the paalores,
and carry the milk home ; in otheia,
to drive tbe cowa gently to the cow-
stall. In mountainoiia countriee tha
first mode is generally adopted, be-
oanse the cowa are apt to leap down
Bteep places, and shake the milk in
their udder more than is done by car-
rying it in the pail.

As tbe slightest acidity or potrea-
eence immediately causes an internal
chemical action in milk, it is of the
greatest importance that the place
where tbe cows are milked, and the
persons employed, ^ould be of Iba
' greatest purity and cleanliness. The
milking house should be paved with
stone or brick, snd no litter or dnng
be permitted to rr^msin in it, )t
should be washed out twice a day,
immediately before each milking,
which, besides ensuring cleanliness,
produces a refreshing; coolness high-
ly useful to tbe milk. The teals of
the oows ahoutd be washed clean
with water and a sponge. The ves-
sels into which the milk is drawn
fhim the oowehouhl tie made of very
dean vrood ; they should be ecaided
immediately after having been used.

o the si

be perfectly dry by the n
naingthem. Tin vessels sre prefer-
able to wood, beeacse they are not
SB easily tainted, and are more easily
kept clean. Where these are used
they should slways be kept bright, by
which means the least apeck of dirt
is immediately discovered.
Tbe milk, as noon as it is lNroa|M

BUTTER.

Into the dairy, is strained through a
^ne sieve or cloth, in order to remove
any extraneous matter, and tt is then
poured into shallow pans or troughs.
The best pans are of iron, carefVdly
tinned. Such pans are cool in sum*
mer, and in winter allow of the appli-
eation of heat, which is often very
useful to maJce the cream rise. When
ieaden troughs are used, they are
generally fixed to the wall, and have
a slight inclination towards one end,
where there is a hole with a plug in
it, by drawing which the thin milk is
allowed to run off slowly, leaving the
eream behind, which runs last through
the hole into the pan placed under to
receive It. The mflk in the pans, or
troughs^ is generally four or five inch-
es in deptb> which is found most con-
ducive to the separation of the cream.
The place where the milk is set should
have a thorough draught of air, by
means of opposite windows. The
sun should be carefully excluded by
high buildings or trees, and the floor,
which should always be of brick or
stone, should be continually kept
moist in summer, that the evapora-
tion may produce an equal, cool tem-
perature. A small store in winter is
a great advantage, provided smoke
and smell be most carefully aToided,
and the temperature be accurately
regulated by a thermometer. AU
these minutis may appear superflu-
ous to those who have no practical
knowledge of the dairy ; . and many
dairymen, who cannot deny the truth
of what we have stated, may excuse
their deviation from these rules by
saying that good butter is made with-
out so much care and trouble. This
may be true ; but they cannot ensure
good butter at all times ; and when
deanliness and order are brought to a-
regular system the trouble disappears.
When the milk has stood twelve
hours, the finest parts of the cream
have risen to the surface, and if they
are then taken ofiT by a skimming
dish, and immediatelvohumed, a very
delicate butter is obtained; but, in
general, it is left twenty-ibor hoars,
when the cream Is collected by skim*
ming, or the thin milk let off by ta-
l-

king out the plug in the trough. AH
the cream is put into a deep earthea
I jar. Stone-ware is the best. More
cream is added every day, till there is
a sufficient quantity to chum, which,
in moderate dairies, is every two
days. It is usual to stir the cream
often, to encourage a slight acidity,
by which the process of churning is
accelerated. This acidity is some-
times produced by the addition of
vinegar or lemon juice ; but, howev-
er this may facilitate the conversion
of the cream into butter, we would
not recommend it, as the quality is
decidedly injured by it, especmlly
butter which is to be salted. It has
been asserted by some authors that
butter will not separate from the but-
ter-milk until acidity is produced, and
no doubt there is more or less of
lactic acid in all butter-milk ; but per-
fectly fresh cream, which has stood
only one night, and is churned early
next morning, will generally produce
excellent butter in a quarter of an
hour or twenty minutes in summer,
and no acid taste can be discovered
in the butter^nilk. That the state
of the atmosphere with respect to
temperature has a povTerftil influence
on the making of batter, is a well-
established fact.

The common method employed to
separate the butter from the thihner
portion of the cream is by strong
agitation. The eommon instrument
is the chum, which is a wooden cask
rather wider at bottom than - at the
top, covered with a round lid with a
hole In the centre. Through this
hole passes a round stick, about four
feet long, inserted in the centre of a
round, flat board with holes in it ;
the diameter of this board is a little
less than that of the top of the churn.
Various impi^vements have been
made on this machine. The cream
should not fill above two thirds of the
churn. By means of this stick, held
in both hands, and moved up and
down, the eream is violently agitated*
passing Ukrough the holes in the board
and round its edge every time the
stick is raised or depressed, and thus
every portion is brought into contact

121

BUTTER.

with the air. In the courae of an
bourns churning, more or less accord-
ing to circamBtances, amall kernels
of butter appear, which are soon uni-
ted by the preaeure of the board
against the bottom of the churn, and
Ibrm a mass of solid butter.- The
butter is collected with the hand, and
placed in a shallow tub for the next
operation. The butter-milk is set
aside for the pigs, or for domestic
use. The butter is still mixed with
aome portion of butter-milk ; but much
of its quality for keeping depends on
the perfect separation. The most
luual way is to spread it thin in a
shallow tub, beating it with a flat
wooden spoon, and washing it repeat-
edly with clear spring water until all
milkiness disappears in the water
which is poured off*. Some experi-
enced daiiymen pretend that the but-
ter is deteriorated by much wash-
ing, and, therefore, express the but-
ter-milk by simply beating the butter
with the hand, kept cool by frequent-
ly dipping it in cold water, or with a
moist cloth wrapped in the form of a
ball, which aoaks up all the butter-
milk, and leaves the butter quite dry.
This operation requires the greatest
attention, especially in warm weath-
er ; and oo person should work the
butter who has not a very cool hand.
The less it is handled the better, and
therefore a wooden spoon or spatula
is mnch to be preferred. The pres-
ence of any eunl renders butter liable
to putrefaotiont and is, to a great ex-
tent, the cause of the unpleasant taste
of that made carelessly in summer.

The greatest portion of the butter
that is made, especially at a distance
ih>m large towns, is immediately salt-
ed and put into casks, which usual^
)y contain fifty-six pounds, and are
called firkins. The quality of the salt
used is of great importance ; if it be
pure, the butter will keep its flavour
for a long time ; but when it is im-
pure, and contains bitter and deliques-
cent salts, the butter soon becomes
rancid. The Dutch are very particu-
lar in this point. They use a kind of
■alt which is made by slow evapora-
tioBi and perfectly erystallixad. The

1»

salt is intimately mixed with the but-
ter. From three to five pounds are
sufilcient for a firkin of fifty -six
pounds. The following mixture has
been found superior to salt alone in
curing butter : half an ounce of diy
salt, pounded fine, two drachms of su-
gar, and two drachms of saltpetre, for
every pound of butter. It is used in
Goshen, Orange county. New- York.
The casks are made of clean white
wood. They are carefully washed
inside with strong brine made hot,
and rubbed over with salt. The but-
ter, being quite diy, is pressed close
into the cask, a small layer of salt
having been first put on tlie bottom.
Every addition is carefully incorpora-
ted with the preceding portion. If
there is not a sufficient quantity to
fill the cask at once, the surface is
made smooth, some salt is put over
it, and a cloth is pressed close upon
it to exclude the air. When the re-
mainder is added at the next churn-
ing, the cloth is taken off, and the
salt which had been put on the sur-
face carefully removed with a spoon.
The surface is dug into with a small
wooden spade, and laid rouffh, and
the newly-salted butter is added and
incorporated completely. This pre-
vents a streak which would other-
wise appear at the place where the
two portions are joined. When the
cask is full, some salt is pot over it,
and the head is put in. If the butter
is well freed from all the butter-milk,
and the salt mixed with it quite dry,
it will not shrink in the cask, and it
will keep its flavour for a long time.
Should there be an appearance of
shrinking, the cask must be opened
and melted butter poured round it, so
as to fill up the interstices between
the butter and the cask ; in this way
it will not sufifer in its quality. There
is a mode of preserving butter for do-
mestic use without salt, in the follow-
ing manner : the butter is set in a
clean pan over the fire and melted
very gently ; it is not allowed to boil,
but is heated very nearly to the boil-
ing point. Experience has shown
this heat to be attained when the re-
flection of the white of the eye is dis-

BUTTER.

Iinctly seen on the surface of the hat-
ter on looking down into the pan. All
the watery particles are then evapo-
rateti, and the curd, of which a por-
tion always remains in the butter,
and which is one cause of its becom-
ing rancid, falls to the bottom. The
clear butter is poured into an earthen
▼essel and covered over with paper,
and a bladder or a piece of leather is
tied over the jar to exclude the air.
When it is cooled it much resembles
hog's lard. It has lost some of its
flavour, but it is much superior to sail
butter for culinary purposes, and es-
pecially for pastry.

The Devonshire method of making
butter differs materially from the
common process which we have de-
scribed, and is peculiar to that coun-
ty. The milk, instead of being set
for the cream to rise, is placed in tin
or earthen pans holding about eleven
or twelve quarts each. Twelve hours
afler milking, these pans are placed
on a broad iron plate, heated by a
«n)all furnace. The milk is not al-
lowed to boil, but a thick scum rises
to the surface. As soon as small
bubbles begin to appear where a por-
tion of this is removed witli a spoon,
the milk is taken off and allowed to
cool. The thick part is taken off the
surface, and this is called clouted
eream. It is a sweet, pleasant sub-
stance, more sohd than cream, but
not so sohd as butter, and is consid-
ered as a dainty by all those w^ho have
been early accustomed to it. A very
slijiht^ agitation converts it into real
butter, alter which it is treated ex-
actly as we bave before described. It
does not keep well. It does not ap-
pear that there is any pecuUar advan-
tage in the Devonshire method.

Another method of making butter,
which is more generally adopted, is
to churn the milk and cream together.
In the Dutch method the milk is put
into deep jars in a cool place, each
mtult or portion milked at one time,
being kept separate. As soon as
there is a slight appearance of acidi-
ty, the whole is churned in an upright
ehurn. which, from the quantity of
milk, is of very large dimensions.

The plunger is therefore worked fiy
machinery moved by a horse, or some-
times by a dog walking in a wheel,
which he turns by his weight. When
the butter begins to form into small
kernels, the contents of the churn aro
emptied on a sieve, which lets thr
butter-milk pass through. The but
ter is then formed into a mass, as de
scribed before. This, from Professo
Trail's experiments, is the most eco
nomical method, as the quantity of but
ter is great and the butter-milk rich.

In Scotland the following metho<f
is pursued : the milk is allowed to
cool for six hours, and then put into
a clean vat. As long as it remains
sweet, more milk may be added, but
not after any acidity is produced, it
is then covered and allowed to get
sour, till it coagulates at the top ; this
coagulum is called the lappcr, which
must not be broken till the butter is
churned. When the clotted miik is
put into the churn, warm water is
added so as to raise the temperature
to 70° or 80°, the whole being grad-
ually stirred in. When this is prop-
erly conducted, the butter-milk will
be very pleasant and wholesome, with
a sub-acid taste, the whey and curd
not being separated from each other
for some time after. The butter is
said to be fully equal to that made
from cream alone. — {Quarterly Jour-
nal of Agriculiure, Dec, 1834.)

The quality of the butter depends
on some very minute circumstances,
which escape the notice of all super-
ficial observers. The smallest parti-
cle of putrescent matter accidentally
added, and even mere effluvia, give
a turn to the chemical action going
on from the moment the milk is ex-
posed to the air, and they taint the
cream more or less. The quantity
of pure cream which rises when the
milk is set in the pans, as well as its
quality, is influenced by these circum-
stances. When the milk curdles be-
fore the cream is separated, it is al-
most impossible to prevedt some por-
tion of the curd being mixed with the
butter. In its perfectly fresh state
the taste is not affected by this ; but
the butter wiU not keep fresh above

-W8

BUT

twenty-four hours, and when salted
soon becomes rancid. Thus a great-
er quantity is produced, but of inferior
quality, when cheese is made of
the milk from which the cream has
been taken, it will be found most
profitable not to attempt to take off
all the cream by repeated skimming ;
for more will be gained in the better
quality of the cheese than by an in-
crease in the quantity of the butter
at the expense of the quality.

It is an acknowledged fact that,
such are the niceties of the dairy,
great experience alone can ensure a
produce of superior quality, and this
experience would be more readily
acquired if the circumstances were
accurately observed and noted. We
would recommend to those who have
extensive dairies to mark by the ther-
mometer the temperature of the milk
and cream in the different stages of
the process, occasionally to test the
acidity of the butter-milk by means of
alkalies, and to note any peculiarity
in the atmosphere by an electrome-
ter. A few observations carefully
noted, repeated, and compared would
throw more light on the true causes
which favour or oppose the produc-
tion of good butter than all the guess-
es that have hitherto been made.

The quality of the butter depends
materially on the nature of the pas-
ture. The best is made from cows
fed in rich, natural meadows. Cer-
tain plants which grow in poor and
marshy soils give a disagreeable taste
to the butter. When cows are fed
with cut grass in the stable, the but-
ter is inferior, except in the case of
some artificial grasses, such as lu-
cerne. Turnips and other roots given
to cows in winter communicate more
or less of a bad taste to butter, which
is corrected in some degree by means
of a small quantity of water and salt-
petre added to the milk ; and also, it
is said, by giving salt to the cows
with their food. But there is no but-
ter made in winter equal to that which
is made where the cows are fed en-
tirely with good meadow hay, especial-
ly of the second crop, called after-math
hay, which contains few seed stalks.

BUT

According to the aoeoants of th«
produce of butter from different coa»>
tries and various breeds of cows, we
may state that, on an average, (bar
gallons of milk produce sixteen oaa-
ces of butter ; and to make the feed-
ing of cows for the dairy a profitable
employment, a good cow should pro-
duce six pounds of butter per week
in summer, and half that quantity in
winter, allowing from six weeks to
two months for her being dry before
calving; that is, one hundred and
twenty pounds in twenty weeks after
calving, and eighty pounds in the re-
mainder of the time till she goes dry ;
in all, about two hundred pounds In
the year. If she produces more, she
may be considered as a superior cow;
if less, she is below par. To produoe
this quantity the pasture must be
good, and we must allow three acres
to keep a cow in grass and hay for a
year, which is not very far from the
mark.

An inferior kind of butter is made
in some cheese dairies from the oily
portion of the milk skimmed from the
whey, which is set in pans, like milk,
after the cheese has been made. It
is totally unfit for salting and keeping.
It is known by the name ofwheff bm-
ter.—{W. C.Rkam.)

BUTTERFLY. Insects of the ge-
nus Papilio (Lin.) in the imago state.
Many of them are produced from the
caterpillars most injurious to culti-
vated plants and trees, as the goose-
berry and cabbage butterflies.

BUTTERNUT. A tree of the wal-
nut genus, 'Ju^^n« cinerea. It is dif-
fused throughout the United States.
The wood is of a reddish colour,
light, soft, but very durable, and not
liable to attacks from insects. It is
highly esteemed for turnings in the
Eastern States, and is abundantly
used for panelling for carriages, and
building generally. The inner bark
is cathartic, and a decoction is used
by housewives.

BUTTERS, VEGETABLE. The
solid oils of the cocoa, nutmeg, palm,
chocolate, &c., are so called.

BUTTON-WOOD. FaJse syea-
more. Tho Platanut occideTUaliSfVresl'

CAB

GAB

ern ^ne-tree, the largMt, and one of
the handsomest trees of America. It
reaches its full dimensions only in the
rich alluvion of the middle Western
States, on the banks of the Ohio.
The wood is soft, and decays rapidly
when exposed, but is senriceable for
shsheied carpentry. The tree in the
Northern States has been mach in-
jored by early frosts and insects.

BUTTS. The short ridges which
are made by the ploagh in the cor-
ners of irregular fields.

BUTYRIC ACID. An oily vols-
tile acid found in rancid butter, and
having a rancid smell ; it is soluble
in water, alcohol, and ether : boils at
9\%9. It ooasists of Os UaH Os HO
(ch). It is formed by the oxidation
of the component of butter called
bntyrine, and yields by distillation
from hme bntryone, a nentral vola-
tile )iqttid.

BUXUS. The generio nuae of the
hex plants. See Bax-tru.

BYRE. A cow-shed for feeding,
&c.

BYSLINS. The first milk of tJie
cow after calving.

BYSSUS. A genera] name for the
thiead-like monkl of cellars and cav-
erns of vegetable origin. They be-
long to many genera, and to the fami-
ly of fungi.

CABBAGE. The varieties of
cabbage, coleworts, broccoh', are all
derived, by cultivation, from the
Brassiea oleraceat a sea-shore plant,
indigenous to Europe. It belongs
to the croeiferotls fhmliy of Jussieu,
and Tetradynamia niiquoaa of Lin-
naeus.

In agricolture, they may be divided
into three classes : 1st. Those that
form heads. 3d. Those that grew
erect without forming heads. 8d.
Those that ate napiform, as Kohl
robe.

Of Cabhages which form Heads.— ^
These may be divided into early,
midsummer, and autumn kinds. Of
the first, the eariy dwarf, early York,
eariy sugar-loaf, early imperial are
the best. The midsnmmet kind are

the large York, large snger-loaf; Bev*
gen, drumhead, flat Dutch, and the
autumn, the late glazed red, and the
varieties of Savoy. The seeds, ia
ordinary culture, are sown in April ;
but for early crops they are sown ia
September, and covered by a frame
daring winter ; or in a firame in Feb*
roaiy, care being taken to supply
light and air without admitting frost.
An ounce of seed yields from 3000 to
4000 plants. In the garden, where a
succesuon is required, seeds most be
sown every two weelis from Februa^
ry to May. The seeds start in a
week, and are fit to transplant in six
or seven weeks. There is, however^
no advantage in transplanting too
soon, as the young plants are very
liable to be destroyed by the cutworm
and insects during June and early in
July. They are set in rows 16 inch-
es to 2 feet apart, allowing sufficient
room for hoeing, ploughing, &c. The
Bergen are set 30 inches apart. It
is economical to |dace an extra plant
between each, to be cot for coUards.
At this rate, the acre contains about
0000 plants. The soil must be very
fine, and well dunged, for no vegeta-
ble is more improved by putrescent
manures. In planting, it is necessa-
ry to use a trowel to opea the ground,
and not a stick to ram a hole. The
process of dipping the roots in a sem-
ifluid mass of fine earth and water,
with half a pound in four gallons of
crude nitre, and of whale-oil soap, is
highly recommended as ensuring a
vigorous start for the plants, and be^
Ing very serviceable in keeping ofi*
worms. A bucket with this mixture
can be readily carried by the planter*
The ground must be ploughed, hoed,
or thoroughly stirred three times da«
ring their growth, weeds being de-
stroyed, and the soil kept fine. Do*
ring a dry season they require water-
ing, and will be much benefited by
the use of fluid manures. The soil
they most relish is a raoistish loam»
made very rich with putrescent map
nores. Extensive fields of cabbages
are cultivated near New- York city ;
the early kinds and largo Bergen.
Savoy, and red being most preferred.

126

CAB

GAB

The ftiOomUtgiB an e«liiiiate of the
expense, by Mr. Wyckoff, for an acre :
40 loade street manure, $16 ; labour
in distributinff, $3; ploughing, bar*
Fowinp, and hoeing, $9 ; or in all, $S8.
The field contained 6000 plants, and
8000 heads sold in market realized
$60. As soon as frosts set in the
eabbages must be put up for 'protec-
tioo. This is done by burying them
up to the head in a dry, warm situa-
tion, stripping off decayed or broken
open leaves, and packing them close-
ly together, taking care that they are
free from moisture. A low shed is
then to be formed over them with
straw, pine brush, boards, &c., so as
to keep out the sun and frost, at the
same time that air circulates freely.
In the depth of winter it may be neces-
sary to place straw around the sides
of the shed ; or, the cabbages being
out, may be stored in a root cellar.

Nutritious Value. — Cabbages are
seldom raised as food for stock in
the United States, although it is com-
mon enough to throw to hogs, dec,
the under leaves which have begun
to decay. In Germany and France
they are extensively used as fodders.
Two general kinds are employed,
the open-leaved and hearted : of the
first kind, according to Antoine's ta-
bles, 541 pounds are equal to 410 of
green clover, or 100 of grass hay ;
but the hearted cabbage, according
10 Boussingaolt, is much more valua-
ble, 370 pounds being equal to 100
pounds of hay. The amount of food
procured from some of the cow cab-
bages is immense, often amounting
during the year to upward of 100,000
pounds of leaves the acre.

Specific Manure*. — The cabbage
family are especially improved by
well-decayed manures and by gyp-
sum, or particularly by solutions of
crude nitre and Glauber salts, one
pound in about four gallons of wa-
ter, applied by a flowering-pot, when
transplanted ; and subsequently they
will be found of the greatest utility.

Seed*. — ^To obtain fine seeds, put

out some of the heads which have

been kept through winter; as soon

as the weather permits, thin down

126

the flower^steon to a few at the i

Take care to keep the Taneties sep*
arate, or they become mixed and
spoiled.

It should be remarked of the cab*
bage stems kept over till spring, that,
if they be set out, numerous eyes will
develop, which afford early greens»
and may he kept bearing a long timo
by hindering them from seeding.

2<f. Of tkt open4etned Varieties.-^
The principal varieties cultivated in
Europe are the tree, or thousand*
headed ; the cow cabbage, or Cesa-
rean cole ; the Jersey cole ; the Wo-
bum kale, and Poitou cabbage. They
are sown in autumn in beds, planted
out from November to February, are
ready for plucking in April, and con-
tinue to afibrd leaves for forage di^
ring the summer, the stems running
up to six and more feet. They stand
the winters of France, and might be
grown in the Middle and Southern
States. It may be very questionable
— when the rich land necessary, and
the labour of cultivation are considei>
ed — ^whether they will be ever grown
in the United States,

3<2. Of M^/orm Cabbages. — Sev^al
hybrid varieties t>etween the turnip
and cabbage have been produced;
these either have a swollen root and
cabbage head, as the Kokl rohe, or they
produce a turnip-like head. They
are little cultivated, and resemble
turnips, but are much less infested
by insects.

CABBAGE, DISEASES OF.
Clubbing of the roots arises from
worms, and is produced by growing
them too long in one locality. See
Anbury. Cabbage lice are the same
as bean lice. See Aphis. They are
destroyed by infusion of tobacco,
lime dust, salt. Worms of various
kinds infest the leaves; the leaves
should be stripped off and burned, or
soot, tobacco, lime, dec, used to de-
stroy them. Cutworms are caught
before sunrise, and should be de-
stroyed, or the foregoing noxious
substances should be worked in about
the roots wiih a trowel. Slugs are
to be similarly treated.

CABBAGE, FREPAAED. Smur

OAJO

CAF

krmu. TIhp is prepared ia the foI«

lowing manner : the cabbages are

sliced thin by hand, or by a machine.

The bottom of a cask, of which the

head has been taken out, is covered

with salt, and a layer of thin-sliced

eabbage, six inches thick, is laid over

it ; on this a quantity of salt is spread,

and another layer of cabbage, mixed

with some janiper berries and whole

pepper; and thus salt and cabbage

fdiernately until the cask is filled. A

rottBd board is then put into the cask,

so as nearly to fill it, and on this a

heavy weight of stone or metal is

laid. As the cabbage ferments and

sinks, the cask is filled up with fresh

salt and cabbage. After some time

the expressed juice is poured off,

some water, with sak dissolved in it,

is poured over, and changed until it

ceases to rise with a scum and fetid

smell ; the cabbage is then in a fit

state to be kept. A doth is laid over

it. and over this the round board and

weights. When any portion is taken

cot for use, a sufficient quantity of

brine is allowed to remain over the

mass to exclude the air, and the

cloth, board, and weights are replaced

as long as any cabbage remains.

This saner krauiy when washed with

soft water, and stewed with bacon

or salted meat, is a very wholesome

dish, and much relished by those who

have been early accustomed to it.

In long voyages it has been found to

be an admirable preservative against

the sea- scurvy.

CABBAGE TREES or PALMS.
Palm-trees which, like the palmetto,
form edible buds, which are used as
food.

CACHECTIC. A bad state of
body, bringing aboot boils, skin dis-
eases, 6ce,

CACHMERE GOAT. The Cach-
mere goat is a native of Persia.
There are many varieties, dtflering
in colour and in the quality of the
fleece ; the principal points of the
most approved breeds are large ears,
limbs slender, and, above all, the
wool or hair being straight, silky, and
white.
- They have been successfully intro-

duoed hito Fmiee by M. TtmeaKi»
and also into En^and by C. T. Tow*
er, of Essex, who purchased four,
two males and two females, of M.
Terneaux, of Paris. The aoU ea
which they were kept in England was
moist, and the situation much ex-
posed ; they have, nevertheless, con*
tinned in health and multiplied ra^nd-
ly, his flock increasing from four to
twenty-seven in six years ; the fe-
males prodncing every year a kid«
and sometimes twins. They breed
very early, often bearing young be-
fore they are twelve months old.
They show no impatience of the cold,
and are very healthy, requiring only
an occasional shelter in very rough
weather. In spring, summer, and
autumn they graze like sheep, and
during winter are fed with hay and
refuse vegetables. The shawls mads
in England from the produce of Mr.
Tower's goats will, for fineness of
texture, vie with those brought firont
Persia. There is no doubt that it
may be successfully introduced into
this country. Being remarkably tame,
they can be kept in flocks at as little
expense and trouble as the commom
goat or sheep ; they eat almost every-
thing, even potato tops, weeds, and
bushes of all kinds, taking but little
from the pastures that other animals
would feed on. We hope some of
our enterprising farmers will tarn
their attention to this animal by im-
porting it, as it can be easily obtain-
ed, and, no doubt, will bear the trans-
portation and change of climate with
very little risk.

CACTUS. A tribe of fleshy plants,
some of which are oelebnted for
their splendid floweiv and pleasant
acid truit resembling the gooseberry.

CADUCOUS. Decidnous, faUiog
off; temporary.

CiESAREAN OPERATION. The
removal of a foetus from its mother
by cutting into the womb.

CAFFEIN. A slightly bitter,
white, silky principle obtained from
coffee, tea, guarana, and pauUinia.
It is the same as theine. Liebig finds
it to consist of Cg H» N« O -t-HO.
He has shown that it may act as (oad

1S7

CAL

jn increasing the amount of bile fona-
ed, by furniBhiog nitrogen thereto.
To the same end asparagine and tkeo-
bromirut analogous principles, are
also destined.

CALAMINE. A powdery mineral,
sold by druggists as an absorbent for
alcerous sores and extensive boms.
It is an impure carbonate of zinc,
I^cpared by roasting. An ointment
made with lard is sometimes used to
promote the healing of sores.

CALANDRA. The genus of wheat
weevils. See Wkeat.

CALCARATE <firom adcaryh
spar). Flowers having a spur like
the larkspur are so ealled. The spur
is also called a juetarivm by Linnsus.

CALCAREOUS. Containing car-
bonate of lime, as calcareous marl,
soils, sand, 6cc. See Lime.

CALCINATION. The burning of
substances to ashes.

CALCIUM. The metallic base of
Itme, which is an oxide of calcium.
Its equivalent is 20, and therefore
lime is 28. A few electro-negative
bodies, as sulphur, chlorine, fluorine,
form salts directly with the metal,
and are called sutphuret, chloride,
floorlde of calcium. See Lime,

CALC SPAR. Crystallized car-
bonate of lime.

CALCULUS. Any solid, stony
concretion foraaed in the bladder,
gall-duct, ^cc.

CALEPACIENT. Medicines that
produce the sensation of warmth, as
alcohol, are so ealled.

CALENDAR. A monthly record.

CALF. The young of the cow.
Calves dropped in March and April
are best for raising. If they are to
be kept, they should run with the
cow, in a meadow, for three to six
weeks, and afterward be fed on but-
ter-milk with meal, and separated into
a good meadow. Those which are
to be siaugiitered are generally re-
moved from the cow at once, put up
into a small endosare and feeding
stall, and supplied with milk and
messes of meal until fat. The males
are castrated at thirty days for steers ;
the operation is very simple, one inci-
sion being made on each side the bag.
128

CAL

CALF, DISEASES OF., These
are principally :

1. Navel III. — The best treatment
for this dangerous disease is, Ist, to
administer two or three doses (each
about a wine-glassful) of castor oil ;
and, 2dly, cordials, which may be
made of two drachms of caraway
seeds, two of coriander seeds, and
two of powdered gentian ; bruise the
seeds, and simmer them in beer or
gruel for a quarter of an hour : give
these once or twice a day.

2. CoHstipalion of the Bowels. — For
this, doses of castor oil, of two or
three ounces, are the best remedy.

8. Diarrhaa, or Scouring. — The
farmer may rely on the following mix-
ture. Let him keep it always by him ,
it will do for all sucking animals :

Prepared chalk . . 4 ounces.

Canella bark, powdered 1 "

Laudanum .... 1 "

Water ...... 1 pint.

Give two or three table-spoonfuls, ao
cording to the size of the animal, two
or three times a day.

4. Hoose, or Catarrh. — Good nurs-
ing, bleeding, and then a dose of Ep-
som salts, with half an ounce of gin-
ger in iL---{ Yauatt on Cattle )

CALKERS, or CALKINS. The
parts of a horseshoe turned down-
ward.

CALLUS. When the bone of an
animal is broken by accident, nature
restores the union by depositing a
quantity of bony matter around the
loose extremities, and thus fixing
them. This deposite is called a cal-
lus ; it is absorbed after the limb is
re-established.

CALOMEL. The sub-chloride of
mercury. An admirable medicine,
producing an increased secretion of
bile and purgation. In bilious at-
tacks, a dose of ten grains is one of
the best medicines. It is a compo-
nent of many cattle medicines (see
BaU\ in the dose of one drachm for
a horse.

CALORIC. This name is given
to the cause of heat, which is un-
known. CaloriJiCf capable of produ-
cing heat, as the calorific rays uf the
sun, which are found in the red and

CA.M

onnge pvU i^ the speetrnm fonned
by fliDt glass .

CALVING. The act of bringing
forth a calf. The cow Hbould not
b« disturbed, and bave comrortsble
quarters. A warm drink ia usual-
ly given afterward, containing meal.
She should be kept quiet, and rather
UDderred for a few days.

Calx. An old term for any earth;
body produced by burning,

CALTCANTHUS FLORIDCS.
Tba Carolina allspice : a fragrant
sbrub, with morooD-coloured flowera.

CALYX (from lalvf, a cup). The
ouier green ease of flowers. It pro-
tects the internal parts. It is col-
oured in plants like tolips, hyacinths,
&c.

CAMBIUM. A gummy fluid form-
ed in spring in our forest. trees. It
atTunls the materials out of which
the new wood and bark are partly
made, and disappears in a short time.

CAMELLIA.- A. genus of evei^
green shmbs, of which the C. j'apOTi-
. tea produces beauliful flowers, now
iliTersified by cultiration. It requires
a green-houac for successful growth,
but may be grown onl ofdoors, near
a south walC covered with glass and
malted during serere weather. It is
propagated by cuttings, layers, and
gralla. Flowers from January to
Slarch in the house. The C. olei/era
ia much ciiltivaled by the Chinese for
its oil, obtained by pressing the seeds.

CAMOMILE. The Anlhtmit no-
mU furnishes the drug of this name.
It ia eiotic, but grows readily in the
Middle States. The plant is peren-
nial and hardy, yielding three or four
crops of flowers, which are bitter
and tonic. It grows on poor, dry
lands ; ia propagated by seeds, root
cuttings, and layers. An infttsion is
Tory nauseous to many insects.

CAMP. Amouldin which to keep
potatoes, TOOlB, &c., daring winter.
See Barrotc.

CAMPANULATE. Be«-ahaped :
applied to flowers of that flgure, as
the Caniethuiy biU,

CAMPHOR. A solid essential oil,
consisting of C«, Hn+i HO. It
Is a nerrons sedative, soothing pain.

CAt*

It Is oWaJned in iho crude state br

distilling the twigs, roots, &c , of
several plants, chiefly the Lounw
campftora and Dryahalanopa tmmphord,
trees of tropical Asia. It is purified
by Bublimalion in Europe aod Araer*
ica. Michaux is disposed to believe
that the Ijoemt camphora, a large
evergreea, might flonrish in Florida.
Camphor is peculiarly disagreeaMa
to the insects which infest cloth and
woollen goods. The solution in al-
cohol is the commonest form of the
medicine. A solution in oil is aa
admirable embrocation to painfld
sprains, rheumatisms, &c.

Camphor is found in numerous
herbs, especially peppermint, ross-
mary, thyme, lavender, 6cc. The
quantity is, however, too minute to
yield a commercial supply.

CANADA THISTLE. Carduw or.
TCKtii. Its perennial roots render it
a great nuisance. The introdnctioQ
of two-hoed or worked crops, with
much tillage, is the most eflectual
rsmedy. Largo doses (thirty basb-
els) of salt, or a heavy hming (one
hundred bushels), oi
a dean fallow ii
mDOh reputed e
means of clea
lands of weeds and

NARY A

ORA58. PhtUariM

nual grass, yieldmg —
the canary seeds for
birds. Ttie seeds are
sown as soon as the ~«

frost is oDt of the |
grounditheyrequiro |
a good dry loam In |
September the plants !
are fit to cut. The ■
heads are exposed to
the air in heaps for
some time, to assist
the thrashing. The
yield is trofa twen-
ty-five to forty bush-
els ; the straw ia
poor and scanty.

CANCELLATE.
the ends of the long

Mimnon in cattle.

CANDLE. The best mature for
din an.l mould candles is equal parts
of sheep «iti beef fat. Lard must

'"cTndleberrt myrtle.

Mvrica ttrifera. Abounds through
tlif UnHed StWes. The berrie- —
boiled ill water, and the wax
to iho lop : it is eicelient fur —
dies The labour is said not lo be
repaid by the profits of their coUec-

CANIS. The generic Mine of the

dog species. See Dog.

CANKER. A disease of the bark
of old trees, or sncb as are in a
trad situation. It is sometimes at-
tended with an exudation of fluid, at
others not. The bark gradually dies,
falls off, and the wood becomes dry
and dead. Judicious pruning, an
application of resinous grafting ce-
mcnt to all wounds, and tillage about
the roots, are necessary. Young
trees planted in old, cankered or-
chaida, are soon infected.

CANKER IN HORSES. The
separation oflhehooffrom the fleshy
parts of the leg, attended with a dis-
eased growth. PressuTB and caus-
tics are necessary, with real, for a

CANKER-WORM. The caterpil-
lars which infest and devour the buds
of fruit-trees, especially those of the
Gcamtira trumata. See Apjit Can-

CANfJABIS SATIVA. Hemp.
which see.

CANTER. An artificial pace to
which horses are broken. It is con-
sidered much less fatiguing than the
trot.

CANTHARIDIS, The blistering
lly, which see.

CAOUTCHOUC. Indian rnhber,

CAPERS. A prioklv shrtib ..f
southern Krance nnd Italy, the Cap-
•parit tpinnia. The young hiids arc

daily stripped off and cast into strong
vinegar Gtighlly salted, U> produce
the commercial capers. "Oiey re-
ceive a greenish tint from the use of
copper sieves in separating the dif-
ferent sized pickled buds for sale.
The plant would grow well south of
Maryland. It is highly orcBmenial
for green -ho uses.

CAPILLARY ATTRACTION.
Some fluids rise in line glaes tubes
much higher than their level. This
eleviitiDn is said to be owing to ca-
pillary attraction. It occurs to great-
extents as the tubes are flnpr. and
an affinity exerted by the sides of
the glass upon the fluid. The cause
has been shown lo be electrical, and
depend upon the electrical condi-
ns of the tube and fluid. If there
no affinity, ihe fluid sinks. The
nute tubes of plants assist in draw-
ing up the sap by this attraction.
CAPILLARY VESSELS (from
ptilm, B Aair). The minute ves-
sels which exist over every part of
the bodies of animals and plants.

CAPITULU-M. That species of
iuflorescence in which Ihe flowers
are grouped together into a head, bm

CAPON. A male bird that has
been castrated : it is increased in
size thereby.
CAPRIFICATION (frwm MpnjS-
t,amidfig). The practice of prick-
g the green fig with a piece of
iek touched with olive oil, to hasten
(? maturity. It is regulariy observ-
iii the culture of the I^icvant figs.

CAR

CAPROIC ACID. One of the
rancid acids of butter, having the
smell of goats. Caphc acid is yery
similar.

CAPSICUM. The generic name
of the Red pepper, which see.

CAPSULE. In botany, a dry,
membranous seed-vessel, generally
splitting spontaneously into several
parts, or valves. In chemistry, a thin
porcelain, Wedgewood ware or me-
tallic basin for evaporating fluids.

CAPUT MORTUUM. An old term
designating the dregs left in any
chemical process.

CARAWAYS. The seeds of Ca-
rum carui. They should be free from
dust, and strongly aromatic. Are
used in confections and medicine.
They are grateful to the stomach,
and slightly stimulant. The seeds
are sown in drills six inches apart,
in April. The land must be good,
rich loam. The plants must be weed-
ed and hoed when young. They
flower in June, and the seeds ripen
in autumn. The roots are perennial,
and yield well for three years. As
much as twenty hundred weight of
seed is taken from an acre in good
tilth. They are an exhausting crop.
Near London, coriander, caraways,
and teazles are sometimes sown to-
gether, twelve pounds of each being
used. The coriander is cut in July,
the caraway in July next year, and
the teazles in August.

CARBON. An elementary body,
Ibund pure in anthracite and the dia-
mond, and nearly pure in lamp-black
and charcoal. It combines readily
with oxygen, and burns, forming car-
bon ie acid when air is abundant. Its
equivalent is 6. It forms about half
of the dry substance of all animal and
vegetable bodies, and hence the char-
coal they yield when heated in closed
vessels.

CARBONATES. Minerals or salts
containing carbonic acid. These are
aU readily known by the efTervesccnce
they produce when thrown into strong
acids. The principal native carbon-
ates are marble, limestone, and ch<ilk,
which are carbonates of lime.

CARUONICACID. The gas form-

CAB

ed by burning charcoal in the open air.
It is also given out from fermenting
beer, dec, and putrefying bodies. It
is colourless, heavy, incapable of sus-
taining combustion, suffocating, and
soluble in water. It is formed of 1
atom of carbon (6) and 2 of oxygen
(16), and unites with oxides in the
proportion of 22. The air contain*
4 to 6 parts in 10,000. Fertile soils
containing vegetable matter give ft
off during its decay. It is one of the
principle articles of vegetable food :
from the carbonic acid they obtain the
carbon of their wood, sugar, and oth-
er principles. Light decomposes it
in plants, and a part of its oxygen is
thrown out by the leaves.

The dissolved carbonic acid in rain
and spring water is invaluable in
the soil, serving to disintegrate hard
rocks, and dissolve minerals neces-
sary for plants. It is this gas that
gives sprightliness to beer, soda wa-
ter, and Champagne.

CARBONIC OJCIDE. An inflam-
mable gas consisting of 1 atom car-
bon and 1 oxygen.

CARBONIFEROUS. Relating to
coal. Coal bearing.

CARBURETS. Compounds in
which carbon is united with a metal
or other body. Plumbago, cast iron,
are carburets of iron.

CARBURETTED HYDROGEN.
Marsh gas, and the gas used foi light-
ing cities.

CARCINOMA. A cancerous tu-
mour.

CARDAMOMS. Tlie seeds of the
Alpinia cardamomum of the East In-
dies. They are aromatic.

CARDIAC (from Kopdia^ the heart).
Relating to the heart.

CARDOON. The Cynara cardun-
cuius. The stalks of the blanched
inner leaves aremsed as salad, in
soups, dec. The seed is sown in
April, in rich earth ; it requires near-
ly a month to start ; the plants
must be thinned to five inches apart.
Transplant in June, and allow four
feet each way ; dress each plant like
celery. As they grow, tie up the
leaves, and earth up several times ;
they may thus be obtained two feet

131

CAlt

high. They are to be taken up du-
ring vinter, like celery. They are
in perfection from autumn through
the winter. An ounce of seed pro-
duces 600 young plants ; for seeds
protect the plant, without any blanch-
uig, through the winter, and it will
flower in the following Jul^.

CARDUUS. The generic name of
numerous thistles.

CAKEX. The genus of sedges and
rashes.

CARIES. Mortification or ulcerar
tion of any hone. It gradually pro-
duces the destruction of the part, and
can only be arrested by scraping out
every diseased portion.

CARMINATIVE. Any medicine
that dispels flatulency and relieves
the uneasiness of the stomach. The
best are caraways, ginger, anise seed,
cardamoms, especially as tinctures,
or dissolved in alcohol.

CARNIVORA. The race of ani-
mals that live on animal food.

CAROB. A tree cultivated in
Southern France for the pods it pro-
duces. These contain a reddish pulp
of a svireet, amylaceous nature, and
are a foot long. They are used as
food for men and horses.

CAROTID ARTERY. The large
arteries that carry red blood to the
head. There is one on each side the
neck, known by its strong pulsa-
tions.

CARPEL (from xapir^^, fruit).
Each division or cell of a fruit is a
carpel. The number of carpels, or
carpellary leaves, is as the number of
divisions in the pistil, which is the
uppermost part of the carpel.

CARROT. The DaiMriM carirfa im-
proved by tillage, of the natural fam-
ily Umbellifer<g. The carrot requires
a deep, dry, sandy loam, which should
be prepared by subsoiling ; they are
also much improved by humus in the
soil, and come best after a crop to
which a heavy manuring has been
given. The best fleld kinds are the
white, the long red, the Altringham,
and the orange ; of these the white
is most prolific and valuable. The
amount of seed is three to five pounds
the acre ; it must be steeped well, or

CAR

kept in moist mould until it has ger-
minated, and sown in drills one inch
deep and one foot apart. For a full
crop, April is the time of planting ;
but a fair yield can be obtained by
sowing immediately aAer wheat, or in
June. The plants must be well work-
ed, weeded, and thinned out to five
inches ; but it is erroneous to pull the
leaves for fodder. In October, or
when the ground is .beginning to
freeze, they can be raised by turning
the earth from the roots by a plough,
and drawing them by hand. They
are to be topped, and stored in the
cellar, or a proper barrow or camp ;
they will keep well till spring. A
good crop is 600 bushels ; but 400 is
more common. There is no peculi-
arity in garden culture, except that
the early orange must be sown soon-
er ; the long orange is the best fall
crop.

Expense of Cultivation. — Colonel
Meacham, who succeeded in obtain-
ing 1000 bushels of carrots per acre
for several years, estimates the ex-
pense per acre at ^35. This culture
adapts the land admirably for wheat
or barley.

Value as Food, — ^It is extensively
used in England, and to some extent
in the Eastern and Northern States,
as horse fodder, and is well adapted
to oxen, hogs, dec The carrots should
be boiled or steamed, or, if given
raw, sliced with a vegetable cutter.
According to Antoine's tables, 276
pounds equal 100 of hay (see Fodr
ders) ; they make twice as good fod-
der as turnips, and nearly equal to
potatoes. Carrots and hay are a
good fodder for horses, or, when
given alone, about fifty pounds pre-
pared will be necessary each day.
They are very fattening.

Special Maimres. — The ashes of the
carrot are, per cent., potash and so-
da, 45 ; lime, 10 ; sulphuric acid, 2 7 ;
phosphoric acid, 6- 14. It is, there-
fore, remarkable for ita affinity for
alkalies. Hence, ashes, common salt,
and gypsum are eminently useful as
manures. An abundance of well-
rotted leaves and muck should be
added.

CAR

CAS

Seeds. — These are procured by set-
ting out fine roots in the spring.

CART. Tlie one-horse two-wheel-
ed carriage of h usbandmen. They are
considered superior to the wagon by
Scotch farmers. A cart load is gen-
erally about thirty to thirty-five bush-
els of manure. Mr. Rham remarks :
"For agricultural purposes, various
kinds of carts have been invented.
The capacious tumbril for carting
earth and dung, with broad wheels to
prevent their sinking in sofl ground,
is too generally known to require de-
scription. The best constructed carts
have iron axles with the ends or arms
turned smooth, and very slightly con-
ical. The boxes in the naves of the
wheels, which receive the arms, are
made of cast iron, and ground smooth,
so as to require only a small quantity
of grease or oil to make the wheels
run easily, without allowing any play
or side motion. It is usual to give
the axle abend at the place where it
enters the wheel, by which means
the planes of the wheels are made to
diverge from each other, and give
more room for the body of the cart ;
but this is decidedly wrong. It is
clearly proved that the draught is
least when the arms are quite hori-
zontal ; and if the wheels are slightly
dished, that is, if the spokes are driv-
en into the nave obliquely, so as to
throw the rim a little beyond the per-
pendicular, the lower part of the
spokos in each wheel will slightly di-
verge, and give greater steadiness
to the whole. When the axle is bent,
the rim of a broad-wheeled cart must
be slightly conical, in order that it
may rest flat on the ground ; and it
is easily proved that in this case the
load is dragged on the road at every
revolution, along a space equal toHhe
difference between the greater and
lesser circumference of the rim of
the wheel, giving unnecessary work
to the horses, and greatly injuring
the roads. The light Scotch cart,
drawn by one horse, is justly consid-
ered as the most advantageous for
transporting earth, limr, or dung, es-
pecially in hilly countries. It is low
and short, so that the horse draws

very near the centre of gravity, and
there is little power lost by obliquity.
The loads may be so adjusted as to
bear more or less on the horse, ac-
cording to the declivity ; and expe-
rience has proved that more weight
can be transported by a given number
of horses, when each is attached to
a single Scotch cart, than when three
or four draw together, except it be on
very level and hard roads, or when
the horses move at a quick pace.
The objection made to single-horse
carts, that each requires a man to
drive it, is obviated in Scotland,
where the horses are trained to fol-
low each other, and one man can at-
tend to several carts and horses.**

CARTHAMUS. See Safflower.

CARTILAGE. The same as gris-
tie. It is almost identical in compo-
sition with skin, and yields, when
perfectly dry, eighteen per cent, of
nitrogen. Liebig regards it as pro-
tein, combined with ammonia.

CARYA. The generic name of
the Hickory.

CARYOPHILLOUS. Flowers like
the pink and dove are so called.

CASCARILLA BARK. A drug
having tonic and aromatic qualities.

CASEOUS. Relating to caseum.

CASEUM. Pure curd of mUk. It
is also found in beans, pease, and le-
guminous plants, and in small quan*
tity in most seeds. It differs from
albumen and fibrin only in not being
coagulated by beat, and containing
more sulphur. Cheese is caseum, for
the most part ; like other protein bod-
ies, it is capable of sustaining life.
When moist, it decays and putrefies
like animal matter, but is preserved
when dry, or prepared with salt.

CASSAVA. The starch obtained
from the roots of the Jatropha manikot
of the West Indies. See Tapioca.

CASTANEA. The generic nam©
of the chestnut- tree.

CASTOR-OIL PLANT. The Ri-
cinus communist commonly called Pal'
ma Christi from the leaves. In the
East Indies it is a tree, but becomes
an annual in the United States, and
is cultivated as far north as New-
Jersey, and abundantly in the West.

133

CAT

Tbe Baeds are sown in hills like corn,
and hoed until they are two feet high.
The time of sowing is in April and
May : the ground must be rich. The
seeds are enclosed in capsules at the
sumoiits, and are easily thrashed out.
The crop is stated at twenty to twen-
ty-iive bushels the acre. Tbe oil is
separated in two difTerent ways : 1st.
By boiling the bruised seeds enclosed
in a bag, and skimming off the oil as
it rises, and, finally, pressing tiie bag.
2d. By heating the seeds in iron trays
slightly, so as not to char, pressing
under a screw, collecting tbe oil,
and boiling in water, taking care to
separate all the white parts, and re-
serving the pure limpid oil only. This
is placed in barrels. The seeds yield
about one fourth of their weight of
good oil. The price iluctuates con-
siderably.

CASTOR OIL. An admirable
purge for animals, especially calves :
four to six ounces is enough for a
strong ox. It is now used for burn-
ing and machinery, as well as for can-
dles, when prepared by the separa-
tion of the fluid parts from the stearin.

CATALPA. The BiftnaniacaltUpa,
a middling-sized tree, nearly fifty feet
high, growing in the Middle States
and South, remarkable for its large
flowers and leaves. The wood is du-
rable, and makes good posts and fen-
ces, and is said, by Dr. G. B. Smith
and others, to be more lasting than
locust or mulberry. It grows very
rapidly.

CATARACT. In farriery, a dis-
ease in the eyes of horses, in which
the crystaline humour is rendered
opaque, and the vision impeded or
destroyed. The only certain method
of cure in these complaints is to re-
move the lens by means of extract-
ing or couching. By the first-men-
tioned operation, an incision is made
into the eye through tbe white mem-
brane, and the opaque lens taken out ;
by the second, it is depressed by the
point of a couching needle thrust into
the eye, and, being carried to the low-
er part of the chamber of the eye or
vitreoQS humour, it is lefl there to be
absorbed. The first operation is the

134

CAT

more eflfective, but the more haznd-
ous of the two, owing to the inflam-
mation which succeeds. The second
is tedious and sometimes fails, but it
is less free from the risk of inflam-
mation.

CATARRH. A cold. The irrita-
tion of the mucoos membrane of the
nostrils.

CATCH-DRAINS. The lower
aitches of irrigated lands, which re-
ceive the water that has flowed over
their surface, and return it to the
stream.

CATECHU. A drug of a very as-
tringent or binding nature. It is also
used in dyeing browns and in tanning.

CATERPILLAR. The worm, or
larva, which is hatched from the eggs
of butterflies and moths. They are
peculiarly obnoxious, from feeding on
the leaves, fruit, and bark of trees.
The most effective method of exter-
minating them is to keep the tree
regularly cleaned by washing with
lye, brine, soft soap, and removing
every appearance of cocoon or net-
work about the branches. The ap-
plication of strong hartshorn to the
caterpillar nests is practised by Mr.
Pell with great success. Lime is also
very hurtful to them. Caterpillars,
after a season, depending on their
species, either spin a cocoon and re-
tire therein to change into a grub, or
burrow into the earth or trees, and
undergo a transformation therein.
The grub changes in spring to a but-
terfly or moth, which lays some five
hundred eggs, which in a few days
become caterpillars : thus, in three
generations, if untouched, thirty mill-
ion worms are produced.

CATHARTICS. Medicines pro-
ducing increased defecation. Aloes,
castor oil, senna, jalap, Glauber
salts, Epsom salts, calomel, are the
principal cathartics. They should be
used very sparingly, as they produce
habitual costiveness after a time.

CATKIN. A pendulous spike of
flowers, which falls after a seasun, as
in the willow. Amentum is the more
common designation.

CATSUP. Mushroom catsup is
readily made by placing a bushel or

L —

CAT

more ]mme mushrooms in a tub with
sufficient salt to cover them slightly,
aod adiling water enough to cover the
whole. The brine becomes bjack and
well-flavoured in a week, wnen the
mushrooms must be thoroughly press-
ed, and the whole liquor bottled and
sealed. It is improper to add pepper
or spices.

CATS-TAIL GRASS. An Eng-
lish name for timothy and other grass-
es of the genus Pkeum.

CATTLE. In its most extensive
sense, the word cattle denotes all the
lar^ger domestic quadrupeds which are
used for draught or food. In the usu-
al acceptation of the word, it is confi-
ned to the ox, or what are called black
cattle, or horned cattle. But as many
varieties are not black, and several
have no horn!?, the name of neat cat-
tle \B more appropriate. The rearing
and feeding of cattle are very impor-
tant branches of agricultural industry.
Much of the success of a farmer de-
pends on the judicious management
of live stock, without which his land
cannot be maintained in a proper state
of fertility. The breeding and fatten-
ing of cattle are generally distinct oc-
cupations. It is of the greatest im-
portance to the breeder, as well as to
the grazier, to ascertain the qualities
of each different breed of cattle, to de-
termine which is best suited to his
purpose, and which will bring him the
greatest profit.

The different British and Irish
breeds have been generally distin-
guished from each other by the length
of the horn. The long-horned breed
is supposed by many to be indigenous.
Others consider the middle homed as
the old breed- The former was chief-
ly found in a district of Yorkshire call-
ed Craven, and was greatly improved
by the skill of Robert Bakewell, of
IHshley Farm, in Leicestershire, and
hence they are called the Dishley
breed. The distinguishing characters
of this breed are, long Lorns growing
downward from the side of the head,
and ending in straight points parallel
to the jaw. In order to give an ade-
quate idea of the qualities of this im-
proved breed, we must consider what

breeders and graziers call the tiaa
point* of an ox. These are certain
forms and appearances, which are ei-
ther anatomically connected with a
perfect conformation of the body, and
especially of the organs of respiration
and of digestion, or which are con-
stantly associated with the peculiar
qualities of certain breeds, so as to be
proofs of their purity. Of the first
kind are, a wide chest, well-formed
barrel, strong and straight spine, hip-
bones well separated, and length of
quarter, all which can be proved to
be essential to the perfect functions
of the body. Small and short bones
in the legs give firmness without un-
necessary weight. A thick skin, well
covered with hair, ensures proper
warmth, and its soft, loose feel indi-
cates a good coat of cellular substance
underneath, which will readily be fill-
ed with deposited fat. All these are
indispensable points in an ox which
is to be profitably fatted, and, what-
ever be the breed, they will always
indicate superiority. Other points,
such as colour, form of the horns,
shape of the jaw, and setting on of
the tail, with other particulars, are
only essential in so far as experience
has observed them in the best breeds,
and as they are indications of pure
blood. The eye is of great imp|or-
tance ; it should be lively and mild,
indicating a healthy circulation, with
a gentle and almost indolent temper.
An animal that is not easily disturbed
will fatten rapidly, while one that is
restless and impatient will never ac-
quire flesh. Among the ancients, a
deep dewlap was considered as a
great beauty in an ox. In some of
our best breeds there is scarcely any.
The rump of the Freyburgcows rises
high towards the tail, while a straight
back, from the neck to the tail, is in-
dispensable in a well-bred British ox.
Having established a breed which
has many superior qualities, attention
is paid to maintain its purity ; and to
those who cannot ascertain the pa-
rentage, certain marks are satisfacto-
ry proof of purity of blood. The new
Leicester oxen were noted for the
sraallness of the bone and their apti-

135

CATTLE.
Ftf.i.

tude to fatten {Fig. 1). Their Ueah
was fine-grained, the fat being well
Intermixed in the muscles. At the
time when tiakewell died, about 1795,
no other breed could be brought into
compulition with his improved lung-
horns. But whether hi.
have not paid the aiiae
keep up tlie qualitiei of the breed, or
it hag degcoerated in cmnparison,
they have aince lost much of Iheir rep-
utation, and the short-homed breed
has now the superiority. Good long-
horned cattle arc, however, occasion-
klly seen in the midland counties.
One defect of the breed was, that the
cows gave but little milk j and this
may be ttie reason for now preferring
the shtH't-horns. The Teeswater or
Holderaess breed of cattle {Fig. S)
ng.l.

was produced liy the importation of
cows froin Holstein or Holland, and
careful breeding and crossing. Thpy
now much excel the original einck.
The principal improver of the Tees-
walpr breed was Mr. Charles Collins.
By his care a breed has been produ-
ced which is unrivalled for the dairy
and for fattening readily. Alinost e*-

136

erygood breed now in existence tra-
ces its pedigree to his bulls, especial-
ly one of the fiist he used, called ffui-
iect. The famous ox exhibited thir-
ty years ago, under ilie name of the
Durham ox, was of ihU breed. By
careful crossing with a Gallowaycow,
an improved breed was produced,
which was in snch repute that, at a
sale of Mr. CoUins's stock of short-
horns, October 11, )S10, a famous
bull, called Comci, sold for 1000 guin-
eas, and 49 lots of bulls, cows, and
calves realised i7116 17..— (Library
o/ Uteful KaaaUige, "Cattle," page
S33.} The short-horned catdc(#V' 3}

are mostly tiglit coloured, some quite
white, but most are speckled with red
and white, without any large:, distinct
spots. The hornsare veryshori. In
the cow, the points turn inward tcb
wards each other. Some oflhe finest
bulls have merely a lip of a horn
standing out from each side of the
forehead. In the carcass they hare
every point which we have berora
enumerated as essential to perfection.
From numeroas importations of

SnrhamB, this breed is nmr diffused
iota many parts of the United States,
eapecially New-Y<»'k, Penrwylvania,
ud Kentucky.

Beeidea the two breeds above men-
tioneil, there are eeveral in great re-
pute in particalar districts, which al-
most dispute tbe superiority with the
ahoit-boms. Of Ibese, the Devon-
shire breed is the haaiisomeat. The
oulouT of this breed is invariably r«d,
nitb a very fioe head, smalt bone,
aod glassy bide. The men, alihaugti
Bot SO bea*j as sraue, are Ibe best
for the plougii on light lands ; they
walk nearly as fast as horses, and
will work almost as well in pairs.
The cows IFig. i) are good milkers,

any deficiency in quantity being made
op by the richness of the cream. The
oxen fatten readily, and th^r flesh is
Of thebestqiMlity.

It is supposed that the fine oxen
of New-England are derived from this
breed.

The Sussex breed is only diatin
guished from the Devon by being
rather stronger, and not so 6ae in
the head and horn.

The Herefordshire breed is larger
and heavier than either of the prece-
ding, the horns longer, and more
turned outward ; the colour is red,
but the helty aed the face are gensr-
ally while, and there is often a while
stripe along the back. This breed has
many excellent itualities, and fattens
well; lhecows(F;^.5)areorusefor «■

tlie dairy, bat yield only a small qoaii-
tity ofmilk. The Herefordshire oxen
are best suited lo the rich pastures
of their native county, where they
grow to a great size, and increase
fast. These are the principal Eng-
lish breeds.

The principal indigenous Scotch
breeds are the Weal Highland, the
Galloway, the Angus, and the Shet-
land. There ia a doubt whether the
Ayrshire (Fig. 6) should be classed

among the pure Scotch cattle. Their have very good qualities, and are ei

peal resemblance to the short-horn cellent for the dairy or for slBlling.

inallbutthesizeleadsonetosnppose A great many cattle are bred i

that they are a cross of a smaller the various islands which lie on th

breed by a sUort-horD buU, but they western coast of Scotland, Theyai

Ms 187

CATTLE.

mostly of a small, black breed, oaBed
Kyloes. They are very hardy, and,
when brought into good pasture, fat-
ten rapidly, and produce the finest
and best-flavoured beef. They are
found in the greatest perfection in
the Isle of Skye, and are aent annu-
aSyin large droves from their native
islands, and dispersed through Scot-
land and England. If they do not
produce so great a weight of beef as
many other breeds, they always bring
the highest price in the market, and
require but a very short time to get
fat. The Galloway is a peculiar
breed, which has many good quali-
ties: it has no horns; the body is
compact, and the legs short ; and few
breeds can vie with the Galloway
oxen and heifers in aptitude to fatten.
There is a peculiar roundness in all
the parts of the body, which makes
the animal look well in flesh even
when he is lean. The akin is loose,
and the hair soft and silky to the
touch. They are mostly black, but
some are of a dun colour, which shows
a connexion between this breed and
the polled Suffolk ; it is only the col-
our whieh distinguishes them. Many
of the Galloway heifers are spayed,
and get very fat at an early age. The
Galloway cows are not very good
milkers, in which respect they differ
from the Suffolk, but their milk is
very rich.

The Angu* doddU is also a polled
breed, and has been long in repute.
It is probably a variety of the Gallo-
way, to which it bears a strong re-
semblance, but it has been found in
Angus from time immemorial.

I'hese are the principal breeds of
cattle in Britain. By selecting those
which are best suited to each situation
and pasture, the industrious farm-
er may add considerably to his prof-
its, and, at the same time, enrich his
land with the manure. In purchas-
ing cattle, it is very necessary that
the age should be readily ascertained:
the surest mode of doing this is by
examining the teeth. A calf has
usually two front teeth when he is
dropped, or they will appear a day or
two after hia birth ; in a fortnight he

188

will have fbnr, in three weeks aiZy
and at the end of a month eight
After this, these milk-teeth, as they
are called, gradually wear, and faU
out. and are replaced by the second
and permanent teeth. At two years
old the two middle teeth are replaced ;
the next year there will be four new
teeth in all ; at four years there are
six permanent teeth, and at Ave the
whole eight are replaced. The milfe*
teeth do not always fall ont, but are
sometimes pushed back by the see-
ond set ; and in this case they should
be removed with an instrument, a»
they impede mastication and irritate
the mouth. After six years old the
edges of the toeth begin to wear flat,
and as they wear off the root of the
tooth is pushed up in the socket, and
the width of the teeth is diminished,
leaving interstices between them:
this begins in the middle teeth, and
extends gradually to the comers.
At ten years old the four middle
teeth are considerably diminished^
and the mark worn out of them. Af-
ter fifteen years of age few cows can
keep themselves in condition by pas-
turing, but they may continue to give
milk, or be fattened by stalling and
giving them ground food. Horned
cattle have rings at the root of their
horns, by which the age may also be
known. I'he first ring appears at
three years of age, and a new one is
formed between it and the scuU ev«
ery year after. But this mode of
ascertaining the age is not so sure
as by the teeth, deception being much
easier by filing off the rings.

In order to learn by experience
what breed of cattle is most profita-
ble, it is very advantageous to weigh
them occasionally and note their in-
crease. Experience has shown the
proportion between the saleable quar-
ters and the offal in different states
of fatness, and tables have been con-
structed by which the nett weight
is found by mere inspection. Multi-
plying the live weight by 0 605 gives
a near approximation to the neat
dead weight in an ox moderately fat
and of a good breed. When an ox
is fat, his weight may be very nearly

CATTLE.

g]M8B«d bgr meMVring bis nrth im-
mediately behind the fore legs, and
the length from the tip of the shoal-
der to the perpendicular line which
touches the hinder fiarts, or to a wall
against which the animal is backed.
The square of the girth in inches and
decimals is multiplied by the length,
and the product multiplied by the de-
cimal '238. This gives the weight
of the four quarters in stones of four-
teen pounds. This rule is founded
on the supposition that there is a
oertain proportion between the nett
weight of the quarters and that of a
cylinder, the circumference of which
is the girth, and the axis the length,
taken as above. The proportion has
been ascertained by observation and
repeated comparison. The measure-
ment will, at all events, indicate the
proportional increase during the pe-
riod of fattening.

Cattle are not subject to many dis-
eases if they have plenty of food and
good water, and are kept clean. Air
is essential to them; and although
cows will give more milk, and oxen
will fatten better when kept in warm
stalls in winter, they are both less
subject to diseases when they arc
kept in open yards, with merely a
shelter from the snow and rain.

The most economical mode of
feeding cattle is evidently by allow-
ing them to seek their food on com-
mons and uncultivated pastures, but
it is only in particular situations that
it is the most advantageous. Cattle
fed on commons add little to the
stock of manure, except when they
are kept in the yards or stalls in win-
ter; even then their dung is of little
value if they are merely kept alive
on straw or coarse hay, as is gener-
ally the case where the stock is kept
on commons or mountains in sum-
pier. When they feed in enclosed
and rich pastures, their dung falling
in heaps on the grass does more harm
than good. The urine fertilizes the
soil in wet weather when it is dilu-
ted, but in dry weather it only burns
np the grass. If we calculate w^hat
would be the amount of dung collect-
ed if the cattle were kept in yards or

staUes, and fed with food cnt for
them and brought there, and also the
loss of grass by treading on the pas*
tures, we shall have no doubt wheth-
er the additional labour of cutting the
grass and bringing it home daily is
not amply repaid by the saving ; but
if we also take into account the va-
riety of artificial grasses, pulse, and
roots which may be grown with ad-
vantage on land unfit for permanent
grass, and the quantity of arable land
which may thus be kept in the high-
est state of cultivation, we shall be
convinced that the practice of those
countries where the cattle are con-
stantly kept at home is well worthy
of imitation. It may be of use to the
health of the animals to be allowed
to take a few hours* air and exercise
in a pasture near the stable, but there
is no advantage in their having any
grass crop there ; on the contrary,
the barer of grass the surface is, the
better. They will relish their food
better when they are taken in afler a
few hours' fasting. A bite of fresh,
short grass might, on the contrary,
give them a dislike to their staler
food. When cut grass is given to
cattle in the stalls, it is best to let it
lie in a heap for at least twelve hours
before it is given to them. It heats
slightly, and the peculiar odour of
some of the plants, which oxen and
cows are not fond of, being mixed
with that of the more fragrant, the
whole is eaten without waste. Ex-
perience has shown that many plants
which cattle refuse in the field, where
they have a choice, have nutritious
qualities when eaten mixed with oth-
ers in the form of hay. There are
few deleterious plants in good grass
land or meadows, and these are read-
ily distinguished and weeded out.

The amount of hay, or its equiva^
lent, necessary to sustain oxen is
about two per cent, of their weight
daily ; when fattening, four per cent,
is often given. The accumulation is
seldom more than two and a half
pounds daily in fattening.

The quantity and quality of the
dung of cattle which are stalled and
well fed are so remarkable, that its

199

CAT

Talae makes a consid^rabld deduc-
tion from that of the food given, es-
pecially of green food, such as clover,
lucern, and every kind of leguminous
plant : we shall not be far wrong if
we set it at one fourth. This sup-
poses a sufficient quantity of straw for
litter, and an economical collection
of the liquid parts in proper reser-
voirs or tanks. In order to make the
feeding of cattle advantageous, the
buildings must be conveniently placed
with respect to the fields from which
the food is to be brought. Moveable
sheds, with temporary yards, which
can be erected in dijfiisrent parts of a
large farm, according as different
fields are in grass or roots, are a great
saving of carriage, both in the bring-
ing of food to the cattle and carrying
the dung on the land. A clay bottom
should be selected, in a dry and rath-
er high spot, if possible. But if per-
manent buildings for cattle, con-
structed of rough materials and
thatched with straw, were erected
in the centre of about forty acres of
arable land, in different parts of a
large farm, it would probably be a
great saving in the end.

Good water is most essential to
the health of cattle, and that which
has been some time exposed to the
air seems the best for them. When,
they are fatted in stalls on dry food,
they should always have a trough of
water within reach. A piece of rock-
salt to lick, or some salt given vith
their food, is highly conducive to
their health, and will restore their
appetite when it begins to flag. Rub-
bing the hide with a wisp of straw
or a strong brush, as is done to hor-
ses, may appear a useless labour, but
it is well known that there is no bet-
ter substitute for that exercise which
is essential to health. Where labour
is not regarded, as is always the case
when the owner of the cattle attends
upon them himself, the curry-comb
and the brush are in regular use, and
the advantage derived from the use
of them is undeniable.

Where the farmer distils a spirit
from his grain, it is a great advan-
tage to have a distillery attached to

140

CAT

his establishment, especially io a T»*
mote situation ; and not only is th^
fattening of cattle on the refuse of
the distillation a source of proflt, but
the manure extends fertility around.
The produce in spirits and in cattle
is easily transported to a great dis^
tance, and almost the whole of what
is produced by the land returns to it
in the shape of manure. The same
may be said of the manufaetare of
sugar from beet-root, which has beet
lately so much extended in the north
of France.

CATTLE, DISEASES OF. Se*
Ox.

CATTLE, NATIVE. Much dis-
cussion exists as to the propriety of
importing cattle from abroad, or un-
dertaking an improvement of the na-
tive. The fine steers of New-Eng-
land are said to be descended from
the Devon stock, and retain many of
their traits, while they are improved
in milking qualities ; but most of the
other native stock is small, and infb*
rior to the choice English breeds.
But the size is probably due to the
carelessness with which they are
treated, and argues no inherent de-
fect, in proof of which it may be sta-
ted that the New- York butchers pre-
fer native animals for the shambles ;
and many instances may be quoted
of cows yielding as much milk as
even the Durham breed. The estab-
lished foreign breeds are already
brought up to a state of excellencOi
while our cattle are unimproved, and
the occasional existence of fine ani-
mals is enough to guarantee high
perfection when they shall be regu-
larly bred. See Breeding'.

Since, however, so many Durham
bulls have been introduced into New-
York, Pennsylvania, and Kentucky,
it is very useful to obtain a cross
with the native cow to increase the
milking and fattening qualities, and
also to advance in the process of
improvement by using the best for-
eign blood ; at the same time, a per-
manent and extensively diffused
choice breed cannot be expected un-
til our own stock are looked to in
part at least : this is the proper way

CAU

CEB

of securing a race suited to our cli-
mate and pasture. To attain this ob-
ject, the prominent agricultural so-
cieties have ofibred prizes at their
iairs for improved native stock.

CAUDATE (from catida, a tail).
Furnished with a tail-like appendage.

CAUDEX. The body of a root.

CAULIFLOWER. An improved
cabbage, the flowers of which form
a mass of great delicacy. The va-
rieties cultivated in the United States
are the early vhiUf late white j and pur-
ple. Sow the seed in September in
clean* rich soil, prick out in five
weeks, aad set in another bed four
inches each way. As soon as the
weatber is cold, set a fVame about
the seedlings, and in winter protect
with dung outside, <&c., so as to keep
out frost, but let in plenty of air and
light. Early in March set out under
hand frames, or in pots in the green-
house. When the weather is set-
tled, put out, with balls of earth at-
tached, in the richest spot, two and a
half feet each way. They must be
hoed, earthed up, and watered, if ne-
cessary. Trim off the outer leaves
as the cauliflower forms ; they will
be mature in June. This is the best
way, but plants may be sown in hot-
beds in Februanr, or even in May, in
the open air. iTiey are, however, in-
tolerant of cold and heat, and form
smsdl hearts during the summer.
Those planted in May flower in Oc-
tober. An ounce of good seed yields
from three to four thoasand plants.
Cauliflowers left for seed must be
kept away from any other cabbage
variety, and the seeds collected as
rapidly as they ripen.

CAULIS (from kovXoc). A stem.
From this word comes cauliferous.

CAUSTIC. Any application that
destroys the flesh or skin to which
it is applied. ' The most powerful
caustics are hmar caustic (nitrate of
silver), red precipitate (nitrate of mer-
cury), catLstic potash: blue stone is
also used. Sometimes a solution of
blue stone or lunar caustic is applied
to stimulate an ulcer or dowly re-
move excessive growth. Caustics
are chiefljr used to subdue irregular

growths of flesh, and to destroy ol*
cers

CAUSTIC, LUNAR. Nitrate of
silver, sold in sticks, ready for use as
a caustic ; when used in sokitioo, ten
grains are mixed with an ounce of
water.

CAUTERY, or ACTUAL CAU-
TERY. The application of a red-hot
iron to a diseased part, as fungous
growths, dec. It is too often used
injudiciously.

CAVIARE. The salted roe of the
sturgeon, prepared and dried. It is
an unwholesome food used in Russia.

CEDAR. There are two species
of Cupresaus known in the forests of
the United States under the names
of black cedar, or cypress (C. disti-
eha\ and the white cedar (C. thyoide*).
They both yield good timber.

The C. ditticha is abundant in the
swamps of Virginia and the South,
and forms the only tree in immense
swamps on the Mississippi. In these
localities it often rises 130 feet, and
attains 80 to 40 feet girth at the earth,
running up like a cone. The wood
is extremely durable, and in high re-
pute for shingles and posts. It is fell-
ed in winter, and allowed to dry thor-
oughly before being split. The trees,
which grow, in a great measure, in
water, have light barks, and are call-
ed white cypress, while those of drier
soils are' called black cypress, and yield
a firmer and more resmous wood.

The white cypress, C. thyoides, is ev-
ergreen, grows seldom 70 feet high,
4ind is alK>ut three feet in diameter.
It is abundant in New-Jersey, Mary-
land, and Virginia, but not farther
south. It inhabits salt and other
marshes in dense forests. The wood
is light, soft, of a rosy colour, aromat-
ic, easily worked, and very durable. It
is used by turners, and forms the most
valuable shingles, sometimes called
juniper shingles, which last 35 years.

CEDAR OF LEBANON, Aides
eedrus. A tree of immense dimen-
sions, value, and beauty, native on
the Lebanon Mountains. It is natu-
ralized in Europe, and is a splendid
ornament in English parks. The
wood is very durable. It may be coL

141

CEL

CEN

tivatcd with ease in the United States
as an oroament.

CKDAR,KED. The Juniperus Vir-
ginian* is so called ; it is found on
the sea-coast from Maine to the Gulf
of Mexico ; attaining, in the South,
40 feet, but is small inland. It is ev-
ergreen and ornamental. The wood
is very durable, light, and odorous,
red m colour, hut scarce in quantity :
the best is from Florida.

CELERY. The improved small-
age, or Apium grawderu. Several
varieties are cultivated; the white
solid is the best for the table, the red
solid for cooking ; North's giant, new
tehUcn lion's paw, and celeriac {A, ra-
paceum) are also raised ; the last pro-
duces a root like the turnip, which is
sliced, and eaten with vinegar. Ear-
ly celery may be raised from seeds
sown in a cold bed, like cabbages.
The general crop is sown in March
or April, in a rich border, protected
from great heat. The drill is the best,
run six inches apart. Transplant,
when three inches high, into rich
soil, and after a month into trench-
es dug one spade deep, ten inches
wide, and four feet apart. Place at
the bottom of each trench three inch-
es of rotten dung, and mix it well
with the soil ; leave the earth taken
out piled up between the trenches, to
be aAerward filled in as the plants
grow. Trim the roots and side leaves
of the celery before setting in the
trench, and pkice them four to six
inches apart. Sometimes two or
more rows are planted in one wide
trench. As the plants grow in the
trenches, hoe them, and when well
grown to one foot high begin to earth
in ; this must be done when the soil
is dry. Place a board against tiie
plants, and throw in soil enough to
reach nearly to the central bud ; do
this on each side and along the row.
Earth up every two weeks, as the
celery grows, taking care to collect
together the leaves each time. When
blanched for thirty inches it is fit for
use. Late winter celery may be put
in trenches in August, and earthed in
October. Market gardeners plough
out their trenches, increasing the du-
142

tance between them. One ounce of
seed yields upward of ten thousand
plants. The winter store is kept rn
sand, and covered with straw ; sud-
den thawing destroys the celejry. If
the whole root is taken up uncut,
the stump, after cutting off the head,
will again sprout in a warm cellar,
and yield a second supply of small,
but very sweet and tender celery.
Seeds are readily obtainedH:>y leaving
a few plants in the seed-bed, which
will flower in July, and bear an abun-
dance of seeds in umbels.

CELL. In physiology, the mi-
nute cavities in plants and mem-
branes : the size differs from the one '
thousandth to the one hundredth of
an inch. It may contain air, or fluids
and solids. The cell is the first struc-
ture of all membranes, but subse-
quently it may be converted into a
tube. They are originally spherical,
but become changed by pressare into
cubes, dodecahedrons, and other fig-
ures.

CELLULAR TISSTTE. The mem-
brane or tissue in plants and ani-
mals which consists of cells contain-
ing gas chiefly, as the pith. It exists
between all muscles, and under the
skin in animals.

CEMENT. A Mortar, which see.

CEMENTATION. A process of
making steel, by surrounding plates
of iron with charcoal powder and
heating to a high point.

CENTIGRADE. A division into
one hundredths, as the centigrade
thermometer.

CENTIPEDE. Creeping, wing-
less insects with many feet : they at-
tack the dead roots of plants.

CENTRE OF GRAVITY. An
imaginary point in the centre of any
mass which has the same weight ot
matter arranged on at least two sides.
When any substance is balanced on
a point, as the finger, the centre of
gravity lies immediately above that
point. In falling to the earth, all sub-
stances take such a path that the
centre of gravity descends in a
straight line. No object can remain
firm except a line drawn from the
centre of gravity to the earth &U

CHA

within its base ; the instant it falls
on the outside the body tumbles over.

CENTRIFUGAL (from centrum,
the centre, and fugio, I retreat). Used
in botany to describe an inflorescence
in which the uppermost or central
flowers bloom first.

CENTRIPETAL (from centrum
and petro, I seek). That inflorescence
in which the outermost or luwest
buds develop first : it is the most
common.

CEPHALIC (from ^e^oAjy, a head).
Relating to the head.

CERACEOUS (from c«ra, w«:). In
botany* waxy.

CERASIN. The gum of the cher-
ry and other trees, which does not
dissolve, bat swells in water ; it is
the same as bassorin.

CERATE. An ointment contain-
ing wax.

CEREALIA. A term applied to
wheat, barley, rye, oats, corn, millet,
or grain plants.

C E R I N. That portion of wax
which dissolves in boiling alcohol.

CERUMEN. The wax formed in
the ears of animals. An accumula-
tion produces deafness, that may be
partly cured by syringing the ears
with tepid water.

CERUSE. White-Uad, which see.

CERVICAL (from cervix, the neck).
Belonging to the neck.

CESPITOSE, CESPITOSUS
(from cespest a turf). Producing
inaoj stems from one root.

CHAFF. The husks of grain or
straw cut in small pieces.

CHAFF ENGINES. The English
name for Straw-cutters, which see.

CHALCEDONY. A semi-transpa-
rent, silicious mineral, usually milky
and nodular.

CHALDRON. A measure of 86
bnshels, heaped.

CHALK. A geological formation
abonnding in Europe, but absent in
the United States. It belongs to the
uppermost portions of the secondary
formation, and consists of a large pro-
portion of carbonate of lime.

CHALYBEATE. Medicines or
miaeral waters containing iron : they
are tDfiie.

CHAMOMILE. AnthemU nohitU.
The flowers are used in medicine as
a bitter; or an extract is made of
their boiled liquor. See Camomile.

CHAMPIGNION. The French
name for mushrooms ; also the Aga-
rirae orcades, an English sppcies,
tougher, but more highly flavoured
than the common mushroom ; it is
good when dried, and used in powder
as a condiment, or made into catsup.

CHANGE OF SEED. Practical
men have discovered that highly im-
proved seeds, especially of wheat,
com, dec, brought from a distance,
gradually deteriorate if the soil is un-
suited. Thus, the white May wheat
becomes red on the red soils of Vir-
ginia ; the delicate six weeks' corn
of Canada becomes a three months*
hard corn in the South. General
Harmon has shown that many of the
choicest English wheats produce im-
perfect grain in New- York ; and it
must be evident that whatever im-
provement in plants and seeds has
been attained by high culture, will be
lost unless that culture is niaintaiiied.
Instead, therefore, of changing seed,
it is best to improve our own, and
keep the land up to the proper tilth ;
and if we introduce new varieties, to
take care to introduce, also, high cul-
ture. Seeds of the same slate, or a
similar soil and climate, deteriorate
less rapidly than foreign grain. By
changing seed and always buying
choice kinds, fine grain may be ob-
tained for one or two seasons, even
from indiflerent lands.

CHARCOAL. Vegetable matter
burned in a place without access of
air. Near large cities a strong vine-
gar (pyroligneous acid) is made from
green wood, by distilling it in iron
vessels ; flne charcoal remains in the
vessel, and is thus obtained for com-
bustion. On the farm, the produc-
tion of charcoal must be on a cheaper
and more wholesale scale. Logs of
wood are piled either horizontally or
vertically into a dome-shaped mass,
a chimney being lefl in the centre
about four or five inches square, and
the rest covered close with sods and
earth a foot deep, so that no smoke can

I4d

CHA

escape through it ; a small flue or [
channel for air may also be left along
the ground, under the wood, on ihe
windward side, and passing to the
central chimney : this in the simplest
construction. Sometimes a pit or
walled space is used, in which the
wood is laid, flues being sunk to con-
vey air to the bottom, and a central
chimney left, the top being covered
with earth, ashes, or cinders. The
kiln is fired by placing in the central
chicftney leaves, straw, or twigs well
lighted, and allowing the draught to
remain open until the upper logs of
wood are well fired, afterward closing
the under flue. As soon as the flame
dies away, the wood being red-hot
above, close the top of the chimney
and let the fire smoulder. It requires
from six to ten days to born a kiln,
and constant attention must be paid.
Hard wood requires most time. The
average yield is 16 per cent, of coal,
but hard woods, well burned, some-
times furnish 25. Box, lignum vitae,
mahogany, chestnut, and oak yield
most. In this process, nearly all the
carbon of the wood is left, the oxygen
and hydrogen uniting in combustion
to form water, and the object in view
is to keep out atmospheric air, which
would cause the combustion of the
carbon also.

Properties. — Charcoal possesses
many remarkable properties. 1st. It
has the power of removing fetid smells
from water, meats, and manures ;
hence it is used in disinfecting priv-
ies and manures. 2d. It removes the
colour of many fluids, and is used in
clarifying juices and solutions, espe-
cially in refining sugar. 3d. It is re-
markably porous, and absorbs from
the air and other media, gases: 1
cubic inch of fresh box-wood was
found by Saussure to absorb and con-
dense 90 of ammoniacalga8,86 of car-
bonic acid, 9i of oxygen, and 7J of
nitrogen : this property gives it great
value in putrescent composts, and as
a manure. 4th. Charcoal is nearly
unchangeable in common air at the
ordinary temperature, but burns,
when heated to redness, into car bon-
ic actd, if abundance of air be present.
144

CHA

5tb. Being a very bad condnctor of
heat, it is used to lino refrigerators
and small ice-houBca.

A* a Manure. — Charcoal, in smaU
lumps or coarse powder, has been
highly recommended of late as a top
dressing. About 40 bushels the acre,
over grass lands, or among young
plants, as turnips, has been known
to produce a heavy increa.se. Its
success will, however, depend upon
the goodness of the soil, and its
wants. Wherever an increased sup-
ply of ammonia from the air is want-
ing, the charcoal does good. The
fresh- burned article also contains
much saline matter, soluble in water.
The best, and perhaps only advisable
way of using it, is to compost the pow-
der with night soil, urine, blood, and
other putrescent bodies -, it tends to
dry up the fluids, and retains the an^
monia formed during their decay.
Such composts added to the soil, re-
tain their virtue much longer than
the bodies when used alone. The
charcoal yields to roots of plants the
gases it has absorbed. But it has
been shown by numerous gardeners
that charcoal powder, kept moist with
rain water, is a good soil for many
flowers, and capable of sustaining
vigorous vegetation, and that slips
take root readily in it. Besides its
absorbent action, charcoal will loosen
tough soils and increase their warmth
by its black colour: it adds to the
tilth by giving greater porousness.

Great difficulty has been found in
obtaining powdered charcoal ; this
is readily obviated by crushing the
lumps in a rough bark mill, which
every farmer can set up with an old
stone, turning around a post and
pressing on a few flag-stones. See
MiU.

CHARCOAL, ANIMAL. BONE
BLACK, IVORY BLACK. These
terms are used chiefly to indicate
bones charred by heat. It is prepa-
red extensively for sugar refiners, be-
ing much more valuable in remo-
ving colours than common charcoal.
Sometimes it is made by placing
bones in an open iron vesspl and
beating until they are suffiuiently

CHE

kisfdi 4 but ifco movt ccoiiovlBiS wsy
h to introdaco enished bones into
von retorts and distiUing; by this
mesns a strong fetid ammonia is ob-
tained from tbem, which is verjr val-
nable in the arts, and the bones 3neld
move bone Mack. Common animal
eharcoal contains 80 to 85 per cent,
of piiospbate of lime and mineral
aoatter. Tbe relnae of the sugar re-
ftnera is a irery valaable manore, and,
mixed with composts, moeh saperior
to the recent bone blaeic, from the
Buztore of blood and other pntres-
•ent matters used. In France it is
so highly esteemed, that purchases
are made i«i New- York city for ex-
portation to Havre, and the refuse
is imitated by anifieial mixtmvs of
powdered charcoal and bullocks*
blood. It is of great service in pro-
ducing Tigovotts growth, strong plants,
and fine seeds. From 160 to 300
pounds, in compost, are sufficient for
an acre of land in high order : in gar-
dens more is used.

CHARD. A variety of Beef, whi6h
aee.

CHARLOCK. Several weeds of
tbe Cruei/eron* family; difficult to
extirpate except by mowing before
they flower. They are annuals.

CHARRING. Burning so aa to
produce a crust of charcoal. It is a
good way of preserving the botts of
poets inserted in the ground or wet
places.

CHASE. A TOW of trees or hedge
plants.

CHAT POTATOES. A term in
England ibr the small, imperfect po-
tatoes, fit oaly for bogs.

CHEAT, or CHESS. The BromM
tecaUmu (see Bnmau). Supposed to
be degenerate wheat by the ignorant.
Tt is a troublesome grass, only to be
extirpated by cleaning tbe grain thor-
ongfaly of the chess seeds. It is
called Damd occasionally in Eng-
land.

CHEESE. In making cheese
there are oertain general principles
whieb are essential, but slight varia-
tions in the process prodace cheeses
of very diAbrent qualities ; and al-
though the -roost importaat cireom*

ataaee is the natm« of the pastmv ott
which the cows are fed, yet much
depends on the mode in which the
different stages of the fabrication are
managed ; and hence the great sup^
riority of the cheeses of particular
districts or dairies over those of oth«
ers, without any apparent differenoe
in the pasture. By skill and great
attention excellent cheeses are made
in places where the pastures are not
.considered so well adapted to pro-
duce milk of a proper quality ; and in
those ooantries where the cows are
chiefly kept tied up in stalls, and are
fed with a variety of natural and ar-
tificial grasses, roots and vegetables,
superior cheese is often made.

The first process in making cheese
is to separate the curd from the whey,
which may be done by allowing the
milk to become sour ; but the cheese
is .inferior in quality, and it is diffi-
cult to stop the. acid fermentation and
prevent its running into the putrefap-
uve. VariouB substances added to
milk will soon separate the curd flrom
the wiiey. All acids curdle milk.
Muriatic acid, or spirits of salt, is used
with snocess for this purpose in Hol-
land. Some vegetables contain acids
which readily coagulate milk, such as
the juice of the fig-tree, and the flow-
ers of the GaliMm iwnim, or yellow
lady's bed straw, hence called eheess*
rennet. Where better rennet cannot
be procured, they may be substituted
for the most natural cordler of milk,
which is the prepared stomach of a
sucking calf This rapidly coagn*
lates the milk ; and the only difficul-
ty is in keeping it from putrefaction,
which begins fW>m the instant the
stomach is taken from the calf. The
preparation of the rennet^ as it is call-
ed, is a most important part ef the
process of cheese-making. The fol-
lowing may be considered as the sim«-
l^est, and perhaps the best. As soon
as a sacking calf is killed the stom-
ach should be taken out, and if the
calf has sucked lately, it is all the bet-
ter. Tbe outer skin should be well
scraped, and all fat and useless mem-
branes carefully removed. It is only
(the iraier coat which most be pro-

146^

CHEESE.

TTifl vrmgtih*^ "*»"f ■^m'M

be taken oat and ezamined ; and any
•Qbataaoa besides card loDiid ia it
ahoald be carefully removed. The
•enin left in it should be pressed out
with a doth. It should then be re-
placed in the stomach with a large
^aantity of the best salt. Some add
a little alum and saltpetre ; others
pat various herhs and spices, with
the Tiew of giving the cheese a pe-
ODliar flavour, but the plain, simple
saltiag is sufficient. The shins, or
veils, as they are called, are then put
iato a pan, and covered with a satu-
fated brine, in which they are soaked
for some hours ; but there must be
no more liquor than will well moisten
the veils. They are afterward hung
up to dry, a pieee of flat wood being
pot crosawise into each to stretch
them out. They should be perfectly
dried, and look like parchment. In
this state they may be kept in a dry
place for any length of time, and are
always ready for use. In some places,
at the time of making cheese, a piece
of a veil is cut oflT and soaked for
some hoars in water or whey, and
the whole is added to the warm milk.
In other places, pieces of veil are put
into a linen bag and soaked in warm
water, until the water has acquired
Bttffictent strength, which is proved
by trying a portion of it in warm milk.
The method employed in Switzerland
ia as follows: A diy veil is taken and
examined ; it is scraped with a knife,
and where any veins or pieces of
tough membrane appear they are re-
moved. The whole surface is exam-
ined and washed carefully, if any
dust or dirt has adhered to it ; but
otherwise it is only wiped with a
cloth. A handful of salt is then put
into It, and the edges of the veil are
folded over and secured with a wood-
en skewer stuck through it. In this
state it forms a ball of about three
inches* diameter, and is laid to soak
twenty-four hours in a dish contain-
ing about a quart of clear whey, which
has been boiled, and all the curd
taken out. The next day the veil is
well squeezed, and put into fresh
whay* tha fliat inflision being pat
14e

Hito a proper iPeseel ; uie aecead wt
afterward mixed with it and bottled
for use. Half a pint of this liquor, of
a proper strength, is sufllcient to cur-
dle forty gallons of mflk. Experience
alone enaUea the dairyman to jndge
ofthe strength of Ids rennet; ibrthis
purpose he t^es in a flat ladle aome
milk which haa been heated to about
d6^ of Fabnenheit, and adds a email
measure of rennet. By the rapiditf
with which it curdles, and the form
of the flakes produced, he knows its
exact strength, and puta more or leaa
into the caldron in which the milk ia
heated for curdling. A simple instru-
ment mi^t eaatly be iaveated by
which the exact degree of atrength
might be ascertaiaea, and a mle giv*
en to guide the less experienced ; but
as long as a man feels a superiority
acquired by experienoe ahme, he ia
not likely to encourage any contri-
vance which would place others on a
level with himself From this caoae
even the thermometer haa not been
introduced generally into any great
dairy, nor have any certain rules been
given to ascertain the exact heat re-
quired in the milk, when the rennet
is added, to form the best curd.

Inhere are difiRsrent kindaof cheese,
according to the mode of preparing
it ; soft and rich cheeses are not in-
tended to be kept long ; hard and dry
cheeses are adapted to be kept and
stored for provisions. Of the first
kind are all cream cheeses, and those
soft cheeses called Bath and York-
shire cheeses, which are wM aa aoen
as made, and if kept too long become
soft and putrid. Stilton and Qruyera
cheeses are intermediate; Parme-
san, Dutch, Cheshire, Gloucester-
shire, and aimiiar cheeses are in-
tended for longer keeping. The
poorer the cheese, the longer it will
keep; and all cheese that is well
cleared from whey and aafllcientlj
salted will keep for years. The
small Dutch cheeses called Edam
cheeses are admirably adapted for
keeping, and form an important arti-
cle in the victualling of snips.

The Gruyeft and Parmeamn cheeses
only difller in the natore of the milk.

MBoA m. the degne of 1mm ipven to

the curd ia di&reoi padrts of Uie inro-
oesB. Gruyeie cheese is eDitrelf
made froin new milk, and Parmeaan
from akumned niiilc In the first no-
thing is added to give flaTour ; ia the
latter saflTroa gives both colour and
ilavoar: the process in both is ex-
actly similar. A large caldron ia
the shape of a bell, capable of hold-
ing tsom 60 ta 120 gallons of raiUt,
bangs froB an iron crane over a
hearth where a wood fire is made.
The milk, having been strained, is
put into this caldron, and heated to
nearly blood beat (Od"" to lOO""). It
ia then turned off the fire, and some
rennet, prepared as stated above, is
intimately mixed with the warm milk
by stirnog it with a fiat wooden
skimming dish, which is turned round
in the muk. A oiotb is then laid over
the caldron, and in half an hour, more
or less, the coagulum is formed.
This is ascertain^ by pressing the
skimming dish on the surface, when
the whey will appear on Uk& part
pressed. If it is longer than an hour
in coagulating, the milk has been too
cool, or the rennet not stroQg enough.
The weather has a great infiuenoe on .
the process of the dairy, and there is
much yet to be learned by accurate
observations with meteorological in-
struments. When the curd is prop
erly formed, it is cat horixontally in
thin slices by the same skimming
ladle. Each slice, as it is taken off,
is phioed along the side of the cal-
dron which is neasest to the opera-
tor : by this means every portion of
the curtl rises successively to the
surface, and is sliced thin. The
whole is then well stirred, and the
caldron replaeedover the fire. Along
sta$ with a small knob of hard wood
at the endt and which has smaller
cross pieces or sticks passed through
holes in it at right angles to each
other near the end, is now used to
stir and break the curd, and the heat
is raised to about 1 SS'^. The oaldron
Is again swung off the fire, and the
eonfis stirred with the staff; which
ia moved round with a regular rota-
lory motion. AAex stirring in tins

manner neariy jm boon (to c«vd ii
found divided into small dies about
the size of a pea, which feel elastie
and rather tough under the finger.
The whey, of which a portion is rer
moved oooastonaily, now floats at
top, and the curd is collected in the
bottom by giving a very rapid rota*
Uury motion to the contents of the
caldron by means of the staff. A
doth is now introduced into the bot-
tom, and all the curd collected over
it ; it is raised by the four corners,
and laid on an instrument like a small
ladder, which is placed across the
mouth of the caldron. Tlie whejf
runs out through the doth, which is
a common cheese-cloth woven with
wide interstices ; and the curd in the
cloth is placed in a shape or hoop
made of a slip of wood four inches
and a half wide, the two ends of
which lie over each other, so that
the diameter can be increased or
lessened. A cord fixed to one end
of the hoop is passed with a loop over
hoops on the outer surface of the
other end, and prevents the ring from
opening more than is required. The
curd is pressed into this ring with the
hands, and the ends of the doth are
folded over it. A round board, two
inches thick, and strengthened by
cross pieces nailed on it, is placed
over the cord, and the presalet down
upon it.

The cheese-press is a simple long
board or frame forming a lever, load-
ed at one end and moving in a frame
at the other ; it is lilted up by an-
other lever connected with it, and let
down on a strong stick, which stands
with its end on the centra of the
board last mentioned. The weight
is thus easily removed or roplaced.
The hoop containing the cheese is
placed on a similar board, and from
it the table of the pzess slopes to*
wards a wooden trough, which re-
ceives the whey as it runs out. In
an hour after this the curd is ex-
amined i the edges, which aro press-
ed over the ring, are pared off, and
the parings are put on the centre of
the cheese ; a fresh cloth is substi-
tuted, and Uie whole cheese is turned.

147

Th^ vHit, ^HMi o|MM fwdily br m-
kooki^ the cord, bIIowb the cheese
W oome out* ami is pvt en again and
Ughteaed. This is repeated two or
throe timee ia the day. la the evon-
faig, a smaM portion of finely powdei^
ed salt ia mhhed on each side of the
cheese, and it remaina hi the press
tin the next morning. It ia now
again nibbed with sidt, and placed
on a shelf with a looee board under
H. The wooden ring remaina on the
eheeee for two or three days, and is
Iben taken olT. This is the whole
^oess.

During the next six or eight weeks
the cheeses are turned and wiped
every day, and a small quantity of
line salt is sifted on the snrlhce and
robbed in with the hand until it will
take no more. The cheese-room is
always very cool, and little light is
Admitted. A free cireulatiott of air
is essential. The cheeses are in per-
fection in about six months, and wfll
keep two years. A quantity of elas-
tic fluid is disengaged in the ripening,
and forms those round cells whi^
ire a peculiar feature in these chees-
es. The smaller and rounder the
eeUs, the better the cheese is reck-
oned. They should contain a clear
salt liquor, which is called the tears ;
when these dry up, the cheese loees
its flavour. These particulars wiU

Jive sny one unacquainted with the
airy a toleraUe notion of the pro-
cess of cheese-making in generaL

In Ckuhite the making of cheese
is carried on in great perfection, and
the greatest pains are taken to ex-
tract every paitide of whey. For
this purpose, the curd is repeatedly
broken and mixed, the cheeses are
much pressed, and placed in wooden
boxes which have holes bored into
them. Through these holes sharp
skewers are stuck into the cheese in
every direction, so that no particle
of whey can remain in the curd. The
elastic matter formed also eeoapes
through these channels, and the en-
tire cheese is a solid mass without
holes, which in this cheese would be
looked upon as a great defect. The
salt is intimately mixed with the

evd, and not uieicfjF ifdihed nn fh#
outside. This chedcs intemal fei^
mentailon, and previentn the Ibnna*
tlnn of elastic matter.

uisa ctftltff and Amnc vMttt^ttt eheev*
es are similariy made, with tills dif*
fimace, that the curd is not so often
brAen, or the cheese skewered, and
a portion of the cream is generally
abstracted to mdm butter. After
the curd has been separated ftom the
whey and is broken fine, warm wafer
is poured over it for the pmpose of
washing out any remaining whey, or
perhape to dissolve any portion of
butter which may have separated be-
fore the rennet had eoagolated the
milk ; for although cream adds to tha
richness of cheese, butter tends to
make it rancid.

SiUttm cheese is made 1^ adding
the cream of the preceding evening's
milk to the morning's mlBcing. tIw
cream should be intimately hioorpo*
rated with the new mflk ; great at-
tention should be paid to the tern*
perature of both, and mudi of the
quality of the bheeae depends on this
part of the proceea. T» make this
cheese in pisrfeetion, as much de-
pends on the management of the
cheese after it is made as on the
richness of the milk. Each dairy
has some peculiar method which is
eonsidered best ; and it is certain that
fliere is the greateet difibrence be-
tween cheesee made in eontigueos
dairiee. The rennet should be yerj
pure and sweet. MThen the milk is
coagi^ted, the whole cord is taken
out, drained on a sieve, and very mod*
eratdy prospod. It is then pot into
a shape in the form of a cylinder,
eight or nine inches in diameter, the
axis of which is louffsr than the diam-
eter of the base, when it is sufll-
ciently firm, a cloth or tape is wonntf
round it to prevent its breaking, and
it is set on a shelf. It is occssional-
ly powdered with flour, and plunged
into hot water. This hardens the
outer coat, and fovoors the internal
formentation, which ripens it 8til»
ton cheese is generally preferred
when a green moifld appears in its
taxtuie. To accelerate this, pieoee

HMertad iato botes mado fortlie fnuw
pose by the aetmp ealM a fca«fr, a«4
wiM or ale ia poared ever for ttie
nine pwrpoee^ bat tke beat cheeses
do not reqaure tlua« and are ia per-
fiBstiao wben the iaaide beeomea soft
lake batlsv, witboot say appearanee
ef usuMiDesa. In making very rich
cheeses, the wbey nnist be allowed
to run off slowly, beoaoae, if it were
fbseed rapidly, it might cany off a
nreatpertioa of the fat ef the cheese.
This happena more or leas in every
mode of oiafciag ofaeeae. To coHeet
this soperabandaot batter, the whey
is set in shaUow pans, as is done
with milk when buttc? ia made ; and
aa inferior kind of batter, called ithey
huter, is made from the eream or fot
Aimmed off.

Cheeses are fie(pientlycolom:ed, a
practice which probably arose from
the notion of madcing the cheese look
rteher ; but now it decelres no one.
Yet if some oheeoes were not eolenr-
ed, they wonld not be so msrketaUe,
vwfi^ to the assooiatMta that sabsists
between the oolonr and the quality
ef Ihe cheese. The snbstance need
ftir o>ionrhig is most commtKily ar-
notto, whieh is groand line on a
ttnne, and misced with the milk at
the time the rennet is pot in. The
jaiee of the orange carrot and the
ftower of mangold are also nsed for
this porpose. Thisiast gtres a more
aataiai tint than the amotto, which
ia too red.

Dutch eh€€9es are made in a very
sonilar manner to the Okwcester
eheeaes, bat the milk is generally
ewpdled by meaaa of mnriatic acid or
apirita of saft ; and great care is ta-
ken to prevent fermentation, and to
extract the whole of the whey. For
this pnrpoae, the cord is repeatedly
broken and pressed ; and before it is
made op into the round shape in
wtnoh it is usvally sold, the broken
cnrd is well soaked in a strong solu-
tfcm of common salt in water. This
dffihses the salt thronghont the whole
mass, and effectnal^ checks ferment-
ation. When the cheeses are finally
all tte whey which may re-

main fa^vaaliod out wftb the briber
salt is likewise rnbbed over the oot-
side, and they are set to dry on
shelves in a cool place. The flavour
of 4he cheese is perhaps impaired by
the stoppage of the fermentation;
bnt it never heaves, and it acquires
the valoabte quality of keeping well
even in wann climates. From the
piaee where this cheese is commonly
made, it is known by the name of
£dam oheese. A finer cheese ia
made at Gouda and other places, by
imitating the process in making 6rn«
yere cheese ; but this cheese is al-
ways fliil of small cavities, and will
not keep so long as the Edam. The
little cheeses made from cream and
folded in paper, called Neufeh&td
cheeses, can be easily imitated, being
nothing more than cream thickened
by heat, and pressed in a smaB moald.
They undergo a rapid change, first
becoming sour and then mellow, in
which state they must be eaten.

The green Swiss cheese, common*
ly called Sehabzieger, is made in the
canton of Glarus, and is by many
persons highly esteemed. The curd
is pressed in boxes with holes to let
the whey run ont ; and when a con-
siderable quantity has been collected,
and putrefaction begins, it is worked
into a paste with a large proportion
of a certain dried herb reduced to
powder. This herb, called in the
country dialect Zieger kraut (cnrd
herb), is the MelilotuM officinali»y which
is very common in most countries,
and has a peculiar aromatic flavour
in the mountains of Switzerland. The
paste thus produced is pressed into
moulds of the shape of a common
flower-pot, and the putrefaction be-
ing stopped by the aromatic herb, it
dries into a solid mass, which keeps
unchanged for any length of time.
When Qsed it is rasped or scraped,
and the powder, mixed with fresh
butter, is spread upon bread. It is
either much relished or much dis-
liked, like all those substances which
have a peculiar taste and smell.

When a cheese which has been
much salted and kept very dry is
washed several times in soft water>

140

CHEfiSJS.

nd dieB li^ in • <doUi noist«Bed
with wine or Tioegar, it gfadoaUr
loses its saUness, and from being
hard and dry becomes soft and lael*
low, prorided it be a rich ebeese.
This simple method of im|V0Ting
eheese is worth knowing. It is gen-
eraily practised in Switseriand, and
cheeses are kept stored there for
many years ; if they were not veiy
salt and dry, they would soon be the
prey of worms and mites. A dry
Stilton cheese may thus be much im^
proTed.

CHEESE, EXPORTATION OF.
The exportation of cheese to Eng-
hud is becoming very heavy ; 179,389
ewt. were imported into Great Brit-
ain in 1844, nearly one third being
from the United States. The cheese
to imitate is the Cheshire, but if Stil-
ton coold be produced it would pay
a heavy profit.

CHEESE-CLOTH. A coarse open
doth or towel placed inside the vat ;
it should be wrung out in boiling wa-
ter after use, and dried.

CHEESE, CONNECTICUT. The
following account from the American
AgricnUurut gives the process for
the preparation of a veiy excdlent
cheese:

** On a farm capable of supporting
twelve cows, two cheeses of about
10 lbs. each may daily be made, in
the months of May, June, and July.
The evening's milk is kept untouched
till the next morning, when the cream
is taken off* and put to warm in a brass
kettle, heated in order to bring it to
the temperature of new milk from the
cow. The cows being mUked early
in the morning, the morning's new
milk and the night's milk prepared
as above are put into a large tnb to-
gether, with the cream. Then a por-
tion of rennet, which has been soak*
ed in water milk-warm the evenmg
before, and sufficient to coagulate the
milk, is put into the tub, after which
it is covered up warm and left to
stand about half an hour, or till co-
agulated, at which time it is turned
over with a bowl to separate the
whey from the curd, and broken soon
after with the hand and bowl in very

samfi pedicles; tlwwhey
arated by standing some time, is ta-
ken from the eurd, whkdi sinks to the
bottom. The eurd is then collected
into a part of the tub, and a board is
placed thereon whidi weighs from
60 to 180 lbs., to press oat Che whey.
When it is getting ioto a more solid
state, it is cut and turned over in sU*
oes several times to extract all the
whey, and then weighted as before.
These operations may occupy about
an hoar and a half. It is then taken
from the tub and broken very small
by the hand, or cot veiy ^oe hy a
cheese knife, and put into a cheese
vat, enlarged in depth by a hoop to
hold the qoaBtity, it being more thaa
the bulk when finally put to the press.
The side is pressed well by haadi and
with a board well weighted placed at
the top. The cheese is thus drained
of its whey, then shifted out of the
vat, having a cloth first spread on the
top of it, and reversed on the doth
into another vat, or even into the
same, which, however, must be al-
vrays fresh scalded, and thus made
waim before the cheese is returned
into it. The top part is now broken
down to the middle, has salt mixed
with it, is reversed as before, thea
pressed by hand, weighted, and hae
the remaining whey extracted. This
done, the cheese is again reversed
into a scalded warm vat, with a cloth
beneath the cheese ; a hoop is alao
put sound the upper edge of the
cheese and within the sides of the
vat, the cheese being first enclosed
in a doth, and the edge of it put with-
in the vat. Finally, it is put into a
press of thirteen pounds weight and
pressed very hard. In four hours it
is shifted and turned, and after four
hours again treated in the same man-
ner. After this it is taken out and
carried to the drying-room, and turn-
ed every day until it grows hard.''

CHEESE-KEEPING. The ripen-
ing of cheeses is all important in
improving their flavour. A constant
temperature of from 60° to 06° Fah«
renheit is the proper degree, but this
ean only be attained in caverns and
cellars built for the porpose.

6S no k0pt well nimi^tsovQed witk
a cotton doth and whitewaahed.

CHEESE MAGGOT. The larva
of a dipterous fly {FiojMla eoMt) fooad
in decaying eheesew

CHEESE MITES. MiMte, wing-
less iBseois iAcarut nrc} with eight
legi. Their introdoction into eheeo*
es ia very mysteriooa, aa they appear
when no wounda are to be seen on
the outside.

CHEESE, PINEAPPLE. Thefol-
lowing ia the plan of Mr. Davenport,
of New-York, who reoerred the priae
of the American Instttote :

«' In all eases the milk and rennet
ahoald be sweet. When the eord is
properly prodooed, bre^ it up very
fine, cook it well, but not to overheat.
Season wHIi dean pure salt. Put
the cheese or eurd into the presa or
mould, which is of pineapple shape,
with a neck, and open in the centre,
and fastened tugether by clanapa or

CHE

ebaps. rathe mould fUI, dso the
neek, and press with a round follow-
er to fit the neck. Keep it in ^e
press twenty*four hours, take the
eheese out and cut off* the neck, and
sear it over ; then dip it in hot whey
to form a hard rind« and draw over
them tightly a net with interstices of
a.diamoad shape, which forms the
indenture. Suspend them from the
neck, and keep them so for four weeks ;
then take them out of the nets, and
set them on trenches on shelves, and
in three months they are cured and
fit for market. Pack them in cases
of ten each, with partitions between
them."

CHEESE PRESS. The most
common kind is described in the ar-
tiele Chuse. Numerous improved
machines occur, but the following, by
Baird, is in all respects equal, if not
superior, to the rest, and extensively
used in the English cheese counties.

t51

OHB

''The formdmtaittinf the cnrd to
put on the bottom plate, a, and the
top plate, m, ia made to descend and
press on it. There are two ways of
doing this : one quick and easy, until
the resistance becomes great ; and
the other riower, but more power-
ful, and used for the condnsion of
the operation. On the axis, c, of the
wheel, D, there is a pinion of eight
teeth (not seen in the engraving)
which works in the rack, a. On the
axis, I, there is another pinion of
ei^t teeth (concealed by the other
parts), which acts in the wheel, d, of
twenty-four teeth. This axis, a, may
be turned by the winch handle, h,
three turns of which will make the
rack descend through a space corre-
sponding to eight of its teeth. In
this. way the plate, b, may be lower-
ed to touch the cheese, and to com-
mence tlie pressure; but when the
resistance becomes considerable, the
second method of acting on the rack
must be resorted to. On the axis, b,
besides the pinion before mentioned,
there is a fixed ratchet wheel, r ; the
lever, i, forked at the end, which
embraces r, is also placed on this
axis, but turns freely round it. In
the forked part of r there is a ratchet
or click, o (better seen at o *), which,
turning on the pin, a, may be made
to engage in the notches of the ratch-
et wheel, p. By means of this ar-
rangement, when I is raised up, and
o engaged in p, the axis, x, and its
pinion will be turned round with great
power on depressing the end, i, of the
lever ; and by alternately raising and
depressing i, any degree of pressure
required may be given to the cheese ;
after which, if it be wished to con-
tinue the pressure, and to follow
the gradual shrinking of the cheese,
the lever is to be raised above the
horizontal position, and the weight,
w, hung on, which will cause it to
descend as the cheese yields. By
inserting the pin, p, this effect may
be discontinued, and the farther de-
scent of B prevented." — {Highland
Soe. Trans., vol. x., p. 52.)

CHEIROPTERA (from ;r«P. the
ha'ndfBXidin'epw,amjigy Aoimaliof

102

tbete

branous, stretched frantbe hand and
aim to the hind legs and aide of the
body. Bats are, for the moat part,
insectivorous, and therelbre worthy
of preservation by farmers.

CHELONIANS (from x^Xumf^ m
tortcite). All tortoises, turtles, dtc,
which are covered with a double
shell.

C HE M I ST R Y (CAtfiRo, Arfc., to
btam}. The seienee which investi-
gates the nature of matter, and the
hiwa which govern the moveraeote
of its atoms. The inanimate and ani-
mate world are the scenes of its re-
searches. The miner, dyer, and man-
ttfaoturer owe their suceess to chem*
istry, and the fanner is destined to
be more benefited by this seieeee
than other professions. The soil»
plants, and manures are all topica of
chemical examination, and, without
knowing their nature, no person can
practice agriculture except by guess,
and in an empirical way.

It is a subject of nnmense extent,
and in this work I have confined my-
self to the practical points. See An-
aiynsy AJinity, Atomt Oxygen, Cea-bon^

CHENOPODIAGEiG. A family of
plants, of which the Chsntpodium is a
genus. They are herbaceous, grow-
ing on very rich lands, have a solita-
ry carpel, stamens of the same nran*
bier as the divisions of the calyx, with-
out bracts or petals. The wormeeed
(C*A. anthelminiicum) is the only me-
dicinal species. Beets, spinach, and
goose foot belong to this family ; the
leaves, and indeed the whole plant,
are mucilaginous, and may be eaten
as food when not unpleasant to the
palate.

CHERIMOYA. The fruit of the
Anona cAmmo/ta, a tree of tropical
America.

CHERRY. PrtiHUS eeraeus. The
tree grows well in the United States,
and prefers a deep loam in a free ex-
posure. The Wood is firm, and used
for cabinet purposes. The stocks
are raised from seed, and budded or
grafted : for dwarfs, the morello stock
is preferred. TThe stock mav be bud-

CHERRY.

dedUie Bat 3rear».aQd will bear in the
fifth. Tbey may be trained as espa-
liers or left as standards. The fol-
lowing are select varieties :

Datkvpobt's Easly "Black, New
May Duke. — This variety is consid-
ered as one of the finest and most
productive of early cherries known.
The fruit is of medium size, heart-
shaped, of a dark, glossy black col-
our; flesh firm, and of a pleasant,
sub-acid flavour. It ripens a week
or tea days earlier than the May
Duke.

Mat Dukk, Early Duke, Holmaii't
IhiU, June Duke. — ^Fruit roundish,
and grows in clusters; skin very
dark red; flesh soft and juicy : ripe
in June.

AjiKKZCAir Ambki, Earhf Amber,
New Honey. — ^Fruit beautiful, and of
medium size; dark pink or amber
colour ; flesh rich, sweet, and flne :
ripe in June.

Eltom. — This excellent variety was
raised by Mr. Knight in 1806 ; the
tree is very vigorous and productive ;
the fruit is prelty large, heart-shaped ;
pale glossy yellow in the shade, bat
marbled with bright red next the sun ;
flesh firm, sweet, and rich: ripens
soon after the May Duke.

F L o B B N 0 B. — A very fine heart-
shaped cherry, of a yellow amber col-
oar, marbled with bright red in the
shade, bright red next the sun ; flesh
tolerably form, juicy, rich, and sweet :
ripe end of June and in July.

Ambkbb db Choist. — A middle-
sized, roundish fruit, highly deserving
of cultivation ; skin transparent, red^
mottled with amber ; flesh amber
coloured, tender, and sweet. It bears
wen as a standard, and ripens its fruit
in June.

Kbiobt's Eablt Black. — Colour
rich, dark hne ; flesh firm, juicy, and
sweet : ripe in June.

Ox H^AMT, Harruon'e Heart, Whiie
Bigarrtau. — Fruit large, heart-sha-
ped; colour pale yellow and white,
mottled with red ; flesh white, firm,
and well flavoured : ripe in June.

Manwino's Black Bigarbbau. — A
new variety from the nursery of the
late R. Manning, of Salem, Mass.

Fruit laige, flesh sweet, and of pch
cuHariy fine flavour : ripe in July.

Ybllow Spanish, Grmffion, Impt'
rial. White Orleans, T\trkey Bigar^
rMu.-— Fruit very large, beart-sha]^ ;
amber colour, red next the sun ; flesh
firm, sweet, and fine flavoured ; one
of the very best varieties ; tree aa
abundant bearer : ripe in July.

Blick Eaolb. — A handsome va-
rietv ; fruit of globular form ; skin
dark purple ; flesh tender, rich, and
of fine flavour : ripe in July.

Black Tartabun, Black Russian,
Ronald^s Large Black Heart. ^-haxge,
heart-shaped, and of very superior
quality; colour dark shining purple
or black ; flesh firm, purple, and
sweet ; tree very productive : ripe in
June.

EucHORif, Black Ox Heart, Large
Black Bigarreau. — Fruit large, and
heart-shaped ; an excellent variety
for market: ripe second and third
weeks in July.

Archdukb, Eoyal Duke, Portugal
Duke. — ^A large, globular-formed red
cherry ; like the May Duke, it grows
in clusters, but the tree grows more
vigorously than that variety, and
yields an abundance of fruit, which
hangs a long time on the tree, im-
proving in flavour in July.

Napolbon Bigabbbau. — One of the
finest varieties ; fruit white, with red
spots ; size large, flesh white, solid,
and sweet : ripe in July.

Wbitb Bigarbbau. — One of the
largest and finest varieties. Fruit
heart-shaped ; skin yellow, with a red
cheek ; flesh firm and fine flavoured :
ripe in July.

Latb Wbitb Hbabt.— Middle size,
pleasant flavour, valuable as a late
variety : ripe the last of August,

Wbitb Tartabun. — An elegant
fruit; pale yellow, approaching to
amber next the sun; fine flavour,
and a good bearer : ripe in July.

DowNBB*s Latb Rbd, Downer^s Fo-
vourite. — Fruit large and round ; col-
our light red, flesh firm and fine : ripe
after most other varieties are gone.

MoBBLLO, English MoreUo. — ^Fruit
of medium size, round ; of a dark-
red colour, nearly black at maturity ;

1&3

CHE

flesh deep red, tender, juicy, and
blended with an agreeable acid ; ripe
in July, and hangs some time on the
tree. This Tarietv is excellent for
preserves and for brandy.

The fruit appears on spurs pro-
duced on branches two and three
years old ; the spurs are formed year
by year along the bearing branches :
the morello on the last year's shoots,
and seldom on that three years old.
Cherry-trees, unless topped, become
very high, and require 30 to 40 feet
between them.

Diseases, — Exudation of gum is
cured by improving the soil, and pru-
ning less carelessly. The aphis, of a
green colour, is often troublesome,
causing the leaves to curl, and pro-
ducing, according to some naturalists,
honey dew. Fumigations with tobac-
co, sulphur, and pepper are recom-
mended, as well as washing by a gar-
den engine, and throwing up tobacco
infusion. The red spider is removed
by the same means. |t is, however,
a healthy tree, and less subject to
disease than many others. The trunk
is sometimes attacked by borers.

CHERRY, WILD. Prunus Vir-
grimana. This tree is found as far
north as Maine, but reaches perfec-
tion in ridi lands in the Middle States,
especially Pennsylvania ; and also in
Virginia and Ohio. Trees have been
measured 100 feet high and 16 in
girth. The wood is brown, bright,
and, near branches, well marked. It
is much used for cabinet purposes,
and is durable. The fruit is small
and bitter, but flavoured like ratafia,
from the presence of oil of bitter al-
monds, and is sometimes mixed with
morello cherries for the manufacture
of cherry brandy and cordials. The
young tree is an excellent stock for
budding or grafting. The bark, infu-
sed in water, forms a popular tonic
and nervous remedy, ror other va-
rieties, see Prunus.

CHERT. A siliciotts mineral re-
sembling flint.

CHERVIL. ChasrophyUum sati-
vum, A potpherb resembling pars-
ley, used by the French and Dutch in
soups and as salads. The seeds are

164

CHE

sown in spring, in drills eight inches
apart, ^e plants thinned to eight inch-
es apart, and kept free of weeds. It
flowers in the fall.

CHESSEL. The cheese vat. It
is made t>f white oak, bound by iron
hoops, and perforated with holes to
allow the whey to drain out.

CHEST FOUNDER. An irrita
tion or inflammation of the mem-
branes in the chest. See Horse.

CHESTNUT. The American
chestnut {Castanea AmeHeana) very
neariy resembles the famous Europe-
an tree {Castanea vesca), except in its
altitude and the size of the fruit. The
European, also called the Spanish or
Italian chestnut, is of immense site
and longevity, trees being known
which liave a girth of 00 feet. The
wood, except in very old trees, is ad-
mirable, being more durable than oak
in moist situations. The bark is also
used in tanning. It prefers a dry,
loose soil, abounding in silicious mat-
ter and potash.

The European variety is easily rais-
ed from seed, grows rapidly, and bears
in seven years. The fruit is five times
larger than that of ours, and com-
mands a good price in the market.
Chestnuts are used boiled, roasted,
and raw. In Southern France, Italy,
dec., they constitute the bread of a
large population. Michaux gives the
following directions for the cultiva-
tion of the chestnut :

** After the ground has been care-
fully loosened with the ptough and
harrow, lines are drawn six feet
apart, in which holes about a foot in
depth and diameter are formed, at the
distances of four feet. A chestnut is
placed in each comer of the hole,
and covered with about three inches
of earth. As the soil has been thor-
oughly subdued, the mits will spring
and strike root with facility. Early
in the second year, three of the young
plants are removed from each hole,
and only the most thriving is left.
The third or fourth year, when the
branches begin to interfere with each
other, every second tree is suppress-
ed. To ensure its success, the plan-
tation should be begun in Marrh or

April, wttb nots tint hare b««n kept
in theeellar during the winter, inMnd
or TCfetable moold, and that bive ftl-
veady bepin to gennlnale.''

CHEWING THE CUD. Ttie an-
fmals wbieh chew the eti<t are term-
ed bj natoraltstB Runmanit, and Ie-
tinde the oi, deer, eatnet, and riteep.
Thej are fnrnlsbed with four ponchea
or Btomach* ; the graaa gaihered on
the field « awallowed and reaches
the fint p«Hieb. ie moiatened by wa-
ter rrom the ae«ond, and afterward
tnooMed into ronnd balls, which are
throws np into tbe tnonlh and leis-
tirely chewed, and re-mallowed into
the third stomach, to be digeated in
tiie fonrth. Sach animala are esaen-
tialtj herbiToroDB, and require reat
do ring rumination. Any interference
with this prooeee ia a aign of dtseaae.

CHIASTOLITE. A mineral re-
■embliag soap-stone.

CHICA. A red coloar obtained hj
boiling Iha leaveaaf the Bigvmiaclti-
ea, Btiaining, and allowing to coo],
when it settles as an inaolnble red
■natter. It is pemiRneitl, insoluble
in water, but snlubfe in oila and lyes.
The Indians uae it to anoint their bod-
ies. It may be uacful jd tbe arts.

CHICKEN. Sen FoaJlrj.

CHiCK PEA, An excOc-, legu-
nriiDDus aanaal, resembling the retail :
tbe Cumiruf»iumt>ri>otaniBts. Tbey
hare been laiKd in the Middle States
with BiifKeas- It ia the Gtiriataa of
fipstn, and PoUcluca of the French,
and reputed as the most delicious pea.
Tbe groand dry pea is also Died in
Boupa, and the roasted grain is aaid
to bo a good substitate for coffbe. It
prefers a rich, sandy loain, ia grown
m rows, does not climb, attains the
height of about eighteen inches ; tbe

r]s contain two peas, and tbe yield
■maU. A B tbey come to most per-
teexioa in the Soath, they most be
■own in Jane in tbe Middle States.

CHICORY. Ciehornim intyhit.
An indigenoua perennial plant, with
Sue Une compoaite flowera, {Stt

'%"

and saocnlent leares spread out, wftt
deeply- indented edges. The whole
plant is bitter and amiDat ic. It ia fre-
qnently ased aa a salad, espectallT
when blanched. For this purpose,
the roots are Inken np in the end oT
auiamn ; tbey are then placed in sand
or light mould, in a cellar from which
the light IS e^icluded, the leaves hav-
ing been out uffpreriously within half
irti inch of the crown. Fresh, slender
learpB soon growont of the root, and,
being deprived of liglit. they are much
more delicate and tender than those
which grow in the open ground. The
bitlemeas, also, is thus lessened, and
they fomi a very pleasant winter sal-
ad, whicb, from the long, slender, and
matted slate of (he leeTes, the Prendt
call barbe dt ctyucin (monk's beard).
It is pleaaanter to the taate than com-
mon end ire.

"The luxuriant growth of the teavea
of the chicory, and their speedy re-
production alter thoy have been cut,
suggested the more extensive cnlti-
vatinn of this plant as food for cattle
and sheep, who are fond of tbe leBves,
M. CreltS de Panuel, who cultiTated
it near Paris in a rich soil, prodnced
extraordinary croira. The first year
he cut it only twice, but afterward
foor and five times in a year : it pro-
duced mote ^reen food than any oth-

tbat be 8troim:1y reooguoMiided it to

the notiee of British agriculturists ;
and in the queries sent to various
parts of the country by the Board of
Agriculture, one was whether chico-
ry was cultivated in the district as
green food for cattle. But, notwith-
standing its abundant produce, it has
not been found so much superior to
other green food as to make its culti-
TatioB general. Some accurate ex-
periments on a large scale were made
in France, at the national farm of
Rambouillet, to ascertain the value
of chicory compared with lucem and
other green food. The chicory was
declared inferior, giving a disagreea-
ble taste to milk and butter when
eows are kept upon it. For sheep it
is very good, and a small portion mix-
ed with their other food may probably
be a preservative against the rot.

" Chicory is now chiefly cultivated
in Belgium and Germany, for the pur-
pose of preparing from the root a pow-
der which can be substituted for oof-
fee. This has become a very consid-
erable article of commerce.

*' To have the roou in perfection,
the seed should be sown, or, rather,
drilled* in April, like tbat of the car-
rot. If sown sooner, they are apt to
run to seed. The land should be rich,
deep, and light. The plants should be
thinned out to six inches in the rows,
and most carefully weeded. In Sep-
tember the leaves should be finaUy
gathered and the roots taken up,
which may be done with a conunon
potato-fork. They are then cleaned
by scraping and washing, split where
they are thickest, and cut across in
pieces about two or three inches long.
These pieces are dried by means of
a slow oven or a kiln. Some nicety
is required in drying, to prevent the
root from being scorched, and to keep
the proper flavour. In this state it is
sold to the merchants, packed in bags.
It is afterward cut or chopped into
small pieces, roasted exactly as cof-
fee, and ground in a mill. Chicory is
said to exhaust the soil, and to require
fresh ground to prevent its degenera-
ting. Unless the sou is rich and light,
the toots will not oome to a good sise
166

io one seaeen, asd M roots beeome

tough and stringy. It is only the young
roots that are fit to be prepared /or
conunerce. They lose a great por-
tion of their weight in drying. The
best preparation of the land for chic-
ory is grass or clover. The manure
should be laid on before it is plough-
ed up in autumn, which will acceler-
ate the decomposition of the roots.
The land should be ploughed veiy
deep in spring, and laid light ; the sur-
face harrowed fine, and the chicory
seed drilled in rows twelve inches
apart, and rolled. Liquid manure
spread over the ground will much
accelerate the growth of the plants,
which must be thinned out like tur-
nips or carrots, to six or eight inches
from plant to plant."

About thirteen pounds of seed are
used to the acre.

CHIGOE, or CHIGGER. An apter-
ous minute insect, which abounds in
southern and tropical America. It
penetrates the skin of the foot, grow-
ing to some size, and producing in-
tolerable itching. Unless destroyed
by tobacco juice, or picked out with
a needle, it finally brings about ulcer-
ations.

CHILIAN CLOVER. The Alfal-
fa, It is common lucem.

CHINE. The back bone.

CHINQUAPIN. Castanea^fmU,
A small tree and biieh seldom found
north of Delaware. The ftmt is small
and like a chestnut. It is seldom
wood is obtained from the chinqua-
pin : what there is is very durable.
In n«»glected new lands in Virginia it
is a great nuisance.

CHINTZ, or CHINCK BUG. The
following is from Mr. Pleasants of
Virginia :

** The chinck bog is a much more
formidable enemy with us than the
wheat worm, or even the Hessian
fly. They (the chinck bugs) attack
both com and wheat crops, the lat-
ter in May, the former generally in
the month of June. They continue
to injure the wheat by extracting the
sap as long as there is a particle of
it in the stalk. The consequence is,
where they are numerous, the grain^

CHL

«|M» harvMted, is imm]^ vcvtUflM

and the sttaw vastly injured. B> the
time the wheat is out, the bugs (tbea
flies) take wing^ and immediately
spread over the neighbouring corn-
fields, concealing themselres under
the blade slips, under the roots, dec.,
where they deposite millions of eggs*
which are hatched in eight or ten
days, and continue thxough rapidly
succeeding generations to prey upon
the sap as long as anything green re-
Doaias upon the stalk, finally taking
shelter for the winter under the bark
of stumps and logs, under large clods,
dec., to be ready for the wwk of de-
struction the next season. When
first hatched, they are very small, and
red as gochineal. They grow very
rapidly, and in a week attain half the
size of a bedbug ; in a week more,
they acquire wings, fly, and spread
themselves over the field, depositing
their eggs generally. They are, in
the last state, about twice the size of
a flea, have white wings, and their
bodies being dark, have a speckled
appearance. I have been thus minute
in describiog these insects, because I
observe they have never been seen
in Maryland." Their destruction is
attempted by running ditches across
the field, filled with straw, and, as
soon as the bugs are seen thereon,
setting fire to it. The bugs come
from forests, and are destroyed by
occasionally baminff the dry leaves.

CHIVES, or CIYE& AUiumtchO'
iwfTaaum. A small species of onion
growing in tuAs. It is propagated
by dividing the roots, set out in May
and June eight inches apart, and eight
or ten ofibets together. Keep free
from weeds. The leaves may be osed
for soups. In the fall, as soon as the
tops die, dig the chives and store for
winter.

CHLOIUNE (from x^*»P^f great),
A green - coloured elementary gas,
produced artificially. It is pungent,
poisonous, and of great chemiciQ ac-
tivity. It exists only in combination
in nature : equivalent 35-45. When
combined with metals the substances
are called Chlorideg, as chloride of
sodium (common salt), chloride ^ h\f*

|.4n0grM.(an]iatksaeid). The latter is
a powerful acid, much used in the
arts, and known under the name of
spirits of salts. Chlorine also unites
with lime and soda, forming feeble
compounds, the chlorides of lime and
soda; these, especially the former,
are extensively used in bleaching,
from the continual escape of the chlo-
rine. They are also disinfecting for
the same reason. Chlorides are olV-
en erroneously called Jlftino/et. Chlo-
rine unites with five equivalents of
oxygen, and forms the Chloric Add.
One of its salts, the chlorate of pot-
ash, is of great value in the arts

CHLOJllTE. A mineral of a green-
ish colour, common in slates, dec. It
m chiefly a silicate of magnesia and
iron.

CHLORO. In chemistry, a prefix
to substances containing chlorine, as
chloro-carbonic acid. dec.

CHLOROPHYL (from x^poc and
^XAov, s Uaf)» The green colouring
matter of leaves. It closely resem-
bles wax, and is converted in the fall .
into a true yellow lat. The presence
of chloro{^yl is essential to the
healthy functions of the leaf, which
ceases to absorb carbonic acid from
the air when yellow or red. The au-
tumnal tints of leaves depend on a
change of this colouring matter, the
yellow being called Zanthophyl, and
the red Erythrophyl. Chlorophyl is
also called chramule by some authors.
The tints of many flowers depend
upon its compounds, which assume
every variety between reds, yellows,
and greens. Chlorophyl has been
very recently shown to be analagous,
in its physical characters, with indigo.

CHLORURETS. The old name
for Chlorides,

CHOCOLATE. A preparation
made by triturating the roasted cocoa
beans at a temperature of 130^ Fah-
renheit, and mixing with cinnamon,
doves, vanilla, or <^er spices.

CHOKE DAMP. The suffocating
vapour existing in the bottom of weli^,
cess-pools, and mines of wood coal.
It is an air containing much carlMnio
acid, and may destroy life. Free
exposure to pure air and artificial

157

CBU

010

warmtli are the meant to be used in
restoring persons oreroome with this
Tapoor.

CHOLESTERINE {frornxoltif W«»
and ffteapf tuet). A fatty matter re-
sembling spermaeeti, foond in the bile
and biliary concretions.

CHOLEIG ACID. Liebig regards
the animal matter of the bile as cho-
leio acid, the secretion being a soap
formed by its union with soda. Cholic
and chohidic acids are separated by
alcohol and other soWents, and are of
secondary consequence. Redtenha*
Cher has recently discotered twenty*
gix per cent, of sulphur in eholeic acid.

CHONDRINE. Gristle, or carti-
lage. It consists of protein with wa-
ter, or, according to Liebig, protein
-f20, 4-4 water.

CHORD. A straight line drawn
between the two extremities of the
arc of a cunre. The chord of an arch
is its span.

CHOROID MEMBRANE. The
membrane of the eye within the white
TK>at.

CHROMATIC (from ;t/^/ia, col-
our). In optics, relating to colour.

CHRONIC (from xp^^vo^^ *«^)-
Diseases which are slow in their prog-
ress are called chronic.

CHRYSALIS. The grub or inac-
tive state of changeable insects. The
terms pupa and aurealian are synony-
mous. Some are enclosed in cocoons,
others are destitute of coTering, and
buried in the earth or in trees. Moths
usually have rounded and butterflieB
angular cbrysales.

CHURN. The barrel in which the
butter of milk is separated. The
common plunging chum is described
in the article Butter. Another form
is a barrel with paddles moving upon
a central axis, which is turned by a
handle on the outside. Chums are
moved by horse or dog power, water,
and even steam-engines. A simple
plan is to affix the rods of several
phmging chums to a cross-bar attach-
ed to a lever, one end of which is fast-
ened to a wall or tree by a moveable
joint ; by moving the free end of the
lever, all the sticks are raised or de-
pressed together, and thus four or

158

noro dmrns aro set is aetloii by 0110
person. Tlie French use a chum
made of tin, which being phioed in a
tnb of warm water, can be warmed
directly, and be made to yield butter
in from ten to twelve minntes.

CHURNING. From a series of
experiments made for the Highland
Agricultural Society, it appears that
temperature of 60^ or U® Fahrenheit
is the best for the process (with
cream), and about two hours* work.
If the churning be continued after the
formation of butter it becomes soft,
and sometimes looses its colour.
When the whole milk is used it should
be warmed to 66^ Fahrenheit. As
this point is easily managed in sum-
mer as well as in winter, it is best to
use the entire milk. An additional
argument is, that more butter is ob-
tained, Mr. Ballantyne having shown
that more than &ve per cent, is ob-
tained in annuner from milk than
cream.

CHYLE. The mUky fluid result-
ing from digestion. It is almost iden-
tical with milk, and owes its white
colour to tht suspended in it. The
diyle is carried directly into the veins,
and serves to repair the blood em-
ployed in maintaining the fhnctions
of the body. It is alkaline, and con-
tains albumen and fibrin.

CHYLIFICATION. The produc-
tion of chyle.

CHYME. The solid parts result-
ing from digestion, which are first
white from admixture with chyle, but
ultimately beeome converted into fec-
ulent matter. Chyme is slightly acid,
from the presenoe of lactic acid.

CICADA. A genus of insects re-
lated to the grasshopper and locust,
but inhabiting trees ; they make a
shrill sound. The dry fly of the
South is a species (C. eamcuUtris).
The cieadc, by puncturing trees and
allowing their sap to exude, do much
harm ; the C. arm produces, in this
way, the manna of the druggists, by
wounding the Fraxinut omue^ or
manna ash-tree. The seventeen*
year locust is the C. eeptendedm.

CICATRIX. The scab of a wound
in the act of healing.

CICHORnTM. The generic name
of I QombeT ofcomposite plants, of
which the C. intybat la chicory or
auccorT. and C. tndimi, endire.

CIDER. The fermented jaice of
ipplea. The Harrison, Nevrarit
Sffeeling, Hugh's Virginia Crab, and
Granniwinkic are the best elder ap-
ples ; but any fruit serves that is
well flavoured and becomes sweet in
the pomace. The applos shonid be
ripe, maehed well In a mortar or mill,
and the crnsbed mass kept an til thor-
oughly sweet (from two to six days) ;
it is then placed in a frames urround-
ed by straw and put ond^the press.
The jaice shonid be put in barrels, in
a cool place, to fermeot, and as soon
aa the fecutenc matter (pulp) contain-
ed in it haa overQawa (about four
days), it should be raclced or decant-
ed into a clean cask furnished with
a Tent pes, bunged np. and placed in
a cool cellBr. U is adrisable to se-
cure the decanted eider from becom-
ihK sonr and running into linegar, by
burning a little sulphur in the new
cask inuoediately before pounng In.
The Jiqaor will be fit for bottling in
February. Some persons add sugar
and spirits to the cider, hut they tend
only to increase its intoxicating ef-
fects. Old cider, made without such
addition, contains from seven to nine
per cent, of ah^ihol.

By aUowiDg the juiee to remain io

the flnt cast it BpeedOy beoomea

■our, and vinegar ia rapidly formed a*
long as air finds access. Aa soon aa
the juice is intensely sour, bung up the
barrel, or the acetic acid evaponitea,
and only a flat water is left behind-

The refnae pomace is sometimea
moistened with water, and pressed
again to furm water cider. It is eat-
en by bogs and cows while fresh ; or,
if in great excess, may be carried to
the farm-yard to add to the manars
heap. Every part of the apparatua
mnaE be kept clean by wasbioK with
hot water and sornbbiag.

CIDER MILL. Sereral contri.
vancea are used for the purpose of
cruabingtheapplea; alargetninkof
a tree, hollowed, serves for a sfoMI
family, the fruit being beaten by a
wooden beetle. The following are
more eflToctive mills : ^g, 1 preaenl*
companments for varieties of ap-

ple ; the large millstone, a, is dtawn
around in the graoTo and crusbea ev.
ery particle of fruit. Fig. S ia a miB
of similar construction, but more sub-
stantial ; i is the awingiog tree.

Another nQ), flgured nnder the ar-
ticle CntluTt, is also used for this
porpose. The mill {Fig. 3) above
woold be of great service on the rama
to crush corn, roots, bones, charcoal,
he., as well as fniiu

CILIA (from nUiim,(*<<y(lMi(), Mi- A«b eoloared.

note haira on the margins of leavea,
angles of the bodies of inaecls, dto-
Ciliaii is a derivative.

CIMEX. The general term for in-
sects resembling the bedbug.

CINEREOUS (from emu, cfi).

CINNAMON Launu etnnamd*
ffwm. This is a small tree, from
twenty to thirty feet high, indigenous
to Ceylon and the Eastern islandSi
but cultivated in Cayenne, Egypt,
and Brazil. The spice consists of
the inner bark of the branches ; its
flavour is due to an essential oil ea-
sily distilled.

CINQUEFOIL. Several species
of PotentiUa with yellow flowers are
•o called. They are weeds, the roots
of which are astringent.

CIRCINNATE. In botany, the
manner in which the buds of ferns
and some other plants are folded, re-
sembling a crosier.

CIRCULATION. In physiology,
the route which the fluids or blood
of animals and plants take through
the system. It diflfers with the spe-
cies of animals, but is nearly uniform
in the highest classes.

The drculaiion of the blood in man
and quadmpeds may be said to com-
mence on the right side of the heart,
*from whence it is driven along the
fulmonary arteritM into the structure
of the lungs ; being here changed by
the actiun of air, the bright crimson
blood is conveyed by the jmlmonary
veins into the left side of the heart,
and thence driven by its contraction
along the aorta and throughout the
body in the system of vessels called
arteries. The arterial blood ultimate-
ly reaching the skin and membranes,
moves through them and becomes of
a dark colour ; in this state it enters
the veins, and is conveyed back to the
heart again to pass through the same
course. The circulation in the lungs
is terrand the lesser or pulmonic cir-
culation ; that through the body, the
systemic circulation. The object of
this movement is to supply every part
with its proper nourishment. The
force which accomplishes it is the
chemical action taking place in the
minute or capiUary vessels. See Dr.
DrQpst's work on vegetnbU Chemistry,

CIRCULATION IN PLANTS.
Fluid entering the roots of phints
rises by capillary action along the
cellular tissue or new wood in trees,
and diflfuses itself over the leaves ;

here a chemical change oecmv, and
it is driven along the under side of the
leaf to the space between the bark
and new wood, where the changed
fluid or sap difitises itself and sup-
plies the young buds, and also de-
scends to the roots, forming new
wood and rootlets in its passage.
The force producing this circulation
is, like the former, doe to chemical
changes in a great measure.

CIRRUS. A tendril.

CITRIC ACID. The sour princi-
ple of lemons. ' See Acids.

CITRON. A variety of lemon, the
fruit of whfth is much larger and with
a thicker rind, used for preserving ;
the pulp is less, and acid as in the
lemon.

CITRUS. The generic name of
the orange, lemon, and lime tree.

CLARIFICATION. The procesa
of clearing or refining fluids, by which
they are freed from sediment. The
white of egg, the dear portions of
blood, clay, and charcoal powder are
the best clarifiers.

CLARY. A species of sage (SaU
tia sclarea). It is seldom cultivated
In the United States, being inferior
to that aromatic herb.

CLASPERS. Tendrils.

CLASS. A general division of nat-
ural objects.

CLA VATE (from eUnxi, a club).
Club-shaped. A descriptive term in
botany.

CLAVICLE. The collar bone.

CLAY. The earth which is form-
ed from the decomposition of slates,
shales, and minerals containing much
alumina. It is a hydrated silicate of
alumina, usually coloured red or blue
by metals, but sometimes, as in pipe
clay and porcelain clay, of its natural
white or gray colour. It is very plaa-
tie, adhestre, and tenacious of water,
so that in soils containing serenty
per cent, it is almost impossible to
produce a good tillage. It also pos-
sesses the property of forming feeble
combinations with the ammonia of
the air or soil* Clay soils, when
manageable, are usually fertile, from
the presence of other minerals occur-
ring in them, so that in practice it is

CIA

portioo of this earth.

ChemicaJiy, the alamiiiais a feeble
tese, uniting with acids, and is found
M a phosphate and sulphate, as well
•B silicate. Clay ean hardly be said
to furnish food to ptents directly, but
is of cooseqoenoe in giying texture
and abeoibeney to soils.

CLAT, BURNED. Sot Clay SoOs
and Turf.

CLAYING 1.ANDS. This is the
spveading of elay over soils which are
too sandy. It is an important remedy
for looee lands ; but the expense is
too heaTy to justify the practice, ex-
cept in garden eolture. The clay
■hould be carried on in the fall, to
mellow during winter ; 100 or more
loads to the acre will be necessary
for a good result : the addition is per-
manent. If marl can be obtained, it
is very preferable.

CLAY SOILS. A elay soil con-
feists of a large proportion of alumina
onited to edica of Tahous degrees of
fineness. When the sand is tery
ine, and intimately mixed with the
alumina, the clay, although stiff* in
appearance, ia fertile in proportion to
the humus which it contains, or which
is artificially added to it. It then
forms that class of rich wheat soils
which produce many successive abun-
dant crops without change or manure.
It has a strong affinity for water,
which preTents the plants that grow
in it being injured by drought ; and
ft has a sufficient degree of porous-
ness to allow superfluous moisture to
percolate without making it too soft.
All that is required for such a soil is
a porous substratum of rock or grav-
el; and where this is not the case,
sufficient under-drains must be made
to produce the same effect. Clay
•oils are of a compact nature, which
retains the water ; hence they require
expensive draining and manuring to
Tender them productive. This has
made lighter soils, which are more
easily worked, to be generally pre-
ferred, although naturally less adapt-
ed to the growth of wlieat ; and the
mode of cultivation of the light Sf»ils
has advanced more rapidly towards

CLA

pefffoeftiott than that of the days ; jii

the latter will undoubtedly repay the
outlay best when once they are
brou^t to a certain state of improve-
ment. When clay soils are well
drained, and when the effect of nox-
ious salts has been removed by liming,
burning, and frequent stirring, it will
be found that a much smaller quantity
of manure will produce a more cer-
tain return in grass or com than on
any light soil. The great difficulty is
to choose the time when stiff clays
are to be worked ; and here it may
be observed that ploughing some-
times does more harm than good.
When clay is wet, especially in the
beginning of summer, and it is plough-
ed in the regular process of fallow-
ing, the tough, moist slice cut out by
the plough is set on edsre, and the
sun bakes it into a hard mass like
brick. In this state it is not im-
proved by exposure to the air, which
cannot penetrate this hard substance.
It would be much better to plough
out deep water-furrows with a plough
made on purpose, and wait until the
moisture is reduced by gradual per-
colation and evaporation, so that the
plouffh should raise a slijse ready to
breax and crumble as it is turned
over. This should be done imme-
diately before winter, and then the
frost will so divide and mellow the
soil that, provided it be kept free
from superfluous water by under-
drains and water-furrows, it will have
the appearance of the finest mould
when worked with the harrows in
spring. To plough it again would be
to spoil all. It should have received
the necessary manuring in autumn,
and be ready for the seed to be sown
on this pulverized surface. The
horses which draw the harrows or
the sowing machines should be made
to walk in the forrows, which should
afterward be deepened out with a
plough constructed for the purpose
A free course and outlet should be
formed for all surface water ; for no
maxim is more true than this, that
stiff clays are never injured by a con-
tinuance of dry weather, unless they
were in a wet sute immediately be-

161

CLAY SOILS.

toft. IW 4iyMt otear eonUin 80^

ficiont water to supply the roots of
pUut9 for a loag time ; but wet clay,
ui drying and shrinkiog, destroys the
texture o( the roots by mechanical
pressure. This may be of use when
weeds are to be eradicated, and in
that case a different mode of proceed-
ing may be recommended ; but when
«KKi seed is sown the clay should be
m such a state as to crumble under
the harrows. Experience has taught
the ploughman that clay soils should
be laid in round lands or stitches;
and much of the produce of a field
depends on the skill with which this
is done. It is not only the surface
which should lie in a rounded form,
hut the bottoms of the furrows should
lie in a regular curve, without small
ridges or inequalities between them,
so that, when heavy rains penetrate
through the whole thickness which
the plough has raised, the water may
find its way into the intervening fur-
rows without being retained by the
small ridges left by an unskilful
ploughman. The slightest inclina-
tion of the plough to either side
makes an inclination in the bottom
of the furrow. An inequality in the
depth does the same. The usual
method is to increase the depth of
the ploughing from the crown of the
stitch to the outer furrow. If the
land has been cross-ploughed or drag-
ged level before the last ploughing,
this may answer the purpose ; but if
the stitches are only reversed, and
the centre of the new stitch is to be
where the water-furrow was before,
it requires twice ploughing to bring
the stitch to its proper form ; and this
is not always done, for fear of tread-
ing the land too much. Hence it is
always preferable, where it can be
done, to lay the land flat by cross-
ploughing and harrowing before it is
raised in stitches. The narrower the
stitches are the dryer the land will
lie. The most convenient width is
five bouts, as it is called, that is, five
furrows on each side of the centre,
which, a1h)wing nine inches for each
furrow, makes seven and a half feet,
leaving eighteen inches for a water

162

funow, wUdi is deepened into a naiw

row channel in the middle.

We have been thus particular in
describing the management of da/
land, because it seems not so gener-
ally understood, and there is great
room for improvement in the com*
mon modes of cultivation. Fallow-
ing for wheat is the old system oa
clay soils, and continues to be so in
nine farms out of ten ; but it often
happens that, in a wet season, the
whole advantage of the repeated
ploughings is entirely lost : the land
sown with wheat is neither enriched
nor improved by all the tillage be-
stowed upon it, and it is as AiIl of
weeds as it was when first broken up
from the preceding stubble. The bet*
ter system is to clean the land well
in summer, afler it has borne a crop,
and to lay it up high and dry for the
winter, having given it the proper li<
ming ; to sow it with oats and grass
seeds in spring, keep it in grass as
lon^ as is convenient, and break it
up m autumn. Wheat may then bo
sown ; or it may have the benefit of
another winter's frost, and corn may
be drilled in spring. Clay land will
bear a repetition of the same crope
much oflener than lighter lands ; but
every scientific agriculturist knows
the advantage of varying the produce
as much as possible, making plants
of different families succeed each
other. The cereal grasses are of
one family, which is the reason why
wheat, barley, oats, rye grass, &c., do
not succeed so well after each other
as after leguminous plants or clover,
and that turnips, besides cleaning the
land by the repeated hoeings givea
them, are so good a preparation for
corn. A good rotation for stiff clays
is yet a desideratum in agriculture ;
and although we will not affirm thai
fallows can be entirely dispensed
with, we are persuaded that they
might be separated by much larger
intervals than is usually done ; and
if advantage is taken of early sea-
sons, most lands may be kept clean
by what is dalled a bastard fallow
inunediately after harvest, without
losing a crop. We wUl go ^u'ther*

CLAT SOUS.

tfid assert that, instead of thiiee
crops in four years, which is the com-
mon method, and an improvement on
the old system of two crops and a
fiillow, five might easily be obtained,
especially if clorers are considered
as crops. For example : 1. Oats or
barley ; 3. Clover ; 8. Wheat ; 4. Tri-
folium cut in May, and succeeded by
spring rye, cabbages, or potatoes. At
all events, the trifolium or winter rye
may always be bad in the year in
which the land is to be cleaned by
repeated ploughings, as they may be
cut early in summer, and leave ample
time for the operations.

The most profitable management
of a stiff, wet clay soil, after thorough
draining it, is to cultivate it on the
convertible system, that is, to have
it three years in grass and three
years under the plough, unless a per-
manent and good sward can be ob-
' tained upon it, in which case it will
give the surest return by remaining
in grass. A preliminary course of
croppiiij^, with ample manuring, will
so mnch improve the texture of the
surface that a much better herbage
wili grow upon it ; and when this is
well established, it may be left so
untU it degenerates.

The effect of burned clay as a ma-
nure has been highly extolled, and
not without some reason in particular
situations. Clay by burning alters its
nature : it liecomes insoluble in wa-
ter, and loses its attraction for it ; it
then resembles silicious sand, and
may greatly improve a very strong,
retentive clay, tempering it and ren-
dering it more porous. To born clay,
it is dug out in lumps and dried;
heaps are made of these at regular
distances in a field, with a small cav-
ity in the centre, into which dry brush-
wood is introduced. This being light-
ed, the fire is allowed to burn very
slowly, and the smoke kept in by add-
ing a sod wherever it bursts out.
When the heap is once burning, more
clay may be added, even without be-
ing dry, and the combustion goes on
without other fuel It must be so
managed as to bake the day without
neaiing it too much ; and when the

heaps are cooled and opened, tlM
whole should appear pulverized, and
of a red colour if oxide of iron exists
in the soil. A coat two or three inch-
es thick spread over a field, and
ploughed in, will greatly improve its
texture ; but sufiicient animal or ve-
getable manure must be added to
make it fertile.

An improved method of burning
clay has been adopted in Northunv
berland. Instead of building a kiln,
gratings or arches of cast iron are
used to form a vault or funnel for the
fuel, and over this fonnel the clay is
built. The grated arches are made
about two feet and a half long, two
feet diameter, and about fourteen
inches high. One grating is to be
filled with brush-wood, stubble, or
any other cheap fuel, and the clay, as
it is dug, built upon it to a convenient
height, leaving amall vacancies, or
boring holes, to allow the heat to
penetrate to the middle and outer
parts of the clay. When a sufilcient
quantity is built upon the first gra-
ting, another is added at either end,
or at both, filled with similar fuel, and
the clay built upon them as before.
This process is continued until ten*
twelve, or a greater number of the
gratings have been used, when one
end is built up or covered with clay»
and at the other, under the last gra-
ting, a fire is made of coals or fagot-
wood. The end at which the fire is
made should face the wind if possi-
ble, and if the process has been prop-
erly conducted the clay will be effeo-
tu^ly burned. By commencing with
a centre grating in the form of a cross
(see Fig.), the workman may build

163

OLt

from fbnr ends in tlie pltoe of two ;
this contriTance will anbrd a facility
in the work, and have a draft of ^nd
at two entrances.

CLEANING. The iifter-birfli of
cows, ewes, &c.

CLEARING LANDS. The remo-
Tal of obstmctions to tillage. Much
information on this subject will be
found' in the article Barren Lands.
The heavy operation is the removal
of trees. Two methods are in com-
mon use : either to cut a ring of bark
and wood out around the trunk, at a
fbot or two from the ground, and kill
the tree, or to cut it down altogether
during the early summer, and leave
the trunk to dry on the ground. In
the first ease, grasses, and, indeed,
eom can be cultivated among the
dead trees, and thus the land is made
to produce sooner ; but there is risk
from the fall of limbs. The dead for-
est can be burned during summer,
the ashes serving to enrich the land
for some time, when the trees are
felled they are divided into lengths
of twelve feet or more, and drawn
out of the cleared space, or split and
burned, a suitable amount of fence-
rails being obtained. In both these
operations the stumps remain to dis-
figure the land ; it has therefore been
proposed to draw the trees down by
a strong chain made fast to their up-
per limbs, and pulled by oxen or a
windlass. This will scarcely answer
with large trees, unless the roots are
cut through by an axe. The cultiva-
tion of cleared lands is necessarily
very imperfect ; corn, tobacco, hemp,
and cotton are found the best crops.

CLEAVAGE OP MINERALS.
Minerals which have a regular crys-
talline form can only be split or cleav-
ed with ease in planes corresponding
to their sides ; hence, to discover the
shape of the crystal, the mineral is
split.

CLEFT GRAFTING. See Graft-
ing.

CLEFTS. In farriery, cracks in
the heels of horses.

CLEVIS. The draught iron of the
plough.

CLIMATE. Thetemperatareaiid
164

GLO

liabQity to winds, rain, &e., of any
place. Those pkces always enjoy
the mildest climates which are situ*
ated near seas, lakes, or large bodies
of water ; they also receive most
rain. Climate exerts the most im-
portant effects on phints, so that they
rethse to grow at places very remote
from their original stations ; hot by
long-continued attention, and the nse
of seeds obtained from the highest
limits, a few have been naturalized
even far north. One very interesting
result takes place in the cultivation
of plants in the extreme limits of
their zone. They usually bear fruit
much sooner (in annuals), and the
fruit is increased in delicacy and pulp.
This is true of staple crops also,
which are better in their most north-
ern positions than in the original
place of growth, as cotton, hemp, and
flax. But the rule does not apply to
oily or saccharine plants ; and many
annuals become perennials in north-
ern positions.

CLINANTHIUM. The flat sur-
face in which many composite flow-
ers are arranged, as the sunflower.

CLINKSTONE. A hard, slaty
mineral.

CLOACA. The common cavity
in which the intestines and urinary
apparatus terminate in fish, birds,
reptiles, and some larger animals.
CLOD-CRUSHERS. See RoUer.
CLOTHING HORSES. It keepa
the coat fine, and in northern lati-
tudes is very useful in preserving
health.

CLOUD. A mass of vapour, simi-
lar to a fog, suspended in the air. The
height varies with the density, but
seldom exceeds two miles. Clouds
difTer in form, transparency, &c., ac-
cording to the amount of vapour of
water they contain and the wind
which drives them. Meteorologists
divide them into three classes : 1st.
Cirrus^ which is a light, branching
cloud ; 2d. Cumulus, a conical mass
of clouds ; 3d. Stratus^ which consists
of horizontal layers. Every variety
occurs, compounded of these primary
forms.
Clonds owe their origin to a par

cut

ad cawdww tlaw at- th* vatMor tt
water, wliiub air Batuntlj' ODDtaiiiB.
The coBdesMtian ia prodneed b; cold
and the i^teration of winds blowup
K directions contrar? to one aootber.
CLOUTED CREAM. The clout-
ed ereun of Devonsbire ia a waU-
kocim dtf icacy. It is loade by heet-
mg the milk qd the heanh, or by
meana m( a Blove, lo a degree a little
below the boUing-poJnt, when tbe
doBted cream risea to the top like a
thick BCoBi, and ig taken off when
eooled. This creaai being merely
■lirred briskly with tin band or a

OLO

batter. ItJ»
uniTecaalty admitted that the butter
tbua [irodDoed la ioferior to that
whiidi is made bom the cream whicb
lias riaea slowly and aponlaaeously,
and in all the largest and best dai-
ries in the Tale or Honiion the cream
t« Dever cloated, except to be eaten
in that state as a luxury.

CLOVER. A name giTCa to dif-
ferent species of tiifolium. Dutch
clover is T. refttu;{b) purple clOTer
is r. vraltjut ,(a) cow Kraas, ot per-
ennial doTsr, is T. audiiim.(d)

lia sbuodaot produce, its destrao>

tiDD of annnal weeds, which it smoth-
ers by its broad foliage, and especially
the beauty of the \Yheat sown after
it, recommend <t as an indispensable
part of an improTcdrotation of crops.
Ther« are Tarioos kinds of clorer,
which all go under the botanical nanM
of trifolinm, from the three leaves
which grow together, or, rather, the
fimn ot the leaf, which has three
heait-ehaped parts. Tbej' are an-
nnal, bienoiBl, or perennial plants.
lite annual cloTers, with the excep-
tion of the TVi/Mnin nurutmn ( TV4-
Jb inanua OTfipviteht),le) introduced
from the south of France, are not so
geoenlly enltiTated as the biennial,
ffhich tmidnces a greater crop, and
being sown along with the spring

off in quantit7 ;
and anlesa other
artificial grass-
es or perenni-
al clOTers hare
been sown a-
moDg it, to fill
op the places
where the bien-
nial clOTer has
failed, it is ael-
dom profitable

remain on the
gronnd more
than one year
after that in
which it is sown. It ahotdd be
ploagbed in in the fall In clay landa
for a spring crop, bnt if fallowed ear-
ly, wheat can be grown on the IVesh

a appiOTed Tailed of tba

ley.
Then

CLOVER.

Itih^nnfad fAowfk is tlie eomnOQ red
or broad tAorer {Trifatittm pnUen*e),
which is usoalfy sown with barley or
oats, or sometimes among wheat or
rye in spring, at the rate of ten to
thirteen pounds of clover seed. Clo-
▼er is often perennial. The time for
entting is when the flowers are jost
expanded ; the hay is more abundant
and better by upward of ten per cent.
The first crop is generally mown and
made into hay. In this process great
care is taken not to break off the
tender leaves of the plant in drying ;
the swarth is not shaken out as is
done with meadow grass, but merely
turned over ; and if the cloTer can
be dried and put in a stack without
any shaking, it is so much the more
Taluable. When clover is soaked
with rain, no hope of an improvement
in the stack must induce the farmer
to carry it together so long as the
least moisture remains. If it be al-
lowed to stay in the field till perfectly
dry, even when it has been soaked
repeatedly and is nearly black, and
is then trod hard in a rick with a
sprinkling of salt over each layer, it
will be readily eaten by cattle in win-
ter, and be far more nutritious than
that which, having been stacked in a
moist state, will infallibly come out
musty. A very good method in those
seasons when a continuance of dry
weather cannot be reckoned upon —
particularly when the second crop is
cut in September — ^is to take advan-
tage of two or three dry days to cot
the clover, and turn it as soon as the
dew Ib completely dried off the upper
side ; the next day do the same, and
in the evening carry the green, dry
clover and lay it in alternate layers
with sweet straw, so as to form a
moderately-sized stack. A ferment-
ation will soon arise, but the dry
straw will prevent all danger from
too much heating, and, acquiring the
flavour of the clover, will be eaten
with avidity by the cattle. To those
who make doTer bay for the use of
their own stock in winter, we recom*
mend this as preferable to the com-
mon method, even when there is less
danger flrom the wealher. The niro-
16e

cess of cvriag by vwe^aia^ it. vay
well adapted to clover.

It is ueiial to sow timothy in a
small proportion with clover seed,
especially where clover, having been
often repeated on the same land, is
apt to fail.

The most profitable use of clover
is to cot it green for horses and cat*
tie. With a little management, green
food may be given to all the stock
from the first day of April to October. .

The land which has borne clover
is in a very good state for producing
corn or wheat. In the regular Nor*
folk rotation, clover should recoir
every fourth year: but after a few
rotations this is found to be too quick
a recurrence, and other ^ass seeds
or pulse are substituted. The Fiem-*
ish do not sow clover again on the
same ground sooner than in eight or
ten years.

The white or Dutch clover (Tri/o-
Utim reptns) is a perennial, which
grows rapidly, and forms excellent
pasture ; but its bulk is iiot sufficient
to make it profitable to mow for hay.
It is excellent for sheep, which thrive
well upon it. A light, calcareous
soil is best adapted for white clover,
but it also grows well on heavy land,
provided the bottom be sound and
dry.

Another perennial clover, called
cow grass {Ttifolium medium)^ is
found in all rich meadows : it is oft-
en sown in oonjunction with the
white clover in laying down arable
land to grass. The lesser yellow
trefoil {Tri/olium tninvs) and the hop
trefoil ( TrifoUumprocumUna) are also
valuable varieties found in good pas-
tures.

The only annual clover which ia
cultivated is the French clover (Tr«-
folmm inaumalutn) mentioned be-
fore. It is a most valuable addition
to the plants usually sown for fodder,
from the short time in which it ar-
rives at perfection if sown in spring ;
80 that, where clover has failed, t£a
may be sown to fill up the bare pla-
ces. Its principal use is to raise
very early food for ewes and lambs*
which it doe^wiih very little trouble

CLO

ff ncpeDM. Immediately after bar-
vest the 8tabble is scarfed and bar-
niwed, 80 as to nrise a moold ; the
trifoliura is sown at the rate of six-
teen to twenty poands per acre, and
well rolled in. It springs np and
stands the winter well, and with the
first genial weather in spring it grows
rapidly. It makes excellent hay, and
what is left prodnees seed most abun-
dantly in the end of May or beginning
of Jnne^ bemg off the groond in good
time to ploo^ the land and cl^in it
for turnips. It is far superior to stub-
ble turnips as an intervening crop,
and more rapid in its growth than
tares. On light land a crop of buck-
wheat is readily obtained after it. It
has the property of smothering an-
nual weeds by its rapid growth, and
for this reason is not so well adapt-
ed for sowing with other crops. The
Italian rye grass (Xiotium pcrenne)
may be sovni with it, and will grow
as rapidly. After the trifoliom has
been cut, this will continue and give
an excellent aeeond crop.

In France and in the United States
jdaster is considered as a specific ma-
nmre for clover. It is sown bj hand
over the plant in spring, and in some
situations the advantage is evident,
in others scarcely observable. The
qnantity used is about one bushel to
the sere.

On good land an acre of clover will
produce as much as three tons and a
half of dry hay ; that is, two tons
the first cutting, and one and a half
the second. Greater crops are ob-
tained on Tery highly manured land.
The yaloe of a ton of clover hay to
feed horses with is abont fifteen or
twenty per cent, more than good
meadow bay.

When clover is intended to be left
to ripen its seeds, it should be mown
early, or fed off by sheep in May.
The first crop is seldom free from
▼arions seeds of other plants which
rise among the clover : by feeding it
«lown or mowing it these are destroy-
ed, and the clover, whioh grows more
jrajpidiy than most other plants, ri-
eee again withoat any mixture of
wrals. Whan the hloaaom is thor-

oughly withered, and the seed ia
nearly ripe, the clover is mown and
left to dry on the ground without
much ahaking. In very dry weather
if may be housed or stacked in a
week ; but the process is much re-
tarded by showers. It is well known
that the subsequent stock suffers if
the clover is allowed to stand for
seed. As the calyx of the fiower of
clover envelops the seed closely, it is
difficult to separate them. There are
various madiines for this purpose,
one of which consists of two fine-
redded hurdles, made to rub on each
other while the heads pass between
them. The principal clover mill for
separating the seed is by J. Ritten-
hoose, price sixty dollars. Clover is
generally thrashed on the floor, but if
the heads, after being separated from
the haulm, are put together in a heap
and pressed, a slight fermentation
takes place, and this makes the calyx
brittle, so that it breaks into dust,
and the seed comes out readily ; it is
then easUy cleared by the fan. The
yield is four to five bushels the acre.

When the seed is not intended for
the market, the trouble of dearinr it
from the bosk may be saved, espe
cially in the TrifoUum ineamatum*
It will grow as well when sown with
the husk as when cleaned, and it is
easy to find tbe proportion required
to be sown in that state by allowing
for the weight of the husk.

CLOVER, VARIETIES. Numer-
ous plants are more or less cultiva-
ted resembling clover, hence some
c<Mifusion has arisen in the popular
names. Thus, the Ckiiian elooer is
lucern. Bokhara clover is sweet clo-
ver {MelUoitu ma^or) ; it is a coarse
plant, rising to six and ten feet, but
if cut four or five times in the season,
when abont two feet high, it yields
an immense quantity of good herbage
for soiling. The seed should be sown
in spring in drills eighteen inches
apart. It should be kept free ftom
weeds when young, thinned out by
the hoe, and cat dose to the ground.
It iB perennia], and wiU stand the
winters of Virginia, and probably of
Pennsylvania. The matuza stems

clO

coc

make good heanp when rotted and
brokoii. Two pounds or seed the
acre is abondantly enough.

*' Mr. James Gowen, who resides at
Mount Airy, near Philadelphia, has
been much in the practice of keep-
ing up a considerable stock of uncom-
monly fine cattle, and soiling them in
summer upon laoem, rye, and red
clover. He has raised patches of the
melilotos, and from his observation
says, * there is no grass or plant I
have yet seen that affords to me such
promise as the sweet-scented or Bok-
hara clover/ ''-^CuUivaior, iVbsew
her, 1843.)

CLOVER, GIGANTIC. The
same as Bokhara clover.

CLOVER, ALSIKE. Tn/oHum Ay
briduuL A supposed hybrid between
the white and common red clover.
It is very hardy, withsunding the
winters of Sweden, perennial, but
runs close to the ground, and is only
fit for pastures, especially for sheep.
Numerous small species of trifolium,
medicago, meUlotus, and other legu-
minous plants are known vulgarly
under the names of yellow, sweet,
dtc., clovers, but they are scarcely
worthy of attention to the cultiva^
tor.

CLOVER, MACHINE FOR
GATHERING. A simple contri-
vanee for gathering the seed heads
is much used, and is figured below.
It is of wood, bat the teeth may be
made of Mrrought iron, and the wheels
removed with advantage. It is drawn
by one horse, and managed by a boy.
The hand gatherer (a) is used for
emptying the barrow, or for coUeet-
ing pease, beans, Ao,

CLOVES. The unexpanded blos-
soms of an Eastern tree, the Eugtnia
earyopkylltUa. They contain an oil
highly aromatic, and grateful to the
stomach in minute quantities. It is
a tropical production.

' CLUPEA. The generic name of
the herring and shad fishes, ancho-
vies, sprats, dec. : most of the species
are migratory.

CLUSTER. A bunch. A rwcems
in botany.

COAGULATION. The formation
of a solid body of a jelly-like charac
tcr.

COAL. Numerous varieties ex-
ist : that of Pennsylvania and Wales
(Eng.) is anthracite, difficult of com-
bustion, prodacing no flame, but in-
tense heat : it in nearly pure csrbon.
Bitumifunu coal, •«<* as that of Vir-
ginia and Ohio (Liverpool coal>, con-
tains hydrogen as well as carbon,
and gives ofi" gas and flame in bum*
ing. Wood coal resembles charred
wood, and shows the marks of vrood •
it produces much light.

All coal is of vegetable origin, be-
ing, indeed, the remains of plants and
trees. The chief beds of it are ar-
ranged in a curved form ; hence the
term coal basins. This variety lies
above the old red sandstone, and is
covered with sandstones and ooa-
glomerates. It is, therefore, a seo*
ondary foroMtion, and, according to
the New- York geologists^ does not
exist in this state.

COAL TAR. A tary fluid of m
complicated nature, produced during
the distillation of bituminous coal for
gas. It is a cheap and excellent
paint for iron-ware, railings, dic^
and has latterly been used on wood*
work. It preserves the timber, bat
it is doubtful whether the colour ma/
not prove injurious by causing warp-
ing.
COBBLES. SmaU round atonea.
COOCINELLA. The generic
name of the lady-bird insects. Tkey
are ofgruu Mrvico to the farmer and
orchardista in destroying plant lice
{Aphidea% on which they prey.

COOCULUS INDICUS. A poi-
sonous Eastern berry used in medi-
cine; it is sometimes employed, to
cause intozicatioQ, in beer, or throwa
into fish ponds to stupify fish, which
can be caught by the hand while su£>
fering from ita effeets. The poison*
oua inrinciplfi ia jMcfioftnid.

coc

COF

COCCUM. AdryeltttieMedeoT-

eriug.

COCCUS. The bark lice or scale
insect family. See Bark Lice.

COCCYX. The teumnation of
tbe spinal colamn.

COCHINEAL. The Coeau cacti,
a Mexican insect. The fine article
should be of a grayish exterior, and
tbe lines of the body clearly defined.
The brilliant scarlet of cochineal is
fixed in dyeing by a mordant of alu-
mina and solution of tin, and bright-
ened by cream of tartar.

COCHLEATE (from coehUa^a
aheU). Twisted like some shells.

COCK-CHAFFER. See Insects.

COCKLE. Tbe weed Agrostem-
muLgitkagOy which grows amid wheat,
and whose black seed impair the col-
our of flour if not well separated by
screening. It is an annual, to be de-
stroyed only by a succession of fbd-
der crops cut for soiling before flow-
er, or by clean fallows.

COCK»S-FOOT GRASS. The or-
chard gprass. See Grasses.

COCOA GRASS. Dr. Cartwright
thus writes in the American Agricul-
turist :

** There is a repent plant called the
cocoa in Louisiana and Mississippi,
which, instead of running on the sur-
face of the earth, runs down into it
to the depth of four or five feet, and
horizontally a little under the sur-
face, mole fashion, and at short in-
tervals throwing up a bunch of thick,
coarse grass. A better idea of this
plant can be formed by caHing it a
subterraneous strawberry. It bears
nuts under ground the size of straw-
berries. Their bitter taste distin-
guishes them from the nut grass,
called sweet cocoa. The bitter cocoa
grows so fast, that double the num-
ber of labourers are required to culti-
vate the lands infested by it. All
thos^ who, ignorant of this pernicious
repent, have purchased oocoa lands,
have paid dearly for the want of a lit-
tle practical information, as they are
nearly all bankrupt. Many have
wisely abandoned their cocoa planta-
tions. No means have been discov-
ered of extirpating this pernicious

repent when It once gets ilzed in the
soil."

It certainly would be exterminated
by hoed crops, or long-rooted peren-
nial plants, as clovers. Notwith-
standing its vivacious nature, it is a
grass of great value to the grazier
and sheep raiser. It is sometimes
called nut grass.

COCOON. The web which cov-
ers the chrysalis of an insect.

CCELIAC (from «oiXoc. hAlow).
Relating to the belly or abdomen.

COFFEE. The berries of the
Coffita Arabica, a tropical shrub.
The cofl!ee plant thrives between
the tropics in situations where the
mean and nearly constant tempera-
ture is between 22° and 26'' C. (71-6°
and 80° F.).

Coflee is rarely sown in a nursery ;
the seeds are made to germinate still
surrounded by their natural pulp, and
wrapped up in leaves of the banana.
The young plants, after seven or
eight days of germination, are put
into the ground. In the Valley d'Ara-
gua an acre of ground of good quality
is generally laid out with about 1040
plants. The coflTee plant flourishes
in the course of the second year;
when left to grow unimpeded, it will
attain a height of from 23 to 26 feet,
but it is seldom allowed to grow so
high, its upward progress being check-
ed by pruning. Tbe planters of Ven-
eauela generally keep it at a height
of from five to six feet. The shrub
receives the care of the planter du-
ring the first two years ; the ground
must be kept free from weeds, and
the growth of parasites must, above
all, be prevented. To thrive, the co(^
fee plant requires frequent rains up
to the time of flowering. The fruit
bears a strong resemblance to a small
cherry, and is ripe when it becomes
of a red colour, and the pulp is soft
and very sweet. As the berries nev-
er ripen simultaneously, tbe coflee
harvest takes place at diiferent times,
each requiring at least three visits
made at intervals of from five to six
days. A negro will gather from ten
to twelve gallons of fruit in the course
of a day.

lao

COP

cor

Two beans are found in the hite-
rior of each berry ; in order to free
theae from the palp which surrounds
them, they are passed through a kind
of mill, and the coffee is steeped in
water for twenty-four hours in order
to free it from the mucilaginous mat-
ter which adheres to it : it is then
dried by being spread out upon a floor
under a shed. In the coffee p>lanta-
tions of Venezuela which I visited, I
saw them proceed in another way :
the berries were exposed to the sun
upon a piece of ground somewhat in-
clined, and spread out to about three
inches in thickness; the pulp soon
enters into fermentation, and a very
distinct vinous odour is exhaled, and
the juice altered either flows away
or dries up ; at the end of a fort-
night or three weeks the berries are
all dry and shrivelled, and they then
undergo two triturations, one to ob-
tain the seeds or beans, the other to
detach a thin pellicle which surrounds
them. Three bushels of berries will
yield from 85 to 90 pounds of mar-
ketable coffee.

During the destruction of the sugary
matter contained in the pulp of the
berry, a considerable quantity of spir-
it is produced and dissipated. M.
Humboldt, struck with the readiness
with which the berry of the coffee
plant runs into fermentation, express-
es bis surprise that no one ever
thought of obtaining alcohol from it.
In an old work, however, I find the
following passage -. " The inhabitants
of Arabia take the skin which sur-
rounds the cofi^e bean, and prepare it
as we do raisins ; they form a drink
with it for refreshment during the
summer."* This vinous liquor ap-
pears to enjoy all the exciting prop-
erties which are esteemed in the in-
fusion of coffee.

The coffee plant continues to pro-
duce to the age of forty to forty-five
years ; it bears to a considerable ex-
tent even in the third year. Some
shrubs yield from 17 to 93 pounds of
dry coffee beans ; but this is a very
large quantity. An acre of land in
the Valley d'Aragua, planted with
about 1040 shrubs, will yield about

170

940 or 960 pounds, whi^ is at the
rale of somewhat less than one pound
per shrub.

Coffee contains the same active
principle as tea, coffeine, but in less
proportion ; the researches of differ-
ent chemists have also shown the
presence of a particular acid called
coffeic acid, of fatty matters, a vola-
tile oil, a colouring matter, albumen,
tannin, and alkaline and earthy salts.
— ( BoussingauU.)

COFFEE-TREE. The Gymneclo'
diu Canadensis. A leguminous tree,
the beans of which have been slight-
ly used for coffee ; they are nutri-
tious, but rather sickening, and are
said to destroy flies with great cer-
tainty when a decoction is exposed
in proper places. The foliage of the
tree is like that of the black walnut.

The tree oAen attains 60 feet, and
15 inches diameter ; it has few branch-
es, and those thick : its presence is
said to indicate the richest soils. Tho
wood is rosy, compact, and as dura-
ble as the locust, and like it, contain-
ing very little sap wood.

COFFEK DAM. In architecture
and bridge-building, a case of piliogr
water-tight, fixed in the bed of a riv-
er for the purpose of laying the bot-
tom dry for a space large enough to
build the pier on. Coffer dams are
formed in various ways, either by a
single enclosure or a double one,
with clay or chalk rammed in be-
tween the two to prevent the water
from coming through the sides. They
are also m^e either with piles only,
driven close together, and sometimes
notched or dovetaileid into one an-
other ; or, if the water is not very
deep, by piles driven at a distance of
five or six feet from each other, and
grooved in the sides with boards lei
down between them in the grooves.
In order to build in coffer dams, a
very good natural bottom of solid
earth or day is required ; for though
the sides be made water-tight, il' the
bed of the river be of a loose con-
sistence, the water will ooxe up
through it in too great a quantity to

* Mem. or tbe Academjr or Inscriptiuns, toL
uciii., p. S14.

COL

COM

permit tbe operatiftmi to be 6arfied
on. It is almost needless to remark
that the sides most be very strong
and well braced in the inside to re-
sist the pressure of the ambient wa-
\ex.^{HuUon'9 Tracts, vol. i.)

COPFI N BONE. The bone which
lies encircied within a horse's hoof.

COHESION. Tbe force which
binds together similar particles: it
is supposed to be electrical. The
strain which any wood or metal bears
is a measure of its cohesion.

" The following is a tabular view
of the absolute cohesion of the prin-
cipal kinds of timber employed in
building and. carpentry, showing the
load which would rend a prism of an
inch square, and the length of the
prism which, if suspended, would be
torn asunder by its own weight :

Teak 12,015 lbs. — 36,040 feet

Oak 11,880 — SS,000

Srcamore . . . 0.830 —35,800

Beech 12,825 ~ 38,040

Ash 14,130 —42,080

£)m 0,720 —30,050

Memel6r. . . . 0.540 —40,500

Norway fir . . . 12.346 —55,500

Laich 12,240 — 42,160

**The metals differ more widely from
each other in their cohesive strength
than tbe several species of wood or
vegetable fibres. According to the
experiments of Mr. George Rennie
in 1817, the cohesive power of a rod
an inch square of different metals, in
pounds avoirdupois, with the corre-
spooding length in feet, is as fol-
lows:

Cant stael . . . 134,250 Iba. — 39,455 faat
Swedish malleable

iron 72,004 — 19,740

English <iitto . . 55,872 — 10,749
Cast iron .... 19,096 — 6,110
Caet copper . • . 19,072 — 5,003
Yellow brasa . . 17,058 — 5,180
Caattia .... 4,736 — 1,406
Castlead. . . . 1,834 — 348^

{Brtmdt^a Encycl.)

COKE. The cinder of bituminous
coals after being heated for gas.

COLCHICUM. Coiehicum offici-
nale. Meadow safiVon, a bulbous plant,
growing freely in moist, sandy loams.
The bulb and seeds are of the high-
est value as a medicine in gout and
rheumatiem. In large dosea it is
poisonous.

COLE. See Cdaia,

COLEOPTERA (from «oA«of, «
sheaik^ and ?rrrpov, a wing). Insects,
the outer wings of which are hard or
horny, the inner wings being large
and very delicate. Borers, lady-birds,
curcuUos, &c., belong to this race.
The hard outer wings are called tly-
tra.

COLEWORT. See Cabbage.

COLIC. In common parlance, an
irritation of the stomach or intes-
tines, causing pain, and readily alle-
viated by a slight purge or by lauda-
num.

CO LLAPSE. A loss of strength.

COLLAR BLADE. The halms.

COLLEY. The Scotch sheep
dog.

COLLIQUATIVE. An excessive
evacuation, diminishing the strength.

COLLUM. The point where the
roots diverge from the stem of plants.

COLLYRIUM. An eye-wash.

COLOCYNTH. The pulp of the
Cucumis colocynthf a plant similar to
the cucumber, bearing rocmd fruit of
great bitterness and purgative pow-
er. The cultivation is similar to that
of melons.

COLON. The large intestines.

COLOPHONY. The dark resin
remaining after the distillation of the
spirit from rosin.

COLT. A young horse, ass, &c.

COLT'S FOOT. A vile perennial
weed.

COLUMBARIUM. Apigeon-
house.

COLZA. Two or more varieties
of plants of the open cabbage kind
{Brauica arvensi* and campesiris) are
cultivated under this name in Ger-
many and France. They are usually
sown in drills, but sometimes broad
cast for eating off in the fall. The
most common object in the cultiva-
tion of colza is the seed, which yields
a coarse oil like rape, and is obtained
by pressure. The cake is very simi-
lar to that from rape, and used like
it for fodder and manure. The treat-
ment is precisely similar to rapct
which see.

COMA (from «*«, to He doum). A
propensity to sleep, amounting to a

171

disease or atupiiltly. Comatot a a

COMBINATION. In chemialry,
Ibe chemical union of atotna, where-
bjthe aenaible properties of the com-
bining parts are altered. It takes
place in malliematical proportions.
See Atom.

COMBUSTION. Burning, The
chemical cbange of a body, attendeit
with heat or light. For combustion,
the body must bs surrounded with a
medium which enters, in part, into
the change, such as oxygen, chlorine,

COMFREY. The Symphylutn ogi-
eiaait, a rough perenuial plant, with
coarM, TougQ iKivea and large roots.

The American Agriculturist tbua

" We learn by the Portamonlh
Journal tbat Mr. Robinson is of
opinion, from an imperfect ezperi-
ment made by him on a small patch
of ground, that he will be able next
year to gather, at two cuttings, eight
tons of leaves of the comfrey root to
the acre, which, he saya, is excellent
food for slock. The root is consid-
ered very nutritious for man or beast ;
and Mr. Rich, of Troy, N. H., asserts
that it can be harresled every two
or three years, and will yield over
2000 bushels per acre. We should
think it adriaable to try the experi'
ment of a rod or two square of grow-
ing comfrey in this vicinity. It is
cultivated by transplanting the roots,
wliicli grow wild in the fields, to any
ground deep ploughed and well pul-
Tcriicd."

COMWSSUm:. in

junction or union.

C O M O S E. Ending in a tuft or
bruab, like the top of a trse.

COMPASS. An instniment uaed
by mariners and surveyors to obtain
the bearing of any place. The easen-
tial part is a magnetic needle, which
playa over a card marked into the
paints of tbe compass. The follow-
ing figure gives the full divisions : N
signifies north, S south, E east, W
west, and b by or towards.

C0MP0SIT.41. Plants like the
aunflower, dandelion, lettuce, &«.,

the flowera of which are grouped to-
gether on a flattish surface. They
are very numerous, and fonu the
iSjm^nieniiorLiinaeus. Few are cul-
tivated ; most ate valueless weeds ;
but chamomile, wormwood, and a
few others yield bitter medicincs-
Their ashea abound in potash.

COMPOST. Any compound of
manures, usually of vegetable matter
for the most part. See Pat, Lime,
Vegetablt Matter, dec.

COMPRESSIBILITY. This qual-
ity depends on the natural pores of
bodies, which enable the solid parta
to approach nearer under great Corca.

CONCAVE. Having a hollowed
surface. Concave surlacea in mir-
rors produce a magnifying effect, and
condense beat and light.

CONCEPTACLES. Tbcseed
cases of ferns, lichens, Ac.

CONCHOID (from Korxn. i »*e«).
Like a shell. The name of a curve.

CONCRETE <from euacwicere. la
coaletct in aiu rniui). In Rrchitecture
and engiaeeriiig, a uiaea composed of

CON

ttone cbippings or ballast cemented
together through the mediam of lime
and sand, usually employed in ma-
king foundations where the soil is
of itself too light or boggy, or other-
wise insufficient for the reception of
the walls. The essential quality of
concrete seems to be, that the mate-
rials used should be of small dimen-
sions, so that the cementing medium
may act in every direction round
them, and that the latter shonld on
no account be more in quantity than
is necessary for that purpose. Ar-
chitects and engineers have much
varied the proportions of lime and
sand used. If the lime, which should
be fresh and ground to. powder, be
good stone lime, it will bear three or
four times its measure by bulk of
sand. These and the ballast or gal-
lots, as the stone cbippings are called,
should be thoroughly turned over and
mixed together. If the foundations
be wet, the mixture will want very
little if any water; indeed, some-
times the ballast only is wetted, and
then covered over with the lime and
sand. It is then Med into the bar-
rows, and run oo to be dropped from
a stage into the fonndations. This
latter operation should be performed
at as great a height as possiMe above
the level of the trench, in order that
the whole of the different particles
of the composition may be compress-
ed together so as to occupy the least
possible space. The stones employ-
ed should not exceed the size of a
common hen's egg. The mass very
quickly sets and becomes extremely
hard. On the top of it, which is kept
as level as possible, a tier of stone
landings is laid, and very often
tlirooi^oat die length a chain of tim-
ber is buried in tl^ footings, whose
durability is requisite only while the
work m settling; over the landings
and timber thus laid, the latter, it is
to be observed, occupying but a very
small portion of the thickness of the
ibotings, and quite buried in them,
the walls are carried up. — (See Davy
9U Artificial FouiuUuionst and TotUn
«» Mortar 9, CemenU, &e.)
CONDENSATION. The render-
PS

ing a body more dense, most com-
monly applied to the conversion of
vapour into the fluid form.

CONDENSER. Any machine by
which the compression of gas, dec.,
can be effected.

CONDITION. In horsemanship,
the health and good appearance of a
horise or other animal.

CONDUCTOR. In physics, any
substance which allows the passage
of heat, light, or electricity is said to
conduct it.

CONDYLE (from kov6v, a cup).
The rounded ends of the long bones.

CONFERVA. An extensive fam-
ily of small water weeds, forming the
green slime on stagnant waters.
They nourish innumerable insects
and animalcules.

CONGELATION. The act of
passing into the state of ice or other
solid forms from the fluid.

CONGESTION. In farriery and
medicine, an increased accumulation
of blood or other fluid in any part.
It is to be relieved by bleeding, cup-
ping, leeches, or counter irritation.

CONGLOMERATE. In geology,
a compound stony mass containing
pebbles, dec, cemented together by
iron, calcareous or other matter.

CONIC. Relating to a cone, small-
er at one end than the other.

CONIFER iE. Trees bearing
cones, as the pines, firs, cedars, dtc.
The wood of all is useful, and they
grow usually upon poor soils.

CONIROSTERS. A tribe of birds
with strong conical bills, as crows
and finches.

CONIUM. The genus containing
hemloeky which see.

CONNIVENS. In botany, any
covering or arrangement by which
the parts of a plant or flower are hid-
den ; as the flowers of the fig by the
connivent receptacle.

CONSERVATORY. In horticul-
ture, a glazed structure, in which
exotic trees and shrubs are grown
in a bed or floor of soil. It is distin-
guished from an orangery by its hav-
ing a glazed roof, while that of the
latter is opaque ; and from a green-
house, by the plants being planted m

178

CJON

the free sofl, and thus growing up
from the floor, while in the green-
house the plants are grown in pots
placed on shelves, or on a stage or
series of shelves rising one aboTe
another. Above a century ago, for
example, in the time of Evelyn, the
term conservatory was applied to
those garden buildings now called
orangeries, and in modern horticul-
ture employed only for the preserva-
tion of exotic plants, such as orange-
trees, &c., which are in a dormant
state during winter. The green-
house and the modern conservatory
were then not in existence. They
are exclusively employed for the
preservation of plants which are in a
growing state during the winter. The
largest conservatory in the world, at
the present time (1841), is that erect-
ed at Chatsworth in Derbyshire, for
pahns and other tropical plants, which
covers above an acre of ground, and
is sixty feet high. — {Bramde^g Ency*
clopedia.)

CONSTIPATION. Costiveness,
want of regular evacuations from the
bowels.

CONSTITUTION. The general
strength and liability to disease of
any person or animal.

CONSTRICTOR. Any muscle
which has the power of closing the
openings of the body.

CONTRACTION OF THE
HOOF. In farriery, a distorted
state of the homy substance of the
hoof in cattle, producing all the mis-
chiefs of unnatural and irregular
pressure on the soft parts contained
in it, and, consequently, a degree of
lameness which ean only be cured by
removing the cause. Contraction of
the hoof rarely happens, however,
except to those animals whose hoofs,
for the convenience of labour, are
shod. — (Jokfuon.)

CONVERTIBLE HUSBANDRY,
or MIXED HUSBANDRY. A term
implying frequent change in the same
field from tillage crops to grass, and
from grass back to tillage crops ; an
alternation of wheat, rye, &c., with
root and grass crops.
CONyOLVULAC&£. A family
174

OOP

of plants, indoding the bind weed,
sweet potato, and jalap. The stems
are commonly twining, and the larg«
roots purgative ; the flowers are oft-
en beautiful and large.

CONVULSIONS. An nnnatm^l
action of the muscular system pro-
duced by a derangement of nervous
power. Staggering is a convulsion
originating in an excess of blood be>
ing diverted to the head, and is re-
lieved by bleeding ; the use of Irat
baths to the lower extremities is also
useful. Worms frequently produce
convulsions.

COOLER. The large vata of brew-
ers are so called.

COOMB. A measure of foor
bushels.

COOP. A cage for poultry, of baa-
ket-work or laths.

COPAL. A resinous body which
forms an excellent varnish when dis-
solved in linseed oil, and mixed with
turpentine.

COPING. The top course of a
wall, usually of stone, and wider than
the wall, to save it from rain.

COPPER. A red ductile metal,
remarkable for its conducting power.
The sulphate, or bloe vitriol, is used
as a caustic in farriery, in dyeing, and
sometimes as a steep to kill insects
and parasites, dec., on wheat and
grain. A solution of blue viirid, at
the rate of one ounce to enough wa-
ter to thoroughly soak a bushel of
wheat, is esteemed the most oertaiQ
preventive to smut, rust, and mildew,
and has been long used in Germany*
SwitaerUnd, and the northeast of
France. The black oxide is of great
service in analysis.

COPPERAS. Green vitriol, sul-
phate of iron. Blue copperas is sul-
phate of copper, or blue stone.

COPPICE. A young wood. Wood
cut every few years.

COPROLITE (from icovrpot, exert-
ment, and A<0or, a gtane). The fos-
sils resembling cones, which are
found in the ancient calcareous for-
mations, and shown by Profeaaor
Buckland to be the petrified exore*
ments of former animals. They have
been di»oovered ia the green sand of

COR

New-Jeney. Llebig called tkeatten'^i
tioD of farmers to coproUtee as a ma-
Dure oontaiDing aiicteen to twenty
per cent, of bone earth.

CORALS. The calcareous basis
of some marine animals. Coral sand
has been used freely in France in the
same way and with similar effects as
marl. It may contain two per cent,
of bone earth.

CORDATE. In botany, heart-
shaped. Like the heart on playing
cards.

CORD. A measure for wood, equal
to four feet high and wide, and eight
feet long.

CORD GRASSES. Coarse, salt-
marsh grasses, of the genus Sjmrtina.

CORDIAL. A stimulating, sto-
machic medicine.

COREOPSIS. A yellow compo-
site garden flower, the fresh flowers
of which yield a yellow dye.

CORIANDER. The Corumirium
Motvounij an umbelliferoos plant culti-
vated for its aromatic seeds, which
are used in confectionery and medi-
cine. The soil must be dry. *' The
sowings are generally performed in
April in driiis eight iocbes apart, and
half an inch deep ; the plants to re-
main where sown. The only cultt-
▼ation required is to thin them to
e^t inches' distance, and to have
* them kept clear of weeids throughout
their growth. They will perfect their
seed in early autumn, being in flower
during June.''

CORK. The bark of the Spanish
oak, Mcom^^ue {Qtunut suber). It
would flourish wherefer the live oak
grows, but requires a dry granitic soil,
and might be made a source of great
profit to the Southern States. The
tree is evergreen, not very large (six-
ty-five feetx yields fine sweet acorns,
wkI begins to supply good cork at
flnty years. The cork is stripped
every eight or ten years afterward.
It is tal^n in July, a perpendicular
cut being made the leogth of the
trunk* and a circular one above and
below, down to the new bark, but not
into the young wood. The tree of
100 years famishes from 200 to 400
pounds of eoik The young oak

pUntatioBs are set with Tines, whloii
last for twenty-five years.

CORMUS. The solid sweUing be-
neatb the stem of some plants. See
Bulb.

CORN. In Europe, wheat, or a.
mixture of pease^ beans, and oats.

CORN, BROOM. See Broom Com.

CORN, INDIAN. Ztamayt. An
annual cereal plant of great impor-
tance to American agriculture.

Fam/tM.— -These may be divided
into two classes: 1st. Table com.
2d. Field com.

The esteemed table corns are. Ear-
ly Golden Sioux, Canadian, Early
Tuscarora, and Sweet Corn. The
White Hominy and Dutton also an-
swer for late sorts when green.

Field Corn. — The varieties are
very numerous, and designated by
the number of rows, the colour and
shape of the grain. The clear white
or yellow is always preferred ; a kmg
heavy grain. Urge ear, small cob, and
those of early maturity. The favour-
ite northern varieties are of the Si-
oux kind, of a yellow gourd-seed
grain, the Dutton, and several kinds
of flint and Canaudlan com. In the
Middle States the yellow gourd-seed
and Virginia white gourd-seed, of
twenty-four to thirty-six rows, are
chiefly cultivated.

Other Varieties.-^A small com {Zem
earagua) is used for parching ; it is
called pop corn and Valparaiso.

Badeth or Tree Com. — ^This created
much attention at first, and is worthy
of cultivation, but with that care
whioh was taken in its production.
Mr. Baden's account is from the New-
England Farmer, and ia a lesson on
the improvement of any variety of
grain or plant.

«« I have the pleasure to say that I
have brought this com to its high
state of perfection by carefully se-
lecting the best seed in the field for a
long course of years, having especial
reference to those stalks which pro-
duced the most ears. When the corn
was husked, I made are-selection, ta-
king only that which appeared sound
and fully ripe, having a regard to the
deepest and best colour, as well as to

170

CORN, INDIAN

tlieaiaBeofthecob. lathe sprttig. be-
fore shelling the com, 1 examined it
anio, and selected that which was
tiie best in aU respects. In shelling
the corn, I omitted to take the irreg-
ular keniels at both the large and
small ends. I have carefiilly follow-
ed this mode of selecting seed com
for twenty-three years, and still con-
tinue to do BO. When I first com-
menced, it was with a common kind of
corn, for there was no other in this
part of the con n tiy . If any other per-
son undertook the same experiment,
I did not bear of it ; I do not belieye
others ever exercised the patience to
bring the experiment to the present
state of perfection. At first I was
troubled to find stalks with even two
good ears on them ; perhaps one good
ear and one small one, or one good
ear and a * nubbin.' It was several
Tears before I oould discover much
benefit resolting from my efiTorts ;
however, at length the quality and
quantity began to improve, and the
inqHTovement was then very rapid.
At present I do not pretend to lay up
any seed without it comes from stalks
which bear fomr, five, or six ears. I
have seen stalks bearing eight ears.
One of my neighbours informed me
that he had a single stalk with ten
perfect ears on it, and that he intend-
ed to send the same to the moseum
at Baltimore. In addition to the num-
ber of ears, and, of course, the great
increase in quantity unshelied, it may
be mentioned that it yields much
more than the common corn when
shelled. Some gentlemen, in whom
I have fbll confidence, informed me
that they shelled a barrel (10 bushels
of ears) of my kind of corn which
measured a little more than si^ bush-
els. The common kind of com will
measure about five bushels only. I
believe I raise double, or nearly so,
to what I could with any other corn
I have ever seen. I^enerally plant
the com about the first of May, and
place the hills five feet apart each
way, and have two stalks in a hill.

"Early last spring I let George
Law, Esq., of Baltimore City, have
■ome of this seed com ; he sent it to
176

his friend in Illinois, with instroctions
how to manage it. A few weeks since
he informed me that the increase was
ISO bushels to the acre ; that thera
was no com in Illinois like it, and
that it produced more fodder than any
other kind. I have supplied many
friends with seed corn, but some of
them have planted it with other com,
and will, I fear, find it degenerate.

" I have lately been inquired of if
this corn was not later than any oth-
er kinds. It is rather earlier, cer-
tainly not later. Com planted in moist
or wet soils will not ripen so quick as
that planted on a dry soil. In the for-
mer there will be found more damp*
ness in the cob, although the kernel
may appear ripe in both. In the two
last years, the wet seasons have in-
jured much corn that was early loft-
ed or housed.''

Culture of Indum Conty by Judge
Buel. — " Tke soils adapted to lie culture
of Indian com are such as are perme-
able to heat, air, and the roots of the
plant, and embrace those denomina-
ted sandy, gravelly, and loamy. Com
will not succeed well on grounds that
are stiflT, hard, or wet. The roots
grow to as great length as the stalks,
and the soil must be loose to permit
their free extension.

*< The manures used are generally
yard and stable dung, and plaster of
Paris (sulnkate of lime). The first
ought to oe abundant, as upon the
fertility which it induces depends the
profit of the crop. Long or unfer-
mented manure is to be preferred. It
decomposes as the wants of the |dant
require it; while its mechanical op-
eration, in rendering the soil light and
porous, is beneficial to the crop. It
should be equally spread over the
whole surface before it is ploughed
under. It then continues to afford
fresh pasture to the roots till the corn
has matured, and is, in its place, to
benefit the succeeding crop. If put
into the bills, the roots soon extend
beyond its influence ; it does not so
readily decompose, and the subse-
quent crop is prejudiced ftom its par-
tial distribution in the soil. In a ro-
tation of four or five years, in whiob

CORN» INBIAll.

6m orop receirea the maDore, twen-
ty-five or thirty ordinary loads may
be applied to oiu acre with greater
profit than to itoo or thre* acres. Ev-
ery addition tells in the product ; and
there is scarcely any danger of ma-
irnriDg too high for this favourite crop.
Gypsum is applied broad^cast before
the last ploughing or harrowing, or
strewed on the hiUs after hoeing. I
pursued the first method, at the rate
of a hushel to the acre.

** Th6 best prtparation for acorn crop
is a clover i>r other grass lay, or lea,
well covered with long manure, re-
cently spread, neatly ploughed, and
harrowed lengthwise of the furrow.
A roller may precede the harrow with
advantage. The time of performing
these operations depends upon the
texture of the soil and the quality of
the sod. If the first is inclining to
day, or the latter tough or of long
continuance, the plou^ing may be
performed the preceding autumn;
hut where sand or gravel greatly pre*
ponderate, or the sod is light and ten-
der, it is best performed in the spring,
and as near to the planting as conve-
nient. The harrow, at least, should
immediately precede planting. All
seeds do best when put into the fresh-
stirred mould. Stiff lands are me-
liorated and hnton down by fall
plooghing, hot light lands are rather
prejudiced by it. When corn is pre-
eeded by a tilled crq)i the ground
should be furrowed, and the s^sd de-
posited in the bottoms of the furrows.
Where there is a sod, the rows should
be superficijdly marked, and the seed
planted upon the surface. Where the
field is flat, or the subsoil retentive
of moisture, the land should be laid in
ndges, that the excess of water which
fiiSs may pass off in the furrows.

** The timi ^planting' must vary in
different districts and in different sea-
sons. The ground should be sufii-
oiently wanned by venial heat to
cause a speedy germination. Natu-
ral vegetation affords the best guide.
My rule has been to plant when the
ai^e is borsting its blossom bads,
whteh has generally been between
the l2tii aad 20th of May.

•* Preparation of the 5ee<2.— The en.
emies to be combated are the wire-
worm, brown grub, birds, and squir-
rels. Of these, the first and last two
prey upon the kernels, and against
these tar offers a complete protection.
I soak my seed twelve hours in hot
water, in which is dissolved a few
ounces of crude saltpetre. When the
corn has been thus sosJced, I take for
each half bushel of seed half a pint of
tar, put it into an iron vessel with
water, and heat it till the tar is dis-
solved, when it is turned upon the
seed in steep. The mass is well stir-
red, the com taken out, and as much
plaster added as will adhere to the
grain. This impregnates and partial-
ly coats the seed with the tar. The
experience of years will warrant me
in confidently recommending this as
a protection for the seed.

** The manner of planting is ordinari-
ly in hills, from two and a half to sij;
feet apart, according to the variety
of com, the strength of the soil, and
the fancy of the cultivator. The usu-
al distance in my neighbourhood is
three feet. Some, however, plant in
drills of one, two, and three rows,
by which a greater crop is unques-
tionably obtained, though the expense
of culture is somewhat increased.

<* The quantity f^ seed should be dou-
ble, and may be quadruple of what is
required to stand. It is well known
that a great difference is manifest in
the appeuranoe of the plants. Some
appear feeble and sickly, which the
best nursing will not render produc-
tive. The expense of seed and the la-
bour of pulling up all but three or four
of the strongest plants in a hill, it ia
believed, will be amply remunerated
by the increased product. If the seed
is covered, as it should be, with fine
mould only, and not too deep, we may
at least calculate upon every hill or
drill having its requisite number of
plants.

" The after culture consists in keep-
ing the soil loose and free from weeds,
which is ordinarily accomplished by
two dressings, and in thinning the
I^ants, which latter may be done the
first hoeing, or partially omitted till

177

CORN, INDIAN.

the last. The practice of ploughing
among corn and of making large hills
is justly getting into disrepute ; for
the plough bruises and cuts the roots
of the plaiits, turns up the sod and
manure to waste, and renders the
crop more liable to suffer by drought.
The first dressing should be perform-
ed as soon as the size of the plants
will permit ; and the best implement
to precede the hoe is a corn -harrow,
adapted to the width of the rows,
which every farmer can make. This
will destroy most of the weeds and
pulverize the soil. The second hoe-
mg should be performed before or as
soon as the tassels appear, and may
be preceded by the corn-harrow, a
shallow furrow of the plough, or, what
is better than either, by the cultiva-
tor. A slight earthing is beneficial,
providing the earth is scraped from
the surface, and the sod and manure
not exposed. It wilt be found bene-
ficial to run the harrow or cultivator
a third, and even a fourth time, be-
tween the rows, to destroy weeds and
loosen the surface, particularly if the
season is dry.

" In harvesting the crop, one of three
modes is adopted, viz. : 1. The com is
cut at the surface of the ground when
the grain has become glazed or hard
upon the outside, put immediately into
stooks, and, when sufilciently dried,
the corn and stalks are separated,
and both secured. 2. The tope are
taken oflf when the corn has become
glazed, and the grain permitted to re-
main till October or November upon
the butts. Or, 3. Both corn and stalks
are left standing till the grain has fah
!y ripened, and the latter become dry,
when both are secured. There are
other modes, such as leaving the butts
or entire stalks in the field after the
grain is gathered ; but these are so
Wasteful and slovenly as not to mer-
it consideration. The stalks, blades,
and tops of corn, if well secured, are
an excellent fodder for neat cattle.
If cut, or cut and steamed, so that
they can be readily masticated, they
are superior to hay. Besides, their
fertilizing properties as a manure are
greatly augmented by being fed out
178

in the cattle-yard, and imbibing the
urine and liquids which always there
abound, and which are lost to the
fUrm, in ordinary yards, without an
abundance of dry litter to take them
up. By the first of these methods llie
crop may be secured before the au-
tumnal rains ; the value of the fodder
is increased, and the ground is clear-
ed in time for a winter crop of wheat
or rye. The second mode impairs the
value of the rorage, requires more la-
bour, and does not increase the quan-
tity or improve the quality of the
grain. The third mode requires the
same labour as the first, may improve
the quality of the grain, but must in-
evitably deteriorate the quality of the
fodder. The corn cannot be husked
too promptly after it is gathered from
the field. If permitted to heat, the
value of the grain is seriously im-
paired.

** Sowing Seed. — The fairest and
soundest ears are either selected in
the field, or, at the time of husking, a
few of the husks being left on, braid-
ed, and preserved in an airy situation
till wanted for use.

** In making' choice of sorts, the ob-
ject should be to obtam the varieties
which ripen early and afford the great-
est crop. I think these two proper-
ties are best combined in a twelve-
rowed kind which I obtained from
Vermont some years ago, and which
I call Dutton corn, from the name of
the gentleman from whom I received
it. It is earlier than the common
eight-rowed yellow, or any other field
variety I have seen, and, at the same
time, gives the greatest product. I
have invariably cut the crop in the
first fourteen days of September, and
once in the last week in August. The
cob is large, but the grain is so conn
pact upon it that two bushels of sound
ears have yielded five pecks of shell-
ed grain, weighing 63 lbs. the bushel.

**In securing the fodder, precaution
must be used. The butts become wet
by standing on the ground, and if pla-
ced in large stacks or in the barn, the
moisture which they contain ofieo in-
duces fermentation and mouldiness.
To avoid this, I put them first in

CORN, INBIANl

stacks so small thai tlie wti<>1e of the

batts are exposed upon the outer sur-
face ; and, when thoroughly dry, they
may be taken to the barn, or left to
be removed as they are wanted to be
fed out, merely regarding the propri-
ety of removing a whole stack at the
same time.

* («) Btbmmud KxjKmw* ^ Cvhir-mtlttg am Aert ^Im-
Man Com.

On« ploug^liiag (suppose a clover lay) . $2 00

Harrowivf and plttntin^ . 9 00

Two hoeings, 4 d&ys aiud hone toam . S 75

HanrMtiiu^, two day* . . . 1 90

Cutting and hanresting sUlks 1 50

Rent 500

$15 75

*<(b) The following table exhibits
the difference in prc^uct of various
methods of planting, and serves also
to explain the manner in which large
crops of this grain have been obtained
I have assumed in the estimate that
each stock produces one ear of corn,
and that the ears average one gill of
shelled grain. This is estimating the
product low ; for while I am penning
this (October), I find that my largest
ears give two gills, and 100 fair ears
half a bushel of shelled com. The
calculation is also predicated upon the
supposition that there ia no deficien-
cy in the number of stocks, a contin-
gency pretty sure on my method of
planting.

RiDs. bub. qt*.
1. An acre rn UHa, 4 fsat apart

oaek way, will |wodaca . S,793 43 16
ft. Tho same, Zhjt feet 4,840 75 SO

3. The same, 3 by 9| feet . 5,806 93 28

4. The fame, in drillt at 3 feel;,

piaaM 0 atalka, oae iaah
apart in the dnUs . . 30,040 113 14
6. The same in do., 3 rows in
a drill, Oiaches apart, and
tha plants 9iBchiM,aad 3
ieat 9 iaeliea fjrom ceotn
of dhlls, thus . . 30,970 ISO SI

A The aene id do., 3 rowa in.

a drill, aa above, 3 iaet

from centre of drilla . 43,560 170
* • * *

" The Mb mode I have tried. The
ground was highly manured, the crop
twice cleaned, and the entire acre
^thered and weighed accurately the
same day. The product in ears was
103 baskets, each 84 lbs. nett, and 65

lbs. over. The last basket waa shell-
ed and measured, which showed a
product on the acre of 118 bushels 10
quarts. I gathered at the rate of
more than 100 bushels the acre from
four rods planted in the third method
last summer, the result ascertained
in the most accurate manner. Com
shrinks about 20 per cent, after it is
cribbed. The sixth mode is the one
by which the Messrs. Pratt, of Madi*
son county, obtained the prodigious
crop of 170 bushels per acre. These
gentlemen, I am told, are of opinion
that the product of an acre may be
increased to 200 bushels.
" Cutting the Stalks. — For a few years
past I have not cut my com-staQu un-
til the corn was harvested, guessing
that it was a course preferable to the
one commonly pursued in this part of
the country, of topping the stalks
while in a green state. But for the
purpose of settling this point more
clearly, and with as little trouble as
the case would admit, I selected,
about the 5th of September, a row of
corn in a field of about five acres, in**
tending to take one that would aver-
age in quality equal to the field
throughout, that I might, at the same
time, be able to ascertain, with tol-
erable certainty, the product of the
whole field. The manure having been
spread on the surface of the ground,
and harrowed in lengthwise of the
furrows, and the com planted across
the furrows, made it apparently less
difficult ^o select an average row.
Oo ihis row I cut the stalks from half
the hills ; beginning at one end, and
cutting the first hill, then leaving the
next uncut, and so proceeding alter-
nately, cutting one, and leaving the
next uncut, through the row. I had
intended to confine the experiment to
this row, but finally was led to extend
it so far as to include four rows ; and,
numbering them agreeably to the or-
der in which they were standing In
the field, this row may be called No.
2. There were ninety- two hills in
the row, and the stalks were cut from
forty-six hills, all of them in the man^
ner that is here termed jointing, %• «.»
cut ofiT between the ear and the first

179

CORK, INDUN.

joint above the ear. I tbongbt they
were somewhat more ripe than is
usual at the time of cutting ; a few
of them were nearly dry. The soil
was a sandy or gravelly loam, ancient-
ly covered with pine, oak, and chest-
nut. In hoeing the corn, no hills
were made, but some care was taken
that the surface of the ground should
remain as level as possible through
the season.

** My estimate of the number of hills
on an acre was made in the following
manner ; and, if I am wrong in my
calculations, I shall be corrected by
some of your readers.

" In an area of 200 feet square (or
40,000 square feet), there were sixty-
two rows, with £hy-four hills in a
row, making 3348 hills. This is equal
to 3646 hills per acre, eaoh hill occu-
pying nearly t wel ve square feet of sur-
face. There were about four stalks
of com in a hill. In estimating bush-
els, I have allowed the lawful weight
of fifly-six pounds to the bushel.

" At the time of harvesting, the com
was husked in the field. U'he forty-
six hills from which the stalks had
been cut gave forty-eight and a half
pounds of ears ; and the forty-six hills
on which the stalks had not been cut
gave sixty-two ponnds of ears. The
number of ears in the two cases was
about the same ; those from the un-
cut hills were evidently the best filled
out and the most hale ; on a large
proportion of them the kernels were
80 closely wedged in as 4o make it
difficult to bend the ear at an ^vriOi.
out breaking it. There was very lit-
tle mouldy corn in either case ; a few
ears were gathered, mostly from the
cut stalks, but the whole quantity
was so small as to make it question-
able whether cutting the stalks had
much effect in this particular.

*^ Both parcels were carefully laid
aside in a dry chamber for about six
or eight weeks, at the expiration of
which time they were again weighed,
and the parcel of ears from the uncut
hills had lost in drying about two per
cent, more than the other, affording
some evidence that the sap continued
to circulate for a greater length of
180

time in the unent than in the eat
stalks. The nncut hills gave 42 pounds
8 ounces dry shelled corn, equal to 14
ounces 12^ grains per hill, or 60 bush-
els and eight pounds per acre. The
parcel from the cut hills gave 33
pounds 7 ounces, equal to 1 1 ounces
10 grains per hill, or 47 bushels and
18 pounds per acre, making a loss of
12 bushels and 46 pounds per acre by
cutting the stalks ; conclusive evi-
dence that, while the sap is in circu-
lation, nature does not assign the
stalks an unprofitable office. The
product of this whole row, taken to-
gether, cut and uncut hilts, was equal
to 63 bushels and 41 pounds per acre.

" The product of row No. 3, taken
by itself (containing ninety-two hills,
on one half of which the stalks were
cut on the same day the others were),
would not show the practice of cut-
ting stalks quite so destructive in its
effects as that exhibited in row No. 2.
Its whole produce was 77 lbs. 9 oz.
dry corn, equal to 55 bushels and 10
pounds per acre, or 1 bushel and 25
ponnds per acre more than row No. 2.

*' Not satisfied with resting the ex-
periment here, I gathered the corn
on rows Nos. 1 and 4, t. c, the rows
each side next adjoining Nos. 2 and
3, and on which none of the stalks
had been cut. These rov^ taken
together, contained 186 hills, and
their product of dry shelled corn was
171 lbs. 13 oz., equal to 14 oz. 12^
grs. per hill, or 60 bushels and 8
pounds per acre, precisely the same
average yield as that part of row No.
3 on which the stalks had not been
cut. This ezaet coincidence, howev-
er, I think, ixMiy be numbered among
those cases which rarely haf^n.

** The difference between the two
rows on which half the stalks wero
cut and the two rows on which none
of the stalks were cut was 5 bushels
38^ pounds per acre. If this differ-
ence arose from cutting half the
stalks (and 1 know of no other rea-
son), then cutting the whole wonld
have reduced the crop 1 1 bushels and
21 pounds per acre, or from 60 bush-
els and 6 pounds to 48 bushels and
43 ponnds per acre.

CORN, INDIAN.

**T» neapittiliEte, row No. 1, m wUch th*

«zpcriiB0nt was conunenoed, ukoa by ilaelf,

M u foUows, viz. :

461iillfl, on which the Btalln bad

mot been out, ^re 49 Iba. 8

oz. dry shalled com, oquaJ to,

per acr« ... 60 buah. 8 lbs.

46 hills, ftom which the ctatka

hod been cot, garo S3 lbs. 7

OS. dry ahellod coro, eqoal to,

perura ... 47 " 18 "

by CQttinflT the stalk*, per
acre .... 12 " 4« "

The four raws, taken together, stand as fol-

Iowa:

Noe. 1 and i, on which no
stalks were cot, gave an av-
erage of, per acre . 00 bosh. 8 Ibe.

Noe. 3 and S, from which half
the stalks were cot, gave an
average of, per acre M " S5| **

by cotting one half the
•talks, per acre, . 9 « 88^ "

On eaCtiogaU the atalks, would
make a loss e<|ual to, per acre 11 " 31

" Tbe difierence in the result of the
two cases is 1 basbel aad 25 pounds
per acre ; or in the two experiments
(if it may be so termed) theve is an
average loss, by cutting the stalks,
of 13 bushels 6^ pounds per acre { a
loss quite equal to all the expense
of hoeing and harvesting, especially
when we consider that in hoeing the
labour of making^ hills was dispensed
with.

<< If I had cut all the stalks, and ob-
tained a crop of forty-eight bushels to
the acre, the very fact of having forty-
eight bushels would, I think, be con-
sidered by fanners generally, in this
section of the country, as proof posi-
tive that the stalks were cut without
injury to the crop. Or, if I had gone
one step farther, and made large hills
at an additional expense of one dollar
per acre, and thereby reduced the
crop to forty-five bushels per acre,
the forty-five bushels would be con-
sidered sufficient proof that making
bills (which, by-the-way, are usually
made equally large and high on wet
or dry land, without regard to soil or
situation) was labour well laid out ;
for although you occasionally give
us a large com story, swollen a little,
perfaape, by guesMtng it off in baskeU,
vet, judging from what we see and
know about raising corn, we call for-
ty-five bushels per acre a good crop.

'* A measured bushel tram the o«t
hills weighed 57 lbs. 6 oz., one pound
less than from the uncut, the shrink-
age being very near equal to the
whole loss in weight.

" If this experiment is a fair test, it
seems that about twenty per cent., or
one Jiftk part of the crop, is destroyed
by cutting the stalks in the way they ara
usuaUy cut. If farther experiment
should establish this fact, I think
there are few farmers that will hesi-
tate long in deciding which is the
most valuable, one acre of com or
five acres of top stalks. But this
twenty per cent, is not saved at the
expense of losing the stalks; they
are worth as much, and, I think, more,
all things considered, after the corn
is harvested, than they are gathered
in the usual way. If, after being
bunched up in a green state, they heat
or become mouldy (a case of frequent
occurrence), they are utterly worth-
less, except it be for manure ; I know
of no animal that will eat them. But
after they have once been dried by
the frost and wind, a subsequent mod-
erate degree of nrauldiness seems to
be no injury.

" The course which I have pursued
with them, and fur tbe present 1 know
of no better, has been as follows : In
the first place, they are cut off near
the ground, and for this purpose a
short scythe is found the most con-
venient instrument. The expense
of cutting in this manner, however,
is but a mere trifle, if any, more than
cutting the stub stalks in the spring,
and may, with propriety, be enter^
as an item of expense against the
next crop, for which it is preparing
the ground. After cutting, they are
gathered into bunches of suitable
size for binding, and three good
sheaves of rye straw, if wet, wilt be
sufficient to bind a ton. In gather-
ing them up and laying in bunches,
an active boy will do as much as a
man. In this way, the whole ex-
pense of gathering, binding, and load-
ing will not exceed 75 cents per ton.
As they are very bulky, for want of
bam room, I have them stacked near
the bam-yard; and I think I may

181

COR

safely say that my cattle eat more
poands of stalks from an acre gather-
ed in this way than they would from
the same acre if gathered in the usual
way. It may be objected to this, that
they are not as good and nourishing
as others: as to that matter, I am
not able to say ; but, if the cattle are
good judges in the case (and I think
they ought to be admitted as such),
tbey are quite as good and quite as
nourishing, for they are eaten appa-
rently with quite as good a reltab.
In addition to this, they are obtained
without breaking off ears or breaking
down hills in hauling out, occurren-
ces quite frequent in the other case.
They also furnish more than double
the quantity of bedding for the yard,
an item of no small moment in the
list of 'creature comforts' during
our cold winters. And last, though
not least, they make more than double
the quantity of manure, the value of
which will be duly appreciated by ev-
ery good fanner without argument.
It may be said that the butt stalks
can be gathered after harvest, and
furnish the same quantity of litter and
manure as in this case. That is true ;
but the expense of gathering both
parts in that way, from the butts be-
ing so short and inconvenient to bind,
would be three times as much as it is
to gather them whole. Thus, view-
ing the subject in various points, I
think this method of managing corn-
stalks is much better than the old
one ; and that a little observation and
experienoe will convince the most
skeptical that this branch of agricul*
ture is not yet brought to a state of
perfection; that there is yet room
for improvement." — {Farmer'* In-
9trueter.)

Much discussion has arisen on the
Northern and Southern plan of culti-
vating corn : the first in hills of three
to five stems, the other in rows five
feet wide ; and also on the propriety
of hilling or planting level. The
Northern method is best, as the yield
shows, so far as doaer planting is
concerned ; but the height of the
plants is very diflferent, so that the
dose plantinf of tlw North can hard-

182

COR

ly be Imitated. As to tiM t^laattng

in driUs, with water-furrows between
them, the propriety of this method
depends on the nature of the soil, for
stiff clays must be so managed, oth-
erwise the heavy rains would destroy
the crop; but in light soils a level
surface is most advantageous.

For the value of maize as food, see
the articles Fodder and Food,

CORN FOR SUGAR. The stems
of corn, as they begin to turn in colour,
contain, according to some writers,
twelve to fourteen per cent, of sugar
in the juice, if the ears have been re-
moved as fast as they appear. The
juice is expressed precisely as from
the cane, and treated in the same
way ; perhaps it requires more rapid-
ity of movement. Six per cent, of
sugar is sometimes obtained from
the juice, and from 300 to 500 pounds
the acre. The question of economy
is the only one which embarrasses
the public .- this has been settled ad-
versely, so far as regards the country
in which the sugar cane grows, by
Messrs. Tillotson, of Louisiana, but
is open for the Western and Middle
States, and in places where corn
sells at a low price and sugar is at
eight cents the pound ; we therefore
introduce Messrs. Webb and Mapes's
account, from the Hon. H. C. Ells-
worth's report :

** Remarks on the Manufacture of Cam
Sugar, by WiUiam Webb, of Wil-
minglon, Delaicare.

*< In common w ith many others, I
have felt considerable interest in the
plan for extending the cultivation of
sugar in temperate climates, and have
m^e many experiments, first upon
the beet, and recently upon maize or
Indian corn, in the hope of discover-
ing some mode by which the desired
end might be attained.

" The results from the latter plant
have been extremely encouraging.
The manufacture of sugar from it,
compared with that from the beet,
offers many advantages. It is more
simple, and less liable to failure ; the
machinery is less expensive, and the
amount of fuel required is less by one

CORN FOR SUGAR.

half The quantity of sngar produced
on a given space of ground is greater,
besides being of better quality. An
ejcamination into the nature and pro-
ductive powers of these two plants
wfll show that no other results could
have been reasonably expected. It
is a well-established fact, that every
variety of production found in plants
is derived from the sap. It is also
ascertained that the principal sub-
stance found in the sap or jutoe of
many vegetables is sugar ; therefore,
the amount of saccharine matter pro-
duced by an^ plant of this description
may be estimated from an analjrsis
of the fruit, seed, d^c, of such plant,
when ripe. The grain yielded by
corn, and the seed from beet, in the
second summer of its growth, are
nothing more than this sap or juice
elaborated by the process of vegeta-
tion, and presented to our view in
another form.

" Now, as it is contrary to the econ-
omy of nature to suppose that there
should be any loss of nutritive mat-
ter in this change of sap into seed or
grain, does it not follow that there
most be the same difference in the
quantity of sugar produced by the two
[>]ants as there is between the nutri-
tive properties of beet seed and com 1
*<The juice of maize containssugar,
acid, and a gummy, mucilaginous
matter, which forms the scum. From
the experiments of Gay Lussac, The-
nard, Kirchotf, and others, it is pro-
ved that starch, sugar, and gum are
extremely similar in composition, and
may be as readily converted into each
other by chemical processes as they
are by the operation of nature. For
example : starch, boiled in diluted
Bulpburic acid for thirty-six hours, is
converted into sugar of greater weight
than the starch made use of

*• This result goes to show that ev-
ery pound of starch found in the seed
of a plant has required for its produc*
tion at least one pound of su^ar in
the form of sap. If it be objected
that this deduction is too theoretical
to be admitted, it may be answered,
that experiment, so far as it has gone,
has fiillv attested its correctness.

<< The raw juiee of mftive, when
cultivated for sugar, raarlcs 10® on the
saccharometer, while the average of
cane juioe (as I am informed) is not
higher than 8°, and beet juice hot
over 3®.

" From 9f quarts (dry measure) of
the former I have obtained 4 pounds
6 ounces of sirup, concentrated to
the point suitable for crystallization.
The proportion of crystaHlcable sugar
appears to be larger than is obtained
from cane juice in Looisiana. This
is accounted for by the fact that our
climate ripens com perfectly, while it
but rarely, if ever, happens that cane
is fully matured. In some cases th0
sinip has crystallised so completely,
that less than one sixth part of mo-
lasses remained. This, however, only
happened after it had stood from one
to two months. There is reason to
believe that, if the plant were fuUy
ripe, and the process of manufacture
perfectly performed, the sirup might
be entirely crystallized without form-
ing any molasses.

"This perfection in the manufac-
ture cannot, however, be attained with
the ordinary apparatus. Without any
other means for pressing out the
juiee than a small band mill, it is im-
possible to say how great a quantity
of sugar may be produced on an acre.

"The experiments have been direct-
ed more to ascertain the saccharine
qnality of oom-stalk than the amount
a given quantity of ground will pro-
duce ; but the calculations made, from
trials on a small scale, leave no room
to doubt that the quantity of sugar
will be from 800 to 1000 pounds. This
amount will not appear unreasonable
when it is considered that the juice
of corn is as rich as that of cane, and
the weight of green produce at least
equal.

" Mr. Ellsworth, in one of his pub-
lications, states, as the result of ac-
tual weighing and measuring, that
com, sown broad-cast, yielded five
pounds of green stalks per square
foot ; this is at the rate of 108^ tons
to the acre.

« My attention was first directed to
maize as a material for sugar by ob-

188

CORN FOR SUGAR.

Berring Ibat, in some stalks, the jaice
was extremely sweet, while in others
it was weak and watery. On exam-
ination, it appeared that the latter
ha<rb<in)e large and perfect ears of
grain, while on the former these were
either small in size or entirely want-
ing. The natural conclusion from
this observation was that, if the ears
were taken off in their emhryo state,
the whole quantity of saccharine mat-
ter produced by the process of vege-
tation would be preserved in th^ stalk,
from which it might be extracted
when the plant was matured ; but
the idea occurred too late in the sea-
son to test it by expermient. A few
stalks, however, were found, which,
from some cause, had borne no grain ;
these were bruised with a mallet, and
the juice extracted by a lever press.
Some lime was then added, and the
desiccaiioo, evaporation, dec., began
and finished in a single vessel By
these simple means sugar of a fair
quality was produced, which was sent
to the horticultural exhibition of our
society in 1840.

« I have since been informed, by
Mr. Ellsworth, that Mens. Pallas, of
France, had discovered, in 1839, that
the saccharine properties of maize
were increased by merely taking off
the ear in its embryo state. An ex-
periment, however, which I instituted
to determine the value of this plan
resulted in disappointment : the quan-
tity of sugar produced was not large
enough to render it an object. The
reasons of this failure will be suf-
ficiently obvious on stating the cir-
cumstances. It was found that ta-
king the ear off a large stalk, such as
is produced by the common mode of
cultivation, inflicted a considerable
wound upon the plant, which injured
its health, and, of course, lessened
its productive power. It was also
^und that the natural disposition to
form grain was so strong that sev-
eral successive ears were thrown out,
by which labour was increased and
the injuries of the plant multiplied.
Lastly, it appeared that the juice
yielded from those plants contained
a considerable portion of foreign Bvb-

184

stance not favourable to the object in
view. Yet, under all these disadvaa
tages, from one hundred to two hun
dred pounds of sugar per acre may be
obtained.

" The manifest objeetions detailed
above suggested another mode of cul-
tivation, to be employed in eombina-
tion with the one first proposed ; it
consists simply in raising a greater
number of plants on the same space
of ground. By this plan all the un-
favourable results above mentioned
were obviated, a much larger quan-
tity of sugar was produced, and of
better quality. The juice produced
by this mode of cultivation is remark->
ably pure and agreeable to the taste.
Samples of the sugar yielded by it
are now in the Patent Office, with a
small hand mill by which the stalks
were crushed. Some of the same
kind was exhibited to our agricultu*
ral society in October, 1841, aocom*
panied with an answer to an invita*
tion from its president. Dr. J. W.
Thompson, to explain the mode of
culture and process of nuinufacturing
the sugar. The molasses, after stand-
ing, as before mentioned, from one to
two months, became filled with small
crystals, which, on being drained, ex-
hibited a peculiar kind of sugar ; the
grain is small, and somewhat inferior
in appearance, but still is as sweet
and agreeable to the taste as can be
desired. A small sample of this su-
gar I have brought fur your inspec-
tion. This product, from what was
thought to be molasses, is a new and
unexpected discovery, and disclosea
an important fact in the investigation
of this subject. It shows the supe-
rior degree of perfection attained by
the com plant, compared with the
cane, in any part of the Union. It is
generally understood that the latter
cannot be fully matured in any except
a tropical climate, and the proportion
of molasses obtained from any plant
is greater or less according to the im-
maturity or perfection of its growth.
The sweetness of the corn-stalk is
a matter of universal observation.
Our forafathers, in the revolutionary
stroi^ei resorted to it as a means to

CORN FOR SUGAR.

ffimish a sobstitnte for West India
mgar. They expressed the juice,
and exerted their ingenoity in efTorts
to bring it to a crystallized state;
but we have no accouot of any sue-
eessfnl operation of the kind. In
fact, the bitter and nanseous proper-
ties contained in the joints of large
stalks render the whole amount of
juiee from them fit only to produce
an inferior kind of molasses. I found,
on experiment, that, by cutting out
the joints, and crushing the remain-
ing part of the stalk, sugar might be
made, but stiU of an inferior quality.
The m^asses, of which there was a
large proportion, was bitter and dis-
agreeable.

" From one to two feet of the lower
part of these stalks was full of juice ;
but the balance, as it approached the
top, became dryer, and afforded but
little. From the foregoing experi-
ments, we see that, in order to ob-
tain the pnrest juice, and in the great-
est quantity, we must adopt a mode
of cultivation which win prevent the
large and luxuriant growth of the
Btelk.

" As we are upon the threshold of
this inquiry, many other improve-
ments may be expected in the'mode
of operation ; for example, it may be
that cutting olT the tassel as soon as
it appears on the plant will prevent
the formation of grain, and prove a
preferable means for effecting that
object.

** On the whole, there appears am-
ple encouragement for perseverance.
Eyery step in the investigation has
Increased the probabilities of success,
no evidence having been discovered
why it should not succeed as well, if
not better, on a large scale, than it
has done on a smaU one.

** 1 . In the first place, it has been sat-
isfactorily proved that sugar of an ex-
cellent quahty, suitable for common
use without refining, may be made
from the stalks of maize.

"% That the juice of this plant,
when cultivated in a certain manner,
contains saccharine matter remark-
ably free from foreign substances.
<* a. The quantity of tha juice (even

supposing we had no other eTtdeaea
about it) is sufficiently demonstrated
by the great amount of nutritive grain
which it produces in the natural course
of vegetation. It is needless to ex-
patiate on the vast advantages which
wonld result from the introduction of
this manufacture into our country.

" Grain is produced in the West in
such overflowing abundance that the
markets become glutted, and induce-
ments are oUfered to employ the sur-
plus produce in distiUation . Th \a bu-
siness is now becoming disreputable.
The happy conviction is spreading
rapidly, that the use of alcohol, as a
beverage, instead of conducing to
health and strength, is the surest
means of destroying both. Some oth-
er production, therefore, will be re-
quired, in which the powers of our
soil may be profitably employed . This,
it is hoped, will be found in the busi-
ness now proposed. Instead of dis-
tilleries, converting food into poison,
we may have sugar-houses, manufac-
turing at our doors an article of uni-
versal demand, not merely useful, but
necessary, fhrnlshing as it does one
of the most simple, natural, and nu-
tritions varieties of human suste-
nance found in the whole range of
vegetable production.

" It is said that the general use of
sugar in Europe has had the effect to
extinguish the scurvy and many oth-
er diseases formerly epidemical. It
may be doubted whether a tropical
country can ever furnish a great
amount of exports, except through
the means of compulsory labour. It
appears, then, highly probable, that if
the inhabitants of temperate countries
wish to continue wheuse of sugar, they
must find some means to produce it
themselves. The beet appears to suc-
ceed well in Europe, and the manu-
facture from it is extending rapidly ;
but there is no hazard in making the
assertion that Indian corn is far bet-
ter adapted to our purpose. The fol-
lowing mode of cultivating the plant
and making the sugar is the best that
can now be ofif^red. The kind of soil
best adapted to com is so well under-
stood, that no directions on this point

18ft

CORN FOR SUGAR.

are necessary, ezceiyt that it should
be rich — ^the riciier the better ; if not
naturally fertile, manure must be a|>-
ptied, either ploughed in or spread
upon the surface, or used both ways,
according to the ability of the owner.
Nothing can form a better preparation
for the crop than a clover sod well
turned under and harrowed fine im-
mediately before planting.

** Select for seed the largest and best
ears of any variety of corn not dispo-
sed to throw np suckers or spread out
in branches ; that kind most produc-
tive in the neighbourhood will be gen-
erally the one best adapted to the pur-
pose. The planting should be done
with a drilling machine. One man,
with a pair of horses and an instru-
ment of this kind, will plant and cov-
er, in the most perfect manner, from
ten to twelve aeres in a day; the
rows (if practicable, let them run
north and south) two and a half feet
apart, and the seed dropped sufficient-
ly thick in the row to ensure a plant
every two or three inches. A large
harrow, made with teeth arranged so
as not to injure the corn, may be used
to advantage soon after it is up. The
after culture is performed with a cul-
tivator, and here will be perceived
one of the great advantages of drill-
ing : the plants ail growing in lines,
perfectly regular and straight with
each other, the horse-hoe stirs the
earth and cuts up the weeds close by
every one, so that no band hoeing
will be required in any part of the cul-
tivation. * It is part of the system
of cane-planting in Louisiana, to raise
as full a stand of cane upon the ground
as possible, experience having proved
that the most sugar is obtained from
the land in this way.' As far as my
experience has gone, the same thing
is true of corn. This point must
therefore be attended to, and the de-
ficiencies, if any occur, made up by
timely replanting.

*' The next operation is taking ofTthe
ears. Many stalks will not produce
any ; but, whenever they appear, they
must be removed. It is not best to
undertake this work too early, as,
when the ears first appear, they are

tender, and cannot be taken off* with*
out breaking, which increases the
trouble. Any time before the forma-
tion of grain upon them will be sooa
enough.

" Nothing fhrther is necessary to be
done until the crop is ready to cut for
grinding. In our latitude, the cutting^
may commence with the earlier va-
rieties about the middle of August.
The later kinds will be ripe in Se|>-
tember, and continue in season until
cut offhy the frost. The stalks should
be topped and bladed while standing
in the field. They are then cot, tied
in bundles, and taken to the miH.
The top and blades, when properly
cured, make an excellent fodder, rath-
er better, it is believed, than any hith-
erto used ; and the residunm, after
passing the rollers, may easily be dried
and used in the same way : another
advantage over the cane, which, af-
ter the juice is expressed, is usually
burned.

*< The mills should be made on the
same general principle employed in
constructing those intended for grind-
ing cane. An important difference,
however, will be found both in the
original cost and in the expense of
working them. Judging from the
comparative hardness of the cane and
oorn-stalk, it is believed that one
fourth part of the strength necessary
in the construction of a oane mill will
be amply sufficient for corn, and less
than one fourth part of the power will
move it with the same vekx;ity. It
may be made with three upright wood-
en rollers, from twenty to forty inch-
es in length, turned so as to run true,
and fitted into a strong frame^work,
consisting of two horizontal pieces,
sustained by uprights. These pieces
are mortised to admit wedges on each
side the pivots of the two outside roll-
ers, by which their distances from the
middle one may be regulated. The
power is applied to the middle roller,
and the others are moved from it by
means of cogs. In grinding, the stalks
paw through on the right side of the
middle cylinder, and come in contact
with a piece of frame-work called the
dumb returner, which directs them

CORN FOR 8UOAIC

backward* so that they i»8s tbroogh
the rollers again, on the opposite side
of the iQiddle one. The modern im-
proved machine is made entirely of
iron, three horizontal rollers, arran-
ged in a triangular form, one above
and two below ; the cane or stalk
passes directly through, receiving two
pressures before it escapes. The low-
er cylindeni are contained in a small
cistern which receives the juice. The
latter machine is the most complete ;
the former the least expensive. These
mills may be moved by cattle ; but,
for large operations, steam or water
power is preferable. When the ver-
tical cylinders are turned by cattle,
the aus of the middle one has long
levers fixed across it, extending from
ten to fifteen feet from the centre.
To render the arms firm, the axis of
this roller is carried up to a consid-
erable height, and oblique braces of
wood, by which the oxen or horses
draw, are extended from the top of
the vertical axis to the extremities of
each of the amis. When horizontal
cylindeni are propelled by animal
power, the upper roller is turned by
the cogs at one end, which are caught
by cogs on a vertical shall. It is said
that, in the West Indies, the purest
eane juice will ferment in twenty
minutes after it enters the receiver.
Com juice has been kept for one hour
before boiling without any apparent
injury resuHing ; hut so much delay
18 not desirable, as it may be attend-
ed with bad effects.

** The process which has been em-
ployed in the manufacture of maize
sugar is as follows : The juice, after
coming from the mill, stood for a short
time to deposite some of its coarser
impurities. It was then poured off,
and passed through a flannel strainer,
in order to get rid of such matters as
oould be separated in this way. Lime-
water, called milk of lime, was then
added, in the proportion of one or two
table-spoonfulla to the gallon. It is
said by sugar manufacturers that
knowledge on this point can only be
acquired by experience ; but I have
Aever failed in making sugar from
^DOfiloyiDg too much or too little of

the lime. A certain portion of this

substance, however, is undoubtedly
necessary, and mure or less than this
will be injurious, but no precise di-
rections can be given about it. The
juice was then placed over the fire,
and brought nearly to the boiling
point, when it was carefully skim-
med, taking care to complete this op-
eration before ebullition coomienced.
It was then boiled down rapidly, re-
moving the scum as it rose. The
juice was examined from time to
time, and if there was any appear-
ance of feculent particles, which
would not rise to the surface, it was
again passed through a flannel strain-
er. In judging when the sirup is suf-
ficiently boiled, a, portion was taken
between the thumb and finger, and
if, when moderately cool, a thread
half an inch lung could be drawn, it
was considered to be done, and pour-
ed into broad, shallow vessels to crys-
tallize. In some cases, crystallization
commenced in twelve hours ; in oth-
ers, not till after several days ; and
in no case was this process so far
completed as to allow the sugar to be
drained in less than three weeks from
the time of boiling. The reason why
so great a length of time was re-
quired I have not yet been able to
discover. There is no doubt that
an improved process of manufacture
will oause it to granulate as quickly
as any other.

** Enough has been said to enable
any one so disposed to manufacture
sugar from maize.

" As to the profits of the business,
I shall make no positive assertions ;
experience on the subject is yet too
limited to warrant them ; and, as all
the facts in relation to it are now be-
fore the public, every one interested
can draw bis own conclusions. It is
said, by those acquainted with the
cultivation of the cane, that that bu-
siness cannot be carried on profitably
on less than one hundred acres in
crop, and that attempts on a small
scale will he certain to fail, with a
great loss of time and labour. How
far this may be applicable to corn re-
mains to be seen.

187

CORN FOR mJOXBL

<^Som6 ooBBfttnaon between the
cultivation of cane and that of corn
may perhaps be interesting.

*' The cane lands in Louisiana are
redeemed to agriculture by strong
embankments along the river, and by
numerous ditches, which extend back
into the swamp to a considerable dis-
tance beyond the line of cultivation.
The ground is still farther divided, by
smaller ditches, into lots of from one
to two acres in extent. It is ex-
tremely rich and productive, but the
expense of draining and keeping up
the embankments must be consider-
able ; this forms the first difference to
be noted in the culture of the two
plants under consideration.

*' The best season for planting cane
in Louisiana is in the fall» which is
also the time of harvest, when labour
is the most valuable, and the greatest
exertions are required to secure the
crop before it is destroyed by frost.

** But the most striking difierence
will be found in the cost of seed, and
in the labour of planting. The cane
is propagated by layers; these are
partly furnished from the tops of the
plants when cut for grinding, but are
principally ratoons. Of the latter, it
requires the produce of one acre to
plant three. The grain from one acre
of com wiU be sufficient for planting
forty acres ; therefore, the difference
in the expense for seed will be as one
to thirteen.

*' In planting cane, furrows are
made with the plough from two and
a half to tliree feet apart ; in these
the layers are placed in a double row,
and the earth drawn over them with
hoes to the depth of three or four
inches.

" In the spring, before the plants are
up, this covering is partly scraped off,
80 as to leave them buried from one
to two inches. From this account,
it is evident that no more manual la-
bour will be required to drill fifty
acres in com than to plant one acre
in cane. The labour of cultivating
the latter plant during its growth is
also greater, but this may be balan-
ced by the extra work required to
take off the embryo ears from the
188

oom. "Wlien coltivsted in tbe mode
recommended, the stalk of corn is
soft, remarkably heavy, and full of
juice from bottom to top. The
amount of power required for grind-
ing tbem must be much less than is
necessary for cane, or, what is the
same thing, an equal power will do it
with greater rapidity. The average
yield of cane, in JLouisiana, is one
thousand pounds of sugar and forty-
five gallons of molasses per acre.
From the above comparative state-
ment, it would appear that one half
this amount of crop from corn would
be equally, if not more profitable.

" I will only add, in conclusion, that
whether or not the sugar from the
corn-stalk may soon become an arti-
cle of profitable export, its manufac-
ture in the simplest form will enable
every family to supply themselves
with this article for common use,
now become so much a necessaiy of
life, and thus save a considerable bill
of expense yearly paid for foreign
sugars."

Mr. Mapes^M Account. — **you re-
quest to know the best method of
crystallizing com sirup, and I know
of no more ready method to afford
the information required than to de-
tail the entire mode which should be
pursued for its manufacture :

'^ 1st. To cut the cane as ripe as pos-
sible, but before any acetic acid is
formed ; litmus paper, touched to
the fresh-cut cane, wiU turn red if
acid.

" 2d. Express the juice without loss
of time, as every moment alter cut-
ting will deteriorate its quality.

'' 3d. A small quantity of clear lime-
water (say one quart to a hundred
gallons of juice) should be added the
moment it is expressed, unless the
juice shows acidity with litmus pa-
per ; in that case, no lime should be
used, but a solution of sal soda, or
soda ash, should be added, until it is
precisely neutral.

** 4th. When the juice is neutral (free
from excess of acid or alkali) it should
be evaporated in such an apparatus
as would finish its charge in 30 min-
utes ; if the boiUng power is too small,

good fTjrstaHizatioa caimot possibly
be obtained.

" The whole time occupied from the
CQtting of the cane to finishing its
boilinff should not exceed one hour.

" 5u. To know token the hoiline isjin-
ished, place a thermometer in tne ket-
tle, and continue to OTsporate until
it stands at S30^ Fahrenheit. If,
when placed to run off after cooling,
It should be found too freely boiled,
the next time boil to 240®, or, if too
light to run off, to 238°, and so on.

** 6th. The kettle or boiler should be
so arranged that the moment it is
done its charge should be thrown
into a cooler capable of holding a
number of charges. The first charge
should be left in the cooler, with stir-
ring, until the second charge is thrown
in ; then with an oar scrape the crys-
tals found on the side and bottom of
the cooler loose, and gently stir the
whole mass together (Uie less stirred
the better) ; so continue, at the let-
ting in of each charge, to stir gently ;
and when all is in the cooler, let the
whole stand until it cools down to
176° ; then fill out into sugar moulds
of a capacity not less than 14 gal-
lons. When cooled in the mould
sufficient (say fourteen hours), pull
the plug out of the bottom of the
moukl, and insert a sharp point near-
ly as large as the hole, some six inch-
es *, withdraw the point, and stand
the mould on a pot to drip.

" 7th. If the sugar is intended to be
brown, leaying it standing on the spot
for a sufficient length of time, in a
temperature of 80°, will run off its
molasses, and leaye it in a merchant-
able shape; it will probably require
twenty days ; it can then be thrown
out of the moulds, and will be fit for
use. When moulds cannot be ob-
tained, conical Teasels of wood or
metal, with a hole at the apex, will
answer equally wen.

** The aboTe description will be suf-
ficient for any operator if strictly fol-
lowed ; but should any of your friends
wish to make the experiment on a
large scale, or to produce white in-
stead of brown sugar at a single op-
eration, they had better see me per-

COE

sonally before conunencing, as the
kind of kettle, and many other minor
particulars, will be important. The
above description, however, is fully
sufficient for the use of the fanner.
If the juice of corn-stalks be manu-
factured with the rapidity named in
the former part of this letter, no clari-
fication will be necessary, and scum,
which may rise during the boiling,
can be taken off with a skimmer ;
but in the large v>ay both clarifica-
tion and filtration would be requisite,
as in large operations evejry part of
the kettle cannot be got at to skim.
Since I last saw you I have made
some experiments on the corn-stalk ;
and if your statements are correct as
to the quantity of juice which can be
obtained from the acre, then there
can be no doubt of its entire supe-
riority over the sugar-cane. I fear,
however, that the enthusiasm of those
who made the experiments you spoke
of has led them into errors. It is
true that the juice of the corn-stalk,
grown with a view to sugar making,
wiU yield a juice at 10° Beaumd. I
have arrangements to try the experi-
ments fully in the coming summer,
and when done will communicate the
result '*

CORN FOR SOILING, or HAY.
Com sown broad-cast or in close
drills has been much used of late for
soiling ; it is cut from four to six
weeks old, and is relished by cattle
when mixed with other fodders. It
should be gradually introduced into
their food, lest it produce scouring.
An acre thickly set produces upward
of six tons of dry fodder, and much
more, according to some farmers. It
is readily cured for hay by sweating
in cocks, but cannot be dried enough
by spreading in swarth only. As hay,
it is nearly equal to fine grass, and
readily eaten.

Corn is remarkably free from de-
structive diseases ; the smut masses
which affect the stems are seldom
sufficiently abundant to destroy the
crop ; the caterpillars that prey on
the leaves occasionally destroy a
few young plants ; the cutworm, in
rich soils, is the severest enemy.

eoR

The yooDg ttems wre occasionaUy
infested with a caterpillar of a yel-
lowish colour, with a black head and
smooth, the larva of the Gortyna sea,
or spiiKlle-worm : they destroy the
plants which they intest, but the
numbers are usually limited.

CORN. SPECIAL MANURES.
Poudrette, guano, and stable ma-
nure, composted with lime and bone
dust, are the great fertilizers for this
grain. It pre-eminently requires •pu-
trescent matter and bone earth, with-
out which last the seeds are imper-
fect. The ash of Indian corn shows
how much phosphoric acid it con-
tains. {Analyzed by LeieUter.)
Potash and soda . . . , 80-8
Lime and magnesia . . . 18 3

Phosphoric acid 501

SUica, dec 8

1000

A special mixture or compost of
poudrette or stable manure, bone
earth, and ashes would be very val-
uable.

CORN, MEASURING THE
BULK. The foUowmg rule for this
purpose is given by William Murray.
It is not to be regarded as strictly ac-
curate, but an approximation :

** Having previously levelled the
com in the house, so that it will be of
equal depth throughout, ascertain the
length, breadth, and depth of the
bulk ; multiply these dimensions to-
gether, and their products by 4 ; then
cut off <me figure from the right of this
last product. This will give so many
bushels, and a decimal of a bushel of
shelled corn. If it be required to find
tbe quantity of ear com, substitute 8
for 4, and cut oiTone figure as before."

CORN LAWS. The exportation
of grains to England having much in-
creased, the following tables of the
tariff will be useful to many farmers :

"According to the English Corn
Law Act existing in 1842, com in-
spectors are appointed in 287 tow^ns,
to transmit returns to the Board of
Trade, who compute the average
weekly price of each description of
grain, and tbe aggregate average price
for the previous six weeks, and trans-
mit a certified copy to the collectors
190

of customs at the dHTerent ontports.

The aggregate average regulates ttM
duty on importation according lo the
following scale :

'* If imported from any Foreign CourUry.

" Wheat. — Whenever the average
price of wheat, made up and publish-
ed in the manner required by law,
shall be for every quarter

£. $. i,

under 91«., the doty ■hall be for eveiy

qaaner 100

5I«. and ander53« 0 19 •

5S«. ~ §5s Q-W 9

56«. — 56« 0 17 0

56«. — 57s 0 IS 0

ft7«. — 58# 0 15 •

58«. -^ S»s 0 14 0

69*. — 60». 0 13 0

60«. — 0]« 0 13 0

6I«. ~ t/U 0 II 0

63«. — 63«. ...... 0 10 •

63«. — 64« 0 S 0

64«. ~ 65« 0 8 0

65«. — 66« 0 7 0

66«. — 6ttf 0 e 0

60«. -- 7U* 0 6 0

70«. — 71« ..040

71#, — 72* 0 S 0

7«*. — 73*. 0 9 0

73#. and upward 0 10

" Barley. — Whenever the average
price of Imrley, made up and publisli-
ed in the manner required by law,
shall be for every quarter

£. 9. d.
Under 36«., tbe duty sball be for every

quarter 0 II 0

S6t. and under S7« 0 10 0

37«. — S0«. .000

30«. — 3U 0 8 0

31*. — 3S* 0 7 0

3S*. >• 83* 0 0 0

83*. ~ 34* 0 5 0

34*. — 33* ..040

SS*. -> 36* 0 3 0

Mm. — 87*. 0 t 0

87*. «nd upvard 0 15

** Ckus. — Whenever the average
price of oats, made up and published
in the manner required by law, shall
be for every quarter

£. «. d.

Under 10*., the doty ebali be for every

quarter 060

19*. and under SO* 0 7 0

SO*. -> 83* 0 0 0

Sa*^ — S4* 0 5 0

S4*. — S5* 0 4 0

S5*. ^ 26* 0 3 0

SIS*. — S7* 0 S 0

S7*. and upward 0 10

•* J?ye, Pease, and Beans. — Whenev-
er the average price of rye, or of pease,
or of beans, made op and published

Gcm

eoR

in the manner required by law, shall

be for every qaarter

£ t.d.

Under 30s. , Um duty slall be far wvcj

qaarter 0 11 fl

iO«.eBd«ad0rSSt 0 10 6

n$. ~ M« 0 9 6

U*, — a5# 0 8 6

35«. — 36* 0 7 6

a«f. — THs 0 6 6

37». — 38r. 0 5 6

Um. — S0« 0 4 6

39t. — 40# 0 3 6

40<. — 4I» 0 t 6

iU. — 42ff 0 16

4S«. maA vftwttid 0 10

" Wheat Meml and Flour. — ^For every
bacrel, being 106 )bs., a duty equal in
imoont to the duty payable oa 38}
gallona of wheat.

" OiUmeaL — For every quantity of
181^ lbs., a duty equal in amount to
tbe duty payable on a quarter of oats.

"Maize or Indian Coniy Buckwheat ^
Bear or Bigg. — ^For every quarter, a
duty equal injunouot to the duty pay-
able on a quarter of barley." — {John-
901C9 Enevclovitdia.)

CORN, EGYPTIAN. See E^yp-
iitm Com.

CORN MOTHS. See Grain

CORN SALAD. Fediaolitona.
Lamb lettuce. It ia a nueilafinoas,
pleasant berb, esteemed for tbe early
period it is found in market. - Sow
the seed in drills six inches apart;
weed carefully. The seeds are small
and light ; one pound servee for a
quarter of an acre. They are sown in
August or September, on dean, rich
land, covered with straw during cold
weather, and brought out at tbe ear-
liest period in spring. It might be
advantageously cultivated for soiling,
either sown late for spring or very
early for summer ; or it may be rai»-
ed as a summer salad by sowing in
March.

CORN-SHELLER. See ShOkr,

CORNEA. The transparent mem-
brane in front of tbe eye. Any opa-
city injures vision ; it should be oare-
fuUy treated by bleeding and blisters.

CORNS, IN HORSES' FEET.
This disease is produced by some hard
aubstaaoe pressing 00 the sole at the
qnarters, as from shoes left on till the
heela beoome buried in the.hopf ; the

fibrous substance which lies between
the sensible foot and the absolute
homy hoof becomes inflamed by the
pressure, and the inflammation pro-
duces a hardness of tbe spot, similar,
if I may so express it, to a knot in a
piece of soft timber. Palliate the evil
as well as you can by keeping the
hoof constantly pared away between
the corn and the ground, but do not
wound in your vain endeavours to cot
it out ; avoid the hot irons, dec. ; let
a bit of sponge be softly put in, mere-
ly to keep out gravel and keep the
spot moist ; and when the season ar
rives, turn the horse out without any
shoes into a soft, marshy place,
where his feet must be in a constant
moist state for three months at least ;
by that time the hoof will be altogeth-
er renewed, the diseased part will
have grown out, and if there is no
new injury, there wili be no new
corns. — {E, Maunsell.)

COROLLA. The coloured part of
flowers, usually. If there be no green
calyx, the coloured envelope is called
a perianthiam. The corolla is either
in one piece, or monopetalousy or in
many, palypetalous. The leaflets or
parts are also called petaU. Many
natural families are easily determined
by tbe figure of the corolla, as the
Convolvulaceae, Salviacee, Rosacea),
&c. See Botany.

CORONET BONE. The second
of the consolidated phalanges of tbe
horse's foot.

CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE. A
white crystalline salt, the chloride of
mercury. It is a fearful poison, one
to tlu^e grains producing death. The
antidote is, abundance of white of egg
given internally. A weak solution is
occasionally used to destroy vermin
and preserve wood, but it is too dan-
gerous to be trifled with.

CORRUGATE. To wrinkle. The
folds on the skin of some animals are
called corrugations.

CORTICAL (from cortex, the
bark). Relating to the bark.

CORUNDUM. A daas of extreme-
ly hard crystalline minerals, compo-
sed of nearly pure alamina, as tlie
sapphiiei ruby* and emeiy.

COT

CORVITS. The generic name of
th« crow and niven. They are om-
nivorous or carnivorous.

CDRVMB. A bunch of flowers,
Ui«> lowest flower stalks of which rise
«s hi^ as the uppermost.

CORYZA. A running from the
DOse.

COSMOGONY (from Kwrfiof, worlds
and ytruoc, Hrth). The speculations
concerning the origin of the earth.

COSTATE (from eosta, a rib). Rib-
bed. In botany this term is used to
designate the bundles of woody fibre
in leaves, also called nerves and
veins. The numerals are often prefix-
ed, as tricosUUe, with three ribs.

COSTIVENESS. Want of proper
motion in the bowels. Glauber salts,
Epsom salts, and aloes are useful
purges.

COTTAGE. A small, low resi-
dence, often highly adorned, or ornie.
The following from Mr. Ellsworth's
Reports on building cheap Cottages
will be valuable :

** After selecting a suitable spot of
ground, as near the place of building
as practicable, let a circle of ten feet
or more be described. Let the loam
be removed, and the clay dug up one
foot thick, or, if clay is not found on
the spot, let it be carted in to that
depth. Any ordinary clay will an-
swer. Tread this clay over with
cattle, and add some straw cut six
or eight inches long. After the clay
is well tempered with working it with
the cattle, the material is duly pre-
pared for the making of brick. A
mould is then formed of plank, of the
size of the brick deaired. In England
they are usually made eighteen inch-
es long, one foot wide, and nine inch-
es thick. I have found the more
convenient size to be one foot long,
seven inches wide, and five inches
thick. The mould should have a
bottom. The clay is then placed in
the moulds in the same manner that
brick moulds are ordinarily filled. A
wire or piece of iron hoop will an-
swer very well for striking off the top.
One man will mould about as fast as
another can carry away, two moulds
being used by him. The brieks are

I9S

OOT

plaeed upon the level ground, whev»
they are suffered to dry two days,
turning them up edgewise the sec-
ond day, and then packed up in a
pile, protected from the rain, and left
to dry ten or twelve days, during
which time the foundation of the
building can be prepared. If a ceUar
is desired, this must be formed of
stone or brick, one foot above the
surface of the ground. For cheap
buildings on the prairie, wood silla,
twelve or fourteen inches wide, may
be laid on piles or stones. This will
form a good superstructure. Where
lime and small stones abound, grout
made of those materials (lime and
stones) will answer very well.

**In all cases, however, before
commencing the walls for the first
story, it is very desirable, as well in
this case as in walls of brick, to Unf
a Mingle course of slate ; this will in-
tercept the dampness so often rising
in the walls of brick houses. The
wall is laid by placing the brick lengtJi-
wise^ thus making the wall one foot
thick. Ordinary clay, such as is used
for clay mortar, will suffice, though
a weak mortar of sand and lime,
when these artides are cheap, is rec«
ommended as forming a more adhe-
sive material for the plaster. The
wall may safely be carried up one
story, or two or three stories; the
division walls may be seven inches,
just the width of the brick. The
door and window frames being in-
serted as the wall proceeds, the build-
ing is soon raised. The roof may
be shingles or thatch : in either case
it shouU project over the sides of tka
house, and also oter the two ends, ett
least two feet, to guard the wails from
vertital rains. The exterior wall ia
plastered with good lime mortar, and
then with a second coat pebble-
dashed. The inside is plastered with-
out dashing. The floor may be laid
with oak boards, slit, five or six inch-
es wide, and laid down without joint-
ing or planing, if they are rubbed over
with a rough stone after the rooms
are finished. Doors of a cheap and
neat appearance may be made by ta-
king two single boards of the lebgtb

COTTAGE.

or width of the doors ; placing these
verticatly, they wiJl fill the space.
Put a wide batten on the bottom and
a narrow one on the top, with strips
on the side, and a strip in the middle.
This door will be a batten door, but
presenting two long panels on one
side and a smooth surface on the
other. If a parch or veranda is
wanted, it may t>« roofed with boards
laid with light joints and covered
with a thick paper dipped in tar, and
then adding a good coat, after sprink-
ling it with saad from a sand-box or
other dish with small holes.

** Houses bttilt in this way are diy,
warm in winter and cool in summer,
and furnish no retreat for vermin.
Such houses can be made by com-
mon Jabourers* if a little carpenter's
Work is excepted, in a very short
time, with a small outlay for mate-
rials, exclusive of floors, windows,
doors, and roof.

*' The question wiU naturally arise,
"WiU the wall stand against the rain
and frost I I answer. They have
stood well in Europe, and the Hon.
Mr. Poinsett remarked to me that be
had seen them in South America, af-
ter having been erected three hun-
dred years. Whoever has noticed
the rapid absorption of water by a
brick that has been burned, will not
wonder why brick walls are damp.
.The burning makes the brick porous,
while the unburned brick is less ab-
sorbent ; but it is not proposed to
present the unburned brick to the
weather. Whoever has erected a
baildiug with merchantable brick will
at once perceive the large number of
soft and yellow brick, partially burn-
ed, that It contains, brick that would
soon yield to the mouldering in-
fluence of frost and storms. Such
brick are, however, placed within,
beyond the reach of rain, and always
kept dry. A good cabin is made by
a single room twenty feet square. A
better one is eighteen feet wide and
tweoty-four feet long, cutting off
eight feet on one end for two small
rooms, eight feet by nine each.

" How easily could a settler erect
such a cabia on the Western prairie,

where clay is usaaUy fonnd about fif>
teen inches below the surface, and
where stone and lime are often both
very cheap. The article of brick for
chimneys is found to be quite an
item of expense in wooden hoiises.
In these mud houses no brick is
needed, except for the top of the
chimneys, the oven, and casing of
the fire-place, though this last might
be well dispened with. A cement,
to put around the chimneys, or to fill
any other crack, is easily made by a
mixture of one part of sand, two of
ashes, and three of clay. This soon
hardens, and will resist the weather.
A little lard or oil may be added, to
make the composition still harder.

*' Such a cottage will be as cheap
as a log cabin, less expensive than
pine buildings, and durable for cen-
turies. I have tried the experiment
in this city by erecting a building
eighteen by fifty-four feet, two sto-
ries high, adopting the diflerent sug-
gestions now made. Although many
doubted the success of the underta-
king, all now admit that it has been
very successful, and presents a con-
venient and comfortable building,
that appears well to public view, and
ofiers a residence combining as many
advantages as a stone, brick, or wood-
en house presents. I will add what
Loudon says in his most excellent
work, the Encyclopedia of AgricuUuret
p. 74 and 75 :

" ' The great art in building an
economical cottage is to employ the
kind of materials and labour which
are cheapest in the given locality.
In almost every part of the world the
cheapest article of which the walls
can be made will be found to be the
earth on which the cottage stands,
and to make good wails from the
earth is the principal art of the rus-
tic or primitive builder. Soils, with
reference to building, may be divided
into two classes : clays, loams, and
all such soils as can neither be called
gravels nor sands, and sands and
gravels. The former, whether they
are stifl" or free, rich or poor, mixed
with stones, or free from stones, may
be formed into walls in one of these

COT

modes, viz., In the pise manner, by
lumps moulded in boxes, and by
compressed blocks. Sandy and grav-
elly soils may be always made into
excellent wails, by forming a frame
of boards, leaving a space between
the boards of the intended thickness
of the wall, and filling this with grav-
el mixed with lime mortar, or, if this
cannot be got, with mortar made of
clay and straw.

" * In all cases, when walls, either
of this class or the former, are built,
the foundations should be of stone or
brick, and they should be carried up
at least a foot above the upper sur-
face of the platform.

" *We shall here commence by giv-
ing one of the simplest modes of
construction, from a work of a very
excellent and highly estimable indi-
vidual, Mr. Denson, of Waterbeach,
Cambridgeshire, the author of the
Peasant's Voice, who built his own
cottage in the manner described be-
low:

*• ' Mode of building the Mud Walls
of Cottages in Cambridgeshire. — After
a labourer has dug a sufficient quan-
tity of clay for his purpose, he works
it up with straw ; he is then provided
with a frame eighteen inches in
length, six dtiep, and from nine to
tw^elve inches in diameter. In this
frame he forms his lumps, in the
same manner that a brickmaker forms
his bricks ; they arc then packed up
to dry by the weather; that done,
they are fit for use, as a substitute for
bricks. On laying the foundation of
a cottage, a few layers of brick are
necessary, to prevent the lumps from
contracting a damp from the earth.
The fire-place is lined and the oven
is built with bricks. . I have known
cottagers, where they could get the
grant of a piece of ground to build on
for themselves, erect a cottage of
this description at a cost of from £15
to £30. I examined one that was
nearly completed, of a superior or-
der: it contained two good lower
rooms and a chamber, and was neat-
ly thatched with straw. It is a warm,
firm, and comfortable building, far
superior to the one I live in ; and

104

my opinion is that it will last for

centuries. The lumps are laid with
mortar, they are then plastered, and,
on the outside, once roughcast, which
is done by throwing a mixture of
water, lime, and small stones against
the walls before the plaster is dry,
which gives them a very handsome
appearance. The cottage I exam-
ined cost £33, and took nearly on»
thousand lumps to complete it. A
labourer will make that number in
two days. The roofs of cottages of
this description are precisely the
same as -when built with bricks or
with a wooden frame. Cow-house
sheds, garden walls, and partition
fence are formed with the same ma-
terials ; but in all cases the tops are
covered with straw, which thethatch-
ers pcrfonn in a very neat manner."*

COTTON. The hairs surrounding
the seeds of several varieties of Gos-
sypium^ which are cultivated for the
staple in the Southern States of
America and elsewhere.

Varieties. — The most common is
the green seed {G. herbaceum) or up-
land cotton. The black seed, or Sea-
Island, is of longer and finer -staple,
and supposed to be a variety of G.
arborcvm; it rises often to eighteen
feet, and bears well for four or five
years. The Kafikin is the variety
suited for the manufacture of the im-
itation nankin. The Mexican and
Pettit Gulf are also upland kinds,
and in great favour, especially the
last ; they are varieties of G. hirsU'
turn. Aldridge or Okra cotton is a
new Alabama variety, growing with
very short stalks, tall, and yieldifi|;
largely. ^

Cultivation. — The following by Dr.
Philips, from the American Agricul-
turist, gives a full account of the
management of the upland cotton :

*• If the land was in corn or cotton
the previous year, I run off the rows
in the old water furrow with a short
plough, this year using two horses to
it, and running deep. With a turn-
ing plough I then throw to this two
furrows, one from each side, intend-
ing to reverse the last beds.

" I leave the ground in this condition

COTTON.

QBta a day or two belbre I wiab to
plant, and then break out the entire
surface between the rows and the
balk ; my reason for so doing is, that
the cotton plant grows off* faster on a
bed of some firniaess; the radicle, or
future root, will die oftener oa a light
surface than when on hard earth, if
not 80 hard that it cannot penetrate ;
and by breaUng oat the middle late it
leaves the bed fresh, except a narrow
strip on the top, which is cleaned off*
by planting, which gives the plant an
even start with grass and weeds.

*' 1 begin to plant during the first
fine weather aAer the 20th of March,
though usually not before early in
April, some of my neighbours even
earlier than the 20th some seasons ;
I prefer to be a few days later, and
have all business well up, than to
haste in planting, and probably get a
bad stand from cold, and part of the
ploughing to be jumped over.

** I direct the cotton seed to be haul-
ed out, and dropped in two or three
heap-rows across the rows, at con-
venient distances, and in sufficient
parcels ; practice gives the hands a
pretty, correct idea how much is re-
quired. I usnally measure enough
fbr the first row, or an acre, seldom
planting over two bushels myself, and
often not over one, especially if the
seeds be bought. If the first furrows
have been settled by heavy rains, are
rough, or have many cotton stalks
on the row, an iron tooth barrow
should be run over them, drawn by
one horse, and with the row ; this
cleans off the row, and leaves it in
fine condition for planting.

'' I strike out the farrow for planting
with an opener. I am very particular
to open the fbrrows as straight as
possible, if on level land ; or a regu-
lar curve, if on liUy or rolling land.
The sower now follows with seed in
an apron, and scatters them along in
the narrow furrow by shaking the
hand, so as to cause each seed to fall
separate, if possible. This furrow be*
iag from one half to three quarters
of an inch deep, cannot be covered
deep, which would be an injury, seed
coming up with more certainty if

lightly oovwed, the natare of the
seed requiring the leaves, which are
folded or rolled up with the radicle,
or root, in the centre, to rise up be-
fore the plume or future stalk can
start. The seed is well covered.

** I prefer planting about one haU
the cotton crop some ten days before
the remainder, that too much neces-
sary work will not be required at the
same time ; if a rainy spell of weath-
er now, or any other backset should
cause detention in working over the
first time, grass and weeds will have
taken such hold, that the farmer will
find as hard work as in fighting fire ;
but if only the one half be planted
first, the last half will not be pressing.
I plant upland at four feet apart be-
tween the rows; 2d low ground at
five feet distance. Any farmer will
find there is very much to be gained
by putting his land in fine order be-
fore he plants ; even if a few days
later planting than his careless neigh-
bour, he will soon overtake him in
cleaning his crop ; besides, his crop is
not checked in growth ; and he would
do well to so pitch his crop that his
com could get one workiiiig before
his cotton would require it.

'* Before giving you the cultivation
of the plant, I will describe the seed
that I have found to be the best, not
only in producing, but in gathering
the largest weights per hand. The
seed is covered with a short, perfectly
white furze, called Mexican ; when
fresh it is small, but, after being cul-
tivated in the United States, it be-
comes longer, gradually losing the
white fibres, or changing to a germ.
The Pettit Gulf seed is the same, only
it is carefully selected and kept pure
by the planters in the vicinity of the
gulf hills near Rodney, this part of
the Mississippi River being called
Pettit Gulf. This cotton not only
produces more, but the bowls (that
contain the cotton and seed) open
out wider, and it is therefore easier
gathered and picked.

"Many persons, in circling their
hilly land, do it a greater injury than
in ploughing up and down the hillsi
because their furrows being inclined,

195

OOITON,

the water has only a loofer distanoe
to flow, thus aocumulatinif in qaan-
ttty, velocity, and force ; whereas, if
they were correctly run off, the wa-
ter should lie in the furrow as on
level land. In doing this, the curve
should be as regular as the nature of
the land will permit, for the purpose
of admitting the ploughs to be run
oiose up to the plant, which could
not be if in a zigzag course.

** If the cotton seed be moistened
and rotted with ashes and earth, so
that the lint or furze be compressed,
the moisture of the earth being thus
brought directly in contact with the
hull or seed, it will vegetate earlier,
and will require less seed per acre.

** I throw up my cotton bed as flat
as I can to break out deep, and leave
the water furrow well open, thus
permitting the superfluous water to
steep from the bed, and the earth
to become warmer, this being ne-
cessary to the quick growth of the
plant.

'* CuUhaiion. — Implements, '-^Seror
ping cotton (it is termed ehating by
tobacco growers) is mer^y taking off
with a hoe the surface of the hill or
bed, so as to leave a clean surface ;
tinless tbis be done well, whether
grass or weeds be in sight or not,
there will be a quantity of them before
the crop can be worked over again.

** A hvM-Umgue plough is about four
inches wide, shaped somewhat like
the shovel plough^ and used on the
same stock. I use a narrow ekaoel
about six inches wide, ateo a shovel
of the usual width ; the first is used
when the crop is young, likewise the
bull-tongue. The harrow is a triangu-
lar frame of white oak, three by four
stuff, with nine iron teeth, straight,
twelve inches long, and made of three
fourth inch square bars.

** The eweep is the same described
by Dr. Cloud, though I prefer the sem-
icircular shape, thus, because it is not

^^K

196

Cottoa 8ww|»

80 liable, in striking a eott<m«sta]k or

stick, to glance off and injure the cot-
ton ; it should be made with cutting
edge level, and laid with steel, the
back edge raised, so that when the
earth falls over, it falls to pieces ; the
ploughman should carry a file, and be
required to keep the sweep sharp.

*' The dmMt shovel is a plough with
two moulds ; I prefer the moulds ot
a parallelogram shape, and twisted
so as to throw the earth all one way :
see a cut of the stocking of one in
voL ii., old series, of the American
Farmer, for Sept. 1, 1820.

*' Hie scraper is an implement I have
tried to have constructed, so as to
shave off the bed each side of the cot-
ton plant, leaving four inches or less
of the former surface for the hoe
hands to clean. I think the difficulty
in those formerly used was, want of
weight to steady them.

**Our usual scraping is after the
plough, then a turning plough goes
ahead with the bar next to the row,
throwing the earth from the plant to
the middle of the row, and in conse-
quence of having to run two or three
inches deep, we dare not run near
the plant, owing to the bed crumbling
down, and the danger of covering the
plant by the earth falling from the
plough. I am as particidar in this
part of our labour as is possible, su-
perintend it in person all the day, re-
quiring of the hands to chop through
the row, leaving one or more stalks,
and cleaning the side of the plants
next to hand, then another stand, of
a stalk or more, and so on, thus leav-
ing cotton plants about the width of
the hoe apart; if the same hand
cleans the whole row, he will come
back on the other side, cutting up all
but one stalk in each bunch, and
cleaning the row next him as before.
I usually put two on a row, the best
hand chops through the row on his
side, the other reduces to a stand a
single stalk, and cleans the remain-
ing side ; I have now really a double
stand, that is, twice as many stalks
as I design to remain, thinking it
prudent not to reduce to a stand, aa
casualties and carelcssn' a.i may by

COTTON.

diance destroy a stalk or two ; and
being not over two or three inches
high, and ten to twelve inches apart,
they do not injure each other. When
I use the scraper, there is so little
hoe work, that e*ach hand is required
to clean the row at one time by chop-
ping through to himself, sweeping off
the side of ttie plants, then with a
push of the hoe he cleans the oppo-
site side of the stalks, and reduces
to a single stalk at the same motion.
Our usual work is three quarters of
an acre per band ; but with the scra-
per, and earth in the same condition,
from one to one and a quarter of an
acre is as easily done ; this is when
the crop is got into in due time, which
I make a point of doing as soon as I
have what I consider a full stand up,
sever waiting for height or age of it,
and only when too cold. On referring
to my farm-book, I find I commence
reaping from fifteen to twenty days af-
ter sowing, owing to the season, and
whether earlier or later sown ; if the
seed be sown early, it is the longer
period, the earth being cool, and the
sun not powerful enough at this sea-
son to warm it.

" As soon as I can return for other
business, say in ten to fifteen days
at the outside, I throw earth to the
plant with the bull-tongue plough, run-
ning near and deep, and with any or-
dinary attention fne plant is moulded
well wiih fine, light earth ; the soon-
er this can be done the better, the
light earth serving to protect the
stem of the plant, the furrow to drain
off moisture and loosen the earth,
and to give warmth. The plant be-
ing thus stimulated, if the weather
be not too cold, will resume its green
colour if it has turned yellowish, and
commences growing ; the last half
of cotton requiring working, and if
rain falls about this time, it may not
be possible to get into it earlier than
ten days, but at all events we should
do so some five days before hoe
bands go into it to clean with the hoe.
The hoe follows this moulding with
the bull-tongue, levels the earth
around the plant, and cuts up what
grass and weeds there may be pres-

ent. This working will take as into
May, when our heavy rains are over,
and when the plant begins to grow
off; if I find the earth to crack or be
hard, I follow the hoes, in a few days,
with the shovel-plough ; if the plant
will bear it, the large shovel, if not,
the small one, next to the plant, and
break out the entire middle deep an^
thoroughly. This is the only time I ev-
er plough deeper, probably, than two
inches after pitching my crop, and 1
do not use the turning-plough aftei
barring off. If the earth be light and
mellow, I use the double shovel-
plough, three furrows moulding the
plant and sweeping the entire middle.

** At this second working I reduce
to a stand, leaving the stalks about
twenty to twenty-four inches in ordi-
nary land ; on the richer land, from
two feet to thirty or even thirty-six
inches. After this working I keep
the earth stirred with a cultivator, or
sweep, or double shovel, or harrow,
keeping the bed of the row or drill
free from weeds and grass, throwing
a little earth at each working to the
plant, but not enough to be called a
ridge.

** I give the crop as many and as
frequent stirrings as I am able, sel-
dom less than three or four, with the
hoe and plough each, making it a
point to keep the ploughs in advance,
unless an unfavourable season, when
the earth is rather wet to plough, or
grass has grown too fast ; I then re-
verse it. The object in keeping
ploughs and hoes several days apart
is to give a chance for, grass to die,
so that what has not been killed or
covered 'by ploughs can be cut out
with hoes.

" I endeavour to have my land in
good order before planting; plough
as deep as my horses can pull the
plough, and commence to clean my
crop before grass has got started,
and by frequent stirring I^ep the crop
eivtirely under my control. I have
tried all the plans (except Dr. Cloud*s,
and intend to give that a trial) of
planting and cultivating cotton, and
think I can make as much on the
aamw [and With those implements that

107

COTTON.

merely stir the surface as others do
with the turning or shovel plough^
and can, with the same labour, cer-
tainly cultivate more. I cannot per-
ceive that any labour will be saved
on the same space of land by manu-
ring, as the same acre will require
the same work ; but the plant, by be-
ing warmed with the manure, will
grow off faster, and if the crop can
be ever doubled on an acre, it will re-
quire only half the number of acres
for cultivation.

" I may err, as we all are subject
to error, especially in being wedded
to our peculiar mode of practice; but
I think all practical planters will agree
with me that the first, and often
the second working of cotton, must
be slow and tedious, even should the
planting be in May. It is impossible
that the plant should grow off untU
the fine roots or spongioles have
formed around the top roots to nour-
ish the plant ; in the mean time the
fibrous rooted plants are growing ;
we must therefore work early, and
every one who has followed hands
knows there is little dependance on
covering grass ; it must be cut up. I
therefore think we must scrape.

**My hoes are home-made, the
blade entirely steel; I have some
here that have been used for the past
four years, and they have been used
for cutting down sprouts as well as
cutting up grass and weeds. My fore-
man of the crop is furnished with a
flat file, and is required to keep the
hoes sharp.

*' I now sum up, commence clean-
ing the cotton early, clean it well, re-
turn as soon as possible, throw earth
or mould to the young plant ; if the
earth be hard, give a thorough plough-
ing; keep the earth light and mel-
low, and the planto clear of grass and
weeds.

" Gathering and Drying. — After my
crop has grown so large as to meet
in the row, or to be injured by the
plough, I have the grass chopped out
with the hoe, especially if there has
been rain, for then there springs up
a grass called by the opposite names
of sour or saltpetre grass ; not that
198

I fear any injury to the crop, oiriy as
furnishing more trash to get into the
cotton when gathering, or keeping
the earth wet in the mornings b]f
dews. I forthwith prepare for gath-
ering cotton any leisure time, such
as making baskets, sacSs, cleaning
up gin-house, dec.

*' In all this country each hand has
a cotton sack and cotton basket for
picking ; the first made out of stout,
yard-wide Lowell goods, by cutting
off one and a third to one and a half
yards, doubling, and sew^ing one side
and end. On the open end attach a
strip of cotton doubled, long enough,
when over the shoulder, to keep the
sack off the ground when standing
erect, this is sewed on on.ch side, so
as when the right arm and head are
passed through, similar to the belt
of the bayonet or broadsword, the
weight rests on the left shoulder, and
the sack against the right hip. M^en
picking, tlie cotton is placed in this
sack until full, which will weigh from
fifteen to twenty pounds, and then
emptied into the hamper or basket,
placed in a central part of the day*s
picking. This is made of young
white oak, some three to five or six
inches in diameter, growing in low
ground, by cutting off a piece about
seven feet long, quartering, and then
splitting into splits about three quar-
ters to an inch widt^ and as thick as
a case-knife blade, and ribs somewhat
thicker. Take, according to size of
basket wanted, some
fifteen to twenty-two or
twenty-three of these
ribs, and lay them on
the ground crossing
each other thus, and
commence weaving in the splits as
near to the central point as possible,
by fastening to the bottom rib first,
running over and under until all
round ; insert an odd rib, for fifteen
or twenty will give an even number
of ribs, each long one making, in fact,
two, and, if an even number, the
splits will round all alike ; but by hav-
ing an odd one, the rib that was out-
side comes next inside, <&.c. After
the bottom is filled up the size want-

COTTON.

ed, doable the ribs over cm the bot-
tom, press on them with the foot all
round until they will assume, more
or less, an erect position, then con-
tinue around until the proper height.
Now double down the rib so as to en-
close the last split, and run the end
down into splits, so as to make fiast.
Get oot now two pieces of the white
oak, about one third of an inch thick,
take off the comers with a drawing
knife, put one on the inside, the oth-
er outside of the last split around the
top of the basket, and wrap it well
with thin, narrow splits, over and un-
der the last split. This basket should
do for two seasons ; the bottom of
my largest is about twenty-seven
inches across, and about two feci?
bigb, will hold about 150 pounds of
cotton, or three bushels of shelled
corn in the ear.

** The next thing is eotton-scafiblds
for sunning the cotton ; I only use
the shed attached to my gin-house,
sixty-two feet long and twelve wide.
The best made use of by our neatest
planters are made of plank, attached
with hinges (like a foldiog-leaf table
reversed), and resting on a frame-
work, so that at night, or a rain threat-
ening, the leaves can be folded up
and shelter the cotton. The first of
these was described to me ten years
ago by the late Mr. William Bacon,
who was at that time the most sys-
tematic cotton planter I knew, a Nor-
therner. Other kinds of scaffolds are
made by cutting cane about five to
six feet long, and weaving together
with lion bark, of a tree called here'
linn or wahoo, and laid crosswise on
stakes and poles. Others split out
boards.

" The gin-house now undergoes a
rigid examination. The gin-stand
should be sent off to the gin-wright,
if necessary ; the band be put in or-
der, which should have been well
greased and hung up out of the way
in the winter ; the running gear train-
ed, piummed, and levelled, and the
bouse again thoroughly cleaned out,
as it is presumed it was done when
the last season's ginning was done.
I use a sixty-saw gin-stand ; a light |

draiDgbt for foor mules^ the numing
gear being Philadelphia castings for
a twelve-foot wheel, fastened to a
wooden wheel by bolts and nuts. I
could give you a minute description
of number of cogs in wheel, and in
spur or trundle-head, mze of band-
wheel, and speed of the saws ; but,
as I purpose to' make an examination
into this matter the ensuing month
among my intelligent brethren in the
southwest part of this state, I will
postpone and communicate to you
hereafter in the East.

** To make fine cotton, there is cer-
tainly much depending on the gin-
stand, the speed, dec, in aid of which
there are a variety of improvements,
as the flue, false grates, and a thrash-
er, though of tliese hereafter *, for the
present, I think the flue will entirely
supersede all others. As I think of
concluding with my last article, and
have yet only given you two pages, I
will offer some views I have on the
handling of cotton, though their cor-
rectness is questioned by many ;
yet, as account sales are * stubborn
things,' I may be allowed to hold on
until there is a demonstration to the
contrary.

*' Cotton should be gathered from
the field as clean as possible, taken
to the scaffolds, and dried until the
seed will crack when pressed be-
tween the teeth, not crush or mash,
but crack with some noise. It
should be frequently turned over and
stirred (all the trash and rotten pods
taken out while this is being done),
so as to ensure its drying earlier.

*' If seeds are wanted for planting,
gin the cotton immediately, and
spread the seed over the floor some
five inches thick, until perfectly dry.
If the cotton seed be not wanted,
pack the seed cotton away into the
house, to remain until a gentle heat
is discovered, or until siufficient for
ginning ; after it has heated until a
feeling of warmth to the hand, and it
looks as if pressed together, open out
and scatter to cool. This cotton will
gin faster, have a softer feel, is not
so brittle, therefore not so liable to
break by rapidity of gin, and has a

199

COTTON.

ereamj colour; the wool has im-
bibed a part of the oil that has ex-
uded by the warmth of seed, and
is, in fact, restored to the original
colour ; for the oil being Tegetable,
it is dissipated by sun and air, and
the colour by moisture (of rain and
dews) and light. I haye known of a
DumfaNer of sides made of this descrip-
tion of cotton, and even those who
are most strenuous against the heat-
ing admit it bore a better price. No
one supposes if cotton be put up wet,
dirty, trashy, with rotton pods, that
it is benefited. Having all things
ready for picking cotton, I com-
mence, as usual, early, as soon as
the hands can gather even twenty
pounds each. This is advisable, not
only in saving a portion of that from
being destroyed if rains shoukl fall,
which often do at this season (about
the middle of August), but for anoth-
er reason : passing through the cotton
has a tendency to open out to sun
and air the limbs that have interlock-
ed across the rows, and hastens the
early opening. On low grounds, es-
pecially, much loss is incurred in
some seasons from the want of the
HUD to cause an expansion of the
lib re within the bowl, so as to cause
it to open. The bowl is composed
of five divisions, in each of which
there is a parcel of cotton wool sur-
rounding each seed, there being sev-
eral in each lock of cotton. When
green, these fibres lie close to the
seed, and as it ripens, the fibres be-
come elastic, the bowl becoming hard
and brownish. The Sea Island has
only three divisions, as also the Egyp-
tian, which is only the Sea Island of
the best variety, with black seed,
smooth, and a yellowish tuft of fibres
on the small end ; they are both from
Pernambuco. Some of the cotton
we plant has only four divisions, hut
I think five generally.

" There is a peculiar art in gathering
the cotton from the bowl, which, like
handling stock, can only be acquired
by practice ; many gather equally fast
with either hand. The left hand
seizes the stem near the open bowl,
or the bowl between the two mid-

9A0

die fingers, the palm of the haoa
up ; the fingers of the right hand are
inserted tolerably low down in the
bowl, a finger on each lock of cotton ;
then, as the fingers grasp it, there is
a slight twisting motion, and a quick
pull, which, if done well, will extract
the •contents, the bowl being open,
and the bottom of the locks not eum-
my to adhere. There is a vast dtfifer-
ence in hands, not the quickest ma-
king the best pickers ; a steady, clock-
like motion, with some quickness, is
necessary to gather fast. A neigh-
bour of mine, when a young man,
some ten years since, gathered 400
lbs., which was at that time the best
I had known ; this has been beaten
since, by aiding the hand in emptying
his sacks, and almost feeding and
watering him while at work.

*• After weighing, if the weather be
fair, the cotton is consigned to the
scatfold, to the care of those who pick
out what trash and rotten parts are
left. After being dried as said, it is
taken into the upper part of the house,
and placed over the gin-stand, ready
to be turned into the hopper that leads
from this place to the gin-stand. My
gin-house is 3S by 62, framed, with
two floors. Below the first floor is
the running gear, where the horses
'work ; in the second story we weigh ;
on a level is the shed for sunning,
fronting the south, in which is the
gin-stand at one end, at the other the
press. In the garret is carried the
seed ; cotton over the gin-stand, and
the ginned cotton over the press.

•* I never pick cotton if wet with
rain, but attend to other matters.
When the weather is good, I strive to
keep every one busy that can gather
anything like even a half hand's work.
All go out after daylight, but not long,
I assure you.

"When I commence ginning, there
is a small boy to drive each team,
there being four horses or mules, to
work in pairs ; one hand at the gin-
stand, who is kept pretty busy in put-
ting the seed-cotton on to the saws ;
another hand is required to push the
cotton back fh)ra the flue of the gin-
stand, rake cotton into the hopper,

COTTON.

and dear out seed and motes after
the gin drops them. With my gin-
stand, I have myself ginned four bales
per day, and averaged over three bales
for a week together ; but it requires
constant attention. Though the la-
bour is light, yet it requires a good
haod to perform it. There is much
loss-work in this business ; frequent-
ly a part of the saws are running
through seed, while others are almost
choked; again, the roll is not full;
again too full. In this way my gin*
ner, though an excellent servant, and
named after Cyrus of 3rore, is some-
times busy ginning out two bales, or
even less per day, while I, though
naturally lazy, and not disposed to
thwart natttre in that prerogative,
never gin under three bales. The
plan is to keep the team steady, and
shake the cotton regularly over the
roil, so as to keep the roll regularly
full. I call the reli the cotton in the
gin-stand that is turned over and over
by the motion of the saws, from which
the saws pnll oft the artide known in
oommeroe as cotton.

** The next and last thing is balin^t
which I do by cutting off several pie-
ces from a bolt of bagging, about 4
feet 6 to 8 inches long, the length of
the bale being 4 feet 6 inches ; I then
cut out the bed-doth, so as to have
the heading of eadi end on it, with-
out wasting, which is done by split-
ting the first end long enough for
head, say 2 feet 9 inches to 8 feet,
and cut off one piece ; then measure
the length of the bale, cut half across,
, and epib the same distance as their
end, and cut one end from the bolt
(leaving one half attached to the
bolt), so as to have both heads on the
same side of the doth» thus : I then

split in two one of the first-named
pieces, and sew on to the side from a
to h; this gives the bed-cloth; the
two pieces each side of the long mid-
dle piece, when cotton is pressed
down, serve as half the sides of the
bale ; tlie first-named doth being pla-

ced on top of the cotton before press*
ing, and turned down, is met by these
hiilif sides, and, when sewed up, cov-
ers the bale; the bed-doth is laid
smooth and even on the bed-block,
and the doors of the press fastened
over it, when the press is full ; one
of the first cloths cut, called top-doth,
is stretched under follower and on
cotton. My press is a single-screw,
inside press ; the horse walking ad-
joining to the walk of the teams woric*
ing the running-gear of the gin-stand.
The bale is pressed above them on
the first floor, and the cotton is put
in the press on the upper floor. Four
hands, or, rather, three hands and a
youngster do the pressing, two get-
ting in the box and tramping the cot-
ton down, while the youngster Uirows
in the cotton, and the fourth sews in
the head, and prepares a bed-cloth.
We press 9 to 10 bales a day, aver-
aging generally 436 lbs., preferring
about that weight to any other.

** After running the press down, one
hand is employed in tying, while the
two others wind up the rope on a
windlass, to make it tight round the
bale, having grooves in the bed-block
and follower large enough for rope
to pass through easily ; one hand has
a needle three feet long, either of
white oak or Iron wire, through the
eye of which is passed a piece of
twine, the ends tied together ; a loop
is formed, the rope passed through,
and made fast ; the needle is then
passed through the upper groove by
one hand, another pulls through the
opposite side ; he then returns it be-
low ; the hand that ties pulls throns^,
releases the twine, makes a knot in
the end of the rope, passes it over
the rope attached to the coil, and
makes a single knot ; the long end
then is passed over a pin in the shaft
to which the windlass is attached,
then this is tosned over and over un-
til tight, the rope cut, and passed un-
der the rope on the bale, sometimes
tied, as if knitting a line on to a fish-
ing-hook, and so on until the ropes
are all tied. Mine are eight in num-
ber ; seven, however, are an abun-
dance."

201

COTTON.

Some planters top the oottOD in
August.

Cultivation of Sea-Uland. — ^Tbe fol-
lowing is by Mr. Spalding, of Sapelo,
from tho Amtrican AgrieuUurist :

" The Sea-Island cotton was intro-
duced into Georgia from the Baha-
mas ; the seed was from a small isl-
and near St. Domingo, known as Ar-
guilla, then producing the best cotton
of the Western world. It in no way
resembles the Brazil cotton, which
is the kidney-seed kind, introduced
some years later, and which, after
trial, was rejected in Georgia. This
seed came in small parcels from the
Bahamas in the winter of 1785. It
gradually and slowly made its way
along the coast of Georgia, and pass-
ed into Carolina, from the year 1790
to 1792. The winter of 1786 in
Georgia was a mild one, and al-
thou^ the plants of the Sea-Island
cotton that year had not ripened their
seed — ^it being a perennial, and sub-
ject only to be killed by frost— it stall-
ed the next season (1787) ih>m the
roots of the previous year, its seed
ripened, and the plants became accli-
mated. Many changes have come
over this seed since that time, from
difference of soil, of culture, and lo-
cal position ; and, above all, from
careful selection of seed. But it re-
quires to be discovered that what is
gained in fineness of wool is lost in
the quality and weight of the prod-
uct ; for, in spite of a zeal and intel-
ligence brought to act upon the sub-
ject without parallel, the crops are
yearly diminishing, until to grow Sea-
Island cotton is one of the most prof-
itless pursuits within the limits of
the United States.

**The Cie/tere. — When the Sea-
Island cotton seed was introduced in
1786, it was planted in hills prepared
upon the level field, at five feet each
way ; but it was soo» learned that
of all plants that erow, it is, in its
first vegetation and early stage, the
most tender, liable to suffer by storms,
by wind, by drought, and by excess
of rain. The quantity of seed was
therefore increased, and the plants
multiplied, untili as in most other
202

cases, <Hie extreme prodooed another.
For many years, however, among
experienced planters, the course is
to divide their enclosed fields into
two portions, the one at rest, the
other in culture.

*' Preparing the Land for the Crop,
— Early in February, any hands not
engaged in preparing the previous
crop for- market are employed in
cleaning up the rested fields, and
either in burning off the fennel weeds
and grass of the previous year, or in
listing them in at five feet apart, to
serve as the base of the future ridg-
es or bed. There is much difference
of opinion upon the subject of burn-
ing or listing in ; for myself, I am in-
clined to take the first opinion, be-
lieving that the light dressing of
ashes the field receives from burning
off is more beneficial to the soil than
the decay of the vegetable matter,
and renders it less liable to produce
what is a growing evil, the rust, a
species of blight much resembling
the rust or bhght upon wheat, and
which takes place about the same,
period, just as the plant is putting
out and preparing to ripen its fruit.

" Ridging, — ^The land being listed
in short lines across the entire field,
at five'feet apart, the operation of
ridging is commenced about the first
of March. The ridges occupy the
entire surface ; that is, the foot of
one ridge commencing where the
other ridge ends, and rising about
eight inches above the natural level
of the land, thus presenting a sur-
face almost as smooth, and almost as
deeply worked as a garden-bed. This
ridging is carried on but a few days
ahead of the planting. The ridge, if
the operation has been carefully done»
IB from two to two and a half feet
broad at top ; it is then trenched on
the upper surface with the hoe, six
inches wide, and from three to six
inches deep, depending upon the pe-
riod of planting.

** Planting. — In the beginning, if
the seed is covered more than two
inches, the soil will not feel the in-
fluence of the sun, and the seed will
not vegetate later ; that is, in April,

COTTON.

up to the first of May, you most give
from three to four inches of covering
to preserve the moisture, or there,
too, you fail fVom an opposite cause,
the wind and burning influence of
the stin diying the soil too much for
vegetation. In most countries, after
sowing the seed the roller is applied ;
but m cotton planting, in our ridge
husbandry, the foot, in covering the
seed and pressing down the earth,
well supplies its place.

" Quaniily of Seed per Acre. — A
bushel of seed is generally sown to the
acre ; I believe half a bushel is bet-
ter ; for where the evil comes, wheth-
er the worm, or wind, or drought, or
wet, there is no security in the many ;
hot, on the contrary, where they
come up thin, they soon grow out of
the way of injury from any enemy.

"j4//«r Culture, — The cultivation
of Sea-Island cotton is carried on by
the hand hoe, and the quantity al-
ways limited to four acres to the la-
bourer. The operation of weeding
commences as soon as we finish
planting, because, in our flat and
sandy soils, the grass seed springs
with the first growth of the cotton,
and by the time we finish planting,
say the first of May, what we plant-
ed in March requires the hoe. The
land is kept in the operation of hoe-
ing and weeding, as far as may be,
at its original level, the beds neither
increased nor diminished, that rains,
which generally fall with beating
power and in redundant quantity in
the month of August, may as little
as possible injure the growing plants,
which are then in full bearing. The
young cotton is thinned out slowly
at from six to twelve inches apart on
the ridge by the 10th of June. As
soon as the rains commence, which
is about this last of July, it is wise to
leave nature to herself, and no longer
disturb the soil ; four hoeings, if well
done, and the grass well picked at
each hoeing, is enough, nor does any
aAer-growth of grass do injury.

" Manures emd Soiling Slock. — For
ten years past great eflbrts have been
made by the Sea-Island planters in
mamuing. Muoh of the allavion of

our salt rivers has been collected,
and sometimes placed directly in
heaps through the fields at rest, at
other times placed in cattle pens, on
which cotton seed and all waste ma-
terials are strewn, and the cattle
pounded upon it. But what is pre-
ferred is to pen our cattle near the
river at night, and cut salt grass,
which covers these alluvion lands,
and which is as nutritious as so much
clover. Many planters now employ
labourers to cut the grass for horses
and cattle from the first of May till
the last of November ; the task re-
quired is generally a cord of grass to
the hand, and this quantity will an-
swer for ten horses, or fifteen head
of cattle, for the night. Benefit has
resulted from this course in the ratio
of the extent to which it has been
persevered in. The last year, Mr.
Iluifin discovered that all South Car-
olina was underlayed by shell marl,
at various depths : from my own ob-
servation, and inquiries from others,
I find the same thing exists in Geor-
gia. Great benefits will result from
this, I have no doubt, hereafter, de-
pending much upon the discretion
that is used in the quantity applied,
which had better be too little, I think,
than too much.

** Amount of Crop per Acre, and
Picking. — It has been stated already
that five hundred pounds to the acre
are about the medium crop, which, at
twenty cents per pound (more than
the actual price for the last three
years), is to the planter 9100 for gross
crop ; and from this hundred dollars
is to be subtracted bagging, freight,
expenses of sale, clothing for his peo-
ple, medical attention, and too often
provisions. Is this man to be envied 1

*' In picking the Sea-Island cotton
from the field, the same disproportion
exists with his interior brethren as
in the other operations on the crop.
From the exposure to sea- wind, and
the necessity of guarding against ev-
ery possible injury to the staple, the
fields have to be picked over every
two weeks, commencing in August
and ending in December; so that
few planters receive from their peo-

203

COTTON.

pie more than twenty-five pounds of
cotton per day during the picking

season.

*^ preparation for the Market. — The
Sea-Island cotton is now almost ex-
clusively separated from its seed by
the foot-gin: two wooden rollers,
placed the one over the other in a
frame. The rollers are one inch in
diameter, about a foot long, and are
inserted in an iron journal supported
by the frame ; upon this journal a
fly-wheel thirty inches in diameter is
placed ; the journal, after passing
through the fly-wheel, has a crank,
to which the treadle worked by the
foot is attached : the fly-wheel is to
give a circular motion by the tread
of tlie foot. This gin generally sep-
arates twenty-five pounds of cotton
per day to one hand. The whole la-
bour of preparing a bag of three hun-
dred pounds of cotton, in sorting the
cotton for the gin, in ginning, and in
moting atler the gin, in again exam-
ining it, and in packing, my friend
Mr. Seabrook, of South Carolina, puts
down at fifty-four days* work. I
have estimated it at sixty. Thus a
bale of cotton worth 960 has cost,
after the cotton has been gathered
mto the house, sixty days' labour.

" Locality of Sea-Island Cotton^ Ori-
ginal Growth of the Lands ^ and Abori-
gines.— The Sea-Island cotton of the
best quality is grown upon islands
bounded by the sea on one side, and
to the west by salt rivers and salt
marsh. These islands extend from
Charleston, in South Carolina, to the
River St. John's, in Florida, including
the whole coast of Georgia. This
space may be considered two hun^
dred and fifty miles, between which
points there is a safe navigation for
open boats, and for dragging vessels
of one hundred tons' capacity. These
islands were originally almost exclu-
sively covered with live oak, and from
them the navy of the United States
has been entirely built. These live
oak groves once swarmed with Indian
tribes, who communed with Sir Wal-
ter Raleigh and General Oglethorpe
with confidence and friendship. Ev-
erywhere you find barrens scattered

204

j through the cotton fields, constructed
exclusively of oyster shells. Indian
bones and Indian pottery, and other
remains, tell distinctly here, in ages
passed, that the red man lived and
died.

** Healthiness of Climate. — Volney,
in his American tour, says that * the
climate of this coast is the best in
the United States, from Rhode Isl-
and south,* and this my own expe-
rience confirms ; carrying more men
into old age than any other I know
of Here, too, has been little change
of inhabitants for one hundred years
past, the son clinging to the home of
his childhood and to the grave of his
father."

The Gin and Whipper are concisely
described by Mr. Spalding.

»* The whipper, which is a very ne-
cessary instrument in the well pre-
paring of cotton, is made of wood, is
a long barrel composed of slats or
reeds (or it would be better made of
wire) six or eight feet in length, and
two feet in diameter, with one end
closed and the other open, and is 8up>
ported at the two ends by feet of dif-
ferent lengths, so that the barrel, in
its horizontal position, declines about
one foot at the lower end ; a hopper
containing about a bushel rests upon
the upper side of the barrel, at the
upper enclosed end of it. This hop-
per lets the cotton that is to be clean-
ed fall into the barrel, through which
runs in its whole length a shaft,
which is turned by the hand by a
crank attached to the shaft at one
end. This shaft is intersected by
rods which reach to within an inch
of the barrel. The cotton, as it faUs
from the hopper, is whirled round by
these rods until it escapes at the low-
er end of the barrel, by which time
any sand, or dirt, or leaves, or other
matter attached to the cotton lias es-
caped through the spaces intention-
ally left between the slats or reeds,
which constitute the external rim of
this barrel or whipper. This whip-
ping was formerly performed as well
upon the cotton in the seed as after
it was separated from the seed ; nut
the second operation of the whir/<»r

COTTON.

has lately beeo diseontiDued iroder a
belief that it produced a stringy ap-
pearance in the cotton wool.

" The whipping of cotton at its first
gathering, and while attached to the
seed, is really beneficial, and should
sever be omitted. When these op-
erations are completed, the harvest
may be considered as closed, and the
preparation of the cottoii for market
really bej^ins. Many machines have
been designed, and many forms of
the same machine adopted, for sep-
arating the seed from the Sea- Island
cotton, but all of them at last resolve
themselves into two wooden rollers
turning by opposite movements upon
each other. The rollers are from
half an inch to an inch in diameter,
and revolve from 100 to 500 times
in a minute ; the whole resolving
itself into this simple role, that the
smaller the rollers, and the slower
they revolve, the cleaner will be the
ootion separated from the seed, be-
cause, if the rollers are an inch in di-
ameter, and, above all, if they revolve
with a high velocity, they will take
in soft seeds, small seeds, and false
seeds, or motes, as they are called,
and in crushing them in their passage
through the rollers will stain and in*
jure the cotto*n in its appearance.

'* Much money has been spent upon
costly machines propelled by horses,
by water, or by wind, first in the Ba-
hama Islands, and for many years in
Georgia and Carolina, but, at last,
most of the growers of Sea-Island
cotton have returned to their first
and most simple machine, to wit, two
wooden rollers, kept together by a
wooden frame and a square shall,
upon which is fixed a wooden or iron
fly>wfaeel from two to three feet in
diameter. The iron cranks which
turn the rollers are connected by
■tripe of wood, with a treadle work-
ed by the foot ; this treadle runs un-
der the machine, and is connected at
the farther end of the floor of the
house by sockets, within which it re-
volves ; the man stands, therefore,
in the front of the rollers, with a
board between him and the rollers,
upon which he holds a large handful
S

(f^iiM «f i;otton, which he presents
from timd 4b time to the rollers that
are kept in motion by the pressure ol
the foot upon the treadle ; this la-
bour, from habit, becomes easy, as
the feet are often changed in the op-
eration. The task expected from
the labourer with the machine (which
costs, when new and complete, ten
American dollars) is from twenty-five
to thirty pounds per day. Women,
from their careful attention in keep-
ing the rollers, while they revolve
upon each other, well supplied with
seed cotton, were unquestionably the
best ginners, as they are called from
the term gin applied to the machine ;
but in process of time it began to be
believed that the continued motion of
the feet produced a relaxed system
in women, which was likely to lead,
in the end, to abortion or miscar-
riage : men have, consequently, been
substituted for this work, one which,
being within doors, and exercising
both hands and feet without very
much labour, is preferred by them to
any other in the winter. To prepare
the cotton for this ginning, or separa-
tion from the seed, when taken from
the house where it was put from the
field, it is carefully looked over and
separated, or sorted, as it is called ;
the yellow cotton, the motes, any
hard cotton that may have passed
through the whipper, are separated
from the white ; this is a work of
care and attention, and the future
appearance of the cotton much de-
pends upon the manner in which the
work is done. Women are employ-
ed in this operation seated upon
benches, with tables before them ; the
seed cotton is spread in small par-
cels, taken out of one basket, exam-
ined, and turned over to another, into
which the person puts the entire of
her day*s labour. The quantity re-
quired to be thus examined and
cleaned in the day by each one is
from sixty to one hundred pounds,
according to the care bestowed upon
the cotton by the grower ; after this
sorting it is exposed lightly and short-
ly to the sun, that it may take off
any dampness the cotton may have

306

COTTON.

acquired in the house; il is
passed from this drying iimnediately
to the gin, or machine that separates
the seed from the wool ; after going
through the gin, and being separated
from the seed, it is again turned over
to the women, who are generally in
a large room, well lighted with glass
windows. They sit with small ta-
bles before them, made either with
open slats, reeds, or wire, when any
crushed seeds, and cotton burned or
blackened by the former machine, or
motes that have escaped the former
searches, are removed ; and to have
this work well done, thirty pounds is
all that is required per day from each
woman. After this third operation
it is considered ready to be bagged
for market.

" As soon as the attention of the
Southern States was called to the
profitable cultivation of cotton by a
few persons along the shores of Geor-
gia and Carolina, the cultivation be-
gan to be extended into the interior.
The small quantity of cotton that had
been grown for domestic uses was
exchanged for larger quantities, to
be prepared for sale. But the great
difficulty to be overcome in the prog-
ress to extension was to find out any
instrument by which the cotton wool
could be separated from the seed.

**By this time various machines
had been introduced for ginning the
Sea-Island cotton, but all of them end-
ed at last in two rollers revolving
upon each other, either longer or
shorter, and moving with, some more,
some less velocity. Those rollers
were but badly adapted to the hairy
cotton, or second variety, which soon
began to obtain the preference, in the
interior of Georgia and South Caro-
lina, over the first or smooth-leaved
variety, and merited to obtain that
preference, as giving, when separa-
ted from its downy seed, a finer and
stronger, although shorter fibre, and
as perfecting its fruit sooner, but
which it was almost impossible to
separate with the rollers, because the
down or fur upon the seed retained
the seed hanging upon the roller, and
denied admission to the ToUers of the

S06

fresh cotton in the seed ttiat was of-
fered. Many plans were suggested,
many substitutes for the rollers de*
signed. All succeeded in part, bat
still they went on slow. Something^
was desired to do much in a short
time ; something that was strong
enough to travel about without being
broken to pieces, and light enough to
move with its moving master. At
last such a thing was found in Miller
and Whitney's gin, probably not the
best machine that could have been
designed, but so operative to its end,
so efficient to its purpose, that it took
possession of the whole ground.
From thence forward no other ma-
chine was sought for, and Miller and
Whitney's gin is employed to separ-
ate the cotton seed from Virginia to
Louisiana, save where the roller gin
is used, and its use is now altogether
confined to the Sea -Island cotton,
whose superior value is supposed to
warrant the great increase of labour
necessary in that mode of ginning.
Miller and Whitney's gin was design-
ed by Mr. Whitney, and executed at
the plantation of Mr. Miller, sixteen
miles above Savannah, about the year
1795, and it seems to be derived from
two machines already used upon cot-
ton, a kind of cylindrical whipper, and
the circular cards, before that time
introduced in manufacturing cotton,
a wooden shaft or roller enclosed
within a wooden box. This roller or
shaft has, at every inch of its length,
a steel blade or saw about a foot in
diameter ; above these saws is a box
containing the cotton in the seed.
The box has the bottom of metal slits,
through which the saws pass about
an inch, and pulling ofiT the cotton,
but sometimes cutting the fibres as
it pusses. This revolving of the saws
carries the cotton in the box gradual-
ly round, until the seeds contained in
the box are freed of the wool attach-
ed to them, when it is emptied of th6
seed and refilled with fresh cotton :
it too often leaves some of the fibre
behind it, which diminishes the quan-
tity as well as injures the quality, so
much so that the estimated ditierence
of the products in these two modes of

COT

giamiig are, with rollers, 300 pounds
to the 1000, aod 250 pounds to the
1000 with Miller and Whitney's gin.
This gin having, at last, given a cheap
and expeditions mode of taking the
wool from the hairy American cotton
(for a gin that costs ten pounds ster-
ling will clean a bale a day with a
single horse acting upon the gin, with
a band wheel which any man can
make for himself), the cultivation of
this description of cotton diverged in
all directions around Georgia as the
' common centre ; it went north into
the two Carolinas i it went west into
the hill country of all the Southern
States ; it was found capable of ad-
jaeting itself to the soil and climate
of the interior country, which the An-
guiiia cotton had not been adapted
to; still the fibre of the hairy or short
staple cotton is better near the sea
than in the interior."

Diseas€» of the PlatU. — Wet soils
are peculiarly injurious, producing
rot and nut.

The rot commences with a black or
brown spot on the bowl, which, in-
creasing, produces a putrefaction of
the whole. It is thought to be a fun-

fos, and to prevail in old varieties
uring raioy seasons.

Ruft is a disease of the leaves and
stalk. Spots or blotches of a brown
colour appear, which cause the parts
to dry up and almost crumble away.
It is produced by the Uredo gotsypn,
according to Dr. Leitner.

The sore shin is a disease of very
youi^ plants in Upper Mississippi, by
which the stems are very much inju-
red.

The lousSf or Aphis, is often very
destructive ; sprinkling with slacked
lime and topping would be serviceable.

The green aUeijfiUar eats into the
bowl, destroying the staple.

The army worm is another very de-
structive insect, of a brown colour
striped with white, and devouring the
leaves.

The cotton crop is rendered by
these causes very uncertain, and pe-
coliariy liable to destruction during
wet w^eather. The introduction of
liming is perhaps the best prevent-

ive, bat the large worms can only be
destroyed by burning up the bowls or
plants infested, so as to hinder the
propagation of the creatures. Not-
withstanding all these enemies, two
million bales were raised in 1844.

COTTON SEED. The seeds
abound in a mild oO, and are very
nutritious. A bushel weighs thirty
pounds, and yields two and one third
quarts of oil and twelve and a half
pounds fine meal. They are used as
food in the Levant and East. The
proportion of oil is great, and readily
obtained by pressure ; the cake can
afterward be used with success in
fattening, aod as a manure for new
crops. To some extent, the whole
seed is used for cows and fattening
in the South, and is said to afibrd
well-fiavoured milk.

COTTON. SPECIAL MANURES.
The application of calcareous marls
in South Carolina has revived worn
lands ; salt, also, in moderate quanti-
ties, improves the culture, but bone
earth will be the most serviceable.
Rich lands, or those well manured,
yield the heaviest supplies. By Dr.
Shephard's analysis cotton wool con-
tains one per cent., and the seed 3-85
per cent, of ashes thus constituted -.

V^ooL Seed.

Lime and Mapneila . . SO'Sl — 29*79

Potaah sad (Soda 7) . .31-09 — 19 40

Phoaphorio acid . . . 13-30 — 45*35

Sulphuric acid . , . 1-22 — 116

64-93 9570

COTTON DYEING. Cotton and
linen have nearly the same affinity
for dyes, and wiU be introduced to-
gether here. Having been bleached,
the first step is to prepare them to
receive a good stain. Few colours
unite at once to form a permanent
dye, aod madder fret with oil is the
most permanent. There are fivo
methods by which cloths are prepa-
red to retain colours.

1st. GaUiTig. — Gall nuts or sumacht
or a mixture, is prepared for this pur-
pose. Two or three ounces of galls
to one pound of cotton are coarsely
powdered, put into a copper contain-
ing thirty gallons of water for one
hundred pounds of cotton, and boiled
until the pieces of gall nut feel pasty.

807

COT

The fire is removed, and the liquor
l>assed through a hair sieve when
moderately cool. A portion of the li-
quor is then drawn into a bath, the
yarn or cloth well soaked, wrung or
pressed out, and spread to dry. Some
fresh liquor is then added to the bath,
and fresh cotton used.

When sumach is used, doable the
weight is added, and the liquor is
merely infused in hot water, and not
boiled. Where a mixture is used,
the galls and sumach are prepared
separately and the liquors mixed.

2d. Aluming. — This preparation
serves for very many colours. Four
ounces of clean alum are used for
every pound of cotton ; the solution
is made in a copper of thirty gallons,
at 122^ Fahrenheit, that amount of
water serving for one hundred pounds
of cotton. The cotton is introduced
into the liquor when, at 98® Fahren-
heit, well worked, taken out, and
wrung or pressed, being placed to
dry in the shade. Cotton usually re-
quires a second, and even third im-
mersion .before it is fully prepared ;
it should be kept moist for twelve
hours, and dipped only after two or
three days from the preceding pro-
cess. It must be well washed before
colouring to remove any uncombined
alum. This is so common a prepar-
ation that dyers keep the solution in
tuns to be drawn off and warmed
when wanted. The mordant is some-
times prepared for delicate colours by
adding one ounce of carbonate of soda
for every pound of the alum. Ace-
tate of alumina prepared with sugar of
lead, alum, and a little potash, is used
to produce fine madder reds, weld
yellows, and other brilliant colours :
it is used cold, and at 4° BaumA.

8d. Mordants. — These are solu-
ble mineral bodies which possess a
twofold affinity for the staple and the
colour. Acetate of alunxina, and iron,
and solution of tin are the most im-
portant. They are applied to certain
parts of the cloth to produce peculiar
colours, and are also employed in
different degrees of strength in solu-
tion for the production of light or
deep tints. Thus acetate of iron

208

COT

with madder brings out every shade
from pale violet to black. Henoe
mordants are not only added by bath,
but mixed in a paste with stareh or
gum to hinder them from spreading
over the surface of the web. In this
way more is used than stains the
cloth, and steps are to be taken afler
the preparation is fixed to remove
any part of the mordant that is on-
combined ; this is done by scouring
in a bath containing fresh cow-dung,
which takes off the iron or alumina
without allowing it to mix with oth-
er parts of the web. The process is
called dunging.

4th. Dye baths are of two kinds.—
Colour baths, which are used to ex-
tract the colour, except in the case
of madder, which is used in powder.
Dye baths are the solutions in which
the web or yam is pressed to attain
a stain ; they usually require a heat
of 90® to 100® Fahrenheit, although
some are used cold. See the CbI-
ours.

5th. Washtngr after Dyeing. — ^This
is a delicate operation, as the uni-
formity of tint depends on it. ««A
well -planned dye-house should be
an oblong gallery, with a stream of
water flowing in an open conduit in
the middle, a series of dash wheels
arranged against the wall at one side,
and of dyeing coppers, furnished with
self-acting winces or reels, against
the other. The washing may be done
by hand, by the rinsing machine, or
dash wheel, according to the stufiT;
and they may be stripped of the wft-
ter either by the jack and pin, by the
squeezing roller, or by the press.
Wooden pins are placed in some dye-
houses on each side the wash cistern
or pool. They are somewhat coni-
cal, one foot and ft half high, three
inches and a half in diameter at the
base, one inch and a half at the top,
and fixed firmly upright, and at a lev-
el of about three feet above the bot-
tom of the cistern, so as to be handy."
— ( Ure*s Encychpadia.)

COTTON GRASS. Several spe-
cies of Eriophorum have a small cot-
tony tuft from their summits. They
are of trifling importance.

cow

COTTON, WILD. The siBc weed
{AMclepia* Syriaea).

COTTOW WOOD. The Populvs
Canadensis. See Pojdar.

COTYLEDON. The seed lobes.
jQssiea's followers divide the vegeta-
ble kingdom according to the number
of parts or cotyledons in any seed.
Thus dicotyledons, or plants with two
seed lobes, are the ordinary inhabi-
tants of the temperate zone. Mono-
cotyiedoHs are the palms, grasses, &o. ,
which are most luxuriant in tropical
regions, and possess bnt one seed
lobe. AcoiyUdons are the same with
cryptogamic plants, and contain no
apparent cotyledons.

COUCH GRASS. Several varie-
ties of repent grasses, with perennial
stems, are so called, as Triticum re-
fens, AgrosHs repensy dec. There is
out one way to destroy them .* hoed
crops, thorough ploughing, with a har-
row to collect the fragments, and
heavy liming or salting.

COUGH. Horses and cattle troub-
led with cough should be sheltered,
bran and linc«ed oil administered, or
the bowels moved : bleeding is occa-
sionally necessary.

COULTER. The knife of a plough.
It is also a corruption of cultivator,
and used to designate a one-pronged
cultivator nsed in the South.

COUNTER. The breast of a
horse.

COUPLES. Ewes and lambs are
counted by couples.

COUPLINGS. Thongs of leather
to fasten two bodies together.

COURT PLASTER. Silk, usual-
ly of a black colour, rendered adhe-
sive by the following mixture : one
oonce of isinglass dissolved in the
smallest quantity of water, and half
an ounce of benzoin dissolved in al-
eobol. This is brushed over ten or
twelve times until a sufficient coat is
1^.

COVER. Any sheltered place in
which g^po can lie hid.

COVEY. A gang of partridges or
other game.

COW. «* One of the most useful of
the domestic animals : her milk is
peeuliaiiy ada^ited to nourish infants

and invalids, and requires no prepar-
ation to make it palatable or whole-
some. In the article Cattle we have
given an enumeration of the various
breeds of cows, and under Butter and
Cheese an account of their principal
produce. We shall here confine our-
•selves to the proper management of
a cow, so as to make her most pro-
ductive, and to the most common dis-
eases to which this animal is subject.
" Where only one or two cows are
kept, especially where they are to be
maintained on a limited portion of
pasture, it is of great importance that
a good choice be made when they are
purchased or reared. Some breeds,
no doubt, are much superior to oth-
ers ; but, as a general nile, there is a
better chance of having a profitable
cow, if she be reared on the land on
which she is to be kept. When the
common breed of the country is de-
cidedly inferior, it may be profitable
to bring a cow from a distance, in
which case it should be from some
district of which the pasture is rath-
er inferior to that to which she is
brought, or, at least, not better. The
best breeds are found in the richest
pastures, but they do not thrive on
worse. On poor land a small active
cow will pick her food and keep in
condition, where a fine large cow
would starve, or, at least, fall oflT rap-
idly. This is particularly the case in
the mountains, near the tops of which
no domestic animal will live bnt the
goat, and next to it the smallest breed
of cows. Where the pastures are poor
but extensive, cows give little milk,
and the number which can be kept
must make up for the produce of
each. Where, on the other hand,
cows are stalled, and fed on artificial
food brought to them in sufficient
quantity, large bulky cows give the
best return for the food ; at least, this
seems to be the opinion of the Flem-
ish farmers in general. Where cows
pick up the herbage growing by the
road-side, in forests, or are teth-
ered on a small portion of clover or
lucem, a small lean cow is preferred ;
and in general the cows commonly
met with, and whi^di are bred in each

209

cow

district, seem the best adapted for
the mode in which they are fed.
Whatever be the breed or quality of
a cow, she should always have plen-
ty of food, without which no consid-
erable produce in milk can be expect-
ed. This food should be succulent
as well as nourishing, or else fat w^ill
be produced instead of milk. A cow
well fed may be safely milked till
within a month of her calving. It is
better that she should be diy before
the new miJk begins to spring in her
udder. A little attention wiU readi-
ly prevent her becoming dry too soon,
or being milked too long. Heifers
with their first calf should be allow-
ed to go dry sooner than older cows,
because their growth would be impe-
ded by the double drain of the milk
and the calC It is best to let a heif-
er go to the bull when nature prompts
her to it, provided she be not less
than fiAeen or eighteen months old ;
for if they are thwarted in their first
heat, they are apt to become irregu-
lar ever after; and it is advanta-
geous for a cow to calve regularly at
the same season of the year. The
best time is May, when the grass be-
gins to be succulent. In populous
places, where veal is considered a lux-
ury, the calves are kept and fattened
by letting them suck the cows, or by
giving them warm milk to drink.
Near large towns this is a profitable
mode of employing the milk, when it
cannot be sold for immediate con-
sumption.

" Her food must be raised in regu-
lar succession, and cut for her. The
earliest green food is rye, then clo-
ver, which may be made so to suc-
ceed each other as to give an ample
supply. Cabbages, beet root, pars-
nips, potatoes, and turnips will con-
tinue the supply during winter, and
the dung and urine of the cow, care-
fully collected, will be sufficient to
keep the land in condition.

*• Where cows are allowed to be in
the open air, with proper shelter in
case of stormy and wet weather,
they are subject to few diseases.
Tboy must be carefully looked to at
the time of calving, but except in ur-
SIO

OOW

gent cases nature must be allowed
to perform her own office. A little
common sense and experience will
soon teach the possessor of a cow to
assist nature, if absolutely necessa-
ry ; and in case of difficulties the
safest way is to call in an experien-
ced person. Brinks and medicine
should be avoided ; a litUe warm wa-
ter, with some barley or bean meal
mixed with it, is the most comforta-
ble drink for a cow after calving.
The calf, and not the cow, should
have the first milk, which nature has
intended to purge its intestines of a
glutinous substance which is always
found in the new-born calf. A very
common disease with cows is a dis-
ordered function of the liver, pro-
ducing a yellowish tint in the eyes,
and sometimes in the skin. A gen-
tle purge, consisting of half a pound
of Glauber salts, an ounce of ginger,
and two ounces of treacle, with two
quarts of boiling water poured over
them, may be given when it is milk-
warm, and repeated every other day ;
keeping the cow warm, if it be in
winter, by a cloth over the loins, and
in a shed. This will in general re-
store her health. The symptoms of
a diseased liver or lungs in a cow are
leanness, with a staring coat, a husky
cough with loss of appetite, a difficul-
ty of breathing, and a great diminu-
tion in the secretion of the milk. In
accidents or acute diseases the at-
tendance of the clever veterinary
practitioner is indispensable.

"Attention to food and exercise,
giving the first regularly and in mod-
erate quantities at a time, and allow-
ing the cow to use her own judgment
as to the latter, are the great secrets
of health ; and a healthy young cow
reared at home, or purchased of a
conscientious dealer, will probably
live to old age without ever having
had any disease. A cow is old and
unprofitable when she reaches twelve
or fourteen years."

C 0 W A GE. The Dolichos pruricns,
the pods of which are set with small
bristles, which produce great irrita-
tion on the skin. It is an exploded
remedy for worms, and exotic.

COWISH.orBlSCUITROOT. A
kind of potato foiiDd on the Colum-
bia River.

COW PEA, The Soutbern bean.

COWPOX. In faniery, a dis-
ease aSecting tbe teata of cowa.
Thia disease appears in the form of
bidbU blDiab vesicles surrounded by
indainniatioii, elevated at the edge
and depreased in the centre, and cnn-
taioing a licapid fluid. By the use of
the viruB«rihia diseaae baa origina-
ted the pressnt excelleat system of

COW-TIE. A provincial term ap-
plied ro a eiicit. thick hair rope, with
a wooden nut at one end and an eye
in tbe other, being used for tying the
hind legs of the cows while milking.
, COW WHEAT. A very inferior
herbage plant of Flanders (Melaaipii-
nim prtitiut), witti light yellow flow-
ers (•06 fignTty

CRAB. Ttie Earopean crab-apple
la the /'yru malut ; it is larger and
tarter than ours, which is the P. co-
rmoria, an ornamental tree of fifteen
or eighteen feot. The American crab
fumishea good Blocks for dwarfs, and
the fruit makes cidei. It would alao
fumieb new varieties if cultivated.

CRACKS IN THE HEELS OF
HORSES. See Hone.

CRADLE. A frame oooBiating of
five or BMie long airipB of wood, prop-

CRA

erly curved aad bound together, to ba
affixed to a scythe for cutting wheal,
&c. The labourer cuts with a cradle
live or six times more than wilh a

CRANBERRY. The Oi^rocnu
macrocarjnu, a bog plant in the North
and West, yielding a large, acid, red
berry, containing lualate of lime. In
preserves and tarts it ia highly es-
teemed, and there is an immenao de-
mand for Bhipping and exportation.
They are readily cultivated by Iraiia-
planting, in spring, the cranberry sods,
or selecting plants and iranaferriog
Lhemloaligblsoil.rathermoigl. The
mnners can be laytrei, or seed sown
in spring. They grow rapidly, cover-
ing nearly everything, and are but liu
tie subject to the atucks of rnsecla.
The plants are set about IB inches
" lart, in rows, and kept clean at first.
The yield mcreases for several
years, snd becomes aa great as 400
bushels the acre in live years, al-
though 300 are a good average. The
fruit 13 gathered by rakes, which serve
to prune the plants at the same time.
When the berries are intended for
keeping, they should be rolled over a
gently inclined plane of wood, to re-
move such as are aoll or rotle^.
They keep well for a year in tight
casks, filled wilh water and headed
close. A barrel of four bushels in
England sells readily for 930. The
freah fruit cammanda 81 SO tbe bush-
el in New- York.

Several variclics of tall cranbeny
are found in tlis United States ; as
the Viburnum axycoccui, and the Pom-
h'lu Of Oregon ; but they are not cul-
tivated, the first being unlit for the
Uble.

The English Oxycoccat paluttrii is
said by Nicol to be aupiirior to the
icrican ; it is readily cultivated on
margins of ponds, and might be in-
troduced into the United States.
CRANK. " A mechanical contri-
ince for changing a revolring into
I alternate motion. An iron axis la
^nt in some part of its length out of
its rectilinear direction. Aa the axia
turns, the bent part describes the cir-
cumferenoe of a circle, and gives a
311

ORE

reciprocating motion to a piston or
rod attached to it."

CRASSAMENTUM. The clot of
blood ; fibrin, with red globules.

CREAM. The oleaginous part of
milk, mixed with some casein.

CREASOTE (from KpeacJUshy <ru-
^o, / gave). A colomrless, spiritu-
ous, and oily liquid obtained from
wood tar. It is singularly antiseptic,
imparting that propert}r to smoke,
wood tar, &c. It is of great price,
and used chiefly to subdue toothache.

CREMOCARPIUM. Atwotofive
celled inferior fruit, cells one-seeded,
indehiscent, dry. When dry, separa-
ting from a common axis, as in the
Umbellifera.

CRENATE. The edges of leaves,
which are divided into curved notch-
es, are called crenate.

CREPITUS. A crackling noise
produced by pressing cellular tissue
containing air.

CRESS. Lepidium gativum. A
small salad herb similar to mustard.
It is sown thickly in drills and cot in
the first leaf. For* a supply, sow
every week in good, clean ground.

CRESS, INDIAN. Tropaolumtna^
juM; Common nasturtium. A brill-
iant yellow-flowered climbing plant,
the fruit of which resembles capers.
Sow in April, in good, strong soil and
open situation ; put out in rows, al-
lowing three inches between each :
set sticks for them to climb. They
flower in June and July. The fruit,
which is admirable for pickling, is ta-
ken when full sized, but green, about
August. They are put in vinegar or
a suitable pickle as soon as gathered.
They require little attention when
once fairly started.

CRESS, WATER. NoMturtvumof-
ficinale. A creeping, amphibious per-
ennial, indigenous in England. It is
of an agreeable flavour, and relish-
ed for breakfast. It is cultivated on
clear streams one or two inches deep,
with a sandy or gravelly bed. The
plants are set along the stream in
TOWS about 18 inches apart. They
grow readily, and bear cutting very
often. If planted near a spring head,
they live through winter and remain

218

CRO

for many years, affbrdiilg a great
quantity of salad.

CRETACEOUS (from ereta, ekM),
Of the nature of chalk.

CRIB. A feeding-stall, or store-
house for com.

CRIB BITING. A habit in horws
proceeding from derangement of the
stomach usually. Straps are used
to hinder it, but if the top of the man^
ger be furnished with a ri^er turn-
ing on its axis, they will not be able
to bite much of it away.

CRICK. A common term signify-
ing inability to move the musc&s of
the part, as the neck.

CRICKET. A family of insects
reeembling grasshoppers, bnt with
less perfect wings. The Gryllotalpa
brevipennU burrows like a mole, and,
with other kinds, lives on the tender
roots of grasses, dtc. They do injury
to melons, pumpkins, dus., and some-
times accumulate in old meadows so
as to require extermination. Several
Achetat as the A. nigra and ahhnma^
toj are abundant, dwelling among
grass. They are only to be destroyed
by liming, fallows, and hoed crops.

CRINOIDEANS. A nearly extinct
race of crustaceous sea animals re-
sembling a lily. The fossils abound in
some limestones, as that of Lockport.

CRISTATE (from «ep«f, a horn).
Having the appearance of a horn, or
crest.

CROP OUT. In geology, the ex-
posure of rocks above the surface.

CROPPING. Gathering a crop.
Cutting the ears of animals, as dog^.

CROP, ROTATION OF. See Jto-
tation.

CROPS. The produce of the field.

CROSS BREED. The young of
animals of diflferent breeds. Some-
times called a eros9.

CROSS FURROW. A water-fur-
row running across the ridges or
lands. It is often deepened with a
spade, and opened with a double-
mould-board plough.

CROTALUS. A genus of snakes,
including the C. horridusi or rattle-
snake. They are all furnished with
a rattle, and their wounds are ex-
tremely dangerous. An instant ex-

CBO

oision of the part is the most certain

remedy. Spirits of hartshorn and
wine are necessary to saye the pa-
tient from sinking.

CROTON OIL. An extremely ac-
tive purge, obtained from the seeds of
the CroUm tigUum, an Eastern shrab.

CROUP. An acute inflammation
of the throat and windpipe, attended
with a BhriU wheezing and suffoca-
tion, occanin^ in chiAren. It runs
its coarse rapidly, and must be treat-
ed with decision. Bleeding, leeches,
external irritations, and large doses
ofcalomel are most successful. Hogs
are subject to this disease, and are
to be tieated similarly, blood being
drawn freely from the neck, by cut-
ting to the jngular vein.

CROW. Conms corane. Too well
known to require description. The
crow is a remarkably intelligent and
suspicious bird, but easily domestica-
ted, and may be rendered useful on
the farm. He destroys insects, mice,
rats, and small vermin, but, unfor-
tunately, also delights in chickens,
eggs, and com. His suspicious na-
ture renders it an easy matter to keep
him from fields by scarecrows and
moveable objects. Com steeped in
stupifyiog drags, as hellebore, or in
tar and nitre, either destroy him or
are rejected. Martins are well known
to annoy the crow. Bufibn prescribes
two carious methods of destroying
them : Ist. By wrapping a piece of
paper in the form of a long cone,
smearing the interior with birdlime,
and placing a piece of meat in the
bottom : the crow, reaching after it,
fits the cone to his head, ana becomes
blinded ; in this dilemma he flies
straight upward into the air, until,
becoming fatigued, he alights nearly
at the spot whence he had flown,
and may be shot. The second meth-
od is that of pinning a live crow to
the ground by the wings, stretched
out on his back, and retained in this
posture by two sharp, forked sticks.
In this situation, his loud cries at-
tract other crows, who come sweep-
ing down to the prostrate prisoner,
and are grappled in his claws. In
this way each successive prisoner

CRU

may be made the innocent means of
capturing his companions.

CROWSFOOT. Several species
of ranunculast which are acrid and
poisonous.

CROWS' NET. A net made of fine
packthread, used chiefly for catching
wild fowl, but which may be employ-
ed on newly-sown fields to entrap
crows, pigeons, and other birds that
destroy grain, or in stubble, where
this is sufliciently long to conceal
the network.

CROWN OF A LAND. Thecen-
tral part of the ridge.

CRUCIBLE. A chemical vessel
used to expose bodies to a strong
heat. For coarse purposes, the Hes-
sian cracible, made of sand and clay,
is used. Porcelain crucibles are ne-
cessary for finer work, and where
the platinum will not answer, but are
'destroyed by fixed alkalies. The
platinum cmcible is the finest, from
the ease with which it may be clean-
ed and managed, but is unfit for the
treatment of lead, arsenic, mercury,
and a few other metals which alloy
with platinum. A black-lead cmcible
is used for coarse work, and resists
a stronger heat than the Hessian.

In delicate operations the platinum
cracible is placed within another of
coarse porcelain, or in a muflle.

CRUCIFORM, or CRUCIFER^
OUS PLANTS. Crucifera (from
crvx, a cross). Plants which have a
flower consisting of four petals, ar-
ranged as a Maltese cross, as the
cabbage, cress, turnip, mustard, rad-
ish, dtc. They require rich land, are
wholesome, abound in pungent oil,
and when grown for seed are ex-
tremely exhausting. They are es-
sentially sulphur and potash, or soda
plants.

CRUOR. The clot of blood.

CRUPPER The horse's rump;
the leather harness which passes un-
der the tail.

CRURAL (from crus, the thighy
Belonging to the thigh or leg.

CRUSHERS FOR GRAIN, &c.
Mortars, mills on the same prinoi'
pie as the coffee mill, bark mills, and
grooved rollers running into one an-

213

otbCT (I'lg-), are Tariously used ta
crash corn, corn cobe, and ntots,

CRUSTACEANS {from cmitit. a
hard a/ctring). A tribe of Bnimals
like crabs, lobslere,&c. , with a crust,
anddestitute of Tertebrre, Thecruat
contains fourteen per cent, of phos-
phate of lime; the rest, carbonate of
lime and animal matter.

CRYPTOGAMIA (from upvtniK,
conccalid, and ™jo(, tiuirriagc). An
immense tribe of plants, which have
no flowers or apparent sexual organs,
but produce Mpinvin or minute seeds
in cases on their sides, backs, or on
atalks. Ferns, mosses, fungi, sea-
weeds, licheDB, and the minute para-
sites which infest plants and dead
wood, as rnst, mildew, rnbigo, &c.,
are of tliis tribe.

CRYSTAL (from .pvarrO-loc. ice).
Any trsnaparent solid with a natural
and regular geometrical figure.

CRYSTALLINE LENS. The
lens of the eye. which refracts light.
BO as to produce clear vision, it is
Bitnated intemall)'. behind the aque-
ous humour.

CUCUMBER. Cw™™* #o(i»u».
A pleasant but indigestible edible.
The varieties are numerous, but the
early frame, early green cluster, long
prickly, and long green are most cul-
tivated. The West Indian gherkin
is another species.

As the cacumber grows so freely
in the United States, the process of
forcmg is much more attended to for
early supplies than in Eumpe.

Forcing. — Begin ten weeks befoTO
the fruit is warned. The short prick-
ly, long green, and white-spined are
preferred. Seed should be two or
three years old. Suw in pots placed
over a warm bed. Water with tepid
water, and take care that chilled air
does not enter the frame. When Iha
second leaves are expanded, trans-
plant into larger pots ; place three
together.- Carry, when one month
old, to the fraiting-bed. The fruiting-
bed is made on a dry spot, with fresh
dung, well turned and forked, end
four feet high. As soon as the bed
is settled, and in regular fermenta-
tion, add six inches of fine mould,
and if it reinBins mellow ii wilt an-
swer, hut if flre-fnnged or caked,
more will be necessary. Hill the
mould to within eight inches of ihe
glass frame, and set three plants from
the pots in it, transplanting with the
ball of earth : these are enough for
one frame. Water with wanned wa-
ter, and darken until they are well
rooted. The temperature is kept
from TO" to 80" Fahrenheit, the steam
being allowed to escape when it riace.
As the heat lessens, add Oesh dung
outside, cutting away the old. Fonu

cue

CUL

a bank two feet wide and a foot hfgh
against the back of the frame. Give
the plants air whenever an opportu-
nity offers. Water in the morning.
Sometimes water in which guano or
bird dang has been steeped is used.
As the roots enlarge, add fresh, good
mould.

Stop the growth of the stems by
pinching off the buds at two joints,
and in this way keep stopping the
lateral shoots ; this strengthens the
plant and causes it to perfect fruit
early. Mind that some female flow-
ers are left, or such as have solid
swellings under the blossom, for these
only bear fruit. Abercrombie thinks
it advisable to pluck the made blos-
som and shake it over the female, for
the purpose of securing' a fall of pol-
len or farina. The fruit is fit to cut
16 to SO days after setting, and by
care may be obtained in succession
for two months.

Common Cultivation. — Sow in May
in slight hollows, four feet apart ;
manure the seed beds well with rot-
ten dung : eight or nine seed to the
hill. Leave three plants in the hill ;
hoe and earth up ; cut away weeds ;
a iittle water m dry weather does
good. ' The soil should be light and
mellow. Pickling cucumbers may be
planted in July. Select the finest for
seed^ The fmit is sometimes made
to grow in cylindrical moulds of pot-
xery.

Insecta injurious to the Cueumbery
Melon, ^^.^—The Mtriped bug'. Gale-
ruca vilata. It eats the young foliage
and flowers ; it is yellow, striped with
black.

The Flea Beetle. Haltiea pubescent.
A small, black, active coleopterous in-
sect, which destroys the small plants.
Xke Squash Bug. Coreua tristis. A
large angular hemipterous insect with
brown upper wings and orange belly,
collecting in groups under the fruit,
and destroying the leaves and fruit
of ail the cultivated cucurbitaeete.

The black Worm. The larva of a
coccinella ; it cuts down the young
plants, and can only be caught in the
morning, as it retires into the earth
daring the heat of the day.

Several species of aphis annoy the
plants. The large insects must be
caught in nets or with the hand ; soot,
tobacco water, solution of ivhale oil
soap ; infusion of wormwood. May-
weed, pennyroyal ; and slacked lime,
are all used with advantage. Placing
hens or turkeys with young broods in
a coop, and allowing the chickens to
run among the vines, is an admirable
expedient. All the foregoing insects
infest melons, cucumbers, and squash-
es also.

CUCUMBER-TREE. Some mag-
nolias are so called.

CUCUMIS. The generic name of
the cucumber, melon, dec.

CUCURBITACE^. A family of
plants^ mostly vines, rooncecious, with
inferior fruit, inhabiting warm coun-
tries. The melon, pumpkin, cucum-
ber, gourd, squash, colocynth, and bry-
ony are common examples.

CUD. In cattle, the food in the
first stomach, which is to be chewed
over again and passed into the third
to be digested.

CULEX. A genus of insects in-
cluding the gnat (C. pipiens) and sim-
ilar creatures : it is the type of the
Culicidee, which contains moscheloee,

CULINARY VEGETABLES.
Plants cultivated in gardens, and
sometimes in fields, for culinary pur-
poses. They may be classed as leaf
plants, such as the cabbage tribe, spi-
naceous plants, salads, pot and sweet
herbs ; stalk plants, such as aspara-
gus, tart rhubarb, sea kale, 6cc. ;
roots, such as the turnip, carrot, po-
tato, &c. ; seeds, such as the pea and
bean; fruit, such as the cucumber,
pumpkins, squashes, dec. ; and the
entire plants, such as the onion, leek,
mushroom, dtc. They may be other-
wise arranged, as the cabbage fami-
ly ; the leguminous family ; esculent
roots ; spinaceous plants ; alliaceous
plants; asparaginous plants; aceta-
rious plants ; pot herbs, sweet herbs,
plants used in tarts and confection-
ery, and edible fungi.

GULLET. Pounded glass. It is
used in glass-making, for scouring pa-
per, and as a manure. It consists of

816

CUL

ailicato of BOda aad lead, and is piob-
abl7 oTBr-eatimated aa a maiiuru.

CULM. Stems which, like the
•trawof grain. Buslatn the flower* at
a dtBtanee rrom ihe leaves. It is also
luied as a syaonyaie for anthracite in
Enetand.

CULMIFEROUS PLANTS. Tha
cerealia and grasBea.

CULTIVATOR, The same as a
horao hoe. CultiTaiors consiat of
oae hoe or tine, or many. They are
used to loosen the BOil in drill hua-
baodTT, end pasa where the plousli
would be too cumbrous. They alao
destroy weeda by aeraping Ihem from
the BUTface and cutting tbeir roots.
The tinea are of every forai, either
curved forward like a daw, made

CCL

liko a doable niould-baui] ia ntfoia-

luro, long and aharp, or like aharp'

farmer. The frame on which they
are faatened ia like a triangular bar-
row, and capable of being widened
at pleasure. The several kinds of
tinea should be purchased with the
frame, ao as to be inserted into tbe
mortices when wanted.

Bemtal't and Van Btrgem't culti-
vators are well known in the Nor-
thern States. In Virginia, a strong
one-line, or coulter, ia used to prepare
new land. Tlie following figotee rep-
resent simple hoes aud the moat im-
proved : they are all without patent,
being English or Scotch implements.

In F^. 1 the hoe is intended for

pai«- 1 of the hoe. Fig. 3 is ased to scraps

■ wide surface, and ia valuable in
weeding ; the iron blade {h) inclines
downward, so aa to cut the soil.
Theae can be made in any village.

Fig-. 3 represents Wnr'» admirable
cnltivalor of nine coulters, or haea :
it may be used to stir the soil or to
opm drills. Tbe beam (a) moves on
the soj^Tt (c), so as to regulate the
depth of the hoea.

WilkU't horse hoe and drill har-
row {Fig. 4) is alBo a favourite im-
plementj the Grat three hoes are so
Gzed aa ta open drills, and the tines
SIS

fbeel.

Finlayton'i cleaning cultivator or
harrow {Fig. 6) ia entirely of iron ; it
has the following advantages :

"1. From the position in which
the tinea arc Rxed, their points (9, a,
a, a. a) hanging nearly on a parallel
to the surface of tbe land, it follows
that this implement is drawn with the
leaat possible waste of power. 3.
From tha curved form of the tinea,
all stubble, couch, &c., that the tines

CULTIVATOR.

w mail; adjusted to work at aay i by moring tb4 ngalaior (<) upward
depthreqniradTendenit oT treat Tal- or downward between the lateral
ue 1 tbia is done aa quick nt (liought i spring (d, t) ; and by each a

CUL

CUP

upward into the openings (J, g, A, t, k)
the fore tines (/, /, /, 0 will be allow-
ed to enter the soil about an inch and
a half deeper by each movement into
the different spaces, until the regu-
lator is thrown up to e, when the
harrow is given its greatest power,
and will then be working at the depth
of eight or nine inches. Also, the
axletree of the hind wheels is moved
between o and p, a space of seven or
eight inches, by a screw through the
axletree, which is turned by a small
handle (9), so that the hind part of
the harrow, by this simple mode, is
also regulated to the depth at which
it is found necessary to work. 4.
When the harrow is drawn to the
head or foot lands, the regulator is
pressed down to i, and the fore wheel
(m) is then allowed to pass under the
fore bar (n), by which the nose of
the harrow is lifted, and the points
of the fore tines {I, I, /, t) will then
be taken two or three inches out of
the soil, which afibrds the means of
turning the harrow with the greatest
facility. -6. Being made of malleable
iron, its durability may be said to be
endless ; whereas, if made of wood,
the prime cost would be entirely lost
at the end of every five or six years.
Lastly, the mode of working is so
easy, that any boy of ten or twelve
years of age is perfectly qualified to
manage it."

Cultivators are occasionally called
grubbers, scarifiers, harrows, &.C., ac-
cording to the figure of the tines.

Several broad share cultivators for
Indian corn, beans, dtc, have been
recently brought out by Mr. Langdon,
which clean a large surface, and, at
the same time, pulverize the soil
without penetrating deep enough to
disturb the growing roots. They re-
semble double mould-board ploughs.

CULVERT. " An arched channel
ef maRonry built beneath the bed of
a canal, for the purpose of conduct-
ing water under the canal. If the
water to be conveyed has nearly the
same level as the canal, the culvert
is bttiH in the form of an inverted si-
phon, and acts on the principle of a
water pipe. This word also signifies

218

any arched channel for water under
ground."

CUMIN. CunUftum cyminum. A
plant cultivated in Sicily for its bitter
aromatic seeds : used in confections^
and to flavour cheese. It is umbel-
liferous ; requires a dry, rich soil ;
bears the second year, and does not
differ in its management from cori-
ander.

CUNEATE, CUNEIFORM (from
cunetu, a tpedge). Used in botany,
to describe any surface which is an*
gular, with the length considerably
exceeding the width.

CUPEL. " A shallow earthen ves-
sel, somewhat of a cup shape, gener-
ally made of bone earth. It is used
in the assays of the precious metals,
which are fused upon a cupel with
lead. Cupellation means the refining
of gold or silver upon a cupel."

CUPPING. In this operation a
cup-shaped glass is used, mto which
the large flame of a spirit lamp is
momentarily introduced, so as to ex-
pel a great part of its air by dilata-
tion ; it is then instantly applied to
some part of the body, which is for-
ced into it by the external pressure ;
and on removing the glass a circular
red mark is left, from the propulsion
of the blood in the small vessels of
the part : this is called dry cupping.
It is generally followed up by making
a number of incisions in the part by
means of an instrument called a sear
ijicatorf from which the blood oozes»
and from which a considerable por-
tion may be drawn by again applying
the cupping glass. Cupping, when
well performed, is not a very painful
or disagreeable operation, and is an
excellent mode of local blood-letting.
When the operator is not dexterous*
it is not only painful, but often dan-
gerous in its consequences. The
bleeding may generally be easily stop-
ped by a piece of lint or soft rag ;
but this should be looked after. —
{Brande's Encyclopedia.)

CUPULIFERiE {from cupa, a cup).
A natural order of arborescent or
shrubby exogenous plants, inhabiting
aU temperate and some hot climates.
They are distinguished by thehr amen-

CUR

CUT

taceons flowers and peculiarly veined
leaves from all European trees ; and
from other plants by their apetalous
cilvx, fruit enclosed in a busk or cup ;
and by their nuts, which contain but
one cell and one or two seeds. This
order comprehends the oak, hazel,
beech, chestnut, and hornbeam, well-
hiown valuable forest trees.

CURACOA. A liqueur which de-
rives its name from the island of Cu-
ncoa : it is prepared in great per-
fection by the Dutch. It derives its
ilavuar from Seville orange pe^, with
a small quantity of cinnamon and
mace.

CURCULTO. A general term in
the United States for the coleopter-
ous insects which devour fruits, or the
^rvas of which do so. They are par-
ticularly destructive to plums, apri-
cots, aqd peaches, as well as nuts.
Tue introduction of poultry into the
orchard, especially hens in coops with
broods, hogs, paving the ground, sha-
king the trees, and other expedients,
are used. Destroying every fruit
which they cause to ^1 is useful.
3ut suitable attention to the trees,
scraping, cleaning with suds, solution
of soft soap and whale oil soap, are
quite effective. See Insecu.

CURD. The coagulum of milk.

CURL. ^ disease of potatoes,
which see. ^

CURRANT. The white and red
are improved varieties of Ribes ru-
hrum, the blacks from R. nigrum.
The most esteemed kinds are the
Dutch red and white, white crystal.
Champagne, and black Naples. It is
propagated by slips, layers, suckers,
grailiog, and seeds. A warm, loamy,
rich soU is best ; they thrive in free
exposures. They bear on two and
three years' spurs ; in pruning, cut
down new shoots U> within three
eyes of the starting place. They
should be kept open, suckers remo-
ld, and not be allowed to branch
too low: four feet apart is a good
distance for bearing shrubs. The
ourrant is very healthy, but subject
to many caterpillars, aphides, &c.,
which must be destroyed by slacked
lime, and keeping the branches clean

by a syringe. The fruit makes admi-
rable jelly, wine, and is readily kept.

CURRYING. The preparation ot
leather by which it is polished and
rendered soft. See Tanning.

CUSCUTA. The generic name of
the dodders.

CUSPIDATE (from cuspU, apoini).
Pointed, a term used in descriptive
botany.

CUSTARD APPLE. A West In-
dian fruit, the Anona reticulata.

CUT. An incision, best treated
with sticking-plaster oidy.

CUTANEOUS (from etuis, the
tkin\ Relating to the skin.

CUTICLE. The external delicate
membrane of the trae skin ; the epi-
dermis of plants.

CUT WORM. This name is ap-
plied to any caterpillar dwelling m
the earth, which eats or cuts away
young plants of cabbage, corn, beans,
dec. They are naked, of a greasy
appearance, and ashy green ; are only
seen above ground before sunrise or
in cloudy weather. They abound in
lands which are rich, and h^ve re-
mained in grass or clover for a long
time, and are referred chiefly to the
genus Agro9ti$, especially A, ntffusa,
latau, Uafera, but are also the worms
of other genera. The moths are
large, and of various shades of pink
and brown : they are formed in July
and August.

Means of destroying them. — Soak
ing seeds does no good in this case,
lurking soot, tobacco, ashes, lime,
and other noxious substances into
the soil around the plants answers
on a smalt scale. Picking them be-
fore sunrise is recommended, but is
very tedious ; young chickens would
assist. Wrapping the leaves of oth-
er plants about young cabbages, <Scjc.,
has also answered. But when the
soil is Infested With these creatures,
it is best to add a good salting of 15
or 20 bushels the acre, or 60 bush-
els of fresh lime ; expose it to frost
in the fall, and give the worms no
rest by frequent stirring of the earth.

CUTTING. When a horse cuts
or wounds one leg with the opposite
foot. The best remedy is to put on

^\9

CYN

tbe cutting foot a shoe of even thick-
ness from heel to toe, not projecting
in the slightest degree bejond the
crust, and the crust itself to be rasp-
ed a little at the quarters. This shoe
should only have one nail on the in-
side, and that almost close to the toe.
—{Library of UtefiU Knowledge.)

CYANITE (from Kvavoct blue). A
massive and crystallized mineral It
has a pearly lustre, is translucent,
and of yarious shades of blue : it is
a silicate of alumina, with a trace of
oxide of iron. Only found in primi-
tive rocks.

CYANOGEN (from icvcvor, Mw^,
and yiyvofuUf I form). A gas which
burns with a blue flame, the bicarburet
of nitrogen ; it is a compound radi-
cal, forming acids with oxygen {cyan-
ic) and hydrogen {hydrocyanic or jrrus-
tic). The gas is poisonous : it com-
bines directly with many metals,
forming cyanides.

CYANURIC ACID. A product of
the action of heat on urea, formu-
la Ci, Ne Oe.

CYCADE^ (from CycoM, a genus
of plants). A small family of dwarf
palms which are gymnospermous.
Phe Cyeas circinalis yields sago.

CY(5lX)SIS (from kvkJloc, a eircU).
A circulation of the elaborated sap in
the higher plants in delicate anasta-
mosing vessels. The latex circula-
(ion.

C YDONIA. The generic name of
the quince-tree.

CYLINDER (from kvXivSo, I roll).
A solid, the height of which exceeds
the diameter, which is constant ; it
offers a circular section at every part
when made at right angles to the axis.
As stacks are often nearly cylindrical,
their contents may be discovered by
the formula for a cylinder : the solid
contents are equal to the height mul-
tiplied into the area of the base or
section.

CYME. An inflorescence: the
flower stems spring from one part, but
are afterward variously subdivided.

CYNARACEiE. Plants like the
artichoke, thistle, &c., with the flow-
ers induded in a scaly eapUuluntf also
called a cynarocephahu.
220

DAI

CYNIPS. A genns of hyiaeno^
terous insects without stings. Thefr
insert their eggs in parts of living
trees, causing tumours, of which the
gall nut is a specimen.

CYNOSURUS. Agenusofgrasi-
es, of which the C. crittatua is ooi-
sidered a good sheep grass. S<e
Grasses.

CYPERACEiE (from Cypems, I
^nns). The tribe of plants consist
mg of rushes, sedges, and other mardb
grasses without nodes or joints.
They are of trifling value ; the Cy^
rvs esculenhts of Italy furnishes a
sweet nut or tuber.

CYPRESS-TREE. Cupressw
sempervirens. A hardy shrub, a na*
tive of the Levant, growins from fif
teen to twenty feet high, whtcb
throws out yellow blossoms in Ma/.
Its wood is red, very hard, and swee^
scented. It likes a good soil, its
wood, from being sonorous, is used
for harps, violins, and other musical
instruments. Worms never attack
it.— (FAt/Ztp»* Shrub., vol. i., p. 188;
M'CuUoch's Com. Diet.)

CYmESSES, AMERICAN. See
Cedar.

CYPSELA (from tcvrffeXn, a bee-
hive). A one-celled, one-seeded, is*
dehiscent fruit. An Aehimum.

CYSTIC (from xiwr <c, a bag or blad-
der). Appertaining to the bladder.
Cystic oiuUy a rare ingredient in uri-
nary calculL

DACTYLIS. A genus of grasses,
of which D. glameraia, orchard or
cock*s-foot, is the only important spe-
cies. See Grasses. «

DAIRY. '* The name Qsnally given
to the place where the milk of cows
is kept and converted into butter or
cheese.

** A dairy-h^se should be sitnated
on a dry spot somewhat elevated, on
the side of a gentle declivity, and on
a porous soil. It shouki be on the
west or northwest side of a lull if
possible, or, at least, sheltered IVom
the north, east, and south by high
trees. In some countries where there
are natural caverns with an opening

DAIRY.

to the west, and springs of water at
haDd, the beat and coolest dairies are
ihus prepared by nature. Artificial
excavations in the sides of freestone
rodu are sometimes formed for the
purpose of keeping milk. Where no
such natural advantages exist, the
requisite coolness in summer, and
equal temperature in winter, which
are essential in a good dairy, may be
obtained by sinking the floor of the
dairy some feet under ground, and
forming an arched roof of stone or
brick. In cold climates floes around
the dairy are a great advantage in
winter; and an ice-house in ^rm
smnmers is equally useful. But these
are only adapted to those dairies
which are kept more as a luxury than
as an object of profit. Coolness is
also produced bv the evaporation of
water, an abundant supply of which
is essential to every daiiy. It is-also
a great advantage if a pure stream
eanbe made to pass through the dai-
ry, with a current of air to carry off
any effluvia, and keep the air contin-
nally renewed.

« As the milk suffers more or less
from being agitated, or too much
cooled, before it is set for the cream
to rise, the cow-house or milking-
place should be as near as possible
to the dairy, or, rather, it should be
under the same roof. The milk may
then be brought immediately from
the cows without being exposed to
the outer air. The dahry-house should
consist of three distinct apartments
below, with lofts and cheese-cham-
bers above. The principal place is
Uie dairy, properly so called, sunk
two or three feet below the level of
the ground, with a stone or brick
bench or table round three sides of it
to hold the milk pans. This table
should be a little below the level
of the outer soil. Airholes covered
with wire should be made in the walls
a little above, and on the opposite
sides of the dairy ; and they should
have shutters sliding over them to
open or shut, according to the weath-
er. The floor should be of stone or
paving tiles, sloping gently towards
a drain to carry off the water. Great

T 2

care should be taken that no water
stagnates in this drain, which must
be kept as clean as the floor of the
dairy, and not communicate with any
sink, bat run out into the open air : a
declivity from the dairy is essential
for this purpose. If this cannot be ob-
tained. It must run into an open tank,
and the water be regularly pumped
out. The windows of the dairy should
be latticed. Glazed windows may be
added for the winter, but they should
always be open except in very hot or
very cold weather. There may be
shutters to close entirely, but this is
not essential. If the windows are
made like Venetian blinds, the light
will be excluded without excluding
the air. The utmost purity must be
maintained in the air of a dairy;
nothing should enter it that can pro-
duce the slightest smeU. No cheese
or rennet should be kept in it ; and
particularly no meat, dressed or ^in-
dressed. Even the dairy-maid should
avoid remaining longer in it than is
necessary, and should at all times be
extremely clean in her person.

" The next important place is a kind
of wash-house, in which there is a
chimney where a large copper kettle
hangs on a crane to heat water in, or
milk when cheese is made. Where
wood is scarce, and pit-coal is the
common fuel, a copper may be set in
brick- work with a grate under it. In
this place all the utensils of the dairy
are kept, and scalded with boiling
water every day. It should have an
outer door, which may be to the south,
and benches outside, on which the
pails and other utensils may be set
to dry and be exposed to the air.
Between the last two apartments
may be another communicating with
both« and forming a kind of vestibule,
where the churning may take place ;
and over them a cheese-room and
lofts, or any other useful chambers.
A veranda round the dairy is very
convenient, or on three sides at least.
It shades from the sun, and adds to
the warmth in winter ; and the uten-
sils may be dried and aired under it
even in rainy weather. The follow-
ing description of a cow-house and

2X1

DAIRY.

daily imder one roof oombines all
that is useful, with considerable neat-
ness internally and externally : It is
a building about sixty feet long by
thirty wide, with a veranda running
round three sides of it. The dairy-
room is sunk below the level of the
soil, and is paved with brick. The
sides are covered with tiles, and the
arched roof with hard cement. The
coW-house has a broad passage in the
middle, and the cows stand with their
heads towards this passage, which is
paved with clinkers or bricks set on
edge. Their tails are towards the
wdl, along which runs a broad gut-
ter sunk six or eight inches below the
level of the place on which the cows
stand. This gutter slopes towards
a sink covered with an iron grate,
which communicates by a broad arch-
ed drain with a vaulted tank, into
which all the liquid flows. The gut-
ter is washed clean twice a day be-
fore the cows are milked. The cows
stand or lie on a sloping brick floor,
and have but a small quantity of litter
allowed them, which is removed every
day and carried to the dung-heap or
to the pig-sties, to be more fully con-
verted into dung. Whenever the lit-
ter is removed, the bricks are swept
clean ; and in stunmer they are wash-
ed with water. The manner in which
the cows are fastened is worthy of
notice : Two slight pillars of strong
wood are placed perpendicularly about
two feet distant from each other, so
that the cow can readily pass her
head between them. On each of
these is an iron ring, which runs free-
ly up and down, and has a hook in its
circumference : two small chains pass
from these hooks to a leather strap,
which buckles round the neck of the
cow. Thus the cow can rise and lie
down, and move forward to take her
food, which is placed in a low man-
ger before the two pillars; but she
cannot strike her neighbour with her
horns. The mangers or troughs are
of wood, or of bricks cemented to-
gether, and are kept as clean as all
the rest of the cow-house. In Swit-
zerland the cow-houses are similar,
but there is also a rack, the back of

^22

which towards the passage shots up
with a board on hinges. The Dutch
mode supplies more light and air to
the middle passage ; and as the food
is given frequently and in small quaa-
tities, there is very little waste. The
following cuts will give a tolerable
idea of the whole arrangement. The
food is brought in carts, which are
driven at once between the cows.
What is not wanted immediately is
stored above, whence it is readily
thrown down before the cows. Tb us
much trouble is saved, and one maa
can feed and attend to a great many
cows. From November till M27 the
cows never leave the cow-bouse. In
summer, when the cows are out, if
they are in adjacent pastures, tliey
are driven home to be milked'; but
if the pastures are far oflT, which is
sometimes the case, they are milked
there, and the milk is brought home ;
but this is ]M)t thought so good for
the butter, which is then always
churned from the whole milk, with-
out letting the cream rise. The finest
and best flavoured butter is always
made from the cream as fresh as pos-
sible ; and to make it rise well, the
milk should be set as soon as it is
milked, and agitated as little as pos-
sible. The greatest quantity is seK
dom obtained when the quality is the
finest. When great attention is paid
to the quality, the milk is skimmed
about six hours after it is set ; and
the cream taken oflf is churned by it-
self. The next skimming makes in-
ferior butter. These particulars are
mentioned to show the necessity
there is of having the dairy as near
as possible to the cow-house.

*' The utensils of the dairy, such as
pails, chums, vats, dec, are usiiaUy
made of white wood, and are easily
kept clean by scalding and scouring.
Leaden troughs are used in large dai-
ries ; and if they are kept very clean
by careful securing, they answer the
purpose better than wood. They
may be so constructed that the milk
may be let off gently before the cream,
which is collected by itself. This
saves all the trouble of skimming.
Brass pans have the advantage of

A, i. A. iiMHr* OmaA ih> cuir-liDnH tntl doicr, Mn l«I wMg, vmni (rilk brieki hi m
If I, a Dutdi dimkHi. Tliefoal ii ticoaglil in iliiapuH|{i is t uiimII an ud diuiibnMdn

1. pHt^ihambannmigt bIhhiI in wiih di»n,ud fana'ng > nnibnla uiha dtirr-

C. daiiy-iniin. tB obick i.n]f milk, eniin. and hntur ut krlK. II ■> •link llirH fsn ludar
i*Wn1<((b« eaH-hDniB, udsuTsml with i, brick aich ; ilbumH Isttind wiodDT. uid HT-
niV vcBtilUon OB ■ level with Ibe plpcq on which tK« niilk tsekIi nn Ht.

D, thq nom where Iha al^iili are vralded, uid when cheeia ■■ nuda : lA ooe contcriift
n-irin«} wilH ft ItTgt kelllfi or a f»pp*r Ht.

r, «ir-)Hiia,m which the dim m lied up la Tuifn. ki that ther cannid tun ts lick Ibev

'ta]chiib«:hlednHindlhnDii;kareKta«n>. U,H, two liiki. wttbiTW ■mi°ie'«">h»>
> ntck tli( niiu (rum Ih* gullen I, I, which nu aU the lenith ul th* SDW-bouH an w^ ndh

DAIRY.

K, Um urine Unk, vaalted over with a door L, to clew it ont, and a poiBp to powp Vf th« liquid
mairaY«. O^ O, in the section, are places where the green food or roots are deposited for tha
day's consomptioB. P, a hayloft.

being readily wanned on a chafing-
dish in winter. In Devonshire, tin
or brass pans are frequently used
instead of earthen-ware. Although
there is some danger in the use of
brass utensUs, very little attention
will obviate it. It only requires that
they should be kept bright, in which
ease the smallest speck of oxide or
verdigris would be perceptible. In
Holland the milk is invariably carried
in brass vessels. Cast-iron pans have
been invented, which are tinned in-
side. They are economical, but there
is nothing better or neater than well-
glazed white crockery- ware, of the
common oval form. Some recom-
mend unglazed pans for summer, but
they are difficult to keep sweet, as
the milk insinuates itself into the
pores, and is apt to become sour
there.

The most common use of cows is
to supply butter and cheese (see Bntter
and Cheese), and sometimes to fatten
calves for the butcher ; but the most
profitable dairy is that which supplies
large towns with milk. In these dai-
ries the system is diflTerent. The
cows are mostly kept in stalls, and
fed with food brought to them. Some
dairymen possess several hundred
cows, and the arrangement of their
establishments is worthy of notice.
The cows are bought before or aAer
they have calved. They are seldom
allowed to go to the bull, but are kept
as long as they can be made to give
milk by good feeding. When they
are dry, they are often already suffi-
ciently fat for sale, or, at all events,
they soon fatten, and are sold to the
butcher. A succession of cows is
thus kept up, new ones arriving as
others are sold ofiT. The oows are
milked twice a day; and as it is
well known that the last drop of milk
is the richest, they are sure to be
milked quite dry, an essential thing
in a dairy. When there is more milk
than there is a demand for, it is set,
and the cream is sold separately, or
made into butter ; but this is seldom

fed on every kind of food that can
increase the milk: brewers' grains
and distillers' wash are preferred,
when they can be obtained. The
grains are kept in large pits, pressed
close, and covered with earth, under
which circumstances they will remain
fresh a long time. Turnips and beet
root are used in large quantities, but
hay is given sparingly. The cows
are generally placed in pairs, with a
partition between every two pair.
Each cow is fastened to the corner
of the stall, where she has a small
trough with water before her *. thus
they cannot gore each other with their
horns. The great dairies are kept
very clean ; but the liquid manure,
which would be so valuable for the
market gardens, is lost, and runs off.
In Belgium the urine would be con-
tracted for at the rate often dollars
per cow per annum, which, in a dairy
of six hundred cows, would pay a
good interest for the money expend-
ed in constructing large vaulted cis-
terns under each cow-house.

There is no chance of profit in a
dairy of which the farmer or his wife
is not the immediate manager. The
attention required to minute particu-
lars can only be expected in those
whose profit depends upon it. A
proper attention to keeping correct
accounts of every expense will con-
vince any one of this truth. In a
dairy farm the great difficulty is tu
feed the cows in winter. It is usu-
ally so arranged that the cows shall
be dry at the time when food is roost
scarce, and they are then kept on in-
ferior hay, or straw, if it can be pro-
cured. It is a great improvement in
a dairy farm if it has as much arable
land attached to it as will employ
one plough, especially if the soil be
light ; but the mode of cultivating
this farm mUst vary from that of
other farms, since the food raised for
the cows must be a principal. obiect.
Corn is a secondary object ; and the
cultivation of roots and grasses must
occupy a great portion of the farm.

done to any extent. The cows are When the grasses degenerate, a crop
284

DAI

DEC

or two of com is taken, and the ro-
tation is chiefly roots, corn, and grass
cut for hay until it wears oat. If
the roots are well manured, the land
keeps in excellent heart. The old
pastures are kept for sammer feed-
ing. Where there is no arable land
near a dairy farm, it deserves mature
consideration whether it will be ad-
Tantageous or not to allow some of
the pasture to be ploughed up. It is
often a dangerous experiment where
the soil is naturally heavy. Arable
land laid down to grass for. the pur-
pose of the dairy seldom produces
fine-flavoured butter or good cheese ;
but clover-hay is excellent for young
stock, or to fatten ofi* the old cows.
Lucem is reckoned to make cows
give very good milk ; nothing, how-
ever, can equal a rich old pasture, as
ail dairymen agree."

The following estimates from Col-
man's Report on the Agriculture of
Massachoaetta give the yield, expen-
8es> and profits of the dairy :

" In Tyringham, the average yield
of a cow is reckoned at, new milk
cheese 883 pounds, and butter at the
same time 57 pounds. A dairy of
twenty-eight cows gave 7913 pounds
of new milk cheese, and 1600 pounds
of batter. A large amount of pork
was fattened on this fann, but it is
difficult to say what portion of it is
to be credited to the dairy.

" In Sheflield, the average product
of tweaty-eight cows was 894 pounds
of new milk cheese, and 60 pounds
of butter each.

** The product of a cow is thus sta-
ted by the excellent manager :

" Cow. Cr.
400 Km. new uilk ehaMe,at 8 eU . $32 00
C«ir (kJllMl »t 3 dajs oU> . . . . 1 00

^lU. batter, ftt 10 eta 8 33

Wheyftnd btittttMailk to make 100
)lM.poik ........ . 600

•40 33

Cow, Dr.
Winter keapiar .... $13 00
One acre of land, ooettngr $^,

will pMtare the oow 8 60

Sak 85 ete., 3 boah. of bran, $3 3 fi^
Interest on the valiie of cuw,

at $25, 10 per ct. . . . 2 50
X«aboor of mltkiagf, nakiof

butter, chaeae, 4m. ... 4 00 25 25

ia ftnrvnr of oow . . $24 06^

DAlVtSON. A small variety of the
Plum.

DANDRUFF. Scales of skin, which
are brushed off readily.

DAPPLE. Marked with various
colours.

DARNEL. Several grasses are
so called. The Cfuat of the United
States goes under this name in Eu-
rope ; but it is principally applied to
the Xfolium UmuUntumy a trouble-
some weed.

DARTARS. In farriery, a sort
of scab or ulceration taking place on
the chin, to which lambs are subject.

DATE. The fruit of a palm ( JPAob-
niz daetylifera), remarkable for its nu-
tritiousness, and as affording food to
entire populations.

DATURA. The generic name of
the thorn apple or Jamestown weed,
a poisonous plant.

DAUCUS. The generic name of
the Carrot.

DEAD TOPS. The dead sum-
mits or branches of old trees. They
should be out at a sound place, and
the wound covered with grafting wax
or clay.

DEAFNESS. A defect in hearing.
It is sometimes remedied by syrin-
gjng the tube of the ear with tepid
water, by which a quantity of hard-
ened wax is washed out.

DEAL. Pieces of sawed pine or
fir wood, three inches thick, nine
wide, and twelve feet long.

DEBRIS. In geolosy, mineral
rubbish worn from a rock or forma-
tion.

DECAGON (from dexa, ten^ and
yinna^ an angle). Any solid having
ten sides and angles.

DECANDRIA (from 6eKa, ten, imd
avi7p, a malt). The class of plants
having ten stamens.

DECANT, To pour off the clear
fluid alter a precipitate subsides.
Hence Vecaniatum.

DECAPODS (from de«a, Un, and
frovf, a foot). Crabs with ten feet.
Animals like the cuttle-fish, with ten
tentacula, wherewith they walk.

DECAY. The destruction of or-
gaoia&ed bodies by natural causes.
The products depend on the presence

235

DEC

or deficiency of aii% In the fitst case,
the process is called Eremacausis ; in
the second, Fermentatiofit which see.

DECIDUOUS. Parts which fail
off, such as hairs, horns, leaves, &c.

DECOCTION. Any mixture which
has been boiled.

DECOMPOSITION. In chemis-
try, the separation of the parts of any
compound, whether mineral or or-
ganic. Electricity and heat are the
principal forces used by chemists for
this purpose, and they are capable of
disturbing most combinations. Chem-
ical affinity, or the attraction which
one form of matter has for another,
is also an agent of decomposition.
Thus oil of vitriol (mlphuric acid) has
a powerful attraction for water ; if
it be dropped on the human hand a
blister is instantly produced, and the
part blackens. This decomposition
is owing to the greater affinity of the
acid for water than the flesh of the
hand. In the same way some min-
erals act on each other, producing
change of composition, or decompo-
sing them. Decompositions may be
expected if one of the ingredients is
of a volatile or gaseous nature, or if
the agent added forms with one of
the original components a product
which is insoluble in water. Thus
sulphuric and oxalic acid decompose
every solution of lime, because they
form insoluble salts with lime. Car-
bonic acid, in its salts, is decomposed
by every fixed acid, because it is gas-^
eons. Lime, potash, and soda de-
compose most salts of anmionia, be-
cause the latter is volatile.

DECOMPOSITION OF FORCES.
A problem in physics, in which it is
desired to know in how many differ-
ent directions several forces have
acted to produce a given result.

DECOMPOSITION OP LIGHT.
The separation of a beam of light
by means of a prism of glass, into the
seven colours, red, orange, yellow,
green, bhie, indigo, violet, which are
hence called the primary colours,
light being the result of their mix-
ture.

DECORTICATION (from dejram,
and cortex, barJt). Taking olBTthe bark.
SX6

DEP

Scraping the bark« and even parllairy
removing it during the active growth
(June), has been found to invigorate
trees. It is often resorted to in bark-
bound trees which bear little fruit.
Care must be taken not to wound the
new wood or expose the eap.

DECOY. "A device by which
aquatic birds, chiefly ducks, are enti-
ced from a river or lake up a narrow^
winding canal or ditch, which, grad-
ually becoming narrower, at last ter-
minates under a cover of network, of
several yards in length. The birds
are enticed by the smoothness of the
turf on the margin of the canal,
which tempts them to leave the wa-
ter, and begin to dress their plumage.
When so engaged at some distance
up the canal, they are suddenly sur-
prised by the decoy man and his dogs,
who have been concealed behind a
fence of reeds ; and having again ta-
ken to the water, they are driven up
by the dogs till they enter within the
network which terminates the decoy,
and are then easily caught"

DECREPITATION. A chemical
term signifying cracklings and used
to describe the sound made by nitre»
salt, sulphate of potash, and other
salts, when thrown into the fire.

DECUMBENT. In boUny, incli*
ned downward.

DECURRENT. In botany, a leaf,
a part of the lamtna of which is at*
tached to the stalk of the plant.

DECUSSATE. To cross and in-
termingle, in anatomy.

DEER. The common species is
the Cervus Virginianut of naturalists ;
it is diffused throughout the United
States as far north as Canada. The
moose (C alces) is the largest spe-
cies of the deer ; it inhabits swamps,
and is confined to the most northern
parts of the States, and to Canada.
The reindeer ( C tarandus) is remark-
able for its immense horns, its value
to the inhabitants of the highest lat-
itudes, docility, and abstemiousness.
It is rarely seen in the States except
in Maine. Some other species are
found far in the northwest.

DEFLAGRATION. A chemical
term, meaning very rapid combustion,

9KT

as wfaeo nitre ie throwo on Ted-hot
coals.

DEFLECTION. A term in optics.
When a thin opaque body is placed in
the course of a ray of light, the ray
is bent out of its straight direction.
The pbeoomenon is also called dif-
fraction.

DEGLUTITION. The act of swal-
lowing.

DEHISCENT. A botanical term
aignifyiog the bursting open, when
dry, of seed vessels.

DELIQUESCENT. Saline sub-
stances which absorb so much moist-
ure from the air as to become fluid
are called deiii^uescent.

DELPHINIA. A vegetable alka-
loid from Stavesacre, or Delphinium.

DELPHINIC ACID. An oily acid,
obtained from wbale oil, having a
rancid smell.

DENDROMETER (from devSpw, a
trte, and furpov, a nuasure). An instni-
ment like an immense pair of com-
passes, to measure the height and
the girth of trees, for estimating the
amount of timber.

DENTATE (from dens, a tooth).
Toothed.

DENTIROSTERS. Birds having
a tooth-h'ke notch on each side of the
upper mandible. They are very ra-
pacious.

DEOBSTRUENT. A medicine
given to remove any obstruction in
the bowels, &c.

DERBYSHIRE SPAR. Fluor
spar, or fluoride of calcium.
, DESPUMATION. The act of
skimiming the scum from any heated
fluid.

DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLA-
TION. The beating of bones, wood,
coal, due., in iron vessels, at a high
tiemperaiure, to produce peculiar sub-
stances. From green wood, vinegar
and wood tar ; from bones, impure
ammonia ; from coal, gas, coal tar,
dec.

DETERGENTS. Medicines vi^liich
remove impurities and cleanse sores.

DETONATION. In chemistry, ex-
plosions on a small scale.

DETRITUS. The broken and
pounded remains of rocks.

D£W

DEUTOXIDE, BINOXIDE. A

compound acting as a base, which
contains two atoms of oxygen.

DEVON CATTLE. Esteemed for
draught. See Cattle.

DEW. The deposite of water from
the air produced by cold ; it becomes
frost when the oold is below 33*^ Fah-
renheit. As soon as the sun sets, the
heat imparted to the earth begins to
fall by radiation into space ; if clouds
be present, the heat is mostly return-
ed again ; if in a clear sky, it is lost,
and the earth's surface chilled. The
cold of the surface chills the air lying
above it, and caused a deposite of its
water ; hence the dew. Those bod-
ies which cool quickest receive most
dew ; black soils more than light-col-
oured ; rough surfaces more than pol-
ished. Dew, therefore, only falls on
clear nights, and frost observes the
same rule. When the atmosphere is
loaded with water, the cooling of a
few degrees is sufficient to form dew ;
hence most falls near rivers and
streams

DEW POINT. The temperature
at which dew falls. It is a very im-
portant fact in meteorology, and ea-
sily ascertained. Place in a clean
wine-glass, half full of water, a little
ice, until a mist of dew is seen on the
outside ; remove the ice without wet-
ting the surface, plunge a thermome-
ter into the water, and observe the
temperature as the mist disappears :
the degree marks the dew point.
This is the simplest way, and as
good as any. The difierence in de*
grees between the air and dew point
is called the drying j^er, and shows
how much more moisture the air wiH
take. When they a^e, the air is
tilled or saturated with moisture. The
amount of water in the atmosphere is
connected with the probability of rain,
the growth of plants, the occurrence
of mildew, rust, dec., and should be
measured by the farmer on important
occasions as a means of ascertaining
its relation to these points.

DEWBERRY. The creeping
blackberry, which see.

DEWLAP. The fold of skin be-
I low the neck of cattle.

827

DIA

DEXTRINE, fikdablo starch, re-
BembHng gtim, but having the prop-
erty of turning the plane of polariza-
tion to the right ; hence its name.
The descending sap and cambium
contain much dextrine. It consists
of C|j H|i On-

DIACHYLON. A common and
iisefal sticking plaster for wonnds,
made of titharge and resin spread on
linen.

DIADELPHIA, DIADELPHOUS
(from 6i{, tmeey and adeX^tif, a hrother-
hood). A Linnaean class, in which the
stamens are bouiyi together into two
parcels.

DIAGNOSIS (from dutyivaOKo,
to dUeem). The determination, by
symptoms, of one disease from an-
other.

DIAMETER. The measure across
a circle or other regular figure.

DIAMOND. A rare gem, of or-
ganic origin, consisting of pure car-
bon, and crystallized in octohedrons,
dodecahedrons, and other derivative
forms. The hardest body in nature.

DIANDRIA, DIANDROUS (from
Si^t tvnce, and avtjp, a man). Plants
with two stamens. See Botany,

DIAPHANOUS (from ita, and ^.
ivot to thine). Translucent: not quite
clear like glass.

DIAPHORESIS (from dia ^opeu, 1
carry through). Sweating, or perspi-
ration ; hence diaphoreticst medicines
which produce sweating.

DIAPHRAGM (from tfia, and i^par^
tOf Idiffide). Any substance which
divides a cavity. Thus, the muscle
which lies between the chest and ab-
domen is a diaphragm ; the matter
dividing the cells of shells ; the disks
which are inserted into microscopes
are also called diaphragms. Se^m
is synonymous. Diaphragmitit is an

DIB

inHammation of the dfaphragmfii an-
imals.

DIARRHOEA (from iiappea, I flow
through). Looseness of the bowels.
Chalk and binding medicines are rem-
edies. See Horse, Ox, Sheep.

DIASTASE (from 6ta, and itmjfn, I
set). A condition in the decay of fibrin
and other protein compounds, which,
acting like a ferment, converts solu^
tion of starch into sugar. 1 part of
changed protein converts 2000 of
starch. It occurs in malting and ger-
mination. The existence of diastase
as a separate body is unknown, its ef-
fects being the result of change, and
not doe to the presence of any specif-
ic agent. Its property is destroyed
by a boilmg heat.

DIATHERMAL (from dm, and
^epfufy heat). Bodies which allow ra-
diant heat to pass through them, as
rock salt.

DIATHESIS (from SiariBtiftv, I dis-
pose). A predisposition to a partic-
ular class of diseases.

DIBBLE. An instrument to fnake
holes in the soil for the insertion of
transplanted vegetables, sowing large
seeds, onions, d^c. It is commoiUy
no more than a rod, with a spade han-
dle, the lower part or point shod with
iron, and sharp. A man, carrying
one in each hand, walks backward,
dibbling a hole right and left, at suit-
able distances ; 9000 holes can be
made thus in a day. The following
is a simple and effective contrivance
used for beans, potatoes, dtc. ; it is
so arranged that the side rods, point-
ed with iron (a, a), run a mark or drill,
into which the dibble afterward nma.
Several wheels may be fitted to one
axis, and thus a great deal of labour
done. It is adapted to light, melk>w
soils ; and the saving of seeds and la-

DIP

DIG

boor soon pttys for the maohina. A
number of these wheels drawn by a
horse has been recently introduced.

DICHOTOMOUS (from d<f, twice,
and refivot I cut). Bifurcate. It is
used in natural history to indicate
a division into two parts, especially
when it is repeated several times, as
in some stems.

DICHROISM (from 6tc, and xpt^fta,
eotoury Bodies which exhibit two col-
oars, as they are examined by reflect-
ed ot refiracted Ught. Dichromatic
is a derivative.

DICOTYLEDONS (from d«f, and
KOTvXijiaVt a seed lobe). One of the
^reat divisions of the vegetable king-
dom, indudiftg most plants and trees
of temperate climates. They bear
seed with two lobes, like the bean,
have leaves freely veined, and the
trees grow with a conical trunk. The
term is synonymous with exogene.

DIDELPHYS(from<J«r, and dcA^vf,
womb). A genus of animals resem-
bling the opossum and kangaroo,
which bring Ibnh minute young, and
afterward nourish them in an exter-
nal pooch. MarsvpiaU.

DIDYNAMOUS (from Stc, and dv-
vtifuf, power). Fk>wers with four sta-
mens, two being longer than the rest.
See Botanv.

DI£T£TI(3$ (from dtatraew, to
nmarisk). The study of varieties of
food. See Fodder.

DIFFERENTIAL THERMOME-
TER. A thermometer with two
bulbs, invented to measure differ-
ences in temperature, but seldom
need.

DIFFRACTION. See Deflection.

DIFFUSION OF GASES. Pene-
tration of gases. The expression of
a pbenonoeaon which occurs when
one gaa is set free into another.
They mutually expand or diffuse into
one another, so as to produce, in time,
an equal mixture. The rapidity of
difftasion differs Mrith diflerent gases.
By reason of this law, noxious va-
pours rising from the earth are pres*
ently dilated into the atmosphere.
The composition of the air is the re-
sult of this diflbsion or admixture of
^ several gases it contains. This

I passage takes place through aH po-
rous vessels, tissues, &c. In virtue
of this property, gases are said to act
as a vacuum towards each other.

DIFFUSUS. Spreading: used in
botany.

DIGESTER. A strong iron or
copper pot, the lid of which fits steam-
tight, and either screws on or is press-
ed by clamps, and is furnisiied with a
safety-valve. It is used for boiling or
digesting substances at a heat great-
er than boiling water, and is especial-
ly useful for extracting jelly and glue
from bones, skins, horns, &c.

DIGESTION. In physiology, the
change through which food passes in
the stomach for the production of
chyme. Food received into the stom-
ach is speedily attacked by a peculiar
fluid therein, the gasiriCf which has
the power of rendering soluble the in-
soluble parts : this ii effects by pro-
ducing a change nearly resembling
fermentation. The gastric juice is a
portion of the membrane of the stom-
ach in a peculiar state of change, re-
sembling diastase, and supposed to
owe its power to a principle called
pepsin y but being in reality active only
because in a state of change. The
food acted on by this agency is con-
verted into a pasty mass called chyme ;
this, passing into the bowels, is sep-
arated into a fluid part, ekyle, which
is absorbed by the veins and ai)sor-
bents of the intestines, and reaches
the blood to add to that fluid. There
is reason to believe that starchy and
saccharine bodies are converted into
lactic acid, and in part into oils, by
digestion. The remaining thickened
chyme, receiving several excretions,
becomes mere feculent matter. The
process of digestion requires from one
to four hours, according to the food.
Raw substances are digested more
rapidly than boiled, fresh than salt.
It is best conducted when the body
and mind are in a state of rest.

DIGESTION IN CHEMISTRY.
The exposure for a fong time of any
substance to the action of water or
alM>lvent at a gentle heat.

DIGGING. See ^tade.

DIGITALIS. The generio name

SS9

DIS

of tbe ibx^oTO {D. pwTfwu:^ « poi-
sonous sedative.

DIGITATE. Id botany, any leaf
divided into several segments origi-
Dating in a common centre.

DIGYNIA (from dtc* and ywfi, a
woman). Flowers with two styles.
See Botany.

DILL. Anethum graveoUnt. An
umbelliferous plant, the seeds of
which are esteemed as a medicine.
They contain dill oil, which, being
distilled, is used in solution in water
for the gripes of infants. It is an an-
nual, requiring a dry, rich soil. Sow
in drills in March or April, keep clear
of weeds, thin out to ten indies ; they
fruit in September. Fresh seed most
be used for planting. The leaves are
sometimes used like parsley.

DILUENTS. Any fluid, as water,
which dilutes.

DILUVIUM, DILUVION. Accu-
mulations of gravel found upon the
ordinary rocks in many places.

DINGLE. A small valley.

DICECIA, DIOICA (from d<c, hcice,
and oiKiGy house). Flowers, the sta-
mens and pistils of which are on dis-
tinct plants, as the hop, hemp, d&o.

DIOPTRICS (from <S(a, and oirro-
iMi, I see). That part of optics which
investigates the passage of hght
through glasses, <Scc.

DIOSCOREA. The generic name
of the yam. See Sweet Potato.

DIPLOE (Greek). The cellular
layer between the outer and inner
layers or the scull bones.

DIPPLE'S ANIMAL OIL. A fe-
tid oil obtained by tbe distillation of
bones, used as an antispasmodic.

DIPSACUS. The generic name
of the teasel.

DIPTERA, DIPTERANS (from
dtf, twicCf and lerepov, a wing). Flies
or insects with two wings only. They
are furnished with a sucker.

DISCUTIENT(frora diseutio, I de-
stroy). Any application which has the
property of resolving or htndering the
formation of tumours or boils. -

DISEASES. . See tkem, or Oz, HarH,
/Sheep. . . • . •

DISK. Any flat, round body:
hence dt$coid, in botany, any space

existing between the inaeitioii of the

stamens and the ovary.

DISPERSION OF LIGHT. Its
separation into the colours by a prism.

DISSEPIMENTS. The dividing
membranes formed in ovaria by the
union of the sides of two carpels.

DISTEMPER. Frequently ueed in
tbe same sense as disease, but is par-
ticularly applied to cattle. In racing
stables it is the distinguishing name
for epidemic catarrh or iniiuenaa ta
horses. Bleeding in the early stage
is recommended, and it is important
that the bowels should be evacuated
and sedative medicines given. (See
Horse). • In dog^s, distemper ia one of
the most fatal diseases ; a little emet-
ic powder (three grains of tartar emet-
ic and one grain of opium) is recom-
mended to be given. — {Ciater's Far.^
p. 892).

DISTICHOUS (from dic, and (rr<«or,
a row). Two rows of seeds, leaves,
dLC., arranged side by side. A term
of frequent use in descriptive botany.

DISTILLATION. Achemioalpio-
cess, whereby the more volatile parts
of a mixture are separated by heat.
It is conducted in a still of metal,
usually copper, except where a great
heat is necessary, as in destructive
distillation, when iron is used. Earth-
en-ware and glass are used for many
chemical distillations. Vessels of this
kind are called retorts or alembics. A
retort is of the figure of a large in-
verted comma ; if there be dn aper*
ture over the bulb fitted by a stopper*
or to receive a tube, it is termed a
tubulated retort. (See Retort.) Aa
alembic consists of two parts, an up-
per cap, which carries the tube, or
beak, along which the distilled fluid
passes, and a lower vessel to coataia
the matter for distillajton. Tbe cap
is well luted or fastened before use.

The heat employed is regulated to
the purposes of the operator. If the
object be to separate alcohol Arom wa-
ter, the heat must not rise above the
boiling of alcohol (176^). As the va*
pour rises, it is at first oooled along
the iube, or beak, of the retort, and
flows down it into tbe reesioeti but
the tube becoming heated, steps mnal

be taken to produce the eondema-
tion. Thia is managed in the labora-
toiy by keeping, pieces of wet rag on
the tube, or by passing it throagb an-
other larger tube of metal which is
cooled by a stream of water. . In lar-
ger operations, the still beak enters
another long tube, which winds sev-
eral times in a bucket of water, and
is thus kept cool, the water being oc-
casionally renewed.

Distillation is employed to separate
alcohol, ether, tinegar, and other
products from miztures ; to obtain
the essential oil of plants ;. and when
moch heat is used, to separate gas
from coal ; tar and viaegar from green
wood ; hartshorn from bones, whale-
bone shavings, &c. When a distilled
product is re-distilled, it is said to be
reciified.

DITCH. A trench cut in the
ground, usually round the fences of a
field. Trenches of this kind are form-
ed difiiBTently in Tarious localiUes, but
they ahonld always be made so as to
keep the water in them as pnie as

DIURESIS (from dta, and oupett, to
tnake tmUer). Extesuive urination:
hence Diuretics, medicines causing
urination, as nitre, juniper berries,
torpentine, eubebs, dec. See Bail.

DIVARICATE- To spiead out
vridelv

DIVERGENT. Branchea separa*
ted by an angle.

DIVISIBILITY. In chemistry, the
extent to which pieces of matter may
be divided is extraordinaty ; thus, in
gilding, the thickness of gold on a
surface is often as Mttle as 110,000th
part of an inch. Bat matter is not
infinitely divisible.

DOCK. Tronblesome, long-root*
ed, perennial plants, of the genera
JRumex, TSusilago, 6m. See Weeds.

DODDER. A weed consisting of
thread-like stems, which bind togeth-
er the plants among which it grows.
It is occasionally destructive to small
crops, sQch as fiflK.

DODECAHEDRON (from du^^ica,
htehe, and. iSpOj a seat). A soHd
of twelve- sides. In crystallography
there are two varieties : the rhombie

DOO

and angular dodecabadton, aoeoidifig

to the figure of the sides.

DODECANDRIA (from dodexa,
hoelve^ and avifp^ male). The class of
plants containing twelve stamens.
See Botany.

DOE. The female of the faUow
deer.

DOG. A genus of animals (Conif),
including innumerable varieties. The
farmer requires a good rat and ver-
min dog, of which the varieties of
terrier are the best ; a house-dog, as
the Newfoundland, bull-dog, or mas-
tiff; and herd-dogs, as the sheep-
dog, the Scotch sheep-dog, or the
Spanish shepherd's dog. The last is
said to be the most manageable and
trusty, as it is the strongest, being
near^ as large as a Newfoundland ;
but the instinct of the Scotch animal
cannot be readily surpassed. Hunting
and coursing dogs are merely useful
for pleasure, bat of these the pointer
is an animal of rare instinct, and can
be taught to equal the best sheep*
dogs in caring for fiocki^.

Fig. I is the Scotch shepherd's dog,
or colly. Characters: ears partly

erect, head rather pointed, shaggy
coat, and thick tail. To this animal
large flocks are safely intrusted with-
out any shepherd. He is also capable
of managing cattle with great nicety.
Fiff. 2, the English sheep-dog, is
larger. His eolour is usually white

and black, with half-pricked ears. He
is ail excellent cattle and farm dog.

Dogs should be kept clean and fed
with wholesome food, under which
circumstances they are very healthy.
Worming is an absurd and nsWess
custom. The ftutnffs in dogs is the

281

DOO

DRA

Tttiiilt nf fuideaiilinesSi and resem-
bles itcN It should be treated with
tar ointKient mixed with sulphur.

Madfu «t.— Symptoms : at first the
dog loseii spirits, neglects hi^ food,
retires from his master, does not
bark, but murmurs, is irritable, his
ears and tail droop, he seems drow-
sy, in two or three days his tongue
lolls out, he froths at the month, the
eyes are heavy, he runs along pant-
ing, and in two or three more days
dies. Any animal bitten should in-
stantly have the part cut eut, the
wound being allowed to bleed for a
short time.

Distemper is Tery contagious, usu-
ally commences with a cold, is fol-
lowed by fits or diarrhcea, great loss
of strength, and frequently death.
Treatment: first give emetics, and
then a large spoonful of salt dissolved
in water ; if liMseness comes on, give
chalk in powder mixed with water.
A blister on the head is used when
the animal is very stupid and liable
to fits. The food should be good.

Other diseases are treated like
those incident to sheep.

DOG'S-TAIL GRASS. Cynotu-
nu cristeXus. See Grastee.

DOG'S-TOOTH GRASS. Doub
grass. See Bermuda Grass.

DOGWOOD. Corrms Florida. A
small tree, remarkable for its flower-
like involucrum. It is found from
Massachusetts to Florida, usually on
the borders of woods. The bark is
medicinal and used as a febrifuge.
The heart wood, of a deep brown
colour, is hardy heavy, and compact.
Its chief use is for the cogs of wheels,
points of harrows, and similar purpo-
ses : the size is not sufiiciently large
for other objects.

DOL£RIT£. A trap rock, con-
sisting of augite and feldspar.

DOLOMITE. Magnesian marble,
or granular limestone containing
magnesia.

DOLPHIN. BLACK. The Aphis
of beans, eabbages, dec. See Black
Dolpkin.

DOOB, or DOUB GRASS. Cyno-
don dofityUm. A perennial, creeping
gnsB of great value, acclimated in

389

the Southern States, and of celebrity
among the Hindoos. It flowers in
August, but does not always perfect
seed. It is propagated from roots.
This is also called Bermuda or Brah-
ma grass. See Bermuda Grass.

DORSAL. Belonging to the back.

DOVE. See Pigeon.

DOVE-COTE. See Pigeon-house.

DOWNS. Elevated, open mead-
ows.

DRAGON FLY. The comnaou
name for Libellulas, Agrions^ and oth<
er neuropterous insects. They are
devourers of insects, and therefore
friends of the fanner.

DRAGON'S BLOOD. A blood-red
resin imported from India, uid uaed
to colour varnishes.

DRAINAGE. " As a certain quan-
tity of moisture is essential to vege-
tation, so an excess of it is highly
detrimental. In the removal of this
excess consists the art of draining.

«( Water may render land unproduc-
tive by covering it entirely or partial-
ly, forming Ukes or bogs ; or there
may be an excess of moisture dif-
fused through the soil and stagnating
in it, by which the fibres of the roote
of all plants which are not aquatio
are injured, if not destroyed.

" From these different causes of in-
fertility arise three different branches
of the art of draining, which require
to be separately noticed.

«< 1. To drain land which is flooded,
or rendered marshy by water coming
over it from a higher level, and hav-
ing no adequate outlet below.*

*<3. To drain land where springs
rise to the surface, and where there
are no natural channels for the water
to run off.

" 3. To drain land which is wet from
ita impervious nature, and where the
evaporation is not sufficient to carry
off all the water supplied by snow and
rain.

**The first branch includes aU those
extensive operations where large
tracts of land are reclaimed by means
of embankments, canals, sluices, and
mills to raise the water ; or where
deep cute or tunnels are made through
hills which formed a natural dam or

DRAINAGE.

barrier to the water. Saeh works
are generally undertaken by associa-
tions, few individuals being possess-
ed of sofEcient capital, or having the
power to oblige all whose interests
are aflfected by the draining of the
Land to give their consent and afford
assistance.

*'AI1 these operations require the
aeienee and experience of civil engi-
neers, and cannot be undertaken
without great means. The greater
part of the lowlands in the Nether-
lands, especially in the province of
Holland, have been reclaimed from
the sea, or the rivers which flowed
over tbem, by embanking and drain-
ing, and are only kept from floods by
a constant attention to the works
origjnaiiy erected.

" Where the land is below the level
of the sea at high water, and without
the smallest eminence, it requires a
constant removal of the water which
percolates through the banks or ac*
cumulates by rains; and this can
only be effected by sluices and mills.
The water is collected in numerous
ditches and canals, and led to the
points where it can most convenient-
ly be discharged over the banks. The
mills commonly erected for this pur-
pose are small wind-mills, which turn
a kind of perpetual screw made of
wood several feet in diameter, on a
solid axle. This screw fits a semi-
circular trough, which lies inclined at
an angle of about 90<> with the ho-
rizon. The lower part dips into the
water below, and by its revolution
discbarges the water into a reservoir
above. All the friction of pumps, and
the consequent wearing out of the
machinery, is thus avoided. If the
mills are properly constructed they re^
quire little attendance, and work night
and day whenever the wind blows.

'*In billy countries it sometimes
happens that water, which runs down
the slopes of the hills, collects in the
bottoms where there is no outlet, and
where the soil is impervious. In that
ease it may sometimes be laid dry by
eutting a sufficient channel all round,
to intercept the waters as they flow
iSown, and to carry them over or

through the lowest part of the sor-
rounding barrier. If there are no
very abundant springs in the bottom,
a few ditches and ponds will suffice
to dry the soil by evaporation from
their surface. We shall see that this
principle may be applied with great
advantage in many cases where the
water x^ould not be drained out of
considerable hollows if it were allow-
ed to run into them.

" When there are different levels at
which the water is pent up, the drain-
ing should always be begun at the
highest, because it may happen that
when this is laid dry the lower may
not have a great excess of water.
At all events, if the water is to be
raised by mechanical power, there is
a saving in raising it from the highest
level, instead of letting it run down
to the lower, from which it has to be
raised so much higher.

** In draining a great extent of land,
it is often necessary to widen and
deepen rivers, and alter their course ;
and not unfreqoently the water can-
not be let off without being carried,
by means of tunnels, under the bed
of some river, the level of which is
above that of the land. In more con-
fined operations, cast-iron pipes are
often a cheap and easy means of ef-
fecting this. They may be bent in a
curve, so as not to impede the course of
the river or the navigation of a canal.

** The draining of land tohich is ren-
dered wet by springs arising from under
the soil is a branch of more general
application. The principles on which
the operations are carried on apply
as well to a small field as to the great-
est extent of land. The object is to
find the readiest channels by which
the superfluous water may be car-
ried off; and for this purpose an accu-
rate knowledge of the strata through
which the springs rise is indispen-
sable. It would be useless labour
merely to let the water run into drains
after it had sprung through the soil
and appears at the surface, as igno-
rant men frequently attempt to do,
and thus carry it off after it has al-
ready soaked the soil. But the origin
of the springs must, if possible, be

238

DRAINAGE.

detected; and one single drain or
ditcfai judiciously disposed, may lay
a great extent of land dry if it cuts
off the springs before they run into
the soil Abundant springs which
flow continually generally proceed
from the outbreaking of some porous
stratum in which the waters were
confined) or through natural crevices
in rocks or impervious earth. A
knowledge of the geology of the coun-
try will greatly assist in tracing this,
and the springs may be cut off with
greater certainty. But it is not these |

main springs which give the greateei
trouble to an experienced drainer ; it
is the various land-springs, which are
sometimes branches of the fonner,
and often original and independent
springs arising from sudden varia-
tions in the nature of the sot! and sob-
soil. The annexed diagram, repre-
senting a section of an uneven sar-
face of land, win explain the natnre
of the strata which produce springs.
" Suppose. A A a porous gravel
through which the water fiHratee
readily ; B B a stratum of loam or

*Vtf4i.

clay impervious to water. The wa-
ter which comes through A A will
run along the sorfaoe of B B towards
S S, where it will spring to the sur-
face and form a lake or bog between
S and S. Suppose another gravelly
or pervious stratom under the last,
as G, G, G, bending as here represent-
ed, and filled with water running into
it trom a higher level ; it is evident
that this stratum will be saturated
with water up to the dotted line £, F,

F, which is the level of the point in
the lower rock, or impervious stratum,
J), D, where the water can run over
if. If the stratum B B has any crev-
ices in it below the dotted line, the
water will rise through these to the
surface, and form springs rising from
the bottom of the lake or bog ; and
if B B were bored through and a pipe
inserted rising up to the dotted line,
as c, o, the water would rise and stand
at 0. If there were no springs at
S S, the space below the dotted line
might still be filled with water rising
from stratum G, G, G. But if the bo-
ring took place at G, the water would
not rise, but, on the contrary, if there
were any on the surface, it would be
carried down to the porous stratom

G, G, G, and run off. Thus in one sit-
uation boring will bring water, and
in another it will take it off. This
principle being well onderetood will
greatly facilitate all drainings of

384

springs. Wherever water springs,
there must be a pervious and an ioA-
pervious stratum to cause it, and the
water either runs over the impervi-
ous surface or rises throuEh the crev-
ices in it. When the line of the
springs is found, as at S S, the obvi.
ous remedy is to cut a channel wi^
a sufficient declivity to take off the
water in a direction across this line,
and sunk through the porous soil at
the surface into the lower impervious
earth. The place for this channel is
where the porous soil is the shallow-
est above the breaking out, so as to
require the least depth of drain, but
the solid stratum must be reached,
or the draining will be imperfect
It is by attending to all these circum-
stances that Elkington acquired his
celebrity in draining, and that he has
been considered as the father of the
system. It is, however, of much
earlier invention, and is too obvious
not to have struck any one who seri-
ously considered the subject. In the
practical application of the principle,
great ingenuity and skill may be dis-
played, and the desired effect may be
produced more or less completely,
and at a greater or less expense.
The advice of a scientific and prac-
tical drainer is always weU worth the
cost at which it may be obtained.

*' When there is a great variation in
the sou, and it is difficult to find any

main hue otapTmga, it is best to pro
ceed experimental]]' by making pita :
few feel ilfiep. or by boriDg in »arioui
pons where water appears, obaerring
the level at which the water atanda
IB these pits nr bores, as well as Iha
luiare or the soil taken out. Thus
it will generally be easy to ascertain
whence the water artaes, and how it
may be tel oft. When there is a
mound of light soil otct a more im-
perrioDs atraium. the springs will
break out alt raund the edgie of the
mound ; a drain laid round the base
will take offatl the water which arises
Tram this cause, and the lower part
of the land will be effectually laid dry.
So, likewise, whpre there is a hollow
or depression of which the bottom is
clay, with sand in the upper part, a
dmin laid along the edge of the hol-
low, and carried round it, wilt prevent
the water running down into it and
forming a marsh at the bottom.

""WhenlhedrainBcannotbeoarried
to a sQfficient depth to take the water
out of the porous stratum saturated
with it, it is alien uaefiil to bore nu
merous boles wjib a proper auger n

(he bottom of the drain throngh the
stiller soil, and, according to the prin-
ciple eiplained in the diagratn, the
water will either.riae through those
bores into the drains and be carried
off, and the natural springs will be
dried up, or it will sink down through
them as at G, in the section, if it lies
above. This method is often advan-
tageous in the draining of peat bogs,
which generally lie on clay or stiff
loam, with a layer of gravel between
the loam and the peat, the whole ly-
ing in a basin or hollow, and ollen on
a declivity. The peat, though il ro-

Whe

four or live feel deep
much deeper, hulea are bored down
to the clay below, and the water is
pressed op through these boles, by
the weight of the whole body of peat,
into the drains, by which it is carried
off. The cuts, Figi. 3 and 3, repre-
sent a common case oflhis kind' k h
<3) a e the s des of a h 11 he swampy
lot be ow IS filled w th sp ngs «h ch
are however d a ned by nmn ng a

diteh (i, b) acrosa it and sinking holes

into the subsoil. One of these botes
is shown in Fig. S (a, j). and the man-
ner in which ii conveys the surface
water away. The bottom of the
vvaina is sometimes choked with
Io.he sand, which flows up with the
tra.t-r, and Ihey require to be cleared
repeatedly ; but this soon ceaaesafter
the first rush is past, and the water

rises slowly and regularly. The sur-
face of the peat being dried, dressed
with time, and nonsolidated with
earth and gravel, soon becomes pro-
ductive. If the soil, whatever be its
be drained to a certain

Icplh; i

:s of ni

may be lodged below it. It ia
only when It risea so as to stagnats
about the roots of plants that it ia

DRAINAQE.

hurtful. Land may be drained so
nauch as to be deteriorated, as expe-
rience has shown.

"When a single large and deep
drain will produce the desired effect,
it is much better than when there are
several smaller, as large drains are
more easily kept open, and last long-
er than smaller ; but this is only the
ease in tapping main springs^ for if
the water is diffused through the sur-
rounding soil, numerous small drains
are more effective: but as soon as
there is a sufficient body of water
collected, the smaller drains should
run into larger, and these into main
drains, which should all, as far as is
practicable, unite into one principal
outlet, by which means there will be
less chance of their being choked up.
When the water springs into a drain
from below, it is best to fill up that
part of the drain which lies above
the stones or other materials which
form the channel, with solid earth
well pressed in, and made impervious
to within a few inches of the bottom
of the furrows in ploughed land, or
the sod in pastures ; because the
water running along the surface is
apt to carry loose earth with it, and
choke the drains. When the water
comes in by the sides of the drains,
loose stones or gravel, or any porous
material, should be laid in them to the
line where the water comes in, and a
little above it, over which the earth
may be rammed in tight, so as to al-
low the horses to walk over the drain
without sinking in.

"It sometimes happens that the
water collected from springs, which
caused marshes and bogs below, by
being carried in new channels, may
be usefully employed in irrigating the
land which it rendered barren before ;
not only removing the cause of bar-
renness, but adding positive fertility.
In this case the lower ground must
have numerous drains in it, in order
that the water let on to irrigate it
may not stagnate upon it, but run off
after it has answered its purpose.

" The third branch in the art of drain-
ing is the removal of water from imper-
vious soil* which lie flat, or in hollows,
286

where the water from rain, bdow, or
dews, which cannot sink into the soil
on account of its impervious nature,
and which cannot bis carried off by
evaporation, runs along the surface
and stagnates in every depression.
This is by far the most expensive
operation, in consequence of the num-
ber of drains required to lay the sur-
face dry. It requires much sktU and
practice to lay out the drains so as
to produce the greatest effect at the
least expense. There is often a layer
of light earth immediately over a sub-
stratum of clay, and after continued
rains this soil becomes filled with
water, like a sponge, and no healthy
vegetation can take place. In this
case numerous drains must be made
in the subsoil, and over the draining
tiles or bushes, which may be laid at
the bottom of the drains, loose gravel
or broken stones must be laid to with-
in a foot of the surface, so that the
plough shall not reach them. The
water will gradually sink into these
drains and be carried off, and the
loose wet soil will become firm and
diy. In no case is the advantage of
draining more immediately apparent
The average depth is 30 inches.

** It is very seldom that a field is ab-
solutely level ; the first thing, there-
fore, to be ascertained is the greatest
inclination and its direction. For this
purpose, there is an instrument essen-
tial to a drainer, with which an accu-
rately horizontal line can be ascer-
tained, by means of a plummet, a
bricklayer's level, or a spirit level.
A sufiicient fall may thus be found or
artificially made in the drains to car-
ry off the water. The next object
is to arrange drains so that each
shall collect as much of the water in
the soil as possible. Large drains,
except as main drains, are inadmis-
sible. The depth should be such
only that the plough may not reach it,
if the land is arable, or the feet of
cattle tread it in, if it be in pastnre.
AH the drains which are to collect
the water should lie as nearly at
right angles to the inclination of the
surface as is consistent with a suffi-
cient fall in the drains to make them

DRAINAGE.

ran. One foot is sufficient fall for a
drain 300 feet in length, provided the
drains be not more than twenty feet
apart. The main drains, by being
laid obliquely across the fall of the
ground, will help to take off a part of
the BoHace water. It is evident that
the drains can seldom be in a straight
line unless the ground be perfectly
even. They should, however, never
have sudden turns, but be bent grad-
ually where the direction is changed.
The flatter the surface and the stifTer
the soil, the greater number of drains
ViU be required. It is a common
practice with drainers to run a main
drain directly down the slope, how-
ever rapid, and to carry smaller
drains into this alternately on the
right and left, which they call her-
ring-bone fashion. But this can only
he approved of where the ground is
nearly level, and where there is very
little fall for the main drain. A con-
siderable fall is to be avoided as much
as possible *, and every drain should
lie obliquely to the natural run of the
water. It generally happens that,
besides surface water, there are also
some land-springs arising from a va-
riation in the soil ; these should be
carefully ascertained, and the drains
should be so laid as to cut them off.
" In draining clay land, where there
is only a layer of a few inches of
looser soil over a solid clay, which
the plough never stirs, the drains
need not be deeper than two feet in
the solid day, nor wider than they
can be made without the sides falling
in. The common draining tile, which
is a flat tile bent in the form of half
a cylinder, and which can be made at
a very cheap rate, is the best for ex-
tensire surface draining. In solid
clay it requires no flat tile under it ;
it is merely an arch to carry the loose
stones or earth with which the drain
is filled Up. Loose round stones or
pebbles are the best where they can
be procured ; and in default of them,
bashes, heathy or straw may be laid.
In grass land the sod may be laid
over the drain, after it has been filled
up, so as to form a slight ridge over
it. This win soon sink to a level

with the surface. To save the ex*
pense of stone or tiles, drains are
frequently made six inches wide at
the bottom ; a narrow channel is cut
in the solid clay, two or three inches
wide and six deep (a), leaving a shoul-
der on each side to support a sod,
which is cut so as to fit the drain, and
rest on the shoulders (6) ; this sod
keeps the earth from filling the chan-
nel (see Fig. 4). It is filled up as de-

scribed before : such drains are made
at a small expense, and will last for
many years.

" Where the clay is not sufficiently
tenacious, the bottom of the drain is
sometimes cot with a sliarp angle,
and a twisted rope of straw is thrust
into it. This keeps the earth from
falling in, and the running of the wa-
ter keeps the channel open ; the straw,
not being exposed to the air, remains
a long time without decaying. It is
a common mistake to suppose that
in these drains water enters from
above ; it rises from below.

*' The best materials for large main
drains, where they can be procured,
are flat stones which readily split, and
of which a square or triangular chan-
nel is formed in the bottom of the
drain. If the drain is made merely
as a trunk to carry off the water, it
is best to fill it up with earth, well
pressed in, over the channel made by
the stones. A very useful draining
tile is used in Berkshire and other
places, which requires no flat tile un-
der it, even in loose soils, because it
has a flat foot to rest on, formed of
the two thick edges of the tile, which,
nearly meeting when the t^le is bent
round, form the foot. The section of
the tile is like a horseshoe. It is

237

DRAINAGE.

well adapted for drains where the wa-
ter springs noward^ and it is less apt
to slip out ofits place than the com-
mon tile.

"la draining fields it is usual to
make the outlets of the drains in the
ditch which bounds them. The few-
er outlets there are, the less chance
there is of their being choked : they
should fall into the ditch at two feet
from the bottom, and a wooden trunk,
or one of stone, should be laid so that
the water may be discharged without
carrying the soil from the side of the
ditch. If there is water in the ditch,
it should be kept below the mouth of
the drain. The outlets of all drains
should be repeatedly examined, to
keep them clear ; for wherever wa-
ter remains in a drain it will soon
derange or choke it. The drains
should be so arranged or turned that

the outlet shall meet the ditch at an
obtuse angle towards the lower patt
where the water runs to. A drain
brought at right angles into a ditch
must necessarily soon be choked by
the deposition of sand and earth at
its mouth. The channel or water-
way of drains is liable to the inroads
of rats, moles, and other yermin ;
they may be kept out by inserting'
occasionally a piece of perforated tin
plate, or wire grates.

" As the draining of wet clay soils
is the only means by which they can
be rendered profitable as arable land,
and the expense is great, various in-
struments and ploughs have been
contrived to dimmish manual labour
and expedite the work. Of these one
of the .simplest is the common mole
plough {Fig. 5), which, in very stiff
clay, msikes a small hollow drain, from

LambettV BCde Pkntgfa.

one foot to 18 inches below the sur-
face, by forcing a pointed iron cylin-
der horizontally through the ground.
It makes a cut through the clay, and
leaves a cylindrical channel, through
which the water which enters by the
slit is carried oflT. It requires great
power to draw it, and can only be used
when the clay is moist. In meadows
it is extremely useful, and there it
need not go more than a foot under
the sod. Five to ten acres of grass
land may easily be drained by it in a
day. It is very apt, however, to be
filled in dry weather by the soil fall-
ing in ; and moles often do much
damage to it by using it in their sub-
terraneous workings.

** But draining ploughs have been
invented which greatly accelerate the

233

operation of forming drains, by cut-
ting them out in a regular manner,
when they are immediately finished
with the usual tools and filled up.
See Draining Plough. It has done
wonders in some of the wet, stiffsoils
in Sussex, and is much to be recom-
mended in all wet and heavy clays.
In stony land it cannot well be used.
The subsoil plough, introduced to
public notice by Mr. Smith, ol Deans-
ton, may be considered, in some
measure, as a draining plough, for it
loosens the subsoil, so that a few
main drains are sufficient to carry
oflTall the superfluous moisture ; and
it has, besides, the eflfect of not carry-
ing offmore than what is superfluous.
By means of judicious drains and the
use of the subbuil plough the stifiest

'IJP-

DRA

and wettest land may in lime become
the moat fertile.

"The tools use4 in draining are
few and simple. Spades, with taper-
ing blades of different sizes, are re-
qmred to dig the drains of the proper
width and £he sides at a proper an-
gle. When the drain begins to be
▼eiy narrow near the bottom, scoops
• are used of different sizes, which are
fixed to handles at yarious angles,
more conveniently to clear the bot-
tom and lay it smooth to the exact
width of the tiles, if these are used ;
for the more firmly the tiles are kept
in their places by the solid sides of
the drain, the less likely they are to
be moTed.

^gs. 6, r, 8, represent three of the
most common tools. A heavy plough
is first run in the line of the drain and
back, unless it be desirable to retain
the sod, which mast be cut ofiT with
a spade. In the farrow so made a
liand enters with the spade a, which
is six inches wide at the top, four be-
low, and fourteen inches deep ; the
•pits of earth are thrown to the right,
the turf being on the left side. An-
other workman follows with i, which
is foor inches above and two or three
below, according to the intended size
of the channel of the drain. Lastly,
the scoop, c, is used to take out the
last portions of earth, and clear away
any rnbbish.

DRA

Fig.S.

^.6.

JV^-IT.

DRAINING PLOUGH. Several
massive ploughs have been construct-
ed for the purpose of opening the
greater part of the ditch at one stroke :
they are double mould-board ploughs.
Figs. 1 and S represent two views
of Gray's draining plough. In 1 the

Bide is figured, and 2 is taken from I front wheel, regulate the depth of the
•Dove. a«arewheel8which. withthe | furrow. A stout coulter, 6, is fixed

389

DR£

BRI

before the share to cut the way.
Perpendicularly on each side two
coulters, c, are fixed, which cut in an
inclined direction to form the sides
of the drain : they can be set for any
required inclination. The earth thus
cut is divided by the share* half being
forced up each side of the mould-
board as the plough advances. It
requires six to eight strong horses to
draw it.

DRASTIC (from cJpaortKOf, active).
Medicines which act violently.

DRENCH. In farriery, a large
drink or draught of any liquid reme-
dy given to an animal, usually by
means of a horn properly cat for the
purpose.

A drink is not so portable as a ball ;
it is more troublesome to give, and a
portion of it is usually wasted. Mr.
Stewart strenuously urges the follow-
ing propositions: 1. That draughts,
particularly when pungent or disa-
greeable, are dangerous. 3. That by
no oare can the danger be altogether
avoided.^ 3. That no draught should
be given 'unless the horse be in dan-
ger of dying without it. 4. That the
safest way of administering draughts

is to give them when the horse is ly-
ing. 5. That a draught is seldom ur
never absolutely necessary but in dis-
eases that make the horse lie. 6.
That a bottle is a better drenching
instrument than a horn.

DRESSING. In farriery, the ap-
plication of plasters, &c., to wounds.
The application of manure.

DRILL. A long« straight line, in
which seeds or plants are set. DriU
husbandry is the cultivation of crops
in drills mstead of broad^cast.

DRILL MACHINES. Contrivan-
ces for the purpose of running a drill
furrow, depositing seed therein, and
covering it with earth. They are
simple — making one furrow only, for
beans, pease, &c.-— or compound, ma-
king many drills, for wheat, turnips,
&c. The principal difficulty in the
action of drills is the inequality of the
soil. Sometimes a contrivance for
the deposite of manures is added to
the machine, which becomes a seed
and manure drill. Adjustments for
the width of furrows are also intro-
duced in the more complex imple-
ments

Fig, 1 represents the simplest drill

barrow, a is the hopper containing
seed ; the bottom is closed by a cyl-
inder, in which there are holes at
proper distances for one or more
seeds ; this is made to revolve by
a string or strap of leather passing

from the axis of the wheel to the
axis of the cylinder ; e is a coulter
which scrapes the furrow, and behind
it the seeds are deposited as the cyl-
inder turns round. Such a machine
has to be used upon land already pre-

Fig.t.

940

KULL UACHIHEa.

fuai, sqd ts ran aiMig tfae tninnA
of the furrowfl.

Fig. 2 is a much more importaat
■idgle Urill for beaiw, &c. It w fur-
nished with a circular couller. e; a
■mall doable-mould -board plough ; a
vheel, a, to regulate the depth of
furrow I and an arrangement of le-
vers, b, by which the Heed-cylindar is
thrown oat of gearing in a moment
by the woriunan, a« the barrow is
moTing over the butts, &e. The re-
Tolving ojliuder, in thu case, is mo-
ved by an liis furnished with a cog-
wheel, set in motiou by the wheel
itself. It is a veiy excellent ma-

ehiae, aad can be used to prepan

the sail, or on level ground, with««
previous idoughiug,

FigM. 3 and 4 represent views of
a turnip drill barrow, with a contri-
vance for fluid manure, water. 6ui,,
to be deposited at the time of sow-
ing. The seeds are contained in ■
cylindrical tin can, furnished with
bolea at proper distances, i; this i»
set in motion by the band ruaoing
from the wheel, and depoaitea tha
seed in a funnel, the front part of
which scrapes the drill ; a ts the rea-
of fluid, which discharges ita
'~ along the tube, it, immedi-

MULL MACilinES.

" It haa a nnniiT* hoijper, ■, and a
Med hopper, i, the same aa the otb-
bt; but tbe manure, in place of being
dropped along vitfa the oeed. i» de-
poaileil in a deep gutter made bj s
coulter, c, which foea berore ; this
mannre is eoTered by a pronged coal-
ter, d, which fotlona tbe other ; neit
cornea the coaller which fbnna the
gutter for the aeed, c. The aeed is
Una deposiMd about one inch above
the mannre. One roller or the con-
cave kind goea berore the machine,
and another light one of the common
kind foUowa after it; or, withoat at-

I taebed rollers, tiie drill may baaflzod
I tri one Bide of the common roller, be-
hiod, which roller may prepare om
drill and cover the aeed aown on «ii>
other each course."

The depoaite of seed in thia and
the best drill* la managed Igr a re-
volving alia, turned by a <x«-wbe^
which fits into a wheel on the axis

furrows, is shown in Fif. 7. TtM
following IS Loudon'a account of this

"It ia decided]; ths sknpleat and

beat of grain drilla. In this tDachioe
three hoppeta are included in one
box. the seed escaping out of all the
three by the revolutioa of three aeed
cylinders upon one axle ; ind dnlla
of different breadth* are produced
simply by the shifting of a nut, that
fizea a bct«w moving in a groove in
the under-fnuce, by which the dis-
tance between the two outside con-
ductors and the central one (which
is fixed) can be varied from nme to
ten or eleven inches ; and that (he
two small wheels may alwaya bo at
the same distances respectively aa
the conductors, there are two vrsMh-
ers (hollow cylinders), an inch in
breadth, on tbe axlB-arms of each,
which may be transferred either to
the outaide or inside of tbe wheels,
ao as to make their distancea fnun
(he outside conduclora nine, ten, or
deven inches respectively also. The
small wheela may be raised or de-
preased. ao aa to alter the depth at
which the seed shall be dcpoajled, by
the action of a wedge, which retains

the npright part of the axle in any

one of a number of notches, which
are made similarly in both, and wbioh
are caught by an iron plate on the
upper side of the arms which cari7
the axles. This machine ma; be sliU
farther improved bjr increasing the
number of conductors to five instead
of three, the latter number giving too
light work to the horses." — {BigUand
Soc. TriiM,, vol. vii.)

Cooke's grtin drill ia seen in Fig.

6. It ha* Men long employed wiitti

Fig.t.

mtlLL MACHINBl

mooBta in the light aoQs of Norfolk
anil Sufib1k« England. On the beam,
«, the coulters to prepare drilla are
arranaed, the whole being capaMe of
lateral motion, so as to compensate
for irregnlartties in the motion of the
horse. The arrangement by which
the grain is conyeyed from the hop-
per, by small cupe fixed on stems,
into the funnels, is also seen in the
eection. The ends of the funnels
which deliver seed are free to move
a few inches, so as to overcome ine-
qualities in the ground. This imple-
ment is abo arranged as a common
horse hoe, or scariiier, by taking off
the apparatus (or sowing.

The most inqwrtant machine of
this class is the lever driUt which is
calculated to sow at a uniform depth
in nneiren soils ; it is, however, ex-
pensive.

In the annexed figure (9) the box
for sowing manure is not added, as it
IB in the Northumberland drill. The
drill is supported on a frame and two
wheels. The box A, which holds the
seed, lets it down j^ndoally into a
lower part, in which the cylinder,
which has the small caps fixed to its
circumference, is turned by the wheel
D. By means of the lever O this
may be raised so that its teeth are
freed from those of the wheel £, and
the motion of the cylinder is stopped.
The coulters which make the drtils
are each fixed to a leyer, at one end
of which, B, a weight is fixed to press
the coulter into the ground. Eadi
coulter has a separate lerer, so that
it adapts itself to all the inequalities
of the soil A chain proceeds from
the end of each« and may be wound
round a cylinder, G, by turning the
handles fi^ to it at H, where thero
is also a racket-wheel to preyent its
unwinding. The intent of this is to
raise all the coulters out of the ground
when the drill is not intended to act,
or is moved from place to place.
When the drill is used, the box A is
fOled with seed, and the slide in it so
adjusted as to supply it reaularly;
the lever 6, which was fixed down,
a raised, and the wheel D connected
with the wheel E. As the horses

proceed the cylinder toma, the cops
take up the seed, and throw it into
the funnels, K K, which conduct it to
the driQ behind the coulter. A light
harrow or a buah-harrow follows,
which covers the seed. In very loose
soils the roller completes the opera-
tion.

Other forms and modifications of
this class of machines exist; thus, a
patent was taken out by Mr. Horosby
for a drill to sow at intervals instead
of along the whole line. In the Uni-
ted States, drills haye not been much
used ; Bement*§ is similar to the one
in Fig. 1, and is somewhat employ-
ed for beans. Messrs. Pennoca, of
Pennsylvania, have a patent for a
grain drill of considerable merit and
success.

From the negfect with which such
contrivances have been treated, some
may suppose that they are not of
much yalue ; this is by no means the
case, as the following summaxy by
Mr. Binns shows :

I. The seed is deliyered with reg-
ularity.

3. It is deposited at proper depths.

3. The weeds, during the growth
of plants, are destroyed with great
facility.

4. The plants onltiyated receive
the undiyided benefit of the soil and
manure, and have not to maintain a
constant struggle with weeds.

6. The land, by the process of hoe-
ing, is undergoing preparationa for
another crop.

6. The necessity of summer fallow-
ing is ayoided.

7. By admission of the sun and air
between the rows, a stronger and
healthier plant is produced, and of
course a heayier crop.

6. By stirring the soil it is more
susceptible of benefit from the atmo-
sphere, imbibing bore oxy^n, and
being both warmed and enriched by
the sun.

9. The roots shoot freely in pul-
yehzed soiL

10. By drilling, the farmer is en-
abled to haye heayier crops of beans
and wheat on light land.

II. Cloyer and grass seeds anawor

WILL iuoniia&

-DRY

tneomparably better in the polYerin-
tion produced by hoeing, independent
of the clearness from weeds.

13. The drills give facility for de-
positing smaller portions or manure
with greater eiSect.

A saving of half the seed is also
eflfected. But, on the other hand, the
expense of hoeing wheat, dco., very
much increases the price of cultiva-
tion ; although it is, according to the
evidence of practical men, repaid by
the large increase of crop.

The soils most benefited by this
operation are light, sandy, and calca-
reons ; on clays, the treading causes
too much stiffening.

Such crops as beans, pease, cot-
ton, turnips, carrots, and beets are
now most usually sown in drills with
the greatest advantage. Such rough
seeds as carrots require to be first
well rubbed with sand to remove the
spines.

DRILL ROLLER. A roUer fur-
nished with a number of sharp rings
projecting from the surface, which
cut the earth and leave driUs to sow
seeds in : it is only suitable on light
soils.

DROPSY. See Horse, &c.

DROSOM£T£R (from dpoaof, dew,
Bxid fierpcv, a meamre). An^ arrange-
ment for measuring or weighing the
quantity of dew falling at any given
time. Dr. Wells^s contrivance is the
simplest ; he exposed a known weight
of dry wool, and afterward weighing
it when saturated with dew, obtained
a measure of the increase of moist-
ure.

DRUPE. In botany, a one-celled,
one or two seeded, fleshy fruit ; as the
cherry, plum, peach.

DRY DISTILLATION. The same
as Destructive Distillation.

DRYING OIL. This usually
means Unseed oil which has been
boiled with white-lead. It forms the
basis of mauv paints.

DRY ROT. A rotting or decay of
wood, whereby it falls gradually into
powder. It is produced by the action
of numerous parasitical fungi, prob-
ably of the genus S^otrichum. It is
moat usually aeen m the new wood,
X%

DUC

and in damp situations, and may be
perfectly prevented by saturating the
timber with several metallic sokitions,
of which blue nitriol (sulphate of cop-
per), acetate of iron {j^yroUgnate), and
oorroeive sublimate are most certain.
Allowing wood to be immersed in a
cream of lime, in tar, &c., for some
weeks, or perfectly drying and slight-
ly charring the timber, is an easy ore*
ventlve. The roethods of preser*
vation by using metallic solutions are
termed Kyantztng, and are now ac-
complished with extensive machines,
for the purpose of expediting the pen*
etration of the fluid. In these cases
the albumen of the wood, which is
most liable to change, is disorgan-
ized and rendered nearly incorrupti-
ble. See Preseroation of Timber.

DRY STOVE. A hot-house, in
which the air is kept very dry for trop-
ical-plants derived from arid dimates,
as cactuses.

DUCK. Many species of the genus
Anas. The common duck is econom-
ical ; one drake serves eight females.
The house should be dean and pro-
vided with nests. They are very fond
of insects, and slugs, toads, du3. The
female lays from fifty to sixty eggs
during March to May; she sets a
month, and should be sparingly sup-
plied with moist food and kept away
firora disturbance. The you ag should
not be allowed to go to the water at
first, but supplied with a little in a
hole : the duck must be kept cooped.
The ducklings are first to be fed on
bread crumbs soaked in milk, and
subsequently used to meal and herbs.
The feathers are valuable, and should
be phicked as soon as the animal is
desd: September and October are the
best times. It is usual to hatch ducks'
eggs under hens, which are better
nurses. The Muscovy being larger,
is preferred to the common duck by
many, but is not as tender.

DUCTILITY. The property of be-
ing drawn or beaten into a fine film.
Gold, platinum, and silver are the
most ductile of metals.

DUCTS. The tubes or tubular
vessels found in the wood, roots,
leaves, dbc., of plants, which do not

DWA

contain a abre capable of nnroUiaf .
Tbey are marked with dots, bars, dtc.,
and are probably the channels in
whicVi 8pme part of the aacending aap

flOVB. , ,

DUMOSE (from dumu9, a bush).

Bushy.

DUNES. HiUocka of drift sand
fonnd on the seaooast of New-Eng-
land and elsewhere. They are very
destmctiye to agriculture, and are to
be arrested only by growing long-root-
ed reed grasses, trees, dec., on them.
Species of AruiuU> and Elymus have
thus been made to arrest their ad-
▼anoement towards cultivated lands.

DUNG. See Farm-yard Manure,
Nigh^scU.

DUODENUM. The intestine im-
mediately next to the stomach.

DURA MATER. The fibrous cov-
ering of the brain.

DURAMEN. The heart wood.

DURHAM C.\TTLE. See Cattle.

DWARF TREES. The art of cul-
tivating fruit-trees of moderate or
dwarf size in the place of large, nat-
ural standards is an important poiat
in horticulture. Dwarfs are procured
by grafting on slow-growing, small
varieties, as the apple or pear on the
luince stock ; by raising seedlings in
pots, and transplanting into poor, bar-
ren soils, or by causing a branch to
take root and allowing it to fruit as
early as possible. lapping off the
upright branches is the more common
method of hindering trees from grow-
ing too lofty. Fancy gardeners often
procure ornamental dwarfs of the or-
ange by grafting a cutting with dow-
er buds on a root and allowing it to
fruit. The Chinese are very curi-
ous in the cultivation of ornamental
dwarfs ; the following is the method
employed by them :

** The extremity of a branch, two
or three feet in length, in a fruit or
flower bearing state— for example,
the points of the branches of a fir-
tree bearing cones, or of an elm bear-
ing blossom buds — being iixed on, a
ring of bark is taken off at the point
where it is desired that the roots
should be produced. The space thus
laid bare is covered with a ball of

DYN . V

moist day, which is kept moist by
being covered with moss, which is
occasionally watered. In the course
of two or three months in some trees,
and of a year or two in others, roots
are protruded into the ball of clay.
The branch may then be cut off be-
low the part from whence the roots,
have been protruded, and the branch
being planted in a pot of poor soil,
and kept sparingly supplied with war-
ter, it will remain nearly in its pres-
ent state for many years, producing
leaves, and, perhaps, flowers, annual-
ly, but never shoots longer than a few
lines."

DYEING. See Cotton Dyeing, and
the different colours.

DYERS BROOM. See Wood
Waxen.

DYER'S WEED. Weld.

DYKE. A low earthen wall; an
embankment. In geology, a mass of
condensed mineral matter, such as
granite, porphyry, basalt, trap, &c.,
found intersecting strata, and evi-
dently produced by injection, in a
molten condition, through the strata.
They have been formp I during vio-
lent earthquakes, an<' are very im-
portant as fi»rming an impervious
barrier to the drainage of land, and
giving rise to springs on hillsides.

DYNAMICS (from 6vvatiic, power).
The science which examines the laws
and conditions of motion, in contra-
distinction to mechanics, which in-
vestigates the conditions of rest and
action of forces not producing mo-
tion.

DYNAMOMETER (from dwamc,
and fierpovt a measure). An instrument
for the purpose of measuring the
amount of strength or force exerted
in any draught, &c. In ascertaining
the draught for ploughs and other
agricultural implements, dynamome-
ters are now regularly introduced.
The commonest is Regnier's, consist-
ing of two semi-elliptical bars of steel
welded together at the ends, one of
which is affixed to the clevis of the
plough and the other to the hook of
the swinging trees. As draught is
made the springs are pulled closer
together^ and set an index in motioa

DYNAMOMETER.

over a clock face marked into poands
and bandreds. Leroy's joDplement
!■ ■ stroag tpriog enclosed ia a
box or ea«t iiuo, aod in trerj re-
spect Biniilar to Salter's spriag bal-

The objection urged agsinst Uiese
drnaiaoineteTe ia, that (be inequali-
ties of the soil produces so much vi-
btBtion in the iodex tbat do satiarao-
toTy measuies can be made. Tbe
following coQtriTance to obviate this
is the beel proposed :

" The unprovement consists in the
attachment of a sniall brass pump
filled with oil, the piston of which
baa one or two Bmall apertures. .

There being do outlet from Uie pon^

it is evideot that when aoj shock oo-
CUTS, caused bjr a stone, root, &0h
the oil ha*iDg to pass from one side
of the piscoo to the other, the sud-
denness is greatly diminished bj ibe
resistance, producing a correspoDd-
ing effect upon ttie pointer, which, as
tbesa shocks are rapid, tibraies near-
er the actual draught uf the Dtacbius,
which is the object in tiew, and not
the msasnreneal of any impediment,
but a mean result of tbe whole."

Fig. 1 represents an extempor«n»-
ouB dyoamomewr reeommeaded by
Mr. Cone, in the American Agricut

h f* tbe beam of the |4oa|h ; c,
common swinging trees ; h is an
ordinary steelyard hitched on to the
olevts and trees : the end of the yard
is fastened to a line which passes
fmrn the hook of a common spring
balance, d, the other end of which is
alsoattacbedtoanothcrlinetiedlothe
iefl handle of the plough. When the
horses pull, the steelyard lies in the
line of liraogbt, and therefore draws
upon the balance, the sliding rod of
which is pulled out tu en extent pro-
portionate to the draught.

For the purpose of making unifonn
implemcntB, Mr. Cone proposes that
the steelyard be construcled so that
1 lb. shsll equipoise 3S lbs. near the
point of suspension, as in Fig. S.
Adopting this, the measure of draught
ia readily made ; for if the spring is
drawn ont to ID lbs., we molti^y ij

the draught 330 lbs. ; the number of
lbs. indicated by the spring is always
added to the sum, for that weight
would be necessary at the beani end
to balance it. and must not be omit-
ted. Any Bloelyard answers; and W8
may fasten the line at any convenient
mark, taking care afterward to mul-
tiply the weight on the yard by tbat
on the spring, and ■dding as many
S47

EAR

lbs. as would be necessary to balance
the steelyard. Thre is, however, only
a coarse measare for the convenience
of the farmer, to enable him to ascer*
tain the draught of two diflbrent
ploughs, &JC.

DYSENTERY (from iJvc, difficulty,
and evrepOj bowels). A looseness of
the bowels, attended with great pain
and loss of strength, and endemic.
See Horse, Ox.

DYSPEPSIA (from cbf, difficulty,
and TreTT'ra, I digest). Disordered di-
gestion, loss of appetite, unnatural
appetite, 6lc. It is to be repaired by
simple diet, temperance, and exer-
cise

DYSPNCEA (from M, difficulty,
and irveu, / hreathe). Difficulty of
breathing : a symptom of disease of
the chest or heart.

EAR. In a horse, the ears should
be small, narrow, straight, and the
substance of them thin and delicate.
They should be placed on the very
top of the head ; and their points,
when pricked up, should l>c nearer
together than their roots. When a
horse carries his cars pointed for-
ward, he is said to have a bold or
brisk ear. In travelling, it is cqpsid-
ered an advantage when the horse
keeps them firm.

EARS OF GRAIN. The spike
of wheat, corn, barley.

EARTH. In chemistry, those me-
tallic oxides which are colourless,
nearly or quite insoluble in water,
the metallic basis of which is obtain-
ed only with difficulty, and rapidly
oxidizes, are termed earths. The
entire list includes but ten species :
lime, magnesia, baryta, strontia, alu-
mina, glucina, thorina, zirconia, yt-
tria, and silica ; but of these lime,
alumina, and silica form the bulk of
the soils and rocks of the globe.
Magnesia is also rather abundant,
but most of the remainder are very
rare bodies. With the exception of
silica, which is an acid, they are ba-
ses. See the earths separately.

EARTHS, PHYSICAL PROPER-
TIES OF. The power of absorbing
248

EAR

moisture and beat, of transmitting
fluids, and drying into dust or a hard
mass, are term^ the physical quali-
ties of soils, and contribute, in a great
measare, to their fertility. This sub-
ject has been well investigated hf
Mr. Schnbler.

Capacity for holding Water. — If
soils of ditferent kinds be wetted un-
til the fluid drops, it will be found
that

100 of dry sand retain 25 of water.
100 of calcareous sanil 29 * *
100 of loamy soil . . 40 **
100 of clay loam . . 50 '<
100 of strong day . 79 *'
100 of peat 100 and more

Good soils hold from forty to fifty

per cent, of water.
Absorbing Power. — Soils not only

bold water, but absorb it from the air

unequally. Thus, a quantity spread

out to the same extent,

Iba.
of sand, absorbed . 0 of water,
of calcareous sand . 3 **
sandy loam ... 21
strong clay ... 90
garden mould ... 35

In the same way, they retain moist-
ure very unequally, sand losing it
four times more rapidly than mould.

Absorption of Gases. — A well-tilled
soil is continually absorbing from the
air gaseous matter, and its fertility
is, in a considerable degree, connect-
ed with this property. According to
Mr. Schubler, mould absorbs eleven
times, and clay nine times as fast as
sand.

Absorption of Heat. -^Bl^ck, well-
tilled, and drained soils become more
rapidly heated, and to a greater de-
gree than such as are wet, of a light
colour, or baked. In the same way,
those that heat rapidly, cool rapidly,
and are more subject to frosts. By
experiments, mould cools in one third
the time, and clay in two thirds the
time of sand; so that, if tliey be
equally healed, the sand will be warm
for hours after the mould is cold.
Hence the latter absorbs dew and con-
tracts frost much more quickly than
sandy soils.

(•

Adhesiveness, or the ton^neas of
tends, is of moment in working. Mr.
Pusey meaj^ured the force necessary
to draw the same plough through dif-
ferent soils, and found it for a

peat soil .... 280 pounds,

sandy loam . . . 260

loamy sand . . . 230

clay loam . . . 400

strong elay . . . 661
When this is considerable in point
of expense, it appears that it requires
nearly three times as much money to
turn a clay as H does a sandy soil.

The physical qualities, when im-
perfect, can be modified. Sand, ve-
getable matter, charcoal, and lime,
are used to lighten soils ; day and
marls to stiffen those already too po-
rous. The character of any field de-
pends, in a great measure, upon the
subsoil ; for upon a very porous sub-
soil a stiff clay is good to retain a
large quantity of water, whereas very
light lands are greatly improved by
an impervious subsoil.

EARTH EATING. Horses and
oxen frequently eat a small amount
of earth. This, if persevered la, in-
dicates disordered digestjon. It is
supposed by Youatt that the earth
may serve as a gentle purge.

EARTH NUTS. Numerous bulbs
are edible, and hence are called earth
nuts. The principal is the Pindar^
which see.

. EARTH-WORM. Ijufiihicus ter-
restris. Earth-worms are, on the
whole, serviceable to soils, by loosen-
ing and perforating them, and are said
to injure plants and seeds but little.
They indicate rich soil Salt, applied
at the rate often bushels the acre, or
a heavy Uming, destroys thorn effeet-
ualiy for a season.

EARTHY MANURES. Marl.
Ihne, clay, and sand are so called.
They should rather be termed amend-
ments, since they serve to give the
soil new mechanical qualities.

EARWIG. Fwfiada auricuUtris,
A troublesome insect in Europe, but
rare in the United States.

EBULLITION. BoiUng. The
boiling point of different fluids is oft-
en of great importance. Water boils

Eue

at 318^ alcohol at l76o, sulphnrio
acid at 600°, Mercury at 662'^, lin-
seed oil at 640°, oil of turpentine at
316°, nitric acid at 248°, and ether
at 100°.

EDULCORATION. A chemioal
term, meaning the repeated washing
by pure water of precipitates or pow-
ders until they are freed from soluble
impurities.

EFFERVESCENCE. The dia-
turbance made in a fluid by the es-
cape of gas.

EFFLORESCENCE. Some salts,
like carbonate of soda or soda asb,
by exposure to air lose their trans-
parency, and become white, crum-
bling into powder. This is termed
efflorescence. The same expression
also designates the appearance of
crystals upon earthy, rocky, or other
mineral surfaces.

EGGS. The white is a solution ot
albumen with soda, and contains 85
per cent, of water ; tbe yellow con-
sists of 28-75 fat, 17-6 albumen, 55
salts, and the rest water. They are
eminently nutritive. Eggs are pre-
served by being packed, with the
small end downward, in salt; they
are also dipped into a cream of lime.
The box in which they are packed
should be turned upside down every
two or three weeks, to hinder the
yolks from settling. The duty on
eggs in England of two cents a dozen
may render their exportation profita-
ble; immense numbers are now sent
there from France. Eggs are read-
ily hatched by artificial heat, and a
machine called the " Eccaleobion"
has been exhibited for this purpose,
in which steam is used.

EGG PLANT. SoUmum fnOonge-
na, Tbe purple kind is used for culin-
ary purposes, and is mueh esteem-
ed by many persons : the white, bear-
ing a fruit very similar to a hen*s
egg, is ornamentaL The seed must
be sown in a hot-bed in March, and
the plants taken with a ball of earth,
and set out in warm weatl^er (April
or May), about two feet apart ; they
require a rich, warm s<m1, and bear,
in August and September, fruit often
I as large as a large muskmelon. The

848

ELA

ELI>

Irnit of the white 16 used ill France
as food. As they contain an acrid
principle, care is taken in the cooking
t6 remove it ; this is done by warm-
ing thin slices' in water, or allowing
it to steep in salt and water over
night, draining off the fluid, washing
well in fresh water, and then firing
in batter, &c. An ounce of good
seed yields 4000 plants. The ut-
most care is necessary to preserre
the young plants from being chilled
to death in the Northern States : it is
altogether a tender yegetable.

7%e <S. iN#am«m, or downy egg
plant, is occasionally eultiyated in the
United States.

EGYPTIAN CORN. Sorghum.
An annual resembling broom com,
but. producing a large, exposed ear,
with small, brown grains, condensed
together. It is to be planted and
managed like corn, but may be set
rather closer. The yield of grain is
from 75 to 100 bushels ; it is recom-
mended for poultry. The fodder ap-
pears to be inferior to that of Indian
com, and, excepting the yield, there
does not seem to be anything to in-
duce the cultivation.

ELAIN (from IAomv, oil). The
fluid oil existing in fats, dec., which
may be separated by pressure, by cold,
or by digesting in seven or eight times
its weight of boiling alcohol, which
acts upon the fat or tallow in such a
way that the elain floats above the
alcoholic solution, and the solid, or
stearin, sinks below when cold. See
PtUs.

ELASTICITY. The power cer-
tain bodies possess of returning back
to their original bulk or position when
bent or compressed. Gases are the
most elastic bodies known, fluids the
least, and metals differ exceedingly
in this respect.

Heating metals to a certain point
and suddenly cooling by immersion
in water imparts elasticity in some
cases ; steaming timbers also in-
creases the quality, for the time, in a
great measure.

*' The principal phenomena of elas-
tic bodies are the following : I. Thtti
an elastic body (the elasticity being
350

supposed perfect) exerts the same
force in endeavouring to restore it-
self as that with which it was com-
pressed or bent. 2. The force of
elastic bodies is exerted equally in
all directions, but the effect chiefly
takes place on the side on which the
resistance is the least. 3. When an
elastic solid body is made to vibrate
by a sudden stroke, Uie vibrations
are performed in equal times, to
whatever part of the body the stroke
may be communicated. Thus, sono-
rous bodies always emit sounds of
the same pitch; and the difference
of the piush depends on the greater or
less frequency of the vibrations of
the sonorous body. • 4. A body per-
fectly incompressible cannot be elas-
tic, therefore bodies perfectly solid
can have no elasticity ; and hence,
also, the small degree of elasticity
belonging to the liquids, which are em-
inently incompressible." — {Brande.)

ELATER (from eXartip, a Uaper).
A genus of spring beetles ; they are
vegetable feeders, the larve doing
occasionally much mischief to garden
plants by gnawing the roots. The
Elater nocHlueuM is our conunon fire-
fly, the E. lineatut the wire-worm in-
sect.

ELATERIUM. MomoriicA deU-
rium. Squirting cucumber. An in-
digenous annual vine, bearing a small
fruit like the cucumber, the juice of
which is a drastic purge.

ELBOW. The shoulder-joint of
cattle. A bend in carpentry.

ELDER. Two varieties are in-
digenous to the United States : Sam-
bucus Canadensuj the common pest
of hedge-rows and margins of ponds,
and S. pube^censt bearing a red berry,
common in the mountains of Penn-
sylvania. The black elder is of con*
siderable economical value ; the juice
of the berries, fermented with sugar,
forms an agreeable wine ; a decoction
of the fresh leaves is very obnoxious
to insects, and may be extensively
used in the garden ; it is also offen-
sive to moles. Sheep are said to se-
lect the leaves as a natural remedy
in rot. The plants, which grow from
eight to fifteen feet high, are recom-

mended as a dieap bed^e. On the

other hand, it is a great nuisance on
wet lands, from the rapidity of its
growth, bat may be destroyed by cut-
ting down two or thrc^ times during
the sammer» and grubbing in the fall.

ELDER, BOX. A common name
for the ash-leaved maple.

ELECAMPANE. Inula Helenivm,
A naturalized composite perennial,
yielding roots with a bitter, aromatic
taste. It is of little importance.

ELECTIVE AFFINITY. A chem-
ical term, meaning the preference ex-
erted by a body to combine with an-
other in place of one already in anion.
Thus, potash will unite with sulphu-
ric acid, although it be already com-
bined with iron ; the iron is separa-
ted, and gives place to the potash,
which is preferred or elected. It is
governed by electrical forces, like aJl
other cases of chemical union.

ELECTRICITY. A peculiar in-
Aaence or force, which is made evi-
dent by attracting light bodies, pro-
ducing a spark, or jarring the body of
animals. Some consider it material,
although its weight cannot be meas-
tired ; hence the term imponderable,
applied to electricity, light, and heat.

"This truly extraordinary power of
matter, independent of the interest
that atways belonged to it, has of
late years acquired much importance,
from its influence over chemical phe-
iKMnena and its connexion with those
of magnetism. When a clean glass
tube is nibbed with the dry hand, or
with a piece of silk, it attracts and re-
pels any light substances — such as
feathers, bran, or little pieces of pa-
per— which are brought near it; a
stick of sealing-wax rubbed upon dry
dannel exhibits the same appearan-
ces, and, to a superficial observer,
seems to be exactly in the same state
as the glass ; and they are said to be
electri<^ly excited. But, on more
close examination, it is found that
when the light bodies are altracUd by
excited glass, they are repelledbj exci-
ted sealing-wax, and vice versa, so that
the glass and wax are said to be in
cppotiu electric states ; and hence the
terms vitreous and resinous f or positive

£LE

and negative electricity. But these
two states are always coexistent ;
thus, when the glass is rubbed by silk
the glass becomes positive, but the
silk becomes negative; and in the
case of sealing-wax rubbed by flan-
nel, the wax is negative, but the flan-
nel is positiva

" A similar excitation of electrici-
ty is seen in an infinity of other ca-
ses ; as when we rub a cat*s back
with the hand, or a piece of silk rib-
and is drawn briskly between the fin-
gers, or a sheet of paper rubbed with
India rubber, or a metal rod with a
silk handkerchief These, and other
extraordinary phenon^pna connected
with them, are hypothetically refer-
red to the presence of a peculiar form
of matter, called the electric fiuid ; it
is supposed to appertain to all mat-
ter, but to become evident only when
in redundance or deficiency. When
glass is rubbed with silk, the equilib-
rium of the electric fluid is disturbed,
the silk imparts it to the glass ; and
hence the former, losing electricity,
becomes minus or negative, and the
latter, acquiring electricity, becomes
plus ox positive. This is commonly
called * Franklin's theory,' having
been proposed and defended by that
celebrated electrician. Others have
assumed the existence of tico fluids
as essential to the explanation of
electrical phenomena; both equally
subtile, elastic, and universally diflfu-
sed, and each highly repulsive as to
its own particles, and attractive of
those of the opposite kind. Electri-
cal quiescence is referred to the com-
bination of these fluids and their con-
sequent mutual neutralization ; and
electrical excitation is the conse-
quence of either being free or in ex-
cess. It is supposed that they are
separated by friction, and by all those
other causes which give rise to the
appearance of free electricity. Either
of these hypotheses may be adopted
as facilitating the explanation of elec-
trical phenomena, and as conferring
meaning on terms which would oth-
erwise be unintelligible : of the two.
the simplest, or that which refers the
phenomena to one fluid, is perhaps

251

ELEOTRICmr.

the most generally aptiHcaUe. Both
are, apparently, equally consistent
with facta ; but the existence of any
fluid, or fonn of matter, as the cauae
of electrical phenomena, is at best
extremely problematical.

** There are two series of distinct
I^enomena represented by electrified
bodies : the one seems to resolt from
the accumalation of electricity upon
the surface of bodies ; they are com-
monly included under the term eUeiri-
eiiy of tension^ and are well exhibited
by the common electrical machine
and its prime conductor. It affects,
all neighbouring bodies ; and they are
thrown by it itto a polar electrical
state, by what is termed iTtduetion :
it has a tendency to pass off in sparks
through the air, or gradually tu escape
from points. The thunder-storm fur-
nishes a magnificent specimen of this
state of electricity. The other state
of sensible electricity is that exhibit-
ed by electricity in motion; as when
a current of electricity is passing
through a wire or other conducting
medium : in this case a vast quantity
of electricity may be concern^ in the
phenomena without any apparent m-
Untity ; but while the current is con-
tinuous it produces magnetic phe-
nomena of a most extraordinary char-
acter ; and when the perfect conduct-
or is broken by the intervention of
certain other media, they suffer, in
some cases, chemical decomposition,
and in others become heated, and
even ignited. The phenomena of
electricity in motion are best exhib-
ited by the Voltaic apparatus.

"In all electrical experiments, re-
markable differences are observed in
respect to the transfer of the electric
fluid through different bodies : some,
such as the metals, allow its free and
nearly unimpeded passage through
their substance ; while others receive
and retain it more superficially, such
as glass, resin, and other substances
which exhibit attractive and repul-
sive powers when rubbed. Hence
the division of bodies into conductors
and non-conductors.

" Many most important electrical
phenomena depend, apparently, upon
253

indneUm, a enbjeet wbteli km taes

ably studied by Faraday. We shall
here enter into euch details only as
are required to render aome of the
principal terms employed in diecaaa-
ing electrical phenomena intelligible.
** If P + represent a metallic sphere
in a highly positive w c *
electric state, and N ® if'
P a metallic conduct'
or in its vicinity tii-
sulatcd upon a glass
stem, it will be found that the ex-
tremity N of N P ia negative, while
the other extremity, P, is paniive^
and that these opposite electricities
are greatest at the extremities of the
conductor, and gradually diminish to-
wards the centre line, C, which is
neutral. This extraordinary state of
excitation in N P is entirely depend*
ant upon the proximity of P -^ ; for
if P -f be withdrawn, N P loses all
appearance of electricity ; and the
degree of excitement in it is directly
proportional to the extent to whicti
F -|- ia excited, and (within oertaiA
limits) to its nearness to N ; so that
fluctuations in the electricity of N P
will be observed in proportion as P -f-
is brought towards or removed frooa
N, provided they are not brought into
coniMif and that no spark passes.
These phenomena have been theoret-
ically explained upon the suppositioa
that the free electricity in P -f' ^^
turbs the equilibrium of the natural
electricity of N P, and, by repelling H
from N to P, leaves the former mimtM
and the latter plus. Or, if we assume
the existence of two electric fluids,
then the free positive electricity of
P -f- repels the positive fluid of N P,
and attracts its negative fluid, throw-
ing it into an electro-polar state. If
N P, instead of being insulated, be
connected by its extremity, P, with
the ground, the accumulation at P
is prevented, while N retains its de-
ficient or negative state ; or, upon the
other theory, the positive fluid at P is
neutralized by a supply of negative
fluid from the earth; and if, after
having effected this by momentarily
touching N P with the finger, we sud-
denly remove P -f-t ^he insulated oon-

ELECnUCITT.

doeter, N P, iriH b« left vtlh an ex- 1
cess ofnegatrvB eleelripily.

" It wiJI bo ubTjuuH, (torn the above
etatemeni, Itial when light bodlei, ei-
peoially if they be conductor, are a^
tracted by electrified BurfacBB in their
Ticinily. Ihey are thrown by irdoc-
tton ipto oi^Knite electrical states ;
and when the hand is brought near
the eicited conduct wrof the eleotrica]
machine, it becomes negaliTe, and
reiDuns so until the equilibiiam Is
restored by the passage of a spark ;
which phenomenon ia supposed to be
the result of the combination of the
two electric fluide.

"Many important phenomena of

I electrical accumulation are
explained by reference to the
principles of induction, and
among thpni the action of the
Ltydem jar, or rial. A Ihin
glasa jar,orholtle, A, is coat-
ed inside and out, to within
three or four inches of its mouth, with
»ome coodncting substance 1 tinfoil,
being especially convenient for the
purpose, is generally used ; and a
metallic rod, projecting a few inches
fnim the aperture, and surmounted
byabrassball, fl, eooimunicaleswith
the interior coating.

"When the hall is applied to the
prime conductor of the electrical ma-
chine, and the outer coating commu-
nicates with the ground, the interior
Boqoircs a positive and the exterior
a negative charge -, and on making a

ductor between the inner and outer
coatings, the electricities are annihi-
lated with the prodaclkin of ■ bright
■park and expioHion, and by a most
disagreeable aensatinn, called the
eUaHc ahock, i[ the body be made
part of the eiraiit. When aeveral
jars are so arranged that their inte-
rior aad exterior coalings are all sep-
arately connected, the assemblage
conslilntes the elettrical battery.

"Id the common dictrieal maehintt,
electricity is excited by the fritiim of
tbeplaleorcylinderof glass apon the
ousbionB or rubbers ; and the glass
beoomea positive, and commnnicatea
tbe same atate to the opposed con-

daeUir, geneiallir termed the jmrn*

rnnriiif(or ciCthp machine ; the rubber

connected with a secund conductor.
annexed ligure

is by the mill-

glass cylinder,
which is made
to revolve upon its a'
tipiying wheels, F C, the'i
friction for the electric excitation be-
ing produced by the cushion and silk
Hap. D. .\ A are the positive and
negative conductors : thelalter.bear-
ing the cushion, is adjusted as to its
requisite pressure upon the cylinder
by the screw at E. The conductors
are respectively supported and insu-
lated by the glass pillars O G, which
should be coated with lac varnish;
and the axis of the cylinder rests upon
the pillars H H, which are also of
glass. The second figure represents
the plau machine, usually termed
Cuthbertson's machine, in which A
is the prime con-
due tor, borne by
a stout glass stem
which is attached
to the Crameof the
machine. B B are
the upper and low-
er pairs of cush-
ions, by which, to-
gether with the
silk flaps, CC, the
necessary friction

is obtained. E is the disk of plate
glass, which is made to revolve upon
its axis by the winch P. In this ma-
chine, as the cushions or rubbers are
not insulated, the negative electrici-
ty cannot be separately accumulated
or exhibited, aa in the cylinder ma-

" There are many other aiidhighl7
Important causes of eiectrio excit»-
tion than thoM above adverted to;

£LE

yj.Tg

Boeh as oontaot of ditftrent metals.'*

See Galvanism. — {BrawWs Diet.)

ELECTRICITY APPLIED TO
AGRICULTURE. Much interest has
been taken of late in the application
of this agent to forwarding garden
vegetables, and indeed field crops.
Two plans are pursued. Wires are

Wire.

supported upon a trelKs nnmlag north

and south, at a height of four or six
feet ; at the ends of each trellis they
are bent down to the ground and
about three inches below it, and are
oonveyed at this depth through the
soil, from one to the other end, so that
the wire forms a parallelogram, thus :

Wire.

A number of these, at diatauces of
two to four feet, are arranged through
the field, and the grain or plants sown
on the soil or in drills. It is stated
on good authority that rye, <iats,
wheat, d&c., so treated are singularly
developed and advanced in maturity :
it may be worthy of trial In this
case the atmospheric electricity is
supposed to act.

The second plan is a galvanic ar-
rangement, but may be best intro-
duced here. I^rge plates of sheet
copper and zinc are used, the size
depending upon the distance at which
they are placed : 18 inches deep and
three feet long may be used at a dis-
tance of 50 feet ; these are sunk into
the soil vertically, excepting three

Sorfaott of tbo Mjth«

inches of the top, which is left ex-
posed ; from one to the other pass-
es a stout copper wire, which is
well soldered to both and sustained
by a few sticks or a trellis. Such an
arrangement may be made to enclose
four or five drills of potatoes, carrots,
parsnips, 6lc. The fluid of the earth»
acting on the zinc, produces a corro-
sion, which gives rise to the galvanic
or electric current that traverses the
soil, and is said to cause plants to
grow very rapidly. This experiment,
tried with potatoes by Mr. Ross on
Long Island, was very successful, in
his opinion ; it is so manageable and
cheap as to be worthy of considera*
tion to market gardeners. The whole
will appear thus :

Wire tupportod hj vtieltB ftboT» th« aoil.

•«• •«fl%MB«^i»« ••••••* •—#■•■•» a********^

Sarfme« of the toiL

Zino plate.

ELECTRODE (from iyA«ifTpov, and
660C1 o vay). The surfaces by which
electricity passes into and out of oth-
er media have been called by Mr.
Faraday electrode*. The term has
also sometimes been derived from
tf^^KTpov^ amber^ and etSoc, like^ and
applied to substances which, like am-
ber, become electric by friction.

ELECTRO-DYNAMICS (from
ifXexTpoVt and ^wofUCt pavfer). The
phenomena of electxicity in motion.

Copper plate.

ELECTROLYTE (from vXtKrpov^
and Xv6i, I set free). Substances sus-
ceptible of direct decomposition by
the action of the electric current:
hence, also, the verb eUctrolyze, t. c.,
to. resolve compounds into their ele-
ments by the agency of electricity.
Faraday has shown that in many
supposed cases of electrolysis tho
evolution of elements is the conse-
quence of a secondary action ; the
sulphur, for instance, which is thuQ

BLB

ELE

etoTred ' at the negathre pole firom
solphnric acid, is the result of the er-
olntion of hydrogen at that pole. In
ail cases of true electrolytic action,
sulphur appears at the anode.

ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. When
a current of electricity is traTersing
any subetance, or when electricity is
m motion, magnetism is at the same
thne developed. This fact was first
obserred by Professor Oersted of Co-
penhagen, and has become the source
of an important series of disooyeries
included under the above term. The
excitation of magnetism depends
upon quantity of electricity, and is
best observed in the wire which clo-
sea the voltaic circle, especially of
one or more pairs of large plates. If
a magnetic needle be brought near a
wire through which an electric cur-
rent is passing, it will immediately
deviate from its usual position, and
assume a new one, dependant npon
the relative position of the needle and
the wire. On placing the electric
wire ahoee and paraHel to the mag-
net, the pole next the negative end
of the battery'always moves to the
^est ; and when the wire ia placed
under the needle, the same pole turns
to the east. When the electric wire
is on the same horizontal plane with
the needle, no declination takes place ;
hot the magnet shows a disposition
to move in a vertical direction, the
pole next the negative side of the
battery being depressed when the wire
is to the west of it, and elevated when
it is to the east.

The magnetic phenomena of a wire
transmitting electricity are snoh as
appear to depend upon the circular
tion of magnetism at right angles to

the electric cor-
-r=r|p rent, so that if N

P represent the
wire transmitting a cnrrent of elec-
tricity in the direction of the hori-
sontal darts, a current of magnetism
will be established in the direction
of the vertical dart, appearing to
aove round the axis of the electric
oQrrent ; hence the term vertigimm»
or rotary magnetism, applied to these
phenomena; and hence the motioa

of the pole of the magnet nmnd tlw
electric wire, or of the electric wire
round the pole of the magnet, when
they respectively are so arranged as
to be able to move fteely in any di-
rection. If a steel needle be placed
in contact with the electric wire, and
parallel to it, it acquires opposito
magnetisms upon its two sides ; bnt
if it be i^aced at right angles to the
connecting wire, it becomes polar,
and permanently magnetic. If the

electric wire be .1.

twisted into a a fbfVnt^^^
spiral, and the ^'^^^t^^^B&l^
steel needle pla* i^yps^^??^-^

ced within it (as in the cut), it is
retained there, and becomes a more
powerful magnet in consequence of
the repetitions and direction of the
electric and magnetic currents, as
will be evident from the annexed fig-
ure, where a represents a glass tube
with the wire n p conveying the elec-
tric current twisted nnmd it, the darts
at the ends of which show tbe ingress
and egress of the electricity, and the
transverse darts the direction of the
magnetic current. If the cprlinder
round which the wire conveying the
eleetric cnrrent is twisted be of steel,
it becomes a permanent magnet; if of
pore soft iron, it biicomes a temporary
magnet, so long as the electric current
is in motion, and 9 and n are
powerfully opposed poles. If
the bar be bent, as in the an-
nexed cut, a powerful horse-
shoe magnet is obtained
when the ends,^ n, of the
copper wire twisted round
it are connected with the voltaic cir**
de ; and a single pair of i^tes is suf-
ficient for the puipose.

ELECTROMETER (from nXen'
rpovf and fterpov, s fneawre). An in-
strument for ascertaining the prea-

enoe and intensity of electric excita-
tion. The simplest form of electrom-

36&

ELB

ElM

eter consists of two rery small pith
bsUs suspended from a small con-
ductor by very fine wire or thread ;
upon the principle that bodies simi-
larly electrified repel each other, these
diverge upon the reception of very
minute quantities of dectricity. Two
thin sU|)s of gold leaf are also simi-
larly applied ; and, to prevent the in-
fluence of the agitation of the air upon
them, they are suspended in any con-
Tcnient way under a glass shade.
The other forms of electrometers
generally act upon the same princi-
ple, being respectively adjusted to
the varying degrees of quantity and
intensity.

ELECTROPHORUS (from n^^-
rpov, and frpu, I carry). This instra-
ment consists of a flat, smooth cake
of resin. A, which is rendered nega-
tively electrical by friction ; a plate
of brass with a glass handle is then
placed upon it, and be-
comes electropolar by in-
duction. The brass plate,
having been touched by
the finger while lying
upon the resin, is afterward lifted on
by its glass handle, and gives a spark
of positive electricity. The same
operation may be indefinitely repeat*
ed. This instrument is sometimes a
convenient substitute for the electri-
cal machine, and is elegantly applied
to inflame a jet of hydrogen gas in
VoUa*s inflanmuhU air lamp.

ELECTROPOLAR. A tenn ap-
plied to conductors, one end or sur-
face of which is positive, and the oth-
er negative : a state which they com-
monly exhibit when under the influ-
ence of induction.

ELECTROSCOPE (from i;A««rpov,
and ffKoxeUf J tee). An instrument
for rendering electrical excitation ap-
parent by its efl'ects. The gold leaf
electrometer and other similar ar-
rangements are eUetrotcopes.

ELECTUARY. Any medicine of
a thick or solid consistence, made up
with sugar.

ELEMENTS. In chemistry, bod-
ies which have never been decompo-
sed or resolved into Uieir components
by means we possess. Hydrogen,

oxygen, snlphur, nitrogen, phospHo-
rus, chlorine, and the metals are the
commonest elements. There are 64
already known.

ELEVATION. In architecture,
the representation of the vertical view
of any bnilding, dec.

ELLAGIC ACID. The insoluble
gray powder which subsides from an
infusion of galls ; it is isomeric with
gallic acid. Or Ha Os-^Piiattxe.)

ELM. Ulmut. The principal spe-
cies are, the AmericanOf white ; and
fidoa, slippery ; the Thomas, U.raeo'
flnoM ; river, ntmoralia, and Whahoo,
alata, are also indigenous. Mr. Nutt-
al mentions a species resembling
the snb-evergreen Chinenti$, found on
the Red River. The Chinese is aa
ornamental tree, to be had at the nur-
series.

The t^kiie eUn is found from Nova
Scotia to (jleorgia, delighting in rich,
wet lands ; in perfection, it reaches
100 feet, with a stem of 4i feet diam-
eter. The bark is gray and deeply
furrowed. The tree is of great beau-
ty and stateliness, the heart wood
dark brown, and ornamental, but so
brittle as to be of inferior value. It
is used improperly for naves, and oc«
casionally in Maine for keels. The
bark, soaJced in water and pounded,
furnishes bass for the bottoms of
chairs.

The sUppavt red, or moose elm is
commonly ditthsed, prefers a rich but
dry soil ; it may attain 60 feet, by 18
or 20 inches in diameter. The wood
is of a dull red, and consists in a
great measure of heart : it is coarse,
and splits, but is highly esteemed for
blocks, railings, and building purpo-
ses, as it stands moisture tolerably
well. The bark is brown, and, boiled
in water, yields a mucilaginous solu-
tion used in medicine and as a drink.
It resembles the European Dutch elm,
but neither this nor the preceding pos-
sess the admirable qualities of the V.
campeairis of Europe.

The Whahoo is smaller, and a
Southern tree ; the wood is deep
chocolate, fine, hard, and durable : it
is esteemed for naves. It is remark-
able, as well as the Thomas elm, for

£MB

EMB

a eorky exemcence on the bark.
Many of Una genua are highly oma-
me&tal, aa the white, campesiritj men-
Utna, maer^pkyUa^ graeiUSf egusu, and

EXUTRIATION. The separation
of sabstancea by waahing them in
laige qoantities of water, so that the
beamier fmrtteleB fall to the bottom,
and tbo lighter ones, remaining some
thae 8i»p^ed, are gradually depoa-
ited in a finely-divided stale.

ELYMUS. The genos of lyme
grasses. They are perennial, large
aad eoaiae, mostly water or seashore
plants. The «S. «7«fiarttt# is of ser-
Tioe in binding together- loose sea-
ahore sands» and resisting the en-
croaehraeots of the sea. The aalt-
maiah grasses are frequentiy of this
geaniis.

ELYTRUM (tiom eXorpoPt a
skeath). The outer hard wings of
beetles.

EMACIATION. The act of be-
coming lean. It is a symptom of
diseased intestines or stomach, and
should be attended to at once when
set in ; but a sudden change of food
from that which is oily to starchy is
attended with considerable falling off.

EMAROINATE. In botany, notch-
ed, having a sharp indentation on the
leaf, dec.

EMASCULATE. To castrate.

EMBANKMENT. '< It ia often
neeeasary to raise mounds or dikes
along the course of riven, to keep
them within their channels, and pre-
vent their flooding the lands which

lie near them, when the waters nae
abore their usual level. Those allu-
vial lands which lie near the months
of rivers, and are below the line of
high water, cannot be cultivated to
advantage unless they are secured
from inundation by proper embank-
ments ; and as these alio vial depos-
itee are generally vety fertile, it am*
ply repays the expense of construct-
ing dikes and keepmg them in repair
The whole of the provinces of Hoi
land and Zealand, and several other
districts in the Low Countries, could
not be inhabited if the sea were not
kept out by strong embankments;
and the destmotion of a dike fre-
quently desolates great tracts of coon-
try. The art of constructing dikes,
and of keeping them in repair, is
therefore one of the greatest impor-
tance to the proprietors of low lands
situated as above described.

" The first thing to be attended to in
fonning embanlunenta is to eniEible
them to resist the pressure of the
highest floods which are likely to oc-
cur, and to prevent the eflbct of the
waves and currents in washing them
away. When it is the simple press-
ure of a column of water which is to
be withstood, a simple earthen bank
made of the soil immediately at band,
provided it be not of a porous natttre,
is suflicient. Its form shoold be a
very broad base, with sloping sides
and with a flat top, which may serve
as a path, or even a carriage-road, if
the bank be of considerable dimen-
sions. The side towards the water

should slope more gradually than to-
wards the land, where it may form
an angle of 45^ with the horizon. A
ditch is usually dug along the inside
of the bank, and sometimes on both
sides, when the dike is at some dis-
tance from the usual channel of the
water, and is only a precaution against
unusual floods. The inner ditch col-
lects the water which is produced by

Y«

rains or may find its way by filtration
through the bank or the soil.

*' To raise these simple dikes, no-
thing is requisite but to carry the
earth fVom below, and consolidate it
by treading or ramming it in a moist
state, that no interstices be left. But
where a considerable river winds
through an ewnsive plain, and is
apt to change its bed by the wearing

267

EMBANKMENT.

away of the banks in some places
and the deposition of mud in others,
more skill and more expensiye works
are required to keep it within its
banks and to prevent the effects of a
rapid current in destroying them. In
this esse strong piles are driven deep
into the ground, and, instead of earth-
en dikes, stone walls are opposed to
the force of the water.

" The embanking of a considerable
river oAen requires the course of the
stream to be changed, and instead of
the winding course which rivers nat-
urally take through plains, straight
channels are artificially made for
them. At first sight it would seem
that a straight channel is the natural
course of a stream ; but this is far
from being the case : a straig;ht course
can never be maintained witbont ar-
tificial means ; water never flows in
straight lines, but always in curves.
The slightest inequality in the bottom
or sides partially obstrncts its course,
and produces a circular motion in the
water ; and this, acting on soft banks,
soon hollows them out, which, in-
creasing the eddies, accelerates the
change in the current. When a river
is turned into a new channel, the
banks must be strengthened with
piles of masonry, and the foundations
of the works must be laid below the
gravel or stones which may have ac-
cumulated, that they may not be un-
dermined by the percolation of the
water.

" When the dikes are only intended
to check the waters at the time when
they flow over their natural banks, it
is best to raise them at some distance
from the river on each side, and par-
allel to its course ; because, in sud-
den floods, the water, having a great-
er space to flow through, will not rise
so high, and will sooner recede. The
natural banks must be carefully at-
tended to in this case, that they may
remain nearly the same, without be-
ing subjected to that continual change
which we have noticed before. Those
who have long attended to these
changes and their immediate causes
will find no difliculty i^hecking them
in the outset by very easy and simple
2&A

I means. Whenever a bank begins to
be undermined, a few piles driven ia
judiciously, and some stones thrown
into the river above the place where
its banks begin to wear away, will
cause a change in the current, and
throw it over to the opposite side.
Indeed, if this is done injudiciously^
the banks opposite will begin to wear
away ; but by continued attentioa,
and prevention rather than oonrec-
tion, any river having a moderate cur-
rent may be kept within its proper
bed.

" It sometimes happens that rivers»
near their mouths, form shallow es-
tuaries, and oocopy much ground
which might be usefully employed.
In this case an entirely new ouUec
may sometimes be made, tbrougli
which the river may at once dis-
charge itself into the sea ; and th6
whole course will probably be soon
filled up by the deposition of soil and
mud brought in by the tides ; for it is
the current which clears the channel*
and when this is taken away the chan-
nel soon fills up. In the course of a
short time the old mouth of the river
will be so filled up as scarcely to ad-
mit the tide; and an embankment
across it may lay a large fiertile tract
of land quite dry.

"Where embankments are made
against the sea, greater skill is re-
quired to resist the force of the waves.
If there are materials at hand to lay
a bank of stones imbedded in clay»
with a broad base, and the sides slo-
ping very gradually upward, a very
safe barrier may be opposed to the
waters. It is not the direct impulse
which is the most destructive : waves
striking against a sloping surface lose
their force and rise over it ; but it ia
in returning that they draw the ma-
terials with them, and scoop out the
foundations. If the stones are well
joined together, the retiring wave will
have no eflect in loosening them ; but
if any one of them can be singly re-
moved from its place, they will soon
disappear one after another, till a
breach is made ; after which a single
storm may destroy the whole embank-
ment. In various places the ingena-

EMBANKMEP«T.

ity of scientific men has been ezer-
emed to iDTeni variout modes or re-
•inini the furae of the sea. In some
ezposod poiiitB piara of M>lid oak hBTe
been nault. wbieh oppoae a aukooth
aarfase obliqneJjr to the foics of the
iraTes ; In otben, rows of pilea have
been driven in, ronBing tinea at right
or oblique angloa to the line of the
ahore, inorderto interoept the wavM
and break theii force before they
reach the bank. In a idaoe where
the roonded atooea called ibiaglea
were nsDally tbrown op t^ ibe warea,
and the bcHtom was a strong clay,
their retreat has been intercepted b;
Towi of atrong pilea driren in a line
akng and panllet to the shore, and
covered wiih boards nailed to ttieni
on the land side. By this idbsds the
sea has been made t« provide the
mtteriala of the embankment, and to
lay them down. In one night the
ehtngles have been thrown over tiie
pilea. and, being retained by the board'
ing, have rormed a perfect wall. A
secoad row of pilea between the first
and the eea, and a third if required.
forma a «ea-waU which might delV
anyatoram. We mention tbia as an
ezvBple of the advantage which may
be t^en sf particular oircmnati
by which a great expense may
time* be saved. In ultier sif
where the shingle is not tbi
and the wall is not so imntediately
exposed tu tbe actioa of (he waves,
an excellent facing of Lbe wall is made
by several rows of pilea from five to
^teeo feet long, driven along tbe aide
of the earthen bank in the form of
•t«p»naingaboM each other. These

piles are driven very close toother,
and the distance between the rows is
about two feet. This interval is mied
with stones, and bushes are pinned
down over them by meaaa of wooden
pins dri Ten horisoD tally through holes
made in tbe pilea. This conirivanoe
effectually preven ta the washing away
of the bank.

" Where the land lies very Sat for a
oeosideiable distsnce from tbe ehoret
it is of advantage to have two com-
plete banka, one within the other, eo
that if tbe outer bonk is broken
throng, the second will keep baek
tbe watera, until the first can be re-
paired. The ground between the two
lines of baoka is usaatly lelt in pas-
ture. In this case the damage dona
by ao inundation of sa1^watBr will
not be so great as if the land were
arable ; and unlesa it remain flooded
for a considerable time, the herbago
suffers little, ifanylhiag. froni it.

" The water which accumalates
within the banks and isooltecied in the
internal ditch and these which divide
the marshes must be let off occasion-
ally by means of channels and sluicea
at tbe time when tbe tide is out, and
the water outside the bank is lower
than that which ia within it. In small
embankments a wooden trunk or pips
may be laid through the bank, with
a valve opening outward, by which
mesas the snperflnous water may flow
out, and none flow hack. It is us»-
ful to carry this trunk a coosiderabla
way outside the bank, if it empties
itself immediately into the ses. in ot<
der that it may not he oboked up with
nandnrshingtw Caat-imo pipes am

EMB

conveniently used for this purpose,
and they may be carried out so far
as to empty themselves below low-
water mark. . But when the embank-
ment is very extensive, and there are
streams flowing through the part
which is embanked, larger flood-gates
and more extensive works are neces-
sary. These being opened and shut
as occasion may require, serve to
keep the channel clear, by producing
occasionally a Considerable rush of
water to carry away mud and sand,
which would otherwise have accu-
mulated at the month of it. When
the level of the land which is embank-
ed is below the usual level of the wa*
ters which are without, the water is
raised by means of engines over the
banks, as is the case in the fens.

*' In the forming of the banks, where
the soil may not be quite impervious
to water, it is useful to begin by dig-
ging a ditch in the line of the intend-
ed bank, of such a depth as to reach
an impervious subsoil. This ditch is
to be filled up with clay or tempered
earth, and as the bank is raised, the
middle of the bank should be com-
posed of the same materials, which
will thus form a vertical wall, A B, up
to the top ; and the more porous earth
being heaped up against the sides of
this wall will form the slopes of the
bank ; thus the whole will be perfect-
ly impenetrable to the water. The
clay should be well trod in with the

feet in a moist state, and no pieces
of wood, or even straw, should be in
it, for a straw may be the cause of
the water finding a passage through
a bank, and this passage gradually
widening will soon produce a hole,
which may in the end cause the de-
struction of the bank. Moles and
worms are great enemies to dikes.

EMU

In Holland the storks are held in
great veneration, and are never mo-
lested, because they are supposed to
destroy a species of worm which oft-
en does great mischief to the dikes by
perforating them."— < W, L. jRAom.)

EMBROCATION (from tfiSpexa, I
moisten). A spirituous, saponaceous,
or oily application rubbed on the skin
to relieve pain or nimibness.

EMBRYO (from efxSpvw, I hid
forth). The growing point, eye, or
chit of a seed. The young of ani-
mals in the act of development, or
foetus.

£ M B R Y O T OM Y (from £/t^pMir,
and refivuf I cut). The cutting of
the embryo or fostus out of the womb
in such cases as endanger the life of
the parent.

EMERY. A sand of oonudam of
extreme hardness, capable of wear-
ing down all minerals and metals ex-
cept the diamond.

EMESIS (from e/teo, I vomii). The
act of vomiting.

EMETIC. A drug producing vom-
iting. Ipecacuanha, tartar emetio,
salt, and green vitriol are the com-
monest emetics.

EMETIC, TARTAR, Tartrate of
potash and antimony, a white, strio-
ble salt, emetio in doses of one to
two grains, and purgative and sudo-
rific in doses of half a grain. It re-
duces the activity of the circulation,
and is therefore an admirable febri-
fuge.

EMETINE. The active principle
of ipecacuanha.

EMOLLIENTS. Medicines which
soothe and soften any part of the
body, as warm water, &c.

EMPHYEMA (from ev, and irvov,
pu9). A collection of purulent mat-
ter in the chest, produced chiefly by
inflammation.

EMPHYSEMA (from tfupwraot, 1
infiaU). A collection of air in the oel-
Ittlar tissue ; hence emphygematout.

EMPYREUMA (fVom efinvpew, 2
kindU). A n odour of burned matter $
hence empyreumoHe.

EMULSIN. A roodificatton of al-
bumen found in almonds and other
seeds, and' capaUe of acting in a pe-

END

culiar Quumer on amygddin to pro-
duce volaiile oil of bitter almoiida.

EMULSION. A mUky liqiiid in
which an oil is suspended, as in milk.

EMUNCTORIES. The vessels of
the skin which exhale perspiration
are so called.

ENAMEL. The hard ivory por-
tion of teeth. Glass and oxide of tin
fused together.

XNCKINITES. roasH erinoideaiu
resembling a lily.

ENCYSTED (from ev, in, and Kva-
Tif, a bag). Fluid or other tumours en-
closed in a sack of membrane. It is
necessary, in removing them, to cut
out or destroy the sack also.

ENDEMIC (from ev, and Sjiftoct a
people), A disease or peculiarity be-
longing to a particular people or race.

ENDIVE. Ckichonum endiva.
The varieties are the green and
white eorled, yellow, and broad
leaved. The green curled is earliest :
BOW in April and May, and for gen-
eral crops, in June or July, at inter-
nals, to suit the table or market.
When the seedlings are three inches
high, transplant to a good soil, and
set a foot apart each way ; tie up to
blanch when full-sized. They must
be attended to and treated like lettuce.
One ounce of jseed furnishes four to
^VQ thousand plants. It is a bitter
aaladt used raw, and also in stews :
with, care it may be preserved like
cabbages through the winter.

ENDOCARP (from cvdw, vnthin,
and KOfixocj a fruHy The middle
part of a fruit : it forms the flesh of
the apple, peach, cheny, dec.

£ N D O G E N S (from w6w, and
yeivofuu, I grow). Plants or trees
which do not enlarge their trunks by
aiiy addition of wood exterior to that
existing the year before. One of the
great divisions of the vegetable king-
dom, including palms, grasses, and
nnmerous bulbous plants. The leaves
are furnished with straight veins, the
flowers usually divided into three
parts or some multiple of that number.
. ENDOPLEURA (/rora wdov, and
irAfvpo, the Mtde). In botany, the in-
ternal intefament of a seed.

£NDORUIZ^(from ^irc^oy^and

EGO

/^t^it a root). A term inTented by
Richard fur the embryo of monocoty
ledons, in which the radicle has to
rupture the integument at the base
of a seed prior to entering into the
earth, appearing as if it came from
within the mother root.

ENDOSMOSE (from evdov, and
uofioct impuUion). A term invented
by Dutrochet to designate the pas-
sage of fluids through membranes.
Penetration is an analogous term.
Whenever two fluids are separated
by a membrane or tissue without
sensible poreis, both of which moisten
it, there is a passage of each fluid,
one into the other ; but this is often
with different rapidities, the fluid af-
fecting the tissue most passing with
the greatest rapidity. The more-
ment continues until the mixture on
each side is similar. This also oc»
curs with gases. It is controlled by
electricity, as Dr. Draper has shown.

ENDOSPERMIUM (from ev^ov,
and airepfio, seed). A term invented
by Richard to denote the albumen of
seeds.

ENDOSTOME (from evdoy, and
airofiat the motUh). The passage
through the inner integument of a
seed immediately below the part call*
ed the foramen.

ENDOTHECIUM. The fibrous
celialar tissue lining an anther.

ENEMA. A glyster, an injection
thrown up the bowels to produce
purging, allay pain, Slc.

ENNEANDRIA, ENNEAN-
DROITS. Having nine stamens.
See Botany.

ENSIFORM. Sword-Bhaped. A
term used in descriptive botany, &o.

ENTERITIS (from tvrepa, the in^
teMtines), Inflammation of the intes'
tines. See Horse, Ox, &c.

ENTOMOLOGY (from evro/io, tfi-
»ect9, and Aoyof, aiiacourse). The sci-
ence treating of insects. See Injects.

ENTOZOA (from evroq, and fwov,
an iuamal), A tribe of worms, many
of which are parasitic to the intes-
tines and other parts of animals.

EOCENE (from j^wf, the dawn, and
Kotvoi, receni). The lowest portion
of the tertiary epoch of geologists, in

261

£liS

ESC

wbich a few reeent remains only are
foand.

EPIDEMIC (from eirt, upon, and
Sffftoc, the people). A disease which
spreads through a community, a sta-
ble &>C-

EPIDERMIS (from eirc, and AepfUh
Che skm), A light covering over the
skin of animals. The outer mem-
brane of plants.

EPIDOTE. A common fibrous,
green, or dark mineral, belonging to
primary rocks, containing silica, 37 ;
alumina, 21 ; limei 16 ; iron, 34 per
cent.

EPIGGEOUS (from em^ and ytf, the
earth). Growing near the earth, or
on the earth.

EPIGASTRIC (from em, and yaa-
TTjpy the ttomach). Orer the stomach.

EPIGLOTTIS (from eiri, and yhjr-
ra, the tongn4:). A small cartilage at
the root of the tongue, which protects
the windpipe.

EPIGYNOUS (from ein, and ytn^,
a female). Any part of a flower grow-
ing upon the top of the ovarium or
fruit.

EPILEPSY (from trnXofitavo, J
seize upon). Falling sickness, attend-
ed with sadden fits, stupor : it soon
becomes periodical, and finally ter-
minates life. Bleeding, reduction of
food, and care are necessary in full
habits, but it frequently arises from
injuries on the head. It is a nervous
disease, little under control.

EPIPHYLLUS (from r:ri, and ^X-
^ov, a leaf). Growing on a leaf.

EPISPASTIC (from emairao, 1
draw upon). A blistering drng.

EPISPERM (from trn^ and etrepfiaj
a 9eed). The testa, or outer coating
of seeds.

EQUISETUM. The scouring rush;
hence equisetacea.

EQUIVALENTS. See Atom.

EREMACAUSIS (from vptfia, slow,
and icavoic, combustion). A term in-
vented by Liebig, to express the
smouldering, or dry rot, of organic
matter freely exposed to the oxygen
of the aii- and merely moistened with
water. 1 1 is altogether diflferent from
fermentation, which requires little
air. By eremacauais, acids, as the

acetic, nitric, &c., are produced.
When much nitrogen exists in the
decaying matter, it is called nitrifica-
tion, especially if lime or potash be
present. The process of eremacausis
is much to be preferred to fermenta-
tion in the preparation of putrescent
manures, for less gaseous matter is
formed, and there is less loss ; it is,
moreover, the natural decay occur-
ring in the soil. See Nitre- Beds.

ERGOT. A disease of the grain
of rye, and sometimes other grains,
in which it turns black, and acquires
an acrid, fungous taste. It is con-
sidered due to an insect or parasitic
fungus. The diseased grain is very
poisonous, producing a dry gangrene,
attended with sloughing of the hoofs,
horns, ears, Ac. of cattle. It is of
great service in medicine as a ute-
rine stimulus.

ERICA. The genus of heaths.
Erieaeea, a fhmily of shrubby plants,
as the heaths, rhododendrons, aza-
lias, &c.

ERINACEUS. A genus ot inseo-
ti vorous animals, including the hedge-
hog.

ERIOPHORUM. The genus of
cotton grasses.

ERODED. Gnawed, a descriptive
term in botany and zoology, mean-
ing any jagged edge.

ERRATIC ROCKS. Boulders.

ERRHINES (from ev, tn, and piv^
the nose). Bodies which excite snee-
zing.

ERUCA. A larva, or worm.

ERVUM. The generic name of
the tare and lentil plants.

ERYSIPELAS (from epvu, I draw,
and TreXacy adjoining). An inflamma-
tion of the skin, attended with blis^
ters and a burning heat ; it indicates
a bad, feeble constitution.

ERYTHRIC ACID (from sffv
9poc, red). The red body produced
by acting on uric acid by nitric acid ;
it has also been called rosacic acid,
Murexide.

ESCHAR. A scab, cicatrix.

ESCHAROTIC (from eoxaptu^t 1
scab over). Caustic.

ESCULENT. Edible plants,
roots, dtc.

EUP

ESPALIERS. " In horticnltare,
trees trained by lattice-work or other
supports on the borders of beds* or
as hedges to enclose plots of ground.
They may serve to defend, in a great
measure, many tender plants from the
inclemencies of wind and weather.
The trees chiefly planted for espa-
liers are apples, |iears, and plums.
The principal objects aimed at, how-
ever, in espaliers are to expose the
foliage and fruit of the plants or
trees more perfectly to the light and
san, to prevent the branches fhmi be-
ing blown aboot by the winds, and to
economize space by confining them
within definite limits." — Lmtdon.

ESPARSETTE. SaiHfoin.

ESSENTIAL OUjS. ODs which
impart flavour and odour to plants,
and ar^ readily volatilized by heat.
Many, as peppermint, rose, lemon,
dec., are easily distilled by placing the
fresh herbs, 6lc., in water and apply-
ingheat.

ETERIO. A compound fruit, the
ovaries of which are distinct and in-
dehiscent, upon a dry or fleshy re-
ceptacle, as the strawberry, rasp-
berry, dec.

ETHER. Consmonly this name is
applied to a highly volatile, inflam-
mable, and aromatic fluid, obtained
by distilling equal parts of alcohol and
aulphuric acid. But it also repre-
sents a class of organic compounds
having properties similar to ether and
alcohol, and containing a common
base or radical. Ethyl or Blhule (C4
Hft) ; of this common sulphuric ether
is an oxide.

ETIOLATION. Blanching of ve-
getables. This is done by excluding
light either by earthing, as in the
case of celery, or tying up the leaves,
as with lettuce, endive, dec.

EUDIOMETER (from evSta, calm
atr, and furpop, a measure). An in-
strument for the analysis of air and
gases, especially for the determina-
tion of the amount of oxygen. Dr.
Ure*s is the most esteemed. Dr. Hare,
of Philadelphia, is the author of a
very convenient eudiometer.

EUPHORBIA. A genus of plants
tf^omtmonly ytekling a milky acrid

EVE

juice ; many resemble the caetaceas.
Eupkorbiaeeee^ the natural family, in-
eluding the euphorbia, crotons, cas-
tor-otl. India-rubber tree, &c.

EUPION. An inflaimnable, grea-
sy liquid, obtained from tar.

EUSTACHIAN TUBE. A tube
passing iirom the interior of the ear
to the cavity of the month ; the stop-
page, by disease, is one cause of deaf-
ness.

EVAPORATION. The passage
into vapour of fluids or solids. For
its production, heat most be absorb-
ed ; hence the rapidity of evaporation
is proportionate to the heat applied.
Water and other fluids evaporating
from the earth, or any surface, al-
ways produce cold by carrying away
a part of the heat of the solid ; kertee
moist soil* are cold. The activity of
evaporation is also influenced by
winds, which will dooUe the amount
of water vaporized in a given time ;
hence winds dry rapidly and produce
great cold. It is also necessary for
free evaporation that the air be not
already fbll of vapour. See Dew Point,
When any atmosphere is surcharged
with the vapour of a particular fluid,
no more can evaporate ; but the va-
pours of other fluids rise freely.

Plants are much affected by evap-
oration ; their leaves are always
throwing out large volumes of vapour
of water, derived from the ascending
sap ; in this way their juices are
thickened and fitted for nourishment.
When the air is too dry, they lan-
guish under exeessive evaporation ;
when it is moist and hot for some
days, they become diseased, and smut,
rust, and similar fungi attack them
very destructively.

The moisture collected in the air
by the evaporation of water from the
earth, being cooled by northeriy
winds, becomes condensed into rain
or snpw, and falls back to the earth
again. See Clouds.

EVERGREEN. Plants which put
out a succession of fresh leaves in-
stead of observing periods of rest.
They are best set out in the fall or

verr early in spring.

jfiVERLASTINO PEA. Laikynu

EXO

Uiifidiui, A perenatal plant of the
vetch kind* which grows naturaJly in
Bome places ; is easily cultivated, and
annually yields a great burden of ex-
cellent provender, and might be cul-
tivated to advantage as a green food
for cattle on any of the more strong
sorts of soil.

EXACERBATION. An increase
of violence in the symptoms of fe-
vers.

EXCORIATION. Abroiseor
abrasion of the skin : protection from
air by a linen rag, and mild oil lina-
ments are most serviceable.

EXCRESCENCE. Any unnatu-
ral growth or tumour.

EXCRETION. In physiology, the
separation of useless or injurious por-
tions of matter from the systemi, as
urine, expired air, feces, perspiration.
The excretions of plants have called
forth much discussion. Be CandoUe
imagined that the inability of plants
to grow for a long time on the same
spot was due to the deposite of ex-
cretions. Mr. Gyde has examined
this matter thoroughly, and shown
that the excretions are not injurious ;
the amount is very small, and iden-
tical in composition with the sap;
he also found that a plant might be
watered with a solution of its excre-
ment with great benefit.

EXFOLIATION. The separaUon
of diseased bone from that which is
sound in the progress of a disease.

EXHALATION. Evaporation at
ordinary temperatures, more espe-
cially from a living pr solid surface.

EXHAUSTION. In physics, the
removal of air or gases from the in-
terior of bodies.

EXOGENOUS (from «^, auUide, and
Y9i»ofiiu, J grow). A term applied to
those plants a transverse slice of
whose stem exhibits a central cellular
substance or pith, an external cellular
and fibrous ring or bark, and an inter-
mediate woody mass, and certain fine
lines radiating from the pith to the
bark through the wood, and called
meduUaiy rays. They are called ex-
ogens, because they add to their
wood by successive external addi-
tiODB, and am the same as what are

EXT

otherwise called diootyledou. Th^

constitute one of the primary classes
into which the vegetable world is di-
vided, characterized by their leaves
being reticulated ; their stems having
a distinct deposition of bark, wood,
and pith ; their embryo with two co-
tyledons ; and by their flowers usu-
ally formiad on a quinary type. Our
forest-trees and most garden vegeta-
bles are of this kind.

EXORRHIZ^ (from ef, and ^<^
a root). Exogenous or dicotyledon-
ous plants, the roots of which extend
directly from tbe embryo.

EXOSMOSE (from ef, and wa/tof,
impulnon). The passage outward of
fluids, dtc, the reverse of jSndoMiMe,
which see.

EXOSTOSIS (from ei, and o(rrcov,
a bone). A tumour on a bone. la bota-
ny, any knot or tumour on a trunk or
Urge root : the wood is often finely
curled.

EXOTICS. Foreign plants.

EXPANSION. The increase in
dimensions produced by heat. In
the arts, it is a serious drawback on
perfect workmanship, for bcams^ me-
tallic tireSf dec., by tbe constant expan-
sions from heat, and contraction by
cold, are always acting upon masses
of masonry injuriously. Gases ex-
pand most rapidly and extensively,
fluids next, and metals least.

EXPECTORANTS. Medicines
which assist in throwing ofi* the
phlegm of the throat, as ipecacuan
ha, tartar emetic, horehound, squills
They are useful in dry coughs.

EXPRESSED OILS. Such as are
obtained by pressure, as olive, lin-
seed, rape, castor, almond, as distin-
guished from volatile or essential oils.

EXTRACT. The solid remain ing
after boiling down an infusion or de-
coction to dryness. The heat used
should be from steam. The term
exlraetiv9 is applied to that portion
which is of a brown colour, soluble
in water, and forms a colouring mat-
ter with alum solution.

EXTRAVASATION. Insui^ry,
whenever blood or other fluids axe
thrown out from the veins into the
skin, brain* or other parts, it is teroi*

FAL

FAR

cd an extravasation. It frequently .
arises from a blow.

EXTRORSAL. Bent or turned
from the direct position : a descrip-
tive term in botany.

EXUVIifi, Tlie skins cast by
snakes, lobsteiB, insects, dtc, in the
ohani^s they pass through.

EYE, IN PLANTS. The bud,
emhrvo, or growing point.

EYE OF THE HORSE. «*The
eye of the horse appears to be natn-
rally more disposed to disease than
that of any other animal. The dis-
eases of the eye, although few in
number, are frequent in their appear-
ance, obstinate, and generally baffle
all the skill of the Teterinarian. The
following are the principal : common
inflammation, specific ophthalmia or
moon blindness, cataract, and gvtta
Mtrena or anaurona. For the last
there is no cure. Moon blindness,
as it is termed, is brought on in a
great measure by close confinement
in dark, heated, and unwholesome
stables. No specific remedies can
be given for these diseases.** — {You-
ait). See Blindne*s^ Cataract.

EYES IN CHEESE. Putrescent
boles or places caused by imperfectly
preparing the curd.

FAGOT. A bundle of small wood.

FAGUS. The generic name of
the heeck.

FALCATE (from falx, a scythe).
Shaped like a scythe : a descriptive
term used in botany and zoology.

FALCO. The genua of hawks.

FALLOPIAN TUBE. A tube com-
municating between tbe womb and
ovarium of the mammalia.

FALLOW. Originally, this term
meant the exposure of the naked
soil to rest^ after ploughing several
tiroes, to destroy weeds and repair
its fertility. Ttiis practice is now
considered almost useless, as requi-
ring much time and expenditure oth-
erwise better employed. A crop of
€»ats, clover, rye, buckwheat, lacern,
lupins, turnips, or other cheap vege-
table in flower is now ploughed in,
and called a srreen fallow. In this

way land is rapidly Improved, espe-
cially if a liming is given. To torn
in heavy herbage the ox-chain is
fastened to the clevis and land-side
handle of the plough, and this press-
ing down the plants, allows them to
be buried.

Green fallowing is the roost rapid
and cheap method of bringing up poor
lands ; it incorporates into the soil
the nitrogen bodies wanted for high
cultivation, enables the improver to
proceed withoot the expense of cat-
tle for raising manure, and saves the
time necessary to wait for the ma-
nure. The herbage so turned in
3rields more vegetable mould than it
would otherwise form if applied in
any other way. Fallows can be made
at any time, in summer for a faU
crop, or in autumn for spring.

FAN, WHEAT. The Wmnmmt^
Machine, which see.

FARCY. See Horse.

FARDING BAG. The paunch or
abomasus of the ox.

FARINA. The flour or meal of
grain. Farinaecotts is a derivative.

FARM. "The first thing to be
considered in taking a farm is the
capital which the tenant is possessed
of, or of which he can procure the
use at a reasonable rate. If a man
takes a farm without the means of
stocking it properly, and is restrained
in his first outlay, he will never be
able to cultivate it with benefit to
himself: he will be obliged to sell his
produce at a loss, to over-work his
cattle, and to keep a smaller quanti-
ty of stock, and, consequently, make
less manure than is required to keep
the farm in a productive state.

*' When it is ascertained what ex-
tent of farm may be safely underta-
ken with a ^iven capital, the most
important object to be attended to is
the condition and fertility of fhe soil,
not only with respect to the natural
quality of the land, but the actual
state it is left in by the preceding
system of cultivation. A moderate-
ly fertile soil, in good condition, will
give a greater profit for several years
than a better soil which is partially
exhausted and rendered foul by inja^

866

FAIUI.

dtdOQs management and orer-crop-
ping. For this purpose, it is neces-
sary to ascertain what has been the
atate of the crops for several years
before, how the land has been plough-
ed, and whether the crops have been
heavy with or without manure. In
the mean time, the nature of the
weeds which abound on the land will
give some clew to its state ; and an
eicperienced person will collect from
Yarious minute appearances in the
soil whether it has been fairly man-
aged or exhausted. It is in general
more advantageous to take a farm
in a district with which you are well
acquainted. It will be a great ad-
vantage if you have had an opportu-
nity of seeing the land at all times,
observing it in difierent seasons and
states of the weather, and especially
of seeing the crops thrashed out, and
ascertaining the quantity of corn
which is usually yielded from a cer-
tain quantity of straw, for lands very
eimilar in outward appearance will
produce a very different return when
the crops are thrashed out. A want
of attention to these circumstances
is the cause that a man who comes
from a distant part of the country
and takes a farm on his own judg-
ment seldom succeeds so well as
might be expected, even with a su-
perior knowledge of agriculture. He
naturally compares the soil with some
similar soil which he has been ac-
quainted with. If he comes from a
district where the soil is sandy, and
where clay is in request, he will give
the preference to very stiff loams ;
if he comes from a cold wet clay, he
will prefer the sandy ; and the chan-
ces are, that he is mistaken in his
judgment, and finds it out when he
has already embarked his capital in
a losing concern. Next to the na-
ture of 4he soil is to be considered
the convenient situation of the farm,
the disposition of the fields, and the
adaptation of the fann-buildings to
the most profitable occupation of the
land. The roads, especially tlio^e
which lead to neighbouring towns,
whence manure may be obtained, are
a most important object ; and if there
S66

is water-carriage, it greatly enbanees
the value of the farm. The roads to
the fields, and the distance of these
from the fann-yard ; the coavenience
of having good pasture, or land easi
ly laid down to grass, near the home
stead, and especially the situation
of the farm-buildings with respect to
the land, and the abundance of good
water, are all circumstances which
must be well considered, and which
will greatly influence the probable
profits, and, consequently, the rent
which may be fairly offered. A cen*
tral situation is no doubt the moat
advantageous for the farm buildtnga,
as greatly diminishing the labour in
harvest and in carrying out manore.
But there may be circumstances
which render some spot nearer the
extremity of the land more eligible,
and it is only when entirely new
buildings are to be erected that there
is a choice. The old farm buildings
are generally in low and sheltered
situations, but it is a great inconve-
nience to have to carry the manure,
which is the heaviest thing carted on
a farm, up a steep hill. The best
situation is on a moderate slope,
neither in the lowest nor highest
ground.

** The yard or yards in a large farm
should be sheltered on the north side
by the bams, which need not be so
extensive as used formerly to be
thought necessary. If there is a
thrashing machine, a single floor to
thrash the seeds upon, and to employ
the men occasionally in winter, is
quite suflicient. Every farm which
is so extensive as to require more
than one floor to thrash the com on
ought always to have a thrashing-
mill attached to it. See Banu

*'A small yard, distinct from the
other, with sheds for the cattle to
shelter themselves under in wet and
stormy weather, is a great advantage,
and may be added at a trifling ex-
pense to any set of farm buildings.
The cart-shed should be in the stack-
yaid, whioh properly occupies a space
north of the bam. There should be
a sufficient number of stands with
proper pillars and frames to build

FARM.

•tacks on. Each stack sfioidd be of
8Qch a size as to be conveniently ta-
ken into the barn to be thrashed out.
Tlie round form, and the square,
which becomes nearly round when
built op, are most convenient. Nine
stono or cast-iron pillars, with caps
over them, are placed on brick found-
ations, and support a strong frame
on which the stack is buiH. In the
centre of the stack there is usually a
pyramidical open frame, to allow the
air to circulate through the stack and
prevent the beating of the grain. On
each side of the yard should be placed
the stables, cow-houses, and feeding-
stalls, with a pomp of good water
near the last, and convenient places
to put hay, straw, and turnips in, with
a machine to cut them. A great deal
of time and labour is saved by a
proper arrangement of the different
parts of the farm buildings. An un-
der-ground cistern near the cow-
kiouse and stables, into which the
urine and washings of the cow-house
may run by means of a sink or drain,
is a most useful appendage, which is

too little thoogfat of in England,
whereas it is one of the most indis-
pensable parts of a Flemish farm. It
supplies a kind of manure which can
be applied to the land at all times,
which invigorates sickly crops, and
may often produce an abundant re-
turn, where otherwise there would
be a complete failure. There are
many plans of farm buildings given
in works on agriculture, which com-
bine all that is useful on a large scale.
Most of these plans have been exe-
cuted at a great expense for the farm-
ing establishments of men of large
fortunes. But the proprietor who de-
sires to erect buildings most proper
for the occupation of his land must
study economy, and lay out no more
in buildings than is necessary. They
should be so substantial as not to re-
quire frequent repairs, without un-
necessarily increasing the original ex-
pense of materials and labour. Light
thatched roofs are sufficient for the
sheds and smaller buildings, and even
for the cow-houses and staibles.
'* We here give a plan of plain farm

Building* for a Farm of 900 acres.

itor

buildings for Uie occupation o{ ZOO
ar 300 acree of land, of which two
thirds are arable, fit for com, barle; ,
clover, and wheat. There slioiild be
two distinct farm-yards with proper
sheds, and in each there should be a
ciatem For the urine from the stables
and the drainings from the dung.
1 ciamples of '' ~
>e sufficient to „
jf what majf bo proper
farms of •□ inCennediate sise. A
principal thing lo be attended to is to
haTe plenty of roora for cattie ; and
where old barns remain rnach larger
than is required, according to the
' prwent mad« orstackiDg com in the

lnllil!|
i m

."ji

=n=rn

mill}

yard, Ihcy can be very adianlageous-
ly coavertcd into eow-stalls or ox-ata-
bles.

" Where many sheep are Kept, ft is
of great advantage to have a sheep,
yard, with low sheds a)J round, al tb«
time when the ewea lamb, especially
when the season la wet and chilly,
which hurts them moie than a dry
froet. The second yard, B, is weU
adapted for that purpose, and an ad-
ditional temportffy shed against tba~
partition which divides it into two
win convert either division ioto aa
excellent sheep-yard.

" In Taloing a farai, the habitation
is seldom taken into the aooauntitot

tUe baOdutge iramediatel; eonnacted
with (be cnlliTation necessarily sdd
to or diministi tbe price.

" Fdm AtcaunU, — In proportion as
tbe manag«ment of a &rm reqairea
more bJuU, and the Tarioiu opera-
tiODB become more eomplicated, bo
Uie neoeuitj of great aocniacy in
the accoitntB becomea iiidtq BTident.
The masDeT in which rami accounts
•bould be kef)! deeerves, theieforo,
particular aUeotion,

"Many fanners, who are not devoid
of intelligence, and who are anitous
to ascertain iheii gain or their loss
in Gottivatiiig Uw Und which Um;

have hired, have no other roeana of
ascertaining this than the balance of
their account of receipts and eipen-
ditare. If they have aeparateil tbe
accoants of their private eatabliah-
ment trom that of their farm, they
think that they have done all that ia
reqaired, and at the end of the year
they can tell accarately how mnch
they have gained or lost by their
■arm ; but ^ them to acoonnt for
this gain or lata, and tiiey can give
no answer. Ifa tradesman, who has
a capital in husineaa equal to ibat of

FARM.

this manner, and become a bankrupt,
no one would hesitate in saying that
he failed because he kept no regular
accounts. He bad no greater stake
than tbe farmer, and his transactions
were perhaps less varied : if he kept
DO clerk, he should have attended
better to the accounts himself. The
same may be said of the farmer ; and
if a man who has a floating capital
of $10,000 does not think it worth
his while to employ a clerk to keep
his accounts, not having time to do
80 himself, it is no great wonder if
he is involved in difficulties. But
it may be said that agricultural ac-
counts are very simple, and that any
one can keep them. So are mer-
chants* accounts at first sight. No-
thing is simpler than to put down
what is bought and sold, what is the
profit on each transaction, and the
sum is the profit of the whole ; but
merchants know that to keep this
very simple account many books,
many entries, many checks, and con-
sequently many clerks are required.
In a lesser degree this is true in a
farm. It is easy to know what is
bought and sold, what is expended
or produced, but it requires very mi-
nute accounts to ascertain what part
of the farm gives a profitable return,
and what is the cause of loss. There
may be a profit on the crops and a
loss on the stock, or vice versa. The
money expended on improvements or
adventitious manure may have pro-
duced an increase which is propor-
tionate to the outlay, and which af-
fords a good interest; but it may
also be a decided loss. How is this
to be ascertained, except it be by ac-
curate accounts 1 In whatever man-
ner the accounts are kept, whether
by the farmer himself or by a clerk,
method is of great importance ; and
whatever may be said against it by
those who do not know its value,
there is no system of accounts which
can be compared with the well-known
method of double entry. The prin-
ciple of this method is so simple that
the slowest arithmetician cannot be
ooafused by it, and it is so perfect
that no error can escape its scrutiny.
970

As applied to agricultural accoants,
which are simple in their nature, it
becomes so clear that, if once adopt-
ed, it is impossible that it should ever
be abandoned. The satisfaction of
a perfect proof of the correctness of
the accounts is so great that no one
who has ever experienced it will be
satisfied with any other method.

" In the accounts of a farm there are
many separate items to be taken into
consideration. There may be a sep-
arate account kept for every field ;
there should always be one for every
crop of which the rotation consists.
There is an account of the labour of
men and horses ; of the produce of
the dairy ; of the stock purchased to
be fattened, or sold again in an impro-
ved state. The more subjects there
are to furnish items for an account,
the more difficult it is to strike a
balance, but with a little attention
and perseverance it may be done;
and he who keeps very correct ac-
counts will always be the fint to dis-
cover any impending evil, and to take
measures to provide against it.'

"The basis of all the accounts is a
daily journal of every transaction,
which must be collected from all the
labourers and agents ^ployed. M.
de Dombasle, at his celebrated farm
of Roville, in France, has all his prin-
cipal men and apprentices assembled
every evening after the day's work
is over. Each man gives an accoont
of the work done by him or under
his superintendence, which is written
down by the clerk. The orders for
the next day are then given, and ev-
ery one returns to his lodging or his
home. In the course of the next day
the clerk enters all that is in the
journal into a book, where every per-
son employed has an account : every
field has one ; every servant and do-
mestic aninud has one; and every
item which can be separated from
the rest is entered, both as adding to
the account or taking from it. For
example, the milk of the cows is en*
tered daily ; the quantity of butter,
butter-milk, and skimmed milk which
it produces is also entered ; and
these two aocounta cheek one an*

FAR

PAR

other. Any error is immediatdy de-
tected, and the knowledge of this
preveats mlBtakes. An entiy sliould
be made of every particular operation
in each field, that the farmer may
know which ia his roost profitable
land. The number of ploughings, the
ifuantity of manure, the state of the
weather, and all other circumstances
which may influence the return should
be carefully noted, in order that it
may be clearly seen whether any ex-
periment or deviation from the usual
routine is advantageous or otherwise.
Thus all real improvements may be
encourai?ed, and uncertain theories
detected by the result.

*• The most important circumstance
which influences tlic profits of a farm-
er is the cost of his team and the
wages of his men. These vary in
different situations so much that they
greatly influence the price which he
can afford to give for the land. In
some parts of the country the horses
are pampered and kept so fat that
they can scarcely do a day's work as
they ought ; in others they are over-
worked and badly fed. Either ex-
treme must be a loss to the farmer.
In the first case, the horses cannot
do their work, and they consume an
unnecessary quantity of provender;
in the other, they are soon worn out,
aad the loss in horses that become
useless or die ia greater than the sa-
ving in their food or the extra work
done by them. A horse properly fed
will work eight or ten hours every
day in the week, resting only on
Sundays ; by a judicious division of
the labour of the horses, they are
never over-worked, and an average
value of a day*s work is easily ascer-
tained. This, in a well regulated
farm, will be found much less than
the common valuations give it. There
have been printed forms invented, in
order to render the accounts more
simple, as well as more comprehen-
sive. Forms may be of use to enter
roinute details ; and each superin-
tendent may have a form of entry for
the work which he performs or su-

Eerintends *. but the ledger should be
ept exactly as that of a mercantile

man, and be frequently balanced to
ensure correctness. This is a thin^
which cannot be too strongly recom-
mended to young farmers."

FARM- YARD MANURE. The
excrements of cattle mixed with ve-
getable litter accumulated in the farm-
yard. Straw, peat, sea-weed, the
haulms of crops, leaves, and any or-
ganic matter may be added to swell
the bulk. It is usual to make the
yard somewhat inclined, so that the
fluid portions may run into a tank at
the bottom. The reservoir should
be tight, either of cement or temper-
ed clay ; it may be furnished with
pumps, to return the fluid over the
solid matters several times during its
preparation. The dung should be
piled in ridges of five feet high and
as many wide, and kept trodden to-
gether ; it should not be permitted to
heat too much or be kept too wet. It
is very much improved by an addi-
tion of charcoal, gypsum, and lime,
applied occasionally to the layers as
they are brought out from the houses.
In well-tilled soils twenty to thirty
cart-loads the acre are applied for a
rotation of three or four years. Com,
wheat, potatoes, or tobacco usually
receive the manure. Sandy soils re-
quire less manure, but more frequent-
ly repeated.

Farm-yard manure wastes rapidly
by exposure and the action of rain,
its soluble salts being removed, and
the volatile ammoniacal portions ri-
sing into the air. Great benefit would
be found fVom the erection of slab or
thatched sheds for the protection of
the heaps.

It is of service to all crops, be-
cause, being made up of the offal of
vegetables and food, it contains aU
the necessary salts and organic mat-
ters ; but, in the usual way of prep-
aration, it is also the depository of
the seeds of weeds and insects, and
tends to render the husbandry foul.
By preparing with lime, and man-
aging it in the dry way, eremacausis
is produced, which destroys the seeds
and eggs, at the same time that it di-
minishes the waste by volatilization.

The value of the manure ia depend*

S71

FARM- YARD MANURE.

aat upon the fof>d used, and the pro-
portion of dung to straw, the litter
absorbing the fluid parts and running
into decay, but reducing the value of
any given weight of the manure.
Where animal garbage or fish can
be obtained, the value is much in<
creased. (See Manures.) But in the
common yard dung the fluid parts
are altogether the richest portions.

Yard manure should be taken out
and ploughed as early in the spring
as possible, before it is much re-
duced by rotting, nor should it be in
the soil very long before the seeds,
for it wastes away rapidly. Well-rot-
ted dung is necessary for particular
plants, but is by no means economi-
cal. In many cases an application
to the hill is best, as in potatoes, tur-
iups« corn, and tobacco.

Soiling is a certain means of in-
creasing the quantity of manure at
the same time that expenses arc less-
ened ; it is to be considered an i^s-
sential in good arable husbandry. It
is common to keep the horse, cow,
and pig dung separate ; but there is
little benefit in this.

Composition of Farm-yard Manure.
—"The elementary composition of
farm dung is a point which is not
undeserviog of consideration," says
Boussingault. " The animals which
had produced the dung were thirty
horses, thirty oxen, and from ten to
twenty hogs. The absolute quantity
of moisture was ascertained by first
drying in the air a considerable weight
of dung, and, afler pounding, continu-
ing and completing the drying, in vac-
uo, at 230° Fahrenheit.

" The dung prepared in the winter
of the year

1837-S cuDtained . .
1838-0 *' . .

In. summer of 1 830 . •

Medium • . •
Watar . . •

'* Analysis yielded the following
results :

Times •rprrnanitioB. Curb. Byd. Oxrr. Asoto. Aihn.
of 1837-8 33-4 3-8 25-8

S0*4 ) per cent, of
3JM I dry matter.
10-6

703

Winter

Spring of 1838

" 1839
u u

32-5
88-7
364
400
349

41
4-5
40
4-3
48

26 0
28-7
191
27-6
27-6

1-7
1*7
1-7
2-4
2-4
2-0

303
357
20*4
381
25 7
31-5

273

" On the average, farm dung, dned

at 238®, contains :

Carlton 358

Hydro^n 4*2

Oxygen 26.6

Axote ...... 2*0

Salts and eaitba . . . 32-2

1000

**When moist, its composition ia
represented by

Carbm 7*41

Hydrogen 0*87

Oxygen S-94

Aaute 0*41

Salta nod eaitba . . 607
Water 7030

200-0

" The constitution of dung heaps
must of necessity vary ; those, how>
ever, which have a common origin
do not seem to present very great
differences in the proportion of their
elements.

*' Excretions of the Horse. — The
horse was fed upon hay and oats.
The urine and the excrements togeth-
er contained 76-2 per cent, of moist-
ure. In twenty-fuur hours the excre-
tions weighed, moist, 34-3 pounds;
dry, 81 pounds.

'^ Their composition was found to
be:

la 111* in •tnta. Mowt ^ttn.

Carbon 98*6 0-10

Hydrt^n .... 50 120

Oxygen 30*4 8-66

Azote ; 2-7 413

Salts and earth . . 17-3 4' IS

Water .... .17*8 7frl7

100-0 100-0

**- Excretions of ike Coir. — ^Tbe cow

was fed upon hay aad raw potatoes.

Tlie urine and the excrements t<K

gether contained 86-4 of moisture.

The weight of the excretions, in

twenty-four hours, was» moist, 80*6

pounds ; dry, 10*9 pounds.
"Their composition, by analysis,

was:

_ . Dry. Wet.

Carbon 39*8 5*39

Hydrogen .... 4-7 0"64

Oxygen 35*5 4*81

Azoic 2-0 0 30

Salu and earth . . 17-4 2-36

Water .... . 17-4 WiA

1000 loolio

" Excretions of the Pig. — The pigs
upon which the observations were
made were. from six to eight months
old. They wore fed upon steamed

FARM-YAKD MANURE.

pMatoee. The oriDe and the ezcie-
nieats lost, by drying, 82 per cent, of
moistare. The average of the ex-
cretions yielded by one pig in twenty-
fottT hours was, moist, 9-1 pounds ;
dry, I 6 poonds.
'* Composition :

Dry. Hoi*!.

Carbaa 387 6 97

Hydrogen .... 48 086

Oxygen 99-5 5*85

Axote S'4 0 61

Salu and earth . . 90-6 87*01

Wnter .... . 20-6 8200

1000 10000

" The litter that is generally em-
ployed is wheat straw. This straw,
in the condition in which it is used,
contains 26 per cent, of moisture.

*' Its composition is :

Drii>d. UmirM.

Cuban 48-4 U-8

Hydngm . . . . &'3 39

Oxygvn 88*0

AvAt 0-4

Salts and earth . . 7*0
"Water .... . 70

1000

S6-8

00-8

6-2

260

100-0

'*At Bechelbronn each horse re-
ceives daily, as litter, 4-4 pounds;
each cow, 6 6 pounds ; each pig, 4*1
pounds of straw.

"To the stables and the cow-houses
together are given, every twenty-four
hours, 132-0 pounds of straw for thir-
ty horses; 198-0 pounds for thirty
horned cattle ; 660 pounds for six-
teen pigs; making 896-0 pounds of
straw, estimated, when dry, at 292-6
pounds.

*' The composition of the materials
which constitute the dung produced
in one day are set forth in the fol-
lowing table :

Bacwtkw jkAMi

in 34 bottn by

Thirty honet . . .
Ttiirtj homed cattle
Sixteen pigs ...
Straw need in litter

Weicbt
wImo dry.

Weight

in tlM wet

■Utfc

Ibe.
245 06
336-36

26-40
292^60

1088-28

2416-48

146-74

896-00

Elements or tiie diy matter.

Caitk

Hydr^

Ibe.
94-60
130 24
10-121
41-68

12-32

15-40

1-32

15-62

Oxygen

Iba.

89-10

11616

8-58

113-74

Auie.

Hxi.
6-60
8-58
0-88
MO

Salts*
eartbu.

tba.
42-46
5698

5-50
20-46

Wai*»r

constitu-
ting tbe
wet matter.

ibe.

783-20

9080-12

120-34

103-40

" The average or mean composition of this mixture may be taken as fol-
lows:

In tfae dry state.

In the wet state.

Carbon.

42-3

35-8

Hydrog.

4*2

Oxyfsrn.

36.7
25-8

Aaotc. i Salts.! Carbon. I Hydrog.]Uxygen.
T9~|T4T|~9^ I 1-2 l~8T"

That of Am reanhing Dnqg.
2-0 |32-2| 7-4 I 0-0 | 5-3

AxotP.
0*4

Salts.

6-7

Water.

776

79-3

<• On comparing the composition of
the dung>heap with that of the differ-
ent kinds of litter collected in a day,
little difibrence is observed ; the lar-
ger quantity of saline and earthy mat-
ters discovered in the fermented ma-
nure is readily explained from the ad-
ditions of ashes inoorporated with it,
and also by the accidental admixture
of earthy matters proceeding from
the sweepings of the court, the earth
adhering to the roots consumed as
food, &e. — ^refuse of every kind, the
residue after cleansing the various
kinds of fodder for the stable and
stall, dto., all go to the dung-heap.
Lastly, and with reference to the ele-
ments that are liable to be dissipated
in the state of gas, or which may be
changed into water, the azote is pr&>

cipitatedin larger quantity in the pre-
pared manure than in the unferment-
ed litter and excretions. This is at
once seen on comparing the compo-
sition of these two products after the
saline and earthy matters have been
deducted.

Cart. Hydro|^ Oxyg. Asote.
The oonpoetlicm of

fresh litter is . . . 49-S 5-8 42-7 S
That of dung .... 52*8 6*1 83-1 3.0

"Dung is, therefore, somewhat
richer in carbon than litter, and it
contains less oxygen.

** Fermented dung contains less
oxygen than that which comes from
the stable ; it ought also to contain
less hydrogen ; but this analysis does
not proclaim.

"Axote is, in fact, the element
which it is of highest importance to

tT8

FAR

augment and to preserve in dang.
The organic substances which are
the most advantageous in producing
manures are precisely those which
give origin, by their decomposition,
to the largest proportion of azotized
matters, soluble or volatile. I say
by their decomposition, because the
mere presence of azote in matters
of organic origin does not suffice to
constitute them manure. While we
admit the high importance, indeed
the absolute necessity of azotic prin-
ciples in manures, then, we must not
therefore conclude that these princi-
ples are the only ones which contrib-
ute to fertilize the earth.

** It is unquestionable that the al-
kaline and earthy salts are farther
indispensable to the accomplishment
of the phenomena of vegetation ; and
it is fur from being sufficiently shown
that the organic principles void of
azote play a merely passive part
when added to the soil. But with
few exceptions, the fixed salts, wa-
ter or its elements, and carbon, sn-
perabound in manure. The chemical
nature of the salts is the same as that
of the fodders used. The element
which exista there in smallest pro-
portion is azote, which is the one,
also, that is most apt to be dissipa-
ted during the alteration of the bodies
that contain it. For these reasons,
azote is really the element whose
presence it is of highest moment to
ascertain ; its proportion is that, in
fact, which fixes the comparative
value of difierent manures.

** Since it is by undergoing modifi-
cation in ttie course of their decom-
position by putrefaction that those
azotized substances which are fa-
vourable to vegetation are developed
in quaternary compounds, it will be
readily understood that, all things
else being equal, a manure which is
completely resolved into soluble or
gaseous products in the course of a
single season will exert, in virtue of
this alone, the whole of its useful in-
fluence upon the first crop. It is en-
tirely different if the manure decom-
poses more slowly ; its action upon
the first crop wiU be less obvious, but
974

FAR

its influence will eontinne longer.
There are manures which act, it may
be said, at the momeiit they are put
into the ground ; there are others*
the action of which continnea diirio|[^
several years. Nevertheless, two
manures, although acting within pe-
riods so different in point of exteol*
will produce the same final reaoit i
they severally contain the same dose
of azotic elements, if they are of the
same intrinsic value.

*' The durability of manures, the
length of time during which they will
continue to exert their influence, is
a matter of great importance. It oft-
en depends on their state of eohe-
sion, or on their insolubility, though
climate and the nature of the soil
have also a marked influence on their
decomposition and consequent ef-
fects It is not easy, in the present
state of knowledge, to predict with
certainty how long the beneficial e^
fects of a given manure will continue
to be felt ; but we know well enough
what will hasten the decomposition
of manure and what will retard this
result, and so apportion, as it were,
the fertilizing principles among the
different crops in the rotation.'*

In Switzerland it is common to ap-
ply a small quantity of the solution
of green vitriol or copperas (sulphate
of iron) to the yard manure. One
pound of copperas in solution will an-
swer for about three hundred weight
of the manure. This converts the
carbonate into sulphate of ammo-
nia, and removes any bad odour. It
also improves the quality of the ma^
nure very considerably.

FARRIER. One who shoes hor-
ses, or treats their diseases ; the lat-
ter department is now oomiog into
the hands of educated men, called
veterinary surgeons.

FARROW. A litter of pigs.

FASCID. In anatomy, a tendinous
expansion lying between muscles.

FASCICULUS, or FASCICLE.
Tn botany, an inflorescence in which
the flower-stalks of various lengths
form a summit somewhat level, and
the uppermost buds expand first, aa
in the sweet William.

FAT

FAT. A solid oO, which eombines
with soda and Ibrms doap. In the
hody it is stored in cells, in mera-
brsines existing under the skin, over
the intestines and kidneys. The va-
rieties in consistence of ditTerent
lots depends upon the proportion of
the stearin and eiain they contain ;
the former being the solid part, the
latter the flaid at oily. They are in-
soluble in water, partly soluble in al-
cohol, and partly in ether.

Pats answer, in animals, several
Important functions. They serve to
maintain the warmth, by excluding
atmospheric cold ; lubricate joints
and the spaces between muscles, and
afibrd the means of sustaining ani-
mal beat by their consumption in the
body during severe weather. In well-
ihttened animals it is deposited even
between the fibres of the muscles.

Chemically, they are hydro-car-
bons, and consist of oily acids com-
bined with glycerine. Stearin con-
sists of carbon, 79; hydrogen, 11-7;
and oxygen, 9-3 per cent., and gives
OS a fair representation of the com-
position of the rest. The fats of ve-
getables are identical with those of
animals, ezeeptiog where a peculiar
odorous body is added, as in goat fat,
whale oil, dec For the various in-
gredients of fats, see JS/ain, Stearin,
MaprartTUy OUiny Butter^ dec.

The purification of fats for the man-
ufacture of soaps and candles is ef-
fected by first mincing it in fine pie-
ces, melting in warm water, and
straining through a sieve. It may
be farther purified by remelting in
water acidulated with 2 per cent, of
sulphuric acid, stirring it constantly,
allowing it to cool, and skimming ofiT
the tallow, which should be after-
ward remelted with an abundance of
fVesh water. In this way it becomes
very white and hard.

The rancidity of fats and oils is due
to the absorption of oxygen from the
air and the produtrtion of new pun-
gent bodies, termed hircic, capric,
dtc., acids. This is also the reason
why butter spoils unless well worked
before storage to remove all the air
eontained in it.

FAT

I FATTENING ANIMALS. The
accumulation of fat is unquestionably
dependant upon the food in part, but
it also depends upon the disposition
and management of the animal. A
docile breed, as the Durham ox or
China hog, is more easily fattened
than one that is restless. A dispo-
sition to rest and sleep is very neces-
sary, and is encouraged by jilacing
the animals in darkened stalls, allow-
ing them to be seldom troubled, and
supplying rich food often during the
day. As the fat accumulates, the
skin feels very silky and the animal
becomes lethargic; in this state it
should be slaughtered, for otherwise
they become liable to sudden death.
Great attention is necessary to the
cleanliness of the animal, the skin of
which should be curried and washed
to prevent d isease. The food is grad-
ually increased in nutritiousness and
amount of oil it contains, until the
fattening is perfect. It i^ seldom
that the accumulation of weight ex-
ceeds two to two and a half pounds
the day, notwithstanding the ration
is doubled, or three and a half to four
per cent, of the weight of the animal
given in hay, or its equivalent. Small
beasts are fattened more economi-
cally than large ones, and unless the
skin handles well, or is soft and elas-
tic to the touch, the prospects for
rapid fattening are not good. The
length of time necessary to finish the
fattening is four or five months in
oxen, but is less during warm than
cold weather.

FATTENING FOOD. The expe-
rience of farmers has always been in
favour of the doctrine that oily prov-
ender is required to produce fat ;
beech -nuts, linseed -oil cakes, and
corn enjoy the highest reputation,
and are most charged with oil. Lie-
big has, however^ advanced the doc-
trine that farinaceous vegetables, as
the potato, carrot, <Scc., are fattening
from the starch they contain ; but al-
though this may be true physiologi-
cally, yot in ordinary farm manage-
ment it is found cheaper and more
expeditious to use fodders already
coaUining the fat, rather than to

S75

PAU

ynai for tha dower traittlbniiatUm
out of starch.

Fattening food should be well pre-
pared by grinding, and steaming for
bogs. A mush that had become
slightly sour was found to fatten more
expeditiously by Arthur Young than
the fresh food. The following table
giTes the oomparative values of prov-
enders for fattening, by showing the
amount of oil they contain :

Indian corn

. 0 to

per cent, of oil.

Oats ....

. 4 to

Wheat .

. S4to

Bran • • •

. 4 to

Oil cake . .

. 9 to

OIoTer hay

. 4

Meadow hay .
Paaasandbeaaa

. Hto

. Si to

4
3

II
II

Beech mast

. 13 to

Sunflower teod

. 15

Linaeed . .

. U to

•1

Heinp aeed

. 18 to

Straw . . .

. 1 to

These numbers are not constant,
for the amount of oil depends upon
the season, increasing with the brill<
iancy and dryness of the weather.
Potatoes, beets, carrots, turnips, man-
gel wurzel, contain less than one
quarter per cent., and are therefore
not adapted for fattening alone.

The same values are true for but-
ter and milk, except that oil cake im-
parts a bad flavour. Poultry and
pigs are now sometimes fattened in
part on animal fat, as cracklings,
greaves, &c. One of the most suc-
cessful bodies in the list is ground lin-
seed meal, but, considering its other
qualities, corn is the most esteemed.
If the cake or oily seeds are used, it
will be necessary to mix meal, oats,
or pease with them, to preserve the
health of the animal ; five pounds of
cake are a sufficient supply for the day.

FATHOM. A measure of six feet.

FAUCES. The part of the throat
at the root of the tongue.

FAULT. In geology, an interrup-
tion in the continuation of a stratum,
the bed having been broken by an
earthquake and separated. The crev-
ice between the parts is oAen filled
with clay, which forms an impervious
barrier to drainage.

FAUNA. The animals of a coun-
try.

276

FSB

FAUX. The ofsmtig or threat of

monopetalous flowers, like the snap-
dragon, sage, dec.

FAVOSUS (from fatus, a hone^^
comb). Marked like a honey-comb.

FEATHER-BOARDING. Weath-
er-boarding, the edges of the boards
overlapping.

FEATHER-GRASS. SHjta pc»^
nala. A very inferior grass.

FEATHERS. The covering of
birds, answering the purpose and be-
ing of the same composition as the
hair and fur of animals. Goose*
feathers for beds are, in Europe,
plucked in the spring, midsummer,
aiKi September, each parcel being
dried in an oven. If they become
foul, it may be remedied by boiling
them, enclosed in hags, in an abun-
dance of water for a few minutes.
The quiU is prepared by dipping in
a quantity of sand heated to 1^^
Falirenheit, and afterward nibbing it
strongly with flannel until it becomes
clear.

Waste feathers, as a manure, are
precisely of the same value as woolUn
rag9^ which see.

FEBRIFUGE. Any medicine
which allays the heat and violence of
fevers, as lemonade, Seidlitz pow-
ders, tartar emetic, dec.

FECES. Excrements, dregs.

FECULA. Starchy matter.

FECUNDATION. In horticulture,
the act of sprinkling the yellow pow-
der (poilen) of the stamens of one
flower upon the stigma or female or-
gan of another, to produce new vari-
eties of seed, is called artificial fecun-
dation or impregnation. The late
Mr. Andrew Knight obtained in this
way many choice fruits. Varieties
of plants, especially melons, are fre-
quently injured and lost by planting
them near each other, from fecunda-
tion arising from the pollen of one
kind being carried to another by in-
sects or Uie wind. Hence annuals
of the same species set out for seed
should be placed far apart.

FEED. The quantity of proven-
der or ration allowed a htirsc, cow,
dec. Growing animals require three
per cent. ; working horses, two ;

FEL

FEN

mfl^ cowB» tfaiee ; and ftttenin; an*

imals three and a half to four per
cent, of tlieir weight in liay or its
eqaivalent. See Fodder,

FEELERS. The antenns of in-
sects, or, according to entomologists,
organs fixed to the mouth, uaed for
prehension.

FEUNE ANIMALS. Beasts of
the tiger, lion, and cat race. They
are carniTorous, furnished with sharp
incisor teeth, and retractile daws.

FELL, The hide of an animal.

FELLING TIMBER. Much dis-
cussion has arisen as to the time of
felling timber, some contending for
winter, others for summer. l3uba-
rael, who examined the matter thor-
oughly, came to the conclusion that
the time of cutting was of little or no
importance on the durability of the
tiinber. The rule now established is,
that soli woods, as the elm, poplar,
maple, willows, are best cut in win-
ter, the harder trees in summer, and
old trees may be cut at any time.

FELLINIC ACID. One of the
acids found in bite by Berzelius.

FELLMONGER'S POAKE, or
CLIPPINGS. The clippings of skins
wad the scrapings of leather. It con-
tains hair, skin, and lime, and is best
introduced into composts to increase
the amount of nitrogen. A direct ap-
plication is wasteful, for it decays
rapidly.

FELLOES. The curved pieces of
wood which form the circumference
of wheels : ash is preferred for this
purpose.

FEIX)N, or FETLOW. In farri-
ery, a term for a sort of inflammation
in animals similar to that of whitlow
in the human subject. '

FELDSPAR. A common mineral
abounding in granite and transition
rocks ; it is crystaUtne, of a pearly lus-
tre, and of vanous colours, usually
of a yellowish or reddish aspect. It
is a silieate of potash and alumina,
containing from eleven to fourteen
per cent, of real potash, and furnish-
ing, by slow decay in the soil, that
important alkali to plants. Albite is
a variety containing soda. An abun-
daJBce of decaying vegetable matter

A 4

in the soil, or the addition of hesiy
dressings of lime, assists the disen-
gagement of the potash, and thus ad-
vances fertility. No soil which con-
tains much feldspathic sand can be
deficient in potash.

FEMUR. The thigh bone ; hence
FtmcrtU.

FEN. A boggy or marshy i^ace.
See Bog,

FENCES. Erections to protect
land from the trespass of cattle. They
are called live fences, or hedges, when
made of shrubs. See Hedge*.

Wood, being so common, is usual-
ly employed in the United States;
but walla of blasted rock or looso
stones are frequently seen. Stumps
form an admirable fencing material.
Banks of earth, dug from a ditch and
covered with sods, or a ditch only,
are also used ; in the prairies they
would, perhaps, be cheaper than raU
fencing. These structures are, how
ever, very expensive, and should be
diminished by the introduction of the
system of soiling.

Wooden fences are commonly
erected in the zigzag direction ; the
cross fence, consisting of one piece
set slanting upon two others stuck
into the ground, and made to cross
near the top, is much less permanent.
The post and rail is very superior,
but more expensive, but, by using pre*
served timber, might be made imper-
ishable. See Pretervation of Tim'
her,. Railings are readily rived from
straight pine, but look much neater
when sawn. In Virginia the law re*
quires a fence of ten rails, with ri-
ders, which is unnecessarily high ;
five rails, with riders, being used in
Jersey. The rails are cu 1 1 wel ?e feet
long. A rod costs from 50 to 70 cents.

Hurdles, or light moveable fences,
consisting of panels, about four feet
long and tour feet and a half high, are
much used in Europe to confine
sheep, each panel being furnished
with two end pieces long enough to be
stuck fast into the earth. They are
tied together, when set up, with
withes. Sometimes they are made
of osier, but usually of any small
wood. By means of them, turnips

877

FENCES.

spring rye, &c., can be depastured.
A light post and rail fence may be
made moveable by furnishing the
posts with feet. Light iron and wire
hurdles are now introduced in Eng-
land, and also iron rods passed
through wooden posts for permanent
fences.

Walls are put up at fifty cents to
one dollar the rod. The following
is from Law :

«* The stone wall may either be form-
ed of stones built without cement, or
it may be built with mortar like com-
mon masonry ; but the last of these
methods is rarely practised with the
common fences of a farm. The ce-
menting of the stones with mortar
adds, indeed, to the durability of the
wall, but then the expense is too
great in common cases. The wall,
therefore, for the ordinary purposes
of the farm, may generally be built
of stones alone, though sometimes
with a little mortar, merely for ce-
menting the coping, and occasional-
ly for pinning or closing the inter-
stices of the outside. When stones
cannot be obtained, brick may be sub-
stituted.

" The materials for building the dry
stone wall, as this kind of wall is
termed, may be sandstone, whin-
stone, or any other stones of suffi-
cient durability. Loose stones taken
from the surface, termed land stones,
answer sufficiently well, if they be
of proper size, and not too much
rounded ; but in the latter case they
present too smooth a surface, and
cannot be kept in their places with-
out mortar.

"The implements to be used in
building the dry stone wall are a ma-
son's hammer, a spade or shovel for
clearing the ground for a foundation, a
pick or mattock, and a frame of two
upright posts fixed together, so as to
correspond with a vertical section of
a portion of the wall.

•♦ The line of the intended fence be-
ing fixed upon and marked on the
ground, the stones for building should
be brought forward, and laid down on
both sides, if possible, of the line of
fence, but if not, on one side.
278

** Pins being fixed In the centre of
the space to be occupied by the wall,
the workman proceeds Uius : he car-
ries his wooden frame to smne dis-
tance along the line to be built upon ;
he sets it perpendicular, which he i*
enabled to do by means of a plumb-
line attached to it. He then fixes
another similar frame at the place
where the wall is to oommence ; he
stretches two cords between these
two frames on the outside, and as
these cords correspond with the out-
side of the wall at a given height, he
has a guide for building it of the
required dimensions. After haying
built one portion, he uses only one
frame, the wall itself serving after-
ward the part of a frame ; for the
cords being fixed to both side^of the
wall, and then attached to the frame
which is placed in advance, the work-
man has, as before, a guide by which
he proceeds in building.

" The foundation of the wall should
be laid on firm ground, and when
there is not green sward to build
upon, the loose earth shouhl be taken
out by the spade, until a solid found-
ation is arrived at. In building, the
largest and flattest stones should be
used for the foundation ; and it is
very desirable, if the materials used
will allow, to place stones at inter-
vals of sufilcient size to lie across
the breadth of the wall, so as to bind
the wall together, and render it more
secure.

** Different kinds of coping may be
placed upon the wall to defend it.
One of these consists merely of turf,
two sods being laid upon the wall,
with the earthy sides placed towards
each other. Another species of cop-
ing consists of large stones, which,
being closely built and wedged togeth-
er, are cemented by mortar. This is
a complete and durable species of
coping ; but when it is used, a row
of fiat stones should be laid on t^ie
top of the wall immediately beneath
the coping, and made to projee^ a lit-
tle on each side of it.

*• A wall, sufficient for tixe put poses
of the farm, may be 32 inches wide
at bottom, 16 inches wide at top, and,

FEN

FER

inelnding the eoiiiog, 4i feet high.
Two good cart-loads of stones will
suffice for building a yard.

** When a fence is required within
sight of a dwelling, and it is desira-
ble for it to be concealed, a deep
ditcb is sometiuies dug, and a fence
placed in the bottom of it at such a
depth as not to appear above the lev-
el of the ground. This is called a
sunk fence. Sometimes a wall is
built against a perpendicular side of
a ditch, and some very light fence is
placed obliquely outward near the
top of it and level with the ground.
This is called a ha-ha fence, a name
given to it from the surprise excited
in a person unacquainted with it,
when he suddenly finds himself on
the top of a wail with a deep ditch
before him. When it is desired to
keep ofiT sheep or cattle from a lawn
or pleasure-ground without obstruct-
ing the view of the park or- the fields,
the ha* ha fence is very oseAil."

Some persons recommend division
fences for every ten acres, but this is
ridiculously small, for it is not to be
forgotten that the fence requires some
room, hinders close ploughing, and
this probably reduces the enclosure by
one third to one half an acre, which,
in a farm of two hundred acres, would
amount to ten acres. Thirty or for-
ty acre lots, except on small farms,
are small enough.

FENESTRATE. In entomology^
the appearance produced by the trans-
parent spots on the wings of some in-
sects. In botany, the absence of tis-
8oe between the veins of a leaf

FENNEL, COMMON. Meum fa-
nictdum. This is a well-known bienni-
al plant, cultivated in kitchen gardens
as a garnish, and used as a domestic
medicine. The taste and aromatic
qualities of the garden fennel are well
known. The sweet and warm seeds
are a common carminative for infants.

FENNEL, SWEET. FiBmadum
dulee. This species of fennel is an an-
nual plant, a native of Italy and Por-
tugal, where it is cultivated as a pot-
herb, as well as for the seeds and the
oil which these afford. It is a small-
er plant than the common fennel. The

stem is somewhat eoropressed at (hi
base. . The fruit is much longer than
that of the common fennel, being near-
ly five lines long, less compressed,
somewhat curved, and paler, with a
greenish tinge.

FENUGREEK. Trigonellafanum*
grtecum. Fenugreek is a species of
trefoil, sometimes cultivated in fields
for its seed ; but it yields a very un-
certain crop. The stem is a foot
high, erect, with round, branched
stalks, trifoliate leaves, toothed ; the
flowers small and white ; the fruit a
sessile, straight, erect, acuminate,
flat pod, containing a number of yel-
lowish seeds having a strong, disa-
greeable smell, and an unctuous, far-
inaceous, and somewhat bitter taste.
These seeds are useful in cataplasms
and fomentations.

FENUGREEK, RUSSIAN. Trig-
onella ntthenica. A hardy perennial,
native of Siberia, with yellow papil-
ionaceous blossoms in July and Au-
gust. It loves a strong loamy soil
and an open situation. It is propa
gated either by parting the roots in
spring or from seed.

FERMENT. A substance in the
state of decay which is capable of
communicating fermentation and sim-
ilar changes to other bodies. Fer-
ments contain nitrogen, and are pri-
marily derived from albumen, fibrin,
or casein, which, when moist, decay
spontaneously. The product of the
ferment depends upon temperature,
amount of water, access of air, and
other conditions. These actions can
only originate in organic matter, but
ferments act upon inoi^nic substan-
ces, as mixtures of gases, &c. Fer-
ments become exhausted in acting
upon other bodies, from their own
decay. For common ferment, see
Yeast.

FERMENTATION. Whenafer-
ment, as yeast, is brought in contact
with grape sugar, and several other
principles, mixed with water, and at
a temperature of 70° or upward, the
sugar is changed, and gives off car-
bonic acid, alcohol being produced;
this change is attended with consid-
erable movement in the mixture, and

279

FfiR

F£R

is eaOed fennecitatioii. Tb« produet

of fermentation is various : when alco-
hol is formed it is called vittotu ; when
staroh is c(jnTerlcd into sugar, as in
bi ead-making,«acc Aann£. Lactic acid
fermentation is when that substance
is produced from sugar ; puirefaciive
fermentation, which occurs in dung-
hills, takes place when nitrogen is an
ingredient in the decaying matter.

Fermentation is a chemical change,
whereby complex organic bodies are
converted into more simple forms ;
thus, sugar is changed into carbonic
acid and alcohoL It differs from
tremacausis, in the circumstance that
oxygen is only absorbed in the begin-
ning, and tiiat the changes take place
in an abundance of water. The prin-
cipal products of fermentation are
water, carbonic acid, alcohol, and car-
buret of hydrogen. When nitrogen
is present, ammonia, with fetid gass-
es, containing sulphur and phospho-
rus, are also exhaled. The heat is
a result of these changes. The de-
cay is hastened by warmth and an
abundance of yeast ; it is retarded by
excessive moisture, and so high a
temperature as to coagulate the fer-
ments. Those bodies which absorb
oxygen rapidly, as green vitriol, hin-
der fermentation by intercepting tiie
first change: these are called arui-
seplicM. Mineral acids also destroy
the activity of ferments.

Sugar, starch, woody fibre, &^.,
cannot ferment spontaneously, for
they contain no nitrogen ; they are,
however, csLWedfermcniabt^. The jui-
ces of fruits, trees, canes, dec, rapidly
ferment, because, besides sugar, they
contain albumen, casein, or fibrin,
which, decaying easily, conveys the
change to the fermentable matter
present ; but their fermentation may
be hindered by adding a little lime,
boiling down to a sirup, or otherwise
coagulating or solidifying the de-
structive nitrogen principles.

In consequence of the continuance
of fermentation, irrespective of ac-
cess of air, fluids in this state must
not be barrelled up tightly, or the car-
bonic acid gas may burst the vessel ;
but by lowering the temperature to

280

45° Fahrenheit (1^ placieg m a cel-
lar), separating all the yeast, or fu'*
migating the cask with vapour of sul-
phur, it may be considerably or alto-
gether arrested. The vinous fer-
mentation runs into the acetous if
the substances are freely exposed to
air, as cider or beer in an open cask.
See Beert Cider.

FERNS, FILICES. Flowerless
plants, with beautifully -developed
leaves, bearing their seed-vessels on
the lower side. They are crypto-
gamia in the system of Liansus, and
acotyledonous in that of Jussieu.
They have little economical value,
grow in wet or rocky situations, and
serve well enough for packing, in the
place of straw, or to increase the
amount of yard manure.

FERROCYANATE OF POT-
ASH. A yellow, crystalline salt, also
called Prussiate of potash, the solu-
tion of which is used as a test for pe-
roxide of iron in solution, with which
it strikes a beautiful blue, being, in-
deed, Prussian blue. It is also used
in the laboratttry as a test for copper
and other metals, and to form various
compounds of cyanogen from.

FERRUGINOUS (from/<rr«m,
iron). Containing iron, or of the col-
our of rust. Ferruginous waters are
also called chalybeates, and much es-
teemed as tonics. Ferruginous Stiils,
when friable, are fre<}ueatly vers fer
tile and improveable.

FERRUGO. Also Rubigo, Rusi z
it is a species of uredo.

FERRE'I'. A useful animal of the
weasel kind ; the Mustcla/uro {Fig.'j
of naturalists. It is domesticated in

jf^^'

r:^.;^l

Europe for the destruction of rats,
rabbits, and other small vermin, and
might be usefully employed in the
United States in granaries.

*' It procreates twice a year, and
brings from six to eight young ; smells
very fetid. The ferret is very aus
ceptible of cold, and must b« kept in

PBT

FBV

a box provided wHIi wool or other
warm materials, and may be fed with
bread and milk. Its sleep is long and
prolbttBd, and it awake9 with a Yora-
doos appetite, which is most highly
minified by the blood of small and
young animals. Its enmity to rats
and rabbila is unspeakable, and when
either are, though for the first time,
presented to it, it seizes and bites
them with the roost phrensied mad-
ness. When employed to expel the
rabbit from its burrows it must be
iDiazied, aa otherwise it will sock
the blood of its Tietim, and instantly
fail into a profound sleep, from which
it will awake only to the work of de-
struetioD, committing in the warren,
where it was introduoed only for its
services, the most dreadful waste and
ha TOO. It is possessed of high irri-
tability, and when particularly exci-
ted, is attended with an odour ex-
tremely oSeaaiwe.'^^Loudon.)

Ferrets are used in granaries and
out-buildings to destroy rats. They
are muzsled and slipped into the hole,
from which they drive the animals,
whicb are then oanght by terriers or
other vermin dogs. It is customary
to hunt in the morning, when the
rats are less active and asleep in their
holes.

FESCUE GRASSES. The genus
FettucA, containing several valuable,
permanent grasses, of which the F.
jn-ateTuis, meadow fescue, and dari-
«c#a«/tf, bard fescne, are the best. See
Grasses. The characters of the ge-
nus are, triandria, digynia, flowers in
panides, corolki armed, seeds ad-
nate ; calyx two-vaived, many-flow-
ered; spikelets compressed, round-
ish, awniess, or with a terminal awn ;
corolla sub-round, upper valve acute,
with a sharp bristle at the tip, or mu-
cronate, seed growing to the ooroUa.
The valuable kinds are either indi-
genous, or have beoome naturalized ;
all the festucas are nutritious.

FETLOCK. ** The part of the leg
where the tuft of hair grows behind
the pastern joint of horses : those of
low size have scarcely any tnd. In
working horses^ which have them
largOt care ^lould. be taken to keep

Xa9

them clean in order to prevent the
grease. The fetlock joint is a veiy
complicated one, and from the stress
which is laid on it, and its being the
principal seat of motion below the
knee, it is particularly subject to in-
jury. An affection of this part should
be well fomented and immediately
blistered. "—< Clater. )

FEVERS. A disease, one of the
most general symptoms of which is
increased heat of the body, and often
the sensations of heat, dryness, and
even burning of the skin are exces-
sive, independent of any proportional
increase of temperature^ Their ori-
gin is in the nervous system. In fe-
vers there is generally great consti-
tutional derangement, unaccomp&*
nied by local or perceptible organic
disease. Fevers generally begin with
languorof body and mind ; chilliness,
amounting to shivering, though the
skin often, at the same time, feels hot
the pulse is quicker than it should
be ; respiration hurried or laboured ;
pains are complained oC in various
parts, and especially about the head,
back, and loins ; the appetite falls off,
or there is nausea and vomiting ; the
mouth is dry ; the bowels generally
constipated, and the urine small in
quantity and deep in colour. These,
which constitute the first stage, or
ordinary febrile symptoms, are suc-
ceeded by alternate flushings, a quick-
er and fuller pulse, rapid alternations
of shivering and burning heat, and by
mental anxiety and wandering, which,
under a great variety of aspects and
modifications, constitute the second
stage; they are succeeded by the
third stage, in which the leading ap-
pearances are a cleaner tongue, a
more natural pulse, a moist skin,
calm mind, and the urine becomes
more copious in quantity, and de-
positee a sediment as it cools. The
symptoms of fever generally undergo
an increase every evening, which is
called an exacerbation ; and this fluc-
tuation often takes place more than
once in the twenty-four hours, the
violence of the attacks increasing
with their occurrenoc, and forming
what is called a coniinued fever. Ah

881

FIE

ter some days, a crtMis takes place,
that is, the symptoms either take a
favourable or an unfavoarable turn.
If the exacerbation and remission of
symptoms are well marked, and oc-
cur on<^e or oftener in the day, the
fever is called a remittent ; if the fe-
ver leaves the patient after some
hours* duration, and returns at sta-
ted intervals, it is called an intermit-
tent, as ague. Fevers are also ra-
riousiy denominated, according to the
prevalent symptoms, as injlammatoryy
typhus or putrid, nervous fever, &c. ;
or according to cutaneous appearan-
ces connected with them, such as
scarlet fever and yellow fever.

lo the first stage, sweating med-
icines and purges, with bleeding,
are useful ; subsequently, medicines
which calm the nervous system are
used. Calomel, in a dose of 10 grains
for a man. is often useful ; but in
fevers attended with great debility,
bleeding is injurious, and stimulants,
especially carbonate of ammonia {sal
volatile), and wines, are essential.

FEVERFEW. Species of Py-
rethrum; they are very similar, and
may replace chamomile, especially
the P. parlhenium. Several bear or-
namental flowers. They occasion-
ally become troublesome perennial
weeds, difficult to extirpate, except
by repeated harrow ings.

FIBRE, VEGETABLE. SeejLtg--
nin.

FIBRIN. The principal constitu-
ent of muscles ; it also exists in
blood and some vegetables. When
pure, it is white, inodorous, and in-
soluble, and, if perfectly dry, can be
kept for any time, but when moist, it
putrefies rapidly. See Protein.

FIBULA. The outer thin bone of
the fore leg.

FlCOIDEiE. Tropical plants re-
scmbling the cactuses, inhabiting
sandy plains.

FICUS. The generic name of

on an arable farm ; they are aeldooi
less than 20 acres, and in large farms
become 60 or more.

FIELD MICE {AvieoU agrtstts,
Cuvier, the short-tailed ; Mu* sylvati-
eus, Linneus, the long-tailed apeciea).
They are a great naisance to or-
chairds, stripping oflT the bark near
the groond, and causing the death of
the trees. Tarring the paria is said
to protect them ; the introduction of
a new ring of sound bark^ the two
being made to fit closely^ after the In-
j ury, will oflen save the trees. Crowa,
hawks, owls, weasles, cats, and ter-
rier dogs, as well as traps, are ofien
insufficient to subdue these peats.
The following method was found very
successful in England after all others
had failed : pits were dug 18 iochea
deep, two feet long, and 18 inches wide
at the bottom, but with the sides in-
clined, so as to be only 16 inches long
at the top and nine inches wide. Thtj
holes were made 20 feet apart each
way, and were so successful that oft-
en 16 mice were taken in one dnring
a single night : the mice failing in,
-were unable to escape up the incUned
sides.

FIG. Ficus carica. Upward of 40
varieties are published of this fruit ;
of these, the Marseilles, early wliite,
large white Genoa, purple €renoa, and
Brunswick are worthy of cultivatioa.
Most of these bear two crops in the
season, from August to October. la
the Northern States they require pro-
tection by glass or matting during
winter, but may be cultivated as
standards in Virginia and other parts
of the South. The Malu is worthy
of cultivation in the South as a crop,
the fruit drying of itself on the tree
if left, and becoming a fine s>^et^
meat. Figs are readily propagated
by cuttings, layers, suckers, roots, or
seeds. The layers will bear in one
or two years. As standards, they
are planted six to eight feet apart, in

the fig ; hence >:arta, resembling the i a diy, loamy soil. The fruit is hast-
fig. j ened in ripening by pricking with a

FIELD LARK. All the family of , quill dipped in sweet oil, and is pre-
larks arc devourers of grain, and | served for commerce by inimersiag

therefore injurious to the farmer.
FIELDS. The enclosures made

282

for a moment in boiling lye.
The fig is peculiarly manageable.

PIL

FIL

th« 8!ze and abandaikee of the frail
being almost entirely in the hands of
the orchardist. By girding the atem-
Toot, praning, summer pruning the
ends of the bearing branches, the
abundance and beauty of the fruit are
increased. I n a stove it may be made
to bear through the winter, so as to
supply a constant succession. In
pruning the ends of branches the
juice vr'xW escape, unless the twig be
first pressed between the thumb and
finger till the tissues give way, and al-
lowing it to wither before removal.
Fig-trees are very liabte to become
luxuriant in foliage, bearing little
fruit ; this habit cannot be remedied
by pruning the branches only, for this
is calculated to increase their num-
ber; it is best rectified by training
the branches horizontally, or even
bending them downward by wires
made fast to their extremities and
to the ground or stem of the tree.
Standards are pruned into a single
stem and horizontal branches. The
fig is remarkably free from insects.
The tree is frequently taken op and
laid down under three or four inches
of earth for the winter, being set up
in April. The wood is extremely
hard and durable, being used for pol-
ishing metals when charged with em-
ery.

FILARIA. A genus of intestinal
worms, resembling a thread in ap-
pearance.

FILATURE. A reel arrangement
for raw silk. See Silk.

FILBERT. Corj/lusaTcllana. This
sweet and valuable nut could, with
the fig, be readily made an object of
exportation, or. at least, raised suffi-
ciently to supply the great demand at
home. As it is not much known, we
insert a description of the t>e8t varie-
ties:

1 . Rao Filbert. — Stem of the fruit
red, superior in flavour to the white,
but less prolific : requires light loam.

2. White Fflbbrt. — An abundant
bearer and hardy plant. The husk
of the fruit is long and tubular, con-
tracted near the top, so as to hinder
the fruit falling oot.

3. Co6FoBO.-^An improved hazel,

the fruit deeply mtilied and almost
conical.

4. Babcvlona, or Labob Cob. — ^A
large nut, much esteemed for keep-
ing, but often a shy bearer.

6 The Frizzled Filbert. — ^The
husk is frizzed and ornamental. It
is a modern esteemed variety.

The C. Americana is an indigenoas
species, bearing a sweet but small nUt.
The white is the market variety in
England, and the Barcelona in Spain.
Filberte require a deep, light, but nat-
urally fertile soil, without putrescent
manures. They should be grown as
dwarf standards, set eight feet apart ;
the suckers and lower shoots which
they constantly throw out should be
restrained. They are propagated
most readily from suckers, but may
be grafted on seed stocks early in
April. The amount of fruit yielded
depends in a great measure upon pru-
ning ; for, naturally, the tree expends
itself in producing under-wood. Af-
ter raising the standard, with a low
stem of twelve to eighteen inches,
the branches must be pruned to the
horizontal or pendant form : the lead-
ing shoots are annually shortened by
two thirds ; the front twigs are also
summer-pruned, and all the spurs that
have fruited removed in the winter
or spring. It bears on ^nrs thrown
out from the last year's wood. The
fruit is ripe when the busk is turned
brown ; if intended for long keeping,
the filberts are allowed to hang until
fully brown, then dried by exposure
to the sun, and placed in barrels with
dry sand. An acre yields 800 to 1 000
pounds of fruit. They bear in the
fourth or fifth year.

The nut is assailed by a corculio
in sttUimn, which may be seen boring
the fruit to deposite its egg, and can
be destroyed by shaking the tree and
allowing chickens to eat the insect
when fallen to the ground.

The filbert and hazel-nut (C. gyhe*-
tris) are distinct species, but by cnU
tivation have become nearly mixed.

FILIFORM. Thread-like.

FILLY. A young mare.

FILTRATION. The separation
of the clear portions of a aolution or

1PJR

mixtiiro from the praoipitale or diegs,

by passing through a close tissue.
For chemical purposes, wiuu blotting
papei. called ^^«rt»^ paper, is used,
folded into a conical form, and placed
on a funnel. The fluid which runs
through is called theJUiratc. In quan-
titative analysis the lilteFB are weigh-
ed before use, and when properly
dried with the precipitate, and re-
weighed, give the amount of the lat-
ter with the best results. Sometimes
tiie paper is burned with the precipi-
tate, the known weight of its ash-
es being deducted from the whole
weight. For common purpoaes, stoat
cotton cloth or porous earthen-ware
are used

FIMBRIATE (from /miria, a
fringe). Any long, fringe-like mar-
gin to animal or Tegetable organs.

FIN. The catting plate fixed be-
fore the mould-board of a plough, and
answering for a coulter.

FINCH£D. In stock, marked with
white streaks.

FINGER GRASS. Digitaria
9angmnali», An unimportant plant,
sometimes erroneously called cocks-
foot. See Grr€»ses.

FINGERS AND TOES. Seeiifi-
hury.

I^INOS. Second best wool from
Merinos. ^

FIORIN. Agro9ti» stoloHtfera. A
creeping, bent perennial grass. It
was over-estimated by Richardson,
and is unsuited for rotations, from its
vivacious nature. See Grasses.

FIR. The European popular name
for tlie larger pine-trees. See Pine.

FIRE-BUGHT, FIRING. When
the leaves of a growing plant or tree
become brown and dead, either in
part or entirely, it is said to be fired
or fire-blasted. It is distinctly due
to three causes : 1st. When it occurs
in the lower leaves of a tall vegeta-
ble, the leaves have performed their
office, and are no longer supplied with
sap, and therefore die ; 2d. It attacks
growing leaves in spots or blotches :
this is especially the case with to-
bacco, hops, 6lc. In tliese cases the
weather has been wet and moist for
aome time^and becomes suddenly very

FI8

hot; the firing oocm la July uuA

August, during the hottest seasoiL.
There is no doubt here that the first
excess of sap during the wet days
has raptured the skin of the leaf or
otherwise disorganised it, and the hot
sun dries up the part, causing its
death. 3d. The fire-blight of pear
and other fruit trees is demonstrahly
due to numberless apAi^t, which*
suddenly assailing the upper branch-
es, destroy the leaves by their poaoi-
tares, which then become brown hy
the action of the sun. The only r&*
source is to prune the branches so ii^
fested, and destroy them at once.

fire-damp. The infiammable
gas of bituminous ooal-minea. Car-
burets of hydrogen.

FIRE-FANGED. Dried up. When
manure, or composts, in which heat
is generated, become too hot, the
parts assume a baked appearance and
ashy colour, and are said to be fire-
fanged. The compoats should he to-
ken to pieces, mixed with a qoantity
of moist garden or fine soil, and put
up in less heaps.

FIRE-FLY. ElaUr noetihunu Aa
herbivorous insect of the olick or
spring beetle fenua,

FIRING. In farriery, a heathen-
ish application of red»hot irons, prac-
tised by ignorant and brutal men, lor
the removal of sprains, dco. Its use
almost amounts to a confession (kf
ignorance.

FIRKIN. A measure of S638 cu-
bic inches, or 7^ imperial gallons, he>
ing the fourth part of a beer barrel.
Butter is packed in barrels called fir>
kins, but weighed, not measured.

FIRLOT. A provincial, Scotck
dry measure. The wheat firlot ia
only i^ths of the bushel ; the barley
firlot IS nearly U bushel.

FISH. On the seacoast fish ia
abundantly used as manure. The
most comnKin way is to spread the
fish, and plough under in the course
of a few days. The application made
by the English farmers is from twen-
ty-five to forty husliels per acre, but
on Long Island much more is employ*
ed. This is, however, an extrava*
gant way of using them. The beat

F»

wwf i» that adopted Ij Mr. Seely and
Dr. Akerly on Staten Island, of strew-
ing them in layers on compost beds
with peat, ashes, slacked lime, cbar-
coalp and vegetahle matter. Daring
m few mont^ the animal matter of
the fish is decomposed, and con-
verted into ikh ammooiacal manures
wi^oat any offensive smell, and
when it comes to be added to the soil,
twenty boshels go farther and do
iDure service than forty otherwise ap-
plied. All fish, sea nrcbins, crabs,
shell-fish, &c., are of the greatest
use, the animal matter beiog nearly
identieal in ultimate composition.

The fish owes its fertilizing effects
to the animal matter and bone earth
it contains. The ibrmer is precise^
ly similar to flesh or blood, consist-
ing of 25 per cent, fibrin, the rest
b^g water. 100 pounds in decay-
ing produce 2^ pounds of ammonia,
hence 400 pounds rotted in compost
are enough for an acre. It may be ap-
plied with seed in drills, broad-cast
over grass, wheat, 6lc. The great
effect is due to the ammoniacal por-
tion, for it renders the herbage dark-
green, and starts it very rapidly. Ar-
thur Yonog mentions several cases
wttere fish caused the Strang to grow
80 rapidly and long as to lodge ; it
should, therefore, b& applied to well-
titled lands, which yield fall grain.
The refuse of fish prepared for salt-
ing is a valuable manure.

The refuse blubber, alter pressing
whale oil, coarse fats, train oil, has
been used very successfully in com-
posts on lands, but is very inferior
to whole fish, which 19, indeed, one of
the finest manures known. In these
eases composts are made with fine
earth, coal ashes, or as above.

FISH-PONDS. Breeding and pre-
serving fish in ponds is, in Germany
and other states of Europe, an ex-
tensive and lucrative employment. In
the United States it is a matter of
luxury worthy of attention. Feed i ng
or preserving ponds are without any
lemarkable peculiarity, except suffi-
cient depth to allow enough water to
remain unfrozen during winter ; by
embanking any spring branch such a

pond can be iHrodoced. Breeding
ponds are not always so successful ;
they should contain shoals for the
young, be fed by a pure stream, oft-
en of soft water, and running upon
a clean bottom ; the shoals should be
covered with rushes, and kept free
from fowl, eels, and newts. The
number of young produced, even by
six spawners and three or four males
to the acre, is such that predacious
fish are introduced to thin them ; for
this purpose, trout and perch are much
better than pike or pickerel, which
latter find their way to the shoals and
devour the spawn as well as the
young. The contents of the breed-
ing pond may be let off into a seriea
of feeding ponds lying on a lower lev-
el. Perch and trout succeed togeth-
er, but not with pike. Carp and tench
are very easily raised in the same
pond. Mr. PeU has cultivated shad
in fresh water, and the flounder has
also been naturalized in England. As
a matter of course, on the seashore,
salt-water ponds and fish can be pro-
cured. Pike and picker^ may be
raised and preserved in a series of
three or four ponds, being fed upon
any small, common fish, which should
be replaced as often as they are much
destrojred.

The spawning season is from May
to June, aecording to the fish, and
the young should remain until the
next year before removal to the sec-
ond pond, where they remain two
years, and are left to mature in the
third. The last pond is often provi-
ded with a flood-gate, so that it can
be effectually dragged by placing a
net in this situation before letting ofl
the waters. Another arrangement
for securing the large fish only is to
give the last pond such a figure as to
allow a trap to be placed between two
parts, so that all of a certain size are
confined above or taken by the trap.
The sides of the pcjnds should be shel-
tered by willows, elms, or other or-
namental trees. The removal of the
fish from one pond to another is
made by dragging with fine nets.

The size of the fish will depend
upon the amount left to the acre. In

885

ris

tlic second or nursing ponds 1000 to
1200 carp and IfiOO tench will be
enough per acre, and in the third pond
400 to 600 will be enough : these va-
rieties will inhabit muddy waters.
The perch and trout require clear wa-
ters; 600 to the acre is an abun-
dance. The Tarieties of fine bass,
especially the Otsego, should be cul-
tivated. Eels are worthy of jionds,
and can be raised without any diffi-
culty. Pike are to be cautiously ex-
cluded from ponds containing any of
the foregoing fish, and all breeding
places. The tench, carp, gold-fish,
and gudgeon are frequently fed with
meal, bread, and similar vegetable
matters, when raised in small, heav-
ily-stocked ponds. One pond answers
well enough with all these kinds ex-
cept pike and pickerel.

FISSIPAROUS GENERATION.
That kind of generation which exists
io polypes, hydras, dtc, in which the
parent throws oat buds, or gemmules,
which grow like itself, and are finally
detached.

FISSIROSTRALS. A tribe of
perching birds with a very wide gape,
as the swallow.

FiSTl) LA. ** A long, sinous ulcer,
often commuDicaiing with a larger
cavity, and having a small external
opening.

*' All animals are liable to fistulas,
but the horse more particularly so ;
they attack the withers and the poll.
They are produced by blows, by brai-
ses from the saddle, and whatever
causes inflammation ; also by the
presence of extraneous substances.

" In curing this disease, it is requi-
site, in the first instance, to ascertain
the direction the fistula pursues, and
whether it materially interferes with
any of the larger blood- vessels, so as
to render a full incision into the parts
a matter of too much hazard to be
attempted. When secure from any
danger of this nature, the most effect-
ual practice is to lay the fistula, or
fistulas, when more than one, so thor-
oughly open as to have a complete
view of their internal surfaces. It is
not, however, necessary in the sim-
ple sinus, where the matter is in a

FLA

healthy state, and requires only a suf-
ficient passage, but in cases where
the discharge, by having been long
detained, indurates and corrodes the
contiguous parts ; as the means fuQy
adequate to remove the former avail
little in the radical cure of tne latter,
a more severe practice, of course, be-
comes necessary,

*• When the fistular cavities have
been fully laid open by the knife, they
should be dressed with powerful caus-
tic compositions, until the wound pre-
sents a healthy appearance. Clean-
liness, with more mild applications
should now be had recourse to, taking
care that the wound be not closed be-
fore the cavities are properly and uni-
formly healed."

FIXED AIR. Carbonic acid. So
called from its fixed condition in
chalk, marble, &c.

FIXED OILS. Such as are not
volatile. t5ee Expressed Oils.

FLAGELUFORM (from fiag^U
lumy a whip). A runner, or trailing
stem, is so called.

FLAIL. A wooden implement for
threshing grain, consisting of a han-
dle, fastened by leather thongs to a
moveable stick or swiple. It is a
slow metts of thrashing gram, and
seldom used except for beans, which
are rapidly beaten out.

FLAKE WHITE. Pure white-
lead.

FLAME. The burning gases of
vapours given off from fuel.

FLANDERS HUSBANDRY.
** Flanders was remarkable for the
cultivation of its soil long before any
other country north of the Alps or
Pyrenees. This was the natural con-
sequence of its commercial prosperi-
ty ; and although very little chdnge
has taken place, and very few im-
provements have been introduced lor
more than a century, it still ranks
foremost among agricultural Coun-
tries.

" It is not the richness of the soil
which is the cause of the abundant
harvests which the Flemish peasants
reap, but their indefatigable industry.
The greater part of the land in Flan-
ders is naturally poor ; and in exien-

PLANDGR8 HUSBANDRY.

MTedktriots, which now have the ap-
pearance of the greatest richness at
harvest-time, the original soil was
once little better than the blowing
sands which are met with in the
neighbourhood of the sea. Neither
is it a genial clicnate which brings for-
ward the fruits of the earth in abun-
dance ; for the cUroate is inferior to
that of France or the southern parts
of Germany.

" The soil may be divided into two
classes. The first consists of the al-
luvial clay-loamanear the coast ; the
second, of various sands and light
Joams which are found in the interi-
or. The most fertile is that of the
lowlands which have been reclaimed
from the sea by embankments : it is
(^iefly composed of a muddy deposite
mixed with fragments of marine shells
and fine sea-sand. These lands are
called polders, and their great natu-
ral fertility causes them to be cultt-
vaied with less art and industry
than those lands which are much in-
ferior.

" The cultivation in the polders has
nothing remarkable to entitle it to
much notice. Barley seems peculi-
arly suited to the soil, and very heavy
erope of this grain are obtained, es-
pecially In those polders which* hav-
ing been more lately embanked, are
not mncheiLhausted. Eight, and even
ten quarters per acre have been ob-
tained with little or no manure, and
the second erop of barley sown in
suoeessioB has often been the best.
Oats are also very prodoctive and of
good qualiAy, from ten to twelve quar-
ters per acre. Bat these heavy crops
soon reduce the natural fertility, and
alter a fewyears the produce is great-
ly diminished, and the land requires to
be recruited by mannre and cleansed
by (allows. The nsnal rotation of
crops in the polders ccmsista of, 1.
Winter barley after a fallow ; %,
Beans ; 9. Wheat ; 4. Flax ; 6. Glo-
ver; 6. Potatoes. If the potatoes
have a favourable season, and the
laod can be cleared of weeds, the ro-
tation begins again without a fallow
year; bnt this is seldom the case,
and the land is uanally iaUowed oace

in six years. The orope here mefr
tioned are occasionally varied accord-
ing to circumstances and manure, as
well as the small quantity uf dung
made on the farm will permit. The
polder farmer seldom thinks of pur-
chasing manure, and even the ashes
made by burning weeds are usually
sold» to be sent to the poorer sandy
soils, where their eflects are more
perceptible. When the polders have
been too much exhausted, they are
frequently laid down to grass, and in
a few years a very rich pasture is
prodnced. If, instead of sowing only
a few refase hay-seeds from the lofts,
proper grass* seeds were sown, after
land has been cleaned by a faUow, the
pasture would much sooner come to
perfection, and several years would
be saved ; but the improved modes
of converting arable land into pas-
tare, so advantageously practised in
the north of England and in Scot-
land, are almost entirely unknown in
Flanders. The extent of the farms
in the polders is from 100 to 260 acres.
The farmers in general are in good
ciffomnetanees, and the buildings sub
stantial.

" In the interior of East and West
Flanders the soil varies considerably ;
but the principal part is of a sandy
nature. The sand, and a heavier
loam which scarcely deserves the
name of clay, are found much inter-
mixed, which is owing to an alterna-
tion of layers of sand and loam, which
are found by digging to a considera-
ble depth. These layers are not of
great thickness, and the accidental
circumstance of the washing away of
the sand in some places and the dep-
ositions from the rivers in others
easily accounts for this variety. Some
of the elevations, which arc nowhere
considerable, consist of a very poor
sand, and suggest the idea of their
having once l^en the sands of the
sea blown into hills, as is observable
on the coast. These hills, if they
may be so called, are naturally so
barren, that they were, not very long
since, covered with heath, or at best
planted with fir-trees ; but they have
gradnallr aeen otiHivrted and impro-

287

fXANINERS HOSBANDRT.

TBd, and only a few remaiii in their
original state of heath or wood.

*' The {Kiorer sands have been
brought into cuUivatioo chiefly by
the perseveriag industry of saiali pro>
prietors and occnpiers. Without an
abundance of manare nothing can be
eHeeted there, and, oonseqoently, er-
ery attention is paid to the procuring
and collecting of it. The first pro*
cess is always to trench the ground
deep with tfaie spade, and level it by
means of the moUebaert, an instru-
ment peculiarly Flemisli, of which a
drawing and description are given in
the article Barren Land, The next
step is to procure liquid manure,
which consists of the urine of cows
and horses, the draintngs from dung-
hills, and the emptyings of privies.
The numerous towns and villages
which are scattered over Flanders,
and the canals which intersect ibe
country in all direeCioaB, iaeilitate
the collecting and transporting of
manure. A regular trade is carried
on in everything which can enrich
the land : nothing which ean be of
any use for this purpose is lost or
wasted. In every farm there is a
large vaulted cistern, in which the
liquid manure is collected, and where
it is occasionally stirred to excite fer-
mentation, and make it more effica-
cious when it is carried upon the land.

" Experience has taught that mar
nureput on light land in a liquid state
is much more inmiediately effective
than when the solid dung is ploughed
in, but that its effects are also much
less dnrabie. This has led to the
practice of frequently renewing the
manure, and pouring the liquid over
the growing crops as a top-dressing.
Considerable care is required to give
the proper quantity, and to regulate
the strength according to circum-
stances ; for too groat a dose might
destroy the crop, or produce great
luxuriance on the leaf at the expense
of the fruit or seed. The urine and
other hot substances impregnated
with saline particles are, therefore,
diluted, if the weather is dry, before
they are used, or they are poured
over the noil some tkiw before the

seed is sown, tiiai they uay sink ia
and he more disused.

" At a distance from large towjis
it would be impossible to c^tain tlm
requisite quantity of manure, and,
acconUngiy, it is made on the farm.
The cattle are the principal aouroe
of the supply ; but every expedient
is resorted to in order to increase the
quantity and improve the quality.
Every kind of vegetable or animal
matter is carefully collected, and
made to undergo the putrefactive
fermentation by being mixed with
others already partially decomposed.
Nothing excites heat and putrefaction
more than urine when it is poured
over substances snl^ect to decompo-
sition. In every farm-yard there iM
a cavity or pit into wbieb the objects
to be acted upon can be thrown, and
into which the urine or drainings of
the dunghill can be made to flow : by
frequently moving and stirring the
mass, the decompositiott gees on ra^
idly, heat is evolved, and the fibres
and dried juices of vegetables are
decomposed, and become eoliiUe in
water, in which state their effect en
vegetation is greatest. The place m
which this is going on is called in
French a crov^tMotr, and in Flemisih
a 9moor hoop. It is generally thought
most advantageous that the manure
should be ploughed into land in aa
active state of ferroentatioo ; and in
order to secure this, it is ia some
places laid on the land in hMpe, and
each heap is moistened with urine.
This soon renews the fermentation ;
and as soon as the heap begins to
heat it is spread out, and the manure
is immediately ploughed under.

" When the supply from the yard
and from the vaalmd eastern, tog^ber
with what can be purchased, is not
suflieient, recourse is bad to the rel^
use cakes of oolxa from which the
oil has been pressed out. These are
dissolved in urine, or in water, and
put into the cistern to decompose.
When it is in a proper state, it is
used chiefly on the land on which flax:
is intended to be sown, as it is a very
rich manure, and perieetly free freoA
the seeds of noxioos weeds.

VLAMIIiatS HliSUANIMEtT.

«aii tfa« tillage of the tend the FloBft-
ings use few and very simple instni-
nente. The common plough for light
kmds is a email, light foc^Ioogh. so
ealled from a piece of wood iuserted
in the heam, which is somewhat in
the shape of a foot, or, rather, of the
wooden shoe in common use in Flan-
kers. It has no wheels, and is drawn
by one or two horses. It is the pa-
vent of the Rothsrham plough, from
which most of the imprured ploughs
^or light soils are derived. It is the
OMst perfect plough for light sands,
«etJBg like a shovel at the fore part
of the tuoi-fitrrow, which is coacave,
«]id completely turns over the soil.

" An instrument peoQharly Flem-
ish is the tnineau. This is a wooden
Aame of a tnaogular shape, covered
with boards, whtob is drawn over the
ground to smooth the surface and
press in the seed. The harrows in
common use are also triangular, and
ttsde entirely of wood ; the pins are
driven obliqnely, and point forward,
ao as readily to enter into the ground
when the harrows are drawn by the
ftttg^. The blant end of the pins
projects about an inch or more on the
side from which they are driven in :
thus, by reversing the instrument, a
slighter degree of harrowing is giv-
*«B, which has an effect intermedMie
hetween that of the harrows and the
tralneao.

*' The moUebaert, another Flemirii
instrument for levelling ground, has
been already noticed. The Hainault
seythe and hook are generally used
for reaping com. The instrument is
held in the right hand and the hook
in the left : by a swing of the arm
the com is ent close to the ground
towatds that which is standing; the
hook collects it and rolls it up into a
sheaf, which is taken up by means of
the le^ and the scythe, and laid down
to be tied. It is better than a fag-
ging-hook, and does the work more
easily. These are the only instru-
ments in cummon use which diffbr at
all from these of other countries.
None of themovecomplieated modem
inventions hare been introduced, nor
would they hr tAeddv aik»pti>d. hnw*.

nil

ever ingenioae or xubM they mighl
be ; for an adherence' to okl eswK
lished methods, and a repugnanoe te
what is new, are nowhere so firmly
rooted as among the Flemish peae*
entry.

"The most important instrument
in Flemish agrieolture is the spade,
which is used to a mach greater ex*
tent than in England, and m some in-
stances is the only instrwnent of till-
age. The trenching spade is made
light and long, and ia well adapted to
the loose sandy soils. The first step
to improvement is generally a com-
plete and deep trenching ; and in the
Waes district a sixth part of the
whole farm is trenched every year ;
and where this is not done, the inteiw
vals between the stitches in which
the land has been ploughed are dug
out with the spade a foot or sixteen
inches deep, and the earth thrown
evenly over the beds in which the
seed has been sown. By- shifting
these intervals a foot every year, the
whole of the land whi<^ lies in stitch*
es six feet wide is dog, and the upper
and under soil mixed regularly, lliis
process is extremely useftit in produ^
cing an even crop, especially of fiax,
the roots of wbien strike deep.

**The rotations adopted in light
sands and loams are varions. In the
poorest and least improved, buck-
wheat, rye, and oats are the chief
crops, with potatoes and clover,
which require more manure. Every
crop is manured except boekwheat,
which grows well in the poorest soils,
and becomes too laxoriant to give
much seed in rich and highly manured
lands. Bones have not bee n introdu-
ced except by way of experiment ;
but when their value on light soils
shall be more generally known, espe-
eially in raising turnips, there is no
doubt but they will be extensively
osed« This may lead to the folding
of sheep to eat them on the laqd, and
thus introduce an important ii^nprove-
ment into Flemish husbandly.

<* On the better kinds of light soils,
which are not well adapted for wheat,
the usual coarse is, 1st, rye, with
tpi^nifvi 1<^ th* *»!»•» y^f «<^ the ry^

9B%

AAIVOSRS maBy&NDBSL

Mcot ; M, otto ; M, bMkwteiit ; 4lik, 1
potatoes or carrots ; dth, rye and tar-
nips ; 6tb, flax ; 7tb, clover.

« When the saad becomes a gpod
light loam, wheat is introdaeed in the
rotation, after potatoes or after dcv
ver: the latter is thooght the best
praetiee, as the roots of the clover
both enrich and consolidate the soil.

*' Rye recurs more.frequently than
would be thought prudent if it were
not for the turnips sown after it,
which seem to correct the effect pro-
duced on the soil by the seeding of
the rye ; so that rye and turnips are
sometimes followed by rye, in which
clover is sown in the next ^Nring.
Thus rye and turnips may alternate
in light lands* as beans and wheat
•ometimes do in rich heavy clays.
The turnips are never eaten on the
land where they grow, but are al«
ways drawn and boused in the end
of September, the green tops being
ent off and given to the cows and
nigs, and the roots stored in dry cel-
lars. The land is then immediately
ploughed after some dung has been
put on ; and if oats are the next crop,
which are sovm in apring, it remains
no all winter.

" When the land is of a better qual-
ity, although still in the class of light
loams, wheat reouis more frequently,
and the rotation is varied as follows :
lye and turnips, potatoes, yrheat,
jye and turnipa, oats, flax, clover,
wheat. If the soil is fit for barley,
this grain is substituted for rye.
Carrots are flrequenUy sown in the
barley, and also in the flax: they
strike deep into the rich light earth,
but oome to no size while the princi^
pal crop is on the ground. As soon
as this is taken ofl^ the land n har-
rowed and carefully weeded by hand :
liquid manure, diluted if the weather
is dry and warm, is spread over the
surface, and in a short time the car«
rots throw out their green tops and
swell io the ground : by the end of
September s considerable crop of
them may be dug up. The best va-
nety for this purpose is a large white
oarrot, which rises some inches out
•f the ground: it has been late^

bsought into aotke hi EaffaaH, «iifl
win, no doubt, soon be more gener-
ally cultivated. There is aoother
variety, which is yellow, and also at*
tains a good siae ; but it is inferior
to the first in good ground. The
quantity of roots raised for the wiMsr
provision of the cattle is eonsidera^
bie, and fonns a very important part
of the husbandry of Flanders, where
all the cattle are constantly kept in
the stables in winter, and, except
where there are natural pastuies, in
the summer also.

" Flax is everywhere a most ia^
portent crop, for it much exoeeds al
other crops in valne; "Where It eaa
be raised of a tolerable quality, every
other crop has a reference to this;
and the rotation is arraiqpsd aoeor^A*
ingly. There is no country where
noore attention is paid to flax than
in Flanders, especially in the neigb-
bourhcMHl of Courtray. The land is
brought into the highest state of ricki'
ness and cleanness before flax la
sown in it ; and the most abundant
manuring with rape-«ake and urine
is thought essential to raise this crop
in perfection.

**On the heavier loams, colsa «r
rape is an important crop for the seed,
from which the oil is expressed. It
is sown in a bed in Jidy or Augustf
and planted out in rows two feet spsrt
in October. The seed ripens enrly i*
the next summer, and a good crop of
toniips may be had after it. The
summers being in general wamer
and drier than in Engtaad, the Flem-
uh farmer is enabled to thraah ont
his rape^seed on a cloth in the field
soon after the stems have been cut
and laid gently on the ground to drf
the poda. Any delay in this oper«<>
tion would eause a great loss : with
every care and attamtion, asoeh seed
is always scattered in harvesting, be-
cause the pods do not ripen equally;
and some will have shed thetr seeds
before others are suflloieatly ripe to
be gathered.

'* Potatoes vpsre intiwduoed into
Flandera about the year 1740, and,
from being at flrst oiUy cnHivated on
a rarity, soon beeaaao «i importai«i

FIAIfDISaS HuaBAinmY.

Clover.

Wheat.

Carrots.

Beans.

Potatoes.

Rye

and
Toroips.

FUx.

■

Oats.

Colza.

mrt-ei Ae fb^ of neft and bonlsi I flnm of tUr|f-«nc boantors, mavwy

There is noifaiog peouliar in the Flem- good I jamy soil near Courtray, the

ish niQcle of ealtiTatiog this nsefnl land was divided into »ix equal parts

ivot. The sets are ptonted with a 9i six boaniers each, and the crops

hlant dibMe : sometimes they are laid were distribated as follows :

ia the furrows and covered with the

ptoogh : tbey are always earthed up

round the stems, sometimes by a

plough with a mould-hoard on each

•Me« but generally by hand with a

broad hoe. The maoore usually put

•n the land in which potatoes are to

be set is double the quantity used for

m corn crop ; and a good soaking of

the soil with urine is thought to in-

▼igorate the growth of the plant

gBoatfj. The produce, however, is

w>t much more abundant than it is

usually in those parts of Engtand

where potatiws are raised in consid-

erable quantities in the fields — about

iOO buahete on an acre. There is

a small yeUow potato in FUnders,

iwhich is excellent when boiled, and

which grows weU in a stiff loam, but

it is not 80 productive as the large

cattle potato.

** The cultivation of the sugar beet
has been resumed lately, after it had
been entirely abandoned. There are
BOW sevejftai considerable manufac-
tiifes of beet-root sugar ; but it is not
a (avourite culture with the farmers,
cot even for their cattle, as it is too
long on the ground. They prefer
larfiips and carrots, which can be
raised on the same land which has
iionie another valuable crop the saoEke

** In the heavier loams, which are
ehiefiy to be met with in West Flan-
ders and about Alost, the following
rotation is adopted : itax, clover, bar-
iey or oats, beans, wheat, rye and
turnips, potatoes, colza and carrots;
flax ; or flax, colza, wheat, rye and
tomips, oats, cloves, wheat, rye.

*' Beans ave not a favourite crop,
and are not carefully cultivated. They
Are sometimes sown very thiek, mix-
ad with pease and tares, to be cut up
jn a green state for the cows and
pigs; and in this way they produce
A great quantity of green focMl, and
eleiui the ground by eaelnding the air

the weeds. On a

" The manure used for these crops
was partly dung irom the yard and
oows^ urine, but chiefly the sweep-
ings of the streets and the emptyings
of privies from Conrtray.

" In a very rich loam, not far tnm
Ypres, the following crops were no-
ticed in regular rotation: 1, turnips
with ehieory and carrots ; 3, oats ; 8,
clover ; 4, wheat ; 5, flax ; 6, wheat ;
7, beaas^, 8, wheat ; 9, potatoes ; 10,
wheat; 11, oats. All these crops are
of an exhausting nature, and it re-

3 aires a very rich soil, aided by abun-
ant manuring, to bear this rotation
for any continuance; but each of
these crops had a good portion of
manure.

** Great attention is paid to prepare
the land so as to secure a good crop
from a small quantity of seed. The
seed usually sown in Flanders is
about one third less than in England,
even when the seed is drilled, whioh
it never is in Flanders. The ground
is rendered mellow and rich by the
tillage sjid Uie liquid manure; and
the seed, which has been carefully
selected, i» covered by esath spread
over it with the spade : it is after-
ward rolled or trod in with the feet.
Every grain vegetates ; and should
there be any slowness in the growth,
the urine-tank supplies an excellent
stimulant. It is in the sininging of
the Made, after the farina in the seed
is exhausted, that the liquid manuse

391

lB«rt ^^, ud fatten dmrty, ml>

P"*"' nA mat /•**!,'« lis 'hey acquire coDsMer-

■lp«- \l-*-^,W'/££'S*« A bettor breed bw been

low w* 'J^'ii'**f'3i« *'J^/ " ''** faun-bo ildings are tory good

wi -rr*^/!^lS»ufl» ^;* ^^/«n<lcon'enienling«»etal. Tbe&nM

Cf^^o III'' are Bmall, compaied with tbose in
"'■^ j^ P»» otheroountriee; I>Oacre«irBcoD»W-
■c '"Jmi^ '"'^ "^ ^ ^'^ coDaiderable ocoBiwtion.
^out y^^ej a In tbe Wae* ooautrj, nliere the
liij'J?^ are fed «pade i« ezteoaively used in tbe cnl-
"^ oodeialely- tiTBtioo of the laod, the (anns a»
' Mod condition very Bmall, fifty acrea being among
M^^ten en an the lar^eM, and tbe arerage i* not
, or September, above fifteen. AAumofthisdeaerip-
ijen are of tbe ttoD reqnirea only one horae to cut
vhich are bred the mannTe uid [dough Ihe land ; fbor
The butter or five cowa are the Dsaal comirie-
irned from (be ment, with two or three pigs. Hw
the most com- cowi are fed on cloTer in aummer,
a the whole and on barley or oata cut green ; ia
le and winter, on potatoes, beet root, lur-
nipe, and carrots, which are chopped
up together and boiled in a copper.
Thia in given milk- warm three timea
a day, and ia called brasain; when
graina can be procnred fWm the brew-
er*, they are added to the mess. Tbe
cowi never more fram tbeir stajle :
after haTieg had three or four ealvea,
a cow ia generallj httened and sold
off; and a young heifer, of which n
couple are reared every year, sut^ea
her place."— ( W. L. Rtmm.)

FL.^TULENCY. A diseaaed a*-
lection of gases in the atomach or
bowels I change of food, alight per-
giag, and tonica are best to remove it.
FLAX. Linun unlelUriMMi (a).
An annual of tbe cniciferooa lunilj,
the atema of which, when tunung
yellow, yield tbe Gneat ataple, and a
coarser article when ripe. Tbe per~
ennial flax {L, ptreniie) is ooaraer,
but Bomelimea cultivated (b). The
seeds, usually called linseed, yield
tbe valuable oil of that name by prese-
ure, and are, when bniiaed and boQ-
ed, one of the richest fattening fod-
dere for cattle. Tbe cake, after pres*-
ing for oil, ia also a rich proveader,
Boarcely equalled by any other for Mr-
teaing. An aore yielda aiz to twelve
besh^a of seed and 400 ponnda of

. ia always set

lediately after

twelve hoora.

timined olT, oi

ured into deep

•-^^1, (lu ■> IB u> lo be churned.

SVchurning is perfortned in a bar-

Ll.^^baTa or a plunge-chure : in ei-

iber case, in tbe larger dairies, It is

p^red by a horee, which torna a

wheel connected with the chom.

" The breed of horses in Flandere
la large and heavy, but deficient
activity and clumsy in form. The
nures were once in repute for heavy
osrrla^s, but at present, an equipage
drawn by Flandere mares would be
an object of wouder, if uot of ridioole.
Many horaes have been imported into
England Siom Flandere aa carVhor-
ees; but they were preferred chiefly
on account of the price at which they
could be obtained, and of the appa-
rent bulk ofthero.

" The Flemish sheep are coarae in
the wool, and much inferior in the
carcaas to the Leicester or South-
Down. Some good sheep have been
imparted, which may much improve
the naiivc hreeila. Tie pigs sre sa
bndly iliaped aa can well be imagined,
lung ill the neck and head, end high

en their legs. Tbey a

badi)' fed I Ilai, the former woitk *I U te CI SO

lel, and the lint eight to ten

cent* tiw pound.

II reqairea a mellow, rich Mil, full
of Tegelabte matter, plougbed deep ;
two boshele of seed are bowq to ^ie
acre, uid slightl; covered niih a buali
banow ; When Uie object is lo obtain
fine green flax, but half a bushel will
answer Ibr seed onl;, and one and a,
Iialf for coarae flax and seed. Sow
early in Ma;, and for the £uest staple
gather just ajier flowering, when the
stems are jellow ; for seed when
dry ; the amount of coarse stems is
often very great, ptodncing as much
as hsif a ton of fiaz and tow to the
acre. The plants should be weeded
whoD three inches high. The fbllow-
JDg Tiew of the prodt is from the Cul-
(tMlor, vol. i. :

"In 1835, M«jor Kirby, of Brown-
Tille, sowed hlx acres, partly upon
itabUe and partly upon green sward,
with one plougtiiDg — hall a bushel of
need to the acre. The ground was
well atocked with Canada thistles,
which throTe lemaritabl; ; yet, not-
withatanding, the six acres produced
him 108 bnsbels IS pounds seed, and
seven tons and three quarters of
dressed flax. The proceeds of the

crop amounted to $270

And the cnUore, pulling, and
thrashing— the rotting being
done by the manufaciarer —

to about

LeaTing a profit of ... .
01 SSi per •«•>"

FLA

niT the prodocUon of seed the soil
must be a very rich wheat land, wdl
brokeo and manured. It is a very
exhausting crop, but if taken when
yellow, or before seed, and the oflat
and ateeping fluid returned, it is not
so injorioua to lands. The seed eon-
tains from 11 to » per cent, of oil,
according to the season snd richness
of soil. See Lintctd. By steeping,
and other preparations, flsi is re-
duced to TO per cenl. of the weight
of the stems, and by tiackling, to 00
pounds.

FLAX, PREPARATION OF.
'• When the flax begins la get yellow
at the bottom of the stem, it is tima
to pull it, if very fine flax is desired,
such aa is made into thread for lacs
or fine cambric ; but then the seed
will be of little or no value. It is
therefore generally left standing until
the capsules, which contain the seed,
are billy grown and ibe seed formed.
Every flax grower judges for himself
what ia most proGuble on the whole.
The pulling then begins, which is
done carefully by small bsndrula at a
time. These are laid upon the ground
Id dry, two and two obliquely across
each other. Fine weather is essen-
tial to this part of the operation.
Soon after this Ihej are collected in
larger bundles and placed with the
root end on Ibe ground, the bundles
being slighlty tied near the seed end ;
the other end is spread out that the
air may have access, and the rain
may not damage the flax. Whenauf-
ficienUy dry they are tied more firm);
in the middle, and stacked iu long,
narrow slacks on the ground. These
stacks are built as wide as ibe bun-
dles are long, and about eight or nine
feet high. The length depends on
the crop; they are seldom made above
twenty or thirty feet long. If the
Geld ia extensive, several of these
stacks arc formed at regular distoii-
ces ; they are carefully thatched at
top, and the ends, which are quila
perpendicular, are kept up by means
of two strong poles driven perpen-
dicularly into the ground. This is
the method adopted by those wbo de-
fet the steeping till soother season.

FLAX, PREPARATION OP.

aome can7 tfae flax, as soon rs it !b
dr7, under a, shed, and taka off tU
capsules with the »eed bj ripfHaf,
which i> drawing the flax tbrough an
iraa comb fixed in a block of wood :
Uie capsules, which are too large to
pass between the teeth of the comb,
are thus hmken off, and fUl into a
basket or cloth below. Sometioies,
if the capsules are brittle, the seed ii
beaten ont b; means of a flat wood-
«ti hat. The bundles are held b; the
TOOt end. atid.the other end is laid on
■ board and turned roiltid with the
left hand, while the right hand with
tbeJiat breaks the capaales. and the
linseed falls on a cloth below. The
flax in then Immediatety eteeped. but
the moat experienced flax-steepen
defer this operaiion till the next sea-
son. Id this case it is put in berns,
and the seed is beat out at leisure in
winter, Wheo flax is housed, oare
most be tahen tbat it be thoroughl;
iiy; and if the seed ia lea on, which
is an adrantage to it, mice mnst be
guarded against, for thej are very
fond of linseed, and would soon take
ftwa; a good share of the profits by
their depredations.

" Steeping the Sax is a Ter; impor-
taDt prooess, which requires expe-
rience and skill to do it properly.
ThequsUty and colour of the flax de-
pend much on the mode of steeping;
and the strength of the fibre may be
injured by an ii^udiciotis mode of
performing this operation. The ob-
i«ot of steeping is to separate the
bark Irom tfae woody part of the
■tern by dissolving a glutinous mat-

ter which canses ft to adtere, and
also destroying some minute vessels
which are interwoven with the longi-
tudinal fibres, and keep them togeth>
er ia a kind of web. A ceitam fer-
mentation or incipient putrefaction is
excited by the steeping, which must
be carefully watched and slopped at
the right lime. The usual mode of
steeping is to place the bDodles of
flax horizontally in shallow pools OF
ditches of stagnant water, keeping
them under water by means of poles
or hoards with stones or weights laid
upon them. Water nearly putrid was
supposed the most efficacious, and
the mud was ollen laid over the flax
to accelerate the decompoBition ; but
this has been found to slain the flai,
BO that it was very difficult to bleach
it or the linen made from it after-
%ard. The method adopted by the
sleepers of Court ray, where steeping
flax is a distinct trade, is different
Tlie bundles of flax are placed alter
nately with tho se^d end of the one
to the root end of tho other, the lat'
ter projecting a tew inches; as many
of these are tied together near both
ends as form a thick bundle aboit a
foot in diameter. A frame made of
oak rails, nailed to strotig upright
pieces in the form of a box 10 feet
square and foar deep, is filled with
these bundles set upright sod closely
packed. The whole is then noinen-
ed in tfae river, boards, kmded with
atones, being placed upon the flax till
the whole is sunk a little undsr the
surface of the water. The bottom
doea not reach the ground, ao tliat tU

ha n>vd l> Ibi Hniija b na*«l

TJJCS^ PMnPABATfQiN QP.

water flows over ftnd under it. There t
are posts driven in the river to keep
the box. in its place» and each steep-
er has a certain portion of the bank,
which is a valuable property. The
flax, takes somewhat longer time in
steeping in this manner than it does
in stagnant and putrid water, and it
is asserted by those who adhere to
the old method that the flax loses
more weight; but the colour is so
much finer, that flax is sent to be
steeped in the Lys from every part
of Flanders. When it is supposed
that the flax is nearly steeped suffi-
ciently, which depends on the tem-
perature of the air, the flax being
sooner steeped in warm weather than
in cold, it is examined carefully ev-
ery d»yf and towards the latter part
Df the time several times in the day,
in order to ascertain whether the^
flUfcs readily separate from the wood
the whole length of the stem. As
aooa as this is the case the flax U
taken out of the water : even a few
Hours more or less steeping than is
necessary wiii make a difference in
tjie value o£ the flax. If it is not
steeped enough, it wiii not be easily
■putobed, and the wood will adhere
to it. If it has been too long in the
water, its strength is diminished, and
more of it hrMks into tow. The
bundles are now untied, and the flax
is spread evenly in rows slightly
overlapping each other on a piece of
olean* smooth grass which has beeu
mown or fed off close. Fine weather
is essential to this part of the pro-
cess, as rain would now much injure
the flax. It is oceasiooally turned
over, which is done dexterously by
pushing a lon^ slender rod under the
rows and taking up the flax near the
end which overlaps the next row,
and turning it quite over. Thus, when
it is all turned, it overlaps as before,
but in the contrary direction. It re-
mains spread out upon the grass for
a fortnight, more or less according to
the season, till th# woody part be-
ooroes brittle and some of the finest
fibres separate from it of their own
accord. It is then taken up, and as
•oon an it i^ <tuite diy it is tied up

again in bundles and carried into the
barn, to be broken and hackled at lei»»
ure during the winter.

** In the domestic manufactures the
flax is broken or scutched at home
when the weather prevents out-door
work. The common brake consists
of four wooden swords fixed in a
fr,ame,.and another frame with three
swords,.which play in the interstices
of the first by means of a joint at one
end. The flax is taken in the left
hand and placed betwe^iv the two
frames, and the upper frame is pushed
down briskly upon it. It breaks the
(lax in four places, and by moving
the left hand and rapidly repeating
the strokes with the right, the whole
handful is soon broken. It is then
scutched by means of a board set up-
right in a block of wood so as to stand
steady, in which Is a horizontal slit
about three feet from the ground, the
edge of which is thin. The broken

Upriglit board to clear tiie flax of tb« wood.

flax, held in handfuls in the left hand,,
is inserted in this slit, so as to pro-
ject to the right, and a flat wooden
sword, of a peculiar shape, is held in
the right hand ; with this the flax is
repeatedly struck close to the upright
board, while the part which lies in
the slit is continually changed by a
motion of the left hand. This opera-
tion beats iff all the pieces of the
wood which s.ill adhere to the fibre
without breaking it, and after a short
time the flax is cleared of it and fit
to he hackled ; but the operations

306

FLAX, PREPARATKWI OF.

of breakins Bid scirtcfaing are tedious
and iBborioDS when tlnia executed bj
hand. A mill is now nsed (where
large quantities of flax sra required
for manufaclureB), hsTing three flu-
ted cjlinilerB, one of which ia made
to revolve hj horae or water power,
and caniBs tbe other two roDnd. The
Sax idants are passed between these
cylinders while thus revolring, and
the stalk, or bom, as it is technical ly
called, is b? this means completely
broken without Injuring the fibres.
The scutching is accomplished in the
same mill by means of four arms pro-
jecting from a horixontsl axle, ar-
ranged so as to strike the boon in a
slanting direction until the bark and
other aseleaa parts of the plant are
beaten awajr, la the last proeeas by
which flax is prepared for the spln-

r, the h

Uing. tb

ployed, called the hackle,
piece of wood, studded with rows of
iron teeth about four inches long,
and disposed in a quincunx order.
The fineness of the hackle is chosen
with reference to the quality of the

tax. md baoklM dMhring te tlos M>
epect from each other ore OMd at
diffiarmt stages of the dreaaing, th*
c«at»e« first, and the finest to give
the last degree trf" smoothness sod
finish to the flax. The operation of
backling is performed by the work-
man grasping a handful of flax by the
middle, and drawing first one side or
end and then the other throof|:h the
teeth of the hackle, nntii every parti-
cle of extraneous natter ia temovod,
and the whole of the filainenls ara
arranged in distioct, even, and paial'
lei fibres."

The following machine (aee Pig.y,
patented by Mr. Bandy, ia of great
service in the domestic preparation
of flax, and ia constructed oo tha
same principle as the trnpteBeala
driven by power. The frame la of
wood, and snsisins two conical roll-
ers, of which A ia aeen r B is a bean
moving around a joint at C, and car-
rying an upper roller, D ; it is eletn-
ted by the spring G, and polled down
by the treadle F, which is comeeted
to the upper piece by a metallic rod. O.
The roHers are commonly grooved,
each runs on its own pivot, and U is
an iron comb for nppliog. Whea
used, a handftil irf the rotted flax ia
passed between the rotter* and haM
tn both hands; thefbotbeiagDOwap-

FLA

PLE

dMcends and presses on the fibres ;
tfaft Aax is next drawn to the right
aad left nntil siilfioiently broken and
cleared of harl ; the foot is then
raised and the fibres withdrawn to
giw plaoe to a new lot.

Besides the water and dew rotting
described, flax is preiMired by steam-
ing and by boiling in salt water. Boil-
ing m ^ er in soap aad water is
also enqdoyed, both to prepare the
IISK aad imprave the hackled staple.
Water and dew rotting together re-
qntre abont three weeks ; the water
ahonld be free firom iron, which stains
the staple.

iX»eaj««.-^Fiaz is not yeiy subject
to diseases ; miUew and rust some-
times assail it in very damp seasons,
and en a badly-drained soil ; it is also
preyed opon by a fly, but weeds, and
especially dodder, are most injunous
to the cnltrratton.

FLAX^ SPECIAL MANURES
FOR. AUhottgh a troublesome crop,
flax is not severe upon the soil when
raised for its fibre only, and, when
well prepared, commands a good
price. Ilia great requisite for the
fib»0 Ib a soil rich in decaying vege-
table matter, but not rank with nitro-
gen. When seed is iequired, bone
earth, and especially the soluble pbos-
pl&ates in urine and guano, or poultry
dung, are extremely valuable.

By Dr. Kanes's analysis, the stems
pulled before seeding contained

PeCaakand aoda .

. 19-«0 . .

. a6M

Lame tad m^goeti^

.90-19 . .

. S9-40

Pluvphorie acid
Solpoario acid . .

. 10-M . .

. 40-11

. I'M .

. . 100

Hand and attwracida

.46-88 .

. . 0-84

100 100

From these examinations, the great
exhausting power of the seeds, by re-
quiring so much pho^oric acid, is
explained, as well as the value of the
foregoing manures. Gypsum and asb-
ea are also indicated in the cultiva-
tion of the fibre. When the steep-
ing is carried on in ponds, the fluid
becomes a rich manure for the crop,
containing— as has been shown by
Dr. Kane — nearly all the nitrogen
and moat of the aaline matters, the

prepared flax being neaiiy pare lig.
nin ; the fluid, therefore, as well as
all the waste from hackling and break-
ing, should be preserved and used as
manure. The waste of linseed cake,
or the dung of cattle fattened there-
00, is peculiarly appropriate as a ma-
nure for a crop of linseed ; and when
the oil is drawn on the farm and sold,
the cake left contains all the enrich-
ing matters of the soil taken up by
the seeds. Most plants of the flax
family will yield more or less coarse
staple.

FLAX, NEW ZEALAND. See
New Zealand Flax.

FLAX, OREGON. Mr. Parker,
travelling in Oregon, describes fields
of a perennial flax precisely resem-
bling the L. perenne {b) ; the roots
are so firm that it cannot be pulled,
but may be mowed, yielding annual
crops.

FLAX, PURGING. An English
weed (L. catharticum), the root of
which is purging.

FLAXSEED. See Linseed.

FLAX, FALSE. See YeUow Seed.

FLAX, TOAD. A weed. The
Theeium umbeUatum. Linaria vulga-
rit is also called yellow toad flax.

FLEAS. A species of the genus
PuUx ; they are wingless, but under-
go regular transformations. Clean-
liness, especially in the removal of
old straw and similar bodies in which
they harbour, washing the skins of
animals, anointing with mixtures of
oil and pennyroyal or elder leaves,
are efifectual means to reduce their
numbers.

FLEA6ANE. A name given to
many weeds, as the eriger<ms, tatt-^
loM, dec.

FLEA BEETLE. The genus ^o/-
tieOf species of which infest turnips,
cucumbers, dec.

FLEAM. The knife or lancet used
in bleeding cattle and horses.

FLECKED. Pied, or of mixed col-
ours.

FLEECE. The wool of a sheep.
See Sheep and Wool.

FLEMISH HUSBANDRY. See
Flandere Hutbandry.

FLESH. Commonly the mixed

297

FLl

innBcld and fat of anhnato, bot more
atrictly the muscle or lean only. Lean
meat consista of 30 per cent, fibrin,
with three per cent, of albumen, col-
ouring matter, and salts ; the rest,
77 per cent., being water : it differs
Tery little from blood. Waste flesh
or garbage should be added to the
compost heap, with lime and earth ;
100 pounds yield Z\ pounds of ammo-
nia during decay, and therefore, when
composted, 400 pounds will be enough
lor the acre.

FLEXIBILITY. The capacity of
bending without breakage. It is a
relattve property, depending upon
temperature, thickness, dec.

FLEXORS. The name of those
muscles which produce the flexion
or bending of the arm or leg.

FLEXUOSE. Full of bondings to
the one side and the othOr.

FLIES. Insecu furnished with
two wings (Diptera), and Itring by
suction, or on aniinals and meats.
Several distinct families exist, Tiz.,
the Taehinada, which deposite their
eggs in caterpillan ; the Sareopkofrtt,
which are Tiviparous, prodocing Iit-
ing maggots, and living on putrid
meats. One fly often produces 80,000
young. The Stromnyt genus, inclu-
ding the sharp stinging horseflies,
which lay their eggs in dung; the
MuMcadtB^ or house and meat flies,
which infest butchers' stalls and
houses : the latter lay eggs in dung.
The house fly is readily destroyed by
exposing plates of infusion of quassia,
green tea, dtc., sweetened, or intro-
ducing some actiTo poison, as arse-
nic or corrosive sublimate, into mo-
lasses and water: they also avoid
dark rooms.

FLIGHTS. The husk or glumes
of oats are so called.

FLINT. A variety of tUica^ con-
taining water and stained with iron,
found interstratified with chalk in
Europe, but not discovered in Amer-
ica.

FLINT GLASS. A glass com-
posed of fine sand and red-lead, hav-
ing a high refractive power, and used
by opticians.

FLITCH OF BACON. The

FU)

aide, or Bboolder, and niMtaig !»•

gether.

FLOAT. A raft of tirabtr to be
floated. To cover mieadowa with w^
ter.

FIX>AT BOARDS. The boarda
attached to the ciroomference of an
under shot-wheel.

FLOCCUS. The loose hair at tiM
end of the tail of some animals.

FLOODGATE. Any eontrivaaoe
or gate to regulate the flow of water ;
a sluice. A common floodgate is de«
pioted in Irri^atioH,

FLOODING. See IrrigatimL

FLORETS. The flowera of a
pitulum, like the sunflower.

FLORIDA ARROW-ROOT.
Sa^o.

FLOSS SILK. The silk broken
off from cocoons in the filature, whieh *
is carded and worked like cotton, fof
coarse fabrics.

FLOUR. The meal of wheat, for
the most part. The amount of flonr
made by a variety of grain ia a prime
consideration, some kinds producing
more than others. On an avenge,
a buaihel of sixty pounds yields, of
family flour, forty-eight pounds ; of
pollard, eight pounds; bran, three
pounds, and a loss of about one
pound. The finest is that from wheel
cut in the dough, which also weiglia
from three to five pounds more the
bushel, is whiter, and aofler to the
touch. The true value of floor ia,
however, its gluUn^ whicfa is the nu-
tritious portion. Common kinds rare-
ly exceed twelve per cent. ; but of
choice kinds, some furnish thirty;
the amount is determined by wash-
ing a piece of dough on a fine hair
seive until water runs through it
without milkinesa; the remaining
portion, which is very tenacious, oon*
sists of impure gluten ; it should be
dried at aoo, and weighed. There
is not a finer flour than that produced
from the white flint varietiea of
wheat, and white May.

A barrel of flour should contain 196
pounds. The sack, which is used in
England, contains S80 pounda.

FLOUR MILL, A HAND. The
figure represents a very neat hand

llonr miff, which is fbl); competent
to produce fine flour, ft is paieot-
cdJnrNichotB and Marsh. Prlce.MO.
FLOWER. Inbotary.lheeipand-
ed bnd. Fm hs diffferent parts, see
Botany. In descriptions, flowers are
diTJded into Bpetaloas, monnpetalous,
polypelalouB, and eomposlte ; the
first inclndes those witboal ooroUa ;
the second, consisting of one petal
apparenHj. are, in truth, formed by
the union of Bererel.and hence term-
ed Tynpetaleu> ; this class is subdiTi-
ded into numeroQs kinds, as labiate,
tike the lagt flower ; pertenalt. like
antirrhiRBm; Khtcl-ihapt, like borage;
eampanulale, like a bell ; hfpncrateri-
form, tike the tobacco blossom. Pol-
jpetaluua flowers oonsist of several
disftnci petals, and are called row-
teiTUJ, when like the rose flower; eary-
ophyUeui, like the pink ; liliacetmi, like
the lily ; emciferom. like (lax or calv
bages ; pejiillonaeiimt, like th« pea ;

irMitmi, Uwlbe (cnu OKhla, Aa.
Composiie flowers are like the sun-
ft»wer, lettuce, thistle, iaa. ^ The es-
sential parts of the flower are ibe sta-
mens thd pistils ; if both are present,
it is hertnaphrodite ; irone is absent,
they are either male or female blos-
soms ; and the sbaence of both coiti
Stilutes the blossom a iairea flower

By deTelopment, aingls flowers ba
come doable, but Ihej also becouM
barren, the stamens b«lng conrarud
into petals. The colour of floweta is
Tery mnoh in the hands ofthe florist ;
for, by hybridising species of differ-
ent oolours, the seed produced oHm
glres rise to varieties of new lists.

Floietrt, in chemistry, are Sne crya-
tals. obtained by sublimalinn.

FLOWERLESS PLANTS. The
cryptogamous plants of XiniiKus ;
the acotyledons of Jussieu.

FLUE. A channel or way along
which the smoke or beat of a fire
passes. See Hoi-hautt.

FLUID. A body the particles ot
which more free^ among one aR-
other, and which traosBMt pressures
equally in all direotiona. Fluids are
divided into elastic and Bon-elaaliOi
gaaeoDs and liquid ; the former
containing air and vaponrs, the lat-

: water. Ac.

FLUKE. Diitomt kepalieum.
Qourd-wonn. A flat, eotozoal worm,
infesting the livera of sheep and some
other animals -, it is often seen in
those which have died of the rot.

FLUORINE. A hypothetieal
body, supposed to resemble chloriiw,
found in fluor spar. With hydrogen,
it forms a very oorrosiTe acid, tbe
hydro-fluoric, whioh acis upon glass,
Ibrming Huo-silioio aoid, and ia a
puwerlnl causlic It axista, in mi-
nute quantity, in bones. Its con-
pounds are called _^uorid<«.

FLUOR SPAR. A beautiful cry»
talline mineral, abundant in Derby-
shire, England, and hence called Der-
byshire spar. It is common iu New-
York asd the Eastern Slates ; con-
sists of fluoride of calcium, Tbe
mineral is of many coloois, and cu-
bical or octahedral in form. Ilia used
as a flux, and to prooais bydro-fluorlo

FOA

FOD

add, and baa been reoommended aa
a manure.

FLUTINGS. The grooves of col-
umns.

FLUVIALES. A tribe of water
plants, of endogenous strnctare, near-
ly resembling sea- weeds. Sea wrack
{Zostera marina) is used, when dry,
to stuff cnahions and for padctng.

FLUX. In chemistry, snbstances
which are in themselves very fusible,
or which promote the fusion of other
bodies. When cream of tartar is de-
flagrated with half its weight of nitre,
a mixture of charcoal and carbonate
of potash remains, whidi is often call-
ed bUekJluz : when an equal weight
of nitre » used, the whole of the char-
coal is burned off, and carbonate of
potassa remains, which, when thus
procured, is called tthiieflux.

Fluxj in diseases, any unusually in-
creased discharge, as diarrhoea.

FLY. In agriculture, any winged
insect injurious to crops, as the tur-
nip, wheat, Hessian /y, dec., for
which see the plants respectively.

Fly. In machinery, an appendage
given to machinea for the purpose of
reg|uiating and equalising the motion,
as in the windlass, jack, pile engine,
dec. ; and sometimes for collecting
force in order to produce a very great
instantaneoua impression, as in a
coining press. Generally it is form-
ed of a heavy disk or hoop, attached
to the axis ; sometimes of heavy
knobs at the extremities of a bar hav-
ing the same position. The fly is of
great use in all cases where the pow-
er or the resistance acts unequally
in the different parts of a revolution.

FLYING BUTTRESS. A beaa-
tifhl and useful portion of a Goth-
ic structure, consisting of arches
thrown off flnsm a mass of masonry
against a wall, to support it from
pressure acting from above, as by the
roof

FLY POWDER. Blaek suboxide
of oTMnte, used to kill flies, but dan-
gerous, from its poisonous nature.

FOAL. A young horse.

FOALING. The act of parturi-
tion or bringing forth young in the
mare. Good feeding and moderate

800

exercise are found to be the beat pre-
ventives against slinking, whidi is
most, prevalent when half the time
of pregnancy has elapsed. If a mare
has been regularly exercised, and ap-
parently in health while she was la
foal, little danger will attend the act
of parturition. If there be false pres-
entations of the fostas, or diflicaltj
in producing it, it wiU be better to
have recourse to a well-informed
doctor, rather than injure the mother
by the violent and injurious attempts
vFhich are often made to relieve the
animal. As soon as the mare has
foaled, she should be turned into
some well -sheltered pasture, with a
hovel or shed to run Into when she
pleases ; and as, supposing she has
foaled in April, the grass is scanty,
she should have a couple of feeds of
com daily. The mare may be put to
moderate work a month after foaling.
FOCAL DISTANCE. In optics,
the distance between the centre of a
lens or mirror and the point into
which the rays are colleeted.

FOCUS. A point where heat, light,
sound, fto, are collected, either by the
action of glass or reflecting surfaces.
In geometiy, certain points in the
curves, caUed conic sections, which
are also foci for radiant emanationa.
FODDERS. AU substancea used
as food for animals. ' la some parts
of the United States it is, however,
confined to the leaves stripped Irom
com. Coarse fodders are those which
resemble straw, dec., oocup]ring much
bulk.

The tomip^Tatht valu^ of fodders is
a prime question in hnsbandry, and
which can hardly have been said to
assume a trustworthy estimate until
recently, when careful experiments
have been made by Thaer, Raumer,
Block, and Boussinaault. In the an-
nexed table, by the latter, are shown
the results obtained by chemical ex-
amination and practical feeding. In
the first, the amount of nitrogen in
100 parts is found, which gives the
quantity of fibrin, albumen, and ca-
sein, by multiplying by d-3 ; thus, in
the table, the nitrogen in good hay ia
) 94 per cent., which is equivalent to

ifOWHSML

8^ nearly of tbrin. The practical
Taloee are ascertained by weighing
the feed and animal, and giving
enough of all fodders to maintain
him in good condition. They are less
tnie than the theoretical or chemical
▼aloes, because not so well perform^
ed ; but the theoretical values have
oeen folly sostained by subsequent
examination. One hundred pounds of
ordinary bay are made the standard,
other fodders being compared with
this in their power of sustaining life in
animals. The fodders are, however,
of different values, far fttUHingt toool-
growing, dec., and are treated of as
such under these heads. The dif-
ference exhibited in the above valu-
ations, by different authors, is, in a
great measure, due to variations in
the nutritiousness of the provender;
thus, straw, pea haulm, dtc., are
many times more nutritious when cut
greenish than when dead ripe. In
the same way, some wheat contains
10 and some 30 per cent, of gluten ;
and here is a difference of 1 to 3.

The following articles, used as hu-
man food, are equivalent to one
hundred of good floor. The term
meal is meant to indicate that the
substances were perfectly dried and
pulverized : the equivalents are con-
structed upon the relative amounts
of nitrogen in fair samples of each :

Wheat floor (good qaality) .... 100

Wheat 107

Barley meal 119

Barley . ISO

Rye Ill

Buckwheat 108

Indian Cora 138

Yellow peaa 07

Hone-beana 44

White French beana ...... 58

Rice 171

IienttU 57

Wbita-haart cabfaaft ..... 810

Cabbage meal 83

Potatties CIS

Potatoe meal . ISA

Carrota 757

Carrot meal 05

Tarnipe 1335

Moalv bananai 700

Manthot (caaava plant) ..... 700

Yam (dioecorea) 300

In the economy of food, not^ only

otight a proper selection to be made

to suit the object of the farmer as

oily provender for fattening, fodder

808

rich in gtoten for draught anhnals,
but the greatest attention should be
paid to warmth, exposure, and the
losses of free pasturage. See Soiling
and Food.

FODDERS, THE TIME OF CUT-
TING. The old careless practice of
allowing corn, wheat, beans, dtc, to
stand until dead ripe is giving place
to the more rational method of cut-
ting when the herbage is turning yel-
low, and the stem iB dried an inch or
two above the ground. Not only is
the grain, whether wheat, oats, or
corn, much heavier, but whiter, and
preferred, but the straw, haulm, or
fodder is increased in value from four
to ten times ; thus, while the dry,
brown stems of pease are of no val-
ue in husbandry, it is the opinion of
the best Scutch farmers that the same
stems, taken when just yellowed, are
twice as valuable as hay ; and chem-
ical examination shows this to be a
true estimate. Hay cut in flower is
worth twenty per cent, more than
that cut in seed, and twice as much
as that with dry stems : the same is
true for clovers, lucern, and all coarse
fodders. Straw is obtained nearly as
good as hay when cut in the light
greenish yellow state ; but when seed
grain is wanted, the straw most bo
allowed to dry perfectly.

FODDERS, THE PRESERVA-
TION OF. The preparation of hay-
will be explained under that head.
In putting it up for winter use, there
are two plans, either to house it in a
barn or stack it. Against the latter
considerable prejudice exists, chiefly
because of the loss occurring from
the exposure of the outer stems. But
stacking is a perfect means olf pres^
ervatioo, and in all senses equal to
storage in a bam, if properly man«
aged ; it is only when little stacks,,
imperfectly covered, and placed on
the ground, are used, that the sys«
tern is objectionable. The hay, ^c.^
when stored, should be withered, but
not crisp, and thoroughly dry: in
putting up, a peck of salt to the load
is of great service in hindering mil-
dew and flavouring the bay. Large
mows must be provided, with means

FODDERS.

of teatflatton, by huriag betnw or
rods passing through the ham, unleBS
the hay be well made and cured be-
fore storage. When well cured^ hay
•hoold be of a greenish yellow, fine
odoor, and altogether free from black-
ness or mildew.

Much advantage is gained by ma-
king up stacks of succulent fodders,
like buckwheat, Jerusalem artichoke
stems, broad-cast com, clover, pea,
and bean stems, with straw, piling
one layer on the other; the fod-
der may thus be put up fresher with-
out being sun-burned, and the straw
is improved, at the same time that
heating is obviated. Salting, in these
cases, is an additional preservative.

There is no greater injury to coarse
fodders than blowing them to lie in
swarth until crisp and black from dry-
ioff; their nutritive matter is thus
reduced very considerably, and the
hay becomes unmanageable. If, from
using grass too green, it should heat,
the stack must be taken down and
freely exposed to the air as soon as
the accident is discovered, otherwise
it may fire, or, at least, the fodder
contracts a pitchy taste disagreeable
ta cattle.

FODDERS, THE PREPARA-
TION OP. A great deal has been
said of late concerning the cooking
and steaming of food for horses, oxen,
and fann animals. Much is the off-
spring of ignorance and superficial ex-
amination. The preparation of com
and hard grains, when given to oxen
and pigs, by grinding, is unquestiona-
bly a matter of great economy, where-
by at least one half is saved in the
former case. Mechanical reduction
by grinding, pounding, cutting, and
crashing, is also of great value in
otber fodders, in roots, succulent
stems, and herbs *, but the assertion
that the act of steaming, irrespective
of the fineness of the food, is of great
service, or even that it will pay for
fuel in the case of the horse and oxen,
ia disproved by the examination of nu-
merous Scotoh farmers and by Bona-
siBgault. Every kind of commina*
tion iB valaable, because oxen are
le of pnlveriziog grains, and

bones fireqnently hoU, or awallow
whole, the oarrota, beets, parsnipst
dec, which it is customary to furnish
them. This also refers to sheep. It
is true that in winter some little
warmth is obtained from the flnid if
given hot, but this is not enough to
pay for the trouble. A machine for
rasping beets, potatoes, dco., is worth
infinitely more than a cooking contri-
vance.

With pigs the matter seems to be dif-
ferent ; well-made experiments show
that boiling or steaming food hast-
ens their fattening ; but this is scarce-
ly understood. Boiling does not de*
vel<M> any nutrition ; on the contrary,
Dr. Beaumont has shown that diges
tion is retarded ; but boiling is of ser-
vice where oily food, as Ijididn cam,
lin$e^, hemp seedy cotton seed, &c., is
given, for the heat causes the parti-
cles of fat of the meal to form an
emulsion with the hot water and gtmi
of the seed, and it is readily taken np
by the animara intestines, whereas
oil, in large quantity, is not so read-
ily absorbed by the body, but partly
rejected. From the same cause, in
the last stage of fattening oxen, com
or linseed meal, boiled into a jelly or
porridge, wiH assist fattening, while
it is in no way calculated as a regu-
lar fodder for draught oxen. In so
far as boiling or steaming assists di-
gestion, comminutes food, by making
it mealy, as potatoes, or prcxluces an
emulsion with the oil it contains, so
far, and no farther, does it do service
on the farm. Practical men stats
the gain in oily meals, with pigs, at
about one third, but not so much, if
at all, in coarse fodders. For cook-
ing, nothing is superior to Mott^s
stove, which heats rapidly and econ-
omizes fuel. For a steamerf any com-
mon kettle, the noasle of which emp-
ties into a box either of thick wood
with a tight lid, or into a barrel, will
answer ; the barrel may be surround-
ed with tow or cloth to keep in tlis
first heat. The figure represents sudi
a contrivance : A is a kettle, com-
municating by the pipe, B, furnished
with a stop-cock at C, into the box,
D, the lid of which oveilaps, and is

303

FOL

made fast by hooks, E. It is also
furnished with a stop cock, F, below,
to let off* the condensed water.

Such a contrivance can be set up
in the feeding-house on a table, and
easily used, the food being conTeyed
down an inclined plane to the feed-
ing-troughs, or along a hose, if it be
fluid. A rapid way to make water
boil is to place it in a tube of tinned
iron or copper, wound into a spinal
form, and running around the fire ;
in this way the amount of surface is
greatly increased, and the whole
brought near to the fire.

FCETUS (firom/po, I bring forth),
A quickened child in the womb.

FOG. A collection of Tapour near
the earth's surface, produced by the
cooling of the moisture in the air.
Fogs lie in the morning and evening
over damp, tU-drained, or marshy
lands, and are unhealthy, producing
ague and bilious fevers.

FOGGE. Long grass and partial-
ly cropped grass remaining on mead-
ows. Also the grass after a crop.

FOGGING. An uncommon prac-
tice of leaving the grass of upland
meadows uncut during the year, and
turning cattle and sheep upon it in
the fall and winter.

FOIL. A thin sheet of metal.

FOLD. A temporary enclosure
made with hurdles or rails, to con-
fine sheep. A portion may be shel-
tered with pine or other branches,
and littered with straw.

FOLDING. The practice of en-
closing sheep, cows, Ac, in folds,
either for the night to manure the
land, or on turnips, grass, spring rye,
wheat, &c., to eat it regularly and
manure at the same time. Folding
daring summer is wastefttl ; for the

304

FOG

greaier part of the urine is ktat. and
much of the solid excrement decays
and is volatilized or removed by wash-
ing ; driving the cattle to one yard
and receiving the dung on straw,
charcoal, or suitable matter* ibr<
posting it, would be much better <
omy. On heavy lands, the treading
of animals is fr^uently injurious du- •
ring folding.

FOLIATION, or VERNATION.
The manner in which the youn;
leaves are folded in the bad.

FOLLICLE, or FOLUCULUS.
In botany, a one-valved, one-cell-
ed, many-seeded, superior, dehiseeot
fruit.

FOMENTATION. A warm b«th»
ing applied to a part of the body : ia-
fusions of herbs are often used.

FONTANEL. A small space ex-
isting between the bones of the head
in i)^ foetus.

FOOD. A substaaoe which con-
tains any of the principles which ex*
ist in the body, is digestible, and not
combined with a poisonous ingredi^
ent. There are three principal vui-
etiea of food : 1st. That capable of
repairing the waste of the flesh or
muscle, called Azotized food, and es«
senttal to the strength of animals.
3d. That whieh sustains the heat of
the body, called nm-Jaotiz^i food.
8d. That which'repaira the waste of
fat, and called OUaginoiu food, tho
importance of which is inferior to the
two former, except for ftttealag ani*
mals.

The azoiUied elemeata of food, ao
called from containing aaote, or aitn^
gen, are fibrin, casein, and albamen ;
they go to the repair of museles»
membranes, dec., which, in the aetlv<e
state of the body, are being perpetu*
ally consunoed. Seeds attd meatft
contain most of these principles ; ttie
former from 10 to SO per oent., and
lean meat 28 to S5 per esnt. The
richest seeds are beans, pease, wheat*
barley, oats, rye, corn. This kiad of
food is most services^le for draagM
animals and such as are used for
strength and fleetaeas. For the ooak»
parative values, see the table in aitl*
cH^FoidirM. They aie the oely olaaa

FOO
cf^Ie of «asUming life b^ them-*

The nan-^xoHzed contain no nitro-
gen. Starch, angar, and gum are
the principal of these ; they are, by
digeetion, conveyed into the system,
and chaiiged so aa to produce the
beat which maintains life. Exposure
to cold calls for a greater consamp-
tUMk of theae principles than in a
warm situation. Potatoes, beets,
carrots, and roots generally excel in
these princi|des, hot no vegetable
Ibdder is defioient in them. These
emmat alone sustain life.
. Fatty, or oleaginous food, adds fat
to' the body, which, in sickness and
other cireamstanoes, also contributes
to the maintenance of animal heat.
They are Incapable of sustaining life.
See FmUemng.

The food usually consumed is a
mixtnre of these in different proper-
taone ; thus, com meal consists of 9
per cent, oil, 13 azotized principles,
60 Bon-aaotiud, the rest being water,
baak, and saline matter ; but the
trae vehie of any food is directly as
tke nitrogen principles it contains.
SeeFaddirt.

Besides these snbetanees, others
ne in less measure useful as food,
Til,: salt, which assists digestion;
Jelly, or «lati», which repairs waste
in the ovular tissue ; bone earth (as
H ezista in the food), whidi repairs
tiMwaate of the bones. Vin^ar, al-
cohol, the juices of acid fruits, are
also food of the non-aiotiaed kind.

In perfect digestton, these varieties
of food are taken op into the system,
amd the bosk, certain uselese salts,
wmd water ngected ; bat it often oc-
«im that the proportion of fat or
etazchy matters is so great, that much
is fe(ieeted, mndtered, by the bowels.

The amount of food aeceasary to
nalntaift an animal in ordinary exer-
eise is rather lees than two per cent
of the wei^t in hay, or ita equiva-
jBDt. SeeAed. A man requirea 46
oances of wheat bread, or 14 of beef
or amtOD, daily, to siaintaia strength.
An OK f>f 1000 pounds leqaires 90
pwdeof hasTf or the following eqniv-
•leata:

Cos

FOR

iseite. oTttraipi,
lis •* •traw,
75 '* canota,
67 " potatoes.

17]hs.ofelMvh^»
M " twrlej,
10 ** o«u»
9 '* beftiia.

The time of feeding should be reg*
nlar : an hour allowed working ani-
mals to digest, water given afterward,
and changes in the food made occa^
sionally, but not suddenly, especialiy
to green fodders.

FOOD OF PLANTS. Plants re-
quire water, carbonic acid gas, oxy-
gen, ammonia, or other compounds
containing nitrogen and saline matr
ters; these they derive partly from
the air and soil. See these bodies.

FOOT. A measure of 13 inches.
Horse^sfoot. B^^ Horse v^XiA Shoeing,

FORAGE. Provender, fodder.

FORAMEN. In anatomy, a hole
or perforation through a bone.

FORCE. Anything that produces
motion or pressure. Mechamcal for-
ces are those which produce palpable
movements, as gravitation, the de>
scent of weights upon bodies, dec.
Chemical forces are those producing
molecular movements, which are
only perceptible by their effects ;
they arQ heat, light, tithonicity, elec-
tricity I these, however, occasional-
ly give rise to more extensive move*
ments.

FORCEPS. Instruments acting
in the same way as pincers.

FORCING. In borticuUure, for-
warding the growth of plants, fruits^
dec. ; conducted in glazed houses,
pits, frames, or in oeUars for mush-
rooms, celeiy, endive, 6lc. Heat is
one great essential ; but light and air
are also of the first importance to
success, except with mushrooms, or
in blanching. Forcing houses and
frames, tberefbre, face the south, to
receive most light ; but during very
cold weather the sudden action of
the sun's heat is to be guarded against
if there be the least i^ost within the
house; hence, in green-hoiises for
vines and fruits, it is common to cov-
er the glass with matting during the
depth of winter, to protect the trees
from sudden heat.

FORCING PITS. Pits of brick,
masonry, or wood sunk in the earth
to contain the fermenting materials

806

to prodnee bott«m best; tliay avs

used like frames, and in every re-
spect resemble Ihem in effect. The
following is a deecriptiofi of the pit
of one of the English gardens : <' It is
four feet deep within ; the lowest ten
inches ef solid brick- work sunk in the
earth ; the remainder is a flue, three
inches wide in the clear, carried en-
tirely roand the pit ; the inner wall
of vrhich, fanning the udea of the pit,
is four-inch work, well bedded in
mortar, and pointed, to preTent the
Bteam penetrating ; the outer wall of
the flue is also four-inch, but open-
work, to admit the steam and that of
dung coatings into the flue, the top
of which is rendered tight by a cov-
ering of tiles, &c. The ft-ame rests
on the external wall of the flue. Tlie
cavity of the pit, which is ke|A dry
by means of drains, is nine feet two
inches long, two feet eight inches
wide, and four feet deep. It is iiUed
with broken bricks to within eighteen
inches of the top; then a foot of
short cold dung, six inches of veiy
rotten dung, trod down so as to ad-
mit half an inch depth of ooal ashes,
for preventing the intrusion of any
worms that may be in the dung, com-
plete the structure.'* See Frame.

FORCING PUMP. See Pump.

FOREST. A natural collection of
trees. The principal trees are men-
tioned under their respective heads.

FOREST FLIES. Fliea of the
genus Hippobogea.

FORFICULA. The genus of in-
sects to which the tarvfig belongs.

FORGE. "The workshop in
which iron is hammered and shaped
by the aid of beat. The term is gen-
erally applied to the places in which
these operations arc carried on upon
the comparatively small scale; the
great worki^ops in which iron is
made malleable for general purposes
being caUed skingUng mHU, A com-
mon forge consists of the hearth or
Are- place, which is merely a cavity in
masonry or brick- work well lined with
fine clay or brick, upon which the ig-
nited fuel is placelid, and upon the
back or side of which a powerful blast
«f air is driven in through the noszle

rau

of a double-blasted baUowa, wbiobt is
a common forge, is generally worked
by a hand lever. Forges are som^-
times constructed so as to be porta-
ble, when the bellows is most con^
veoiently placed under the hearth:
these are used in ships, and for vari-
ous jobs on railways, dE«."—- (^r«jiiie.>

FORK. The dung and digging
fork is in the form of a apade^ wiMi
three or more flat prongs : it is eia«
ployed in loose soils much more ex-
peditiously than the spade in garden
tillage. The Aoy, or pitch-fork, for
turning bay, grass, or jnaoure, is fur«^
nished with a long handle and two
roundish teeth : sometimes a forked
branch is used.

FORMATION. In gedogjt, a
group of deposites or strata appareot**
ly referable to a common origin or
period.

FORMICA. The g«nns of aaia,
DOW the type of a tribe, the J^onmctiitf.

FORMIC ACID. The fluid e^eet.
ed by ants when irritated ceatasnr
this acid. The aeid is formed by dis-
tilling tartaric aeid with sulpimtic
acid and peroxide of manganese, and
consists of Cs HOa-f HO. It is high*
ly corrosive, acid, and of a peouHar
odour ; combines with bases to form
/ormuuet, whieh are very aelubie.
Formic acid contains a eompooiid
Tadioal formal (C« H).

FORMULA. Incbemistcy.tbaexH
pression, by symbols, of the oonpoai*
tion of any subataace, as (£0, FOQs>
for formic etlur.

FOSSA. In zoology, a depressioit
on a bone.

FOSSIL. A part or the whole of
any animal or plant imbedded in th*
earth, and more or leaa oanverted
into stony matter.

FOSSORES. A group of hymen-
opterotts insects, which dig or exea*
vate cells in wood or 4Muth to d^MM**
ite their eggs.

FOSSORIAL (from fpdio, I dig}^
Animals which dig their holes, -m
moies.

FOUNDATION. In an»hit0otttrei
the lower part of a wall, on whieh thra
wajl is raised, and alwi^B of muoh
greater thickness than Buoh walL A

TCOi

flfticiftatf htm Uitelf been iotrodnoed
of laying foundations on a bed of
nlmtis called eenereU, which is a mix-
ture of rongfa, smaJI stoaes or large
graTel stones with sand and stone,
Hnie and water, with just enough of
the lime to act as a cementitious m^
dfom with the best effect. See Cotir

FOUNTAIN. A jet of water or
fMA. The simfdest way of forming
a Ibontain is to conduct water by a
small pipe from a higher elevation,
where a tank or other reservoir ex-
ists; the open end of the tube below
bemg made fiDCt the iluid is driren
out with a pressvre proportionate to
the heiglit of the reservoir, and,
springing into the air, produces a
ibiifltain. Groups of statuary are
beaotifnliy displayed in fountains.

FOVEATUS, FOVEATE. Hav-
i9g a depressMMi or pit : applied to the
sectary of flowers.

FOVILLA. The yellow fliUd con-
tKlned in pollen.

FOWL. aeePosto^.
- FOX. CasoM vtUpet^ Lin. The de-
stmction committed by this animal
and ins great address in escaping have
anked the Armer's wits to destroy
him. Good dogs are anqnestionabiy
the best remedy, but traps of all
kfads, baited with flesh, are also ex-
tensively employed. The fox is led
to these by tmiling the entrails of a
aiheep or bog from his retreats to the
trap. I n the same way, the trail may
be made to a tree, and the garbage
left, the fanner ascending a tree in
the neigbbouihood, and waiting with
a gun to shoot the ibx. A large trap,
like the old rat trap, may be ixed ia
the grass of a field, well hidden, and
baited with a fowl.

FOX EVIL. A disease in which
the hair fblis out.

FOXGI^VE. DigUmUa fwrpurea.
An exotic biennial plant, with hand-
some flowers, of great value in med-
icine as a sedative and diuretic. It
is extremely poisonous, but is eolti-
VBCed wflh gi^at care in drills eigh-
teen inches apart. The plants shouid
he tept iVee from weeds, cultivated
ii a dryMttyifld ftea^ eapopedto

tfar am. The lecvea «ra aeieoted.
when Ihll grown, in the second year,
and just before flowering ; they should
be dried by exposure to the sun, and
put up in tinned vessels. The leaves
only are valuable.

FOXTAIL GRASS. Grasses of
the genus Penmsetumf formerly iS<-
traruL The most common {P. glax^
cmr) is the coarae grass that springs
up in stubble. None of them, except P.
Oemuaucumt Bengal ^rass, is worth
cultivation, and this is very inferior
to the ordinary planta. It is an aiw
nnal, sown in spring, and grows flrom
two to four feet high with the flower
stems.

FOXY. Sour or harsh.

FRACTURE. In farriery, the
breakage of a bone in the body. Frac-
tures are called «tm^ when the bone
is broken without tearing the mus-
cles and passing through the skin» and
coflH>ooi^<^ tn the latter case. The
treatment requires care and atten-
tioo. The broken ends of the bones
are first to be nicely brought togeth-
er by the surgeon, and then bound by
splints. The splints are usually slabs
of wood of a proper length and width
to fit the limb, or stiff pasteboard
soaked until it bends freely, and ad-
justed to the limb ; the splint is bound
oo by a long riband of cotton. Splints
should be sufficiently long to reach to
the joints above and below the frac-
ture, to restrain their motion. The
animal should be bled if feverish, and
kept low. It is sometimes necessa-
ry to suspend them in the stable, by
passing a stout cloth under the body,
and fastening its ends to the upper
frame-work of the stable. In from
three to five weeks the bones are asii*>
ally reunited.

FRACTURE. In mineralogy, the
appearance of a broken mineral which
is not crystalline. It is termed res-
inous, cboncoidal, vitreous, earthy,
dec., according as it resembles that of
xesia, a shell, glass* or earth.

FRACTURES IN TREES. When
they cwcur in the smaller branches,
from excess of fruit, they readily unite
by propping up to the natural posi-
Uoar ii ibe apctdent occurs before the

ao7

FRA

M; but ^plieii tbe pwrt hat m ooii»

atderable diameter, foar to six inch-
es, it is best to prune it, and cover
the wound with coal tar or grafting

day.

FRiENUM (firom/rtfjiiim, a bridle,)
A membranous fold, which binds
down one |MUt of the body to another,
especially the tongue to the mouth.

FRAGARIA. The geoeiic name
of the strawberry.

FRAME. In horticulture, the ar-
rangement in which forcing is usiially
performed. A frame may be made
of stout planka, the back one being
two feet deep, the front fifteen inch-
es, and the sides sloped ; the width
across may be six feet, and the length
divided into partitions every three
feet ; over each partition a window
or sash, capable of being more or less
withdrawn, is placed. These ftrnmes
are set upon the hot-beds of ferment-
ing matters, and seedlings, melons,
dLC., raised in them.

The heating material, or hot-bed,
may be set up on the ground, or in a
shallow pit of two feet depth. The
advantage of the former is that, as
the heat diminishes, the old dung can
be cut down and removed, being re-
placed by fresh, which supplies new
heat, and thus the temperature can
be kept up for a long Ume. A com-
mon bed for early vegetables is made
by laying down twenty inches to two
feet of fresh horse dung, and cover-
ing with six to eight inches of fine
mould, tan, or compost, putting down
the sashes of the frame, and allowing
the steam to pass off for three days ;
opening the frame, stirring the soil,
and sowing the seeds in drills, or
broad-cast.- The ftaooe is subsequent-
ly to be opened or kept shut, aoeord-
ittg to the hardiness of the young
plants. Beds made early in the sesr
son will require a greater depth of fer-
menting matter. During cold nights,
cover the frames with matting, that
no frost mav penetrate. It is com-
mon to sink small thumb pots, in
part, into the houbed, instead of sow-
ing the seed on mould.

A cold frame is no more than the
foregoing sash placed over a spot of

by the glass. It should be exposed tQ
the southwest. Howbeds and f ramee
should always be placed over a weO-
drained sj^t,

FRAMING. The rough timber-
work of a house.

FRANKUNIA. Gordmma fmits-
cens. An ornamental tree of Georgia^
somewhat resembling the dogwood
when in flower.

FRAXINUS. Thegenusoftheash*

FREEMARTIN. A twin cow calf
bom with a male calil If it re6eBi»
Ues the boD it is banreo» and is oflea
baiTeo when having the gaoaral ap-
pearance of a heifer.

FREEZING. Congelation^ Tha
conversion of water into ice. It takes
place at 32° Fahrenheit, or below, and
is much promoted by a aharp wiad*
which hastens evaporation. Water,
in freeaing, expaads one ninths and*
if confined, will break open the stout*
estvessds. Rocks and the soil are
disintegrated by the fipeeaing of wa-
ter in them, whiob, expanding, teaia
the particles asunder. By freeiing
some mixtures or solutioas, the wa-
tery parts may be, in seme measui«»
separated, and the spirttuous left oft-
touched. See FrogL

FRENCH BEANS. See Betms.

FRENCH BERRIES. Berri*9 of
Awguan. The green fruit of the
Rhimnua tt^ectoritu^ a apeoiea oC-
buckthorn, cultivated in Fraaoe aa«
yellow dyeing material U requisea
a southern climate, and in other r»>
spects does not differ from the buck-
thorn. It may be propagated by cut-
tings or seeds. Tho Persian berriea
are the finest for oolouriog*

FRENCH CLOVER. liMara.

FRET, or FRETTE. In arcfaiteo-
ture, a apeoiea of ornament oonaist-
ing of one or more amall fillets. Tha
section of the channels between the
fillets is rectangular. The subjoined

diagram shows two sorts o( empie
frets ; but they are often muob umnpo
comfrficated.

FRIABLE. Powdery, mealy, ot
readi^ hvakaaioto apowdec.

PRI

FRO

' TRWn ON. The Tesistaiice of-
fered to motion by a rough surface.
In mechanics, it is divided into mIv-
4ing^ T€Umgf and piwot friction. Of
tbm, the amount of friction with
the same weight is twelve to twenty
times greater in sliding than rolling,
«ttd is MM(»mediate in pivot friction.
Frifstion is diminished by polish, by
foAQdion of weight, by causing the
wirfaces to be of dissimilar substan-
ces, aa metal or wood, and by apply-
ing grease in sliding and pivot fric-
tion, but not in rolling friction.

Whenever it is possible to convert
a alidtog or pivot motion into a roll-
ing one, mneh is gained ; hence the
arrangeOMnt of friction wheels, which
MNHiBi oi tw» er more wheels, sup-
poftiDir » P>vot or axle, and which, by
taming, produce a rolling instead of
a pivot fric^n. Friction wheels have
been reeently introdoeed into carriage
asles ; the axis, instead of playing in
tbe box, is surroonded with soiall,
loeee roilers, which revolve with it,
Mdoeing the firietion to a remarkable
extent.

Rigidity of cordage is also produc-
tive, like ail kinds of friction, of loss
of pewer, and is to be guarded against
fay using flexible nqpes. The amount
ei^lfietioB depends, in a great meas-
ttre, on the diameter of the wheel
ever which it passes, the extent of
ropewcoBftaet, and its tension. When
there is mors than one fold, it be-
eeenes enormous, so as to be need
as a meehanieal means for stopping
tKMts, dee.

FRIEZE. In architeetnre, the cen-
tral poftioii of the entablature be-
tween the architrave and cornice.
It is piaiB in the Tuscan, but adorn-
ed in other styles.

FRIGID ZONE. The space above
76^ degrees of nortti or sooth lati-
tude. It is soaroely occupied by any
planta bnt a few liohens.

FRINGE-TREE. Chimianlkiu Vir-
gimcA. A beautiful ornamental tree,
-giewing wtldasfiur north asDelaware,
and beariBv white flowers in May.

FRINGlLUD^ (from >rra^i^ a
«Aq^EiKih») A tiibe of birds, of the
Passeriae ttai^v 5intb ateut,

Mils (<»iw>wtfrsg)» indodhig the lin-
nets, canaries, finches, aU of which
are devourers of grain.

FROGS. Amphibious animals, of
the genus Rana. The common spe-
cies {H. temporaria and eaeulerUa) are,
for the most part, insectivorous. They
should not be destroyed by the gar-
dener, except when in great numbers,
as they clear his garden of slugs,
snails, and other small pests. The
green frog {eteulenta) is a great del-
icacy with some : the flesh of the hind
leg is the part eaten.

FROG OF THE HORSE. A tri-
angular portion of horn projecting
from the sole almost on a level with
the crust, and defending a soft and
elastic substance called the sennble
frog'. The sensible frog occupies the
whole of the back part of the foot,
above the horny frog and between
the cartilages.

FROG HOPPERS. FROG SPIT-
TLE. CUCKOO SPITTLE. Small
insects (Cercemdida) which inhabit
the twigs and branches of plants,
from which they extract so much
juice that the place on which they
are collected appears covered with
spittle.

FROND. The leaves of ferns are
so called.

FRONTAL. In anatomy, apper
taining to the forehead.

FRONTLET. In ornithology, the
part of the head next the bill, usually
covered with bristles.

FROST. Correctly speaking, frost
is ice produced by radiation. Under
the article Dew it has been stated
that in bright, clear, calm nights, all
objects exposed to the air become
cooled by radiation into the sky ; if
the temperature falls to 32^, then
frost, or pellicles of ice, are produced
instead of dew. The word is also
used in common to express freezing ;
but, in the latter case, the air is
usually at or below 8S° Fahrenheit,
whereas night frosts often occur in
the spring and fall when the air is
40^' to SO"" Fahrenheit. Frosts fall ear-
lier on dark, rough lands than those
of a hffiki ooleur and indurated con-
dition.

FROST.

Frosts are most hffiiTiofis to plants
at 60° Fahrenheit, in full vigour of
growth ; hence a slight frost in spring
usually destroys expanding buds and
the young shoots of vegetables. It
may act in a variety of ways, but
commonly by freezing the sap of the
leaves, whidi produces a disorgan-
ization of its tissues. Frosts by ra-
diation occur sooner in elevated sit-
uations, at a distance from lakes or
rivers, than in valleys that are kept
moist. Whatever intercepts the
deamess of the sky diminishes or ar-
rests frosts ; thus, clouds, a large
quantity of vapour in the air, smoke,
or matting, straw, glass, boards, Ac.
Hence, gardeners cover tender plants
with leaves, straw, pine brushwood,
or protect them with mats or glass ;
in such cases, the radiation is from
the mats, &e., and not from the
plants. Watering plants abundantly
at nightfall, when the evening ap-
pears clear and frost may be appre-
hended, is often efficacious ; water-
ing before sunrise, afler a slight frost,
is also valuable, for the vapour of
water, in both cases, acts as a cover-
ing to the vegetation *, in the even-
ing it diminishes radiation ; in the
morning it gently warms and thaws
the leaves before the destructive ac-
tion of the sun can take place. Trees
are often preserved by twining a
quantity of rope among their branch-
es and allowing the ends to dip in wa-
ter. On a larger scale, the Indians
of Cusco used to burn large quanti-
ties of moist straw and leaves at sun-
set when a fVost was apprehended,
and thus, by obscuring the sky, hin-
der radiation. During the winter a
coating of snow is a remarkable pro-
tection to a crop, maintaining it at a
regular temperature, while the ex-
posed surftiee would have been much
injured by severe frosts. A bed of
snow, eight inches thick, frequently
measures 10^ Fahrenheit at the sur-
face and Zi^ Fahrenheit at the earth,
and, being a very bad conductor of
heat, changes its lower temperature
very slowly.

Ftooding meadows to such a depth
that the earth may not be frofeen is

810

one of the most certain and efftectii^
means of saving grass and advancing
it in maturity for the next spring, tte
water being vrithdrawn when the
weather has become mild and free
from frost ; lands over which fogs
lie long are also well protected from
early frosts. Exposure has also moek
influence on the early occnrfesoe of
frosts ; lands which receive the
least sun and are exposed to cbUteg
winds being visited moch sooner thaa
those looking to the south and siiel-
tered.

The night frosts produced by radi-
ation are very different from the cold-
ness of the air in winter. The cold
of winter does not sot precisely lilm
early frosts ; valleys are sooner aAo^
ed than hillsides unless they eontein
water, and this is supposed by Lind-
ley to be produced by the desoent of
cold air from above mto them, bnt
is also due to the lesser dnratiea of
sunshine. During our winters tlie
sun usually retains much power, so
as to produce thawing in places whero
his direct beams fail ; this efihet ta^
king place suddenly, and often upoa
trees or vegetable structures, is veqr
injurious, so that delioate trees are
often destroyed in orchards feeing
the southeast from this osnse, esp^
oially in the spring. Sudden thawing,
whether taking place on a leaf, tree,
or root, is mudi more iojvrioue then
freezing; for the expansion prodnesd
in' the gases of the plant canses thena
to rupture the cells and beoone mis*
ed with the fluids, thus commencing
decomposition. It is a weU-kaown
fact that potatoes, dec., nay be kept
frozen for a year or moee without in-
jury, if they be thawed gradually by
immersion in spring water ; but if
they be exposed to a hot sun, or
thrown into hot water, they becoiae
disorganized, and rot at once. Henee
the policy of the gardener and or-
(^rdist is to plant orctuuds and ex-
pose early vegetables and prodaeta in
such a manner that changes from
heat to cold may be gradual, and
not sudden. The retardation of flo w-
ering in a northern situation, in fridf*
tfeee, is amply oorapeasaied by UfQ

FRO

TOM

]gi««t«r deitaiiity, so tlutt a north-
western position is now preferred for
«■ orehard. Gardens in which anna-
•I Tegetables only are raised should
ka^e a sdotfaeastem exposure.

The vremrtmiion of fruits, roots, dtc. ,
depends more on placing them out of
Hie reach of sadden changes of tem-
perature than keeping them tree from
liroet ; for if kept frozen, they remain
aoond atU the winter, and are to be
thawed slowly, by first immersing in
apriag water (at 40° Fahrenheit), in
the shade; bat in these cases the
freezing most have been gradual, and
aot sudden. See Borrow.

The spewing tf lands, or efllores-
flence oi ioe which ooours on stitT
-floiis doring winter, is prodaced by
the thawing of an inch or two of the
soriace daring the winter, and a sad-
den frost subvequeatly : tn this way
the water confined in the thawed part
being oooTerted into ice^ and expand-
ing, eannot find passage downward,
mul so is thrown ap, along with a
portion of earth, above the surface.
It does not occur to any extent on
well-drained, warm aoHs, and is fre-
quently injurious by casting out the
aeeds of wheat and winter grains.
Dminage, and the use of the strong-
rooted wheats, with early sowing,
are the prerentiTes.

The spewing and disintegrating
effiscts of frost on lands are of eminent
serviee, when they are fallow, in pul-
Terizing the soil and preparing it for
tlie spring crop. Exposing stifiTlands
to frost by ploughing in the fall is
almost an essential condition of good
tillage : it is also of great service in
destroying the roou of weeds and
grubs of worms.

Porous sandstone rocks are oden
mneh disintegrated by the action of
fl«esing water, diiTen into their pores
by rainft.

FRUCTIPIOATION. The part of
plaote deatfaiod to produce fruit or
npomles.

FRUIT. In botany, the oyarium
arrived at maturity. It is called
Jleskf or indskis€ont when pulpy, and
dMseent when dry. The divisions
wftbin the froti are termed carpels.

Oommonly it means a fleshy Ihilt
only. Fruits are rather laxative.

FRUITING. Bearing fi-uit.

FRUIT INSECTS. See the fruits,
as Apple, Phtm, 6lc,

FRUMENTACEGUS. ResemMing
wheat, or made of wheat.

FRUSTRUM. The part of a solid
cone left after cutting oflTthe top.

FRUTESCENT. Wbody.

FRUTEX. A shrub, a small tree,
the branches of which start from the
soil without any regular trunk.

FUCUS. A genus of sea-weeds.
Fucoid, like a sea-weed.

FUEL. Substances used to obtain
heat are called fuel. The heat pro-
duced by burning a given weight of
fliel increases with the dryness, so-
lidity, and amount of carbon. The
knmediaie effect depends upon the
rapidity of burning, which is hastened
by a rapid draught of air, long chim-
ney, and other means. One pound
of bituminous coal will raise 60 lbs.
of water from 32° to 2l%° Fahrenheit
The proportionate values of other
kinds of fuel, measured by the same
effect, are :

Drfwood .... 35 poands of water.

Common wood . . 36 *' **

Charcoal .... 73

Pilooal . . . . eo

Coko 05

Pest 30

Oil, tallow ... 78

Coal gas .... 76

FULCRUM. The point about
which a lever moves. A prop.

FULGORA. A genus of insects,
the fore part of the head of which is
produced into a large hollow recep-
tacle. Some are supposed to emit a
brilliant light.

FULGURATION. In chemistry,
the sudden brilliancy emitted by gold
and silver as it cools from fusion be-
fore the blowpipe.

FULIGINOUS (ftom fuligo, soot).
Sooty, of the colour or appearance
of soot.

FULLERS' EARTH. A clayey
mineral, readily miscible with water,
used for fulling or cleaning cloth of
grease.

FULLERS* TEASEL. See Teasd.

FUMIGATION. The exposure of
subtgpccs, or the- air of a room, to

811

((
U

(I
«I

FUN

FTO

eertain ▼apours, to oonnteraet a dis-
ease or to purify. Warm vinegar is
commonly employed ; thorough ven-
tilation is also necessary. The chlo-
rine given off from chloride of lime,
or generated by adding murialic acid
to black oxide of manganese, is the
best fumigating substance. It has
the power of neutralizing the most
disagreeable odours, but is injurious
to health, and must only be used in
Taeant apartments.

FUMITORY. Fumaria t^lfieinalU.
Cultivated chiefly as a flower : cattle
will eat the herbage.

FUNDI, FUNDUNGI. Patpalum
exUe, Hungary rice. A gramine-
ous annual plant growing 18 inches
high, and producing an abundance of
muiute seeds, which are used in Af-
rica as riC(B. It is sown on dry nata-
ral soils in May, and reaped in Septem-
ber, the seeds being readily thrashed
out.

FUNGI. The race of mushrooms,
toad-stools, blight, rust, &c. They
consist of cells only, and produce
spores, or seeds, without flowers.
Fungi grow, for the most part, on
dead or living vegetable matters.
Those fungi are poisonous that have
a disagreeable narcotic smell. The
most important will be found in this
book. The word fungoid^ like a mush-
room« is a derivative.

FUNGICOLA. A genus of cole-
opterous insects dweUing in mush-
rooms.

FUN GIN. The white, tasteless
solid remaining after mushrooms
have been fully digested in alcohol
and in water. It is an asotixed mat-
ter nearly resembling fibrin, and very
nutritions.

FUNGUS. A mushroom. In far-
riery, proud flesh, a fleshy excres-
cence growing out of a sore, or about
the edges of an ulcer. It should be
reduced by the use of caustic. Lu-
nar caustic or red precipitate is the
best application.

FUNICULUS. In anatomy, the
cord which attaches the foetus to the
after4>irth, or placenta, also called the
ombilioal cord. The thread by which
the seed is fastened to the cai^l.

818

FUNNEL. Atnimpet-ahapedT€»-
eel open at both ends, used to trana^
fer fluids, and especially in chemia-
try, to lay filters upon.

FUNNEL-SHAl'ED. Infundibuli
fonn, a term descriptive of the figure
of some flowers.

FUR. The skins of animals w^
covered with hair. The unprepared
dry skins are called peUriet,

FURFURACEOUS (from /mr/w,
bran). Resembling bran.

FURLONG. The eighth of a mile:
40 poles.

FURNACE. In chemistry, a
small, moveable vessel of plumba^
or fire day, in which charcoal may
be burned for the purpose of distiUa-
tionsTHieating tubes, dtc. It is uaa-
ally provided with several parts for
the convenience of carrying on the
several processes and obtaining a
high heat.

FURRIERS' WASTE. The cUp-
pings of skins : as a manure it is sim-
ilar to old rags.

FURUNCULUS. Aboil.

FURROW. The movement of the
earth produced by the action of a
plough : furrow *Uee is the slip of
earth turned over.

FURROW, WATER. The fur-
row made in ploughed lands to le^ff
surface water.

FURZE. Shrubs of the genus
UfeXf the most common of which, U.
Europeus, is also called gorae and
whin. It is a hardy, legnroinous ev-
eiigreen, growing abundantly on poor
lands, and made use offer hedging and
coarse fodder in Europe. It grows
rapidly, so that it can be cut every
four years for fuel, and is so far na-
tritious that horses are often main-
tained on furze only ; bat, considering
the abundance of ezeellent fodder
plants we posaeas, the introduction
of furze is scarcely worthy of thou|pbt.
As a fencing material, it is objection-
able, from the room it requffes, hot
the prickles with which it is covered
make it a sore defence.

FUSIFORM. Spindle-shaped, tatr
pering to each end; a descriptive
term in botany.

FUSION. Making. In fbaion* a

OAL

GAL

neai amount of heat becomea latent.

The point of fusion differs extremely
in metals, from six hundred to several
thousand degrees of Fahrenheit.

FUSTET. The wood of the jKAu*
cotinu4. Young fustic.

FUSTIC. The wood of the Mmu
ttjictaria^ a species of mulberry. It
yields a dingy, yellow orange dye to
water ; it imparts permanent colours
to wool when mordanted with alum
or a solution of tin. It mixes well
with indigo and Saxon blue, forming
a green. With copperas it forms ol-
ives and browns. Five to six parts
of the old wood give a lemon colour
to 16 of cloth. The colour is less
altered by acids than other yellows,
but it is inferior in brightness to weld.
The fustic-tree grows naturally in
the West Indies and America.

FUSTIC, YOUNG. A name for
the RliMs cattnusj or Italian sumac,
which yields a greenish-yellow dye,
used in mixtures.

GABLE. The triangular piece of
wall at the ends of a house, immedi-
ately under the roof

GADFLY, BREEZE. Dipterous
insects of the genus JEstnu. These
insects nearly resemble the botflies;
they deposite their eggs under the
skin of animals, which they pierce,
giving considerable pain. The yel-
low-eyed forest flies that infest hor-
ses in July are of the genus Crysops.

GAGE, GAUGE. In physics, an
instrument to measure any result, as
tDiTtd-gagef rain-gage.

GALACTOPOIETTC (IVom yaXa,
milk J and itoteu^ I make). Substan-
ces which increase the flow of milk.
The affixes gala and galacto indicate
milk or milky ; as gaiactometer. See
Lactometer.

GALANGAL. Kampferia galan-
ga. A root formerly used in medi-
cine, and imported from China.

GALBANUM. Galbanum offici-
nale. An umbelliferous herb of Af-
rica. A fetid gum resin exudes spon-
taneously from it of antispasmodic
prope tM'S.

GALBUT^A. a genua of climbing

birds like the klDgfishers ; they live
in wet forests, and are insectivorous.

GALBULUS. A fruit of a round-
ed form, but with an internal conical
arrangement of the carpels ; as that
of the savine, junipers, and yew.

GALEATE. Helmet-shaped. In
botany the term is applied to the up-
per arched lip of personate flowers.

GALENA. Sulphuret of lead. An
abundant ore of a bright metallic col-
our and cubical form.

GALERUC A. A genus of coleop-
terous insects, the type of the Gale-
rucida, including the Haltica. They
are vegetable feeders in the perfect
and larva state. The yellow-striped
squash beetle ((?. vitata) is of tills
genus.

Galium, a genus of plants, of
which cleavers (G. aparine) is a spe-
cies. G. verum is used as rennet to
cutdle milk in cheese-making. The
family of plants of which it is the
type {Galiacea) includes madder and
spurry. The whole family is nutri-
tious.

GALL. Bile. Ox gall is of great
service for removing oil spots from
cloth and carpets, and for fastening
and brightening colours. The gall-
bladder is the small sack situated un-
der the liver, and contains gall. It
communicates with the small intes-
tines by the biliary duct. Gall stores
are concretions formed in this blad-
der, which consist, for the most part,
of hardened bile or of cholesterine.

GALLIC ACID. A crystallme, in-
odorous substance, slightly soluble
and styptic. It precipitates per salts
of iron of a blacx colour. It is form-
ed by exposing a solution of tannic
acid to air, by which oxygen is ab-
sorbed: formula Cr H3 O5. Gallic
acid is of little importance, and sel-
dom occurs naturally in plants.

GALLED. Naked, bare. Exco-
nations on the skin of animals are
often called galls and galled spots.

GALL-NUTS. Excrescences pro-
duced on the leaves and leaf stalks
of the Quercus in/eetoria by an insect
{eynips). They are best from the
Levant, of a dark colour, heavy, and
of the size of a bullet; but other galls,

ai8 '

GAL

with a prickly surface, are formed on
the Q. cerriSf <Scc.

Gail-nuts contain tannic acid, yel-
low colouring matter, and gallic acid.
The decoction produces a variety of
coloured precipitates, with reagents ;
with solution of tin, a yellow ; alum,
a yellow gray ; acetate of copper, a
chocolate ; red sulphate of iron, a
blue black. They are used in making
ink and dyeing. See Tanmn.

GALLINACEOUS. Birds resem-
bling the domestic cock ; as turkeys,
pheasants, pigeons.

GALLON. The imperial measure
contains 277*274 inches, or 10 pounds
of distilled water at 62° Fahrenheit.
It is equal to four quarts, or eight
pints. The old wine gallon contained
231 cubic inches ; the beer gallon, 282
cubic inches. Each of these stand-
ards is used in different states. The
half peck is a gaUon in dry measure.

GALLOWAY. Aponyof 13 to 14
bands. Originally, a small breed of
horses. A variety of Scotch cattle.

GALLOWS OF A PLOUGH. A
part of the plough head.

GALLS. In farriery, wounds pro-
duced by the friction of harness. The
little tumours formed under saddles
are called warbles. Washing the
galled places with a solution of sugar
of lead, or keeping them clean with a
plaster of common ointment, or dress-
ing with Tumer^s cerate, and allow-
ing no farther pressure on the part
until it is healed, are the proper rem-
edies. Wir.d ffoUs are little tumours
about the heels of horses over-driven.

GALVANISM. That form of elec-
tricity produced by the chemical ac-
tion of one body on another. A sim-
ple galvanic circle or arrangement
consists of a metal subject to the ac-
tion of the fluid, and a second not in-
fluenced thereby, an exciting fluid,
with wires, called poles, proceeding
from each metal. The most com-
mon materials are zinc, copper, and
sulphuric acid diluted with twelve
parts water. The acid acts on the
sine only, and the electricity so pro-
duced is conveyed along the wires or
poles. No gal van ism passes unt il the
pQles are brought in contact ; any flu-

814

GAM

id or body between tbem, which Ls an
imperfect conductor, is heated or de-
composed by the current. A galvan-
ic pile consists of a series of the. two
metals so arranged that the coppers
and zincs touch in pairs : two poles
at the extremities discharge the elec-
tricity produced by the whole appa-
ratus. Other metals and fluids are
used, as well as peculiar arrange-
ments contrived for the production
of a continuous current. For the ap-
plication of galvanism to agriculture,
see Eleciriciiy. There are two con-
jiitions of the galvanic fluid referred
to by chemists, i. e.y quantity and tenr
9ion, Quantity is produced by using
very large surfaces of metal and
strong exciting fluids ; tension by
employing numerous pairs.

GALVANOMETER. " An inetra-
ment for ascertaining the presence
of a current of electricity, especially
galvanic or voltaic electricity, by the
deviation which it occasions in the
magnetic needle. The

simplest form of gal-

vanometer is a mag- | ^ ZT^
netic needle poised '

upon a point, and sur-
rounded by one or
more coils of copper wire, covered
with silk, the ends, a and b, being ei-
ther left free, or terminating in two
small copper cups containing mercu-
ry, for the convenience of commnni-
cation with the source of electricity.
When this needle is placed parallel
to the coil, and in the magnetic me*
ridian (as represented in the margin),
it immediately deviates when the
electric current passes through the
coil ; and the deviation is either to
the east or the west, according to the
direction of the current."— (BrMwU.)

GAMA GRASS. Tripsacum doc-
tyUndes. A coarse, perenni^ indi-
genous southern grass, growing to
four or five feet It is very produc-
tive, and may be propagated by seeds
or roots. The cultivation is scarce-
ly thought advantageous.

GAAlBOGE. The dry juice of the
Stalagmites Camhogioid^ and other
East Indian trees. This colour is a
gum resin ; it is poiaooous, a drastic

GAR

pDige and enietic. Water-coloiir
paiotera employ it exleiiBiveJy.

GANGLION (from yayyXtav, a,
knot). A DBturkI swelling or enlarge-
menl on a n«ve. A painful tumour
formed on Ihe sheath of a (endna.

GANGRENE (from xpantv, tofeid
itpon). Mori ifical ion. An uJcer wliicli
produces the dealb uf the part ; ihia
result is usually the consequence of
very feeble heahh. Nutritious stim-
ulants are to be administered.

GANGRENE IN TREES. A
blackeniag of the inner bark, various-
Ij produced, leading lo the death of
the tree unless cut below the disease.

GANGCE. The mineral in which
I termed the

GAPE. In o
inglx

nitbologj, the ope*.

-- - idibles.

GAPES. Adisease inyoungchick-
ens and turkeys attended with mncb
gaping. See Fvidcry.

GARDEN. The enclosure allot-
ted to the cullivalion of culinary
plants. Its great productiveness is
a lessno in favour of deep spade till-
age. Those parts devoted to annu-
als BhQuld liave a southern exposure ;
but trses and perennials require a
Bhellered or northwestern aspect.
Plants which flower should be plant-
ed far apart. The soil must be well
drained. Walls and trellises in gar-
dens ai« of the first importance to
abetter vegetables and allow choice
tree* to be trained.

GARDEN HUSBANDRY. '■■
is a biaacb of hurtle ultare, the object
of which is lo raise frnite, vegetalilee,
and seeds for profit on a smaller
extent of grauDd than is usually oc-
iMipJed lor the purpose of agrlcul-

■' Tbe best examples of this kind of
industry are found among the market-
^rdeoera near populous towns, par-
ticularly London, Paris, aud AnsteT-
4xii>. By the ^plication uf much
manual labour and an abundant sup-
{■ly of manure, ihcy accelerate the
.growth of vegpiables. and produce
them more abundantly than where
mauuiD w uuL.iio..aaally. u«iaiued,pr

10 large a demaod

n-ilhinthet
re called *iin

for the produce.

'■ The gardeners
ofwhoin have garde
er walls of the city,
chen. from tbe situation of their gar-
dens in a low district which was for-
merly a marsh (ourain). The indus-
try of this laborious class is prover-
bial. Their whole life is devoted Id
their gardens. Tliey work tbe whole
day in the greatest heat of the sua,
and long before the rest of the inhab-
ilanta awake they
the market with th
soil in which ihey raiae their vegeta-
bles IS uaiurall/ a pour sand, but \g

ai6

The

GARDEN HUSBANDRY.

ronstant manoring it bas been con-
verted into a very rich mould, aboand-
ing in humns. From its porous nature
and the frequent recurrence of dry
summers, it would produce little with-
out constant and abundant watering.
The raising of water from numerous
wells dispersed through the grounds,
and conveying it to the growing plants,
Is the most laborious part of the
work : during the whole summer this
labour is incessant. There are large
stone cisterns in which the water is
allowed to remain, that it may ac-
quire the temperature of the air ; and
from these it is carried by pipes into
various channels which intersect the
garden in every direction. These
gardeners divide the season into
three periods. The first begins in
October, when they sow lettuces in
a hot-bed, which are pricked out a
month after, and planted finally in a
sheltered border about the end of
January, the ground having been
well dug and abundantly manured
with very rotten dung taken from the
hot-beds. At the same time, they sow
radishes and leeks among the lettuces.
The radishes are sold by the end of
March, the lettuces m May, and the
leeks in June. This completes the
first season. The ground is now
dug again, and manured with fresh
long stable-dung, mixed with the
earth of which the hot-beds were
formed ; in this they plant alternate
rows of endive or scaroUes (both va-
rieties of chicory), and of cucumbers,
which produce gherkins for pickling
and sauces. The endive is sold in
July, and the small cucumbers con-
tinue to be gathered till September.
In the third season, which is the
shortest, another digging and dung-
ing is given, after which they sow
radishes and small winter-salad, of
which the French have a great vari-
ety. Winter endive is ateo planted
for blanching. From this statement
it appears that the ground produces
a constant succession of culinary
vegetables, and that it is manured
thrice in the year. The great object
is to have a rapid succession, and to
allow DO plain to ooeupy the grouiHl

816

* long. Cabbages, canliiowers, afipar-
agus, artichokes, and other vegeta-
bles which remain a long time on the
ground, are cultivated at a greater
distance from Paris, where the land
lets at a lower rate. These jtlanta
will bear to be carried to a greater
distance than the delicate vegetabfee
which are used chiefly io a raw state
as salads. The only perennial phmt
in the gardena of the Maraiohers is
sorrel, of which there is a great ochi«
sumption. This is continnaUy dung-
ed and watered to accelerate its
growth, and is cut many times in the
season. It must, however, be allowed
that this forcing with manure and
water, altfaoagh it prodneea large and
delicate fibres, does not give the fla-
vour which belongs to vegetables
grown in common earth, and which
have had a more natural growth.

'* The maricet-gardena near London
are on a larger scale, and if they pro-
duce fewer salads and pot-herbs, they
produce better and more substantied
vegetables, and likewise a consider-
able quantity of froit.

" The best soil is a moist alluvial
loam deposited from repeated over-
flowings of the Thames, which are
now prevented by banks or dikes ;
but an increased demand for vegeta-
bles has caused much inferior soils
to be cultivated as gardens, and in-
creased labour and manure have sup-
plied the deficiency in natural fertil-
ity. The gardeners' year properly
begins in autumn, when the land is
dug, or, rather, trenched, and well
manured. Various vegetables which
will be reqaired in winter are now
sown, and especially those whieh are
to produee plants to be set out in
spring; spinach, onions, radishes, and
winter salads are sown, and when the
weather is severe, are protected by
a slight covering of stia.w or mats.
In February, the cauliflowers whieh
have been raised in frames or vnder
hand-ghisses are planted out. The
cabbage plants are pricked out. The
radishes, onions, and salads go t^
market as soon as they are of suffi-
cient size, and sngar-loaf cabbages
suoosod them. Ab the ea»liflow«i»

GARDEN HUSBANDRY.

aie taken off, tb^jr are saeeeeded hy
endive and celery, and the same ts
the case with the cabbages. Thus
there is a eonataat eoooeseioo of ve*
feUMee^ without ooe roooieBt's res-
pite to the giound, which, in conse-
qeenoe of cootiaaal stirring and ma-
iinring, maintains its productive pow-
er. Deep trenching in some degree
prevents thact pecoiiar deterioration of
the soft whieh would be the conse-
quence of the frequent repetition of
slmiiar plants. This effect is most
perceptible when the plants perfect
their seed, which is seldom or never
aBowed to take place in market gar-
dens ; but great attention is paid to
the species of plants which succeed
each other on the same spot. The
principle which experience and the-
ory unite in establishing, is that of
avoiding the too firequont recurrence
of plants which belong to the same
natural families. The greater vari-
ety cultivated in gardens, in compar-
ison with the comaoon produce on a
farm, enables this principle to be fully
acted upon. Those gardeners who
overlook this, and repeatedly sow or
plant the same kind of vegetables in
the same spots, are soon aware of
their error by the diminution of the
produce, both in quantity and quality,
and by various diseases which attack
the plants, however abundant may be
the food supplied to them or careful
the tillage.

^' The principle on which the gar-
dens are cultivated is that of forcing
vegetation by means of an abundant
supply of dung, constant tUlage, and
occasional watering. The whole sur-
fiioe is converted into a species of
hot-bed, and crop succeeds crop with
a rapfdity whk^h is truly astonishing.
Those Vegetables vt'hich arrive at a
marketable state in the least time are
always the most profitable, and those
also for whieh there is a constant de-
mand at all times of the year. With
an abundant supply of manure, the
market gardeners have no fear of ex-
hausting the soil, and dissimilar ve-
getables may grow together on the
same ground. Trees bearing fruit
nay be planted in rowst es|woiaUy
Dd3

those of the dwarf kind, and nndei
them those vegetables which do not
require much sun may be raised to
advantage. Raspberries, gooseber-
ries, and currants are planted in the
rows between the trees. These rows
being thirty or forty feet apart, leave
ample room for vegetables ; but in
those gardens where the finest vege-
tables are raised, and particularly in
those which are appropriated to the
growth of seeds, no trees are permit-
ted to shade the ground; even the
hedges, if there are any, are kept low
and clipped, that they may not give
any shade, or harbour small birds*

" A garden should always be laid
out in a regular form, with narrow par-
allel beds, and paths between them.
One or more roads, of sufficient width
to allow a cart to pass, should inter-
sect these beds at right angles, for
the convenience of bringing manure
and taking offthe produce. The beds
should not be above six feet wide, so
that a person may easily pull up
weeds or gather the vegetables with-
out treading upon the beds. The sur-
face soil taken from the paths serves
to raise the beds, and in retentive
soils may carry off the superfluous
water aO-er sudden and violent rains.
The whole ground should have been
trenched two spits deep or more ; and
this trenching should be frequently
repeated, to mix the upper with the
under part of the soil, and distribute
the decomposed dung throughout the
whole depth. Thus in time a rich
black mould will be produced, in which
every kind of vegetable will grow
most rapidly. For early plants, and
those which are used in winter, and
require to be protected from frost,
narrow beds are made lying in a di-
rection east and west, and sloping to-
wards the south, wiia the north side
raised high, so tht.t their surface
forms an angle of twsnty or thirty de-
grees with the hori3X)n. This gives
the plants a protecti<»n from the north
winds, and exposes Khem more to the
influence of the sun In very frosty
weather, these beds are covered with
mats or loose straiv. We do not
mention frames covered with glasa»

817

GARDEN HUSBANDRY.

as they belong to a higher kind of
horticaltare ; but a moderate hot-bed
made with fresh dung, and coYered
with mats laid over hoops, is indis-
pensable for the raising of early ve-
getables. By these means radishes
and various salads may be raised very
early in the spring, and sometimes in
mild winters, without any interrup-
tion during the whole year.

** An abundant supply of manure is
indispensable in a market garden, and
this can generally be obtained in large
towns at a trifling expense. The
neighbourhood of a town is therefore
a necessary circumstance towards
the production of the crop, as well as
its sale. It would be impossible to
make a sufficient quantity of manure
by means of the horses which are em-
ployed to carry the produce to mar-
ket, and the extent of land usually
laid out in garden ground could not
raise sufficient food for cattle with-
out taking up a space which may be
more profitably employed. The only
animal which can be kept to advan-
tage by a gardener is a pig. This
animal will live well on the offal of
vegetables, and the gardens of cotta-
gers could not well be kept in a fertile
state if it were not for the manure
made by the pigs.

" The market gardeners about Am-
sterdam are mostly Jews, and the
vegetables which they bring to mar-
ket are similar to those of the Lon-
don or Paris gardeners ; but they ex-
cel particularly in raising cauliflow-
ers, large white cabbages for making
sauT'kraut, French beans, cucumbers,
and melons. They also excel in the
forcing of early pease and beans, and
m the general management of hot-
beds.

" The profits of a garden near a
large city, of the extent of 10 or 12
acres, are as great as that of a farm
of ten times the extent cultivated in
the best manner, without the help of
purchased manure. But if manure
can be obtained at a reasonable rate,
as is oden the case in great thorough-
fares, where many horses are kept
for public conveyances, although
there be no immediate demand foi

818

vegetables, a garden mvf be vbt^
profitably cultivated, entirely for the
purpose of raising seeds. The de-
mand for seeds of all the most com-
mon productions of a garden, and es>
pecially of flowers, is very great, and
the profit of those who retail thena
in small quantities is so great that
they can afford a liberal price to those
who raise them with proper care, bo
as to keep the varieties distinct.

** Many plans have been proposed
for the distribution of the crops in a
garden ; but none of them are suited
to every situation. Much depends
on the nature of the soil, which may
be better suited to one kind of prod-
uce than another, and also to the
demand far any peculiar class of ve-
getables. New sorts may olten be in-
troduced with advanUge. The rais-
ing of any useful plant with great
care will often give a man a reputa-
tion, which makes it advantageous to
him to confine himself to these prin-
cipally, and raise them in the great-
est perfection. An ingenious man
will find out what is most for his own
advantage ; and, from the list of
plants which may be cultivated for
ornament or for use, a selection may
be made which may be well suited to
the situation of the ground and the
circumstances of the grower. The
practice of the market gardeners may
be examined with advantage ; and
long experience, with the test of prof-
it, will lay down better practical rules
than the most plausible theories."

The implements necessary for gar-
den tillage are displayed in the ji^r*,-
the plough may be used to assist in
trenching, and improved driUs for
sowing ; but the spade, rake, and hoe
are the principal tools ; indeed, labour
is the great essential in the garden.

"The application of the garden
husbandry must be in the preparation
of the soil by deep trenching and dig-
ging, carefully drilling or dibbling all
the seeds in rows, stirring the eoil
between the growing plants, and
keeping the ground clear of weeds
by the hand aud the hoe. . These last
are the most essential part of the
cultivation. By daUy attention lo

OAR

GAB

the progress of the plantSf and con-
tinoai assistance at critical periods,
sometimes thinning out, and at oth-
er times transplanting to produce an
equal crop, and treating every plant
as if it were a rare plant in a garden,
the ground may be made to produce
more than double what the most at-
tentive farmer eould expect on a lar-
ger scale."

These short rules may be added
for garden cultivation :

1. Regulate the distribution of
jour plants with respect to shade and
sun. Ordinary standard trees should
be on the north and west sides, near
or agamst the wall or fence, so as
not to shade too much from the sun.

2. Alternate the crops, and do not
plant varieties together, lest the pol-'
tea should mix.

3. Plant immediately after prepa-
ring the soil.

4. Seeds and young plants require
to be kept moist, and with light soil
about them.

6. Stirring the earth about well-
set plants is one of the most certain
and rapid means of forwarding vege-
tables.

6. Trench the soil over sixteen or
eighteen inches deep regularly every
four or ^ve years, taking a fifth part
aonoalty.

The following remarks from Judge
Boel are concise, and well adapted to
farmers:

*' The month of May is an impor-
tant one in the operations of the gar-
den. If not already done, no time
should be lost in sowing the seeds of
onions, salads, early cabbage, pease,
radishes, and in planting some early
com and potatoes. The beet, carrot,
parsnip, and summer squash may
also be sown. Cabbages for winter
use may be sown in time from the
fiOth to the 30th. As soon as the
soil and the season are warm enough
to bring up corn, which here is gen-
erally from the 15th to the 90th, plant
your melons, pumpkins, and cucum-
bers, though it will do equally well to
plant the latter, for pickles, in the
eariy part of June. Tlie 15th will or-
diaarily do for Lima beans, which are

the best of the bean family. Soak
the seed of these in warm water a
few hours, and cover them slightly
when planted. My practice is to save
this crop for winter use. They af-
ford a great product. When frost is
apprehended the beans are all picked,
the unripe ones shelled and dried;
and, if soaked before cooking, are
nearly as good as when first gathered
from the vines. Perennial products
require very little care after they are
once established. We will name of
fruits, the strawberry, the currant,
gooseberry, plum, pear, quince, grape,
and, in situations where they will
thrive, the apricot and peach. But
of fruits we would have none but the
best sorts, for the best are as cheap
as the worst, are as easily cultivated,
and are infinitely more healthy and
grateful. These, if well selected, will
give a succession of fruit from June
to November, and in a preserved state
during the year. Plants to begin with
will cost from three to five dollars.
They may be multiplied by grafting,
budding, <kc. The trees should be
so arranged as to shade as little as
possible the grounds that are to be
tilled. Half a dozen roots of the pie-
plant (rhubarb) will furnish abundant
materials for pies and tarts, in no
wise inferior to the gooseberry, from
April to July, or until the fruit is suf-
ficiently advanced to supply its place.
These should be planted two feet
apart in good soil. A bed of forty by
three and a half feet will supply the
table with delicious asparagus during
a part of April, and the whole of May
and June, if kept in good order. For
this the ground should be dog deep
and made rich.

** The annual products whk^h go to-
wards subsisting a family, and which
are seldom produced but in the gar-
den, are numerous, as the onion, fa^et,
carrot, parsnip, cabbage, pease, beans,
pot-herbs, salads, radishes, squash,
cucumber, melon, &c. Some of these
are in use most of the season, and
most of them afiTord valuable winter
stores.'*

GARDEN ENGINE. This Is a
small forcing pump, fixed in a box,

319

and sualainpd on wheels. It is work-
ed by llie handle, A, and either naed
to dirert a current of watsr by the
jet, or hose, B, or to water vegels-

oflt:

of water,

GARGET. "In farrierj, a disease
in the uddcra of cows, arising from
inflammation ofthe lymphatic glands.
It ia also a distemper incident to hogs,
and which is known by their hanging
down their heads, and carrying Iliem
on one side, moist eyes, staggering,
and loss of appetite.

In order to remare the disease in
cows, where the inflammation Is
great, the cow should be bled. ■ dose
of physic administered , the udder well
fomented, and the railk drawn gently
but completely off, at least twice a
day."— (FimaH on CeltU.)

GARlJC. The genus Allium, dis-
tinguished by a hot, fetid smell. The
common cultivated kind 1« the A. u-
tnum : it is propagated by setting the
parted cloTes in April, about six mch-
es apart, clearing from weeds, and
tying up the leaies with bass in June ;
in August ihey are fit to be taken up,
ChiTes and rochamhole are of (his
class of plants. Garlic Is an expec-
torant in small doses.

GARNER. A granary,

GARNET, A common mineral,
ofa rich colour, containing silica, 43 ;
alumina, SO : lime, 34 ; iron, 4. Some
of tbc finest crystals are set as jew-
els. They are usually found in the
primitiTe and transition rocks.
»30

0A8

GAS, A general liame (braltelas-
tio aertforiD bodies not eondensible fay
ordinary cold. The extraordiBarj
eln.-'ticily of gases, the rapidity and
regularity with which they expand hy
heat, and the manner in which they
diDlise into one another, are tbeir
cbitT peculiarities. Some hare been
condensed into fluids and solids by
powerful pressure ; but oxygen, tlilro-
gen, hydrogen, and some others re-
sist all mechanical force. The iiu-
ponderables, heal, light, and electri-
city, hare, however, perfect control
over the elastic condition of gaeea
in the presence of chemical bodies
with which they can combine. Sea
Ihe pailievlaTgatu. Gases are read-
ily absorbed by parous earths and bod-
ies, especially by planisand chsrcoal.

GAt^HUL'SE LIQUOR, Tbefluid
which distils over in making gas from
bituminous coal. It consists of wb-
ler holding in solution carbonate,
muriate, and sulpburei of ammooiSi
with impurities. One hundred gal>
Ions contain SG poDnds of these suta.
Thisamountmay be applied pef acre,
diluted with fire times its bulk of wa-
ter, over the growing crop. Exper-
iments mode in England on grasa
lands are very favoarable. it having
oocBsionally trebled the yield, Tba
value of the ammomacal salts is in-
creased by adding a little sulphuric
acid to the liquor: thequantity should
not be enough lo impart a sour usio.
The amount of ammoniacal salla in
different specimens ia subject to great
fluctuation, and depends on the vari-
ety of coal used. The liquor may be
added to the compost heap, or, after
neutralising it with sulfuric acid,
evaporated nearly to dryneas, and
lett to become dry by e^xwuie to the
air The liquor is very noxious loin-

GASHOIJSE REFUSE. Besidea
ammoniacal liquor, a mixture of lima
and water is used \o pnriiy Ibe gaa.
The refuse lime is strongly impregna-
ted with sulphur, and conuina oar-
bonate of lime also. It has been OMd
with good effects as a manure in Eng-
land, The dose should not exceed
(wo bushels per acre when appliad M

OAS

■ growing orop, Ita cbief Take ii
■s a poison to iosecis, and fur their
extermination it may be applied to a
short TatJow at tbe rate of tea biisb-
els or more. A solution would be
Terr serviceable to destroy caterpil-
lars in the garden. It acts on plaiiis
in the same way as plaster of Paris,
and is best adapted to turnips, cab-
ttages, and leguminous crops, Tbe
quantities added in England are oft-
en as great as twslve cart-loads to
the acre ; but this is numxroai, and
the persoDB applying it are obliged to
wait some time before Ibey plaogh
tbe land, le«l it should deatroy tbe
nest crop. This lefoae answers well
in compoata.
GASOMETER. A vessel lo ool-

GAS TAR, or COAL TAR. This
is a good black paint fur rough work,
especially if mixed with
by beatinE
ficiently i

imperrectly used as a manure : the
results are uncertain.

GASTR£UM (from yiunip, Uu
btUy). In zoology, tbe whole under
■tuface or an animal.

GASTRIC JUICE. The secretion
of tbe stomacb. 'Which, by dissolTing
fibrin, albumen, casein, and nutri-
tious mattera, tos the powei of pio-
duciitg the cAylc, which repairs tbe
waste of the body. It contains pep-
sin, and is soiDetimBa acid, at others
alkaline.

GASTRITIS. iDllammttion of the
intenutl or mucous taembrane of the
Btomach.

OAT

OATE. The auat
fects of gates are,

"Ist. luBuflicieat height, so that
horses and large caille, when push-
ing against the gale, break it. how*
ever strung it is, aa the. top thereof
comes in contact with that part of
the chest of a horse where the collar
goes, and wiibout incoovenience ha
leans bis weight against the apposing
bar, which, if a few ioehes higher,
presses against his oeck snd wind-
pipe, and he makea do iapresaioii

'• ad. They are generally hinge-
bound, so that, in attempting lo liA
up the head, which 13 oAen required
to be done, the ledgea and braces srtf
either pulled from the back faesd or
broken therein ; the person lifting the
bead having a nine feet leverage,
which enables him to do this mischief.

" 3d. The places of contact between
the brace and tbe uprights and the
ledges are broad, and a being impos-
sible to keep those plaoes of euotaet
dry, the parts become prematurely
decayed."

The great painta to be allaioed in
a gate are atreogtb, with aufflcient
lightness, and for tbeae pnrposes no-
thing is better than iron. The figure
represents a field and private gate of
a light structure and considerable
strength: it is of iron.

As iron is the best material for the
gate, so bewn stone fonos the best
poaisi when well grouted inlothe soil
with cement, it lasta indefinitely long,
and ia firm and nnyielding. The
fastening ii a subject foE the invent-
Kjwer of the iarmer, snd must

QEL

differ with the object in view. The
sagging of the head of the gate may
be in part remedied by making the
npper timber very wide near the hinge
and narrower to the head.

GATHERING. A common term
for an abscess or tumour.

GATHERING FRUiT. The pres-
ervation of fruits for winter use and
transportation obliges the orchardist
to take great care that in gathering
they are not bruised. The hand is
the most ready and certain means of
doing this ; but there are several ef-
fective implements. One of the sim-
plest consists of a disk of thin wood
set around with wooden teeth, about
Tour inches long, the enclosure hav-
ing a diameter of eight or ten inches ;
to this is attached a long handle
which fits at a considerable angle ; so
that, when the gatherer is used, the
surface of the disk is nearly horizontal.
The fruit is collected by reaching out
the handle nntil the disk is brought
under, then raising it so that the stem
passes between two of the teeth ; by
these the fruit is to be drawn off: it
then rests on the disk, and is brought
to the ground without any injury.
Such an implement may pull six or
eight apples each time before being
lowered, and is a very expeditious
means of collecting fruits. It can be
made on the farm in a very short
time.

GAVELKIND. The practice of
dividing real estate equally among
all the children of the family.

GAUGING. Ascertaining the capa-
city of barrels, <Slc., by a gauging rod.

GAULT. Certain clays and marls
lying under the upper green sand in
England.

GEAR, GEARING. Harness,
tackle. The apparatus of wheels in
a machine.

GEHLENITE. A mineral, con-
sisting of iron, silica, alumina, and
lime. It consists of small gray or
yellow crystals.

GEINE. The same as humus,

feic acid, ulmin, humic acid. See
lumus.

GELATIN. That species of ani-
mal matter which forms jelly with

GEO

water when cold. Isfnglass, glue,
and size are representatives of this
body in different states of purity. It
abounds in skin, membranes, horns,
and bones, but requires long boiling,
at a high temperature, for its extrac-
tion. A very dilute solution is pre-
cipitated by infusion of galls, the prod-
uct being leather.

Gelatin, is not capable of itself to
sustain life. Its composition is Ca
Hio Na Os, by Mulder. When moist,
it runs into ttie putrefactive decay,
yielding a fetid odour, carbonic acid,
water, and ammonia. It is a power-
ful ammoniacal manure in this state,
and is best ectmomized in composts.
Unboiled bones owe some part of
their effects to the decay of tbeir gel-
atin, which is present to the extent
of thirty per cent.

GELDING. A castrated animal.
The act of castrating. The most
proper seasons are either the early
spring months or those of the au-
tumn.

GEMMA. A bud. Hence ^emmi^
arous^ bearing buds, or parts capa-
ble of development.

GEN A. In zoology, the cheek, or
part of the face between the eye and
mouth.

GENER.\TION, EQUIVOCAL or
SPONTANEOUS, Being produced
without known parents. Originating
without apparent seed or germs.

GENESEE OIL. A petroleum
found floating on some of the waters
of Western New- York, Ohio, Ken-
tuckv &c.

GENICULATE. Bent at a sharp
angle, like the flexed knee.

GENTIAN. A genus of highly or-
namental plants ; the roots of some
afford fine bitters, especially the Gen-
tiana lutea of Switzerland.

GENUS. Plural, Genera. In nat-
ural history, a distinct but lesser
family of plants or animals which is
grouped under one general name, and
contains distinct species.

GEODES. Mineral masses having
a hollow centre.

GEODESY (from yi?, the earth, and
<5acw, X divide). The measurement
of the earth's siufacs.

GEOLOGY (from 79, and hryoc, a
discourse). The scieace which io-
vesligates the present appearance of
the earth's surface, and the changes
to which it has been subjected. The
earth's crast is divided into four great
divisions : lat. The primitive period,
epoch, or era, consisting of massive
crystaJline rocks. 2d. The transition
period and era, containing paving
stones with few fossils, but stratified.
8d. Secondary roeks, less condensed,
and containing many fossils. 4th.
The tertiary period, era, or epoch,
which consists of strata arranged in
extensive basins, and contains many
recent fossils. Besides these, driA
materials, called diluvion, and the
deposites of lakes and rivers, termed
allu vion, cover extensive tracts. The
causes producing change are, for the
most part, those now in existence,
as winds, the sea, rivers, vegetable
and animal growth, volcanoes, ice-
bergs, glaciers, bursting of lakesr
^LC. See the geological terms ; also
Springs^ Draxnmge.

The study of geology is interesting
to the farmer in furnishing him with
certain roles for drainage, the deter-
mination of springs, and of the quali-
ty of soils.

GEOMETERS. Span worms.
Caterpillars destructive to foliage.

GEOMETRY. The science of
measures

GEORGIA BARK. The bark of
the Pinckruya ptt6«iu, a handsome
tree of Florida.

" The wood of the Georgia bark is
soil, and unfit for use in the arts ;
but its inner bark is extremely bitter,
and appears to partake of the febri-
fuge virtues o{ the Cirichonay for the
inhabitants of the southern parts of
Georgia employ it successfully in the
intermitting fevers which, during the
latter part of summer and autumn,
pi:evail in the Southern States. A
handful of the bark is boiled in a quart
of water till the liquid is reduced one
half, and the infusion is administered
to the sick From the properties of
its bark the Pinckneya has taken the
name of Georgia lark. The tree
which produces it so nearly resem- 1

6E8

bles the Pemvian Tegetable, that
some botanists have included them
in the same genus." — (Michaux.)

GERM. The vital part or em-
bryo.

GERMEN. The seed vessel, ova-
rium.

GERMINATION. The sprouting
of seed. For its production, a tem-
perature above 60^ Fahrenheit, ao-
cess of oxygen, and moisture are ne-
cessary ; by hindering any of these,
it will not take place, but the seed
remains unchanged or rots. In ger-
mination moisture is first absorbed,
and then oxygen : the latter, acting
on the substances of the seed, pro-
duces carbonic acid and heat; starch
becomes changed into a saccharine
matter, and movements, resembling
circulation, occur. The germ, ex-
panding in both directions, puts out
a root and seed leaves. Whatever
hastens these changes assists germi-
nation ; hence steeping in warm wa-
ter, planting in loose soils near the
surface, and securing a high tempera-
ture, all advance sprouting. Dark-
ness is in some degree favourable to
germination.

GESTAHON. The period ani-
mals carry young.

*' According to the observations of
M. Teissier, of Paris, in 582 mares,
which copulated but once, the short-
est period was 287 days, and the
longest, 419 ; making the extraordi-
nary difference of 32 days, and of 89
days beyond the usual term of eleven
months. The cow usually brings
forth in about nine months, and the
sheep in five. Swine usually farrow
between the 120th and 140th day, be-
ing liable to variations, influenced, ap-
parently, by their size and their par-
ticular breeds. In the bitch, on the
contrary, be she as diminutive as a
kitten, or as large as the boarhound,
pupping occurs on or about the 63d
day. The cat produces either on the
55th or 56th day. The true causes
which abridge or prolong more or
less the period of gestation in the f<9-
males of quadrupeds, and of the ia-
cubation of birds, are yet unknown
to us.

828

GES

GIG

TABLS SBOWIirO TBB PBRIOO OT KEPRODUCTION AKD GBSTATIOIT IN OOHESTIO

ANIMALS.

Kinds of Animil**

Mare

StftllMA •

Cow

BqU.

Bwa

T«p.

Sow. .

Boar

SboGoat.

BaGoat .

SheAOT .

H« An .

She Baftilo

Bitch

Dag.

She Cat .

He Cat .

Doe RabWi

BackRabUt

Cock

Turkey, rittmrilTfta
oa the egfa of > Duck
the ) Torke

He&fSittiacQOtha i Ducki
ergaofthe fHen \

Dock ....

Oooee • • • «

Piyeon ...»

ropf r Ax*
ucUoa

years

0
6

■louths

PtrMortb*

Powarof Re-

predtictian.

10 to 13

IStolft

10 to 14

8 to 10

5
10 to IS
IS to 15

8to0

8to9

9to0

OtolO

OtoO

9to0

dtoO

StoS

HoJlilMraf

F«qniil«k fur

one Hale.

Parind af O— bitiuD and Incahatian.

Shortmt

PrrMML

90 to 90
SO to 40

40 to 50 I
0 to 10

W to40

5 to e

30
IS to 15

Days,

sss

S40
140

109..

150

865

sbI

17
S4
94

96
10
98
97
16

Meaa

Period.

Days.
347

154
115
156

PenMl,

416

161
143

m
m

835

56
35

98
36
90
S4
94
39

" From some carefully collected and
Tery extensive notes made by Lord
Spencer on the periods of gestation
of 764 cows, it resulted that the
shortest period of gestation when a
live calf was produced was 2^0 days,
and the longest 313 days; but he
was not able to rear any calf pro-
duced at an earlier period than 243

days. From the result of his ex-
periments, it appears that 314 cows
calved before the 284th day, and 310
calved after the 286th, so that the
probable period of gestation ought to
be considered 284 or 285 days. The
experiments of M. Teissier on the
gestation of cows are recorded to
have given the following results :

91 eahad htftwmm the S40th and 970th day, the nean tiiae beiot 2S0|
Hi — — 970th and 200th -. _ 981

10 — — 990th and 39Iit — — 303

" In most cases, therefore, between
nine and ten months may be assumed
as the usual period ; thouj;h, with a
bull calf, the cow has been generally
observed to go about 41 weeks, and
a few days less with a female. Any
calf produced at an earlier period
than 260 days must be considered
decidedly premature, and any period
of gestation exceeding 300 days must
also be considered irregular ; but in
tiiis latter case the health of the
produce is not affected. I will con-
clude this article with the remarks
of Mr. C. Hilliard, of Northampton,
who states that the period of gesta-

324

tion of a cow is 284 days, or, as it is
said, nine calendar months and nine
days ; the ewe 20 weeks ; the sow
16 weeks ; the mare 1 1 months. The
well-bred cattle of the present time
appear to me to bring forth twins
more frequently than the cattle did
50 years ago. The males of all ani-
mals, hares, excepted, are larger than
the females. Castrated male cattle
become larger beasts than entire
males " — {Blaine's Encye,)

GIBBOSG. Irregular, humped.

GIBBOUS. Protuberant, convex.

GIG. A well-known kind of light
carriage drawn by one horse. G^t.

OIN

or 1^ vueUaei, are rotatory eyltn- {
dsTB, co»ered with wire leeth, for
teaselinff voollcn ctoth. I

GILL, A quarter or a pint. A
«inatl valley or brook,

GILI.ENtA. One of the species
(Ct. (n/o'tafs) prodaces a root whicb
is nearly as Talnable as ipecacnanha
aa an emetio. It is indigenoas in the
woods of the Middle Stales.

GtLU. These organs in fishes
answer the purpose or lungs. The
plaits under mushrooms or the genua
AgaricHt are calked gills,

GIN. Distdled spirit, flaToared
with juniper berries. In machinery,
an arrangement for tearing green
B«ed cotton wool from the seeds. It
conaists of a cylinder closely set witti
saws, which pass through a grating
in nn inclined side-hopper, and tbua
drag off portions of wool, which are
conreyed half round the cylinder,
and then cleared off by a rcTolving
brush, while the freed seeds slide
through to the bottom of the hopper
and escape. See Coiiim.

It is also a machine nsed for rai-
eing great wei^ts, drirtng piles, &c.
It usually consists of three long legs
or spars, which support a pulley at
^ the top. round which a rope is pasaed
for elevating the weight,

GINGER. Zingiber officinale.
This plant is of the family Sctlaminiz,
B native of Hindustan, but also ciilli-
valEd in the West Indies, The root
is a rhizome, similar to that of the
Jiag; it is perennial, hut the leaves
are annual The root in the West
Indies Is taken up when a year old,
immersed in boiling water to hi '
future germination, dried, and
Sometimes it ia prepared by taking
off the onler skin, and in thia state
is called vhiit ginger. It might be
tried In oar Southero States ; all that
is required is a well-tilled, light soil,
ffith weeding. Probably the roots
would not be so large as the Jamai-
ca, but, fmm the high price of ginger,
would probably pay well.

GINGER, WILD, A naliva spe-
cies of the genus Ainrum; it ia ol
Jilile note.

OINGLYMUS (fVom j^iTyHt^iof, a

Imiffe). The hinge joint in animaH

as the knpf ^nd elbow.

GINSE.VG, Panax ^aiiqutfolium
(see Fig.). The root is fleshy from

one to three inches long, and about
as thick Bs a finger, of a yellow col-
our, and somewhat reaemhting in fla-
vour liquorice. It is almost desti-
tute of medical ririue, but is esteent-
ed by the Chinese, and eiported for
theiruse ; in IS41 asmuchasS437,(H»
worth was sent out of this country.
Tlie plant is an herbaceous perenniu,
growing abundantly in the hilly and
woody regions of the Northern. Mid-
dle, and Western States, whence it
is collected with any cullivalion,

GIRDER, In architecture, a prin-
cipal beam in a floor for supporting
the binding or other joista, whereby
their bearing or length is lessened.
Perhapa sd called becanse the ends
of the joists are enclosed by it.

GIRDLING TREES. Cutting ft
ring out of the trunk of a tree entire-
ly through the new wood for the pur-
pose of killing it : the girdling is most
elTective before the sap rises, Ringt
of bark, without touching the albur-
num, are occasionally latien out of
the branches of trees in spring to
produce /ruifinf or develop the fruit ;
thia, though frequently confounded
with fi'dling. ia aliogeilier different,
and does not kill the branch, unless
loo much bark ia removed. A ring
half an inch wide is enough on a
branch two inches in diameter, Tht
sap is hinde'red from descending by
the wound,

GIZZARD. A strong, muscular

OLA.

GLU

Btoniadh in birds, for the porpnse of
grinding their food with pebbles. It
answers the place of teeth.

GLABROUS. Smooth.

G LAGIERS. Immense masses of
ice produced from the snow of mount-
ains occupying the valieys of Switzer-
land and countries equally elevated.
In geology, the study of glaciers is
peculiarly interesting; many are 10
to 16 miles long by two broad, and
from 300 to GOO feet high.

GLAND. In anatomy, organs
such as the liver, spleen, &c., which
consist of an immense development
of blood-vessels, ami secrete a peculiar
fluid, as bile, urine, &c. They are
often microscopic, as the mucous
glands of the intestines, and layer's
glands. Sometimes they receive the
specific name of the secreiion they
produce, as mucous glands, sebaceous
glands, lymphatic glands, <&c.

GLAND. In botany, small lumps
of vegetable matter near leaves, or
oval spots on the trunks of trees ; they
are unimportant except as a means
of recognising species.

GLANDERS. See Horse.

GLASS. That used for conserva-
tories should be of the greatest clear-
ness. Refute glass, pounded fine,
has been used as a manure. The na-
ture of the substance differs with the
kind of glass, forjlint glass is a mix-
ture of sand, red-lead, and 14 per
cent, of potash. Crown^ or window
glass, contains soda^ with sand and
lime. The silicate of potash or soda
in these cases is very insoluble, and
the effect produced cannot be con-
siderable, unless a large dose is add-
ed. Pounded feldspar would form as
good a manure. The pounded refuse
is also used by glass-makers, and
called cullet. The finest powder is
used in making sand paper. Glass
may be converted into soluble sili-
cate of potash by fusion with its
weight of potash or soda in a cruci-
ble.

GLASS WORT. The species of
Salicomia : they grow on salt plains,
and yield barilla by combustion.

GLAUBER'S SALT. Sulphate of
soda. A aalioe purge used for hones

dS6

and cattle. The dose is one quarter
of a pound or more.

GLAUCOLITE A mineral, con-
taining 4^ per cent, potash, with sil-
ica, alumina, and 11 per cent. lime.

GLAUCOMA (from y^vjcoc, blue),
A disease of the eye, in which it b&>
comes of a bluish colour.

GLAUCOPIS (from yAoncac. and
cj^i, an eye), A genus of passerine
birds. Some of the species have
wattles at the root of the beak.

GLAUCOUS. Sea-green, like the
cabbage-leaf, having a light, bluish
tint.

GLEANING. Collecting the re-
fuse of the harvest.

GLEBE. A tract of land belong-
ing to the Church

GLENOID (from yXnvif, a cAvity).
The articular cavities of bones.

GLIADINE. A name given by
Taddei to the portion of gluten solu-
ble in alcohol Albumen.

GLIRES. The Linnean name for
the Rodentiat from flit, a. dornumse.

GLOBULAR. Spherical Globose,
resembling a sphere or globe.

GLOBULINE. A rather indefinite
term used by botanists to describe
spherical particles in plants, whether
they be of colouring matter or starch.
In physiology, it is the white albu-
minous substance forming the interi-
or of the blood globules.

GLOMERATE GLAND. Any
gland which discharges at once into
a duct without having any cavity.

GLOMERULUS. A small capitn-
lum, usually axillary, an old name
for an inflorescence. When many
branches terminate by little flower
heads.

GLOSSO (from yhtrraj the tongue}.
A prefix to muscles, nerves, 6lc., at-
tached to the tongue.

GLOTTIS. The upper opening of
the windpipe. It is protected with a
membrane called the epiglottis.

GLUCINUM. The metallic base
of glucina, a' rare earth, existing in
the heryl emerald, and euclase.

GLUCOSE. Grape sugar, starch
sugar, sugar of diabetes, of honey. It
is difficult to crystallize; exists m
fruits, young stems ; is readily fer-

OLT

ateBtaMe ; can lie procared from
Btarcb by the action of dilute sulphu-
ric acid and heat. It differs from cane
sugar in containing more water, the
formula being Ci, Hn Ou + S Aq.,
when crystallized.

GLU£. Impure gelatin. It is ob-
tained from clippings of skins, hoofs^
6lc. The refuse and spoiled glue
form admirable nitrogen manures,
yielding ammonia in decaying ; 100
pounds of dry glue yield 0 pounds of
ammonia. It has been uaed on tur-
nips, and is well suited for cabbages
and plants requiring much putrescent
manure.

GLUME. The husk or chaff of
wheat aad grain plants. The awn
is called an arista* GlamotuMf fur-
nished with glumes.

GLUT£N. The tenacious, semi-
transparent residue left on the doth
after waahtng dough with water. It
is impure fibrin, and contains albu-
men. The amount in wheat is a test
of its nniritiousness. When moist,
gluten putrefies, and has the prop-
erty of acting as a yeast or ferment
on solutions of glucose. Most seeds
contain a proportion of gluten, but
wheat the greatest amount : nitrogen
manures are said to increase the pro-
portion. The macaroni and vermi-
celli of Italy are, for the most part,
gluten. Dry gluten keeps well.

GLUTEUS (from yXovroc, the but-
t^ka). The name of some of the
musclee of the buttocks.

GLUTINOUS. Adhesire.

GLYCERIA FLUITANS. Water
fescue, an indigenous grass growing
on the margins of lakes and rivers,
resembling the water rice. The seeds
are eaten in Germany like millet.

GLYCERINE (from yXvKoc, neeet).
A gelatinous body of a sweet taste,
left in solution in soap-making. It
acts as a base in fats and oils, which
are, indeed, salts of glycerine, stear-
ates, oleates, or margarates of that
body. In soap-making the potash or
soda combines with the oily acid, and
separates the glycerine. Its compo-
sition is Ce Ht Oft -]- Aq., and it near-
ly resembles gum. Liebig consid-
ers it an hydrated oxyde ofglyeeryU,

ONE

with the latter of which the oily ;
are combined in fats. Mulder has
recently promulgated a new theory
with respect to glycerine : he suppo-
ses the existence of a compound rad-
ical Hfnfle =: Os Hs ; this forms a
protoxide (C3 Hi O), called oxide of
iipyle, which is the base in neutral
fats, and that in saponification it
unites with water as it is liberated*
forming a compound of 2 atoms of li*
pyle with 3 of water.

Redtenbacher, on the other band,
maintains that the base in fats is
Acrolein (Ce H4 Os)« and that glycer-
ine is acrolein, with 3 atoms of water.
This is the most satisfactory theory
at present, for acrolein is a known
body, which can be separated from
glycerine by heating with phospherio
acid.

The glyoerine refuse from soap-
making is worthy of attention from
farmers ; it is at least as valuable an
addition to the compost heap as peaty
and much more destructible hy fer-
mentation and eremacausis.

GLYCION. GlycyrrhiJMiie.

GLYCYRRHIZA. The generio
name of liquorice.

GLYCYRRHIZINE. Glycion.
Sugar extracted lirom liquorice and
some sweet woods ; it has the pecu-
liarity of combining with acids and
bases. It is neither crystallizable
nor fermentable.

GLYPH. In architecture, a ver-
tical groove.

GN ATHIDIA (from yvoaoc, a yai0).
In ornithology, the lateral parts or
rami of the mandible or lower jaw,
which are joined to the oranium be-
hind, and meet in front at a greater
or less angle.

GNATHOTHECA (from yvoBoc,
and ^KVf a theathy In ornithology,
the homy or cutaneous integument
of the beak.

GNATS. Insects of the family
CuUeida. Their bites are best treat-
ed with lard or olive oil, mixed with
a little ammmtto.

GNEISS. A stratified primary
rock, composed of the same materials
as granite, but the mica is somewhat
distribated in layers, which give it a

8S7

GNO

GQM

striped aspect. The gneiss rocks
are remarkably rich in metalKc ores.

GNOMON. The inclined rod t>r
style on a sun-dial, the shadow of
which marks the tttne. Their ele-
Tation depends upon the latitude.
Gntmonics is the art of constructing
dials.

GOAT. Animals of the genus
Capra. The following is diiefly from
Low :

** The goat appears to form the con-
necting link between the sheep on the
one hand, and the antelope tribes on
the other. Being the natural inhab-
itant of mountainous regions, it is,
therefore, in wild, rocky countries
that the goat is chiefly reared. Goats
are stronger, more nimble, and less
timid than sheep, and are more ea-
sily supported than any other ani-
mals, for there are few herbs which
they do not relish ; they will browse
on heaths, shrubs, and plants which
are rejected by other animals. Goats
are more hardy and not liable to so
many diseases as sheep. The goat
is not well adapted to a country of
enclosures, because it feeds upon
the twigs of hedges, and escapes over
the barriers intended to confine it ;
but where there are no young trees
to be injured, they may browse at
large on the mountain brakes without
expense, and in winter, when housed,
they are easily supported on straw,
cahbage leaves, potato peelings, and
such worthless food.

<* It arrives early at maturity, and
is very prolific, bearing two, and
sometimes three kids at a birth. The
period of gestation is five months.
The female bears for six or seven
years ; the male should not be kept
longer than five. In Portugal and
some other countries, the goat is
used as a beast of draught for light
burdens. The hair of the goat may
be shorn, as it is of some value, ma-
king good linsey. Ropes are some-
times made from goats' hair, and are
said to last much longer, when used in
the water, than those made of hemp.
Candles are manufactured from their
fat, which, in whiteness and quality,
are stated to bo superior to those of
328

wax; their horns aflbrd exeeflent
handles for knives asd folks, and the
skin, especially that of the kid, is la
demand for gloves and other purpo-
ses. Goats' milk is sweet and nu-
tritive. When yielding milk the goat
will give, for several months, at the
average of two quarts per day. Mr.
Pringle, of Kent, in his essay ■ On
Cottage Management' {Gard, Hag^.^
vol. v.), informs us that two milch
goats are equivalent to one small
Shetland cow. Cheese prepared from
goats' milk is much esteemed io
mountainous countries, after it has
been kept a proper age."

The wool of the Cashmere goat is
peculiarly silky, and forms an admira-
ble material for the maaufaotttre of
shawls

GOAT'S BEARD. The weed
TttLgopogon pratenai*. Salsify {T,
porrifoliug) is sometimes so called.

GOLD. Gold coin may always
be proved, if any counterfeit be sus-
pected, by its great gravity of 17-157.
Pure gold has a specific gravity of
19-8 ; the redaoed weight of the coin
is due to the alloy of copper. Its
combining weight is 199-8, and sym-
bol Au (aurum). Aqua regia is the
solvent of gold.

GOLDEN ROD. Solidago mrgaw
rea, A common weed, found on
poor, neglected fields. It is said by
Bechstein to furnish a valuable yel-
low dye. Both the flowers aitd leaves
produce a yellow decoction with
water.

GOLD OF PLEASURE. C«aie-
Una saiivM. A cruciferous small an-
nual, bearing pale yellow flowers. It
is eultivated like flax, prefers a light
soil, and will yield two crops in the
year: the seeds yield a Aweet oil.
This name is also improperly given
to the Madia, which see. The ca-
melina is sowed broadcast, weeded,
and hoed, and ripens its seeds in
about 90 davs.

GOLD THREAD. CopHs trifolia.
A small evergreen, indigenous to
Canada and the Eastern States. It
grows in dark, shady, Alpine swamps.
The root is tonic.

GOMPHOSIS. In anatomy, a

GOO

QRA

janction uf bones similar to that of
th*» teeth in the jaw-bone.

GONIOMETER (from yuvta, an
tttiirU, and fterpovj a measure). An in-
strument to measure the angles of
crystals.

GONYS. In ornithology, the in-
ferior margin of the symphysis of the
lower jaw.

GOOSE. See Pmdiry.

GOOSEBEKRY. Rtbes grosstda-
ria. In Engtend the gooseberry is
esteemed one of their most ▼alnable
fruits. In spring it furnishes the
earliest as well as the best fruit for
tarts and sauces, and can be preserv-
ed green as weU as ripe for winter
use. When ripe, it makes a delicious
sweetmeat and wine, and is a favour-
ite desseA.

The following selection is recom-
mended : RedS'-CM rough red, Mel-
ling's crown bob. Farmer's roaring
lion, Knight's Marquis of Stafibrd,
Champagne and Capper's top saw-
yer : one of the best of the red goose-
berries is the Scotch ironmonger ; it
is hairy and thin-skinned. Yellows
— Htirs golden gourd, Prophet's rock-
wood, Hamlet's kiJton, Dixon's gold-
en yellow, Gordon's viper. Greeng
— Edward's jolly tar, Massey^s heart
of oak, Nixon's green myrtle, ear-*
Yy green hairy, Parkinson's laurel.
WHles — Moore's white bear. Cole-
worth's white lion, Crbmpton's She-
ba queen, Saunders's Cheshire lass,
Wellington's glory, Woodward's
whitesmith. Smooth skins become
tough in cooking, and should not be
selected for that purpose.

The gooseberry can be raised from
cuttings, from suckers, or from seeds ;
the former is generally resorted to
as being the most expeditious ; and
seed is only sown to raise new va-
rieties. Cuttings may be planted in
the faU, or as early in the spring as
the weather will permit.

The gooseberry requires a deep,
moist, and rich soil ; the ground
around it should be kept fVee from
grass and mellow. It requires ma-
nure in spring. The fruit appears on
shoots of the last year, and spurs of
two or three years, the young shoots

Eb8

yielding the best. Keeping the bushes
free of wood, open at the top, and re*
moving all luxuriant shoots from the
base, is the pruning necessary. Sum-
mer pruning is necessary for fine
fruit.

The fruit is easily kept for tarts«
by introducing them into bottles with
a little water, heating until steam is
produced, and then corking tightly.
They may be kept whole by burning
a few sulphur matches in a bottle-fuU,
and corking tightly.

This shrub is much infested by cat-
erpillars, insects, and blight; they
are^ however, all remedied by full ex-
posure to the light, sprinkling: with
lime, or watering with a sotutioa of
tobacco or whale oil soap.

GOOSEFOOT. The popular name
for the genus ChenopoiUum. They
flourish on rank soils and about
dunghills. The most important is
Ch. atUhelminticum^ wonn seed. Ma^
ny are eaten by animals, and C. al~
bunit lamb's quarter, and C. boima
Henrieu* are used partially as spin-
ach.

GOOSE GRASS. Several species
of Galium are so called from being
eaten by geese.

GOSSYPIUM. The generic name
of the cotton plant. See Cotton.

GOULARD'S EXTRACT. Aeon-
eentrated solution of sugar of lead in
water : it is used diluted to galU and
external inflammations.

GOURD. Cueurbiia lagenaria.
Calabash. Gourds are annuals read-
ily cultivated, requiring a deep soil.
Many varieties exist, of which the
Patagonian, six feet long, is the most
singular. The pulp is very purgative
in most varieties.

GOVERNOR. In machinery, an
arrangement for regulating the speed
of machines.

GRACILE, GRACILIS. Slender.

G R A C U L A. The genus of jay
birds. They are insectivorous.

GRADATORY. A term applied
to those animals which have legs
nearly of the same length, so that
they can walk on the four. Birds
which have the lower portion of their
legs covered with feathers.

839

QRA.

GRA

GRADIENTS. On railways, the
aBcendiog planes.

GRADUATED. Marked into reg-
ular diTisioDs: increasing in equal
measures.

GRADUATOR. A vessel or con-
trivance for increasing the extent of
the surface of evaporation or oxida-
tion* as by passing fermenting beer
over chips contained in a large tub
through which air passes, whereby
the alcohol becomes oxidised, and
converted into acetic acid. The pro-
cess is called graduation.

GRAFTING. The propagation of
one variety of plant on the ttock or
root of another. The small branch
or scion of the improved kind usually
contains three buds, but sometimes
less; it should be selected from a
healthy bearing branch, and be of the
last year's growth, only three or four
buds from the extremity. It ahould
also be rather behind the stock in
respect to vegetation, and for this
purpose may be kept in moist sand or
moss for a few days. When insert-
ed, it should he kept bound for four
weeks, to be well set, and afterward
partially loosened, until it is so firm
as not to be blown down by winds.
When the scions have taken well,
some of the natural buds of tlie stock
should be taken off, but in an old
stock it is not well to remove them
altogether until the next year. Ex-
cept when the scion is graded on the
root, one or more stock buds should
be left until it has fairly started, and
can consume all the sap rising into
the stock. The stock influences the
grafted tree in no respect except
durability, size, and early maturity.
For farther particulars, see the Fruits.

The following methods of grafting
are from Judge Buel and Professor
Lindley: *' April is the general sea-
son for grafting, though it is some-
times performed in March, and some-
times omitted till May. The grafts
should, howeve^, be cut before the
buds begin to swell. The scions are
most likely to live if inserted when
the sap is circulating freely, for then
the wounds soonest heal.

"The materials and implements

830

required for grafting are, 1. A sharp
knife to cut and pare the graft and
stalk i 2. A strong knife and mallet
to split the larger stalks, and a small
hard wood we^e to put into the cleft
while the scion is fitted to its place ;
3. Strips of bass matting, or other
soft string, to tie around the staUc
and graft ; and, 4. Some good graft-
ing-wax or prepared clay, to cover
over the worked part. If cUy is used,
it should be previously well beaten,
and a portion of fresh horse-rdung
mixed with it during the operation.
A grafting-wax, which we have used
for years with success, is made by
mixing and melting together four
parts of rosin, two parts of talluw,
and one part of bees* wax ; the whole
to be afterward incorpoittted and
worked by the hand, like shoema-
ker's wax. This may be applied
over the grafted part in a thin layer,
or first spread on a cloth and then
applied in strips of proper size. The
wax or clay is applied, 1. To pre-
vent the flowing of the sap from the
wounds; 2. The too sudden drying
of the wood ; and, 3. The introduce
tion of rain water into the wound or
cleft. It is evident, therefore, that
whatever sort of coating is adopted,
it should be applied without delay,
and so as eflfectually to exclude air
and water.

'' The object to be aimed at in the
process of grafting,, is to bring the
inner bark and the sap-wood of the
stalk and scion in nice contact, so
that the ascending sap of the stalk
will pass freely into the sap-wood of
the scion, and the descending sap of
the scion, which has been elaborated
and prepared in the leaves, and which
descends through the inner bark, to
pass freely into the inner bark of the
stalk. This el aborated sap soon hard-
ens into wood, and covers and heals
the wound.

" There are more than forty diflTer-
ent modes of grafting. We shall only
speak of those which are best adapted
to the practice of the orchard and
garden.

" Cleft-grafting {Fig. 1, i) is moet
practised upon strong stalks, or ia

heading down or rejrraftinK old tre««.
There ute I wo methods ordoingttiis^
one described in the cal, nhere tbe
stalk is first cut off obliquely, and the
sloped part isthencut olTliorJZDiitallir
near the mtdille of the slope : a dell
nearly two inches lung is then made
with a Bliarp knife or chisel, in the
crown, downward, at right angles
Trith thi^ sloped pSrl, taking care not
to divide the pith. The cleft is kepi
open by the knife or the small wedge
tbe scion has its extremity, Tor aboui
an inch, cut into the form ut'a wedge:
it ts left about the eighth or an inch
thick nn the bark side, and brought
to a fine edge on ibe iaside. It is
then inserted into the opening prepa-
red for it : and the knife or wedge be-
ing withdrawn, the stalk closes ^rmly
upon It. The other and the more
common mode is to saw off the stalk
faorizontally, make the cleft through
its centre, and insert either one or
two grafts in tbe outer edges. In
buih cases the stalk should bo tied
and covered with the wai or clay.

■' Whip- grafting (Fig. 1. o), or, as
it is sometimes called, tongiie-grafl-
ing, is mostly adopted in nurseries,
where the stalks are generally small.
It ia deairihle that the stalk and graft
shouldbeofnearlysimilarsite. The
scion and ststk are cut ofTciUliquely, at
corresponding angles, as near as the
operator can guess ; thcR cut otT the
tip of tbe stalk obliquely, or nearly
horizontally ; make now a slit nearly
tn tbe centre of the aloped face of the

stalk downward, and a similar one in
the scion upward. The tongue or
wedgo-like process, forming the up-
per part of the alopiug face of the
scion, is then inserted downward i*
tbe cleft of the stalk ; the mner barka
of both being brought closely to unite
on one side, so as not to be displaced
in tying, which ought to be done im-
mediately, wjih a riband of basa or
other soft string, brought in a neat

I mannerseverel times round the stalk.

I The next and finishing operation is to
cover the whole wound with the pre<
pared wax or clay already described.
The French mode of whip-grafting,
which is also m coamon use here.
diObrs from the English, in their
never paring more off the stalk, how-
ever large, than the width of the sci-
on {Fig. 3, a. i, c. d). In both, the
stalk is sometimes left a few inchea
aboTE the graft nil autumD, to lie the
young shoot to, lest it be blown off

" Side-grafiing (Fig. I, t) resem-
bles whip-graftiDg, except it is per-
formed without taking off tbe top of
the stalk.

" ShmMcr or eAi«* grafting is per-
fornied with a shoulder, and some-
limes also with a slay at the bottom
of the slope. II is chiefly used for

and stalk are of the same size (Fig.

"The aeai

nurseries, where btalks
descfibml in F.g. S, <."
MQ for porforming the

operation is, for all deciduous trees
and ahruba, the spring. imiiiediBtel;
beroie the movemeat of the sap.
The spring is also tbc most lavoura-
ble period Tor ever^ens ; but the
sap in tbiB class of plants being more
in motion during ninler than that of
decbdunua plants, grafting, if thought
necessary, might be performed at that

" Grafting ^inilr-lreM.— -The oak,
aah, hornbeam, and hazel ma; be
graned, but there is a little difhculiy
In gralimg some of the hard-wood
Ireei. The lucombe, and other oaks
of that kind, require to have the Tur-
key oak for a stock ; and (he ever-
green oaha must have their own ape-
cies. The comiuon aah will take
with the ormu. Bod any of the hardy
Tarieties of true ashes, such i.% the
Chinese and en tire-leared, Tbehorn-
beam may be used as a slock for Cor-
pittat enenlaiit, and the cul-leaved
sort ; hnt the scions most be from
two years' old wood. The purple-
leaved haxel may be grailed on the
bazel stiichs.

*' Grafting by ajrproach, or inarch-
ing, is a mode of graAing in which.
to make sure of succeea. the scion ia
not separated IVom the parent plant
tHI it has become nnited with the
stock. Inarching is chiefly praciiaad
with camellias, myrtles, jasmines,
walnuts, firs, fm., which do not flour-
ish by the common mode of grafting.

'■ GrafliKg hcrbaatnu pitnii differs
in nothing fi'CHii grHiliHg auoh aa aio

OR.\

or a woody nacare, excepting that
this operation is perfomied when
both stock and scion are in a state
of vigoroua growth. The only oseful
purpose to which this mode has been
hitherto applied is that of grafting
the finer kinds of dahlias on tubers
of the more ciHnmon and vigoroua
growingsorta. In the Pans gardens,
the tomato la aometime* grafted on
the potato, the cauliflower on the
borocole, and one gom4 on another,
as matter of curiosity.

iloyed by French nuraerymen, and
bTcn in some of the forests of France.
The Bcions are formed of the points
of growing shoots ; and (he alocks
are also thb points of growing sboots
cut or broken over an inch or two
below the point, where the shoot is
as brittle as asparagus. The opera-
tion is performed in the deft manner ;
that is. by cutting the lower end of
the acion in the form of a wedge, and
inspriing ii in a clel\ or alj( made
down the middle of the stock. The
finer kinds of azaleas, piaes, and fiia
are propagated in ihia way, and (hou-
sands of Ptnut larix have been ao
grafted on Piniu tylvairu in the for-
est of Fontainebleau. At Hopetoun
House, near Edinbureh, this mode of
grafting has been successfully prac-
tised with Abitt Smithiarui, the stock
bemg the common spruce lir."

GRAIN. The unit of weight. See
WdghU and Mcaturct.

GKAINS. The fruit or seeds of
gramineouB plants, with beans, pease,
Alc. The weight of wheat and some
few other grains is estdbhshed bj
statute. Thus, in New- York a bush-

.r^

GKAINS, BREWERS' AND DIS-
TILLERS'. The refuse of the mash
tub. Brewers' grams are best, as
ibey use barley : disiiUera employ rye
or corn. It ii difficult to give any
Talualion for tbis kind of foodi but

there is no qnestiofo of the nutritious-
Bess, as large dairies, near cities, are
kept in full vigour and milk by them,
mixed with cut straw or hay, and pigs
lapidly fattened. A milch cow re-
quires about one bushel daily. Grains
rapidly heat and putrefy if exposed to
ftir anid a spring or summer heat, but
they may be readily preserved by the
fdlUvwing process described by Mr.
Touatt :

"The grains are laid up in pits
lined with brick-work, set in cement,
irom ten to twenty feet deep, and of
any convenient size. They are firm-
ly trodden down, and covered with a
layer of moist earth, eight or nine
inches thick, to keep out the rain and
frost in winter, and the heat in sum-
mer. The grains are, if possible,
thrown into the pit while warm and in
a state of fermentation, and they soon
tarn sour ; but they are not liked the
worse by cattle on that account ; and
the air being perfectly excluded, the
fermentation cannot run on to putre*
fiiction. The dairymen say that the
alow and slight degree of fermenta-
tion which goes oo tends to the
greater development of the saccha-
rine and nutritive principle ; and they
will have as large a stock on hand as
tbey can afford* and not open the pits
till they are compelled. It is not un-
common for two years to pass before
a pit of grains is touched ; and it is
aaid that some have lain nine years,
and been perfectly good at the expi-
ration of that period."

Grttins have been used a» manure
with great success. They are best
adapted to grass, wheat, corn, and
the cerealia generally : 20 bushels to
the acre are an abundant application.
Mr. Bockland, of Wales, produced
two and a half tons of hay off land
formerly yielding bat half a ton, by a
sprinkling of grains only. This re-
sult is to be expected, as the husk of
barley, te., contains nearly all the
aaline matters of the plant.

GRAIN WEEVILS. See VHuat
InsecU.

GRAIP. A Scotch name for the
various kinds of forks used in hus-
bandry. .

GRA

GRALLiE (from gridUt, stilie).
The tribe of long-legged wading birds,
as the cranes, lamingo.

GRAMA GRASS. A grass indi-
genous in the West Indies and in Mex-
ico, of small size, growing on poor
land, and bearing a very nutritious
grain, which it retains until spring.
It is highly recommended for culti-
vation m the Southern States. It
must not be confounded with the
gamma, or buffalo grass. From the
description given by Captain Cook,
United States Army, it appears to
be a stoloniferous grass, and peren-
nial.

GRAMINACE^. Gramineous
plants. Grasses. Endogenous plants,
in which the parts of fructification
are essentially perfect, although they
are in a very unusual state in what
may be called their accessory organs.
They have neither calyx nor corolla ;
but, in lieu of them, imbricated scales,
called paleas and glumes ; the latter
of which give rise to the name glu-
tnaceous, often applied to these plants.
Corn of all kinds, the bamboo, the
sugar cane, many kinds of pasture
plants, and reeds, belong to different
species of Graminacea. The flinty
surface of the stems or straw renders
many valuable for domestic use, as
for forming the plat from which
straw bonnets, <Stc., are manufactu-
red. They constitute the most val-
uable family of plants for the suste-
nance of men and a nimals. They are
developed from the frigid zone to the
equator, increasing in size as they
proceed south.

GRAMME. The unit of French
weights, equal to 15*434 troy grains.
The following is their decimal sys-
tem:

OmntMS. TroypniiMb

Milli|rTanmie . = ,001 = ,01543

Ceatagnunrae . = ,01 = 1,5434

Decigramme . = ,1 = 1,5434

Gramme . . . ss ],=r 15,484

Decflgramme . := 10, = 154,84

Hectogramme . s 100,= 1543,4

Kilogramme . = 1000,= 15484

Myriagramme . = 10000, = 154840

The gramme equals the weight of
the hundredth part of a cubic metre
of distilled water at 32^ Fahrenheit.
The kilogramme is used for heavier

338

GRA

weights, and is equal to two poun-Js,
three ounces, and 4-428 drachms av-
oirdupois.

GRANARY. A place where wheat
or corn is stored ; it should be airy,
dry, and so situated as to be out of
the reach of vermin. Where the
weevil appears, the grain, before sto-
rage, should be kiln-dried at about
180° Fahrenheit. Rats and mice are
kept out if the granary be erected on
stones or piles of a conical form, and
inverted. In Egypt and Sicily corn
is stored in deep vaults or cellars
made of brick, or cut in the rocks,
and covered tightly by a nwk with
earth piled upon it: in this case the
grain must be thoroughly dried be-
fore storage. When the granary is
airy, it is advisable to stir the grain oc-
casionally, so as to expose it equally.

GRANGE. A farm-yard with
suitable offices.

GRANITE. A crystalline rock
composed of quartz, mica, and feld-
spar. The greater the proportion of
quartz the better the rock for build-
ing purposes, as the feldspar decays.
Some granites contain a variety of
feldspar which decomposes with great
rapidity, so that it is used for making
pottery. Granite is supposed by ge-
ologists to be of igneous origin ; it
protrudes through other formations,
and also occurs in veins. It is the
principal rock of the Primitive series,
and its ingredients constitute, in
difierent combinations, most other
rocks. The variety called blue gran-
ite, Massachusetts granite, or sye-
nite, contains hornblende in the place
of mica, and is a more valuable bnild-
ing material. When granite is to be
worked it should be kept under wa-
ter, as it becomes very hard in air.
The chemical composition of granite
depends upon the proportions of the
niinerals present. The quartz is sil-
ica only ; the feldspar contains from
11 to 14 per cent, of potash ; the
mica from seven to ten of potash.
See these minerals.

GRANIVOR^. Birds, including
the incesaores, which eat grain
Granivoraus is used to designate
grain-eating animals.

S8i

GRANULATE {from ffrana, tt
grain). To form into grains, or be-
come covered with minute granules.

GRANULATION. In chemistry,
the reduction of metals into smaller
parts: it is performed by pouring
small portions of the molten matter
into water, and sometimes first pass>
ing it through a wire sieve. In sur>
gery, the production of granules of
Hesh on the surface of wounds.

GRAPE. See Vine.

GRAPE SUGAR. Glucose.

GRAPHOMETER (from ypa^y 1
writCf and fitrpov^ a measure). A name
for the semicircle of land surveyors.

GRAPHITE. Plumbago, black-
lead. The coarse kinds are used io
making crucibles.

GRASSES. The lesser gramina-
cese, which do not bear grains suffi-
ciently large for collection as food.
Clovers, lucem, and leguminous
plants are also improperly included
under grasses.

The true grasses are very numer-
ous, but experience has selected
some few as worthy of cultivation,
from their greater nutritiousness or
adaptation to the wants of the farm.
These are divided into temporary
hay grasses, intended for rotations ;
permanent hay grasses ; grasses af-
fording hay, but peculiar to certain
localities, and pasture grasses.

The following is chiefly from Lon-
don : " Though grasses abound in eT-
ery soil and situation, yet all the
species do not abound indifferently;
on the contrary, no class of plants is
so absolute and unalterable in its
choice in this respect. The creep-
ing-rooted and stolon iferous grasses
will grow readily on most soils ; but
the fibrous-rodted species, and espe-
cially the more delicate upland grass-
es, require particular attention as to
the soil in which they are sown ; for
in many soils they will either not
come up at all, or die away in a few
years, and give way to the grasses
which would naturally spring np.
Hence, in sowing down lands fur per-
manent pasture, it is a good method
to make choice of those grasses
which thrive best in adjoining and

similarlj-cireiirasUnced pistnrea for

■ part of the seeil ; and to mis with
these what are coDBideied the very
best kinds.

"Ttie moat itnporlant feature in
the culture of pasture grasses is mix-
ture of sorts. The husbandman who
clothes his fields only with rje-itrass
•od clover, employs a limited ma-
chinery, the forraer being unproduc-
(iTE in summer, the latter moderate-
ly so in spring ; but when he, for this
purpose. DSPS a Tariety of plants dif-
fering in Iheir habits of growth and
periMs of luxoriance, a numerous
and powerful machinery is kept suc-
cess ively in full operation.

" The eObct of a mixture of grasses
may be accounted for from some spe-
cies putting forth their fuliage, and
reachinj; a maximum of produce at
different periods from other kinds.
From some being gregarious or so-
cial, and others solitary, and never
producing a close turf, by sowing
fteeda of several species together,
which are dissimilar in their habits
of growth, and arrive at a maximum
of produce at diflerent periods of sum-
mer and autumn, there is secured
throughout the season a succession
of fresh herbage, rendered, by the
erect and creeping foliage of the dif-
ferent species, so dense and abun-
dant as greatly to surpass in quanti-
ty that obtained from the cultivation
of two or three kinds only.

" New and excellent varieties ol
many of the grasses, especially those
nsed or Gt to be used in the ciiti-
vcnible husbandry, migbl, no doubt,
be obtained by selection and cross-
breeding, and it is much to be wished
e attempted by cultiva-

" Tall or Hay Graiies of temporary
Hurofim.— The most valuable of this
division are the biennial, or, as
commonly hut erroneously called, the
annual, perennial, and subperennial
rye grass (a), the cocksfoot crasa (6),
and woolly soft grass (c). Where s
crop oS hay is desired within the
year, it is necessary to resort to such
grasses as are !inn;]als in the stnct
8ens« of the word ; and Done OBD be

that II

better tbr this purpose than Ihe cum
~ oat, Attna latna. cot and made
liay when it comes into flower.
Next in order may be mentioned the
other cereal grasses and the annus]
varieties of Bromus ; the tatter, how-
are very coarse grasses, though
prolific in eulm.

"The biennial rye grass. Loltum
WTtnnt var. bitrtne, is well known ab
being universally sown, either with
or without clover, among grain crops,
with a view to nno crop of hay in the
succeeding season. It attains a great-
er height, and produces a longer,
broader spike of flowers than the per-
ennial rye gr^ss. and the produce in
hey is eonsiclcred greater than that of
any other annual grass equally pal-
atable to cattle. It prefers n rich
loamy soil, but will grow on any sur-
fice whatever, not rock or undecayed
bog.

'■ The perennial rye grass {Lolnim
perennf, Lin., and Loglio vimce. Ital.)
difTers from the other in being of
somewhat smaller growth, and in
abiding for several years, according
to the variety and Ihe soil and cul-
ture. Pacey's and Itussell's varipties
of rye grass are most esteemed.

".Many consider this grass coarse,
benty, and very exhausting to the

that ha I

after all the eiiperiments
the oih(-

GRASSES.

years. It iB sown in Italy, and ea-
pecially in Lombardy, and also in
France and Germany, along with
doTer, for the same purposes as in
this country ; and, as Von Thaer has
remarked, though some have tried
other species, both in these cpuntries
and in England, they have in the end
returned to rye grass. When intend-
ed as a pasture grass, if stocked hard,
and when for hay, if mown early, the
objections to it are removed. — {Code
of AgricuUure.) G. Sinclair says the
circumstance of its producing abun-
dance of seed, which is easily col-
lected, and vegetates freely on any
Boil, its early perfection and abundant
herbage the first year, which is much
relished by cattle, are the merits
which have upheld it to the present
day, and will probably for some time
to oome continue it a favourite grass
among farmers. But the latter-math
IB inconsiderable; the plant impov-
erishes the soil in a high degree if
not cut before the seed ripens. When
this iB neglected, the field after mid-
summer exhibits only a brown sur-
face of withered straws.

"The cocksfoot grass, orchard
grass {Dactylis glomtrata^ Linneus),
is an imperfect perennial, and grows
naturally on dry, sandy soils. This
grass may be known by its coarse
appearance, both of the leaf and spike,
and also by its whitish green hue.

"One writer says he has cultiva-
ted it largely, and to his satisfaction,
on wet loams on a clay marl bottom,
upon which the finer grasses are apt
to give way in a few years to the in-
digenous produce. If safTered to rise
high, it is very coarse ; but, fed close,
is a very valuable sheep pasture. He
has sown two bushels an acre, and
10 lbs. common red clover ; and when
the clover wears out, the grass fills
the lands and abides well in it. It
grows well in winter. It has been
foand highly useful as an early sheep
feed. It is early, hardy, and pro-
ductivet but is a coarser plant than
lye grass, and requires even greater
attention in regard to being cut soon
or fed dose. It does best by itself,
aod the time of ita ripeoiog being dif-

396

ferent from that of dorer, it does not

suit well to be mixed with that plant.
The pasturage it aflbrds is luxuriant,
and particularly agreeable to sheep.
It is cultivated to a great extent, and
with astonishing success at Holkham.
The quantity of sheep kept upon it,
summer and winter, is quite surpri-
sing and the land becomes renova-
ted by lying two or three years under
this grass, and enriched by the ma-
nure derived I'rom the sheep. A field
in the park at Wuburn was laid down
in two equal parts, one part with rye
grass and white clover, and the other
part with cocksfoot aod red clover ;
from the spring till midsummer the
sheep kept almost constantly on the
rye grass, but aHer that time they left
it, and adhered with equal constancy
to the cocksfoot during the remainder
of the season. In Tfu Code of Afrri-
aUture (p. 497, dd. edit.) it is suted,
that Sinclair of Woburn considers
* no grass so well suited for all pur-
poses as cocksfoot.'

" The woolly soft grass (Holcus la
natust Linneus) is an imperfect peren-
nial, and rather late flowering grass,
of a short, unsubstantial appearance,
and found chiefly in poor, dry soils.
It is, however, a vei-y common grass,
and grows on all soils, from the rich-
est to the poorest. It aflTords abun-
dance of seed, which is light, aod
easily dispersed by the wind.

" It was cultivated at Woburn on
a strong clayey loam, and the propor-
tional value which the grass at the
time the seed is ripe bears to the
grass at the time of flowering is as
eleven to twelve. Young observes
of this grass, that it flourishes well
on any moist soil, and should be sown
chiefly with a view to sheep, for it is
not so good for other stock ; many
acres of it have been cultivated on
his farm for sheep, and it has answer-
ed well when kept close fed.

" Tall or Hay Grtuaes of permanent
Duration. — No permanent grass has
been found equal to the rye grass for
the purposes of convertible husband-
ry, but others have been selected
which are considered superior for hay
meadows. The principal of these

aia (he fsscae, foxtail, ind meBdotr I wilh rfe ktbh, in lajring down laudi

graas. AgriculturisU, indi'ecl, are aot to permanent paature.
all agreed on the comparative meriis | '■ Of (he fescue grass there are
of theiie grasses with rye grass ; but i three species lu (be highest eatiaiB-
thereare Dooe who do not consider tionas meadow ba;r grasses, viz.. the
11 advisable to introduce a portion n(\ meadow, ttiil, and spUed fescue {Fig.
each, or most of these species along j 3, a, i, c).
net.

•' The F. praicH-'it (fl), i,r ihe meat)- ]
ow or fertile fescue grass, is fuuiid
indigenous id the United Slates, in
most Hull infadiiwa and pastures, si>d
is highlj grateful to every descriptii'R
of suick. It rs more m demanii Un
la;ing down meadows than an; oUi>;r
species eici-pl Ihe rye grass.

" The tall ur infertile fescue grasa
{^FctttuatluuiT. E. B., bj is indigenous,
and closely allied to the Feiiuca pra-
tetau. from which it difTors in litiie
except thai it is larger in every re-
spect. The produce is nearly three
. limes that of the F. pratinMu, and tlia
nutritive powers of the grass are an-
perioT, in direct proportmn, as six to
eight. . The proportional value which
the grass at the time ihe seed is ri!<e
bears to the grass at the time of flo"--
eiing is aa twelve to twenty. The
proportional value which the grass of
the laiter-math bears In that of the
crop is as sixteen to twenty, and ti
the grass » the time the seed is ripi
as twelve toaixteen inverae, Curti:
observes that, aa the seeds of Lbii
ptaDt. when cultivated, are nut fertile,
it can nnlj he introduced by parting

ils roots and planting tbem out ; in
this thi>re would, he sa/s. be no great
difficulty, provided it were likely to
answer the expense, which he is
strongly of opinion it would in certain
cases ; indeed, he has often thought
that meadows would be beat formed
by planting out the roots of grasses,
and other plants, in a regular manner;
and that, however singular such a
practice may appear ai present, ii will
probably he adopted at some future
period ; this great advantage woold,
he says, attend it, noxious weeda
might be more easily kept down, un-
til the grasses and other plants had
established iheiDselves in the soil.

"The spiked fescue grass, or dar-
nel fescue grass (^«lucii loliacea,
Linneus, e). resembles the rye fraaa
in appearance, aod the laU fescue
grass in the infertility of its seeds.
It is considered superior to rye (jross
either fur hay or permanent pasture,
and impruves in ptoporti<in to its age,
which is the reverse of what toice*
place with the rye grass.

" The meadow fuxiail grass l_Alopt-
eanu praltiuii, di is found mdigenou*

GRASSES.

in most meadows ; and when the soil
is neither very moist nor very dry,
but in good heart, it is very produc-
tive. It also does well on water
meadows. Sheep and horses seem
to have a greater relish than oxen for
this grass.

" In the Wohurn experiments, it
was tried both on a sandy loam and a
clayey loam, and the result gave near-
ly three fourths of produce greater
from a clayey loam than from a sandy
soil, and the grass from the latter is
comparatively of less value, in pro-
portion as four to six. The straws
produced by the sandy soil are de-
ficient in number, and in every re-
spect less than those from the clayey
loam ; which will account for the un-
equal quantities of the nutritive mat-
ter afforded by them ; but the propor-
tional value in which the grass of
the latter- math exceeds that of the
crop at the time of dowering is as
four to three ; a difference which ap-
pears extraordinary, when the quan-
tity of flower stalks which are in the
grass at the time of flowering is con-
sidered Next to the fescue, this
grass is in the greatest reputation for
laying down mowing grounds ; but it
is, unfortunately, subject to the rust
in some situations.

" Of the meadow grass there are
two species in esteem as hay plants,
the smooth-stalked and roughish

*'The great, or smooth - stalked
meadow grass, the spear grass of
some parts of the United States {Poa
prafensts, e), is distinguished by its
height, smooth stem, and creeping
roots. According to Sole, it is the
best of all the grasses : its ftdiage be-
gins to shoot and put on flne verdure
early in the spring, but not so soon
as some other grasses. Every ani-
mal that eats grass is fond of it, while
it makt's the l^st hay, and affords the
richest pasture. It abounds in the
best meadows, and has the valuable
property of abiding in the same land,
while most other grasses are contin-
ually changing. According lo some,
it delighu in rather a dry than a moist
soil and situation, on which account
it keeps its verdure better than most
88S

others m dry seasons ; but it thrives
most luxuriantly in rich meadows.

" By the Woburn experiments, the
proportional value in which the grass
of the latter-math exceeds that of the
flowering crop is as six to seven.
The grass of the seed crop and that
of the latter-math are of equal value.
This grass is, therefore, of least val-
ue at the time the seed is ripe ; a loss
of more than one fourth of the valne
of the whole crop is sustained if it is
not cut till that period ; the straws
are then dry,, and the root leaves in
a sickly, decaying state ; tljose of the
latter-math, on the contrary, are lux-
uriant and healthy. This species
sends forth flower stalks but once in a
season, and those being the most val-
uable part of the plant for the purpose
of hay, it will, from this circumstance,
and the superior value of the grass
of the latter-math, compared to that
of the seed crop, appear well adapted
for permanent pasture It was of
this grass that the American prize
bonnet, in imitation of Leghorn, was
made by Miss Woodhouse. This
grass belongs to the same genus, and
nearly resembles the rich Kentucky
blue g^rass^ which seems, indeed, to be
only a variety rather less in size.

** The roughish meadow grass {Poa
trivia/ is f L., J) delights in moist, rich,
and sheltered situations, when it
grows two feet high, and is very pro-
ductrve. It is indigenous. The defi-
ciency of hay in the flowering cn»p,
in proportion to that of the seed emp,
is very striking. Its superior produce,
the highly nutritive powers which
the grass seems to possess, and
the season in which it arrives at
perfrciion, are merits which distin-
guish it as one of the most valuat>le
of those grasses wliich affect moist,
rich soils and sheltered situations ;
but on dry, exposed situations it is
altogether inconsiderable: it yearly
diminishes, and ultimately dies off,
not unfrequently in the space of four
or five years.

" The above are six of the best
pernianent grasses for eh her dry or
watered meadows. The seeds of the
meadow feaoue, foxtail, and smootb

and roueti meadow fp'asaes are sown
in Tnriniis prnporlions with the elo-
vera and rye grass, Tlic secsda of
the Iwo sfirts of meadow grass are
apt In aticfc together, and require tn
be well mixed with the others hefore
being sawn. The tall and spiked fes-
cue (trasses, having a numher iif har-
nvi naners, are nit pmlilic in seeds,
and they sre therefore seldom to be got
at the seed-shops. To this list may
be added Andes graas (/Irrna (Fei-
laat) tlatior}. which, on strong lands.
produces a good cmp. and is remark-
ably early in the United Stales : il
may be pastured with success, and
should he cut before seed, as it be-
comes coarse. See Bermuda and
Grama Graat.

tail or Timothy, floating fescne. Eo-
rin. and herd's grass, have been rec-
ommended ; hot it cannot be said
thai the opinions of cultivators are
unanimous in their favour. Timothy
has certainly been found lo answer
well on moist, peaty soils, and in sev-
eral cases florin also.

"The cat's-lail. or Timothy grass
iPhittim jrralenie, L.. Fig. 3, a,), is a
nataralized plant, and growa both

Fig. 3

dry and moist soils. On moist, rieh
Bulls it is ft proliflc grass, hut late ; on
dry soils it is good for lilile, and for
eullivalion in any way is disapproved
of by Withering, Swaine, Curtis, and
others, as having no properties in
which il is not greatly surpassed by
the meadow foxtail.

The Woburn experiments, howeT-
er. present this grass as one of the
most prolific for hay. The compar-
ative merits of this grass appear to
be ver7 great ; to which may be add-
ed the abundance of fine fultage that
it produces early in the spring. In
this respect it is inferior to Poafer-
lilit and Poa anguiliftiit only. The
value of ttio straws at the time the
seed is ripe exceeds that of the grass
at the time of flowering in the pro-
portion of twenty-eight to ten, a cir-
cumstance which raises it above
many others ; for from this property
its valuable early foliage may be de-
pastured to an advanced period of

of bay, treatment which, in grasses
that send forth their flowering straws
early in the season, would cause a
loss of nearly one half in the value
of the crop, as clearly proved by for-
[amplea ; and this property of

-tte •tnws.makee the plant peeuliar-l "The floating fescue grass (FiEiM-
ly desirable for hay. In moiat and cafiaiiata, ft) is found in rich marshes:
pe«ty soils it hu in Tarioaa instances •' It ts greedily devoured by e*ery
t0en firand higbt^r prDdnetin.n | dMeription of stock, not excepttDg

GRASSES.

hogs and ducks, and geese eagerly
devour the seeds, which are small,
but very sweet and nourishing. They
are collected in several parts of Ger-
many and Poland, under the name of
manna-seeds {schvmden)^ and are es-
teemed a delicacy in soups and gru-
els. When ground to meal,, they
make bread very little inferior to that
from wheat. The bran is given to
horses that have the worms, but they
must be kept from water for some
hours afterward. Geese and other
water-fowl are very fond of the seeds.
So also are fish ; trout, in particular,
thrive in those rivers where this grass
grows in plenty. It has been recom-
mended to be sowed on meadows that
admit flooding ; but Curtis justly re-
marks that the flote fescue will not
flourish except in land that is con-
stantly under water, or converted
into a bog or swamp.

*' The water meadow grass {Poa
aquatica, e) is found chiefly in marsh-
es in the north and in Canada, but
will grow on strong clays, and yield,
as the Woburn experiments prove, a
prodigious produce, flowering from
June to September. It is one of the
largest grasses, rising to Ave feet.

" The florin grass {Agrostit stolonife-
ra, d) is a very common grass, both in
wet and dry, rich and poor situations.
It is known in the United States as
Agroslis deeumbenst and is a variety
of A. alba. Few plants appear to be
more under the influence of local cir-
cumstances than this grass. On dry
soils it is worth nothing, but on rich,
marl soils, and in a moist soil, if we
may put confidence in the accounts
given of its produce in Ireland, it
is the most Taluabie of all herbage
plants.

"It was first brought into notice
by Dr. Richardson in 1809, and sub-
sequently extolled, and its culture de-
tailed in various pamphlets by the
same gentleman. It appears to be
exclusively adapted for moist peat
soils or bogs. In The Cede of Agri-
ctUiure it is said, ' On mere bogs, the
florin yields a great weight of her-
bage, and is, perhaps, the most use-
ful plant that bogs can produoe.'*
840

According to Sir H. Bary, the
grass, to be in perfection, requires a
moist climate or a wet soil ; and it
grows luxuriantly in cold clays unfit-
ted for ot her grasses. In light sands,
and in dry situations, its produce is
much inferior as to quantity and qual-
ity. He saw four square yards of
florin grass cut in the end of January,
in a meadow, exclusively appropria-
ted to the cultivation of fiorin by the
Countess of Hardwicke, the soil of
which is a damp, stiflT clay. They af-
forded twenty-eight pounds of fodder,
of which one thousand parts afforded
sixty-four parts of nutritive matter
consisting nearly of one sixth of su-
gar, and five sixths of mucilage, with
a little extractive matter. In anoth-
er experiment, four square yards gave
twenty-seven pounds of grass. Lady
Hardwicke has given an aecount of
a trial of this grass, wherein twenty-
three milch cows, and one yoong
horse, besides a number of pigs, were
kept a fortnight on the produce of
one acre. On the Duke of Bedford*8
farm, at Maulden, fiorin hay was pla-
ced in the racks before horses, in
small, distinct quantities, alternately
with common hay ; but no decided
preference for either was manifested
by the horses in this trial. Fiona
has been tried in the highlands of
Scotland, and a premium awarded is
1821 for a field of three acres planted
on land previously worth veiy Utile,
at Appin, in Argyleshire. {HigU. Soc
Trans., vol. vi. , p. 289. ) Hay tea has
also been made from fiorin, and found
useful in rearing calves, being mixed
with oatmeal and skimmed miUc.— >
{Ibid., p. 283.)

" There are other species ofAgne^
tii, as the A. paluslris and repens, and
some varieties of the A. sttionifen^
that on common soils are little differ-
ent in their appearance and proper-
ties from fiorin. On one of theae,
the narrow-leaved creeping bent {A.
ttolomfera var. angusHfolia), the fol-
lowing remarks are made in the ac-
count of the Woburn experimenU :
* From a careful examination of the
creeping bent with narrow leaves^ it
will dmihttesB appear to possess mer-

QKASSES.

its well worthy of attention, tbough
perhaps not so great as they have
been supposed, if the natural place of
its growth and habits be impartially
taken into the account. From the
eouehant nature of this grass, it is
denominated couch grass by practi-
^1 men, and from the length of time
that it retains the vital power after
being taken out of the soil, it is call-
ed 8quit<:^ quick, full of life,' &c.

** The culture of fiorin is different
iVom that uf other grasses. Though
the plant will ripen its seeds on a dry
soil, and these seeds being very small,
a few pounds would be sufficient for
an acre, yet it is generally propaga-
ted bj stolones or root shoots. The
ground being well pulverized, freed
from weeds, and laid into such beds
or ridges as the cultivator may think
advisaUe, small drills an inch or two
deep, and six or nine inches asunder,
aro to be drawn along its surface,
with s hand or horse hoe, or on soft
lands with the hoe-rake. In the bot-
tom of these drills, the fiorin shoots
(whether long or short is of no con-
sequence) are laid lengthways, 80 that
their ends may touch each other, and
then lightly covered with a rake, and
the surface rolled to render it fit for
the scythe. In six months the whole
surface will be covered with verdure,
and if the planting be performed ear-
ly in spring, a large crop may be had
in the following autumn. Any -sea-
son, will answer for planting, but one
likely to be followed by showers and
beat is to be preferred. Those who
wish to cultivate this grass will con-
sult Dr. Richardson's New Essay on
Fiorin Grass (1813), and also The Far-
mer's Magazme for 1810-14. Our
opinion," says Loudon, ** is that nei-
ther fiorin« Timothy, nor floating fes-
cue is ever likely to be cultivated in
Britain ; though the latter two may
perhaps succeed well on the bogs and
moist, rich soils of Ireland, where, to
second the influence of the soil, there
VA a moist, warm climate.

" The preparation of the soU, and
the sowing of the usual meadow
grasses, differ in nothing from those
of clpf er and lye grass already given.

Fr2

Grasses chiefly adapted for Pastu
rage, — In treating uf pasturage grass
es, we shall make a selection of such
as have been tried to some extent,
and of which the seeds are in the
course of commerce. On soils in
good condition, and naturally well
constituted, no better grasses can be
sown for pasturage than those we
have described as tall grasses for hay
meadows ; but for early and late pas-
turage, and secondary soils, there are
others much more suitable.

** The pasture grasses for early pas-
turage on all soils are the Anthoxan"
ihum odoraium, Holcus odoratusy Avena
pubescensy and Poa annua.

'* The pasture grasses for late herb-
age on all soils are chiefly the dif-
ferent species of Agrostis (bents)
and Pbleum (cat's^tail).

'* The pasture grasses for poor or
secondary soils are the Cyyiosurus
cristatusy Festuca duriuscula and ovi-
na, Poa compressa, cristaia, and angus-
tifolia.

'* The grasses that afford most nu-
tritive matter in early spring are the
meadow foxtail grass and the vernal
grass ; the former has been already
mentioned as one of the best hay
grasses.

" The sweet-scented vernal grass
{AnthozanLhum odoratumy Ftg. 4, a) is
common in almost all pastures, and
is that which gives the fragrance to
natural or meadow hay. It is chiefly
valuable as an early grass ; for, though
it is eaten by stock, it does not ap-
pear to be much relished by them.
From the Woburn experiments, it ap-
pears that the smallness of the prod-
uce of this grass renders it improper
for the purpose of hay ; but its early
growth, and the superior quantity of
nutritive matter which the latter-math
affords, compared with the quantity
afforded by the grass at the time of
flowering, cause it to rank high as a
pasture grass on such soils as are
well fitted for its growth, lands that
are deep and moist.

•* The downy oat grass {Avena pu'
bcscens, i), according to the Woburn
experiments, possesses several good
qualities, which recommend it to par-

341

ticolar notice : it is hardy, enrly, and
more productive than many others
which Bfl^t aim liar soils and situa-
tions, lis growth, after lieing crop-
ped, is (olerably rapid, alihoogb it
does noi attain to a grnat length if
left glowing ; like tlie Poa pralemii,
it sends forth flower stalks but once
in a season, and it appears well cal-
culated for permanent pasture on
rich, light Boila.

"The annual meadow grass (Foa
annua, c) is the must common of all
grasses, and the leasi absotule in its
liabiis. It is almost the only grass
that will grow in towns Though
an annual grass, it is found in most
meadowe and pastures perpetually
flowering, and aflbrdmg an early
sweet herbage, relished by all stocli,
and of as great importance to hints
aa wheat is to maa. It hardly re-
quires lo be sown, as it springs up
everywhere of itself However, it
may not be amiss to sow a fewpounds
of It per acre wherever perpetual pas-
lure (not hay) is the object,

"The fine bent graaa {Agrotlii vul-
gari$, d) is one of the most common

erasses, and, according lo the Wo-
um experiments, one of the earliest.
The A. pttiutlrit is nearly as early in
producing its foliage, though both
flower late, and neither is very pro-
lilic either in bulk or nutritive matter.
A. itricit ia the herd's grass of Vir-
fioia and the South.
S13

" The narrow - leared i
eress (Piu angmli/nlia. c), though it
flowers late, vfI is remarkable for
the early groivth nf the leaves. Ac-
cording to tlie Wobnrn experiments,
the lea ves attain to the length of tBors
than twelve inches before the middle
of April, and are soft and succulent ;
in May, however, when the flower
stalks make their appearanee, it is
subject lo the disease termed rust,
which allots the whole plant. Ibe
consequence of which ia manifest in
the great deiieieney of produce in the
crop at (he time the seed is ripe, be-
ing Iben one half leas than at the
time of the flowering of the grass.
Though this disease begins in tbe
straws, the leaves suffer most from
ila effects, being, at the time the seed
is ripe, completely dried u^i t the
straws, therefore, conatituie tbe prin-
cipal part of the crop for mowing,
and they contain more nutritive mat-
ter, in proportion, than the leaves.
This grass is evidently moet valuable
for permanent pasture, llir whicti, id
consequence of its superior, rapid,
and early growth, and the diaeans
beginning at the alrawa, nature aeems
to have designed it. The graaaw
which approach neareal to this in re-
spect of early prodnce of leavea, are
the Poa firliliM. Oach^tt flamtratm,
PhUum prauiui, AlapttitTut fretn^-
til, Avetut tUtior, and Btenat* liUart'

lu, all iraaaea of k ooaner kind.

riuUB periods
(1 b; Sinclair
o consist of ibe folluwjRg pJaniu:

"These Bflard the principsl grass in
th« apriBg, and alsu a great part of

"These field produce principally i:

" The ahuTe mixture, aovn at the
rale of four or Are bushels tn the
acre, on wtil I- prepared sod, witliout
eom or other crap <i( any kind, could
baldly fail of prudaciaK excelieat pax-

tare in the follawingyear, and for ait
indefinite period. The hesi time for
sowing is July nr August, as spring-
an*n seeds are apt to suflfer with tha
dmughts of June and July. Filicen
of the above sorts are tn he had friHn
the seed shops ; and all of them maj
be gatberec! from natural pastures, oi
bespiike from collectora.

'■ or late pasture grasses, the dif-
ferent apeciea uf cal's-tail {PhUum)
and bent grass {Agrotiii) are the
chief, and especially the Timothy and
fiorin grass, Tha grasses, Davy ob-
sertca, that propa^to themselves by
Biolones, the difTerent species al
Agmtit, supply paatnre throughout
the year, and the concrete sap stOTod
up in their joints rendcra ttiem a
good food even in winter.

" or pasture grasses for inferior
soils, one of the most durable is the
dog's-lait grass (CyiaiuTui cnifo-
tru, also called Eliunnt Itdica, Fig

S, a). This is

on dry, clayey, or finn surfaces. It
ia oae of the best grasaes for parka,
beisg h^hlj telished by the South
Down sheep and deer,

"Tbe hard fescue gmaa (Ftiluca
diirniaUa, h) is one of tbe best of the
dwarf sOTU of grasses. Jt Is grate-
6)1 to all kinds of cattle ; it is pres-
ent in mou good meadows and pas-
tates, and, with F. raiiu, la the best
for lawns.

" Tbe FmIkm glaira (c) and hariti-

farrnu {d) greatly resemble the hard
fescue, and iiuy be conaidered equal-
ly deairable as pasture and (awn

" The yellow oat grass {Acena Jla-
sci«u) ia very generally cultivated,
and appears, fruni the WtAurn eZ'
periments, to be a very valuable grass
for pasture on a clayey aoil.

■' Of pasture grasses for inferior
soils and upland situations, one of
the principal ia the Fttua anna, or

•beep's fetcue grass fFiv.e, a). This
crass is peciilisrly ndniiti'il fur hilly
sheep pastures. It is a kiw dwarf
frass, but relished h; nllk'ndsofcm-
tle. According lo Sinolair's expe-
rience. ' on dry snits that are incapa-
ble or producing Ihe larger sorls, tbis
■hoald form the principal crop, or,
rather, Ihe whole ; for it iaspldom or
never, in ila oatuml slate, found in-
timately mixed with others, but by
itself

'■ The Foa alpint (b% AlBptmrat al-
finut, and Aim emjiilota (c), Bma
Mudia (if) and minima, and Agroadt
Atinufii and -mlgarii, are all dwarf
mountain grasses, well adapted for
hilly paika or lawns,"

The Bermuda grass, which grows
BO Inxariantly in the West and South,
is prop^galed by routs only, hb it doen
not flower in the latitudes where it
is cultivated.

"On the culture of these grasses
it is unnecessary to enlarge, as it
must obviously lie the same as that
of rye grass or any of liie others.

'■ The chief difficulty is lo get the
seed in sufflcient quantity, for which
a good mode is to contract with a
teedsmao, a year beforehand, for the
quantity wanted. Wiih all the pas-
ture grasses, except ihp last class.
we should recommend at least half
the seed to be that of the perennial
lye grass ; and we Uiinlt it should |

also form a constderabfe part of the
seeds used in laying down all mead-
ows, except those for the aquatic or
stolunifeious grasses. These, if Ihe j
IhriTe, are sure to cboke and d&-
»!n)y it.

" The formation of grassy snrfacesi
by disiiihutiiig pieces of turf over
t)iem, has lung been practised in gar-
dening, in icTellkig doivu raised or
filling up ImIIow fences, and in utfaer
cnsesofparliallyalleringa grassy sur-
face." it is called inoculating grass.

NainlioutneH ani yuU •/ Gretta.
—Mr. Sinelair. under the tlirec lions
of the Duke of ISedforrl. established
a long course of experiments to de-
ttrtnlne these points. These re-
srarches are now of no islue in re-
B|jcct to Ihe comparative
nrss, but are worthy of a)
giTing Ihe comparative yield on oer-
Uin soils. The nulritiousness of
grasses does not depend on tlie mat-
ters eztraclible by boiling, for ftbrin
and alhuoien are ineoltfMe in water.
Grasses du, however, difltar consid-
erably in this respeol.BS is shoyraby
the ultimste analysis of some authors,
which give \\ and IS per cent, of
nitrogen in different specimens. Tha
former mil represent afeven, and the
laHerO) percenl.of aiotized or fltsh-
roahing canalUuenls. Hie table np>
posite IK mostly from Sinclair ; tb«
greater part of Ihe grasses are eiihar

IS
8!

'g|"-!-P'l-|3|-3|!l»!ll^

SI1S81I'

pltl|5||i||!lf| I I

aj|}gSlia||i||l|pHi||!|S!|

IJll } liik^Mi I iHlutml I lit 1 1

I ni| IJ M l-?-?ttf ^ iS -S ■fSiltfis' ? ti-s 5 s

:"j : s£a3"2aKS s S2 3 ss;;s;;ja s ;

GRASS LAND.

indigenous or cultivated in the United
States.

All these grasses are perennial in
a good soil, and a rich, permanent
meadow for grass or pasture should
contain several kinds. The amount
of cured hay produced will be about
one fifth of the grass cut. For far-
ther particulars, see the Grasses
themselves.

Specijk Manures. — Grasses are re-
markable for the amount of alkali
(potasli or soda) they contain, and if
allowed to run to seed, are also rich
in bone earth. Sprengel found in 1000
pounds of rye grass hay

Potash and soda 1S*75 lbs.

LimeaaU mairnesia .... 8 15 **

Sulphuric acid 3 60 **

Phosphoric acid "SS «*

Silica 27-70 '•

Chloriae, iron, &c '^^ '*

52-75

This specimen must have been
made from grass before flowering.
From this composition, we learn that
fresh ashes (leached ashes on sandy
soils), bone earth, gypsum, and occa-
sional top-dressing, with air-slacked
lime, are appropriate manures. Ni-
trogen manures, applied to grass
crops, are, io some measure, wasted
from their exposure. Soluble silicate
of soda and potash has been used on
grass with advantage. The green
marl of New- Jersey will, in part, an-
swer this purpose on stitf soils.

GRASS LAND. " This may bo
divided into water meadows, upland
pastures, and artificial grasses. The
first are treated of under Irrigation :
the nature and management of the
last two we shall here briefly de-
scribe. Upland pastures are portions
of land on which the natural grasses
g^ow spontaneously, varying in quan-
, tity and quality with the soil and sit-

seed in sufficient quantity, for A:, \v^
a good mode is to contract with ""
seedsman, a year beforehand, fOL^^i
quantity wanted. With all ikZiu^W
turo grasses, except the last „, ' '^, fi
we should recommend at least ^i' \ut
the seed to be that of the percL^' ^^g
rye grass; and we think it 8b'_'^^^

344

ble ;* and in the same ground the
plants will vary in difl'erent years, so
as to induce one to conclude, that,
like most other herbaceous plants,
the grasses degenerate when they
have grown for a long time on the
same spot, and that a kind of rota-
tion is established by nature. It is
chiefly in those pastures where the
grasses are allowed to grow till they
form their seed that this is observa-
ble; for when they are closely fed,
and not allowed to shoot out a seed
stem, they are less subject to degen-
erate and disappear. This may be a
reason why experienced dairymen
are so unwilling to allow their best
pastures to be mown for hay. They
pretend that the feed is deteriorated
in the next year, and that inferior
grasses are introduced which injure
the quality of their butter and cheese.
Close feeding is always considered
as the most advantageous, both to
the cattle and the proprietor.

" The only way m which a pasture
distant from cities can be profitable,
is by feeding stock ; and its value is
in the exact proportion to the num-
ber of sheep or cattle which can be
fed upon it in a season. Extensiire
pastures are often measured only by
their capacity in this respect.

»» When a pasture is naturally rich,
the only care required is to stock it
judiciously, to move the cattle fre-
quently from one spot to another
(for which purpose, enclosures well
fenced are highly advantageous), and
to eradicate certain plants which ate
useless or noxious, such as docks
and thistles, alder, broom, briars and
thorns, which, not being touched by
the cattle as long as they have better
food, would increase and overran the
ground, and take up a spaee which
would be more profitably occupied by
good herbage. The dung of the cat-
tle, also, when left in heaps as it is

* In a r'm) of grass the foil uwing^ plants wera
ftniod : l*laritaf[ro huiceolftta, Agrotttis capitlaris,
j Avaiia flavMcans, Dartylis (^hiuiernla, Fesluca
j duriiiscula, I'oa auuua, Cynosurus criKiatua,
Trifulium rcnens, Crepis tectomm, Achillea
millefohuni, Gahum verum. liypochwrta radt
oata, HiBraciBm piloaeUa, Thynm aerpyUiua
— (Cania «• Grm$»t».)

GRASS LANIX

dro|iped, UUb the gnws and intrpdo-
oea coarse and less palatable plants.
Ail that is required in rich pastures
in which cows and oxen are fed, and
which are properly stocked, is, to
prevent the increase of the coarser
and less nutritive plants. Weeding
is as important in grass as in arable
land ; and if it is neglected, the con-
-sequence will soon be observed by
the inferior quality of the feed. The
mine of the cattle is the manure
which chiefly keeps up the fertility
of grass land ; and although in hot
and dry weather it frequently burns
up tbe grass where it falls, when it
is dilutoi by showers, the improved
appearance of the surface shows that
its effect has not been detrimental.
To enrich poor meadows there is no
manure so efieciive as diluted urine,
or the drain iags of stables and dung-
hills.

** When pastures are poor, and the
herbage is uf a bad quality, the cause
is to be sought for in the soil. A
poor arid soil is not fitted for grass,
nor one which is too wet, from tbe
ahundaoce of springs and. the want
of outlet lor the water. These de-
fects can only be remedied by expen-
sive improvements. A soil which is
too dry may be improved by cultiva-
tion and judicious manuring ; but for
this purpose it must be broken up
and treated for some time as arable
land ; and it may be a question wheth-
er or not tbe expense of improving
the soil will be repaid by the supe-
rior quality of the pasture when it is
again laid down to grass. In gen-
eral, the poor light soils, if they are
worth caltivation, answer better as
arable land, especially where the root
husbandry is understood. The low
wet clay soils may be converted into
good pastures by draining them well ;
and the improvement thus produced
is so great, that judicious draining in
such soils is the most profitable in-
vestment of capital.

** When old meadows have been
neglected, or too often mown, wiih-
out being recruited by manure or ir-
rigation, they are often overrun with
moss or rashes, and produce nothing

but a coane grass. In that case,
besides draining it, if required, the
land must be broken up and undergo
a regular course of tillage, until the
whole of the old sward is destroyed
and a better collection of grasses
cover its surface. If this be done
judiciously, the pasture will not only
be greatly improved in the quality,
but also in the quantity of the grass.
There is a natural prejudice against
tbe breaking up old grass land ; this
has arisen from the improper manner
in which it is frequently effected.
The sward, when rotten, is a pow-
erful manure, and produces great
crops of corn. These tempt the
farmer to repeat the sowing of corn
on newly broken up lands. The fer-
tdity is reduced rapidly; and when
grass seeds are sown after several
crops of corn, the soil has been de-
prived of a great portion of the hu-
mus and vegetable matter which is
essential to the growth of rich grass.
The proper method of treatmg grass
land, broken up to impmve it, is to
take no more corn crops than will
pay the expense of breaking up, cart-
ing lime, or other substances upon
it to improve the soil, and to lay it
down to grass again as soon as the
old sward is fully destroyed.

** If the soil be fit for roots, no bet-
ter crop can be sown to prepare for
the grass seeds, which should be
sown without a corn crop, except
where the sun is powerful, and the
seed is sown late in spring ; but
autumn is by far the best season for
sowing grass seeds for permanent
pasture. Turnips of an early kind
may be sown in May, and fed off
with sheep m August or September ;
and the ground being only very slight-
ly ploughed, or, rather, scarified and
harrowed fine, the seeds may be
sown and rolled in. The species of
grasses sown must depend on tbe
nature of the soil ; but it is impossi-
ble to be too choice in the selection.
That mixture of chaff and the half-
ripe seeds of weeds, commonly called
bay seeds, which is colleciod from
the stable lofts, should be carefully
rejected, and none but seeds ripened

347

GRASS LAND.

and eoHected on purpose shoitid be
sown. The Tri folium tepens (white
clover), the TVifoUum medmm (cow
grass), Medieago lupinula. (trefoil), Lo-
Hum perenne (rye grass), the poas and
festucas, are the best kinds of grass-
es. A very easy way of obtaining
good seed is to keep a piece of good
meadow shut up from the cattle ear-
ly in spring, carefully weeding out
any coarse grasses, and letting the
best arrive at full maturity ; then
mow and dry the crop, and thrash it
out upon a cloth. This will give the
best mixture of seeds ; but some of
the earliest will have been shed, and
these should be collected separately,
or purchased from the seedsmen.
Before winter the ground will already
be covered with a fine green, if the
seed has been plentiful. The quan-
tity per acre of the mixed seeds should
not be less than 30 or 40 pounds to
ensure a close pile the next year. If
the soil is not naturally rich, liquid
manure, or urine, diluted with wa-
ter, should be carried to the field in
a water-cart, and the young grass
watered with it ; this will so invig-
orate the plants, that they will strike
and tiller abundantly. They should
be fed oflTby sheep, but not too close.
The tread of the sheep and their urine
will tend to make the pile of grass
close, and the year afler this the new
pasture will only be distinguished
from the old by its verdure and fresh-
ness.

"The fertility produced by grass
which is fed by cattle and sheep has
given rise to the practice of convert-
ing arable land to pasture for a cer-
tain time in order to recruit its
strength. The old notion was that
the land had rest, which by a confu-
sion of ideas was associated with the
rest of the labourers and the horses.
The land, by being in grass, has much
vegetable matter added to it from the
fibres of the roots which die and de-
cay, as well as from the other parts
of the grass, which draw nourishment
from the atmosphere and impart it to
the roots. Thus, in time, an accumu-
lation of humus is formed *, and when
tho land is ploughed, the routng of the I

848

sward greatly inoreaaes it. Erery
species of plant thrives well in this
improved soil ; and the vigour of the
growth is ascribed to the recruitings
effects of rest, by a fancied aoatogy
with the animal muscle, which is in-
vigorated by occasional inaction.

**But it is well known tlrat land
which has been some years in grass
is improved in fertility. The con-
vertible system of husbandry takes
advantage of this fact ; and all its art
consists in reproducing a good pas-
ture withoot loss of time, after hav-
ing reaped the benefit of the fertility
imparted to the land during three car
four years when it was in grass.
Good pasture is very profitable ; so
are good crops : by making the one
subservient to the oth«r, the farmer
who adopts the convertible system is
enabled to have a better profit than
those who adhere to a simple rota-
tion of annual crops.

** When an arable field is sown with
the seeds of grasses and other plants
which give herbage for cattle, it is
called an artificial meadow, and the
various plants which are raised are
all called artificial grasses, although
many of them have no botanicai title
to the name of grass, sooh as clover,
sainfoin, locem, and many others,
which produce the best pastures and
the finest hay.

" In laying down a field to grass
for a very few years, the mode of
proceeding is somewhat difierent
fn>m that which is recommended for
producing a permanent pasture Glo-
ver in tills ease is always a principal
plant, both the red and the white;
these, with annual or perennial rye
grass, are sown with a crop of oats,
dtc, in spring, and begin to show
themselves before harvest The
grasses are often mown the first
year after they are sown, on account
of the abundance and value of the red
clover, but the best farmers recom-
mend depasturing them with sheep,
to strengthen the roots and increase
the bulk. Various circumstances,
such as a greater demand for clover
hay, or for fat cattle, may make mow-
ing or feeding most profitable; but

GRA

(m\

wlieh tbere is not 8 deoided adrsft-
tage in making hay, feeding should
always be preferred. At all events,
the great object of the former should
be to have bis laod in good heart and
tilth, and free from weeds, when the
grass is sown. If his grass be good,
he is certain of good crops after it,
witb IttUe trouble or manure."

The seeds to be sown on an acre,
when the land is laid down to grass,
are as follows: Red cloTer, eight
pounds ; Timotftiy, two pecks ; Ken-
tucky blue grass, five pounds ; white
clorer, six pounds, or orchard grass,
two pecks; rye grass, two pecks,
may be introduced. This is for a field
intended to remain four or five years
in grass.

*« The introduction of artificial
meadows in districts where the soil
seemed not well adapted for pasture
has greatly increased the number of
cattle and sheep reared and fattened,
and has caused greater attention to
be paid to the means of improving
the breeds of both. Thus a double
advantage has ansen : the public is
benefited by an increased supply, and
the farmer is rewarded by an addi-
tional source of profit.

**ln the neighbourhood of large
towns there are many meadows,
which, without being irrigated, are
mown every year, and only fed be-
tween hay harvest and the next
spring. These require frequent ma-
nuring to keep them in heart, and with
tliis assistance they produce great
crops of hay every year. Sometimes
the meadows are manured with sta-
ble dung which has been laid in a heap
for some time, and been turned over
to rot it equally. This is put on soon
a^r the hay is cut, and the rains
wash the dung into the ground ; but
if a very dry and hot summer foUows,
Httle benefit is produced by the dung,
which is dried up, and most of the
juices evaporated. A better method
is to make a compost vnth earth and
dung, aad, where it ean be easily ob-
tained, with lime. The best earth is
that which contains most vegetable
matter ; and as many of these mead-
ows are on a stifif day aoii, which re-
Qe

quires to be kept dry by open drains
and water furrows, the soil dag oirt
of these and carted to a corner of the
meadow makes an excellent founda-
tion for the compost. It is sometimes
useful to plough furrows at intervals
to take off the superfluous surface
water in winter ; the earth thus rais-
ed by the plough is excellent to mix
in the compost ; having been turned
over with dung, sweepings of streets,
or any other manure, so as to form a
uniform mass, it is spread over the
land in winter ; and in spring a bush-
harrow is drawn over the meadow,
and it is rolled with a heavy roller.
When the meadow is moss bound, or
of a light sod, it may be dressed with
the clod crusher (roller) or with a
weighted harrow. All this compost
is soon washed into the ground, and
invigorates the roots of the grass. It
is better to put on a slight coating of
this compost every year than to give
a greater portion of manure every
three or four years, as is the practice
of some farmers. The grazing of
cattle has generally been a more prof-
itable occupation than simply tilling
the land, 'llie capital required is con-
siderable, but the current expenses
are not great. The grazier is not sub-
ject to such total failures as the farm-
er of arable land is in his crops. With
a little experience and prudence, he
can always reckon on a certain re-
turn. An acre of good grazing land
is supposed to produce 200 pounds of
meat in the year. By uniting the
raising of corn and the grazing of cat-
tle and sheep, the greatest profit is
probably obtained, and this is the
great argument in favour of the con-
vertible system of husbandry."

The foregoing is principally from
the Rev. W. L. Rham.

GRASSHOPPERS. The popular
name of the genus GryUua^ or lo-
custs. They are, for the most part,
devourers of herbage, numerous spe-
cies living on grass and the leaves of
trees. The method of destroying the
common meadow grasshoppers is, to
manure the grass immediately after
cutting, and while the young insects
are abundant, with aii--8lack6d lime^

GAA

gM*hOQ66 liquor, sidt, a watering of
whale oil soap, and similar bodies,
taking care not to destroy the herbage.
GRAYWaCKE. GrayroclL An
old geological term for the gray tran-
sition rocks ; as gneiss, mica, slate,

GRAVEL. A g:eological forma-
tion or soil, consisting of rolled peb-
bles, loosely interspersed, more or
less abundantly, in a sandy or clayey
medium. It is of every degree of
fineness, chemical composition, and
ralue in farmmg. Those gravels
containing silicious pebbles ciiiedy,
and of a Targe size, are nearly unfit
for tillage, and the value increases
with the presence of slates, gran-
ites, hornblende, mica, marl, and clay.
They are usually very porous, drain-
ing water off rapidly, and cannot be
of much value, unless incumbent on
a subsoil that holds water at some
little depth. If the gravel be fertile,
it is usually warm and best adapted
for roots. Stiff* marls, burned clay,
and an abundance of vegetable mat-
ter are to be used as manures.

Gravel is well adapted for forming
walks in gardens and the surface of
roads.

GRAVEL. In farriery, the forma-
tion of hard calculi or stones in the
bladder, or of a sandy sediment.

GRAVEOLENT. Fetid, having a
strong odour.

GRAVES, GREAVES. Mem-
branous matter left as refuse by the
taliow-melter ; it is used for feeding
dogs, and given to poultry. Graves
contains a large amount of fat, and
is admirably adapted for fattening
hogs, dec. ; it has been used, also, as
a manure; 200 pounds interspersed
in stable manure may be added to
the acre ; but the most economical
plan will be to compost it in the nitre
bed. It is a nitrogen manure, 100
pounds yielding about 13 pounds of
ammonia, and being equal, in this
respect, to 1^ tons of farm-yard ma-
nure. The presence of sulphur and
phosphorus, besides bone earth, also
constitute it a manure applicable to
all rich crops ; as corn, wheat, to-
bacco, ^tc, the only consideration

860

ORA

being the economy of nstog so hiffk^

priced an article. See Manures.

GRAVID. Pregnant.

GRAVIMETER(from^raw»,
heawfy and fjierpov, a measure). See
Hydrometer.

GRAVITATION, GRAVITY.
The tendency that masses have to
approach each other ; also called at-
traction of gravitation. The gravity
of a body is therefore the attraction
it extends towards other bodies ; it
increases with the bulk, density, and
nearness of bodies, being directly as
their density and mass, and inverse-
ly as the squares of their distances.
Weight, and the descent of all bodies
towards the earth's surface, is an ef-
fect of the earth's gravity, or terres-
trial gravitation.

GRAVITY, SPECIFIC. The ra-
tio of the weight of any solid or liquid
to the weight of an equal bulk of pure
water at 62° Fahrenheit. The spe-
cific gravity of gases is the ratio to
the weight of an equal volume of air
at the same temperature. If the sol-
id be lighter than water, the measure-
ment is made more indirectly.

How taken.'^The specific gravity
of solids is ukan by first weighing a
pieoe in air, and then weighing it im-
mersed in pure water, and dividing
the weight in air by the loss of weight
in water. FUU* are examined either
by filling a bottle known to contain
precisely 1000 grains of pure water,
up to a certain mark, and setting
down the weight, irrespective of that
of the buttle, as the specific gravity.
This is called the 1000 grain bottle.
Or an instrument called a k^dromeler,
gravimeler, or areonuter is immersed
in the fluid, and sinks to a certain
mark, which indicates the specific
gravity or density (see Hifiirometer).
The grarity of gases is taken by first
exhausting a glass vessel of air by
the air pump, and then introducing
the particular gas, the weight of
which, irrespective of the glass, will
be the second proportional of the fol-
lowing series : As the weight of air
is to that of the gas, so is 1 to the
specific gravity of the gas ; that ia»
the weight of the gas divided by that

ORA

anx

of the ttir fires the epeeific gmrity.
Thi3 operation is, bowever, of great
delicacy, for the gases must be per-
fectly dry.

The fonowing annbere indiettte

the speeific gravities of several use-
ful bodies :

Acid, miin&tio . . . I'SOO

.nitric l*«7i

— — , •• , stnmfest . 1 583
— -— , •alpliuhc ... I 860
Aldthol. ftbinlate . . . 0*797
Ammouia, •olatioa . . 0*879

Batter 0*943

Cupal 1 -045

Diamond 3 321

^ther Oft32

Fat of beef 0rW3

CIbsb. crown .... S-Aao

, fliot 5-760

Granite 2-613

Oypsum S-288

Honey ]'450

Indigu 1-009

Ironstone 3*573

IwoTf 1-925

Lmrd 0 947

Limestone 2*386

Marble . . .

Metals :

Copper . . .

Gold . . .

Cast iron . .

Lend . . .

Mercury . .
Sheet plalina

Putnsitium . .

Silver . . .

Steel . . .

Tin ... .
Zinc ....

tMilk. . . .

Niti* . . .
()i), tnrpenline

^», almond .

— , hemp . .
— ', linseed

— u olives . .

rape

2-716

8-900

19-36I

7-248

11*392

13-598

S2-(i69

0-8«5

10-510

7-816

7-291

7191

1-032

1*900

0-870

0932

0-926

0-940

0*915

0-013

Oil, vrhale . .
Slate, dnw**a(
Spennaoeli . .
Suear . . .
Snlphar . . .
Wax . . . .

Woods:
A>ple . . .
Ash ... .
Beech . . ,
Box . . . ,
Campeacby .
Cedar . .
Cherry-tree
Ebony . .
Elm ... ,
Pine . . . .
Lignum vita
Poplar . .
Yew . . . ,

0*923
S-110
0*943
1-606
1-990
9-9H

0-793
0-845
0 852
1-328
0 913
0-596
0-7)5
l-33t
0*671
0-550
1-333
0-383
0*788

GRAY DYES. These are usual-
ly light blacks. Ash gray is given to
30 lbs. wool by 1 lb. gall nuts, \ lb.
crude tartar, and 2^ lbs. green vitriol.
Proceed as in dyeing blacks, in 80
lbs. water. Ptwri gray, prepare the
first bath with sumach, with half log-
wood. Fustic ^sez a yellowish or
brown gray.

GRAZfER. A person engaged in
rafsing and fattening cattle. For the
practice of this business in the East-
ern and sea-board States, great judg-
ment is now become necessary, from
the facilities for grazing enjoyed by
the Western States. The following,
chiefly from the " CompUu Grazier^^'
is worthy of attention :

" A man should know how beasts
ought to be formed ; should have a
quick eye for selecting those with a
frame tbat is likely to produce weight ;
and a band that should ieel the known
indfcation of the probability of soon
becoming fat.

"An acre produces from 200 to
800 pounds of flesh annually in good
grass. In the opinion of the most
intelligent graziers, in stocking enclo-
sures, the cattle should be divided in
the following manner: Supposing
four fields, each containing a nearly
equal quantity of land, one of them
should be kept entirely free from
stock until the grass is got up to its

full growth, when the prime or fat-
ting cattle should be put into it, that
they may get the best of the food ;
the second best should then follow ;
and after them either the working or
store stock, with lean sheep to eat
the pastures close down; thus ma-
king the whole of the stock fbed over
the four enclosures in this succession :

** No. 1. Clear of stock, and reserv-
ed for the fattening beasts.

'* No. S. For the fattening beasts,
until sent to No. 1.

** No. 3. For the second best cat-
tle, until forwarded successively to
Noe. 2 and 1.

** No. 4. For stores and sheep to
follow the other cattle ; then to be
shot up until the grass is again ready,
as at No. 1, for the fattening beasts.

** By this expedient the fattening
cattle will cull the choicest parts ot
the grass, and will advance rapidly to-
wards a state of maturity ; for they
should always have a full bite of
short and sweet grass, and with such
cattle the greatest care should be ta-
ken not to overstock the enclosures.
It is also advisable to divide the fat-
tening enclosure by fences, so as to
confine the beasts within one half of
it at a time, and to allow them the
other half at the other, so that they
may continually have fresh pasture.

" Shade and pure water are essea

351

ORE

GEE

tia1tynece86iir}r, and where there are
no trees, rubbing-posts should be set
up to prevent the caitle from making
that use of tlie gates and fences. In
marsh land, which is chiefly divided
by ditches, this, indeed, should never
be neglected, as it is materially cod-
ducive to their comfort."

GREASE. For carts, a mixture
of tar with refuse lard, butter, or fat
is commonly employed. Twenty
parts plumbago powder and eighty fat
form a good grease for this purpose.

GREASE IN HORSES. See Horse.

GREAVES. See Graves.

GREEN CROPS. Such crops,
roots, dec, as are fed off the land or
used in soiling, before becommg ripe
and fit for storage. When ploughed
into the ground, they form green fal-
lows.

GREEN DYE. This is produced,
in all ita shades, by using a bath of
blue, and then yellow.

GREEN FALLOW. Green crops
ploughed into the soil.

GREEN GRASS. Probably Poa
Angustifolia, An early and late pas-
ture grass, much esteemed in the
Eastern States. It bears water well,
but is occasionally subject to rust.
See Grasses.

GREEN-HOUSE. A conservato-
ry. This should be distinguished
from a hot-house, in which artificial
heat is used. It is covered with
glass either on one or both sides ; if
on one only, that should have a
southern aspect. Planta are stored
here in pots or frames, fruit-trees
trained against the wall, and the roof
partially covered with grape-vines.
They are used to protect tender
plants from winter, and advance the
ripening of fruits. An Orangery is a
place of deposite for orange and oth-
er trees set in pots, which produce
their shoots in summer, and are then
transferred to the open air. It does
not always have a glass roof, but is
frequently a pit dug in the soil on a
hill-side, and covered, the south side
of which only is glazed. In very se-
vere weather the glass of the green-
house may be covered with mats.

GREEN MANURES. Manures

353

ptoaghed into the land in a fresh or

green state, especially green fallow
crops. The principal plants used for
this purpose are clover of veriotxa
kinds, buckwheat, grasses, oats, rye»
tares, various beans, lupins, spurry,
borage, and turnips running to flower:
young Indian corn, mustard, and, in-
deed, nearly all herbage the seeds of
which are not too expensive, hare
been proposed.

But there are two points worthy
of consideration in the use of theee
plants : Ist. That some improve the
soil much more rapidly than others,
viz, clovers, 'grasses, spurry, and
buckwheat. 8d. That an excess of
green matter turned into the soil is
disadvantageous, bringing on a ten-
dency to mildew; it is best, there-
fore, to scatter lime over a green fal-
low, harrow it in, and sow the seed
within a few weeks, unless the soil
is very sti^; for the gaseous matter
given out by the decomposition of
the manures will he serviceable to
plants, and should not be lost. la
stifl* soils make the fallow in the fall.

By this means lands are very rap-
idly brought up \i they are merely
deficient in vegetable matter: the ex-
pense is also much less than by the
accumulation and spreading of other
manures. Sea-weeds, weeds cropped
from the soil, &c., are also caUe4
green manures when ploughed into
the soil in the fresh state. Some
writers use the term green manure
for long or un fermented dung.

GREEN SAND. Nm-Jeracy marl.
One of the upper, secondary depos->
ites of geologists, consisting, for the
most part, of a aandy formation, the
grains of which are, however, much
softer than those of common sand,
and consist of silicate of iron chiefly ;
they are of several colours, from
greenish gray to deepgreen and olive.
It is extensively developed in the
United States, being found in the val-
ley af the Connecticut, southeastern
portion of New-Jersey, Delaware,
and Virginia.

Some portions of this deposite con-
tain from 7 to 12 per cent, of potash
combiaed with the sUioate of iron.

This is particularly the case with
that in Monmouth and Burlington
counties, New-Jersey, and Newcastle
county, Delaware. Numerous pits
are, therefore, opened for the purpose
ofreaching this deposite, called Marl,
which has been found, in many instan-
ces, to produce remarlcable fertility
when applied at the rate of 200 to
800 bushels on stiff clayey lands. In
selecting specimens, we are to exam-
ine the amount of green sands in it,
the fertility depending upon tltem; for
the clay, common sand, and other im-
purities are of little importance. The
richest kinds are of a deep green in-
ternally, sometimes with an olive
tint, but the exterior becomes gray-
ish and covered with a slight efflores-
cence; it is also readily crushed.
The following analysis of a specimen
from Monmouth county will give the
particulars of its composition per
cent. :

Silica 500O

Xlfuniita 700

Prounid* of Itod .... tS'OO

Poush 11 00

Lime 1*00

Ma^etia . a trace

Water 900

100-00

The potash here is combined with
silica, but their union is readily de-
stroyed by the carbonic acid of the
soil, which rapidly forms carbonate
of potash.

This manure is peculiarly applica-
ble to grasst oats, wheat, corn, and
the Cerealia generally ; it will also be
serviceable to roots growing on a
stxffish soil. It may not, however,
pay the expenses of long transporta-
tion, a small quantity of ashes repla-
cing it in the compost heap.

GREIENSTONE. A species of
trap consisting of feldspar and horn-
blend. It is a fused and intruded rock.

GREEN VITRIOL. Sulphate of
protoxide of iron. It is styptic, emet-
ic and much used in dyeing and ink-
making.

GREYHOUND. A coursing d(»g,
remarkable for his swiAness and
syniraetry.

GREYWACKE. Grguv^acke.

GRIP. A small drain.

Ga2

OUA

GRIPES. Colic. See Horse and
Ox:

GRIT. A hard sandstone, usually
cttarse, used for mill- stones and pave-
ments.

GROATS, or GRITS. Oats pre-
pared by hulling.

GROIN. In architecture, the junc-
tion of two arches.

GROSSULARIA. The generic
name of the currant and gooseberry.

GROUND-BAIT. Balls made of
grain, graves, bran, lentils, mixed
with clay, and thrown in those parts
of a pond or river where angling is
carried on.

GROUND-CHERRY. Several va-
rieties of Phy salts f a weed.

GROUND-NUT. Apios tuherosa.
A leguminous plant, with a perennial
root, bearing small tubers of one half
an inch, which are esculent. It is
indigenous in the Middle States, and
has been recommended for culture.
For the common ground-pea, see Pin-
dars.

GROUNDSEL. The genus Sene-
cio : composite plants, annual, bitter,
and purgative.

GROUT. In building, mortar made
fluid with water. Plaster used for
finishing walls. Mortar used in fixing
foundations.

GRUBBER. A strong hoe for
tearing up the roots of shrubs and
trees.

GRUBS. "Worms, maggots. The
pupa of earth worms. They often
infest new lands, and are lo be rem-
edied by heavy liming, a dose of salt
of fifleen bushels to the acre, and
frequent stirring and exposure of the
soil to frost.

GRUIDiE. Birds which wade like
the crane (grus).

GRYLLIDiE. A family of locusts,
resembling the Gryllus.

GUAIACUM. A resin obtained
from the Gaaiacum ojieinalc, a West
Indian tree. It is little used in medi-
cine for rheumatism.

GUANO. The changed dung of
sea-fowl, of a brown colour and urin-
ous smell, collected on islands off the
coast of Peru and Southwestern Af-
rica. Its composition differs : thus»

GUANO.

by my analyais. made for the Ameri-
can Agricultural Association of New-
York, the Peruvian contains,

Urictcid 10-5

AiDinonia 1®'0

Plin«phoric acid 14*0

Lime and magnesia Ift'O

Salts or aoda and potath .... 6*0
Oxalic acid, with carbonie and ma-

riatic acids 13'0

Water 13 0

Sand SO

Volatito and oi^anie matton . . . fl'&

lOUOO

The African, from Ichaboe,

Ammtinia IS'5

Humic acid 4 0

Phosphates 350

Oialic. &c., acids SU-0

Salts of B4xla, dec 7 0

Water and volatile matter .... 87*5

Saud 30

lUO-UO

These examinations indicate fair
samples : the African seldom con-
tains uric acid, and is therefore infe-
rior, especially in the permanence of
its effects. Uric acid, in its decay,
produces carbonates of ammonia.
7^he African is, however, most solu-
ble, and acts rapidly. The speci-
mens are to be valued by the amount
of ammonia they yield in decay. Gua-
no sells at from $35 to $50 the ton,
and is now somewhat extensively
used.

The African being soluble to the
extent of 40 per cent., is better adapt-
ed for watering plants, and where
very rapid growth is wanted. The
Peruvian, on the other hand, acts for
a longer time, and is better calculated
for crops which continue to grow vig-
orously during many weeks. The
two Will prohtthiy produce very sim-
ilar effects for one crop ; but the Pe-
ruvian is amch more active on the
second crop.

Crops to which it may he applied. —
It is hardly necessary to slate that
the application may be made to ev-
ery crop, for experiments are already
multiplied with nearly every common
plant or tree : to enumerate a few is
sufficient. Wheat, corn, grass, the
cerealia, sugar-cane, tobiicco, coffee,
apple, pear, and other fruit trees, f](»w-
ers. cabbages, turnips, and oiher cru-
ciferous plants ; the experiments are

354

fewest oa leguminous idaats. Bat
the effect of guano will not be equal
on all ; for those plants requiring
most stable manure, such as tobacco^
turnips, and corn, are more benefited
than grass, oats, or such as require
less, the chief eflect of the manure
being due to the quantity of the am-
monia it contains. The reason gua-
no is serviceable to all plants ari-
ses from its containing every saline
and organic matter they require as
food.

Kinds of Soil to which it may b€
applied. — It is used beneficially oa
all soils ; for, as it contains eve^y
element necessary to plants, it is in-
dependent of the quality of the soil--»
one great point being attended to, that
the land he in go^ tilth ; for other-
wise the tender roots of the vegeta*
ble find an obstruction to free growth,
and are crippled. Poor, wiill-iilled
soils exhibit most increase by guano,
fur in them some essential to the
growth of plants is more likely to be
absent.

Amount to be applied. — On wheat
250 pounds per acre will be an aver-
age for a fair soil, 300 pounds per
acre for one that is poor, and 200 for
a good soil. Corn, potatoes, turnips,
cabbages, and garden vegetables will
require 300 pounds on fair lands ; but
the amount may be diminished by 50
pounds if two applications are made
instead of one. For grass, rye, and
oats 200 pounds will be enough.

Ttme and At ode of Application. —
Seeds may be prepared by soaking in
a solution of a quarter of a pound ot
guano to the gallon of water, and this
will answer for a first manuring, if
they are left sufficiently long to ex-
hibit signs of germination. Wheat and
other small grains should be steeped
in this solution about sixty hours,
corn about one hundred hours. Thus
steeped, the seeds of smut will also
be destroyed. Half the quantity to
be used when the plant has fairly
started, and is in second leaf. By
this timely addition, the effects of
many insects are avoided, and the
seedling at once takes on a robust
habit. The remainijig half ^ould be

GUD

GUM

applied to tbe small grain crops when
they are throwing out new stems, or
tiUering; to corn, as the tassel ap-
pears, or at the second hueing, and
so with other hoed crops. This ap-
plication should be made, therefore,
ai the latest period of worlcing, and
' as nearly hefure flowering as practi-
cable. The guano should be sowed
with a mixture of fine soil, gypsum,
or charcoal, to give it bulk, and di-
vide the particles. No lumps should
be thrown among the plants, for they
burn them ; and where an extensive
application is to be made, it is better
to screen the manure and pound the
lumps. In sowings reach the soil, if
possible, for it is unserviceable to
sprinkle it on the plants, and frequent-
ly destroys them. Select a season
when tbe land is wet or moist, or
when rain may be expected, for in
dry weather the guano does nut an-
swer well, or even does injury. But
if the crop suits, always prefer ma-
nuring the plant or hill ; do this while
hoeing ; less guano is thus used, and
more certain effects result. One ta-
blespoonful to the hill oi corn, tobac-
co, potatoes, dec, is an abnndance for
each application. IX a solution be
preferred, mix one pound in ten gal-
lons of water, and water sparingly
with this on the soil, and not vti the
plantsy at the times before mentioned,
taking care to stir up the insoluble
portion when applied. For this pur-
pose, the African variety will be most
suitable ; or, where rapid growth is
wanted, irrespective of seed, tbe clear
solution may be applied, the insolu-
ble matter (phosphates, dtc.), being
reserved for wheat and corn. Guano
may be composted with common soil,
or anything but lime and urdeached
«Am, lor these liberate the free am-
monia, and thus diminish the eflTects
of the manure.

Vtdue^ compared with other Ma-
nures.'—^ far as the experiments in
England and Scotland may be addu-
ced, one cwt. of guano is equal to
about live tons of farm-yard manure
on an average ; but it is much high-
er for turnips than for grass, dec.
GUDGEONS. " In machinery, the

pins inserted in the extremities of a
shaft, or the axle uf a wheel, on which
it turns, and which support the whole
weight. In order to diminish friction,
gudgeons are made as small as pos-
sible in diameter, leaving, however,
sufficient strength to support the
weight. They are frequently formed
of cast iron, on account of its cheap-
ness ; but wrought iron of the same
dimensions is considerably stronger,
and will support a greater load."

GUINEA CORN. Egyptian corn 1
Indian corn.

GUINEA FOWL. See Poultry.

GUINEA GRASS. JAMAICA
GRASS. Panicum polygamum. A
valuable perennial grass, thus denom-
inated, as it was first discovered on
the coast of Guinea. It was brought
to Jamaica, where it is now exten-
sively cultivated, and forms the means
by which so much cattle is raised
there. It grows from four to six feet
high. Cattle eat it, both in a fresh
and dry state, with great avidity.

'• In spring," says Mr. Lawrence,
of South Carolina, **I procured from
Jamaica three half pints of Guinea
grass seed, which I planted in the
drills of one fourth part of an acre ot
very indifferent land ; the seed sprung
up and soon covered the ground with
grass four feet high and upward. Be-
ing desirous of saving as much seed
as possible, I cut one bundle of grass
for the horses : they ate it all with
great avidity.

** In August I took one of the grass
roots and divided it into twenty-
eight parts, which were immediate-
ly replanted : every part took root,
and the whole arc now growing very
finely and seeding. I am of opinion
this grass will make the best pasture
we can wish for. From former ex-
perience, I have reason to believe the
Guinea grass is perennial. It is ea-
sily managed, requires but one good
hoeing, af?er which it will take care
of itself."

GUINEA PEPPER. Common red
pepper. Capsicum annuum.

GUINEA PIG, or CAVY. Cavia
eobaya. A small rodent animal of six
or seven inches in length, light colour,

36&

GUW

and herb'iTorotts ; a native of South ;
America. It is considered a delicacy
in Italy ; the skin is also Taluable. ,
The female brings forth from ten to
fourteen young at a litter, carries
young three weeks, and bears every ^
two months in warm weather. They
are vety cleanly, and cannot endure
cold.

GULA. The region of the throat
nearest the lower jaw.

GUM. A concrete juice, the prod-
uct of most vegetables. There are
many varieties, all reducible to two
kinds : soluble, or trve guma^ which
dissolve in water, forming mucilage,
and are insoluble in alcohol ; and in-
soluble, or tragacanth gums, which
sofleh and swell in water, but are not
soluble. It consists of C^ Hio Oio,
and is readily converted into grape
sugar by the action of dilute sulphu-
ric acid. It is an aliment similar to
sugar and starch, serving to sustain
animal heat, and probably to produce
fat. It so nearly resembles starch
that has been heated until slightly
brown, that the difference between
them in physical qualities is scarce-
ly apparent. The yolk of wool is
sometimes called gum. See YoUc.

Fruit-trees often exude gum : this is
considered a disease, and may arise
from the punctures of insects ; but,
according to some, is also an indica-
tion of a poor soil, requiring putres-
cent manures. Various names, as
Bassorinj Arabin, Cerasin, &c., are
given to specimens of gum from dif-
ferent trees.

GUM RESIN. A concrete juice,
obtained in various ways from plants,
partly soluble in water, and partly in
alcohol, as gamboge, aloes.

GUNNEY BAGS. Coarse sack-
cloth, made in the East Indies for
packing.

GUTTA SERENA. Blindness
without loss of transparency in the
eye.

GYMNOCARPI (from yv/<vof, na-
kedf and ffopn-oc, a fruit). The second
division of Persoon's Fungi, including
those that have their spurules in an
exposed dilated membrane or hyme-
nium, as Agariau, Boleius, Hdvella.

ad6

GYP

GYMNOSPERMIA, OYMNO-

SPERMS (from yvfipoi, and <nre/^t<a,a
,»€ed). Plants having naked seeds ; at
present this feature is said to be pe-
culiar to the Coniferce and Cycadta,
Linnaeus erroneously made it an order
of Didynamia. The seeds of gy mno-
sperms are, in truth, situated in car-
pels imperfectly closed, the aggregate
of which forms the cone.

GYNANDRIA (from ywij, a wom-
an, and avrip, a man). A Linnsean
class, in which the stamens and pistil
are consolidated into a column. It
consists principally of the Orekidacea,

GYNOPHORE (from yvi/17, and
^pu, / bear). The stalk on which
some ovaria are elevated* aa in the
passion flower.

GYPSUM. Native sulphate of
lime, found chiefly in the tertiary and
new red sandstone. It occurs crys-
talline, fibrous, and massive. Com-
mon plaster of Paris consists of lime,
33; sulphuric acid, 46; and water,
21 per cent. ; it is soluble in 4(K> parts
water. By heating to redness, the
water is partly driven oflT, but the sul-
phate is unchanged ; the heated or
boiled plaster is used as cement for
plastering and moulding ; it is objec-
tionable in agriculture, from setting
as a hard crust upon moist stems or
leaves. The ground plaster is used
extensively in husbandry, and is very
advantageous to clovers, beans, lu-
cem, and leguminous crops generally ;
on turnips and cabbages it is also ser-
viceable. The dose is from one to
five bushels, scattered broad-cast in
the morning or evening upon grtiwing
plants soon after cropping, &c. It
does not seem to answer on natural
meadows, cerealia, umbelliferous, or
chenopodaceous plants, or on wet
places, very poor lands, or near the
seacoast. It is most serviceable on
new and manured soils.

Gypsum powder is extensively
used in composts in stables, putres-
cent manures, and urine tanks, aa it
absorbs and fixes some portion of
the volatile ammonia, converting it
into the sulphate ; it is not, however,
so good for these purposes as greea
vitriol.

HAC

HAL

GypsQm nndonbtedly acts chiefly
by supplying plants wHb sulphur, as
was suggested by Davy. M. Boussin-
gault, however, seems to believe that
It does no more good than the same
amount of mild lime. It is not of
itself a specific manure for all soils,
bat is serviceable from the general
poverty of lands in sulphur. Ashes
of peat and other plants contain from
three to five per cent, of sulphate of
lime.

GYRATE. Twisted round in cir-
cles. Gyrate cuthation.

GYRI (from yvpoct a circle). The
annular series of scales on the tails
of some quadrupeds.

GYROGONITES. Fossfl seed-
vessels of Ckaracett.

HABITAT. In natural history,
the natural abode of animals, plants,
&c.

HACK. The roadster, or horse
of all work.

HACKBERRY, HAGBERRY.
Celti* crassifolia. A tree chiefly
abundant in the central Western
States, also called hoop-ash. In Del-
aware and the Middle States it is not
a large tree, but in Ohio sometimes
attains eighty feet. The wood is
white, but soft, light, and decays rap-
idly : it is used for fences in Ohio
and Kentucky. The Indians use it
for baskets. It is of very rapid
growth.

HACKLE. A board set with iron
spikes for polling to pieces hemp or
flax. An artificial fly used by an-
glers.

HACKMATACK. The American
larch. There are two species {Larix
fcnduia and £*. microcarpa). They are
principally found in Canada and New-
foundland, but exist scattered in the
Northern and Eastern States. They
are so nearly alike as to be consider-
ed varieties, attain 100 feet height by
three diameter, are straight, and pro*
duce strong and durable timber su-
perior to the European larch or any
American pine. They are esteemed
admirable timber in Canada, and used
in Maine for ship knees. They are

very simQar in habits and appearaiuw
to the European larch.

HEMATITE. Iron ore.

H^MATOSIN (from dt^, hlooJ).
The red colouring matter of blood.

H-fiMATOXYLIN (from difia,
and fvAav, %oood). The red dye ex-
tracted from logwood.

HiEMORRHAGE (from diita, and
ItayTi, rent), A flow of blood, either
from an accident or from a full state
of body. In the case of wounds, if
severe, it may proceed from a torn
artery that should be tied with a lig-
ature. Constitutional haemorrhages
require blood-letting and a low diet.

HJ2M0RRH0IDS. Piles. As-
tringent ointments are useful in com-
mon cases.

HAIL. Atmospheric water con-
gealed into lumps of some size, often
measuring an inch across. It is al-
together different from snow, in oc-
curring during the spring and sum-
mer. Hail is produced only during
violent winds, which carry a great
deal of moisture into the upper re-
gions of the air, where it becomes
solidified by extreme cold. In Eu-
rope losses from hail can be met by
insurance in companies founded in
the same way as those against fire.

H A INHAULT SCYTHE. See
Scythe.

HAIR. Slender tubes of animal
matter analogous to horn. It is an
admirable non-conductor of heat.

Refuse hair ranks as a manure
with skin or glue, producing the same
results by decay : toooUen rags are the
most familiar kind used in this way.

HAIRS. In botany, transparent
tubes of cellulose inserted into the
epidermis ; they are totally dissimi-
lar from animal hairs, in containing
no nitrogen. Cotton is an instance
of hairs attached to seeds.

H.\IR GRASS. The genus Aria,

HALCYONID^. A family of fis-
sirostral birds, of which the kingfish-
er is the type.

HALESIA. The snow-drop tree
(//. tetraptera) ; ornamental trees of
South Carolina, introduced into the
shrubberies of the Middle States.

HALHYDRATES. Salts in which

967

HAR

the comhined water of tbe »cid be-
comes a cumponent or the salt.

HALOGEN (ftum uAf. a ,aU).
Budies which unite liireoily wiih met-
als, u'ithoul anj previoua oxidation.
Bud form sails, a> chlorine, aulpbur,
lliiurine: their compounda are term-
ed Haloid aalla.

HALTICA. A genu of emaL
ealeopieroua insects, remarkable for
their readiness in leaping. The tur-
nip dea is a familiar species.

HAM. Tbe Chick pari of tbe leg.
See Hog.

HAMES. The wooden or iron col-
lar pieces til which tlie traces are at-
taclicd.

HAMMER DEAM. A horitontal
timber from or near, but ahove the
feot of a mfler, acting as a tie.

HAMSTER. MuierkiKi*. A kind
of ral found in Ibe north o( Kurope,
which makes extensive stores uf food.

HAND. A measure of four inch-
es, used in estimating tbe height of
horses. The fore leg of a hone or
other animal.

HARD WATER. Waiercontain-
ing salts of lime, especially gypsum.
It is Bollened by adding a little soda-

HARlCOrS, See Btant

HARE. Thegenus LepiLi, herbiv-
orous rodents, oRen a great annoj-
aneo to fanners. They are readily
taken in traps.

MARL. The retbse skin of flax
and hemp.

HARNESS The gearing of hor-
ses. It should fit well, or galls are
pnidiiccd. Tbe bamcsstnguf steers
has been recDincaendcd to obtain more
effeotiye lahnur.

HARRIERS A breed of dogs used
fur huntmg hares.

HARPALUS. A genus of prcda-

HARROW. The common form
of this implement is a triangle or
rbombuid.setwiih straight iron spikes
four or more inches long ; these tesr
the surface recently ploughed, pul-
Terizing the lumps, and covering seed
slightly. The frame is of ash or oak,
letimes of Iron. Other har-
Jth curTed teeth, tor tearing

HAR

oBt and carrying along weeds, ara

-' - ised, called extirpators, or scar-
See Ctdthator. Tbeexpantl-

„ arrow, in which the distance of
the bolls of the frame can be set ao
cording to circumstances, is a conve-
nient instrument.

The following, from Mr. Geddes. is
tboughtanexcellentinstniment. The

sketch is on a scale of one fourth of
inch to the foot :
Dctcriftion. — Timber, three inch-

The side pieces should enter (he

tre pieces so that the acute angle

. contain thirty-five degrees ; or

bevel may be found by laying a

carpenter's square on a board, and

measuring on one aide of the corner

three inches, and on the other two

inches and one twelllh of an inch ; a

line drawn through these points will

make a triangle, having the smaller

angle, that is, the angle at the point

where the three inches reached — the

angle

uired.

The tenons shoiild enter the cen-
tre pieces only one inch, the mortice
and tenon being cut equate with the
centre pieces, as shown in the en-
graving. If Uiis joinl is well made,
the bolt passing through both sticks
will keep the timber in place perfect-
ly, the side pieces have each three
bolls. X, X, X, passing through the
middle, to prevent their splitting. The
back hinge is made of Swedes iron,
boiled, at A, B, C, D, E, F. on the tim-
ber with half inch boit«. These bolts

HAR

riioold bd well made, and have lar^e
heads on the lower end, as if anything
breaks, it probably will he these bolts

** The forward hinge is made with
Swede's iron, and bolted on the top
of the timber, with three bolts in each
side of the hinge.

»* The hook plays freely in an eye
on the end of a rod, made of round
iron, five eighths of an inch in diame-
ter, which runs through both hinges,
having a washer, nut, and spring key
behind the back hinge. The eyes in
the hinges should be the thickness of
the iron above the timber, conse-
quently the rod running through the
eyes will be that much above the
timber.

" The hinges should be four and a
half feet apart from centre to centre.

" The centre pieces should be one
inch apart.

'* The side pieces should be twelve
or thirteen inches apart in the clear,
measuring square across.

" The four teeth in the centre pie-
ces require to be made straight on
one side, instead of having the point
in the centre, as their places are near
the sides of the timber.

" The teeth should be seven eighth.*;
of an inch square, and tliirty to the
harrow."

The common boah harrow, con-
sisting of a bundle of buslies fastened
to an irun chain, or woven into an
old gate or wooden frame, is much
used for rubbing seeds into the soil.
When the shrubs are thorny, it an-
swers to scarify natural meadows af-
ter manuie is applied. The Fig. on p.
120 represents a simple bush barrow.

HARTSHORN SPIRIT. Solution
of ammonia. See Nitrogen

HARVEST. " In those southern
climates where the heat and want ol
mobture are not too great for the
growth of corn, the only care of the
farmer is to procure hands sufficient
to reap it. The heat of the sun and
air soon dry the straw and harden the
grain. A spot is levelled in the field,
and the eorn is thrashed out imme-
diately, either by the tread of cattle
driven over it, or by the flails of nu-
meroaa thrashers. The corn is win-

nowed and stored in granaries, and
the straw is reserved till winter, when
it forms the chief fodder of horses
and cattle. In these regions the har-
vest is a continued feast ; no unge-
nial weather disappoints the hopes of
the husbandman ; but in northern
climates, where the harvest is later,
and cold rains and storms are fre-
quent in autumn, the ingenuity is oft-
en taxed to save the corn fnun being
entirely spoiled, after it has been sev-
ered from the ground ; roomy barns
are erected to secure it in the straw
till it can be thrashed.

'* To lessen the casualties of har-
vest, the experienced husbandman
endeavours to arrange the time of
sowing each kind of grain so as to
ensure its coming to maturity in a
regular succession. Thus he has
more time to attend to the precau-
tions of which experience has taught
him the utility ; and if the duration
of harvest is )on;;er, there is less dan-
ger of all his crops being spoUed by
a wet season.

*' ft was long the custom through
the whole of the north of Europe to
store all the produce of the farm into
bams, especially the corn ; and it was
thought that as soon as the sheaves
were collected under a roof all dan-
ger was past. The increase of the
produce raised on most lands by an
impnived system of agriculture gave
rise to the practice of stacking corn
in the open air, and securing it by a
covering of thatch. It was soon
found that the grain thus stored in
the straw was better preserved than
that which was in the barn ; and the
invention of stone or cast-iron pillars
as supports for the frames on which
tfie gram was stacked, not only se-
cured it from the depredations of ver-
min, but kept it in a much drier state
than when the stacks were made on
the ground. This was a great im-
provement; and now, in the best-
managed farms, the only bams re^
quired are those in which the corn is
thrashed ; and if there is sufiicient
room to hold the contents of one
stack of the usual dimensions, it i«
all that is absolutely required.

HAR

HAW

** It inftj be ftdmitted as a general I poittting downward, wiU not long re-
rule in reaping, to cut the straw as ' tain the wet.

near to tht* gruund as po^ible : this
is best d4»ne by an instrument called
a erudfe scyiht., which mows the straw,
and collects it so as to be readily
gathered into sheaves.

" The Hainault scythe has a very
short handle, and is used with one
hand, while the other collects the
straw into a sheaf by means of a large
hook at the end uf a wooden rod. It
is a most useful instrument, and great-
ly prel'erable to the fagging- hook ; it
cuts more straw at each stroke, and
is less fatiguing to the reaper, be-
cause his position is nearly upright
when he uses it. In many places it
is not usual to tie up any corn into
sheaves* exceptrye, wheat, and beans.
Barley and oats are usually mown,
raked into heaps, and carried into the
stack or barn when dry, like hay ; but
this is a slovenly practice, which
should not be recommended. With
good tillage and proper manuring the
straw of harley and oats will be strong,
and of sufficient length to require be-
ing tied up into sheaves ; and much
less of the grain is shaken out and
lost in this way than by the usual
method.

**In rainy seasona it frequently

happens that the sheaves remain a

long time in the field before they are

sufficiently dry to be carried and

stacked. If the ears are not secured

from the wet, they become soaked,

and the grain sprouts in the oar.

This is a great loss ; for sprouted

grain is very inferior, and can on^

be sold at a low price. A little atten*

tion will often prevent the bad effect

of rains. In some places six or eight

sheaves are set up in a circle, with

the butt-ends diverging, so as to admit

the air to circulate among them; a

sheaf is opened by spreading out the

ears, and is placed, inverted, over the

ears which lean against each other,

forming a truncated cone. Thus the

butt-end of the top sheaf is the only

part in which the rain can lodge ;

and the first sunshine will soon dry

this : the rain runs off the sides of

the inverted sheaf, and the ears,

" W hen the stark is building, the
butts or the sheaves are placed out-
ward, and project gradually over the
sides of the frame, and over one an-
other, so as to build the stack in the
form of a bowl, with a cone or pyra-
mid over it, according as the frame
is round or square ; this is carefully
thatched with straw, and the outer
surface is cut smooth by means oi
shears. This not only saves all the
ears which chance to lie outward,
and which would have become the
prey of birds, but it also prevents the
rain from beating into the stack and
mjuring the corn. It may then be
considered as safe.

•' Where there are no raised frames,
and the stack is built on the ground,
or on a bottom made of fa^^ots to
keep it dry, a belt of plastering or
stucco is sometimes laid, a foot wide,
round the stack, about 18 inches frotix
the ground, after the surface has been
cut quite smooth and even. This
contrivance is intended to prevent
the rats from lodging in the stack,
and it is yery efl'cctive. A frame
made entirely of iron, and supported
upon iron columns, ha& lately been
invented. It may readily be taken to
pieces and put together again when
it is wanted. The advantage of it
is, that it is cheaper and more easily
moved than any other, and it is very
convenient for a temporary purpose.'*
— ( W. L. Rham.)

HASTATE. A descriptive term in
botany : shaped like the old h albert.
HATCHEL. A carding-comb or
hackle.
H AUGH. Meadow or pasture land.
HAL'STELLATES. Insects fur-
nished with a proboscis for suction.
HAWK. The genus Ftf/co. They
prey upon birds. Martens and crows
are remarkable enemies to the hawk
species.

HAULM. The stalks of pease and
beans, chiefly.

HAWTHORN. McsptlM oxyacan^
tka This thorny shrub or small tree
is also called whitethorn, May, and
quickset. It is abundantly used in

HAY

Kncrland as a hedge plant ; with prop-
er trimming it forms a dense growth,
and its ihurns protect the plant from
destruction by cattle. The seeds of
the previous year are kept in wet
sand during the winter, and sown in
spring in drills in a light soil to pro-
care plants. The seedlings may be
set out in two years, and by a little
care will form a hedge in three to
five more. Many native thorns would
answer equally well.

HAY. Grass or clovers cut and
cured for cattle. Well-cured meadow
hay, seasoned with one peck of salt
to the load, is the standard of fodder
for cattle and horses ; about 30 lbs.
daily is allowed as suitable food for
a horse or ox in work. Boussin-
gault found that the average amount
of flesh making food in good meadow
hay was 7 per cent., but that after-
math sometimes contained as much
as 12, and hay from wet places as
little as 6 per cent. Ther^ is a prej-
udice against after-math, probably ari-
sing from its being cured in an infe-
rior manner to grass of the first crop.
Mow-burned hay is peculiarly inju-
rious to horses.

It ia the result of the experience
of many French fanners that grass
and clover are much more nutritious
when giveu in the green state than
when dry, if the same amount of food
be contained in both parcels, or omit-
ting the water. The conversion of
theee and other herbs into hay is at-
tended with a fermentation which
reduces the amount ofJUsk rulttance
(hey contain.

Horses require as much water as
hay when fed on it only ; but the prac-
tice is beginning to be extended of
steeping the bay in water for an hour
before feeding, by which animals are
induced to feed much cleaner. Hay
tea is made by introducing the hay
into hot or boiling water, but this
does not seem to be better than mere-
ly saturating it with fluid by steeping,
and giving tlio water, as weU as the
hay, to the animals.

Large quantities of hay are shipped
from the Northern and Northwestern
States for the South ; it is pressed by

HAY

screws into trusses, and bound with
cords and slips of wood.

HAY-MAKING. The first point
fe the proper season to cut the grass
or clover ; this would seem, in the
case of some grasses, to be a doubt*
ful question, as the quantity is very
much increased when the crop is in
seed ; but usually the rule is to cut
when in full flower ; by this means
more and better hay is obtained, and
the soil is less exhausted.

There are two ways of making hay :
1st. By laying the swath to dry thor*
oughly, turning it during the day, or
even tedding or spreading it abroad
thinly. This is, towards evening,
collected in small cocks ; these are
spread out the next day into wind-
rows and turned, again put up into
larger cocks towards night, and ex-
posed tlie third day before bemg ta-
ken to the mow or stack. By this
means the grass is thoroughly dried,
but the plan is very tedious and un-
successful where succulent plants
like clover are to he made into bay.

The second and approved plan is to
allow the swath to be turned and
withered, piling the grass, dec, in
small cocks of 200 lbs. by midday, if
cut before breakfast; in this situa-
tion a sweating process or fermenta-
tion occurs, attended by heat and an
exudation of moisture, which tends
to cure the hay rapidly. The next
morning, the cocks should be exam-
ined, and if the heat is abated the
grass may be tedded for a short time,
and carried to the stack or barn by
noon. It is here to be stacked with
from one to three pecks of salt to the
ton, will heat again slightly, but, if not
too green, cures beautifully, affording
very fine hay. Some farmers prefer
putting it in stack with strata of good
straw, especially in the case of clo-
ver; heat is thus avoided and the
straw enriched as food ; it also saves
some of the salt.

By this process, broad-cast corn
and other green, succulent stems can
be cured, if sufficient time be given
them to sweat.

Hay is often put up into tempora-
ry stacks, and removed after a few

sei

HAY

ivft, or at a convenient season, into |
larger mauea : in England the stack
often conlaios forty or more tons ; it
ia carefully thatched, and portions

cut out by a ;-"ife for use. Tlie cu-
bic yard of Blacked hay weighs 160
to IBO lbs., and, wlien old. SOO lbs.

After-math is usually depastured,
the manure dropped answering to ad-
*ance the next crop if properly bcbi-
lered. In some parts of Krani^e and
Germany the green grass is thrown
into pita with one bushel of salt to
the load, and allowed to ferment ; it
is afterward closed in with boards,
and earth placed upon them ; thua a
kind of imiT kraut hay is rorEoed,
which, it is said, cattle prefer.

HAY -MAKING MAUHINES, An
inslrament to scatter, or led, is much
oaed in Europe : it consists ofa frame
of many spokes supported on an axle
with two wheels ; the frames carry
curved teeth like rakes, end revolrs
with the wheels ; the rakes carry for-
ward the ha; aud scatter it thorough-
ly. It is drawn by a horse.

Tkt HoTit Kakt is a large rake
made of wood, and six to ten feet
king, before which a horse is hitched i
it is furnished with a couple of han-
dles behind to enable a man to lift it
op when necessary.

Revolving Hay Kaktt are made On
various plans, or which the foltowins
■ppeara the

This rake coosisia of two heads. A,

and V

heads being connected together by
connecting rods. C. C, and end bar^
D. D. The end bars also form a
groove in which the slide pin (K, in
the end view) mnves from one head
to the other every time the rake re-
volves. The horse is attached to the
rske by hooking the trace chains, G,
M, into staples driven into the under
side of the cross bar. F, F. The
rake ia held by the teeth, which serve
for handles when they arc up, and
for teeth when un tlie ground.

HAY PRESS, The following is

called Lampman's press.

It consists of four upright poatl
strongly framed .together, within
which is a cfiamber of stoat plank
of the size of the intended bundle of
hay. The press Is firmly fixed bft-
Iween the lofts of a barn, the hay be-

HED

in; thrown in abore, and the horse
power applied to the sweep (8) and
screw (6) below. The sides of the
chamber are opened to remove the
pressed hay by doors hung upon roll-
ers (18), and the upward pressure of
the screw is resisted by a strong cap
(4), which is pushed backward or for-
ward at pleasure.

H\Y KNIFE. It consists of a
stout blade furnished with a handle
at right angles, or, in another form,
of a blade somewhat like a spade, the
handle being above, and the cut made
by pressing downward.

HAY STACK, or RICK. See
Stack.

HAY TEA. The infusion made
by pouring boiling water over hay ; it
is said to replenish the udders of
cows, cause horses to stale freely,
and to be very nutritious.

HAZEL. See FUbert.

HEADING TREES. The opera-
tion of cutting down the stem or
main shoot, to diminish the height
and cause the tree to throw out hori-
zontal or bearing limbs.

HEAD LANDS. The places
where the plough turns in ploughing.

HEART. The central hoUow
muscle which receives the blood and
drives it over the system.

HEART WOOD. The central,
old, and coloured wood of trees : it is
the most durable. The duramen.

HEAT. See Caforic.

HEATH. Waste lands covered
with heath plants, species of Erica.

HEAVY SPAR. Sulphate of ba-
rytes ; it has a specific gravity of 4*1
to 4-6, and is used to adulterate
white-lead.

HECKLE. An instmment for sep-
arating the fibres of flax. See Flax.

HECTIC FEVER. A fever oc-
curring in debilitated persons.

HE DG E. A row of small trees or
shrubs, properly pruned, and serving
as a fence between fields. The haw-
thorn, Virgiaia thorn, holly, buck-
thorn, Osage orange, red cedar, ar-
bour vitas, ibrm good hedges, espe-
cially the first four ; the honey locust,
privet, pyrus japonica, elder, and ottk-
er plants are also occasionaUy used.

HED

The young plants, at two to three
years old, are to be removed from the
nursery to the hedgerow, either in the
fall or early spring, the tops being
pruned away. The line of hedge
should be first well ploughed and pre-
pared ; it will be of service to enrich
it with well-rotted peat, mould, or
manure ; it may be two feet wide,
and if the soil is not very well drained,
a ditch, one foot deep, may be dug on
each side, and the earth cast up on the
middle. The plants are to be weed-
ed, and pruned in the fall to one third
their height, and aAerward managed
by foreshortening until of sufficient
height and bushy ; they may be placed
in quincunx order, and somewhat in
clined across the ground of the hedge.
While young, the plants are to be
protected from cattle by fencing. Old
hedges which have become too tall,
or show little verdure, may be re-es-
tablished by cutting a part of the
main stems to the soil, and allowing
the stools to throw up new shoots.
In this kind of trimming, the stems
are to be cut upward with the bill,
and not downward, for, in the latter
case, the stem is often split ; water
lodges and rots it, in some measure.

Worn-out hedges do not succeed
if replanted with the same trees ; a
new line must be chosen or new trees
used. In repairing gaps, it is often
necessary in an old hedge to plant
dissimilar shrubs, or to cut out the
soil with a spade and introduce some
that is new.

There is a method of repairing
hedges which is called plashing. It
consists in cutting half through some
of the stems near the ground, and
then bending the upper parts down in
a horizontal or oblique position, keep-
ing them so by means of hooked sticks
driven into the bank. Thus a live
hedge is made, which fills up the gaps
in the same manner as a dead hedge
would have done« and the bent stems
soon throw out shoots. If the stems
are young, and not above the thick-
ness of a finger, an excellent hedge
may be thus formed, which, when
clipped, will be close and perfectly
impervious ; but the work is gen<

808

HEX

erally done in a very injodickms man-
ner. When a hedge is plashed which
has been long neglected, the thick
stems which are hacked through,
leaving only a small portion of the
under bark uncut, have an unsightly
appearance, and seldom throw out
shoots near the bottom, where they
are most wanted. To plash a young
hedge, hy merely bending the twigs,
is an excellent practice ; but when
the stems are thick and old, the only
remedy is to cut them down, or make
an entirely new bank well planted
with quick.

Hedges are highly ornamental and
durable, lasting, with care, for fifty
or more years ; they require clipping
in spring, and, when well established,
are a perfect protection ; they are
particularly worthy of attention to
the prairie farmers. Fruit-trees, es-
pecially cherries, grapes, and plums,
may be made use of as mere parti-
tions between fields, when trained on
espaliers. Hedges are also various-
ly curved and bent over, or breasted
for ornamental purposes.

Instruments vsed in hedging. — A
small hoe is necessary for weeding,
a hooked knife to trim short branch-
es ; sometimes large shears are used,
and a bill or small axe to cut the
larger branches.

HEDGEHOG. The name of a
genus of useful insectivorous mam-
mals {Erinaceu8)y of service to the
farmer by destroying worms, slags,
and insects. They hibernate during
cold weather in holes dug in the
earth.

HELIOTROPE. A pretty flower.
A silicious mineral of a green colour
with red spots ; bloodstone.

HELIX (from tXi^, a whorl). A
genus of shell animals, including the
garden snails ; they are injurious to
herbage, and may be kept off by
sprinkling with lime, or destroyed by
catching with the hand.

HELLEBORE. A genus of plants
remarkable for their purgative prop-
erties. Helleborua fatidus is a native
of the United States ; they are very
dangerous and uncertain drugs.

HELMINTHOLOGY (fromi^^iv^,
864

a vform, and Xoyot, a iifemm^y Hae
history of worms of various kinds.

HELOPIDiE. Afamilyofhetero-
meran, coleopterous insects. Some
of the species infest the bark and
roots of trees.

HELVE. A handle.

HEMATIN. Synonyme ofH^tma-
toxylin.

HEMATITE. Synonyme of ffo-
matite.

HEMATOSIN. Synonyme oiH^t-
matosin.

HEMELYTRA (from fftuov^y half,
and Oivrpovt a sheath). The wings
of hemipterous insects : the upper
wing-cases, half of which only is co-
riaceous, the rest being delicate.

HEMEROBIANS (from ifjupa^ a
daify and /9<oc, life). Short-lived in-
sects of the neuropterous class, re-
sembling the May fly ; they lay their
eggs on plants, and the larvs devour
plant-lice, and thus subserve the pur-
poses of the orchardist.

HEMIGAMOUS. A descriptiTe
term in essays on grasses, meaning
that one of two florets in a spikelet
is neuter.

HEMIPTERA (from ^tovu and
7rr€pov, a teing). Insects having four
wings, the upper pair of which is
only half coriaceous, or which are
half homy and half membranous ;
they are haustellate. The larvae have
six feet, and resemble the imago;
after a few moultings they increase
in sixe and acquire wings.

HEMLOCK. Conium maculatunt.
An umbelliferous plant, with peren-
nial roots, flowering in July ; branch*
es much spread and dotted ; leaves
very compound. It is narcotic, and
often injures cattle.

HEMLOCK-TREE. Ahies Cana^
densis. It grows abundantly in the
northern portions of the United States
and the British Provinces. It is a
good timber-tree» and often attains
very great dimensions.

HEMP {CannMs saUva, Fig). A
dioeceoue annual of the ftmily Urti'
cacea, cultivated for the large amount
of fibre it produces in the year ; the
seeds are also serviceable as fatten^
ing food, when given in small quanti*

t7. and yield, by expreMion, from S6
toaaperoent.oil. The leaTea of the
plant sre poitoDouB, and a sleep made
whh them is of great lue in the gar-
den to anno; insects.

Caltnalieii. — Hemp requires tricb,
deep soil, a bound log in vegetable mat-
ter; igrass lfl7 is admirable; it is to
bo well ploughed and made fine ; the
seed, to the amount of It to 2 bush-
els, is oonunonly sown broad-cast in
April and May, when the Trosts haTe
disappeared. The aeed is either har-
rowed 01 ploughed in shallow. The
bemp is ready for cutting from the
middle of August, as soon as the
leaves of the male plants tarn yellow
and drop oS: It is cut with a harp
book or short scythe. Half an acre
can be cut and an acre scythed in the
day by a good band wben it is not
overgrown. Tbe cut stolice are even-
iy laid on the ground, and require a
week of good weather to dry : a show-
er is no disadvantage. Some persona
pull the hemp, but this is slower work,
sod produces tees perfect lint, while

The dried plants
into sheavee. and put up into a ricit
to preserve them from the effects of
moisture during hot weather. Tbe
Toof must bv closely made of Jong
bemp, the leaves of which are beaten
(Iff Some beat all the leaves off,
HdS

but this is unnecessary labottr, for if

the plants are well dried, liiey will
be hnocked off in handling. The best
time to spread the hemp for dta rot-
ling is December, but where the crop
is large, a commencement is made in
tbe middle of October. The hemp
stems may be kept without injury in
Blacks for one or two years. Judge
Beatty urges that the proper rotting
ground is the hemp field, fur the la-
bour of hauling is much diminished;
the plants manure the land, and it is
kept free from the Iresding of cattle.
The mnttr-niud is lighter and better
than that of autumn ; the hemp it
sufficiently rotted when the stems
lose their rigid appearance, the bun-
dles of fibres begin to be disengaged
from the cellular tissue, and Ibe lint
begins to separate from the stalk.
When ready to ha taken up, it shoukl
be put in upright shocks of 1 50 poD nds ;
as soon as it is dried the tops may be
bound with a hemp band sufficiently
tight to keep out rain. It is now to
be broken, frosty weather being best ;
this should be completed before the
warm weather of spring: 100 ponnda
per day is fair work with the com.
mon brake. Good lands yield from
750 to 1000 pounds of liot the acre ;
and if it be rotted on them, and no
seed taken, seven or ten crops may
be taken after one another. Fur the
productioti of seed, the hemp is sown
in drills or hills ; if the laiier, they
are placed four feet apart ; a dozen
seeds are dropped in each hill, and
covered an incii. The soil must ba
veiy rich, and well prepared ; the
ground is to be kept free of weeds at
first by the plough, and subsequently
by hoeing ; the plants are next to be
thinned to four or five when six incb-
ee high, and again to three in a hill.
As soon as the planls are in tiill blos-
som and the farina spread, the midea
or flowering plants are to be cut front
each bill. The seed wilt be ripe in
September, whea the plants are to be
cut early in the morning, and with-
out much jarring, or the seed will be
scattered. The plants are taken from
the ground when dry snd set up in
atMK^, tiie batt* towards tbe earth.

HEMP.

It should not be allowed to become
too wet, but a little moisture assists
the closing of the seed. In a week
or ten days it may be thrashed, by
beating the upper parts of the plant
upon a board; the seeds separate
readily, and may be thrashed on the
field, for carriage leads to much loss.
The stems are of no use for lint, but
may be used for charcoal, or burned
to ashes as manure. Hemp seed
very readily spoils, unless well dried
before stored ; it is also much sought
after by rats. It is seldom so well
kept as to be worth sowing after the
first season. The crop of seed is
from 20 to 40 bushels, which sells at
upward of 81 the bushel. The lint
is worth from $90 to $180 the ton.

Water-rotting hemp is not much
practised, from prejudice and from
the little demand for it near the coun-
try markets, but the offer of the gov-
ernment to pay $2d0 the ton has in-
duced many to attempt it. The best
place is in running streams, a suffi-
cient space or pit being set off for
the operation ; it may be planked or
bricked, or a frame like that for flax
may be used. The dry bundles of
hemp are used. The following is
Professor Lowers account of water-
rotting :

*»The bunches are generally placed
in the pool in rows, crossing one an-
other, and pressed down by some
heavy substance laid upon them, so as
to be kept from rising to the surface,
care being, at the same time, taken
that they are not so loaded as to be
forced down to the bottom. If the
weather be warm, four or five days
will frequently be sufficient *, if not,
two or three more ; but the period is
denoted by the stem being so soften-
ed that the outside coat shall come
easily off. Care must be taken, as
in the case of flax, that the putrefac-
tive process does not proceed so far
as to injure the cortical fibres. The
quantity put into one pool may be the
produce of an acre. The steep liquor
is poisonous ; hot-water rotting, with
the use of soap, as in the preparation
of flax, is partially used in £urope,
and is a greai saving in time,

8$6

" When the hemp is thus steeped,
it is, like flax, taken out of the pool
and carried away to a plot of sward,
on which the plants are spread singly
and regularly.

*'The hemp thus spread out lies
three, four, or more weeks upon the
surface, and is turned over not Jess
than twice a week. It is thus sub-
jected to the farther influence of the
rains and dews, and the decomposi-
tion of the ligneous part of the stem
is promoted. By this process, the
stem becomes hard and brittle.

" When the hemp is seen to be in
a state for removal, it is taken from
the ground, bound into bunches, and
carried home to the barn, where it
undergoes the process of bruising by
the machine called a brake, as in the
case of flax.

** When thus prepared, it is bound
up in bunches, generally weighing a
stone each, and carried to market.
The hemp which breaks off in the op-
eration is technically termed shorts,
and is half the value of the long
hemp."

It should be remarked that, with
proper care in bleaching, rotting, and
raising hemp, a fibre may be obtained
capable of being wrought into excel-
lent linens. The preparation of the
stems by steam is said to give the
fibre great delicacy and whiteness;
the waste is also said to make good
paper. Hemp is nearly free from
diseases.

The ivstrumenls used to prepare
the staple are similar to those for
flax, but larger ; the brake {Ftg.) is

considerably larger, being six or mmo
feet long ; it is made of white oak.
The hemp is sold after breaking, the
sutching, hackling, dec., being donB
by the manufacturer.

HEN

HER

HEMP SEED. It forms an ad-
mirable food for birds and poultry in
small quantity, and may also be used
in fattening animals, when sufficient-
ly cheap. The oil is used for soap-
making and paintingf in Tarnishes
and printers* ink. It is expressed in
the ordinary way ; the refuse or cake
is as good as oil cake for cattle or
manure. A bushel of seed yields 6
to 8 lbs. of oil, and 23 of cake. Very
rich seeds afford 25 per cent. oil.

HEMP, SUBSTITUTES FOR.
Numerous plants yield a strong and
abundant iibre besides hemp, and have
been recommended for cultivation in
its place. The principal of these are
the Chinese nettle (Urtica nivea);
hemp, or Siberian nettle (IT. cannabi-
fia); golden rod, several varieties of
broom plants, sunflowers, okra, aloes,
and especially the Yucca JUamentosa,
which grows abundantly on poor
soils in the Carolinas and South.
The Sisal hemp is from a Mexican
agave ; the .4. AmericaMa also furnish-
es much fibre when the leaves are
prepared ; but, with the exception of
some of the nettle plants, none ap-
proach the hemp in the amount of
lint they produce.

The genus Apocymtm yields some
good hemp plants, of which A. can-
nabvmim^ or Indian hemp, is best
known. It has a perennial root, and
throws up shoots two to four feet tall
annually.

HE.MP, CHEMICAL COMPOSI-
TION OF ITS ASHES. The slem,
dried at 212'' Fahrenheit, yields 4-54
per cent, ash, the leaves 22 per cent.
Composition :

Th* phat (Kane). 8«ed« (LenchtweiM).
Potash and sodft . . 7-20 . . . .22-33
Lime and magnesia . 46*93 .... 87*63
Pboaphoric acid . . 3*82 .... 34*78
Salpharieacid . . 1*10 . . . 0*18

*^^Jsi?'.AT'"' { «»« • • ^

100- luo*

From this we gather that hemp is
a lime plant, and will be much bene-
fited by that manure, and also see
why the seed crops are so exhausting,
as they draw a large proportion of
bone earth from the soil.

HENBANE. Hyo$cyamuM niger.

This narcotic herb grows to a small
extent in Northern New- York. It is
biennial, and the leaves are active in
the second year of its growth. It is
an excellent medicine, and no danger
may be apprehended from animals
touching it, as they always avoid the
plant. If swallowed by children, an
emetic should be instantly given.

HENTING FURROW. Two fur-
rows lying in different directions.

HEPATIC (from i/irc/j, the Imer).
Relating to the liver.

HEPATICiE. A family of flow-
erless plants, resembling mosses, and
growing in damp places.

HEPTANDHIA. HEPTAN-
DROUS. Flowers with seven sta-
mens.

HERBACEOUS. Of the succu-
lent texture of an annual plant.

HERBAL. An account of plants ;
a collection of plants.

HERBARIUM. A collection of
dried plants.

HERBIVOROUS. Eating herbs.

HERD. A number of beasts.

HERD'S GRASS. AgroHis slricitu
The red-top of the North, an indige-
nous perennial grass in wet places.
See Grasses.

HERMAPHRODITE, An animal
or plant in which there is a real or
apparent concurrence of the genera-
tive organs of both sexes. It is most
common in plants, and is also found
among some of the lower invertebrate
animals. In the higher orders it is
unnatural.

HERMETICALLY SEALED.
When the glass of a vessel is fused
so as to be perfectly closed on all
sides. Entirely shut up.

HERNIA. A rupture or protru-
sion of any part of the body, espe-
cially of the intestines. It is to be
returned to its i^ace, and kept there
by bandages and trusses. Hernias
often prove fatal. When the intes-
tine cannot be returned by the hand,
recourse is to be had to an operation*
which, however, requires considera-
ble skill.

HERPETOLOGY(from ipirerof, «
reptile). The natural history of rep-
tiles.

867

HIC

HERRING. A migratory fish, of
the genus Clupeat resembling shad in
flavour, but much less in size.

HESPERIDIUAf. In botany, a
many-celled, few-seeded, superior,
indebiscent fruit, covered by a spongy,
separable rind ; the cells easily sep-
arable from each other, and contain-
ing a mass of pulp, in wbich the seeds
are imbedded : example, the orange.

HESSIAN CRUCIBLE. A melt-
ing-pot made of fine clay and sand ;
the small sizes are much used in the
laboratory to fuse metals, <S:c.

HESSIAN FLY. See Wheal In-
sects.

HETEROCEPH ALDUS (from he-
poct variouSf and Ke(^a?,tj^ a head). In
composite flowers, when some heads
contain male, and others female flow-
ers.

HETEROGAMOUS (from ?Tfpof,
and yafioij marriage). When the
Spikelets of the same grass contain
dissimilar sexes, or when the flower
beads of composits contain florets
with diflerent sexes.

HETEROGYNIA(from Irtpo^,
and yvvrj^ a ftmale). A tribe of hy-
menopterous insects, as the bee and
ant, in which one female is neuter
and another fertile.

HETEROMERANS (from Irtpo^,
and /i«7pof, a Ug), A class of coleop-
terous insects, having the first and
second pairs of legs with five joints
in the tarsus, and the third pair with
only four.

HETEROPTERANS (from frrpof ,
and nrepov, a voing). A tribo of he-
mipterous insects, in which the upper
wing cases terminate abruptly by a
membrane.

HETEROTROPAL (from IrtpoQ,
and Tperrut J turn). When the em-
bryo of a seed lies across it, but does
not point towards its base or apex.

HEXAGYNIA. With six pistUs.

HEXANDRI A. With six stamens.

HEXAPODS (from i^, six, and
irovf, afoot). A tribe of wingless in-
sects with six feet.

HIBISCUS. A genus of mucilagi-
nous plants of ihe Malvaceous family.

HICKORY. Carya. An Ameri-
can genus of trees resembling the
868

HIP

walnut. They all produce a hard,
compact, but coarse-grained wood, of
great strength. The shag-bark (C
alba) and the Southern pecan -nut
(C. angustifolia) produce the best
fruit. The hickories do not flourish
far North, but require a temperate
climate and good soil ; most of them
require a moist soil, especially the
shell- bark and pecan-nut ; the com-
mon hard-bark (C. tomentosa) is, how-
ever, partial to a drained soil. The
pig-nut hickory (C. ^cina) is the
largest variety, often rising to 90 feet,
and produces wood equal, if not su-
perior, to the other species.

Hickory wood is very liable to in-
sects, and decays soon when exposed
to changes of moisture and heat. It
is much used for axletrees of car-
riages, wooden screws, cogs, handles
of various kinds, especially hand-
spikes. The young trees form the
best hoops fur casks.

The w»ood forms the best fuel of
our forests, from its density.

HIDE. The strong skin of horses,
oxen, &c. Green hides just removed
from slaughtered animals are alto-
gether superior for the tanner. Dry
ing by exposure to the sun, and rub-
bing with ashes, or salting, make it
more difficult to thoroughly tan after-
ward,

HIDEBOUND. A condition of the
skin of animals when it seems to ad-
here to their bones. It is usually
the result of want of care, or a symp-
tom of disease. Slight purging and
alteration of food, with better care,
will alter this state.

HIDE, or HIDE OF L.\ND. An
ancient measure of from 100 to 150
acres.

HILUM. The scar on a seed,
where the funicle is attached, or
where it is united with the carpel.

HIPPOBOSCA. A genus of vi-
viparous, two-winged insects, which
prey on horses and other animals ;
the forest flies are of this race.

IlIPPrKIC ACID (from l-x^o^, a
horse, and oi'pov, wriw^). An acid exist-
ing in cumbination with soda, in tho
unne of horses, cows, and persons eat-
ing certain vegetables. It is separat^

HOG

HOO

by muriatic acid, and, when pure, is
crystallized in silky needles. It is
sltgbtly t^itier, soluble in hot water
and alcohol. The formula is NC|g
H» O5 4~ ^Q* ^^^ ^® crystals. It is
converted by heat into benzoic acid,
ammonia, and prussic acid. Any quan-
tity of this acid can be formed by ta-
king doses of benzoic acid, which be-
comes transformed into hippuric. Its
compounds with bases are called kip-
purMc*.

HIRCIN. The fluid fat separable
from suet, which gives it the peculiar
odour resembling the smell of goats.
By saponifying, hircic acid may be ob-
tained.

HIRSUTE. Set with stiff hairs.

HIRUDINiE. The tribe of leeches.

HIRUNDO. The genus of swal-
lows.

HISPID. Set with minute spines,
or stiff bristles.

HISTER, HISTERIDJS. A fam-
ily of coleopterous insects with five
joints on each tarsus, and belonging
to the section of Clavicomet. They

are peculiar from the quickness with
which they feign death when in dan-
ger.

HIVES. See Beehives.

HOARFROST. Frost attended
with the precipitation of much watery
vapour.

HOARY. In descriptive botany,
covered with short hairs, so as to have
a white or frosted appearance.

HOE, HAND. The practice of hoe-
ing, though laborious, is eminently
useful in pulverizing the soil, admit-
ting air, warmth, and dew. Soils,
well broken and rendered fine, are
very much more fertile than when al-
lowed to bake and become hard. Land
sliould be hoed when hard and par-
tially dry, especially about young
plants. The figure of the hoe is al-
tered to suit different tillage. The
common hoe and grubbing hoe are
familiarly known. Fig. 1 represents
the head of the Spanish hoe for weed-
ing. Fig. 2 is the thrust hoe, for the
same purpose. Fig. 3 is a useful com-
pound hoe, the fork of which may be

fig. 1.

Fi^.9.

Fig.S.

used first on stiff lands, and the blade
afterward. Some hoes, for weeding
small plants, are made with the blade
r> cut into two or more
teeth: they enable the
gardener to scrape the
earth about young plants
Tery effectively.

HOG. ** The hog is one of the do-
mestic animals which is most widely
dispersed through the world, and

Jields to no other in its usefulness,
t lives and thrives on every kind of
food, vegetable or animal. It grazes
like the ox, and will even eat hay ;
and its stomach can digest what few
other animals could swallow with im-
ponity. The sow bears two litters
in the year, having from eight to
twelve, and even sometimes eighteen
or twenty young at a time. No ani-

mal converts a given quantity of corn
or other nutritive food so soon into
fat, or can be made fat on so great a
variety of food.

»*The food of the hog in a wild state
is grass, roots, acorns, beach-mast,
and wild fruits.

«• There are many varieties of the
domestic hog. The brindle hog most
nearly resembles the wild species ;
but although the flesh is savoury, he
does not fatten so soon, nor is he so
profitable as the more indolent and
soaer-skinned sorts are. The great
quality of a hog is his power of di-
gestion : the more rapidly he fattens,
and the earlier he can be made to in-
crease in flesh without increasing in
bone, the better is the breed. Some
of the small hogs which are brought
from China are remarkable for this

HOG.

quality, as well as for their prolific
natare ; and when, by judicious cross-
ing, the size is increased, they are a
very profitable breed. The Chinese
pig {Fig. 1) is short in the head, with

small ears, very wide in the cheek,
high in the chine, and short in the
leg. When a sow of this breed is
heavy in pig, her belly generally drags
on the ground. The young pigs of
the Chinese breed, especially the
white variety, are excellent for roast-
ers, at three weeks or a month old.
They are small and fat, with little
bone, and their skin is very delicate.
They also make excellent porkers at
about three months old, when kept
for some time after weaning on the
refuse of the dairy. They may be
kept fat from the time they are wean>
ed till they are fit to be killed for ba-
con ; and although they do not come
to a great size, they will pay very
well for their food if killed at a twelve-
month old.

*♦ The breed that is nearest to the
Chinese is the Suffolk. They are
generally white, with the ears point-
ed and rather forward : they are broad
in the chest and loins, short and com-
pact : they make fine bacon hogs at
twelve or fifteen months old, weigh-
ing from twelve to fifteen score when
killed. The socking pigs and pork-
ers are also very delicate. The Es-
sex breed is mostly black and white ;
the pure breed, however, is said to
be quite black, and is so nearly al-

lied to the smooth Neapolitan breed,
which has scarcely any hair, that we
cannot help supposing a consaogain-
ity between them.- When crossed
with the Neapolitan, Ihey produce a
breed which fattens at a very early
age, and to an aston isbing degree. A
breed of this cross, carefully select*
ed by Lord Harborongh, has gained
the first prizes for fat pigs at the
Smithfield annual Christmas shows
for several years past. They were
fed extravagantly, no doubt, but at
twenty-two weeks old they were so
completely covered with fat that their
feet were scarcely to be seen ; and
if they could stand, which istlouhiful,
it is certain that they could not walk."
Mr. Coleman speaks favourably of a
grass breed raised in New-York :
'* This is a hog, raised with litiie oth<
er feed than clover pasturage for the
first six months, of a white colour,
with black patches sprinkled over him,
long and well formed, of good thrift,
and who, with good keeping, at eigh-
teen months old is easily brought to
400 and 500 pounds weight."

" The Neapolitan hog is black,
without any hair, very plump, with
pricked ears. No breed can excel it
in the aptitude to fatten. The sows
oRen become so fat on very scanty
food, that they will not breed : they
are extremely tender, and if they hap-
pen to have litters in winter, it is dif«
ficult to save the young pigs from dy-
ing in cold nights. A cross of the
Neapolitan with some of our hardier
breeds greatly improves their useful-
ness, without injuring their aptitude
to fatten : the Itest cross is with the
Berkshire, which is a well-shaped hog
{Fig, 2), with short legs, small ears,
broad chines and loins, and good hams,

"From the prolific nature of the
hog, it is not difficult to select the

sra

Fi^, «.

beat individnals to breed from. In |
every titter there will be piya better
formed than the generality, and by
carefiit selection ii( these any breed
may be soon much improved wilhont
enwsing; but experience teaches that
when the sowb and boars are too
nearly related, the feeundily grad-
luUy dimioishes ; and by continually
breedinc rrnm the same stock the
sowaatlaBt pr»diice.aDty two or three
dimlTintiTe ptga at a litter. Hence
(he advantage of frequent crossing.
To restore fecundity no breed is sn ef-
fectual as the Chinese. A breed com-
pounded of the Berkshire, Chinese,
and Neapolitan may, by careful se-
tectioa, pruduM every quality which
can be desired -, numerous litters,
early falling, and fine hogs for bacon
at twelve or simeen months old, are
the reaull of caie and judicious breed-
ing. Fif. 3 represents the Bedford
or Wobum hug It is large, hardy,
and wsU-fonned, generally white, »a-
hoDsly spotted, with small limbs and
bead, and fattening rapMlj.

■' The black hofs are preferred, on
the whole. They are much teas sub.
jecl to diseases of the skin than the
white, and the sun aR^cts them less
in Bumoipr. For sucking pigs or
porkers many prefer the white, mere-
ly for the appearance, for the blade
skin is in general the Hnest.

" There are hooih very largo
breeds, which have been recommend-
ed under the idea that, in a large hog,
the hone and olfal are less in pro-
portion to the flesh than in a smalU
er. But these large breeds do not
come BO soon to maturity. They
cannot be profitably put up to fatten
till eighteen or twenty montha old, or
more ; end although Bome of them
may make hogs of thirty or forty
score when killed, they are so loog
fatting, and require so much food.
that it is very doubtful whether they
pay for it as well as the amaller. For
delicate bacon, the hogs killed et a
twelve -month old, and welgbing t«o
or twelve score, are much preferred,
and we are iticliDed to think thattbey

are most pro6tabte. Whenliams are
the principal object, the hogs should
be killed before they are so fat as
they might be ; and the carcass is
then cut up and pickled, instead of
being converted into dry bacon. To
keep hogs profit^y. a regular system
Bhould be pursued both in the breed-
ing and feeding. Proper hog-aties
should beconstroctedwiih chambers,
in ytbidb the pigs of different ages
and the- breeding aows may be kept
separate. The food should be pre-
pared for them by boiling or steam-
ing in an apparatus conveniently pla-
ced, and the greatest cleanliness and
regularity should be maintained. It
W a great mistake to suppose that the

bog loves dirt. If he can keep him-
self clean he willdo so ; and the wal-
lowing in the mud is not from a love
ol dirt, but from a heat and itching in
the skin in warm weather, which is
relioTEd by roHing in the cool mud
If hogs have plenty of clean straw
and clean water they never wiU be
dirty, and nothing makes them thrive
so quick or pleases them more than
being washed and curried regularly.
If the hogs are not closely confined,
they will always lay their dung at a
from the place where they

1 nil well-ci

should be a small yard
to each apartment in whioli the hogs
can deposite their dung.

HOG.

« When a sow is near the time of
farrowing, which is four months after
she has taken the boar, she should be
put in a sty by herself, with a mod-
erate quantity of straw, for if there
be too great an abundance she is apt
to lie down on the young pigs when
they bury themselves in the loose
straw. Sows, although very careful
of their pigs, are very apt to lie on
them, especially when any of them
are near a wall : to prevent this, it is
very useful to have a ledge of wood
•ix inches wide, and six inches from
the ground, all round the stye, so that
ahe cannot lie down close to the wall ;
and if a young pig should be acci-
dentally behind her, he can take ref-
uge behind the ledge, and thus es-
cape being lain upon. When no pre-
cautions are taken, one fourth of a
litter is often lost in the first day or
two after they are bom. Some sows
have the unnatural propensity of eat-
ing their young pigs as soon as they
drop : good feeding will prevent this
in some measure, but attention at
the moment of farrowing is the sa-
fest and surest preventive. When
once the young pigs have sucked,
much of the danger is past.

" A sow with many pigs should be
well fed ; bran and meal, with milk
or whey, are the best food ; grains,
where they are at hand, are excel-
lent ; and it is useful to let the sow
go out to graze in a meadow or clo-
ver field for an hour or two every day,
shutting up the pigs during that time
till they are a fortnight or three weeks
old, when they may accompany the
sow. A sow will live many years,
and bring numerous litters, and the
older she is the better nurse she is in
general. When a sow has ten or
twelve pigs at a litter, and two litters
in the year, oue in spring and anoth-
er in autumn, she is too valuable to
be killed, and ought to be kept as long
as she will breed. But otherwise it
is very profitable to let a young sow
have a litter at ten months old, and
spay her immediately ; she will then
fatten most readily as soon as the
pigs are weaned, and the bacon will
be as good as that of a maiden pig.
378

Whenever a sow does not bring a
sufficient number of pigs, or is not a
good nurse, or has ever eaten any of
her pigs, she should be spayed aad
iatten^ immediately. The young
pigs intended to be kept for stores or
for porkers are castrated or spayed
at a month or six weeks old. The
males are then called bofrow pigs, and
when fatted make the best bacon.
They are usually put up at a twelve-
month old, and fiitted in three or four
months. At first they have potatoes
raw or boiled ; pumpkins, artichokes,
apples, brewers* grains, are aU ex-
cellent mixed with bran, or bean meal,
or they have dry beans and water.
Ailer they are half fat they should
have pease meal, corn meal, flax
meal, and water, unless in a dairy,
where they have the skimmed milk
or whey. Hogs fattened on potatoes
only do not make so good bacon as
those which are fatted on com. Po-
tatoes are an excellent food for store
pi^, and may be given boiled and
mixed with meal in the early part of
the fatting process; but beans and
pease make the firmest flesh, and
corn meal the sweetest. Before a
hog is killed be is usually fed for
some time on corn meal and water
alone, given as thick as porridge, and
very little, if any water is given to
him. This last rule is oflen carried
to too great an extent. Much water
will make the food pass through too
rapidly, and it will not be digested,
but the hog should never suflfer from
thirst, or he will not thrive. Before
a hog is killed he should be kepi with-
out food for twelve hours at least ;
he may, however, have water. He
should be killed without giving him
more pain or causing more struggling
than is necessary, by a resolute atab
with the knife in the lower part of
the neck, where the knife may sever
the large artery which comes direct-
ly from the heart. The blood, should
ho allowed to flow freely till it is aU
out of the body. The hog. if intend-
p.d for salt pork, must then be scald-
ed with water not quite boiling, and
well scraped, to take off the hair with
the cuticle ; but for bacon it is best to

HOG.

Binge the hair by burning straw over
the body, and then scraping the skin.
Care must be taken not to allow the
^in to be burned so as to crack. The
hog is then hang up, and the entrails
taken out. The inside of the body
is washed clean with a cloth or sponge
dipped in water, that no blood may
remain, and the next day the hog is
cut up. The head and feet are cut
otr, the chine is taken out, and the
upper part of the ribs, with the back
bone, are cut oat, iearing as much
flesh as possible adhering to the fat
outside. The small ends of the ribs
remain attached to the bacon."

The preserved flesh of the hog is
ternaed pork when placed in brine,
and bacon when dried. The prepara-
tion of pork for shipping, especially to
England, is a matter of importance.
The following is the English method,
as pubUsbed by Messrs. Hitchcock 6c
Co. :

** Pork is cut into four or six-pound
pieces, according to the size of the
hog. Where the carcass weighs two
hundred and fifty and under, it is cut
into four-pound pieces; large hogs
are cat into six-pound pieces. The
bog is first split through the back
bone in half; then passed to the
trimming-block, where the half head
and legs are cut off, the leaf and ten-
der-k>in taken out, and the whole side
split lengthwise through both the
shoulder and ham, and as near the
centre as is consistent with the prop-
er shape and size of the different pie-
ces. From the trimming-block the
strips pass to the scales, where the
weight is ascertained and called to
the man at the cutting-block, who di-
vides each strip into the requisite
sized pieces. Both the splitting and
piercing require skill and judgment,
as much depends upon having the
pieces well and sizably cut. From
thence it goes to the rubbing-table,
where each piece is thoroughly rub-
bed in salt in the same manner as in
curing bacon. Afler the salt has bee n
well robbed in, it is put into pickling
tubs, holding from three to five hun-
dred pounds, well covered with salt,
bat no water or brine added. Here

they remain from eight to ten days.
It )8 then taken to the washing-trough
or vat, where eaoh piece is thorough-
ly washed in clean brine, trimmed,
and tormerUedy as the process of try-
ing is called, to ascertain that it is
properly cured and free from taint.
It is then messed and weighed, so
that the requisite number of pieces
shall weigh exactly the number of
pounds for the barrel or tierce. It is
then put up in the proper package,
and freely salted while packing, and
saltpetre added at the rate of a
common wineglassful to the hundred
pounds. The last layer is pounded
in by a heavy iron weight, and capped
with coarse salt. It is then passed
to the cooper, who puts in the head,
and puts on to the barrel one, and on
to the tierce at least three iron hoops
at each end. The package is then
filled with clean strong brine, bunged
tight, branded, and is then ready for
market.

** The great utility of this method
of curing consists in the certainty of
the meat keeping in good condition
for years in any climate. The blood
gets ail drained out of the meat be-
fore it is barreled, and hence one
great cause of injury is avoided. I
saw pork and beef which had been
two years in the barrel, which was as
sweet as when first put up, and the
brine was perfectly clear. The large
hogs, or heavy pork, which is uni-
formly cut in six-ponnd pieces, is
packed in tierces, and is then called
India or navy pork. The four-pound
pieces are put in barrels.

'*A barrel of prime pork should
contain from 3d to 30 pieces, cut
from the ribs, loins, chines, and belly
pieces, all lying between the ham
and shoulder, forming what is called
the broadside or middle. Three hands
and two hind-leg pieces, or three
hind-leg pieces and two hands, and
fifteen or twenty pieces from other
parts of the hog, except no part of
the head. The meat must be of prime
quality, firm, and well fattened, cut
into four*pound pieces, exactly filty
to the barrel, and weigh not less than
two hundred pounds nett, and must

873

HOO.

have a good capping of St. Ubes, or
other coarse salt. This is indispen-
sable. Bacon mess pork is so called
when the full proportion of prime
pieces in prime mess is withheld:
there are, therefore, vs^rtous classes
of bacon pork. Tierces contain the
same number, that is, fifly pieces of
six pounds, and the same rules as to
messing are to be observed as in the
barrel. The tierces must have not
less than three hundred pounds, and
well capped with salt. It is usual to
put in fiOy-two pieces. In bacon
mesfi, the number of prime mess pie-
ces should be marked upon the head.
Ko part of the hog's bead is allowed
in any instance."

Bacon differs from pork in being
dried. The following is the Hamp-
shire method, which is in the highest
repute in England, and makes the
best article ; the ham only is remo-
ved from the side, the shoulder and
middling being allowed to remain to-
gether, and called a side or flitch x)f
bacon :

" The hair is burned off with light-
ed straw, and the cuticle of the skin
scraped off*. The carcass is hung up
after the entrails have been removed,
and the next day, when it is quite
cold, it is cut up into flitches. The
spare ribs are taken out, and the
bloody veins carefully removed ; the
whole is then covered with salt, with
a small quantity of saltpetre mixed
with it. Sometimes a little brown
sugar is added, which gives a pleas-
ant sweetness to the bacon.

"The flitches are laid on a low
wooden table, which has a small
raised border all round it The table
slants a little, so as to let the brine
run off into a vessel placed under it
by a small opening in the border at
the lower end. The flitches are
turned and resalted every day: those
which were uppermost are put un-
der, and in three weeks they are
ready to be hung up to dry. Smo-
king the bacon is no longer so com-
mon as it used to be, as simply dry-
log it is found sufficient to make it
kc^p. Those who, from early asso-
ciation, like the flavour given by the

874

smoke of wood, bum sawdast and
shavings in a smothered fire for some
time under the flitches ; when they -
are quite dry, they are either placed
on a bacon-rack for the use of the
family, or are packed with wheat
chaff into chests till they are sold.

"The practice of cutting the hogs
into pieces and pickling them in a
vat, being attended with less trouble,
is very generally preferred when there
is only a sufiicient number of hogs
killed to serve the farmer's fkmily ;
but flitches of bacon, well cured, are
more profitable for sale."

The common method in the United
States is to kill in November to Jan-
uary, scald the carcass by immersion
in a hogshead of water heated by hot
stones, and rub oflf the bristles and
scarf-skin by knives : the chine, head,
and feet are also taken ofl^

In Virginia the side is cut into a
shoulder, taken oflf as far down as
the spare ribs, a middling and ham ;
it is thoroughly salted, one bushel of
Liverpool salt serving for 1000 pounds
of pork ; this is mixed wiUi one or
two pounds of pounded nitre. The
pieces are piled in a hogshead, the
bams being first put in, the shoulders
next, then the middlings, and on top
the necks, jowls, heads, dec. There is
an admirable piece, called the round,
formed by cutting the neck close to
the head, and again oflf the side by
the upper spare rib. The pieces re-
main untouched from four to six
weeks ; they are then hong on latBa
across rafters, shank downward, and
at least eight feet above the ground
in the smoke-house, and a smothered
fire made with corn cobs, hickory
and oak chips. At first they are
smoked three times a day, asd later
but twice. The lalhs are moved ev-
ery week, so as to bring the difierent
pieces nearest the smoke. As the
weather becomes mild, a handful of
red pepper is thrown upon the fire
occasionally to annoy any insects in
the smoke-house. In six weeks or
two months the smoking is stopped,
the pieces are taken down, rubbed
with pounded red pepper, and hang
again, shank upward, until dry, till

HOG.

/pril or May. They are now taken
down, exposed to the sun for a few
days, rubbed again with red pepper,
and if perfectly sound, are ready to
be stored ; this is best done in bogs-
beads, with fresh ashes, or in a per-
fectly dark dry room. Some cover
the bams with canvass, and coat it
heavily with whitewash, hanging
them up until disposed of. Dipping
the pieces in hot lye will kill mag-
gots, skippers, and other enemies,
but the salts being deliquescent, the
bacon remains always damp. There
is nothing superior to ashes, for it not
only hinders maggots, but keeps the
bacon from rats.

The Westphalian hams eiyoy so
much reputation, that it may be ser-
viceable to give the method of cu-
ring ; we also add the most approved
English method :

**The method of coring hams in
the most celebrated districts is to
rub them very hard with bay or oth-
er salt, then leave them on a stone
bench, in order that the brine may
discharge itself. In a few days the
tabbing process is repeated, about
half an ounce of saltpetre {niirate of
vviasstt) being added to each ham.
vVben they have continued about a
week longer on the bench, or in the
salting-tub, among the brine, they
are commonly hung up to dry in the
sided of large open chimneys ; some
have them exposed to the smoke of
wood, peats, coals, or other sorts of
fuel, while others carefully avoid hav-
ing them smoked ; and when not sold
sooner, they are continued in these
situations till the approach of warm
weather, when they are packed up in
casks with straw, or the chalfof oats,
and consigned for sale. Hams lose
about 20 per cent, of their weight in
drying. .

" Hams may be cured in order to
resemble in taste those of Westpha-
lia, by the following process : Cover
a 3roung ham of pork with dry salt ;
let it be for 24 hours to draw off the
blood, then wipe it perfectly dry, and
take one pound of brown sugar, a
quarter of a pound of saltpetre, half
a pint of bay salt, and three pints of

salt ; incorporate these ingredients
in an iron pan over the fire, and stir
them continually till they acquire a
moderate degree of heat. In this
pickle the ham must be suffered to
remain for three weeks, frequently
turning it, when it should be sus-
pended in a chimney for drying by
means of smoke from no other but a
wood fire. The smoke from oak
sawdust or shavings is the best for
imparting a fine flavour. This smoke
contains imperfectly- formed pyrolig-
neous acid, which is the agent that
communicates the flavour to the
Westphalia hams. In Dumfriesshire
the pickle for hams is sometimes
made with one half ale, which ren-
ders the hams shorter, and adds
greatly to the richness of their fla-
vour. The imports of bacon and
hams into England have greatly in-
creased, the duty being reduced to
14«. the cwt., or just half of what it
was for many years. On those im-
ported from British colonies, the duty
is 3«. bd. On hands in pickle, 6«."

*' Diseases of Hogs. — The diseases
of swine are generally the result of
want of care and cleanliness, or arise
from injudicious and irregular feed-
ing, and from their being kept in loath-
some and uncomfortable situations.
Is it to be wondered at that they be-
come subject to internal and cutane-
ous diseases 1 Fortunately, they will
generally eat even when sick, and
salts (one to two oz.), sulphur (two
to three drachms), antimony, and
such like aperients, may be mixed
with their food for measles and simi-
lar disorders. If they will not eat,
there can» of course, be no cure ap-
plied.

"In swine-pox, sulphur may be
administered in small quantities, with
treacle, in the wash ; fresh brewer's
grains, or pollard, may also be given.
But for cutaneous diseases in gen-
eral, an ointment formed of equal
parts of mutton soet and tar, with
the addition of a little sulphur, will
be found beneficial.

" In cases of surfeit, indigestion,
or injury from eating slightly poison-
ous matter, swine will refuse their

375

HOG.

food, constantly lie down, and have •
the etomach distended. In this case, ■
two heads of garlic, mixed with six
oz. of fresh huiter, will afford rehef,
given every six hours.

*' The most formidable of the dis-
eases to which swine are liable is
inflammation of the lungs and other
internal parts ; this disease has been
known to destroy a fourth of the hogs
in a distillery in the course of a few
weeks. The chief indications of the
disease will be the distressing cough,
the heaving of the flanks, and the re-
fusal of all food. Bleeding must be
promptly resorted to, and moderate
purges cautiously administered. The
safest aperients are castor oil, or Kp-
8om salts, after which the following
powder may be given : antimonial
powd., 2 grs., nitre, half a drachm.

" In cases of murrain, a species of
leprosy, which prevails chiefly in hot
seasons, the best advice that can be
given is to keep the animal cool, and
not to suffer any animal food to be
given.

'* The health of swine is to be es-
timated by their cheerfulness, by the
gloss upon their coats, their skin
being wholly free from eruption. If
pigs snort on being disturbed, it is
an excellent sign of sound health and
good keep. The state of the excre-
ment or digestions will generally in-
dicate pretty correctly the thriving
condition of the animal ; for, unless
these are of a firm consistence, the
hog will not fatten rapidly. If store
or stock pigs are kept well and in
good condition, it will prevent most
of the diseases to which the animals
are subject, and they will also thrive
and fatten at half the expense when
shut up for that purpose. From the
confinement of the hog, and the na-
ture of his food, a description of in-
digestion takes place, with cutaneous
eruptions."

HOGSHEAD. An oW measure
containing 63 wine gallons. A large
barrel in which sugar, tobacco, and
coarse produce are packed, contain-
ing irora 10 to 14 cwt.

HOO»S LARD. The fat from the
kidneys, over the chines, intestines,

876

&c., is converted into lard for family
use and sale. Being separated from
skin and lean, it is to be put into a
copper or iron boiler, with water, and
melted thoroughly, being constantly
stirred with a wooden bat, lest it be-
come burned : a handful of salt is
added to the 100 lbs., and stirred in ;
as soon as it is well boiled it is to be
removed from the fire and passed
through a colander and closely woven
strong cloth into the wooden or earth*
en-ware vessels in which it is to be
kept. Dy straining in this w^ay, all
the pieces of skin are separated. The
cracklings are well pressed in the
colander to obtain all the fat. A lay-
er of salt may be placed above the
top of the cold lard, the vessels closed,
and stored in a cool cellar. The
cracklings serve to fatten poultry, or
may be kept for domestic soap.

Lard consists of 38 stearin and 62
elain in 100 parts. These are no\r
separated for commercial purposes^
the former resembling spermaceti,
and making admirable candles, the
latter affording the lard oil so exten-
sively used for lamps, wool dressing,
and machinery : it sells at from 75 cts.
to $1 the gallon. Indeed, lard itself
furnishes a good light when burned
in suitable lamps with short wicks.

From the low price of hogs in the
West, it has been found profitable to
render the carcass, excepting the
hams, into lard ; the lard is subse-
quently divided into the oil and stear-
in ; these processes are simple, and
fully explained by the following pa-
per of Mr. Stafford, of Cleveland,
Ohio. The skin is removed from the
parts steamed.

" The average Ohio hogs (common
breeds) will produce, when tried by
steam, 60 per cent. lard, afier de-
ducting the hams and shoulders.
The plan now generally adopted is,
not to take out the shoulders ; the
sale for them is limited, and price
low; the covering of fat will produce
more in lard than the expense of ca-
ring would warrant. The mixture
of the China and Berkshires, fed upon
potatoes or any other vegetable con-
taining starch as a principal food.

HOG

HOQ

wonld produce, when Tery fat, at
least 70 per cent., after taking out
only the hams.

" The steaming apparatus is merely
a tub with a false bottom, perforated
with holes, lying about two inches
above the bottom. The steam is in-
troduced between the two bottoms,
and so entirely separates the fat from
the cells in which it was enclosed
that no pressing of scraps is neces-
sary. The bones, lean, and scrap
are left on the false bottom, and the
lard floats on the surface. With
steam, at a pressure of five lbs. to
the inch, it will require from 18 to 20
hours to try off a tubful of any given
quantity, steam in proportion, of
course ,- 60 lbs. pressure would do it
in one third the time. The great ad-
vantage of steam is, the whole of the
lard or tallow is produced, and there
is no danger of burning either.

" The quality of the lard is good,
but not equal to leaf lard or suet ; the
carcass fat does not contain as much
of the concrete principle (stearin).
Whole hog lard cannot bo refined and
made bard without a portion of the
oil is extracted. I take from 20 to 40
per cent, of the oil ; then the balance
goes through several washings in
pure rain water by steam, aAer which
it is refined lard. The expense is
not more than one quarter cent per
pound, but it is of more value to us
than common lard, as we have a great
deal of trouble and expense with it ;
and in only extracting a portion of
the oil we would lose by it, did it not
command a better price in the mar-
ket, which it should from its purity.

"The bones are worth at least
half a cent per pound to calcine.
From them ivory black is made
(worth 2i cents per pound), by char-
ring them in close iron vessels.

*' I used to decompose the lard in
acid and neutral salts. When the
affinity between the parts is destroy-
ed, I separate them by means of can-
vass bags placed in powerful screw-
presses. If I wisli to make candles
of the residue, the pressure is con-
tinued until all the oil, by this means»
is forced out. The contents of the

1x3

bags are then subjected to the action

of a powerful hydraulic press, and the
stearin pressed to dryness.

**To produce the winter oil, we
have to expose the decomposed lard
to the cold."

For the purpose of furnishing most
oil, the hogs are fed on oil cake, cot-
ton-seed cake, flaxseed, beech- nuts,
and anything that is full of grease.

The perfect separation of the stear-
in of lard and suet is the subject of
several patents, and belongs to the
department of manufactures, as the
process requires much machinery,
and is full of chemical details.

Oxen and sheep are now steamed
in the same way as hogs in the West
for their tallow. See Ox.

HOG-STY. " Much of the profit of
breeding and fattening hogs depends
on the economy of labour in prepa-
ring their food. Any place is often
thought good enough to lodge a pig
in, and a sty is a word synonymous
with a filthy place ; but in every
well-arranged farm-yard there should
be a convenient place for keeping
hogs and feeding them, which may
be erected at a small expense, and
which will soon repay the outlay.
There should be a place to boil and
mix the food in, with one or more
large coppers, and a steaming appa-
ratus. The food should be mixed in
square brick tanks sunk in the ground
and cemented, that there may be no
filtrations. If there is only one tank,
there should be a partition in it.
From the boiling-house there should
be an immediate comn^unication with
the feeding-sties, undercover, if pos-
sible. Each sty should open into a
small yard behind, which should com-
municate by a door with the princi-
pal farm-yard, where the barn is sit-
uated, in which the corn is thrashed,
and be enclosed with a low wall or
paling. There should be separate
sties for breeding-sows, for porkers,
and for fatting hogs. Not more than
three or four of the latter should be
in one sty. The food should be given
in troughs, in a separate compart-
ment from that in which the hogs lie
down, and no litter should be allowed

877

HOG

HOL

M'©0

Elevatiun and Section.

A, Root-hoose ; B, boiling- and ateaming house ; a» steamer; b, copper ; c, r, eteaming^
aels ; d, dy tanks lo mix the food ; C, possagv to the sties ; 1, 1, feeding^rooms ; S, 3, sleeping-
rooms ; S) S, yards.

there. The floor, which should be
of brick or stone, should be frequent-
ly washed clean, and the troughs
should be cleaned out before eyery
meal. Any of the food left from the
last meal should be taken out and
given to the store pigs. A very con-
venient contrivance for keeping the
troughs clean is to have a flap or
door, made with hinges, to hang hori-
zontally over the trough, so that it
can swing, and alternately be fasten-
ed by a bolt to the inside or outside
edge of the trough. When the hogs
have fed sufficiently, the door is
swung back, and the trough is easily
cleaned out. It remains so till feed-
ing time, when the food is poured in
without any impediment from the
greedy hogs, who cannot get at it till
the door is swung back. This sim-
ple contrivance saves a great deal of
trouble, and is easily adapted to any
87B

common sty. It is a great advan-
tage to be able to inspect the sties
without going into them, and this is
efllected by placing them under a com-
mon roof, which may convenientlj
be a lean to the boiling-house, or any
other building, with a passage be-
tween them.

**Tbe preceding figure will best
explain this, and show its superiority
over common sties."

Where the establishment is much
larger, a passage may be run entire-
ly through the sties, and the feoding
troughs be arranged along it ; the
food may also be made to pass along
a gutter to the various troughs.

HOLCUS. The genus of soft
grasses. See Grasses.

HOLERACEOUS. Culinaiy
plants, pot-herbs.

HOLLY. Evergreen shrabs, and
small trees of the genus Bex, The

HOM

HOO

prickly Christinas holly, naturalized
in Virginia, is the /. aquifoffum; the
native hully of the Middle Slates, oft-
en becoming a tree of 30 feet, is the
/. opaca. The prickly holly is much
used for hedges in England ; a good
bird-lime is prepared from the inner
bark. The /. vomi/orta, or casnnay is
a handsome southern shrub. The
decocttoQ of the toasted leaves is the
Indian black drink : it is emetic.

HOLM. A marshy place or island.

HOLM, or HOLLY OAK. Quer-
eiu ilex, a European species.

HOLY GRASS. HoUus odoratus.
See Grasses.

HOMESTEAD. The regular ar-
rangement of farm buildings.

HOMMLX Y. Corn, usually of the
smaller white flint kinds, bruised in
a mill or mortar until the external
covering is removed, and then sifted.

HOMOGAMOUS (from 6fMv, to-
gtlher, and yafioc, marriage). When
all the florets contain both sexes.

HOMOGENEOUS (from 6fiov, and
•yevo^t kind). Bodies, all the parts of
which are similar in composition.

HOMOLOGOUS (from oftov, and
Ao^oc, ratio). Having the same ratio
or proportion.

HOMOPTERANS, HOMOPTERA
(from ofiitVy and nrepov, a wing). The
name of an order of insects, inclu-
ding those in which the wing-covers
are of a uniform semi-membranous
consistency. Latreille divides -this
order into the three following divi-
sions, viz. :

1. The Cieadaria, having the tarsi
three-jointed and the antenoe very
short, termmated by a flne bristle.

2. The Avkidians, having the tarsi
two-jointed and the antennae longer,
without a terminai bristle ; contain-
ing the families Apkida and Psyllida.

3 The Gallinsecta^ having the tarsi
one'jointed, terminated by a single
claw. Tbe males have two wings,
and are destitnte of a mouth ; the fe-
males are wingless, and furnished
with a sucker.

HOMOTROPAL (from 6fioy, and
Tpeiru, J turn). In botany, having the
same direction as the rest of the
^nt, or that part to which it belongs.

HONEY. The fluid stored by bees;
it is collected from flowers and hon-
ey-dew. The colour and flavour de-
pend upon the age of the bees, and
their food; white clover and some
aromatic plants of the sage family
yield tbe best. Chemically, it con-
sists of glucose, mannite, gum, wax,
colouring matter, and albumen . When
mixed With water it readily ferments ; *
a liquor is made in this way*caUed
mead. See Bee.

HONEY-DEW. An exudation of
sweet gummy matter from the leaves
of plants, especially the oak, beech,
linden, and hop. Curtis and Willde-
now, with many other naturalists, at-
tribute it to the excretions of innu-
merable plant lice, Aphidians ; but
Sir J. E. Smith and others to the
exudation of sap during very moist
hot weather, especially when the sky
is overcast, hindering evaporation
from the leaves. If the honey be
washed ofl* by rain or by watering,
the plant usually survives ; but if it
becomes caked on the leaf by hot
weather, it is killed. Bees flourish
exceedingly on honey-dew. The
plants of a well-drained soil are much
less liable to honey-dew than those
in damp places.

HONEY LOCUST. Gleditschia
triacantkos. Three-thomed locust. A
large leguminous tree. It is very
common in the western forests of
Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, &c., on
rich bottoms, where it is one of the
largest trees. The pods furnish a
sweet but nauseous pulp. The wood
is porous, but hard ; it is inferior for
cabinet purposes, and rarely used, ex-
cept for posts and rails. The young
plants are recommended by some for
hedges, and are to be often pruned :
they form a good hedge, but are apt
to throw out shoots from their roots
to a considerable distance from the
stem.

HONEY-STONE. A rare miner-
al, mellate of alumina, belonging to
the class of ambers and lignites, found
only in Thuringea.

HONEYSUCKLE. Climbing
plants of the genus Lonicera^ <Stc.

HOODED. CttculUue. A descrip-

379

HOO

tive term in botany, to express the
partial covering of a flower, &c., by a
petal or leaf, which is curved over it.

HOOF. The solid or cloven nail
of the feet of cattle or horses ; it re-
sembles horn in composition. Hoofs
are used in the manufacture of glue
and Prussian blue ; scraped into
shreds, they form admirable manure,
yielding 16 per cent, nitrogen in the
natural state, or upward of 18 per
cent, ammonia during decay. Four
hundred pounds in compost wiU be
sufficient for an acre.

HOOP. The wooden or metallic
fastening of casks. Hickory is in
the greatest esteem for this purpose ;
but young trees of ash, oak, birch,
&c., answer well. Several machines
have been patented for splitting
hoops ; they are, however, expensive.
The usual principle is to pass the
wood between rollers, which carry it
upon a sharp edge that splits it cen-
trally ; motion is given to the rollers
by horse power.

HOOVE, or HOVEN. See Ox.

HOPPER. The receiver of a mill
or machine in which the grain, roots,
&c., are placed.

HOP-OAST. A kiln used for dry-
ing hops. The floor of the kiln is
generally of wire cloth, and the heat
is generated in a stoTe with flues be-
low. The hops, after being put on
the kiln, are frequently turned, and
in general they are rendered suffi-
ciently dry in the course of a few
hours ; when dried, they are taken to
a loft and left to cool for a day or two,
and then put into bags, having been
previously subjected to the slight ac-
tion of the fumes of burning sulphur
(sulphurous acid), by which they are,
to a certain extent, bleached. This
is not to be recommended, for it par-
tially destroys the fine odour.

HOPPLE. A mode of fettering
the legs of horses and cattle turned
out to graze.

HOPS. Humulus lujmlus : family
XJrticacea. The following is chiefly
from Mr. Rham :

" Hops are extensively cultivated
for the flowers, which give flavour
and permanence to beer, by being

880

boiled with the wort in brewing
They impart a pleasant, bitter, and
aromatic flavour, and prevent the too
rapid progress of fermentation. Beer
which is well hopped will keep ]on|^
and become very fine, without any
of those artificial means of fining
which make the common brewer^s
beer so much inferior in quality to
that which is home-brewed.

"The hop is a slender climbing
plant, with a perennial root, which
requires careful cultivation. It is
very tender, and the produce is pre-
carious, sometimes giving a great
profit to the grower, and at other
times failing altogether. The soil of
a hop garden must be rich to a con-
siderable depth, or made so artificial-
ly. The subsoil must be dry and
sound ; a porous rocky subsoil, cov-
ered with two or three feet o( good
vegetable mould, is the best for hops.
The exposure should be towards the
south, on the slope of a hill, or in a
well-sheltered valley. Old rich pas-
tures make the best hop gardens.
They should be dug two or more spits
deep, and the sods buried at the bot-
tom, where they will gradually decay
and aflbrd nourishment to the slen-
der roots of the plants, which strike
deep. A very large quantity of the
richest rotten dung, at least 100 cu-
bic yards per acre, should be well in-
corporated with the soil by repeated
ploughings, till it is entirely decom-
posed, and produces that dark tint
which is the sure sign of an abun-
dance of humus. The ground should
be prepared by laying it up with the
spade in high ridges before winter, to
expose it as much as possible to the
mellowing influence of the frost. A
succession of green crops, such as
rye, cut green or fed oflT with sheep,
or clover, are an excellent prepara-
tion, by cleaning the land. It is bet-
ter to be two, or even three years, in
preparing the ground and getting it
perfectly clean, than to plant the
liops in a foul or unprepared soil.

" The young plants are raised in
beds, and may be raised from seed ;
but it is more usual to plant the young
shoots which rise from the bottom

HOPS.

of the stems of old plants. Tlicy arc
laid dowu in the earth till they strike,
when they are cut off and planted in
the narsery-bed. ' Care must be ta-
ken to have only one sort of hops in
a plantation, that they may all ripen
at the same time ; but where there
are very extensive hop grounds it
may be advantageous to have an ear-
lier and a later sort in different divis-
ions, so that tbey may be picked in
succession. The varieties most es-
teemed are the grape hop, the white
vine, and the golden hop. The
ground having been prepared for
planting, it is divided by parallel
lines, six or more feet apart, aud
short sticks are ^inserted into the
ground along these lines at six feet
distance from each other, so as to al-
ternate in the rows, as is frequently
done with cabbage plants in gardens.
At each stick a hole is dug two feet
square and two feet deep, which is
fiUed lightly with the earth dug out,
together with a compost prepared
with dung, lime, and earth, well mix-
ed by repeated turning. Fresh dung
should never be applied to hops.
Three plants are placed in the mid-
dle of this hole six inches asunder,
forming an equilateral triangle. A
watering with liquid manure greatly
assists their taking root, and they
soon begin to show runners. A stick,
three or four feet long, is then stuck
in the middle of the three plants, and
the runners are tied to these with
twine or bass, till they lay hold and
twine round them. During their
growth the ground is well hoed and
forked up around t\ke roots, and some
of the fine mould ia thrown around
the stems. In favourable seasons a
few hops may be picked from these
young plants in the autumn, but in
general there is nothing the first year.
£arly in November the ground is
carefully dug with the spade, and the
earth being turned towards the plants,
ia left so all the winter. Beets, po-
tatoes, dec., are grown in the inter-
vals between the plants.

*' In the second year, early in
spring, the hillocks around the plants
are opened, and the roots examined.

The last year's shoots are cut off
within an inch of the main stem, and
all the suckers quite close to it. The
suckers form an agreeable vegetable
for the table, dressed like asparagus.
The earth is pressed roimd the roots,
and the cut parts covered so as to
exclude the air. A pole about twelve
feet long is then firmly stuck into
the ground near the plants ; to this
the runners are led and tied as they
shoot, till they have taken hold of it.
If,, by any accident, the runner leaves
the pole, it should be carefully brought
back to it and tied till it takes hold
again. A stand ladder should be at
hand to do this, when the runner has
acquired some height. The ground
being well hoed and the earth raised
round the plants, the produce this
year will average four cwts. per acre,
if the season is favourable.

" Some hop planters plough up or
dig the ground before winter ; others
prefer doing it in spring, in order not
to hasten the shooting, which weak-
ens the plants. The same opera-
tions of pruning the shoots, manuring,
and placing poles, which were per-
formed the preceding year, are care-
fully repeated. Particular attention
is paid to proportion the length of
the poles to the probable strength of
the runners ; for if the pole is too
long, it draws up the runner, and
makes it bear less ; if it is too short,
the runners entangle when tbey get
beyond the poles, and cause confu-
sion in the picking. In September,
the flower containing the seed will
be of a fine straw colour, turning to
a brown; it is then in perfection.
When it is over-ripe, it acquires a
darker tint. No time is now lost,
and as many hands are procured as
can be set picking. In the picking,
the poles are taken down, and the
stems cut three feet from the ground ;
if they were cut shorter it would
weaken the root, by causing it to
bleed. The poles are laid sloping
over a frame of strong wood, nine
feet long and four feet wide, support-
ed by legs three feet high ; this is
oaUed a bin. A piece of coarse bag-
ging is fixed to this frame by hooks,

;)8l

■o SB M form a bag which does not
reach the ground. Three men or
women, or four bny« or girls, are
placed on each side of the bin. and
pick the hops from two poles at a
time. Where they are vEry careful
<ri'thequality orthehQps, they divide
them into three sons : the gree
which are not quite ripcj the iig
yeilott-brown, which are in perft
tion ; and the very dark, which arc
paat their prime. The dew should be
off entirely before Ihey begin ; for
otherwise the hops might become
musty, or take too long in drying, and
lose their fragrance. The hops, when
picked, are dried on a ciotb in a kitn.
When they appear suBicient])' dry at
bottom, they are lorned ; it is, how-
ever, thought by some bop- driers that
the laming of the hupa is apt to in-
jure them, and that it is best not tu
do so ; but, in order that the upper
part mny be dried equally with the
lower, a wooden cover, lined with
*in {dales, is let down over the hops
on the hair cloth, to within a few
inches of the surface ; this revertier-
atcB the heat, and the whole is dried
equally. The heat muat be carefully
regnlated, in order that it may not
alter the colour. When llie leaves
of the hops become brittle and rub
off easily, they are BUlGcienlly dried.
They are then laid in heaps on the
floor, where they undergo a very
slight healing. As soon as this is
observed Ihey are bagged. This is
done through a round hole, twenty-
five or thirty inches in diameter,
made in the floor of the lolt where
the hops are laid. Under Ibis hole
ia a bag, the mouth of which is drawn
through the hole and kept open by a
hoop, to which it is made fust. The
hoop is somewhat larger than the
Kole, and the bag remains suspended :
B handftat of hops is now put into
•ach comer of the bag, and there tied
firmly by a cord. A bushel or two
of hops are put into the bag, and a
man gets into it to tread the hops
tight. The bag does nut reach the
floor below. As the bops are pack-
ad by the feet, more are continually
added till the bag is full. II ia now

sss

Uken <^the hoi^, and filled up witfa

llie hands as tight as possible. The
corners are stuffed as si>i>n as the
mouth is partly sewn up. and tied, as
the lower corners were ; when Mew-
ed cluse and tight, it is stored m a
dry place liU the hops are wanted for

'■ The crop of the third year will
averageeighlcwt. per acre. In some
very extraordinary seasons, on good
land, fiAeen cwt. have been picked
per acre ; in Flanders, where they
manure with urine ami Ihe eniptyinga
of priviea, this is not an uncomtnoiv
produce. The plaataiion lasts flllcen
to thirty years.

" Kape cakes, m^li dust, woollen
rags, horn shavings, and nitrogen
manures are used wiih good success
in bop grounds : bones bave been
tried, hut with an uncertain reanlt.

"The hop isa dioecious plant (ft^.),
i. c, some of the individuals arc male
plants, and otbers female, which hare

respect ivelyflowersofad iflbi«n t con-
struciion and of different habitudes.
The male or sUminiferous flowars
<a), which grow on stalks qnile dis-
tinct from the female flowers, pre-
pare the pollen, or fertililing dust,
and afterward wither sway, when
this dust has escaped from the an-
tlters, and been committed lotbe air,
be by it conveyed to the female
were. The female flowers are in
E form of slrobiili(A) or cones, con-
iting of scales, which have at their
base the geim uf Ihe future aeeJ, and

HOP

HOR

which hare the habit of enlarging, as
the scales of the fir-cones do, more
particalarly after the fertilization of
the omie, ur fatare seed, by a quan-
tity of the poUen falling upon it.

" Though the pollen, from its ex-
treme lightness, can be wafted to a
considerable distance, and some seeds
ill each cone maybe so fertilized, yet
it 'wouM be well to rear a number of
the male plants among the others, or
along the hedges of the hop gardens,
to ensure the fenilization of all the
Bveds. But as the farmers observe
that the flowers of the male (termed,
in Kent, seedling, blind, or- wild hop ;
in Sussex, buck or cock hop) wither
away, they generally extir|»te them
at the digging season, as unfruitful
camberers of the ground. That this
is an error may be proved in various
ways, bat an appeal to the result of
an opposite practice is the most con-
vincing. A bushel of hope, c<dlected
from plants of the fourth year, raised
from s^nI, weighed 36 pounds, there
being male plants near ; a second in-
stance, where the plants were raised
from cuttings, weighed thirty-five
pounds, whUe a bushel, grown in a
garden where the male plaats were
always eradicated, weighed only 22
pounds. Besides the greater quan-
tity of hops thus obtained, the aroma
is much greater (the lupulirtj on which
the aroma depends, is considered by
Planche to be the unappropriated poi-
]«n dust which has alighted on the
scale of the females), and the strength
of the bitter much greater. The value
of a specimen of hops depends upon
the amount of lupulin dust it con-
tains, and its aroma ; when of the best
quality, they oommand from sixteen
to twenty cents the pound. Aiter the
period when the msdes have elabora-
ted the pollen, and the strobuli of the
females begun to enlarge, the males
may be cut down, and the stalks em-
ployed to make cordage for hop-bags
against the following harvest. In
1760 the Society of Arts awarded pre-
miums for cloth made from the hop
runner.

** The poles of oak, ash, larch, and
chi*5tnut are the roost durable. They

should be put into a shed daring win*
ter : where this cannot be done, they
are placed on end in the form of a
cone, leaning against each other."
The hop is very liable to diseases :
it suflTers from the aphis ; a species of
hallica attacks the young plant ; sev-
eral moths deposit their eggs upon
it : honey-dew is often destructive ; it
is also liable to attacks of mildew and
fire-blight towards maturity.

HORDEIN. The impure starch
of barley.

HORDEUM. The genus of barley
grasses.

HORE HOUND. Marrubium tul-
gore. A perennial, labiate plant, of
a bitter, aromatic taste, used as a
popular remedy in colcU, and to fla-
vour candies. It is readily propaga-
ted by dividing the roots.

HORIZONTAL. Level. A plane
parallel to the horizon.

HORN. Indurated skin, consist-
ing, for the most part, of modified al-
bumen. It resembles hair in its chem-
ical and agricultural properties, and
when shaved into thin strips, answers
the same purposeas a manure. Horn,
whalebone, tortoise-shell, which are
all similar, are readily softened by
heat or hot water, and are then va-
riously cut or moulded into a num-
ber of articles, as combs, handles for
knives, rings, 6lc. Digested with wa-
ter in an iron cylinder, under press-
ure, they are dissolved, and yield glue.

The horns of oxen and many oth-
er animals are only a covering over
a bony process rising from the front
bone of the head. This bone, called
the horn pith, is remarkably porous,
and full of blood-vessels, so that, when
it is cut or injured, violent hcmor-
rhage follows, which can scarcely be
stopped, except by applying a white-
hot iron, or by pressure.

HORNBEAM. A tree of the same
family as the oak, the Carpinus bet-
tUuB, of small size, and formerly used
as tall hedging. The wood is very
hard and durable, and used by turn-
ers for cog-wheels, presses, levers,
and stout handles. The only Amer-
ican species is the C. Americana, wa-
ter beech, or hornbeam. It grows on

UOR

HOR

the mar^n of rivers in the Middle !
States, rising twenty to forty feet.

The term hornbeam, or ironwood,
is also applied to the Otlrya Virgin-
ieuutt a tree of twenty to forty feet
high, of the same family, fonnd in the
Southern States. The wood is as
serviceable as that of the hornbeam.

HORNBLEND. A dark green or
black mineral, massive or crystal-
lized in prisms, of glassy lustre, and
readily scratched by a knife. It is
very abundant in primary, transition,
and trap formations, and consists of
silica, 46 ; lime and magnesia, 34 ;
iron, from 4 to 7 ; alumina, dec, 13
per cent. It forms the basis of nu-
merous minerals, and is found in sev-
eral varieties, as augite, amphibole,
pargasite, tremolite, actinolite.

Hornblend slate and schist are
transition rocks, consisting of a mix-
ture of hornblend, quartz, and some-
times feldspar. A soil formed from
these rocks is necessarily rich, from
containing lime, magnesia, potash,
clay, and sand. The crystals also
occur in siennite, or Boston granite.
Greenstone, the common ingredient
of dikes, is a mixture of hornblend
and feldspar, varying but little from
trap. Soils rich in hornblend have a
greenish colour.

HORNBUG. The beetles of the
genus Lucanus, or stag beetles, espe-
cially L. eapreolus. The grubs live
in the trunks and roots of old trees.

HORN DISTEMPER. A disease
of the horns of oxen, especially cows,
in which an accumulation of pus
takes place in the pith: the treat-
ment is, to let it out by boring into
the horn, two inches from the head,
with a small gimlet. The animal
affected first exhibits the signs of a
cold, the eyes become duU« tbe ai>>
petite diminishes, the creature lan-
guishes and lies down ; but it is also
occasionally attended with symptoms
of diseased brain ; the animal tosses
his head and groans much.

HORN PITHS or FLINTS.
These answer in manuring for bones,
having a composition nearly identical
with bones, namely, gelatin and fat,
36 ; bone earth, 64 per cent. : they de-

384

cay more rapidly from their porous
structure. They are difficult tn crush
in the common bone mill, but may be
broken by a heavy bark mill, or dis-
solved in strong acid. They are much
used for the extraction of size and
glue.

HORNET. Vespa nutcmU/a, the
American species. They build a
globular nest of a substance like pai*
per upon branches of trees, ^cc. Its
sting is painful, but may be allayed
by oil, with a little hartshorn. It
preys upon fruit, flies, and is very de-
structive to bees. The European
species is V. crabro.

HORNSTONE. A flinty mineraL
Chert, also, is known by this name.
Homstone is wrought in stones for
crashing flints in potteries; it also
forms a good hone. The varieties
are variously coloured, ^y, white,
red, and dark greenish ; it is infusi-
ble before the blow-pipe, and contains
76 per cent, silica, with 13 alttmioa,
colouring oxide, and water.

HORSE. ** Natural Higtory and
Dentition of tbe Horat. — ^Tbe native
country of the horse is unknown.
From very remote periods he has
been found in almost every part of
the Old World, but his appearance
on the continents and the islands of
the New World, whether of the At-
lantic or Pacific Ocean, is of com-
paratively recent date. Everywhere
be is recognised as the most useful
of the servants of man, and he yields
in intelligence to the dog alone. If
he differs in diflerent countries in
form and in size, it is from the in-
fluence of climate and cultivation;
but otherwise, from the war-horse,
as he is depicted on the friezes of an-
cient temples, to the stately obarKor
of Holstein and of Spain, or from tbe
fleet and beautiful Arabian to the di-
minutive Shetlander, there is an evi-
dent similarity of form and destina«
tion which dearly stamps his coounoa
origin.

*' He is naturally, and of choice, an
herbivorous and granivorous animal.
His thin and muscular lips, his finn
and compressed mouth, and his sharp
incisor teeth, are admirably adapted

HORSE.

to seixe and to crop the grass; a
provision is given in the structure of
Bome of the bones of the face, by
means of which be can coraminate
and grind down his food as perfectly
as in the best-contrived mill.

" The teeth of the horse require
aome lengthened consideration, not
only from their admirable adaptation
to this purpose, but as indicating, by
the various changes which they un-
dergo, almost beyond the possibility
of error, the age of the animal. He
may, when young in years, be re-
duced nearly to the decrepitude of
age by the barbarous usage of those
who ought to be his most zealous
protectors ; the cavity above the eye
may be deepened, the under lip may
fail, the limbs may be bowed, and the
feet may be battered and distorted,
but it is not easy to alter the charac-
ter of the teeth.

"The colt is generally dropped with
the first and second molar and grind-
ing teeth having forced their way
through the gum. When be is about
seven or eight days old the two cen-
tral front, or incisor teeth, above and
below, appear {Fig. a). At the ex-
piration o{ five or six weeks the two
next iDCisors may be seen. At three
months they will have overtaken the
central ones, and both pairs will have
nearly attained their natural level.
A third grinder will then have ap-
peared ; and a little before or at^er
the eighth month the third nipper,
above and below, and on each side,
will be seen. The colt wiil now have
his full complement of front or cut-
ting teeth.

" These teeth are beautifully adapt-
ed to their purpose. They have in
fhmt an elevated cutting edge of con-
siderable sharpness. It is formed of
enamel, a polished substance almost
too hard to be acted upon by the file,
which covers the tooth. This eleva-
ted edge is bent somewhat inward
and over the tooth, so that there is
a depression behind it, which gradu-
ally becomes stained by the food,
and constitutes what is called 'the
mark* in the mouth of the colt or
horse.

"This elevated edse of enamel,
hard as it is, is graduSly worn down
in the act of nipping and cutting the
grass ; and as it wears away, the
hollow behind becomes diminished,
and is at length totally obliterated.
By the degree in which this mark is
effaced, the horseman, not only with
regard to the first, but the permanent
teeth, judges of the age of the ani-
mal. This obliteration begins to be
manifest at a very early age. At six
months it is sufficiently evident in
the four central nippers. At a year
and a half the mark will be very faint
in the central nippers, diminished in
the other two, and the surface of all
of them will be flattened.

" At twelve months a fourth grind-
er protrudes, and a fifth at the expi-
ration of two years.

"These are all temporary teeth.
They were only to last during a very
early period of the life of the animal ;
and when his jaws were considera<
hly expanded, they were destined to
flrive way to another set, larger, firm-
er, and that would probably last du-
nng life. The permanent teeth had
been long growing in the socket be-
neath the temporary ones, and had
been pressing upon their roots, and
that pressure had caused an absorp-
tion of these roots, until at length
they lost all hold, and were displaced.

" W^en the animal is about three
years old the central pair of nippers,
above and below, are thus removed,
and two fresh teeth, easily distin-
guishable from the first by their in-
creased size, make their appearance,
so that a three-year old colt is easily
recognised by these two new and en-
larged central nippers.

" A three -year old colt has his form
and energies much more developed
than a two-year old one, and is con-
siderably more valuable ; therefore
some dishonest breeders endeavour
to pass him upon the unwary as be-
ing a year older than he really is, and
they accomplish this in an ingemous
but cruel manner. This cannot, how-
ever, be effected until a portion of
the second year is past, when the
permanent teeth below are beginning

885

HORSE.

to press upon the roots of their pred-
ecessors, and then the breeder ex-
tracts the central milk-teeth. Those
below, having no longer anything to
Insist their pnigreas, grow far more
rapidly than they otherwise would do,
and the scoundrel gains four or five
months in the apparent age of his
colt.

"Can this trickery be detected!
Not always, except by him who is
well accustomed to horses. The
comparatively slow wasting of the
other nippers, the difference of the
development of these nippers in the
upper and under jaw — for the breed-
er usually confines his roguery to the
lower jaw, the upper one being com-
paratively seldom examined — these
circumstances, together with a defi-
ciency of general development in the
colt, will alone enable the purchaser
to detect the attempted cheat.

" The honest mouth of a three-
year old horse should be thus form-
ed : the central teeth are palpably
larger than the others, and have the
mark on their upper surface evident
and well defined. They will, how-
ever, be lower than the other teeth.
The mark in the next pair of nippers
will be nearly worn awa^, and that
in the corner nippers will begin to
wear {Fig. 3).

"At three years and a half the
second nippers will be pushed from
their sockets, and their place gradu-
ally supplied by a new pair ; and at
four and a half the corner nippers
will be undergoing the same process.
Thus, at four years old the central
nippers will be fully grown ; the next
pair will be up. but will not have at-
tained their full height ; and the cor-
ner nippers will be small, with their
mark nearly effaced. At five years
old thelmark will begin to be effaced
from the central teeth, the next pair
will be fully grown and the blackness
of the mark a little taken off, and the
comer pair will be protruding or part-
ly grown.

•• At this period, or between the
fourth and fifth year, another change
will have taken place in the mouth ;
the tushes will have begun to appear

886

( Fig. 6). There will he two of them

in each jaw, between the nippers and
the grinders, considerably nearer to
the former than the latter, and par-
ticularly so in the lower jaw. The
use of these tushes in the domestica-
ted state of the horse is not evident ;
but they were probably designed as
weapons of offence in the wild state
of the animal. Attempts are too fre- *
quently made to hasten the appear-
ance of the second and the comer
teeth, in the same manner as de-
scribed with regard to the first, and
the gum is often deeply lanced in or-
der to hasten the appearance of the
tush.

** At six years old the mark on the
centra] nippers will he diminished, if
not obliterated. A depression and a
mark of rather brown hue may re-
main, but the deep blackened hole in
the centre will no longer be found.
The other incisors will also be some-
what worn, and the tush fully de>
veloped.

" At seven the mark on the next
pair of incisors will have nearly dis-
appeared, and the tush will be round-
ed at the point and the edges.

" At eight the mark wilJ have dis-
appeared from all the incisor teeth,
and the tnsh will be evidently rounder
and blunter.

" At this period another piece of
trickery is occasionally practised.
The breeder had, until the animal
was five years old, been endeavour-
ing to give htm an older appearance
than his years entitled him to, l>e-
cause in proportion as he approached
the period when his powers were moat
perfectly developed his value increas-
ed ; but now he endeavours to con-
ceal the ravages of age. The horse
is cast, and with a sharp-pointed steel
instrument a little hole is dng on the
surface of the corner incisor, to which
a red-hot iron is afterward applied.
An indelible black mark fs thus left
on the tooth. Sometimes the roguery
is carried farther; the next tooth
is slightly touched with the engraver
and the cautery; but here the dis-
honest dealer generally overreaches
himself, fur the form and general ap-

HORSE.

pearance of a six-yeaf old bone ean
rarely ba given to one who has passed
bi« eighth year. The eti^th year hav-
ing passed, it is dtfficuit to decide on
the exact age of the horse. The in-
cisors of the Qpper jaw are ttien the
best g^aides. At nine years the mark
is said to be worn away from the
central teeth; at eleven, from the
next pair; and at twelve, from the
corner ones. The tush likewise be-
comes shorter and blunter.

'* There are many circumstances
which render a decision as to the
age of the horse very difficult after
the marks are effaced from the lower
incisors, and even before that penod.
Horses always kept in the stable have
the mark much sooner worn ont than

those that are at grass, and it is bn-
possiMe to form any calculation at all
as to crib-biters.

** Of the affe to which the horse
would naturally arrive it is impossible
to say anything satisfactory. Many
have exceeded thirty, and some of
them even forty years ; but, from ill-
usage and over- exertion, the majority
eome to their end before they have
seen 15 years."

" The various progressive changes
that take place in the appearance of
the teeth of horses at dinerent ages,
from a few weeks old (marked a in
Ftff,) to 1, 2, 3. 4, 6, 6, 7, 8, 10, !»,
and 18 years, may be seen in the
following dental map, constructed by
Mr. Blaine."

3S7

"The Proper Conformation of the
Boree. — A very genera! account only
can be given of this, for it raries es-
sentially with the breed and destina-
tion of the animal. There are some
points, however, which are valttable
in horses of every description. The
head shoaid not be disproportionally
large, and should be well set on, t. e.,
the lower jaw-bones should be suffi-
ciently far apart to enable the head to
form that angle with the neck which
gives free motion and a graceful car-
riage to it, and prevents its bearing
too heavy on the hand. The eye
should be large and a little promi-
nent, and the eyelid fine and thin.
The ear should be small and erect,
and quick in motion. The lop-ear
indicates dulness or stubbornness;
and when It is habitually laid too far
back upon the neck, there is too fre-
quently a disposition to mischief.
The nostril in every breed should be
somewhat expanded: it can hardly
be too much so in the racer, the
hunter, the roadster, and the coach-
horse, for this animal breathes only
through the nostril, and would be
dangerously distressed when much
speed is required of liim, if the nos-
tril could not dilate to admit and to
return the air. The neck should be
long rather than short. It then ena-
bles the animal to graze with more
ease, and to throw his weight more
forward, whether he is in harness or
galloping at the top of his speed. It
should be muscular at its base, and
gradually become fine as it approach-
es the head. The withers should be
somewhat high in every horse, ex-
cept, perhaps, that of heavy draught,
and it does not harm him, for there
is larger surface for the attachment
of the muscles of the back, and they
act at greater mechanical advantage.
A slanting direction of the shoulder
gives, also, much mechanical advan-
tage, as well as an easy and pleasant
action, and a greater degree of safe-
ty. It must not, however, exist in
any considerable degree in the horse
of draught, and particularly of heavy
draught. The chest must be capa-
cious, for it contains the heart and

368

the HiiigB, the organs on whi^h €be
speed and enduranoo ef the horse de-
pend. Capacity of chest is indispen-
sable in every horse, but the form of
the chest admits of variation. In the
wagon-horse the circular chest may
be admitted, because he seldom goes
at any great speed, and there ia oom-
paratively little variation in the quan-
tity of air required ; but in other
horses the variation is often fearful.
The quantity of air expended in a
gallop is many times that required in
hard work. Here we must have
depth of chest, not only as giving
more room for the insertion of the
muscles on the action of which the
expansion of the chest depends, but
a conformation of the chest wbich
admits of that expansion. That
which is somewhat straight may be
easily bent into a circle when greater
capacity is required; that which is
already circular admits of no expan-
sion. A few words more are all that
our limits permit us to add, and they
contain almost all that is necessary
to be added on the conformation d
the horse. * The loins should be
broad, the quarters long, the thighs
muscular, and the hocks well bent
and well under the horse.' "

Varietiee of the Horee. — All the ra-
rieties are attributed by naturalists
to one common origin, either of Tar-
tary or Arabia, the diminutive siae of
the Shetland, Iceland, and other po-
nies being attributed to climate and
provender.

As our breeds are derived from
Europe, it being asserted that the
wild Mexican and Pam^ horses are
the ofl^ring of those mtroduoed by
the Spanianls and early settlers, it
will be well to make some remarks
on the original stock.

William the Conqueror introduced
Spanish horses (of Arabian stock) into
England. The thorough Arabian was
introduced in 1121.

The Arabian horse is of small size,
usually of a dark or black colour, fine
eye, ^eat limbs, and amiable disposi-
tion ; his form is the model for en-
durance and speed. Several Arabi-
ans have been introduced into the

(InEted States, one of which ia now

in Virgiaia. The figure represents

Fig. I.

From this breed the finest horses
of Spain, Barbarj, France, and Ger-
man<r have been iraproTed.

The Tact'horte is a well-marked an-
imal, derived from a Jndicioua mix-
tare of the Arabian. Persian, and
Barbary : it is, therefore, formed nut
of Arabian varieties entirely. His
figtire Indicates (wilineae, which has
even readied fbar miles in seven and
a half minniea in the case of Fasli-
ion. The same characteristics be-
long to the American Ihorougii-bred,
which has, indeed, been derived from
Ibe beat English stock, and crossed
with the thorough Arabian. It is the
opinion of those best informed, that
Ibis breed is now beyond ilie Arabi-
an, and can only be improved by jadi-
Cioua selections from the same slock.

Se« Bretiing. Tlie figure represents
Che characters of Ute racer remaika-
U; welL

Tht kunter is three quarters bred,
GAeeo to siztcea handa hich,,wiilj

Ki3

more bone, and Sorter in the bad;
than ttie turf horse. His forehead
Bhouhl be lofty, the shoulder high, but
thicker than in the race-horse : a
broad chest is indispensable. The leg
deeper, but shorter than that of the
racer. The fool is all-important ; it
should stand upright, or a little out-
ward ; the loioB must be broad, tlw
thiahs muscular, the hooks H'ell bent
and under. Dr. Gibson tsof opinion
Ibat tlie Irish racer, thou^ not so
highly bred, is now a belter horse
than (he English racers of this stock
Harkowsy and Skylark, introduced
into Virginia, were the Snest speei-
mens. The horses of Virginia and
New-Jersey, gotten by Sbark and
Tallyho, out of llie best common
msres, are fine hunters and improved
hacks.

The inijirovtd hack, or roaililer, is
the most important luirse. It is now
in England of tbe same breed as the
hunter, being preferred rather for the
figure than any other quality. In se-
lecting breeding alalliunB and mares,
those with high and well-plaeedsboiU-
ders. light heads, and moderate necks,
with straight legs, and full huntine
hind quarters, are selected.

safer, a

1 of II

isall

It is a difficult thing to place the
Nete-YoTklnlterM; fur while, by tiieii
speed, they are entitled to the rank of
taoers, their bottom and figure place
them in the list of roadsters.

The Morgan or Gots htttti of Ver-
mont occupies a positioD between
the thorough roadster and draught

boTae. Tfaey are fouiteen to fifteen
bands, bay, short and round, small
heads, deep cbesta, fore-legs net wide
apart, strung baeka. good wind and
baltom. They are apirited, with good
•etion and form, and an admirable
rnadater and carriage horse.

Tilt Norman horie. or Ferckerim. is
acroaa of Ihe Spanish upon the Flem-
ish draught horse. He is remarkable
for spirit, liTeliness, and draught qual-
iliea. He sTenigee sixteen hands,
head short, jaw heavy, neck abort
and thick, shoulder oblique, short
back, quarters broad, chest deep and
wide, legs abort. It is a very obedi-
ent race, bearing great hardships and
coarse (ate. Mr. Harris, of New-
Jersey, has imported aline pair. The
well-known and justly celebrated
Canadian horse has all the qualities
of the Nurman. from which il is dc-
tived, eicept the aize. This breed,
altbough nul so powerful, is much
more valuable than the English,
Dutfh.or Ftemisb drauglit horse, fur
it ia a gaud roadster, carriage, and
WBfOn horae.

flu Ct^dadaie (Fig. 4) ia Ibe best

Englisb cart-horse, and has much of
the qualities of the Nornnan. It ii
much lighter than the Suffolk punch :
the chest is broad, shoulder thick and
oblique, the back straiitlit and broad.
Tbia boTse is remarkably true and
fititbrul, with great endurance. It is
an admirable plough horse, and oflen
■nfflciently lively for the carriage.

Tkt Cotutli^a kerii of Pennsylva-
nia ia a good cairiags and draught an-

:b from his extreme

Among the different varieties of
horse, there is notbing equal in beau-
ty. liveliness, und docility to the Shet-
land pony, of eight and nine and a
half bands high. They are frequent-
ly used to draw light carriages. Hie
Welsh pony is occasionally a beauti-
ful creature,

*■ Ufrterai Management of Horatt. — -
The foal, as soon as it la dropped,
should be turned with its dam iuto a
sheltered and good pasture, in which
there is a hovel for occasional retreat
from the wind and the rain. Some
bay or corn, or both, should be a\-
lowed, if it is early in the season, or
the grass bas scarcely begun lu shoot.
There is notbing so detrimeuEal to
the colt as insufficient IUkI. It should
be regarded as a fundamental prioci'
pie in breeding, thai if llie growth ia
checked by slar»atioii, beauty, aikd
energy, and stoutness will rarely be
displayed in after years.

•' In five or six months, according
to the growth of tlie foal, or Ibe con-
venience of the faruier, the weaninf
may take place. The colt should be
removed from his former haunts to
some distant rick-yard, or confined
to a stable untd be becomes a liltia
lecuncded to the luas of his dam,

" In the ensuing spring the brtak-
ifl^ may commence ; a process on
which will materially depend the tem-
per and the value of the borse, and
the pleasure of the rider. The foal
should be handled and haltered, and
led about by the servant who lias the
chief care of him, and whose con-
duct towards him should always be
kind. ■ The principle,' says the au-
thor of ' The Horse.' ' on which the
after usefulnesa of the animal is
founded, is early attachment to and
confidence in man, and obedienee,
resulting principally from these,'

" With regaiij to the racing cott,
the processes of breaking and train-
ing are injuriously and cruelly com-
pleted in the second year, and thon-
sands of horses are irieparably in-
jured by this early exaction of labour
and speed; but in the hnnter, the

HORSE.

hackney, tbe agricultural, and the car-
riage horse, the serious part of this
business is not entered upon until
the third year.

" A horse is well broken when he
has been taught implicit and cheer-
ful obedience to his rider or driver,
and dexierity in the perfonnance of
his work. A dogged, sullen, spirit-
less submission may be enforced by
the cmel and brutal usage to which
the breaker so frequently has re-
course ; but that prompt and eager
response to the slightest intimation
of the rider's will ; that manifest aim
to anticipate every wish, that gives
to the horse so much of his value,
must be built on habitual confidence
and attachment. The education of
the horse should be that of a child.
Pleasure should be, as much as pos-
sible, associated with the early les-
sons ; while firmness, or, if need be,
coercion, mast establish the habit of
obedience.

"The breaking being accomplish-
ed, the management of the horse will
vary according to his breed and des-
tination ; but the good usage of our
domesticated slaves should be re-
garded as a principle that ought nev-
er to be violated. The agricultural
horse is seldom over-worked, and on
large farms is generally well fed :
perhaps, in many cases, too much
above his work ; this, however, is an
error on the right side. A very slight
inspection of the animal will always
enable the owner to determine wheth-
er he is too well or not sufficiently
fed. The size of the horse and the
nature of the work, and the season
of the year, will make considerable
difi*erence in the miantity and quali-
ty of the food. The following ac-
counts will sufficiently elucidate the
general custom : Mr. Harper ploughs
seven acres per week, the year
through, on strong land, with a team
of three horses, and allows to each,
weekly, two bushels of oats, with
bay, during the winter six months,
and during the remainder of the
year one bushel of oats per week,
with green food. Mr. EUman allows
two boshels of oats, with pease haulm

or straw, with but very little hay, du-
ring thirty winter weeks. He gives
one bushel of oats, with green food,
during the summer. There is very
little difference in the management
of these two gentlemen, and that
probably arising from circumstances
peculiar to their respective farms.
The grand principles of feeding, with
reference to agricultural horses, are,
to keep the animal rather above his
work, to give him good and whole-
some food, and. by the use of the
nose-bag, or other means, never to
let him be worked more than four or
five hours without being baited.

•* The horse of quick work, the stage-
coach horse and the poster, should
be allowed as much as he will eat,
care being taken that no more is pat
into the manger than he will readily
dispose of. The quantity actually
eaten will depend on the degree of
work and the natural appetite of the
horse ; but it may be averaged at
about 66 pounds of cut straw, 17|
pounds of beans, and 77 of oats per
week. When the work is unusually
hard, the quantity of oats may be di-
minished, that of beans increased.

" During the sporting season the
hunter is well fed, and with that kind
of food which contains a great pro-
portion of nutriment in little com-
pass. A small quantity of hay, rare-
ly more than eight or ten pounds per
day, is allowed, and less than that on
the day before work. The quantity
of oats may vary from 14 to 16 pounds
daily. There is a prejudice in most
hunting stables, and probably well
founded, against chaff, and it is sel-
dom that the beans and oats are
bruised. A bran-mash is given after
a day of more than usual fatigue, and
is serviceable at other times, when
there has not been more than ordi-
nary work, provided that at least
two days are suffered to elapse be-
fore the horse is again taken into the
field.

** No horse should be urged on after
he has exhibited unequivocal symp-
toms of distress, such as a dnwping
pace, a staggering gait, a heavy bear-
I ing on the hand, a rapid inspiration

HORSE.

like a hurried aigh, aad a peculiar
convulsive action of the diaphragm,
as though the heart were violently
beating against the side. The loss
of blood, the administration of some
cordial medicine, and slow leading to
the nearest stable, are the best re-
Btorati ves at the moment of distress ;
although the cordial would be abso-
lutely destructive a few hours after-
ward, when inflammation had com-
menced.

" The hunting season having
passed, the horse used to be turned
into the field as soon as the grass
had begun fairly to sprout, and there,
with bis feed or two feeds of corn
daily, and his hovel, into which he
might retreat from the sun or the
storm, he remained until the middle
of June, or the flies began to be troub-
lesome. It was delightful to see how
much he enjoyed this short period of
liberty ; and well had he earned it.
Of late years, however, it has be-
come the fashion to confine him to
his box, whence he stirs not, except
for an hour's walking exercise on
the road, until he is taken into train-
ing for the next winter's business.

" Nothing can be so erroneous or
cruel as this. There are few horses
that have not materially suflTered in
their legs and feet before the chise of
the hunting season. There cannot
be anything so refreshing to their
feet as the damp coolness of the
herbage which they tread at that pe-
riod ; and there is no physic which
so safely and efleotually as the spring
grass carries off every humour that
may he lurking in their frame.

•* The training of the hunter for his
work is a simple afTair; it is, by
means of exercise and physic, getting
rid of ail superfluous fat and flesh
without debilitating him. The phys-
ic IB useful ; it is indispensable ; but
the chief thing is gradually to accus-
tom him to the exertion of every
power that he possesses, without too
much hurrying his breathing or over-
straining or injuring him.

" The training of the race-horse is
of a similar character, but it is far
more severe, for his strength, his
892

speed, and his endnrance moat tm
tested to the utmost. The huoter
has to carry his rider gallantly and
well through perhaps a long burst,
and if he tires, and the sportsman
has the good sense and humanity to
cease to urge him on, the greatest
evil is some temporary suffering to
him, and disappointment to his mas*
ter ; but if the race-horse breaks
down, or if his capabilities have
not been accurately calculated, the
most serious loss may be sustained.
Thence arises the necessity of strain-
ing and of testing every power in the
preparation of the turf horse ; and
thence, too, it happens, from the
strange and impolitic sacrifice of the
endurance of the modern racer to
speed during short distances, that so
many young horses break down and
become perfectly useless in their
training.

" The rcatering of the horse is a
very important but disregarded por-
tion of his general management. The
kind of water has not been sufficient-
ly considered. The difierence be-
tween what is termed hard and *oft
water is a circumstance of general
observation. The former contains
certain saline principles which de-
compose some bodies, as ia the cur*
dllng of soap ; and prevent the solu-
tion of others, as in the making of
U^a, the boiling of Tegetables, and the
process of brewing. It is natural to
suppose that these different kinds ot
water would produce somewhat dif-
ferent effects on the animal frame,
and such is the fact. Hard water,
freshly drawn from the well, will fre-
quently roughen the coat of the horse
unaccustomed to it, or cause griping
pains, or materially lessen the anl-
maPs power of exertion. The racing
and the hunting groom are perfectly
aware of this, and so is the horse,
for he will refuse the purest water
from the well if he can obtain access
to the running stream, or even the
turbid pool. "VVbere there is the pow-
er of choice, the soft water should
undoubtedly be preferred.

"The temperature of the water
is of far noore consequence than

HORSE.

its hardnesB. It will rarely harm if
taken from the pond or the running
stream, but its coldness, when re-
centiy drawn from the well, has often
been injurions. It has produced col-
ic, spasm, and even death. - It should,
therefore, be exposed for some hours,
either in the stable or in some tank.

** There is olten considerable prej-
udice against the horse being fairly
snppHed with water. It is supposed
to chill him, to injure his wind, or to
incapacitate bim for hard work. It
certainly would do so if, immediate-
ly after drinking his iUl, he were gal-
kiped hard, but not if he were sneer-
ed to quench his thirst more frequent-
ly when at rest in ihe stable. The
horse thai has free access to water
will not drink so much in the course
of a day as another who, to cool his
paorched motith, swallows as fast as
he can, and knows not when to stop.

** When on a journey, a horse may,
with perfect safety, be far more lib-
erally supplied with water than he
generally is. An hour before his
work commences he should be per-
mitted to drink a couple <^ quarts.
A greater quantity might be probably
objected to. He wiU perform bis
task far more pleasantly and effect-
irely than with a parched mouth and
tormenting thirst. The prejudice
both of the hunting and the training
groom, on this point, is cruel as weU
as injurious. The task or the jour-
ney being accomplished, and the
hone having breathed a few min-
utes, another quart, or eTcn two, will
be delightfttlly refreshing to him, and
will never do him harm. His corn
may then be offered to him, which he
will readay take ; and, before he has
eaten the whole of it, two or three
more quarts of water may be given.

** Towards the close of the day, the
^leed of the traveller should some-
what abate, and the horse should ar-
rive at his resting-place as dry and
as cool as circumstances will permit.
If he is hot, he must be walked about
a while, or the perspiration will re-
tnm in the stable. If he is wet, he
must be carefully rubbed dry. The
•OQner this is done the better ; and,

I after he is clothed, watered, fbd, and
bedded, he should, as soon as possi-
hle, be left to his repose. Professor
Stewart, of Glasgow, has lately pub-
lished a very useful work on the • Sta-
ble Economy, or General Manage-
ment of Horses.' We abridge his
account of *■ the kinds of work, and
the preparation for them.*

" Traveiling. — The horse should
undergo some degree of training as
to the pace, the distance, and the
burden. When there has been no
preparation, the stages must at fifSt
be short, and the pace gentle. For a
journey of 300 miles the horse may
travel from twenty to twenty-five
miles a day, resting on the Sunday,
and doing the work in two stages, at
the pace of six miles an hour. This
requires a seasoned horse, and the
number of working hours per day is
about four.

** HufUing requires speed and
stoutness. The pace seldom exceeds
twelve miles an hour, and the run is
short, soon over, or interrupted ; yet
sofl, sinking ground, hills, and leaps
make this pace severe even on the
best horses. The time for prepara-
tion varies from two to four months.
On the day before work, the horse
should have exercise enough to emp-
ty the bowels. If he is a good feed-
er, he should have no hay within
eight hours of starting, nor water
within four hours, nor corn within
three hours ; but if he has five or six
miles to go to cover, these restric-
tions are less necessary. The work-
ing days will vary according to his
condition and the hardness of the
running. He may be able to go out
every second day, and sometimes not
more than once in six or seven. His
spirits and appetite, and the state of
his legs, will decide this. Even on
the blank days some exercise should
be taken in order to evacuate the
bowels and create an appetite.

" Coaching. — ^The horses are best
prepared for their work by good feed-
ing and gradual increase of speed and
distance. The ordinary length of a
stage is eight to fourteen miles ; the
pace being calculated at from eight

393

HORSE.

to eleven milfts an hour. The mus-
cular exertion is severe while it lasts,
but it is soon over. The excitement,
however, of high keep and excessive
exertion gradually wears the horse
down, and it is rarely that he contin-
ues in a fast coach more than six
years.

" Carting. — Cart-horses usually
work from eight to ten hours, six
days in the week. The pace varies
from two miles to three and a half
per hour, and the weight rarely ex-
ceeds twenty-four cwt , besides the
cart, which probably is seven or eight
more. AH beyond this in weight or
in time of work is cruel.

^* Ploughing. — The average work
is about eight hours in the day. The
severity of it depends on the pace,
the nature of the soil, and the breadth
of the furrow-slice. The pace is from
two miles to two and a half per hour ;
the horse and the man can well sup-
port this as long as the ploughing
season continues.

" Diteasct of Horses (from Youatt).
— It may be readily supposed that the
animal doomed to the manner of liv-
ing just traced in every variety of the
horse, will be peculiarly exposed to
numerous forms of suffering. Every
natural evil will be aggravated, and
many new and formidable sources of
pain and death will be superadded.

"Interest and humanity require
that we should become acquainted
with the nature, and causes, and rem-
edy of the diseases of the horse. Only
a slight sketch of them can be given
here, but sufficient, perhaps, to enable
the owner to recognise their exist-
ence, to avoid their causes, or to in-
duce him to apply to the proper quar-
ter for their removal or alleviation.

**The principal diseases of the
horse are connected with the circu-
latory system. From the state of
habitual excitement in which the an-
imal is kept, in order to enable him
to execute his task, the heart and the
g^Jood-vessels will often act too im-
ulTi^^y^ The vital fluid will be
of a similar cl? ^^^ rapidly, either
more severe, f<ipe generally, or some
^^ f it, and there will be

congestion, accnraulation of blood la
that part, or there will he infiamma^
lion, either local or general, disturb-
ing the functions of some organ or
of the whole frame.

" Congestion. — ^Take a yming horse
on his first entrance into the stablea ;
feed him somewhat highly, and what
is the consequence 1 He has aweii-
ings of the legs, or inflammation of
the joints, or perhaps of the lungs.
Take a horse that has lived amne-
what above his work, and gallop him
to the top of his speed : his nervous
system becomes highly excited ; the
heart beats with fearAil rapidity; the
blood is pumped into the lungs fast-
er than they can discharge it : the
pulmonary vessels beconte gorged,
fatigued, and utterly powerless ; the
blood, arrested in its course, becomes
viscid, and death speedily ensoes.
We have but one chance of saving
our patient, viz., the instantaneous
and copious extraction of blood ; and
one means of preventing the recur-
rence of this dangerous state, name-
ly? hy not sufTering too g[reat an ac-
cumulation of the sanguineous fluid
by over-feeding, and, hy regular and
systematic exercise, inuring the cir-
culatory vessels to prompt and efll-
cient action when they are suddenly
called upon to exert themselves. The
cause and the remedy are sufficient-
ly plain.

^ Again, the brain has functions of
the most important nature to dis-
charge, and more blood flows through
it than any other portion of the frame
of equal bulk. In order to prevent
this organ from being oppressed by
a too great determination of blood to
it, the vessels, although numerous,
are small, and pursue a very circui-
tous and winding course. A horse
highly fed, and full of blood, is sud-
denly and sharply exercised : the
course of the blood is accelerated in
every direction, and to the brain
among other parts. The vessels that
ramify on its surface or penetrate its
substance are completely diiitended
and gorged with it. Perhaps they wne
ruptured, and the efl\i8ed blood press*
es upon the brain ; it presses npon

•t 'iKm.

HORSE.

the origins of the nerves, on which all
sensation and moiion depend, and
the animal suddenly drops powerless.
A prompt and copious abstraction of
blood, or, in other words, a diniinn-
tion of this pressure, can alone sa^e
the patient. Here is the nature, the
cause, and the treatment of apoplexy.
" Sometimes this disease assumes
a different form. The horse has not
been performing more than his ordi-
nary work, or perhaps he may not
have been out of the stable. He is
found with his bead drooping and his
vision impaired. He is staggering
about ; he falls, and lies half uncon-
scious, or he struggles violently and
dangerously. There is the same con-
gestion of blood in the head, the same
pressure on the nervous origins, but

Produced by a different cause. He
as been accustomed habitually to
overload his stomach, or he was on
the previous day kept too long from
his food, and then he fell ravenously
upon it, and ate until his stomach
was completely distended and unable
to propel forward its accumulated
contents. Thus distended, its blood-
vessels are compressed, and the cir-
culation through them is impeded or
altogether suspended. The blood is
still forced on by the heart, and driv-
en in accumulated quantity to other or-
gans, and to the brain among the rest ;
and there congestion takes place,
as just described, and the animal be-
comes sleepy, unconscious, and, if
he is not speedily relieved, he dies.
This, too, is apoplexy ; the horseman
calls it tLonuu-h staggers. Its cause
is improper feeding. The division of
the hours of labour, and the introduc-
tion of the nose-hag^ have much di-
minished tbd frequency of its occur-
rence. The remedies are plain :
bleeding, physicking, and the remo-
val of the contents of the stomach by
means of a pump contrived for that
purpose.

*' Congestions of other kinds occa-
sionally present themselves. It is no
uncommon thing for the blood to loi-
ter in the complicated vessels of the
liver ^ until the membrane of that vis-
cus has burst, and an accumulation of

congealed black blood has presenteo
itself It IS the same with the spleen.
It constitutes the stpclled legs to which
so many horses are subject when they
stand too long idle in the stable. Con-
gestion is the source of many of the
accumulations of serous fluid in vari-
ous parts of the body, and particular-
ly in the chest, the abdomen, and the
brain.

** Inflammation is opposed to con-
gestion, as consisting in an active state
of the capillary arterial vessels : the
blood rushing through them with far
greater rapidity than in health, from
the excited state of the nervous sys-
tem, by which tdey are supplied.

*^ Inflammation is either locai or dif-
fused. It is confined to one organ,
or to a particular portion of that or-
gan ; or it involves many neighbour-
ing ones, or it is spread over the
whole frame. In the latter case it
sr^sumes the name oi fever. Fever is
general or constitutional inflamma-
tion, and is said to be sympathetic or
symptomatic when it can be traced to
some local affection or cause, and
idiopathic when we Cannot so trace
it. The truth probably is that every
fever has its local cause, but tve have
not a sufficient knowledge of the an-
imal economy to be able to discover it.

" Inflammation may be considered
with reference to the membranes
which it attacks.

" The mwous membranes line all the
cavities that communicate with the
external surface of the body. There
is frequent inflammation of the mem-
brane of the mouth. B/ciin, or Glos-
santhrax, is a vesicular enlargement
which runs along the side of the
tongue. Its cause is unknown. It
should be lanced freely and deeply,
and a little aperient medicine admin-
istered. Barbs, or paps, are smaller en-
largements, found more in the neigh-
bourhood of the bridle of the tongue.
They should never be touched with
any instrument : a little cooling med-
icine will generally remove them.
Lampas is inflammation of the palate,
or enlargement of the bars of the pal-
ate. The roof of the mouth may be
slightly lanced, or a little aperient

396

HORSE.

medicue administered ; bat the sen-
sibility of the mouth should never be
destroyed by the application of the
heated iron. Canker and wounds in
the mouth, from various causes, will
be best remedied by diluted tincture
of myrrbt or a weak solution of alum.
Foreign bodies in the gullet may gen-
erally be removed by means of the
pr^bang used in the hoove of cattle :
or the oesophagus may be opened,
and the obstructing body taken out.
It is on the mucous membranes that
poisons principally exert their influ-
ence. The yew is the most frequent
vegetable poison. The horse may be
saved by timely recourse to equal
parts of vinegar and water injected
into the stomach, aller the poison has
been, as much as possible, removed by
means of the stomach-pump. For
arsenic, hydrated peroxide of iron ;
corrosive sublimate, white of eggs.
Spasmodic colic is too frequently pro-
duced by exposure to cold, or the
drinking of cold water, or the use
of too much green meat. The horse
should be walked about ; strong fric-
tion used over the belly, and spirit of
turpentine given in doses of two oun-
ces, with an ounce each of laudanum
and spirit of nitrous sther, in warm
water or ale. If the spasm is not
soon relieved, the animal should be
bled, an aloetic ball administered, and
injections of warm water with a so-
lution of aloes thrown up. This spas-
modic action of the bowels, when
long continued, is liable to produce in-
trosusceptiony or entanglement^ of them,
and the case is then hopeless. Su^
perpurgation often follows the admin-
istration of a too strong or improper
dose of physic. The torture which
it produces will be evident by the ag-
onized expression of the countenance,
and the frequent looking at the flanks.
Plenty of thin starch or arrow- root
should be given both by the mouth
and by injection ; and twelve hours
having passed without relief being
experienced, chalk, catechu, and opi-
um should be added to the gruel.
Worms in the intestines are not often
productive of much mischief, except
they exist in very great quantities.
396

SmaU doees (twe dracbiDB) of emetio

tartar, with a little ginger, maybe giv-
en to the horse half an boar before
his first meal, in order to expel the
round white worm ; and injections of
linseed oil or aloes will remove the
ascarides, or needle- worms.

'*The respiratory passages are all
lined by the mucous membrane. Co-
tarrh, or cold, inflammations of the
upper air passages, should never be
long neglected. A few mashes or
a little medicine will usually remove
it. If it is neglected, and, occasion-
ally, in defiance of all treatment, it
wiU degenerate into other diseases.
The larynx may become the princi-
pal seat of inflammation. Laryngitis
will be shown by extreme difficulty of
breathing, accompanied by a strange,
roaring noise, and an evident enlarge-
ment and great tenderness of the lar-
ynx when felt externally. The wind-
pipe must be opened in such case,
and the best advice will be necessa-
ry. Sometimes the subdivisions of
the trachea, before or when it first
enters the lungs, will be the part af-
fected, and we have bronchitis. This
is characterized by a quick and hard
breathing, and a peculiar wheezing
sound, with the coughing up of mu-
cus. Here, too, decisive measures
must be adopted, and a skilful prac-
titioner employed. So should he in
distemper, influenza, and epidemic ra^
tarrh, names indicating the same dis-
ease, and produced by atmospheric
influence, varying to a certain degree
in every season, but in alt character-
ized by intense inflammation of the
mucous surfaces, and by rapid and
utter prostration of strength, and in
all demanding the abatement of that
inflammation, and yet no expenditure
of vital power.

" Cough may degenerate into t»»
flammafions of the lungs ; or this fear-
ful malady may be developed without
a single premonitory symptom, and
may prove fatal in twenty-four, or
even in twelve hours. It is mostly
characterized by deadly coldness of
the extremities, expansion of the nos-
tril, redness of its lining membrane^
singularly anxious countenance, con-

HORSE.

stant gaaing at the ilank» and an an-

wiUingness to move. A saccessful
treatment ofsuch a case can be found-
ed only OQ the most prompt, and fear-
less, and decisive measures. The
lancet mast be freely ased ; counter-
irritants must follow as soon as the
violence of the disease is in the slight-
est degree abated ; sedatives must
succeed to them, and fortunate will
he be who often saves his patient af-
ter all the decisive symptoms of pneu-
monia are once developed.

" Among the consequences of these
severe affections of the lungs are
chronic ecugh, not always much in-
terfering with the osefulness of the
horse, but strangely aggravated at
times by any fresh accession of ca-
tarrh, and too often degenerating into
thick teindj which always materially
interferes with the speed of the horse,
and in a great proportion of cases
terminates in broken wind. It is
rare, indeed, that either of these dis-
eases admits of eare, nor does that
obetruetioa in some part of the re-
spiratory canal, and varying in al-
most every horse, which produces
the peculiar sound termed roaring:

** GlandcTMt the most destructive of
all the diseases to which the horse
is exposed, is the consequence of
breathing the atmosphere of foul and
vitiated stables — the winding up of
almost every other disease, and in
every stage of it most contagious.
Its most prominent symptoms are a
small but constant discharge of sticky
matter from the nose, an enlarge-
ment and induration of the glands
beneath and within the lower jaw,
on one or both sides ; and, before the
termination of the disease, cancer-
ous inflammation of the nostril on
the same side with the enlarged
gland. Its contagiousness should
never be forgotten, for if a glandered
horse is once introduced into a sta-
ble, almost every horse in it will soon-
er or later become infected and die.

'* The urinary and genital organs
are also lined by mucous membranes.
Ilie horse is subject to infiammation
tftkc kidneys from eating musty oats
or mow-burned hay, from exposure

to cold, and from i^jnries of the loina.
Bleeding, physic, and counter-irn«
tants over the region of the loins
should be had recourse to. Diabetegf
or profuse staling t is difficult to treat
The inflammation that may exist
should first be subdued ; and then
opium, catechu, and the uva ursi ad-
ministered. Jnjlammation of the blad-
der will be best alleviated by mucjJa-
ginous drinks of almost any kind, In-
flammation of the neck of the bladder^
evinced by the frequent and painful
discharge of small quantities of urine,
will yield only to the abstraction of
blood and the exhibition of opium.
A catheter may be easily passed into
the bladder of the mare and the urine
evacuated ; but it will require a skil-
ful veterinary surgeon to effect this
in the hor3e. A stone in the bladder
is readily detected by the practition-
er, and may be extracted with com*
parative ease. The sheath of ihe
penis often becomes diseased from
the presence of corrosive mucous
matter : it may easily be removed
with warm water and soap.

** To the mucous membranes belong
the conjunctival tunic of the eye, and
the diseases of the eye generally may
be here considered. A scabby Uchi-
ness on the edge of the eyelid may be
got rid of by a diluted nitrated oint-
ment of mercury. Warts should be
cut off with the scissors, and the roots
touched with lunar caustic. Jnjlam^
moHon of the haw should be abated by
the employment of cooling lotions,
but that useful defence of the eye
should never, if possible, be removed.
Common ophthalmia will yield as read-
ily to cooling applications as inflam-
mation of the same organ in any oth-
er animal ; but there is another kind
of inflammation, commencing in the
same way as the first, and for awhile
apparently yielding to treatment, hut
which changes from eye to eye, and
returns again and again, until blind-
ness is produced in one or btiih or-
gans of vision. The most frequent
cause is hereditary predisposition.
The reader cannot be too often re-
minded that the qualities of the sire,
good or bad, descend* and scarcely

397

HORSE.

changed, to his offspring. How nuHm-
blindness was first produced, no one
knows ; but its continuance in our
stables is to be traced to this cause
principally, or almost alone, and it
pursues its course until cataract is
produced, for which there is no rem-
edy. GuUa terena (palsy of the optic
nerve) is sometimes observed, and
many have been deceived, for the
eye retains its perfect transparency.
Here, also, medical treatment is of
no avail.

*' Tbe serous membranes are of
great importance. The brain and spi-
nal marrow, with the origins of the
nerves, are surrounded by them ; so
are the heart, the lungs, the exterior
coat of the intestinal canal, and the
testes.

** Inflammation of the Brain. — Mad
staggers falls under this division ; it
is mflammntion of the meninges, or
envelopes of the brain, produced by
over-exertion, or by any of the caus-
es of general fever, and it is charac-
terized by the wildest delirium. No-
thing but the most profuse blood-let-
ting, active purgation, and blistering
the head, will afford the slightest hope
of success. TelanuSy or LockedJaWf
is a constant spasm of all the volun-
tary muscles, and particularly those
of the neck, the spine, and the head,
arising from the injury of some ner-
vous fibril — that injury spreading to
the origin of the nerve — the brain be-
coming affected, and universal and
unbroken spasmodic action being the
result. Bleeding, physicking, blister-
ing the course of the spine, and the
administration of opium in enormous
doses, will alone give any chance of
cure. Epilepsy is not a frequent dis-
ease in the horse, but it seldom ad-
mits of cure. It is also very apt to
return at the most distant and uncer-
tain intervals. Palsy is the suspen-
sion of nervous power *, it is usually
confined to the hinder limbs, and
sometimes to one limb only. Here
bleeding and physicking, and antimo-
nial medicines, and blistering of the
spine, are the most rational applica-
tions, but they too oflen utterly fail
of success. RabieSf or madness, is

398

evidently a disease of the nervous
system, and once being developed, is
altogether without cure. The utter
destruction of the bitten part with
the lunar caustic, soon after the in-
fliction of the wound, will, however,
in a great majority of cases, prevent
the development of the disease.

** Pleurisy, or inflammation of the
serous covering of the lungs and the
lining of tbe cavity of the chest, is
generally connected with inflamma-
tion of the substance of tbe lungs ;
but it occasionally exists independ-
ent of any state of the lungs. The
pulse is in this case hard and full, in-
stead of being oppressed ; the ex-
tremities are not so intensely cold as
in pneumonia, the membrane of tbe
nose is little reddened, and the sides
are tender. It may be of importance
to distinguish between the two, be-
cause in pleurisy more active purga-
tion may be pursued, and the efliect
of counter-irritants will be greater,
from their proximity to the seat of
disease. Copious bleedings and sed-
atives here also should be had re-
course to. It is in connexion with
pleurisy that a serous fluid ia effused
in the chest, the existence and the
extent of which may be ascertained
by the practised ear, and which in
many cases may be safely evacuated.

" The heart is surrounded by a se-
rous membrane, the pericardium, that
secretes a fluid, the interposition of
which prevents any injurious frictioa
or concussion in the constant action
of this organ. If this friction increa-
ses to too great a degree, the action
of the heart may be impeded or de-
stroyed ; this is dropsy of the heart ;
it is difficult to detect, and more dif-
ficult to cure. The heart itself is
oflen diseased ; it sympathizes with
the inflammatory affection of every
organ, and therefore is itself occa*
sionally inflamed. Carditis^ or in-
flammation of the heart, is character-
ized by the strength of its pulsattona.
the tremour of which can be seen,
\vhilc the sound can be heard at a
distance of several yards. Speedy
and copious blood-letting will afford
the only hope of cure in such a case.

HORS£.

<*Tbe OQter coat of the stoniacb
and intestinea is composed of a
serooa membrane, the peritoneum,
which adda atrength and firmness to
their textures ; attaches, and sup-
ports, and confines them in their re-
spective places, and secretes a fluid
that prevents ail injurious friction be-
tween them. This coat is exceed-
ingly subject to inflammation, some-
what gradual in its approach; the
pulse quickened, but small ; the legs
cold ; the belly tender ; there being
constant pain, and every motion in-
creasing it; there also being rapid
and great prostration of strength.
These symptoms will sufficiently
characterize peri/aneai vnfiammation.
Bleeding, aperient injections, and ex-
tensive counter-irritation will aflbrd
the only hope of cure.

" The time for ceutration varies ac-
cording to the breed and destiny of
the horse. On the farmer's colt it
may be effected when the animal is
nut more than four or five months
old, and it is comparatively seldom
that a fatal case then occors. For
other horses much depends on their
growth, and particularly on the de-
velopment of their fore quarters. Lit-
tle improvement has been effected in
the old mode of castrating, except
the opening of the scrotum, and the
division of the cord by the knife in-
stead of the heated iron.

** Synovialy or joint membranes, are
interposed between the divisions of
the bones, and frequently between the
tendons, in order to secrete a certain
fluid that shall facilitate motion and
obviate friction. Occasionally the
membrane is lacerated, and the sy-
novia escapes. This is termed open-
ed joint, and violent inflammation rap-
idly ensues. The duty of the prac-
titioner is to close this opening, and
as quickly as possible. Nothing is so
effectual here as the old application
of the cautery. A great deal of in-
flammation and engorgement is pro-
duced around the opening, partially,
if not altogether, closing it, or, at
least, enabling the coagulated syno-
▼ia to occupy and obliterate iL Per-
tiaps, in order to ensure the desired

result, the whole of the joint should
be blistered ; a bandage should then
be firmly applied, and kept on as long
as possible. If, after this, there is
any escape of the synovia, the cau-
tery must again be had recourse to.
*' The Navicular Disease is a bruise,
or inflammation, or perhaps destruc-
tion, of the cartilage of the navicular
bone, where the flex or tendon of tfie
foot passes over it in order to reach
the coffin bone. The veterinary sur-
geon can alone ascertain the exist-
ence and proper treatment of this dis-
ease. Spavin is an enlargement of
the inner side of the hock. The
splent bones, which support the infe-
rior layer of those of the hock, sus-
taining a very unequal degree of con-
cussion and weight, the cartilaginous
substance which unites them to the
shank bone takes on inflammation,
it becomes bony instead of cartilagi-
nous, and the dispositiontothischange
being set up in the part, bony matter
continues to be deposited, until a
very considerable enlargement takes
place, known by the name of spavin,
and there is considerable lameness
in the hock joint. The bony tumour
is blistered, and probably fired, but
there is no diminution of the lame-
ness until the parts have adapted
themselves, after a considerable pro-
cess of time, to the altered duty re-
quired of them, and then the lame-
ness materially diminishes, and the
horse becomes, to a very considerable
extent, useful. Curb is an enlarge-
ment of the back of the hock, three
or four inches below its point. It is
a strain of the ligament which there
binds the tendons down in their place.
The patient should be subjected to
almost absolute rest ; a blister should
be applied over the back of the tu-
mour, and, occasionally, firing will be
requisite to complete the cure. Near
the fetlock, and where the tendons
are exposed to injury from pressure
or friction, little bags or sacs are
placed, from which a lubricating mu-
cous fluid constantly escapes. In the
violent tasks which the horse occa*
sionally has to perform, these become
bruised and inflamed, and enlarged

399

UORS£.

ftDd hardened, and are termed wind-
galls; tbey blemish the horse, but
are no cause of lameness alter the
inflammation has subsided, unless
they become Yery much enlarged.
The cautery will then be the best
cure. Immediately above the hock,
enlargements of a similar nature are
sometimes found, and. as they pro-
ject both inwardly and outwardly,
they are termed thorough pins. They
are seldom a cause of lameness, but
tliey indicate great, and perhaps in-
jurious exertion of the joint. On the
mside of the hock a tumour of this
kind, but of a more serious nature, is
found. It is one of these enlarged
mucous bags, but very deeply seated,
the subcutaneous vein of the hock
passing over it. The course of the
blood through the vein is thus, in some
measure, arrested, and a portion of
the vessel becomes distended. This
is a serious evil ; for, from the deep-
seatedncss of the mucous bag, it is
almost impossible to act eflectually
upon it. It is termed bog or blood
spavitt.

" The cellular tissue which fills the
interstices of the various organs, or
enters into their texture, is the seat
of many diseases. From the badness
of the harness, or the brutaliiy of the
attendant, the poll of the horse be-
comes contuscNd. Inflammation is
set up, considerable swelling ensues,
and an ulcerative process soon com-
mences, and chasms and sinuses of
the most frightful extent begin to ap-
pear. The withers are probably bruis-
ed, and the same process takes place
there, and sinuses penetrate deep be-
neath the shoulder, and the bones of
the withers are frequently exposed.
These abscesses are termed poll evil
and jUhtlous vfitktrs, and in the treat-
ment of them the horse is often tor-
tured to a dreadful and disgraceful
extent. A better mode of manage-
ment has, however, been introduced :
setona are passed through the most
dependant parts ; no collection of sa-
ntoNa fluid is permitted to exist, and
i^ildcr iJt'Tlk^**P?^8t ra .applied to the
tions, but they too oflet
of success. Rabiesj or i*«f charac-

398

ter is found between the hranohes of
the lower jaw in young horses ; it is
preceded by some degree of fever. U
is usually slow in its progress, but at
length it attains a considerable sne^
including the whole of the celJalar
tissue in that neighbourhood. There
is one uniform mass of tumefaction.
This is strategics. Vtvcs appears to
be the first stage of this disease. U
seems to be an efibrt of nature to get
rid of somethmg which oppresses the
constitution, and the treatment of it
is now simple and effectual. It ia
encouraged by fomentations and by
blisters : it is punctured as soon as
the fluctuation of a fluid within it can
be fairly detected, the pus speedily
escapes, and there is an end of the
matter.

**To one disease of the absorbent
system a brief reference must be
made.

" Farcy. — ^Vhile the arterial capil-
laries are engaged in building up the
frame, the absorbents are employed
in removing that which not only is
useless, but which would be poison-
ous and destructive. They take up
the matter of glanders and of every
ulcerating surface, and tbey are occa-
sionally irritated, inflamed, and ul-
cerated, from the acrimonious nature
of the poison which they carry. The
absorbents are furnished with numer-
ous valves ; the fluid is, for a while,
arrested by them, and there the in-
flammation is greatest, and ulcera-
tion takes place. This is ttie history
of the farcy cords and buds. Farcy
is a highly contagious disease, wheth-
er or not it be connected with glan-
ders. It, however, occasionally ad-
mits of cure from .the application of
the cautery to the bud. and the ad-
ministration of very small doses of
corrosive sublimate, or the sulphate
of iron, internally.

"The skin of the horse is subject
to various diseases. Large pimples,
or lumps, suddenly appear on the
skin, and, afler remaining a few days,
the cuticle peels off, and a circular
scaly spot is lefl : this is called sur-
feit. The cause is obscure, but prin-
cipally referable to indigestion. A

■fafU Uoediag will always be aer-
TioMble; physic: rarely (lues good;
but altaratiiea, compuscd of nilre,
blwlc aotimony, and sulpbur, wdl b«
Twy beneficial. Mangt ia a disease
of ■ dilltrent cbaracier. Il is llie
curae af the statite into whicb it en-
tert, for it will almost cetlainlyaflfect
every horte. Thorough dreasings
with Barbadoea tar and linseed oil, in
the proportion of ore of iho former to

e «f li

will b

effectual external spplication. while
allerativea and physic should be giv-
en internally. HuU-hvund is a very
appropriate term for the peculiar
sticking of the bide to the ribs when
a horse is out of condition. The sub-
cutaneous adipose matter its all ab-
sorbed. The alterative above rec-
ommended will be very useful here.
Griatt ia an undue secretion of the
fluid which was designed to lubricate
the skin of the heels, and that secre-
tion being also altered in quality.
The hind legs begin to swell, a fluid
exudes from the heels, the hairs of
the heels become erect like bo many
bristles, and the akin of the heel is
faot and greasy. Soon afterward
cracks appear across the heel, they
discharge a thick and ofTensive mat-
ter, and then deepen. They spread
up the teg. and so does the tumefac-
tion of the part. In process of !■
the skin, inflamed and ulcerated,
dergoes an alteration of atrucii
prominences or granulations appear
on it, assuming the appearance of a
collection of grapes, or the skin of a
pineapple. They increase, and a f<E'
tid discharge appears from the crev-
ices between them.

'• The cause is generally neglect of
ihe horse. He is sofTered to stand
in the stable with his heels cold and
wet, and this must necessarily dia.
pose them to inSamroatioa and dis-

" In the flrst stage of grease, bran,
or inrnipi Or carrot poultices will b
Berviceable, ivitli moderate phyaii
Then aatringenls must be emplnyed.
and the best are alum or sulphate uf
copper in powder, miied wilh eight
times the quantity of Bole ArueniaQ,

end sprinkled on the sores. ThRM
should be allernaled every three or
four days. The grspy heels are a
disgrace to the stable m whicb they
e found, and admit not of radical

Wounds ID horaes seldom hesi by

St intention ; the lips should, how-

'er, be brought together nicely and

bound by uicking plaster or a ban-

dage i if suppuration occurs, keep the

'ound clean by warm water. For

kc medicines, see Pharmneopaia.

HORSE'S FOOT. The structure

of the feet of horses is much mora

than one might supjiose at

tirst'sigbt; it is contrived so as to

furnish an arrangement of spring,

whereby the weight of the body in

alighting on the hoof is broken, and

the animal is enabled lo leap from

the ground with facility. This struc-

111 bA seen in Fig. 1, which

Fi,. I.

represents a section of the lower
part of the leg. a is the coflin bone i
li the navicular, or nut bone; c the
coronary, or litlla pastern bone ; d
is Ihe paaiern bone ; t the tendon.
or sinew, of the muscle which bends
the foot backward ; / is lite same
tendon sliding over the navicular
bone, and g its insertion in the bot-
tom of the cpSin bone ; h the elas-
tic matter of the sensible frog ; i
the insensible or horny frog; i the
homy sole coveting the sensible parta
of the foot; i the front horn that
protects the coffin bone ; « the pro-
cess of the codin bune, to which the
extensor tendon, n, is attached, for
Ibe purpose of throwing the foot for-
ward i 0 the altacbmeot of the ex-
teosor to Uie coronary boDe, to amiU
401

HOR

io making the spring. From this H
will be seen that when a horse is
alighting his whole weight is not ex-
pended apon an unyielding and hard
hoof, but upon a series of bones which
participate and divide the shock, re-
ducing it to a trifling pressure on each
part. It is this complexity of ar-
rangements which renders the horse's
foot so liable to injuries : when any
of the ligamentous connexions or
synovial membranes between the
bones is irritated it produces lame-
ness, which, if not speedily attended
to, may become permanent.

The hoof, or horn, of the foot on
the under side is marked by certain
projections, which are altered in their
form in disease. Fig. 8 represents

HOR

secrete bom, and produces pus and
ulcers in its place : this is a result
of foul stables. But the whole in-
sensible sole may become painful and
sensitive from bad shoeing, if the
shoe fits ill, compresses any part, or
during the growth of the nail be-
comes buried in it.

HORSESHOE. The best veteri-
nary surgeons are unanimous in con-
demning the common horseshoe,
from its want of width or web, from
being usually too wide behind, from
the calkins, or turned-up parts at the
heels, and from the clinches being
driven in too far back towards the
heels, as well as the want of level
and irregular figure. According to
the practice of MoorcroA and others,
the seated shoe of Osmer is the prop-
er form. It is shown in the figure*

a healthy sole : the rounded portions
of the hoof, a, a, behind where the
nail is curved inward, are called the
heels ; between these lies the horny
frog, b; the inflected or bent por-
tions of the hoof, c, c, running on the
outside the frog, are called the bars ;
d d are the angles of the bars, in
which corns occur in diseased feet ;
in the latter case the frog becomes
contracted, and often fissured, pro-
ducing pus {tknuh) ; the bars are run
together, and the heels, instead of
bemg rounded and wide apart, are
contracted to a mere slit. The space,
e, lying between the front edge of
the hoof and the bars in the sole
should he broad and concave. When
this external covering is removed
from the foot, it is found to rest on
the sensible sole and frog, both of
which, and especially the latter, are
highly vascular and sensitive ; they
are, indeed, to the hoof what the
quick is to the human nail, they se-
crete the tfiugh horn to protect them-
selves. In disease it sometimes oc-
curs that the sensible frog refuses to

402

a being the under or ground side, and
b the upper surface. Its peculiarities
are, 1st, a flat, wide surface towards
the ground,.a, d ; this is made true in
forging by gauging on a flat iron ;
there is no groove or fullering, which
only assists the wear ; it is punched
with conical holes with square tops,
and clinched to the crust by conical
nails, e; the nails are obliquely driv-
en outward, and their figure keeps
the shoe fast as long as any portion
of them remains in place. The up-
per surface, &, c, is bevelled in the
fore part and sides, but not behind,
so as to oflfer a good support to the
heel ; there is no increase of thick-
ness, clubbing, or calkings, but the
whole shoe is uniformly thick, from
one half to five eighths of an inch,
and jierfectly level. This is regard-
ed by Loudon as a perfect shoe.
Calkings may be made where the

HOR

ground is slippery and moeh up bin ;
aod a turn-up in front is also useful
in rocky places. There is a shoe
called the bar shoe, which is of an
oval figure, the iron being complete
around the heel, curved and thick-
ened to suit it ; but it is seldom used :
It answers well to protect a tender
frog. In putting on the shoe, all the
crust trimmed ^ould be taken quite
level, and the shoe never put on hot
to make it fit better ; it may be gauged
while hot for a minute to enable the
smith to cut the crust true, but not
elmched while hot. Racing shoes
are very light, and of the figure
above.

HORSE-C H ESTNUT. JEsculu*
kippoeoJttonum. This tree is remark-
able chiefly for the beauty of its fig-
ure, flowers, and early foliage. The
wood is soft and of little value. The
Duts contain much nutritious matter,
which i» combing with a disagreea-
ble bitter ; but it is said that pigs eat
them when pounded into meal. A
writer in the American Parmer says
that they are very saponaceons, and
will take spots out of linen. The
Buckeyes are of this genus, or, at
least, oi the sub-genus Paxia.

HORSE injl^G. See Farm-yard
Manure.

HORSE-FLY. Hippobosca, vrhich
see.

iioRSE-HOE. See CuUhalor.

HORSE POWER. In physics,
the effect produced by the strength
of a horse. James Watt allowed in

HOR

his engine an eflflHst equal to 33,000
pounds lilted one foot in a minute ;
but from experiments with horses,
D'Aubuisson found it was only equal
to 16,440 pounds raised one foot in a
minute.

In agricultural machines^ a horse
power is a contrivance or gearing to
make the labour of burses available in
turning thrashing and other machines,
where great swiftness is wanted.

The simplest horse power {Fig. 1)

b '^^- Pig. 1.

is a triangular wooden frame bearing
a wheel, the upper axis of which is
inserted into the lever, a ; the horse
is hitched at &, and, as he walks in a
circle, turns the wheel, d, which
plays into an endless screw, the
end or rod of which, e, is made to
revolve rapidly, and may be put in
communication with a machine by
the hook or by a small roller. The
same arrangement, with several ad-
ditional wheels to multiply motion,
and a crown wheel instead of the
endless screw, forms Warren^ s horaa
wnjoer {Figure 3), as well as other
Kinds.

The old power for thrashing con-
Bisted of an upright beam, carrying
at the top a crown or bevelled wheel
of large eircum fere nee, and turning a
small wheel, which Was directly in
contact with the thrasher or grinding
mill. The horses were attaclied to

levers, projecting from the central
beam, and below the wheel. This is
a simple and very efficient contri-
vance. A modification is introduced
by Mr. Scripture, who puts no cogs
to the wheel, but causes it to turn a
roller by friction.

403

Tflm'r l«rH poatr (.
large wboel revofving on
is near tn Lhe ground
■its on lhe lap or Llie a.

1 1 honea woifc within tin eiTCDiufbr-
■ enee. bcinff hitched to It The nnder

nected bj a drum vith the thrasher.
It is readily carried, and ael up on the
field in a few minutes,

GUaion'i horie pmetr (fif , 4} is i

another principle : an endless chain,
carrying oaken slatg tor the horae to
tread on, is made to turn a wheel,
which carries a drum on iho ouiaide
of the frame, from which a leathei
band communicates with the Ihrasti-
or or mill. The horse or mute worts
within a framing to hinder accideals.
Pitl'a machine is of Ibis class.

railar

for doga. the machine being rod

used

a pniper ei

other light operations may be
conducted.

These horse pon-era contain tlic
three principles on u'hich all the rest
are constructed. The prices of the
powera are from 860 to (90 fur the
single horse, and 3100 to SISO for

HORSERADISH. Cockltaria ar-
moracia. A Cruciferous plant, with -t
perennial root, used as a condiment

for its hot taste, resembling mus-

urd.

The plants are obtained from cut-
tings, or offsetB, from the crown of
the preceding roots, each cutting hav-
ing two eypB : they are set early in
spring, in a deep, mellow earth that
has heen trenched. The soil should
be moist and weil manured. The
sets may be placed in drills, eighteen
inches to two feet apart, by six mch'
es in the row, and daring the first
year btela or other plants can be
the drill intervals. Weed-
oeing are neecssnTy. The
bo lit to he taken up in Oc-
tober and November of the second
', when they may be iiept for use
ind. In taking up the roots the
earth must be thoroughly loosened
to obtain the whole, as they are fre-
quently two feet deep. Onsets and
broken pieces containing eyes will
vegetate the next year, and in this
way a bed once established may, by
manuring, be liepi up for a long pe-
riod ; but the best way is to select
cuttings for a new bed the next year

HORSE-TAIL. The gen'ra Bq^i-
■lum, or scouring rush, and Hippunt,
remarkablefor the large amount of sil-

-1 they contain. They grow In rich,

it places, and some varieties are of

value in the aria for polishing mel-

HORTl CULTURE (from W(u».
garden, and colo, I tallinUt). The
Itivation of gardens and orchards.
Sec Garden Huattniiry.

HOT

HUM

HORTUS SICCUa An fierbari-
QiD, a collection of dried plants.

HOT-BED. See Frame.

HOT-HOUSE. A glaaed structure,
sufficiently high to allow persons to
enter, and with conTeniences for the
prodoctioQ of artificial heat. The
means of heating are Tariotts : some
depend upon dung pits constantly re-
sew^, others upon flues running in
the waJilSi and conveying the hot air
of a furnace. Steam is also convey-
ed by iron and copper pipes, and made
to circubue several times through
the house, especially under the beds.
Hot water is also conveyed from a
boiler round the hoase and back, so
as to maintain a constant circulation,
the boiler being piovjded with a safe-
ty-valve. The direct introduction of
steam from a boiler through an open
pipe is occasionally used as an eco-
nomical way of heating the house
when the plants are adapted to a very
moist air.

The arrangements of the hot-house
are various, according to the object
in view. The roof usually sustains
grapes ; the highest wall, figs, apri-
cots, early peaches, nectarines, and
choice fruits ; in the centre is arran-
ged a rising frame containing the ex-
otics, which require heat during win-
ter, or the ground may be used as a
place to forward vegetables. The
walk is around the central stand. The
height and dimensions will depend
upon the plants protected.

HOrrENTOT BREAD. Tamus
{Ttstudinaria) eUphaniipts. A South
African climbing perennial, produ-
cing an immense above-ground tuber,
very similar to the yam in flavour.
It forms a large portion of the food
of the natives.

HOT- WALLS. Walls in which
heat circulates for the advancement
of fruit, and ripening of the wood in
the fall. They are made by conduct-
ing flues from a furnace at various
heights, or back and forth, and ter-
minating in a chimney ; by enclo-
sing steam pipes, or, what is much
better, hv hi?«iding the w«ill u^/uuvv
tnrooghout, binding the two sides to-
gether occasionally by cross bricks

f or stones, and a coping, and passing
a large hot-water pipe along the bot-
tom between the sides: the heat
from this rises upward, and produces
an equal temperature throughout the
wall.

Hot -walls are much assisted by
a moveable arrangement of gla7ed
sashes, which can be set up to pro-
tect the trees from ^ost in early
spring, and may be removed during
summer.

Ordinary walls, painted of a dark col-
our, and looking to the south, become
heated by ten to twenty degrees high-
er than the adjacent grounds during
summer, and therefore advance the
ripening of fruits considerably, espe-
cially if all the leaves lying around
the fruit be removed, which shade it
from the sun or wall. The introduc-
tion of reflecting surfaces of white
wood or sheet tin, so as to concen-
trate light and heat on walls, would
doubtless much advance the maturi-
ty of fruits. Such reflectors might be
moveable, made very light, and read-
ily adjusted to heat any particular
wall.

HOUND. The dogs of chase are
so called.

HOUND'S TONGUE. The genos
Cynoglossum : rough-leaved weeds off
little value.

HOUSELEEK. Exotic plants of
the genus Scmpermvumt with succu-
lent leaves, which are mucilaginous.

HOVEL. A shed for cattle, sheep,
&,c.

HOVEN, HOOVE. See Oxen, Du-
eases of.

HUCKLEBERRY. Whortle-
berry.

HUMAN FJSCES. See Night-soiL

HUMATES. Salts of humic acid.
See Humus.

HUMECT ATION. Moistening.

HUMERUS. The upper bone of
the arm.

HUMIC ACID. See Humus,

HUMIFUSUS. HUMIFUSE.
Spreading over the ground, procum-
i bent, like the stem of the melon,
I BMoel potato^. 6lc.
I HUMILIS. Low, humble, applied
i to small species.

406:

HUM

HTTMMELI.ER. An implement for
the separation of barley from ihte
glumes or awns. This may be done
by the means described under barley.
An instrument extensively used in
Scotland is formed of a hollow cyl-
inder of staves or metal, in which an
axis revolves very rapidly. To the
axis IS attached three sets of cross
pieces of wood, which reach nearly to
the cylinder, and are at right angles
to it. The barley being slowly ad-
mitted by a hopper above, enters the
cylinder, where it is beaten rapidly
by the cross pieces, and perfectly
cleaned of awn by the time it escapes
from below.

HUMMING-BIRD. Birds of the
genus TrochiltUy remarkable for their
minuteness, brilliancy, and rapid
flight. They live upon the nectar of
flowers and on small insects.

HUMOUR. In anatomy, fluid se-
cretions natural to the eye or other
parts of the body.

HUMUS. The decayed carbona-
ceous residue of plants, of a dark-
brown or black colour, and mouldy
smell. It is called by gardeners vege-
table mould, and has received the
name of humus, huniic acid, humin,
humic extract, coal nf humus, ulmin,
ulmic acid, geine, geic acid, apoth-
erne, &c., &c.

Being vegetable matter in a state
of decay, its composition is subject
to change ; and hence a great num-
ber of bodies will be formed by treat-
ing it with re-agents, as potash, soda.
But Mulder has recently shown that
the various bodies enumerated* by
other chemists, as well as the crenic
and apocrenic acids, are no more
than woody fibre, cellulose, starch,
gum, sugar, and similar vegetable
bodies in a progressive state of de-
cay ; that by the absorption of oxy-
gen, carbonic acid and water are
constantly being formed, and pro-
gressively the different products of
decay. From Mulder we learn that
ulmic or humic acid consists of 40
carbon, 14 hydrogen, and 12 oxygen ;
crenic acid, C24 Hit Oic; apocrenic
acid, C48 H12 O14, and that the two
latter are not, as BenceUoa and oth*

406

ers assert, bodies containing nHfOr
gen, but only that in tlie soil the
apocrenic acid is usually combined
with amnumia. Moret>ver, Mulder
failed to discover in the vegetable
mould or humus any other organic
bodies than humin and its derira-
lives, with crtnic acid and its deriva-
tives, acting as acids. The bases with
which apocrenic and humic acid are
combined are chiefly lime and am-
monia. The humates of lime, pot-
ash, and soda existing in the soil are
either insoluble or sparingly soluble ;
the humate and apocrenate of ammo-
nia are soluble, and form a brown ao-
lution. Woody tissue, straw, leaves,
and Tegetable rubbish, exposed to air
and kept moist, and at a temperature
above 60, decay or run into erema-
causis, producing at first ulmic, cre>
nic, and apocrenic acids ; these will
combine with bases present, and still
continue to decay, giving out water
and carbonic acid. The ammonia
present participates in this change,
and becomes converted into nitric
acid. The rapidity of decay is much
hastened by the presence of caustic
lime, potash, or soda, or by their car*
bonates. If air be not freely admit-
ted, then gaseous compounds of hy-
drogen, carburet of hydrogen, sulphu-
retted hydrogen, &c., are formed.

From this we learn thuX humus is
vegetable matter in the act of decay,
the products of which depend upon
the age, exposure to air or water,
temperature, and similar conditions.
But there is a variety called inert Au-
m«#, as peat, turf, dtc. which, froni
the presence of moisture and absence
of air, combined with other causes,
decays very slowly ; this may, how-
ever, be hastened by drying and free
exposure to air, by admixture with
putrescent bodies, or by the action of
lime and bases. The solution of hu^
mus, obtained by boiling potash or
soda ash with peat, is not strictly a
humate of these alkalies. The ha-
mic acid can be precipitated by add-
ing the strong mineral acids. The
portion of humus not soluble in alka-
line solutions is called insoluble ha*
mus, humiOy coal of humus.

HUM

HuDHiSi i- «•» vegetable moald, has
been highly commended as the food
of pianto, some people imagining that
in the soluble state it entered the
root and fed the tissues ; this view,
propagated for the purpose of exem-
plifying the utility of applying all ma-
nures in the state of solution, is a
ridiculous abswrdity. That solutions
of humus find their way into the in-
terior of plants, is rery true ; but it
baa never been shown that such so-
lution was in any way necessary to
vigorous growth. Indeed, plants set
in soils containing only insoluble hu-
mus (humate of lime) are as healthy
and vigorous as those growing un-
der the influence of solutions. Nu-
merous plants require no humus, as
grasses, clovers, various forest-trees ;
tbrae, indeed, by their dead leaves
and roots, produce and accumulate
humus. Charcoal powder, which is
insoluble, answers, in many cases,
equally well with bumus.

The real utility of humus, irrespect-
iTe of the ashes which mould con-
tains, arises from the following ef-
fects : 1st. It is constantly decaying,
and thus producing carbonic acid and
water, which feed the plant and moist-
en the soil. 2d. During decay it con-
stant^ absorbs nitrogen from the air,
which becomes converted into am-
monia and nitric acid, and is thus ad-
mirably fitted to sustain vegetation.
3d. it not only imparts valuable me-
chanical qualities to the soil by in-
creasing its warmth, porosity, and
friability, but the carbonic aeid pro-
duced, as well as the nitric acid, by
acting on the insoluble minerals of
the soil, as the silicates of potash,
SMDda, lime, and its bone earth and
other phosphates, dissolves or decom-
poses them, rendering them food for
plants. In this manifold way humus
becomes of great utility to culture,
but is neither the only manure, nor
competent of itself to produce fertil-
ity ; for accumulations of humus are
by no means desirable : 10 per cent.
in the soil is an abundance, and two
to three per cent, is quite enough for
most plants. Potatoes, the roots,
corn, cotton, tobacco, cruciferous

HUS

plants, and wheat, are most partial
to this body ; they are all plants de-
veloped by culture, and re<}uire a sup-
ply of fotnl by tiie roots as well as
leaves. Grasses, clovers, and many
beans increase instead of extiausting
the soil of humus ; hence their utility
in rotations.

The amount of humus in the sod is
readily increased by green fallows, by
ploughing in straw, prepared peat,
and all vegetable rubbish. The great-
er part of the solid matter of all pu-
trescent manures is humus, decayed
wood, the rotten interior of the trunk
and branches, dec.

Humus is hastened in its decay ^ and
consequently in the several efiects it
produces, by liming and the use ofash'
cst as well as by hoeing and all means
that increase the quantity of air ad-
mitted to the soil. Indeed, much of
the surprising effect that lime often
exhibits arises from its action on the
vegetable matter in the soil; even
cornstalks and twigs of trees are
rapidly reduced by its action when in
the earth

HUNDRED WEIGHT, or CWT.
112 pounds avoirdupois. It is com-
mon in the United States to speak of
hundreds, or 100 pounds ; and 100
pounds is frequently called a hundred
weight.

HUNGER-ROT. Disease occa-
sioned in sheep by bad keeping ; star-
vation.

HUNGRY SOIL, Poor, sandy, or
gravelly soil, requiring frequent ma-
nuring.

HURDLE. A light, moveable
fence of wood, iron, or wire ; it re-
sembles a light gate, and is some-
times made of osiers, woven like a
basket. See Fence. SheepVire hurdUd,
folded, or enclosed on turnips, clo-
vers, grass, dLC, by means of hurdles,
and readily shifted from place to
place. The shifting often takes place
daily, and if the manure dropped be
ploughed in as soon as the shift is
made, a considerable economy is
practised ; but if it be left to dry and
waste, the plHn is bad.

HUSBANDRY. Agriculture. The
following short sketch of British hus-

407

HUSBANDRY.

baodry may be foand serviceable ; it
is by Mr. liham :

" The firet and most iDartificial ia
that which eonsists in breaking up
portions of pasture land and sowing
corn on a ahght ploughing, which
cannot fail to [^ productive for some
time. Several crops may thus be ta>
ken, until the land is so exhausted
that the crop no longer repays the
seed and labonr. To extend this
time, experience aoon pointed out the
crops which succeeded best after each
other. Wheat or barley were proba-
bly the first crops ; afterward pease,
beans, or oats, until the ground,
being overrun with weeds, would be
left to the renovating effect of time,
and a fresh spot would be broken up.

**The first improvement on this
system is that of infield and outfield.
The infield is cultivated more care-
fully, somewhat like a garden, and
all the dung of the cattle is exclu-
sively pot upon this part. The out*
field is a continuation of the first-
mentioned system. The infield con-
sisted of enclosures or open fields
near the dwelling, which it was most
convenient to cultivate as arable
land. Thus two distinct systems of
husbandry were carried on at the
same time ; and whatever improve-
ments were introduced in the man-
agement of the infield, the outfield
continued to be managed as it was
before.

**The mode of recruiting lands
which had been exhausted by crops,
or were overrun with weeds, by
means of a fallow, seems to have
been introduced into England by the
Romans. The alternate crop and
fallow seem to have been later intro-
duced than a fallow after several
crops. The triennial system, which
consists of a summer fallow, a win-
ter crop, and a spring crop, was prob-
ably longer eatablished than any oth-
er, and is still the practice in many
^paris of England. The deteriorating
^''ect of the outfield system would
^^HH' '■ i'^^ abandonment as soon as
carbon, 1%^^ ^rpased, and with it the
crenic acid, 014 ^^g^id
acid, C48 H!« Oi4. X ggj^^^ divided
latter are not, as £r

and enclosed, a better system of htta-
bandry generally follows. Clover and
turnips are more regularly sown, and,
on the light lands, take the place of
summer fallow. Clover generally
comes after a crop of wheat, in which
it was sown the preceding year in
spring ; and as most crops succeed
well alter clover, wheat was usually-
chosen for the next crop as the most
profitable, llius arose the NorfoHc
system, without any very sudden de-
parture from the old rotations. Two
crops raised for the food of animals in
four years require more cattle on the
farm to expend them profitably ; and
thus more manure is made. In the
light soils the sheep, when folded on
the turnips, not only enrich the land
by their dung and urine, but likewise
render it more compact by treading
it, which is advantageous to the clo-
ver and wheat which come after If
tlie land is a good loam, beans are
sometimes sown after wheat, the land
having been recruited with manure ;
and if the beans are kept clean by
hoeing, another good crop of wheat
may be obtained after them. Thus
arises the improved rotation of tur-
nips, barley, clover, wheat, beans,
wheat ; after which the land is again
cleaned and prepared for turnips with
all the manure that can be spared.
As in this system there is always a
crop w.th succulent leaves interve-
ning between two which have a white
straw, it has been called the tUtemaU
system of husbandry. These are the
most common systems in England.
The removal of the fallow year, pro-
vided the land be kept clean, is a de-
cided step towards improvement;
the best farmers effect this by the in-
troduction of artificial grasses and
tares fed ofiT by sheep, and especiaily
by sowing every crop in rows and
keeping the intervals stirred, which
is a partial fallow, without losing a
crop. Here TuU*s system is intro*
duced, which in its complete state,
as the author recommended it, was
soon abandoned.

** As the English systems have ta»
ken their%origia chiefly from the ia»
field cultivation, so the Scotch appear

HUSBANDRY.

to haye arisen from that of the out-
field. Fallows were unknown, but
the invigorating efTect of grass fed off
by cattle must soon have been per-
ceived ; and, instead of leaving the
land to recover slowly by the spon-
taneous growth of natural herbage,
which on poor land takes a long time,
it was obvious that this might be
aoeelerated by sowing grass seeds.
Hence the origin of the Scotch con-
vertible system of husbandry, which
is gaining ground daily, and bids fair,
in remote sitoations, where no ma-
nure can be purchased, to be firmly
established. The order of the con-
version has been somewhat altered
from what it was originally. Instead
of sowing grass seeds after the land
is exhau^ed, it has been found -advan-
tageous to accelerate the growth of
grass by manuring the crop in which
it is sown ; and experience has
proved, that the riclier the grass is,
the more productive are the crops
which come alter. The grass, in-
stead of being a mere substitute for
fallowing and manuring, is made high-
ly profitable by feeding cattle and
sheep ; and the profit of the years
when the land rests, as it were, by
being depastured, is often as great as
that of the years when it is cropped ;
and the risk and expenses are much
less. The coavertible system is not
very generally known or adopted in
England, and is often confounded
with the alternate system. The al-
ternate system interposes a green
crop between two white-straw crops.
On good land the convertible hus-
bandry may consist of three or four
years* tillage and three years' grass,
if the land is not quite clean, a sum-
mer fallow on heavy soils, or a tur-
nip fallow on light soils, should be-
gin the course ; and only one crop
shoold be taken after the fallow in
which the grasses are sown, wheth-
er it.be wheat, corn, baiiey, or oats.
It should be fed off the first year,
mown the second, and fed off again
in the third ; when it is broken up,
oats are usually sown as ^e first
crop in Scotland, then beans; if the
land admits of them, and then wheat.

If a fallow is intended, a crop of
pease may be sown after the wheat,
and then the course begins again, as
before, with a clean fallow or with
turnips. In this manner the land
may be kept dean and continually
improve in fertility by means of the
cattle which are kept upon it, with-
out the aid of any purchased manure,
except lime, the expense of which is,
in most cases, well repaid by the
crop. These are the only regular
systems in Britain, and every mode
of cultivation and cropping may be
reduced to one of them, unless it be
capriciously anomalous.

" What renders the improved sys-
tems of British husbandry so supe-
rior to that of other nations is the
attention paid to the perfection of
the different breeds of domestic ani-
mals, especially the horse, the ox,
and the sheep. In this respect, Brit-
ish husbandly surpasses every other.
No expense or trouble is spared to
improve the qualities of cattle and
sheep. It has been objected, that
the rewards given by different so-
cieties for excessively fat cattle are
not judicious, as these animals are
never profitable to the feeder. The
same might be said of very high-bred
race-horses ; they are not so useful
as a good hackney or hunter; but
unless some individual animals pos-
sess the power, courage, and speed
which is the mark of the best blood,
it would soon degenerate ; so, like-
wise, if some oxen were not occa-
sionally fatted to an extraordinary
degree, the fatting qualities of the
breed could not be proved. A badly-
bred ox will never become so fat,
whatever food may be given him, as
one of a choice breed ; this the breed-
ers are well aware of, and never hes-
itate to pay a good price for a young
bull related in blood to a prize ox.*'

HUSK. The dry exterior of
fruits.

HYACINTHINE COLOUR. The
colour of the hyacinth gem : a clear
reddish-brown.

HYALITE. A variety of glassy
quartz of a gray or yellowish colour,
and concretionary.

4A<I

HYD

HYALOID (from etOoc, ghus). A
transparent membrane.
H YBEKN ACULUM, The winter

leaf-bad.

HYBERNATION. Thetorpid
condition in which numerous animals
and reptiles exist during winter ;
they usually retire in a fat state, and
become very lean by spring, the fat
being consumed in maintaining tlie
temperature necessary to preserve
life.

HYBRID (from ISptc, a nude).
The offspring of animals or plants of
different species. They are usually
barren, as mules, or yield only by
connexion with one of the same race
as the parents. Much of tbe im-
proYeroent in horticulture has been
effected by hybridizing. To perform
this» the plants selected should be of
near varieties, and of similar quali<
ties ; they should also flower at the
same period. The flowers on the fe-
male plant are to be reduced to a few
only, and its situation must be dis-
tant from others of the same variety.
The stamens of all the flowers are to
be cut out by a pair of scissors as
soon as the blossom is developed, and
before pollen is emitted ; and as soon
as the stigma is fully dilated, stami-
nate flowers from the male variety
are to be brought and shaken over
them, care being taken that the pol-
len is well scattered over the stigma.
The seed germinates readily, and will
produce a new variety that may be
valuable, and is to be maintained by
slips, cuttings, buds, and any other
means except by seeds, which are
either infertile or defective. This
Was a favourite method with Mr.
Knight. Hybrids are frequently form-
ed in gardens by the close neighbour-
hood of varieties, the pollen being
carried by wind, insects, <&c., and
they frequently destroy fine seeds.
Hence, plants raised for seed should
be planted apart, and out of the reach
of the pollen of other varieties. Bi-
genergy the hybrid offspring of plants
of different genera, are very rare.

HYDATID (from viari^, a bladder).
A race of entozoic animals resem-
bling a small bladder, and infesting

410

HYD

the liver, brain, utenia, and other
parts of mammals. See Diseases of
Sheep.

HYDRACIDS. Acids containiog
hydrogen, as muriatic acid, &c.

HYDRAG06UE (froiD v6»p, wa-
tery and ayut I expel). Violent cathar-
tics, which cause an expulsion of much
fluid. -

HYDRANGEA. A highly orna-
mental flowering shrub.

HYDRARGILLITE. A name fox
wavellite

HYDRATES. Compottods in
which water combines, as an acid in
its equivalent of nine, as hydrate of
limey or water slacked lime.

HYDRAULICS (from vdc^, and
av^y a pipe). The science which
treats qf the movement and mechan-
ical effects of water and liquids.

HYDRO. A chemical prefix, indi-
cating the presence of hydrogen ; as
hydrochloric, hydrobromic, hydrocar-
bon, and hydriodic.

HYDROCARBONS. A general
term for the oily, waxy, and resinous
products of vegetation, which are ricb
in hydrogen, and oAen contain hy-
drogen and carbon only; they are
also called kydroearburets, which term
includes ethers, alcohols, gaseous
compounds of carbon with hydro-
gen, naphthas, &c.

HYDROCELE. A collection of
water in the scrotum.

HYDROCHLORIC ACID. See
Chlorine. Muriatic acid.

HYDROCHLORATES, An old
term fur chlorides.

HYDROCYANIC ACID. Prussic
acid, a pellucid fluid, of strong odour,
one of the deadliest poisons known.
Ammonia is the best antidote. It is
a compound of one eq. cyanogen and
one hydrogen, and produced in the
distillation of bitter almonds, peach
blossoms. Numerous plants of the
rosaceous family contain a portion of
it. See Cyanogen.

HYDRCfDYNAMICS (from v<J«p,
and dvvQiiiCy power). The science
which shows the methods of applying
the properties of fluids to mechanical
purposes.

HYDROFLUORIC ACID. A pun-

HYD

gent, giiseoas acid formed of one eq. '
iuorine, and one hydrogen. See Flu-
onne.

HYDROGEN. Inflammable air.
The Kgbtest body in nature : an ele-
mentary gaa, without odour or colour,
very inftunmable in air, forming ex-
plosive eompoonds with oxygen. It
has little chemical activity alcfne, and
is irrespirable : 100 cubic inches weigh
2 13 grains. Its equivalent is 1 on
ibe hydrogen scale, and 125 on the
oxygen : symbol H. Hydrogen does
not exist nncombined in nature ; but
in a coBBpound state, in water, ammo-
nia, and yegetable products, is large-
ly accumnlated. It combines with
oxygen, forming water, by the aid of
heat or electricity. In all its prop-
erties hydrogen resembles a metal.
It combines with oxygen, chlorine,
bromine, 4cc., in the aame way as
other metals, and is readily displaced
by the greater number, sometimes
with the evolution of pure gas, at oth-
ers by the simultaneous combination
Of the liberated hydrogen with oxy-
gen, to form water. Its compounds
with carbon, forming coal gas and oil
gas, are of considerable economical
▼aloe : these, with sulphuretted hy-
drogen, are also thrown out from wet,
putrescent manures, stagnant ditch-
es, &e. For other compounds, see
the usual names.

Some writers state that plants pos-
sess the property of decomposing wa-
ter and appropriating its hydrogen ;
but this has never been proved : the
decomposition is readily effected by
galvanism. Plants contain six to sev-
en per cent, of hydrogen in the dried
portions without the water, in which
there is one ninth by weight : fats and
waxes contain ten to thirteen per
eent.

HYDROMETER. Areometer. An
instroment to take the specific grav-
ity or density of fluids, spirits, &c.
It is of great value in testing the
strength of spirits, of solutions, of
flogar, dyestuffs, dec. The form of
the implement, which is made of
brBS» or glass, is shown in the fig-
ure. It is sometimes furnished with
a series of weights, W, which are pla-

ced on the short stem, C
D, to enable it to sink in
different solutions. The
stem A B is usually flat
and graduated ; the scale
depending upon the use,
and varying with the ma-
la ker. Sykes*s instrument,
which is used for taking
the strength of spirits, is
furnished with a table.
>^"TJc" Baume*s areometer, or hy-
Qj I drometer, is extensively
used by sugar-makers and
manufacturers. It is grad-
uated from a central point in the
stem, — upward, for flu ids lighter than
water, and -^ below, for those that
are heavier. The 0 (zero) marks the
density of distilled water at 58° Fah-
renheit, and the downward marks cor-
respond to the density of solutions
of salt and water, containing for each
mark an additional one per cent, of
salt ; thus, 6° indicates a fluid of the
same density as that produced by
mixing 5 parts common salt and 95
water. The real specific gravities are,

For

Os: 1-0000

l=:li)06«

5=10340

10=10704

90 = 11519

90=12450

40=13571

50=1-4009

60=1-0599

70=1-8537

76=90000

Wlvuia oTIm* fruTttjr.

— 11 = 0W39
^]9=0-«efl5

— ]5=0-MM»
~ 90 = 0-9350

— 95=0-9068

— 30=0 8799

— 85=0-8538
— 40 = 0-8295
-45=0-8060

— 50=0 7849

— 00=0-7449

HYDROPHILIDiE. Aquatic, pen-
tamerous beetles. They are vegeta-
ble feedera.

HYDROPHOBIA. See Do^.

HYDROPHYTES (from iidwp, and
^vTov, a plant). Plants living in fresh
water.

HYDROSTATIC BALANCE.
The common balance, furnished with
a scale that may be suspended near
the beam, and under which a hook is
placed to hang any substance to* be
weighed in water. See Gravity^ Spe-

HYDROSTATIC PRESS. See
PresSf Hydraulic.

HYDROSTATICS (from v<5«p, and
(TTow, / MUind"^ The science which

411

HYG

explains the mechanical properties <^
fluids.
HYDROSULPHURIC ACID. Sul-

fhuretted hydrogen. See Sulphur.
lydrosulphureta are the sulphurets
or sulphides of metals and bases.

HYGEINE (from vyieta, heaJiih).
The arts necessary to the preserva-
tioD of health.

HYGROMEJER (from vypof,
moistf and fter^, a measure). A con<
trivauce or implement to measure
the amount of moisture or vapour of
water in air. Formerly hygrometric
substances, as hair, catgut, whale-
bone, sponge dipped in pearlash, 6lc.,
were used ; but their indications are
of little value. The plan of ascer-
taining the dew point (see) is the sim-
plest i this may be done as directed
under dew point, with the hygrome-
tes of Professor Daniel, oi; by a sim-
ple implement of Professor Bache,
which consists of a small bar of pol-
ished steel, in which several perfora-
tions are made, at short intervals,
large enough to receive the bulb of
a small thermometer. When used,
one end of the bar is plunged in iced
water, the other being sustsioed in
the air : after a short time, dew will
be seen to form near the lower parts,
and to rise gradually until it attains
a stationary point. If the thennom-
eter be now placed.in the nearest ap-
erture, it will indicate the tempera-
ture of the dew point, or the hygromet-
ric condition of the air. If the place
occupied by the dew be situated be-
tween two perforations, the thermom-
eter may be placed in both, and one
half the difference added to the de-
gree of the lower, to mark the dew
point.

The real amount of water in a giv-
en bulk of air is not measured by any
instrument. It is, however, a mat-
ter of calculation. From Professor
Daniers table, it appears that at a
dew point of 30° Fahrenheit, there is
about 2i grains of water in a cubic
foot of air ; at 40°, 3k grains ; at 50°,
4k grains ; 60°=r6i grains ; 70° Fah-
renheit = 8* grains ; at 80° Fahren-
heit, lU grains.
HYGROMETRIC, HYGROSCOP-
412

HYP

IC. Having the quality of absorb*
ing moisture during wet, and partially
losing it in dry weather.

HYGROSCOPE. The hygrometer.

HYLOBIUS. A genus of tetrana-
etous beetles, resembling the curcu^
liott and infesting trees.

HYMENIUM. The gills or porous
membranes in which the spores of
fungi are placed.

HYMENOPTERANS, HYMEN-
OPTERA (from vfufv, a mcmhranet and
nrepov, a vnng). An Order of mandib-
ulate insects, comprehending those
which have four membranous wings
with few nervures. LatreiUe divides
this order into the following sections
and tribes .*

1. TercbratUia: Abdomen of the fe-
males furnished with a saw or borer.

a. Sccurifera: Abdomen sessile, fur*
nished with a saw ; larvae with
feet.

h. Pupivora: Abdomen peduncula-
ted, furnished with a borer ; lar-
vae footless.

2 AcuUata : Abdomen of the fe-
males armed with a sting.

a. Heterogyna : Females wingless.

h. jp0««orejr: Females winged, wings
not folded ; basal joint of poste-
rior tarsi simple.

c. Diploplera : Females winged,
wings folded.

d. MeUifera : Females winged,
wings not folded ; posterior tar-
si enlarged, and converted into
a pollinigerous organ.

HYPERSTHENE. A species of
mineral resembling hornblend, with
little lime and twenty-four per cent,
iron. In some greenstone rocks it
takes the place of hornblend.

HYPERTROPHY. An unusual
increase in size of any organ of the
body.

HYPOCHONDRIUM. The region
of the body under the cartilages of
the false ribs. The liver lies in the
right, and the spleen in the left hyp-
ochondrium.

HYPOCRATERIFORM. Salver-
shaped. A corolla consisting nearly
entirely of a tube.

HYPOGASTRIC REGION, HY-
POGASTRIUM (from wro, umUr, and

ICE •

yaenjp, the stomach). The portion of
the abdomen reaching from the low-
est parts to near the navel.

HTPOGENE ROCKS- The crys-
talline rocks, both stratified and un-
stratified, as granite, gneiss, mica,
and homblend elates. These are
either rocks of fusion (Plutonic), or
have been modified by heat (Tr«9ut-
tion).

HYPOGYNOUS (from vno, and
ywff, a femaU). Stamens, or other
organs, attached below the base of
the ovarium.

HYPONITROUS ACID. A very
instable and unimportant acid, com-
posed of 1 eq. nitrogen and 3 oxygen.

HYPOPHOSPHOROUS ACID.
A compound little known, with acid
properties ; it has not been isolated,
and consists of 1 eq. phosphorus and

1 oxygen.
HYPOPHYLLUM. A partial leaf,

clasping the stem, and without lamina.
HYPOSULPHURIC ACID. An
instable body, not isolated, composed
of 2 sulphur, 5 oxygen. HyposiUpku-
rous acid is not isolable ; consists of

2 S4-3 O. ; its salts, the hyposul-
phites, are of use in photography :
they are very readily decomposed.

HYPOTENUSE. The longest
side of a right-angled triangle.

HYPOTHESIS. A speculation
not based on facts, but explaining
certain phenomena

HYSSOP. Hyssopus ojleinalis. A
perennial rooted, labiate plant, of aro-
matic and bitter properties. It grows
on a dry, light soil, and is propagated
by cntttttgs and seeds.

HYSTERIA. A nervous com-
plaint, attended with convulsions and
peculiar flatalency.

HYSTRICID^ (from hvftrix, a
porcupine). The family of Rodentia,
to wnic^ the porcupine belongs.

IBEX. A wild goat {Cavra ibex)
inhabiting the mountains or the Old
World, with long horns, marked with
knotted ridges.

ICE. Water congeals at and be-
low 9Z^ Fahrenheit, and expands 4th
of its volume at 40^ Fahrenheit;

Um2

ICE

herii^, when freexing occurs in the
pores of rocks, the earth, &c., it oft-
en produces a disruption of the par-
ticles. It is this action that mellows
lands ploughed in the fall.

ICE-HOUSE. A sandy or porous
soil is to be preferred ; the place
should have a northern aspect, and
be protected by trees, a wall, dec.,
from the action of the sun. The pit
may be conical or rectangular, with
sloping sides ; for a family, twelve to
fourteen feet depth, and twelve feet
square, will be sufficient, but some
houses are twenty-four feet deep ;
the sides may be bricked and cement-
ed, or lined with wooden piles cut
from small pines, and set horizontally,
as in making a log house, and after-
ward boarded ; the framing may rise
one or two feet above the ground, and
a quantity of earth be rammed against
it. At the bottom, a well three or four
feet deep, and one third the width of
the pit, should be dug, and covered
with timbers or an iron grating ; into
this the water of the melted ice drains
and is removed ; if the soil be po-
rous, nothing more is wanting, but if
retentive, a drain must be made from
the bottom to carry off the waiter ;
this is to be protected with a water-
trap to hinder circulation of air. If a
sandy bed be supposed to exist at a
short depth, it is best to sink the well
to it, or, at least, to make an open
bore ; unless the water can be drain-
ed, the ice will not keep.

The roof may be a sharp gable or
conical, well protected by shingles or
thatch ; the door is to be on the north
side, and should lead along a short
passage to a second inner door. A
gutter must be placed around the
eaves to carry off every drop of rain.

The house should be filled in dry,
frosty weather ; if of wood, the ice
may be thrown directly in, but in
stone or brick houses a layer of straw
or leaves may be first spread on the
bottom. The clearest ice is best ; it
should be driven closely together
with a rammer, and, as the house fills,
straw or leaves may be placed around
the Bides. If the weather be very
cold, water may be thrown over the

413

ICE

ice, m Bti lo freeie and conBoMate
(he mass, otherwise the crevicea
should be filled with small or broken
pieces. If the house has been filled
early, it is eusWrnary in leave it un-
covered until the new year, so as to
add ID the masa as it seltlea during
February. As booh as the winter is
passed, the top should be well cuv-
eretl with dry leaiea or straw. A
ladder is used to reach the ice, and,
placed upon it as soon as neceaaary,
it remaina during the aeaaon. Snow,
well rammed, keeps well, especially
if water be froten amid it.

Some houses arc [nade with a
double lining, the outer being of piles
and the inner of plank, the space be-
tween them varying from four to
eight inches, and lillod with pounded
charcoal, sawdust, dry tan, or leaves
well rammed. In this way a non-
conducting pit is made that will keep
less quantities of ice very perfeclly.
Such a housB may even bo made
above ground, if surrounded with a
thick mould of earth, and kept free
tram wet and well drained.

The uitt of such a iiouse are ap-
parent : meats, liquids, buiter, fruits,
are preserved ; but, besides these, in
silk raising, it affords the means of
delaying the hatching ; scions may be
kepi back, a[»d, abone all, tho ioe is
invaluable in the sick-chamber in in-
flammatioDS.

ICE PONDS. Any natural lake
or accumulation of clear water will
Aimlsh fine ice ; but where that ia
wanting, ■ temporary dam thrown
Boross a spring branch will soon pre
dace a aufficient amount of nratai
Where the operation of taking ice i
carried on on a large scale, the sui
face is cut by a plough of suitable
oonatruclion, and thus tho remo~-'
assisted. The Boston dealers t)
only the transparent ice ; they h:
any accumulation of snow shaved off
by skim-coulters a few days before
use, and the thickness of the real ice
is rapidly increased aflerward. The
largest blocks are preferred for
rage; and as they are cut of the s
■ixe, they can be laid in the house
like coarsea of masonry.
414

ICELAND SPAR. Calcareans

ICHNEUMON FLIES. Small hy-
enapteroua insects, which Isy egga
the bodies of aphides, caterpillars,
and other insects, and even in ilia
eggs of these ; the yousg eat and de-
stroy the creatures in which the egg

species (Trvgat fi

lu).

ICHOR. A thin, parntent, and
acrid discharge.

ICOSANDRIA, ICOSANDROUS

rom riKOOi, Ivxnly, and artip, a nuif }.
Flowers with SO b lam ens.

ICTERUS. Jaundice ; hence iele-

id, yellowish, like the colour of iha
skin in jaundice.

IDIOPATHIC. Independent of
other diseases.

IDIOSYNCRASY. A pecoliaritr
of constitution.

IDOCRASE. Volcanic garnet. It
crysiallicea in a square-based iniBin
of a brownish colour, and is found
massive. Composition of the Vesu-
vian: silica.SGS; alumina,33i linte,
33-36 1 iron, 7-6.

IGASAURIC ACID. A vegetable
acid found in plants yielding stryeb-

IGNIS FATUITS. A lumioons me-
teor Been over marshes ; it coMista ,
of marsh gas (tight carbnretted hy-
drogen) inflamed.

IGNITION (from if Bu./rO. Com-
bustion, burning.

ILEUM. Tbetowerportionofthe
small intestines.

I LIA. The lower sides of the »b-
domen ; hence iliae, iliacui, related
to the iLum.

IMP

INC

ILIAC PASSION. A Tiolent col-
ic, in which feculent matter is Torn-
ited.

ILIUM. The haunch bone.

IMAGO. The winged insect.

IMBRICATED, Overlapping, like
the shingles of a roof.

IMPACT. The concussion of one
body on another.

IMPENETRABILITY. An es-
sential property of matter, whereby
one molecule only can occupy a given
space at a certain time.

IMPETUS. The force or momen-
tum of a body in motion.

IM PERMEABLE. Rendered wa-
ter-proof; this may be done with cot-
ton, silk, or other cloths by satura-
ting with drying linseed oil ; linseed
oil holding in solution India rubber ;
a varnish made by dissolving India
rubber in naphtha ; by pitch ; a solu-
tion of glue applied to cloth, which is
afterward dipped in infusion of galls.

JmptrvicaUe^ in physics, also means
capable of resisting the passage of
gases as well as fluids.

IMPINGE. To strike upon; a
word much used in optics to express
the incidence of light.

IMPLEMENTS. Suitable care
should be taken in keeping them free
from rust and unnecessary exposure ;
parts subject to movements should
be kept oiled, and the whole stored
in a dry place in the barn.

IMPONDERABLE. A term used
to express light, heat, or electricity,
which are destitute of any discovera-
ble weicht.

IMPOSTHUME. An abscess.

IMPREGNATION. Conception.
In horticulture, the contact of pollen
with the stigma is called impregna-
tion; without this, no seed is pro-
duced. Artificial impregnation is
called hybridizing. See Hybrid, By
it numerous choice fruits, vegetables,
and flowers have been produced.

IMPROVEMENT OF LANDS.
See Barren Land and Arable Land.

IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS.
The chief means are manuring, care-
ful tillage, proper exposure to sun or
shade, pruning, summer pruning, hy-
bridizing, securing fine seeds. Im-

prored yarieties are maintained by
grading, slips, parting the roots, and
high culture ; without the latter, an-
nuals degenerate. Nature often vol-
unteers an improvement, which the
orchardist should at once avail him-
self of by propagation, and by care-
fully collecting the seeds. In this
way several varieties of wheat, or
other plants, sown together occa-
sionally, exhibit a new kind, superior
to the rest, the seed of which must
be carefully separated and sown alone
on excellent soils.

INANITION. A state of languor,
emptiness.

INARCHING. A kind of grafting,
in which the scion is not cut from its
parent, but the scion and stock are
made to come together at a certain
place ; they are then both pared down
to the new wood, and a tongue made
in each wound, so as to enable
them to fit closer ; the two are then
bound together (the parts being ad-
justed) by bass and grafting clay, and
supported by a stake driven in the
ground. The plants should be sha^
ded, most of the buds removed, and
the stock headed down nearly to the
scion. When the parts are firmly
united, which requires three or four
months, the scion is cut from its pa-
rent. This process is sure, but troub-
lesome. The scion may be some-
times a slip, the heel of which is kept
in water. The operation is perform-
ed in April or May, and usually on
jessamins, myrtles, camellias, wall-
nuts, and firs.

INCANDESCENCE. A luminous
heat.

INCANUS. Hoary; covered with
a whitish down.

INCH. The twelfth part of a foot.

INCIDENCE. The meeting of one
body with another. The angle of in-
cidence is formed by the direction of
the light to a line perpendicular to
the plane of the suriace on which it
falls.

INCINERATION. Burning to

INCISED. Cut with a sharp knife.
INCISIONS IN TREES. Draw-
ing a sharp knife through the bark

416

IND

and into fhe new wood of plnni, cher-
ry, and other trees, is often very ser-
viceable when they are bark- bound.
It should be done in summer, and the
incision made from the branches to
the earth.

INCISORS. The sharp cutting
Of nipping teeth placed in front of the
mouth of animals.

INCOMBUSTIBLE. Not capable
of burning. Cloths and wood are
rendered almost incombustible by
soaking in a solution of borax, alum,
sal ammoniac, phosphate of soda,
&c. The metallic salts used in pre-
serving timber render it very incom-
bustible ; it smoulders, but does not
burn with flame.

INCOMPATIBLES. Substances
which cannot exist in solution with-
out decomposition.

INCUBATION. Hatching. This
may bo done by artificial heat distrib-
uted through a chamber by steam :
tho temperature is about 102° Fahren-
heit. See Gestation. A contrivance
for artificial hatching, called the £c-
caleobion,ha8 been exhibited in New-
York.

INCUMBENT. In botany, leaning
against.

INDEHISCENT. In botany, a
fruit which does not open when ripe,
as succulent berries.

INDIAN BLACK DRINK. See
Holly.

INDIAN CORN. See Com.

INDIAN CRESS. The nasturtion.

INDIAN HEMP. See Hemp.

INDIAN MILLET. See MUlet.

INDIAN PHYSIC. Gillema trifo-
liata. An indigenous herb, the peren-
nial root of which is a good emetic.

INDIA RUBBER. Caoutchouc.
The dried milky juice of the Sipho-
nia elasiicay and other euphorbiaceous
trees. It is a compound of 90 car-
bon and 10 hydrogen, or C3 Hs. India
rubber ia much used in the laboratory
to unite tubes, <S:c.

It is dissolved by coal naphtha,
forming a varnish, which, brushed on
cloth, renders it water-proof; two
pieces of cloth are used, the varnish
rubbed on one, and the other brought
at once into contact ; they adhere

416

firmly. Linseed and other fixed oils
dissolve a small amount of caout-
chouc ; pure ether has the same prop-
erty.

When heated to 600®, it throws up
a vapour, which, by refrigeration, is
obtained as a volatile fluid, called
caoutchoucine. Tliis is a remarkaSle
solvent of common India rubber res-
ins, especially copal, and many oils.

INDIAN TOBACCO. See Lobelia,

INDIAN TURNIP. Ar^m Iriphyt^
lum. Wake-robin. A common marsh
plant, the bulbous roots of which con>
tain much starch, and are occasion-
ally eaten, af\er being dried, but it is
acrid when fresh.

INDIGESTION. This is charac-
terized by loss of appetite, flatulen-
cy, uneasiness over the stomach, ir-
regularity of the bowels, and imper-
fect dejections. It requires to be
treated by exercise, gentle purges,
change of diet, abstemiousness, and
tonics.

INDICATION. The particular
treatment indicated by the symptoms
of & dtsp&so

INDIGENOUS. Native plants,
dec, are so called.

INDIGO. A blue dyestnff pro-
cured from many leguminous plants,
but chiefly from the Ijtdigofera tine/a-
ria (Fig.\ which is cultivated in the

East and West Indies, the continent
of America, and the United States*
as it yields the largest amount of col-
ouring matter. In Guatimala, Uie

INDIGO.

shfnbby, L disperma, yielding a supe-
rior dye, is cultivated. Ure, also,
states that the I. pseudo tinctoria of
the East Indies furnishes the best in-
digo. The most successful calture of
these plants is near the tropics, where
the mean temperature reaches 75°
and 80° Fahrenheit ; but species of
indigofera grow to the north of this
position. The soil should be light
and rich ; the seeds are sown in April
in drills, run at distances from 15 to
20 inches apart ; they require moist-
ure, but should not be planted in an
undrained soil. Twelve pounds of
seed answer fur the acre. The young
plants are to be kept free from weeds,
thinned, and hoed up. The plants
are cut with a reaping-hook near the
earth, when about to flower, or as
soon as the lowest leaves begin to
turn : this period will be in July in
South Carolina. A second crop is
taken at the end of August, and a
third crop in Guatimala and India.
-The root stems also yield good indi-
go a second year in rich soils, but
one year is usually the term for suc-
cessful cultivation. The first crop is
the best. The excellence of the in-
digo wril depend upon the brightness
of the season ; long-continued wet
weather produces large plants, but a
smaller quantity of die.

PrepaTalion of Fresh Leaves. — ^The
harvested plants are at once carried
to a vat or steeping-tank of wood or
masonry ; here they are immersed in
water, being kept under by weighted
boards; fermentation soon begins,
and is allowed to continue about 18
hours, during which the colouring
matter is extracted from the leaves.
The fermenting vat is some 20 feet
square, and two to three feet deep,
and the bottom set on a level with
the top of a second or mashing-tank.
As soon as the scum produced in fer-
mentation begins to subside, the li-
quid should be allowed to flow into
the lower vessel. The decanted fluid
is of a yellowish tinge ; when in the
mashing vessel, it is to be violently
beaten with paddles or other means
for an hour or more, when the blue
begins to form in flocks and precipi-

tate. At first there is much froth,
but this subsides as soon as the flocks
become granulated; the beating is
stopped when the granulations occur,
and the fluid begins to clear if allowed
to stand. If the fermentation has
been defective, the iVoth is very abun-
dant, and must be allayed by pouring
oil over the surface ; if over-ferment-
ed, a thick fatty crust covers the li-
quid, which does not disappear on in-
troducing oil. In this case the beat-
ing or churning is to be moderated.
The indigo precipitates during 20
hours, leaving the water transparent
and free from froth. The surface
water is now to be drained off by
stop-cocks or plugs in the side of the
vessel. In Central America, the thick
semifluid mass of indigo is scraped
up and placed on a stout cloth, to
drain and dry in the sun, and after-
ward cut into small pieces for the
market. Stove-drying is equally ef-
fective. When dried, any white ef-
florescence that appears should be
wiped off*. Limewater is sometimes
used to assist the precipitation of the
indigo ; but it is not advisable, as the
colour is injured.

Preparation of Dried Leaves.^~Jn
India the plants are sometimes care-
fully dried in the sun, the leaves
thrashed from the stems, and stored
in barns until enough is accumulated
for sale or manufacture. The leaves
change, in four or more months, from
green to a bloe gray in the mass, and
then become ready for use. They are
placed in the steeping-vat with six
times their weight of water, and con-
tinually stirred for two hours or more,
until the floating leaves sink. The
solution is now green, and to be im-
mediately run oflT into the mashing-
vat, where it is treated as before.
There is no fermentation in this pro-
cess. Limewater is sometimes used
to hasten the granulation, but is not
necessary, except in the case of plants
which yield little colour, as woad
(Isatis tineloria).

In some cases the leaves are pound-
ed ; the solution is then strained be-
fore beating.

The product of indigo in South

417

INDIGO.

Carolina and Louisiana aTorages 06
pounds the acre: in Guatimala, 112
pounds is obtained on good soils.
The low price of labour in India
tends to the discouragement of the
cultivation of indigo in the United
States ; it is, however, raised for
plantation purposes. The following
is a sketch of the plan in the South
for this object, by the Southern Agri-
culturist ; it produces an imperfect
article, but good enough for the plant-
ers* use :

" Cut the indigo when the nnder
leaves begin to dry, and while the
dew is on them in the morning; put
them in a barrel, and fill this with
rain w*ater, and place weights on to
keep it under water. When bubbles
begin to form on the top and the water
begins -to look of a reddish colour, it
is soaked enough, and must be taken
ouf, taking care to wring and squeeze
the leaves well, so as to obtain all the
strength of the plant ; it must then
be churned (which may be done by
means of a tolerably open basket,
with a handle to raise it up and down)
until the liquor is quite in a foam.
To ascertain whether it is done
enough, take out a spoonful in a
plate, and put a small quantity of
very strong lye to it. If it curdles,
the indigo is churned enough, and
you must proceed to break tb^ liquor
in the barrel in the same way, by put-
ting in lye (which must be as strong
as possible) by small quantities, and
continuing to chum until it is all suf-
ficiently curdled : care must be ta-
ken not to put in too much lye, as
that will spoil it. When it curdles
freely with the lye, it must be sprin-
kled well over the top with oil, which
immediately causes the foam to sub-
side, after which it roust stand till
the indigo settles to the bottom of the
barrel. This may be discovered by
the appearance of the water, which
must be let off gradually by boring
holes first near the top, and afterward
lower, as it continues to settle. When
the water is all let off, and nothing
remains but the mud, take that and
put it in a bag (flannel is the best),
and hang it up to drip, afterward
dl8

spreading it to dry on laige dishea.
Take care that none of the foam,
which is the strength of the weed,
escapes ; but if it rises too high, sprin-
kle oil on it.'*

Indigo is found in numerous legu-
minous plants besides the indigofera,
as the Baplina ; it also exists in the
Polygonum tinetorium, in species of
nerium and isatis. One plan of dis-
covering the presence of this colour-
ing matter in any leaf is to place it
in strong ether until the green is ex-
tracted, and it becomes white or of a
light yellow ; then expose this freely
to the air, and if indigo be present,
the colour is changed to blue.

Chemical Observations and Dyeing.
^The lumps sold in commerce for
indigo are a mixture of several bod-
ies, as gluten, or gliadine, brown, red,
and blue colours; lime, and other
mineral substances. The proportion
of blue colour varies from 19 to 75 per
cent., according to the experiments
ofUre, the rich purple, violet- coloured
samples being best, and the East In-
dian generally superior to the Guati-
roala. It is insoluble in water, alco-
hol, or dilute acids. The blue indi-
go sublimes at 554 '^ Fahrenheit, with
a purple smoke, and forms purple,
shining scales, but much is destroyed.
The sublimed indigo consists of car-
bon, 73- 1 ; oxygen, 12*1 ; nitrogen,
10 8 ; hydrogen, 4. Indigogene, ol
Cv, Hw N3 O4 .-^Dumas.)

Indigo is readily dissolved in strong
sulphuric acid, seven to eight times
the weight of commercial oil of vit-
riol being necessary ; this is called so-
lution of indigo, sulphate of indigo,
Saxon and chemical blue, and is ex-
tensively used for dyeing. It may be
prepared in quantity and kept, and is
sold at the proper stores. To malce
it, the acid must be placed in an
earthen-ware dish, surrounded with
water to keep it cool, and the pound-
ed indigo added, with stirring, in small
quantities ; when it is dissolved, the
whole is covered and left for 48 hou rs ;
it is then mixed with twice its weight
of pure water, and bottled. This so-
lution contains the indigo, red and
brown colours, and gluten, and does

hot produce a clear dye. It may be
parified by adding the solution to a
considerable amount of boiling wa-
ter, and putting into it wool to mace-
rate in the cold for 24 hours. The
wool becomes deep Mue, and should
remain until the liquor is greenish
blue; it is then to be taken out,
drained, and washed in a stream of
pure water until the fluid ceases to
be coloured or acid. The washed
wool is nest to be placed in a copper
full of water, containiug two per cent,
of pearlasb, or carbonate of soda (or
three times the weight of indigo), and
kept boiling a quarter of an hour ;
The pure blue (sulphate and hypo-
sulphite of indigo) colours the wa-
ter, the wool remaining dyed a dirty
brown (indigo red) : the solution may
be used as a dye, yielding a bright,
good colour, called distiUed or soluble

blue.

Wools and other textures are first
boiled in alum before being perma-
nently dyed in the soluble blue, the
depth of tone being increased by sev-
eral applications of alum and immer-
sions in the solution ; it also senres
to make oliyes, greens, and other
mixed colours.

Other means of dyeing are exten-
sively used, founded on the property
of indigo to become soluble in alka-
line solutions, or limewater, and col-
ourless when brought in contact with
a deoxydizing substance, as green
vitriol, and recovering its hue on sub-
sequent exposure to air. The indigo
(indigogene) may be thrown down
fi'om solution by aeids as a white
body, of which blue indigo is suppo-
sed to be the oxide. The most com-
mon means of dyeing is the cold or
copperas vat ; this is made as follows :
The indigo is well rubbed into a fine
paste with water or lye ; it is then
stirred into a vat of hot water, and
newly slacked lime added ; a solution
of green vitriol is then stirred into
the preparation. The quantities em-
ployed are one pound of indigo, four
pounds of lime, and three poonds^f
copperas. The dyeing vat is sep-
arate, and furnished with the result-
ing solution, which contains deoxy-

INP

dized indigo of a reddish yeRow eoU
our. There is a precipitate left in
the preparing vat of sulphate of lime,
lime mixed with indigo, brown, and
some blue, and peroxide of iron.

In using this cold vat, cotton and
linen are to be first boiled in a weak
alkaline iye, and the cloth, whether
cbttou, wool, or silk, is to be merely
dipped without stirring, and allowed
to remain from eight to ten minutes ;
they are hung to drain over the vat ;
they are then to be exposed to the
air to acquire a blue colour, and dip-
jted until the proper tint is obtained.
When suitably coloured, they must
be plunged into a sour bath of very
dilute sulphuric or muriatic acid to
remove the lime, and finally rinsed
in running water.

Boussingault is of opinion that the
dye-stufiT might be prepared in the
beginning from the mash-vat by this
process with great advantage. Nu-
merous jNToducts obtained by the ac-
tion of re-agents on indigo are known
in chemistry, but are of little impor-
tance to us.

INDUCTION. The process of ar-
riving at generalizations, or Laws, by
a judicious investigation of numerous
facts. In electricity, it is the influ-
ence one electrified body exerts on
another, whereby its nearest surface
is made to exhibit a kind of electri-
city differing from that of the excited
flubslSDce

INDUMENTUM. The coating of
feathers on birds.

INDUSI^. The cases of certain
water insecU; they are silicious,
calcareous, or ferruginous.

INDUSIUM. The thin membrane
covering the fruit of some ferns.

INDUVIi£. Organized remains;
the withered leaves of monocotyle-
donous trees, dtc.

INERMIS. Unarmed; without
spines or prickles.

INERT VEGETABLE MATTER.
Peat, tan, dec, which does not readi-
ly ferment ; mixture with dung, lime,
or ashes reduces it.

INERTIA. The indifference oi
matter to rest or motion.
I INFIELD. Under improved tillage

419

INQ

INS

and rotations, as distingaMied firom

outfield lands.

INFLAMMATION. An unnatu-
ral increase of circulation, blood, and
heat ia any part. It originates in
irritation, culds, contagion, and un-
healthy conditions of the nervous
system, and may attack any part. It
begins wiUi dryness, heat, pain^ and
tension, which is succeedeid by in-
creased Tsscularity, swelling, and se-
cretion, and terminates naturally by
resolution to the primary states, by
the adhesion of paru or the forma-
tion of pus, uloerationy mortification,
and death of the part.

If the animal be vigorons, it is to
be treated by bleeding, purging, blis-
ters, and cooling applications. But
the inflammations of weakly animals,
especially when arising from conta-
gion and ending in ulcerations and
gangrene* is to be treated by stimu-
lants and tonics, of which carbonate
of ammonia («si wUaiUe) and bark are
the best.

INFLATED. Distended like a
full bladder, as the carpels of some
plants.

INFLEXED. Bent inward.

INFLECTION. In optics, the
same as difiraction.

INFLORESCENCE. The group-
ing of flowers on the stems of plants ;
the principal forms are the spike, ra-
ceme, corymb, umbel, panicle, thyr-
sus, catkin, capitulum.

INFLUENZA. An epidemic cold,
with sore throat and fever, prevail-
iag in some springs.

INFUNDIBULIFORM. Shaped
like a funnel.

INFUSION. A Uquor obtained by
macerating herbs, dec., in hot or cold
water.

INFUSORIA. The minute ani-
malcules of infusions and stagnant
waters ; some possess a mineral ca-
sing ; and the remains of innumera-
ble myriads are found in rocks, such
as tripoli, polirsheifer ; hence termed
infusorial^ or infusery rocks or forma-
tions.

INGLUVIES. The crop of birds.

INGUINAL. Connected with the
groin {inguen).

420

INK. To make blaok iak of the

best quality, take 12 parts gall-nuts,
5 of green vitriol, and 5 of gum ; the
galls are to be well pounded and
boiled, and the other ingredients af-
terward added ; 1 gallon of water is
used for every pound of galls. Osk
bark, logwood, and other substances
are often used in place of the galls :
the quantity must be two or three
times greater.

The indeliUe ink, for marking lin*
en, is a solution of nitrate of silver
(lunar caustic). It is used with a
clean pen on a place previously soaked
with a little salt ; the marking is to
be exposed to light to blacken. It is
removable by etUorine and ammonia.

Blue ink is a patent solution of
Prussian blue in oxalic acid and wa*
ter ; gum is added to make it adhere
to paper ; it is perishable, and easily
dissolved.

INJECTION. In iarriery, a fluid
medicine thrown into any cavity of
the body by a squirt or syringe.

INNER BARK. The Uber of bot-
anists, bass.

INNOMINATUM BONE. The
bone of the buttock ; aitch, or adze
bone.

INOCULATION. The introduo
tion under the skin of animals of a par-
ticular poison, fluid, or virus, to pro-
duce a specific disease, as smallpox.
Budding and the transfer of grass
turfis are also called inoculation by
farmers.

INORGANIC. Not organic or de-
structible by heat, as the ashes of
plants, minerals, &c.

INOSCULATION. The union of
the extremities of veins and arteries^

INSECTIVOROUS. Birds, ani-
mals, or reptiles that prey on insects.

INSECTS. The foUowing brief
sketch of Entomology is chiefly by
Mr. Swainson, from Loudon's Ency-
clopaedia:

''Insecu, above all other animals,
are by far the most injurious to the
agriculturist, not only from their num-
btts, but from their attacking the
produce of the earth in all its stages
of growth and maturity.

'* Insects are distinguished from

mSEOTS.

mnam (F«rm«#, Lin.) by always bav-
ing feet id their perfect state, aa the
beetle, batteifly, 4cc. Worms crawl
upon their bellies, and have no feet,
as the earth-worm, slug, snail, 6uc.
The generality of insects have only
six feet {Hexapods) ; but some few,
generally called by this name, have
a giBat many, as the wood-louse, cen-
tipede, ^co. *

"Nearly all insects are oviparous ;
that is, produeed from an egg. These
eggs are seldom found singly. Those,
of some species, are hatohed in a few
days, while others remain during the
winter, and the young do not come
forth until the season at which the
leaves of the plants upon which they
leed begin to expand.

** The second atate of the insect is
called the eruca, or larva. Caterpil-
lars are those larve which are ex-
posed, and feed upon leaves and
plants. The larvtt of beetles usual-
ly live in the earth, in the trunks of
trees, or in the subiAanoe upon which
they feed; they are generally of a
"Whitish colour, thick and clumsy in
form, and are called grubs; while
the name of maggots is usually given
to the larv« of dies, bees, ants, dec.,
ail of which live in the same confined
atate as those of beetles. It is in
this stage of existence that insects
are most voractoua, and, consequent-
ly, most destructiVB to plants.

** When the larva has attained to ita
full sixe, it changes into the pupa or
chrysalis state. This is done in dif-
ferent aituations, according to the
tribes to which they bekng. The
dirysalis of butterflies are naked, and
are either suspended or attached to
trees, branches, walls, dec. Those
of moths are either concealed in a
case, like the cocoon of the silkworm,
or the caterpillar undergoes its change
in the earth. The period in which
insects remain in this state varies
according to the species ; but i\a most
oases they are inactive and torpid.

** The imago, or perfect insect, is
produced from the chrysalis, and is
the only state in which all its parts
and members are fully developed.
The appearance and economy of per-

feet insects, in general, is totally dif«
ferent from those of the larvae and
pupe, and it is only in ita final stage
of existence that the species can be
ascertained. With the exception of
such insects as form the aptera of
Linnsus, all others are furnished with
wings, either four or two in number.
Some few exceptions, however, oc-
cur to this rule; the female of the
glow-worm and of some few nooths
are apterous, while many beetles (al-
though furnished with hard winged
cases) are destitute of real wings.
The body is divided into a bead, tho-
rax or chest, and abdomen : the head
sustains a pair of antennae, resem-
bling horns, two eyes, often very
compound; the parts of the mouth
are a labium, labrum, mandibles, and
maxiUw, or jaws ; to the latter are
attached the organs of feeling (po/pt).

**The duration of insects is ex-
tremely variable : the greatest pro-
portion appear to be annuals, emer*
ging from the egg and passing through
the three stages of their existence
within the space of a year. But there
are a great number of species, particu-
larly among the beetles, which pass
three, and even four years in the cat-
erpillar sfftte ; and instances are on
record of beetles remaining in timber
from ten to fifteen years. The greatest
proportion of moths are biennial, pass-
ing the winter in the chrysalis stute,
and closing their existence in the suc-
ceeding summer. The transitory life
of the ephemera is proverbial; the
perfect insect, indeed, exists but for
a day, and seems born only to con-
tinue its species, yet in the larva state
it enjoys a life of one, two, or even
three years.

^*' Arrongement cr CUunfication of
In»ecta.^W\ insects may be divided
into two groups : 1. Apterous rnsecia,
having either no metamorphosis, or
only that kind of it the tendency of
which is confined to the increase of
the number of feet : these, as their
name implies, are destitute of wings.
2. True in*eeu, or those whose met-
amorphosis baa a tendency to g^ye
wings to the perfect or image state,
bat never more than six feet.

4S1.

INSECTS.

** True insects are again divisible
into two primary groups : the first of
these are organized for mastication
in their perfect state, and the second
are organized for suction alone. Each
of these diyistons, according to the
system of Macleay, contains five sep-
arate orders, the principal characters
of which we shall endeavour to make
intelligible in conmion language.

" The Mandibulata, or masticating
insects, are furnished with jaws {iro-
phi) of a homy or membranaceous sub-
stance, infinitely diversified in their
form and structure. They are divi-
ded into the following orders :

"1. Trichoptera. — The wings are
four, soft, and generally transparent ;
the upper pair slightly hairy, and the
lower folded when at rest. The in-
sects of this order are comparatively
few. The caddy, or cadis worm, is
the larva of the spring fiy {Phryf^anea),
and lives in the water^ concealed
within a tube of its own constniction.

** 2. Hymenopicra. — The wings are
four, clear and transparent. The tar-
sus (or outer division of the foot) is
composed of five joints, and the body
is armed with a sting. The bee, the
ant, and the wasp are familiar ex-
amples. •

" 3. CoUoptera, This well-defined
and most extensive order compre-
hends all insects known by the name
of beetles. They have two wings,
concealed beneath a pair of hard
wing-cases, which meet close togeth-
er in a straight line down the back.
There are many tribes of these in-
sects, which, both in their larva and
perfect state, are extensively injuri-
ous to man.

•*4. Orthoptera. — The troe wings
are but two, very large when expand-
ed, and folded lengthwise when at
rest. They are covered, either par-
tially or wholly, by two wing-cases of
a thin, tough, and rather opaque sub-
stance, somewhat resembling parch-
menti and reticulated with small
nerves. The leading characters of
this order are exemplified in the Blat-
ta, or cockroach, the pest of tropical
countries, and frequently troublesome
in our kitchens and larders.

"5. Neuropiera. ^-The Wings, wilb
very few exceptions, are four in num»
ber, clear, transparent, and reticula-
ted with numerous areolets, or irreg-
ularly square divisions ; the tail of
the female is not armed with a sting.
Few, if any of these insects may be
considered as injurious : some are,
indeed, beneficial; as, from their pred-
atory habits, they attack and devour
a vast number of smaller insects.
This is more parttcnlarly the habit of
the green dragon liy {Agrion wrg-o),
which every one may see, during sum-
mer, hovering over ponds, and fijnng
about like a hawk in search of its prey.
The ephemera, or day-fly, likewise be-
longs to this order.

** The HavateUattL, or suctorial in*
sects, likewise contain five orders.
Although apparently destitute of jaws,
there is every reason to believe that
the rudiments of the masticating or-
gans exist in these insects, but that
they are so slightly developed as to be
totally useless, and only discoverable
under a very strong magnifier. The
suctorial insects in their larva state
are mostly furnished with strong and
well-defined jaws, and feed voracious-
ly upon animal and vegetable bodies ;
yet, from the perfect insect being sup-
ported by suction alone, it is obvious
that in this state they can do no in-
jury to the agriculturist. The orders
into which they have been divided
are these :

" 1. Lepidoptera. — ^The wings are
four, thin, membranaceous, and cov-
ered with a fine powdery substance,
which, by the magnifying glass, is
shown to consist of minute scales,
lying one upon another, like those on
fishes. The butterfly and moth tribes
are familiar to every one as well-
known examples of these insects, the
larva of which are called caterpillars.

" «. DipterM. — The wings are two,
clear and transparent, like those of
the common house-fly. This order
is very numerous, and contains many
insects which are injurious to vege-
tables as larvtt, and troublesome to
man in a winged state, as the gnat
{Culei), whane-fly {Tabanu»\ crane-
fly {Tipuld).

iraEOTSw

** 8. 4pl«m.— Entomologists of the
last century arranged all insects with-
out wings under this order ; hut it is
now restricted, by Latreille and Mac-
]eay« to such only as have a bivalve
articulated sUeath to their mouth or
Tostram, and no wings, as in the case
of the common flea.

** 4. Ham^«ra.^Insects of this or-
der are furnished with two folded
wings, covered by wing-cases, also
crossing over each other, of a semi-
corneous suhsunce, and which are
likewise useful as organs of flight.
The tarsi are oompoaed of three, two,
or sometimes only of one joint, and
the body is much flattened. The va-
rious insects commonly called field-
bogs, which emit a strong and disa-
greeable smell when handled, are all
arranged under this order.

" 6. Homoplera. -^These insects
have a great resemblance to the last ;

ed and ifat, is ooavex and thick ; tfie
wings, also, instead of being folded
over each other, are deflexed, and
embrace the sides of the body.

** The diflferent orders of insects
we have now enumerated are con-
nected by others of an inferior ex-
tent, and which are called esculent
orders. But a description of these
is not essential to our present pur-
pose, as they do not contain any de-
cidedly injurious insects.

*' In»€cl9 injurious to Live Stock. —
The horse. The principal foes to this
animal are the hor8e-bee<(E»/rwt eaui)
and gadfly {(E. fuetnorrhoidalisy The
first depositee its eggs on such parts
of the body as are liable to be licked
by the tongoe, and the animal thus
conveys its enemy into its stomach ;
the young larvae are there nourished,
and become whitish rough maggots
(Ft^. 1, e), which are known by the

but thebody, ioatead of being depress* [ name of hots. They attain their full

size about the latter end of May, and
are voided about the end of June. On
dropping to the ground, they find ont
some convenient retreat, where they
change into a chrysalis, and in six or
seven weeks the fly appears. The
female {h) is distinguished from the
ina]#(a) by the lengthened shape of
her body. The inside of the knee is
chiefly selected for depositing her
6gg8, which will frequently amount
to foar or five hundred on one horse.
The other species {(E. kamorrhoi^kUis,
Lin.) is still more troublesome ; it

deposites its eggs upon the lips, and
causes excessive and distressing un-
easiness to the animal. The pre-
vention of hots belongs to the farm-
er, the core to the veterinary sur-
geon. The first may be effected by
watching the animal at the season
when the female deposites her eggs
(usually in August and September),
and should the horse appear much
agitated in its pasture, there will be
good reason to suspect it has been
attacked by the fly ; the eggs may
then bo removed by the brush and

4St3

INSECTS.

canyoomb, or by a pair of scissors.
Wben the disease is certain, one of
the best methods to destroy the in-
sect is to fasten a bag net on tjbe
horse, for the purpose of catching the
excrement, as well as the full-fed lar-
vae. By throwing the dung every
morning into a deep pit, any larve
that may be enclosed in it will thus
be prevented from working their way
to the surface when their last trans-
formation is about to take place, and
their death will cut off a numerous
progeny. There are other dipterous
insects which feed upon the blood
both of horses and cattle ; the most
formidable of these are the horse-
flies {TabcLnit k, /); others, much
smaller (Stomoxi/s calcitrana)^ assail
him in every situation during sum-
mer, and dart their long probosces
into his legs and belly. But none are
more trying to him than the forest
fl^' {Hippobosca equina, L.), which runs
side wise or backward, like a crab,
and shelters itself in those parts least
covered by hair : it may, however, be
caught by the hand when the animal
is in his stall ; but its substance is so
hard, that it can only be destroyed
by rolling it between the finger and
thumb.

** Horned cattle are likewise sub-
ject to the attacks of a peculiar spe-
cies of gadfly ( (E. bovis, d, e, /), which
causes them great terror and distress.
The larva (e) is smooth and fat, and
the chrysalis {J) opens by a lid (m)
when the insect {d) emerges from it.
The herdsman may know when this
insect appears among his flocks, by
the agitation they exhibit ; the whole
herd, with their tails erect, or carried
in some grotesque attitude, gallop
about and utter loud lowings. When
oxen are employed in agriculture, the
attack of this fly is odea attended
with danger, as they become quite
unmanageable, and, whether in har-
ness or yoked to the plough, will run
directly forward. Their harness at
this season should, therefore, be so
constructed as to be easily loosened.
The eggs are deposited wiUun the
skin of the animal, and in a wound
made by a tube resembling an auger,

424

with which the female is prorided.
These flies only attack young and
healthy subjects ; but, independently
of the terror they create, do not ap^
pear to occasion any material injury.

'* Sheep are also infested by anoth-
er species of gadfly {(E. oom, L., g, h,
}), which deposites its eggs in the
inner margin of their nostrils. The
moment the fly touches this part of
the sheep they shake their heads, and
strike the ground violently with their
fore feet ; at the same time, holding
their noses close to the earth, they
run away, looking about them on ev-
ery side, to seeif theflypuraaes: they
will sometimes crowd together in a
rut or dusty road, with their noses
close to the ground. The larvie (t)
are white, flat on one side and con-
vex on the other ; tbey inhabit the
cavities of the maxillary sinnses,
and crawl, when the animal is dead,
into those of the horns and frontal si^
nuses; when full grown, they fall
through the nostrils, and change to
the chrysalis (4), which produces the
fly {g) ia about two months* Swine,
pigeons, and all kinds of poultry are
subject to fleas and lice of various
kiods, but never to such a degree aa
to occasion death.

** Fish, in their young or fry state,
are the food of the larvae of water-
beetles {Dyiuci). These insects are
frequently seen in great numbers in
ponds ; they may be caught by a hand
net (made of very small meshes), in-
serted beneath the insect, as he re-
poses (with his head downward) on
the surface, and then suddenly drawn
upward.

" Insect* injuriout to Vegetables. —
The ravages of insects upon plants
commence from the time that the
seed is committed to the ground, and
continue until the produce is gathered
into the bam. We have noticed the de-
structive insects which are, in a great
degree, pecuhar to certain plants,
as wheat, barley, die, in a general
way ; we shall now enumerate those
that infest the grains, clover, pas-
tures, cabbages, and fruits, planta-
tions, as well as those universal de-
stroyers of all vegetables, the wire-

INSECTS.

worm, the plant lice, and the differ-
ent species of crane-fly.

*• Wheat, in every state, ie subject
to many ioaect depredators. Mr.
Marshani describes a small grub
which eats into the young plant about
ao indi below its surface, devours the
central part, and thns causes its im-
mediate death. At a later period this
grain la attacked by a fly nearly re-
lated to the MosiUu9 tarcuatut of La-
treiUe. It m^kes a lodgement in the
heart of the principal stem just above
the root, which stem it invariably
destroys, gifing the crop at first a
most unpromising appearance. When
the wheat blossoms, it becomes ex-
posed to the attack of a small or-
ange-cukMired gnat, which deposites
its eggs in the centre of the flower.
The weevil ia destructive to wheat
when in the granary, where it feeds
both in the kirva and perfect state.

*' Rye is subject to the attacks of a
small fly {Muica jntmUioms), which
introduces its eggs into the heart of
the shoots, and occasions a loss of
from eight to fourteen plants in a
square of two feet. No remedy has
yet been proposed for this pest, which,
if not extensive, may be checked by
plucking the injured ears and burn-
ing them.

*' Barley, besides other insect foes,
has one peculiar to itself, in the shape
of a small moth {Tinea hordei^ K.).
This fly deposites from 20 to 30 eggs
on a single grain; when hatched,
each of the larvs disperses, and, se^
lecting a grain for itself, enters from
without, and lies totally concealed.
Should these moths be observed in a
granary, the i^iy may be stopped
by carefully covering the grain, leav-
ing a few handfuis exposed; upon
these the moths will deposits their
«gga> and by roasting or destroying
this small quantity, the rest may be
aaved from infection.

" Oats are subject to few diseases ;
bat, like all other grain, the plants
are liable to be destroyed by that uni-
versal devastator, the wire- worm, of
which a more particular account will
be found in treating of insects uni-
versally injurious to vegetables. The

Nh2

chinch bog is often very injurious in
the South.

**The diseases of peas are mil-
dew and blight, but these are only oc-
casional ; Its insect enemies, howev-
er, are formidable; the principal of
these is the plant louse (Aphis), one
species of which is peculiar to this
plant. Beans are exposed to the
same injury from another species of
aphis of a black colour, which begins
at the top of the plant, and muhij^ies
downward. In both cases the most
eflectoal remedy is to top the plants
at an early period of the infection,
and burn the parts so gathered ; this
plan is likewise advantageous, as it
improves both the quality and quan-
tity of the crop. The earlier pease
are sown, the better chance they
stand of escaping this pest ; or if a
small quantity of quicklime is sprin-
kled upon them when they are a few
inches high, experience has shown
that the plants remain uninjured,
while the aphis is totally destroyed.

"Turnips are subject to several
peculiar diseases, and are the food of
many noxious insects. On the first
appearance of the leaves, a whole
host of little jumping beetles (Haltica
nemorum), called by farmers the fly
and blackjack, attack and devour
them, so that the land is often obli-
ged to be resown. Nearly as much
damage is sometimes caused by a lit-
tle weevil ( Cureulio eonlracius. Marsh-
am), which in the same manner pier-
ces a hole in the cuticle : watering
with lime water, &c., may serve to
check both these evils.

" The hop is liable to many disea-
ses caused by insects. When the
plants first emerge above the ground,
they are infested by a small beetle
{Haltiea coneiwm), vulgarly called the
flea. In a more advanced state the
tops and branches are devoured by
the hop aphis, known to some by the
name of the green fly, while at the
same period the roots are subject to
the attack of the caterpillar of a sin-
gular species of moth, named by col-
lectors the ghost moth.

*' Clover is very subject to be in*
jured by a very small weevil {Api^n

4S5

flttn/emamtioK. K.), wbich at til •ea-
sons reeds upon the seeil o( tbe pur-
ple clover, while another Bpecies of
the same tribe {A.fiatipct) devours
that or tlie wbiie or Dutch clover ;
the injufTt unfortunBtely, cannot be
known while the plants are growing,
as tbey have then everj appearaoce

of belagperiecU; health]'. Tbeyouag
Bboots uf the purple clover are often
devoured by juoapiog beetles {.HvUiea,

•• Pastures in general are ofien de-
stroyed, to B very great extent, by
the larva or grub of the cockcliafer
iftg. S, a).

"The ravages of the larva
even eicoeded hy those of ili«
ftct insect, which sometimes appears
in the country in prodigious multi-
tudes, and, like a flight or locusts,
devour every green thing on the fice
of Ibe earth. The eggs of this terri-
ble devastator are white, and arede-
po9iied In the ground, where they
soon change into a soft whitish grub
with a red liead, and about an inch
andahairiong (b). In Ibis state it
continues four years, during which
time ii commits moal destructive rav-
ages on the roots, not only of grass,
butofallother plnntsandyoungltees.
Whole acres of the richest pastures
are thus rendered unproductive ; all
verdure is lost, and ihe lurf will roll
up almost with as much ease as if it
had been cut with o spade. The
whole of this injury being carried on
under ground, admits neither of pr»-
Tentive nor palliative mcasun's i btil
tbe destruction to be expected from
the perfect insect may yet be prevent-
ed If the dried and withered turf is
now removed, the soil underneath
will appear turned into a suit mould
for about an inch in depth, lilie the
bed ofagarden; in this will be found
Ibe sriiba, lying on ibeir backs
curved position, and vast quaot
may be gathered and given lu

and poaltry. When full grown, ihe
larvR dig in the earth to the almost
incredible depth of Gve or six feet,
apin a smooth case, and then change
into a chrysalis. In this inactive
fiirm they remain until the following

" The perfect insect or beetle then
conies from the ground, and com-
tnences an im Died tale attack upon
the leaves of all trees. Their num-

Tlio

best, and. indeed, the only eflectual
remedy for the destniclion of the
perfect insect, is to shake Ihe ireea
or hushes at noon, when they are ei-
ther asleep, or in a state of stupor,
and then to sweep or gathf^r <hein
up. One person in this way has been
known to capture a thousand in a day,
which, on a moderate calculation,
prevented no less than one hundrea
IhouaandeggBfrombeing'lHid. Soms
Judicious farmers plough thR ground
when they have reason to think it i«
infested by the grab, and this is gen-
erally indicated hy the rooks attempt-
ing to reach them. They are also
greedily devoured by crows and Jays,
whose sole employment, fur nearly
muniha in Lhs spring of the

h for ir

"Cabbages, snd other cscDtentve- 1 dM&rent kinds of white batlarflin

rlabtes. are well known to be great. (Fig. 3) ; one of these (Pierii iram-
injured b; the caterpillars of two | <«, c) is much larger than the other ;

(be caterpillflr is pole yellow, with
Mack spots to) : when fnll (bd, it
abeltere itself on walla, palea, or
trunks o! tree*, and chBDgea into the
etilTsaUa state (&), in which it still
preaerres the same cast of colouring.
The perfect insert (c) appears early
in spring, and continues until the end
of summer. Hie Mher species of
caterpillar is green (J) ; the chrysalis
{() is of the saoio wriour; and tlie
botterSj (/) ia prodaced about the

saioe time as the preceding. Hacd-
pioking the larva, and searching for
the chrysalis, are the only plans of
destruction, either for these or the
gooseberry and currant caterpillars,
" Fruit-trees of all kinds, and their
produce, are attacked and devoured
by a great Tariely of insects. We
shall, however, advert to those cu-
rious, minute insects {T/iript PhyMO-
ptti. Fig. 4, /, h) BO often seen in flow-
ers and blOBHoms during tlie spring,

and which, in Ihoir natural siie (/),
appear like short Mack lines. Near-
ly all fruit-trees are liable to consid-
erable injury from difTcrent species
of Ceecvt, or cochineal insects : they
are mostly ao small {Pig. 4, a, i), that

their form cannot he well diatingnish-
ed without the aid of a magnifying
glass-, many of them resemble smul
scales, or scabs, fiied on tbe bark and
shoots. One ia entirely of a brown
colour (Ceetiii ptrntvnm, a) : when

INSECTS.

ma^ified (&), it somewhat resembles
the tortoise beetle (Cassida, L.)> the
legs and bead being only discernible
when the insect is turned on its back
(c). Another (C. fd. querents d, «, e)
does much injury to the oak ; while
the C. fagi attacks the twigs of the
beech (^), and causes small round
excrescences to appear; these are,
however, very different from the gall-
apples of the oak (;'), which are often
found of considerable size, and are
produced by the Cvnips qitercut folii,
L. (A:), or oak-gallfly, and always
contain either the larva or imperfect
insect. The weevils {CuraUioinda)
form an exceedingly numerous fami-
ly, subsisting principally upon fruit,
seed, and gram ; one of these is the
nut- weevil (C. nucium^ Fig. 2, e, «), the
larve of which (c, d) are the maggots
80 frequently found in this fruit.

*' The Aphidts, or plant lice, next
to locusts, are the most universal
devastators ; almost every plant has
its peculiar species ; their fecundity
is so prodigious, that Beaurae has
calculated that in five generations
one aphis may be the progenitor of
5,904,900,000 descendants ; and it is
supposed that in one year there may
be twenty generations ! Those which
attack the different kinds of grain
seldom multiply so fast as to be very
injurious ; but those peculiar to pulse
increase rapidly, and take such pos-
session that the plants are greatly in-
jured, and frequently destroyed, be-
fore the seeds are matured.

" These insects are equally injuri-
ous in their winged {Fig. 4, /, magni-
fied) and in their larva, or apterous
state (m, magnified) ; they are a fa-
vourite food of sparrows and other
birds, who destroy numbers; they are
likewise exposed to other deadly and
cruel enemies ; one of these is a small
hymenopterous insect, which depos-
ites its egg in the body. But the most
inveterate and destructive foe to the
plant lice is the lady-bird, or lady-cow
{CoceineUaf Lin), which, in its larva
state, feeds entirely upon these in-
sects; and the havoc made among
them may be conceived, from the
myriads upoa myriads of these little

438

ci«atores which are usaally seen ia
years when the plant loose abounds ;
every one, probably, destroying tern
of thousands. On this account, the
lady-bird is the greatest friend to the
gardener and farmer ; and could there
be any method devised of increasing
these useful insects at will, our hot-
houses, gardens, fields, and hop plant-
ations would soon be cleared from
the ravages of plant lice. The larve
of several bee-like flies {SyrphuM) are
no less useful in this respect. Their
form very much resembles that of the
leech, having no apparent bead. Some
species are green, with a white stripe
down the middle ; others brown, va-
riegated with darker shades. They
are always found upon those plants
most infected by aphides, upon which
they solely depend for nourishoient ;
hence they become most beneficial,
and should on no account be destroy-
ed. As palliative measures, the ap-
plication of powdered quicklime may
be resorted to, or the infected parts
pruned ofi* before the insects greatly
multiply.

" The wire- worm is a name that has
been given, without discrioiination,
to the larva;, or grubs, of various in-
sects, totally difierent from each oth-
er ; hence it is, that much confusioa
and contradiction wiU be found re-
specting it in agricultural books. The
true wire- worm is the grub of a small
beetle {EUUer gegetis)^ and it derives
its name from its slender form and
uncommon hardness. It lives in the
larva state nearly five years, during
which time it is supported by devour-
ing the roots of wheat, rye, oats, and
grass, which it attacks indiscrimi-
nately, and causes annually a larM
diminution of produce ; it abounds
chiefly in newly broken-up land, and
is particularly destructive in garidens
recently converted from pasture land.
In the larva state ir may be decoyed
by oflfering it more tempting food;
but no method has yet been devised
for destroying the perfect insect.
'*The grub is a general name for
several larvae of crane flies {Tipu"
lida), called by the country people
long legs, or gaflfer long legs

" Om of tbe IDtwt destrDclLTo
among tlieM inaeeis to Ihe roota of
Brass and grain ia the Tipida vUracea.
The larva is said, b; some author*,
merely lo loosen the roota by bur-
rowing among them ; but others aa-
eert that it liKewise feeda upon the
fibres. No effecinal remedy has yet
been discorered for thie e*il ; and
Steckney obaerTea, that the insect ia
not killed by liate, even nhen applied
in much larger doaes than usaal.

" Tliere are m* eral other species
«f a large sixe, as the Tipiila croeata
{Fig.6,a,),aaA r>piiJann>M[c)*'htch.
u a teas degree, are also injurious to
sneh lands aa are moist and homid.

"Another miimte species is pa rtie-
nlarly destruclire, and ia generally
knownas tbewbeatfly<TisuUor C^
ddimtyia triliei, i, magnified) ; its his-
tory and economy hare been ably in-
Teetigated by Mr. Marsham and Mr.
Kirby. The injury first appears in
the ear, sereral of wbieh, on being
opened, will be found to contain an
orange-caloared powder ; in this are
concealed Tery rainuie Urine, which,
en being inagniiied. are seen to be
tbick at one end, extending and con-
tracting themselves at pleasure, and
frequently jumping half an inch at
one spring ; they take their station in
the longitudinal furrow of the grain,
■nd, by socking its milky juice, cause
it (o shrink up, and become what the
farmers call pungltd: the last sown
wheat always appears the most in-
fected, lit the b^jniiing of June the

nmg

1 all •

r the

during the
one ia to be perceived. Tbe female
lays her eggs by means of a retractile
tube, which encloses a very leng and
acute sting resembling a hair ; but
this can only be distinctly seen when
the insect ia magnified. The wheat
fly would soon become a farmidable
enemy to mankind, were not ita race
exposed to an inveterate foe, scarce-
ly larger tbaa themselves ; thia ia
tbe Iciatumon TipiUa, the female of
which carefully searches out tbe
gniba of the wheal lly, and depoailes
in each one of her eggs ; these are
hatched, and ultimately the larva de-
vours the body which gave it Ufa.
One ichneumon will ihua cause the
death of many dozens, and prevent
the future multiplication of Ihno-
aands. The only palliative that has
been recommended for stopping the
progress of this insect originated
in Mr. Kirby : this naturalist thinks
much benefit would be derived by fu-
migating the com with tobacco and
sulphur, when the wind is in a fa-
vourable quarter : this must be done
as soon aa the ear begins to shoot
from the leafy stalk. — See Wheal tn-

■' IruicU injurimit lo Food, Clothinfi,
4<.— 'The cocktoacn is called by soma
the black beetle (Btatla orunMfir).
Like most of its tribe, it shuns the
light, boUi aatural and artificial. It

INSECTS.

is very abundant, and indiscriminate-
ly devours bread, meat, flour, and
even clothes. The young are con-
tained in a singular horny case, which
is divided into a number of trans-
verse partitions or cbambevs ; it is
rather flattened, and quite smooth,
except one side, which is toothed.
The larva and pupa are both without
wings, and generally larger than the
perfect insect.

" The house-cricket {Gryllua do-
mesticust Lin.) is sometimes abun-
dant in farm-houses. It devours ev-
ery kind of food, and is often found
drowned in pans of water, miJk, and
other fluids ; it is said it will even
attack stockings, or linen hung out to
dry. Another species is peculiar to
pastures, which, in conjunction with
the mole cricket, feeds only upon
roots.

'* The bacon-grub (Demuftes larda-
rius, Lin.) is a great pest to the win-
ter provisions of the farmer, devour-
ing hams, bacon, and all sorts of dried
meals. This is principally done when
the insect is in its larva or grnb state
{Fig. 2, f). When fall fed it becomes
a chiysalis (^), which ultimately chan-
ges into a small beetle (A) about a
third of an inch long, of a dusky
brown colour, with the upper half of
Uie wing-cases whitish or ash col-
oured, marked with black specks.
The grnb, from lying concealed in the
meat, cannot be efiectually removed ;
but by watching the time when the
perfect insects appear, they may then
be destroyed, and a recurrence of the
evil in a great measure prevented.

"Woollen clothin|; of every de-
scription, furs, are liable to be de-
voured by the Iarv», or caterpillars,
of no less than Ave distinct species
of small moths. Most of these en-
close themselves in little tubular ca-
ses of a silky texture, and are so well
disguised externally by fragments of
the stuff they feed upon as often to
escape immediate observation. As a

1»reventive, tobacco leaves may be
aid between the folds of garments
(in drawers) which are not often used.
If there is reason to fear the moths
are in the house, these ganoeiits
480

should be frequently opened, and air>
ed by exposing them to the sun.
When furs of any kind are laid by
for the summer, they may either be
sprinkled with snnflTor camphor, and
Russia leather or tobacco leaves put
in the drawer or box. Sb4»uld the
moth actually have got into furs, the
only way of checking the evil is to
put them into an oven moderately
heated, and by keeping them in this
situation a quarter of an hour, every
grub will be effectually killed; the
degree of heat maybe ascertained, in
the first instance, by patting in some
common feathers, which should come
out uninjured.

**Mean9 of subduing Intecta. — ^The
operations for destroying insects, or
counteracting their injurious effects,
are various, and in most cases must
be regulated according to the species.
These we have already pointed oat in
treating upon the insects themselves,
or of the particular plants upon whiok
they feed. It only remains to oflfer
such general roles as are more or less
applicable to all destructive insects ;
these are of three kinds, preventives,
palliatives, and efficient processes.

" The preventive operations are
those of the best culture as relates to
the choice of seed or plant, soil, sit-
uation, treatment, and climate : the
first four are under the control of
man, and an attention to them wiH
undoubtedly lessen the risk of injured
crops ; but as regards weather, nei-
ther his foresight nor care can avail
anything.

*' The palliative operations are na-
merous ; and such as are eminently
successful may be considered as eflS-
cient, inasmuch as it rarely, if ever,
happens that any insect can be ex-
terminated, even from one district;
its numbers may be diminished, but
the species will still remain, althoagh
in such small numbers that its oper-
ations may escape notice. Most in-
sects will be injured, and in part de-
stroyed by artificial bad weather, such
as excessive waterings, stormy appli-
cation of water with a syringe, and
shaking the tree or plant : many will
thus be bruijsed, and others that ara

INSECTS.

thakeii to the grcmnd can be destroy-
ed. Insects may be farther injured
by watering the plants upon which
Ihey feed, either with tobacco or hme-
water, solution of whale*oil soap, or
by scattering upon the leayes pow-
dered quicklime, soot, ashes, salt, <&c.
The smell of tar is particularly offisn-
give to all insects, and the effects pro-
duced by the fumes of tobacco, sul-
phur, urine, dec., are well known.
Hot water maybe applied with much
adraotage. Water heated to 120 or
130 degrees wtU not injure plants
whose leayes are fully expanded, and
it may be increased to 200 for such
as are without leaves.

''Insects may be destroyed in a
much more effectual manner by en-
ticement, or placing in their way oth-
er food as a trap. The late Sir Jo-
seph Banks has the merit of having
lecomraended and made known this
most efficient method. It simply con-
sists in cutting slices of potatoes or
tamips, sticking them upon skewers,
and then burying them near the seeds
sown : the vermin will collect upon
them during night, and by examining
them errery morning, vast numbers
may be destroyed ; this plan has been
Tery advantageously tried with the
wire-worm, and, no doubt, would be
equally beneficial in clearing all crops
that are attacked by under-ground
feeders. Mr. Kirby states 'that it
was Tery successfully employed to
preserve some wheat'iields from the
ravages of a smaU, gray slug, which
threatened to demolish the plant.
Having heard that turnips had been
used with success to entioetbe slugs
from wheat, he caus^ a sufficient
quantity to dress eight acres to be got
together, and then, the tops being di-
vided and the turnips sliced, he di-
rected the pieces to be laid separate^
ly, dressing two stetcbes with them,
and omitting two alternately, till the
whole field of eight acres was gone
over. On the following morning he
employed two women to examine and
free from the slugs (which they did
into a measure) the tops and slices ;
and when cleared, they were laid
upon those stetches that had been

Eft

I omitted the day before. It was oh*
served invariably, that in the stetch-
es dressed with the turnips no slugs
were to be found upon the wheat, or
crawling upon the land, though they
abounded upon the turnips ; while,
on the undressed stetches, they were
to be seen in great numbers both on
the wheat and on the land. The quan-
tity of slogs thus collected was near
a bushel.

" The tumijhitet is the most suc-
cessful expedient that bas yet been
thought offer the capture and destruc-
tion of the little beetles, called by
fanners the black jack, and by hop-
growers the flea. It consisu of two
pieces of stout wood, the ends of
which, at one extremity, are fixed
into a handle in a forked direction ;
the other ends are left thick and curv-
ed upward, for the purpose of passing
the instrument smoothly and easily
over the surface of the ground ; to^
wards this end, the sticks are con-
nected by a cross-bar formed by a
thin iron rod, that may be taken on
and off' at pleasure ; these three sides
constitute the frame work for sup-
porting a long and ample bag, made
of strong, glazed calico. The meth-
od of using it is by the operator
shoving it before him on the ground,
over the tops of the turnips or other
plants ; by this means the insects that
are upon the leaves fall into the bag,
which may be occasionally shaken da-
ring the process, so as to bring them
to the bottom (which is made nar-
row), where they will remain. Vast
quantities of insects, which, from their
smallness and agility, defy hand-pick-
ing, will be thus captured. The tur-
nip-net may be made either large or
small ; perhaps two feet and a half
for the side sticks is the best length,
it being obvious that the wider they
are apart, the greater space will be
brushed at once.

" The lime-duster (fV^. 6) is a recent
invention by Mr. Samuel Curtis, and
has been used by him with great suc-
cess in throwing pulverized quick-
lime over apple-trees infected by
caterpillars and other insects. His

! orchard, containing ttiany thousand

481

Fig.t.

INSECTS.

finit-tTees, and occupying fifty acres,
had been for many years completely
divested of most of their foliage and
young fruit in the spring months.
Washing the stems and branches with
lime and water (as might have been
expected) was found inefTectual for
the destruction of insects which feed
only on the young buds and leaves.
The instrument in question consists
of a canister twelve inches long, ser-
en inches wide at its broadest, and
four inches on its narrowest part ;
the handle (a) is five inches and a
half long. The top of the handle is
fitted with a cap (6), which is put on
when the lime is to be thrown on low
trees ; but when high trees are to be
operated upon the cap is removed,
and a pole of sufficient length to reach
the height required is inserted into
the handle. Quicklime pulverized
(and ollen sifted through a fine sieve)
is put into the canister, and shaken
over the young foliage just as it was
expanding. The time for doing this
is in the dew of the morning, or
whenever the leaves are damp ; and
if there should be a gentle breeze suf-
ficient to carry the dust obliquely
through the head of each tree, it is
the more quickly performed. Under
favourable circumstances of this na-
ture, Mr. Curtis says, * I found that
three men, provided with the powder
in a large box on a light wheelbar-
row, could dress from two to three
thousand trees in a day: when the
wind changed, I had the trees dress-
ed on the other side. Although used
ever so £reely, no pessoa need fear
43»

any injury, from the catntie quality
of the lime, on the most delicate and
fresh expanded foliage ; it is only prej-
udicial to insects of all kinds^ and to
dead vegetable matter.' {Hort. Trdns.,
vol. vi., pt. 2, page 184). We know
not whether the lime-duster has ever
been tried upon hop plantations in-
fected by the green fly or plant louse ;
but it appears to us equally well adapts
ed to effect a great destruction among
those insects.

** Grain of all descriptions that is
infected by weevils, or by the grubs
of other insects, should be spread in
the sun, and frequently turned : the
warmth will bring the animals out of
the grain, and considerable numbers
may be destroyed. It bas been said
that they may be kept away by strew-
ing boughs of elder or branches of
henbane among the grain, but this
wants confirmation. It should be
steeped in strong brine.

" Hand-picking, independent of the
foregoing methods, is too tedious and
too ineffectual for general adoption
in large crops, but is probably the
beat that can be resorted to in gar-
dens or small enclosures. In this
way the different esculent vegetables,
and the common and low kinds of
fruit-trees, as currants, gooseberries,
&c., may be cleared of a vast num-
ber of caterpillars.

" Catching the perfect insect is un-
doubtedly the most certain plan for
preventing a return of the same in-
jury the following year, for the death
of one female will cut ofTa generation
of a hundred larvs ; but from the dif-
ficulty that attends an extensive adop-
tion of this plan, it is not likely to be
much attended to.

** Wonn-like Animals irnurious to
AgHcuUwre.'-XX vrorms (Vermes, L.),
generally so called, there are but few
which may be considered as injurious
to agriculture. The principal of these
are the various species of slug {Arion,
F., lAmaxy L.) and the large and small
snails {Helix hortensis and ntmoralis,
L.), mostly found in garden planta-
tions. The earth or dew worm ( Lum-
bricus terrestrisj L.), unless existing in
great numbers on a single spot, can-

.DiS

aol be rapked aiaonf injiiniMiB ani-
mals, notwithstaQdlDg the prejudices
of farmers and gardeners against
them. Without worms, the earth
would soon become hard, cold, inca-
pable of receiving moisture, or of
giving nourishment to roots: they
are, in fact, the great promoters of
Tegetation, by boring, perforating, and
loosening the soil beneath, and by
manuring it above with their excre-
ment, which is thrown up into lumps
calJed worm casts. The wire- worm
does not belong to this tribe, but is
the larva of a small beetle already
noticed.

" WonoB of the slug kind are with-
out shells. There are several spe-
cies, all of which subsist on leaves,
roots, and vegetables. The most
common is the Limax agresth, of
which there are several varieties inju-
rious to the agriculturist and garden-
er ;. they devour the young shoots of
turnips, wheat, and, indeed, all kinds
of grain, frequently to a ruinous ex-
tent ; their eggs are small, round, of a
semipellncid whiteness, and are de-
posited in the earth. The methods of
destroying or eradicating the perfect
animal have been already described.
" The shell slug iTeslaceUu* mangi)
ia a native of Tenerilfe, remarkable
ibr feeding upon earth worms ; and
may, therefore, be beneficially intro-
duced into such gardens as are over-
stocked by that otherwise useful an-
imal. It is readily distinguished from
all other slugs by having a thin, oval
ahell affixed to the hincfer part of its
body. Slugs in general are easily
enticed by cabbage leaves, scattered
Dear such garden vegetables as they
appear to injure most.

'*5nails are slugs covered by a
«helJ. The two species most preju-
dicial to cultivated vegetables are
the garden snail (^Helix aspersa^ Gm.),
and the variegated snail (Helix nemo-
ralif) ; both these seek the same de-
8crip!ion of food, and are equally in*
jurious as slugs, and, like them, may
be enticed by cabbage leaves and oth-
er juicy vegetable refuse."

The most important insects are no-
ticed under each plant.

INT

I INSERTION. In botany, the di-
rection in which an organ, as the star
mens, is attached to the part that sus-
tains it.

INSESSORES (from insideo, I
ait). Birds which perch on trees.
Perchers.

INSOLATION. Scorched by the
sun.

INSPIRATION. In physiology,
the act of inhaling air.

INSTEP OF THE HORSE. The
part of the hind leg reaching from the
ham to the pastern joint.

INSULATION. In electricity, sur-
rounded by non-conducting substan-
ces, as glass, resin.

INTEGERRIMUS. With a per-
fect edge, or margin, in botany.

INTEGRANT PARTS. The
smallest parts of a body, by the union
of which the mass is produced.

INTEGUMENT. A membranous
covering or expansion. It is used in
botany for the coverings of seeds.

INTERCELLULAR SPACES. In
botany, the minute spaces existing
between the sides of cells. Along
these the movement of sap occurs in
herbs and the lower plants. In some
water plants they are large, to assist
natation.

INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT.
The effects produced by causing two
pencils o{ light to be reflected or
transmitted at very minute intervals
or distances from each other, where-
by they interfere and produce col-
ours. If the light be homogeneous,
they produce bright and black bands.
INTERVAL LANDS. Lands on
the margin of rivers. Alluvial lands.
INTERNODE. The space be-
tw*een two knots, leaves, or leaf
buds, in stems. i

INTESTINALIA. Worms inhab-
iting the interior of the bodies of an-
imals. Entozoa. Those of the in-
testines are destroyed by purges and
large doses (2 oz ) of oil of turpentine.
INTRADOS. The lower line or
curve of an arch.
TNTRORSE. Turned inward.
INTUSSUSCEPTION. The fold-
ing of one portion of the Intestines
into another.

433

lOD

INULIN. A rarioty of starch.
It is coloared yellow by iodine. For-
mula, Cm H« Oil.— {Parnel )

INUNDATION OF LANDS.
Fields are sometimes covered with
water in agriculture, especially mead-
ows, and in the cultivation of rice.
The water is let in by sluices, and
allowed to remain for several days
or weeks, and, in meadows, during
the whole winter. It kills those
weeds which are not aquatic, serves
to manure the soil, and, in the case
of meadows, advances the grass by
some weeks, the water protecting it
from frost. The lands should be well
drained, or on a porous soil ; other-
wise the water, sinking, will stag-
nate, and become injurious ; it should
be perfectly let out by numerous
drains. By this practice, meadows
have been rendered fertile ^vithout
other manure for ages. The sedi-
ment deposited is sometimes called
warp, and the inundation loaning,

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS,
INVERTEBRAT.*:. Animals with-
out an internal skeleton or back bone
(Tertebral column), such as crabs
(cntstaeeans), insects {articulata), or
shell-fish {<moHuscanM)t &c.

INVOLUCEL, INVOLUCEL-
LUM. A small or partial involu-
erum surrounding the secondary um-
bels, 6lc.

INVOLUCRUM. A collection of
bracts at the union of several flower
stems. A covering of the fructifica-
tion of ferns and equisetnms. In
anatomy, a name for the membrane
covering the heart {perieardiumy

IODINE (from twA^* moUO- An
elementary body, of a black colour,
found in lustrous scales, converted
by a heat of 346'' F. into a beautiful
•violet vapour. It closely resembles
chlorine in its chemical characters ;
Is not found in inland plants, but only
in sea-weeds, and such as grow in
salt marshes. Its equivalent is 126,
symbol I. It combines directly with
metals, forming iodideM. With hydro-
gen, it forms hydriodic acid ; with ox-
ygen, it forms iodic acid. Iodine, as
wen as most of its compounds, is
pmsonoQi.

484

nto

lOLITE. A dark-bine mineral,
massive, and crystallised in six or
twelve sided prisms ; found imbed-
ded in primary rocks. Composition :
silica, 4917; alumina, 3310 ; mag-
nesia, 11-48; oxide of iron, 4-33.—-
{Stromeyer.)

IPECACUANHA. Cepkaelit i»
caetumha. A shrubby plant, of the
natural family Cinebmiacexj the root
of which is extensively used as an
emetic. It is a native of tropical
America, and especially Brazil, from
whence it is exported. In 20 grain
doses it is emetic; but in smaller
quantities, expectorant.

IPOMiEA. A genua of plants re-
sembling the convolvulus.

IRIDESCENT. Exhibiting bright
colours by reflection.

IRIS. In anatomy, the coloured
membrane of the eye which sur-
rounds the pupil, and, by its contrao*
tion or dilation, regulates the amount
of light entering.

IRIS. A genus of ornamental
flowers, the flag. The I.florenlnta
yields the orris root, esteemed for
tooth-powder, from its odour reaeuL-
bling violets.

IRISATED. Exhibiting the pris-
matic or rainbow colours.

IRON. A ductile metal, sp. gr.
7*78 ; susceptible of magnetism, and
taking a high polish. By exposure
to damp air, it absorbs oxygen, be-
coming rust. Its ores are very nu*
merous. Few soils are destitute of
some admixture. The ashes of plants
are also furnished with asmaUquan-
tity.

Cast iron contains carbon, sand,
and other impurities, which are re*
moved, to a great extent, in wrought
iron. The tormer is brittle, harder,
and lasts longer when exposed than
wrought iron, which is ductile, soft,
malleable, and fibrous.

Steel is a compound of carbon and
iron, remarkable for its elasticity and
hardness. Iron combines, also, with
sulphur and halogen bodies.

The equivalent of iron is 27-19,
s^rmbol Fe (ferrum). It combines
with two proportions of oxygen, and
Ibnna, laL A protsxide, 1 Fe^f- 1 0=s

IRR

371 8. This IS the black oxide, and
exists in green vitriol and the proto-
salts of iron, serving as a base. 2d.
The peroxide, 2 Fe + S 0=78-36.
This is the common red or brown
oxide ; ie is also a base, producing
the persalts of iron. Iron is readily
dissolved by acids, being first oxidi-
zed, and then uniting with the acid.
The salts of the protoxide are, for the
most part, instable, changing to per-
oxides wlien exposed to moist air.

Iron is discovered in solution by
an infusion of gall-nuts, which, soon-
er or later, produces a black colour
(ink). If the colour arises immedi-
ately, the peroxide is present ; if the
mixture reqatres stirring and expo-
sure to air, the protoxide is present

Many of the compounds of iron are
of great interest to the farmer. The
protosulphate (copperas) is much used
m dyeing, in making ink, and as an
emetic. In Switzerland it is added to
urine and fluid manures, to fix their
ammonia, which it converts into a
sulphate. It is also powerfully disin-
fecting, removing bad smells. This
body is sometimes present in marshy
and peaty soils, and makes them per-
fectly barren ; they are, however,
quickly recovered by liming. The py-
rolignate of iron (persalt) is used in
dyeing and thepreservation of timber.
The muriate has the same properties,
and is also a medicine. Prussian blue
is a sesquiferrocyanide of iron.

The iron work of the farm should
Iw painted with coal-tar for protec-
tion from rust, or kept in a dry place
under cover. Portable fencing, hur-
dles, and many other fixtures on a
farm are now made of iron, which
"heretofore were wooden. It is well
adapted for the sashes of hot-houses :
wire is extensively employed for
slight trellises. Wires should be pro-
tected from moisture by coal-tar, or
other coarse paint.

IRON PYRITES. Native sulphu-
ret of iron ; it forms a mineral oflen
crystallized, of a golden colour. Its
presence in soils produces barren-
ness, which is soon rectified by li-
ming ; it is the origin of most of t)>e
aulphilr sphnga. Water flowjog over

the pyrites decomposes it in part,
and becomes tainted with stdphuret*
ted hydrogen.

IRON WOOD. See Hornbeam,

IRRADIATION. The brightness
that surrounds luminous objects, and
increases their apparent size.

IRRIGATION. •• Of all the sub-
stances which concur in the vegeta-
tion and growth of plants, water is
the most essential ; without moist-
ure the seed cannot germinate, nor
can the plant receive nourtslunent.
Hence in warm climates, where rains
are periodical, and where the soil is
dried and parched by. a continued
evaporation, no verdure exists, ex-
cept where springs or rivers supply
the waste of moisture. The warm-
er the climate, and the more rapid
the evaporation, the more luxuriant
is the vegetation, provided there be
an abundant supply of water. This
circumstance has suggested the plan
of diverting streams and conducting
them in channels to fertilize as great
an extent of land as possible. The
water used always contains saline
and other matters very necessary to
the growth of plants, and which are
snpi^ied by irrigation.

** If water stagnates and is evapo-
rated, and the noxious matter held in
solution remains in the soil, all the
advantage of irrigation is lost, and
the better kinds of grasses are sue*
ceeded by rushes and coarse aqnatio
plants, as may be seen in all marshy
spots. The circulation of the water,
therefore, appears to be as necessaiy
as its presence ; and, provided there
be a sufl^cient supply of water of a
proper quality, the more porous the
soil, and especially the subsoil is,
the more vi^rous is the vegetation.
It is on tbis\)rinciple alone that we
can rationally account for the great
advantage of irrigation in those cli-
mates where rain is abundant, and
where the soil, which is most benefit-
ed by having a supply of water run-
ning through it, is of a nature to r»
quire artificial draining as an indis-
pensable preliminary to being made
fertile by irrigation. By keeping
these priaciplss in view, gseat li|^t

486

IRRIGATION.

will be thrown on the in-actioal part
of irrigation, which, baring been long
established bj experience, before
these principles were thought of, de-
pends not on their oorrectnees, but
only confirms their truth.

** The whole art of irrigation may
be deduced fVom two simple rules,
which are, first, to give a sufficient
supply of water during all the time
the plants are growing ; and, second-
ly, never to allow it to accumulate so
long as to stagnate. We shall see,
hereafter, one apparent exception to
this last rule, but it will be readily
ezpiatned.

** The supply of water must come
from natural lakes and rivers, or from
artificial wells and ponds, in which it
is collected in sufficient quantity to
disperse it over a certain surface.
As the water must flow over the land,
or in channels through it, the supply
must be above the level of the land
to be irrigated. This is generally the
principal object to be considered. If
no water can be conducted to a reser-
voir above the level of the land, it
eannot be irrigated ; but there must
also be a ready exit for the water,
and therefore the land must not be
so low as the natural level of the
common receptacle of the waters,
whetiier it be a lake or the sea to
which they ran. The taking of the
level is therefore the first step to-
wards an attetnpt to irrigate any
lands.

** Along the banks of running
Btreams nature points out the decliv-
ity. A channel, which receives the
water at a point higher than that to
^ieh the river flows, may be dug
with a much smaller declivity than
that of the bed of the river, and made
to carry the water much higher than
the natural banks ; it may thence be
distributed so as to descend slowly,
and water a considerable extent of
ground in its way to rejoin the stream.
TbiB is by far the most common mode
of irrigation, and the shape, size, and
direciton of the channels are regula-
ted by the nature of the surface and
other circumstances, which vary in
afaoost «veiy ^ttaatioA. A few ex-

«I6

amplee will give to tlioee who atm

not acquainted with the best modes
of irrigating land, a pretty aocnrato
notion of the system.

" We shall suppose a river to run
with a rapid current between high
banks : at some point of its course a
portion of the water is diverted into
a canal dug along the bank with a
very small declivity. The water in
this canal will flow with less rapidity
than the river, but will keep the same
level as that part of the river where
it has its oriein. Thus the water
may be carried over lands which are
situated considerably above the bed
of the river farther down. AH the
lands between this canal and the riv-
er may be irrigated, if there is a suf^
ficient supply of water. The canal
may be carried to a considerable dia-
tance from the river. The size of
the canal and its declivity depend on
the quantity of water which may be
made to flow into it. A dam is often
constructed across a stream, in or-
der that as much of its water as is
possible may be diverted, and the
original channel is often laid quite
dry, to take advantage of all the wa-
ter at the time when it is advanta-
geous to irrigate the land. To have
an entire command of the water,
there are flood-gates on the main
channel and on the lesser branches ;
by opening or shutting these, the wa-
ter may l^ stopped or made to flow
as may be required. It must be re-
membered that, to carry water to a
considerable distance, and in great
quantity, a larger cliannel and more
rapid declivity are required; and it
is a matter of calculation whether it
is most advantageous to bring a
smaller quantity to a higher point, or
a greater abundance somewhat low-
er.. Having a certain command of
water, it may be carried from the
main channel by smaller branches to
difierent points, so as to irrigate the
whole equally. These branches should
be nearly borisrantal, that the water
may overflow the sides of them, and
be equally distributed over the land
immediately below. Every branch
which- brings water over the land

ntRiQAoniDiff.

4i6u)d bave a eorrespondiog ofatimel
below to carry it off; fbr the water
mast never be allowed to stop aad
stagnate. When it has ma 16 or 20
liBet, according to the deelivity, over
the land situated below the feeder^ or
the channel which brings the water,
it ahoald be coUected into a drain to
be carried ofi; unless it can be used
to irrigate lands whidi lie still lower.
Finally, it rnns back into the river
fkt>m which it was taken at a lower
point of its course.

<' When there is a considerable fall
and a sufficient supply of water, a se-
ries of channels may be made, so sit-
uated below each other that the sec-
ond collects the water which the first
has supplied, and in its turn becomes
a feeder to irrigate the lower parts
i>f the declivity ; a third channel re-
ceives the water and distributes it
lower down, until the last pours it
into the river : this is called eauh-
worft, because the water is caught
ftom one channel to another. This
method is only applicable where there
is a considerable fall of water and a
gentle declivity towards the river.
But it must be borne in mind that the
water is deteriorated for the purpose
of irrigation when it has passed over
the land, and that it is not advanta-
geous to let it flow over a great ex-
tent when a fresh supply can be ob-
tained ; but where only a small por-
tion of water can be commanded,
that must be made the most of; and
it will irrigate three or four portions
Of land in succession without there
being any very marked difference in
the effect : beyond this it rapidly loses
its fertilizing qualities.

** The genera] principle of irriga-
tion may be described as the supply-
inp; of every portion of the surface
with an abundance of water, and ta-
king it off again rapidly. In many
situations, the great difficulty in irri-
gation arises from the want of a sup-
jrfy of water ; but even then a partial
frrigation may be effected, which, al-
though not perfect, will have its ad-
vantages. A small rin, which is oft-
en quite dry in summer, may stfll, by
judicious management^ be made to

OoS

nqyrOTe a eoiiaidena>la portion of
hind; its waters may be collected
and allowed to a^ccumulate in a pond
or reservoir, and let out occasionally,
so that none be lost or run to waste.
If there is but a small quantity, it
must be husbanded and made to flow
over aa great a surface as possible.
If there is water only at particular
seasons of the year, and at a time
when it would not be of much use to
the land, it may be kept in ponds, and
it will lose none of its qualities by
being exposed to the air. If animal
or vegetable matter, in a partial state
of decomposition, is added to this wa-
ter, it will much improve its quality,
and by a judicious distribution of it
over the land, a great benefit may be
obtained.

" If there is not a want of water,
there may be a want of declivity to
enable it to flow off, which, it should
always be remembered, is an essen-
tial part of irrigation : art may in this
case assist nature, by forming a pas-
sage for the water, either in its course
towards the land to be irrigated, or
from it after it has eflfbcted its pur-
pose. Where there is no natural ex-
it— and it might lead to too great ao
expense to make an artificial ono—
the water may sometimes be led into
shallow ponds, where a great part is
evaporated ; or porous strata may be
found by boring, into which it can be
made to run and be dispersed. Along
rivers where the fall is very imper-
ceptible, a channel, brought from a
considerable distance, may give such
a command as to throw the water
over a great extent of surface ; and
to cany it off, another channel may
be cut, emptying itself at some dis-
tance below; so that lands which lie
along the banks of a river may be ir-
rigated, although they are actually be-
low the level of the river, and require
banks to protect them from inunda
tion.

** When the surface to be irrigated
is very flat and nearly level, it is ne-
cessary to form artificial slopes for
the water to run over. The whole
of the ground is laid in broad beds,
nodalating IUdb the waves of the sea

4SSrr

nUCXOATION.

The npper part of fhese beds is qoktB
level from end to end, and here the
channel, or float, which hrings the
water on, is cut. From the edge of
this channel the ground is made to
slope a foot or two on both sides, and
a ditch is cut at the bottom, parallel
to the float (Fig. 3). The whole of
the ground is laid out in these beds.
All the floats are supplied by a main
channel, at right angles to the beds,
and somewhat above them, and all
the ditches or drains run into a main
ditch, parallel to the main float, and
below the lowest drain. The course
of the water is very regular. As soon
as the flood-gates are opened, it flows
mto all the upper channels, which it
fills till they overflow in their whole
length. The sloping sides are cov-
ered with a thin sheet of running wa-
ter, which the lower drains collect,
and carry into the main ditch. The
upper drains should be puddled, to
hinder the water from sinking.

** Experience has shown that there
are particular seasons when the wa*
ter has the best effect ; a perfect
command of it is, therefore, indispen-
sable, and also a regular supply. Du-
nng mild frost, when all dry mead-
ows are in a state of torpor, and the
vegetation is suspended, the water
m^ows, having a current of water
continually flowing over them, are
protected from the efl!ect of frost, and
the grass will continue to grow as
long as the water flows over it. Too
much moisture, however, would be
injurious, and the m^ows are
therefore laid dry by shutting the
flood-gates whenever the tempera-
ture of the air is above freezing. By
this management the grass grows
rapidly at the first sign of spring.
Before the dry upland meadows have
recovered the effects of frost and be-
gun to vegetate, the herbage of the
water meadows is already luxuriant,
the effect being due to the tempera-
ture of the water, which must be
above that of freezing. As soon as
they are fed off or cut for the first
crop of hay, the water is immediate-
ly put on again, but for a shorter
time; for the warmer the air, the

488

leas time will tke grass bear to bo
covered with water. A renewed
growth soon appears, and the grass
is ready to be cut a second time wbea
the dry meadows only give their first
crop. Thus, by judicious manage*
ment, three or four crops of grass are
obtained in each seaBon, or only one
abundant crop is made into hay, and
the sheep and cattle feed off* the oth-
ers. The early grass may be fed till
the end of April. A short flooding
soon reproduces a crop, which is
mowed for hay in June ; another
floodinggives an abundant afier-niath«
which is either mowed for hay, or
fed oflTby cows, bollocks, and horses ;
for at this time the sheep, if pastured
in water meadows, are very subject
to the rot. The value of good water
meadows could scarcely be believed
by those who ara not familiar with
them. Where the water is suited to
irrigation, they never require manu-
ring. The fertility is kept up contin-
ually, and the only attention required
is to weed out coarse aquatic plants*
which are neither nutritioua nor
wholesome in hay or pasture.

** The best soil for a water mead-
ow is a good gravel. The finest wa»
ter meadows on the Avon, in Wilt-
shire, where the richest herbage is
found, have scarcely any soil at all*
but are on a bed of shingle and peb-
bles, matted together by the roots of
the grass; which proves to demon-
stration that the waters of the Avon
contain all the principles essential to
rapid vegetotion. Great attention ia
re<joired, and some experience, to
imgate meadows so as to give the
greatest profit.'

** In hot weather, when we should
imagine that the land must be tfairs^,
and that too much water cannot ba
poured over it, much mischief may
be done by injudicious flooding. In
winter, on the contrary, the land may
be covered with water for weeks
without injury ; and if an earthy de-
poeite takes place* the subsequent fer-
tility is greatly increased. But this
is not properly irrigation ; it is inun-
dation; and the effects depend on
entirdy different causes. When low

flUUQATIOli

meadows aie teimdated ia winter
and spring, it is the maddiness of
the water which enriches the land ;
a fine layer of extremely divided mat^
ter is deposited, and when the water
aabsides this acts as a coat of ma-
nare.

"Water may be carried in small
ehannels throogh meadows withoat
being allowed to overflow; and in
this case the effect is similar to that
caused by rivers or brooks which
wind slowly through valleys, and
produce a rich verdure along their
course. This is watering, but not
properly irrigating. \^lien this is
done judiciously, the effect is very
nearly the same as when the land is
irrigated ; and in hot climates it may
be preferable, by giving a constant
supply of moisture to the roots while
the plants are growing. The great
advantage of water meadows is not
so much the superior (quantity of grass
or hay which is obtamed when they
are mowed, as the early feed in spring,
when all kinds of nutritive fodder are
scarce. At that time an acre of good
grass may be worth as much for a
month as a later crop would for the
remainder of the year. M'hen it is
intended to form a water meadow on
a surface which is nearly level, or
where a fall of only two or three feet
can he obtained in a considerable
length, the whole of the land must be
laid in beds about 20 or 30 feet wide,
the middle or crown of these beds
being oo a level with the main feed-
ers, and the bottoms or drains on a
level with the lower exit of the wa-
ter, or a little above it. To form
these beds roost expeditiously, if the
ground is already in grass, the sod
may be pared off* and relaid after the
beds are formed, by which means the
grass will be sooner re-established ;
but, except in very heavy soils, where
the grass is some time in taking root,
the easiest and cheapest way is to
plough the land two or three times
towards the centre, and dig out the
drain with the spade. The earth out
of the drains, and that which is taken
oat of the upper trench or feeder,
may be spread over the bed, to give

it ths propsr slope. A roOsr passed

over the bed in the direction of its
length will lay it even, and the seeds
of grasses being sowed over it, the
water may be let on for a very ^ort
time, to make them spring. As soon
as the grass is two or three inches
above ground, a regular flooding may
be given, and in a very short time the
sward will be complete. Instead of
sowing seed, turfs of grass cut from
old sward may be spread over the
newly-formed beds, and they will
soon cover the ground. The ftsliaa
rye grass grows so rapidly that, if it
be sowed as soon as the snow and
frost are gone, it will afford a good
crop to feed off in May, or to mow for
hay by June, and aAer that it may
be cut repeatedly during the summer ;
but where the soil is good and the
water abundant, good natural grasses
will spring up without much sowing*
and soon equal the old water mead-
ows.

'* It seems essential to the forma-
tion of a good water meadow, that
the bottom be porous, and free from
stagnant water ; hence under-drain-
ing is often indispensable before a
water meadow can be established ;
and a peat bog, if drained and consol-
idated, may have water carried over
its surface, and produce very good
herbage. If the soil is a very stiff
clay, draining is indispensable, where
a water mes^ow is to be made. The
more porous the soil, the less depth
of water is required, which is not ob»
vioos at first sight ; but the clay lets
the water run over the surface with*
out soaking into the roots, where-
as the porous soil is soon soaked to
a considerable depth.* The water
must, therefore, be longer on the
clay than on the sand or gravel to
produce the same effect. If the wa-
ter is properly applied, all kinds of
soils may be converted into fertile
water meadows. On very stiff clays
a coat of sand or gravel, where it can
be easily put on, will greatly improve
the herbage. It should not be plough-
ed in, but laid on the surface, two or
three inches thick.

"The usual time of letting on the

480

mRIOATION.

water on water meadows Ib just be-
fore spring, and it may continue to
flow over the ]and as long^ as the
fh>8t lasts ; in mfld weather it may
be turned off during the day and put
on again at night, until the frost is
gone. The grass will soon begin to
grow, and be ready to be fed off.
When this is done, the water is im-
mediately let on for a short time, and
turned off again to allow the ground
to dry after a few days' flooding, and
the water is let on again at short in-
tenrals. The warmer the air is, the
shorter time must the water be al-
lowed to cover the meadows. As
soon as the grass is five or six inch-
es long it must be left dry entirely
tin it is mowed or fed off. In sum-
mer the flood ings must be very short,
seldom more than twenty-four hours
at a time, but frequent. Thus a great
weight of grass may be obtained, year
after year, without any manure being
put on the land, care being taken that,
where the surface is not quite even,
the hollows be filled up with earth
brought from another place, or dug
out of the drain, if that should be par-
tially filled up with the soil which the
water has carried into it. We allu-
ded before to a case where water
may remain a considerable time on
the land without injury ; this is when
there are inundations fVom rivers
which rise above their beds in spring,
and cover the low meadows which lie
along their banks. In this case, the
grass, which had not yet sprung up,
is protected from the cold ; and if
there is a deposite from the water,
there is a considerable advantage;
but when it subsides it most be made
to run off entirely, without leaving
small pools, by which the grass would

Invariably be injured. Small ditehes
or channels are usually dug, by which
all the water may run off, unless
where the subsoil is very porous, or
the land is well under-drained, which
is seldom the case in these low mead-
ows, for the drains would be apt to
be choked by the earthy deposite
from the water. These inundations
can sometimes be regulated by means
of dikes and flood-gates, in which
case they partake of the advantages
of irrigation, and also of that deposi-
tion of fertilizing mud which is called
warping. See Warjnng.

"The opposite plan (fVfi^. l)win ex-
plain what has been said respecting
the different modes of irrigating land.
A A is a river, which has a consider-
able fall, and then flows through a
level plain. Channels are cut at B B,
where there is a rapid fall over a nat-
ural or artificial dam. The channels
are carried ronnd a hill, and supply a
series of channels, C, C, C, placed
below each other, forming catch-
work along a declivity. A portion of
the water goes on to D, where it sup-
plies the feeders of a regular set of
ridees, or beds, made as before descri-
bed, from which the water returns
into the river by a main trench, into
which all the drains run. £ £ repre-
sent flood-gates, to direct the water
into different channels.

" On the other side of the river,
where the slopes lie somewhat dif-
ferently, there are several examples
of catch- work, the black lines repre-
senting the drains which receive the
water after it has flowed over the
surface, and carry it into the nver be-
low. It IS evident that all the feed-
ers are nearly horizontal, to allow
the water to flow over their sides.**

j[f . S ia th« wetian of oateh-work. d, « ure the feeders ; &, tbe drain*; «, e, c, c. iatem*

diate chaanali, which act at feeden and draina.

O-T

Ridgt-wcrk.
Fig. S it tha Mctiaii of two adjoininf ridgei. «, • the faeden ; k,h,h tha dirniaa.
410

mtUOATION.

FSgurt 4, oa Uia following pa(e,
repTBaenCs ■ plan of irrigatioD where
tbB Mil ii TBTj parous and gently
inclined, (he sapply of water being
abundant. The flood-gate, a, which
ma; be replaced by the perforata
trunk of a tree, allows water to flow
into the opper atraight ditch, b, b,
whiohia well paddled; (hnntluatbe
water deaoenoa into the chanoela, e.

c, c, which mn down hO] ; they ara

stopped at inte rials with small banka
of clay or turf, which cause a portion
of the fluid to shoot out orer the land
and moisten the field. There la no
catch-work neceaaary, as the excess
of water percolates ioto the soil.
The inundation practised in CaroliDa
and elsewhere, for the cultiyation of
rice, is warping, and can hardly he
Ml

said lo be irrigation, inasmuch es the
prini^ipal object is lo kill weeds.

Tbe Dutch and Germans oAen dis-
tribute fluid manurea by a eyalcni of
irrigated work. Whete 8 head of
water is wanting, pumps may be uaed
to raise it, the lluid running in a gut-
ter ID the upper ditcb.

IRRIT ABILITY OF PLANTS
Many plants, as tlie BenailL'Te mtmo-
aaB, exhibit a power or contracting
their leafleta upon touch ; this phe-
nomenon, the most prominent of
those attributed to the irritability of
tdaniB, ie a mechanical faoction de-
pending upon the setioii of li^t.
4U

Plants poweBB no nerrans Byst«m,

and are therefoTe incapable of Tolun-
tary moiion, or any ether than ehero-

JRHITATION. In farriery, an in-
creased vascularity of any part, with
pnin, but not amounting lo inSamma-
lion. It is treated like inflammation,
but by milder means.

ISCHIUM. The lower portion «
the haunrh bone.

ISCHURIA. Retention' of unne,

ISINGLASS. Pure ^r/dfin obtaiD-
ed from the sounds of fish ; it is alao
manufaclHred from calvea' feet, 4c.

ISNARDIA. A genua of aqaatle

ISOLATED. In electricity, 801^
rounded by non-conductors, as glBM,
dry silk, reein,

ISOMERISM, ISOMERIC (froim
(oof, equal, and /ifpof, part). Com-
poundB having the same number of
atoms of the same bodies, but exhib.
iting dissimilar propertlpR. are c-aUnl
Chemists consider that th«

difference

ctgmnp-

ag^regation of the atoma.
Very many organic bodies are tsom.
eric, as starch (amyJm) and dettiinoi
Cii Hit Oiu : cyanic and ftitaiii\le aoid*.

ISO.

Ac. Tt in in eoDseqnenee of tbe fre-
quent ifiomerism of or^&nio com-
poaiids that ohaoges so readily occur
in them, either in plants, or by tbe
action oif* fermeDts.

ISOMORPHISM. ISOMORPH-
OTTS (frona i(Tof, and fiop^f form).
HaTing the same crystalline form;
this is associated with the same num-
ber of atoms, bat of unlike elements,
and also with similar properties.
Thus, alum consists of sulphuric acid,
alumina, and potash ; but either of
these bodies may be replaced by cer-
tain other isomorpfunu bodies ; the
Bolpfaaric acid by the selenic, chro-
mic, or manganic acids : the last two
of these prepuce a diifisrence of col-
our in the crystal, but little else.
Tbe alumina may be replaced by per-
oxide of iron, sesquiozide of manga-
nese, or sesquioxide of chromium ;
and the potash, by soda or hydrated am-
monia. Thus, the alum may have none
of its primary eonstitaents, but iso-
morphous atoms of the same number.

Itomorpftiam, or the study of these
changes, ia of great importance in ag-
riculture, for it is found that the same
substitution takes place in organic
bodies. This is not, however, a mat-
ter of indifl^rence ; for the presence
of soda in grapes, instead of potash,
deteriorates their flavour ; lime in
the place of potash, in tobacco, in-
jures its excellence ; and lime or pot-
ash in place of soda, in onions and
asparagus, is also injurions to their
mildness. The limit of isomorphous
substitution is a chemical inquiry : so
far as we know, there are groups of
bodies which can be sutotituted for
one another only; these have the
same amount of oxygen in their com-
position. Such groups as are of im-
portance to the farmer or gardener
are appended.

I60M0RPH0US GROUPS. Pot-
ash, soda, hydrated ammonia (N H4 0,
oxide of ammonium), hydrate of lime
(Ca O, H O). Of this group soda only
replaces potash in cerealia ; but lime,
ammonia (or organic alkalies), can
replace potash or soda m plants that
do not require aoluble silicates, as
tobacco, potatoea, dec.

Sulphuric acid ia rejflaced by the
telluric, selenic, chromic, and man-
ganic acids, none of which, however,
are abundant in common soils.

Phosphoric acid is isomorphous
with the arsenic acid (As Os), which
will seldom be found in soils.

Iron, as the peroxide (Fcg O3), is
isomorphous with alumina (AIs 63),
oxide of chrome (Crs O3), and sesqui-
oxide of manganese. These sulrati-
tutions, although of no apparent mo-
ment, are continually occurring in
plants.

ISOPYRE. A siliceous mineral
resembling obsidian, found in granite,
basalt, and primary rocks.

ISOSCELES (from «<yof, and gktj-
XoCf a leg). A name given to the
angle two of whose sides are equal.
ISOTHERMAL (from ttrof, and
^ipfiVj heat). Having the same aver-
age temperature. Geographical lines
drawn over the surface of countries,
and passing through places having
the same average heat, are termed
isolhertfial lines ; they are very irreg-
ular, in consequence of the occur-
rence of mountains and large lakes
or surfaces of water, which modify
the temperature. The terras Isotker-
al and laochimenal are used also ; the
first, to designate a line showing the
places having the same summer heat,
and the last, those with the same
mean winter temperature.

" According to Humboldt, the iso-
thermal line which corresponds to the
temperature of 32° Fahrenheit pass-
es between Ulea, in Lapland, lat. 66^,
and Table Bay, on the coast of Lab-
rador, lat. 54°. The isothermal line
of 41° passes near Stockholm, lat.
69^°, and St. George's Bay, New-
foundland, lat. 48°. The line of W
passes through the Netherlands, lat.
61°, and near Boston, in the United
States, lat. 42|° ; that of 69° between
Rome and Florence, lat. 43°, and Ra-
leigh, in North Carolina, lat. 36°. In
all these cases we see that the iso-
thermal lines, in passing from the
western side of the continent of Eu-
rope to tbe eastecq, coast of America,
deviate very considerably towarda
the south, the deviation, in one case,

443

ivt

tmonnting to lU^ of latitude. In
passing orer the American continent
they again recede to the northward ;
and in California, and to the north
of that peninsula, along the western
side of the continent, the annual tem-
perature is nearly the same as under
similar latitudes in the west of Eu-
rope. From the western to the east-
em side of the old continent, the flex-
ure of the isothermal curves and the
diminution of the mean annual tem-
perature under the same parallels
are not less conspicuous. The iso-
thermal line of 65® passes through
Nantes, lat. 47°, and Pekin, lat. 89i<>.
Edinburgh and Kasan (in the east of
Russia) have the same latitude ; but
the mean annual temperature of the
former is 48°, while that of the sec-
ond is below 38°."

ISSUE. In farriery, an artificial
nicer, made by cutting through the
skin and inserting a pea or smooth
stone in the wound ; it is to be care-
fully <bressed and washed daily. It
is a means of establishing a local ir-
ritation to relieve some Important
omn, as the eye.

ITALIAN RYE GRASS. Xo/wm
perenne. See Grasses.

ITCH. A disease of the skin, in
which small vesicles are produced in
the angles of the body by the irrita-
tion of an insect. It is cured by an
ointment of sulphur applied daily. It
is sometimes called mange in farriery.

lULUS. The generic name of the
gaily worm ; insects with numerous
feet {myriapoda).

IVORY. The compact bony struct
tnre of the tusks of elephants ; it con-
tains 66 per cent, bone earth and 24
gelatin.

IVORY BLACK. Bone black.

IVY. Hedera heUx, A hardy ev-
ergreen dimbing shrub, used for rus-
tic coverings : it kills trees. It is
readily propagated by cuttings, and
once trained to a w^l, will bold on
by its own branch roots. The Vir»
ginian creeper is sometimes called
American ivy^ but m. no way resem-
bles true ivy.

I V y, I R I S H (.Canatiensis). »* A
fast-growing climber, with large lobed
4ii

iXff

1eavei» wtikb soon eov^n.wvn* ml
iionses. It is propagated by layers,
or slips taken off and plaiiled where
they are to grow." — (Johnson,) *

JACK. A general naine given to
engines for raising heavy weights, «#
well as some used for turning spits»

JACKDAW. A spedea of crow
{Corvus fntnuduU.)

JACK TIMBERS. Those in a bay
of timbers which are shorter than the
rest.

JACOB'S LADDER. FoUm^mum
eentUum. A common flower.

JACOB'S STAFF. Thecross
staff used by surveyors in measuring
heights and distances.

JADE. Nephrite.

JaLAP. The root of the Iponuea
jalapa^ a convolvulaceous, Mezicaa
plant, which might be readily cultiva-
ted in the Southern States. It climbs,
and has a perennial root, or tuber,
which is large enough for the market
in three years. It is a powerful purge,
the dose being ten to twenty grains
for a man.

JAMAICA PEPPER. Myrtus pi-
tnsnta. Allspice, the produce of aa
evergreen tree of tropical America,
The berries are warm and aromatic

JAMBS. The sides or posts of
any aperture or door which bear the
cross piece on which the weight of
the wall rests.

JAMESTOWN WEED. Daturm,
stram&niunL A poisonous weed. See
Stramonium.

JASPER. An ornamental and col-
oured silicioos mineral.

JATROPA. A genas of euphor-
beous, tropical plants, of which the
J. Mamhot yields a root from which
cassava is extracted ; the J. cur«ff#,
purging seeds resembling castor oU
seeds.

JAUNDICE. A disease in which
the biliary secretion is much changed,
the skin coloured yellow, with much

1 3 Am 1.1111^

JEFFERSONITE. A kind of aa-
gite.
JEJUNUM, The portion of the

JUJ *

small intestines next tlie diiode-
num.

JELLY. Gelatin with water : ve-
getable jelly is pectin.

JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE. See
Artichoke.

JESSAMIN- Jasminum ogicvnale.
A climbing shrub, the flowers of
which, when distilled with water,
yield a penetrating perfume.

JET. A bituminous coal of fine
texture, and taking a high polish.

JETERUS. The yellows of plants.

JOGGLED JOINTS. Joints of
masonry or Wood, which are made
by indenting the faces and fitting
them together.

JOGGLE PIECE. A trass post,
whose shoulders and sockets receive
the lower ends of the struts.

JOHN'S WORT. Plants of the
genus Hypericum, especially H. per-
forcUum, a common, weed in mead-
ows. Much prejudice exists against
it, and, being a perennial-rooted plant,
it is not easy of extirpation. A kind
of itch, and even inflammation of the
stomach, are said to be produced by it
in sheep, but salt is said to be a pre-
ventive, and the itch is treated with
sulphur ointment.

JOISTS. The timbers to which
the flooring is nailed.

JUBA. The mane, or crest of
hair which runs along the back bone
of animals.

JUDAS -TREE. An ornamental
genus (C«rct«) of trees, of which the
C. Canadentis, or red bud, is the only
indigenous species.

JUGAL BONE. The cheek bone.

JUGULAR VEINS. The veins
running on the sides of the neck,
which bring the blood from the head.
The external jugular is that from
which blood is taken in the horse.

JUGULUM. The fore part of the
neck in animals.

JUJUBE. Zizyphus vulgaris. The
fruit of this shrub, or small tree, re-
sembles a small plum, and is edible ;
is red, with a coriaceous skin, and of
the size of a large olive : they are
readily dried^ and become sweeter.
It is a native of Italy and Spain. A
sirup made from the dried fruit and

it*

mixed With gutn fbnns the eriginsl
jujube paste.

JULY. In the North, corn, pota-
toes, and late crops are tilled for the
last time, and white crops and grass-
es harvested ; late cabbages set out ;
celery put into trenches, and seeds
collected. Afler harvest, turnips, car-
rots, and fall crops are put in : bad-
ding is performed on the apple and
pear. In the South, cotton and to-
bacco receive a last working. It is
the great month for working the soil,
and destroying weeds and shrnbs.

JUNCACEiE. The family of
rushes.

JUNE. In the North, potatoes for
winter and rata bagas are set ; sheep
sheared. Weeding is very important
this month. Fruit-trees are trimmed,
and caterpillars destroyed ; late gar-
den vegetables, as pease, beans, cab-
bages, turnips, melons, are also sown.
In the South, this is the month for
weeding, hoeing, and working corn*
cotton, tobacco, sweet potatoes ; of
the last, Increase the hills by cuttings.
Carrots and other roots for late crops,
as well as cabbages, may be sown ;
melons require working ; white crops
are harvested.

JUNE BERRY. Mespilus arborea.
Wild pear, service. This tree is found
extensively diflTused in the United
States, but abounds on the Alleghany
Mountains, and the banks of its
streams. The frait is scattered,
small, one third to one half an inch
across, and pleasant. It is improved
by cultivation, and ripens in June.
On the streams of the West it some-
times grows thirty-five to forty feet
high.

JUNGERMANNIACEiE. A oafc.
ural family of acrogens, resembHng
mosses, and growing on the bark of
trees, and in moist, shady places.
The Hepalieay or trae liverworts.

JUNIPER BERRIES. Jumpenu
eommunis. A bushy evergreen shrub,
the berry of which yields an aromatic
flavour to gin. The shrubs grow read-
ily on the poorest soils : they are of
the pine family {conifertB).

JUNIPERUS. The genus yield-
ing the juniper berries. It contains,

44A

KID

tana (red cedar).

'%J* rtfJJlH*

KALE. A name for some yarie-
ties of cabbage or borecole.
KALE, SEA. See Sea-hale.
KALL A contraction for alkali,
potash ; also the ashes of eaUoU halt,
or barilla.
KALIUM. Potossium.
KALMIA. A genus of handsome
flowering shrubs, called American
laurels. The leayes and flowers are
poisonous, especially to lambs : those
poisoned should be drenched with
milk and castor oil.

KAOLIN. Porcelain clay, the fine,
white, disintegrated feldspar of some
primitiTe countries.

KATYDID. A kind of grasshop-
per inhabiting trees, the FUuypkyUam
concavum of Harris.

KEEL. Carina. The two lower
petals of papilionaceous flowers are
termed the keel.

KELP. A term used both for sea-
weeds and their ashes. See Scof-
weeds. The ashes used to be sold
for the manufacture of soap and glass,
but is now superseded, in a great
measure, by manufactured carbonate
of soda.

KENNEL. A hole inhabited by a
fox or other animal. A shelter for
dogs. It should be kept clean, and
the straw changed often. A kennel
is also used to designate a collection
or pack of hounds.

. KERMES GRAINS. Insects of
the genus Cocom, or bark lice, collect-
ed from numerous plants, as the oak,
&c., and formerly much used for dye-
ing a red colour, but to a great ex-
lent superseded by cochineal.

KERMES MINERAL. The by-
drosulphuret of antimony.
KETCHUP. Catsup.
KEUPER. The upper portion of
the new red sandstone formation.

KEY. In building, a piece of wood
let into another in the contrary di-
rection of the grain.

KEYSTONE. The central stone
of an arch.
KID. A young goat. The flesh is |
446

KOt

teadei^ a»d amch esteemed by Mine
persons.

KIDNEYS. The reins. The or-
gans in which urine is secreted, from
whence it flows along tubes (ureters)
into the bladder. They are situated
in the loins and attached to the spine,

KIDNEY BEAN. See Bean.

KIDNEY - SHAPED. Reniform,
of an oval figure, with one side in-
dented, so as to resemble a sheep^a
kidney.

KIDNEY VETCH. AnthsfOu. An
ornamental flowering plant.

KILLING ANIMAL^. It is cus-
tomary to keep oxen two days, and
smaller animals one day without food.
The ox is felled by a blow on the
forehead, and his throat immediately
cut. The Jews, who eat no meat
with blood in it, ^lo not fell the ani-
mal, but, having tied it, divide Uie
throat down to the bone. Animala
killed by accidents are eaten with
propriety, but such as die from dis-
ease are unwholesome, and some-
times poisonous. A method of kill>
ing animals by pithing, or dividing the
spinal marrow high in the neck by a
sharp knife, is practised in Southern
Europe ; the animal falls at once, but
the flesh is said not to be free from
blood.

KILLINITE. A greenish lamellar
mineral, consisting of silica, alumina,
and iron, with six per cent, potash.

KILN. A furnace. The figure
depends on the object in view.

KILN ASHES. The ashes of the
wood, straw, dec, used in burning.

KILN-DRYING. Drying hops,
malt, grain, &c., in a chamber, or
over a wire-work heated to 120*^
Fahrenheit and upward by a kiln or
stove below.

KILOGRAMME. A French
weight, equal to H lbs., 3 oz., 5 dwts.,
avoirdupois.

KING-POST. The central post of
a trussed framing for supporting the
tie beam.

KINIC ACID. The acid with
which quina is associated.

KINO. A dark-brown astringent
extract containing much tannin.
KIRSCHWASSER. A liquor ob-

KOH

LAO

Moed by fermentittg cfaehrier witti
wbieh the stones are pounded, and
dy^titliag the iermeoted liquid.

Krr. A pail, or wooden vessel.

KITCHEN GARDEN. See Gar-
Hutbandry.

KNAPWEED. The genus of per-

inia) weeds Cenfaurea.

KNAWELL. 8cieranthu9 annuus.
A weed slightly astringent.

KNARS. Knots or ezeres-
eences on the bark of some trees,
which contain latent buds capable of
expanding into branches : those of the
olive are used for propagation, being
cut with a part of the stem and set in
the ground.

KNEE. In architecture, an artifi-
cially or naturally bent piece of timber.

KNEE-PAN. A small, flat bone
{pdiella) situated before the knee jomt
to protect it.

KNEE GRASS. Rough panic
grass.

KNOLL. A haiock, or small hiU.

KNOPPERN. OaU-Uke excres-
cences of oaks, used for dyeing and
tanning.

KNOT GRASS. HoUm9 tnenaet-
us, which produces balbs on its
roots. The common weed Potygth

KNOT WEED. A general name
for the Potygonum genus, many of
which are very acrid.

KOHL RABI. A variety of cab-
bage, the stalk of whioh is terminated
above by a bulb as large as a^tumip,
whfch is solid, and around which the
leaves are situated. It requires the
same management as cabbages, and
yields as much as rata bagas. Two
pounds cf seed supply an acre ; it is
sown in beds in the faM and planted
hi spring. The value as food is not
given, but it is probably about the
same as cabbages, 600 pounds equal-
ling 100 of Imy, and an ox requiring
100 pounds oaily. Kohl rabi is cnl-
tivated in Germany, and reconmiend-
ed lately in England, from its oom-
parative freedom from the diseases
of turnips, as a substitute for that
root. It has -occupied the attention
cf some of our fancy gardeners, but
is not raised by vs as a fietd-cmp.

KRAMCRIO ACID. ltisobt«»t
ed from the root of the Knmeria tri-
andria, or rhatany.

KY ANITE. A silicate of alumina,
sometimes coloursd by iron and other
bodies: it occurs in doubly oblique
prisms ; is white, gray, or blue. It is
common in primitive formations, and
sometimes ibrms a fine blue stone
resembling sapphire, and used by jew-
ellers.

KYANIZING. The process of Mr.
Kyan for preserving timber by soak-
ing it in a solution of corrosive subli-
mate I it is now superseded by cheap-
er fluids. SeePres^rvaiiono/TUnUr,

LABARRAQUE'S DISINFECT-
ING LIQUID. A solution of car-
bonate of soda charged with chlorine :
it answers the same purposes as chlo-
ride of lime in disinfecting rooms.

LABELLUM. The lower petal of
a labiate or orchideous flower.

LABIAT.£. An extensive £Buiuly
of plants, charaeterized by a two-lip-
ped, mottopetalous corolla, an irrega^*
lar number of stamens, add foui
lobed ovary. They are mostly herbs,
or small shrubs, with highly aromatic
flowers and leaves, as the mint, lav-
ender, sage, 6c4i, None of them are
poisonous.

LABIUM. A lip, the divisions cf
some mooopetalous flowers. In en-
tomology, the moveable organ which
is at the front of the head, or face,
covering the mouth and representing
the upper lip.

LABORATORY. The workshop
of the chemist .- chemical manufacto-
ries are often improperly so called.

LABRADORITE, or LABRA-
DORE STONE. An iridescent, opa-
line variety of feldspar, consisting of
silica, 55 ; alumina, 24 ; lime, 10*25 ;
soda, 3-50, in 100 parts. — {Kiaprolh,)

LABRUM. The labium, or upper
lip of insects.

LAC. The dry resinous juice
of several trees of Southern India.
The trees are wounded by the Coc-
cfu jicu9y a bark louse, parts of which
being entangled in the juice, produce
a rwl colour like cochineaL The

447

LAC

rA.0

ftesh lae, incnisting twigs of trees,
is called Hick lor; the resin being
separated, pounded, and stirred with
water, yields a red solution, which,
when evaporated to dryness, forms
Ubc dyct the insoluble portion being
grain lac^ and, when melted and run
on leaves or wood, theU lac.

LAG DYE. This is found in small
cakes ; it is dissolved in a mixture of
3 lbs. tin and 60 muriatic acid. To
produce a rich scarlet, the cloth is
mordanted with solutioa of tin.

LAG, SHELL. This is much ased
for the best sealing-wax by various
manufacturers, and in varnishes. It
is rapidly dissolved by strong alco-
hol, by dilute muriatic and acetic
acids. Laccine and laccic acids are
bodies found in lao.

LACERATED. A botanical term,
used to designate a leaf which ap-
pears to have been torn.

LAGERTIDiE. The famUy of liz-
ards.

LACHRYMAL GLAND. A small
conglomerate gland placed in the up-
per portion of the outer angle of the
eye ; it *suppUes the eye with moist-
ure to lubricate the surface ; an ex-
cessive flow produces tears. The
lachrymal duct is a small channel
iVom the inner corner of the eye to
the inside of the nose.

LACINIATE. Friage-llke; petals,
leaves, iScc., cut into numerous thin
shreds.

^LACQUER. A varnish used to
cover brass and other metals, made
by dissolving shell lac in alcohol, and
colouring with gamboge, saffron, and
other bodies.

LACTARY. Adaury.

LACTATION. Giving milk, or

snckiing.

LACTEALS. Minute vessels run-
ning from the interior of the small
intestines along the mesentery to the
thoracic duct ; they convey the chyle
or nutritious portions of digested
food. They form the lacteal glands
of the mesentery.

LACTIC ACID. The acid of sour
milk ; it is also found in digested food,
and sour starchy substances, saur
kraut, dec. It is a thick, oolourless,

446

sour liquid, soluble in water and id^
cohol, and coagulates milk : formulm
C« H4 O4. It readily combines wit^
bases, forming laetmtes.

LAGTINE. Sugar of milk.

LACTOMETER, or GALACTOM^
ETER. *• A term applied to a gbns
tube for ascertaining the proportMB
which the cream bears to the milk of
any particular cow, or the produce
of a whole dairy. Lactometen of
diflfhrent kinds have been invi
the best is called the four or live
lactometer {Fig.).

'* The principle of the Instrumenl
is, that if new milk is poured into
^ass tubes and allowed to remalii*
the division between the eream wlaeh
floats upon the surface of the mftk
will be so evident that its depth may
be easily measured ; and should tke
milk from any oow produce more
cream than that of another, the dtf.
ference will be seen by the divisions
or marics on the glass tubes. The lao-
tometer consists of four or fire glaas
tubes, about half an inch diameter
and 11 inches long, fitted into an vp-
righi mahogany frame; eaeh tube
having a fine line drawn rsnnd it 10
inches from the hottooai ; ^ree ineb-
es irom the line downward it is ^rad*
uated into inches and tenths of mch-
es. At milking time each tube is to
he filled up to the line with new milk.
After standing 18 hours, the quantity
of eream whioh floats upon the sur*
face is shown by the scale of inches
and tenths; each division will there-
fore represent one pef eeat. of the
whole.

" if the milk given by a cow at one
meal is one gallon, or eight pints, and
the thickness or depth of the cream
which floats upon it meaaares 14 di
visions, multiply the nomber of pints,
9, by the depth of the eraam, 14 ; the

LAG

LAM

reeoll win be that the produce of the
oream of that meal is 112, or one
pint twelve one hondredths. Care
mmt be tafcea to fill theae tubes as
aooa aa the pail is taken from under
Hie cow, for if any delay takes place
aeme of the cream will have ascend-
ed towards the top. The milk should
be taken from the middle of the
pail, whieh is to be done by dipping a
ereara-pot below the fh>th."— < Joum.
Roy. Ifut.^

LACTUCARIUM. The diy juice
of the wild lettuce {Laetuea virosa) :
it is very much like opium.

LACTtJOIG ACID, it exists in
lactacarifim.

LACUNA. A small pit. The
mouth of exeretoTy ducts.

LACUKOSE. Having little pits,
or shidlow indentations.

LACUSTRINE. Belonging to a
lake.

LA D D E R. A necessary imple-
flnent on the farm for stacking, re-
pairing, dtc. The wall-tree ladder is
fomtahed at the top with two pieces
of wood projecting 10 inches, to hin-
der it from injaring the trees in pru-
ning, nailing, dee. An arrangement
of Miree ladders on a frame, capable
of being wheeled along, and in which
two of the ladders may be hoisted
one above the other, so as to reach
to the top of treea, ia called an orchard
laooer.

LADY BIRD. A popular name for
the genns Coeein€Ua.myioBt of the
SfisoieB are naefhl to the farmer by
praying on plant lice, or aphides.

LADY'S MANTLE. Plants of
the §enna AUhemilia ; they are slight-
ly astringent, but wholesome.

JUDY'S SLIPPER. Flowers of
the genua Cyfripediumj of great bean-

tf.

LADY'S TRESSES. Smell or-
<^ideoaa plants of the genus NeatHa,
of no importance.

Lu£VI8. Smooth.

LAQENiEFORM. Bottle-shaped.

LAGOON. A shaUow lake, into
whieh the sea flows.

LAGOPUS. The genus contain-
ing the grouse and similar birds feath-
aid dawn to the toes.

PpS

LAIR. The resting-place of sav-
age animals ; sometimes used, also,
for that of oxen and cows.

LAKES. Pigments obtained by
throwing down the colouring matter
of vegetable solmions by alum.

LAM B. For the farmer, late lambs
dropped at grass time are best, as the
ewe yields more milk : the teat of the
ewe should be cleared of any tags
that hinder suckling ; if she does not
own her lamb, put them together in a
pen and place a little salt on the Iamb ;
if she licks it, a good feeling will aooi^
spring up. They are weaned at six
to eight weeks ; the rams are gelded
at one to three weeks old. By kill-
ing lambs at six months, the wool
becomes much more valuable. The
young ewes should not be put to ram
until two years.

LAMBDQIDAL SUTURE. The
line of junction between the bone at
the back of the head (occipital) and
the side bones (parietal).

LAMB'S LETTUCE. Com salad.
LAMB SKINS. Their value de-
pends on the fineness, brightness, and
colour of the wool, black being most
esteemed. The skin is extensively
employed in making gloves:

LAMELLiE. The gills of mush-
rooms.

LAMELLICORNS. A division of
pentamerous beetles, in which the
short antenn» are inserted into a
deep fossa at the side of the head :
the body is ovoid and heavy ; the an-
terior part of the head is commonly
dilated, and projects ; the mentum is
large, covering the labrnm or incor-
porated wHh it, and bearing the pal-
pi. They are very numerous, feed on
excrements, rotten wood, and roots.
LAMENESS. <«In the horse it
ia brought on from various causes,
sprains, over-exertion, diseases of
the foot, dec. The muscles of the
shoulder are occasionally sprained,
and, in this ease, the animal cannot
lift his foot without great difficulty;
indeed, he will be curved to drag
his toe alonff the ground. In this
ease few local measures can be adopt-
ed. The horse should be bled from
the Tdn on the inside of the arm, ib-

449

IAN

mentalKMUi applied, and a doae of
physic giren. Id this, as in most oth-
er cases of lamenesa, quiet and rest
are essential to the restoration of
the animal." See HorMt

LAMINA. The fiat surface of a
leaf.

LAMINJS. A tribe of longicom
beetles, distinguished by a vertical
head) filiform palpi, antenne bristly
and simple, thorax nearly equal
throughout : some speciea are ap-
terous.

LAMINATED. Rolled or beaten
to thin leaves or foil.

LAMPBLACK. Fine charcoal ob-
tained by imperfectly burning resins,

LAMPYRID^. A family of soft-
skinned, serricorn beetles, a portion
of the females of which are phospho-
rescent.

LAMPYRINiE. A tribe of soft-
skinned, serricorn beetles, character-
ized by palpi with enlarged termina-
tions, a soft, straight, slightly-de-
pressed body, by the thorax project-
ing over the bead, which it partially
or wholly covers.

LAN ATE, LANATUS. Covered
with wool, or having the appearance
of wool.

LANCEOLATE. Lance-shaped,
oblong, and gradually tapering to the
ends.

LA ND. In agriculture, the bed, or
stitch, between two water furrows.

LANDSCAPE GARDENING.
The art of laying out grounds : curv-
ed lines, clumps of trees, with a rich
award, and shrubberies, are the ele*
ments of landscapes ; fences should
be sunken so as not to interrupt tbe
view, which should be opened as
much as possible, unless unsightly ;
in the latter case, a clump or grove
of trees may be made to hide tbe ob-
jects. Fountains, terraces, urns, and
other objects of art, are introduced as
ornaments. A winding stream is
a necessary element of extensive
grounds. — See Loudon** Encydofodia
of Gardening.

LANDSLIP, or LANDSLIDE. A

Quantity of land which has slidden
own the side of a hill : it is caused

460

by the undenninlag of water or fay an

earthouake

LAND SPRINGS. Spriaga which
only come into action after heavy
rains : all springs owe their origin to
rains. In the case of land springs,
tbe water, when it sinks through tbo
surface, is speedily interrupted by a
retentive stratum of clay or rock, and
there accumulating, soon bursts out
into a spring, which ceases to fiow a
short period after the cause which
gave it birth ; but the water which
supplies constant springs sinks deep-
er into the earth, and accumulates in
rocky or gravelly strata, which be
come saturated with the fluid.

LANIARIES. Denteflamariu
The dog teeth, or cuspidati, conical
teeth at the sides of the jaws, next
the incisors.

LANTANUM. A new metal found
in ceriu.

LAPIDEOUS. Like stone, hard.

LAPILLI. Small volcanic cio-
ders. *

LARCH. The European larch
{Larix eommuxU) is much cuilivated
in England for ship-buiiding, bridgea*
dock gates, and other purposes. Tbe
timber is of remarkable excellence..
It is a native of the Tyrol, and grows
with great rapidity on tbe pooreet
soils and in very elevated positions.
The bark is nearly as valuable as that
of the oak for tanning, and the trunk,
when tapped, yields the Venetiaa
turpentine ; ihere is also a sweet
gum obtained from it called Brian^oa
manna.

LARCH, AMERICAN. Haek^
malac.

LARD. See Hog'* Lard,

LARK. This genus of birds is
granivorous

LARKSPUR. The genus Delphi"
nium, many of which have handsome
blue flowers: these plante are din*
retic and acrid. The D. einuolida and
Mtaphuagria were formerly used in
medicine.

LARVA. The caterpillar or magn
got state of insect life ; the young of
some amphibious animals are also
called larvffi.

LARYIPARA. Producing larvs

LARTHeOTOMY. TlM opera-
tion of making ao opening into the
Uryiiz ; this is sometimes necessary
IB cases ofcholuag or severe inflam-
matioo, where the opening of the
larjrnz, aknig which air passes, is
elosed.

LARYNX. The upper part of the
windpipe, formed of cartilage, and ly-
ilig at the root of the tongne.

LAST. A qaantity, varying in dif-
ferent counthest and with respect to
Tar ions artioles. The following quan-
tities generally make a last : 12 doz-
•n of hides or skins ; 13 barrels of
meal ; 10| quarters of cole seed ; 10
quarters of corn or rape seed (in some
parts of £ngland 21 quarters of corn
go to a last) ; 12 sacks of wool ; 1700
pounds of feathers or flax. 4000
pounds is often the amount of a last.

LATENT HEAT. Heat sup-
posed to be present in all bodies, and
on which their form depends ; it can-
not be felt, but, by a change in the
form, is given out, and becomes sen-
sible or free heat. Vapours and gas-
es contain most, next fluids, and last
aelids ; so that, by the abstraction of
beat, vapours are condensed, fluids
freeze, and, by the reverse* solids be-
eome fluid or gaseous.

LATERITIOUd (from UUer, a
kriek). A depoeite of a reddish colour
from urine, &c.

LATEX. The milky or elaborated
juices of plants : it circulates in a pe-
culiar arrangement of tubes called the
laiteiferous vessels, which anasta-
niose over the plant.

LATH. A thin slip of wood, one
fourth or three eighths of an inch
thioky used in plastering, slating, dec.

LATHE. A maehioe for revolving
pieces of wood, metal, d&c, which are
eat with difl^ient tools while rotating.

LATH FLOATED AND SET
FAIR. In building, three-coat plaa-
terer's work, in which the first is
4Milled priekisg up, the seeond float-
ing, the third, or finishing, is done
with fine stufl!:

LATH LAID AND SET. In
bttildiag, two-eoated plasterer's work,
except that the first is called layings
and i» Mcaeuted without eoratcbing,

LAX

\aAem with a broom. Whmi used on

wails, this sort of work is generally
coloured ; when on ceilings, it is
white.

L.<(THYHUS. A genus of hand-
some climbing, leguminous plants,
much cultivated for ornament.

LATICI FERGUS VESSELS.
Milk vessels ; they carry the latex.

LAUDANUM. Opium dissolved
in alcohol, tincture of opium.

I^\UR£L. Shrubs, or small trees,
of the genus Laurtu ; several are ev«
ergreen : they yield aromatic resins
and oils.

LAURINE. A fatty, acrid sub-
stance, found in the berries of the
common laurel {Laurua communis).

LAVA. The molten mineral mat-
ter which has flowed from volcanoes ;
it is very porous.

LAVER. A sea- weed {Porphm
ladmata and xndgariai), eaten as a del-
icacy when boiled ; sometimes green
laver ( Ulva Utistima) is substituted.

LAVENDER. Laveniula sjfica. It
grows on a poor, light soil, is propa-
gated by slips and cuttihgs of the
year's shoots ; these are set in May,
six inches apart, in a shady border,
and transferred by October to the
permanent beds, about two feet apart.
The ground is stirred in spring, and
the flowers gathered early in July ;
the beds, with a little care, last a
long time. The flowers are distilled
for their rich perfume, which is the
principal ingredient ofeaude Cologne,

LAWN. Ground covered with the
smaller perennial grasses, kept short
by mowing, and generally situated in
front of a hoose or mansioo. Lawns,
when once established, require only
to be kept neat by the ordinary rou-
tine of rolling, mowing, and sweep-
ing, except keeping the surface per-
fectly even, by making up small hol-
lows with screened mould early in
spring. When lawns become worn
oift, a top-dressing of any finely-divi-
ded manure wiU refresh them ; leach-
ed ashes are particularly useful, and,
at the same time, an additional quan-
tity of grass seed may be sown.

LAXATIVE. A gently-purging
mediGine.

461

LAXATOR. Any mnield wliieli
relaxes the tension of the part into
which it is inserted.

LAX, LAXUS. Difihse, looee.

LAY, LEY, LEA. A term applied
to land in the state of grass or sward.
This kind of ground is frequently dis-
tingnisbed into each as has been long
in the state of sward, and such as is
newly laid down to grass, or into old
and new lays. An old lay, fallowed
or turned under, yields an admirable
preparation for potatoes, com, wheat,
and numerous other crops. The

E roper method of managing a new
ly is of great importance to the
fknner, which Young thought should
be by keeping it perfectly free from
stock for the following autumn and
winter after being laid down, when,
in the spring, it will afibrd a growth
of young grass highly valuable for
sheep, with which it should only be
Well stocked, and kept down then,
and daring the following summer;
nothing, in his opinion, being more
pernicious than mowing a new lay,
as directed by certain authors, if it
be intended for permanent meadow.
LAYERING, Propagation by /ay-
grs, which are short branches of plants,
trees, or shrubs. The layer is strip-
ped of its lower leaves, a slit made
under one of the central buds, and
the branch twisted or the bark taken
partially off, and then bent and pinned
down in the soil by a wooden pin *,
the wounded portion is placed from
two to six inches under the soil, and
covered with fine mould and sand ;
the end of the branch is trimmed to
one or two eyes above the soil ; in a
few weeks it will have thrown out
roots, and maybe cut away and trans-
planted at a suitable time elsewhere,
being a new plant. It is a very safe
method of propagation, and in some
llower plants nearly the only one. It is
practised in the summer and autumn,
and on the year's shoots in many ca-
ses, but usually on two-year shoota.
Plants so situated as to render it im-
possible to bend their branches to
the ground, may nevertheless be lay-
ered by having shoots introduced into
a pot or box of soil elevated to them,

408

aad Mippoiiad in a oonveiiieut posi-
tioa. A pieoe of baaa matting tied
around the limb near a crotch may
bemadetosu^aiathesoU. This is a
common practice among theChiaeae»
who cause branches of trees to root
in this manner by partially ringing
them, and covering such parts with
a ball of clay, which is kept moiat.

LAYERS OF WOOD. The cif^
cttlar rings of wood or hark predneed
annually. The number of wood lay-
ers in a tnmk gives ua an idea of tie
age of the tree.

LEA. See Lay.

LEAD. A aoit, inelastic, and dno*
tile metal, fusing at 612<> Fahrenfaeiti
sp. gr., 11*44. Melted in open vee-
sels, it absorbs oxygen, and becomee
converted into massicot, which, beiBg
fused, is litharge, the protoxide el
lead. The equivalent of lead is 103'73»
symbol Pb {Plumbmm). The metal,
in the form of sheet, is very use-
All for covering bidldiiiga and fom^
ing gutters, from its softness, it ia
also adapted for pipes, which ave
quite flexible. Lead eistenis and
pipes are objectionable as leueivoire
for rain water. It is used as an aK
loy with other metals. Lead is read-
ily soluble in nitric acid, and slowly
in strong acetic and carbonic aside.
Its most important compounds are
the carhonaie <white4ead) and ses-
tau (sugar of lead).

LEAD, BLACK. Plumbago. A
native carburet of iron.

LEAF. An expansion of odlolar
tissue and vessels appended to tho
stem at the nodes ; it receives ves-
sels from the new wood on the n|^
per, and eontributes tiiem to the barifc
from the under surface. Along the
upper channels the ascending sap
flows, and the elaborated juices leave
the leaf by the inferior system, de-
scending between the new wood and
bark, and organising new wood fov
the next year and roots. Leaves aie
articulated, and fall off entire in esu
ogenous plants, but are expaasioas
of the bark, and not articulated in
endogens ; hence, when they die, the
fragments remain, decay! ngia the air.
The figures of leaves are iaauai«ra^

tiU

LKA

Wb, vtd fomiaii ttie prinelfial meana

of reoogniftiag species of plants ; they
are also occasionally covered with
^rs, glands, prickles, and, for the
most part, with minute openings on
the under surface, called stomsta.

Physiologioally, the leaf is not only
the most important portion of a plant,
hut the only living portion ; the trunk
and Toots are only fibres extended
from the leaves : the fruit and seed
are only modified leaves ; they pro-
duce tbie buds of plants, the great
means of propagation ; hence, in the
vegetable kingdom, more than half of
the known ^uts are no more than a
leaf, or foliaceous organ, as in ferns,
licheos, sea-weeds, fungi, and moss-
es ; and the leaf alone of many
lilants is capable of giving rise to a
new individual, forming a root, a new
bud, and ultimately the entire tree or
jdant ; thus, the orange, water-cress,
Bunt,faoya, cUnanthus, and other spe-
cies, have been yropagated by a leaf.
The planted leaf sweUs at its stalk,
emits roots, and develops a bud.

A leaf is a porous or spongy body ;
the gases and fluids of the interior of
the plant, and the gasea and fluids of
the air mingle together by chemical
laws in its structure; lights acting
on these, produces a change of com-
position, and establishes a move-
ment. Out of carbonic acid gas and
water, light, and the chemical actions
of the leaf, evolve sugar, gum, starch,
and wood ; these principles, acted
upon by other substances present,
produce, in part, albumen, fibrin, oils,
^c. ; and thus, primarily in the leaf,
all the products of vegetation are
formed, and hence they become dis-
tributed throughout the whole {riant.

The leaf only, with the green parts,
can elaborate sap for the whole ve-
getable ; the apparent changes in the
ascending sap are an increased den-
sity, and the separation of oxygen
and nitrogen gases, whioh escape into
the air. Leaves are to be carefully
preserved as the elaborating organs
of the plant, ont of which come
growth and vigour.

LEAF BUD. The colleetion of
amaU leavea witb a central point

capable of expansion, which is pro-
duced at the base or axil of the
leaves. In the bark is laid up a de-
posits of food for their use in spring,
upon which the bud, whether separa-
ted to another tree (m budding), or
remaining in its native {dace, feeds
while young; by its expansion, a
shoot is formed. Leaf buds perpet-
uate all the peculiarities of the tree
on which they originated.

LEAFLET. The lesser leaves of
a compound leaf

LEAF MANURE. The dead leaves
of the forest constitute an admirable
manure when rotted in the farm-yard,
pig-stalls, or in composts ; they haye
precisely the value of straw, being
very similar in their action. The
leaves of oaks and plants growing on
a rich sou are better than those of
pine, or such as grow on poor lands.
They should be collected as early as
possible in the fall. If ploughed into
the soil directly, they form an excel-
lent amendment, but require rather
more time to yield vegetable food.
In this case, lime should be applied
with the leaves.

LEAF STALK. The petiole.
Leaves destitute of stalk are called
sessile.

LEAGUE. The sea league is the
one twentieth of a degree, or 3-46
miles. The French posting league is
2*42 English miles.

LEAN-TO. A building whose raf-
ters lean or pitch against the wall of
another building.

LEASH. A line to couple dogs.
Three head of game.

LEATHER. Skins of animals
preserved by rendering their gelatin
Insoluble and impermeable to water ;
this is called tanningt when a solution
of tannin is used, and the product
becomes iannogelatin,

Tavtd leather is formed by steep-
ing prepared skins in potash liquor
and a solution of common salt and
alum ; in this way the resulting salt
of alumina combines with the gela-
tin : glove leather is so formed.
Curried leather is smeared with oil
while moist, which gradually pene-
trates the skin as it dries. A perfect

.468

VEE

hide of leather is tested by its section,
which should be glistening and mar-
bled, without any white streaks, but
uniform and compact. See Tanning.

LEATHER WOOD. Direaptdus-
tris. A small indigenous shrub with
▼ery flexible branches, and a tough,
leathery bark.

LEAVEN. A piece of sour doueh
of flour or corn meal, used to make
other dough light ; it is well kneaded
into it, and produces fermentation,
but is altogether inferior to yeast.

LEDGERS. In building, the pie-
ces of timber used in scaflfblding
which lie parallel to the wall, and
horizontal.

LEECH. Sanguisuga officinaiis
and medicinalis. They inhabit shal-
low brooks and ponds, and arc taken
by driving a horse or other animal in ;
the leeches attach themselves to the
legs. They are invaluable in reliev-
ing local inflammations by drawing
on an excess of blood.

LEEK. Allium porrum. This is
a biennial of the onion genus, but
without heads ; used in stews, broths,
Sec. The best variety is the large
London. Leeks are obtained by seed,
which is sown in a bed early in spring
for the first supply, and in April for
the crop. The seedlings are trans-
planted when six or eight inches
high, being previously thinned and
weeded, and set in rows ten inches
apart, the rows being eight inches
distant. The leeks are set deep in
holes made by a dibble. The soil
must be well watered and loosened.
The afler-treatment consists of hoe-
ing and occasionally cutting away
the tops of the leaves to increase
the size of the root. The plants are
used from June to winter. Seed is
obtained by leaving some of the leeks
in the seed-bed 8 inches apart, cover-
ing with straw in winter, and allowing
them to flower in May. The seed clus-
ter is to be cut when turned brown,
and dried before being thrashed.

LEES. The dregs or refuse of fer-
mented liquors : when rotted, they
form good manure, and should, there-
fore, be put into the farm-yard or pig-
geries.

454

LEGHORN STRAW. It it de-
rived from the straw of wheat In
Tuscany, the long-awned spring
wheat, called marzolavo^ is cultivated
on the sandy hill.** of the Valley of the
Arno. The seed is sown in March
very thick, and the plants pulled when
the spikes are formed, hot tiefore any
grain : it is then eighteen inches tall.
It is bleached by exposure to air like
flax. The portion of straw between
the ear and uppermost knot is all that
is employed : this is selected, tied in
bundles, and carried home. Before
use, the straw is bleached by the va-
pour of sulphur, either in barrels or
appropriate rooms ; the plait is also
bleached, and the bonnets are again
bleached. English Leghorn is made
from rye similarly managed. Botli
these plants yield better straw than
that from grasses.

LEGUMEN, LEGUME. A pod
like that of the pea, bean, &c. A
one-celled, one or many seeded, two
valved, superior, and commonly de-
hiscent fruit.

LEGUMIN. The casein of legu-
minous plants.

LEOUMINOS^. An extensive
natural family, very important in ag^-
riculture, from yielding pease, beans,
clovers, indigo, &c. The genera are
often immense trees in the tropics,
as logwood, mahogany, but are usu-
ally small herbs in the North. The
1 most remarkable characters are the
presence of legumens with irregular,
often papilionaceous flowers.

LEGUMINOUS CROPS. Cropa
of clover, beans, tares, lucem, and
other leguminose. Some writers,
however, very improperly allude to
root and leaf crops under this term,
imagining that all ameliorating crops
should be called leguminous, as being
distinguished from white or culmif-
erous crops, which are also exhaust-
ers.
LEICESTER SHEEP. See Sheep.
LEMON. Citrus medica. A small
tree, native of Asia, but extensively
cultivated in tropical America and
temperate climates free from heavy
frosts. The citron, lemon, and lime
are considered only varieties, notwitli-

iLEU

LET

0ttiiidlii|f their great dlfl^renoe fn size
and the sbarpoess of the juice. The
tree ean be ealtivated in southern
Florida, but requires an orangery
northward.

LEMON, ESSENCE OF. The oil
flistilled from the pea], mixed with al-
cohol. The pure oil is termed the ail
ofUmans.

LEMON SIRUP. Lemon jnice is
kept with difficulty in bottles ; made
into a strong sirup, it is better pre-
aerved. The fluid sold by this name
ia only commoa sirup, acidulated with
a little oil of vitriol.

LENITIVE. Medicines which
gently soothe in diseases. A gentle
pargative.

I^BNS. A thin solid, the faces of
which are cnrred, and the general
figure usually circular. The glasses
of spectacles are lenses. Those len-
ses which have two conTez or pro-
tuberant sides, or one side plane, mag-
nify objects, and concentrate the rays
of heat to a burning focus ; hence they
are termed magnifying or burning
glasses. Concave lenses minify, and
do not collect heat to a real focus.
The name of the iens difibrs with the
figure of the carved surface

LENTICULAR. Shaped like a
double convex lens ; thus ().

LENTIOELLS, or LENTICULAR
GLANDtS. The small specks or knots
on the steins of some trees, from
whence, if in the soil, roots would
proceed.

LENTIL. Ervum lent (^.). A

leguminous annual, similar to the
ftttob. It is much cultiTated in PrancB

and some parts of Germany as food for
man. The French have three varie-
ties : the small brown, for soups, the
yellowish, and the large Provence,
with luxuriant straw, and which may
be cultivated in the place of tares.

They are sown on a dry. warm,
sandy soil, later than the pea, one to
one and a half bushel to the acre,
and afterward treated like pease, un-
less they be planted for horse prov-
ender, when the whole plant is cured,
as in the case of tares. The yield is
much less than from the latter crop.
The lentil is as nutritious as the bean.
It contains 22 per cent, of Icgumin
{casein), 48*5 of starch, gum, and su-
gar, and 2-6 oil. Schwartz states the
crop at 39| bushels, of 624 pounds
each, to the acre.

LENTOR (from Unttis, clammy).
Viscidity, clamminess in fluids.

LEPIDOPTERA. Insects of the
moth and butterfly tribe. See Insects,

LEPIDOTUS, LEPIDOTE (from
XcTrtc, a scale). Scurfy, scaly. A bo«
tanical term.

LEPISMA. A family of wingless
insects, the bodies of which are cov-
ered with glistening scales, the feet
short. They are very active, and
found about old wood, and in dark,
mouldy places.

LEPRA, LEPROSY. A disease
of the skin, which becomes rough and
covered with scaly patches. Warm
baths, sulphur, and, lastly, tar oint-
ment, with proper attention to the
health, are the best remedies.

LEPTURA. A genus of longi-
com beetles, of the family LepluriditB,
** Head inclined posteriorly behind the
eyes, or contracted at its junction
with the thorax into a neck ; thorax
conical or trapezoid, narrowed ante-
riorly ; elytra becoming gradually nar-
rower ; eyes rounded and entire, or, if
emargrnate, antennae inserted before
emargi nation."

LETHARGY. Drowsiness, mor-
bid desire to sleep. It is sometimes
a precursor of apoplexy, and calls for
blood-letting if occurring in a full
habit.

LETTUCE Lactuca sativa. The
varieties are very numerous; the

465

LKV

most hardy are the large j^reen head,
cabbage, tennis ball, Egyptian greeo
C0S8, larged green curled, and Madei-
ra, which may be kept alive through
winter if protected by a coating of
atraw : they are sown in September.
Other esteemed spring kinds are the
early Silesia, sugar loaf, Paris loaf
eoss, pale green, and a later sort,
the large summer Silesia. Lettuces
in this latitude require to be raised
in slightly warmed beds. An ounce
of seed produces upward of ten thou-
sand plants. It should be sown very
thin early in March, and transplanted
when about one inch and a half high,
as soon as the frost is out of the
ground. The soil should be rich and
fine, and the plants set a foot apart
each way. They must be well wa-
tered after transplanting, for the let-
tuce is partial to moisture. The
plant must be kept weeded and well
worked, at least eyery fortnight ; in
this way they will head before hot
weather, afler which tbey usually run
to seed without heading. The coss
lettuces required to be blanched by
tying up the leaves with a bass band-
age. Seed plants are procured by
allowing fine specimens to flower :
the seed sown should be fresh, as it
frequently loses its vegetating power
afler two years.

LETTUCE, LAMB'S. Com salad.

LEVIGATION. The reduction of
hard substances, by rubbing or tritu-
ration, to fine powder.

L E U C I N. A white, crystalline
body like spermaceti, produced by the
action of alkalies or sulphuric acid
on protein : formula, Cis Hia N O4.

LEUCITE. White Vesuvian
garnet. It is abundant in some of
the Vesuvian lavas, and contains up-
ward of 23 per cent, potaah, alumina
33, silica 54.

LEUCOL. One of the products of
the distillation of coal tar.

LEUCOMA. Opacity of the cor-
nea, which becomes whitish.

LEUCOPHLEGMATIC. A con-
dition of the body in which the skin
is pate and flabby.

LEVATOR MUSCLES. Those
which raise a limb or part. Tbey are

LBir

sitnatad in the-Aont pmims of tl»

animal.

LEVEE. A provincial naaae for a
large embankment.

LEVEL. An instnimcttt for as-
certaining the level or the diractioo
of a horizontal line. It is of grett
utility in drainage, bnaldiiig, and lay-
ing out grounds.

Levels in which the pknib-tiae
forms the essential part ore those
most usually employed for the oua*
mon purposes required by bricklayerB*
masons, carpenters, 6lo. Tbey are
constructed under many diflereot
forms, but the general principle is as
follows : A frame or board is prepared*
having one edge perfectly g*^^>*^
and an upright line is drawn on the
frame at right angles to the straight
edge. To some point of this line a
thread carrying a plummet is attadih-
ed; consequently, when the franae
is placed in such a position that the
thread of the plummet, hanging free-
ly, coincides with the npright line, the
straight edge of the frame, which is
at right angles, must he horixontal.
See Plusnmei.

Sj^rit Level. — By far the noost con-
venient and accurate level is the spii^
it level (Fig. 1), ,f^. |.

" which is noth-
ing more than a
glass tube near-
ly filled with spirit of wine, the bub^
ble in which, when the tube is placed
horizontally, would rest iodiflTerently
in any part, if the tube could be made
mathematically straight ; but that is
impossible to eze- j^. t.
cote, every tube hsT- a ^

ing some slight cur-
vature."

The spirit level
in surveyors' instni-
ments is fixed to a
frame carrying a tel-
escope or compass; %\e
Figure S rcmesents a
spirit level mounted
on a staff, 1m com-
mon farm levelling.

** It is furnished tf

with eyesin^ts, « b,
and when in use is

LEVEL.

ptoMJ Mo » AwnlBf or taW9, wUeh

operates as a spring to adjust it to the
level peaitioa, d, by the action of the
large-headed brass screw, c. A stud
is affixed to the framing, and pushed
irmly into a gimlet^iole in the top of
the ^ort rod, e» which is pushed or
driven into the ground at the spot
from whence the level is desired to
be aaeertained. It need scarcely be
neniioaed that the height of the eye-

si^t from tlM groaod is to be ^edoet

ed from the height of observation.

Fig. 3 represents a useful and veij
simple form of level. «<A slip of
wood must be prooored, measuring
three inches broad by half an incn
thick, and sixteen feet nine inches
long, which must be cut into foot
lengths of five feet three inches, five
feet, three feet three inches, and three
feet three inches, marked as follows :

a a, five feet three inches : b 6, five
leet ; c d, three feet three inches -, e /,
three feet three inches : six thick
screw nails are also required, one
inch long. Join 0 i and e / by a sciew
nail, inserted aboot two inches from
the end of each, STtd exactly one inch
from dieir upper suribree. From the
point t, upon e /« draw a line, meas-
uring thirty-six inches^ towaxds/, and
exactly one inch dtstaint from the up-
per surface, and divide this line into
tbirty-eix parts or-ioches. It is self-
evident that each of these points,
when elevated above <; (i, will $bow

a rise of one in fiiteeri, twenty, thii-
ty-four, dec, as the case may be, pro-
vided c dy which should be divided
into inches numbered on the upper
edge, shall be horizontal ; and « /
shall point to a pole or mark as biflp
above the ground as c i2 is ; this is
effected by fixing h b firmly upon c 4,
at right angles, and either having a
plummet, g, suspended, as in the fig-
ure, or a spirit level fixed on the top
of c d, I prefer the plummet made
of bobbin or small cord, with a pierced
buUet at the bottom. The instrur
ment is retained in a level or hoii-

467

LEV

«mfa] pGfsftiOfi hy the aisistanee of
a a, which is upon a moveable pivot,
made by one of the screw natis at k.
The distance of a a from bbis imma-
terial. A amaU atop is fastened at
the back of b b, for the purpose of
preventing effrom falling below e d.
The rise of a road is shown by look-
ing from e towards /; the (all of a
road, of ooatse, by looking fVom/ to-
wards e, and» if great correctneaa is
required, the obaeryatipn should be
reversed."

LEVELLING. The art of discov-
ering the level of aurfaces, or how
high one place is above another ; it
also means, in agriculture, the reduc-
tion of hills or mounds to a level or
plain surface, which is done by the
l^ough, or the machine figured under
the article Barren Soil.

The level set on a rod (Fifr- 1) in
the preceding article is all that is ne-
cessary for short distances ; but tel-
escopes are used in extensive aur-
Teys.

LEVELLING STAVES. Straight
rods, six or more feet high, and divi-
ded into marks at the inches, which
can be distinctly seen at a short dis-
tance ; in more delicate observations
the stafT carries a moveable sight
with a central mi(rk, which is adjust-
ed by an assistant, according to the
signs of the socveyor, nntil the level
Une is reached.

LEVER. An inflexible bar capa-
ble of moving around a prop or ful-
crum : the advantage, or leverage,
gained depends on the diatanoe at
which the power acta from the prop,
and weight or resistance. The lever
is not only the bimplest, but tho only
'true mechanical power. Writers
speak of levers of the first, second,
and thh-d kinds : 'in tbo firsts the Ait-
crum is between th^ power snd
weight; in the second, the folerom
is at one end and the power at the
other, the weight being between
them ; in the third, the (hksmm and
weight are at the ends, the power
intermediate; in this case there ia
loss of power, but gain in the rapidi-
ty of movement of the weight : the
treadle of a lathe is an inrtanee.

458

LIO

{ tETSItAOfi. The fttvintag*
gained in power by using a lever.
LEVERET. A yooog hare.
LEVIGATION. The reduction of
a solid to an impalpable powder with
the assistance of wat«- or oilier
fluids ; this may be done in a mortar
or on a ^b ; the mixture is alter-
ward dtflnised in water, and the hghi
parts, which remam saspended some
seconds, poured oflTand retained, Ite
heavier portions being agaia tritu-
rated.
LEY. Grass lend.
LE YDEN J A R. See Electricity.
LIAS. An aigillaoeoas limestone
of the secondai^ rocks ; abundant in
Europe, but unknown in the United
States.

LIBELLUUNES. Atribeofnea.
ropterous insects like the dragon-^fly,
which are found about water, and
prey on other insects. The word Li-
beUulu designates a genus of this
family.

LIBER. The innenBOst bark of
trees

LICE ON ANIMALS. Neariy aU
animals are subject to some of these
parasites : they are produced firouk
filth, confinement, herding with infest-
e4 animals ; the creatures affected be*
come restless, rub thmnselves against
posts, bite the acoesstble parts of
their skin, and even become subject
to ^in diseases. The best remedlee
are, access to water, washing, comb-
ing, or currying the hide, anointing
with sulphur, mercurial, or whale ou
ointment ; decoctions of tobacco, mod
other narcotio weeds, are also valik-
able*
LICE ON PLANTS. SeeApkidcM.
LICHENIN. The starchy matter
of lichens.

LICHENS. "Plantf^^averyiaw
organisation, which grow on the bark
of trees or rocks, when they fyftm »
khkd of incrustation, or upen the
gfemd, when they consist of .irrsgo*
fair lobes, parallel with the earth's
snrftbee. Ocoasiottally, in all sitna*-
tjons, they are foand in a brandied
state; but their sabdivisions are gen-
erally irregular^ and without oi^r,
TMr fimotifieatira ooasists of hard

iraelef, edled ahieHg, wlifeih hrMi
throagh the upper sarface of the thai-
lus, or main substatice of the lichen,
are of a peculiar odour and texture,
and contain the reproductive parti>
cies. Lichens abound in the cold and
temperate parts of the world. The
vreater part are of no known use ;
Sat some, as the reindeer moss (Ce-
nomyce rangiftrina), the Iceland moss
(Ceiraria latandica), and various spe-
cies ofGyrophora, are capable of sus-
taining life, either in animals or man.
The Iceland moss, when deprived of
its bitterness by soaking in an alkali,
and then boiling, becomes, indeed, a
diet recommended to invaHds. Otb^
ers are used as t<mie medicines, as
Varioiaria faginea and Parmelia paru
etina. Their principal use is, how-
ever, that of furnishing the dyer with
brilliant colours; orcfaall, cudbear,
and peroUe, with many more, are
thus employed."

LIFTING PUMP. SeePttffip.

LIGAMENTS. Efaiatie fibrous tex-
tures uniting the bones together.

LIGATURE. A bandage. In hor-
iicniture, bass ts used chiefly for this
purpose. In farriery, a Hgatare is a
fine, strong thread of silk, with which
blood-vessels, dec., are tied in' opera-
lions.

LIGHT. An imponderabte agent,
emitted in great brilliancy by the sua :
h travels in straight lines at the rate
of Y9%fi(M miles tike second. The
aon*8 light consists of seven different
eoloors, red, orange, yellow, gi«en,
title, indigo, violet, whieh, being uni-
ted, make tho white light : they may
be separated by a prism ctf glass, or
a eoknired transparent body.

Light is a meet important agent in
the development of plants, the green
ttAoot of their herbage being produ-
eed by its action; ft appears to be
the yellow light that efTects thra re-
sult. Although mouki, and sogaie
kinds of mushrooms, exist without
light, the plants usually- oaHivaled
eattnot exist without its presence;
hoflce, ftrw plants do well in the shade.
Ilie bewKngof stems towavda the
light Is one of the most emrious |Aie>
ttoffleiM of vagelatioii ;^ it wmrnn to

he piodaegd by the htae and hkdigo
rays.

A pencil of H^ht is a SBiaU beam,
the parts of which are divergent.

UGHTNING. The discharge of
electricity from immense surfaces of
clouds ; it may occur from one okrad
to another, or to the earth ; in thO
latter case, the highest points and the
best conduetors reoeive the stroke.
Hence, rods of iron one inch or more
thick, and rising four to ten feet above
buildings, are used for proteetioii;
the upper ends should be beaten out
into several points, and either gilded
or covered with platina, and the low-
est extremity hnried in the earth sofw
eral ieet, or brought in contact with
BBoisture ; in cities, the iron or lead
pipes circulating tlirough the etreota
form a good point of attaebment. In
a large building several rods are want-
ed. Large trees are admirable eonr-
dttctors of lightning, but, as their baark
is often torn off violeitf ly during the
passage of the fluid, it is dangerooa
to take shelter near them.

LIGNEOUS (from tigrmm, wood).
Wood^like.

LIGNIN. Theporeiihroofwood
divested of starch and other impnn-
ties; according to Payen, itoonslsta
of an investing or cellular matter,
ceilulooe, On Hio Oio, isomeric with
starch, the tme internal matter, or
lignin, being Cm Hm Oho. Fine linen
from hemp or flax is insoluble in wa-
ter, decays very slowly, and is con-
verted into dextrine by the action of
dilute sulphuric aetd and heat, and
iinaUy into staroh- sugar.

LIGNIPER]>0US INSECTS.
Those inseots whieh bote into or oth-
erwise destroy wood.

LIGNITE. A kind of partially-
formed coal, in whieh the woody
structure is distinet. i^ belongs to
the Secondary finrmationS.

LIGULA. An appendage of the
sheathing petioles of seme grasses.
The lower Kp, or labrum, of insects.

LIGULATE. Shaped like a rib-
and. Tho Outer florets of some
composile flowers are oafled ligu-
late.

LU«AC. a^riiig4tvulgariB. A bean

469

agated in a rich, light aoiL

L1LIACj&£. a family ofendoge-
noua plant8» remarkable for their brill-
iant fiowere, iflcludiag the liliea, hy-
acintha, taberoaea, dus. They are
eharacterized by aix petals, six ata-
mena, auperior oyary, antheiB burst-
ing inwardly.

LILIACEOUS. Flowers reaem-
Uing the lily.

LILY. JAlmm. Several species
produce beautiful flowera. They are
propagated by bulbs.

LILY, DAY. HemeroeaUU fidva.
This has been recommended as a
herbage plant. It ia perennial, atands
the summer weU, and cattle are very
partial to the leaves. It yields abun-
dantly.

LILY OF THE VALLEY. C<m-
fHtUoria majali*. Sheep and cattle
browse on it. Propagated by part-
ing the perennial root.

LILY, WATER. NjfmphM oiba.
A beautiful ornament on ponds.

LILY, THE AMERICAN WA-
TER. Nslumbium UtUum. The sa-
cred bean. It bears the largest flow-
er ia the Northern States. The beans
are edible.

LILY, THE YELLOW WATER.
Nupar luUm. Common in ditches and
ponds, bearing a yellow flower.

LIMACIDJ: (from itmoac, a «%).
The family of slugs and snails.

LIMB, LIMBU& The flat or ex-
panded portion of the petal.

LIME. The oxide of calcium ; the
latter is a brilliant white metal, known
only as a chemical curiosity. Linte,
from its |(reat chemical activity, is
unknown in nature, but always exists
combined, chiefly with oarbonic apid,
as limestone, chalk, marl, or calcare-
ous ooinerals. It ia also combined
with sulphuric acid (gypsum), phos-
phoric acid (bone earth), and silicic
acid.

The baae (quicklime) is separated
from the carbonate by a white heat.
It is white, caustic, soluble in 600
part« water-, specific gravity, 2*3.
. The solution is powerfully aUudioe,
changing vegetable colours, and with
an acrid taste. It ia much used as a

460

Ulf

teat In tiie laboiiatory. Th« •qsiT^-

lent of lime is 28-5, symbol Ca.

When a small quantity of water is
added to the quicklime, it awella*
cracks, becomes hot, falls into pow-
der, and absorbs the fluid, combining
with it, and forming slacked or hydrato
of lime. This contains 24 per cent,
water, and is highly caustic. If quick-
lime be exposed to the air, so as to
become air slacked, it absorbs water
and carbonic acid to the extent of 88
per cent, about one half becoming
carbonate or mild lime, and the rest
hydrate. Thia mixture is alight^
caustic. Both the hydrate and air-
alaoked lime continue to absorb car-
bonic acid, and finally become alU^
gather mild ; but thia is alovrer i&
the case of the hydrate. Lime, be-
ing an active base, combines readily
with nearly every acid, fonning a boat
of salts. Its presence in any solu-
tion is made known by the action of
dilute sulphuric acid, which precipi-
tates it aa an insoluble white powder
(gypsum).

LIME IN AGRICULTURE. It is
the most important amendment uaeA
in farming, and ia employed in the
state of quicklime, water-slacked, and
air-slacked lime, and in quantitiea de*
pending upon the object in view.

Ita usea may be emunerated as fol-
lows ;

1st. It aasists in pulveriaing the
soil, by acting chemically upon the
silicatea therein, diaaolving out a por-
tion of the sUica, and liberating pot-
ash and soda. It is for this cauae
that heavy doses of lime tell so well
on poor granitao soils. The quic^
lime is beat for this purpose, plough-
ed in thoroughly to a depth of three
inches. From 100 to 600 bushels the
acre are used ; wet, stifi* lands, tmd
those destitute of calcareoua mattec,
requiring moat. It ahould be applied
upon a &lJow of four to six months,
and atinred three timea. Thia large
addition shows its efieots for manjr
years. It should be made to poor
lands to bring them into tilth, or to
destroy insects and weeds. Sandy
soils should receive much less lime
than atifl* lands.

' Sd. lime correets inJmloaB sub-
stances in the soil, as snlpfaate of
iron, ^us. For this purpose, a heayy
dose is required.

' 3d. Lime breaks up or pulveriaes
stiff clays, in^roying tbeir teztare.
For this purpose, a beayy dose of
quicklime is most effective.

4th. It decomposes inert vegetable
matter, as peat, roots, dee. The dose
ibr this pnrpose may be less than
alMve; SO to 100 boshels wiU be
enongi), if lime has been previously
employed; but on peat lands, well
drained, much more is necessary.

6th. Lime is found in large quan-^
titles as an ingredient in leguminous
plants, potatoes, and other roots ;
hence it may be added as a special
manure to such plants, three or four
bushels being placed in the manure
used for them,

6th It hastens the decay of stable
ittanure and pntreseent substances,
and maybe sprinkled over them when
plonghed into the soil, but not allow-
ed to be added for any length of time
to heaps of manure, for it drives off
aio^ ammonia already formed, and ul-
timately reduces the action of the
dung. One bushel to three or four
loads will be enough.

A first liming for improvement of
barren lands may be heavy ; but if
afterward a dose of 20 bushels the
acre be added every four or five years,
it wiH save a very heavy addition for
some time. Quicklime would be the
t^est to add as an amendment, but it
is difficult to handle, from its causti-
eky, and must never be added to wet
soils, lest it convert them into a hard
mortar. On the whole, therefore,
water-slacked lime is the most useAiL
Air-slacked Ifme is used as a top-
dvessing to meadows, the other being
too caustic ; it is also employed to
killf and annoy insects, which it does
vnthout injury to the plant. It is
also added, in doses of a half to one
peck, to the roots of fruit-trees, work-
ed into the soil. The best kind of
lime for the former is that obtained
from burned shells, the common lime-
stone usually containing magnesia,
whidi, in a oaustio state, is injurious

Qq3

to vegeMkm, from the slowness
which it becomes mild, so that it in-
jures the roots of plants long after
the lime has beoome quite mild. The
older limestones, and espeeiaUy those
of a bright white, crystalline appear-
ance, form the best lime.

Lime is also much used in com-
posts to pulverize inert vegetable mat-
ter, which it does very effectually,
converting it in part into kumau of
lime ; the action of the lime is simi-
lar to potash or soda, and termed by
chemists eatalytic, or predisposing.

Lime-water, and a cream of lime,
made by mixing lime with water to
the consistence of cream, are much
used as a steep for seeds, and to wash
the bark of trees, &c., to preserve
them from insects ; it is also, suppo*
sed to preserve timber.

LIME-KILN. A rough furnace for
burning limestone or shells into quick-
lime. It is usually of a circular fig-
ure, constructed of hard rock or
bricks, arched below, and furnished
with a moveable grate. The building
is six or more feet across, and 16 to
90 feet high, the wall being nearly
perpendicular. The limestone is bro-
ken into pieces of the size of half a
brick, and thrown from above, mixed
with half or one third part of wood
or other fbel, according to the kind
of stone used ; this is most conve-
niently done when the kiln is erected
against a steep hill, so that carts can
approach near the month to throw in
the charge. Before adding the charge,
fuel is placed above the grate to en-
able the whole to be lighted ; and fresh
quantities of limestone, and wood or
coal, are added as the first portions
bum and settle down. In the com-
mon kiln the charge is allowed to
bum out, and then drawn when cold
by removing the lower grate ; but in
the best mc^em kilns the charge can
be partly removed without allowing •
the fire to die out. Good stone yields
about 66 per cent, of lime, but the
impure kinds leave more. It should
slack into a fine powder with v^ter,
or it is impure or imperfectly burned.

Shells and limestone, or marl, can
be burned in mass by heaping them

461

vKh fM €uid leaving afr p«Mi«eft> as

in making charcoal.

LIME, MILD. Carbonate of lime,
wbieh posaessea little of the action of
burned h'me. Qoieklime returna to
thia condition in the aoil after a time,
depending upon the porouenesa of
the earth and amoont of yegetable
matter it oontaina. Chalk ia much
used in England aa an amendment ;
hot with ua the reduction of lime-
atoaee to a powder would be much
more expenatve than beneficial. Marl
anawera thia pnrpoae when rich in
caicareoua matter ; aome aanda and
gravela are ao rieh in broken aheUa aa
to aflford a good caloareoua manure :
10 to 80 cart-loada are applied. Car-
bonate of lime ia alowly aolubie In
water containing carbonic acid.

LIMESTONE, LIME ROCK. The
beat for agrieultural purpoaea are the
oldeat cryataUine rooka deatitute of
magneaia. Limeatone formationa
appear from the earlieat tranaition
epoch, in which they conatitute hard
oryatalline marblea, through the aec-
ond, and into the tertiary period.
They frequently form the richeat
landa when diaintegrated, in conae-
qnenoe of the large amount of corala
and organic remaina they contain,
which often yield two per cent, of
bone earth : aome of the fineat wheat
aoila are of thia kind. Caloareoua
rocka, aanda, or grarela are of every
odour and admixture ; aometimea
flinty, aandy ; at othera, aluminous ;
but if the carbonate of lime be in any
quantity, they are readily recognised
by adding a few dropa of atrong acid,
which ahould produce an evolution of
gaa or eflTerveacenoe.

LIME PLANT. The May apple
ia sometimes called by this name.

LIME-TREE. Tilia Eurapea. The
linden, a tree of great beauty, often
attaining 90 feet, and bearing a large
amount of aweet flowera in spring,
which constitute a favourite food of
beea. It ia propagated with great
eaae from auckers, layers, seed, and
cuttings. The wood ia soft, but used
in taming, and forma a fine charcoal
for gunpowder : the inner bark af-
Ibrda the beat bass.

4tSI

The IMenbaa ban te w^m m Uh

vourite tree in parks, groves, and

avenues of towna ; it ia very patient of

i trimming, and can be cut into acchea

j and other figurea. Several varietiea,

I differing conaideraoly in height, are

known.

Michaux deacrtbea three speciea of
American treea of the genus Tilia .«
the albot Amerieana, or bos* toood, and
the pubesceng, or downy ; they are
not of much epooomical value, the
wood being aoft and deatmctible.

The linden of Europe ia frequently
planted aa an ornamental tree; ia
the Northern and Middle States^ it ia,
however, extremely liable to the au
tacka of numerous insects and cater-
pillars, and requires much attention
to be preserved from destruction
Numeroua span and canker worma
infeat the young buds and ibliage^
the uae of lime and tobacco wasbea,'
or smoke, might diminiah the number
of these enemies.

LINAQEiE. The family of planta
to which flax belongs : they are r^
markable for their mucilaginoua aeechi
and tough fibres.

LINCHPIN. The pin at the end
of the axletree to confine the wheeL

LINDEN. See Lime-tree.

LINE ATE, LINEATUS, LIN-
EAR. Used in describing leaves,
dec, which are narrow and of the
same width throughout.

LINEN. Thecloth or texture apun
from the fibrea of flax.

LINE OF DIP. In geology, the
inclination of atrata from the hori-
sontal line ; it ia eatimated in angles,
and the direction of the dip towards
the point of the compass given.

LINES. In agriculture, these are
of great use to mark out the straight
direction of ditches, banks, hedges,
dte. In gardening, drills, beds, bor-
ders, dec., are made by meana of a
line. It ia usually rolled upon two
sticks, which are pointed at the lower
enda, and can be fixed into the ground.

LING. Common heath (CaUuna
9ulgari9). It growa very abundant^
on the barren hill-aidea in Engtond
and Scotland ; the woody atoms
nuke good brooma and loelt and tbe

«flBd aDwish gnwae and numy somU

animals.

LINGUA. A tongue. In eoto-
mology* an organ placed within the
labium, and serving the office of a
tongue.

LINGUATE, LINGUATUS, LIN-
OUIFORM. A thick leaf, <^., shaped
like the human toogue.

UNIMENT (from Uno, I anoint).
In farriery, a semifluid ointment, or
a soapy application to rub upon pain-
ful jomts, sprains, tumours, 6ui. The
term is also applied to spirituous and
other stimulating applications for ex-
ternal use. Liniments are intended
either to lubricate or to stimulate;
but in either case they can only be
regarded as topical applications, their
influence not extending beyond the
part to which they are applied. In
some instances they are anodyne,
and contain solutions of opium or
camphor in oil.

Linseed oil and lime-water form an
admirable liniment for burns. Harts-
'horn and sweet oil for tumours, to
discuss them, or hinder suppuration.
Liniments with soap, hartshorn, and
camphor, or opium, for stiff and pain-
ful joints or sprains.

LINING. In building, any cover-
ing of an interior surface. The li-
nings, for instance, or boxings of
window-shutters, are the pieces form-
ing the backs of the recesses into
which the shutters are folded. In
doorways, they are the' facings on
each side the aperture: to sashes,
they are the vertical pieces parallel
with the surface of the walls.

LINSEED. The seed of flax. It
is used for the extraction of oil, for
feeding cattle, and medicinal purpo-
ses. The method of raising the crop
is detailed in the airticle on Flax.
The composition of the seeds is by
no means well known ; they contain
from U to 27 per cent, of oil, 22 per
cent of starch, gum, and mucilage ;
10 of sugar, and six parts of albumen
and fibrin. The oil is extracted by
grinding and pressing; or grinding,
heating by steam, and pressing, t^
hot-drawn oil being, on the whole,
best for painters, £o. The produce

of send ia Tariottstr Mtimated al from

10 to 30 bushels, according to the
richness of the soil ; the latter quan-
tity will furnish 385 pounds of ou the
acre, leaving 69 per cent, of cake or
refuse after pressure. The bushel of
seed weighs from 50 to 52 pounds,
and yields a quarter of oil.

Thei entire seed, when defective^
is sometimes used as provender ; it
is exceedingly fattening, and in all
respects strong food } but the i^ieal
and cake are better. The seed are
also boiled or steeped in boiling wa-
ter for the mucilage they afford ; ij^
is mixed with hay, and used^at the
rate of three pounds daily for an ox ;
rather less meal is necessary, but the
refuse cake is more strengthening
and economical.

UNSEED CAKE. The refuse of
linseed after expression. According
to Payen, it still contains 9 per cent,
of fattening matters, and 5-2 per cent
nitrogen ; equal to nearly 32 per cent
of albumen. 22 lbs. are equal, in nu-
tritious value, with 100 of prime hay.
It is, for the most part, used to fatten
cattle ; four or five pounds of the cake^
broken into powder, and either boil-
ed or steeped in hot water, are mixed
along with hay and cut straw. The
quantity of oil it contains renders it
very fattening, at the same time that
the albumen makes it strengthening.
Some persons use linseed oil witA
hay and meal, adding a quart of oil to
a bushel of bean, oat, or other meaL

LINSEED JELLY or MUCIL-
AGE. This is made by boiling six
quarts of water on one quart of the
seed for ten minutes. It is of great
use in the eough of animals, and
forms a good provender for calves.

LINSEED MEAL. Ground lin
seed.

LINSEED OIL. For commercial
purposes it is nearly always hot-
drawn. It fonns a drying oil when
boiled with white-lead or sugar of
lead, and is much used by painters
and others. It is an excellent pur-
gative for cattle. Sheep and calves
require 2 to 3 oz., oxen 16 oz.', and
horses 16 to 24 oz. ; but castor oil, in
smaller doses, is equally serviceable.

463

UNT, ThB staple of flax, bemp,
and other textile pianta. The acra-
pinga fcoai piecse ai liaen, of great
use in dreasing woandB and atoppLng
■lisht hKmorrhages.

LINTEL. A liuriiontal timber or
•tone ovOT a door, window, or other
opeoing, which austains the weight

LIP. UitUatn. In botanj, the
diviaioiia of a tnonopetalous corolla,
u the aage, mint, &c. It is divided
tato an upper and lower lip.

LIPPED AND HARLED. AwaU
built without mortar, but afterward
having the joints filled with mortar,
knd the whole rough-cast or harled.

LIQUEFACTION. Melting, fa-
aioo, coRTerting budies into the fluid
■tate, solution.

LIQUID MANURES. Manures
applied in a soluble state, especially
ctalile urine. A watering cart is uaed
u- 'Ijifiiae it. They are especially of
at'i 1 i.'e to produce rapid growth in

Sung plants, and serve for ateeps.
very dry seasons manures may
also be applied in this state ; but
when added any length of time be-
fore the planta there is a great loss
by drainage ; and the expense of ap-

Slicatioo must always be heavy. The
quid soaked into peat, charcoal, &e.,
and added, as a top-dressing, during
moist or wet weather, appeara to be
maeh preferred in the United States,
and to be more economical. See

LIQUORICE. G/ycyrrAtza glabra

LIT

(Fig). Officinal liquorke. Tldt i» «
leguminnos herb, with peremtial
roots, which grow to a great length,
and contain a peculiar BUgaT.with mu-
cilage. Tbe roots are uaed in coughs,
or an extract, niade by boiling, and
called Spanieh Juice, Itquorice. Panto*
IVact loienges, &o. It t«quirea a
deep sandy loam, and is best propa-
gated from root sli[« containing an
eye. The root is raised in the third
year, in November, and Mid fredi,
or iWie into extract; the small roota
sre ground into powder. The ex-
pense of digging ie considerable. A
fair crop is ISOO to StIOO lbs. The
root is extensively raised to Italy and
Spain, to manufacture into the com-
mercial extract (liquorice). It also
grows well in England.

A species of Giycyrrkisa (Icpidota)
ia indigenous to Missouri, and produ-

LIQUORIOE SUGAR. See Gly.

UQlToRTCE, WILD Co/ism rir-
caxam. The leaves have the taste
of liquorice.

LIQUOR AMNIOS. The fluid anr-
roiindtng the fteiua in its moiher'a
womb. In botany, a fluid contained
in the nucleus of the ovule, and sup-
posed to nourish the embryo. It ia
absottied during the ripening of tbe
seed, aometimes leaving behind a del-
icate sack only.

LIQUOR AMMONI-B. Solution
of amino niacal gas in water.

LIQUOR OF FLINTS. A solu-
tion of silicate of potaah. made by Ai-
sing three parts carbonate of potastt
with one of sand.

LIREI>LA. In lichens, a linear
shield, wiib a farrow in the centre.

LITHARGE. An impure fused
protoxide of lead. It is used for
ime plasters.

LITHIA. A rare alkali, resem-
bling potash. It corrodes platinum.

LITHIUM. The metal ofliihia;

LITHOLOGICAL (from Jiflof, ■
pru, and ^yof, a discoi^rte). Re-
ting to the structure, cbaracteiBr
Ax., of rameiala or atones.

LIT

LirHOftrAKOE. A kind of de-
eomposed clay slate ; sp. gr.t S'43 :
yellowiab-gray or blotah, soft, adbe-
aive to the tongne, greasy earthy,
o]>aqae, giyiag a shiniBg streak. A
Tariety consists of scaly, glimmering
panicles.

LITHONTRIPTICS (from A*^,
and Tpi6(^ I wear aioay). Remedies
which are supposed to aissolre stones
in the bladder. Many bodies have
been recommended for this purpose,
but none have given remarkable re-
sults. An abundance of water acid*
idated with carbonic acid is the best

LITHOTOMY (from ^0or, and
Ttftvu, I eui). The operation of cat-
ting through the perineum into the
bladder to extract a stone.

LITHROTRITY (from JuBocy and
TBifKit I break down). The operation
of introducing an instrument into the
bladder through the natural passage,
to crush and break to small pieces a
stone.

LITMUS. Turnsole. A blue col-
our prepared from a lichen {RoceUa
tarimrea), and used in the arts {arckU)
and in chemistry. Solution of lit-
mus, or paper stained thereby, is of
great use in detecting any acidity in
a fluid, the blue changing rapidly into
red by the acid. Alkaline mixtures
restore the paper so reddened. Both
bhie and reddened litmus paper are
extensively used in the laboratory.

LITRE. The French standard
measure of capacity in the decimal
system. The litre is a cubic decime-
tre ; that is, a cube, each of the sides
of which are 3*987 inches; it con-
tains 61-028 English cubic inches,
and is, therefore, rather less than our
quart. Four and a half litres are a
dose approach to tlie unperial gallon.

LITTER. The straw, weeds, or
other dry substances which are pla-
ced under horses and cattle in the
stables, cow-houses, farm-yards, pig-
geries, dec., for the purpose of keep-
ing the animals clean and warm, and
providing a supply of manure. In
this last view, all sorts of dry mate-
rials should be carefully collected and
■tacked up for winter use.

LITTORAL, LITTORALIS (from

LIV

Ztftw, the Meaakore), Of the seashore
Littoral formations, in geology, are
such as have evidently been ancient
sea 'beaches.

LIVE OAK. Quercus mrens. £v
ergreen swamp oak of Florida.

IJVER. A large gland or vxscus,
placed, in quadrupeds, on the right
side of the body, immediately under
tbe chest, and adjoining the stomach
It is saturated with lilood-vessels,
and separates the bile from bk>od.
The bile is stored up in a small ba^,
called the gall-bladder, and thrown
from hence, during digestion, into the
small intestines, to be mixed with the
chyme. The function of the liver is
of the first consequence to health ;
but it is readily impairol, especially
in damp, foggy places, subject to ague
and bilious fevers. Its action, when
insufficient, is rapidly stimulated by
the use of calomel. Jaundice and
yellowness of the white of the eye
indicate disturbance of the liver.

LI VER OF SULPHUR. A brown-
ish substance, of a foetid smell. Fu-
sed sulpburet of potassium.

LIVERLEAP, LIVERWORT.
HepaHca Americana. An herbaceous,
perennial-rooted plant, of small size,
found on the skirts of woodlands. A
decoction is used in coughs.

LIVERWORTS. The plants re-
sembling Jtfarcan/to, dec.

LIVE STOCK. Tbe cattle, hor-
ses, sheep, and swine kept on the
farm.

<<The live stock on a farm must
vary according to circumstances.
The number of horses or oxen kept
for the cultivation of the land and
other farming operations should be
exactly proportioned to the work to
be done. If they are too few, none
of tbe operations will be performed
in their proper time, and tbe> crops
will suflfer in consequence. If there
are too many, the surplus, beyond
what is strict^ required, is maintain-
ed out of the profits of the farm. To
have tbe exact number of animals
which will give the greatest profit is
one of the most important problems
which a fanner has to solve ; what
may be very profitable in one case

46A

LIVE STOCK.

maj be tbe rerene in another ; and,
a« a general maxim, it may be laid
down, that tbe fewer moutha he baa
to feed, unless tbey produoe an evi-
dent profit, the less losa he is likely
to incur. But this role admits of
many exceptions. It is of great im-
portance, in taking a farm, to calcu-
late the extent of the arable land, ao
that it can be properly cultivated by
a certain number of paira of horses
or oxen. It is an old measure of
land to divide it into so many plonghs ;
that is, so many portions which can
be tilled with one plough each. When
there are several of these, it is useful
to have an odd horse over the usual
number required for two or three
plougha, to relieve the others occa-
sionally. The work is thus done
more regularly and with greater ease.
Where there are two ploughs, witb
two horses each, a fifth horae should
be kept, and so in proportion for a
greater number. The odd horse will
ilwaya be found extremely useful, if
not indispensable, and the expense
of his keeping will be ampJy repaid
by the regularity and eaae with which
the whole woik of the farm will be
done, and the relief whieh occasional
rest wilt give to the other hoTaes.

" The other part of the live stock
kept on a farm must depend on vari-
ous ciroumstanoea. Where there is
good grazing land, the profit on the
improvement of the live stock, or
their produce, is evident and easily
ascertained. But where animals are
kept upon artificial food, or fatted in
stalls, it is often a difficult question
to answer whether there ia a profit
on their keep or not. In oiost cases,
the manure which their dung and lit-
ter afford is the chief object for which
they are kept. If manure could be
obtained in sufficient quantities to
iieoroit the land at a reasonable price,
it might often be more advantageoua
to sell ofif all the hay and straw of a
farm, and to keep only the cattle ne-
cessary to till the ground or supply
the farmer's family; but this can
only be the case in the iounediate
neighbourhood of large towns. In
the couotxy at a greater diatanee no

466

manuTe ean be purehaaed; it must,
consequently, be produced on the
farm ; and for this purpose live stock
must be kept, even at a loss. The
management and feeding of live
stock are, therefore, an important
part of husbandry. The object of tbe
farmer is, principally, to oi^ain ma-
nure for his land ; and if he can do
this, and at the same time gain some-
thing on the stock by which it ia ob
tained, he greatly increases his prof-
its. Hence much more skill has been
displayed in the selection of profita-
ble stock than in the improvement
of tillage. Some men have made
great profits by improving the breed
of cattle and sheep, by selecting the
animals which will fatten most read-
ily, and by feeding them economical-
ly. It requires much experience and
nice calculations to ascertain what
stock is most profitable on diflerent
kinds of land and in various situ a
Xions. Unless very minute accounts
be kept, the result can never be ex-
actly known. It is not always the
beast which brings most money in
the market that has been most prof-
itable ; and many an animal which
has been praised and admired baa
caused a heavy loss to tbe feeder.
Unless a man breeds the animala
which are to be fatted, he must fre-
quently buy and sell ; and an accu-
rate knowledge of the qualities of
live stock, and their value, both lean
and fat, is indispensable. However
honest may be tbe salesman be may
employ, he cannot expec4 him to feel
the same interest in a purchase or
sale, for which he is paid bis com-
mission, as the person whose profit
or lofius depends oo a judicious selec-
tion and a good bargain. £very farm-
er, therefore, should endeavour to ac-
quire a thorough knowledge of stook^
and carefully attend all markeu with*
in his reach, to watch the fiuctuatio»
in the prices. It will generally be
found that the principal profit in feed-
ing stock is the manure ; and to this
the greatest attention should be di-
rected. A little management will
often greatly increase both the quao*
tity and quality of this indispensable

1.00

Aahstanee, vidioake aU tbe:diffbrepoe
between a loss and a profit in the
keeping of stock." — (W. L. Rkam.)

LIXIVIATION. The process of
washing out the soluble from the in-
soluble portions of mineral substan-
ces, as in making lye ; hence, lixhium
means a lye or alkaline solution.

LIZAKBS. Lacertida, Lacertiaru.
These reptiles are perfectly harmless,
and of great utility to the farmer from
the insects which they devour.

LOAD. A vague measure; it is
better understood when divided into
one, two, or three horse loads. A
single horse load is generally estima-
ted at thirty bushels, one cubic yard,
or one ton by weight.

LOAM. A very vague term, meao-
Ing a good soil, neither too light nor
too stiff, and generally containing a
large proportion of vegetable matter
and day. In Prof Johnston's lec-
tures, a loam is represented as a soil
containing 30 to 60 per cent, of sand,
the rest l^ing clay, limestone, or ve-
getable matter : a clay loam contains
but 20 to 30 per cent, sand, and a
sandy loam upward of 60 per cent,
sand. This word ia oAen improper-
ly written loom, and applied to a fria-
ble rich soil, containing much decay-
ing vegetable matter.

LOBBY. An anteroom or ball.

LOBATE, LOBED. Divided into
large curved segments more or less
circular.

LOBELIA. A genus of plants con-
taining maoy very poisonous species,
aa the Indian tobacco (L. infiata),
which is of use in asthmas, and as an
emetic. They are pretty herbaceous
plants, with perennial roots, and oil-
en cultivated for their beauty.

LOBLOLLY BAY, or HOLLY
BAY. Gordonia UiianihuM. A large
Southern evergreen found growing in
swamps, producing large white flow-
ei8. The wood is rosy, but light and
brittle ; the bark is extensively used
in tanning in the Southeastern States.
It very much resembles the magnolia.

LOBLOLLY PINE. The old field
pine (Pinvs tada).

LOCKED JAW. Tetanus, trig-
mus, A consequence of injuries about

. LOO

the feet, worms, or severe nerrons
diseases ; the muscles become rigid,
and finally locked jaw supervenes.
When it arises from a wound or la-
ceration, the case is usually hopeless ;
when it is a disease (/e/aniu), large
doses of opium are found to do most
good, with the removal of all causes
of irritation. The strength must be
sustained by injections of broths and
soups.

LOCKING WHEELS. Hindering
the rolling of one or more wheels in
descending steep hills. It is done
by fastening a chain from the body
of the wagon to the spokes of the
wheel, or by levers or a drag.

LOCOMOTION (from loci moth).
Change of place.

LOCULaR (from locus, a place).
A ceil or division in a fruit; thus,
fruits are unilocular, bilocular, dec.

LOCULICIDAL. A term design
nating the bursting (dehiscence) of a
seed vessel along the back suture.

LOCUSTA- The inflorescence re-
sembUng the spike, but occurring ia
grasses, the flowers having no caly*
oes, but bracts only.

LOCUST BORER. Clytus pietus.
Found on the trees in September;
it is velvet black, adorned with trans-
verse yellow bands; the eggs are
snow-white, and deposited in the
crevices of the bark : the grubs are
soon hatched, and bore into the ten-
der wood, where they commit great
havoc until the next year. White*
washing, washing with whale oil
soap solution, spirits of torpentine,
and catching the beetles, are lo be
adopted as preventives, otherwise the
trees are rapidly killed by these borers.

LOCUST, HONEY. See Hmu^
Locust.

LOCUSTS. Cieadea. InseoU of
the grasshopper family. The per*
feet insects are very short-lived, but
the larv» are long-lived ; one species
(CicadA septendedm) existing in that
state in the earth for seventeen years
or thereabout. The perfect insect
bores the young twigs of trees to de-
posite its eggs, and thereby does much
mischief to orchards and forests. The
harvest, or dry fly, is the C. eameulari9,

467

LOC

UOD

These locnsto are in no way simi-
lar to the destructive iosects which
occasionally derastate the east shores
of the Mediterranean and Southern
Earope {Grylhu {acnfdium) migrato-
rius)t prodacing famine from their
ravages on the grain crops, and pes-
tilence by the decay of their bod-
ies. The immense numbers of this
large grasshopper which move for-
ward over whole nations is almost
Incredible ; they appear like dense
black clouds, sometimes hundreds of
miles in extent, and emit, during
flight, a loud, sharp noise.

LOCUST-TREE. Robinia j^euda-
caeiti. Sometimes improperly called
the Acada. This is a highly orna-
mental tree of the leguminous family,
and of rapid growth while small. The
seeds are usually rather imperfect,
and the safest method of propagation
is by suckers obtained from trees cut
down, the soil being ploughed for the
purpose of dividing the roots. The
seeds propagate more certainly if im-
mersed in boiling water before plant-
ing.— {Bard). The following particu-
lars from Dr. Ackerly may be accept-
able:

•* I was led to admire Judge Mitch-
eirs nursery of young locust-trees,
planted in the spring.

<«The judge took a quantity of
seed collected on Long Island, and
put it in an earthen pitcher, and pour-
ed upon it water near to boiling.
This he let stand for twenty-four
hours, and then decanted it, and se-
lected all the seeds that were any
ways swelled by this application of
heat and moisture. To the remain-
der he made a second libation of hot
water, and let it remain also twenty-
four hours, and then made a second
selection of the swelled seeds. This
was repealed a third time on the un-
changed ones, when nearly all were
swelled, and then he prepared the
ground and planted them. He plant-
ed the seeds in drills about four feet
apart, and in eight or ten days they
were all aboye ground, and came up
as regular as £eans, or any other
seeds that are cultivated in gar-
dens. When I saw them, the mid-
468

die of July, fhey were aboat a fool
high, aU thrifty, and of a good colour
and condition.

" It is the judge's intention to
leave them in their present situation
about three years, and then trans-
plant ; and provided be does not mu-
tilate the roots in removing them,
they will bear transplanting, live, and
thrive, and be the most productive
forest-tree that a farm can have.
This method of preparing the seeds
and planting the looost cannot be too
warmly recommended to the farming
interest. On Long Island, where
fencing timber is growing scarce, the
cultivation of the locust-tree is of
great moment. In the centre of the
island, on and about Hempstead
plains, where there is no timber at
all, it must be a most valuable acqoip
sition ; and from the trials made in
raising it from the seed, all difficulty
must be removed to its extensire
cultivation.

** After this account was written.
Judge Mitchell transplanted the young
trees referred to on a side hill of
waste ground, which had lain for many
years uncultivated, and his farm was
soon improved by the addition of a
large grove of valuable locust-trees
in the most thriAy condition.

** When planted out from the nnr«
sery the young trees must be pro-
tected from cattle, which are fond of
the buds."

The locust yields a timber of great ^
solidity and durability ; it is also re-
markably tough, and resists the ac>
tion of moisture ; hence it is of great
value for posts, piles, and shipping.
It is somewhat cultivated, and prom-
ises, on the prairies, to become ex-
tended for its utility for fencing, fuel,
and rapid growth. In the northeast,
it has been much injured of late by
the borer. Besides the borer, the
leaves of the tree are sometimes
stripped by the ravages of a large
green caterpillar, the larva of the
Eudamus tityrus : the perfect insect
is seen among the flowers.

LODGE. A small house situated
in a domain ; the house at the en-
trance to a park.

LOP

LOT

LOBICITLA. l^e two minate
fleshy bypogynous scales beneath the
ovary of grasses.

LOESS. Alluvial fonnations. By
the English it is of\en used fur a yel-
low loam, with chalky concretions.

LOG. A portion of the trunk of a
tree.

LOGWOOD. H<ematoxyUm Cam-
peaduaMum. A small leguminous tree
of Central America and the tropics.
The central heart wood, deeply stain-
ed, from old trees is preferred : the
logwood hath is of great service in
the production of black dyes, browns,
and reds.

LOLIUM. The generic name of
rye grass. See Grasses.

LOMENTUM. An indehiscent
pod resembh'ng a legume, but divided
by membranes between each seed.

LONG-HORNED CATTLE. "A
breed of neat cattle now nearly ex-
tinct, chiefly distinguished by the
length of the horn, the thickness and
Ann texture of the hide, the length and
closeness of the hair, the large size
of the hoof, and the coarse, leathery
thickness of the neck." — (Johnson.)

LONGICORNS, LONGICORNES.
Coleopterous insects with long an-
tennae, often longer than the body :
they are borers.

LONGIPALPS,LONGIPALPr. A
funily of short-winged beetles, with
the maxillary feelers {palpi) almost as
long as the head.

LONG MANURE. Unfermented
dung and straw.

LOOM. A corruption of loaiHf
^^hich see

LOOPERS. Caterpillars of the
fiunily Geometers : span worms.

LOOSENESS. Excessive dis-
charge from the bowels, flux, diar-
rhoea. See Or, Horse ; and for the
remedies, Pharmacopma.

LOOSESTRIFE. Small weeds
of the genus Lysimaehia; they are
wholesome. The creeping loose-
strife, or money wort (L. nummnla-
ria), is said to be a good remedy
against insects, when steeped in oil
and sprinkled over the granary floor.

LOPPED MILK. Sour, curdled
milk.

f LOPPING TREES. TheremoTal
of the lateral branches for profit. The
lop of a timber-tree is a subject of
bargain with the purchaser.

LORE (from lorunty a strap). In
ornithology, the space between the
bill and the eye, which is bare in
some birds, as the great crested
grebe, but is generally covered with
feathers. In entomology the term is
applied to a corneous angular ma-
chine observable in the mouth of
some insects, upon the intermediate
angle of which the mentum sits, and
on the lateral ones the cardines of
the maxillare, and by means of which
the trophi are pushed forth or retracts
ed, as m the hymenopterous insects.

LOTION. An external wash : it
may be evaporating (spirituous) or
watery. Indolent sores require stim-
ulating lotions ; painful wounds, ano-
dyne lotions, dec. Lotions are also
used to discuss tumours and inflam-
mations near the skin.

LOUSINESS. **An affection of the
skin, arising, iiv cattle, from the irri-
tation of lice or animalcule, which
may be distinguished by the naked
eye. Most animals, and even insects,
are subject to this annoyance. Lou-
siness in live stock is produced by
neglect and low keep. The best rem-
edy is more attention to cleanliness,
with better food. The lice may be
killed by a dressing applied with a
brush to the chiefly affected parts,
composed of four ounces of black sul-
phur, mixed with a pint of train oil,
or a small portion of weak mercurial
ointment."

LOUSEWORT. Pedtadaris Canor
densis. An insignificant perennial,
herbaceous weed : the rattle.

LOYAGE. Ligustieum Umstieutit.
A perennial (biennial), herbaceous,
disagreeable aromatic plant, of the
family Umbelli/era, the seeds of which
are used as medicine in tiatulence.
The seeds grow anywhere on a dry,
light soil.

LOVE APPLE- Tomato.

LOVE GRASS. A small grass,
ornamental, with pretty spikeleta
ErarrosHs.

LOY. A narrow spade

4a»

LUBRICATION. AnoUitiof

grease and oils.

LUCAMA. A Chilian fruit rescm-
blinc. in size and flavour, a peach.

LUCANIDJS, LUCANINES. A
family of coleopterous lamellicorn in-
sects, of the stag beetle kind (Lii-
eamus).

LUCERN. Medicago 9ativa{Fig,).

Grand trefoil, French clover, alfalfa,
Brazilian clover. A perennial, herba-
ceous forage plant of the clover family.
It forms a very long, vigorous root,
and requires a deep, rich soil, with
some lime, for cultivation. It is oft*
en cut, year by year, for six and ten
years, and yields, in three cuttings
each season, from six to eight tons
of excellent fodder, equal to the best
clover. An acre soiled will supply
three to four cows during the season.
It grows eighteen to thirty inches
high, and bears a purple flower, and
possesses all the good qualities of
clover in addition to its preference
for a dry, warm climate. Fifteen to
twenty pounds of seed are sown
broadcast, with a few oaU, early in
spring ; but the lucern does not reach
perfection until the third year ; the
land must therefore be harrowed and
rolled to keep down weeds. It is not
quite as hardy as clover. The vari-
eties of lucern are unimportant. The
seed is collected and hay made in the
same manner as with clover ; but it
is best for soilifig eat always when

470

the flowers fint show, as the eteine

become rigid. Sometimes the seed
is drilled in rows, at nine inches
apart, and in this way sooner comes
to perfection, and less seed is want-
ed. Like clover, it is much benefit-
ed by plaster of Paris and lime. It
will grow even in tropical countries
which are not too parched. On lands
where it is fully established, the soil
should be forked twice a year, after
cutting, and a top-dressing applied
every second or third season : it must
never be depastured ; eighty pounds
per day of fresh lucern is enough for
a cow, and produces an abundance
of milk.

LUCERN. ASHES OF. One bun
dred pounds green yield 2-58 pounds,
and one hundred pounds dried 9 65
pounds, consisting of

Potuh \ . 11-40

Soda S-lft

LiBM 4831

MafDeiift S'48

Phosphoric acid .... 1S*(17

SQlpburic aoid 4'S4

ChkniB t'lS

Silica 3-30

Iron, alumina, && . . . O'W

From this we see why gypsum, lime,
marl, and ashes are so serviceable to
lucern. Bone-dust and salt are also
to be considered as manures for it.

LUG. A pole of land, 16^ feet ; a
vulgar term for the ear of animals.

LUMBAR, LUMBALIS. Belong-
ing to the loins.

LUMBER. Timber, especially la
the rough state.

LUMBRICUS. The generic name
of worms resembling the earth worm ;
some species infest the bodies of an-
imals. The earth worm, when not
too numerous, tend to improve the
soil by their castings ; when over nu-
merous, they eat the roots of plants,
and may be destroyed by a heavy
saltinj[ (twenty bushels to the acre),
or liming, with a summer fallow.

LUNAR CAUSTIC, LUNAR
CORNEA. Prepared nitrate of silver,
sold in thin cylinders, and used a^ a
caustic : it is one of the best caustics*
A solution is very valuable as a lotion
in some forms of inflammation.

tXJNATE CfrO" im*, lit tmtn).
CresccDt-KhntKd.

LUNATION. The period from
one new noon to angtber, the synod-
ic revolution, ,

LUNGS. The viseus in which air
M TseeiTed, and the blood changed by
its presence. The lights, polmanary
apparatus. The substance of the
hinga raetnhleaaGne regular •ponge ;
they are so light as to float on wa-
ter; the windpipe commnnicates with
every cell throughout the viseus
Common air received is changed in
the lungs by an absorption of four
per cent, of oxygen and the etibatiiu-
tioa of an equivalent of carbonic aoid,
deriied from the blood. This oiy-
genalion, or aeration of the blood,
taking place in the lungs, is one of
the great functions on which life de-
pends, and cannot be iuKmipted for
H minute without iiOury or death.
By tbis change, black venous blood
■ changed lolo the scarlet arterial
inld, which alone Is capable of su*-
taining Iho waols of the body.

LUNGWORT. Pulmenaria qgUi-
malit. An eiotio, perennial, herba-
eeous plant. The whole genus are
pretty dowers, and readily propaga-
ted by seeds.

LUNULATE. Crescent-ehaped.

LUPINE. ZspimusUN*. An an-
imal tegamiiHius herh {Fig.), eolliva-

nutriliouB : they were used as food
by the Rumans. It grows on poor,
dry, light soils, but is finest on rich
loams : the seeds are sown as soon
as frost is out of the ground, and the
plants blossom in Hay and June. It
is principally raised as a green fallow
crop, and ploughed in just before ths
second flowering. Plants for seed
must be mowed when moist, as the
pods very readily burst. The Inpia
is considered inferior to other legn-
mens as fodder, but is valuable for fal-
lows, from growing on very poor lands,
which it rapidly enriches. For this
purpose, there is no doubt the com-
mon wild blue lupin (L. peremit),
turned in the first season, would an-
swer equally well.

LUPININE. Agnmmymatteror
lupins. Lupinilt, a bitter substance
extracted from the leaves of the la-

LUPULINE. The yellow resin-
ous dust banging about the scalea of
the hop, on which its flavour aud val-
ue depend.

LURCHER. A coursing dog, of
the greyhound tribe, with a sbaggr
coal and pricked ears ; il is very
swill and sagacious.

LURID, LURIDUS. A colour ofa
pale-yellowish purple, frequently as-
sociated with poisonous properties in
mushrooms and flowera.

LUSUS MATUB.£. A aport
of Natme. Uunalurat form in ani-

LUTE (from (ixum, (Jay). In chem-
istry, pasty matter, used to adapt two
vessels, or coat their surfaces from
fire. Clay, putty, dough, lime, white
of eggs, sAd melt«d India rubber are
variously naed.

LUTEOLINE. A yellow cryttal-
lioe ooloating natter of weld.

LUTESCENT (lioin hUtut, jrei-
bw). Yellowish.

LUXATION. A dislocation of a

LYCOPERDON. The genus of
puff-ball mushrooms.

LVCOPODIACE^. A family of
ay ptogamio plaota, growing in moirt
plaoM, and resembling ferns, but wttb
47!

a hioher organlwilioii. ar^roBChnif

thai of the Cmiftra. or pine*

LYCOSA A genus °^
dwelling in boles on Ihe gro
ID chinkB, and pnrauing their prey
wiih grcal actirit;. The urantula
iBorihiakiDd.

LYE. A fluid Batur^ed with pot-
Mh or other salts.

LYME GRASS. See ElymuM.

LYMPH. The fluid of the Ijm.
phalic Teasels. It is slightly milky,
bat becomes pink on exposure to air,
and divides into a clot and flntd part.
It is the surplus nutritious fluid re-
turned from every part of the body
to the blood through the Iborarie
doct.

LYMPHATIC GLANDS. In
•aatomy. small masses formed of
oontorted lymphatics, found in the
(ruin, axilla, mesentery, dee.

LYMPHATIC HAIRS. Ill bot-
■n;, the tmspatcnt hairs on some

LYMPHATIC VESSELS. Minute
iranspareni tubes, found in every pail
of the body, and diacbarging tbeir
lymph inio the thoracic duct.

LYRaTE, LYRATUS. a leaf
vrhich is pinnatifld, but with segments
targer at the eitremily than the foot
■talk.

MACARONI. The dough of some
fine wheals drawn out into tubes,

MACE. The envelope (snl/iu) of
the nutmeg. It is uf a pleasant aro-
matic flavour, and cunlains much but-
yraceous oil.

MACERATION. The sonening
(rf animal or vegetable bodies by iiii-
maraion in fluids, either water, alco-
hrf. ether. &o-

MACHICOLATED. With para-
pets projecting beyond the walls, and
supported hy arches springing from
curbels or consoles.

MACHINE. In a general aenso
tbia word signifies anything which
aerves to increase or regulate the ef-
fect of a given force. Maclilnea are
either timpU or com^wiiti^. The sim-
ple machinea ai« usually reckoned six

479

MAD

in nomber -, namrijr, -tbe'terer, flw
wheel end axle, the poUey, the wedge,.
Ihe screw, and the fuDicular or ropa
machine. Compound machinea are
formed by comliiaing two or more

MACLAURA. jVu/avasursiUua.
See Otage Omngt,

MACLB. Dark or black q»ta in
minerals, supposed to arise fiamio-
termplion in crystalliiatioD.

MACULATE, MACULATUS
(from nuiatla, a not). Spotted.

MADDER. J(iiMaftw{«vw<J%).

An herbaceous perentiial of the family
Rabiofea. The following account ot
Its culture by Mr. Bateham is the
plan pursued for five years by Mi.
Swift, of Erie county, ^io :

" Soil ani Prtparalion.— The soQ
should be a deep, rich, sandy loam,
: from weeds, roots, stones, Ac,
containing a good portion of ve-
getable earth. Allnvial laud is the

If old upland is used, it should receive
B heavy coaling of vegetable earth
(fromdecayed wood audleaves). The
land should be plouglied very deep in
the fall, and early in spring apply
about one hundred loads of well-rot-
red manure per acre, spread evenly,
and ploughed in deeply ; then harrow
lill quile £ne and free from lumps.
Neit, plough the land into beda four
feet wide, leaving alleys between
three feet wide ; liiea harrow the bedi

MADviek.

Wfih 8 itne, Bgfit ham w, or n&e tlkem
by hand, so aa to leave them smooth
and eten with the alleys : they are
then ready for planting.

** Preparing Set* and Planting. —
Madder sets, or seed roots, are best
seleeted when the crop is dug in the
Tall. The horizontal uppermost roots
(with eyes) are the kind to be used ;
these should be separated from the
bottom roots, and buried in sand, in
B oellar or pit. If not done in the
IhlJ, the sets maybe du^ early in the
spring, before they begin to sprout.
They should be cut or broken into
pieces, containing from two to fire
eyes each, t. e., three to four inches
long. The time for planting is as
early in spring as the ground can be
got in good order and severe frosts
are over, which, in this climate, is
usually about the middle of April.
With the beds prepared as directed,
stretch aline lengthwise the bed, and
with the corner of a hoe make a drill
two inches deep along each edge and
down the middle, so as to give three
rows to each bed, about two feet
apart. Into these drills drop the sets,
ten inches apart, covering them two
Inches deep. Eight or ten bushels of
sets are requisite for an acre.

^^ After Culture. — As soon as the
madder plants can be seen, the ground
should be carefully hoed, so as to de-
stroy the weeds and not injure the
plants ; and the hoeing and weeding
must be repeated as oflen as weeds
make their appearance. If any of
the sets have failed to grow, the va-
cancies should be filled by taking up
parts of the strongest roots and trans-
planting them ; this is best done in
June. As soon as the madder plants
are ten or twelve inches high, the
tops are to be bent down on to the
surface of the ground, and all except
the tip end covered with earth shov-
elled from the middle of the alleys.
Bend the shoots outward and inward,
in every direction, so as in time to fill
all the vacant space on the beds, and
about one foot on each side. Alter
the first time covering, repeat the
weeding when necessary, and run a
single horse plough through the al-

Kb3

leys 80v«nl thnes to ke^'the emrth

clean and mellow. As soon as the
plants again become ten or twelve
inches high, bend down and cover
them as l^fore, repeating the opera-
tion as often as necessary, which is
commonly three times the first sea-
son. The last time may be as late as
September, or later if no frosts occur
By covering the tops in this manner,
they change to roots, and the design
is to fill tlMS ground as fuU of roots as
possible. When the vacant spaces
are all full, there will be but little
chance for weeds to grow; but all
that appear must be polled out.

** The second year keep the beds free
from weeds ; plough the alleys and
cover the tops, as before directed, two
or three times during the season. The
alleys will now form deep and nar*
row ditches, and if it becomes difficult
to obtain good earth for covering the
tops, that operation may be omitted
after the second time this season.
Care should be taken, when covering
the tops, to keep the edges of the beds
as high as the middle, otherwise the
water from heavy showers will run
off, and the crop suffer from drought.

" The third year very little laboar
or attention is required. The plants
will now cover the whole ground. If
any weeds are seen, they must be
pulled out, otherwise their roots will
cause trouble when harvesting the
madder. The crop is sometimes duff
the third year ; and if the soil and
cultivation have been good, and the
seasons warm and favourable, the
madder will be of good quality ; but
generally it is much better in quality,
and more in quantity, when left until
the fourth year.

** Digging and Jfarvetting. — This
should be done between the 20th of
August and the 20th of September.
Take a sharp shovel or shovels, and
cut off and remove the tops, with half
an inch of the surface of the earth ;
then take a plough of the largest size,
with a sharp coulter and a double
team, and plough a furrow outward,
beam deep, around the edge of the
bed ; stir the earth with forks, and
carefully pick out all the roots, ra*

478

MAB]>E]t

oiOTinf Ili» esrlli frMi the hottoa of

the furrow ; then plough another fur-
row beam deep, as before, and pick
over and remove the earth in the
same manner ; tboa proceeding anttl
Ibe whole ta completed.

" Washing and Drying. — ^As aoon
aa poaaible after digging, take the
roota to acme running atream to be
waahed. If there is no running stream
convenient, it can be done at a pump.
Take large, round aievea» 2^ or 3 feet
in diameter, with the wire about as
fine as wheat aievea ; or if theae can-
not be had, get from a hardware store
sufficient acreen-wire of the right
fineness, and make fraroea or boxes
about two and a half feet long and
the width of the wire, on the bottom
of which nail the wire. In these
sieves or boxes, put half a bushel of
roots at a time, and atir them about
io the water, puUing the bunchea apart
80 as to wash them clean ; then, hav-
ing a platform at hand, lay them on
H to dry. (To make the platform,
take two or three oonunon boarda, so
as to be about four feet in width, and
nail electa across the under side.) On
these spread the roots about two inoh-
es thick for drying in the sun. Carry
the platfonns to a convenient place,
not far from the house, and place
them side by side, in rows east and
west, and with their ends norUi and
aouth, leaving room to walk between
the rows. Elevate the aouth ends of
the platforms about eighteen inches,
and the north ends about aix inches
from the ground, putting poles or
sticks to support them: this will
greatly facilitate drying. After tbe
second or third day drymg, the mad-
der must be protected ftom the dews
at night, and from rain, by placing the
platforms one upon another to a con-
venient height, and covering the up-
permost one with boards. Spread
them out again in the morning, or as
soon as danger is over. Five or six
days of ordinarily fine weather will
dry the madder sufficiently, when it
may be put away till it is convenient
to kiln-dry and grind it.

*' Kiln-drying. — ^The size and mode
of constructing the kiln may be va-

474

nad to Mit iarwiinst<wflMi» TheibI'

lowing is a very cheap plan, and bu&
ficient to dry one ton of roots at a
time : Place four strong posts in the
ground, twelve feet apart one way,
and eighteen tbe other ; the front twa
fourteen feet high, and the others
eighteen ; put girts across tbe bot*
tom, middle, and top, and nail boards
perpendicularly on the outside as for
a common barn. Tbe boards must
be well seasoned, and all cracks or
holes should be plastered or other-
wise stopped up. Make a shed-roof
of common boards. In the iaaidSk
put upright standarda about five feet
apart, with cross -pieces to support
the scafiTolding. The first cross-pie*
oes to be four feet from the floor, the
next two feet higher, and so on to the
top. On theae cross-pieces lay email
poles about six feet long and two
inches thick, four or five inches apart^
On these scaflTolds the madder is to
be spread nine inches thick. A floor
is laid at the bottom to keep all dxr
and clean. When the kiln ia filled,
take six or eight small kettles or hand-
furnaces, and place them four or five
feet apart on the floor (first securing
it from fire with bricks or stonesX
and make firea in them with charcoal,
being careful not to make any of tbe
fires so large aa to scorch the mad-
der over them. A person most be in
constant attendance to watch and re-
plenish the fires. The heat will aa-
cend through the whole, and in ten
or twelve hours it will all be suffi-
ciently dried, which is known by its
becoming brittle like pipe-stems.

** Breaking and Grinding. — Imme-
diately after being dried, the madder
must be taken to the barn and tbrasl^
ed with flails, or broken by machin*
ery (a mill might easily be constructed
for this purpose), so that it will feed
in a common grist mill. If it is not
broken and ground immediately, it
will gather dampness, so aa to prevent
its grinding freely. Any common
grist mill can grind madder properly.
When ground finely it is fit for use,
and may be packed in barrels like flour
for market.

"AnumntatU Valme ^ Prodmdi dtc*

u-lkfir. Swift neaaored off 9 piit of

bis ground, and carefully weighed the
product whea dried, which he found
to be over two thousaod pounds per
acre, notwitbatanding the seasons
were mostly vary dry and . unfavour-
able. With his present knowledge of
the busineaa, be is confident that he
can obtain at least three thousand
pounds per acre, which is said to be
more than is often obtained in Ger-
many. The whole amount of labour
he estimates at from eighty to one
hoodred days' work per acre. The
▼alue of tbe crop, at tbe usual whole-
aale price (about fifteen cents oer
pound), is from three hundred to lour
hundred dollars. In foreign coun-
tries It is customary to make several
qualities of tbe madder, which ia done
by eoiting tbo roots ; but as only one
quality is required ibr the western
market, Mr. Swift makes but one,
and that is found superior to most of
tbe imported, and finds a ready aale.*'

The presence of calcareous matter
in the soil is an essential to the pro-
duction of good dyeing madder.

Madder is used in dyeing numerous
oolours, as black, blue, red, olives,
and bu^, and alone forms the rich
Turkey reds. It contains several col>
oaring principles, tbe chief of which
ia^ however^ Alizarine, an insoluble
crystalline, bright red body.

MADDER, FI ELD. Sherardia ar^
vensi*. An insignificant weed.

MADDER, WILD. Rubiaperegn-
no. It yields an inferior madder root.

MADEIRA CIDER. Mix new ci-
der with honey until it bears an egg ;
boil in a copper for one quarter of an
hour, skim, cool, band, and bottle in
March. li will be aa strong as Ma-
deira wine in six months.

MADEIRA NUT. The walnut.

MADIA. Madia saiiva^ some-
times called GM of PUasurty which
aee. A composite plant inhabiting
South Amerioa. tbe seeds of which
yield an abundance of good table oil.
Boasafaigault obtained 41 per cent.
in an aiudysis, and 26^ per cent, by
the common press. It is extensively
cultivated in Germany, is a summer
oiopi maturing in 137 days from seed

MAO

m Alaaoe, snd yieMJaf 8600 poand«

of seeds per acre, or 036 oil, and 1 700
of excellent oil -cake for fattening
stock. The soil should be rich and
in good tilth, and the seeds sown in
drills in spring, and the young plants
kept clean from weeds.

MAGMA. A thick fluid, or mud.
Thick, feculent matters from solu-
tions.

MAGGOT. The larva of dipterous
and other insects. The fly in sheep.

MAGNESIA. An alkaline earth,
very similar to lime, sp. gr. 2*3, tbe
protoxide of ma^emim. It is spa-
ringly soluble in pure water, but unites
freely with most acids. Its equiva-
lent is 20 (or magnesium 12, oxygen 8)»
symbol Mg. O. Calcined magnesia
is the true oxide, common magne-
sia being the carbonate, or mild mag-
nesia. Caustic or calcined magne-
sia is much more injurious to plants
than lime, from its retaining the caus-
tic quality longer, and not uniting
with carbonic acid so readily. It also
forms a harder mortar with water*
and ia more apt to cake about the
stems and roots of herbage ; but mild
magnesia (the carbonate) is of ser-
vice to vegetation, being found in the
ashes of most plants, in all probabil-
ity replacing lime. The carbonate of
magnesia is slightly soluble, and, like
mild lime, is freely dissolved by wa
ter, containing carbonic acid in solu
tion.

The sulphate of magnesia, Epsom
salt, is the most important salt. Sil-
icates of magnesia are abundant in na-
ture, forming serpentine, soapstone,

dc>c

MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE.
Limestone rocks containing magne-
sia ; they abound above the coal for-
mation. As the magnesia is to be re-
garded as injurious when lime is
wanted for farming, its amount may
be discovered by the following means :
Take 100 grains of the rock, add four
times its weight of strong muriatic
acid, filter the clear solution, and add
clear limewater ; it will precipitate
all the magnesia as a white powder,
which may be coUected, dried, and
weighed.

476

HAL

MAGMSSIXJM. The metallic ba-
sis of masoesia ; it is bright and
white like silver : symbol Mg. ; eq.
1369.

MAGNETIC NEEDLE. A small
bar or needle of steel, fully magnet-
ised, and suspended or supported so
as to more freely over a card divided
into the points of the compass. It is
much used by surveyors to take down
the bearing of the fences and other
lines of a farm.

MAGNETISM. The electric flnid
manifesting itself on a metallic body :
iron, cobalt, and nickel are the only
magnetic metals.

MAGNOLIA. A genus of hand-
some flowering trees. There are
about 15 native species, of which M.

CrandifiUia, rising 90 feet, is the no-
lest. The M. macrofhylla^ though a
small tree, produces magnificent flow-
ers and leaves. The M. glauca is a
favourite in Northern shrubberies.

MAHALEB. A species of plum
or cherry, used as a grafting stock :
the fruit affords a violet dye.

MAIDEN HAIR. Ferns of the
genus Adiantum, a beautiful race :
the sirup of capillaire is supposed to
be made from a species.

MAIZE. Indian corn. See Com.

MALACODERMS (from /loAa/roc,
soft, and iepfta^ skin). A tribe of soft-
skinned, serricorn beetles.

MALARIA. The poisonous exha-
lations of stagnant marshes and low
new lands, producing bilious fever,
agues, and plagues. It is most ac-
tive at nightfall and during night, and
may be partially avoided by remain-
ing M home at these times, and ta-
king care to keep the premises warm
and dry : the spring and autumn are
the worst seasons. Strangers are
more liable to the influence of mala-
ria than natives.

MALE FLOWERS. Such as have
stamens only, and no ovary or swell-
ing under the petals.

MALIC ACID. The sour princi-
ple of apples, oranges, and numerous
fruits ; when pure, it is intensely sour
and crystalline; combines with ox-
ides to form matlates : formula Cg H4
0^ + 8HO: it iabibasio. By heat-

476

MAI.

ing the hydrated acid, ft is ecmv^Ked
into maleic acid and fumaric aci<L

MALIGNANT. Rapidly fkcal, poi-
sonous.

MALLEABILITY. The property
of being extended by hammering, as
in the case of gold, copper, silver,
platina, iron, &c.

MALLENDERS. A disease pro-
daced in horses by neglect and over
work, in which chaps or cracks ap-
pear on the inside of the fore legs,
near the knees, attended by a dis«
charge of a red ichorous fluid; the
sores should be washed witii soap
and water, and kept clean; after-
ward they are to be dressed with an
ointment containing blue vitriol : the
animal is also to be kept qoiet and
purged.

MALLOW. The genus XoIm;
plants usually with perennial roots,
and abounding in mucilage: thejaro
eaten by all animals.

MALT. Barley whidi has been
prepared or malted, by which sprout-
ing is induced, and the grain becomes
much sweeter.

MALTING. The process consists
of three steps : Ist, Mteejnng. 11)6
good barley is thrown into large
wooden cisterns, and covered with
water a few inches, being left for
48 to 60 hoors, or until the grains
are soft, but do not yield milk on
pressure. 2d, ccuchtng. The steeped
grain is removed to a floor of stone,
and piled in heaps 13 to 16 inches
high ; here it first dries, and then
lieats : roots begin to appear as the
heat advances; the couch is spread
and made thinner : the time required
is from 16 to 20 days, at a tempera-
ture of 60^ Fahrenheit. In dry weath-
er, the couch is watered when toe
dry. 3d, ktln-drying. As soon as the
barley is sufllciently germinated and
become dry, it is carried to the kiln
to destroy the vegetative power and
secure the sugar formed. It is here
laid three or four inches deep, and
kept at lOO"" Fahrenheit, till aU the
moisture is driven off, the malt being
repeatedly turned. When nearly dry,
the heat is raised to VW Fahren-
heit, until the grains beoome eoloured

MAH

to mHt tbe beer or maiket ; the fire
is then allowed to die out. The pro-
cess requires nearly two days. The
malt shoald be kept in a dry loft un-
til wanted : 100 pounds of good bar-
ley will yield 80 of malt. The kiln, in
small operations, need be no more
than a room with a draught through
it, heated by the pipe of a stove. In
drying, the srnaU roots break off, and
fhrnish the malt dust.

MALT DUST. It is sometimes
called malt combs, and has been found
useful as a maoure or a top-dressing
when sown over the cereal grasses
in the eariy spring season.

The proper quantity of dust is, if
top-dressed, for wheat, 86 to 40 bush-
els ; if drilled with the crop, for bar-
ley and turnips, 30 to 34 bushels. It
is tAw eminently calculated for grass
lands, and if applied in the latter pro-
portion, it will produce a very con-
siderable increase of the best feed.
Malt dust is also in some places em-
]doyed in the feeding of xnilch cows
and pigs.

M A L U S. The generic name of
the apple.

MALVACEAE (from Malva, one of
the genera). **A natural order of
mucuaginous, exogenous plants, with
polypetalous flowers and monadelph-
ous stamens. The species are herbs,
bushes, or trees, and are found all
over the temperate and tropical parts
of the world, especially the latter.
Their flowers are in many cases large
and handsome ; but the order is chief-
ly interesting from the Go^sypmnit or
true cotton plant, forming a part of
it. Another species is the marsh-
mallow, or AUhaa officinalis ; and
some yield a fibre fit for manufacture
into cordage." — (JLindUy,)

MAMMALIA {irom mamma^ateat).
The highest division of animals, with
developed extremities, a vertebral col«
nmn, and mammae.

MAMMARY. Relating to the
breast.

MAMMILLART. Inminerals,
covered with rounded knobs like small
teats

MANDIBLE, MANDIBULA (from
mandibvitit a jaw). In zoology, this

MAN

term is applied to the lower jaw of
mammals, and to both jaws of birds
(except by lUiger, who restricts its
appellation to the lower jaw in this
class also). In insects, it is applied
to the upper or anterior pair of jaws.

M A N D I B ULATES, MANDIBU-
LATA. The name of a grand section
of insects, including all those which
preserve their organs of mastication
in their last or perfect state.

MANDISC. The cassava plant
(Janipha mamhot).

MANDRAKE. A fabulous root.

MANDREL. A revolving shank
to which turners affix their work in
the lathe.

MANEGE. The management of
horses.

MANGANESE. A black mineral,
the peroxide of manganese. The
metal is gray, brittle, and hard ; sp.
gr., 8 : not used in the arts. The black
oxide is used to obtain oxygen; it
consists of Mg. 28 -|- oxygen 16.
The protoxide of manganese forma
numerous salts, some of which are
occasionally present in the ashes of
plants, probably as a substitute for
iron ; they do not appear to be im-
portant. There is also a manganic
^ndper manganic acid, which are, how-
ever, without agricultural interest.

MANGE. " A skin disease, which
attacks several domestic aniinals, es-
pecially the dog, and which is at-
tended with an eruption and loss of
hair.

" In the horse it is known to exist
by the animars constantly rubbing or
biting himself, so as to remove the
hair, and sometimes produce ulcere*
tion. The hair of the mane and tail
frequently falls ofi; and small scabs
may generally be observed aboot the
roots of those which remain. This
disease is seldom met with, except in
common stables, where scarcely any
attention is paid to the horses, and
where their food is of the worst qual-
ity : horses highly kept, if not prop-
erly attended to, are also subject to
this disease, which is very conta-
gious.

" The causes of mange are sud-
den charges of temperature, hot sta*

477

MAN

Ues, bad diet, joined to want of clean-
liness. The perspirable matter being
never properly removed by friction,
and being frequently mixed with dust,
6lc., completely plugs up the exter-
nal exhaiants, whereby they become
obstructedi and a diseased action
takes place. It may also be caused
by infectious matter coming in con-
tact with the skin ; as when a sound
horse rubs himself against the stall
in which a mangy horse has been
kept. The principal symptoms are
the horse growing very thin with-
out any apparent cause, attended
with a staring of his coat ; this is
•oon followed by eruptions, which
discharge a thick yellowish matter,
forming a kind of scurf, which peels
6fr, and is succeeded by fresh erup-
tions, and the hair falls off. This,
though partial at first, soon spreads
all over the body, is attended with an
itching, and causes the horse to rub
against everjrthing he conies near.
In this disease, great attention to
cleanliness is necessary.

'*In the horse, the following will be
ibund the best remedy. Bleed to the
extent of two or three quarts, ac-
cording to the constitution of the an-
imal, and after first preparing the
horse by bran mashes, give the fol-
lowing dose of physic :

BaibttdoM alMt 6 dnbchoM

Powd«rtd ginger S **

Ctsiik Map % **

Oilofcanwsya . . . . .W drape

Honey or inolasaes, sofBcient to form
a ball. After which, give the fol-
lowing alterative balls : 3 os. each of
powdered black antimony, powdered
nitre, flour of selphnr, Castile soap,
and anise seed powder, t os. of rosin,
added to a sufilcient quantity of hon-
ay to make eight balla, one to be giv-
OA erery night.

** The following ointment may he
applied externally :

Black talpfaur 6 am.

Strong in«xcarial datmrnt . . 9 '*

Soft mmp 4 "

Tnin oil 1 pint.

*' These ingredients to be well
mixed, and one third part carefully
rubbed in daily. If the above oint-
ment should he found inefilectual,

MAN

I four ounces of spirit of tar may be
added.

"Dogs and swine are frequently
subject to mange. For the common
scabby variety in the dog, the fol*
lowing ointment is recommended :

P(md«red lalphur ..... 4 ou.

Muriate of amiminia,powderBd • k **

Venice turpentine { **

liard. or other firtty metier . . 0 **

Well mixed.

MANGEL WUKZEL, MANGOLD
WURZEL. See Beet.

MANGER. The trough or crib
from which animals eat.

MANGO. ** It is a very large fruit*
tree, inhabiting the tropical parts ol
Asia, throughout all which it is as
extensively cultivated as the apple
and pear trees are in Europe. Old
specimens have been seen with a
trunk from 10 to 15 feet in circum*
ference. The fruit is something like
a nectarine, but more compressed,
longer, and more curved. Itrootaiaa
a large stone, covered with coarse
fibres, which lose themselves in tho
succulent flesh. The wild and infe-
rior varieties of this fruit taste so
strongly of turpentine as to be wholly
unfit for use by Europeans ; but in
the fine varieties this flavour is re-
placed by a rich sugary quality, which
renders it very delicious. The fruit
of the Mangifera Indica* a tree culti
vated in Asia, is also called manga,
-^Brande*)

MANGOSTEEN. The fruk of the
GAfctma nuingotlana^ growing in Ja-
va and the Molucca Islands ; it is of
the size of an orange, and of a deU*
cious flavour.

MANGROVE. Smalltraes of the
genus RkizophoTiL, inhabiting the riv-
ers and coasts of the tropical world.

MANHADDEN. ClupeamanU'
den. A migratory fish, resembling
the herring, taken in immense quan-
tities off the eastern and northern
coasts for manure ; they should be
made into a compost with earth or
peat : some apply them naked to the
land.

MANIOC. Cassava, tapioca.

MANIPULATION. The opera-
tions of the laboratory.

MANITRUNK, MANiXRUNCUS.

{

MAN

The' superior segment of the tnmlc of
insects, on which the head is placed.

MANNA. A sweet, gammy exu-
dation of the ash {F. omus) and oth-
er trees, used in mediciDe as a laxa-
tive. Manna, dissolved in hot alco-
hol, and allowed to cool, deposites
a white powder {manniteS ; this, al-
though sweet, is incapable of vinous
fermentation.

MANTEL. In building, the wood,
stone, dec., lying from one jamb to
the other of the chimney.

MANTIS. A genus of orthopte-
rpus insects, with an exposed head,
long and narrow body, and wings
plaited longitudinally : they are vege-
table eaters.

MANURES. Sabstanoes intended
to increase the fertility of the earth.
They are usually divided into miner-
al or fossil, animal, and vegetable
manures, as they are derived from
these kingdoms ; but in this way we
gain no knowledge of their action on
the soil or plants. A better division
IB into AmtmimieiUs, or such manures
as improve the texture of soils, as
lime, marl, peat ; Mmmret supplying
elements deficient in the soil, as gyp-
som, bone earth, ashes ; and, tUrd>
ly, manures intended to advance or
stimulate vegetation, as putrescent
animal matters. But the greater num-
ber of manures are natural composts
that supply everything necessary to
the development of plants, in a more
or less concentrated form, as stable
loanare, straw of different kinds, gua-
no, night-soil, &c. The manures are
treated under their separate heads.

In the applieatfon of manures in-
tended to lemedjr a defect in the soil,
as gypsum where sulphuric acid is
i|baent ; bone earth where phosphor-
io acid is wanting, it may be econom-
ical, by an analysis of the soil, to be
certain that such a deficiency exists,
otherwise our manures might be bet-
ter applied elsewhere. But moat of
our soils require good tillage, amend-
ments, and then natural composts to
iDcreaae the crop ; hence the values
of manures in the experience of the
farmer does not exactly coincide with
the theoratioal value, aqd the amount I

MAN

of nitrogen or stkanlating element
they contain is io practice the best
criterion of their eflbcts, the soil be-
ing in good order and tilth. Hence
Boussingault and Payen, practical
men, have constructed a table of the
value of all manures, as compared
with farm-yard manure, on this basis.
The first column gives the kind of
manure in its ordinary state, the sec-
ond the amount of water it contains,
the third and fourth the per centage
of nitrogen in the dry and wet states,
the fifth and sixth the quality of the
manure in the dry and wet states, so
far as the effects of the ammonia or
nitrqgen are concerned, the seventh
and eighth columns represent the
amoont of the manures, respectively,
equivalent to lOO lbs. of farm-yard
manure, both in the dry and wet
states, so far a$ the nitrogen is con-
cerned. Thus we learn that 8 lbs. 6f
linseed oil«<»ke are equaDy servicea-
ble with 100 lbs. of farm-yard manure
in the ordinary state of moisture, dco.
(For table, see the.following pages.)

The greatest improvements in ma-
nures recemly made are their econ-
omy for different pdants, or the sys.
tern of special manures referred to
under the principal crops in this work,
and their application with the seed
or on growing plants, by drills and
other contrivances. The old method
of scattering immense amounts over
the soil a long time before the crop
is justly considered unprofitable.

The following table of the weight
of a cubic yard of several naanures
is of some practical value :

evta. qn. Dml

Garden muttld , 19 3 8ft

New dang 9 3 18

Leavet and saa-wvad ... 90 8

Water . 15 a S

Coiapoat of d«af , with weada

aad lime 14 9 ft

— See Farm-yard Manure.

MANURES, ARTIFICIAL AND
SPECIAL. These are compounds
prepared for sale to farmers, as arti-
ficial guano, poudrette, silicate oi
soda, sulphate of soda, sulphate of
ammonia, soda ash, solution of bones,
saltpetre, and urate.. Special manures
are those which are designed to ad-
vanoe particular crope.

41t.

MANUBSB.

TABLK OF TBS COVrABAlTTS TALtTV OF VAHiniKS, DBIWCBD FftOH A1IAI.TSB«

BY IIGSBB8. PAYBir AND BOD88INOAULT.

Kinds of HaaoBK.

Fam-jard dnqg .

Daof vatar

WhaaiBtraw

Bjraatraw .

loaoEi • « •

Oat stmw .

Barley acraw

Wheat chaff

Pea atraw .

MiUet straw

Bockwhoatatrav

X«at() atraw

Dried potato topa

Withered nadw atalka

Idem turned under while (laen

Dried brooaa

Withered leavaa cfbaat root

Do. of potatoes .

Dokofcamu

Laarea of heather

Dou of pear-trees

Do.ofeafc .

Dow of poplar

Dcorbeech

Do. of acacia

Box-tree

Clover raMa

Fncoa difitatas .

Men .

Fucoa aaccharinua

Ideoi ...

Burned sea>WMd

Oyater sheUa

B«a sheila .

Mud of the Modaix River

Trea of Roseoff roada

Bea-sid* Mail

Bait cod Ash . .

Cod-IIah wariiad and praaaad

Firaawdaat

Idem .

Oak aawdoat

White laplae

Halt (rains .

attfa hnaka

Oacakeofliaaaad

Dikofeolewort .

DcefaneliM .

Da of madia

Do. orsaaame .

Do. offaaaipeaad

Do. of poppjf

Do.ofboei£aiaat

Daaf wuloata .

Do. of cotton aaed

Cider^pple nfnaa

ReAiseorhops .

Beetroot rshwa .

Idem ...

8<|oa«aed baet root

Potato tafaea

Potatojoieo

Water of the ataich ■waafectoqr

Dapoaita from the wsler of do.

Idem ....

Solid cow d«i« .

Vriae of cows

Mixed cow dnof

Solid horse daag

Hofse writte

Niacd hotaa dasf

P«d«BK .

Sheep dnof

Goatdaag .

jjqnid Flaaidi namii*

Idwn ....

Poodretta of Belleid .

Do. of Montfaaeoa •

Urine of pobUe VfU •

Idem ....

13^
194

sio

11-0

7«

8-6

1»0

11-6

ia-9

70-6
10-4

M-g

7«0
70«
7«
14'6
Wt
ftM

a»8

H-6

«H)
400
7MI

»1

lO
38<0
1(H>
a4'0
94-0
90«
10-6

SO
4M
13-4
IM

««
IM

••0

llO

«»4

na
»•»

TOO
M«
TS-O

w«

881)

880

844

76S

79-1

7II-4

03-0

46<0

Nitrogen in
100 uf matter

Dty. Wet

1-IW
1-54
0«)
0«)
OV)
0-86
0-26
DM
1-96
0«)
0-M
Vli

osa

0-68
1-53
1-87
4-fiO
9W

1-90
l'.<4
1-67
1-17
1«91
106

i-T7
1-41
1-68
8-S8

040
OHO
066
0-43
0-14
0«2

lom

I8-74
03S
0-31
073
4'36
4*90
»Sl
6-00
MO

6-70
MO
4-78
6-70
8-58
6-fl9
4M
063
3^
1-36

1««
4W
96

1-76

8-38

1-81
I'Sl
8-80
»8D
S«l
2-Jl

ireo

3-03
847
fi-ttO

3-93

4^0

9-«7

I7"ft6

8>11

O^tl
0-06
OiM
0-17
0-43
(MS
0*33
086
1-79
078
0~I8
l-Ol
087
0-OT
048
I-SB
OVW
096
086
1'74
l^R
1*18
OM
1*18
0-73
1-17
1-61
086
0«6
148
OM
048
048
OOft
O40
0-13
0«1
6W
1646
0-16
086
0-64
8>49
4-ftl

i-n

MD
4-9S

848
6-06

4-31

5-38

841

644

408

O60

066

114

048

OOI

043

048

047

046
I'M
043
044
041
0-85
9-(U
074
043
1-11
916
019
0-33
345
146
1643
I 0^

Quality nc-
coriimg tu

Dry.

100

48
100

70
930
117
ISO

814

80
147

81
117

884

887

861

WeL

981
168

307

6M
893

3M
945
999

181

987

981

114

100

43a

49S'

117
ItM
133
113
641
IM
179
IM
901

998

137

900

1188

100
8
60
434
105
70
57-;j
8134
447-6
195
130
260
934
1494
113
SOB
1S5
18T4
9134
4-2A
840
393
134
884
180
993
408-5
315
8374
345
135
96
80
IS
100
834
138
1678
4218
40
574
185
8734
11374
4874
1300
1880
90884
1366
18T8
1053
18(0
888
1310
1000
147
140
988
85
9
1314
94

174

00
884-6

1084
I.174

EquiTsieat

ar«.(inlin( to

state.

Dry.

100
137
6M
076
:i90
543
750
307
100
303
361
174
463
3U5
196
143
43
86
66
108
187
196
167
103
135
68
110
130
188
86

488

488
3780

464
1308

377
18
10

886

639

906
45
40
87
33
88
fil
84
38
41
84
86
35
88

800
88

156

185
1674
8774
540

474

063

800

4313

178

111

100

108

Wet.

lUO

167

335

143

174

108

84
74
84
66

84
SB

46
43

108

195

44
78

100
806

380

174

nih

88
8

?-;?

10
68

106

4137

76
106

Avenfs of Becfaettinma.
Washed by ibe raio.

Pteah. of^Aihoco, U8B»

Of Aiaace.

BuTinma ofParia, IBO.

Befoia seadiBf.
Stalk and laavei
Of manol worsaL
Withered top and

Dziad ia the air.

Laarea ftflen i

and

Dried in the air.

^prisdasthoi

Ditedaaa
Jsaaaahd.

Difad la the air.
> Dried a the air.
TaacaA, boiled aad dris^

Driadkthaao;

Dried hi the air.
Prash from ttie
Prooasaof

Settled and decntad.
( Prom waahhif in (V
> amesofwmter.
Drainins* ftt>m
Dried mlho

571

84
185
01
08
73

1»M
64

*;«

910

1» ^
lOHlDiMiathaalr.

The

the anne waa thick.

I41

Driml in the Moireu

fbia,^

MAMTRBS.

TABLK (

)

Kinds of Maaara.

A.nua»tiu!d bUck

Idka from tba neiffiboariiood

of Pan* ....
Idem, emlied Dutch maaan

AnianlMeii leawevd

Fqgaon'k danif .

Ouano oapoclei iato Kitted

Idem

X>o. importod al« Wnmem
Si)k-wonn hner .

E«len

Chiyalto of aak-vona

Cockchafera

Dried mmeiilar ll«ah .

8Dlubl« dried Wood .

Liquid blood . .

Id«a

Blond coanlatad aad piwaed
IiwolaModiMd blood.
Dkjcs ftxMD PnaviBB Um aai

Dfactfinr ....
M«lt«r*9 bOMs .
Viwih b<M«a
Fat bofRSi, D«t heated
Drrgt of bone Uub
Dloedrega.

Oravea ....
Animal black of th« wngunttt
flupar rrfioer'a black .

Scam friMn Che ancar rsAoeiy

KtiC«fih black
Feathers
Cnw Itnir flock
Woollearafa
Horn •having*
Coal (loot
Woodfloot
Firardjr aaliaa
▼Mecabfo mould
daqf (terreau)

44-»>
iiO
4i-l

23-4

14-9
11*4
T8>ft

77-0

SI -4
81-0

8i-i

73-5
13-6

1*
a»o

»o

43-0

33-6

S-9

47*7

87-7

67-0

S-9

U-3
90

IM
A«
»«

NitR^n in
lUO of naatief.

Dry.

2-96

a-48

»73

9(M

0-«>

7<»

1V73

9^48

S-71

S-ffl

13-90

14-43

kS-fiO

17-00
17«)

1l-t<0

7*a«

12-93
9-04

19 01

1-68

8-03

1T«1

15-19

904S

16-78

1-60

1-31

0-71

1-03

Wer.

1-94

1-36
9-40
9W

iHn
^M0

13-96
3-99

3-9d

1-95

3-90

13-04

19-18

9-96

9-71

4-61

14-88

1-31

T-03
A4t

6-29
0-63
.V73

u-es

1-08
13-76

6-95

16-34

13-78

17-98

14-36

1-36

116

046

((ttaJity ac-
cord iqf; to
Hi Ate.

Dr>.

lOO-.»

161-6

197

140

469
333

•161

807

178-7

190

461

714

730

796

7»6

796

871

144

47
988-4
6R3
104
974

4U-4

90S

776

lortft

809
81
07
36

Wet.

•m

310-6
340

9076
1947
1349
3487

•27

832

486

801
3960

a(H6

738

680
1198
3719

1764
1996
l.VM

1.%!

933-6
2«)>)5-3

965
3437

134

1T38
3836

3446

4496

3MM
3:176
987-ft
162«

Kqaival«at

accord tng to

utatv.

Dry.

98
66
79

13K

914
36
16
96

100

197

94
11
13

.5S

199
140
976

189

WeL

37
32

6
SO
74

«M

jjx

3
9
6

75
6

Bcumila.

Prapared fat U '"'fnifca

Raceat^ made.

Made at Lyoaa.

i Dried ia atove (ftoailte

j MiUwiV

or Bcchelbroaa.

Inth«(
8ift«d.

Fifth afe.
8uth age.

Dried in the atr.

Aasold.

Krom alau(hter-l

From wtMrn-o«t f

Juat out of Uie pc

Dried ia manulactoiy.

Aaimaliied with hloa4.

DriH ia the air.

A* aokl by the ._

tacludii^ 0-10 offlU.

Aaeold by the

AaMOkoat.
From Pariai
5 Fftm the

Visneiu.
lood, TuM, MWt

DtiediB^a

MAPLE. Trees of the genos Acer^
of which seven are indigenous to
America ; they are for the most part
natives of the North and Canada,
where extensive forests of the sugar
maple exist. The wood, though o Aen
beautifnlly omamentaK curled and
spotted (bird's-eye maple) from the
sugar-maple trees, is soft, and inca-
pable of enduring exposnre ; it is
therefore confined to cabinet uses,
and forms excellent fuel, yielding an
ash from which four fifths of the pot-
ash of commerce is derived. The
maples require a deep, light soil, and
become fuUy developed on rich allu-
vial plains.

The white maple {A. eriocarvum) is
a Western tree, very early, ana yields
a saccharine juice, from which sugar
is made in Ohio. The red {A. rutnrum)
ia also sweet, and yields a handsome
wood : it flourishes on rich bottoms.
The striped or moose wood (A. ftri-
€tumy is confined to the most North-
8 s

em localities, and famishes excel-
lent browse for cattle. The mount*
ain maple {A. numtanum) is a small
Northern dwarf, of six or eight feet.
The sugar maple (A. sacckarinum)
abounds from 43<> to 46<> North lati-
tude : it often rises to 70 or 80 feet,
with a beautiful white bark. The
wood is highly ornamental. The
trees are tapped with a three-quarter-
inch auger early in March, at eighteen
to twenty inches from the ground ;
two holes are made in each tree, not
deeper than two inches within the
wood. Tubes of wood are inserted
into the holes, which convey the sap
to troughs or buckets on the ground.
The sap is collected each day, and
kept in casks until it can be boiled
down. All the arrangements for fiOr
ishing the work are taken to the su-
gar camp, so that the boiling advan-
ces nearly as fast as the juice is ob-
tained. The boilers are of iron, of
fifteen to twenty gallras, and only

481

half filled. The proeemkvfbe&Smg is

rapid ; and if much scum rises, a little
butter or lard is used to hinder it from
flowing over : the sirup is sufficient-
ly strong when a small portion gran-
ulates on cooling. The sirup is pour-
ed into granulating moulds, and the
molasses drawn off.

Great care is necessary as the sir-
up approaches the crystallising point,
to prevent burning it ; as in such a
case, instead of sugar, only a black,
wax -like mass will be produced, bit-
ter to the taste, and unfit for culinary
purposes. The excellence of maple
sugar is in a great degree depending
on the cleansing of the sirup. To do
this effectually, the sirup, afler being
brouffht to the proper consistence,
ahould be strained and allowed to be-
come cool, when it will be of the
thickness of good molasses. Into
this some albuminous substance (the
whites of eggs are the best, though,
where eggs are not to be bad, milk
will do very well) must be thorough-
ly incorporated by stirring, while it
is cool, and then, when placed on
the fire, suffered to remain entirely
at rest until on the point of boiling.
The albumen diffused through the
mass coagulates by the heat, and
rising to the surface, brings up with
it all the impurities contained in the
airup. If this operation of cleansing
is performed skilfully, the sirup re-
maining in the kettle will be pure li-
quid, free from specks, and when
cryatallized will make a beautiful su-
gar. The skimming of the sirup
should be carefully kept from all ani-
mals, for, though nearly all are ex-
ceedingly fond of it, it is injurious to
all, and fatal to many. Maple sugar
is hard, of a light brown, with an aro-
matic taste : it yields the purest re-
fined sugar, and is as good as any
variety for domestic purposes.

The sap flows of good quality for
six weeks, and aflerward the juice is
only fit for molasses. A tree some-
times yields two gallons daily of sap,
containing a quarter of a pound of
crystallizable sugar to the gallon.
The sap rapidly ferments in warm
weather, running into vinegar in three

lUA

Of ffwr dsys. This n^rin p&rtiUS^

averted by adding a little lime-water
to the juice. Three persons can
manage 250 trees, and may expect
1000 lbs. of sugar, or four ponnds from
each. The sugar yielded from trees
previously tapped increases.

In the Western States, sugar is
made from the black maple {A. ni-
gntm)t the leaves of which are dark-
er than the Northern sugar ma|de.
The white maple, from the quickness
of its growth, has been recotamend-
ed for sugar plantations as far south
as North Carolina.

MARASMUS. Leannes8> wasting
away.

MARBLE. Limestones with a
granular and crystalline appearance ;
they are for the most part primary or
transition. The colours and varie-
gations are adventitious, depending
upon the presence of other mioerais.
Good marble being entirely carbonate
of lime, yields 66 per cent, of lime
when well burned.

MARC. The refuse remaining in
the press after expression of fruits.

MARCESCENT. Withering on
the stem, like the leaves of endogena»

MARCH. The third month, in
which the soil is yet frozen, but gar*
den operations in frames should be
pushed forward, manures collected
and carried out, and everything got
in readiness for the start, of vegeta-
tion. In the South, early grains are
sowed, and the soil is prepared for
the staple crops.

MARE. Female of the horse.

MARE'S TAIL. HippurisvulgariM.
A useless weed, growing in wet,
sandy places. *

MARGARIC ACID. The acid of
margarine, obtained by saponify iag.
It is pearly, insoluble in water, but
readily in hot alcohol ; fuses at 140^,
reddens litmus, and resembles stear-
in. It exists in human fat ^nd na-
meroua oils : formula, Cn H« Ok -4-
2 HO.

MARGARINE. The soUd, wfaita
fat of olive and other oils. A mar-
garate of glvcyrine.

MARGARITIC ACID. One of the
fat oila peculiar to castor oil.

UAB

MS3BL

dlstiUation of loargaric «Dd stearic
acids : a white, pearly mass : formu-
la, C^HasO.

MAR6AKYL. A compound rad-
ical : formola, Cs4 H^ O3.

MARIGOLD. Calendula qficinali*.
A composite plant, with, bright yel-
low flowers, partially used in soups.
U is an annual, readily propagated by
Bfiedfl

MARINE AOID. Muriatic acid,
bjrdrochlorie acid.

MARINE SALT. Common salt,
chloride of sodium, muriate of soda.
MARIOTTE'S LAW, BOYLE'S
LA W. The law which expresses the
coDstanl reiatiou between the bulk
and pressure of a peimanent gas, the
etasticity or pressure being directly
pfopertional to the density, and in-
versely to the bulk.

MARJORAM. Origanum, ''A ge-
nus of well-known, pungent, and
gratefully uomatic herbs. The plants
are all of easy cultivation ; the shrub-
by kinds are increased by cuttings or
slips ; the herbaceous species by di-
▼iding at the roots. There are as
many as eight species, besides nu-
merous Tarieties. The species gen-
erally cuitiTated are the common or
pot marjoram (O. vulgare), and sweet
or summer marjoram (O. majomna),
and bastard or winter marjoram (O.
heraeUoticum). i

** A light, dry, and moderately fer-
tile soil is required for their healthy
growth ; and if it is one that has not
been cropped for a considerable time,
it is the more favourable for them.
,If the soil is wet or ric%they are de-
ficient in their essential qualities, and
the perennials are unable to with-
staad severe weather. The situation
cannot be too open. The sweet mar-
joram is. propagated solely by seeds ;
the two perennials by seed, as well
as by parting their roots, ofihets, and
slips of their branches. Sowing may
be performed of all the species, fVom
tiie conclosioa of February, if open
'weather, to the commencement of
June ; hut the early part of April is
the usual time fot performing it. Por-
tions of the rooted plants, sUps, ito.,

OMy b0 pjwntiwl ftam Vt^mury tintd
May, and during September and Oo»
tuber.

" The sowing is performed eithei
in drills, six inches apart, or broad-
cast, in either case the seed being bu-
ried not more than half an inch deepi

** The tops and leaves of ail the
species are gathered when green, in
sttoomer and autumn, for use in soups,
dec. ; and a store of the branches is
cut and dried in July or August, just
before the flowers open, for winter's
supply. " — {Johfuon, )

MARK. The black dot on the oop-
ner teeth of the horse when five and
a half years old. It is gone, or rasedf
when be is eight years.

MARKETS. AGRICULTURAL.
"The more numerous markets are in
any well-cultivated country, provided
they are at a sufficient distance not
to interfere with each other, and on
different days of the week, the great-
er saving there is of time and labour
of conveyance. Good roads or nav-
igable rivers are of great importance
to a market-town ; and if there are
mills in the neighbourhood where
corn can be ground, they will increase
the advantage to the farmer by caus-
ing a regular demand above what the
immediate consumption of the place
may require.

««The vicinity of a good market,
where every kind of agricultural prod-
uce will always find purchasers at a
fair price, greatly adds to the value
of a farm, especially if good roads
lead to it ; and the advantage is the
greater if it be a populous town, which
not only consumes much produce, but
from which various kinds of manure
may be brought by the teams which
have carried the produce to market.
It is this which so much enhances
the rent of land near London and all
great cities, and makes the agricul-
ture there approach nearer to horti-
culture, which entirely depends on
extraneous manure "
MARKING INK. SeelwUHbUJnk.

MARKING NUT. The seed of
the Semicarftu onacardtum, a tropical
tree, the juice of which stains linen
of an indelible Uack.

483

KAK

MAlUi. A ntetare at e«riht mm-
tsiDin; a lar^ «BiOiiiif of mild lime.
It is clayey or argillaceous when It
has the mechanioal characters and
touch o( day, sandy when siHeioas,
aild calcareous when almost entirdy
composed of mild time: it is also
sheliywhenfuU of fossil shells. There
Is one feature commion to all tnie
maris, Tiz., efferresoeoee with aoids.
Mart may be derived from ancient
formations, more especially the upper
red sandstone, but is for the most
part of tertiary origin, or modem, be-
ing produced in ponds and rivers flow-
ing in Kmesto ne countries. The rich-
est shell kinds are best, as they con-
tain bone earth. The value of maris
is precisely as the amount of lime
they contain. When very rich, they
may be burned for quicklime, which
much increases their activity and val-

06. MMfeaeMomooitaSiimeMttM
twenty percent of carbonate of lima
asaoeialed with auida or 1^. Thej
are applied at the rate of fiileea to
thirty wagon loads the acre, and do
much good by altering the texture of
some soils, as when a clay marl is
applied to sandy lands. In some car
ses one bondred wagon ioods have
been api^ied. They axe efaiefty indi-
cated where \hp soil lacks time, or
may be improved mechattica% ; but
being, for the most part, miaeial coui-
posts, marls are usually aervioeaftile,
and often extremely beneficial* eq^
cially to poor, sandy laada. Shell uid
ooral sands are of the nature of si-
licioua maris, bat more aetive, from
eoniaining organic aoattor.

The foUowing analysis, by Spra^
gel, gives the oooqioaitioa of sever-
al kinds of marl :

Composition oT Marfc flxma

Quaru-nad and lilica .
Alumina ....
Oxtd«t of {ron .

Do. ofnanMift
CarboDAto of Uum .

Bo. of ma^eaia .
Salphnret of irou
Focaah and WNta, oombiiMd

•Uica ....
Common salt . * . .

Grpcam

Fhovphaie of lima (bone Mith)
NimteoCluM •

Organic matter

Lonebaix.

with}

Powd«i7.

9-6

0-4

4-S

Iraoa

8A-5
I-S5

005

0-03
0^

a-s

001
0^

Oaaa-
braek.

100

StOM.

S30

10*0

1-9

traoa

35 0

7-»

trM0

tra«a
0-0
0-5

Mii8>d«.

carbon
9005

)00

56*4
8-4
••7
OS

18-9
9*8

1-e

trace
9-1
0*5

Brm»
viek.

100

Loamr.

73-4
1*9
9-9
0-3

181
1-9

0«

trace
O-l
0-7

100

Powdenr.
78-9
9*1
9-8
03
8-2
9-0

0*9

©•1

0-9
1-9

wickp

Stoajr.
7ll

4-e

6-9

M
19^

1-S

100

too

The marls are usuirfly applied oa a
fell fellow, on the surfhce, and left to
crumble during the winter and spring;
they are also applied as top-dreseings
to meadows.

The quality of any mari is ascer-
tained by weighing 300 grains of
strong muriatic acid into a fla^,
and then 100 grains of the mari, add-
ing it to the acid carefully in pow-
der ; and weighing again after all ef-
fervescence has subsided, the loss
in the 400 grains will be cari)onic
acid, and is about equivalent to the
amount of lime in the specimen, In
the ratio of 23 gas to 9% lime. Marl-
ing is partioularly serviceable for do-

484

vers, pease, beanat hemp, and pota-
toes

MARMALADE. A sweatmeat &C
the pulp of fruit, usually of the peel
of oranges.

MARMORATUM. In boildiM, a
cement of pounded marble with lime.

MARRAM. The sea reed {Aneni»

MARROW. The oily fat fiUinf
the cavities of the long bones.

MARSH. A low, partially flooded
tract of land overgrown with coarse
grasaea and sedges. The herbage of
salt aiarshes is often very good fod-
der, and regularly cut for cattle. Thc^
are freqaentiy made available by em-

Has

tmttkxneTits anffiffrfrfnafe, and 6oiu(t^
lute fertile, wet meadowa.

MARSH MALLOW. AUhaa i#-
ehuUis. An herbaceous perennial, of
the family Mahacett, preferring moist
htnds, and very readily euhirated by
seeds, slips, &c. It is Tery maeHagin-
0ns, and is nsed inicooffhs as a sinip.

MARSH MARIGOLD. CottAa.
Ornamental water plants.

MARSH MIASM.; The pestilen.
tial emanations fVomniarshes, produ-
cing agnes and intermittent foTera.

MARSH MUD. The serapiags of
riTers, bogs, and inarshes often yield
a fertile mod, which may contain
much decaying Tegetahle matter,
marl, or otiier fertflizing bodies. It
is, therefore, occasionally added to
lands w?th great advantage, especial-
ly where there is much difference in
the texture of the land and mud.
That which is black and fcetid win
Qsoally be best : admixture with lime
will greatly improve it. As much as
twenty per cent, of vegetable matter
has been found in some specimens,
but as the composition is very dtffbr-
ent» it is best for the farmer, white he
recognises the utility of marsh mud,
to make small trials with it first, be-
ftre going to much expense in cart-
ing a quantity out. It may be applied
in the natural state, after being ex-
posed one winter to frost, or compost-
ed with lime, animal matter, dec.
Thirty or more loads are ap^ied per
acre, and where a different texture is
to be given to the land, several hun-
dred may be used. The point to be
considered is the- economy of using
such coarse amendments.

MARSUPIALS. Quadrupeds with
an abdominal pooch, in which their
young reside, as the opossum, kan-
garoo.

MARTINGAL. A part of the
bridle fastened by a thong to the girth,
and furnished with two straps carry-
ing rings, through which the reins
pass. It hinders the horse from toss-
ing bis head.
MARUM. Bitter, strong-scented.
MASCAGNIN. Native sulphate
of ammonia, found in volcanio dio-
moca.

SsS

-MAT

MAflH. A mfactwe in hot inter.
A soft sqrt of diet ocoasionally given
to horses. It is prepared by pouring
bcNltng water upon a small quanti^
of groQod mah, bran* or other simUar
sobataiiee, m a pail, so as jast to wet
it welL After this has been done, it
should be well stirred about, till it is
thoronghly mixed and sweetish to
the taste, when, after becoming luke-
warm, it is in a proper state to be
given to the animal. It is frequently
used after purges to increase their
operation, as weU as after hard la-
bour, and in the time of disease.
Mashes are very useful for restoriDg
animals in these oiroonutanees.

MASONRY. The art of building,
especially with stones.

MASSETER. The muscle which
moves the lower jaw.

MASSICOT. YeUow oxide of
lead.

MAST. The nnta of beach, oak,
chestnut, dec., forming admirable food
for hogs, and often worthy of colleo-
tioQ for winter store.

MASTIC. The resin of the Puis-
cur feiifucu#, extensively used in ma*
king varnishes. Also a cement used
in plastering walls.

MASTICATION. Chewing. The
reduction of grains, d&c, into meal
by the teeth. Old animals require
this to be done artificially for them.
It is very essential to health that it
be properly performed.

MASTIFF. The large guard dog.
He has smaH, drooping ears, smooth
skin ; is variously coloured, hanging
lips, large jaws, and is strongs and
very large.

MASTOID. Small knobs or ele*
vations on bones, dec.
MATE. The Paraguay tea.
MATERIA MEDIOA. The col.
leetion of drugs used in medicine, far-
riery, dtc.

MAT GRASS. Nairdiua ttricUL
An tnsignifioant fjonthem graaei
growing on barren lands.

MATRASS. A chemical flask,
with a long neek, used for heating or
boiling fluids.

MATRIX. A womb. A place
^^tff aaythmg iff fb«™^ Themin-

48a

i_.

MAT

MBA

«ra! in which metallic om or chcrioe

vrystals are imbedded. «

MATTER. Anything that has
weight or senaible properties, as di-
visibiiity, impenetrability, extension.
It is organised or inorganic, elemeot-
arx or compound.

MATTOCK. The pidcaze. The
iron ends may be pointed or of the
figure of a chisel ; the handle of oak
or ash.

MATURATION. Ripening. The
formation of pas in abscesses.
MAT WEED. The sea reed.
MAUL. A large mallet, or beetle,
to split wood.

MAW. The stomach. Maw skin
is the prepared stomach for rennet.

MAW SEED. The small Poppy,
which see.

MAXILLA. The jaw. In zoolo-
gy, it means the upper jaw ; in ento-
mology, the inferior pair of jaws.

MAXILLARY. Related to the
jaws, as the maxillary glands, ar-
teries.

MAY. The most important agri-
cultural month. In the North, oats
being sowed, and the land manured
and in good tilth, com planting is
commenced ; potatoes are also to be
set out ; meadows should be harrow-
ed where wanted, and manured ;
hemp and most crops are sown this
month ; everything is to be done out
of doors ; in the garden, cabbages, cu-
cumbers, melons, lettuce, £^, are
transplanted from the hot -beds;
pease, beans, root crops, dtc., sowed ;
spring budding and grafting are car-
ried on until trees are in leaf. In the
South, tobacco is transplanted, the
young cotton plants are cleaned,
pease are sown in the corn-hills, the
sugar-oane is to be worked, and sweet
potato cuttings set out.

MAY-APPLE. PodapkyUum |^
tiUum. Wild mandrake. An herbar
ceous perennial, growing in moist
woods, bearing one stem with two
leaves ; the roots are cathartic ; the
yellow fruit, often two and a half ioidi'
es long, is acid and pleasant : it is
worthy of cultivation.
MAY-TREE. The hawthorn.
MAY- WEED. Matriearia chamth

486

mSBdf and otier fdMlti Boraninl-
rooted, composite herbs, overrunning
rich cultivated lands ; they jshouid be
mowed beibre flowering, and exter*
minated by cultivating hoed crops.

MEAD. A wine made by ferments
ing one part honey boiled in three
parts water, and favoured with va-
rious aromatic heihs^ aooordiog to
the taste

MEADOWS. "Properly, low
grounds on the banks of rivers, which*
being kept moist by their situation,
and also occasionaily flooded by the
rise of the waters, are best adapted
for the growth of grass, and aie gen-
erally mown for hay.

" When meadows are private pn^
erty they become much more valua-
ble. The flooding is encouraged or
prevented, according to circumstan-
ces, and, in many cases, artificial ir-
rigation is adopted (see Jrrig^tum).
If they are exposed to be too often
inundated, they are protected by
dams and sluices.

" The herbage of low, wet mead-
ows is generally coarser and less
nutritious than that of those which
lie higher ; hence upland hay, as it is
called, is preferred for the better sort
of cattle. Good grass land, to which
the floods never rise, is often called
meadow land when the natural herb-
age is permanent, and frequently
made into hay.

" Upland meadows are very valua-
ble wherever there is a demand for
good hay. A considerable degree of
attention is required to make theu
most productive. Not being annual-
ly recruited by flooding, they would
soon degenerate if some pains were
not taken to keep up their natural fer-
tility. This may be done in various
Mrays : the most obvious is to recruit
them frequently with the richest ani-
mal and vegetable manure, which,
being spread over the surface at a
time when showers are abundant,
that is, either early in spring or im-
mediately after midsummer, is wash-
ed down to the roots of the grass.
A rapid growth is thus produced,
which is soon perceived by comparing
the appearance of a meadow whioh

MEADOWS.

iM NM mftiiurad wMi tHat of one
left in ita natural state. It has been
asserted by many agricaltnral an-
thers that the produce of bay is great-
er when the meadows are mown ot-
ery year, provided they be occasion-
ally manured, than when mown and
depaatared altern^ely. But the pro-
ductiTsness of tf meadow depends en-
tirely on the circumstances of soil
and situation. A meadow, the soil
of which is naturally of a rich nature,
and adapted to produce fine grasses,
nay be mown year after year with-
out any perceptible change in the
quality of the hay ; while another of
inferior quality requires to be occa-
aionaHy cropped dose, to check the
growth of the coarser grasses, and to
allow the finer to rise. As to the
effect of taking ofiT the hay by mow-
ing it, compared with that of the bite
of cattle, there is little difference,
except that, in pasturing, the grass
* is repeatedly cropped close to the
ground as soon as it rises to such a
height that the teeth of the cattle
can sever it. It consequently spreads
by the roots, and the pile becomes
doser.

** The urine of the cattle greatly
promotes luxuriant vegetation in
rainy weather, but in hot, dry weath-
er it does more harm than good. The
dung, when dropped on tins grass, is
of little or no value compared with
what it would be if mixe<l up with
^ straw, earth, or peat, or diffused
* through water in a tank. It is there-
fore an excellent practice to employ
women and children to collect the
fresh dung in the pastures, and to
carry it to a heap of earth, where it
may be covered op, or to a tank,
where it may be diluted with water.
" Of late years the practice of soil-
ing has been extensively adopted;
that is, all the grass is mown and car-
ried every day in a green state to
cows or horses tied up in a stable. By
this means all the advantage of mow-
mg for hay is obtained, besides an
abundant supply of rich manure,
which can be applied to the land in a
liquid and diluted state, when its ef-
fttct iv powerftil and eertaia. So

nfiefa more Ibddar is prodneed fW>rii
the land Jby the system of soiling, that
arable fields are converted into arti-
ficial and temporary meadows, in
which the different species of grasses
are sown, in order to be cut green or
made into hay ; and when, fVom the
nature of tlie soil, the herbage degen-
erates, the field is ploughed up again,
greatly improved by this change of
cultivation.

" When a natural meadow has been
neglected, and the grass is of an in-
ferior quality, and mixed with rank
weeds and moss, it requires much
care to restore it to its original fer-
tility. In most cases, the shortest
method and the best is to plough it
up, clean and manure it during a
course of tillage, without taking very-
exhausting crops from it, and then
to lay it down again in a clean and
enriched state, by sowing the best
sort of grass seeds ; or, which is pref-
erable, by inoculating, or planting in
it small tufts of grass from some rich
meadow, which will soon increase,
and produce a new and improved
sward. But where the soil is a very
stiff clay, with only a small depth of
good mould over it, there is some
danger in breaking the old sward, for
it will take a long time and much ma-
nure to reproduce a proper covering
of grass. In this case it is a prefer-
able practice to scarify the meadow
by means of instruments which do
not go deep, but only tear up the sur-
face. If this is done early in spring,
when the ground is moist, and the
whole surface is brought to resemble
a fallow field, good grass seeds may
be immediately sown. If rich ma-
nure, mixed with lime or chalk, is then
spread over the land, and the whole
well harrowed and rolled, the old and
young grass will spring up together,
and show a vronderful improvement
in a very few months. It is prudent to
mow this renovated meadow before
the seeds of the grasses are formed,
contrary to a common notion, that in
a thin meadow the seed should be al-
lowed to shed, in order to increase
the number of plants. The notion in
good, but it should be done by aow-

487

MEA

iBfj««d wbioh iMM teM profited on
ouer ground ; for the ripening of the
seed tends to exhaust the soiL If the
glass be cut before the flower is fa-
ded, the roots will soon spread, and
produce a new and improved sward.

" It must be observed that it is not
indifferent what cattle are turned
into the meadow afler bay-making.
Horses invariably produce coarse
weeds by their dung and urine ; cows
may be depastured in autumn, as long
as the surface is dry ; but sheep are
far more advantageous, and may be
kept in the meadows at all timesf if
they are not too wet for the health
of the sheep, and if there is no dan-
ger of their having the rot. As soon
as the surface becomes soft by the
autumnal rains, all heavy cattle
should be excluded : every tread of
a horse or cow at this time destroys
a portion of good grass, and makes a
hollow, in which the water remains,
killing the finer grasses, and produ-
cing rushes and aquatic plants.

"The meadows which are to be
mown should be shut up early in
spring, and those which are sod and
wet should have nothing larger than
a sheep in them from November till af-
ter bay-making time the next year."

MEADOW FOXTAIL. Alopecw
rut praientis. See Grastes,

MEADOW GRASSES. See

GrtLMMtS.

MEADOW SAFFRON. See CoL*
chicum.

MEAL. The flour of corn, oats,
pease, dec. A meal of milk means
the quantity obtained at a milking.

MEASLES. A skin disease of
bogs. See Hog, Diseases of.

MEASURES. See WeigMs mnd

Measures.

MEASURING CHAIN. A chain
of 100 links, or 22 yards, used in sur-
▼eying ; the link is 7-92 inches.

MEAT. *' 1. Selection of CaiiU and
Bssf. — In the selection of cattle to be
sent alive to market, they should in-
variably possess fine symmetry and
small bone, carrying the greatest
weight of beef on the most valuable
points, such as rumps, loins, and
crops ; the back well covered, the

MEA.

bottoeks and talks 1MB JIM <^ aad

the whole carcass exhibiting a ful-
ness of flesh, excepting the necks and .
coarser parts. They should handle
hard and firm, in order to stand well
the Yoyage, and handle and look well
in the market. Firm bandiers, wheth-
er heifers or oxen^always out well
up. An ox or heifer of these proper-
ties, weighing 80 stones (stone of B
lbs.), will actually realize more money
than a coarse ox or heifer weighing
100 stones. Heavy cattle, however, ,
do not take readily in market, unless
they are remarkably handsome ; nor
do very light cattle., under 40 stones,
for two or three months in summer,
unless they are really neatly shaped,
and thick on the backs and best
points.

** The meat intended to be sent to
the carcass market should be taken
from such cattle as we have descri-
bed. It is not large quantities of
lean and fat that are wanted there,
but both well mixed. Ox and heifer
beef of equal quality command the
same pricea Rumps, loins, crops,
and other fine parts fitted for roast*
ing and steaks, are more in denoand
than the boiling pieoes« and realise
comparatively higher prices.

** 2. Selection of Sheep and Mutton.
— Ripe, compact sheep, of light
weights, carrying a large proportion
of lean on the back, loins, and shoul-
der, with a full, round leg, and hand-
some carcass, are admirably suited
for market Such, from 14 lbs. to 20
lbs. per quarter, will take readily ;
but they are most valuable from 16
lbs. to 18 lbs. The nearer the form
and quality approach those of South
Downs, the more likely are they to
command the . top prices ; for the
Downs have long been unrivalled fa-
vourites. Pure bred Leicesters are
too fat, unless they are sent young,
and do not exceed 20 lbs. per quar-
ter; when above that weight, they
fetch inferior prices.

*'Tbe carcasses of mutton to be
sent to market should, of course, be
those of sheep such as are here rec-
omniended to be sent alive. Large
quantities of fat are not so desiraMa

MSAT.

■s 8 ftopfnifootifl9 mixlttPB of -Al^
with the lean. In using the loios
and other parts of very fat motton
lor chops, mnch of it has to be pared
away, and sold for the price oi raw
fat. The great point is to seleet
ripe OHitton and sheep, for the hitter
win stand the journey better than half
ftt, and will not lose half the quan-
tity of flesh in three days as the lat-
ter. No oTergrown animals, having
masses of fat on one place and not
on another, would, therefore, com-
mand the top price ; but those having
plump carcasses, well mixed with fat
and lean, firmly and equally laid on,
with fine symmetry and valuable
points, win always command the top
prioe, both at Smithiield and the car-
cass markets.

*'8. Seiedion of Lamb*. — Lambs
are a favourite stock to send to mar-
ket, and they are always sent alive.
Leicester lambs are admirably adapt-
ed for the market. They are hand-
some, compact, thick on aU the
points ; and although they might be-
come too fat when grown to sheep,
they cannot be too fat as lambs.
Their flesh is white, and every joint
of them looks well on the table. The
lambs of the cross between the Lei-
cester and the Cheviot and black-
Ihced ewes are next best for fat and
lean, and cut weU into joints, although
th«y have not the handsome figures
of the pure Leicester. No lambs
should b^ sent to market until they
are at least three months old, and
have attained the weight of 9 lbs. or
10 lbs. a quarter ; and if they are not
fht enough, and have not attained
that weight at that age, they should
be kept on. £we lambs are prefer-
red, being more delicate than weth-
ers, which are next in value. All
wether lambs, therefore, should be
castrated when a few days old, and
their tails cut short, leaving not more
than three inches. The docking gives
them a very compact form, and it
causes the flesh to grow up towards
the back, long tails giving a contrary
tendency.

**4^ SkUetwn of Pigw and Pork.-^
A Tsry mistaken notion prBvails that

piga nwt be fill to aait the mokat

The fact is quite the reverse, for
the larger the pig is fattened the less
money per pound it fetches. Pigs
are worth the most money when their
weight ranges from 86 lbs. to 40 lbs. ;
and from this weight up to 60 lbs. or
70 lbs. they are termed dakif-fed fork-
era. If, at the former weight, they
are of good symmetry, fine quality,
delicate and white in the flesh, and
not more than 1 inch ot\\ inch thick
of fat on the back, they will fetch the
top price of the day. Indeed, we need
not be surprised at this preference,
when we consider that only the small
lean and fat porkers are used for
roasting, chops, and pickled pork, and
the large, fat pigs are chopped down
for sausages. No pigs, therefore,
should be sent to market exceeding
100 lbs., exclusive of head and feet,
but which are only moderately fat
and of fine quality ; aU other quali-
ties should be cured as bacon and
hams. Occasionally they arrive in
pretty good order in carcass ; but in
carcass, in thick weather, the flesh
becomes very soft, and the skin dry ;
and in dry weather the skin becomes
quite hard' and brown coloured. Of
equal qualities, the live pig will draw
from a halfpenny to a penny a pound
more than in carcass. Feeders of
pigs should be careful on what they
feed their pigs, especially fish. The
retail butchers are such nice judges
of pork that,' on buying a carcass and
cutting a slioe, they can detect the
least peculiarity in taste.

" Cutting up ilfes^.— The mode of
cutting up meat is more diversified
even than the slaughtering; but as
London is the great emporium of the
export meat trde, the method of cut-
ting up meat in the metropolis should
constitute the particular study of the
shippers of meat. In the carcass of
any animal, an ox, for instance, there
are diflTerent qualities of meat, and
these qnalities are situated in diflTer-
ent parts of the carcass. AU the best
parts are, in London, used for roast-
iu^ and steaks, and the inferior for
boiling, either in pieces* or making
stock for Boape, or miaoed meat» in

489

I into the foJlowtDg ideeet, u may ba
seen on rofarring to the ni — "■— --
a Dot up I the BODexed cat (Fig. 1).

"The relative value ofthese dilDsr-
ent cuts of sn ox mar be einlcd aL
their current vali .
the rumps, toins. and Tore ribs of a
fine ox fetch Bd. a pounJ, ihe thick
flank, bulloeki and niiddle rib will
fetch M. : the ilch or adze-bone, thin
flank, chiLclc rib, brisket, and leg-of-
mution piece, bd. ; the clod and stick-
ing:, and neck, 3il. ; and the legs and
Btuns. id. a pouDd, Such is the difier-

give a figure
up in the New- York method, as i
Fig. S, and the great d
tween both methoda may be
a glance. It is fram the A
Agriculturiat. The prines are those
aakcd in the New- York market, Jan-
nary, 1845.

"«■ Neck, Ibr coming m uiump
neat ; price, 3 to 3 centa per lb.

" A, e, if. Chuck nb, for roasting
pioeet or steaks. '- '- -

,<.,.. ,„ one whole piece, for largo
roasts for hotels or public dinner*,
andsometimescutiD t wo pieces oaly.
If the animal be amall, U may, for

MEAT.

flMderate roasfting cuts, be diTided
wto two only ; price, 7 cents per lb.
fiir roasts, and 8 cents for steaks.

" <» /» ^» *t •• Middle or crop rib
roasting pieces, also called prime
ribs. Tbey are stfmetimes left in
two or three pieces, only for the
Bame reason as the chuck rib ; price,
9 cents per lb.

**j. Sirloin or tenderloin steaks. It
Is cut into thin slices, for steaks, as
wanted. Steaks should not be cut
to the required size until they are to
be put on the gridiron, as they thus
lose their juice ; price, 9 to 10 cents
per lb.

"k. Sirioin roasting piece; price, 9
cents per lb.

"/, m. Rump steaks. The steaks
from / are nearly (perhaps quite) as
good as those of the sirloin ; these
pieces are also comed. If the steaks
be cut from / only, they are worth 7
to 8 cents ; if from / and m together,
6 cents per lb.

** n, /. Brisket, for coming, and the
finest coming beef in the animal,
when there is a full, deep brisket.
These pieces are subdivided before
corning ; price, 6 cents per lb.

"o. Shoulder, or arm, for soup and
mince meat ; also corned ; price, 2
to 3 cente per lb. It is sold, ordina-
rily, by the piece.

**p. Cross-piece^ for roasting, and
also out for steaks ; it makes a good
coming piece. From the cross-piece
is cut the shoulder clod ; cross-piece
is worth 6 cents; shoulder clod, 5
cents per lb.

"y. Plates for coming. When
corned, it is cut smaller ; price, 5
to 6 cents per lb.

"r. Flank, for coming ; price, 4 to
6 cents per lb.

*'«, 9. Thigh or round, for beef A
la mode ; «, worth 5 cents, and v, 4
cents per lb.

" «. Navel, for corning : to be cut
smaller before coming ; price, 6 to 6
cents per lb.

"tr. Shank, for soup, or mince
meat, or corning; price, 2 to 3 cents
per lb., or sold by the piece. This,
as well as the shoukier or arm piece,
•y makes poor ewned beei^ and is

more ecoomiiieaBy Bse4 fiMr sMps;
and, after serving thaf purpose, may
be made into mince meat or hash.

'* Sometimes it is desirable to com
nearly the whole of the quarter for
dried beef. If so, m, «, and v are left
in one piece, / and w being taken off ;
/ is made into steaks or corned, and
to into soup or mince meat, llie bid*
ance of the thigh, consisting of m, #,
and V, is cut into long, narrow pieces,
from the upper part of the thigh down ;
they are broad at top, and ran to a
point below. When corned, they are
hung up to dry and smoke, and should
be hung up by the small or Imoer end.
'* ^y f\ g> are the primest roasting
pieces in the carcass ; next come e,
d^ hyi; then k ; then b. Many per-
sons prefer A, the sirloin roasting
piece, to all others ; but a true epi-
cure in beef always chooses the rib
cuts ; and of the rib cuts, the crop
ones are far the finest.

" The butchers ask most for e,/, ^,
A, t, ;', k. They are about equal m
price ; but e, /, ff are more valuable
for roasts, and A for steaks. Prices
vary according to the goodness or
badness of the animal ; as he may
be good in his chine and crops, and
bad in his loins and rumps ; or the
reverse ; or equal in both ; also, ac-
c<»rding to the knowledge of the
butcher, founded on the fancy of his
customers. The highest price is al-
ways asked for sirloin steaks when
cut by the butcher. Next come A,
c, ^, chuck rib niasting pieces and
steaks, and /, the rump steaks ; then
m, lower part of rump, p, cross-piece,
q, plate, and «, navel i r, flank ; g,
round ; n, /, brisket ; v, lower round
or thigh ; a, neck ; o, shoulder ; and
10, leg.

" We would respectfully suggest
to all our readers to follow the alrave
directions in cutting up their beef It
is the most economical, as proved by
long experience, and will avoid all
waste. It separates all the pieces
properly, so that the good and indif-
ferent are not joined. If a prime part
be left coupled with an inferior one,
and roasted, the prime only will be
eaten, and mach of the inferior

491

MEAT.

M, er mmA m mbw etiier fyaxt^ as
for haah or mince meat. There are
parts eopugh for those purposes that
ought not to be wasted, and should
not he corned. The roasting cuts
and the steaks require the juiciest
meat, with interspersed fat, making
what is called marbling or sparkling
cotting ; and the fat should not be in
separate masses, nor in great abun-
dance. The prime parts are all j uicy .
For coming, beef should be fat ; and
the proper corning parts haye fat in
large, separate masses. If the prop-
er corning piece be roasted fresh, the
lean gets soaked with melted tallow,
and the roast is worthless. When
boiled, this does not take place. Ju-
dicious cutting is, therefore, of great
importance.

*' Sheep and swine are cut up near-
ly in the same manner as the ox, and
have nearly the same relative value
of the different parts."

"Veal is cut up, in London, in a
different way from any other meat.
The knife is drawn between the but-
tock and itch bone, and through the
pope's eye, taking a sloping direction
through the coarse end of the but-
tock, leaving a flap. The piece thus
cut out is called AjUUt of veal. It is
like a round of beef, with a part of
the thin flank led to be skewered
around it. The round bone is taken
out, and stuffing put into its place.
'When the itch bone and hook bone
are cut from the loin, the piece is
called a chumv of veal. The hind
quarter of veal thus consists of fillet,
chump» loin, and leg. The fore quar-
ter is cut in the same manner as
mutton, having shoulder, breast, and
neck. In Scotland veal is cut very
much like mutton.'*

Jugged beef consists of the lean
parts of the flanks, salted, and dried
in the 6un«

Curing Beef for Exportation to Eng-
land' — " Beef is uniformly cut into
eight-pound pieces, and cured, in all
particulars, precisely as pork (see
Mog)t except a larger proportion of
saltpetre is used in packing. Beef is
almost entirely packed in tierces. For
export, tierces only should be used*

i0S

"A tieree of prime. India beef

should contain 42 pieces, eight lbs.
each, and weigh not less than 336
pounds nett. It should be made from
well fed bullocks, and contain 32 pie-
ces of loins, flanks, rumps, plates, but-
tocks, and briskets ; 10 pieces con-
sisting of four chines, two mouse but-
tocks, two shells of rumps, two pie-
ces cut close up to the neck, with
bone taken out ; no shins, thigh-
bones, or necks. To be well salted,
and capped with St. Ubes, or other
coarse salt.

"A tierce of prime mess beef
should contain 38 pieces of eight
pounds, and weigh not less than 304
pounds nett. It should be made from
prime fat cows or heifers ; 2d pieces
of prime, from loins and chines, with
one rib in each, flanks, rumps, plates,
briskets, and buttocks, with 10 coarse
pieces, consisting of two neck pieces
(not the scrag), two thighs or but-
tock bones, with some meat to them,
two shells of rumps, two, or even
four chines, not cut too close to the
neck, and two shoulder pieces, with
part of the blade hone in them, well
salted, and capped with St. Ubes,
or other coarse salt. The tierces,
whether for beef or pork, must be
made of well-seasoned oak, with
eight wooden and three iron hoops
on each end.

*' No pains to be spared in prepa-
ring and putting up, as the neat and
tasty appearance of the packages will
ensure a more ready sale than if put
up in a slovenly manner.

*' It may be useful to see the mode
of cutting up the carcass of an ox in
London. The provisions exported
from that metropolis rule the trade
in the West India Islands, and in
other distant places abroad. It is
very proper, therefore, that American
packers should understand the Eng-
lish methods.

'* The relative value of the diflTer-
ent cuts of an ox may be stated at
their current value, viz. : when the
rumps, loins, and fore ribs of a fine
ox fetch Sd. a pound, the thick flank,
buttock, and middle rib will fetch 6J. ;
the itch or adze bone, thin flank.

MKD

dmek-rib, brisket, and leg-of-muttoii
l^iece, 6d. ; the clod and sticking, and
neck, 3«{, ; and the legs and shios, 2d.
a pound. Such is the diflfbrence in
value of the difTerent cuts of ao ox
in the meat markets in London.

*'It is well to observe that the
greatest attention should be paid to
making the brine or pickle, whether
for beef or pork. Pure water should
be used in its maaufactare ; for the
sediment from that which is impure
will settle down upon the meat, and
giTe it a bad colour and a slimy feel,
whether river or rain water is used
<and soft water should always be pre-
ferred), it would be exceedingly desi-
rable to filter it through sand, or, at
least, to strain it. A great deal of
beef and pork is utterly unfit for ex-
portation by the use of unfiitered wa-
ter in making the brine.

<*In packing provisions, the tier-
ces, barrels, &c., should be made
with great care and neatness. Clean,
handsome ash staves are preferred,
and of such, other hard, close-grained
woods as will not stain the meat.
Tierces should have four iron hoops,
or three— <>ne at each bilge and one
at each chime ; barrels, with an iron
hoop at each chime. The fuUer hoop-
ed the barrel or tierce is, the better."

MECHANICAL POWERS. The
simple machines, the lever, pulley,
wheel and axle, rope machine, wedge,
and screw.

MECHOACAN. Contaivulus jfan-
durahu. Wild potato vine. A peren-
Dial, herbaceous bindweed, with tu-
berous root, of a slightly cathartic
property.

MECONIC ACID (from meconmm,
opmm). The acid with which mor-
phia is combined. It is tribasic, white,
crystalline, acid, and soluble in water
and alcohol : the solution turns red
when a per salt of iron is introduced
into it. Formula, 8 HO Cu HOu-f
6 HO (Graham), with 6 atoms of wa-
ter of crystallization. Comenic and
fyro-meamic acids are derivatives.

MECONIUM. Opium. The ex-
crement found in the intestines of
new-born animals.

MEDIASTINUM. The portion of

T»

MED

the earity of the cheat made by tiM

folding of its membrane (pleura).

MEDIC. The genus Medicago.
The principal species is the M. MUiva,
lucern. They are mostly small an-
nuals, with minute leguminous flow-
ers, are all very nutritious and readily
propagated. M. lupulinaf or black
medic, is indigenous, but small ; M,
falcata^ yellow medic, has been recom-
mended for cultivation, and is hardi-
er, although not so luxuriant or suc-
culent as lucern: it is perennial.
They all prefer a dry, calcareous, oi
marly soil.

MEDICINES FOR CATTLE. See
Pkarmacopaia.

MEDIUM. In science, the sub-
stance in which any body is immer-
sed. It is called rare, dense, opaque,
or transparent, according to its na-
ture. It causes resistance to motion,
and, more especially, acts upon the
passage of light, bending (refracting)
it from its straight course. Astron-
omers are disposed to admit the ex-
istence of a very rare medium or
ether beyond the earth's atmosphere,
filling the space of our solar system.

MEDLAR. MespUus Germanica.
A European tree resembling the pear ;
the fruit is about two inches in di-
ameter, and flattened ; it is very hard
and austere until decayed, when it
becomes of a pleasant acid sweet-
ness. The Dutch and Nottingham
varieties are best; but as the fruit
keeps only for a short time when
ripe, and is in no way handsome, it
is but little cultivated. The wood is
hard and tough, resembUng that of
the apple and pear. It is propagated
in the same way as these trees.

MEDULLA. Marrow, pith, the
pith of herbaceous plants. The me«
duUa ablongaia is the uppermost por-
tion of the spinal marrow, which is
sometimes called the medulla, and its
membranous coverings the medulla*
ry fheaiK. The same term is used in
tiotany to designate the vessels sur*
rounding the pith of exogenous plants.

MEDULLARY RAYS. The sil-
ver grain of wood, a prolongation of
the pith of trees from the centre to
the bark, in exogens.

40a

VXL

'MEDULLARY SUBSTANCE.
The white, internal portiona of the^
brain. MeduUary twnourg contain a
substance of the same appearance.

MEDULLIN. The pith of plants ;
the cellulose of Payen, to a consider-
able extent.

MEERS, MERES. Pools, lakes,
ponds.

MELASOMES, MELASOMA. A
tribe of hetert^merous coleoptera, of
a black or dark uniform colour.

MELASSIC ACID. The product
of heat and alkalies on solutions of
grape sugar : the acid of molasses.

MELIC GRASS. Melica. A ge-
nus of perennial, harsh grasses, but
little esteemed. M. speciosa is the
only indigenoos species: it grows
near Charlestown, South Carolina.
Some species are made into domestic
brooms and baskets in Europe.

M E L I LO T. TrifoUvm officinale.
"The melilotus, or honey-lotus of
botanists, so called from its smell, is
a tali, yellow-flowered annual. It has
loose racemes of small flowers, form-
ed like those of clover, of which it
was once regarded as a species.
The melilotus has long roots, and a
branching stem two or three feet
high. It grows wild in woods, hedg-
es, and neglected fields. When cul-
tivated in a dry soil and made into
hay, it has a powerful aromatic smell,
and, mixed in a small proportion with
meadow hay, gives it an agreeable
flavour. This plant is used in ma-
king the Swiss cheese called Schab-
zieger. It is ground in a mill, Und
mixed with the curd into a kind of
paste, which is put into conical
moulds and there dried.

*" The white or Siberian melilot (3f.
alba) rises several feet high, with a
strong, branching stem, often six feet
high. It was strongly recommended
by Thouin, in a memoir addressed to
the Agricultural Society of Paris in
1788, and has been tried occasionally
with some success by various agri-
culturists, without, however, having '
been so generally adopted for cultiva- ;
tion as might have been expected from \
the high encomiums passed upon it.
It will bear four eutlings in the year,

MEL

and prodaees a very great <piaatity'
of graen fodder. It should be cut b^
fore the stems become woody, and
thus it will continue several years in
the ground, although it is natnrally
only biennial. A light and moist soil
suits this plant best. It is thorough-
ly acclimated."

MELILOTUS MAJOR. Boldwra
clover. See Clover. It grows nine
feet high, but beeomes woody wiien
above two feet.

MELLIPHAOANS (from fu^
honey, and ^yut J etu). A family of
birds iTenuiroBiera), some of whom
feed on honey.

MELOE. A genus of ooleopterons
insects. The wings are wanting ; the
outer oases oval or triangular ; abdo-
men large. They crawl on the ground
and low plants, and are remaikable
for the blistering power they possess.

MELOLONTHIANS. TbefamUy
of coleopterans to which the May-bug,
or cockcbaflier, belongs {MeMantha
vulgaris).

MELON. Cueumia meh. An
Asiatic fruit, of the family CueurbUtk'
c«a, much improved by cultivation.
The best varieties are Skilhmtn'a nel^
ted, green-fleshed citron, green -flesh-
ed nutmeg, large yellow cantaleup,
green-fleshed Persian, pineapple, and
musk-scented. The first is, for the
most part, cultivated for the New-
York market. The varieties af mel-
on require a rich, sandy soil ; itsbouML
be well prepared and rich, a spade of
old dung being dug into the place
where the seeds are dropped. Sow
in shallow hills, five or six teet apart
each way, soon in May. Six to ten
seeds to the hill will be enough, one
ounce serving for 100 hills: plant
over in ten days, if the seeds fail.
They are to be managed like cucum-
bers, two or three plants being left in
the hill. When fine fruit is preferred
to great numbers, the branches should
be summer-pruned alter a few melons
are set ; otherwise, when many are
required, the first fruits, near the
centre, should be plucked oflT. The
fruit ripens in six weeks : it should
part from the stem readily, be veiy
fragmot, and well cracked or marked.

BiIBR

Nerer plant melons near other encnr-
httaceee, and keep choice kinds quite
separate. The Persians cover the
joiing melons with leaves and a little
earth, to obtain them larger and more
tender. An acre, well planted, will
produce 400 bushels of cantalenps.
Guano and a compost of fowl dung
are especially reputed as manures for
melons.

MELON, WATER. Cueurhita ei-
irullus. Varieties : New-Jersey, Car-
olina, dark-skinned Spanish, Good-
win's imperial.

They require a loose, dry, sandy
soil, made rich as for the muskmel-
on ; hills six to eight feet apart. An
ounce of seed serves for forty or fif-
ty hills. The skins make food pre-
serves with spices. The juice is fer-
mented into a beer in some parts of
Enrope : when boiled down to a
proper consistence, it makes a good
sirup.

MEMBRANE. The tissue or ex-
pansion of animal or vegetable mat-
ter surrounding the bones and lining
cavities. That lining the intestinal
andsurinary apparatus is mucous.
The fibrous membrane covers all the
bones and many muscles ; and the
serons tissue exists on the outer sur-
face of the lungs and intestines, &c.

MENDING. Improving the tex-
ture or quality of land.

MENISCUS. A lens, concave on
one side and convex on the other.

MENISPERMIC ACID. An or-
ganic acid in Cocetdus Indicus.

MENSTRUUM. Any fluid which
dissolves a given solid.

MENSURATION. The admeas-
aremeot of the contents of solids or
areas of surfaces.

MENTUM. The chin. The low-
er and anterior portion of the under
jaw of animals.

MENYNGES, Or MENINGES.
The membranes which cover the
brain.

MEPHITIS. A noxious vapour;
hence' mepbitic.

MERCURY. Quicksilver, fluid,
white, brilliant : sp. gr., 13*5 ; freezes
at — 40<> ; boils at 680®, rishig in va-
pour unchanged ; equfralent, 101*48 \

symbol, Hg. (Hydrargyrum), It to
soluble in nitric acid, and the oxides
combine with numerous acids. Cal-
omel is a chloride of mercury; cor^
rosive nLblimatt^ a bichloride, has been
used to preserve timber, and is one
of the most fatal poisons.

MERCURY, MERCURIALIS. A
genus of insignificant weeds.

MERIDIAN (from meridiem, mid.
day). A great circle passing through
the zenith of any place and the North
and Sooth Pole, on which the sun
comes at 13 o'clock. The magnetic
needle lies nearly in the meridian, the
departure from this line being called
its variation east or west.

MERINO SHEEP. See Sheep.

MESENTERY. The membrane
whieh binds the small intestines to
the back bone ; it is a ibid of the per-
itoneum, and contains the vessels,
nerves, and absorbents, going to or
from the bowels.

MESITE, MESITEN. Substances
existing in wood spirit.

MESITYLENE. An oily product
from acetone.

MESLIN. In Spain, a union of
flocks ; more commonly a mixture
of seeds sown together, as wheat and
rye, oats and pease, 6cc.

MESO (from fieffo^, middle). An
afilx to many compound words, mean-
ing the middle.

MESOCOLON. The membrane
surrounding the colon.

MESOPHYL (from fieiroc, and
^XAov, a leaf). The central layer
of the leaf ; we have also mesocarp,
the fleshy part of the fruit.

MESOTHORAX (fh»m fieffoc* and
^opa^t the chest). In entomology,
the posterior segment of the thorax,
bearing the second pair of wings and
third pair of legs.

MESOTYPE. The silicate of alu-
mina and soda ; it occurs in trap and
ancient lavas.

MESTA. A mixture of flocks.

META (from /uera, bettpeen). A
prefix to many compound words.

METABOLIANS. Insecte which
undergo oomplete metamorphosis.

METACARPAL. That portion of
the hand between the fingers and

Nvr

wrist ; meULimridi is tfae same part in
the foot.

METAGALLIC ACID. Gallic
acid chaDged by beat ; iu foimola is
C„ H, Oa

METALLOID. Potassium, sodium,
and other alkaline metals ; it ia some-
times applied to the inflammable el-
ements, as sulphur, phosphorus.

METALS. Elementary bodies, re-
markable for their lustre ; they con-
duct electricity and beat, and are neg-
ative electrics. The following table
gJTes their names, spedfio gravity,
and melting pmnts :

KametofMaUla.

Speriilc
GmYtty.

Meltinf
Poiau.

i^oAr.

1. Ooia ....

19^

«01C*

A 8ilT«r . ,

iiMr

1878

a^iflvtt . .

T»78

(4800?

) Smith's feiM.

4, Copper .

8«

l!Wd

&. Mercuiy

I3-fi6

-39

& LMd

n-M

«I«

7. Tin

7«

449

& Antimony

6-70

—

Ql Biamutli

««>

497

10. ZJoc

7-00

773

11. Araenie .

fi-as

M. CotMk .

•

88tO?

lai riaiioBm

S(HM

( ox^hydrogen
\ blowpipe

14. Kkkd .

8-87

8810/

1(. MiuifAneM

«•«

Smith's fer|«.

lai TuofMtra

I7'«0

. ■

17. Tellurium

«]i

620?

la. MoiybdMsm

T-<d

1 8

1(^ Uniniiup

(M»

90. Tiunium ,

5-30

ftl. Cbromium

—

9S. Coiumbiuni

89. PalUdima

II-SO

94. KlKMliam

tA Iridium .

fl0, Oaminni

ST. Cerium .

SS. Potuaiam

0-W

190

SOL fiodian .

190

ao. Banum .

St. Strontium

89. Calcium

. ,

S3. CaUmiura

8-60

44S

34. Lithium.

1 I

■ -I

a& Silibium.

96. Zirconium

■ - ■

ST. Alumuinm

1.. 1

'■«■

S8. Oluclnum

99k Tttriom.

■ »-

— ■

40l Thorium

■

4i. Vanadium

■MM..

METAMORPHOSIS (from ttera,
ehangtt and fiop^,form). Transform-
ation. In entomology, the changes
the metabolian insects pass through
of larva, pupa, and imago. In botany,
the doctrine that the floorers, sta-
mens, carpels, and seeds are modifi-
cations of the leaf.

METAPHOSPHORIC ACID. See
PkotphoruM.

METASTASIS (from /iera, ektmge^

and «r«tf<ci fUmt). Tlie ehmge of to
affection or pain from one part of the
body to another.

METAYER. A fanner whe rents
land at a certain proportion of the
crop, usually half, the owner finding
tools and animals.

METEOROLOGY (from fttrtopoc,
atrial, and Aoyof ). The science which
treats of the physical changes occur-
ring in the atmospheray the formation
of clonda, foga, rain, winds, and tiie
phenomena of lightning.

METEORITE, AEROLITE. The
masses of metallic iron eooaskMially
precipitated to the earth ; they am
supposed to be derived Irom the
moon: showers of many hundreds
have sometimes fallen together.

METEORS. The transitory ph^
nomena occurring in the air; thua,
auriul meteors are winds, tornadoes,
dtc. ; ajueotts meteors are rains, bail^
fogs; lummou* meteors are baios,
rainbows, lightning, northern lights.

METHEGLIN. Mead.

METHOL. A hydrocaihon, ob*
tained by distilliog xylite with sul-
pboric acid. ^^^

METHYL. A volatile, connbusti-
ble spirit, soluble in water, closely
resembling alcohol, is obtained from
wood, and containa this compound
radical, symbol Me. ; formula, C^ lU ;
it haa not been isolated. Numorous
compounds of methyl are known.

MEZEREON. Daph$fe wuzeram.
A highly ornamental shrub with pink
flowers, the spurge laurel : the whole
plant is poisonous. It is readily cul-
tivated, although exotic.

MEZZANINE. In architecture, a
low story introduced between twi^
taller ones.

MIASM. Malaria, infectious v»>
pours from marsbea, dec.

MICA. Isinglass, silver. J^ bright
laminated mineral of every colour,
elastic, and more or less transparent.
An ingredient in granite and most
ancient rooka, often occurring ia
large sheeu, and used as a subatitute
for glass. It consists of silica, 43 ;
alumina, 16 ; OMgnasia, 85 ; potash,
7^; manganese, iron, dta^ 9-6 in 109
p«ta.

109

UICA.SULTB. Atmnitmetate,

full of bright specks of mica mixed
with quartz.

MICROMETER. An iDatrument
affixed to mioroscopea and teleacopaa
for measuring the eioe of objiecta.

MICROPYLE. In botany, a amaU
hole over the apex of the nmcleus of
a seed.

UICROSCOSMIC SALT. Phoa-
phate of ammonia j&nd soda, used in
blowpipe analysis.

MICROSCOPE (fromAc^pof, MmaU,
and oKoireUf, I view). An optical in-
strument which enables us to see and
examine objects which are too mi*
nute to be seen by the naked eye.
Microsoopes are single or eompound»
according to the nature of their con-
struction ; a single microscope being
one through which, whether it con-
sista of a single lens or a oombina-
tion of lenses, the object is viewed
directly ; and a compound microscope
one in which two or more lenses are
80 arranged that an enlarged image
of the object formed by one of them
is magnified by the second, or by the
others i£ there are more than two,
and seen as i( it were the object it-
self. A single microscope is no more
than a magnifying glass.

MIDDEN. A dung heap.

MIDDLE RAIL. The central raU
of the door, on which the lock is
placed.

MIDRIB OF A LEAF. The cen-
tral coiieetion of woody fibres and
Teasels ; the prolongation of the leaf
stem.

MIDRIFF. The diai^ragm ; the
mnscle which divides the cavity of
the chest from the abdomen.

JFig.U

An annual, but may become peren<
nial by keeping in a hot-house during
winter and pruning.

MIGRATORY. Of the habit of
migrating or moving with the season
to the north or south, as numerona
birds and fishes.

MILDEW. This is a thin and whi-
tish coating with which the leaves
of vegetables are sometimes covered,
occasioning their decay and death,
and injuring the health of the plant.
It is frequently <6M»d on the leaves
of hop, pea, hazel, frait-trees, and
the white and yellow dead-nettle ; it
is found also on wheat, in the shape
of a glutiuous exudation, particularly
when the days are hot and the nights
without dew, J. Robertson {Hort,
Trans,, v., 178) considers it as a mi-
nute fungus, of which difibrent spe-
cies attack different plants. Sulphur
he has found to be a specific cure.
In cultivated crops mildew is said to
be prevented by manuring with soot ;
though by some this is denied, and
soot, by rendering the crop more lux-
uriant, is said to be an enoourager of
mildew, the richest parts of a field
being always most infected by it. As
it is least common in airy situations,
thinning and ventilation may be con-
sidered as preventives.

Liming, the use of salt, and saline
manures generally act as prevent-
atives. The varieties of mildew are
rosny, the Puecinia graminis being
that affecting wheat and grasses.
See Uredo. The ellbcts of mildew and
blight have sometimes been averted
by lighting fires to windward, so that
the smoke swept over the field, and

Fi£.9

Tt»

407

aoL

MIL

«l»o by dnwin; a lope tbioiigit tbe
fieid and moTing it acroM the wheat
or grain in the morniag when the dew
was on the plaats in dull weather.
One of the commoneat forms of the
white miJdew that covers leaves is
that of the AtpergiUtu {Fig, 1) .• a is
the plant enlarged. The mildew of
roots, whieh destroys potatoes, iie.f
is usually the Rhizocionia (Fig. 2).

MILE. 1760 yards. The sea mile
is l-60th of a degree, or 2085 yards.

MILFOIL. AehilUa miUefolium.
Yarrow. A eomrao»flowerittg plant
in meadows, marking a good soil.

MILIARY. Granulated, like many
small seeds.

MILK. The secretion of the mam-
mary glands, but especially that from
the cow. Its composition varies
somewhat, but averages per cent., of
curd or casein, 4*5 parts ; of butter,
3-2; milk-sugar, 4'8 ; saline matters,
'60 ; water, 86*9. The butter is held
in suspension in the milk, but sep-
arates when it is heated or much
shaken. The specific gravity of
fresh milk is 1-08. The flavour and
quality of milk vary much with pas-
ture and food ; it is also affected by
cleanliness. See Butter, Cheese, Caw.
Milk may be kept for a long time
sweet if heated in bottles to 180°
Fahrenheit and tightly corked while
the steam is issuing, and immediately
aller removing it from the fire.

MILK FEVER. Puerperal fever.
" Cows in high condition are most sub-
ject to this fever. This infiammato-
ry disease sometimes appears as ear-
ly as two hours after parturition. If
four or five days have elapsed, the ani-
mal may generally be considered safe.
On the appearance of the fever, from
six to ten quarts of blood should be
taken, according to the age and size
of the animal. The bowels must be
opened, or the disease will run its
course ; and purging once established
in an early stage, the fever will, in
the majority of instances, rapidly sub-
side, leaving the strength of the con-
stitution untouched.*' Calomel pur-
ges are best in the first stage.

MILK CELLARS. Dairy.

MILKING. «* When you milk,
408

taicA a VBMdofoold waterand sponge.
Wash the udder and teats ciean, dash-
ing on the cold water. This will pre-
vent the teats from becoming sere,
and the udder hot and feverish. Mific
with clean hands. The whole baei-
ness of milking is frequently conduct-
ed in such a slovenly maDser that
the milk is entirely unfit for food.
The cow should be milked while eat-
ing her fodder at moiniag and even-
ing. She should always be milked
and fed at the same time in the day,
and uniforaily by the same person.
Milk without interruption. Be sure
to milk the cow as dry as possible.
To be milked by different hands, at
dififorent times in the day, in a dow,
interrupted manner, and leaving part
of the milk in the udder, will ruin the
best cow in the world. If the cow
have sore teats, foment them before
milking with warm water, and after-
ward dress them with the following
salve : Melt together one os. of yel-
low wax and three ox. of lard, and as
these begin to get cool, rub in a quar-
ter of an OS. of sugar of lead, and
a drachm of finely-pounded aloes.'* —
(YouMtt.)

MILK SICKNESS. Trembles. A
frightful, contagious disease, attack-
ing the cattle of certain districts of
the Western States, more especially
Indiana and Illinois : one of the in-
fected districts lies for 100 miles
near the banks of the Wabash. The
animals are poisoned by some arU-
cle of food or drink ; their breath is
fo&tid, eyes blood-shot, gait stagger-
ing and wild ; when driven, they fall
into convulsions, and frequently die.
The milk, butter, cheese, and meat
of such animals are highly poisonous*
two or three ounces bringing on the
same disease in man and other ani-
mals in from six hours to four days.
In man it commences with foetid
breath, general uneasiness, lassitude,
loss of nervous power, vomiting fre-
quently with blood, loss of appetite*
constipation, loss of biliary secre»
tion, and, finally, all the symptoms of
low typhus fever, with nervous tre-
monrs and delirium, the brain and me^
nlDgea becoming inllamed : ttisveiy

MIL

ftjtal. The cheese and butter of the
infected districts are abondantly ex-
ported to St. Louis« JjonisTille, Ac,
and frequently produce fatai eflfects.
It is probable tbat the extensive pot-
eoning in this city (New* York) in the
spring of 1840 arose from cheese im-
ported thence.

The treatment is very donbtful,
but should proceed as in typhus fe-
vers, by sustaining the strength, and
allaying nervous irritability.

There seems to be much connex-
ion between this peculiar disease and
the maligTuint pusHtU, which aflbots
cattle in Europe, and occasionally
the seaboarcf-states, except only that
it is said to be strictly local in places
now infested, having been so for 100
years, as known to the settlers, and
there is no pustule produced.

MILK PARSLEY. SdinumpaliU'
tre, A perennial, herbaceous weed,
growing in wet places in Europe ;
the roots are acrid, and said to serve
the Russians for ginger.

MILK, SUGAR OF. See MUk.

MILK-TREE. COW-TREE. Pa-
lo de lechef Galaciodendron dulce. A
tree of Upper Sooth America (Carac-
eas), of the same family as the tig
< VrHcacete). The sap obtained by tap-
ping is precisely like milk, and very
palatable ; it contains a creamy matter
like bees* wax, hbrin, sugar, an acid,
salts, and water. Other trees about
Maracaibo yield good milk, as the
Clusea gttlaetodtudron. In the East,
at Ceylon, the Tahenuemontana utilis
also yields a good milk. The milky
juice of most plants is acrid, and oft-
en very poisonous.

MILK VESSELS. In plants, the
anastomosing tubes lying in the bark
or near the surface of plants, in which
a white turbid fluid is secreted ; they
are one of the forms of the vital veins
(laiicifenms) of Schultz, the fluid being
called the latex,

MILK VETCH. Plants of the
genus AMiragalus : they are legumi-
nous, wholesome weeds. The A.
batictu is cultivated for its seeds,
which resemble coffee.

MILK WORT. Plants of the ge-
Biia Pofygula, mostly annuals, with

pfelty Segomifioitt ilttimtt ; the fo«bi
are often medicinal, especially the P.
SenegOy or snake- root.

MILL. A machine in which va-
rious substances are crushed or
ground by a rotatory motion. See
GHsi Mill, Oil MUl.

MILLEPEDE. The thousand
feet ; tKe centipede.

MILLET. Several distinct plants
are known under this name, two of
which are much cultivated, viz., the
common millet {Panieum miliaeaun),
and the doura or Indian millet {Sor-
ghum vtUgare), Besides these, there
is a Polish millet {Bigiiaria sangui'
nahs), German millet {Selaria Gtr^
tntatUa), and Italian millet {S, Italica),
of which the Polish only is at all cul-
tivated now.

Common millet rises from three to
four feet high, is like a reed, and bears
a large loose panicle of seeds hang-
ing on one side.

" Cttto»rv.~This plant will grow
upon any soil of tolerable richness,
though it does best on a loam. The
ground should be prepared as for or-
dinary crops. The seed may be sown
broad-cast, and covered with the bar-
row. If sown early, the crop may be
gathered in August, though if sown
any time before the 25th of June it
will come to maturity. If seed is the
object, four quarts of seed to the
acre will be enough ; but if intended
principally for cattle feed, the quan-
tity of seed may be increased to eight
quarts. Birds are fond of the seed,
and devour it as soon as it begins to
ripen ; the crop should be, therefore,
cut before the whole has matured,
and while the straw is green. It may
be cut with a sickle, scythe, or cra-
dle, and should be housed as soon as
it is sufficiently dry.

** Product. — ^The product will be ac-
cording to the soil, and will vary from
10 to 30 bushels of seed, and from
one to three tons of forage on the
acre. It sometimes produces more
than a thousand fold return.

'* Use. — We have found it an excel-
lent substitute for corn in fattening
hogs, either ground or boiled, and its
early maturity renders it particularly

UMJUilMr tMs poxiioie. IlJ»asax-
ceUeot food for pouUry, pigs, and, if
ground, would probab^ be useful for
neat eattle and hones. The straw
is eaten freely by catUe, and both the
seed and straw abound in nutritious
matter."

Indian Millet. -^Thia plant yery
closely resembles broom com, ex-
cept that the seeds are collected to-
gether in a bunch at the top of the
stalk. It grows from five to seven
feet high ; the seeds are round, yeU
lowish, and easily . thrashed, it re-

Suites the same management as In-
ian com, but may be sown in much
closer drills. It often yields 80 l^ush-
ela per acre of seed, besides an abun-
dant straw. The grain is good fod-
der for horses, cows, pigs, and poul-
tiy, and fonns nearly the only Inread-
stuff of the Arabians. The meal is
very much like that of com. Eight
quarts of seed are enough for the
acre : it is sown in May on land pre-
pared as for corn.

MILLET GRASS. Afi/tiim. The
only species which appears to be cul-
tivated is the M. effiuum ; this is per-
ennial, from four to eight feet high,
with a loose, spreading panicle; it
very much resembles the panic grass-
es. If the seed is sown in the fall
broad-cast, and raked in, it will ripen
in the following July. It is indige-
nous.

MILL-STONE. See Buhr^Mtone.
Conglomerates, or sandstones, are
sometimes used for coarse purposes,
but should not be set up for flouring.

MILL-STONE GRIT. A geologi-
cal formation immediately under the
coal, and made of beds of coarse
quartzoze sandstone.

MILSEY. A sieve in which milk
is strained.

MILYINES. A family of raptorial
birds, of which the lute iMUvus) is a
member.

MIMUS. The genus of passerine
birds, of which the mocking-bird (If.
fdyglothu) is a species.

MINDERERUS SPIRIT. Solu-
tion of acetate of ammonia, a febri-
fuge.

MINERALOGY. Thescience]

wIdA has for its oloeot th* exam-
ination and description of minerals.

MINIM. A measure equal to a
drop of water : there are sixty mia-
ims in a fluid drachm.

MINIUM. Red-lead, used in
painting.

MINT. The genus Mentha, but,
especially, the M. viridis, or green
mint ; a well-known fragrant peren-
nial, of the natural family Labiatcit
used in juleps, with pease, 6lc. The
Jlf. piperita yields the valuable pep-
permint oil.

All the mints are creeping-rooted
perennials ; they rec^uire a rich, moist
soil, and, when cultivated for their oil,
are grown in beds with trenches be-
tween them for irrigation. Tliey are
propagated from pieces of stem, set
in rows six inches apart each way,
in April : the third year gives a fuH
crop, which is continued for five or
six seasons. The plants are cut as
soon as the flowers expand, and dis-
tilled while fresh, with a large quan-
tity of water, the essential oil pass-
ing over with the steam, and float-
ing on the cooled distilled water:
the latter forms the best peppermint
water.

MINUS. Less, distinguished by
the mark — , and used in physics to
designate quantities below a stand-
ard ; thus, all degrees of temperature
below zero (0) are minus, and read
minus 50, —-30, &c.

MIOCENE (from //eujv, less, and
icoivof, recent). The intermediate
portion of the tertiary epoch, in which,
some seventeen per cent, of recent
shells are discovered.

MIRAGE, FATA MORGANA,
LOOMING. An optical delusion, in
which ships and objects at sea appear
depicted against the clouds.

MIRROR. A looking-glass, spec-
ulum, or any polished surface, used
as a reflector* Mirrors are plane,
concave, or burning (magnifying),
and convex, or minifying.
MISCARRIAGE. See Abortion,
MISLETOE. Viscus album, vcrti-
ciUatum, Shrubby, parasitical plants,
growing occasionally on large trees.
Many fabulous virtues are attribu-

MOL

ted to it ; sheep are said to be very
fond of the leaves. The white ber-
ries make good birdlime, when pre-
{Hired.

MIST. Fotf.

MITES. Wingteas hiseets of the
genua Ae4irus, inhabiting animal mat-
ters in certain stages of decay. The
cheese mite is the Acanu domestkus.

MITRAL VALVES. The valves
of the left ventricle of the heart.

MITRE. In building, the janetion
of two pieces of wood, dtc, by cross
fitting.

MOCKING-BIRD. A species of
thrnsh. See Mimus.

MiXEN. A compost.

MOBILITY. Capacity for move-
ment, mobile.

MODILLON. An ornament, or
Bcroli, placed at intervals under the
corona.

MOHAIR. The ailky hair of the
Angora goat, used for camlets and
other costly stuflSi.

MOLARS, MOLARES (from molOy
c nuH). The grinding teeth, placed
behind the incisors.

MOLASSE. A soft, green sand-
atone, of the miocene epoch, found
in Switzerland

MOLASSES. The thick, dark
fluid which runs from the Muscovado
sugar ; it consists of uncrystallizable
sugar, an acid, aromatic bodies, and
water : when fermented, it yields
ram by distillation. But under this
name the reluse of the augar-house
Is also sold, a compound which is
more correctly called treacle. The
inspissated juice of the corn, maple,
dui., is also called molasses by some
persons.

MOLE. The American mole Is the
Semlops amuMeut, an animal distinct
IroBi tlie European {Talpa Europea).
Moles live in pairs, in rich soils
abounding in worms, slugs, and in-
■eets, upon which they feed : they do
raoch good in this way, and should
not be disturbed unless in great num-
bers. They floay be destroyed by set-
ting traps in their patha ; the trap is
BO more than a half cylinder of wood
made hollow, each end of which
alu>ttid be farniahed with a ring ooo-

MON

taining a noose, or loop, of horse hair ;
these are loosely fastened in the cen-
tre by means of a moveable peg, and
the hair stretched above the ground
by a bent stick capable of springing
up. As the mole passes, he forces
the central peg away when half
through the trap, and the spring above,
acting on the hair, draws it tightly
and strangles the animal.

MOLE CRICKET. Aeheta gryUth
talpa. Earth crab. A kind of cridc-
et, with a remarkable hand Uke a
mole, by which it burrows in the sofl ;
it devours the roots of plants, and Is
often very injurious to meadows:
when found, they should be killed.

MOLECULE. An atom not ca*
pable of being reached by mechani-
cal subdivision.

MOLE PLOUGH. A plough pro-
vided with a deep sharp foot beneath
the sole to penetrate the earth. Sed
Drtaning.

MOLE-TREE. Euphorbia laikynu.
Sparge caper, epurge. A bienniid
herb, the fruit of which, when half
ripe, ia pickled for capers. It is an
acrid plant, and viraa supposed to be
injurious to moles.

MOLLITES (from moUis, soft). A
disease of the bones, hoofs, &c., in
which they become soft, and often
flexible.

MOLLUSKS, MOLLUSCA. The
animals inhabiting shells, and those
of similar conformation, but without
that covering : they are of h>w or*
ganization, and cold-blooded.

MOLYBDENUM. A rare metal,
not used in the arts.

MOMENT, MOMENTUM. The
available force of a moving body at
any time ; its velocity multiplied into
its weight.

MONADELPHOUS, M0N0D8L-
PHIA (from fiovoc, one, and adsXfta,
a fraternity). Flowers in which the
stamens are united into one mass by
their filaments.

MONANDROUS, MONANDRIA
(from jtovoc, and a»np, male). Plants
or flowers having one stamen only.

MONAS, plural MONADS. A ge-
nus of extremely minute simple poly-
gaatiic infiiBiorials.

MOK

ICOO

M0I<7ILIF0RM Ravembttiiffa

string of beads. ,

MONKSHOOD. Aeoniium napd-
Uu, Wolfsbane, aconite. Handsome
perennial-rooted plants, with large
blue flowers, much cuHivated. They
are very poisonous and oarootic. An
extract of the leaves of monkshood is
used in medicine.

MON 0 ( from /tovoc, one, single). An
affix to many compound words.

MONOCHROMATIC (from /wvof,
and xP*^f^i colour). Having but one
colour, incapable of decomposition by
the prism.

MONOCHLAMYDEJS, MONO-
CHLAMYD£0US (from ftoviK, and
;tXa^vc. a ccat). Flowers with only
one envelope, or perianth, as the tu-
lip, lily. Those furnished with a ca-
lyx also, are called dtclamydeous.

MONOCOTYLEDONS, MONO-
COTYLEDONIA (from /lovor, and
KOTvXedunft lobe). Endogens. Those
plants and trees the seeds of which
have but one lobe, as grasses and
palms.

MONCECIA (from fiovoc% and oikoc,
a house). The twenty-first class of
Linnaeus ; plants which bear pistillate
and staminate fiowers, perfectly dis-
tinct, but on the same stem, as In-
dian corn.

MONOGYNIA (from ftovoc. and
7yM7, a female). Flowers with one
pistil.

MONOMERANS (from ftwoc, and
iitipoct a limb). A section of the co-
leopterous insects, in which the tarsus
is supposed to be formed of a single
joint.

MONOPETALOUS. A corolla,
the petals of which cohere into a tube :
aynpetaluus, gamopetalous.

MONOPHYLLUS. A calyx with
the sepals united. Monoseyalcus is
used to indicate the same form.

MONOSEPALOUS. With the se-
pals of the calyx united into one
tube.

MONSOONS. The periodical
trade winds of the Indian Ocean.

MONSTROUS PLANTS, MON-
STROSITY. Plants which by cul-
tivation or otherwise have become
changed from their original forma*

MONTANT. In bnOding, any op.
right piece in framing.

MOON. The common notions
of the operation of the moon on
changes of weather, dec, have been
often and fuUy proved to be errone-
ous : they are altogether destitute of
truth.

MOONSTONE. Adukria. Sem-
itransparent feldspar.

MOON TREFOIL. Medieago or-
borea. A species of medic.

MOON W ORT Botryckiumfuma*
roides. An indigenous, unimportant
fern.

MOOR. " A name given to exten-
sive wastes which are covered with
heath, and the soil of which consists
of poor light earth, mixed generally
with a considerable portion of peat.
The want of fertility in moors arises
chiefly from a deficiency or supera-
bundance of moisture, the subsoil be-
ing either too porous to retain it, or
too impervious to allow it to escape.
Both extremes occur in some moors,
which are parched up in dry weather,
and converted into a dark mud by any
continuance of rain. A considerable
portion of iron ia also generally found
in the soil of moors, which is rery
hurtful to the vegetation of plants,
except heath, furae, and other coarse
plants, which almost entirely cover
the moors. This iron is carried down
through the light sarfaoe-soil, and, if
it meets with a less porous earth be-
low, is frequently deposited in a thin
hiyer, cementing the particles of si-
licious sand, which are carried down
with it, and forming what is called
the keath'pan or moor'b€md. This aub-
stance is perfectly impervious to war
ter, and wherever it exists in a con-
tinous state, all attempts at improve-
ment are vain, till it is broken through
or removed. The roots of trees oc-
casionally find a passage through in-
terstices or fractures of the pan, and
then often grow luxuriantly. But
wherever young trees are plaatedi
without the precaution of breaking
through the moor-band, they invaria-
bly fail, and disappoint the expects
tions of the planter, who, seein? fine,
larjse troes growing aroaod, oaiuraUv

MOO

hnagiiied ih«i fbfl soil wwpecoUailjr
fitted fur them. If the stamp of a
large tree, which has been cut down,
is grubbed up^ pieces of the moor-
band may often be seen ail around
the stem, at a short depth below the
surface, so arranged as to show evi-
dently that the tap-root, hsTing found
an apertare» and extending its fibres
downward into a better soil, has, in
swelling, broken the pan and pushed
it aside. When the moor consists of
a loose, peaty earth of little depth in-
cumbent on a rock, as is the case in
many mountainous countries, no art
ean fertilize it. In dry weather the
whole suriace has the appearance of
a brown' powder like snuff, which be-
comes a spongy peat as soon as it
is soaked with rain. The hardiest
heaths and mosses alone can bear
this alternation ; and where the sub-
stratum of rock is not broken into
crevices through which the roots pen-
etrate, all vegetation ceases except
mosses and lichens.

" Mo9» land is often confounded
with moor ; but it is very distinct in
its nature. Moss land is produced by
the accumulation of aquatic plants,
and its origin is chiefly vegetable.
When it has a considerable depth,
and its substance has lost all power
of vegetation, it forms peat bogs of
more or less consistency, as the wa-
ter is drained off or retained in its
pores. In the latter case it appears
like a spongy vegetable mass« con-
sisting almost entirely of fibres, so
interwoven as to form a very light
substance, in which water is easily
Tetatned, which keeps up a kind of in-
ternal vegetation, by which the quan-
tity of the moss is gradually increas-
ed. This is the ant»tance which cov-
ers the surface of bogs, and where it
is of some consistence it allows a
passage over them ; but where it is
very thin and loose it deceives the
eye by an appearance of solidity, like
that of a smooth, green pasture,
which, however, gives way to the
pressure of the foot, and allows it to
sink through it with very little resist-
ance. The only way to improve
moss is to. drain it* and then convert

MOO

[ the rjBfeMle matter of wlitcfi it is
I composed into soil, by means of lime
and pressure. The latter is effected
by putting on a considerable quantity
of earth, especially sand and gravel,
which, incarporating with the moss,
consolidates it, and assists the lime
in decomposing the vegetalHe fibre.
After this it becomes extremely fer-
tile, producing abundant crops of po-
tatoes and oats ; and whenever it has
acquired sufficient solidity by the
treading of sheep and cattle, it will
produce good crops of wheat, or, if
laid down to grass, give abundance
of hay and pasture. Trees do not
thrive in mossy soil, there being too
little solidity for the roots, and the
large trunks which are' frequently
found in bogs must have grown be-
fore the moss was formed. This may
be easily imagined. A wood laid flat
by a storm or hurricane may obstruct
the natural flow of the waters, and
cause them to accumulate. The pros-
trate trees become surrounded by
aquatic plants, which spread their
fibres and roots freely through the
water, and, decaying, make room for
others. Thus the trees are gradually
covered and buried in the moss till
future generations find them, when
the moss or bog is explored for fuel
or for improvement. The trees which
are found buried in mosses frequent-
ly show evident signs of having been
gradually covered. The upper sur-
face is often decayed and uneven,
while the lower surface shows that
it has remained submerged and pro-
tected from the contact and influence
of the air, and has thus been preserv-
ed from rotting."— <W^- ^- Rham.)

MOOR-BAND PAN. The incrus-
tation produced in some ferruginous
soils. See Mom-. The pan may be
calcareous in limestone soils, and
when not very hard can be destroy*
ed by the subsoil plough.

MOOR GRASS. ScsUria dactylo-
ides. An unimportant Southern grass.

MOOSE. Cervus alces. The lar-
gest of the deer genus. They live in
troops in swampy places, and are con-
fined to the northern portions of the
States, and to Canada.

MOR

MOOSE ELM. The red elm.

MOOSE WOOD. Acer striatum.
The striped maple. This terra is also
applied to the Dirca palustrist or leath-
er wood.

MORAINE. The longitndinal
masses of stones and rubbish found
at the bases and along the edges of
great glaziers, or in places where
they have existed.

MORASS. Swampy moor land.

MORDANT. A substance which
unites chemically with the fibre of
wool, cotton, dec, and with the col-
ouring matter also, forming with both
insoluble compounds. See Cotton
Dyeing. Acetate of alumina, alum,
solution of tin, and pyrolignite of iron
(red liquor) are the most important
mordants.

MORDELLA. A genus of coleop-
terans, now the type of a family, Mar-
dellida. They are heteromerans, with
an elevated and arched body, low
head, thorax semicircular, or trape-
zoid, elytra very short, pointed at the
tips.

MOREL. MorehelU esculenta. Lat-
ticed mushroom. An edible mush-
room much esteemed in Europe,
where it is stuffed with force-meat,
and fried for the table. It grows in
woods, has a wide, hollow stalk two
inches high, with a yellowish or gray-
ish ribbed head, of small width, and
two or three inches deep.

MOROCCO LEATHER. The true
sort is of goat*s skins, tanned on the
grain side ; but sheep skins are often
sold. The skins are first steeped in
a fermenting mixture of bran and
water for a few days, worked on the
horse, steeped twelve hours in A'esh
water, and rinsed. They are then
steeped in lime-pits until the hair can
be removed, cleansed, and the sur-
face dressed with hard schist to ex-
pel the lime. They are then work-
ed on the horse-beam, and subjected
afterward to a species of fulling by
being agitated by pegs in a revolving
eask with water.

The skins are again immersed a

night and day in a fermenting bath,

worked, and salted for dyeing. They

are first mordanted by solution of tin

604

MOR

or alum, two skins being sowed to-
gether to make a bag to hold the fluid,
and the colour given by a solution of
cochineal, in cream of tartar and wa-
ter.

MOROXITE. A native phosphate
of lime of a mulberry colour.

MOROXYLIC ACID AnacH
found in the bark of the white mul-
berry-tree.

MORPHIA. The active narcotiO
principle of opium. It is extremely poi^
sonous : composition, 72-34 carbon,
6-36 H . 6 N., 16 3 oxygen.— (tfr*.)

MORPHOLOGY (from ^^,
form^ and Xoyoq^ a discourse). The
doctrine of the metamorphosis of
plants, from which it appears that pe-
tals, stamens, and carpels are merely
modified leaves ; that their position
and mode of development are similar
with that of leaves. A seed is also
analogous to a leaf bud.

MORTAR. " This is composed of
quicklime and sand, reduced to a
paste with water. When dry, it be-
comes as hard as stone and as dura-
ble; and adhering very strongly to
the surface of the stones which it is
employed to cement, the whole wall,
in fact, becomes nothing else than
one single stone. The bricks or stones
should be dipped in water before mor-
tar is added, otherwise it does not
adhere to them so perfectly. But
this effect is produced very imper-
fectly unless the mortar be very well
prepared . The lime ought to be pure,
completely free from carbonic acid,
and in the state of a very fine pow-
der; the sand should be free from
clay, and partly in the state of fine
sand, and partly in that of gravel ;
the water should be pure, and if pre-
viously saturated with lime, so much
the better. The best proportions, ac-
cording to the experiments of Doctor
Higgins, are three parts of fine sand,
four parts of coarse sand, one part of
quicklime, recently slacked, and as
little water as possible. The stony
consistence which mortar acquires is
owing partly to the absorption of car-
bonic acid, but principally to the com-
bination of part of the water with the
lime. This last ch'cunisiauce \a the

MOR

mOS

mson that, if to common mortar one
fourth part of lime, reduced to pow-
, der without being slacked, be added,
the mortar, when dry, acquires much
greater solidity than it otherwise
would do. This was first proposed
by Loriot; and afterward Morveau
found the following proportions to an-
Bwer best :

Parte.

Finft Mind 3

.Cfiment of well-bftkadbricki . . . . S

Slacked lime t

Unalscfced lime 9

The same advantages may be ob-
tained by using as little water as pos-
sible in slacking the lime. Higgins
found that the addition of burned
bones, in the proportion of not more
than one fifth of the lime employed,
improFcd mortar by giving it tenaci-
ty, and rendered it less apt to crack.'*

MORTAR, HYDRAULIC.
'* When a little clay is added to mor-
tar, it acquires the important proper^
of hardening under water, so that it
may be employed by the farmer in
places which are constantly exposed
to the action of water. Limestone is
found not unfrequently mixed with
clay; and in that case it becomes
brown by calcination, instead of white.
These native limestones are employ-
ed for making toater mortar ; but
good water mortar may be made by
the following process : Mix together
four parts of blue clay, six parts of
black oxide of manganese, and 90
parts of limestone, all in powder ;
calcine this mixture to expel the car-
bonic acid ; mix it with 60 parts of
sand, and form it into a mortar with
a sufficient quantity of water. The
bes^ mortar for reeisting water is
made by mixing lime with puzzolano,
a volcanic sand brought from Italy.
Morveau informs us that basalt, which
is very common, may be substituted
for puzzolano. It must be heated in
a furnace, thrown while red-hot into
water, and then passed through a
sieve."

MORTIFICATION. Gangrene ;
the death of a part of the body. When
it occurs in the limbs, a distinct line
of separation of a red colour may be

seen between the mortified and living
parts; the limb should be removea
as soon as possible above the healthy
part. Mortification of internal or-
gans, when extensive, is necessarily
fatal; when it comes on, there is
great loss of strength, freedom from
pain, usually a disagreeable or gan-
grenous odour, delirium, cold sweats,
and death. The lungs are most sub-
ject to gangrene, as a conseauence
of inflammation. Stougks and spha-
eelu9 are small portions of gangrenous
flesh removed from wounds.

MORTISE. The union of two pie-
ces of wood or other substance, by
introducing one into a hole made in
the other : the former is called the
icnon.

M O R U S. The generic name of
the mulberry, now often applied to
the Chinese, or M. muUicaulis.

MOSAIC WORK. Inlaying pave-
ments, walls, &c., with small dies of
different shapes, colours, and mate-
rials, more especially to represent
historical subjects.

MOSSES. Musci. In common
language, any minute, small- leaved,
cryptogamic plants. Thus, club-moss
is a lycopodium ; Iceland and rein-
deer mosses are lichens, and the nu-
merous species of Jungermannia are
all comprehended under the same
term ; but in systematical botany,
no plants are considered mosses ex-
cept such as belong to the natural or-
der Bryacea or Musci. Such plants
are simple-leaved, without spiral ve»«
seis or stomata ; with a distinct ax-
is of growth, and with the sporules,
or reproductive matter, enclosed in
cases, called sporangia or tbece, cov-
ered by a cap or calyptra ; they have
cases, called staminidia, containing
powdery matter. None of the moss-
es are of any known use, except for
the purpose of packing plants, and
surrounding their roots when they
are sent to a distance.

MOSS LANDS, or MOSSES. See
Moor.

MOSS IN PASTURES. See Mead-
ows, Scarifying and manuring with
ashes form the most ready method of
treatinir ti>i« defect.

605

IfOT

MOTH. Thfi perfect insect of an I

extensive class of lepidopterous in-
secU, furnished with scaly wings.
The household nuisances known un-
der this name are usually of the tribe
tineans ( Tineada). The clothes moth
is the Tinea vesHandla; the carpet
moth, T. tofUztUa; the furmotbi T.
pcUioneUa.

They lay their eggs in the spring,
and the moth dies immediately after ;
their eggs are hatched in 15 days ;
the white caterpillars begin at once
to feed on the fabric, coyering them-
selves with fragments .of its texture,
which they mould into a tube. With
these protections they move about
aU the summer ; in the autumn they
fix their habitation, remain torpid in
the winter, change to crysalids in
spring, and some twenty days after,
in May and June, come' out as moths
to lay their eggs in the evenings.

Preventives. — In spring bring out
all the clothing, feathers, dec, sub-
ject to their ravages, expose them to
the sun for some hours, taking care
to brush and shake them thoroughly ;
by this means the insects are dis-
lodged. When they are in the crev.
ices of walls, &c., all suspected pla-
ces should be reached with spirits of
turpentine or tobacco smoke. There
should be placed in clothes-drawers
camphor, tobacco leaves, pennyroyal,
and lavender; it is found, also, that
cedar wood is otfensive to moths.
Where there is no cause against it,
substances infested may be dipped in
boiling water, or a solution of corro-
sive sublimato, which is a violent poi-
son.

The Tinea graneiia sometimes at-
tacks stored wheat and other grains,
but they are destroyed by kiln-drying
at 180'^ Fahrenheit.

MOTHER- WATER. In chemis-
try, the solution from which crystals
have been obtained, and which furnish
a second supply when evaporated.

MOTION. " In mechanical philos-
ophy, motion is the change of place ;
that is, of the part of space which
the body occupies, or in which it is
extended. Motion is real or absolute
when the moving body changes its

606

MOU

place in sbsolnte space ; it -is relativt
when the body changes its place only
with relation to surrounding bodies ;
and it is apparent when the body
changes its situation with respect to
other bodies that appear to us to be
at rest. AU the phenomena of mo-
tion are derived by mathematical de-
ductions from the three following
laws of motion of Newton :

** 1 . A body must continue forever ia
a state of rest, or of uniform motion in
a straight line, if it be not disturbed by
the action of an external cause.

^ 2. Every change of motion pro-
duced by any external force is pro-
portional to the force impressed, and
in the direction of the straight tine in
which the force acts.

** 3. Action and reaction are equal,
and in contrary directions ; that is,
equal and contrary changes of mo-
tion are produced on bodies which
mutually act on each other."

MOTOR. Producing motion.

MOTTLED. MaeuUuut. Stained
with coloured blotches or dots.

MOULD. Finely divided soil, rich
in vegetable matter : it is to be dis-
tinguished from decayed leaves, dtc.»
which constitute vegetable mould or
humus.

MOULD-BOARD. The large
curved side of a plough, which turns
the furrow slice.

MOULDEB^RT, MOLLEBART.
A Flemish levelling machine, figured
in the article Barren Lands.

MOULDINESS, MOULD. MIL-
DEW. Minute cryptogamic plants,
of a grayish aspect usually, but of ail
colours, which appear upon damp
linen, cotton, and vegetable substan-'
ces, as bread; they belong to the
genera AspergiUtts, Mucar, and other
mucedines, and are to be avoided only
by dryness, and proper exposure to
the sun and dry air. The genera
which appear on plants, as the hop,
pea, dtc, are very numerous.

MOULDING. The curvedor
straight lines, or fillets, used in archi-
tecture, as decorations, or members
of the common orders.

MOULTING. Change of plumage.
It takes place annually for the entire

MOW

MUC

phrnia^, and also partiftHy wbera
feathers of new colours are produced.

MOUNTAIN ASH. Pyrus aucu^
paria. Rowan-tree. A handsome ex-
otic shrubbery- tree, with beautiful
tranches of red berries, which are oc-
easionally prepared by soaking in wa-
ter, and preserved as a sweetmeat.

MOUNTAIN LAUREL, Kahnia
latifolia. A handsome shrubbery
plant; the flowers are poisonous. It
sometimes grows to 15 or 20 feet.

MOUNTAIN LI.MESTONE. The
strata of this material immediately
below the coal measures.

MOUNTAIN MAHOGANY. Be-
tula UnU. The black birch.

MOUNTAIN RICE. OryxopgisM-
peri/olia. A perennial, native of the
South ; culm almost naked, leaves
rigid, erect, and sharp at the point ;
flowers in a panicle ; height 18 inch-
es : flowers in May.

MOURAT. A name given to the
brown wool of some sheep.

MOUSE. Several species of the
genus Mus, of the family RoderUit^.
They are the food of cats, the terrier
iamUy of dogs, hedgehogs, snakes,
and owls. Mice not only destroy the
products of the farm, but, when they
are shut out by well-made granaries,
gnaw the trunks and roots of trees,
doing much mischief to the orchard.
See Ficid Mice. Numerous common
traps are contrived for their capture.
The carbonate of barytes is recom-
mended in the Mark Lane Exjn-ese as
a poison in the place of arsenic ; a
drachm should be mixed in the food
for each mouse, which should also be
flavoured with oil of anise seed to at-
tract them. The removal of grain
stacks is a good occasion to destroy
mice and rats : let the stack be sur-
rounded at four feet by a few stakes,
some four feet high ; stretclf around
these either hurdles or a coarse can-
vass, so that the vermin cannot es-
cape underneath ; as the grain is re-
moved, they will attempt to run away,
and may bo killed by sticks within
the enclosure.

M O W. The mass of hay, straw,
grain, dec., put up to dry and be pre-
served.

MOW-BURNED. Injured by ieiv
mentation in the mow. Fodder, when
too green, heats rapidly, becomes
black, and acquires a bituminous
taste ; this is disagreeable, and some*
times injurious to cattle.

MOWING. The operation of cut-
ting down grass or other crops with
a scythe. The instruments used
are the commoji scythe, the cradle-
scythe where grain is cut, and the
Hainhault scythe and hook, which
answers for heavy crops. The op-
eration is extremely fatiguing, and
requires great strength and practice
from youth, as the body is swung
round in a very unusual manner.

MOWING MACHINES. See
Reaping Maehtnc*,

MOXA. A conical mass of calico
or linen, rolled tightly, and with a
base of half an inch or more ; used
to produce a sore on the skin in cer-
tain diseases. The moxa, being pla-
ced on the part selected, is set on
fire at the upper part, and, burning
slowly downward, acts as an actual
cautery. The sore is kept open by
being dressed with basilicon, savin,
and irritating ointments, and serves
as an issue.

MOYA. Mud poured out by vol-
canoes.

MUCIC ACID. An acid produced
by the action of nitric acid on gum
and sugar of milk. It is a white,
crystalline powder, feebly acid, solu-
ble in six parts boiling water, and
insoluble in alcohol. It is bibasic.
Formula, Cts Hs O^ + ^ ^O. It was
formerly called saccholactic acid.
Mucic acid is converted into the py-
romuoic by dry distillation, Cio H3 O^
-^ HO. Both these acids form chlo-
ro compounds with chlorine.

MUCILAGE. A thick solution of
gum in water. The ropy fluids ex-
tracted from certain plants by pres-
sure are also called mucilage.

MUCIVORA. A family of dipte-
rous insects, which feed on the juices
of plants and decaying matters.

MUCK. A vulgar name for peat,
marsh mud, and decaying vegetable
matter generally.

MUCOUS MEMBRANE. The

%07

membrame wMch lin« the noalh,
nostrils, exterior of the eyes, lungs,
stomach, intestines, biadder, and nri-
nary apparatus. It secretes an ani-
mal flnid, uiucas, by which it is moist-
ened and protected from the contact
of air and other substances. Irrita-
tions and inflammations are very
common, and do not extend so rap-
idly as in other membranes. They
are usually subdued by bleeding, ca-
thartics ; or special medicines, when
the lungB or urinary membrane is at-
tacked.

MUCRONATE. In botany, a leaf
or other organ, having a rounded ex-
tremity, tipped with a sharp point or
prickle.

MUCUS. The viscid, ropy secre-
tion of the mucous membrane. It
contains five per cent, solid matter
(albumen), and is azotized.

MUD. The fine particles of earth
and organic matters suspended in
rivers, &c., and deposited by subsi-
dence. When mellowed by exposure
to frost, and composted with one
bushel of lime to the cubic yard, it
makes a good amendment to loose,
thin soils, destitute of humua.

MUD WALLS. See Cottage*,

MUDAR. Calotropu giganUa.
An asdepiadeous plant, used medi-
cinally in serofola in the East.

MUFFLE. A semi-cylindrical
vessel of earthen- ware, capable of re-
sisting a high temperature, in which
crucibles are placed in assaying, and
by which means they are exposed to
a great heat without coming in con-
tact with the fuel. The upper, curv-
ed side, is usually cut into slits, to
allow the passage of reflected heat.

MUGWORT. Artemisia vulgaris,
A kind of wormwood. It is used in
decoction, as a weak stomachic bit-
ter,

MULBERRY. The genus Morut.
They prefer a moist, deep, loamy soil,
and good exposure. The mulberries
are readily propagated by layers and
cuttings put down in spring. The
black fruit (Jlf. nigra) mulberry grows
to a \^\ie size. The fruit is rather
sickly, and used as a sirop in medi-
cine. There is a red variety. The
608*

MUL

wood is ydlonr, ami tnlev^ly baitf ^

it is used in carving and turning.
The bark makes strong ropes, when
separated by steeping in water and
twisted. A common wine is made
from mulberries in sonoe parts of Eu
rope. The bark of the root is a ver
mifuge and cathartic.

The wild mulberry {Motum mhra)
of the United States yields smaUer
and pleasant fruit. The M. tartarica
of the north of Europe yields an in-
sipid fruit, which is, however, pre-
served, dried, and made into a wine
and spirit.

The M. tinctoria, or yefiow mulber-
ry, yields the fustic of commerce.
See FHgtie.

The white Italian mulberry (M.
aU>a) is a small tree of 15 to 20 feet,
and extensively cultivated in France
and Italy as food for silk-worms.
This tree has been mueh developed
and improved. From it the choice
Moretta, Provence, and Lombardy
mulberries, for silk culture, have been
obtained. The multicaulis, Broussa,
and Canton, with the hybrid multi-
caulis, are most suitable for sUk cul-
ture in the United States, especially
the last, which can be cut down to
the roots annually, and thus kept per-
fectly free of fW>8t, for sdl the mul-
berries are tender with respect to
climate. The Broussa and white
yield the earliest foliage, but that of
the latter is too small.

The paper mulberry {Brau»90tutia
pawrifera) is a tree of some 20 feet,
cultivated, in China and Japan, for
the paper which is made from the
bark of the young shoots. The bark
is steeped in water, then boiled,
washed, and beaten into a pulp ; this
|)ulp, being put into water, separates
like grains of meal ; to this a mnci-
lage from rice and the root of the
manihot is added, to give it consist-
ence ; it is then spread, pressed, and
dried. The juice of the tree also
furnishes a glutinous varnish, used
in gilding. The inner bark of the
same tree supplies the Otaheitans
with a white cloth. The multicau-
lis and other varieties, treated in the
aamo way, make a coarse paper ; the

MUL

HUB

(the pHlp is best prepsrad by stesm-

'"^^ULBERRY CALCULUS. A
etone of the bladder of the colour
and appearance of the mulberry fruit,
and consisting of oxalate of lime. It
is uncommon.

MULCH. Straw or litter half rot-
ted. Shrubs surrounded with it are
said to be mulched.

MULE. '«The well-known off-
spring of the ess and the mare, or of
the she ass and the horse. In the
latter case, the produce is called a
jennet, and is much less hardy, and
therefore rarely bred. The term
mule is generally applied, in the ani-
mal creation, in the same sense with
hybrid in the vegetable world, signi-
fying the intermixture of two distinct
species. Mules are very hardy ani-
mals, and therefore much used in
warm climates, where they are pre-
ferred to horses, either for the pur-
poses of draught or carriage. No
animal is more snre-footed or more
hardy ; but the pace of the mule is
<iisagreeable to those unaccustomed
to its action. The diseases to whieh
the mule is liable are few. He at-
tains doable the age of the horse,
and is much more easily maintained.
The mules of the -South of Europe
■are frequently very fine animals, 16
or 17 hands in height, active, hand-
some, and peculiarly patient of la-
bour, but very inferior in beauty to
the horse, particularly about the head
and tail. The importation of Span-
ish jacks has tended greatly to im-
prove mules, many of which, when
bred with care, are saiGciently thick-
set aad heavy for all those purposes
in which our largest draught-horses
.are employed.

'«To have large and handsome
mules, the mare shoald be of a large
breed, well proportioned, with rather
small limbs, a moderate-sized head,
and a good forehead; and the ass
should be of the large Spanish breed.''
They are incapable of propagation.

MULING. Hybridizing. See Hy-
orid.

MULLEIN. Verhaseumthapnu. A
«OMBm0n, bieimia], hagfi weed, with

yeDow llowe?B. They are readily
overcome by cultivation, and are usu-
ally seen only on neglected fields.
There are other species of Verbas-
cum, but they are unimportant weeds.

MULLION. The upright post or
bar dividing two lights in a window.

MULTIARTICULATE. A term
applied, in natural histoiy, to the an-
tennae, legs, dec., of animals or in-
sects which have many joints.

MULTIFID. Divided into many
segments.

MULTILOCULAR. Having many
compartments or chambers.

MUMPS. An irritation of the pa-
rotid and neighbouring glands, at-
tended with much swelling.

MUNJEET. A kind of madder
cultivated in the East. — (Ure).

MUREXIDE. A beautiful red prod-
uct of the decomposition of uric acid
by nitric acid. Murexan is formed
by dissolving murexide in solution of
caustic potass.

MURIACITE. A kind of sulphate
of lime, containing common salt.

MURIATES. Salts containing
chlorine, more properly called chlo-
rides ; muriate of soda is common salt.

MURIATIC ACID, SPIRITS
OF SALT, HYDROCHLORIC
ACID, MARINE ACID. The sub-
stance obtained in commerce is a so-
lution of the true gaseous acid ; it is
of a yellowish colour from impurities,
and at specific gravity 1-15 contains
30 per cent, of real acid : this fluid
fumes, possesses a disagreeable smell,
and is highly caustic ; it decomposes
carbonates rapidly, and unites with
most mineral oxides. The composi-
tion of pure hydrochloric acid is 1
equivalent chlorine with 1 hydrogen ;
its combining number is, therefore,
36-47: it is proco^d by distilling
common salt with sulphuric acid in
an earthen-ware apparatus, and re-
ceiving the rapour in water.

Munatic acid fonns soluble com-
pounds with many oxides, and is
hence extensively used as a solvent
in chemistry; the pure acid should
be colourless and yiold no precipitate
with solution of barytes. The pres-
ence of muriatic acid and chlorine is

fi09

MUS

detected by the peculiar curdy pre-
cipitate they yield with nitrate of sil-
ver, which ia soluble while fresh in
ammonia, but blackens by exposure
to light.

When muriatic acid acts on a me-
tallic oxide, there results a chloride
of the metal for the most part, the hy-
drogen of the acid and oxygen of the
oxide forming water.

MURICATE. Thorny. In zoolo-
gy, a surface armed with short conical
eminences, having a sharp apex.

MURIDiE. A family of rodents, of
which the mouse is a type.

MURRAIN. " A contagious, ma-
lignant epidemic, wjiich prevails in
Jiot, dry seasons among cattle, carry-
ing off numbers. It once used to
sweep off the horned stock of whole
districts. It principally appears in
marshy and woody districts, or where
draining has been neglected, or the
cattle have been exposed and half
starved. The disease is known by
the animals hanging down their
heads, which are swollen, by short
and hot breathing, cough, palpitation
of the heart, staggering, an abundant
secretion of viscid matter in the eyes,
rattling in the throat, and a slimy
tongue. The early sta^e of murrain
is one of fever, and the treatment
should correspond with this : bleed-
ing and small doses of purgative med-
icine will be serviceable. The pecu-
liar foetid diarrhoea must be met with
astringents, mingled also with vege-
table tonics. In combating the pus-
tular and gangrenous stage, the chlo-
ride of lime wiU be the best external
application ; while a little of it, ad-
ministered with the other medicines
inwardly, may possibly lessen the
tendency to general decomposition.
Above all, the infected animal should
be immediately removed from the
sound ones."— (Yiima// on Cattle.)

MUSACE.^. A small family of
tropical plants, resembling the ma-
rantacee, and including the plantain
{Musa sapientum) and banana {M. par-
adisiaea), which, together, yield the
greater part of the nourishment of
tropical America. The leaves are
also used for thatch, a&d the fibres of
010

MUS

the stem for cordage. The earioab
flowering plants called strelitzias are
of this family.

MUSOHEL-KALK. Shell lime-
stone, the strata belonging to the new
red sandstone series.
MUSCI. See Mosses.
MUSCIC APA. A genus of denti-
rostral passerine birds -, they live on
insects and small birds.

MUSCIDiG. A family of dipterous
insects, resembling the fly {musca).

MUSCLE. Fleshy fibres, suscep-
tible of contraction and relaxation,
and by which the phenomena of mo-
tion in animals takes place. They
are voluntary, or under the infiuenoe
of the will, and involuntary, as the
heart, the muscles of the intestines,
dtc. They are of a red colour when
filled with blood-vessels, but are nat-
urally white, and consist of fibrine,
surrounded by cellular tissue, and
supplied with nerves, &4s.

The lean of meats consists of mus-
cular fibre mostly; it contains about 28
per cent, solid matter, the rest being
water. The solid consists of 61 8
carbon, 7-6 hydrogen, 16-0 nitrogen,
21 3 oxygen, with sulphur and phos-
phorus, and 2 3 ashes per cent. It is
One of the most nutritious aliments.
MUSCOVADO. The brown moist
sugar as separated from the mo-
lasses.

MUSHROOM. A term commonly
used to designate the tribe of fungi,
toadstools. More correctly, the Agar-
tens campestrisj a mushroom wiUi a
white smooth cap, with flesh-colour-
ed gills, a pleasant odour, growing in
fertile meadows during the autumnal
months, and collected as a delicacy,
and for the manufacture of catsup.
Mushrooms are propagated fh>m
spawn, which is kept by the seeds-
men, or it may be collected in the
fhll in those places where the plants
abound : it resembles pieces of thread,
and is imbedded in earth or dung.
When kept quite dry, the spawn will
retain its germinating power for three
or four years. The following is chief-
ly from Loudon and Bridgeman :

" A mushroom bed is simply a heap
of animal diug and earth, so tern-

MUSHROOIL

pered as to be eapable of prodocing
and preserving spawn ; but, in order
to have fruitfal spawn at all times, it
should be so formed as to be always
at command. To this end, a quan*
tity of fresh horse droppings, mixed
with short litter, should be collected ;
add to this one third of cow dung,
and a small portion of good earth, to
cement it together ; mash the whole
into a thin compost, like grafting
elay; then form it ia the shape of
bricks, which being done, set them on
edge, and frequently turn them until
half dry ; then, with a dibble, make
one or two holes in each brick, and
insert in eadi hole a piece of spawn
the size of an egg : the bricks should
then be laid where they can dry grad-
ually. When dry, lay dry horse
dung on a level floor, six or eight
inches thick ; on this pile the bricks,
the spawn side uppermost. When
the pile is snugly formed, cover it
with a small portion of fresh warm
horse dung, sufficient in quantity to
produce a gentle glow through the
whole. When the spawn has spread
itself through every part of the bricks
the process is ended, and they may
be laid up in any dry place for use.
Mushroom spawn, made according to
this receipt, will preserve its vegeta-
ting powers for many years, if well
dried before it is laid up ; if moist, it
will grow, and soon exhaust itself.

*« Mushroom beds are often formed
in ridges in the open air, and covered
with litter and mats, so as to prevent
heavy rains exciting fermentation;
and sometimes in ridges of the same
sort under cover, as in the open sheds
of hot-houses. They are also made in
close sheds behind hot-houses, or in
houses built on purpose, called mush-
room-houses. A moderately warm,
light cellar is peculiarly suited for the
purpose in the winter season, as no
fire is necessary, and but little water,
the application of which frequently
proves injurious, when not judicious-
ly managed. Mushrooms may also be
raised in pots, boxes, hampers, &c.,
placed in wann situations, in old beds,
in pits with glazed frames, and in
dark frames or pits.

*<The general way of maUng minb>
room beds is to prepare a body of
stable dung, moderately fermented,
about a yard in thickness, more or
less, according to the size and situa-
tion in which the bed is to beformed ;
when the strong heat has subsided,
an inch of good mould may be laid
over it, and the spawn planted there-
in in rows five or six inches apart ;
after this is done, another layer of
mould, an inch thick, may be added,
and then a coat of straw. Beds well
constructed will produce mushrooms
in five or six weeks, and will con-
tinue to produce for several monthSy
if care be taken in gathering not to
destroy the young ones. As mush-
rooms are gathered, from time to
time, the straw should be spread
carefully over the bed.

^* Beds made in a convenient place,
where there is space all around, may
be formed so as to make four sloping
surfaces, similar to the roof of a
house -, this, by being spawned on
the four sides, will yield abundantly.
The celebrated Mr. Nichol makes his
beds without spawn.

" After having laid a floor of ashes,
stones, chips, gravel, or brickbats, so
as to keep the bed quite dry and free
from under damp, lay a course of
horse droppings, six inches thick.
These should be new from the sta-
bles, audi must not be broken, and the
drier the better. They may be col-
lected every day until the whole floor
or sole be covered to the above thick-
ness ; but they must not be allowed
to ferment or heat. In the whole
process of making up, the bed should
be as much expo^d to the air as pos-
sible ; and it should be carefully de-
fended from wet if out of doors.
When this course is quite dry, and
judged to be past a state of ferment-
ation, cover it to the thickness of
two inches with light, dry earth ; iC
sandy, so much the better. It is im-
material whether it be rich or not,
the only use of earth here being for
spawn to run and mass in. Now lay
another course of droppings, and
earth them over as above, when past
a state of fermentation : then a third

fill •

MUS

HUS

ooone, w)iicb, ia like manner, earth
all over. This finishes the bed,
which will be a very strong and pro-
ductive one if properly managed af-
terward.

" Observe that, in forming the bed,
it should be a little rounded, in order
ihat the centre may not be more wet
or moist than the sides. This may
he done in forming the sole or floor
at first, and the bedwould then be of
equal strength in all parts. If it be
Jnade up against a wall in a cellar,
^stable, or shed, it may have a slope
of a few inches from the back to the
front, less or more, according to its
hreadth. I have sometimes been con-
tented with two courses, as above, in-
stead of three ; and oflen, when ma-
terials were scarce, have made them
up slighter, thus : three four-inch
courses of droppings, with one inch
of earth between each, and a two-
inch covering at top. Sucli a bed as
this I have had produce for ten or
twelve months together ; but very
much depends on the state of the ma-
terials, on the care taken in making
it up, and also on the after manage-
ment.

^* The droppings of hard-fed horses
only are useful. Those of horses
kept on green food will, of them-
selves, produce few or no mush-
rooms. I haye made up beds from
farm horses, fed partly on hard and
partly on green food, and from car-
riage or saddle horses, fed entirely
on corn and hay ; treated them in the
•same way in every respect, and have
found, not once, but always, those
made from the latter most produo-
tive. Droppings from hard-fed horses
may be procured at the public stables
in towns, or at inns in the country,
any time of the year ; and if the sup-
ply be plentiful, a bed of considerable
dimensions may be made and finish-
ed within five or six weeks. In as
many more weeks, if in a stable or
dry cellar, or a flued shed, it will be-
gin to produce, and often sooner ; but
if the situation of the bed be cold, it
will sometimes be two or three
months in producing mushrooms.

" It may be necessary to state, far-

C19

ther, that extremes of heat* cold,

drought, and moisture should , be
avoided in the cultivation of mush-
rooms. If the temperature keeps up
to 50^ in the winter, the beds will be
safe, and the heat in the beds may
rise to 60°, or even 70°, without inju-
ry. Air, also, must be admitted in
proportion to the heat, and 60° should
be aimed at as a medium tempera-
ture. Water, when given a little at
a time, is better than too much at
once, sifler the spawn has begun to
spread, and the water for this pur-
pose should always be made blood-
warm. A light covering of straw
may be used to preserve moisture on
the surface ; and if the beds are made
in open frames, or otherwise subject
to exposure, the straw may be laid
thicker than on beds made in a cellar.

*' Should beds fail in producing
mushrooms after having been kept
over hot or wet, it may be inferred
that the spawn is injured or destroy-
ed ; but if, on the contrary, a bed
that has been kept moderately warm
and dry should happen to be unpro-
ductive, such bed may be well replen-
ished with warm water, and a coat
of warm dung may be laid over the
whole. If this does not enliven the
bed after having lain a month, take
off the earth, ai;^ if, on examination,
there is no appearance of spawn, the
whole may be destroyed ; hut if, on
the contrary, the bed should contain
spawn, it may be renovated by cov-
ering it again, especially if any small
tubercles be discernible ; if the heat
should have declined, the spawn may
be taken out and used in a fresh bed.
If beds be formed in hot-bed frames -
under glass, some mats or straw must
be laid over the glass to break off the
intense heat of the sun."

If any accidents arise from eating
improper mushrooms, vomiting, by
means of a mixture of salt and wa-
ter, should be encouraged.

MUSKMELON. The common
yellow melons, of little flavour, and
unworthy of cultivation. See Melon.

MUSQUITO, MOSQUITO. In
sects of the genus Culez, armed with a
sharp proboscis, by which they pieroe

the sktD. Tbej ■bound in damp pla-

MUST. The fresh juice of the
grap« before fenneniation. Other
jutces capable of fermentation.

MUSTARD. Two species are cul-

tirated, both annuals; the Smapit
alba (a), for salad, oil, as ao ingredi-
sDt in pickles and medicLne; and S.
nigra (i), or btack mustard, for the
onndiDienl known bj that name. For
•alad, the seeds are sown very tiiick
in rows of two or three inches wide,
•ad the crop cut while in the aeoond
leaf. It grows np in a Tew days, and
may be sown anj lime during the
•aesBon, if welt watered and sheltered
from the hot sun.

For a field crop (he soil should be
fine, rich, and loamy, deeply plough-
ed, rather moist and light (ban oth<
erwise. The seed is sown thinly,
broadcast, in April or May ; two to
three gaUons are used per acre. The
plants are hoed in the fourth leaf,
aad, to keep down weeds, thinned to
eight or twelve inches apart, and col-
lected as soon as the poda have
changed frotngreen. It ma; be sown
in drills two feet apart, and twelve
inchaa in the row. It mast be well
dried before thrashing, which is done
hy a flail It ought nut to be exposed
to rains. A good crop is Iwenty-four
to thirty-two buahels per acre, which
will bring from <T0 to tlOO, at eight
cents the pound fbr se«d. In the

I though the black is best ; they b-.
presseii between rollers, and ground
in a mill set apart for the purpose,
and si/led and screened as fine dour.
The pungendy of mustard, by which
it raises blisters on the skin, is due
to a Tolatile oil containing sulphur,
which is not originally present in tlio
flour, but results from the action of
the moistened emulsin {myroryTie)
of the seeds upon a peculiar acid
present, to which the name of my-
ronic acid has been given. The ae>
cret of making good flour, therefore,
consists of keepiuglhe whole perfect-
ly dry from tlie seeds to the lime of
sale, otherwise the changes which
produce the active principle will have
taken place before it is wanted. Vin-
egar diminishes this change, and
ahould not be used with mustard : te-
pid water ia the proper fluid to mix
up the condiment, or make the irrita-
ting poultice. The seeds of many
cruciferous plants are occasionally
substituted for the true mustard.

The white mustard yields a bland
oil in large quantity, from tweoiy-fivo
to thirty per cent, by expression. The
cake is employed as a good manure.
The black species is also sown in
borders around seed beds, to protect
them from the black flies (haliica).

MUSTELLA. The genus contain-
ing the weasel and other. vermin
quadrupeds,

MUTAGE. A process to stopthe
fermentation of must. His practised
either by diSusing sulphurous acid in
the cask into which the liquor is rack-
ed by burning sulphur matches, or by
adding a little sulphite of lime to the
must : the latter is the best.

MUTICUS. Beanlless, without
vns, or aritliz.

MUTTON, The flesh of the sheep.
The best meat ia that ft'om wethers
three to Ave years old, of tbe-Soutb
r improved Leicester breed.
The spayed ewe five years old is also
said to make equally good neat. The
ofTal of a well-made animal with fine
bone should not exceed one third of
the live weight.

S13

NiEV

NAP

MUZZLE. The nose of an animal.
A kind of halter fastened over the
nose to prevent an animal from biting.
Muzzle of a plough is the end of the
beam to which the clevis is attached.

MYCELLA. The young, floccu-
lent filaments of fungi.

MYOLOGY (from fivuv, a muscle^
and Xoyoci <i discourse). An account
of the' muscles of the body.

MYOPS. Shortsightedness.

MYRIAMETER. Ten thousand
metres, equal to two leagues.
. MYRICIN. That portion of war
which is insoluble in alcohol.

MYRISTICACE^. A famUy of
tropical trees, exogens, containing the
nutmeg. They are nearly allied to the
laurels.

MYRONIC ACID, MYRON-
ATES. An acid existing in crucif-
erous seeds, and containing sulphur.

MYROBALANS. A bitter, aus-
tere fruit, used in India in calico dye-
ing and medicine.

MYROSYNE. A substance re-
sembling emulsin, or caseum, in mus-
' tard seeds.

MYRRH. An odoriferous gum
resin imported from the East, and
supposed to be the product of a spe-
cies of Amyris. Sweet cicely is some-
times called by this name.

MYRTACE^. A faroUy of small
trees and shrubs, particularly devel-
oped in tropical climates, and yield-
ing the pimento, cloves, guava, caje-
put, and other aromatic products.

MYRTLE. Myrtus communis. An
evergreen, fragrant bush with white
flowers. It is a Southern plant, and
requires protection from frosts.

MYRTLE BILBERRY. The
whortleberry.

MYRTLE, DUTCH, or SWEET
GALE. Myrieagale. A sweet-scent-
ed, swamp shrub, three or four feet
high, bearing waxy berries.

- N.

NACREOUS. Reflecting irides-
cent light, like pearl.

NACRITE. A pearly mineral
Silicate of alumina and potash.

NiGVUS. A natural mark or
Uot^ on the akin.
514

NAG. A small liorse.

NaILS. The horny extremities
of the skin, modified into claws, tal-
ons, hoofs, &c. They are of the same
composition as hair, and jrield an
equally valuable manure. 100 lbs.,
during decomposition, yield 20 lbs.
of ammonia. Tbey are best in com-
posts, at the rate of 300 to 400 Iba.
to the acre, and show their etTecU
for several years. The composition
of horn gives that of nails, hoofs,
&c., 52 carbon, 6-7 hydrogen, 17-3
nitrogen, 24 oxygen and sulphur, with
less than one per cent, ashes, in 100
parts. All these textures are used
in the manufacture of glue.

NAKED. In botany, without the
customary covering, as a stem with-
out leaves, corolla without calyx, Ac.

NAKED DISEASE, PELT ROT,
HUNGER ROT. A disease of sheep
poorly kept, in which the wool, and
sometimes the horns and hoofs, drop
off. It is to be remedied, if taken in
time, by shelter and good food in suf-
ficient quantity.

NAKED FLOORING. The tim-
ber-work of the floor.

NANKIN, NANKEEN. A buff
colour. Calico may be dyed of this
colour by the following means : Take
300 lbs. of yarn, scour and boil in pure
water, wince the hanks in an aiam
bath containing 2 lbs. of alum to 96
gallons of water at 165° Fahr. ; drain,
expose to the air, rinse in pure wa-
ter, and wring. Boil 40 lbs. of oak
bark, contained in a canvass bag, for
two hours, in 100 gallons of- water;
wince the cotton tbrou^ the boiUng
bath a quarter of an hour ; while it it
draining above the bath, add 28 ounces
of alum ; and, when it is dissolved,
wince through again for a quarter of
an hour ; drain, wring, and expose to
the air. It is now of a yellowish col-
our. Make a clear limewater bath
of about 150 gallons, or aVeak soda
lye ; dip the hanks, without washing,
into it rapidly three times ; then
move each hank separately in the
bath until it is of the proper colour ;
squeeze, rinse, and zM them, and,
finally, brighten by passing them
through a weak solution of tin.

NAT

NBA

NAPHTHA. Ahighlj-inilamroable
fluid, of a peculiar odour, sp. gr. 0-75,
which exudes from the earth in some
places. A similar. fluid is distilled
from wood tar, and called wood naph-
il a. It is used as a solvent of India
rubber.

NAPHTHALINE. A white, crys-
talline, volatile product of the de-
^BtTucti/e distillation of pit coal.
Naphthalic acid, naphthalamide, &c.,
are derivatives.

NAPIFORM. Turnip-shaped.

NARGEIA. A vegetable alkaloid
from opium, producing salts of a blue
colour. Little is known concerning
its effects.

NARCISSUS. Ornamental bul-
bous flowers.

NARCOTICS. Anodynes. Dmgs
which produce sleep, drowsiness, and
allay pain. Opium, henbane, tobac-
co, camphor, stramonium, ^c, are
of this kind.

NARCOTINE. A vegetable alka-
loid existing in opium, to which its
stimulating effects is due.

NARES. The nostrils.

NASCENT. In the act of being
produced or evolved. A chemic^
phrase given to the evolution of gas-
es from fluids, at which time they
are more fitted to unite with other
bodies. Hydrogen, nitrogen, and oth-

in Mexico near Zacatecas, and in Co-
lumbia forty-eight miles from Merids.
That of Fezzan is called Trona^ and
the Columbian Urao. All these lo-
calities are either in lakes or on the
sites of ancient lakes. Egyptian na-
tron consists of 22-44 carbonate of
soda» 18 35 sulphate of soda, 38.64
common salt, 6-0 insoluble matter,
and 140 water : trona, of 66-75 car-
bonate, 7-65 sulphate, 2-63 salt, 24
water, 1 insoluble matter.

NATURAL HISTORY. A de-
scription of natural objects, as ani-
mals, plants, insects, nshes, miner-
als,^fossils.

NATURAL ORDERS OP
PLANTS. Natural system ofjussiat.
Groups of plants havmg a close sim-
ilarity in internal organization, and
frequently in external characters and
properties. -

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.
Physics, mechanical philosophy. The
science which investigates the rae-
ofaanical laws of nature ; and the rela-
tions of weight, movement, pressure,
or of mechanical forces in masses.

NAUCA. A seed in which the
scar of the hilum occupies a third of
the surface.

NAUSEA. A feeling similar to
that preceding the act of vomiting.

NAVE OF A WHEEL. The hub,

er gases, in the aeriform state, com- the block in the centre of the spokes,

bine only slowly with substances,
but when nascent enter readily into
union.

NASTURTIUM. Cress, Indian.

NASUTA (from nasus, the nose).
A prolongation of the mu^e into the
form of a nose.

NATANS, NATANT, NAYANT.
Floating or swimming.

NATATORY. In zoology, when
the feet or tail ^are provided with a
membrane or hairs to repel or dis-
place water, and buoy up the insect
or animal.

NATRIUM. Sodium. See Soda.

NATROLITE. A fibrous, yellow-
ish mineral. Silicate of alumina and
•oda.

NATRON. Soda. Impure, native
sesquicarbonate of soda, found in
Egypt, Fezzan, Tartary, Hindostan,

which receives them. It is bound by
two nave-bands of iron on the outside,
and contains in the inside an iron box
or washer, to save the friction of the
axle.

NAVEL ILL. See Calf.

NAVEL- WORT. The American
plant is Hydrocotyle umbeUatOt and a
water weed.

NAVEW. Brassica eampeHris,
The wild plant is a native of Eng-
land: in the cultivated form it is
known as colza and rape.

NAVICULAR (from naois, a ship).
Having the figure of a ship's body. It
is applied to the nut bone of the foot,
as well as to the form of seeds, dee.

NEAT CATTLE. Horned cattle,
oxen.

NEAT'S-FOOT OIL. The fat oh.
tained by boiling calve's feet.

616

KER

NEBULA. A cluster of smallataFS
appenring like a minute cloud.

NECK, COLLUM. In plants, the
space between the stem and roots,
often swollen in sii&e. The neck of a
capital is the space above the shall
between the ring {annulet) above, and
•the astragal at the'top of the sl^afl.

NECROPHAGANS, NECRO-
PHAG A (from vexpoct dead, and ^ayw,
/ eai). A family of clavicom beetfes,
some of which li^e on decomposing
animal matters.

NECROSIS (from vcKpoeiv, to de-
stroy). A disease, reseroUing^ morti-
fication, of the bony structures. In
plants, the term means the rotting of
the part.

NECTARY, NECTARIUM. The
part of a -flower which secretes hon-
ey. It is usually an appendage of
the petals or disk.

NECTARINE. The smooth peach.
See Peach.

NEGATIVE SIGN. Minus, or
— . It is employed to denote quan-
tities or measunes below a standard.

MOT

um, a hetotiftil eTeisresn of India,
affords some indigo from its leaves.

NEROLI, OIL OF. The distilled
essential oils of orange flowers.

NERVES. The white, thread-
like fibres which, proceeding from
the brain or spinal marrow, ramify
throughout every part of the bodies
of the higher animals. They con vey
impressions from and to the brain,
preside over the functions of the dif^
ferent organs, and regulate motion
and the senses. Nerves can hardly
be said to be absent in any animals,
although they become extremely ru-
dimentary in many. Chemically, ner-
vous matter consists of seven parts
albumea, five fatty matter, and eighty
water. The fat is peculiar, contain-
ing phosp^horus.

Most diseases affecting the whole
body are accompanied, or commence
in an impaired state of the nervous
system, which presides over health.
Nerves are said to be cerebral when
they proceed directly from ihe brain ;
there are nine pairs of these, and

NELUMBIUM. A marsh plant of they preside over the senses, llie

China, the seeds of which, of the size
of an acorn, are eaten green, or pre-
served as sweatmeats, and have a
nutty flavour. The succulent roots
are also eaten raw as a fruit, or boil-
ed as a vegetable.

NEMOCERA. A family of dipte-
ra, with filiform aotennfle.

NEMOGLOS^ATA. The bee
tribe, and those hymenoptera which
liavc « long, thread-tike tongue.

NEMOROSE. NEMOROSA. Be-
longing to the woods.

NEP. Catmint.

NEPHRITE. A toii|^, greeaish
mineral, used to manu&ture orna-
ments. A siiieate of alumina and
megnesia with iron.

NEPHRITES (from ve^poc). In-
flammation of the kidney. Bleeding,
warm baths, purges, dihients are

NEPTUANIAN THEORY. The
theory of Werner, that geological for-
mations were dae to aqueous causes.

NERIUM. A genus of important
Eastern plants. N. antidyserUericum
aflTords the codaga bark *, N. tiwUari-
616

nerves arising from the spinal mar-
row are termed spinal ncrces, and di-
vided into cervical, dorsal, lumbar,
and sacral. They preside over mo-
tion and ordinary sensation, as well
as the functions of the lungs, stom-
ach, liver, and other viscera. The
^eaJl aympatfietic nerve is a series of
junctions between the spinal nerves,
and is connected with the brain ; in
its course, small masses of a reddi^
colour occur, called ganglions : it
renders the functions of the different
organs uniform. A plexus of nerves
is a net-work formed by the union of
various filaments.

NERVES, or NERVURES. lo
plants, the ramifications of woody
tissue and vessels seen upon leaves,
flowers, &c. TThey support the cel-
lular tissue of the leaves.

NETHERLANDS, HUSBANDRY
OF. See Flanders.

NETTED. Reticulated, marked
like the meshes of a net.

NETTLE. The genus Urtiea^
herbaceous and shrubby plants, often
furnished with stinging hairs : thi»ir

NEW

tarniog is lessened byvincfar and

oil. A renoet is made by adding sale
to a strong decoction of nettles. Ass-
es eat the common nettle, and sonEie-
tlmes the boiled sprouts are used as
Tegetables The commonest sting-
ing species are U. dioica^ urens^ Can-
a^nsiSf and procera. The common
nettle {dioica) is a troublesome peren-
jnial weed in cultivated lands, and re-
'quires to be ploughed out by tillage.
The U. niwa and cantiabina yield fine
hemp. The U. dmoAentiM, Canada
or Albany nettle, grows six feet high,
is indigenoos, perennial, and has been
recommended as a hemp plant. It is,
however, covered with stings.

NETTLE-TREE. The genus Cel^
tist amentaceous trees. The princi-
pal American species is the C. occi-
dentalism the sugar or pompion berry.
It is seldom twenty feet in the Mid-
dle States, but becomes seventy on
the Savannah. It is ornamental, with
small, white flowers, and sweet, red-
dish fruit.

NETS. They are useful in the or-
chard and garden to protect seed and
frujit from birds.

NEURALGIA. Pain of the nerves.

NEURILEMA. The covering of
the nerves.

NEUROPTERA. Insectswith
four netted wings. See Iruectt.

NEUTERS. Infertile animals or
plants, having neither stamens nor
pistils.

NEUTRAL, NEUTRALI-
ZATION, NEUTRALIZED. The
combination of an acid with an allca-
li, or of two active bodies together,
by which the properties of either are
perfectly destroyed. The addition
mnst be made in the proportion of
their equivalents to produce neutral
ODDqK>unds.

NEUTRAL SALTS. Salts which
betray neither an acid nor alkaline re-
action.

NEWEL. In building, the space
aroond which a flight of steps is
turned.

NEW-JERSEY TEA. Ceanothut
Americana. A common marsh shrub
with fragrant bunches of flowers. It
was used in the Revolution for tea.

NID

NEW HUSBANDRY. The drifl
and horse-hoe husbandry.

NEW RED SANDSTONE. The
series of strata lying immediately
above the coal formation. It con-
sists of conglomerates, and contains
marl, gypsum, and large quantities
of rock salt. It is found abundantly
in New-York, the Valley of Virginia,
and of the Connecticut.

NEW ZEALAND FLAX. Pkor-
mium tenax. Iris-leaved flax lily. It
grows with broad, stiff leaves, like
those of lilies, the fibres of which are
readily obtained by rotting. They
are of extraordinary strength, and
used for fishing-lines, cordage, and
coarse cloth. It requires a warm
climate for successful cultivation.

NICARAGUA WOOD. The dye-
wood of the Ccbsalpina cchiJiaUif a tree
of South America. The red colour
is fugitive with solution of tin.

NICHE. A recess in a wall for a
statue.

NICKEL. A rare white metal,
like iron. Its salts are green for the
most part. It exists in meteorio
stones.

NICKING AND DOCKING.
Pricking. Cutting off part of a horse's
tail, and making nicks on the under
side, to divide the two cords which
draw down the tail ; this causes the
stump to stand out in what a stable-
boy supposes a graceful fashion. It
is nearly obeolete.

NICOTIN, NICOTINA. An ac-
rid, soluble, Yolatile alkaloid found
in tobacco. It combines with acids,
and forms salts. It is very poisonous.

NICOTIANIN. A fatty, volatUe,
azottsed body, insoluble in water,
formed during the fermentation of
tobacco in preparing for the market,
and to which its odour is due. It is
poisonous, especially to insects and
reptiles.

NICTITATION. Winking. The
movement of the membrane covering
the eyes of birds and some animals,
called the membrana nicHtane.

NIDUS. A nest. A suitable po-
sition or matrix for development.
Nidulue and mdulate are deriva-
tives.

517

NIG

NIGER. Black. NigrescerU, grow-
ing black. Nigricufu, blackish, sooty.

NIGHTSHADES. The genus So-
tanum. They are mostly perennial or
shrubby, of the family Sdanaceat the
fruit and leaves being often poison-
ous, especially in the 5. nigrum, and
dulcamaroy or bittersweet. They are
common weeds in moist, cultivated
grounds. The deadly nightshade is
the Alropa beUaAonna. The potato,
egg fruit, and tomato are of this genus.

NIGHT SOIL. The contents of
privies. It is a very valuable manure
for all crops. In the fresh state it is
applied at the rate of six to twelve
cart loads the acre; but this is an
unpleasant and wasteful application.
It may be dried, and rendered ino-
dorous by union with charcoal, char-
red peat or broken peat, coal ashes
or fine mould, and drying by expo
sure to the air. This forms one kind
of poudrette. It is best treated with
charcoal powder, gyp^um, or very
small quantities of green vitriol, the
sulphuric acid of which fixes the vol-
atile ammonia. Quicklime and un-
leacbed ashes are objectionable addi-
tions, as they liberate the ammonia
and cause loss. The most econom-
ical method, so far as the soil of the
farm is concerned, is to keep pound-
ed charcoal and a little gypsum in the
cess pool, so as to have it ready for
use as soon as removed. Drying
night soil in the air, without any ad-
dition, is wasteful ; for fermentation
comes on rapidly, and great loss of
amrooniacal matters arises. For the
Flemish method of using night soil,
see Flanders Husbandry.

Night soil is a mixture of urine and
faeces, and, as such, must vary in
composition, and has never been ex-
amined. The faeces and urine sep-
arately were analyzed by Benelius,
who found the composition of the
fipces to be as follows ;

ltd mains of food 7*0

Bite 0-9

Alhumen 0-0

A peculiar extractive matter 3*7

laUsteriuinate animal matter, viscous mat-

ter, resin, and an iuaolnble residanin . 14*0

Salu It

Water 73 3

lOU-0

•

The salts had the foHowing com-
position :

Carbonate of sods 29*4

Chloride of sodiam ........ S3*5

Sulphate of Buda 11-8

AmrooDioco-magnesian phosphate . . .11*8
Phosphate of lime .• • • ^'^

Fdo^

Human urine is one of the most
powerful of all manures. Led to it-
self, it speedily undergoes putrefao*
tion, and evolves an abundance of am-
moniacal salts. Its composition is :

Urea , 3*01

Uric add 0*10

Indeterminate animal matter I .^
Lactic acid, and lactate of ammimMi f '

Mucus of the bladder O-QS

Salphata of potash 0*37

Sulphate of soda 0*3S

Phosphate of soda . 0*90

Chloride of sodium 0*45

Phosphate of ammonia 017

Chlornhydrate of ammonia 0-lS

Phosphate of lime and of magnesia . . 0-10

Silica traces

Wnter 8330

. lOUOO

The phosphates of lime and mag-
nesia which it contains are extreme-
ly insoluble salts, and have been sup-
posed to be held in solution by phos-
phoric acid, lactic acid, and very re-
cently, by Professor Liebig, by hip-
puric acid, which he now states to
be a regular constituent of healthy
human urine.

From the interesting inquiries
upon urine made by M. Leoanu, it
appears that a man passes nearly
half an ounce of azote with his urine
in the course of 24 hoars. A quan-
tity of urine taken from a public urine
pail of Paris yielded 7 per 1000 of
azote. The dry extract of the same
urine yielded nearly 17 per cent.

It is difficult to give an estiniate
of the comparative value of night
soil, for the urine present is neaily
altogether the valuable part, and the
amount varies. It is, however, more
active (hotter) and valuable than the
best horse dung, being estimated at
14, and horse dung at 10. A. Young
increased his crop of wheat, on a
poor gravel, from 18 to 31 bushels
by 160 bushels, upward of six bush-
els more than he obtained by 60 cu-
bic yards of farm-yard manure. Ac-

618

NIT

cording to Boussingault, when dri*
ed in the air it is 10 times as fertili-
zing as*good Tarm-yard manure. It
may be composted with any of the
ordinary manures, and should be
ploughed under shallow, and near to
seed time. As a poudrette, it is used
to the hill, or as a top-dressing. It
is beat applied to quick-growing, rank
plants, as turnips, and cruciferous
plants generally, Indian corn, pota-
toes, &c.

NIMBUS. The rain clond. It is
hlack, and near the earth.

NIPPERS. The four front teeth
of the horse. They are put forth be-
tween the second and third years.
Pincers, forceps.

NIPPLE. A conical elevation.
The extremities of the udder. Teats.

NITIDUS. Shining, polished,
smooth.

NITRATE OF AMMONIA. This
has been used as a steep, in the same
way as nitre, but is, perhaps, too ex-
pensive, except for garden crops.
Nitrate of lime, for leguminous crops,
and perhaps all others, would prob-
ably be as serviceable, and much
cheaper.

NITRATE OF SILVER. In the
fused state, called lunar caustic, and
much used as a caustic. It consists
of one equivalent of nitric acid united
with one of oxide of silver. A solu-
tion IB used in the laboratory to de-
tect the presence of muriatic acid and
chlorine in solutions, with both which
it forms a white, curdy precipitate.
It is also a test for organized matter,
becoming black in its presence.

NITRATES. Salts containing ni-
tric acid combined with a base, as ni-
trate of potash, soda, lime, ammonia.

NITRE. Saltpetre, nitrate of
potash. A compound of 54 parts (I
equivalent) of nitric acid with one
equivalent, or 48 parts potash. It
ciystallizes in six-sided prisms, with
two faces at the summits ; is soluble
in seven parts cold, and less than its
weight of hot water. It is for the
most part derived from the soil of
India, E^pt, and Spain, and exists
in most limestone caverns and about
dunghills. The crude nitre contains

nitrate of lime chiefly, hut by adifing

fresh ashes, boiling, and crystallizing,
nitrate of potash is obtained. It is
extensively used in the manufacture
of gunpowder, preserving meats, and
as a chemical and medical compound.
The coarser kinds have also been
used, to a great extent, in agricul-
ture, principally as a steep for com,
wheat, and grain generally. For this
purpose, one pound, dissolved in one
gallon and a half of water, answers
for a bushel of grain. This is the
strength used by Mr. Campbell, but
ordinarily five or more gallons of wa-
ter are employed. The grains re-
main for 60 hours. This steep not
only forwards their germination and
start, but is one of the best preserva-
tives against rust, smut, and insects.
The pounded nitre has been used at
the rate of from 60 to 100 lbs. to the
acre as a top-dressing to grass, wheat,
barley, and other crops. It frequent-
ly does great good, especiaUy on poor,
sandy soils, but is not so apparent on
very rich lands« and sometimes fails
altogether. The high price of $7 to
$9 the cwt. forbids its use except as
a steep ; which seems, also, to be the
most effective application. Nitre and
nitrates are by no means uncommon
in plants. It has been found in the
sunflower, borage, barley, tobacco,
Indian com, beet root, and probably
exists in all grain plants. It does
not seem to have any remarkable ad-
vantage over the nitrate of soda, or
cubic nitre of Peru, which is one half
the price.

NITRE, CUBIC. Nitrate of soda.
It consists of one equivalent nitric
acid and one soda ; is crystallized in
rhomboids ; is very soluble and de-
liquescent, requiring but three parts
water, at 60° Fahr., for solution. It
has been used to land precisely as ni-
tre, with similar effects. The great
part of the salt in commerce is deri-
ved from Peru, where immense de-
positee of it occur in Taracapa and
Atacama

NITRIC ACID. Aquafottis. The
pure acid is unknown, that of the
shops being a solution in water ; the
strongest specimens have a sp. gr. of

619

I '5, md <;oiiUln one atom of acid (54),
with two of water ; it is of a yellow-
ieh tinge, smokes, and is extremely
caostic, dissolving most metals. The
pure acid consists of one atom of ni-
trogen with hve of oxygen (formula,
N Oy). The commercial specimeos
are adulterated with oil of vitriol and
muriatic acid, which are detected by
the occurrence of a precipitate when
nitrate of silver or Umewater is
added : this does not occur in pure
acid. Nitric acid is extensively em-
ployed in the laboratory as a solvent,
and, from its active action on many
compounds, it readily parts with a
portion' of its oxygen, oxydizing or-
ganic and other bodies present^ to
it. Its salts are soluble in water,
and decrepitate on a hot coal.

NITRIC OXIDE, NITROUS GAS.
Binoxide of nitrogen. This gas is
given o£r when dilute nitric acid acts
on a metal ; it turns red in the air,
being changed into nitrous acid.

NITRIFICATION, NITRE
BEDS. Nitrates of lime or magne-
sia are often artificially formed, and
the compound subsequ^tly convert-
ed into nitre by boiling with wood ash
es, dec. The production of nitrate of
Ume in agriculture, to be applied to
the field and form steeps, is wortliy of
attention ; this is readily effected by
mixing animal and vegetable rubbish
with air-slacked Ume in loose heaps
of any desired length, and six feet
wide by three feet high ; these should
be arranged under a shed, to protect
them from rain and heat, and kept
moist with urine, blood, ditch water,
and animal or putrescent fluids ; the
heaps should be built on tempered,
dry ground that will not absorb fluid,
and ocoasionally spaded over. In
from four months to one year, ac-
cording to the heat and abundance of
animal matter, the heaps will be rich
enough for use as a top-dressing, or
may be washed, to separate the ni-
trate : as much of the nitre-bed sub-
stance as contains 100 pounds of ni-
trate may be used as a top-dressing
to the crop, or put into compost with
other fertilizers. As soon as one bed
is vemoved another should be erect-

520

NIT

ed, and thus a sQccession Ihrmed, in

which every kind of offensive gar!)agc,
night soil, and every kind of aniiual
texture will be consumed with profit to
the farmer, and one of the most active
manures for poor soils created. Peat,
fine mould, river mud, and such sub-
stances may be used to mix with the
nitre bed when a basis is wanted.

The rich mould of the forest, old
manure heaps, damp calcareous tracts
of land are all natural nitre beds,
which may be put up without any or-
ganic matter, but in which, the more
we add, the more rapidly nitrates are
formed.

NITRITES. Salts of nitrous acid.
They are not of agricultural impor-
tance.

NITROGEN. Azote. Anele-
mentary gas, colourless, inodorous,
inactive, of nearly the same weight
as air, incapable of sustaining life or
flame, forming 8-lOths of the atmo>
sphere, and existing in nitric acid,
ammonia, cyanogen, and numerous
compounds. It is abundantly present
in animal textures, and forms a mi-
nute part of all plants, rarely attain-
ing 5 per cent. Its equivalent is 142,
symbol N. Its compounds with ozy.
gen are numerous ; of these, nitric
acid is the most important ; nitric
oxide, or the binoxide, seems to be a
compound radical. With hydrogen
it forms ammonia, a substance of
great importance, of which we shall
treat here.

Ammonia {volatile alkali), in the
pure state, is a very pungent, inflam-
mable gas, consisting of one equiva-
lent of nitrogen (14-2) and three of
hydrogen (3), and having a combi-
ning number of 17-3 ; symbol N Ha.
Water dissolves 700 to 800 times its
volume of the gas ; the solution, or
liq. ammonia, of sp. gr. -87, contains
32 per cent, ammonia: it becomes
caustic, pungent, and alkaline. It is
the usual form in which this body is
known. It readily unites with acids,
forming salts of ammonia, of which
the sesquicarbonate, or sal volatile,
preserves the odour.

Ammonia is one of the products of
fermenting animal matter, and its

NIT

nos

smell may be detected in oesa^poole

and dunghUls ; the carbonate and
muriate usually' formed are volatile,
and escape into the air ; hence it is
recommended that charcoal be used
to absorb these substances, or that
sulphuric acid, gypsum, or green vit-
riol (sulphate of iron) be employed to
convert them into sulphates, which
are not volatile at ordinary tempera-
tures. Liebig asserts that an appre-
ciable amount of ammonia exists in
the air and rain storms, derived from
decompositions occurring on the
earth. Much of the fertility of de-
caying putrescent matters is said to
depend on the evolution of ammonia-
cai compounds, or the nitrates which
they originate by farther decay.

In the compounds of ammonia with
bases, it becomes converted — accord-
ing to modern authorities — ^into an
oxide of ammonium, or N Hi O, or
an hydrate of ammonia ; hence, a ni-
trate of ammonia is, according to this
nomenclature, a nitrate of the oxide
of ammonium, N H4 O 4- N Os. The
nitrate, sulphate, muriate, and nu-
merous organic salts of ammonia,
have been found in plants. The sul-
phate, carbonate, muriate, and ni-
trate have been used as steeps in the
same way and dose as nitre, but are
too expensive in the commercial
form ; most of these are found in sta-
ble manure and putrescent composts.
The amount of ammonia taken by a
crop from an acre rarely exceeds 30
pounds, except in such crops as tur-
nips, cabbages, andcruciferous plants,
which often carr^ff upward of 100
-pounds. Some plants evolve ammo-
nia from their leaves, and all throw
ofT nitrogen, which is most probably
derived from ammonia taken from
the soil. The common salts of this
alkali are all soluble, and decomposed
or volatilized at a red heat.

NITRO. A prefix to the name of
bodies containing nitric acid or nitro-
gen.

NITRO-MURIATIC ACID. Aqva
regia. A mixture of strong nitric
and muriatic acid, whereby chlorine
is evolved, which dissolves gold, pla-
tinum, and other metals.

Xx2

NiTROUS ACID. A pungent, or-
ange-coloured, volatile acid, consist-
ing of one equivalent nitrogen and
four oxygen.

NITROUS OXIDE. Protoxide of
nitrogen, laughing gas.

NOCTURNAL. Oftbenight.
Many birds and insects prey only at
night.

NODE. A knot or lump. A bony
tnmour. The swelling on the stems
of plants where leaves start ; also
called nodi. A nodal point, in physics,
is a place of rest, where several for-
ces counterbalance one another.

NODOSUS. Knotty.

NODULE. Rounded, irregular
lumps or masses.

N O G G I N G. In building, brick-
work carried up between uprights of
timber scantling.

NOMENCLATURE. Thelan-
guage employed in scientific descrip-
tions.

NON-CONDUCTOR. A substance
incapable of conducting heat or elec-
tricity.

NONESUCH. The black medic
{li£. lupuUna), common in upland
meadows.

NOOTH'S APPARATUS. A se-
ries of three glass vessels, placed ver-
tically, for the purpose of impregna-
ting water with carbonic acid gas.
The lower vessel contains the mar-
ble and muriatic acid for the evolution
of the gas ; the central vessel holds
the water, through which it is made
to pass, under the pressure of the col-
umn of water in the third or upper ves-
sel, which is closed by a conical stop-
per, which serves as a safety-valve.

NOPAL. The Opuntia cockinillif'
era, a cactus on which the cochineal
insect lives: native of the sandy
tracts of Mexico.

NORDHAUSEN SULPHURIC
ACID. Fuming strong acid obtain-
ed by the distillation of green vitriol.
NORMAL. Regular, straight,
usual.

NOSE-BAG. A bag containing
corn or oats to be tied to the horse's
nose.

NOSE-BAND. That part of the
headstall of a bridle which cornea

681

. NUR

oTer a horse*B nose. It is sometimes
termed maserole.

NOSOLOGY. A classification or
dissertation on diseases.

NOTCHED. Crenate.

NOTCH-BOARD. In buUding, the
board which receives the ends of the
steps of a staircase.

NOTHUS. Spurious.

NOVACULITE. Hone stone.

NOVEMBER. In this month the
later or fall crops, as carrots, turnips,
cabbages, &e., are collected, and sto-
red up from frost ; preparation is to be
made for securing the fodder in a
suitable place for stock; the farm-
stead is to be set right for wintering.
All stiff lands are now ploughed for
spring crops. The latter steps of
curing tobacco, the preparation for
rotting hemp, and securing cotton for
market, are now made. In the gar-
den, early vegetables are to be look-
ed after, and frames got ready to pro-
tect them from winter. The land
may be trenched for spring crops ;
transplanting can take place until the
ground begins to freeze too deep.

NUCLEUS. The point around
which crystals or organized, struc-
tures are developed : the origin. In
botany, the upper, pulpy mass of an
ovule ; the interior of a seed. The
shield of lichens.

NUCULA. A fruit like the acorn,
or a one-seeded, hard seed-vessel.

NUDUS. Naked.

NURSERY. "In gardening, a plot
of ground, or an entire garden, set
apart for the propagation of plants,
more particularly trees and shrubs.
The situation ought to be open and
airy, and the soil of an average qual-
ity, neither too heavy nor too light,
so as to be adapted to the majority of
plants; but in a complete nursery
there ought also to be shady borders
for plants requiring shade, and beds
or compartments of peat soil, or oth-
er peculiar soils, for such plants as
are not readily propagated and grown
in ordinary soils. Where tender
plants are propagated, or where hardy
plants are to be raised from seeds,
or struck from cuttings which are not
easily germinated or rooted in the
623

NUR

open^TOund and in the ordinary man*
ner, hot-be<ls, frames, and hand-glass-
es are also requisite. Every private
garden of any extent requires a nur-
sery to raise and bring forward young
plants as a reserve for supplying fail-
ures by disease or accident in the
general garden.

" The seeds of the trees to be cul-
tivated are first sown in what are
termed the seed beds. The pittf ot
peaches and stone fruits may be ei-
ther broken, or placed in wet sand in
the fall, so as to open in the spring of
themselves. The beds may be made
about four feet wide, with little paths
for passages between.

" The ground of these beds being
carefully digged, and rendered smooth
by the rake, and a little of the eur-
fsce soil being laid aside for the pur-
pose of covering the seeds, these are
to be scattered evenly over the sur-
face, and a light wooden roller then
passing over it, the earth which had
been laid aside is to be spread care-
fully and equally over the seeds.

" The seeds of resinous trees must
be lightly covered, and so also must
some of the hard- wood kinds. Those
of the larch and the spruce should be
covered about a quarter of an inch,
and sown in the month of April, while
those of the oak, the ash, the chest-
nut, the sycamore, and others, may
be more deeply covered, and sown
at an earlier season. But some of
the hard-wood kinds require to be
sown at a later period, on account
of their being su]^ct to injary from
frost ; and some may be sown in sum-
mer and autumn.

" The young plants remain in the
seed beds for one or two years, do-
ring which period they are termed
seedlings. Some of the hardier spe-
cies, as the larch and pine, may be
transplanted at once from the seed
beds to the place which they are to
occupy in the forest, while others, io-
cluding several of the resinous, and
all the hard-wood kinds, are first
transplanted into lines in another part
of the nursery, where they remain for
one or more years, and then are trans-
planted to their place in the forest

NUR

NUT

The most of the resinous trees, when
they are to be transplanted into the
nursery lines, may be one year's seed-
hngs ; others of the resinoas, and all
the hard- wood kinds, should not gen-
eraHy be less than two years' seed-
lings before being transplanted to the
lines. Those that reqnire grafting
are worked either in the first or sec-
ond year, and removed the next sea-
son. The transplantation from the
seed beds to the nursery lines may
take place in autumn, after the de-
scent of the sap, or in spring, before
Tegetation has commenced. The
operation may be performed by the
spade, but is often performed by the
dibble. The plants are set at such
distanees in the rows that the hori-
zontal branches of the young trees
shall not interfere with one another.
In transplanting, no part of the r6ot
should be lopped or shortened by the
knife, nor the roots doubled in put-
ting them into the ground ; and care
should be taken in planting, where
the dibble is used, that the root shall
be fixed firmly, without being com-
pressed at the neck.

" Certain kinds of tree plants, in-
stead of being propagated by seeds,
are propagat^ by cuttings, consist-
ing of a portion of the shoot of the
previous year's growth, twelve or
fifteen inches long. These cuttings
are planted by thrusting one end a
few inches into the ground. This
is the manner in which willows and
certain poplars are raised.

** Certai n kinds, again, are best prop-
agated by layers. This practice con-
sists in bending down the branches
of a growing tree, fixing them in the
ground by means of crooked pins of
wood, and covering them partly with
earth. In this state the covered part
qnicUy shoots forth roots, and the
branch, being then separated from the
parent tree, becomes a distinct plant.

" But, in the case of the greater
nnmber of species, the practice is to
sow the seeds in the seed beds in the
manner described. The hardier are
often planted at once, but most of
the hard-wood are not planted in the
forest until they have been one or

more years in the nursery Ihies,
where they extend their roots, and
acquire strength and size.

** During the period in which the
plants remain in these lines they are
to be kept free from weeds. They
require no pruning at this early stage
farther than to the extent of causing
the leading or principal ascending
shoot to preserve its ascendency over
the lateral and more horizontal ones,
so that the phint shall not become
what is termed forked. This may be
simply effected by shortening one of
the branches, or by simply nipping off
the terminal bud of the branch, by
which means its vertical grovnh will
be interrupted, and the main stem per-
mitted to preserve its ascendency."

NURSES IN PLANTATIONS.
Shrubs or trees which grow rapidly
and protect the young plants. Thus
the vine is used as a nurse to the
cork-oak in Spain. By this means a
profit is obtained from the soil. They
must not shade the trees too much.

NUT, NUX. A fruit with a hard
covering, indehiscent, with one seed
{nucula).

NUTANT, NUTANS. Nodding,
inclined forward, or to the ground.

NUT OF A SCREW. The head,
or piece of wood or metal turned
down upon the screw.

NUTMEGS. » The fruit of the
Myristica moschaia, a beautiful tree of
the family of the Laurinett of Jussieu,
which grows in the Molucca Islands.
All the parts of this tree are very ar-
omatic, but only those portions of
the fruit called mace and nutmeg are
sent into the market. The entire
fruit is a species of drupa^ of an ovoid
form, of the size of a peach, and fur<
rowed longitudinally. The nutmeg
is the innermost kernel or seed, con-
tained in a thin shell, which is sur-
rounded by the mace ; and this, again,
is enclosed in a tough, fleshy skin,
which, opening at the tip, separates
into two valves. The nutmeg- tree
yields three crops annually: one in
April, which is the best, one in Aa-
gust, and one in December.

" Good nutmegs should be dense,
and feel heavy in the hand. When

683

OAK

tiieyhave been perforated by worme,
they feel light ; and though the holes
have been fraudulently stopped, the
unsound ones may be easily detected
by this criterion.

" Nutmegs afford two oily products :
1. Butter of nutmeg, vulgarly called
oil of mace, is obtained in the Moluc-
cas, by expression, from the fresh
nutmegs, to the amount of fifty per
cent, of their weight. It is a reddish-
yellow, butter-like substance, inter-
spersed with light and dark streaks,
and possesses the agreeable smell
and taste of the nutmeg, from the
presence of a volatile oil. . It consists
of two fats : one reddish and soft,
soluUe in cold alcohol ; another white
and solid, soluble in hot alcohol. 2.
The volatile oil is solid, or stereopiene,
and has been styled myristicine."

The nutmegs are exdosively trop-
ical, and found in America as well as
India. The Santa Fe nutmeg is the
Myriatica otcha.

NUTRITION. Themanner in
which a living animal or plant, or
any part of their structure, is sustain-
ed, and the organs preserved from
waste and decay.

N UX VOMICA. The seeds of the
&lryckno9 nux vomica^ a tree of India.
They are very poisonons, and con-
tain strychnia and brucia.

NYMPH. A pupa, or grab.

OAK. Trees of the genus Qii«rcii#,
remarkable for the durability and
toughness of their timber, their size,
and handsome appearance. Their
acorns are also of considerable value
as food for pigs, and in Europe are
often collected and sold as produce.
The oaks require, for the most part,
a rich, clayey soil, rather moist and
deep ; hence many oak lands form
good wheat soils. The following is
Michaux's classification of American
oaks, including three eaeotics only :

First Division.

Fntclification annual.

First Section. — Leaves lobed.

1. White oak(Qii«rcttf alba)t seventy
to eighty feet high.

OAK

5. Common European 99k (Querem
robur)t sixty to eighty feet high.

3. European white oak {Quercus ro-
bur pedunculata), sixty to eighty
feet high.

4. Mossy-cup oak {Qucrau dittefor-
ffiw), seventy to eighty feet high.

6. Over-cop white oti)s.{Qu€rcu9 mac-
rocarpa)y seventy to eighty feet
high.

6. Post oak < Quercus ohhuUoba)y thir-
ty to fifty feet high.

7. Over -cap oak {Quercus lyrata)^
sixty to seventy feet high.

Skcomo SscnoN. — Leaves toothed.

8. Swamp white oak (Qttercus H-
cdor), sixty to seventy feet high.

9. Chestnut white oak {Quercus 'pri-
ff(M), seventy to eighty feet high.

10. Rock chestnut oak {Quercus num-
tana)f thirty to forty feet high.

11. Yellow oak {Quercus acuminata'),
sixty to seventy feet high.

12. Small chestnut oak {Quercus cki»-
quapin), a shrub of three to four
feet high.

Second Division.

Fructification biennial; leaves mucro-
naied (except in the 13th species).

Fibst Section. — Leaves oitUMe or «i-

tire.

13. Live oak {Quercus «tr«n«), evei^
green, forty to sixty feet high.

14. Cork oak {Quercus suber}, Spanish
tree.

15. Willow 02ik{Quercusphelhs), thir-
ty to sixty feet high.

16. Laurel oak {Querctts imbricaria),
shingle oak, forty to fifty feet high.

17. Upland willow oak {Quercus o*-
erea)t evergreen Southern, twen-
ty feet high.

18. Rnnning oak {Quercus pumUm},
two feet high.

Second Section. — Leaves lobed.

19. Bartram oak {Quercus heteropkyh
/a), said to be found only on one
plantation.

20. Water oak {Quercus a^uatica),
tliirty to forty feet high.

21. Black Jack oak {Quercus ferrugi-
nea), small, barren oak.

22. Bear oak {Quercus banisteri, «.
iUctfoUa), two to nine feet high.

OAK

Tinitn S«CTiOM. — Leases fmtltifid, or '
many-clcfi.

28. Barren scrub oikiQuercM CaU9-
hm)y fifteen to thirty feet high.

24. Spanish oak ^<?««-ctt*/afcate), sev-
enty to eighty feet high.

35. Black oak {QuercuM tinctoria), six-
ty to seventy feet high.

fi6. Scarlet oak {(futrcuB eoccirua),
eighty feet high : produces brown-
ish ink gidls.

^7. Gray oak {Qitercus tt^nkbigua)f a
hybrid, seventy to eighty feet high.

28. Pin oak {Qiierctu paluatria), forty
to sixty feet high.

29. Red oak {Querais ru^a), seventy
to eighty feet high."

To this list a few others have been
added, and some of the names of
Michaux changed. Of the additions,
the Southern {Q. Miehauxii), fifty to
sixty feet high, is the most important.
The list is, indeed, extended now to
Bome forty-five trees and shrubs, but
many of these are unquestionably hy-
brids, or varieties, in which list Q.
ttmbigua^ hermvpherica, humulis, obhisay
moUtSf and others are to be reckoned.

The most important of this noble
class of trees is the white oak {Q.
tdba), which is especially developed
on the clay and calcareous soils of
the Middle States : it is a close-grain-
ed, tough, and durable wood, exten-
sively employed in building, naval
structures, and almost every purpose.
The black oak (Q. tincioria) yields a
good timber, but it is porous, and in-
ferior to the preceding ; the bark is,
however, much employed for tanning,
and the inner bark yields the quer-
citron bark, extensively exported as
a yellow dye-stuff. The bark of (^.
Mcummaia vel castanea, a northern
tree, is also used for a yellow dye.
The bark of the Spanish oak is pre-
ferred for tanning, but the wood is
liable to worms. The Q. virens^ Flor-
ida, or live oak, produces a timber of
remarkable toughness and durabili-
ty, said to be soperior to all other
kinds for naval purposes. It is not
extensively developed, and grows in
swampy situations.

The proper time for felling timber
is a question much agitated ; from

OAK

October to March is adopted by the
French -, mid^wint«r by the English.
Duhamel examined this subject thor-
oDighly, and concluded that the time
was by no means important, for that
timber felled in summer, and cax«-
fuUy seasoned, was as tough and dit-
rable as winter-felled. Barking is
practised in June and July, and it is
an advantage to allow the tree to
stand until the fall, and then fell for
timber ; indeed, Duhamel recom*
mends that it be allowed to stand
two years after, and this is practised
by the Dutch, and in some measure
by the English. It is not, however,
to be reconmiended for more than
one season, since the moisture of a
swamp and other causes may bring
on the growth of fbngi.

OAK APPLE. A spongy excres-
cenee growing on the young stenm
of various oaks, especially the red
oak ; it is produced by an insect, the
Cyntpa conjluentus. On the white oak,
excrescences, very nearly resembling
small gall-nuts, are produoed by the
C. onerahtt. Other species of cy-
nips sting the various oaks, forming
excrescences more or less large ; of
these, the gall-nuts of the white and
scarlet oak are most used for making
ink, and the former closely resemble
the commercial galls.

OAK BARK. The innermost lay-
er of the black and Spanish bark are
of the greatest service in tanning ;
the tan often amounts to 77 parts in
the 100 in this bark during the spring,
but is very much less in autumn and
winter : the difference, as ascertain-
ed by Mr. Higgins, is upward of two
thirds. The bark, when split off,
should be set up in loose piles to dry,
the pieces being so {^aced as to throw
off water, which injures its quality.
As soon as dry it ought to be kept
under a shed,^ and not ground till
wanted. The exhausted bark of the
tanner is much used by gardeners for
various purposes, and when rotted,
forms a good humus manure. See'
Bark and Tan.

OAK PRUNER. Oaks are infest-
ed by numerous insects, the most cu-
rious of which is the pmner (Stenoeo^

(W5

OAT

mt putater), wbicl| scrcrt the yoaiig
branches ; these contain the insect,
and if collected in the autumn, when
just fallen, and burned, will serYe as
a means of destroying them.

OAKUM. The yams of hemp,
which are spun into ropes.

OASIS. A green spot in a desert ;
UBoally a valley.

OAST, OAST-HOUSE. A drying-
house, heated by hot air circulating
in pipes or flues. It differs in this
respect from a kiln, in which the
smoke and heat pass into the grain.
It is used in drying hops and malt.

OAT-FIELD LAND. Open ornn-
enclosed arable land.

OAT GRASS. The Avena genua.
See Grasses.

OATMEAL. The flour of oats, es-
pecially the Scotch oat ; it is ezten-
aiTely emi^oyed for cakes, like bat-
ter cakes, and for porridge or brose.
Oat meal is very nutritious, and fre-
quently much more so than wheat or
corn, this point depending upon the
proportion of gluten or albumen they
contain. The oat meal cakes are al-
lowed to ferment slightly, so as to
become acid (lactic acid) before being
used. For the production of meal, the
oats are first kiln-dried, then passed
thn)ugh a coarse-set mill to separate
the hull or shellings ; this forms
groats or grits, and they are then
ground in a mill into a coarse meaU

OATS. Avsna saiita. A cultiva-
ted annual of the gramineous family.
Other varieties of the avena are also
cultivated, as the A. orientaiis, Tar-
tarian oat, with a one-sided head ;
the A. slrigosa, or bristle-pointed oat.
The varieties of the common oat are
classified into the Uack, gray, end
white ; of these, the black kinds are
smallest and lightest, but most hardy ;
and the white kinds best, especially
the imperial, potato, Georgian, and
the Dutch or Friesland oat. The
Polish oat is one of the finest of the
black kind, but requires careful till-
age, and scatters. It is urged as an
objection to the potato oat that the
akin is too hard, so that they are oft-
en voided by horses unbroken ; it, how-
ever, yields the most meal, and rises

OAT

to 46 pounds the bushel. The com*
mon black and gray varieties are
often less than 25 jiounds the bushel,
and seldom reach 80 ; but the Polish
is said to reach 60 pounds.

Oats do better north of Philadel-
phia than south, although they can
be cultivated to the GuJf of Mexico ;
their habitat is, however, northern.
This plant grows so rapidly in a good
soil that it is not uncommon to ob-
tain two crops in a year, especially *
if they be cut for iTodder while the
grain is in the dough. A good yield
is 60 bushels, but 90 bushels have
been taken from well-prepared soils.
The straw varies from H to 3 tons
the acre. As food for horses, no-
thing except beans can be compared
with oats ; Indian com is much too
oily: while oats contain about four
per cent, of oil, Indian corn rises
above 10 per cent. In point of nu-
tritiousness they are also superior to
corn, and are equal to double their
weight of fine hay : the straw of a
greenish tinge is the best kind of ce-
real straw for fodder, and about a
quarter the value of prime hay. A
draught horse should receive frooi
seven to nine pounds of oats daily,
with as much prime hay and straw :
this is the ration for the heavy French
cavalry. The following is by the
Rev. W. L. Rham :

** The great use of oats, and the
ease with which they are raised on
almost every kind of soil, from the
heaviest loam to the lightest sand,
have made them occupy a place in
almost every rotation of crops. Of
all the plants commonly cultivated in
the field, oats seem to have the great-
est power of drawing nourishment
from the soil, and hence are justly
considered as greatly exhausting the
land. With proper management, a
crop of oats may give as great a prof-
it on the best land as any other crop,
when it ia considered that it requires
less manure and produces an abun-
dance of straw, which is very fit for
the winter food of horses and cattle,
especially when aided by roots or oth-
er succulent food.

" To make a crop of oats profitable

OATS.

soipe attention must be paid to the
preparation of the soil and to free it
from weeds ; for to so w oats on a foul
wheat or barley |tubble slightly turned
in by the plough, as is sometimes done»
is the reverse of good husbandry.

" The best oats are raised in Scot-
land and in Friesland,^and in both
countries the land ia carefully culti-
▼ated. In Scotland, oats are gener-
ally sown on a grass layer which has
been in that state for some years, and
sometimes on old pastures which are
broken op for the purpose. The crops
exceed in bulk and weight of grain
all that tJ^e most sanguine person, un-
acquainted with the system, would
expect, and in many seasons, not fa-
vourable for the wheat crop, oats are
much more profitable. Wherever
the land is not of a good quality, and
wheat is apt to fail, oats are a much
safer crop, especially in retentive
soils, as xye is on poor sands.

"When oats are sown after tur-
nips, cabbages, or any other green
crop, the land should be well plough-
ed, if the green crop was not con-
sumed on the spot, and a moderate
supply of manure will be well repaid
by the increased produce. A heavy
loam is best suited for oats : they re-
quire a certain degree of moisture,
and a deep soil is very favourable to
their growth. On land which has
been trenched, or where the subsoil
plough has been used, after careful
draining, if required, oats will thrive
wonderfully without requiring so rich
a soil as barley or wheat. The roots
are hardier, and have a stronger ve-
getative power. When once they
have struck deep into the soil, a good
erop, according to the quality of the
land, may be relied on.

-«( When oats are sown after artifi-
cial grasses, the land is seldom
ploughed more than once, and the
seed ia sown on the fresh mould
which has been turned up ; but, un-
less the land be very free from weeds,
it would be better to plough the sward
with a shallow furrow early in au-
tumn. Before winter the scarifier
would break the rotten sward, which
miglit then be buried deep by another

pkwgbuig. The iMd would be ready
for sowing early in spring, which is
a great advantagOr both as to the
quality of the oat crop and the earli-
er harvest, especially in those dis-
tricts where the latter part of the au-
tumn is apt to be stormy and rainy.
The land thus treated Vould be clean,
and the fallow, which is often resorted
to of necessity after a crop of oats,
might be dispensed with, as the
weeds have been destroyed and bu-
ried deep.

" When oats are sown on light land
after turnips, it may be ploug^d with
as shallow a furrow as will turn in
the surface : the preparation for tur*-
nips will have sufficiently moved the
soil. On poor, moist land, oats are
more profitable than barley. Clover
and grass seeds may be sown among
them with equal advantage, as they
will seldom grow so high as to be laid
and smother the young clover ; and
barley is very apt to £ail on land sub-
ject to retain the water.

** In sowing oats, more seed is oft-
en used than of any other grain, be*
cause, although the plants tiller where
they have room, the straw of the sec-
ond shoots is weaker, and the grain
is not ripe so soon as that of the
principal stem ; but when the plants
rise close and thick, there are no tiU
lers, the main stem is stronger, and
the corn is more plump and equai
Six bushels of oats are often sown on
an acre ; but if they are drilled, four
bushels are sufficient ; and when dib-
bled, which is sometimes the case in
Norfolk and Suffolk, much lesdtoeed
is used. A good preparation of ttie
land is of more consequence than a
superabundance of seed.

" In a field where oats are sown
broad-cast, and covered by the har-
rows, many seeds remain exposed
to the depredation of birds, which
soon find them out at a time of the
year when food is scarce. When the
seed is sown and ploughed in, the
same object is attained ; but as the
furrow must be shallow, in order that
the seed may not be buried too deep,
the land must have been ploughed
i before to a considerable depth : in ei*

OAT&

titer oase, fonr bnshete of seed per
sore are aa ample aUowanoe. They
are sown as soon as frost is oat of
tfae groand, bat not in land too wet,
lest they rot in the soil. A second
crop is often ploughed in to enrich the
soil, but they are inferior to clover.

" When the ground has been well
prepared, there is no necessity for
weeding or hoeing the crop as it ad-
Taoces ; but if large weeds ^pear,
such as cfaarioeki May-weed, doeks,
or thistles, they must be carefully
weeded out, or else the ground will
be so infested with their seeds or
roots, that it will be difficult to erad-
icate them afterward. Oats, when
ftiUy ripe, are veiy apt to shed, and
many are lost for want of attention.
As soon as the straw turns yellow
under the heads, the oats should be
reaped, however green the lower part
of the straw nuy be : the straw will
be better fodder for cattle, and all the
com will be saved. Oats are gener-
ally mown with a scythe, and raked
into heaps to dry like hay ; but this
is a wasteful and slovenly practice.-
A good crop of oats should be reaped,
like wheat, close to the ground, and
tied in sheaves. A cradle scythe, or
a short Hainault scythe, does the
work well in the hands of an expert
mower, who should be followed by
binders, who gather the straw with
their hands, and lay it regularly on
the ground, if it be not fit to tie up
immediately : the straw should after-
ward be tied up into sheaves, and set,
with the com uppermost, in shocks
of t€il or twelve sheaves, leaning
against each other, and open at bot-
tom, in order to allow the air to pass
through. Thus, in a short time the
oats become sufficiently dry to be
stacked, or carried immediately into
the barn.

** Oats, ground into a coarse meal,
form a considerable portion of the
food of labourers, and many men in
the middle ranks of life in Scotland,
Ireland, and the north of England.
The meal is simply stirred into boil-
ing water with a little salt, until it
becomes of the consistence of a has-
ty pudding i it is tiien caHed porridge,

698

or sthtkbout ; and, when eaten with
milk or treacle, makes a wholesome
and palatable food. It is sometimes
mixed with the thin Jiquor of boiled
meat, or the water in which cabbages
or kale have been boiled, and ac-
quires the denomination of beef-
brose or kale-brose. When made
into a dough with water, and baked
on an iron plate in thin cakes, it
makes a bread which is very palata-
ble to those who are accustomed to
it, and who often prefer it to wheat-
en bread. In Grermany and Switxer-
iand the coarsely-bruised oatmeal is
put into an oven till it becomes of a
brown colour ; it is then called haber-
meel, and is used in broths and pot-
tages, as the semolina, made from
wheat, is used in France and Italy.
The coarsely-brdcen grains, after the
husk has been removed, form grits,
which are extensively used to make
gruel for children and invalids. The
chaff* of oats, put into a canvass bag,
forms a good substitute for feather
beds.

"In some countries the oats are
given to horses in the straw, without
thrashing them ; and, where the qaan*
tity can be regulated, the practice is
good. The horses masticate the com
better in the chaff, and the straw is
wholesome ; but where horses do
hard work they would be too long in
eating a sufficient quantity, and it is
better to give them oats thrashed and
cleaned, with clover hay cut into
chaff. When hay is dear, it is often
cheaper to increiase the quantity of
oats, and to give it with wheat straw
cut fine. In this way very little hay
is required. The calculation is easi-
ly made, when we consider that a
pound of good oats gives as much
nourishment to a horse as two pounds
of the best clover or sainfoin hay. A
truss of hay of 66 pounds is therefore
equal to 28 pounds of oats, or a bush-
el of the best oats will go as far as
one truss and a half of hay.

** Farmers who have hay-ricks,
from which they often allow their
men to take as much as they please
for their horses, will carefully meas-
ure out the oats, which probably are

OCT

mach cheaper. Some men, who
keep many horses, cut all the hay
into chaff by a machine, and, mixing
this with a proper proportion of oats,
feed all their horses in mangers with
a certain allowance of the mixture,
a practice moch more economical
than that usually adopted. In France
and Germany the practice of baking
oats, as well as rye, into loaves for
horse food, is gaining ground, and is
said to be attended with an evident
eaving of food."

The oat is a pretty sure crop ; the
smut and chinch-bug sometimes re-
duce the yield, and rust impoverishes
the straw ; but as these enemies
eome late, it is best to cut the crop
as early as they appear: the wire-
worm sometimes destroys a pcnrtion.

OATS, COMPOSITION OF. The
general composition of the oat is sim-
ilar to the other cerealia, and the spe-
cial compost given for wheat will
serve for this crop and for barley.
By Boussinganlt, the yield of an acre
perfectly dry in grain is 975 pounds ;
straw, 1176 in the dried state (small
crop) ; the ashes, 4-0 per cent, grain,
5-1 straw, or, per acre, 39 pounds
for tbe grain, and 60 pounds for the
straw. The composition of the ash,
per cent., was,

Grain.

Potash 13-9

Suda 0 0

Lime 3*7

Mag-neaia 7*7

Phosphorie acid 14-9

Sulphuric acid 1-0

Silica 53-3

Chlorine 0-5

Iroo, carbonic acid, aad loss . 0-0

Stmw.
34*5
4-4

•8-3
2-8
30
4.1

40-0

4-7

8-3

1000 ]00-0

It would appear, therefore, that bone
earth, common salt, gypsum, and,
where the composition can he formed
at little expense, silicate of potash,
would be excellent manures, and
might be combined in conopost with
nitrate of soda.

The ultimate composition of the
grain gives 2-24 per cent, nitrogen ;
the straw, 0*38 ; and, according to the
Scotch, 14 pounds of oats yield eight
of meal.

OB. A very common affix to de-
scriptive words in botany, A«., as

Y Y

obcordate, obrotund, &«., stgnifyiiig
nearly or somewhat heart-shaped,
round, dtc.
OBESITY. Extrenoe or morbid

OBJECT GLASS. Tbe glass, or
lens, of the telescope nearest the ob-
ject.

OBJECT STAFF. The survey-
or's staff. See Levelling Staff.

OBLATE. Somewhat spherical,
but flattened in the perpendieolar ax-
is, as an orange, the world.

OBSIDIAN. A Mack, glassy, com-
pact lava, consisting of potash and
soda, 7 to 10 per cent. ; silica, 77-60 ;
alumina, 11*75; iroo, 1-25.

OBTUNDENTS. MucUaginous,
oily, or bland substances, which re-
duce the acrimony of other medi-
cines.

OCCIPITAL BONE. The bone
which forms the back portion of the
skull, to which the spinal column is
attached.

OC H RE. Peroxide of iron mixed
with clay : the colour is very durable.

OCHREA. The leaf-stems which
clasp or surround the stem, as in the
case of some grasses.

OCTAGON. A superficial figure,
with eight sides or angles.

OCTAHEDRON. A solid, with
eight regular sides ; it is one of the
most common figures of crystals, and
may be a derivative from tbe cube or
tetrahedron.

OCTANDRIA (from oktu, eight,
and avffp, male). The Linnaean class,
in which the flowers contain eight
stamens.

OCTOBER. This is one of the
most important months. Whenever
frost begins to occur, all tender roots
and potatoes should be stored. Ap-
pies, pumpkins, and other fruits are
also to be stored. Turnips, parsnips,
and carrots may remain in the ground.
Hemp, sugar, tobacco, and cotton
are either quite or nearly collected.
This month is also preferred for tim-
ber cutting. Wheat sowing, as weU
as winter grains, should be draw-
ing to a close, as the season is late
except for the South. In the garden
and orchard, transplanting and prop-

52»

OFF

agatlon by oatliogs, ^.| may com-
mence as 800D as the leaves have
falleo, or in evergreens; arrange-
ments sbtoald be made for early vege-
tables, and the frames looked to. As
soon as frost comes on, collect straw
and leaves to cover tbe vegetables
remaining in the soil, spinach, turnip
tops, die., and secure the roots and
stems of tender fruit or shrubbery
plants ; prepare for laying vines, &c.
£wes put to the ram this month bring
lamb in March, which is seasonable
in the South, but too early for the
North.

OD£RIT£. A species of black
mica.

ODOM£T£R (from 66os, a road,
and fterpovj a meamure), A wheel,
the axis of which turns a graduated
scale, so that the distance over which
it iiasses on a road is recorded in feet
and miles. It may be attached to a
carriage wheel, or rolled along by the
hand.

ODONTOLOGY (from odov^, a
tooth, and ?ioyof). A treatise on the
teeth.

O D O R I N. A very concentrated
empyreuroatic oil, obtained by recti-
fying oil of bones.

GGD£MA. Puffiness of a part of
the body, produced by a dropsical ef-
fusion or collection of watery fluid.

CENANTHIC £THER. A vola-
tile oily body, to which the peculiar
vinous flavour of wine is owing -, by
boiling with potash it becomes con-
verted into (Bnanthic acid and alco-
hol. Liebig traces its existence to
the free tartaric and racemic acids of
certain grapes, which yield tbe oH
by their transformation.

(ESOPHAGUS. The gullet or
swallow.

CESTRUS. The genus of Gad
FlWi which see ; as also JnsecU.

OFFSET. In building, the supe-
rior surface left uncovered by the
continuation upward of a wall where
the thickness diminishes, forming a
ledge.

OFFSETS. In surveying, short
distances from the chain-line, usually
measared with a rod, called an oflset-
atafii^the most convenient length for

A80

OIL

which IB 6 feet 7-3 indieB, bein^

equal to 10 links of the surveying
chain.

OFFSETS. In gardening, young
radical bulbs, when separated or ta-
ken off from the parent roots, are so
called. One of the chief methods of
propagating plants is by offsets.

OGEE. In moulding, is a line re-
sembling the italic/.

OGIVE. The pointed arch.

OIL-CAKE. The remains of seeds,
especially linseed, after expression
for oil. Linseed and several other
cakes are used for fattening, two to
four pounds being broken up into the
daily food ; it is remarkably rich in
oil, containing often 15 per cent., and
ranks high as nutriment. See Fodder*.
Animals do not always take to it
readily, and are therefore to be grad-
ually fed. Rape, mustard, hemp^
castor oil, and other cakes are admi-
rable manures ; half a ton of rape
cake, well broken and sown broad-
cast, is a well-established manure in
England. Tbe Flemish mix them
with their fluid manure. See Flan-
ders Husbandry. The cake of any
particular seed is the best manure for
the same crop. They are suitable
for the drill.

OIL OF BRANDY, OIL OF PO-
TATOES, OIL OF GRAIN SPIRIT.
FOUSEL OIL. This volatile aro-
matic oil is formed in the fermenta-
tion of potatoes or grains where hops
are not employed, and which yield an
alkaline mash ; it comes over in the
last portion of the distillation for the
alcohol ; when concentrated, it is
oily and very nauseous. It is also
called amy lie alcohol, and bihydrate
of amylene : formula (Cio Hu), O HO,
the first term being the compoond
radical Amvl of Dumas.

OIL OF VITRIOL. Sulphuric acid.

OIL OF WINE. Two liquid oily
bodies, as well as the cenanthic ether^
are known by this name ; the former
arise from distilling ether off caustic
lime, and are sulphates of the oxide
of ethyl.

OILS. Compounds consisting of
carboR and hydrogen for the most
part, but occasionally containing oxy-

OILS.

gen, and having an affinity for that
eJement, whereby they become rancid
or are converted into reama. They
are componnda of the margaric, oleic,
or stearic acida, with glycerine, and
owe their raiue not only to their pe-
cuKar properties, hot to the soaps
and liniments they form with alkaline
Bubstanees. They are in all respects
fluid fats of Tegetable and animal ori-
gin, agreeing very closely in struc-
ture. Thus per cent.,

Carbon.
OKve oil eonauta of 77-3
Sparmaoeti " 78*0

isa

11-8

9-5
10-S

Oils are divided into expressed or
fixed oils, which are also subdivided
into drying oils and common oils, and
into distilled or easential oils. The
common fitt oils are like almond and
olive, Uand, preserving their flavour
for a long time, but becoming ran-
cid; palm oil is solid. The drying
oils are like linseed, hemp seed, nut
oil ; they attract oxygen readily from
the air, evolving heat, and become
solid. The ustntial oils impart to
flowers and aromatic bodies their
odour ; they are very volatile, and are
obtained by distilling the leaves or
flowers with water. All vegetables
contain a proportion of oil of some of
these varieties, which may be obtain-
ed by digesting them in ether and al-
cohol ; it is, however, frequently be-
low one per cent., while in other
cases, as the nut, it is more than sixty
per cent. In provender, the fattening
quality is closely related to the per
centage of common oil. The follow-
ing table contains the best informa-
tion on this topic :

Common maiu . .

Bice

Oatf

Ditto

Ry*

|U« Ihrar ....
Bbnl wheat. . . .

WliMtflOW . . .

Diuo

Pin* tMua ....
Coane bnui ....
Prjr clover . • , .
Dry Itfceni ....
MmuIow haj . . .
Oatttraw ....
Bean aiaal ....

Beans

UaricutB

8to]3i

percent

0-8

•<

5-5

i«

1-8

*•

2-1

l«

4-8

b'%

4-0

S-5

S-8

4«

SHI

<«

S-0

Leatila . . .
Potatoes . . .
Mangel-trnnel .
Ca»Toto . . .
Oil-cake . . .

2-5
008
01
0-17
.9-0 to 16

S^paroeiit

««
ti

44
44

M. Payen found that the oil was
everywhere present in the seeds of
gramineous plants. The embryo
contains much, the husk less, the
farinaceous portion still less ; but
maize and oil-cake contain about 9
per cent., whence the universally ad-
mitted superior fattening power of
these two articles.

The crops enumerated in the fol-
lowing table are those principally
raised for oil (the bene might be add-
ed) : it is from Boussingault :

Crop.

Colewoft . . .
Rocket . . .

Il*p« . . . .
Swedish tamip
Curled coiewort
Tamip etlabttgjb
OoU of pleuoxe
Soailowcr . .
Plax ....
White poppjr .
Heinp ....
Summer rape .

Seed pmdaeed
per ncre in

Cwtfc. qra. Hm.

W
15

1& 1 C6
I« 8 IS

IS 1 M

13
17
15

Ifl
16
14

10 I
T 3

11 3

91
IT

870^
3904
641iS
AWMI
641-6
6A6'4
545-8
875-0
38S-0
560-8
839-0
413-5

«8

.•a u

40
IS
33
33
33
39
87
15
82
46
85
30

■a

"64*

73
68

68
61
78
80
69
58
70
66

A few oils, as the castor and caje-
put, are eminently medicinal, al-
though expressed ; this arises from
the presence of peculiar principles in
them. Camphor is by some writers
regarded as a concrete volatile oil.

The process for procuring express-
ed oils is either conducted with or
without heat ; where no heat is em-
ployed, less, but a superior kind is ob-
tained, which resists the action of air
longer, and is of a more delicate fla-
vour. For virgin oils the seeds are
first crushed, either between iron rol-
lers, in mortars, or in an edge mill, re-
sembling the bark mill (see OH Mill);
the crushed mass is then enclosed in
strong hempen or woollen bags, and
this often in another of horse hair,
and subiected to the pressure of a
screw, placed in a hydraulic oil mill,
or merely into press boxes of stout
materials, and pressed by driving
wedges perpendicularly between the
sides of the box and bags. The hy-

581

dmlic arrangeEnenl is most eflective .
(See Frets, Nydraaiie). The oil is
collected as it Bows ioto apiH^priate
caaka or ve»seis. The cake is now
boiled, healed by hot water, or press-
ed between bot plates in the h;rdraa-
lic press ; tiy this means more oil is
obtained, which, if water be used,
rises, after a time, lo tlie surTace, and
may be skimmed oIT. Coarse oils, as
castor, hemp, cotton, &c., can he
faceted in an oven, or over flues, or
parboiled in the first case; but olive,
almond, and table oils should not he
heated, the second drawing being lit
only for machinery. The cake or
roarc is always aerviceable as food
or manure. Sometimes oils ere ob-
tained by merely bruiHing, and then
bailing in a great deal of water, the
floating produce being taken off by
akimming; but ibis is a very objec-
tionable method for table oils. For
farther particulars, »ee the oil plants.

OILS AS MANTJm:. Train oS
sad blubber faave been recommendad,
and much used in composts ai ma-
nures ; and, from aonte of tho re-
sults, many farmers hare taken np
an idea that oils are great fertilizeiB.
Train oil and other animal oils con-
tain impurities rich [n nilrogeti, and
their decay produces a fertilizing ac-
tioa. but otherwise it is difficult to
understand that oils should be, to any
extent, manures. The idea is prolv
ably erroneous, although of very an-
cient date ; but the old writers were
altogether in Che wrong in calling
night soil and such bodies oily
compounds ; ihey do not, tbeiefore,
speak of real oils in many of their
obaervalions.

OIL MILL. This is made in taw-
eral waya, but the moat commoo ia
that called the edge mill, the stoDoa
of which are large and heavy. SM
1 Figure.

OKRA. HiHttiu nadmna. An
RDDUBl of the raroily Malvaaa,
■boanding in a ropj mucus. -It ia
readil; cuJtiTat«d, and much Talned .
for aoups and as a TeffetaUe, served -
with butler. It is sajd that the ripe
•eeds, whioh are as targe as a small
pea, when roaaled aod prepared tike
eoffee. are a perfect substitute for
that product. They are sowed id
■ettled weather (May), in rich tanda,
in drills three feet apart each way,
and improTed by manure and tillage.
The plants grow three or foar feet
high, and bear numerona pods, which
are cut green, and while sufficiently
tender to break across. In guod sit-
uatioRS they grow aii to ten inches
long. They are boiled, and aerved
^Ih batter, or sliced, and introduced
into soup, with tomsloea, &c. The
green poils also make a good pickle.
They are regularly brought to the
Sonthem markets.

OLD RED SANDSTONE. The
roimation of red sandstones and con-
glomerates next below the coal.

OhEACEM. Tlie family of trees
and shrubs containing the olive, ash,
and privet.

OLEANDER. JVmum oltander.
A beautiful evergreen, with large, ro-
saceous flowers. It requires shel-
ter in the green-house, and is prop-
agated with ease by cuttings kept

OLECRANON. The bone of the
elbow. A process of the utna.

OLEFIANT GAS. An inflamma-
ble gas, condensing spontaneously
into a fluid oil, with an .aromatic
odour. It consists of two atoms
carbon and two hydrogen. It is re-

Erded aa a hydrate of acetyl (C<
. + H). ■

OLEIC ACID. The acid of olcin
(<Iain),orthe fluid port ions of (uts. sep-
arated by alkalies from the glycerine.
OI.i;RACE0US. Of tlie nature
of culinary vegetables or pot herbs.

OLFACTORY NERVES. The
first pair proceeding from the brain.
and distributed in the nose.
Yv2

OLIBANIIM. A fragrant Eastern
um resin. Frankincense.
OLIVE. Otea Eurepca (Fig.). A

small evergreen tree, requiring a
mild climate, similar to that of South
Georgia, and a dry. granitic soil. It
is propagated from slips or seeds.
The trees bear well at ten years, and
live for centuries, when undisturbed
by frosts. They are more hardy than
the orange. The urripe fruit, pre-
served in salts and water, form an es-
teemed culinary and desert article.
The variety of tree with long leaves
{longi/alia) yields the best table oil.
[t is cultivated in France. The oil is
procured from fruit fully ripe, which
is allowed to sweat in heaps for a
few days, and then crashed in ait
edge mill, and pressed without heat.
The oil becomes fine by standing for

OLIVE, AMERICAN. Olia Amer-
WBiw, Devil wood. A large sver-
green shrub of the South, growing
near the seashore, with aromatie
flowers and a small fruit. The wood
is very hari), but is'-ltle used.

OLIVILE. An amylaceous body
obtained from the gum of the olive-

OLIVINE. AgrB!n,volcanicmin-
eral. A silicate of magnesia and iron.

OMBROMETER (from opSpof,
rain, and lurpov). A Tsin gauge.

OMENTUM. Tiio membrane ot
caul that lies over
becomes loaded with fat.

(HSl

OMNIVORES, OMNIVOROUS.

Eating animal and ▼egetable food.

OMPHALODIUM. The point in
the hilum or scar of a seed through
which the nutritious vessels pass.

ONION. AUium cepa. The fol-
lowing article is chieily from Mr.
Bridgeman : " Varieties. — ^New-Eng*
land white, large red, yellow or sfl-
▼er-skinned, yellow Dutch, Stras-
burgh or Flanders, Madeira.

" Of the several Tarieties of on-
ions, the yeNow or silver-skinned and
large red are the best for a general
crop. The bulbs are handsome, of
firm growth, and keep well through
the winter. The New- England white
are handsome for the table, and very
suitable for pickling, as well as to pull
while young, and generally prove a
very profitable crop.

'* Previous to sowing onion seed
for a general crop, the ground should
be well prepared by digging in some
of the oldest and strongest manure
that can be got. The earlier this be
done in the spring, the better ; and
the planting should not be delayed
longer than the middle of April. The
seed may be sowed moderately thick,
in drills one inch deep and twelve
inches apart, in April or May.

"Those who cultivate onions for
the sake of their bulbs may use at
the rate of four or five pounds of
seed per acre.

" As market gardeners, in the vi-
cinity of large cities, find it most
profitable to pull a great proportion
of their onions while young, they gen-
erally require at the rate of from eight
to ten pounds of seed to an acre of
land.

** When the plants are up strong,
they should be hoed. Those beds
that are to stand for ripening should
be thinned out while young, to the
distance of two or three inches from
each other. If a few should be re-
quired for use after this, those can
he taken which incline more to tops
than roots ; and if the beds be fre-
quently looked over, and the small
and stalky plants taken away where
thev stand thickest, the remaining
bulbs will grow to a larger size.

634

The i^ftttts ahoaM be hoed at least
three tiroes in the early part of their
growth; but if the season prove
damp, and weeds vegetate luxari-
antly, they must be removed by the
hand 1 because, after the onions have
begun to bulb, it would injure tliem
to stir them with a hoe.

" When the greenness is gone out
of the tops of onions it is time to
take them up, for from this time the
fibrous roots decay. After they are
pulled they should be laid out to dry,
and when dry, removed to a place of
shelter."

The crop is put up into ropes of
three and a half pounds, and a fair
crop is from 6000 to 8000 such ropes.

*' The small onions may be planted
in the following spring. Even an
onion which is partly rotten will pro-
duce good bulbs, if the seed stems be
taken ofiTas soon as they appear."

The admirable Portuguese onions
are only raised in perfection near the
seashore, in places moistened by the
tide ; hence moisture and a little salt
should be secured to the growing
plants.

" The Allium Jistulotutn, Welsh on-
ion, or Ciboule, is cultivated for
spring salad ; it forms no bulbs, bat
is very hardy. If the seed be sowed
early in September, in rich ground,
although the tops may die down in
the winter, yet the roots wUl continue
sound, and put up new leaves early
in the spring.

"The AUium cepa, or common
white and red onions, are most gen-
erally cultivated by market garden-
ers, as a substitute for the AUium
fislulosum. They sow the seed in
the spring and autumn months ; the
product of which is pulled and sent
to the market while young, and gen-
erally meets with a ready sale.

" The AUium proliferum, or tree
onion, is propagated by planting the
bulbs in spring or autumn — either the
root bulbs or those produced on the
top of the stalks ; the latter, if plant-
ed in the spring, will produce fine
onions. These may be planted in
rows with a dibble, the same as
shallots.

OFI

ORA

** The potato onion (AUktm iudero'
turn) does not produce oeed as other
onions, but it increases by the root
One single onion, sligfaUy covered,
will produce six or seven in a clump,
partly under ground.

*« The bulbs are generally planted
in the spring, from twelve to eighteen
inches apart ; but they will yield bet-
ter when planted in autumn, as they
will survive the winter if slightly cov*
ered with dung, litter, or leaves of
treeSa dus *'

ONION, WILD. A troublesome
weed in meadows and open grounds.
It is to be removed by a few hoed
crops and heavy liming.

O N I S C J D iE. Insecto like the
wood louse (Onisau).

OOLITE. Roe stone. A lime-
stone of the secondary epoch, the
parts of which are rounded so as to
resemble a fish roe. It is unknown
as a formation in the United States,
at least on the seaboard. Oolitic is
a derivative.

OPAL. An iridescent, silicious
mineral.

OPEN CUTS. Ditches not cov-
ered.

OPERCULUM, A lid or covering.
The coverings of the theca of moss-
es. In zoology this term is applied
to the apparatus supported by four
bones, which protects the gills of
fishes ; also to the horny or calcare-
ous plate which closes the aperture
of univalve shells ; and to the four
calcareous pieces which defend the
entrance to the tube of BalanUetf or
bell- barnacles.

OPHIDIANS, OPHIDIA(from
o6tc, a snake). The order of reptiles
resembling snakes. ~

OPHTHALMIA (from o^a^fioc,
an eyfX Inflammation of the mucous
membrane of the eye.

OPIUM. The concrete juice of
the poppy, obtained by wounding the
unripe seed capsules of the Palaver
Momniferum^ collecting the milky juice
which exudes and dries in the sun,
and kneading it into cakes. The
cakes of the best opium are covered
externally with pieces of dried leaves
and the seed capsules of some spe-

lAxmc/tJtimtx. Itshooldbeofarieli
brown colour, tough consistency, and
smooth, uniform texture ; its pecu-
liar narcotic smell should be strong
and fresh ; its taste bitter, warm, and
somewhat acrid. The chemical anal-
ysis of opium has rendered it proba-
ble that its activity as a medicine de*
pends upon the presence of a peculiar
alkaline base, called morphia^ in com-
bination with an acid which has been,
termed m^cofrie a«id. Opium also oon^
tains narcotine^ narceine, codeiny gnm
resin, extractive matter, and small
portions of other proximate princi-
ples.

The chief countries in which opi-
um is prepared are India, Egypt, Tur-
key, and other parts of Asia ; it ia
even cultivated in Italy, France, and
England ; but the climate of Europe
seems to be too uncertain to allow
of its regular production.

There is no substitute for this in-
valuable drug in allaying pain. See

OPOBALSAM. Balm !>f Gilead.
A fragrant gum resin, from a species
of AmurU.

OPODELDOC. AUniment of
soap with camphor.

OPOPONAX. A gum resin of a
bad odour, from the Pastiniea cpO'
ptmax.

OPOSSUM. The genus Didelphis
of marsupials, peculiar to the Amer-
ican continent.

OPTIC NERVES. The second
pair from the brain. They enter the
back of the eyes, and form the re-
tina.

OPTICSj. The science which in-
vestigates the property of light, and
all that relates to vision.

ORACHE. The genus AtripUxy of
the family Ckenapo£aee<et which con-
tains the beet and spinach ; most of
the species are weeds in rich soils,
but A. horteruis is Cultivated and
used like spinach in some parts of
Europe.

ORANGE. Citrus auraniium.
This tree and the genus are cultiva-
ted only in situations free from frost,
and suffer even in Florida ; with suf-
ficient shelter to protect them from

636

ORA

Arost, th^ are resdity raised in or-
angeries kept above 32^ Fahrenheit.
They are evergreens: the flowers
are large, white, and odoriferous, ex-
isting at the same time as the fruit,
which is too well known to require
description. Orange-trees thrive best
in a good loamy soil, mixed with a
quantity of rotten dung. The differ-
ent kinds are procured by budding or
grafting on common stocks. Stocks
for working upon are raised from any
oranges, lemons, 6lc. They are some-
times raised from cuttings, in which
case they produce fruit when very
small plants. The flowers of the or-
ange-tree yield, by distillation, a fra-
grant volatile oil, known by the name
of oil of Neroli. The fruit of the
bignaroll, or bitter orange, makes one
of the best preserves that can be eat-
en, namely, Scotch marmalade. The
unripe fruit is used for flavouring the
liquor called Curacoa. The ripe fruit
is wholesome, and a useful refriger-
ant in fevers."

ORANGE DYE. A mixture of
red and yellow dyes.

ORANGE, OSAGE. Maclauraau-
rantict. A small, handsome, decidu-
ous tree or shrub of 16 feet, bearing
a large fruit somewhat like an orange
in appearance. It is a native of Ar-
kansas, but grows in New-York. Be-
ing a branching, thorny, and quick-
growing shrub, it has been recom-
mended for hedges ; it is readily prop-
agated from seeds, and grows suffi-
ciently in three years to form a fence :
the seeds germinate in a few weeks,
and one fruit yields some two hun-
dred ; three may be set in holes five
feet apart, and thinned to one after
the first year.

ORANGERY. *' A kind of gallery
in a garden, or parterre, to preserve
orange-trees in during the winter sea-
son. For trees in large boxes a pro-
portionably large and lofty house is
requisite ; it may be opaque on the
north side, with a glass roof, front,
and ends, of any convenient or de-
sired length, width, and height. For
one of moderate size, the height at
the back wall may be fifteen feet, at
front ten feet, and the width of the

636

ORO

house ^teen feet. The floor may be
either perfectly level, and the boxes
placed on it, the largest behind, so as
their tops may form a slope to the
front glass ; or if the trees are young,
a stage may be erected for a few
years, in order to raise the plants to
the light ; but if Uie trees are of a
considerable size, the best way ia to
have square pits in the floor at regu-
lar distances, somewhat larger than
each box, and in these to sink the
boxes, covering them with mould,
sand, or moss, nearly to the level of
the pavement, so that each tree so
placed and dressed will appear as if
placed in a small compartment of
earth "

9RANGE, WILD. Prunw Canh
liniana. A kind of cherry evergreen,
and growing to the size of a small
tree ; the fruit is not edible, but the
tree is much esteemed on the South-
ern seaboard as an ornamental plant
It is a native of Florida.

ORBIT. In birds, the skin which
surrounds the eye : the bony cavity
in which the eye is set.

ORCHARD. A collection of froit-
trees. The operations of the orchard
are to be found under their respective
heads. The best soil is somewhat
calcareous or marly for the Pomacea,
or apples, pears, peaches, cherries,
plums, and apricots ; but lie ** hard
gravelly soil of the Eastern States^
the sandy soil of New Jersey, the clay
soil of Pennsylvania, and the rich al-
luvial bottoms of the West, all pro-
duce an abundance of the dififerent
varieties of fruit, when proper atten-
tion is given to the trees. Mr. Phin-
ney, of Lexington, Massachusetts,
has ditched and drained one of his
swamps, and has now on it a luxu-
riant orchard of apple-trees. Tfu
great point is to have a dry soil. If it
is not sufficiently rich, make it so ;
no man should expect to have Jhie
crops of anything unless his soil is
rich.

" Setting out Trees {Mr. PeWs plan).
— If by exposure the roots have be-
come dry, immerse them in water
for 20 or 30 hours previous to setting
them out. Prepare a compost as foi-

ORG

lows : l^dce 8 boshelB of rich soil, or
3 bashels of swamp muck would be
better, 1 bushel night soil, I busliel
fine charcoal (if charcoal is plenty, 3
to 4 bushels are to be preferred), 1
bushel air-alacked lime, 1 bushel of
leached wood ashea, and 1 peck of
salt. Mix the above well together.

" Dig the holes 3 feet wide, 2 feet
deep, keeping the top soil by itself;
fill in a portion of the bottom soil un-
til nearly ready for the tree, then fill
in half a bushel of the compost and
set in the tree, spreading out the roots
to their natural position, and fill in
the top soil, gently shaking the tree
two or three times to settle the soil
around the roots. The tree should
be set the same depth in the orchard
that it stood in the nursery. Leave
the soil a little hollowing about the
tree, to cateh and retain the rain-wa-
ter. Put around each tree half a peck
of fine charcoal and half a peck of
slacked lime. With these precautions
neither peach nor any other fruit
trees will be infested with worms at
the roots, provided they have suitable
after-culture.

" Culture of Orchards. — The soil
around the trees should be kept loose,
either by spading, digging with a mat-
toek, or by ploughing. If a crop is put
in the orchard, nothing should be
planted or sowed within five feet of
the trees, as the nourishment taken
up by the crop is so much taken from
the growth of the trees. After the
lime and charcoal has laid around the
trees one year, spread it around the
trees in a circle of ten feet in diam-
eter. This should be done in the
spring, when the soil is cultivated,
and a fresh supply of lime and char-
coal applied.

" When the trees have been set out
thzee or four years, the soil should
be enriched with a compost of ma-
nure, swamp muck, and ashes. Early
every spring the trunks of the trees
should be washed with strong lye,
strong soapsuds, or thin soft soap.
Apply either of these with a white-
wash brush as high as a man can
reach. When the trees grow rapid-
ly, their girth will be increased by

slitting the outer bark the whole
length, from the ground up to the
limbs. This gives the trees room to
expand.

" To render Old and Barren Orchards
Thrifty and Productive. — Early in the
spring plough the entire orchard, and
enrich with a compost of manure,
swamp muck, lime, and chip manure.
Scrape off all the old bark with a deck
scraper, or a hoe ground sharp. Ap-
ply half a bushel slacked lime, and the
same of fine charcoal, around each
tree. Apply then soft soap or strong
soapsuds on the trunks and limbs as
high as a man can reach. While the
trees are in full bloom, throw over
tbem a good supply of fine slacked
lime.

'* To destroy Caterpillars. — As soon
as the nests can be seen, procure
some spirits of turpentine ; tie a small
piece of sponge to a pole that is long
enough to reach the highest nests, fill
the sponge, and once filling will be
sufficient to rub off and destroy sev-
eral nests "

ORCHARD GRASS. See Grasses.

ORCHIDACEiE. Herbaceous en-
dogens with remarkably irregular and
beautiful flowers *, they are propaga-
ted by seeds, and bear bulbs contain-
ing an agreeable farina {saUp)y for
which the Orchis mascula is partially
cultivated. They are natives of cal-
careous soils. In the tropics the spe-
cies and genera often become splen-
did parasites.

ORCHIL, or ARCHIL. The Ro-
cella tinetoria, A lichen indigenous
to the Canaries, and yielding a pur-
ple dye.

ORCINE. The colouring matter of
the Violaria orcina, or lichen dealbattts.

ORDER. A style of architecture,
or column. t

OREGON ALDER. Alnus Orego-
na. An alder of 25 to 30 feet.

ORES. Minerals containing a
large amount of some metal.

ORGAN. In anatomy, .a iriscus,
or structure of the body.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. The
chemistry of organic matters, or such
as are directly or indirectly derived
from plants or animals. The inves«

637

ORN

tigation or analysis of such bodies are
proximate or ultimate; the former
when the parts are merely separated
by solTeots, as water, alcohol, ether,
and acids ; the latter when the ele-
mentary composition is ascertained.
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitro-
gen, combined in binary, ternary, or
qaarternary compounds, with a small
amount of saline matters, form the
msyority of organic bodies ; ttUphur
and phospkoruM are present in a few
only. The modern process of organic
analysis is briefly described in Kane's
and in Graham's ChemistTy. These
manipulations require great experi-
ence and skill. Vegetable tissues are
distinguished from animal by the
great amount of nitrogen in the latter.

ORGANIC DISEASE. Disease
attended with an alteration of tbe
structure of a viscus or organ.

ORGANIC REMAINS. Fossils.

ORGANIZATION. The process-
es by which an organized body is
formed ; also the totality of the parts
which constitute, and of the laws
which regulate, an organized body.

ORGANOGRAPHY. A descrip-
tion of the structure of plants.

ORLO. The plinth to tbe base of
a column or pedestal.

ORNITHICNITES (from cpvif, a
bird, and ixvoc, a trace). Certain
marks in the new red sandstone, sup-
posed to be bird tracks.

ORNITHOLOGY (frOm opvtf, a
hird, and ^oyo^f a description). The
science which teaches the natural
history and arrangement of birds.

** The subdivision of the class of
birds is by no means so clearly indi-
cated by either external or anatomi-
cal characters as that of mammals,
and the systems of ornithology pre-
sent, in consequence, greater dis-
crepancy.

'* In the quinary arrangement of
birds, proposed by Mr. Vigors, there
may be traced a similar principle to
that which guided Nitzsch in his ter-
nary classincation. Thus, the first
order {Raptoret, V'rrg.) includes the
birds which soar in the upper regions
of the air,^hich build their nests and
rear their young on the highest rooks
588

ORN

and loftiest trees. The seeond ordei

(Inceaiores) includes the bnds which
affect the lower regions of the air, and
which are pecuharly arboreal in their
habits ; whence the name of perch-
ers. The third order corresponds
with Nitzsch's Aves terrestres, and is
termed Rasores. If the aquatic birds
of Nitzsch be divided into those
which frequent the fresh waters, and
are restricted to wading into rivers,
lakes, dtc., in search of their food,
and those which have the power of
swimming or diving, and, for tbe
mosc part, frequent the ocean, we
shall then have the two remaining
orders of the quinary arrangement,
viz., GraUaicres and NAtatorei. The
chief merit of this arrangement is its
aim to express the natural affinities,
and their circular progression in the
whole and in the ^veral parts.

** Linneos and Cuvier have six or-
ders of birds, which are character-
ized as follows by the latter nat-
uralist :

** Of all classes of animals, that of
birds is the most strongly character-
ized ; that in which the species bear
the greatest mutual resemblance, and
which iis separated from all others by
the widest interval. Their system-
atic arrangement is based, as in tbe
mammalia, on the organs of mandu-
cation, or tbe beak, and in those of
prehension, which are again the beak^
and, more particularly, the feet.

** One is first struck by tbe charac-
ter of webbed feet, or those wherein
the toes are connected by membranes
that distinguish all Mwimmin^ birdM,
The backward position of their feet,
the elongation of the sternum, the
neck, often longer than the legs, to
enable them to reach helow them, the
close, glossy plumage, impervious to
water, altogether concur with the
feet to make good navigators of the
Palmipedes.

" In other birds, which have also
most frequently some small web to
their feet, at least between tbe two
external toes, we observe elevated
tarsi ; legs denuded of feathers above
the heel joint ; a slender shape ; in
fine, all the reqoiaites ior wading in

CRN

OSI

shallow waters in search of nourish-
ment. Such, in fact, is the source of
food of the greater number ; and al-
though some of them resort exclu-
sively to dry places, they are, never-
theless, termed * shore birds,* or * wa-
ders' {GraUa).
■ " Among the true land birds, the
Gallinaeect have, like our domestic
cock, a heavy carriage, a short flight,
the beak moderate, its upper mandi-
ble vaulted, the nostrils partly cover-
ed, by a soft and tumid scale, and al-
ways the edges of the toes indented,
with short membranes between the
bases of those in front. They sub-
sist chiefly on grain.

** Birds of prey (Aceipitrea) have a
crooked beak, with its point sharp
and curving downward, and the nos-
trils pierced in a membrane that in-
vests its base : their feet are armed
with strong talons. They live on
flesh, and pursue other birds ; their
flight, accordingly, is mostly power-
ful. The greater number still retain
a slight web between their external
toes.

"The passerine birds {Peuxeres)
comprise many more species than all
the other families ; but their organi-
zation presents ^ many analogies
that they cannot be separated, al-
though they vary much in size and
strenj^.

" Finally, the name of climbers
{Seansareg) is applied to those birds
in which the external toe is directed
backward like the thumb, because the
greater number of them avail them-
selves of a conformation so favoura-
ble for a vertical position to climb the
trunks of trees.

** The primary division of the class
of birds adopted by the author of the
article * Aves,* in the CycloptBdia of
Anatomy and Physiologyf includes
seven orders ; the struthious birds,
by virtue of their remarkable ana-
tomical peculiarities, being separated
from the Gralla of Linnaeus and Cu-
vier. The following are the orders :

1. Raptorks, AccipUreSf Lmn., Cuv.
Birds of prey.

2. Imcbssoebs, Pas9ere9, Cuv. Peroh-
ers

I 3. ScANsoRxs, Cuv. Climbers.
1 4. Kasores, GaUina. Linn., Cut.
j Scratchers.

I 5. CuRsoREs, niig. Coursers.
I 6. Grallatores, Gralla, Linn. Wa-
ders.
7. Natatorbs, Palmipedes^ Cuv. ; An-

geres, Linn. Swimmers."

OKPIMENT. Yellow sulphur^t
of arsenic : it is poisonous ; the so-
lution in liquor ammonia has been
used as a yellow dye.

ORPINE. Sedum telephntm. An
exotic perennial succulent plant, of
the family Crassulacea.

ORRIS. Iris Florentina. The root
of this flag is remarkably fragrant,
and used in powder as a dentifrice.
It is readily cultivated in moist, light
soils, and grows rapidly from offsets.

ORTHOPNCEA. Difficulty of
breathing, especially when lying
down.

ORTHOPTERANS. See Insects.

ORTHOTROPOUS (from opdiK,
straight, and rpeiro, / turn). Seeds in
which the hilum and foramen are op-
posite.

ORTOLAN. A bird of passage of
the family Fringillida. They migrate
from Africa to Southern Europe, and
are fattened for the tables of the lux-
urious.

ORYZA. {from AriAZ, Arabian). The
genus of the rices.

OSCILLATION. Movement sim-
ilar to that of the pendulum.

OSCILLATORIA. Plante of the
lowest organization, living in wet or
damp places, and consisting of
threads, which have sometimes an
apparent movement.

OStER. Salix viminalis. Com-
mon osier *, there are, however, other
useful species, but this only is accli-
mated in the United States -, the S.
Forbiana is cultivated in England for
fine baskets, and also the S. rubra.
They are botanically willows, but are
remarkable for their slender and
tough twigs, which answer admirably
for baskets and hoops ; for the first,
they are cut annually ; for the second,
every two years. They require b
marshy, rich soil.

In the fens of the east of Eng

539

OUT

land, many hoHa (as they are prorin-
cially called) or plantations of osiers
are raised, which beautify the coun-
try, keep the stock warm in the win-
ter, and provide much useful wood
for baskets and all kinds of wicker-
work. The mode of planting is very
simple : it is, first, to dig the land
from six to twelve inches deep, and
then to prick down cuttings of four
years' growth, and eighteen inches
long, about three feet apart. The
soil may be moor or day, or any that
is low and wet."

OSMAZOME. The brown, fra-
grant extractive matter of roasted
meats.

OSMIUM. A rare metal, associa-
ted with platina in ores.

OSSEOUS BRECCIA. Fragments
of bones and mineral matters found
cemented together in some caverns
and fissures of rocks.

OSSIFICATION. The process of
the deposition of bone.

OSTEOLOGY. A dissertation on
bones.

OTITIS (from ovf, the ear). In-
flammation of the internal parts of
the ear.

OTTO, or ATTAR. A perfume,
the essential oil of roses. The fresh
flowers are distilled with water by a
gentle heat, as in the case of other
essences.

OUNCE. In troy weight, 480
grains, ^ of a pound ; in avoirdu-
pois, -fg of a pound ; it contains only
437^ troy grains.

OURARI. A virulent poison from
the Strychno* toxifera, of Guiana. It
produces convulsions and suspended
respiration.

OUTCROP. In geology, the ex-
posure of rocks or strata above the
earth.

OUTFALL. The lower end of a
water-cour.se.

OUTFIELD. Unenclosed lands,
distant from the farm-stead.

OUTLIER. A detached portion
of rock, distant from the mass.

OUTRE. Unusual, unnatural,
without taste.

O U Z E. The muddy dcposites of
the sea, or waters.
640

OVI

] OVARIA. The oral bodie^ which
I contain the eggs, or germs, in female
animals.

OVARIUM. " In plants, a hollow
case, enclosing ovules or young seeds,
containing one or more cells, and ul>
timately becoming the (rvixt ; it is al-
wasrs situated in the centre of the
flower, and, together with the style
and stigma, constitute the female
system of the vegetable kingdom.
When it is united to the calyx, it is
called inferior ; when separate from
it, it is termed superior."

OVEN. A domestic furnace used
for baking bread, pies, tarts, dec.
Ovens are generally constructed of
brick-work, with a semicircular and
very low roof; the bottom is laid
with stone, and in the front is a small
aperture and door, by the shutting of
which the heat is confined while the
bread is baking. They are usually
heated by means of dry fagots, wood,
dec, introduced into the cavity, and
are without aiiy grate below. As
these ovens, however, are not calcu-
lated for small families, on account
of the quantity of fuel they consume,
others have been contrived, on a
more diminutive scale ; these are
usually formed of cast iron, and may
be heated by the' same fire which
serves for the cooking of other pro-
visions, the hot ashes being applied
upon the lid, as well as l^low the
oven ; but for baking bread they are
inferior to the brick (or butch) oven.

OVERLAND FARM. Without
buildings.

OVERSHOT WHEEL. Tliat form
in which the water falls from above
the wheel upon the upper parts. It
is the common kind.

OVIDUCT. Fallopian tube, a
membranous tube which conveys the
germs, or eggs, from the ovarium into
the womb, or out of the body.

OVIPAROUS. Producing eggs.
Birds, serpents, insects, and fishes
are usually oviparous.

OVIPOSITOR. A pointed tuoe
whereby many insects deposite their
eggs in holes or chinks ; they are
sometimes boring or stinging organs
{aculeus).

OVIS. The geneiio name of the
sheep. The Moafions are supposed
to be the original of our domedtic
animal, bat this is questionable.

OVIVIPAROUS. Producing liT-
ing young, enclosed within an egg-
like membrane ; the marsupialsi the
Tiper, flesh fly, and several moUusks,
are instances.

O V U L U M. In botany, the rudi-
mentary seed before impregnation.

OWL. Raptorial or preying and
nocturnal birds of the genus Strix ;
they prey on mice and small birds,
and are useful to the farmer.

OX. For the varieties, see Cattle.

" The ox or steer is the castrated
male of neat cattle. He is called an
ox calf y or bull calf until he is a twelve-
month old, a steer until he is four
years old, and after that an oxt or bul-
lock. A sufficient number of the
most likely of the male calves being
selected for the future propagation of
the breed, the others are castrated
between the first and third months.

" The advantages derived from the
performance of this operation are
veiy great. The nutriment, which is
BO longer directed t6 the sexual or-
gans, goes to the general enlarge-
ment of the frame ; the propensity to
fatten is abundantly increased, and
the animal becomes far more docile
and tractable. The use of the ox in
agricultural and other labours may be
traced in almost every country, and
to periods of the remotest antiquity.

" The education of tbe steer should
commence between the second and
third year. At an earlier period he
has scarcely su^cient strength, and
at a later one he may have become
obstinate and selfwilJed. His edu-
cation should be founded on patience
and kindness, and then the term of
it will be far shorter than is generally
imagined, and the result wiU be per-
manent.

"There has been much dispute
with regard to the comparative ad-
vantage of the employment of cattle
and horses in agricultural labours.
The former are said to cost less, and
to be supported at less expense. For
the latter it is pleaded that a smaller I

number are needed, that the work is,
on pressing occasions, far more quick*
ly performed, and that it is always
abundantly greater. The plain mat-
ter of fact, however, is, that, although
the ox is still used for slow and heavy
work on many farms, he is not so
generally employed as he used to be,
even by his warmest advocates, and
the use of him has been completely
abandoned by a very considerable
number of agriculturists.

" In the native counties of the best
breeds, he is still admired and valued
as a beast of draught, but by the ma-
jority of farmers his value is now
chiefly or solely estimated by the
quantity and quality of the meat that
he will yield, according to the care
that is bestowed upon him, and the
expense tUat is incurred. He is in
the fullest perfection at four years
old, and he will tben prove more
profitable to the farmer than if he
were worked four or live years lon-
ger, when the quality of his flesh
will be deteriorated, and his disposi-
tion to fatten considerably impaired.

*' The diseaset of cattle may be
conveniently made the subject of
'consideration in the present article.
They are nut so numerous as those
of the horse, but there is oAen con-
siderable difliculty attending the
treatment of them. From the pecu-
liar tempefamcnt of cattle, and the
comparatively great quantity of blood
which flows in their veins, prompt-
ness in the recognition and the treat-
ment of disease is of far greater con-
sequence than in the horse, rapid as
is oAen the progress of his maladies.
Few of the diseases of the horse de-
stroy him at once; but there are
many maladies of the ox which must
be met at the instant, or they will be
uselessly struggled with afterward.
Let the owner and the veterinary
surgeon take good heed of this.

" The diseases of cahes should be
first considered. They are as numer-
ous as those of the colt, and more
fatal. At the head of them stands
diarrhaa. This sometimes occurs
when the calf is suflercd to continue
by tbe side of its own dam. Both

541

Btanration and excess of food in the
mother will produce it ; more partic-
ularly will this be the case when a
foster-mother is employed. If she
has calved bat a very few weeks be-
fore the newly-dropped young one is
put to her, the bowels of the calf
will almost certainly be disturbed.
Where it can conveniently be accom-
plished, erery calf should be reared
by its own dam. A state of consid-
erable purging should never be neg-
lected many days, and more especial-
ly if the animal loses its gayety or is
In evident pain, or the dung is unu-
sually offensive or tinged with blood.
The grand cause of this is acidity in
the stomacher intestines, which grad-
ually causes inflammation of the inner
coat of these vessels. The irritation
here set up is communicated to the
constitution generally, and exhaus-
tion and death ensue. Then recourse
must be had to a compound medi-
cine, the Value of which cannot be
too highly estimated, and the farmer
should never be without it. There
should be a base, chalk, to neutral-
ize the acid ; an astringent, catechu,
to arrest the discharge ; a sedative,
opium, to allay the irritation ; and a
carminative, ginger, to support the
strength of the patient. These should
be mingled in the proportions of eight
parts of the first, four of the second,
one of the third, and two of the fourth.
A large tea-spoonful of this powder
should be given twice or thrice in the
day, according to circumstances.

*' Costiveness is a contrary disease
to this ; it should never be suffered
to continue long, for it is fraught
with danger. The best aperient for
calves and cattle is Epsom salts, in
doses of from one to two ounces,
with a scruple or half a drachm of
ginger.

'* Cough should be promptly at-
tended to the moment that it is heard.
A dose of physic, small doses of pow-
dered foxglove, with nitre, or, in bad
cases, a slight bleeding, will usually
remove it.

" In proceeding to the diseases of
adult cattle, we are struck with the
numerous di$€AH9 of the eye. Ulcera-

turn of the lids w3I generally yield to
the nitrated ointment of mercury, lo-
cally applied, and a course of altera-
tive medicine. Warts should be ex*
cised by means of a pair of scissors,
and the root touched with nitrate of
silver.

" For inflammation *of the katt, or
membrane at the corner of the eye,
a weak Goulard lotion, or the tincture
of opium, lowered with ten times its
quantity of water, will be useful ; but
if there is any fungous growth on the
haw, extirpation will aflbrd the only
cure. Jnfiammation of the eyelids wi&
generally yield to fomentations of
warm water. For mfiammation of the
eyty warm or cold fomentations, the
former at the first, and the latter a
day or two afterward, with the opiate
lotion at the commencement, and a
very diluted one of white vitriol — two
grains to the ounce — when the in-
flammation is subdued, with a mod-
erate bleeding or a dose of physic,
will constitute the most successful
means of cure. Vleeralion of the eye
will be best treated with the opiate
lotion, but cataract and guUa serena
do not admit of cure.

"In fracture of the horn, if the bones
are not quite separated, they may be
bound together by tarred cords or
spli nts. I f there is a perfect fracture
of the bone, it should be sawn ofl* as
closely as possible to the head, and a
hot iron passed over the surface.

" Water in the head in calves, known
by the enlargement of the head and
the stupidity of the animal, admits
not of any cure. The giddiness which
is sometimes observed in them, and
even in the adult beasts — turning
round and round — ia usually hope-
less.

** Apoplexy f or sudden determina-
tion of the blood to the head, produ-
ced by the forcing system being car-
ried too far and the process of fatten-
ing hurried too rapidly on, can be
cured only by the most decisive meas-
ures. The animal that is thus struck
must be bled until he faints, and
powerful purgatives administered and
continued.

** Phrensy is produced by the same

ox.

oaase, ftnd can only be cured by the
same treatment. In these cases, 15
or *20 drops of the crotoa oil should
be added to the aperient.

" Locked jaw too frequently bids de-
fiance to medical treatment^, the only
hope of cure consists in active bleed*
iflg and the continued use of Epsom
salts and croton oil, until the bowels
are opened. Immediately after the
bleeding, the jaws will usually be
found sufficiently relaxed to admit of
the administration of medicine. This
golden opportunity should never be
lost. As an adjuvant, a seton of
black hellebore in the dewlap may be
tried.

" Young cattle are occasionally
subject to JUs, Almost without warn-
ing tbe beast staggers, falls, bellows,
and is convulsed in every limb : this
is the consequence of over-heating
or over-driving, or both. The physic
and the fleam must be here put into
active use. Perhaps it would be pru-
dent to send such a patient to the
butcher with very little delay.

" lUieunuUism. — ^There are few dis-
eases of more frequent occurrence
among cattle than this. It is not long
absent in a low marshy situation, and
it is the constant attendant on care*
less or cruel exposure to cold and
wet. It is recognised by the difficul-
ty of motion and the occasional ex-
pression of pain. The cure is com-
prehended in one word, ^comfort.' A
little mild physic, with warm, com-
fortable drinks and gently stimulating
applications, will hasten and confirm
the cure.

** Connected with, or a consequence
of rheumatism, is swelled joints, yield-
ing sometimes to stimulating embro-
cations and comfortable lodging.
There are, however, other tumours
unconnected with the influence of
cold ; such are fluctuating tumours,
usually about the knees, which re-
quire stimulating embrocations, and
the occasional use of the budding-
Jronj followed by. the application of a
blister when the fluid has escaped.
Other tumonrs, also in the neighbour-
hood of joints, are of a hard charac-
ter ; they will generally yield to fric-

tions with an ointment of the hydrlo-
date of potash, this drug being also
administered internally in doses of
six or eight grains daily. The too
frequent consequence of these afiec-
tions is palsy, at first confined to cer-
tain limbs, but gradually spreading
over the frame, being, however, most
visible in the hind extremities. Here^
again, the whole treatment may be
included in the comprehensive word
* comfort.* Small doses of physic,
the administration of the white anti-
monial powder, the use of stimula-
ting embrocations, witli warm lodg-
ing and good food, especially mashes,
will be useful adjuvants.

"As for that species of nervous
aflfection rabies or tnadne»s, it admits
not of cure ; and it has but one cause,
namely, the bite of a rabid or mad
dog. If a farmer knows that certain
beasts have been bitten, or has strong
reason to suspect it, he will act wise-
ly in sending them to the butcher, for
after the disease has once appeared
there is no cure, and the meat is
spoiled.

** It is time to recur to the diseases
of other systems and parts. Too fre-
quent and destructive is that inflam-
mation of the tongue and mouth rec-
ognised by the name of blain ; it con-
sists of vesicles and tumours occu-
pying the side of the tongue and the
membrane of the mouth, speedily ul-
cerating, becoming gangrenous, pro-
ducing much sweUing of the face and
head, and rapidly destroying the ani-
mal. It oflen appears under the form
of an epidemic, and it is frequently
contagious. The mouth should be
well cleansed with a solution of the
chloride of lime. Blood should be
abstracted in an early period of the
disease, and mild purgatives admin-
istered ; but if the compUiint has at-
tained its height before any treat-
ment is adopt^ the chloride of lime
should still be used, and also the
physic, but it should be accompanied
by .some stimulating ingredients, as
gentian or ginger, or both.

" All cattle are subject to fever ;
the dry mozzle, and the heat at the
root of the horn, and ttie heaving at

643

ox.

the flanks, are soffioient pioolis of it.
If this is early observed, a dose u(
physic and ooe or two mashes will
usually set all right. At times, how-
ever, the attack is suddeo and mure
violeot, and danger is evident from
the very commencement. The farm-
er recognises this alTection by the
terms black'quartery quarter-ill, blood-
striking^ <kc. ; the beast is seen with
his head protruded, his nostrils ex-
panded, and his flank heaving, the
breath and horn hot, and the eyes
bloodshot ; there is a peculiar crack-
ling sound li the loins are pressed
upon, and the slightest pressure gives
extreme pain ; ulcers appear on vari-
ous parts of the body, and every part
seems tending to corruption. Ttiis
disease is sometimes epidemic, but it
is quite as often the consequence of
tlie fattening process being hurried
on too rapidly. In the early stage of
such a complaint the treatment will
consist of copious bleeding and brisk
purging; these should be continued
until they produce their effect, and
then some sedative medicine, as fox-
glove, or emetic tartar, administered
and persisted in until the disease is
evidently yielding. After this, some
mild stomachics, as gentian and gin-
ger, should be administered.

" Too frequently, however, the
treatment has not been sufficiently
active, or was not commenced early
enough, and a peculiar low fever be-
gins to be apparent. There is dys-
entery, which no astringent will ar-
rest ; ulcers, which defy the power
of every disinfectant ; and the ani-
mal dies one mass of putridity. In
this stage of the disease, and also in
many of the complaints that have
been described, the assistance of an
educated veterinary surgeon should
be requested, for the treatment is
complicated and difficult to a great
degree.

••The diseases of the respiratory
system require particular notice :
most frequent among them is cough.
It is too little regarded by the owner,
but it is ollen the unsuspected mes-
senger of consumption and death.
There is no rule of more uuiveisal
544

application in cattle practice than
that a chronic cough is the forerun-
ner of everything that is bad. While
the beast feeds well, and the muzzle
is cool and moist, and the flanks are
quiet, the dairyman feels no alarm,
although he hears the cough almost
every time that he enters the cow-
house. By-and-by, however, he flnds
that the cow is losing condition,
and her quantity of milk is evidently
diminishing, and he begins to think
that there is some necessity for at-
tending to the case. It is then too
late ; the seeds of consumption are
sown, and he must part with her im-
mediately, or she will pine away and
die. In every case of severe congh,
moderate bleeding and purgation
should be bad recourse to, with warm
mashes and a comfortable cow-house.
The same treatment will apply to the
epidemic catarrh, which is sometimes
so prevalent. When this catarrh as-
sumes a malignant form, as in mur-
rain, the treatment will be little dif-
ferent from that of black-quarter.
Sore throaty or inflammation of the
upper part of the throat and the back
of the mouth, should be treated as
cough, except that a blister or some
stimulating application should be had
recourse to. The same may be said
of bronchitis, but there is a [»ecuUar
form of it to which young cattle are
subject, and which bids defiance to
all medical treatment, namely, the
choking of the windpipe and passa-
ges of the lungs by an innumerable
host of minute worms. No medicine
will be of avail here.

** Cattle are comparatively seldom
attacked by pure inflammation of the
lungs ; this disease principally occurs
when the beasts have been compelled
to travel too far or too fast, and when
they are exposed to sudden varia-
tions of temperature. It may be
known by the drooping head, the
heaving flank, the frequent painful
cough, the obstinate standing, the
hot mouih, and the cold feet. The
animal should immediately be bled^
until the pulse falters. In all cases
of inflammation and danger, this is
the guide. No specific quantity should

ox.

be ordered or taken. The faltenog

of the pulse is the unerring indica-
tion of the abstraction of the proper
quantity. If the pulse again throbs
hardly, the bleeding should be repeat-
ed. The bowels should be opened
by means of £psom salts. Setoos in
the dewlap should not be forgotten,
and blisters should be rubbed on the
sides with right good earnest. The
diet should consist of thin gruel and
mashes. Pleurisy may often be dis-
tinguished by a peculiar symptom,
twitchings and shiferings about the
chest and shoulders, these being the
parts external to the seat of pain.
Little waves appear to be stealing
over the skin, and the animal shrini<s
when the sides are pressed upon.
The treatment is the same as in in-
flammation of the lungs. Consump-
tion is the most frequent and fatal of
all the diseases of the chest in cattle ;
it is the consequence or the winding
up of every other pulmonary com-
plaint. It is distinguished by a feeble
and hoarse cough, evidently accom-
panied by pain, and interrupted be-

fore it is perfectly completed; for
a while the beast may continue to
thrive ; she — for it is oAenest a dis-
ease of the female — may increase in
condition ; but she will presently be-
gin to waste rapidly away. Medi-
cine is powerless in this disease.
The animal must be disposed of or
destroyed.

" First among the diseases of the di-
gesiive system is choking, or the stop-
ping of a piece of carrot or turnip, or
other hard substance, in its passage
down the gullet. The cart-rope or the
cart-whip is resorted to in order to
force it along the canal, and much mis-
chief has ensued from the violence
that has been resorted to on these
occasions. Probangs are now con-
structed at trifling expense, and may
be had from most surgical- instrument
makers in town and country, by means
of which the purpose may be readily
etfected, and without danger. See
Probang,

" From the gullet the food passes
into the stomachs of the animal, of
which there are four (see Fig.), The

the gullet, bf the pannoh. c, the honeycomb. «i, the nanyplies.

oommencement of the dundenura.

e, the reed. /, the

first is the rumtn, or paunch, into
which the imperfectly - masticated
food, as it is hastily gathered, de-
scends ; it is there macerated and
prepared to be returned for a second
or more complete grinding. Some-
times this stomach becomes over-
loaded with food : this is the grain
side of the dairy. The animal refu-
ses to eat, he becomes uneasy, moans,
swells at the flank, and a kind of un-
consciousness gradually steals upon
bim. The symptoms are ofleu treach-
erous, and would deceive him who
was not thoroughly acquainted with
the diseases of cattle ; but the intro-
duction of the probang, if necessary,

Zz2

will reveal the real state of the case.
The stomach-pump will be of admi-
rable use here. Any quantity of fluid
can be injected into the stomach,
and the hardened mass may be ren-
dered more fluid, and removed by
means of the pump ; or, if the stom
ach is too full to admit the probang,
and to be thus evacuated, an incision
may be made in the flank, and the
accumulated mass withdrawn by the
hand.

"At other times an unnatural fer-
mentation commences, and the stom-
ach is inflated with gas. One look
at tiie sides will sufficiently indicate
the inflation of the paunch ; this is

545

ox.

tenned hoove. The first indieatton of
care is to get rid of the gas ; this
may be accomplished by the introduc-
tion of substances that will chemi-
cally combine with it : the chloride
of lime will effect this. The princi-
pal gas in the inflated stomach is a
compound of hydrogen. The chlo-
rine leaves the lime and combines
with the hydrogen, and the compound
does not occupy a thousandth part of
the space previously occupied by the
hydrogen. Two drachms of the chlo-
ride of lime will form a cheap and a
very . efficient agent ; but if this is
not at liand, then a jiuncture may be
made into the left flank with perfect
safety. If this is done with a trocar,
the canola may remain in the wound,
and the gas will continue to be ex-
tricated while any considerable por-
tion of it remains. In default of a
trocar, a penknife may be used ; but
as the upper portion of the stomach
sinks with the disengagement of the
gas, the aperture through the skin
and that into the rumen will cease to
be accurately opposed to each other,
and some of the gas and the contents
of the stomach will enter the cavity
of the abdomen, and will be the cause
of future illness, or, perchance, of
death.

" The gas having escaped, a pur-
gative should be administered, with
a double dose of the aromatic, in or-
der to excite the stomach to resume
its duty. Hoove, or hoven, is to be
avoided by not letting cattle get at
too much green food in spring.

** The lost of ctLdy or the cessation
of rumination, is only the indication
or the consequence of other disease,
and will cease with it. If the nature
of that disease is not clear, a dose of
physic, with the usual or more than
the usual quantity of the carminative,
may be given.

" The diseases of the second stom-
ach, the reticulum, or honeycomb^ are
Yew, and not easily distinguished :
the simple function of that stomach
is to prepare the pellet of food for re-
mastication.

" The third stomach, the manypliest
has more to do. The food which has

546

not undergone snflScient commino-
tion in the second mastication is
seized by the rough and powerful
leaves of this stomach, and is ground
down, as it were, in a living milL
Sometimes, however, there is a de-
ficiency of moisture in this stomach,
or the muscular apparatus of the
leaves does not act with sufficteot
energy ; and at length the manyplte
becomes perfectly paralyzed by the
distention caused in consequence of
the undue quantity of food which is
accumulated in it : this is known by
the name of fardel'bound. The sym]K
toms are not always evident. Dtd-
ness, want of appetite, disinclination
to move, and costiveness, are among
the usual indications. The treatment
is simple, but too often ineffectual.
It consists in the frequent adminis-
tration of small doses of purgative
medicine, with more than the usaal
quantity of carminatives ; at the same
time, a small stream of warm water
is, by means of a horn or the stem*
ach-pump, made to flow down the
gullet and pass through the canal at
the base of this stomach, thus grad-
ually dislodging and washing away m
portion of the accumulated and hard-
ened contents.

" The principal disease of the abt^-
masumy or fourth stomach, is inflaoi-
mation, designated by evident unea-
siness, the resting of the muzzle on
the situation of this stomach, or a
peculiar stretching out of the fore
legs. Venesection and purgatives
should be used in this case. Of the
indications of disease in the spleen,
little is known ; inflammation is oft-
en found in it, with enlargement, in-
duration, or softening of its aub-
stance. These circumstances, how-
ever, are rarely suspected during life,

" To diseases of the liver these ani-
mals appear to he peculiarly prone.
A yellowness of the skin betrays the
existence of biliary affections in a
great proportion of the inhabiunts of
every dairy. When acute inflamma-
tion of the liver exists to any con-
siderable extent, not only this yellow
tint of the integument will be found,
but tenderness on the right side, fuK

ness there, and the dtrectioii of the
muzzle to it. The proper remedies
are those used in inflammation of
other Tiscera, with the addition of blis-
ters over the diseased part. Chronic
inflammation is far more prevalent
than that whit^ ie acute. The indi-
cations are, want of condition, the
same tint of the skrn, and obstinate
cough. The remedies are gentle pur-
gatives, and succulent food. When
obstruction of the biliary ducts takes
place, there is a still deeper yellow,
invariably accompanied by loss of
condition. The animal then basyottn-
dic£j or the yeUmes. If much fever
aocompanies it, recourse must be had
to bleeding and to physic. Cattle in
swampy places nearly always have
disease of the liver, and even die of
bilious fevers.

*' Among the various intestinal dis-
eases of th^ ox stands eTUeritis^ or in-
flammation involving all the coats of
the intestines. Young and fattening
cattle are most subject to it. It is
not, however, of very frequent occur-
rence, except as an epidemic, and
then it is very destructive. Wood^
evil and moor'til are varieties of the
same disease. They must be treat-
ed by bleeding, demulcents, blisters
on the belly, mashes, and gruel.

** DiarrhiBa, or purging without the
discharge of mucus mingling wiih
the faeces, is produced by various
causes, and particularly by a change
or excess of food. It is often epi-
demic in the autunm. A mild pur-
gative should first be given, and then
the mingled, but very efficacious med-
icine already recommended for a sim-
ilar disease in calves.

" Dysentery f in the adult as well as
in the young animal, is, indeed, a
fearful disease. Its causes are often
obscure, and the means of success-
fully arresting its progress are a de-
sideratum. Its principal character-
istic is the discharge of mucus with
the faeces, recognised by the appear-
ance of bubbles standing for a while
on the fseces. The length of time
which they continue there unbroken
may be considered as a kind of ad-
neasurement of the quantity of mu- 1

ens aetoally discharged, or, in other

words, of the danger of the case.
The progressoof Uie disease is rapid
or slow, according to circumstances
which it is difficult to appreciate ;
but, in the usual course of things,
the animal wastes away almost to a
skeleton, and then dies.

** Notwithstanding the purging, the
first indication of cure is to bleed. It
is. an inflammatory disease, and that
inflammation must be subdued. To
the abstraction of blood sboyld suc-
ceed the administration of an aperi-
ent ; and castor oil, as being the least
irritative, will be the best. Injections
of gruel should follow ; and when the
dung has somewhat resumed its nat-
ural character, astringents may be
administered, at the very head of
which, in this case, stands opium:
a little calomel should, perhaps, be
mingled with it, as an alterative;
and after that the vegetable tonics
must perfect the cure. Cattle are
subject Xoftaiulcnl and spasmodic colicy
for both of which the vegetable tonics
will be the best cure, with a little of
the chloride of lime to absorb the gas,
and the abstraction of blood if there
is any inflammatory action. Walk-
ing exercise and friction of the belly
should not be omitted. For strmigu^
lotion of the intestines there is sel-
dom any cure but by means of an
operation, which a skilful veterinary
surgeon alone can perform. In ca-
ses of constipation^ the aperients must
sometimes be long administered be-
fore the bowels wlUbe opened. There
will be no danger in this, provided the
Epsom salts, alone or with a small
portion of aromatic powder, are ad-
ministered. Dropsy in cattle seldom
admits of cure. Although an opera-
tion may be resorted to, the belly fills
again, nor will any physic or diuretic
arrest the evil.

** Among the supposed diseases of
the urinary organs, but much oftener
of the digestive ones, stands rcdrwa-
ter, so called from the colour of the
fluid which is evacuated. It is ma-
terially connected with the pasture,
but sometimes it has an epidemio
character. In the acute form of

647

the disease the water is red. His
must be combated by bleeding and
purging until the bowels respond. In
chronic red-water, the urine has a
brown tinge at fiist, but a red hue
gradually mingles with it. This is
difficult to treat. The principal
hope of cure consists in the exhibi-
tion of Epsom salts until thorough
purging is produced. Some mild car-
minative may then be given. Black-
water is only a variety, or the conclu-
ding stage of red-water.

" Puerperal fever, or dropping after
calving, is a disease that has been
very much misunderstood. A few
days after calving, the cow suddenly
loses ail power over her hind limbs.
She falls, and continues down three,
four, or more days, until the power
of voluntary motion returns, or she
dies It is inflammation of the womb
or of the spinal cord, which extends
to the organs of motion in the hind
extremities. She must generally be
bled, and always purged. No half
measures will do here ; the bowels
being once opened, the cow will fre-
quently get up, and there will be an
end of the matter. Injections will ma-
terially assist the action of the phys-
ic. Whatever apparent weakness
there may be, no tonic must be giv-
en until the bowels have been well
opened.

'* Garget is inflammation or ulcera-
tion of the udder. The milk coagu-
lates in the bag, and produces inflam-
mation there. In an early stage, the
sucking of the calf will afford the
greatest relief. If this does not suc-
ceed, fomentation must be had re-
coi^rse to, and friction with an ungu-
ent composed of elder ointment, with
an eighth part of camphor, and mer-
curial ointment. To this, if necessa-
ry, iodine may succeed ; but it must
be a last resource, on account of its
absorbent power.

*'The treatment of cowpoz will
consist in fomenting the teats, apply-
ing an emollient ointment, and giving
a little ph^ic.

" The diseases of the feet must not
be forgotten. Foul in the foot con-
sists in ulceration about the coronet

548

OXE

or betweett the clawa, vbich {uroda-

ces great lameness, and occasionally
loss of the hoof. It is very conta-
gious. The treatment is simple : ev-
ery pustule or collection of purulent
matter must be opened ; the horn
which is separated from the parts be-
neath must be carefuUy and wholly re-
moved ; a linseed-meal poultice appli-
ed for a day or two, and then the sores
touched with the butter of atUinumy.

*' Mange is a too frequent and very
troublesome disease among cattle.
An ointment, however, the basis of
which is sulphur, with a smaU por-
tion of mercurial ointment, daily and
well rubbed on every aflfected part,
will usually remove the complaint
Sulphur given internally will be a
useful adjunct. "--<yoiui//.)

For the medicines and their do-
ses, see the article Pkarmaeopaia.
OXALATES. Salts of oxalic acid.
OXALIC ACID. See Acids.
OXALIS. The genus of wood
sorrels. *^The O. crenata is a peren-
nial, ornamental plant, native of Chili.
The flowers are beautiful, of a yel-
low colour, and in umbels ; the stalks
and leaves are succulent, of an acid
taste, and useful as saJada ; the roots
or tubes are produced in clusters;
their taste, w^hen boiled, somewhat
resembles a chestnut. They are rais-
ed from the tubers, are very produc-
tive, as easily cultivated as the pota-
to, and decidedly superior in flavour.
They require a rich soil, and, like the
potato, are stored during winter in
cellars." — {Kenrick.)

OXAMIDE. A white, insoluble
sublimate, rising in a dense vapour
when oxalate of ammonia is decom-
posed by heat ; formula, N Hg Cf
Os. It is a test of the goodness of
African guano.
OX BOOSE. A stall for oxen.
OXEN IN THE WEST. The
abundance of cattle sustained by the
prairies, and their cheapness, has led
to the introduction of various plans
for disposing of the carcasses. See
Ellsworth's Report, 1844.

The hide is salted for the English
market, and netts four to five cents
the pound. The hoofs and horns are

OX!

OXT

cjnattarlydispoBedof. From the thigh
and shoulder, 75 to iOO lbs. of lean,
fit for drying into jagged beef, are ob-
tained ; 100 lbs. of the beet pieces
mre also salted for shipping. The
liver is Tabbed with nitre, and salted
for home consumption.

But the great object is to obtain the
tallow. For this, the rest of the car-
cass is cut up, and placed in an iron
cylinder holding 10,000 to 15,000 lbs.
The top is made fast, and steam let
in at 70 lbs. pressure, equal to 306<^
Fahr. In 12 to 14 hours the grease
win be free, and may be drawn off
into barrels. The soup formed un-
der the tallow *i8 used, with meal,
iLC. , to fatten hogs. 40 oxen per day
will feed 600 to 1000 hogs. The pigs,
in time, are steamed into lard.

An ox of 700 lbs. yields 25 lbs. suet
from kidneys, 60 Ibe. from intestines,
100 lbs. hide, 100 lean meat, and the
rest yields 10 to 20 per cent, tallow,
from a fat animal.

It is to be remarked that the fat is
not equal to that taken without steam-
ing. The bones, burned into bone-
black, form a rich manure and excel-
lent purifying substance for sugar re-
finers. They are also assorted for
buttons, knife handles, 6ca^ and the
rest exported for manure.

OX EYE. The genus ChTysantkc-
munu Weeds growing among wheat
a Ad small grain, with large white and
yellow composite flowers.

OX FEET. When the horse's
hoof splits before, so as to become
apparently divided into two parts.

OX GALL, or BILE. It is an ex-
cellent substance to refresh the col-
our of old, greasy carpets. For this
purpose, a small quantity is mixed
with water, and the carpet or cloth
well brushed with it. The dry gall
is very purgative.

O X G A N G. An old, uncertain
measure of land, varying from 6 to
40 acres.

OX HARROW. A large, heavy
harrow.

OXICHLORIDES. Compounds of
chlorine with metallic oxides, as
bleaching salt.

OXIDATION, OXIDIZING. The

act of combining with ozygeni nav*
ally that of the air.

OXIDE, A compound of oxygen,
with an element or other compound.
Numerous oxides are, however, call-
ed acids, when they become sour, or
are capable of neutralizing alkalies.
The most powerAil oxides are pro-
toxides; and these are bases. A
protoxide contains one equivalent of
oxygen ; a binoxide or deutoxide, two
equivalents ; a sesquioxide, three,
with two equivalents of the base ; a
tritoxide or teroxide, three equiva-
lents of oxygen ; a quadroxide, four
equivalents; and a peroxide repre-
sents the highest state of oxidation,
which varies much with different
bodies. A dioxide is a compound of
one equivalent oxygen with two of
base

OXYGEN, VITAL AIR (from
o^C> &nd yewaetVt to generatt). This
important element was discovered in
1 774 by Dr. Priestley. There are sev-
eral compounds of oxygen which,
when exposed to heat, are decompo*
aed, and yield the gas in a state of
purity. Of these, the best is chlorate
of potash ; but as that salt is expen-
sive, we generally resort .to black ox-
ide of manganese, which, at a dull-red
heat, gives out a considerable quan-
tity of tolerably pure oxygen gas.

Oxygen gas is colourless, taste-
less, and inodorous; it is electro-
negative, and therefore, when com-
pounds containing it are electrically
deeomposed, it always appears at the
positive surface. It is a little heavi-
er than atmospheric air, in the pro-
portion of 11 to 10; 100 cubic inch-
es weighing 34- 18 grains. Its equiv-
alent is 8 on the hydrogen scale, but
it is often made the 100th of what is
called the oxygen scale, symbol O. It
is absorbed by water to the extent of
less than one per cent., and is neither
acid nor alkaline. It has a powerful
attraction for most of the simple sub-
stances, especially for the electro-
positive bodies. The act of combi-
ning with it is called oxidation. The
compounds thus formed are divided
into acids and oxides ; among the
latter are the alkalies, and almost all

549

OXY

OYS

saHfiabte bases. Oxidailon is often ( ed by a tliroat-latch or piece, to yolce

attended with the evolution of heat
and light, as in all processes of com-
bustion in atmospheric air ; some-
times it is slow, and unattended wHh
aach phenomena, as in the gradual
rusting of metals. Oxygen is a most
poweifol supporter of combustion ;
it constitutes one fifth of the bulk of
the atmosphere, and is the principle
which enables combustible bodies to
burn in it. The product of combus-
tion, that is, the oxide or acid, is
Bometimes itself gaseous, as when
charcoal, by burning, is conTerted
into carbonic acid ; or it is liquid, as
hydrogen, by combustion, produces
water ; or it is solid, as when iron,
by burning, produces oxide of iron.
Oxygen gas is also essential to res-
piration ; that is, to the evolution of
carbonic acid from the blood ; but
requires to be diluted with nitrogen,
as in the air, otherwise it destroys
life by producing over-activity. Seeds
cannot germinate without oxygen,
and are, therefore, not to be buried
too deep in a compact soil. The
leaves of trees, also, cannot perform
their fudctions without its presence,
althongh they are always exhaling a
large quantity of this gas. Oxygen
is very extensively difldised in na-
ture ; in the compound state it forms
eight ninths of all waters, and at
least one half of all structores, wheth

them. The French fasten a flat
board to the foreheads ; and it is
found best to have one for each ox,
as shown in the Figure. Harness-

ing oxen in the same way as horses,
if they be well broken, is a very su-
perior method, and highly recom-
mended in hilly countries, where it
has been practised from time un-
known, as in Wales, Cornwall, and
Devonshire in England.

OXY- SALTS. Chemical com-
pounds containing an acid and alkali,
which are both oxides. This class
of salts comprehends the greater part
of those used in the arts.

OXYURES. A family of hyme-

nopterons insects with an external
er mineral or organic, except a few 1 ovipositor resembling a tail. They

oils and resins.

OXYGENATION, AERATION.
The introduction of atmospheric air
into the blood through respiration.

OXYHYDROGEN BLOWPIPE.
A contrivance for burning hydrogen
gas in an atmosphere of pure oxygen,
whereby the most Intense heat is ob-
tained. Dr. Hare's apparatus is con-
sidered equal, if not superior, to most
others.

OXYMEL. A mixture of honey
and vinegar, for coughs.

OXYAfURIATES, OXYOHLO-
RIDES. An erroneous name for
salts of chlorine, formerly called ox-
ymuriatic acid.

O X - Y O K E. The thnber placed
above the beads of oxen, and fasten-
660

are pupivorous, and prey on other in-
sects. A genus of intestinal worms,
also.

OYSTERS. Ostracea. A family
of inequivalve bivalves, of which the
Ostrca tdulhy or common oyster, is an
esteemed luxury. Those from the
Chesapeake Bay are best. They are
frequently transplanted and set ia
beds in the North and East Rivers,
and elsewhere, divided by stakes, in
shallow water, within reach of the
tide : water which is only partially
salt is best. They grow sufficiently
Ibr use in two or three years. They
should not be disturbed in May, which
is the spawning season, but are fit to
eat in August.

OYSTER SHELLS. They con

PAL

■ia^ nceofdiiig to Bvandes, «f one half |
percent, matter resembling glue, 98*3
carbonate of lime, and 1-2 per cent,
of phosphate and sulphate of lime.
They are, therefore* a manure re-
aembling chalk, when ground into
powder, and have been used with
good effects on wheat and legumin-
ous crops. They can be crush^ with
a common bark mill. When burned
in an open kiln, the animal matter is
driven off, and the best description of
lime is formed. These remarks apply
to all shells which are notporeeUmeut.
OZCBNA (from ofa, I smeU), A
putrid discharge from the nose.

PACANE-NUT. The Louisiana
hickory. The not is the best of the
hickory kind.

PAC E. A distance of from four to
liTe feet.

PACHYDERMATA (from iro;r»V,
thicky and depfta^ Mian). The order of
quadrupeds with thick hides, as the
horse, elephant, oxen, pig, dec.

PACINQ, AMBLING. A natural
pace of the horse, in which both legs
of one side are raised.

PADDLE STAFF. A staff4|r im-
plement used to free the ploughshare
from earth, dus.

PADDOCK. A small enclosure at
pasture.

PAGINA. The flat surface of the
leaf.

PAGODITE. A kind of steatite.

PALATE. The roof of the mouth.
It is divided into hard or bony palate,
and soft palate, the latter being the
membrane at the innermost portion.
The shape and markings of the pal-
ate are adduced by zoologists in their
descriptions. The elevated portion
of the lower lip of a personate flower.

PALEi£, CHAFF. A name giv.
en to the bracts that are stationed
upon the receptacle of oomposit» be-
tween the florets, and having gener-
allv a membranous texture and no
colour ; also the interior bracts of the
flowers of grasses.

PALINGS. Light fences made by
driving posts at distances of ten or
twelve feet inle the soil, crossing

them above and below by stout tim-
bers, and nailing slabs or laths of
wood to these in an upright direction^
and at intervals of three or foul
inches.

PALLADIUM. A rare metal, re-
sembling platinum : sp. gr., 11*8.

PALMA CHRISTI. The castor
oil plant, which see.

PALMATE. Resembling the hand,
flve-lobed or toothed.

PALMETTO. ChanuKTopt palmet-
to. A cabbage-tree palm, growing as
far north as Si'' N. lat. It some-
times rises ninety feet ; the stem is
nearly cylindrical, capped by a splen-
did frond, the centre of which, an
immense bud, is tender, and can be
eaten as a vegetable, but its removal
destrojTs the tree. Like other palms,
the outside of the trunks is very hard
and durable, and the interior spongy.
The hollowed stems make good tubes
to convey wfller, or, being split in
halves, they serve for piles, and last
a long time in water. The Ailly-
expai^ed leaf is Tery large ; fans,
hats, and a good thatch may be made
from it The fruit is iike a date,
not very palatable. The gedus Cha^
mceropw contains also the indigenoue
species semdata and hyatrix, with
creeping stems, and which, when
burned, are said to yield a large
amount of potashes.

PALMIPEDES. The anseres, or
swimming birds of Lionseus. -

PALM OIL. The solid, fragrant
oil of the Avoira elaist an African palm •
tree.

PALMS, PALMACEiE. A natu-
ral order of arborescent endogens,
like the palmetto, chiefly inhabiting
the tropics, distinguished by their
fleshy, colourless, six-parted flowers,
enclosed within spathes, and rigid
plaited or pinnate inarticulated leaves,
someti mes called fronds. They yield
bread, oil, wine, cordage, fuel, and all
necessaries to the savages of the
tropics.

PALP, PALPUS. The jointed or-
gans attached to the labium and max-
illa of insects : the feelers.

PALPATORS. Those olaWcom
beetles with long palpi.

PAP

FAR

PALSY. Low of nerroBs power,

ia horses, usaally in the hind legs.
See the Htjirae, Or, Skup.

P ALUSTRINE. PALUSTRIS.
Marshy, belonging to a marsh.

PAMBJIVA. A species of high
eranherry, found near the Columbia

PAMPAS. The SouUi American
prairies.

PAN. A term applied to the bed
or flooring upon which the cultivated
soil lies or is i^ced. It is sometime
extremely hard. See Moor,

PANACEA. A universal and fab-
ulous remedy.

PANCREAS. The sweet bread.
It is composed of innumerable small
glands, the excretory ducts of which
unite and form one duct, called the
pancreatic duct, that conveys a fluid
very similar to saliva into the intes-
tines, called the pancreatic juice,
which mixes with th^ chyle in the
duodenum.

PANE OF GROUND. A small,
four-sided piece of ground capable of
irrigation.

PANDURIFORM. Shaped like a
fiddle or guitar.

PAN-FEEDERS. In horticulture,
the shallow vessels in which pots
are set.

PANIC GRASS. The genus P«»i-
ieum. Coarse annuals, of little value
for grass. P. miUacaun is one vari-
ety of millet, which see.

PANICLE. A kind of inflores-
cenee, in which the central stalk
throws out lateral stems, and these
bear the petioled flowers, as in oats.

PANNAGE. The food consumed
by bogs in woods.

PANSY. Heart's ease. Violets.

PAPAVERACE^. Plants allied
to the poppies ; they are for the most
part narcotics.

PAPAW. Cariea papaya^ Assimi'
nier. A Southwestern tree, attain-
ing sometimes twenty-five feet ; the
fruit is three inches long, soft and
insipid ; a spirituous liquor may be
made from it : the wood is useless.

PAPILIONACEJE, PAPILIONA-
CEOUS PLANTS. The Ltgumi-
nota.

66S

PAPILIONACEOUS PLOWERS
A name given to the corolla of legu-
minous ]3anl8, as that of the garden
pea and bean ; it consists of a large
upper petal, standard, or vexiUmn;
two lateral petals, called altB, wings ;
and two intermediate petals, forming
the keel, or carina.

PAPILIONID^. Lepidopterous
insects, properly called butteriUes
they feed by day.

PAPILLA, PAPILLAE. Small
delicate eminences, as on the tongue.

PAPPUS. The hairy down of
thistles and other composite. Ptqh
pose is a derivative.

PAPYRUS. A largo sedge {Cy-
perus papyru*), a native of the Nile
and Southern Asia, from whi<^ the
ancients made their paper, or papyrus.

PARACENTESIS. Tapping,
opening the covering of the abdomen,
&c., to let out water : it is done with
a trocar.

PARACYANOGEN. A brown
solid, with the composition of cyan-
ogen.

PARADOX. An apparent absurd-
ity, but really a fact.

PARAFINE. A tasteless, inodor-
ous, fatty matter, obtained, anoiong
the products of distillation, from
wood tar

PARAGUAY TEA. Hex Para-
euayentis. An evergreen holly, the
leaves of which contain theine, and
are used as tea in South America. It
grows well in Georgia.

PARALYSIS. Palsy. Paralytic
is a derivative.

PARAPLEGIA. Paralysis of the
upper or lower part of the body only.

PARASITE, PARASITIC
PLANTS. Plants which strike their
roots into the textures of others, as
the misletoe : mildew, smut, rust, Ac.,
are also parasites. Many insects are
parasitical on animals.

PARASTATE. Square pillars
standing from the wall.

PARCHMENT. Refuse or clip-
pings make glue, or sizing, when
boiled ; they constitute an excellent
manure of the same kind as woollen
rags.

PAREGORIC. Tmctmr^ of opium

PAR

oamphor with oU of aittee bmA ;
AA anodyne to allaj pain.

PARELLA. Leeanora parelU. A
liehen of Europe, uaed as a dye, and
flunilar to archiL

PARENCHYMA. The ceflolar
aobatanoe of Tegetables or animate.

PARGASITE. A kind of hom-
hlend {actifnolyU).

PARGET. The plaster of Ume,
Wur, oow dan^, and water used in
eoating the llae of a ehtmney.

PARHELION. The appennance
«of two or more sans from the misty
state of the air. Fm^^ekruB are sev-
eral moons seen from th^ same cause.

PARIETAL. In botany, any or-
gan which grows from the sides of
another is said to be parietal. The
parietal bones, in xoology, are those at
the sides of the skull, which together
form the arch.

PARING AND BURNING. "This
operation consists in cutting a thin
slice from the surface of land which
is overgrown with grass, heath, fern,
or any other plants which form a
sward by the matting together of
their roots. The sods are allowed to
dry in the sun to a certain degree,
after which they are arranged in
heaps, and burned slowly, without
flame or violent heat. The result is
a mixture of burned earth, charred
vegetable fibre, and the ashes of that
part which is entirely consumed.

** The object of tbisoperation is two-
fold : first, to kill insecis and destroy
useless or noxious weeds completely ;
and, secondly, to obtain a powerful
manure, impregnated with alkaline
salts and carbonaceous matter, which
experience has shown to be a very
powerful promoter of vegetation.

*<The iastroments by which this
is eflected are either a common
plough with a very flat share, which
may be used when the surface is very
level without being encumbered with
stone or large roots, as in low moist
meadows, or, in most other cases, a
paring-iron, which is used by hand.
The cross-bar of this instrument is
held with both hands, and the upper
parts of the thighs, being protected
by two small slips of board, push the

AAA

iustniBrtnt inCo the gromid, so as to
cot a slice of the required thickness,
which is then turned over by moving
the cross-handle. The tebom* is se-
vere, and a good workman can
scarcely pare more than one sixth of
an acre in a day.

" Paring and burning the surface
ia an almost invariable preliminary
in the converting of waste hinds to
tillage \ and where these hinds are in
a state of nature, overrun with wild
plants which cannot be easily brought
to decay by simply burying them in
the ground, burning is the readiest
and most efiectual mode of destroy-
ing them. In this case the praotioo
is oniversaliy recoimnended and ap*
proved of.

*' But it is not only in the reclaim-
ing of waste lands, and bringing them
into cultivation, tluit paring and burn-
ing the surface is practised. The
fertility produced by the ashes, which
is proved by the luxuriance of the ve-
getation in the first crop, has induced
many to repeat this process so often
as materially to exhaust the soil, and
induce partial sterility. Hence the
practice has been recommended on
the one hand and strongly reprobated
on the other.

" When we come to apply to the
subject the test of experience, and
reason correctly on the facts which
are presented to us by the abettors
of the practice and its adversaries,
we shaU find that the advantages and
disadvantages arise chiefly from the
circumstances under which the oper-
ation is carried on. But it may be
necessary to an impartial examina-
tion of the subject, to inquire into the
changes produced on the substances
subjected to the process of burning,
when it is done with due precautions.

'' In burning vegetable matter in an
open fire, the whole of the carbon is
converted into carbonic acid and fliea
off, leaving only some light ashes,
containing the earthy matter and the
salts which the fire could not dissi-
pate. These are, no doubt, very pow-
erful agents in promoting vegetation,
when they are added to any soil ; but
they are obtained at a very great ex-

668

PARING AND BURNING.

|peiM0 of TcgetaUe matter, wluefa, by

Us decomposiiion in the earth, might
also have aflbrded food for Tegeta-
tion. if the earth which ia burned
with the sods is of a cold, dayey na-
ture, the fire will change it into a
kind of sand, or brickdust, which is
iasolable in water, and corrects the
too great tenacity of clays, by con-
Tertin|[ them more or less into loams.
This IS so well known, that clay
is often dug out of the subsoil to be
partially burned. On stiff chiy soils,
therefore, there is a double advan-
tage in paring and burning, that of the
vegetable ashes and of the burned
elay. When the fire is so managed
that the vegetable matter is only par-
tially burned, the oily and inflamma-
ble portions being converted into va-
pour by the fire without being de-
stroyed, and absorbed by the earth,
the effect produced is only to impreg-
mue the earth with minute particles
of matter, readily converted into the
constituent parts of vegetables. The
earth is the mere recipient of these
particles, which are held in its pores,
as water is in a sponge, ready to be
let loose to any substance which has
the power of attracting them. The
moisture, which the dry earth will
also absorb from the atmosphere if
no rain should fall, is retained and
increased by the effect of the salts
with which it is impregnated.

** The principal objection to burn-
ing is, that it destroys a great portion
of vegetable matter. But this is a
fact to be proved, and is, perhaps,
rashly taken for granted. It appears
that a clay soil may be pared and
burned without its real substance be-
ing diminished ; and if its texture is
improved, it becomes more fertile by
the operation.

** Many experienced farmers pare
and burn the soil on the edges of their
ditches and on the banks on which
the hedges grow, because they there-
by exterminate many rank weeds ;
and the burned earth mixed with
farm-yard dung makes an admirable
compost. Here the burned earth acts
as an absorbent, and np doubt attracts
many of the volatile parts of the ma-

nsrs, whiok sre prodiMod bjr tte d^
composition of animal and vegetable
matter in it. Paring and buraiBg,
therefore, should be joined to m^
nuring, if a powerful and immediata
effect is desired without exhaosting
the soil ; and, io this ease, we do not
hesitate to recommend it on all cold
clay soils, where rank weeds are apt
to spring up, and coarse grasses take
the place of the better sorts wbicb
have been sown. The proper time
to pare and burn is evidently aAer
the land has lain in grass for deveral
years, and is broken up for tillage.
The surface ahould be pared thin;
about two inches is the extreme
thickness allowable for the sod if the
soil is very stiff and poor, and as Una
as possible in a better soil. The sods
should be moderately dried, and thea
arranged into small heaps with a hoi*
low in the middle to hold heath or
bushes to kindle the fire. When it
has fairly established itself, all the
apertures should be carefully cloeed.
Wherever any smoke breaks out, a
fresh sod should be immediately put
over it; a heap containing a soiaU
cart-load of sods should be smoulder-
ing for several days without going
out, even if it rains hard. If the fire
is too brisk, the earth will form hard
lumps, and even vitrify; but other-
wise it comes out in the form of a
fine powder, in which evident marks
of charcoal appear. If this is of a
fine red colour, it is a good sign ; for
the iron in the earth has been con-
verted into a peroxide, which is per-
fectly innocent in its effects on ve*
getation, whereas all the saline im-
pregnations of iron are more or lesa
hurtful. It is better to bum the soda
in large than in small heaps ; for the
more the fire is smothered the better
the ashes.

*' So great a quantity of ashes is
sometimes produced as to admit of a
portion being carried off on grass
land, or used to manure another field.
As this is evidently robbing the fiekl
where the operation has been carried
on, an equivalent quantity of manure
should be brought in exchange. Per-
haps the most advantageous mode of

PARINO AND BURIONa

vsing the ashes ie to epreed UMmto
$he drills where the seed is to be
sown, after a portion of dunif has
been buried under them. In this
manner the ashes from one acre of
land pared and burned, together Mith
ten or twelve eart-loads of good yard
dong , wUl mannre two acres. But
experience proves that the earth and
ashes almost ensure a good crop of
turnips in many poor, stiff soils, in
which they would probably not have
succeeded if sown in the common
course of cultivation without bones
or ashes.

«*Wben a considerable extent of
poor land is brought into cultivation,
and there js no sufficient supply of
manure at hand, paring and burning
a portion of the land every year, by
which a crop is obtained, is a most
effectual means of improvement.
Lime may be used at the same time
with the ashes, and will increase
their effect. It would be a great
waste to burn the surface of a rich
piece of grass land, where the plants
growing in it are tender and succu-
lent, and would readily rot on being
ploughed under; in such case a mod-
erate application of lime would have
a much better effect. This kind of
land will produce good crops without
any mannre, and continue fertile for
many years if judiciously cultiva-
ted. To pare and bum nch land is
wasteful, and can never be recom-
mended. It is only on poor land
which has not strength to produce a
crop, and of which the texture re-
<iuires to be improved and its powers
stimulated, that paring and burning is
advantageous ; on poor, thin, chalky
soOs, which have beien laid down with
sainfoin, of which the roots and stems
are grown coarse and hard, so as not
readily to rot in the ground, the op-
eration is proper and advantageous.

** Many tracts of waste land might
be brought into cultivation by means
of paring and burning, which without
it would never repay the labour re-
quired. Where the soil is inclined
to peat, this operation and abundant
liming are the indispensable prelimi-
naries of cultivation. The ashes and

the Inae will prodaee rBg&iaUesa Md

food for animals. These will produce
dung to supply what tbe vegetation
abstracts, and to assist, also, in the
farther decomposition of the peaty
matter, converting it into vegetable
mould.

'* The £rst crop after paring and
burning should, if possible, be tur-
nips, and these should be consumed
on the spot ; but there are exceptions
to the rule. The soil may be a stiff
clay of a considerable degree of nat-
ural fertility, only encumbered with
rank weeds and grasses. In thia
case the surface is burned to destroy
these, and a crop of corn may safely
be taken after the paring and homing,
the land coming into a regular alter-
nate rotation alter it. For example,
the next crop may be beans ; or clo-
ver may be sown with the first crop,
if the ground appears fit for it. The
effect of the ashes will be readily per-
ceived in the luxuriance of the clo-
ver. Such land may be afterward
cultivated, according to its nature
and quality, with the rest of the farm,
or laid down to grass after a course
of cleansing and ameliorating crops.
Thus old wet meadows, after having
been well underdrained, may be great-
ly improved, and either converted
into arable fields, or laid down again
with choice grasses.

** Old rough pastures may often be
greatly improved by a very thin pa-
ring and burning, so as not to destroy
all the roots of the grass. When
the ashes are spread over the pared
surface, some good grass seeds are
sown with them. The whole is well
harrowed or scarified and rolled, and
the grass which will spring up after
this will be greatly improved, and
will fully repay the expense of this
simple mode of renovating it. This
is the cheapest mode of improving
coarse pastures that we know, with-
out breaking them up.

'* The partial paring and burning of
the headlands of fields, for the pur-
pose of mixing the ashes and burned
earth with dung in a compost, is a
most excellent practice, and often
superior to that of using the soda

555

FAK

only, wfthmit taming ihem. Theae
soda contain innomerable aeada of
weeds, and eggs or maggots of in-
secto, which are not destroyed by the
fennenution of the heap, hot, oo the
eontrary, are broogbt to liie. The
loss of a portion of vegetable matter
in the burning is amply compensated
by the destruction of these enemies
Of the future crops.

^ It now only remains to take no-
tice of the soils and situations where
paring and burning cannot be recom-
mended. Wherever the soil is vei7
loose from a great proportion of sili-
ckras sand in its composition, and is
held together chiefly by the slender
roots w^ich run through it, the burn-
ing would destroy the whole of the
vegetable matter ; for none of the
volatile parts which the fire dissi-
pates or generates would be retained
or absor^d, but would pass through
the loose sand in the same way that
water would. Here, then, would be
actual destruction ; and the residue
would be a mere barren silicioos
sand, much worse and more porous
than it was wben held together by
the roots. The only way to bring
such soils into cultivation is to put
day, marl, or vegetable matter on
them, and to force vegetation by
means of liquid manures, chiefly the
urine of animals, consolidating them
by every means applicable, so that
they may retain moisture, and that
the manure may not be waa^«d
through by the rains. 8oeh soils may
be improved, but they are the most
ungrateful of any ; and it is only ne-
cessity and indefatigable industry
which can make them produce any
crops.

*' It is veiy easy to ascertain wheth-
er any soil will be improved or not
by paring and burning. A few sods
may be taken and exposed to heat in
an iron pot closely covered over, or
in a large crucible ; the heat should
not be so great as to produce light,
but should be kept up for a consider-
able time, till the sods are consumed.
If the ashes are red, and the whole
18 a fine powder, with partides of
charcoal in it, the soil froia which it
666

PAH

WW taken m^ be aalhly paied ea^

burned, especially if it forms a mud
with water, and the earth is not read-
ily deposited. But if it feels gritty,
lets the water readily through, and is
soon deposited when mixed with it,
burning will not be advantageous.
This is the evident result of the pha«
ciples laid down before.

**0n the whole« the operation of
paring and barning, when judiciously
applied and properly performed, is a
most excellent and cheap improve-
ment of certain soils, and it will never
diminish their fertility, if they are
properly cultivated and manured, and
a judicious succession of crops is
adopted ; but, on the contrary, it will
improve their quality and texture,
and make them more productive." —
iRluan.y

PARK. An enclosed woodland
pasture.

PAROTID GLAND. A large sal-
ivary gland, situated at the ai^Ie of
the jaws.

PAROXYSM. A sharp alUck, aa
increase of sickness.

PARSLEY, -t^ttm petro^elimim,
A biennial, umbelliferous plant, the
aromatic leaves of which are much
used in cookery. It is propagated
readily by seed in a dry, fair soiL
The curled variety is the prettiest.
A bed ODce formed will perpetuate
itself, if sufifered to bear a few seeds
annually. It may be covered by straw
in the fall to protect it from winter.

PARSLEY, THE HAMBURGH.
Apium latifolUun. This plant is cul-
tivated for its ro€»t, which resemblea
a middling-sized parsnip ; it is man-
aged and used in the same way, and
is a good vegetable,

PARSLEY, WILD. Wild celeiy.
This and similar umbelliferous plants,
growing in wet places, are acrid, and
should be carefully weeded out from,
pastures.

PARSNIP. Pa$Hnacaiativa. Ya-
rieties : Jersey long, and large Dutch,
a well-known umbelliforous plant,
cultivated for its roots. It grows
well in deep, rich, loamy clay, or
sandy soils, and is cultivated exactly
like the carrot Sow in April or May,

PAS

PAB

tA drills 18 Snehes apait, w u to ad-
mit the horse hoe, 5 pounds 0( frtth
seed per acre ; prick out to IS inch-
B8, and hoe well : produce in October
9 to 11 tons ; take op with the plough
or a fork : they keep well in sand.
All stock like them, especially if
steamed. The leares are often giren
to oowB, dtc. Its value as fodder will
be seen under Fodder,

PARSNIP, COW; MASTER
"WORT. Htradeum lunatwn. A
large perennial, umbelliferous plant,
growing in wet places, and rery poi-
Bonous. Use the stomach pump and
warm water in poisoning by it.

PARTERRE. In gardening, a
system of beds of diflferent shapes and
sizes. In which flowers are cultivated,
with intervening spaces, either pared,
of gravel, or turf, for walking on.

PARTURITION. The act of
briaging forth young.

PASSERINES, PASSERES.
** Birds sindlar to the sparrow, inclu-
ding those which neither manifest the
Tiotence of birds of prey, nor have the
fixed regimen of the terrestrial birds,
bnt which feed on insects, fruit, or
grain, according to the slenderness or
strength of their beak ; some, with
sharp and toothed mandibles, pursue
and feed on small birds. All the pas-
serines have short and slender legs,
with three toes before and one be-
hind, the two external toes being
united by a very short membrane.
They form the most extensive and
varied order of birds, and are the least
readily recognisable by distinctive
characters common to the whole
group.

**The passerines, in general, have
the fbmales smaller and less brilliant
in their plumage than the males;
they always live in pairs, build in
trees, and display the greatest art in
the construction of their nests. The
young are excluded in a blind and
naked state, and wholly depend for
subsistence, during a certain period,
on parental care. The braimarrives
in this order at its greatest proper-
titHial size ; the organ of voice here
attains its utmost complexity; and
an the cfaafaoteristics of the bird, as

AaaS

power of lli^t, rn^My of voiee, tad,

beauty of plumage, are enjoyed in
the highest perfection by one or other
of the groups of this -extensive and
varied order.

" The beak of the passerines varies
in form aceording to the nature of
their food, which may be smaB or
young birds, carrion, insects, fhiit,
seeds, vegetable juices, or of a mixed
kind. The modifications of the ros-
trum have, therefbre, ailbrded oon;-
venient characters for the tribes or
subdivisions of the order : these are
termed, 1. Ihniirotters; 2. Control
ttrt; 3. Tenuirosttrs; 4. FUnrosHrt.*^
See those words.

PASSIONFLOWER. The genus
Pasttifiora, bearing beautiful flowers^
and, in the tropics, tolerable fniic»
and a good wood resembling ebony.

PASTEL. A dye stuff, resembling
indigo, woad.

PASTERN OF A HORSE. The
distance that intervenes between the
joint of that name and the coronet of
the hoof

PASTURE LANDS. " Consider-
able improvements have been made
in natural pastures, not only by the
raising of banks and stone walls aa
shelter against the winter^s storms,
but also by extensive draining and
clearing the surface of wild plants
and shrubs, which prevent the her-
bage from springing up, and greatly
diminish the feed. On the sides of
steep hills, where springs are apt to
break out and produce sivamps and
bogs, drains judiciously made have
carried off the water, and laid dry
the pastures below them ; while res-
ervoirs have been constructed in
many places to receive the water and
to supply the stock in dry weather.
On peaty moors the application of
lime to the surface has often pro-
duced wonderful eltbcts, and made
various kinds of clover and grassea
spring up, which were never seen oq
the spot before.

*' Those who are possessed of ex-
tensive pastures citen look upon
them as of too littlo value to lay oat
any money in their improvement;
aad mdess when an auempt is made

667

PASTURE LANDS.

•li

9 Mag tlMm into rasvlftr onltivt^
lioiit which often fails «Aer a great
outlay of money, they are not thought
worth attention. Yet many rough,
hiUy pastures might be doubled and
tripled in valae> merely by clearing
the surface, burning coarse grasses,
rashes, ferns, and Airse, and sowing
a few seeds where the ashes have
been spread. The additional number
of cattle or sheep which can be main-
tained by this means would surprise
any one who had not had experience
of such improvements. The forming
of convenient channels for the water
to run off* is another important ob-
ject, which can often be effected at a
trifling expense ; and a loose surface
laid dry by this means may be much
improved by merely burning the heath
which grows npon it. After the fire
has scorched the ground, grasses will
spring up spontaneously; and, at a
▼ery small expense, a considerable
tract of mountain pasture may be con-
verted from the state of a brown
heath, or moor, to that of a fine green
sward.

''Wherever there are large pas-
tures, proper and suitable buildings,
made of substantial materials, should
be erected. The cattle should have
numerous sheds for refuge in bad
weather, and sheep especially should
have protection and shelter. Warmth
is in some cases of more importance,
than food : and an animal exposed
to all the severities of a northern cli-
mate requires more food to keep him
alive than when he is kept warm and
protected from the imnoediate influ-
ence of cutting winds.

**To those who have extensive
pastures, as on the prairies, it is of
great importance to asoertain wheth-
er oxen, heifers, cows, or sheep are
the most profitable, and of these,
what breeds suit the situations ; and,
when this has been determined by
experience, to know what quantity
may safely be kept, without suffering
for want of suflioient food, or allow-
ing any portion of the pasture to
wither or beoome coarse from not
being duly, fed off. Whatever be the
atock depeatured, the greatest attes-

tkm should be pnd to tWa by m

herdsman or shepherd of experience,
who should have a certain number
only under his care. It is a good
plan to give him some share or inter-
est in the produce as part of his wa^
ges. When any part of the stock is
sold off to drovers or butobera, be
should have a per centage on Uie sale.
This will give him the activity of utk
owner, and be is not so likely to be
negligent and allow the stock to suf-
fer from a want of sufficient food, or
from aeeidenta which can be prevent-
ed by proper atteotioa.

" When the soil is nataraUy deep
and of a good quality, but the situa-
tion renders it not advisable to onn-
vert the pastures into permanent
arable land, and the herbage has beea
deteriorated and overrun with moas
or weeds, it is a very effective mode
of improving the pasture to plough
op the swai^ as thin as possible, and
then, having removed the sods into
heaps or rows, to pk>ugh and scarify
the bared surfiBLce to the depth of four,
or five inches, so as to give it the
appearanoe of a fallow field. When
it is well pulverised and harrowed
level, the sod, which had been takea
off, is chopped into small pieces by
the 6pade, and scattered over it ; and
after a shower has somewhat moist-
ened the surface, it is well rolled with
a heavy roller. Thus the moss is
effectually destroyed ; the root weeds
have been eradicated, and the fine
grasses, the roots of which are short
and fibrous, are preserved. Tbey
will soon strike into the loosen^
soil, and a fine close sward will be
the result. The improvement is still
greater if lime is put on the land be-
fore the spreading of the sods, and if,
at the same time, some of the beat
grass seeds are sown over it. The
proper season for this opeiation is
after harvest, and no oattle should be
admitted till the next spring.

" In the richest pastures, an acie
will maintain and fatten an ox of
eighty or ninety stone, and some-
times keep several sheep in store or-
der besides. There is a marked dif-
ferenee between land that will At-

PAY

t«B tn «x, and that vUelk wEI only
rear him. This ean seareely be dis-
covered by simpie examination of the
land, but is found by experience. The
same appearance of grass has more
procf, as it is called, in one place than
another. The bite may be rery short
and the pasture appear bare, and yet
the value of it may be seen on the
ribs of the cattle. Much of the skill
of a grazier consists in stocking his
jMistores to advantage. He should
know the power of every portion of
it, and stock it so that the grass may
not grow faster than it can be crop-
ped by the cattle or sheep, and that
the animals may always have the
full quantity required. Every animal
wants a certain quantity of food to
repair the daily waste occasioned by
the animal functions. If he has no
more he makes no progress: the
more be can convert into flesh and
fat beyond this quantity in a given
time, the more profitable he wUI be.
Hence the superior qualities of some
animals with respect to this point in-
dicate the superiority of their breed,
and afford the greatest nett profit to
the grazier. 1 n the same pasture, one
beast or sheep will give a reasonable
profit, while another may occasion an
actual loss. The adapution of the
stock to the nature of tike pasture is
eonsequently an object of the great»
est importance, and requires much
judgment and experience."— <w: L.
Rham.)

PATELLA. The knee pan.

PATENS, PATENT, Spreading.

PATHOGNOMIC (from iradoc, a
dueoMtt and y»o/ai^ o^itdm). Symp-
toms which are characteristic of a
disease.

PATHOLOGY. A dissertation on
the efl*ects of disease on the body.

PAVILION. " In architecture, a
projecting apartment on the flank of
a building, usually higher than the
rest of it. Summer-bouses in gar-
dens are sometimes called by this
name, but improperly. The term pa-
vilion is also used to signify a milita-
ly tent."-~<^r4iju/e).

PAVING ORCHARDS. Some-
times practised about plum-treaa to

cutoff the eta^ieofllieeiiieidla. If
it is temporary, there can be no ob-
jection, but otherwise we are unable
to apply composts to the roots. It
is very eflbctive against the curculio.
PEA. Pmtm Mtivum. An anno-
al of the leguminous family. It is
supposed that the gray pea is the P,
arvense^ Varieties :

Early Cedo Nolli, or Rac« Hone, 3 fiMt
Eariy Fimmo, S to 8 (Mt.
Early Warwick, 3 fe^t.
Early Waahington, 3 foat.
Early Charltnn, 3 feet.
Double BIoMom Frame, 8 feet.
Biabop'a Early Dwarf, 8 feet.
Dwarf Prolifio, or Strawberry, S feat.
Dwarf Spaaish, or Fan, 1 to 2 feet.
Early Nimblo Dick, 3 feet.
Dwarf Blae Inpertal, S to 3 faet.
Waterloo Olos, 4 feet.
Gruom*8 Dwarf Blue Prolific, 4 feet.
Dwarf Blue, PrussiaD, S to 8 feet.
Dwarf Marrowfat, 8 to 4 feet
Lady'e Finger Marrowe, 4 feat.
MatchlcM Marrowfat, 6 feet.
Knight** Tall Marrow, 6 feet.
Knight** Dwarf Marrow, 3 feet.
Woodford'* Green Prolifio, 6 feet.
Largro Gray Roooeival, 4 feet.
Dwarf Sanr (eatable pods), 3 feet.
Tali Crooked Pod Sugar, 6 feet.
French Bnuonet, or Sugar, 3 to 4 feet.
Albany Field, aeveral varietiee.

The time of sowing is early spring,
in drills four to six feet apart ; they
should be protected by straw, pine
brush, or similar substances. A sow-
ing may be made every two weeks
until the end of May ; a bushel wiU
plant an acre, and yield from fifty to
one hundred bushels of green peas.
The best soil is a deep, moderately
rich, clayey soil, containing some
amount of lime, or having been weH
manured with it. They are usually
supported by sticks, bat in field cul-
ture are allowed to grow on the
ground. They should be hoed sev-
eral times, and earthed up. A fall
crop can be obtained in Uie Middle
States by sowing in a shady piaoe
after the heat of summer is passing
away.

The field is sown broad-east at two
and a half bushels the acre ; the crop'
is readily collected by a short scythe
and horse-rake. It should be done
while the haulm is of a yellowish
green, or the peas scatter. The
haalm in this state is a very vaiaa*

FJBA

Ue f«iigli AMld^n iftimMtf kooaed.
The grain 10 tbrMhed <Nit, and forms
one of the best kinds of prorender
for all stock and poultry. I'he yield
per acre ia from twenty-five to forty
bushels.

The pea can be readily forced in
the hot-house, and may be much ad-
vanced by glass. The diseases of
the pea are few : mildew and plant
lice sometimes destroy late crops.

Mojoures. — Like all leguminous
plants, pease require lime and gyp-
sum, but as they yield much seed,
bone earth is also essential. They
are an exhausting crop. The com-
position of the pea is given by Spren-
gel : 1000 parts in the ordinary dry
state yield

8«e<L

8Umw.

Potuh ftnd loda . .

. . 15-50

935

Lime ami mafn^tia . .

. IW

30-70

PhMphoric acid . .
Sulpharic acid . . .

. . IW

2-40

. 0-5J

3-35

Chlorine ....

. . 038

0-00

Silica, iron, Ao. . .

. . 4-40

10-65

&4-65 49-05

PEA BUG. Bruekusjnst. A well-
known coleopterous insect which lays
its egg in the young pea, and comes
out in May. Sowing pease two years
old, taking care invariably to destroy
the insects that are hatched, is a cer-
tain preventive.

PEA, COW. Yeatman*8 pea. A
very productive yellow Southern pea,
much used for green fallows in the
same way as clover.

PEANUT. SeeP««iar#.

PEA PATTRIDGE. Casiiacha-
maeritia. Wild sensitive plant. It
is a beautiful ornamental plant.

PEACH. Amygialu9 Pertica, of
the natural family Pomaeem. The fol-
lowing account is partly from Mr.
Thomas :

«* The peach is usually cultivated
by planting the stone in autumn, at a
depth of about two inches ; a small
part of them grow the succeeding
spring, and the remainder the year
following. Cracking the stones be-
fore planting ensures their growth the
first season, but it is beet in this case
to expose the stones to the action of
frost during winter, mixed with sand
or earth, and to ^e£eir the pUntng tiU

PEA

^RHig. tf the 803 be ftrtlle, so
their growth is vigorous, they moy
be budded the same season ; but if
not, the operation must be <teferred
till the second. One and two yeare'
growth of the bud will render' them
large enough to transplant into tlie
orchard.

<'The most suitable soil fyr the
peach is a rich, sandy loam ; a light
soil is g:enerally preferred, but this is
not indispensable, if the ground be
well prepared. Peach-trees, when
transplanted, should not be large.

** To obtain good varieties with any
degree of certainty, budding must be
resorted to. Grafting rarely suc-
ceeds, and never unless performed
with unusual care on such kinds as
have the firmest wood. It ts an ad-
vantage to bud on almond or plum
stocks.

** When the great difference be-
tween good and bad varieties is re-
membered, the importance of obtain-
ing the best must be obvious. The
reputation of some which are excel-
lent has been greatly injured by the
numerous errors in names which have
been introduced.

" This misapplication of names has
induced the attempt to arrange the
varieties and distinctive charaeters,
so that this inconvenience may be re-
moved. The peach presents faotii-
ties for this purpose not existing in
other fruits. The folio wi ng, wh ich ia
generally adopted as the best, is fronii
Lindley. Peaches and nectarines
(which may be considered as one and
the same fruit, the latter having
smooth skins) are separaied into
three general ciasse*, each of which
has three dimsions; these are each
separated into two subdivisions, and
every subdivision into two sections :
consisting* in all, of thirty-six sec-
tions. Only a part of these sections
contain varieties with which we era
acquainted, and are only to be fiUed
up as new ones are discovered wi^
characters adapted to them.

^* Ciass I. comprehends those the
leaves of which are deeply and doably
serrated, and having no gteods on the
aeifitnres (Fig. 1).

FCAOH*

** CloMs XT. coDtftina those irtuwe
leaves are erenate, and have globose
glands {Fig, %y

^ Class in. indades all those
whose leaves are erenate or scrru-
bte, and have kidney-shaped glands
(Fig, 3).

Fig. I. Fig, % Fig. 1.

" It will, however, sometimes hap-
pen that glands are not discernible
on soBie of the leaves, especially on
those produced on weak branches;
in this case other branches must be
sought for which do produce them.
They are represented as rather lar-
ger and more distinct, in the accom-
panying figures, than usually occur
IB a state of nature.

** These classes, thus formed, are
each divided into three divisions.

**£>», I. embrafses those which
produce large flowers.

*' Dw. //. inohidee those whieh pro-
dace flowers of medium size.

« Dfo. ///. contains those which
prodnce small flowers.

'* These divisions are not so dts-
thietly marked as the olasses, the
middle and ermaU flowers only diSbr-
ing by the fbrmet being larger in all
tiieir parts.

The subdivisions, two in number,
are determined by the fmit. The
first eomprehends tme peaeheSf or
those which have a downy skin \ the
second tnelodes nectarines, or those
which have a smooth skin, similar to
that of the plam.

'*Eaoh of these subdivisions is
again divided into two sections ; the
former inelndlng the pamts, or cling-
stones *, the latter the mdurs^ or free-
stones.

<* The same arrangement may be
adopted with the other classes.

*<The follovnng list contains some
Of the best varieties, arranged accord-
teg to the preoediilg method :

sssBAVfev, eu.imi.vst &savas.
pLowsa.

LAsea

Peaches — Pavies.
Old Newington.

Early Newington, or Smith's New-
ington.

Peaches-^MelUrs,
Early Anne. Tillotson.
Malta.
Noblesse.
Early White Nutmeg.

Nectarines — Pavies.
Scarlet Newington.
Tawny Newington.

SBBBATED, 0LANDLE88 LI^VKS. SMALL
FLOWER.

Peaekss — MeUers.
Royal George.
BeUe de Yitry.

CRENATBD LEAVES, WITH OLOB08B
GLANDS. LARGE FLOWER.

Peaches — Melters,
Grosse Mignonne.

CRENATED LEAVES, WTTH OLOBOSa
GLANDS. SMALL PLOWBR.

Peaches — Mdters,
Bellegard.
Teton de Venus.
George the Fourth.
Presideat.

OaaVATBD LBAVB0, WITH RBRIPOaM
GLANDS. LARGB PLOWBR.

Nectarines— Melters,
Fairchild^.

ORENATRD LEAVES, WITH RRMXPOBII
GLANDS. SMALL PLOWBR.

Peodkct— Ptfwe*.
Incomparable.
Catharine.

Peaches — MeUers.
Chancellor.
Late Purple.

Nectarmes — MeUers.
Common Elruge.
Violet Hative.
Aromatic.

*< The following list of peaches wtil
give a constant sneoessiott from a
period hnmediately after wheat bar-
vest imtil antomiial firoaU :

(Zmrty Whits fivUmig

Emij Abd0 • • •

Svly TiUotaoB . .

Eariy Red Rareripe

EuiyYorfc

Gnme MignaBoe . . .

White Imperial . . . .

Red-cheek MaUcaton . .

Malta

Coittoibia

Preetdant

'Early Nowiogton . . .

OldtnizoQ

Old NewtDgtcm . . . .

Lemon Cliafetone* Piaeap-

plot or Kennedy's . .

.Heath

TISbT

mpm.

snail

mjddliBg

laige

simtlsr

large

Urga

large

middling

large

Isrgo
large

jQly

Aogost
August

Aagost

Aagust

late, Aagast

August

September

AagQst

September

September
late, Sopteml>er

slender grawtk.

rerj prodocCiTe, azedknt.

Tory pradactiTie,
Tery produetiTe,
Tory productive,
Tery prodactiva,
Tsiy prodvotiva,
Tery prodnctiTa,
Tery prodoctive,
Tery prodoctive,
Tery productive.

eoceellent.
exRellent.
eicelleat.
splendid.

good
good.
exceUeot.
ezoalleat.

Tery prodactive, excellent.
very prodqctJTe. exeelleBt.

The early white nutmeg is a
peach of very small size, and a very
poor bearer; and a cultivator may
count himself foitiinate if he gets a
quart of peaches from a fulUgrown
Iree. It ripens a week or more after
our wheat harvests, and is valuable
only for its early maturity. The
early Anne is later, but much larger
and a much better bearer ; and were
it not for its very slow growth, would
be valuable.

" The peaeh appears to vary more
in quality from the effect of climate
than other fruits. Culture greatly
affects the quality ; thus, the Heath
clingstone, under favourable circum-
stances, is an excellent fruit ; but if
the branches are permitted to bear
Ml, the fruit is small and of little
value.

** Peach and nectarine trees are
liable to destruction from two causes,
the irorm, and the ytUow*. The pres-
ence of the worm is readily detected
by the gum, mixed with exorementi-
tious matter, oosing from the trunk,
at the surface of the ground. The
best, and probably the only effbctoal
remedy is, to scrape the earth from
about the tree, and then, with a knife,
to follow the holes made by the worm
to their termination, and destroy it.
As this insect merely confines itself
to the harkj its destruction is very
easy. It rarely occurs that trees are
completely destroyed by this insect,
except tbey be small : death can only
take place when the bark is eaten
round the tree. Timely oare will
prevent this; the eril, in Act, is only
MS

to be dreaded by negligent culttva*
tors."

For an account of the yeUow9, see
Yellows. •

** The shortness of life in the peach-
tree, and the consequent difficulty of
its culture in some places, appear to
be chiefly owing to this disease. In
Western New- York it iscomparatira*
ly unknown, and great care should be
used by cultivators that it be not in-
trodnced by importations.

"' The peach-tree, though generally
supposed to be very short-lived, whea
not destroyed by unnatural caoaesi
will continue to flourish and bear fov
many years. Trees twenty years old
and upward are frequently seen.

" The curled leaf, which frequent^
appears on peach-trees early in souk
mer, is occasioned by frost or chilly
weather. These leaves soon drop, and
the tree assumes a healthy appear-
ance. This would not be worth no*
ticing, except that it sometimes oo-
easions unnecessary alarm.

" The growth of some varieties is
retarded by mildew on the young
shoots. It appears to be exclusively
confined to those having serrated,
glandless leaves, as the early while
nutmeg, early Ann, and some of the
earlier varieties of the red rareripe.
.It is not a very serious evil ; and the
best remedy appears to be good soil
and good culture to stimulate the
growth. AU yellow-fleBhed varieties
appear to be entirely free from it**

For the curculio, see Plum.

PEACH BORER. See Borm.

PEACOCK. PMO^fifte^iw. The

nxR^

9t>aBg birds are good eatiDgt Irat tbe
iiril-grown cocks are extremely troub-
lesome in the poultry-yard, from their
▼oracity and tyrannical habits to-
wards chickens.

PEAR. Pyrus eommunit. The
Tarteties are very numeroos : they
may be classified into sommer, au-
tmnn, winter, and perry kinds.

The following is from several lists :

eUMXKB KINDS.

" Ah ! Mow Disu. — Size medinm ;
form handsome ; colour rich yellow,
with bright red cheek ; flesh juicy ;
flavour sweet and perfumed. Tree
▼igorous and productive, the fruit
growing in clusters of four or five
together.

** ficusB^ d'Am ANLis.-^A fiuc esTly
pear. Size large; form obovate;
colour green, changing to yellow, with
a fine Mush when fully ripe, and rus-
set spots ; flesh melting, sweet, and
excellent : ripe in August and Sep-
tember. Tree vigorous and produc-
tive.

" Dbarsobn's SaKBLDfo — ^Tbe tree
is of vigorous growth ; fruit of me-
dimn size, rounded at the orown, and
regularly diminishes to tbe stalk ; tbe
akin is smooth, thin, green, with rus-
set spou; at matarity it turns to a
delicate yellow ; flesh very melting,
and of the finest flavour : ripe in Au-
gust.

** Hoirar Pbab, Ameritan Honey. --^
This pear in size and shape resem-
bles tbe Seckle ; the skin is yellow,
with a large portion of dull red ; tbe
flesh sweet, juicy, and good.

" Jaboonslle. Epargru, Beau Prea-
emtf Sami Smuoh, GroMse CutMse Ma-
dame, SmifU Lamient Poire de$ Ta-
hies deo Pnmee. — ^Fruit rather large,
oblong, of a pale green colour, a little
marked with red ; flesh melting, juicy,
with a slightly acid, rich, and agreea-
ble flavour. It ripens early in August,
is one of the most productive of all
pears, and the very best in its season.

" Madblbinb, Magdalene^ CUron it*

€armee<t Early CkaumorUeUe. — This

pear is of medium size, pale yellow,

with an ocoaaional blush next the

■ «m $ flesli while, mdtiiig» perflmiBd.

*« RovssatBT na RuaiHs, JKitJfc sr
Spice Pear .-*-Frttit small, pyramidal^
greenish yellow at maturity, but
brown red next the sun, with rus-
sety spots ; flesh half bearr6, juicy,
veiy perfumed.

** Stbtsns's Gbnbssb Pbab. — ^A
beautiful pear, of medium size, and
of rather an oblong form; its col-
our is mellow green, with russet
blotches ; its flerii is represented as
white, jui<^, and melting; flavour
sprightly, rieh, and very delioiotts :
ripens towards the end of August.

" SuMMBB Fbancbbal, FrajtcretU
d'EU, FondasUe, FrMnee Cannel, Otoe
Micet d'Ete, Milan Blane, PrebUs Beia^
r^.^^ruit above medium size ; shape
oblong ; thickest about one third from
the eye ; skin yellowish green ; flesh
melting, rich, and excellent : ripe ear-
ly in September.

** SuHMBB Mbltxno, iSttfiiSMr Bew^
r4. Fondant d'Eii. — ^An excellent aum-
mer pear, of pyriform shape ; l^olour
yellow, tinged with brownish red ;
flesh soft, melting, and sweet. The
tree bears young, and ripens its fruit
in August.

" WiLUAHS's BONCBBBTIBN, BoTtUt,

WHliam's Early, Autumn Superb ajf
Prinee.'^The fruit is large, oblong ;
the stalk thick and fleshy, an inch
long ; the colour at maturity yellow,
tinged with red ; flesh whitiab, veiy
melting, and delicate ; juice perfumed,
sweet, and abundant. Tree very pro*
ductive, and fruit ripe early in Sep-
tember.

AUTUMN KINDS.

<' BxLLB BT BoNNB, BelUde Flandere,
Gracieu^e. — Fruit very laige, globo-
hur, depressed ; the stalk long ; akin
greenish yellow, but next the sun yei*
low, with spots of russet ; flesh white,
sweet, exceeding rich, and agreeably
perfujBied. The tree is very produo-
tive, and the fruit ripensin September.
"Bbllb Lucbativb.-~A beautiflil
Flemish pear ; middle sized, round-
ish, tapering at the stalk ; skin yei-
low, slightly russeted, and tinged
with pale red ; flesh melting, sweet,
and juicy, with a slight musky por-
Ifttina: ripe early in Ootober.

BsvAii Bosc.-— Fnrit Isiy^ and
?ery loog ; termiiiatad with a crown
near three inches in diameter ; aome-
what calabash -formed; skin gray
ihwn colour, but russety yellow at
maturity ; flesh white, melting, high-
ly flavoured, and delicioua : it ripens
ja October.

^'Blbkkbb's Mbadow. — A native
flmit of medium sise, roundish form,
and of a yeUow colour, tinged with
doll red; the flesh melting, juicy,
aweet, musky, and of delicious fla>
▼our: ripe in October. A prolific
hearer.

" CAnAMOifT, BeurH de CofiaumonL
—-Fruit of medium size ; skm yellow,
tinged with fine red or cinnamon;
flesh yellowish, -melting, very rich,
and high flavoured : ripe in September
aftd October.

" CusHiNQ. — ^Medium size and ob-
long shape; skin, when ripe, smooth,
of a light yellow, mottled with dull
red on one aide ; flesh white, melting,
aprightly, and good. Mr. Manning
aays it comes early into bearing, and
produces plenty of fruit in September
and October.

«*Dbugbs n*ABDBNPONT, Dclicts
d^Hardtnpont.^^FriLit above medium
size ; ohlong, pyramidal ; skin yellow
at maturity, and partially covered
with a thin cinnamooHM>loured msset ;
flesh yellowish white, nearly melting ;
juice pleasant, sweet, and abundant :
ripe in Ootober and November. The
tree is a good bearer.
** Diz. — A native variety ; originated
in the garden of Mr. Dix, in Boston ;
firuit large, oblong; skin, when ripe,
yellow, with a blush of red; flesh
melting, juicy, and rich : ripe in Oc-
tober and November.

'•DooHBtt or AveoiTLBiiB, Duek^
$B9Md*AngouUm€.^^A pear of first-rate
•zoellence. Form roundish, oblong,
tapering towards the stalk ; skin dull
y^ow, with broad russet patches ;
flesh white, rich, melting, very juiay,
and high flavoured, with a most agree-
able perfume. Specimens of this fruit
have been shown weighing twenty-
two ounces : at perfection in October
and November.

Fuuuas Bba0TT« Z« BsiU d$

4«

Akndert.*— A fiM Flemiflh
great repute. It is of large size, ob-
ovate, obtuse at the stalk ; greeoiak
yellow russet, tinged with carimsoa ;
flesh rather firm, yellowish white^
sweet, rich, and excellent : it ripens
in October.

** FSBDBSIC OP WUBTBJIBBBO, JUi

de Wurtemberg, CapiOMmunU •( same
cUUdiotu, — A large and aplendid
pear, of pyramidal form and fine yel-
low colour, covered with beaoUful
crimson on one side ; flesh meltingy
and of delicious flavour. The tree
bears while young, and very abun-
dantly.

** FcLToif . — ^A fine pear of mediom
size ; shape roundish, turbinate ; skio
dark yellow, russeted ; flesh melting*
juicy, and of delicious flavour ; ripe
in September, and lasts a month.
The tree is a great and constant bear*
er, and highly deserving of cultivation.

** Gansbl'b Bbboamot, BncM^s B^r^
gamott Jvet's B^gamol, Bonm Amgm*
— Fruit varying from middle size to
large ; ovate, flattened ; colour duD
green, slightly red oezt the sun ; flesh
white, melting, sweet, rich, and higjh*
flavoured. A delicious pear .- ripe in
October, and good till Christotas.

*'GoLDBN BbDBRB OP BlLBOA.-^

Fruit of medium size, oblong ; colour
a bright golden yellow, with patchee
of russet ; perfectly melting, and of
fine flavour. A beautiful pear-tree, n
great bearer, and wortl^ of cultiva*
Uoo : ripe in October.

** Hacon's Incompabaslb, Norfolk
Seedling. — Fruit middle sized, of pale
yellow colour, mixed with green, par-
tially covered with orange russet;
flesh yellowish white, sli|^tly grit^,
but very tender Juicy, sweet, and rich*
and possessing a high musky and per-
fumed flavour. The tree is a great
bearer, and the fruit excellent : nps
in November and December.

'* Henry t»b Fourth, Henri Qn^
tre, — Fruit of medium size, oblong ;
skin a dull yellow, mixed with brown
and green ; flesh yellow, rather grit-
ty, juicy, and melting, with a peculiar
rich flavour : ripe io September and
October. Mr. Manning says the tree
bears while youqg, and abuada^tlv.

** Mavis Lovisb, JKms CSMfemie.
—Fruit obionfr* tapering towards both
ends ; sise yaryiog from medium to
l«i;ge ; skin nearly smooth, yellowish
green, andciaaamon-coloured russet ;
flesh white, melting, juiey, and rioh.
It ripens in October and November,
and is an excellent fruit in its season.

** NAPoiiBON, Roi de Rome. — Fruit
large, form of the Gohnar ; skin
smooth ; colonr bright green, but at
maturity pale green ; flesh very melt*
iog, with an unnsnal abundance of
Tlobt agreeable juice : in perfiection in
Oetober and November.

" Skcklk, New- York Red Cheek,
JUd Cheek Seekkt Syele.'^An excel-
lent native frait, in size rather small ;
eoknir varying from yellowish to
hnjwnisb russet, but bright red next
the sun ; flesh melting, spicy, and of
a most extraordinary rich flavour.
This fruit grows in clusters in great
abundance, and is in perfection in
September and Oetober.

** SwA]f*8 £00.— Frnit small, of an
oval figure ; ctriour yeUowisfa green,
•nd dull, russety brown; flesh ten*
der and melting, with a rich, saccha-
me, musky flavour. An excellent
fnrit : ripe in October. The tree is
hiTge, vigorous, and productive.

^ UsBANtsTS, Beurri du Roy. — ^The
firuit is of medium siie, pyramidally
ovate ; skin pale green, inclining to
yellow, with green streaks ; flesh
white, but reddish-yellow next the
core ; it is quite melting, juicy, and
very sweet, with a little perfume : it
ripens from the middle of September
to November.

** Whits Dotbnks, Doyenne BUne,
Saint JtficAotfl.— Fruit pretty large,
roundish, oblong ; skin pale citron yel-
low, with cinnamon russet, speck-
led ; flesh white, jnicy, very bnttery,
and delieious : ripe in September and
October. An old and once-eelebra*
ted variety, still admired by many, al-
though excluded from some nurser-
ies, or cultivated under new names.

" WiLKiircoN.-^A native pear from
Cumberland, Rhode Island. The tree
bears young, and is very fruifful ; size
above medium ; form oblong ; skin
yejlowy with a brownish l>]nsii near

the Btfit ; fleiii White, juicy, and mel»-

ing : in perfection in Oetober and No-
vember.

WINTEB KINDS.

**Bbubbb d^Arbhbbbo. — ^The tree
is a great bearer, comes early into
cultivation, and the fruit will keep
till March. Fruit large, skin of a del-
icate pale green, dotted with russet,
which becomes of a deeper yellow at
maturity; flesh whitish, fine, yery
juicy, perfectly melting, and very ex*
traordinahly rich, sweet, high ^-
voured, and excellent.

** Bbubrb Dxbl, Bettrri Ine&mpa-
raUe of ^ome.— «This ranks among the
best of pears. The tree is of vigor-
ous growth ; fruit, when in peifeo-
tion, four inches long, and three inch-
es broad; the skin at maturity is
bright orange, with reddish russet ;
fle^ dear, white, melting, jutey, and
of a delicious aromatic flavour : from
November to January.

** Bbubbb Ranob, Beurre Epine»
Hardempani de Ptintemps.—'Thn is a
first-rate pear. The tree is vigoroas,
and a good bearer ; fruit middle si-
zed, oblong; skin deep green, with
russety specks ; flesh green, melu
ing, having a rich, deltcions flavour,
with very little acid. It shrivels in
ripening, but will keep till April.

•• CATiLLAO.—Fruit very large, rath-
er turbinate; pale yellow, stained
with red ; flesh firm and breaking ;
its flavour astringent; an excellent
baking pear : from November to April.
Specimens of this variety have been
known to weigh upward of two
pounds.

** OoLMAB, Cdmar Stmeeraxnj Pain
Manne, Bergamotte Tardhe, Ineomva*
rMe.—This frait is rather large ; skin
smooth, of a green coloux» changing
to a yellow at maturity ; form pyram-
idal ; flesh melting, juicy, saccha-
rine, and of excellent flavour. The
fruit is in perfection from November
to February.

"Columbia, Coiumlnan Virgalieu.-^
A large native pear of oblong or py-
ramidal form, and fine yellow colour,
tinged with red ; flesh rich, firm, jui-
cy, and excellent : from November

6«5

to JMKoary. Tree iirodnetiTe and of
▼ery handsome form.

" £a8Txb Bbuxbb, Beurrk d'Hner^
i>oyenMi'/ftMr.— Ofallthelate-keefv-
ing pears, this is considered the best.
Fruit large, roundish, oblong ; colour
greeo, but yeliow at maturity, with
specks of russet brown ; flesh yellow-
ish white, perfectly buttery and melt-
ing, also extremely high flavoured.
It is eatable in Novomber, and wiH
keep till May : it is a most profuse
bearer on a quinoe atock.

** Gloot MoaoBAO, Beurrd d^Arem-
berg. — A very large Belgic variety,
of great exceUenoe ; fruit of ovalish
form, pale green colour, inclining
to yellow, with russety specks and
Uotches; flesh whitish, firm, veiy
juicy, and excellent: in perfection
from November to March.

** Lawis. — ^The siie medium ; form
somewhat globular ; skin, when ripe,
a greenish yellow ; the flesh is white,
very melting, jnicy, and excellent :
from November to March. The tree
grows quick, and bears abundance of
iruit.

** LomsB Bon If B db Jbrsbv, LouUe
Bonne d'Avranehet. — A large pear ;
oblong ; a good substitute for the old
St. Gtrmain; skin yellowish green,
sometimes tinged with red ; flesh ex-
tiemely tender, and full of an excel-
lent saccharine, well-flavoured juice.
A first-rate fruit : from October till
after Christmas.

** Passb Colhab.-*A most valua-
ble pear, of medium sice, conical, flat-
tened next the eye ; skin at maturi-
ty yellowish, sprinkled with russet ;
a tinge of red next the sun ; flesh
yeUowish, melting, rich, and exeel-
leat The tree is a good bearer, and
the fruit is in perfection from Novem-
ber to Febmaiy.

" PooNo Pbab. — Fruit very large,
of a roundish, turbinate figure ; skin
rough, covered with dull russet ; flesh
bard and coarse, but excellent when
baked or stewed in winter. Grafted
on a pear stock, the tree bears so
abundantly as to bend like a weeping-
wiUow. A specimen of this variety
weighed thirty-three ounces.

**Pa»rcB's St. Gaaiunr.«-* Frait

about mediam aixe ; fbrin oboTSfte ;
skin russety yellow, with dull red
cheek; flesh melting and good. Mr.
Manning says that its abundant bear-
ing, and its ripening gradually m the
house daring winter, renders it a very
valuable maricet fruit : good till after
Christmas.

** SuBPASSB Mabxb Looibb, PUCm
Fmiific Mwrie^ Pitt*9 Marie Lmase, —
A large pear; oblong or calabaeb
formed ; green, covered with brown
ycdlow msset ; flesh melting and rich-
flavoured : ripe in October and No-
vember. It is a very prolific bearer.

**SvBPA8SB Vbkooulbusb. — Fmit
large, oblong, some specimens near-
ly round ; the skin smooth, its coloor
yellow, with a light- red cheek ; flesh
rich, juicy, and delidoos eating : in
October and Novenrtier. The tree
bears young, yields large crops, and
ia worthy of extensive cultivation.

" WiwTBB Nblis, Nelie ^Hvger. —
All accounts agree that this is a moat
excellent winter pear. Its size ia
above medium, somewhat oval ; ita
skin green and russety, fall of gray
dots ; flesh yellowish white, melting,
higfa^flsvoured, with a masky per>
fume: in perfection in December and
January."

They prefer a deep, well-drained,
and tolerably rich soil; are planted
for standards at twenty feet, bat if
grafted on quince stocks for dwarfs,
may be set at six to ten feet, and
trained «n qyjtwawMe^ or distaflT fash-
ion ; they also make good eepaiiera.
Worked on pear stocks, they grow to
a great size, and last for centuries ;
but the quince stock, unless reduced
down to the roots, is liable to attadis
from worms. It requires usually
more than seven years to obtain fvsX
from a pear standard, but by grafting
or budding on the quinoe, and train-
ing distaff fashion, fruit may be ob»
tained in four years.

Diseaees of the Ptar^trte. — ^The most
formidable is the blight, which some*
times occurs in summer, the leaves
of the upper branches wKhering and
turning brown in a few hours. It is
the eflTect of insects, according to
^ Peck, of tlie 8eoiyhio pyri, and the

PEA

otily BXtd best temedy fs to saw off
tho blighted Hmba at once and bnm
them.

Harris also mentions the existence
of a borer of the same genus as that
of the peach {JEgeria pyri); it is,
however, scarcely known.

The buds are subject to a cnr-
eallo (C. fyrij Fig)i of the size of

the line, which de-

^ / posites her egg in

^jM^^^^ the young flower-

^V|^^^^ bud, and retires to

«^ '^^P^^ ^^® earth in the
^ " ^^ fall ; it is. howev-

' ' I. er, so seldom mul-

NrtaniaiM. tiplied to a great

extent, that its effects are more ben-
eficial than otherwise, by hindering
too much fruit from being formed,
and thus improving what remains.

Drying Pfar#.— The following ex-
cellent method is from Kenrick, and
18 applicable to apples also : " When
dried in ovens the fruit will keep for
years. This mode of preserving is
common in France. Bose has de-
scribed two modes of drying pears,
and adds, that, in some of Uie can-
tons of that country, the cultivators
annually preserve, by these means,
supplies of subsistence extremely
agreeable and wholesome during win-
ter and spring. He invites cultiva-
tors not to neglect this resource. In
this mode of drying, those varieties
of middle siae, melting and sweet,
are preferred. After the bread is
drawn fVom the oven, they are placed
on the swept hearth, or on hurdles
or boards. This operation is repeat-
ed a second, a third, and even a fourth
time, according to their size and the
degree of heat The heat must not
be so great as to sooicb, and the fruit
must not be dried to hardness. Last-
ly, they are placed in bags, and pre-
served in a dry place. The second
mode of preserving is practised chief-
ly on the Rousselets and finest fla-
voured varieties. Bosc states that
he has tried them after three years'
preservation, and found them still
good ; but they are better during the
first year. They are gathered a lit-
tle before their maturity, aod after

being balf boiled in a small quantity
of water, they are peeled and drain-
ed. They are next carried on hur-
dles to the oven, after the bread is
drawn, or the oven is heated to a
suitable degree ; here they remain
twelve hours, after which they are
steeped in the sirup, to which have
been added sugar, cinnamon, cloves,
and brandy. They are again return-
ed to the oven, which is now heated
to a less degree than at first. This
operation is thrice repeated, until
they are suflSciently dried, or of a
clear brown colour, and firm, trans-
parent flesh; and, finally, they are
packed in boxes lined with paper.**

PEARL ASHES. See Potashes.

PEAT. " This is a substance of
vegetable origin, found wherever the
soil has been long soaked with water
which has no outlet, and does not
completely evaporate by the heat of
the sun.

<* When dried peat is examined, it
is found to consist of roots and fibres
in every stage of decomposition, from
the natural wood to the complete-
ly black vegetable mould. Large
branches and trunks of trees are found
imbedded in peat, which have no
mark of decomposition, except what
may have taken place before the wood
was completely unmersed in the peat.
Peat contains the elements of ma-
nure, and may by an easy process be
converted into humus : for this pur-
pose, the agency of alkalies is the
most efibctual. Wlien peat is newly
dug up, if caustic lime be added to it
before it is dry, the moisture of the
peat slacks the lime, which acts on
the peat and neutralizes it. If this
mixture be then excited to fermenta-
tion by the addition of animal matter,
such as urine or dung, oi^gen is ab-
sorbed and carbonic acid evolved,
and the residue is converted into an
excellent manure, containing much
humus. The same may be efiTected
more slowly by mixing peat with clay
or marl, and allowing the mixture to
remain exposed to the atmosphere
for a considerable time, frequently
I turning it ; but nothing accelerates
I this process like the sdditioa of pa-

PEAT.

Iiesoeiit aoimal matter, which sets
as a ferment and greatlj hastens the
decomposition.

" The soils for which peat forms
the best manare are the chalky and
clayey. &>and has too little tenacity ;
it lets the gases produced by the de-
composition escape, instead of at-
tracting them, as clay does, and pre-
venting their escape.

*' The burning of peat destroys the
vegetable matter, and leaves the
earths and salts behind. They are
accordingly very strong stimulants to
vegetation, especially that of clovers
and herbaceous plants, of which the
leaves and stems are the most valu-
able parts. If the soil is well fur-
nished with vegetable matter, and
capable of bringing an abundance of
seed to perlection, it may be very
useful to apply peat ashes to increase
the verdure ; but on poor soils des-
titute of humus, the increase of the
stems and leaves does oot ensure a
like increase of seed. Hence it is
often 4-emarked that soot, potash,
saltpetre, and similar substances pro-
duce a deceitful growth, giving a rank
green leaf, which is not succeeded by
a heavy ear; but, on the contrary,
the produce in seed is rather dimin-
ished than increased by the use of
the manure. Whenever a stimula-
ting manure is used, the soil should
be naturally rich, or enriching ma-
nure should be applied at the same
time.

" The following particulars of the
conversion of peat into a rich com-
post were given by Lord Meadow-
bank about forty years ago, and show
that the principles which we have
here laid down were known to him.

** He recommends taking the peat
out of the moss some time before it
is used, that it may lose a portion of
its moisture, and be lighter to carry.
It is then to be carted to a dry spot,
where the compost heap is to be
formed. A bottom of peat is to be
laid six inches deep and fifteen feet
wide ; on this are to be put ten inch-
es of good yard dung, then si^ inches
more peat, and over this four inches
of dung, and so alternately to the

668

height of foar or five feet Thewfaflfe
should then be enclosed all round
with a wall of peat, and covered with
the aame material. The proportioB
of fresh dung is about seven cart-
loads to twenty-one of peat, if the
weather is mild ; but more dung la
required if the weather is cold ; over
this heap ashes or lime may now be
spread, in the proportion of a cart-
load to twenty-eight of the oompoat.
The dung should not have feimented
much before it is used, and if it la
watered with urine or the draininga
of a dunghill, the effect will be more
rapid. Animal matter, such as fish,
refuse of slaughter-houses, and every
substance which will readily undergo
the putrefactive fermentation, will ao-
oelerate the process, and save dung
in the compost. Where pigeons' or
fowls^ dung can be procured, a much
smaller quantity will produce the de-
sired effect. The heap should not be
pressed down, but left to settle by its
own weight. If the heat produced
by the fermentation is very great, the
whole heap may be turned over and
more peat added to it. This will
keep up the heat till the whole is re-
duced to a uniform mass of blai^
mould. It may then be put on the
land in the same quantity that farm-
yard dung would have been, and, con-
sequently, by a little labour, four times
the quantity of manure is produced
by the mixture of the peat with the
dung. It is found that lime is not
essential to the formation of this com-
post. The fermentation excited is
sufficient to decompose the tannin
and convert it into a soluble extract
The fibres, partially decomposed, are
reduced into vegetable mould, and the
whole assumes a uniform and rich
appearance. A complete chemical
change has taken place, and the peat,
from being very inflanunable, is now
scarcely capable of combustion, and
that only in a very great heat. There
is no better or more economical mode
of converting peat into a rich manure.
In summer the whole process may
be completed in eight or ten weeks ;
in winter it takes a longer time ; and
it may be useful to give the heap an

PEA

'^eeftsionaT Hnfng of fieih drnig, as fs
done with hot-beds in gardens^ to re-
new the heat." The peat is carted
ont dttriiig winter, while the ponds
are frozen ; it beoomes mach broken
during the season, and may be pre-
pared as recommended, or composted
with lime or ashes only, one bushel
to the single load of peat.

'* Where a great extent of peat
land renders the improvement of it
desirable, there are various ways in
which it may be reclaimed. In some
places tlie peat has been removed,
and the loam which lay below it was
found of a very fertile nature. This
could only be done on the banks of
rivers, into which the peat was float-
ed by means of small canals dug
through it, and communicating with
the river. In all other cases the
' mode adopted has been that of drain-
ing and consolidating. In draining a
peat moss the water most not be let
off too rapidly, for in that case the
surface may become so loose and dry
that no vegetation can take place in
it. Tf the water is drained off so as
to leave two feet of peat dry above
its level, this is all that is required
for a beginning. Tbe best improve-
ment, and the most rapid, is produced
by bringing sand or gravel in suffi-
cient quantity to cover the surface
with two or three inches of it This
will make a beginning of a soil, in
which potatoes may be planted. At
first the surface will not bear the
wheels of a cart nor the tread of a
liorse; bat in a short time a solid
crust will be formed, which will in-
crease in strength and thickness as
cultivation advances. There are
many fine pastures in Scotland which
once were brown peat mosses, on
which it woald have been dangerous
for a man to walk, bat which now
bear heavy oxen, and seem as solid
as any pasture on a clay subsoil. Ma-
nuring and Inning are the most ef-
fective operations in bringing about
this great improvement. Potatoes
and oats are usually the first crops
tm reclaimed peat mosses* It is long
before they become capable of bear-
ing wbaat ; nor to this cmp tobe rao-
BbbS

PEC

oauiieiidad at any time nolaea tteia

be a good depth of soil formed over
the peat. Laying down to grass as
aooB as a certain degree of improve-
ment has been made, and depasturing
with sheep at first and cattle after-
ward, tend more than any other
means to consolidate the suiface and
deepen the mould, which gradually
increases by the decomposition of the
tannin in the peat

** A patent has been lately obtained
by Mr. Williams, managing director
of the Dublin Steam Navigation Com-
pany, for compressing peat into a
dense mass, so as to resemble coal.
It is said to be superior to coal in its
properties of producing heat by com-
bustion, forming an excellent char-
coal, or coke. It is asserted that this
charcoal is much more combustible
than that of wood, and very useful in
the manufacture of fireworks. Mr.
Williams has found that with lOcwts.
of pit coal and 2^ cwts. of this facti-
tious coal, the same quantity of steam
can be generated as with 17^ cwta.
of pit coal alone.

*' The process is as follows : Im-
mediately <ifler being dug it is triiu-
rated under revolving ^ge-wheels
faced with iron plates jjerforated all
over the surface, and is forced by the
pressure through these apertures, till
it becomes a species of pap, which is
freed from the greater part of its
moisture by a hydraulic press. It is
then dried, and converted into coke
in the same manner as is done with
pit coal. The factitious coal of Mr.
Williams is made by incorporating
pitch or rosin melted in a caldron
with as much of the peat charcoal
ground to powder as will form a tough
doughy mass, which is then moulded
into bricks."— (W. L. Rham.)

'The ashes of peat are often termed
Dutch ashes : they vary much in com-
position, as they are taken from a
calcareous or clayey soil, but are
usually deficient in potash and soda,
except in salt marshes.

PECK. A dry measure of two
gallons ; a quarter of a bushel.

PECORA. The Ruminantia.

PECTIN. Thejelly oHruiU, roots,

660

PEN

and ptents : H is soluble, transpaieut,
insipid, and niiieh like frum ; formula,
Ci9 Hit Oil -|- H O. Pectic acid is
yery similar, isomeric, and bibasic ;
the salts are called pectates.

PECTINATE. Divided so as to
resemble tbe teeth of a comb.

PECTORA L {frompechu, tfucheat).
Relating to the chest.

PEDATE. ResembUngthefootof
a bird.

PEDICEL. The foot stalk of the
flower, and not of the bnnch of flow-
ers, which is the peduncle.

PEDIMENT. The triangular or-
nament over a building, door, win-
dow, &c. ; it is often sculptured, and
seldom exceeds in height two ninths
of its width.

PEDI PALPS. Spiders and other
arachnidans, with the feelers in the
shape of claws.

PEE-TSEE. The water chestnut.

PEDUNCLE. The main flower
stem.

PELLICLE. A delicate covering,
fllm, or membrane.

PELLITORY OF SPAIN. Anthe-
mis pyretkrum. A perennial herba-
ceous composite, the root of which is
▼ery pungent, and is chewed for tooth-
ache. It is very similar to chamomile.

PELTA. A shield ; the seed shield
of some lichens. A peltaU leaf is
shield-shaped.

PELT ROT. Hurler rot.

PELTRY, PELTS. The dry, un-
prepared skins of animals.

PELVIS. The bony cavity situa-
ted at the lower part of the belly,
formed by the sacrum and innomina-
ta bnnes. •

PENCIL OF LIGHT. A diver-
gent beam of small size.

PENDANT. "In Gothic archi-
tecture, an ornamented polygonal
piece of stone or timber hanging
down from the vault or roof of a
building. In ancient writers the
springers of arches, which rest on
shads or corbels, are called pendant9. "

PENDENTIVE. "In architecture,
the portion of a vault
between the arches
under a dome, call-
ed by the French
670

PBP

fmareke, or pameke, letlerBd m in Uw
diagram, by which it will be seen
that it faUs at its superior part into
a circle inscribed in the square form-
ed on the plan of tbe four arcbea.
Hence it is obvious that a dome maj
be formed by means of pendentivea
over any regular polygon." — {Bramde.)

PENDULOUS. Hanging, bnnclH
iog over.

PENDULUM. Any weight ana*
pended by an inflexible rod, and mo-
ving freely about a point. Ita oactlla-
tions, whether wide or limited, are
always performed in tbe same period
of time ; but the period is directly aa
the square root of the length of tho
rod. The seconds pendulum in New-
York is 39*1012 inches from the point
of suspension to the weight, or bob.

PENNICILLATE. Furniahed
with small bunches of hairs. *

PENNYROYAL. Meniku puJegi^
am. A kind of mint cultivated for ita
essential oil : used in medicine. See
Mint, The American plant is Hedeo-
ma pulegioides; its odour is similar
to that of the European plant ; many
insects, especially ticks, are remark-
ably annoyed by its presence.

PENNYWEIGHT. Twenty-
four grains, orjff of an ounce troy.

PENTAMERANS. Coleopterous
insects, with Ave joints on the tarsus
of each leg.

PENTANDRIA, PENTAGYNIA.
See Botany,

PENUMBRA. The partially daric
outer shadow.

PEPO. The form of fruit similar
to the melon and oUier cucurbitacea^

PEPPER BRAND. See Burned
Ear.

PEPPER GRASS, PEPPER-
WORT. Garden cress {Lepidium m^
ftvum), cultivated for small salad : it
grows with great rapidity. See Creta,

PEPPERIDGE. The barberry:
sometimes the black gum.

PEPPERMINT. Memha piperita.
See Mint, It is of great use as an
adjunct with cathartics, to hinder
griping.

PEPPERS. This term is nsoally
applied, in agriculture, to the species
of Captunm. Ilia most oeouttoQ is

At C iaixiMm. The Motna? ro-

rielieaare culltvated: BelJ, king red,
cherrj, tomalo-ahaped, and sweet
Spanish. The latter ia used as i
aalad, and the belt is perennial. Sow
early in May in a warm bed and tine
Beil -, transplant when two iuchea
high, and set at two feet apart. The
•vil nbould be dry and light, but rich,
and the plants hoed and weeded.
For picklea, thev ahonld be cnllected
before ripening : for curing meat,
when beginning to dry ; bang them
in the air cniil qaiie dry. The pow-
der rubbed upon hama and salt meats
preserres them, in aome measure,
from insects; and the smoko, which
is peculiarly pungent, is Terydistress-
iDg to (hein. Cayenne pepper is the
powder of the C. harcalum.

PEPPERS, INDIAN. Piper ni.
'wTWK^Fig. a). An endogenous climb-
Mg shrub of Sumatra, the fruit of
irbiob appenra oii spikes at three
yvan, ami forms the black pepper of

eommerce. The same, hntled by rub-
bing, constitutes while pepper. The
celebrated bete], or intoxicating pep-
per, chewed by the natives of India
with lime (cAunam], ia the fruit of the

the stomach and gastric juice ■
I aUle of change. It forms the ac

uieul o( rennet, and, with a little
mtic acid, baa been made to prudoce
■rtiflcial digestion.
PER. A dke«ie<d prefix to tiiose

oompoandi which contain the Mghwt
proportion of the element against
which it is placed ; as peroxide, per-
chloride, &o.

PERCH. The ,>,lh of a rood, SOt
square yarda; in long measure, SJ

PERCHERS. The Intetnra,
birds which perch an trees, including
the Stwiuont and Panerci.

PERCHLORIC ACID. An aeU
eonsisting of I eq. chlorioe with 7 ox-
ygen, which forms a sparingly b<

a i«st for that alkali.

PERC01J\.TI0N. The slow ooi-
ing of water through rocks, earths, or
other slightly porous structures.

PERENNIALS. Plants whose

ots live several years, bat the top*

e annually.

PERFOLIATE. Leaves Ihniugh
which the stem pass.

PERG.IMENOUS. Parchmetit>

around.

PERIANTH, PERIANTHUM. A
(tower wlilch has no distinct calyx.

PERICARDIUM. The membrane
surrounding the heart : its inflamma'
lion is called ptricardita.

PERICARP. The outer portion
of the fruit surroanding the carpela.

PERICRANIUM, The membrane
which is attached to the bones of the
skull.

PERIGYNIUM. The case formed

Can'ecihjt the uoion of two bracta.
The disk.

PERIGYN0U3. Stamens which
are attached to the aidea of the calyx.

PERIOSTEUM (from wt^t. tbmt,
and ofrrrDv, a bont). Tbe fibroDS

membrane attached to the surface at
all the liones.
PERIPHERT. The circnmfer-

PERIPNEIIMONY. Pneumonia.

PERISPERH. The testa or cov-
ering of a seed.

PERISTALTIC. A worm -like
motion of the intestines, produced by
a oontraMloD and dilatation of tlieb
871

PET

ofaicolarfiiires, whereby tbeiroonteiits
are pushed forward into the colon and

rectum.

PERISTOMIUM. Thefringed
membrane eurroanding the capeule
of mosees.

PERITONEUM (from nepireivo, I
asiend around). The membrane which
envelops the organs of the abdomen ;
it is serous : its inflammation is call-
ed veritoniiU.

PERMEABLE. Permitting the
passage of fluids or gases.

PERRY. The cider of pears. Sec
Pear, for the best fruit, and Cider, for
the method of making it.

PERSIAN BERRIES. French
berrifis

PERSIMMON. PlaquenUnier.
Diotpyroa Virginiaiuf^ A small tree
growing in open places in the Middle
and Southern sections. The fruit,
when frosted, is sweet, and is often
mashed and fermented into a beer.
The tree is dioecious, and of the same
genus as the ebony : the wood is
very hard. The green fruit is ex-
tremely astringent, and used in med-
icine.

PERSONATE FLOWERS. Ir-
regular, monopetalous flowers like the
snapdragon (AiUirrkinum)t with an
upper and lower lobe, but with the
faux or throat closed : in this respect
it differs from the labiate corolla.

PERSPIRATION. The function
of the skin whereby a saline fluid
with a little gaseous matter is thrown
out of the body. It is increased by
taking much fluid in summer; and
the state of this excretion is closely
connected with health.

PERUVIAN BARK. The bark
of several varieties of Cinchona trees
of Central and South America .- they
furnish the invaluable alkaloid ^ats-

nine. ^ ,

PETALS. The divisions of the
flower : the leaves of the flower, usu-
ally of bright colours. Petaloid is a
derivative.
PETIOLE. The leaf stalk.
PETROLEUM. Barhadoes tar.

Natural bitumen.

PETROSILEX. Hornstone,
sometimes compact feldspar.

672

PHA

PlifUNTZE. Poredalii ctay»

cayed feldspar.

PHAGEDENIC. Corroding iil<

PHALANGES. The small, loiig
bones of the fingers and toes.

PHANEROGAMIA, PHANERa
GAMOUS. Plants hearing floweia.

PHARMACOPiElA. An aocooal
of the preparation of medicines.

The following formuls for Teleri-
nary inractice have been compiled by
Loudon from the works of the most
eminent Teterinary writers of the
present day ; and he confidently ree-
ommends the selection to the Dolioe
of agriculturists, and the owners of
horses in general. It would be pru-
dent for such as have many hoiBes,
and particularly fur such as live at a
distance from the assistance of an able
veterinarian, to keep the more neoea-
sary articles by them in case of emer*
gency : some venders of horse drags
keep veterinary medicine chests ; and
where the compositions can be de-
pended on, and the uncompounded
drugs are genuine and good, one of
these is a most convenient appendage
to every stable.

** The veterinary pharmacopeia for
oxen, calves, and sheep has been in-
cluded in the arrangement. When
any speciality occurs, or where d»-
tinct recipes are requisite, they hare
been carefully noticed ; it wiU, there-
fore, only be necessary to be kept in
mind, that with the exception of acrid
substances, as mineral acids, dtc,
which no cattle bear with equal io»-
punity with the horse, the remedies
prescribed require about the follow-
ing proportions : A large ox will bear
the proportions of a moderate-sized
horse ; a moderate-sized cow some-
thing less; a calf about a third of
the quantity ; and a sheep about a
quarter, or, at most, a third of the pro-
portions directed for the cow. It is
also to be remarked, that the degrees
in strength in the different recipes
are usually regulated by their num-
bers, the mildest standing first.

Alteralivts,
1.
LeYigatod ftBtrnoDy, > draehim.
Cream of tmrtar,
Flow«r of •ttli>hur, Meb halt sa

PHASMACQPJ5IA.

Cnam of tartar,

Nitiv, of each half aa cmnoe.

S.
Jldiiopa mineral*
Levifated antimoBy,
Fcmdcrwl leain, each 3 drachma.
** Gire in a maah, or in oorn and bran a little
•vmCied, evBiy aight, or make into n ball with

1.
GentiaBf
Aloea,
Gingvr,

Bine Titriol, in powder, of eadk 1 drachm.
Oak bark» in powder, 0 drachma.

Winter's bark, in powder, 3 draohmt.
Green ritriol, do., one and a half draohma.
Gentian, da, 3 draduns.
** Make either of theae into a ball with hoaej,
and give erery mominf .

8.
White Titriol, I drachm
Ginf er or pimenco, gronnd, 9 drachma.
Powdered qaaaeia, half an onnoe.
Ale, 8 onneea.— Mix, and five as a drink.

Aatrimgemt Mixtur—for Diarrkma^ Lax, or
Seourimg.

Powdered opium, SO graina.
Prepared chalk, t onnoea.
BoilMl atareh, 1 pint.

Snet, 4 onaoee ; boiled in
Milk, 8 oonoea.
Boiled starch, 0 oonoea.
Powdered alom, 1 drachm.

*' The following^ has been very stronrlr reo
onmended, in some cases, far the lax of horses
and cattle, when it arises from taking food that

GTaaber*s salts, 9 oances.
Speom do., 1 oance.
Green vitriol, 4 grains.
Gmel, half a pint.

** When the lax or seonring at all approaches
to dyaenterr or molten grease, the roUowing
dlittk shoald be iirat given :

Castor oil, 4 oances.

Glaober's salts (dissolved), 9 ounces.

Powdersd rhabaib, half a drachm.

Powdered opium, 4 gmins.

Gniel, 1 pint.

Agtrimgnt Balk for DiabotUt or FiooiRg XmL

Catechu (Japan earth), half an ounoe.
AInm, powdered, half a drachm.
Sagar of lead, 10 grains.
Conserve of naes to make a balL

AttrtrngOHt Puotofor ThntA, FboMvl, fWf U
tkoFootf 4c

Prepared calamine.

Verdigris, of each half an ounce.

White vitriol,

Alnm, of eadi half a drachm.

1^,3

JUtrii^out WMk$afor Craekt in tkt Motlt^

Wotmdty SprnMff ^c.

Sugar of lead, 9 drachms.
While vitriol, 1 drachm.
Strong infusion of oak or elm hark, 1 pint:
mix:

9.
Green vitriol, 1 drachm.
Infosion of galls, half a pint.
** Mix, and wash the parts thne tfanee a day.

Powdtrfor Oraekiy 40.

Prspared calamine, I oonoe.
Falier's earth, powdered.
Pipe clay, df»., of each 9 onncea.
** Mix, and pat within gause, and d^ the
mciit soiftMse of the sores frequently.

Agtrvtgoat Pasio/or Groa*9»

Prspared calamine.

Charcoal, powdered, of each 9 oonoea.

Yeast enough to make a paste.

9,
'* To the above, if more strength be rsqaiied,
add of aium and verdigris each a drachm.

A$tring9iU Wash for Cfrtato,

Corrosive sublimate, 9 drachms.

Spirit of wine or brandy, 1 ounce.

Soft water, 10 ounces.

*'Rub the sublimate in a mortftr with the
spirit till dissolved, then add the water. This
is a strong preparation, and has often proved
saccessfolin very bad cases of grsuo, which
have resisted all the usual rsmedfies.

BlUten.
1. A general one.
Cantharides, powdered, 9 ounces.
Venice turpentine, do.
Resin, do.

Palm oil or lard, 9 lbs.
** Melt the three latter aittclee together, and
when not too hot stir in the Spanish lliee.

9.
A otromg, ehtap Blister^ bvt not proper to ho
uotd t» Fovert or InJUouuUiono, at of tho
LmgSt Bowls, 4«'
Eophorbium, powdersd, 1 ounce.
Oil of vitriol, 2 scruples.
Spanish Hies, 6 ounces.
Palm oil or lard.
Resin, of each 1 lb.
Oil of turpentine, 3 ounces.
" Melt the resin with the lard or palm oil.
Having preriooely mixed the ml of vitriol with
an ounce of water gradually, as gradually add
this mixture to the melted maas ; which again
set on a very slow dre for ten minutes more :
afterward remove the whole, and, when begin-
ning to cod, add the powdera previously mixed
together.

8.
A Merewrial BU$ter/or SpliM*, Spaviiu mi
RtMgboiiet.
Of either of the above, 4 ounces.
Corroeive sublimate, finely powdered, half a
drachm.

4.
Siromg Liquid BKotor.
Spanish flies in gross powder, 1 ounoe.
Oil cf offiganum, 9 draefama.

678

PHARMACQPJBUL

Olive oil, % oancaa.
**Sic«p the lliea in the trnpentiiM three
weeks, •timiB off, aiid add the oil.

5.
Mm Liquid or Swtmtimg BUttn-.

Of the ebove, 1 oaooe.
Olive oil or gooee freue, one oonoe muA m
hel£

Cljntcff , « LaaatUfe ene.
1.
Thin gmel or hcoth, ft qnerta.
Epemn or oomnioB eelte, 6 ovaoee.

Clvater for Orimu,
9.
Mesh two mederale-sizad onioiis.
Poar over them oil of tarpeatine, 9 ouaoes.
Cepeioun, or p^per, helf en ounce.
Thin grael, 4 querta.

NvdrUumt Clftttt.

3.
Thick graeU 3 qo&rti.
Strang ioaiiil ale, I qaart.

Or 4.
Strong broth, 3 quarts.
Thickened milk, 9 qnarta.

AMtringeiU Cijr«(er.

9.
Tripe liqnor, or seet boiled in milk, 3 pints.
Thick starch, 9 pints.
Laodanuoi, half an canoe.

Ore.
Alnm whey, I quart.
Boiled starch, 9 quarts.

CefdM/JBeOf.

Gentian, powderrdi 4 ounces.
Ginger, do., 9 oanoes.
Conander seeds, do., 4 oanoes.
Camway, do., 4 ounces.
Oil of anise seed, a quarter of an ounce.
'* Make into a mass with honey, trcade. or
lard, and gire one ounce and a huf for a doee.

Chrome CnitgK BmUt.

1.
Calomel, 1 scmpla
Gum ammnniaieani.
Horseradish, of etch 9 dnehms.
Balsam of Tolu,
Sopilla, esch I drachm,
'* Beat all together, and make into a ball with
honeyi and give trtry muming lasting.

Drink /» th* mma.
9,
T*r water,

Limewater, of each half a pint.
Tincture of squills, half an oui

Pfmd*rfor th* mm«.
3.
Tartar emetic, 9 drachms.
Pnwdered foxglove, half a drachm.
Powdered squiU, half a drachm.
Calomel, 1 scruple.
Nitre, 3 drachms.
** Give every night in a nmlt naah.

IHureHc BmU*.
Resin, rellow, I lb.
Nitre, half a pound-
Horas turpentine, half a pound.
Yellow soup, quarter of a pound.

674

'^ Melt the luain, mp, «nd
skm firs ; when cooling, sdd the nitre, ror a
strong does, an ounce and a half; for n niU
one, an ounce. It should be kept in mind *hn
mild diuretics are alweys equal to whai ie n-
quirsd. and that strong diuretics am alwaya

DimreUe Powdtn.
Tellow reain, powdersd, 4
Nitre, do., 8 ouncea.

Craam of tartar, do., 4 ooi

**I>oae, ft, 8, or to drachms nightly, which
^ horses will readily eat in a mash.

Urime Drink,
Glauber^ salts, 9 ounces.
Nitre, 0 dnwhme.
" Dissolve in a pint of warm water.

JEEsi6recattoiw.— Coo<iiy/or /f^/lasuaafic

1.
Ooalard*8 extract, half an onnce.
Spirit of wine or braady, 1 ooace.
Soft water, 1 quart.

9.
Mindererus spirit, 4 ounces.
Water, 19 ounoes.

ForStrmins,

Bay salt, bruised, half a pound.
Crude sal ammoamc, 9 oaneea.
Sugar of lead, quarter of an ounce.
Vinegar, one pint and a half.
Water, 1 pint.

Fortht Byes,

1.
Sugar of lead, 1 drarhm.
White vitriol, 9 ecruples.
Water, I pint.

9.
Braady, 1 ounce.
Infusion of green tea, 4 ouaoaa.
Tincture of opium, 9 drachow.
Infusion of red roees, 4 ounces.

3.
Rose water, 0 ounces.
Mindererus spirit, 3 ounces.

4.
Corrosive sublimate, 4 grains.
Alcohol, 1 ounce.
Lime water, 1 pint.

5.
Alnm, powdered, I drachm.
Calomel, half a dnoha.
" Mix, and insert a little at one comer of tibs
eye. The custom of blowing it in alams ua
hotee.

Fever Powder*.

1.
Tsrtar eoMtic, 1 drachm.
Nitre, ft drachms.

9.
Antimonial powder, 1 diachm.
Crsam «f tartar,
NiCrs. n( each 4 drachms.

Fevtr Drink,
3.
Swest spirit of nitre, I ounes.
Minderems spirit, ft suaoas.
Water, 4 ounces.

Jiai^gaaal Epidemic Fewtr,

Simple oxymc>),

SHA

9e«r yeast, <tf each 4 ounces.
Sweet eptrit of nitre, 1 oouce.

FttmigaHoiu for vmifying infecUd StaUet,
Shedtt 4c.

IffanganeM, 9 onoeea.

Com moo salt, ditto.

Oil of vitriol, S ounces.

Water, 1 ounce.

** Put the mixed manganese and salt Into a
basin ; then, hsTinr befora mixed the vitriol and
water very gradauly, poor them, by means of
tonga, or anything that will enable yon to stand
at a sufficient distance, on thm articles in the
basin gradually. As soon as the fumes risei
•tire and shut ap the door dose.

Oil of turpentine, 4 oonoea.

Tar, 4oanoes.

Whale oil, 8 ounces.

** This softens and toofhens the hoofs ex-
tremely, when brushed orer them night and
nomiag.

Purging Mediemes.

Balls— very mikl.
Aloes, powderod, 0 dnchnis.
Oil of turpentine, 1 drachm.

Mild.
Alses, -powdsTsd, 8 drachms.
Oil of turpentine, I drachm.

Strong.
Aloea^ powdered, 10 drachms.
Oil of tUTpentiBe, 1 dmchm.
** The aloes may be beaten with treacle to a
laass, adding, during the beating, the oil of
turpentine. All spices, oil of tartar, cream of
tartar, jalap, dec, are useless, and often hurt^
fol additions.

Liquid Purge.

Epwm salts, dissolved, 8 ounces.

Castor oil, 4 ounces.

Watery tincture of aloes, 8 ounces.

** Mix.— The watery tincture of aloes is made
by beating powdered aloes with the yolk of
(*gK* adding water bv degrees ; by these means
half an ounce of aloes may be suspended in
eight ounces of water ; and such a purge is
useful when a ball cannot be got down, as in
imrtial locked jaw.

SeaUing Mixture fvr Pah BviL

Corrosive sublimate, finely powdersd, one

draohm.
Tellow basilicon, 4 ouncee.

Foot Stoppimgt,

Horse and cow dwiff, each about S Itas.
Tlur, half a pound.

Wathfor corimg out, deoiroifiiig Fui^pu, or

proud Fkohf 4c., ^e.
Lunar caustic, 1 dtadun.
Water, % ounces.

Wash for Mauge.
Comsiv« suUiraate, t drscbms.
Spirit of wine or brandy, I ounce.
JkonciUm of tobacco,
Ditto of whire belleboro,. of saeh 1 pint.
** Dissolve the roercniy in the spirit, and then
add the decoctions.

PHO

■or
I.

White vitriol, pewdeied, half a drachot.
Lard, 8 ounces.

For DigeHiug.
I.
White vitriols 1 drachm.
Yellow basilioon, 7 ouncee.

ForMaugt.
Sulphur vivum, 8 ounces.
Arsenic, in powder, S drachms.
Mercurial ointment, S ounces.
Turpentine, 8 ounces.
Lard, 6 ounces.
** Mix, and dress with every morning.

For Scmb or Shab in Sheep, MolUndere and
SeUendere in Hortee, and foul Blotches and
Eruptions in Cattle in general.

Camphor, 1 drachm.

Sugar of lead, half a drachm.

Mercurial ointment, 1 ounce."

PHARYNX (from ^epetv, to con-
vty, because the food is conveyed by
it into the oesophagas and stomach).
The back pan of the mouth ; it is
somewhat fimnel-shaped, attached to
the fauces behind the larynx, and
terminating in the gullet.

PHENECIN. The red hydrate of
mdigo.

PHENOMENON, plural PHE-
NOMENA. A natural occurrence,
or object of a recondite nature.

P H L E A M. The knife used in
bleeding horses.

PHLEBOTOMY. An old term fbr
bleeding.

PHLORIDZIN. A silky, bitter,
and almost insoluble solid, obtained
from the root of the apple, pear, cher-
ry, and plum trees. It closely re*
sembles salicin ; formula, C« Hn Ois
4- 6 H O. Phhrizem, produced by
the action of ammonia and air on
moist phloridzin, is a red colouring
matter ; a bright blue is also produ-
ced by chemical means.

PHLOX. A genus of handsome
flowering plants.

PHOSPHATES. Salts of phos-
phoric acid.

PHOSPHITES. Salts of phospho-
rous acid.

PHOSPHORESCENCE. The
quality of shining at a temperature
below a red heat.

PHOSPHORITE. NatiTebone
earth, or phosphate of lime.

576

PHI

policy poTsudd, almost uiiivereaOy, in
cultivating the piudar, by covering
over tlie top with earth when they
begin to bloom ; this is not only un>
necessary, but positively injurious;
ahfaough the top, or vine, grows
straight up at first, yet when it is
time to seed, the small fibres on the
end of which the pea grows arise,
the vine inclines to the ground until
it finds a proper location, and then
extends its branches, two, three, or
four feet in length in every direction,
touching the earth. I'he only culti-
vation requisite is to keep the ground
loose and clear of weeds and grass,
and as level as possible, so that the
fibres on which the pea grows can
penetrate the ground easuy. I intend,
next year, to plant pindars in hills,
or, rather, in checks, two feet apart
each way, which will cause them to
grow in upright bunches, yielding
more hay, and will be easier dug, and,
I think, will probably yield as many
peas."

The pindar is a legumen, like the
pea and bean, and it ia^ when raised
for seed, as exhausting. It differs
from them in containing a large
amount of oil, and is therefore much
mure fattening, and equally nutri-
tious as respects the strength of ani-
mals. IJmc and bone earth would
be found capital manures. The green
stems, ploughed in, are equal to clo-
ver as a fertilizer.

PINEAL. GLAND. A small gland
of the brain.

PINEAPPLE. Bronulia ananas.
A native of the American tropics,
with dry, spiny leaves. The supply
of this fruit is so great, and the price
so cheap, that no inducement is of-
fered fur its cultivation, which is te-
dious, and requires a full supply of
heal. The woody fibres of the leaves
are readily separated by dew-rutting,
and are said to form a silky flax,
which has been made use of to a lim-
ited extent in manufactures.

PINE BARREN. The extensive
districts of sandy lands in the South
on which the pine only grows. It
is supposed by naturalists that they
would become deserts if the trees

A78

were once remored, for they are
tered chiefly by the moisture attracts
ed by the trees.

PINE-TREE. The genns Ptmu,
the trees of which afford the well-
known timber, as well as tar, torpen-
tine, &c. The pines are distiagaish-
ed from firs, larches, and spruces by
their needle-shaped leaves, grouped
in twos, threes, dec., and collected
into a sheath at the base. The P.
ttrchuM, or white pine, also cafled
Weymouth pine, yields nearly all tlie
choice deals of the country : the
leaves are in fives. The P. paluMlrit
yields the tar aad resin of North
Carolina ; it is soathem, but the P.
rigida, which is more extended, and
fills the barren, sandy lands of the
seaboard, is also rich in tar. The
P. Canadensis, or hemlock, foraishes
timber, and the bark is used in tan-
ning. The old field pine of the Sooth
is the Pinus tada ; the young shoota,
or browse, are very healthy and nu-
tritious for sheep ; they answer well
to protect autumn and spring garden
crops from frost. The pines are
readily propagated by seeds, which
are found in the cones before they
have been exposed too loog^. They
may be budded, or, rather, grafted in
the growing, tender shoots, with a
little care, but not on the drier wood.
Several species of pines produce
seeds in their cones, which are suffi-
ciently large to be obtained for food.
In Italy, the P. pinea yields a large,
excellent nut, much esteemed ; some
of the Mexican pines also produce
edible fruit.

PINING. A disease of sheep,
languishing. " It is most fatal in a
season of drought, and June and Sep-
tember are the most deadly months.
If ever a farmer perceives a flock od
such a farm having a flushed appear-
ance of more than ordinarily rapkl
thriving, he is gone. By that day
eight days, when he goes out to look
at them again, he will find them ly«
ing, hanging their ears, running at
the eyes, and looking at him like so
many condemned criminals. As the
disease proceeds the hair on the ani-
maps face becomes dfy, the wool as*

•nrnos a blAish cftst, and If the shop-
herd have not the means of changing
the pasture, all those atTeeted will faU
in the coarse of a month. "

PINION. A small wheel playing
in the teeth of a larger one. It is
sometimes only a spindle or arbor.

PINK. The genus Diantkus ; per-
ennial flowering plants, propagated
readily by layering.'

PINK ROOT. SfigeUa MarUandi-
ea, Carolina pink, a handsome per-
ennial, growing about the borders of
woods in the South ; the roots are
used in tafasion as a powerful vermis
fnge ; the doee for children of three
years is 10 grams of the powder : in
very large quantities it proves a dan-
gerous nareotic.

PINNACLE. A square or polyg-
onal pillar rising above a building, and
terminating in an ornamental pyra-
mid.

PINNATE. leaves with separate
leaflets arranged along the midrib, or
petiole : some are doubly pinnate.

PINNATIPID. Imperfectly pin-
nate. In this ease the leaflets are
not distinct, but a portion of the lam-
ina runs along the central petiole.
Cut-leafed.

PINT. The eighth part of a gallon;
half a quart.

PI P. A disease of poultry, attend-
ed with the formation of a tough
membrane at the tip of the tongue,
which hinders feeding ; it is cured by
pttiling ofll'the membrane and wash-
ing the part with salt : the cause is
said to be bad water and food, which
should be changed.

PIPE. A wine measure of rather
uncertain capacity — 1 05 imperial, or
126 wine galkms.

PIPE CLAY. White clay, disin-
tegrated feldspar found in primitive re-
gions, with whioh the white smoking
pipe and coarse pottery are made.

PIPERIN. A white, crystalline,
inactive alkaloid, obtained from black
pepper.

PISE. In building, a wall con-
atructed of stiflTearth or clay, carried
vp in moulds, and rammed down aa
the work is carried up. The ex-
prt>6»io», building «ijpurc, ia common.

PISOLITE. Native llme&u»ii<%

moulded into grains like peas.

PISTACHIO, or PISTACHIA
NUTS. Pistachia vera, A turpen-
tine-tree, a native of Syria *, the nute
are the size of small filberts, of a
sweet taste and pleasant flavour re-
sembling almonds.

PISTIL, PISTILLUM. The cen-
tral organ of flowers ; it is divided
into an ovarium, or lowest pert, a
style, and *tigma, which laat is the
uppermost surface, and receives the
fertilizing pollen. It is called the
female organ, because flowers in
which it is absent are batren. Pis-
tils are made of one or more carpels,
the styles of which unite. Flowem
with pistils only are termed fiM-
late.

PISTON. A short cylinder of
wood or metal, which fits exactly the
cavity of a pump or barrel, and is
worked up and down in it alternate*
ly. Two sorts of pistons are used
in pumps : one hollow, with a valve,
used in the sucking pump ; and the
other soHd. which is employed in the
forcing pump.

PITCH. The substance that re-
mains after boiling or distiUing tar ;
it is used as a coarse paint when
warmed

PITCH OF A ROOF. Its incli-
nation to a level plane.

PITHING. The operation of kill-
ing animals suddenly and without
loss of blood, by driving a knife into
the spinal marrow: this is done by
directing the knife to the space be-
tween the first and second vertebra,
or rack bones.

PIITACALL. A blue substance
obtained from oil of tar.

PITUITARY GLAND. The pi-
neal gland, situated in the base Of
the brain.

PITUITARY MEMBRANE,
SCHNEIDERIAN MEMBRANE.
The mucous membrane of the nos-
trils.

PITYRIASIS, DANDRUFF. A
seurfy disease of the skin.

PIVOT. The extremity of an axle
whi<^ revolves in a socket or hole.

PLACENTA. The after-birth. A

679

Urge spongy organ winch reeeiTM
the blood of the mother, and supi^ies,
by the umbilical artery, the foetas.

In botany, cellular tissue developed
within a carpel, to which the ovules
ere attached sometimes by an umbil-
ical COTtt.

PLAITED, PLICATE. In bota-
ny, folded like a fan.

PLAGUE. A violent, contagious,
and typhoid disease.

PLANARIA. A genus of flat en-
tozoic animals, which do not, how-
ever, inhabit the bodies of other an-
imals.

PLANE. A flat surface.

PLANE TABLE. A square board,
furnished with a compass, and with
lines drawn on its upper side, used
in taking angles and in measuring
land.

PLANE-TREE. The button-
wood.

PLANER-TREE. Planera ulmi-
folia {aquatica). A tree of twenty-
three to thrity feet height, growing
in swampy places, in the South and
Southwest, and resembling the elm.
The wood is hard and strong, but
there is only a small amount of it.

PLANIPENNATES. Neuropte-
rous insects with flat wings, the low-
er pair of which equal the upper.

PLANKS. Boards of nine inches
or more in width, and one to two
inches thick ; they are sold by the
square foot.

PLANO-CONCAVE. A thin disk,
having one surface flat and the other
curved inward {concave).

PLANT. A complex organisa-
tion, produced from seeds or sporules.
The most general characters are the
presence of cellular tissue, and the
power of decomposing carbonic acid
in light ; but the latter function does
not belong to funflpi.

PLANT CASES, WARD'S. Tight
glazed boxes, at the bottom of which
a layer, six inches deep, of garden
mould, in a moist state, ia placed ;
and in which plants being set, are
said to grow without farther trouble
if the case be well closed.

PLANTAIN. The genus PUmia-
go I for the most part perennial weeds

PUk

in flfteadowB ; they ere iwHilUen^ Imt
grow too small for bay. The P. am*
jar is called white man's foetatepe ;
it is conunonly recommended as aa
application to wounds, being mecila-
ginous.

PLANTATION, PlJkNTlNG-
" Planting is the operation of placing
in the soil the roots of a plant which
has been previously removed; and
the preservation of the roots is the
first thing to be attended to. It
should be kept in mind that the ^foi^
gioUsf or deUcate extremities of^the
fibres, are the parts by which the
chief supply of food from the earth is
absorbed by the plant Their t»soe
being tender and almost naked, they
are very susceptible of injuries (Vom
mechanical action ; and being adapt-
ed for performing their functions in
a humid medium, they readily suWar
from being kept for any length of
time exposed to free air and drought.
In taking up the plants, therefore,
the roots should be loosened in such
a manner as to receive the least pos-
sible violence in the operation. Plants
in pots can be shifted from one place
to another without exhibiting synm-
toms of deranged functions ; and if it
were possible to preserve the spon-
gioles of a large tree as entire as
those of a plant in a pot, the same
successful result would follow; but
as it is next to impossible to do this,
we can only attempt to preserve
them as far as circumstances will
permit. If the tree be large, a trench
should be opexted beyond the extrem-
ities of the roots, of Bufficient width
and depth to allow the process of un-
dermining to be freely carried on.
The roots should be gradually set at
liberty by a round-pronged fork, the
prongs upering so as to be easily in-
serted, yet not by any means so sharp
as to prick the roots. As the fork ts
being used, the soil from among the
roots will fall into the open trench;
but as it accumulates there it must
be cleared away, and, at the same
tiine, the portion of roots set at liber-
ty will require to be sUghtly tied to-
gether with pieoea of matting, and,
if necessary, supported by temporary

KANTATICAl, PLANTING.

fltites, OT bM to OBB side by aa t8-
si8tant» while the planter proceeds in
liberating others. If there be» as is
frequently the ease, a tap root ex-
tending to a much greater depth than
the other roots, and if the latter hare
been oarefaUy preserved during the
operation, the tap root may be dis-
pensed with, for it could only be
raised in a mutilated state, owing
to the great solidity of the earth at
such a depth.

" Although it is very desirable to
presenre the greatest possible quan-
tity of sound roots, yet all that are
bruised or lacerated should be clean-
ly amputated up to the sound parts.
Cross roots are apt to gall the others
when they become large, and there-
fore tbe sooner they are removed the
better. When the plants are young
and in the course of being occasion-
ally removed in a nursing state, all
irregularities in the roots should be
corrected, which can then be done
with comparatively little injury, as
the roots of young plants bear a great-
er proportion to the top than seems
to be the case at a more advanced
period of growth, and tbe loss of any
of them is consequently felt less. In
the early stage of rearing trees, while
the proportion of roots predominates,
it may be found advisable, in various
cases, to shorten, not only the tap
root, as above mentioned, but also,
judiciously, some of the other strong
roots, in order that subdivisions of a
more fibrous nature may be produced,
and a number of rootlets substituted
for large root branches. Even in the
ease of large trees this principle has
been acted npon for centuries, and
latterly it has been strongly advoca-
ted and put in practice for the pur-
pose of producing immediate etTect in
park or landscape scenery. A trench
is cut out round the tree, and the
roots shortened wherever they hap-
pen to traverse this trench, so as to
leave it quite elear. This being done,
the trench is filled up, either with its
own excavated soil, or, in very par-
ticular eases, with fresh soiL The
tree has still a suflicient number of
undisturbed roots to keep it alive ;

Coc2

and, in tet» it ooght not to be neie-

ly kept alive, but as many roots should
be left as will ensure its continuing
in a healthy, though not a vigorous
state of growth. In the course of a
year or two after this operation has
been performed, a numlwr of young
roots will have been protruded from
the various amputations into the
loosened soil of the trench ; and, part-
ly from the possibility of preserving
these roots, and partly from the top
becoming habituated to a more limit-
ed supply of food, the tree feels com-
paratively little tbe change conse-
quent on transplantation.

** Roots may be produced of a prop-
er description for planting by the
adoption of such means as the abovot
and, if care be taken, they will suf-
fer little from the operation of re-
moval. Still, they may be seriously
injured from exposure to air, and
more especially to drying winds,
frost, and even to wet. To be cov-
ered in the soil is the natural condi-
tion of the roots of most vegetable
productions, and, therefore, endeav-
ours should be made to place them
in such a condition with the least
possible delay ; or, at all events, if
circumstances render delay unavoid-
able, such means should be adopted
as will preserve them in a state of
moisture similar to that which they
have in the soil. It is, however, ne-
cessary to observe, that when the
tops are closely packed up and evap-
oration from them prevented, the
roots should be kept rather dry than
otherwise, for, under such circnm<
stances, damp is found to be much
more frequently destructive than a
little dryness.

*^ Though the preparatory steps to
planting, as regards roots and their
preservation, may be properly taken,
yet, if the operation be not perlbrm-
ed at the proper season, success will
not be oom|dete. It is true that in-
stances may be adduced of planting
being done at the very opposite sea-
son to that which is here recommend-
ed as the best ; but such cases are
only examples of what may be done
by extraordinary care in adopting ar*

681

TiANTATKN, VTMOmSki

^IMtttatwa^ flo as le toHrte more
natural circorostances. It is a well-
known fact that plants are sabject to
a prooess of evaporation from ail the
parts wbioh are exposed to the atmo-
sphere, proviied the latter is not in
a state of satocation. The source
from whenoe this evaporation is sup-
plied is the moisture of the soil, and
the roots are the media by which it
is eoUecfted and transmitted to the
stem branches and leaves. If the
expenditare be greater than the sup-
ply of moistare, the plant will begin
to suffer ; if the disparity be great
and continued, a degree ii desicca-
tion will be occasioned sufficient to
deiM'ive the vegetable tissue of that
moistare which constitutes the me-
diom of intercommunication between
the diflfbrent cells; organization is
destrojred ; the chain which connected
it with vitality is broken, and incapar
ble of being reanited by any meohan*
ical means.

** A much greater amonnt of evap-
oration takes place from a given sur>
face in some species than in others ;
but the amount as regards plants of
the same species, all other cirenm^
stances being the same, is in propor-
tion to the extent of surface which
the respective individuals possess.
The leaves of a lime-tree may have
a surface equal to thirty times that
of the stem, branches, and twigs
which produce them, and, conse-
quently, the demand on the roots for
the supply of evaporation will be
thirty times greater when in leaf
than when the branches are naked.
Instances might be adduced in which
this difference would even be exceed-
ed ; but if, on the contrary, it were
found considerably lees, still there
would be sufficient evidence of the
impropriety of moving plants when
in leaf; and it may be here remark-
ed that young leaves adroit of the
fluids being more rapidly evaporated
than old ones.

<* The month of December is that
in which the condition of the air with
regard to moisture approaches near-
sat to that of complete saturation ;
and next in this respect is Jannaiy,

fi82

which is itoo the eoUwt It

therefore be concluded that theae
months are the best for planting,
more especially as they are the most
opposite in character to June and
July, which, from their being the hot-
test and driest, are found to be the
worst. But November is also moist ;
and although the temperature of the
season has not then reached its min-
imum, yet the foliage, acoustonied to
exercise its functions under a subi-
mer heat, can no longer perform them
under a reduction of temperature
which, though not the lowest, ia
comparatively low as regards sum-
mer productions. The leaves, in
consequence, lose their connexion
with the roots ; the earth still re-
tains considerable warmth ; and al-
though the absence of leaves in de*
ciduous trees, and perhaps the in-
activity of those 4)f evergreens, may
prevent the formation of wood, ex-
cept in the most limited degree, yet
the buds, while they are themselvea
increased in volume, maintain a cor-
responding action in the roots, suffi-
cient, in many instances, to form
fresh spongioles before winter: a
process which is favoured by the soil
being warmer than the atmosphere.
Should circumstances occur to pre-
vent the actual protrusion of cellular
substance in the form of spongioles,
still an accumulation of it will be ta-
king place, ready to burst forth in
spring. On this account, therefore,
although December, Januaiy, and
February are sufficiently moist, yet
November, or as soon as the leaves
have fallen, is the preferable season
for planting. There may be some
exceptions, as in the case of very
wet soils, where the plants, if not
firmly rooted, are liable to be thrown
out daring winter, owing to which,
spring planting would be more prop-
er ; but, under ordinary circomstan*
oes, all deciduous trees will succeed
best at the period above indicated.
Such species as push forth their buds
early ought certainly to be planted
in autumn. Many of the coniferoua
tribe will succeed well if planted sooii
after they have made their summer's

PLANTATION* PUUMTINQ.

intiwth ; the myth is then warm, ftnd
the plants make roots very promptly.
Some species of this interesting or-
der of trees require to be planted ei-
ther before winter, so as to have suf-
ficient time to strike root, or imme-
diately before their buds begin to
burst in the spring. These species
of trees are injuriously affected by
exposure to dry, cold winds, even
when their roots are undisturbed by
removal ; but if planted at a season
when several months must elapse
before any perfect action can com-
mence, the tops are apt to become
dried up in the interval. It appears
that if their juices become inspissa-
ted to a certain extent, they never
again r)ecouie liquefied, probably ow-
ing to their resinous nature.

•*The watering of newly-planled
trees ought to be attended to. The
supply, in the first instance, should
be copious, in order to wash the earth
into the cavities among the roots.
Some err in keeping the roots of
newly-plaitted trees constantly soak-
ed with water, as if they were those
of bog plants, for which only such
treatment is proper. In watering,
consideration should always be had
to the nature of the plant ; to which,
if it delight in dry soils, no more wa-
ter should be artificially applied than
is necessary to moisten it as much
as the soil in which the species grows
naturally, and at a time when shoots
and leaves are abundantly produced.
When watering is performed, it
should be done thoroughly, so as to
reach the lowest portions of the root.
In the case of plants being much dri-
ed from long carriage or other caus-
es, the sUppIy, on first planting, should
be very moderate. The tops, how-
ever, should be frequently syringed,
in order to moisten the bark, and pre-
vent its absorbing tho organ izable
matter which descends towards the
root by the inner bark. The flow
must be extremely weak under such
circumstances ; but ff it can be pre-
served from the effects of drought
till it reach the extremities of the
roots, the formation of fresh spongi-
pies will immediately commence, and

the tree may then be pronoanoed onl
of danger.

"The manner of performing the
operation of planting may be reduced
to one general principle, that of pla-
cing the roots in the soil so as to im-
itate as closely as possible the posi-
tion which they occupy when grow-
ing wild and uncontrolled. Plants,'
indeed, may be instanced whose
roots have been observed, in one
situation, penetrating to the depth of
four or five feet ; or, in another,
creeping along the surface, among
stones, or into the crevices of rocks,
with scarcely soil to cover them, as»
for example, in the vine. But al-
tliough roots can usually accommo-
date themselves to that position
which the nature of the situation
renders it alone possible for them to
occupy, yet there can be no doubt
that in all cases the extremities of
the roots should be lower than where
they diverge from the stem : a rule
which, however self-evident it may
be, is frequently violated in practice,
by making a basin-shaped hole, deep-
est in the middle, in which the roots
are either doubled, or have their ex«
tremities tending upward on the slo-
ping sides of the cavity.

** The excavation for the reception
of the roots of a plant should be con-
siderably larger than those roots will
traverse when extended at the time
of planting. It should be as vide at
bottom as at top. The bottom should
be more or less convex, and the depth
such as to admit of the roots being
covered to the extent observed in
undisturbed seedling plants of the
same species ; that is to say, the up-
per part of the root should only be
just covered. The lower roots should
be regularly disposed over the con-
vex bottom of the excavation, and
carefully strewed with some of the
finer portion of soil, over which the
other roots may be spread. More soU
should then be carefully rather than
forcibly introduced. There should
be no vacant spaces left, except those
of so minute a description that they
will be readily filled up by the finer
particles of earth washed down by a

583

PLANTATION, PLANTING.

plentiful watering. This watering
should be given when the soil is near-
ly all filled in, and, after the water
has subsided, so as not to stand above
the surface, the latter should be cov-
ered with the remaining portion of
•oil. Except in very loose or light
soils, this method will supersede the
necessity of the hard beating and
treading in to which the roots of
trees are very generally subjected.
The latter practice is now, however,
being laid aside by many, from a con-
▼iction of its injurious effects. It is
also necessary to remark that a plant
should be placed, before the introduc-
tion of the soil, exactly as it is in-
tended it should stand ; and it should
not be pulled from side to side for the
purpose of shaking the earth among
the roots. If the tree be drawn to
one side, the fibres of the root will
also be drawn towards the same side ;
but they are, of course, too flexible
to force their way back when the
tree is drawn in a contrary direction,
and they must therefore become
more or less doubled. Nor should
the soil be thrown against the fibres
while the roots are being covered ;
it should be made fine, and either
shaken from the spade so as to fall
perpendicularly amons the roots, or
scattered by a force Impelling it in
the direction of the fibres, which will
be, in general, from the stem towards
the extremities, or from the centre
to the circumference.

"The principles here stated are
applicable to the planting of large as
well as small trees, and, in fact, to
any terrestrial species of plant. There
are, however, many modifications in
practice, some of which may be no-
ticed as proper under certain cir-
cumstances, and others as only to be
condemned under any circumstances
whatever.

•* Small plants are very frequently
inserted by the dibhU^ a cylindrical
piece of wood, shod with iron, and
tapering to a point. This is thrust
into the soil, and in the hole formed
by this means the roots of the plant
are introduced, and a portion of
soil passed towards them by a seo*

684

ond stroke of the dibble. It is eT«
ident, however, that by this proce-
dure the roots cannot be in the most
natural position ; they are, in fact,
the very reverse of being spread out
to the best advantage. In the case
of very valuable species, the spsde
or planting trowel is used in prefer-
ence to the dibble. The latter has
nothing to recommend it on the score
of good principles in planting ; the
expedition with which it can be em-
ployed is all that can be said in its
favour.

" Besides the spade and dibble, va«
rious other implements are used in
planting, such as the diamond dibbUt
a pointed plate of steel, with a short
iron handle ; a maUockj used in stony
soils ; and some others, adopted ac-
cording to circumstances. In all ca-
ses, however, where the spade can
be used, it is undoubtedly the best
instrument. If the soil be unfit for
allowing the use of the spade, it
should be rendered fit previously ;
and if some time be lost and expense
incurred by using it instead of small-
er and more expeditious, but, at the
same time, more cramping imple-
ments as regards the roots, the dil^
ference will certainly be ultimately
in favour of a proper disposition of
the roots by means of the spade.

"With regard to the preparation
of the soil for plantations, it is found
that trenching the ground is attended
with profit where it is practised for
the purpose of rearing wood for fuel
and small timber. This mode of prep-
aration ought likewise to be adopted
where trees are intended to be plant-
ed for ornament or for shelter. It
has not been generally attempted ia
the case of extensive plantations of
heath or rugged mountain land. It
may, however, be afiSrmed, without
hesitation, that great advantages
would be derived from the operation
being more extensively performed.
Something more than merely bnrying
the roots of hard-wooded plants is
thought necessary, and, accordingly,
fitt are made. It is scarcely neces-
sary to observe that, if these are not
of considerable size, the direct prog«

PLANTATION, PLANTINO.

ress of the roots is soon obstructed.
The time required to form these pits
as they ought to be would be suffi-
cient to regularly trench double their
^rea. The expense of trenching the
intermediate spaces will be compen-
sated by the greater return derived
from the nurse plants, such as larch,
when they come to be remored.

" Plantations are generally planted
thick in the first instance, and with
Tarious species of trees. Larch,
Scotch fir or pine, mountain ash,
dec, are interspersed among the hard
wood for shelter, or as nurses. La-
burnum is also useful for preserving
the other sorts from the depredations
of hares, as they prefer the laburnum
f o every other bark. Nurses are gen-
erally left till they are fit for various
purposes for which small timber is
applicable. They should be planted
closer to each other than to the prin-
cipal trees intended to constitute the
more permanent part of the planta-
tion.

•• After all the care of the planter,
and the skill with which the opera-
tion of removing may have been ef-
fected, much of the success of a
plantation depends on the proper
adaptation of species to the soils and
situations most suitable to them.

"The following remarks upon
Bome of the timber-trees principally
cultivated may be useful :

" The oak {Quercus robur, and Q.
Mcssilifiora) prefers strong, or even
clayey loam; any soil not wet or
chalky.

" Beech {Fagus sylvatica), calcare-
ous soils, gravelly or sandy loam ;
dislike stifiTclay.

** Elm ( Ulmus campestrist U. gta^
tra, U. montana) attains, near the
banks of rivers, a large size; thrives
in most soils.

" Ash {Fraxinus excelsior) prefers a
dry subsoil ; dislikes stiff clay.

•'Plane {Platanus Orientalis), rich,
warm soil, tolerably moist, but not
retentive.

" Sycamore {Acer pseudo-platanusf
A. platanoidcs)y best in moist, deep
BoU. bat will thrive in others not too
stiff; withstands the sea-breeze.

« Chestnut {CoMtanea v€9ea\ deep^
sandy loam.

"Walnut {Jufflans regia), deep
loam, with a pervious subsoil ; dis-
likes strong clays.

" Hickory {Carya alba)^ similar soil
to that required by the walnut.

"Acacia, or locust-tree (Rolnnia
pseud-acacia)i sandy loam; a shel-
tered situation ; cannot bear storms.

"Birch {Betvla alba\ forms best
timber on dry sandy or gravelly soiL

" Laburnum {Cytiaus alpinus), any
soil not too wet.

"White bean {Pynu Aria\ any
good soU, with a pervious subsoil;
dislikes wet clay.

" Lime {THia Europcea), soft, deep
loam, in low, ratber moist situations.

"Horse-chestnut {JEscubu hipp6'
castanum), deep hiam ; not in expo-
sed situations.

"Poplar {Populus alboj P. canes-'
eensy P. nigra, P. tremtUa, P.fastigi»
atay P. Grttca, P. numUi/era). These
thrive in almost any soil, but best Im
that which is deep and rather moist.

" Mountain-ash {Pyrus aucuparia)^
any soil, wet clay excepted ; adapteld
for high situations.

"Alder {Alnus gliUinosa), moist,
or even swampy soil.

" Willow (Sfl/tx), of numerous spe»
cies. Some thrive in rather dry soil,
but all prefer moist.

" Pine {Pinus sylvestris, P. LarieiSf
P. Pinaster, P. Strohus). The first
two are adapted for thin, rocky, grav-
elly soils ; they grow at a great eleva-
tion on the warmest sides of mount-
ains, but better in mountain glens ;
they disHke stiff day and deep, strong
loam, afid, like all coniferous plants,
they do not thrive on chalk. P. Pi'
naster and P. Strobus require a less
exposed situation than the other two.

" Spruce {Abies excelsa, A, alba, A.
rubra, A. nigra), deep, moist soil, in
low situations ; dislikes thin, sandy
soil, and exposure.

" Larch {AbUs Larix), adapted for
thin mountain land, or any soil of
which the subsoil is not retentive,
excepting, however, red sandstone
or chalk, as above mentioned.

" Cedar of Lebanon {Abies eedrus),

685

AAirrATioN, nAwmBi

81)7 tolembiy good 80D, rather ideeper
than for the larch, but a pervtoua sub-
soil, free from siagnaat water.

**Too close planting produces weak,
drawn-up timber, in consequence of
the tops only receiving a due share
of light. It is true that the most
RiagniAcent trees are found in those
ancient forests that have never been
sowed, planted, or thinned by the
hand of man ; but, at the same time,
it will not be denied that, wherever
natural forests exist, the soil and sit-
uation must be exceedingly favoura-
ble for the species produced ; and
that, although thousands sprung up
more than could possibly find room
to attain perfection, yet those only
that were the most favourably cir-
eumstanced and most vigorous would
continue ; and whim once their tops
got completely above those of the
^neral mass, the latter most have
inevitably fallen into decay. There
is no reason, however, to suppose
that those which maintained their
ground, and, favoured by propitious
soil, became lofty specimens, would
not have been benefited by the assist-
ance of the axe, to relieve them soon-
er firom their rivals.

*'If, on the contrary, trees are
planted at too great a distance from
each other, they are inclined to ram-
ify into large limbs and spreading
tops, wi^ a stem short, but much
thicker than where the space admits
of less expansion of foliage. If, there-
fore, very thick timber of no great
length be required, wide planting is
proper ; but if taU timber be the ob-
ject, the plantation must be moder-
ately thick.

''The eare which plantations re-
quire from year to year consists in
making np deficiencies, thinning, and
pruning. Deficiencies seMom oocur
if the planting be at first duly per-
formed ; and every endeavour should
be used to prevent the necessity of
fnahntg up. This is always done
with considerable disadvantage to
the plants thus introduced, unless the
spaces be trenched *, but iu that case,
if the species of tree be properly
ehosen the plants may do well in

consequence of the shelter afiordad.

by the older surrunnding individuals.
" Thinning should be comruenceil
in due time. No branch of the tem-
porary trees should, by any means*
overhang the top, or even branches of
those that are permanent. The shel-
ter on the most exposed sides of the
plantation should be formed of ro-
bust, vigorous-growing kinds, and it
should be allowed to remain unbro*
ken. Plantations that have been neg-
lected till they have formed a dense
thicket roust bo thinned gradually 2
for if thinned at once, those left would
be injured by the sudden exposure*
and would be blown over by winds.

^* Pruning' is an important operar
tion in the management of plaota*
tions, but it is oiten improperly prao*
tised, fur want of the knowledge of a
few physiological facts, which are es-
sentially necessary to be stated be-
fore any rules for pruning can be
properly given. If these facts be un-
derstood, few rules will be required,
but otherwise a volume of directions
are liable to be misapplied. It ought*
therefore, to be understood, that the
sap ascends from the stem chie^
through the alburnum, or outer layers
of young wood. It then enters the
leaves, when it is exposed to the in-
fluence of light. Having, in cons^
qnence, undergone an elaboration, it
descends on the outside of the albur-
num, that is to say, through the inner
bark ; the internsd surface of the lat-
ter possessing a great degree of lu-
bricity, whereby the passage of a por*
tion of the juices, at least, is faoilita-
ted to the roots, while part is detain-
ed and becomes organised, forming a
new layer of woody matter. Tlie
thickness of the layer so formed is
very dififerent in diflferent species;
but in the same species, all other ciiw
cumstances being the saune, it is ia
proportion to the surface of leaves.
The aggregate horizontal growth, or,
in other words, the diametrical ex-
tension of the stem, branch, and even
fools, depends upon the quantity of
healthy foliage. The diametrical ia*
oreaae of any particular part con?*
spends with the greater or less prO-

PLANTATION, VLANTISa.

ffiHum <kf ioGag^ «boTo thst part.

Agaia, it may be stated that if one
tree has a clear stem of 20 feet in
length, and another has one of 40 feet,
the roots and foliage of both being
equal, the layer of new wood will be
much thinner in the latter case than
in the former ; for the deposition of
woody matter will have to extend
over double the surface in the tall
tree. It may be also remarked that.
Id general, if a tree be left entirely to
nature, it will ultimately produce a
greater bulk of wood, taking stems
and branches together, than would be
the case if subjected to pruning. Ex-
cept, however, in the case of growing
for fuel, pruning is more or less neces-
iBary. The value of a timber-tree de-
pends chiefly on the stem, the branch
timber being of less value. The ob-
ject to be kept in view in pruning for
timber is the production of a clean
stem with as small a proportion of
branches as possible. B ut it has been
explained that the growth of the stem
depends on the quantity of foliage,
and without branches a sufficient
quantity of foliage cannot be main-
tained. While, on the one hand, an
undue preponderance of branches is
prevented by pruning, yet, on the
other, as much foliage should be pre-
"served as circumstances will permit.
*' An excessive privation of foliage
should never be occasioned at any
one time. It is therefore advisable
to commence pruning early, in order,
as it were, to repress irregularities in
the bud. At all events, whenever an
irregularity can be clearly distinguish-
ed as such, it should be checked.
Thus, when a shoot, occupying the
position of a branch, ascends in com-
petition with the top, or leading shoot,
and is allowed to go on for years, the
atem will have a forked character ;
or if the competing portion be ampu-
tated after it has acquired a large
aize, the timber will be rendered un-
sound. But if the shoot from which
this aspiring limb took its rise bad
been stopped in the first or second
aeason of its growth in summer, the
tree might have been grown «ith a
clean, regularly tapering stem. It is

only great imgolaritiesy kowi»ver»

that should be meddled with during
the early growth of the plant ; other-
wise the increase of roots is prevent-
ed, such increase being reciprocal
with that of the branches.

" Young shoots of the above de-
scription may be checked by being
shortened in summer ; but no large
branches should be cut off at that
season, nor after the sap begins t4
flow briskly in spring. Towards au*
tumn, however, when the leares have
nearly ceased to carry on their fun<v
tions, pruning may be rery properly
performed ; and some species, for
example, the birch and maple, require
to be pruned at that time, otherwise
they are apt to bleed. The period at
which IkedxTig, that is, an extravasa-
tion of sap, takes place with greatest
force, is immediately before the burst-
ing of the buds in spring. If a branch
be cut off when it is in foliage, the
remaining portion draws the sap
and prevents effusion at the wound.
Some derangement will of course be
produced in the flow of sap ; and a
diminution of the process of lignifiea-
tion and of the formation of roots wiU
be occasioned, owing to the abstrac-
tion of a certain extend of foliage.
But when the sap is in motion, and
the leaves at the same time not ex-
panded, the amputation of a branch
is followed by a flow of sap, which
appears to drain fh>m every part of
the tree. The sap becomes stale on
exposure to the air ; it then affects
the cambium and inner bark, often
to a considerable extent below the
wound, and if these are not in all
cases so far completely lulled, yet
they are generally more or less in
jured, and canker is apt to ensue.

" Suppose it were required to rear
a tree so as to have a stem of clean-
grown timber as tall and as thick
as could possibly be obtained in any
given time. The first consideration
is the root, the plant being supposed
to be young, with a top or upright
lead ing shoot,and several side brancl>
es. AU these should be left undis-
turbed in the first instance, unless
snch of the latter as may require a

687

PLA

check if growing too strong for the
others or for the leader. The later-
als should be leil» for the sake of the
roots, till their presence on the stem
becomes inconsistent with the object
of producing it as free as possible
from knots, taking also into consid-
eration that the difficulty in healing
the wound increases as the branches
get older. A few of the largest
shoots should be those first removed.
They may be shortened in the first
instance ailer midsummer, and af-
terward cut off smoothly by the low-
est circular wrinkles which form
round their base, close to the stem,
but without slicing off a portion of
the bark: a slovenly practice, of
which only bad pruners are guilty,
and which can only have the effect
of diminishing the power, of the bark
to close over the wound necessarily
made by the pruning-knife. Such
unnecessary wounds cause an extrav-
asation of sap, as may be seen espe-
cially in coniferous trees, where they
are eenerally covered with resinous
exudations. In the following sea-
son the next largest branches should
be in like msnner displaced, care be-
ing still taken, on account of the im-
portance of the foliage, as already
explained, that the quantity removed
shall be no more than is absolutely
necessary.

"Small branches along the stem
should be left till they approach the
dimensions by which the removal of
the others is regulated. These prin-
ciples should be followed up till the
required height of stem is attained ;
aAier which the branches composing
the top shall be allowed full freedom,
in order to increase, by their organ-
ising power, the diameter of the
Stem.

" Coniferous trees require little
pruning ; nor is it necessary to com-
mence 80 early with them as in the
case of other kinds. In dense for-
ests, they are found with straight
&pem3f approaching the height of 100
feet clear of side branches, the latter
gradually decaying below a^ they be-
come excluded from light and moist.-
ure by those above them. When,
568

PLA

from this catise, the lower bnoiciies
of coniferous trees are observed to
lose, in a great measure, their vigour,
and when their foliage contributes lit-
tle to the enlargement of the stem,
they may then be very properly cot
off, without waiting for their actual
decay. It is a question whether the
branches of these trees should be cat
close to the stem at once, in pruning,
or whether they should first be fnof'-
ged, that is, cut at some distance from
the stem, and either allowed so to
remain or be afterward cot dose.
That plan is best to adopt by which
the least exudation of resinous sub-
stance is occasioned, and the blemish
soonest overgrown. With the view
of preventing the former, the branch
may be shortened only to the first live
twigs, so as almost to nullify its con-
nexion with the stem, preparatory to
its final and dose removal in the fol-
lowing season.

** By choosing the proper season*
and by previous shortening, large
limbs of any healthy tree may be
closely amputated so as to heal over
without affecting the tree generally^
or even the portion of stem more im-
mediately connected with the limb to
any material extent; yet the new
layer of wood will prove, on cuttiag
up the timber,, to be only in close con-
tact with the surface of the wound,
which will remain dead, and with
which the living matter enclosing it
could not coalesce. A piece of un-
sound wood is thus imbodied. In
this case, it would be advisable to
shorten the limb to such of its later-
als as will just be sufficient to keep it
alive till the tree is felled. If, in the
interval, the branch should push vig-
orously, means must be adopted to
keep it always in a reduced state, by
merely allowing as much foliage to
grow as will keep the branch alive,
without affording any material ad-
dition to its diameter.'*— <iV</eMor
Lindley.)

PLANTING. See FUmUUiom.
The following table shovi^ the num-
ber implants required for one acre of
laotf^rom one foot to twenty-one feet
distance ft-om plant to plant

PUL

FLO

is.

Vambcr.

Ft.

In.

Mttlttb^r*

0 .

. 43,dfl0

6 .

. . 60S

6 .

. 19.3M

0 .

. . 538

0 .

. 10,800

6 .

. . 489

0 .

. 6,060

0 .

. .436

0 .

. 4,840

0 .

. . 361

6 .

. 3.556

0 .

. . 302

0 .

. 2,7«

0 .

. . S58

0 .

. SJ91

0 .

. . 993

0 .

. 1.74a

0 .

. . 104

ft .

. ],440

0 .

. . 171

0 .

. I.U0

0 .

. . 151

. 1,031

0 .

. . 135

880

0 .

. . 131

6 .

775

0 .

. . 100

0 .

680

0 .

. . 00

PIANT LICE. See Aphis,

PLASHING. " A mode of repair-
ing or making a hedge by bending
down a portion of the shoots, cutting
them half through near the ground^ to
render them more pliable, and twist-
ing them among the upright stems,
80 as to render the whole effective as
a fence, and, at the same time, pre-
Ber?e all the branches alive. For
this purpose, the branches to be plash-
ed or bent down must not be cut
more than half through, in order that
a snflicient portion of sap may rise
up from the root to keep alive the
upper part of the branches. Where
hedges are properly formed and kept,
they can very sekiom require to be
plashed ; but this mode of treating a
hedge is most valuable in the cases
of hedges abounding with hedge-row
trees, when from neglect, or from
any other cause, the hedge has be-
come of irregular growth.

PLASTER. A mixture of burned
plaster of Paris with water, which
sets with great rapidity, and is used
in moulding and the finer work of
plasterers.

PLASTER OP PARIS. Gyprum,
which see.

PLASTIC. Capable of being
moulded, adhesive.

PLATBAND. A square moulding,
projecting from the wall less than its
width.

PLATE. In building, a timber ly-
ing horizontally on a wall to receive
the ends of girders, joists, rafters, dec.

PLATFORM. A level structure
of any materials, to receive a super-
incambent building. *

PLATINUM, PLATINA. An ex-
Dpd

pensive metal, of the appetrattoe of

silver, but very infusible, and of spe-
cific gravity 21-5. It resists most
chemical reagents, and is used in
chemistry for crucibles, and in foil
and wire for numerous purposes.
The bichloride of platinum, dissolved
in alcohol, forms insoluble salts with
chloride of potash, or ammonia, but
not with soda, and is used to separate
the former alkalies from the latter.

PLATYPHYLLUM. The Katydid,
which see.

PLATYSOMES. PLATYSOMA.
A family of coleoptera with wide and
flat bodies, living under the bark of
trees.

PLEASURE GROUNDS.
Grounds laid out in shrubberies,
groups of trees, winding walks, and
lawns

PLESIOMORPHISM (from nXff^i.
oc, near, and fiop^ij, form). A term
used to denote a similarity between
different crystals in their angles, but
not an identity.

PLETHORA. A fulness of the
circulatory system, almost amount-
ing to disease, and calling for bleed-
ing.

PLEURA. The serous membrane
surrounding the cavity of the chest,
lungs, and heart ; it consists of two
parts, which are united along the
middle, and forms the mediastinum.
Its inflammation is called pleuriiis, oi
pleurisy.

PLICIPENNATES, PLICIPEN-
NES. Neuropterous insects, the in-
ferior wings of many of which are
larger than the upper pair, and are
folded lengthwise, as the caddis flies.

PLINTH. The lowest form or
member of the base of a cohimn, of
a square figure and small height.

PLIOCENE. The uppermost por-
tion of the tertiary formation, con-
taining recent fossils, for the most
part.

PLOTTING. In surveying, laying
down on paper the angles and lines
measured to calculate the contents
of a given tract ; it is done with a
protracter or plotting scale.
. PLOTTING SCALE. "It con-
•ists of two graduated ivory scales,

689

tea of trtook is perfcnrtad aeaiAy it»

whole length by a doyetaU-«haped
groove, for the reception of a sliding
piece, to which the second scale is
attached, and with which it moves,
the edge of the second being always
at right angles to the edge of the first
By this means the rectangular co-or-
d^ates of a point are measured at
once on the scales, or the position
of the point laid down on the plan."
'^Brands' 8 Encyelopadia.)

PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING.
<* Before we enter into any details, it
may be as well that we deecribe the
different essential parts of a plough
by the names which are usually given
to them.

" The body of a plough is that part
to which all the other parts are at-
tached. The bottom of it is called
the «o/«, or sUie^ to the fore part of
which is affixed the poinU or shart ;
the hind part of the sole is called the
luel. The beam, which advances for-
ward from the body, serves to keep
the plough in its proper direction, and
to the end of it are attached the oxen
or horses which are employed to
draw it. Fixed in the beam, in a
▼ettical position, before the point of
the share, with its point a httle for-
ward, is tbe eottUer, which serves to
cat a vertical section in the ground,
while the point of the share, expand-
ing into a Jbit separates a slice by a
horizontal cut from the solid ground
trader it. The tnould^board^ or turn-
furraub, is placed obliquely behind the
fin, to the right or left, in order to
pufih aside and turn over the slice of
«arth which the coulter and share
have cut off: it thus leaves a regular
furrow wherever the plough has pass-
ed, which furrow is intended to be
filled up by the slice out off from the
land by the side of it when tbe plough
returns. The stilts or bandlesi of

Fig. I.
C

which therexDajbe eitlMr one tir twow

as is thought more convctnent, direct
the plough by keeping it in the line
required, and at a regular depth ia
tbe ground. Tbe single stilt appears
to be the most ancient form.

" Wheels are a modern invention
in comparison with the other parts.
They support the end of the beam,
and prevent it from going too deep
into the ground, or rising out of it
while the plough is going on. The
greatest imiproveraents introduced
into modern ploughs are in the shape
of the mould-board or turn-furrow,
of which we shall take particular no-
tice, and the contrivances for regu-
lating the line of draught, so as to
nuake the plough go at an equal depth,
and cut off a regular slice of equal
breadth without any great force being
applied by the ploughman who holds
the stilts.

" The ploughs in use in different
countries in Europe have undergone
little change for many centuries ; it
is only lately that any attempt has
been made to vary the old forms.

"The liouian plough, such as is
described by Virgil in the * Georgica'
(i., 169), is still used in many parts of
France, under the name of Araire
Homain. It consists of a beam {le-
nu>)y a body {buru), a share {yoiner%
and a handle or stilt (f<tva). The of-
fice of the turn- furrow is performed
by two pieces of wood, about six inch-
es long, projecting obliquely upward,
and very properly called teeth {denut-
ha), E F {Fig. 1), The soie of the
plough, A B, has two pieces of wood,
0 G and D H, fixed to it on each
side, forming an acute angle with it,
in which the teeth are inserted. This
exactly answers the description of
Virgil, * Duplici aptantur dentalia dor-
se* (the teeth are fitted to tbe double
back).

590

PIOPGH AND PLOUOHm«.

"These ieetk help to posh aside
the earth to the right and left, and
the itiBtniroent resembles what is
ealled a moaldiog pkmgh, which is
vised in throwing the soil aside against
young plants growing in rows, as tur-
ftips, potatoes, dec. A chain or pole
connected with the end of the beam,
was hooked to the middle of the yoke
on the neck of the oxen, and thus the
^ough went on making parallel far-
rows, 80 near to each other that the
preceding furrow was partially filled
with the earth which the dentalia
poshed aside. The point was in the
ahape of the head of a lance. This
plough mi^t SQfllce in light, mellow
soils which had been long in ealtiva-
iion, and had more the texture of
garden mould than of stubborn clay.

"The small, doable mould-board
plough, common in other parts of
France, is evidently taken from this.
The teeth not being soffieieatly
strong, a slanting boanl was substi-
tuted on each side, and wheels were
added, to diminish the labour of the
ploughman. The stilt remained the
same at the place where it is attach-
ed to the plough, but higiier up it was
divided into two, like a fork, for the
convenience of holding it with both
ba nds. This plough acts exactly like
the other, but it is stronger and better
adapted for heavier land. Neither of
them goes much deeper than four or
£ve inches, leaving shallow parallel
ridges, in which the seed falls, and is
buried by light wooden harrows,
which are drawn over the land aller
sowing. This is an imperfect till-
age, the bottoms of the furrows being
Ottly partially stirred. The broad, flat
.ahare> and the single mould-board,

which turns the 6arth completely
over, after lifting it up, is a far more
effectual instrument, and has been
adopted wherever agriculture has
made any improvement. This plough
more nearly imitates the digging with
a spade, and the more perfect the imi-
tations, the better is the work.

*'The mould-board of a modern
plough is either fixed on one side, or
made to be shifted from one side
to the other, or there are two mould-
boards, as in Barnaby and Mooer^s
double mould-board plough, >E^ 3. In
the first case, one half the furrow sli-
ces lie on one side, and half on the oth-
er, and there is of necessity a double
furrow where they join. When it is
desirable that the surface should be
quite flat, and the furrow-cdices all in
one direction, the mould-board must
be shifted at every turn, and a plough
which admits of this is called a turn-
wrest plough, or there must be two
boards.

•' The form of the turn-furrow is of
material importance, for on this de-
pends not only the perfection of the
work, but also the lightness of the
draught. When we ioUow a plough
working in a mellow soil which slight-
ly adheres to the plough, we often
perceive that, instead of being turned
aside, the earth is carried forward,
and only falls off when the accumu-
lation of it becomes besTy enough
to overcome the adhesion. It does
not slide off from the mould-board it-
self, but separates from the earth
which adheres to the latter; thus
showing that the shape is defective,
and giving good hints for its improve-
ment. But as the same plough will
sometimes turn over the same earth

PLOUGH AND prxJUOHlNG.

beU«T when it ia eilber drier or moiit-
er, it is leiy difficult tn determine,
by Mperimenl only, what may, on
the whale, bo ihe best siiape. A lit-
tle reflection, and the application of
acientilie principles maj grcally as-
siai us here. It ia not aufficient,
however, to find the curve which
wiU make (he plough go through the

gToond with Ibe leut Pmoe. The

plough must also perform <ta vraric
perfectly, and if anything i a to be
sacrificed, it ia belter lu employ mora
power than l(S plough the gniund
badly. Alter having ascertained ths
mechanical principles which bear on
ibo working of the plough, we maat
obaerre ila action rarerully, foUoir
plough day after day, in diHtrent
a and different weather, and thoa
may be led to observe all the cir-
whieh attend ita open-
, and correct any Diietahes which
rroneoua theory might have led Uk
Many attempts have been made
to ascertain the exact carve which
the turn-rurrow should have to per-
form the work well, and at the saDa
time to produce the least resiatance^
The difficulty of the problem lies in
delerminiDg the data, or principlea
on which the invesligalion ia found-
ed ; and these are so ranons that it
[a not surprising that no reij luitia-
factoi? eonchiaion has yel been ol>.
tained. We wiJ make an aitentpt at
a aolulion from a simple ezaminaticMi
of Ihe motion to be produced in ibe
portion of earth to be turned, whtdi
we call the furrow-alice. We shall
euppose thia separated fram the ad-
jaeent soil by the vertical cut of the
coulter, and, at the same ^ime, froa
the subsoil by the horizontal cut a[
the share •■ a section of the slice, bj
a plane at right angles to the line oT
the ploughing, wilt be a parallelo-
gram A B D C IFig. *), the depth,

Kt. 4.

I 1_

C D » 1-

A C, being the thichnesa of the sliM,
and A B its width. Confining our at-
tention lo this aeclion of the slice,
the object is to move it from ita po-
ailion, A B D C, as cut off by tbe
coulter and share, lo thai of i'dVa",
where it is inchued at an angle of
4S° to the borixontal tine, the aurlace,
A B <y bOi twiog laid oa Ihe slice

PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING.

jmnoutAy turned orer, so as to bury
the grass or weeds which might be
rooted there, exposing the roots to
ibe sun and air. The more uniform-
fy this motion is produced, and the
more regularly the successive sec-
tions follow each other, the less pow-
er will be required to turn over the
whole slice. The motion of C D
round the point D must therefore be
uniform. If the turn-furrow is hori-
awntal at the point where it joins the
share, and of the same width as the
furrow-slice, it will slide under the
slice ; and if the vertical sections of
its upper surface, at equal distances
from the share, are inclined at an-
gles regularly increasing with this
. distance till it arrives at the perpen-
'dicular, the turn-furrow will, as it
advances, turn the slice from a hori-
zontal to a perpendicular position ;
the section of it will then beX>cab.
The inclination of the section of the
turn-furrow must now be to the oth-
er side, forming an obtuse angle with
the section of the sole, until it has
pushed the slice over at the required
inclination of 45^, which theoiy and
experience have shown to be the
best, adapted to expose the greatest
surface to the action of the atmo-
sphere, and likewise to form the most
regular fanDws for the reception of
the seed, which the harrow can then
saost resulily bury.

" The surface of this torn-furrow
is curved in the form of the spiral

thread of a screw, such as would be
generated by a line moved uniformly
forward in a direction at right angles
to its length, while it revolved uni-
formly round one of its extremities.
This surface is easily constructed
mechanically thus : take a rectangu-
lar parallelogram, A B O D (i^. 6),

Fig. 5.
A B

of the width of nine inches, or as
wide as the intended fhrrow, and of
a length equal to four times the width.
Bisect B C in £, and D C in F ; at
F raise a perpendicular F G to the
plane of the rectangle, and make it
equal to C £. Join E G and produce
it to K, making F K equal to F E.
Join K D. Draw from every point
in C D lines at right angles to C D,
meeting the line E K in different
points : these lines will form the re-
quired surface. The line K D will
be found inclined 46° to the horizon,
at the angle K D H, which Is the in-
clination at which the furrow-slice is
most advantageously laid. To those
who are not familiar with solid geom-
etry, these lines may be easily ex-
hibited, by means of a wire inserted
at E, and bent at a right angle at K,
B

<\\\\\ll//////.

inserting 4he bent portion into the
board A B C D {Fig. 6) at D, so that
it shall be inclined 46° at D, lying in
the direction of E K, in Figs. 6 and
6. Care must be taken that G F be
equal to C E, and perpendicular to
the board.

*' It is evident that, as the plough
moves on, a particle at E will slide
alontj the line E K, become at G per-
pendicular to the bottom of the turn-

DsdS

furrow, which should be parallel to
the sole, and at K be at an angle ot
46° with that line. If the slice were
a solid substance, this line, £ K,
would be all that is required to turn
it in its proper position ; but as the
soil is generally loose, and would
crumble to pieces, a support must be
given to it by a surface at least as
wide as the slice. This surface is
generated by drawing lines from dif-

693

fumoa AND piiOuoHiNa.

Areat parts of D Cat right angles to
this line, and meeting the line K £
{Fig. 7). These lines will be at dif-

HoritonUU Plan of the Plough.

at 46<> beyond it at D. The
thus generated will be found to turn
over soils of a moderate tenacity
▼ery perfectly. If it is very liglit»
the surface may be formed by ares
of circles with a considerable dianne-'
ter, tlie concave part upward ; if it is
very tenacious, the convex pari oi
the arches may be upward. Thus the
surface may be varied without alter*
ing the fixed line E K. The annexed
figures (8, 9, and 10) will explain this.
AB,tbeSoi». c,tii6Fui. DC,thebott«B The distance of the perpendicular F G
of the Ttra-fmsow. from the fin of the share noay also be

ferent angles to the horizon, nearly varied, either lengthening or short-
horizontal at C, where the fin of the ening the turn-furrow as experience
point begins, perpendicular at F, and { may show to be most advantageous.

I^eclions cf the three different Turn' furrows, at different digtancee from the HecL
Fig. 8. Fig. 9. Pig. 10,

▲ D ▲

*'A plough has lately been con-
structed on this principle ; it prom-
ises to realize the expectations form-
ed of it. In soils of a loose, mellow
nature it answers completely, and
does the work more perfectly than
any other plough. It unites the par-
allelism of the sole and bottom of the
turn-furrow of the Flemish plough
with ihe improved shape of tlie turn-
furrow. By adopting the variations
in the shape of the turn-furrow which
we have suggested, this plough may
be adapted to any soil, and be used
with or without wheels.

" Ploughs were formerly made of
wood, having those parts covered
with iron where the greatest friction
takes place, the share and coulter
only being of iron ; but in conse-
quence of the greatefr facility of cast-
ing iron in modern times, most of the
parts are now made of this metal.
The beam and stilts are still usually
of wood, but even these are now
sometimes made of wrought iron and
cast iron. The advantages of iron
are its durability and the smaller fric-
tion it occasions when once polished
by use. The inconveniences are the
additional weight of the instrument,

694

D AD

and consequent greater friction of
the sole. Recent experiments have
proved this to be greater than was
generally suspected. A great iuor
provement has been introduced by
making the points of the shares w
cast iron, which, by a mode of cast-
ing the lower surface on a plate of
metal, makes one surfaoermuch hard-
er than the other -, and as the softer
surface wears more rapidly, a sharp
edge is always preserved.

** The stilts of the plough are most-
ly of wood. Where the soil is light
and crumbling, without stones, a sin-
gle handle or stilt is sufficient ; hui%
where some force is occasionally re-
quired to prevent stones or other ob-
stacles from turning the plough oot
of its course, two stilts are most con-
venient, placed at a more obtuse an-
gle with the sole of tlie plough.

**The force required to draw a
plough depends, not only on the na-
ture of the soil, but also on the shape
of the plough, and especially on the
position of its different parts with re-
spect to each other, so that they do
not counteract each other.

*' If a plough were drawn in the di-
rection of this sole, the obli^oity ot

TWCm ASflK nOUOHING.

1^ tnm-Atnranr woald oMne it to

tarn towards oue side, and it would
require a considerikble force to keep
it straight. In order to prevent this,
t&e line of draught is placed at an
ftpgle, which varies with that of the
tttTB-furrow and the force required
^> push the furrow-slice over. To
adjust this angle, so as to cause the
plough to keep in the intended line,
there is a contrivance at the end of
the beam to change the position of
the ring by which the plough is drawn
to the right or left of the line of the
beam, and another by which it may
be raised or lowered. In most ploughs
the beam, having been originally set
at a small angle witli the sole towards
the right, has an arch of wood or
'iron at the end, as in the annexed
Fi^. An iron, shaped as in Fig. 12,

FVr 11.

is made to embrace the beam, to
which it is attached by a pin (a), round

which it turns as a centre. Another
pin (b) passes through one of the
boles in the circular end, and keeps
the iron in any required position to
the right or left of the line of the
beam. The end of this iron, which
is called a bridle or clevis, has sev-
eral projecting hooks in the oblong
carve which terminates it, on which
an iron ring is hung at ditferent
lieights. By these contrivances the
plough may be drawn from a point on
either side of the beam, and higher
or lower, as m^y be required. When

the ploogh is found to taU ioo nmck
land, as plonghmen say, that is, tends
to increase the width of the slice cut
off by the coulter, the bridle is shiAed
to the left by moving the pin (6) into
another hole \ when it goes out of the
land, as it is called, that is, diminishes
the width of the furrow-slice, the pin
is moved a bole or two to the right,
until the plough has no tendency, to
deriate to either side. If it inclines
to rise out of the ground, the ring is
shifted in the iron bridle, and placed
in a hook or notch higher op ; if, on
the contrary, it dips too deep, the
ring is hooked lower. Thus a plough
may be made to go straight and at a
regular depth, without any mure force
being applied to the stilts than is re-
quired to counteract inequalities in
the land, or accidental obstacles, such
as stones or roots, which might throw
the plough out of the ground. When
the soil is of unequal texture, it is
useful to have a small wheel con-
nected with the fore part of the beam,
so as to prevent its dipping down-
ward, which would require a great
pressure on the stilts to keep the
point of the share up, and thus in-
crease the friction of the sole on the
ground, and, consequently, the labour
of the horses. In the Rutland plough,
two wheels are connected with the
beam, one of which runs in the fur-
row to the right, and the other on the
nnploughed soil to the left. When
the plough has been well adjusted,
and the larger wheel runs in the angle
of the furrow, it acts as a gauge to
regulate the width of the slice, as
well as its depth ; in very uniform
soils without stones, the plough, when
set in the proper direction, will make
a very straight and even furrow, par-
allel to the one in which the wheel
runs, without any person holding the
stilts ; so that all that is required is
to turn the plough at the end of each
furrow, and set it into the proper line
to form the next. As this admits of
a very correct adjustment, no unne-
cessary force is required to draw the
plough, and hence this plough appears
to be the easiest for the horses ; and
if the wheels are not veiy heavy, and

.596

vwaoa AED PLOtfOBme;

withoU wbada. 'Aeiie
BOtne r%rj irregnlar »nd
■tony aoilB, where a oomnton
swing- plough can aoarcelT
ha kept Bteiidr wilhost tlw
help of wheels, and wb»n U
would not be oo conTenicMt
to have the beam fixed ok
wheels. In Ihje ca*e, b
separata carnage ie neoea-
sarj, that the plough mas
may have a fulcrum on which
Be his fiaagb, or
ither side to aToid
any conaider^e atone or
other obstacle. As a gen-
eral rule, it may be safely
asserted that a sliglit but
strung swing-plough, in tbe
bands of a clever ploughman
— with one wheel in partio-
ular saQsi but. in general,
without any wheel— will ef-
fect its purpose with tha
greatest precision, and tbs
least exertion of the horaes
»-ingit. Theory sudprac-
a^reeinthis; and if any
eipenmenls appear to throw
a doubi upon it, we staaU
probably find some circum-
Btances which have influeo-
oed the result, when wheel-
ploughs have appeared to re-
quire the least power of
dranght. But wheels have
one advantage — they wiUen-
ahle an inferior ploughaian
to make belter work than he
could possibly do without
theni ; and that, too, with
less labour to the horses, be-
cause, from his want of skill,
swing-ploiif^ would b

teract them ; and each exer-
tion of the ploughman add*
to the iabnnr of the horses,"
The numbers in Ihe fel-
low ing table show Ihe can-
panitive draught of the same
plODghs in diflerent soils:
they are from Mr. Posey'i
ezperiment*:

FLOUGH AND PLOUGHINa

Tnall. Saadf 1o«5
** a. CUsyloua .
** 3. Loamy sand
** 4. Stronrloam

5. Clay foam .

t, Hoaarj aoil .

14
«

'• Without entering into iny com-
parison of plooghs differently con-
structed, it is evident that the shape
«f the plough must rary with the na-
ture of the soil which it is to turn up.

A light soil most be shoivelted up;

a mellow one may be turned over
with any kind of mould-board ; a rery
stiff, tenacious soil, which adheres to
any surface pressed against it, will
be more easily turned over by a few
points of contact which do not allow
of adhesion." Where the soil is a
stiff, moist clay, the skeleton plough
of fiolayson {Fig. 14) is drawn with

half the force necessary for a com-
mon implement. This plough is used
to some extent in the upper prai-
rie lands, the beam being modified.
''Hence the point and turn-furrow
have been made of all imaginable
shapes, and while one man contends
for a very concave form, another will
admit of nothing which is not very
convex. That plough will, no doubt,
have the least draught which is best
suited to the soil which it has to
iQove. The lighter the plough is,
consistently with sufficient strength,
the less draught it requires, all other
circumstances remaining the same.
Lightness and strength combined are,
consequently, great advantages, and
if a very light plough does its work
as well as a heavier, there can be no
doubt that it is preferable. Durabi^
ity is nothing compared with the sa-
ving of one horse in three; it is
cheaper to have a new plough every
year than to keep an additional horse
all the year. If a wooden plough is
fouod to be more easily moved than
an iron one, there can be no doubt
which should be preferred.

'*Tbe Flemish plough is made of
wood, and is very light; the share
and coulter only are of iron, besides
a thin sheet of iron over the mould-
board, which is shaped as if it bad
been rolled obliquely over a cylinder,
a shape well adapted to sandy soils.
In ploughing land which is more or
less mellow and crumbling, the great
object is to bring to the surface that
portion which has lain buried, and
has not served to nourish the pre-
ceding crop, and to bury that which
has produced vegetation, and in which
the roots of various weeds have estab-
lished themselves. When manure
is to be covered with a certain depth
of earth, a more complete subversion
is required, in order that no part of
it may remain uncovered. When the
land is in a compact state, from the
roots which pervade it, and it is only
ploughed once to prepare it for re-
ceiving the seed, much greater nicety
is required to lay the slices at a cer-
tain angle, so as to leave regular
lines or depressions in which the
seeds may fall and be regularly cov-
ered by the harrows which follow.

507

PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING.

In this case, tlie angle of 45® is found
to be the moat convenient at which
the farrow- slices may be laid against
one another. The field will then
have the appearance of being laid in
small ridges, as in the annexed figure,

Fig. IS.

all towards the same side if ploughed
with a double mould-board plough, or
towards a middle line if a plough with
a fixed turn-furrow has been used.
To produce this regularity, the end
of the turn-furrow is made to press
on the slice turned over; and some
ploughmen fix a piece of wood or iron
to the end of the turn-furrow, which
makes a groove in the furrow-slice
at the place where the next one wiU
be laid upon it. This prevents use-
less openings between the slices. It
adds, no doubt, to the draught, but it
makes better and neater work.

" When the seed Is to be dibbled
on the sward, which is reversed by a
single ploughing, it is necessary that
the sod should be completely turned
over and laid flat. To do this, and
at the same time to bury all the grass,
requires the furrows to be very equal
and parallel ; so that when a roller
has gone over the land, it is perfectly
flat, without any interstices between
llic slices which are turned over. It
requires a good ploughman to do this
perfectly.

*' When clover ley or old grass is
ploughed up, it is diflScult to bury all
the grass which grows on the edge of
the slice ; and if it remains exposed,
it will grow and increase, to the detri-
ment of the corn. To prevent this, a
wing is sometimes added to the side
of the coulter, a few inches from the
point. It cuts a small horizontal slice
off the surface before the sod is turn-
ed over, and this falls into the bot-
tom of the furrow, and is buried there.
The coulter with such a wing is called
a skim-coulter, because it, as it were,
skims the surface {Figs. 16 and 17).
This instrument may require an ad-

698

ditional horse to be put to the plough
in tenacious soils, but this cannot be
avoided. There is no doubt that no
more horses should be put to a plough
than can do the work ; but whatever
be the number required, tlie worit
must be done well. There is no sar-
ing in doing the work imperfectly.
The discussion about the number of
horses which should draw a plougli
might easily be settled, if tbe nature
of the soil were sufficiently taken
into consideration. The shape of the
plough may make some difference,
but the tenacity of the soil makes A
much greater. It is, however, not t
little surprising that there should be
so little variety in the width of the
furrows. It would appear as if i here
were a law prohibiting furrows less
than eiglit inches wide, or more than
ten : a furrow-slice five inches wide
and ten deep requires no more pow-
er than one ten inches wide and five
deep. It is true that a plough will
not do more than half an acre at most
m a day with narrow furrows ; bat,
if two horses will do this, and two
ploughs instead of one be used, with
one man and two horses each, an
acre will be ploughed in a day wiili
four horses and two men, which is
the number usually employed when
the furrows are deep and nine or ten
inches wide; but the land wi& be
much better stinred, and laid move
even. The Romans ploughed wtlh
deep, narrow furrows* aind varied the
width purposely, the better to pulver-
ize the soil. The plough need not be
narrower for this work ; for if the
first furrow be made wide enoiq^
the plough can deepen it by a neoood

PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING.

turn in it, and a trench is formed in
which the next slice falls, and is poah-
cd aside by the tail of the turn-fur-
rows, so as to leave another trench
open ten inches wide.

" Suppose A B C D {Fig. 18) the
section of the first wide (iirrow, and a
•lice, A £ F B, is cut off the solid side

Fig. 18.

B il a 1> .

—■•——— —1

F B fr C

ot the land hadf the width of the
trench ; the mould-board pushes this
earth, after it has been turned over,
into the space, D C a ft, marked with
the dotted line, and in doing so beats
and crumbles it, learing a fresh
trench, a 6 F E, equal to the first, and
so the whole field may be ploughed
without difficulty. In nine cases out
often, where the soil is properly cul-
tivated, and ploughed in a proper
state, tbis mode of ploughing would
be found a great improvement, and
equal to a trench ploughing, or sub-
Boil ploughing. Where the farms are
small, and few horses are kept, deep
ploughing is not practicable with the
usual width of furrow ; but, with a
narrow furrow, the land may be
moved to a very great depth with a
couple of horses. The plough must
lie made sharp and narrow, and the
lurn-furrow not much curved, so as
rather to pCTsh the earth aside than to
Uftit.

*' Very little attention was former-
ly paid to the straightoesa of the fnr<
rows. It was natural to follow the
shape of the boundary of the field,
which was seldom straight ; and this
practice increased gradually till no
Btraig'jt furrow was to be seen ; but
^o curves can be laid so perfectly

parallel as two straight lines. £very
deviation from parallelism causes a
defect in the contact of the slices,
and a loss of force by the obliquity of
the draught. A superficial observer
would not perceive this, but minute
examination proves it. Hence equal
and straight furrows are a sign of
good ploughing.

«* When the land lies on a dry sub-
soil, and no more moisture remains
in it, after continued rains, than is
useful to promote vegetation, it may
be ploughed quite flat. Tbis may be
done by a plough with a double mould-
board, or by ploughing in a continued
spiral from the centre to the circum-
ference, or the reverse. In this case
straight furrows cannot be made.
The best way is to draw a furrow
the whole length of the field in the
middle, and plough towards this from
both sides. If the field is wide, it is
most convenient to plough it into sev-
eral broad stitches, each a certain
number of perches in breadth. A #
perch (16^ feet) is a very common
width for a stitch, or land, and con-
venient to guide the sower or the
drilling machine.

** But on moist, impervious subsoils
it is necessary to lay the land in a
rounded form, in order to let the
superfluous water run oflT into fur-
rows, from which it is conducted by
proper channels into the ditches. In
this case, half a perch is a common
width for each stitch, or land. It re-
quires some practice to lay up a land
in a rounded form from a flat sur-
face. After cross-ploughing and har-
rowing, the first furrow is drawn
wide and shallow, and the earth is
thrown upon the surface to the right :
when the plough returns, it takes an-
other furrow about nine or ten inch-
es from the first, laying the earth or
furrow-slice somewhat obliquely over
the first. At the next turn aAOt'ter
slice is laid, meeting the last at ^

Fig. W.

600

FiiOUQii Aim ^j/Hfomm-

90.

angle, the first slice being quite cov-
ered by the last two. This now
forms the crown of the ridge, and
the succeeding slices are laid oblique-
ly, leaning to the right and left, till
the required width is obtained. An-
other land is now begun at the dis-
tance of a quarter of a perch from
the last furrow, and laid exactly in
the same manner. When the two
lands meet, the intenrenins furrow,
which had been purposely left shal-
lower, is deepened, and there is a
furrow between every two lands, the
bottom of which is considerably be-
low the bottom of the other furrows.
When this field is ploughed again af-
ter harvest, the work is reversed ;
the furrow between the lauds is filled
with the first slice, and another is
placed over this, which now becomes
the crown of the land to be formed :
this is called ploughing crown and
furrow. When the lands are plough-
ed towards the crown, it is called
gathering. By gathering several
times in succession, the soil is much
raised at the crown, at the expense
of the sides. This was the old prac-
tice, when lands were laid very wide
and very high ; in common fields the
land or stitch was often the whole
width of the possession, from which
came the name of land."

Every practical man will be pre-
pared to understand that the longer
his furrows are, the less loss is made
in turning ; but the amount of this
loss is much heavier than will be sup-
posed : according to Stephens, it is,

Lemth
oT ndf*.

YarOt.
78
140
SOO
SI3
«74 _

Bmddi of

l\»rrow
slice.

Tim* lo«t
In tuning.

Time de-
votpd t«'
ploufh-
inR.

HouTv
of work.

tnckti.

A. M.

5 H
244
8 1

1 56i
1 K

A.m.
4 4
7 10

7 5»

8 3i
99i

** One of the roost useful opera-
tions in ploughing land is to cross the
600

former fiirrowa, by which means ^m
whole soil ia much more completely
stirred ; and if any part has been left
solid without being moved by the
ploughshare, which is called a balk,
it is now necessarily moved. The
leaving of balks is a great fault,
and is owing to the a^e of the
plough being narrower than the far-
row-sliee, and the wing of the point
too short, or to the ploughman not
holding hia plough upright. The
share should cut the ground to the
whole width of the furrow, that no
roots of t histles, docks, or other large
weeds may escape and grow upagaia.
Many ploughmen hold the plough in
an oblique position ; the bottom of the
furrow is consequently not level, and
the soil is not stirred equity. Tliia
is a great fault, especially in wee
ground ; for the furrows thus become
channels, in which the water remaiaa,
not being able to run over the m-
eqoalities of the bottom. It is of no
use to lay the surface convex if the
solid earth below lies in hollows or
gutters. The water naturally sinks
down into the newly-ploughed land,
till it meets the solid bottom which
the plough has gone over ; if it can
run over this into the deeper furrows
between the stitches, it evaporates or
runs off, and the land is left dry, and
so consolidated as to let the water
run along the surface without sink-
ing to any depth ; but if the bottom
is uneven, it remains in the hollows,
and stagnates there, to the great in-
jury of the growing crops.

"There are various modes of
ploughing land when it is intended to
pulverize and expose it to the sun ia
summer, or the frost in winter, to pu-
rify and fertilize it. To expose as
great a surface as possible, the whole
field is laid in high and narrow ridges,
bringing to the surface all the fertile
portion of the soil, and often, also, a
portion of the subsoil, so as to deep-

PLOUGH AHD nOUGMOM.

0n tlie prodooliTe portion, md ghre
more room for the roots to spread in.
The simplest method of increasing
the surface exposed, when the land
is first broken up from pasture, or af-
ter having been some years in grass,
and is in a fool state, is called ribbmg.
The plough turns up a slice, which it
lays over flat on the adjoining snr-
fhce. It does not cover this with the
next slice, as if it were beginning the
erown of a stitch, but it takes anoth-
er slice at some distance, and then
one parallel to the first, likewise laid
flat on the solid part. When the
whole field has been so ploughed, the
aar&ce consists altogether of ridges
and furrows, but only half the sur-
face has been ploughed. No grass
appears ; if it has been well done, the
unplooghed strips being covered by
the slices raised by the sides of them,
the two surfaces with grass on them
oover each other. It is left in this
state till the grass is rotten, and when
the sod is broken to pieces by heavy
drag barrows, the land can be cross-
ploughed and cleaned or fallowed in
dry weather.

' " There is another mode oi ridging,
when the land has had ooe or two
pkHighings, in order to expose it to
the frost in winter, and to mellow it.
The operation is somewhat similar
to ribbing, but alter the first slice is
turned over, another is added, as
deep as the plough can be made to go
so as not to bring up the subsoil ; by
this means the whole surface is laid
in high ridges and deep furrows ; and

Fig. 91.

when this ploughing is reversed in
spring, the soil which has been ex-
posed to the frost and wind is mixed
with the rest, and tends greatly to
mellow it. This is an excellent prep-
aration for potatoes and roots, if the
land has been well cleaned. The
manure, being distributed in the deep
furrows, is covered by the plough
right and left, or at one operation by
a plough with a torn-furrow on each
side, which divides the ridge and lays
half of it in each ooatignous fiirrow. |

Ebb

The plough is a double mooM-boaid
ploogfa, which is extremely useiol in
many operations of husbandry.

'' In order to save hands and ex-
pedite the tillage of the land, ploughs
have been contrived which make two
or more furrows at once. When they
are well constructed, they are very
useful on light soils. If it is not re-
quired to go deep, and two horses
can draw a double plough, there is a
decided saving of power ; but if it re>
quires four horses, nothing is gained.
The double ploughs are therefore
not much in use. But there are in-
struments which cultivate the earth,
stirring and pulverizing it much more
speedily than the plough. Some of
these will stir the ground to the depth
of seven or eight inches, going over
a width of five or six feet at onoe.
Such an instrument is preferable to
the plough, after the ground has al-
ready had a certain degree of stirring,
and is become mellow and crumbling ;
but to break up pasture or clover ley
there is nothing so efficacious as the
plough, which cuts regular slices, and
lays them over so that all the grass
shall rot, and the roots, being exposed
to the air, shall decay, and thus fur-
nish food for other crops.

** The instruments which have
been invented to save the time and
labour required by repeated plough-
ings are very numerous. Some of
the most useful have been noticed
before (see Arabic Land.) New ones
are daily invented, and some are sup-
ported by wheels, which reader them
both lighter and more convenient.
They are easily raised out of ihe
ground, when not intended to work,
and the depth to which they are let
down is more easily regulated.

" Deep ploughing is generally a»«.
knowledged to accord with the best
husbandry, where the subsoil \n dry
naturally, or has been vtificiallj
drained ; but some inconvenience
may arise from bringing a barren
subsoil to the swrfaoe, iji trench-
ploughing, by two ploughs following
each other in the same furrow. It
has therefore been suggested to take
oflT the tanihlttrrow from the plough

flttl

pi<otJGH AifD Tvojxaaa.

whJefa Mows the UnC, so m to stir
the subsoil withQOt biingini^ H to the
surface. This idea has been im-
prored upon by constnictinf a sub-
soil plough of great strength, which
will CO very deep into the ground, and
stir Uie subsoil a ft>ot or more below
the bottom of the usual Airrow. Mr.
Smith, of Deanstone, has invented

one made entfreiy of ifM iPig. ftl^
This plough requires four horses io
the most favouraUe soils, and six in
tenacious clays, to keep up with the
commoR plough, whi<^ always shoohi
precede k. Many improvements have
been made on Mr. Smith's orii^nal
implement ; that represented in fig*
iir« S3 is one of the best ; the three

points cnt down the earth gradually,
and pulverise it thoroughly. Some-
times, however, the subsoil plough
may be used alone, where the surface
is already mellow and crumbling.

" Many different ploughs have been
invented for the purpose of saving la-
bour in draining land. See Draming
IHeugk. As they all out out a slice
ftem the bottom of a furrow, and raise
it up to the snrfaee of the ground,
they are of little use in crumbling
soils, and in the most tenacious re-
quire the assistance of much manual
labour to complete the work. They
act on the principle of the carpenter's
tool, by which a groove is formed in
the edge of planks or deals, when
they are intended to be joined close-
ly, as in s floor. This instrument is
also called a plough ; but the uniform
tenaolty of the wood allows a narrow
chisel to out an even, regular groove.
In the draining frteugh the two sides
of the drain are to be cnt obliquely
downward and the bottom scooped
est evenly. The plough lequins to

be often adjusted, and the deep for*
rows to be kept cleared from loons
earth by means of spades and scoops.
In this way drains may be made fiom
fifteen to eighteen inches deep, in
whioh loose stones or tiles may be
laid to form a channel for the water.
The expense is much less than whee
the drains are made with the spade.
" When grass land lies low and wet
on a very tenacious subsoil* a plough
is sometimes used which consists of
a cylinder of iron pointed atone end,
and connected with a strong beam by
a thick plate of iron, which is ^aip
oo the side nearest the point of the
cylinder, and acts as a coulter. This
instrument is forcibly drawn horieon*
tally through the stiff subsoil at a
depth of twelve to eighteen inches,
so as to leave a round channel bke
a pipe where the cylinder has pass-
ed. This has been called a oaole
plough, the passage made by it under
ground resembling the workings of a
mole. U takes six horses lo draw
this plough when the eylinder te tiS-

KJOfOQH AND fLOUGHmO.

^^^\\\\ .

LsmbfTt'* Mole Plough.

teen inches under the surface, but is
the mast easy and expeditious means
of temporarily draining land. It can
only be done when the soil is moist
and gives way without cracking, but
at that time the feet of the horses
gteatly damage the surface. In con-
sequence of this, a windlass with a
long chain has been invented. The
drum, which is vertical, and round
which the chain is coiled, is turned
by a horse, who walks round and
round, while the whole apparatus is
kept in its place by means of an an-
chor fixed in the ground. It draws
the mole plough the length of the
chain, and is then moved forward on
small wheels while the chain uncoils.
As soon as the chain is all off the
dram, the anchor is refixed, and the
operation continues. This mode of
draining land has now been almost
entirely superseded by a more regu-
lar and permanent system of drain-
ing with stones or titee. The chan-
nels made by the mole plough are
▼eiy apt to fill up in dry weather ;
aod the mole takes advantage of a

ready-made passage to work in it»
stopping it purposely to retain water
and to form its nest. When this ia
the case, the water rises to the sur-
face and does much harm. Nothing
but a fresh application of the mole
plough parallel to the old channels
can remedy this evil.

** Various ploughs have been con-
structed with the intention of dimin-
ishing the draught, or improving the
form of the turn-furrow ; but most of
them without much regard to scien-
tific principles, merely from a vague
notion founded on some real or sup-
posed defect in the ploughs in com-
mon use, or in order to adapt them
to particular soils and situations.''

Of late, some have favoured the
idea that the introduction of a wheel
in the heel of the plough would di-
minish the draught by converting a
sliding into a rolling friction. The
figure, from Mr. Wlikie's implement,
will explain the mechanism {Fig. 95).
In a public trial it was found to di-
minish the draught thirty per cent.

BorreU, of Geneva, New- York, and

FXir.JS.

otiier -plongh-wrights in the United
Stales, have patented friction-^wheel
idoiigha ; and in the case of Burreirs
ahell- wheel plough, tiie draught by
the dynamometer, at the New- York
AghcttUnral Sodety's Fair, 1848, was

S98 ponnds, his own Geneva plough
drawing 100 pounda more.

Draught. — ^It is the custom at the
fairs of several agricultural associa-
tions, to have a trial of ploughs with
the dynamometer, whereby their com-

PJLauOH AMD PLOUQHINe.

paratH^ dransht 16 in Mine

iscertained. We are not, however,
to regard these as absolute quanti-
ties ; they are true only for the time.
The adhesiveness of the soil, its state
of moistore, the depth of the furrow,
its width, and the pace of the horses,
are all sources of disturbance. Thus
we find, by comparing the different
results with the same implement,
that the Bergen plough, at Sing Sing,
drew 478 pounds, and the next year,
at Patterson, 360 pounds. The same
difference is seen in other cases : how
little these experiments can be taken
as a guide, appears from the fact that
ploughs, which at one season were
lowest on the list, take the prize the
next year. From these experiments
we gather, however, two important
ihcts, viz., that a two-horse plough

oe^t net Id w«ig}i mave fkan 170

pounds, nor require, in a medium
soil, more than 460 pounds draught,
these numbers being the average re-
sults of the better kind of implements.
The length and sharpness of a plou^
have much to do with its draught ; but
it is properly urged by practi^ men,
that such ploughs become <3Sfficuh to
manage in rough lands or new fields,
the leverage of the body being too
great. It is in this respect that Amer-
ican ploughs difier so strikingly fronn
Scotch and English implements : tiiey
have a mellow, clean soil to tin, vre
a rough, stumpy soil. The accom-
panying figure gives a good general
outUne of our l^t class of ploughs.
It is not, however, a good represen-
tation of Ruggles, Nourse, and Ma^
son's implements.

f^.M.

It would be very invidious to state
that any particular machine was the
best ; nor is it true, for, as is justly
remarked by Mr. Rham, the figure of
the plough must differ with the soil,
and that is a bad one in any soil
which either drags too heavily on the
horses, or does not fully tax their pow-
er. In a list I procured from Wash-
ington of ploughs, I find 164 patented
since 1831. Of these, there are mark-
ed by Mr. Ellsworth as being good,
in his knowledge and experience,
Deaths, Moore's, Prooty and Mear's,
Woodcock's, John Mear's ; and of my
knowledge I can recommend Barna-
by and Mooer's, Delano's, Bergen's,
Ruggles and Go's, centre draught,
the Wisconsin, Oodding's American,
Howard's, Eastman's, of Baltimore,
the Caledonia, Livingston Oornity,
the iron beam, Burrell's Geneva and
shell-wheel ploughs, the Montgome-
ry County plough, and (he Scotch

vn'ought-iron plough. The editor of
Johnson's Encydopcedia also men-
tions Beech's, Miles's, Peacock's, and
Wiley's ploughs, besides which there
are numerous exoellent implements
in the West and elsewhere.

Wiard, of Avon, Thorp, and other
instrument makers, have placed three
or four small ploughs on a frame, so
as to run as many fhrrows ; in lig^ht
sand soils, and for an after ploughing,
these may answer ; but if we have
to hitch on additional horses, there
is little gain. The shares of Lang-
don's cultivators are in some meas-
ure of the figure of mould-boaids.

The table on the following page
will be found usefiil in showing the &-
tance travelled by a horse in plough-
ing or scarifying an acre of land ; as
well as the quantity of land woijc-
ed in a day, at the rate of sixtden
and eighteen miles per day of nine
hours.

•04

PLU

BiMdtlior
FiU«ow<«lio»
or Scariier*

1ft i

18
19
80
SI

80
80
81

98
88
84
8S
88
37
88
89
40
41
48
48
44
46

'Sp«<re trsTel
lodtaptooicli
ipg an ■gtw.

XxtMt pkraghad par d«gr,
•t the nte of

18 Wim. I 16 Mile*.

Bfcadth of
Purrow-aKoi
or Scarifier.

4ft

47
48
49
fiO
ftl
fi2
68
ft«
S6
88
57
fi8
M
GO
61
88
63
84
85
08
87
88
89
70

78
T3
74
76
78
77
78
79
80
8L
89
83
84

SpteTttarSfT

Minpbogfa'
ing ao arr«.

Mika,

Extant donated par dajr,
at the rate of

18 Hilat. I 16
Acna.

IS 9 10
13^

WW
1332
13^5
18 4^
14

14 3^

PLOUGHING. See Plough.

PLUG. <* In building, a pieee of
wood driven horizontally into a wall,
its end being then sawn away flush
with the wall, to afford a bold for the
nailing up of dressings/*

PLUM. PrtMiw domeatiea. The
jmprored fruit : the following excel-
lent observations are chiefly from
Mr. Thomas :

Varielies. — '* White Primordian,
Early Yellow, or Jattne HativCf is one
of the very earliest of plums, ripen-
ing in the middle of July, and is chief-
ly valuable on this account. It is a
small yellow fruit, a good bearer, with
a sweet taste, though not first-rate.

** WUmot*9 Early Or^aiw.— This is
a large, fine fruit, ripening early in
Angttst.

'* Greengage. — This is generally
admitted to be the finest of all plums ;
the fruit is of medium size, and
round ; the skin is yellowish green,
when fully ripe nearly yellow, mottled
With russety red near the stem;
flesh melting, and of exqniaite fla-

EbbS

vour. There are many varieties cul-
tivated in this state under the name
of greengage, which appear to have
originated from stones of the genuine
variety, but are greatly inferior in fla-
vour.

**Prince*» Imperial Gage was ob*
tained from the seed of the green-
gage ; the fruit is much larger than
that of the greengage, and the tree
is very productive. Manning says
that this is * the most productive
and profitable of all plums.'

" Orleans. — Fmit nearly round,
middle-sized or rather large, skin red-
dish purple, flesh yellow, firm, and
good, separating freely from the stone.
An excellent fruit, ripening about the
time of the greengage.

** Chfford's La Fayette was obtained
from the seed of the Orleans, and is
an excellent fruit, remarkable /br the
richness and sprightliness of its fla-
vour.

*• Huling'e Superb, — Fruit very
large, often two inches or more in
length, not inferior in richness, bat

60S

PLUM.

nwfe acid tban tbe ftwragigBy ti
very vigorous growth, and of extraor-
dinary excelieoce.

" WiwAtfi^/an.— Fruit oblong, very
large, orange yellow, wjth a fine blush
next the eun ; fleab yellow, firm,
sweet, and excellent. Though the
flavour of this is inferior to that of
some other varieties, it is highly es-
teemed as a first»rate plum. Ripens
about a week later than the Orleans.

^^ imperatriu. — A good plum, ri-
pening in October. One of the best
late plums.

*' Coe** Golden Drew.— Fruit of large
sise, skin golden yellow, spotted with
rich red next the sun, flesh yellow,
sweet, and delicious. Like the pre-
ceding, slightly necked next the stem,
a clingstone, and a great bearer. The
best late plum. The writer has
measured them more than 2i inches
long.

«• Tke Egg Plumy or Yellow Mag-
num Bonum, is a very large plum, of
a sweet, agreeable flavour ; but, as
the texture is rather coarse, is chiefly
used for cooking and preserving. The
same remark applies to the Red Mag-
num Bonumy which is harsh and acid.
These two are admired as table-fruit
where finer varieties are unknown.

" The plum is propagated by bud-
ding or graAing. The former can
only be successfully practised on the
most thrifty stocks.

" The principal enemy to the plum
is the Curculio {RkyTuluntus pruns).
This is a small insect with an elon-
gated thorax and head, which resem-
bles a proboscis in app^ance. The
whole insect is not more than a quar-
ter of an inch lung, of a dark brown
colour, the sheaths covering the
wings, slightly variegated with light-
er colours. It makes a small incis-
ion in the young fruit, and lays its
egg in the opening. Its presence
Sftay now be perceived by examina-
tion, as these crescent-shaped incis-
ions are very easily seen. The egg
soon hatches into a small white worm,
which penetrates deeper and feeds
upon the fruit, causing it to fall pre-
maturely to the ground, or if it ripens,
it is unsouod. The worm, when the I

606

< fintt faSe, nitee its ymj into tte

earth, where it remains through win*
ter, as as supposed, in the pupa state,
to be transformed the succeed iog
spring into a perfect insect, and thus
perpetuate its race. The easiest and
most eflfectaal way to destroy them
is to confine a sufficient number of
swine with the trees, to eat all the
injured fruit which falls. When thm
has been pursued perseveringly , it haa
proved completely soooessfuJ. To
render this operation easy and efll^u
ual, all trees which are liable to at-
tacks of the curculio should be plant-
ed separately, so that they may be
enclosed apart for the confinement
of the swine.

" Another remedy is to spread
white sheets under the tree and jar
it briskly. The insects immediately
drop upon the sheet, and remain mo-
tionless a few seconds, during which
time they may be destroyed. The
operation sliould be repeated two or
three times a day so long as any re-
main. This remedy rarely fails if thor-
oughly and unremittingly pursued.

" Trees near path doors, paved
yards, and other frequented places,
are frequently observed to be full of
fruit, while others are all destroyed.
Hence favourite trees of the plum,
nectarine, or apricot may be oiieo
planted to advantage near such fre-
quented places, and the fruit will es-
cape. The black excrescences oa
the branches of the plum may be pre-
vented by a constant and vigorous
excision of the affVicted parts, and
burping them as fast as they ap-
pear.

** The plum is by some cultivators
regarded as only fitted for heavy or
clay soils, and some striking instan-
ces are given in proof; but the wri-
ter has seen trees in abundant bear-
ing year after year, and yielding fruit
of the finest quality, on light or sandy
soils. A porous earth may poesihly
furnish a better retreat for the cur-
culio ; but to what extent this may be
true requires farther examination.'*

The plum is often brought into
bearing by root pruning, horizontal
training, and similar expedients. The

rat

Aw Mrd8» in vrbkik Um web of tte
foot is not perfect.

POIKIUTIC. Variegated. In ge-
ology, the new red 8an£^tone forma-
tion.

POINTS OF LIVE STOCK. "The
first jMMirt to be aaoertaiaed in exam-
ining an ox ia the fntrity of its breed,
TONIC ROCKS. Uastratified I whatever that breed may be. The

POD

Hlnie emop6ittf«eclByMr;P«Biai^ery
aerviceabie. •

PLUMBAGO. Native carburet of
iron ; black-lead.

PLUMULA. The leaf-like portion
of the embryo.

PLUS. More : marked by the
sign +

PLU*

erystalline rooks, like granite, por-
phyry, basalt.

PLUVIAMETER. The rain
gauge.

PNEUMATICS. The seienee
'which treats of the meehaaical char-
acters of gases aad vapours.

PNEUMATIC TROUOR A
cbemicai utensil used for the collec-
tion of gases over water or fluids.
It consists of a vessel of tin or wood
eontaining water, in which is placed
one or more ledges, within two inch-
es of the surface. On the ledges the
jars which are to receive the gases
rest, and they are at first filled with
the fluid of the trough, but the gas
passing op into ihem from conduct-
ors, the fluid is displaced.

PNEUMONIA. Inflammation of
the substance of the lungs.

PNEUMO-THORAX. A collec-
tion of air in theeavity of the pleura.

POA. An extensive genus of val-
uable natural grasses, to which the
meadow grass, blue grasa, and many
important species belong. The bo-
tanical characters of this genus are,
panieU loose ; •pikdtu three or more
flowered, or even two-flowered, with
the pedicels of a greater number of
florets ; florets articulated with the
rachis ; paUa two, nearly equal, awn-
less ; $cates oval, acute, gibbous at the
base. See Grasses,

POACHING. The treading of
cattle in wet meadows, in whieh they
leave their hoof marks.

POCKET. A large bag of hops.

POP. Those of the pea and bean
are celled legumes ; those of the rad-
ish, mustard, and crucifere are sil-
ifues,

PODENTIA. The stalk which
anpports the fmctification of some
lichens, as the reindeer moss.

PODIOEPS. Agenosofpalmipe-

ascertainment of the purity of the
breed will give the degree of the dis-
position to fatten in the individuals
of that breed. The purity of the
breed may be ascertained from sev-
eral marks. The colour or colours
of the skin of a pure breed of cattle»
whatever those colours are, are al-
ways definite. The colour of the
bald skin on the nose and around the
eyes in a pure breed is always defi-
nite and without spots. This last is
an essential point. When horns ex-
ist, they should be smooth, small, ta-
pering, and sharp-pointed, long or
short, according to the breed, and of
a white colour throughout in some
breeds, and tipped with black in oth-
ers. The shape of the horn is a leas
essential point than the colour.

*' The second paint to be ascertain-
ed in an ox is the form of its carcass.
It is found, the nearer the section of
the carcass of a fat ox, taken longi-
tudinally vertical, transversely verti-
cal, and horiaontally, approaches to
the figure of a parallelogram, the
greater quantity of flesh will it carry
within the same measurement.

" These constitute the poinu which
are essential to a fat ox, and which
it is the business of the judge to
know, and by which he must antici-
pate whether the lean one, when fed,
would realize. The remaining points
are more api^icable in judging of a
lean than a fat ox.

" The first of the points in judging
of a lean ox is the nature of the bone,
A round, thick bone indicates both a
slow feeder and an inierior descrip*
tion of flesh. A flat bone, when seen
on a side view, and narrow when
viewed either from behind or before
the animal, indicates the opposite
properties ofa round bone. The whole
bones in the carcase should bear a

607

mi:

• ML

naaD Ittopof^oB in Mfc attd wijgld

to the flesh, the bone bein^ only re-
quired as 8 support to tfad flesh.

**A foil, elear, calm, and prominent
eye is another point to be considered,
because it is a nice indication of good
Inneeding. It is always attendant on
fine bone.

*' The state of the skin is the next
f€int to be ascertained. The skin
affords what is teebnicaHy and em-
^aticafiy called the Umek, a criterion
second to none in judging of the feed-
ing properties of an ox. The tooeh
may be good or bad, fine or harsh,
or, as it is often termed, hard or mel-
low. A perfect tonch wfll be found
with a thick, loose skio, floating^ as
it were, on a layer of soft fat, yield-
ing to the least pressure, and spring-
ing back towards the fingers like a
piece of soft, thick chamois leather,
and coTered with thick, glossy, soft
hair."

POINTS OP SUPPORT. The
foundations, walls, or pillars of a build-
ing, whereon the snperstmcture is
founded.

POINTS OF THE COMPASS.
See Compost.

POISON FANGS. The holtow
teeth in the upper jaws of Tipers, rat-
tlesnakes, dec., throQgh which their
poison is discharged into the wounds
they make. Only snch snakes as
have poison fangs are venomous.

POISON OAK. Rkut radkans,
and R. toxtcodendran^ the former be-
ing also called poison vine : it is a
climber, the stem throwing out an
abundance of black roots. The milky
juice is poisonous, and, to some per-
sons, the volatile particles thrown olf
from the plant. They produce in-
flammation and swelling, resembling
erisypelas. Light diet, laxatives, and
a lotion of sugar of lead and water
to the part are best.

POISONS. Bodies which disturb
or destroy the natural functions of
the body. They are narcotic, aorid
or septic. Many are to be met by an-
tidotes ; but with animals the stom-
ach pump is to be looked to as the
chief means of relief.

POITTEVIN'S MANURE. Night
606

Mt mtoMl witti €110

dried to powder. 13 to 25 busbris
are applied, with the seed, by a drili*
to the acre.

POLAJilTY. The quality in the
particles of bodies of adjusting theio-
seives in given dixactions, as naith
and south, in the magnet.

POLARIZATION OF LIGHT.
*' Light which has undergone certain
reflections or refractiansr nr been
subjected to the action of material
bodies in any one of the great number
of ways, aoquirea a certain modifica-
tion, in eoDsequence of which it no
longer preaents the sane phenomena
of reflection and transmiaaion as
light which has not been subjected
to such action. This modification is
termed the polarization of light, its
rays being supposed, acoordiog to
particular theoretical views, to have
acquired poles (like the inagnet)^ or
aides with opposite properties. **—
{Brmnit.y

POLDERS. The old salt marshes
of Holland and Flanders.
POLE. A rod. 16^ feet.
POLECAT. Skunkl {Fdis Pu.
tonus, Lin.) *< It may be caught and
destroyed by a deadfall, constmeted
in the following maimer: Take a
square piece of wood, weighing 40
or 50 pounds, bore a hole in the mid-
dle of the upper side, and set a crook-
ed hook fast in it ; then set four fork-
ed stakes fast in the ground, and lay
two sticks across, on which sticks
lay a long staff, to hold the deadfall
up to the crook ; and under this crook
put a short stick, and fasten a line to
it I this line must reach down to the
bridge below; and this bridge you
must make about five or six inches
broad ; on both sides of this deadfall
place boards or pales, or edge il with
close rods, and make it 10 or 12 inch-
es high ; let the entrance be no wider
than the breadth of the deadfall. A
pigeon-bouse surrounded with a wet
ditch will tend to preserve the pi-
geons, for beasts of prey naturally
avoid water."
POLE EVIL. See Ox, DUeoses €^.
POLES. The ends of the wires
proceeding from a galvanic battery;

fOM

4h^wUmmM9B of a imgaeiu Tiwre
«re two poles, north and south, or
positive and negative. They are also
called anode and cathode by Mr. Far-

ady. »

POLLARD. Bran. Also, a tree
oAen eat or lopped for hoops, fire-
wood, &c.

POLLED. Hornless.

POLLEN. The yellow dost or fa-
rina of the stamens or male organs.
It fertilizes the pistils. The pollen
is thrown ont by the bnrstiog of the
fuithers, and alighting on the moist
and acid sniface of the stigma, begins
to throw out a little tube, or pollen
tube (Aoyott), which pierces the tissae
of the stigma, and reaches the ovule,
where it lays the foundation of the
embryo. Without pollen, seeds would
not be formed capable of germina-
tion ; and in wet seasons a large
amount is often destroyed.

POLY (from tro^vf , many): A pre-
fix of many words, as polygon, poly-
petelous.

POLYCHROITE. Thecoloaring
matter of safifron.

POLYGAMIA, POLYANDRIA.
See Botany.

POLYGASTRIC INFUSORLILS.
The class of animakrales with many
stomachs inhabiting infusions.

POLYGONACEiE. Herbaoeons,
apetalous exogens, with triangular,
scaly fruit, and an ochrea. The rhu-
barb8» sorrels, docks, and buckwheat
belong to this family.

POLYPES, POLYPI (from iroAif,
and irovf, a foot). The name of an
extensive group of radiated animals
in the system of Cuvier, associated
together by the common character
of a fleshy body, of a conical or cy-
lindrical form, commonly fixed by one
extremity, and with the mouth situ-
ated at the opposite end, and sur-
rounded by more or less numerous
arms or tentacles.

POLYPODY, POLYPODIUM.
Several species of handsome ferns.

POLYPUS. A fleshy tumour of
the nostrils or womb. It is to be re-
moved by the knife with care.

POMACE, POMAGE. Refuse ap-
ples, after pressio^ for eider. It is

POP

easeBSDtfoQdlbr cews and hogs, m
peciaDy if fresh.

POMACES. Rosaceous plants,
with an inferior ovary, as the apple,
pear.

POMEGRANATE. Puniea gra-
ndtum. A beautiful, hardy, decidu-
ous shrub, growing from 13 to 1^
feet high. Its varieties produce their
splendid flowers and fruit very plen-
tifully from July to September, when
planted against a south waU. They
all grow well in a light, rich loam»
and strike root freely from cuttings
or layers ; the rarer varieties are
sometimes increased by grafting on
the common kinds. The pomegran-
ate requires shelter from frost. The
pulp of the fruit is of an agreeable
acid, and the rind is very astringent.

POMMEL. The front prominence
of the saddle.

POND. " An artificial excavation
in the soil, or a natural hollow, dam-
med up for the purpose of detaining
water, generally made in fields, in or-
der to supply irink to pasturing ani-
mals. The essential diflerence be-
tween a pond and a lake is, that the
former is formed by art, the water
being often ponded, or impounded,
by a bank of earth thrown across a
natural hollow or bourne containing
a stream. The soil should be pud-
died, to render it impervious, before
water \b let in. In places where the
soil does not abound in springs, the
formation of poods in the fields is as
essential to the business of farming
as the building of farm offices. A
pond in a garden, when of a round
form, is termed a basin ; and when
of some length, with parallel sides, a
canal."

PONE, PONES OP BREAD.
Small loaves.

PONS VAROLII. An eminence
of the medulla oblongata, at the top
of the spinal marrow.

PONTIA. The genus of insects to
which the cabbage butterfly belongs.

POPLAR. The genus Poptdus of
amentaceous exogens. They prefer
a moist, deep, and good soil, and are
readily increased by cuttings. The
wood of the P. monilifera is very good

600

POR

wbeii thoroa^ly dried, and not ex-
posed to moisture. The tulip-tree is
improperly called a poplar.

POPLITEAL. Relating to the
apace behind the knee joint.

POPPY. The genus Papavety of
which the P. scmntferutn is cultivated
fi>r opium and the bland oil furnished
by expression from its seeds. It is
cultivated on the best soil, well ma-
nured. The land sometimes receives
as many as five stirrings, and the
aeed is then dropped into shallow
drills, about two feet apart. During
the growth of the plants, the soil is
stirred, well watered, and sometimes
top-dressed. In two months from
the lime of sowing, the capsules are
ready for incision, which process
goes on for two or three weeks ;
several horizontal cuts being made
in the capsule on one day, on the
next the milky juice which had oozed
oat, being congealed, fs scraped off.
This operation is generally repeated
three times on each capsule, and
then the capsules are collected for
their seed. The raw juice is knead-
ed with water, evaporated in the snn,
mixed with a little poppy oil, and,
lastly, formed into cakes, which are
covered with leaves of poppy, and
packed in chests with poppy husks
and leaTes.

The P. RKeas is also cultivated as
an oil plant in France, where little of
the opium is made. In Europe some
species are a great pest in corn-
fields.

POPULIN. A crystaHine sub-
stance obtained from the bark of the
aspen.

PORCATE. In entomology, divi-
ded into ridges ; a surface on which
there are several elevated and paral-
lel grooves.

PORCELAIN CAPSULES. Evap-
orating basins of porcelain ; this ma-
terial resists a great heat, and is not
readily acted on except by potash or
soda.

PORCH. An arched or flat ceiled
vestibule to a door or building.

PORES. Small spaces existing
between the atoms of bodies ; also,
diatinct apertorea through leaves or
•10

POT

membraneSi IVofn wHfefa

and vapours pass.

POROSITY. The property of bod-
ies whereby they transmit fiaids or
gasses, and which depends on their
pores.

PORK. See Bacon, Ham^ Hog.

PORK, CLEAR. Side pork for
barrelling, free from lean, being all fat ;
the Berkshires, if folly fat, cut as largn
a quantity as any other breed.

PORPHYRY. A hard red or
gray stone of the nature of granite,
of igneous origin, and consisting of
feldspar, with quartz or hornblende
It occurs in the oldest dikes.

PORRECT. Extending. When a
part extends horizontally.

P O R R I G O. Scald head, ring-
worm, tetter. Tar ointment, cleanli-
ness, and attention to the general
health, are the best remedies.

PORTAL, The lesser of two
gates.

PORTAL CIRCULATION. The
circulation of venous blood from the
abdominal viscera through the Uver
to the right auricle of the heart.

PORTER. A beer coloured with
dark malt or molasses.

PORTICO. A projection from a
building, supported by arches or pil-
lars.

POSITIVE ELECTRICITY. See
Electricity. A surplus of electricity.

POST. A perpendicular piece of
timber ; a piece driven into the earth ;
the end should be charred. Locust,
catalpa, and oak posts are pre/erred.

POST ABDOMEN. The five pos-
terior segments of the abdomen of in-
sects, or the tails of some crusta-
ceans.

POTASH, POTASS A, KALL Pro-
toxide of potassium, a well-known
caustic (vegetable caustic). See P<h
tassium.

POTASHES. The washed or
lixiviated ashes of trees, especially
of oaks, hickories, maples, sycamores,
the elm, willow, and beech. The ash,
mixed with lime, is leached in bar-
rels or vats, and the clear solution,
being drawn off, or allowed to drip
fh>m holes made in the bottom of the
vats, is next evaporated in large iron

POT

p0toMtiii»lbnKBO9: Ui«06ftTelnpt

full several days. When the llaid
hecomee black and of the consistence
of thick molasses, it is sobjected to
the highest beat of a woo^ fire for
some boars ; by this means much of
the combustible matter is bttmed.
As soon as the fused matter becomes
quiet it is dipped out by iron ladles
into iron pots, where it congeals ;
this, broken into pieces and barrelled,
forms commercial potash. The lye
should be sufficiently strong to bear
an egg before being evaporated.
Pearlash is made by transferring the
black potash into a reverberatory fur-
nace, and stirring it while hot : this
is continued untU it acquires a whi-
tish colour.

Composition. — American potash
consists of 85-7 parts caustic potas-
sa, 15 4 sulphate of potassa, 2-0 com-
mon salt, 11-9 carbonic acid and wa-
ter, and 0-2 insoluble matter in 115
parts. Pearlash contains 75*4 caus-
tic potash, 80 sulphate, 0-4 common
•alt, 30-8 carbonic acid and water,
0-6 insoluble matter in 1 15 parts.

Anumni of pure pot4uh in 1000 lbs.
of wood : in elm and maple, 3-9 lbs. ;
willow, 2-8 lbs. : oak and beech, li
lbs. ; poplar, | lb. : the spray and
young branches are richest in ashes.
The varieties of pine seldom iiimisb
half a pound to the 1000 of timber.

POTASSIUM. The metallic basis
of potash ; it is white and brilliant,
but soft as wax, lighter than water,
ap. gr. *86, and spontaneously inflam-
mable on water ; symbol, K. ; propor-
tional, 39-3. Its compound with 1
equivalent oxygen, potash, is one of
the most important ohemical agents :
a powerful base and an alkali.

Potash is very soluble in water,
neutralizes acids, discharges the eol-
onr of red litmus, converting it into
blue; it is also soluble in aioohol.
It unites definitely with water, form-
ing the hydrate, or fused potash, con-
taining 47-3 potash, and 9 parts wa-
ter, Fk>tash combines with nearly all
acids ; by the agency of heat it also
dissolves silica, being converted into
Mlicate of potash. Its prominent
•altn are the nitrate, carbonate, sul-

phate, and muriate {oMoride of po^

tassium).

In the mineral kingdom it exists
abundantly, forming 10 to 20 per oent.
of many minerals, as mica, feldspar,
lava, and green sand. In these it is
insoluble, and in the form of silicate;
but it becomes slowly dissolved by
water containing carbonic acid. In
plants it is also abundant, especially
in the grasses and cerealia ; the vine,
oak, willows, maizes, cruciferous and
chenopodiaceous plants contain a con-
siderable proportion. It is found in
urine, and in other animal excretions.

POTATO {Solanum tuberoBum,
Linn»U8). Varietia: ** Of the better
kinds, we may enumerate the follow-
ing:

" 1. Kjdnbys, or Foxms, white
flesh, rather small, and seemingly de-
teriorating, as an old variety.

<*2. Pink Eyxb, white flesh, rather
kidney-shaped, yield well, and are yet
in their prime.

•' 3. St. Hbltsna, very similar in
flesh, shape, colour, and quality to
the foregoing, without the pink eyes
or blotches : to us a new variety.

** 4. Eablt Kidnbts, real kidney-
shaped, smooth, white, and of fair
size : the best early variety.

** 5. Mbbcxh, well-known and de-
servedly liked.

*' 6. Sault St. Mavik : the true
kind large, long, dark-coloured, and
good.

** 7. LivxitpooL Bluks : coloured,
good size, and productive. Boil white,
and may be placed in the first class
for the table.

'* The foregoing we esteem the best
kinds. There may be other kinds
equally good, and some that we have
enumerated may be known by other
names. The Fortt-fold has been
highly commended for its productive-
ness and good qualities, with what
truth we will not venture to say.

" In this latitude the potato is bet-
ter, both as to product and flavour,
when grown on a moist and cool,
than when grown on a warm and dry
soil; better on a moderately loose
and friable than on a hard, compact
soil.

POTATO.

*^ They do better oa a grass ley

than on stubble ; and better with long
or unfennented manure than with
short mack.

" The mediam-sized whole tubers
give a better crop than sets or Tery
large tubers.

** Drills or rows should be adapted
to the growth of the tops, and the
condition of the soil— the small grow-
ing tops nearer, and those having
larger tops, farther apart, so that
the sun may not be excluded from
the intervals ; and where the soil is
stiff, or the sod tough, hills are con-
sidered preferable to drills.

*' If the ground is well prepared,
and the seed w^ covered, they are
not benefited by heavy earthing ;
ploughing among them, or earthing
them, afler they come in bloom, is
prejudicial.

'* The kinds best for the table are
also best for farm stock, containing a
larger portion of nutriment than in-
ferior kinds."

"* Those who are curious about ob-
taining new varieties can almost in-
definitely pursue their object ; for
the seed of a species, the red apple,
for example, will sport, and this, too,
without hybridizing (that is, without
the admixture of its pollen with that
of any other species, the produce of
which would be hybrids), into num-
berless varieties of form and colour
— round, fiat, oblong, red, pink, black,
white, mixed, and purple, of every
shade and colour. These, wlieth-
er hybrids or not, are reproduced
through successive seasons by the
tubers alone, if they possess those

Siualities which render them desirable
or continued cultivation, on account
of peculiar adaptation to early or late
seasons, size, predominance of fari-
na, &.C.

" This mode of propagation by tu-
bers either improves those qualities
or gradually develops objectionable
properties ; some varieties are there-
fore permanently established, while
the culture of others is either aban-
doned, or, if continued, it is known
that those varieties revert, in the
oourse of a few generations, to the

613

MlorB of theirpoent Idttd, and tliere-
fi>re eease to eonstitote a variety.

" In the vegetable kingdom, hybrid
plants have not the power of propa-
gation h^ seed ; hot they can be ren-
dered reproductive 1^ budding and
grafthig, or by means of cottings,
slips, and tnbers, and an original
stock, comparatively werthleas, may
be highly improved by suoh modes of
multiplication. But when a fanner
possesses two or three kinds of de-
cided exoellenoe, he wiU act vi^sdy
by not enenmbering his stores with
too many varieties, which always oc-
casion trouble and coafiision in tiw
field management.

** In order to obtain seed, properly
so called, the potato-apple, when per-
fectly ripe, should be dried, and then
disengaged from its seed by robbing
with the hand. The seed should be
preserved in a dry piaee, in paper or
cloth bags, until the middle of March
or beginning of April, when it may be
sown in wooden boxes or earthen
pans, with a covering of less than
half an inch of weil-pulverited earth ;
the vessels ought then to be placed
in hot-beds of mild heat, such as is
suited to the raising of half-hardy an-
nuals. The plants, when an indi
high, should be pricked out into oth-
er vessels, and placed in a tempera-
ture somewhat lower than before, to
inure them to the external air, to
which they should be exposed alter
iVosts have ceased. These planta
should be put out in driUs 16 inches
apart, and with the interval of six
inches between the plants in the
rows; theywill produce tubers in the
first year, and these may be planted
in the fbUowing season in the ordi>
nary way.

"For very early crops, such as
those which the ash-leaved and wal-
nut-leaved kinds, in particular, yieM,
the most successful treatment was
that practised by the late Mr. Knight,
president of the London Hortioaltu-
ral Society, from the course of whose
practice we give the following de-
tails of instruction : Drills may be
formed in a warm and sheltered sit-
uation (and in the direction of north

POTATO.

and MQth) Anrhig any of the whiter
months, two feet a]>art, and seven or
eight inches deep. Stable dung, half
decomposed, should be laid in the
drills, and combined with the earth
four inches downward, and covered
with some of the mould whieh had
been thrown out m forming the drills,
by the rake, to within four inches of
the surface. The sets, uncot, are then
to be placed, with the crown eye up-
permost, in the centre of the furrow,
four inches from each other, and to
be coTcred with only an inch of mould
at first, and afterward with an occa-
sional quantity of sifted coal ashes, un-
til the plants are so ▼igoroos and ad-
Tanoed as to require the usual earth-
ing, of which, however, very little is
necessary. Mr. Knight nsed leaves
as a lining at the sides of the drills
•n the early periods, to preserve as
mnch warmth as possible, and bet-
ter to guard against the effects of
frost. The sets near the top end
{Figr., a) are found to come to matu-
rity a fortnight ear-
lier than those at
the root end {d) ;
and these, there-
fore, form two class-
es of sets for an
earlier and a later
crop. The sets ftom
the middle (6, c) are
put together for an
intermediate crop.

** This management alone will be
found successful, except, perhaps, in
very tenacious clay soil, in which the
rains of winter may lodge so near the
fibres of the plants as to destroy them
altogether; but destruction from this
cause may easily be avoided by in-
creasing the original depth of the fur-
rows and loosening the bed of clay
below with the spade to such a depth
as will allow the water to descend
from the surface, with a drain to
carry it off altogether ; or by laying
below some ab^rbent matter, such
as ashes, chalk, or calcareous gravel.
*' The germination of the sets may
be accelerated by a little management
previously to their being planted, by
laying them on a floor, sprinkling

PVF

them with water nntil they bvd, and
then covering them with finely-sifted
mould. If this bo done early in Jan-
uary, the sets, with strong shoots,
may be taken up in April (with as
much earth as possible adhering to
them), and carefully placed in the
drills prepared as directed, and cov-
ered with well-rotted leaves or earth
in the same way.

'* To market gardeners it is a great
object to raise the earliest potatoes,
considering the high price which they
obtain for them, though in their waxy
state they are neither wholesome nor
palatable. Next in early maturity to
the ash4eaved and walnut-leaved are
the early manly and early champion,
and Fox's seedling.

" The best soil for potatoes gener-
ally is that which is adtogether fresh
from the state of ley, or which has
not long been broken up : land which
has been in grass for only two or
three years is easily prepared for
the principal crop. It should be as
deeply ploughed as possible before
winter, and early in April harrowed,
and thoroughly cross-ploughed. Af-
ter lying in this state for two or
three weeks, it should again be well
harrowed and very deeply ploughed
twice, without bringing up any bad
substratum, and it will then be fit fur
the reception of the crop.

**The most approved modes of
setting are as follows : Drills should
be formed in the well-pulverized field,
with double boutings of the plough,
in order to have the shoulders uni-
form, which is essential to the cor-
rectness of succeeding operations.
The dung is then to t^ caned out,
and divided by the carter with a drag
fork, as his horse and cart move for-
ward (the horse walking in the centre
of three drills, while the wheels move
in the other two), in such quantities
as can be most conveniently shaken
out into the drills by the labourers
employed to spread it. In dry weath-
er the carting does no injury, and
this method is universal in Scotland.
The other principal mode, more gen-
erally pursued in Ireland by some of
the best cultivators of the potato, ia

618

POTATO.

to cart out tbe naaon before the
drills are formed, in rows seven or
eight yards apart, and to sapply tlie
drills from the heaps as the plough
advances in its work, reserving just
as much as is supposed sufficient for
the concluding drills, which are to be
made in the sections of the field pre-
▼iously occupied by the rows of ma-
nure. By the latter treatment the
manure may be laid over the sets,
which cannot be done in the former
case, and this will preserve them from
being displaced or crushed by the
feet of the horses during the process
of covering the seed. But against
this advantage, which is not incon-
siderable, there is the inconvenience
of calculating with precision and lay-
ing aside, as the plough advances to
draw the last drills — where the rows
had stood— the precise complement
of manure, and the difficulty to the
ploughman of preserving the exact
breadth in those drills.

** Some avoid any perplexities in
those respects by ploughing in the
manure thoroughly befoTe drilling,
and either dropping the set in every
third furrow, or rolling the whole
manured and ploughed surface, and
then making drills. Our own expe-
rience is greatly in favour of this lat-
ter mode, when the fertilizing matter
is abundant and of the short descrip-
tion, which freely combines with the
soil, and does not obstruct the plough
in the subsequent drilling. The lazy-
bed method is so generally condemn-
ed that any explanation of it here
would be superfluous, yet in iindrain-
ed bog land, or under any circumstan-
ces in which a redundancy of wetness
Is probable in the autumn, as on low,
marshy lands, or stifi* clay soils which
have no sufficient inclination to carry
off the water, and are likely to be
saturated with moisture in winter,
from want of drainage, the lazy-bed
system is by far the safest. The
deep, wide furrows at each side car-
ry oft* the water, or, at least, remove
it from the potato. Thousands of
tons of potatoes, in the year 1839,
"Were utterly lost in Ireland, being
drilled in flat and tenacious lands,
614

which woold hare escaped destruc-
tion from the continued rains of that
season if drained by the furrow of
the lazy-bed. Besides, where circum-
stances preclude the practicahiliiy of
deep ploughing, the lazy-bed practice,
repeated for three years, will com-
pletely spade-trench the entire land,
and thus effect an important benefit,
not otherwise attainable by the hum-
ble tiller of the soil, who has no teaius
for ploughing it effectually. Thus
local or national modes, though ap-
parently defective to the superficial
observer, are sometimes founded
upon sound principles; and though we
feel disposed to exclude the minute
details of what is only defensible un-
der peculiar circumstances from an
essay on potato culture under our
modern system, we protest against
the unqualified condemnation of a
method which is still pursued through-
out nearly one half of Ireland.

" The sets (uncut, for reasons to be
yet assigned) are next to be laid down,
eitlier under or over the manure, at
the average distance of sixteen inch-
es, by the setters, w^ho move in a
retrograde direction, and are provi-
ded with aprons to contain the sets.
A sufficient number of men is in at-
tendance to divide the manure even-
ly in the drills ; the plough also is in
the field, in order that there may be
the least possible exposure of the
manure and sets to the sun or to
parching wind, but the plough should
cover the sets rather hghtly in clay
soil.

** The roller is next used to lay an
even surface to the young plants, and
to facilitate the subsequent progress
of the paring plough, which is to be
set to work when the stems are six
or seven inches high, and should
move as close to the plants as is
practicable without injuring their ten-
der fibres. The weeders should then
hoe the plants carefully, and imme-
diately afterward (for the influence
of wind or hot air on the roots is per-
nicious) the scuffler or drill-harroir
is to follow, in order to clean and lev-
el the intervals, before the earthing-
plough, with either double or single

POTATO.

VMuld^MNurd, 18 hitroduced to apply
fresh earth to the stems.

" Such is the method of earthing
uoiversally pursued by the farmer in
Ireland and Scotland, but in £ngland
the hand hoe is principally used for
destroying weeds, loosening the earth,
and roouldiog the plants ; for the first
two of these operations the bean hoe
(which cuts about six inches deep) is
iiaed, and the turnip hoe for drawing
the earth to the stems. One man
will hoe out the weeds and loosen
the soil of half an acre per day, and
the subsequent earthing of the same
quantity is also executed by one
sum. This is far cheaper than horse
work, and it does no injury to any
of the stems, and makes no waste
land at the head-riggs ; and where
the earth has been perfectly well pre-
pared at the commencement, this
mannal husbandry is the best.

"As to the distance between the
frills, due regard must be had to the I
natural quality of the soil, and the
quantity and description of manure
aTailable, or, in other words, to the
probable luxuriance of foliage. Mr.
Knight, aware of the necessity of al-
lowing room in proportion to the vig-
our and height of the plants, has laid
down an exact rule, thus: *The
height of the stems being three feet,
the rows ought to be four feet apart ;'
but for a general average thirty
inches is the best distance. As to
excess of foliage, we are certain that
it is not desirable, for the produce
of tubers is not always in propor-
tion to the degree of foliage ; under
high and rank stems there is often a
▼ery scanty crop, and Mr. Knight is
justified by experience in his obser-
Tation that * the largest produce will
be obtained from varieties of rather
early habits and rather low stature,
there being in very tall plants much
time lost in convoying the nutriment
from the soil to the leaves,* and con-
sequently strong and upright stems,
which do not fail down and shade the
others, are those which are desirable.
•• Two more earthings are nsually
given, but it is questionable whether
even one be neoeasary in noil of av-

erage depth, ttnless there be a rety
wide interval between the drills, and
it is certain that much earthing in
dry and shallow soil is injurious ; for
by withdrawing the earth from con-
tiguity to the fibres which ramify and
penetrate far in loose soil, and laying
it on the head of the drill, and in the
high ridgelet form, it is applied where
it is useless for the nourishment of
the tubers, and in a position that fa-
vours the rapid escape of moisture,
which, in such soil, it ought to he an
object to retain. In deep land, more
particularly if it be of tenacious qual-
ity, the furrows at each side of the
drill win be, in general seasons, most
serviceable as drains, as well as for
furnishing earth to support the stems,
while the moisture will be sufficiently
retained for the roots.

" Experiments have led to the in-
ference that, in soil of a loose, porous
quality, there is probably a greater
produce by not affording any (or a
very slight) moulding, but by digging,
instead, between the rows ; for deep
and perfect pulverization, next to an
adequate allowance of rich manure,
is the main cause of a large produce.
In proportion to the deficiency of
manure will be the necessity for opcn^
ing the soil beneath, to allow the
fibres, which may be distinctly traced
to a depth incredible to those who
haTo not followed their ramifications,
to extract all the nourishment which
the subsoil may afford. If there be
an abundance of nutriment above,
neither the necessity nor, perhaps,
the inclination for penetrating deeply
can exist, and in such cases the op-
eration of earthing by the plough, as
long as it can be introduced without
injury to the stems, may be useful in
many ways, but unquestionably by
guaitiing them from the efifects of
storm in exposed, and from excessive
wetness in low situations ; besides,
in regulating this point, regard should
always be had to the quality of the
potato, for the tubers of some varie-
ties have a tendency to push to the
surface, while others tend into the
earth, and therefore require a differ-
ent treatment.

616

POTATO.

" Bat in aU eases the earth shimid
be rendered as loose and friable as
possible, by spade, hoe,* or plough,
and where labour is easily conamaDd-
ed, the spade will be found to be the
more efficacious implement in the
first course of treatment, after the
plants are well up.

'*Some plant one or two sets in
the centre of every square yard, but
in such cases great and continued
earthing, until each square presents
the form of a pyramid, is contem-
plated ; and, if our preceding remarks
be correct, this treatment is only ap-
plicable to deep and retentive soils.
Great returns have, no doubt, been
thus obtained, but by this mode there
is the least possible incorporation of
the manure with the soil.

**In minute husbandry, such as
that exemplified in labourere* allot-
ments, which excludes the plough al-
together, the ordinary and best prac-
tice is to lay the sets in rows, after a
Ycry deep winter digging, marked
with a garden-line. The workmen
digs precisely as in a garden plot for
cabbages : he clears a little drill, lays
the sets straight, puts a sufilciency
of manure over them, and then covers
from the next spit, which he digs
with a spade or a three-pronged fork
flattened at the ends, levelling and
pulverizing as he advances to the
distance at which he again puts down
his line and forms a new drill. Thus
the entire piece is thoroughly loosen-
ed, the manure perfectly covered,
and every facility given for the hand-
hoeing in due course.

*' The next sUge of the potato is
that in which it blossoms. It has
been recommended to p4uck off the
flowers. Excessive blossoming is no
doubt injurious, but experience has
li^enerally proved that the extra cost
IS hardly defrayed by the additional
produce obtained. If the flowers are
plucked off, they should be nipped in
the early bud.

••When the crop is fully ripe,
which is indicated by the withering
of the stalks, and when the land is

•That kiad called the bMa hoe, shaped like
6i6

[free from stones, laborers, m fbB
I prtrportion of about twenty to one
plough (half of these being usually
men, and the remainder women or
young persons), should be set to pall
up the stalks, and carafuUy eoUect
the tubers which may be attached to
them before the plough proceeds in
its operation. When it is prepand
for work, the men, wttb prongs Aat-
tened at the extremity, are placed at
such distances from each other as
will give them proper time to Ibrk
out the potatoes cleanly ibr the piek-
ers, who are also stationed at exaet
distances with a basket between ev-
ery pair, into which they gather the
potatoes.

" The common swing plough may
he employed in three ways : First, in
taking off a slice from each side of
every drill, and learing it to the
workmen to open oat the centre with
their prongs ; or, in its third move-
ment, it may turn op this centre,
under which the main body of the
tabers lie, which is more expeditioos-
ly and easily done if the earth be in it
condition. Second, a douUe mould-
board plough with a long sack, and
divested of its coulter, may be drawn
by two strong horses through the
centre of the drills, and completely
under the level of the tubers, so as to
avoid injuring them, by which means
the work-people wOl be kept exceed-
ingly busy; andifthelaadbeingood
friable order, this is the roost expe-
ditious mode ; and provided there is
a perfect harrowing afterward, the
crop will be taken out with soflScieDt
cleanliness. Third, the crop may he
taken up by prongs, or long, narrow
spades, without the plough. In wsc
weather, this mora tedious, but fkr
safer method is frequently adopted ;
and if the drill be short and the head-
nggs under crop also, it is the rooet
desirable, eflTectual, and economical
mode. In removing the produce ii
this manner, it ia obvious that the
number of gatherers should be muoh
less, in proportion to the men, tbia
under the other oircumstanoes. Tho
head-riggs should evidently be the
iintpaftoofth«field4dearad,to: "^

POTATO.

a fine ipape faar Ibe idcmghs in the
boutings and for the carta.

** One horse will answer for three
carta, if the distance of draught to
the pits be short, by changing him al-
ternately from an empty to a full
one, but this only applies to the
Scotch and Irish system of draught
by single carts and horses. The
^neral mode of securing the crop in
pits in the field is the safest. In
makkig the pits-^improperly so term-
ed, lor the base is only sank a few
inoh^, and the potatoes are raised
oonsideraUy in the heape— the only
-caution to be observed is, that fur-
.I0WS should be cat on all sides to
prevent water from lodging or pene-
trating inward, and that the earth
thrown up and over them, to the
depth of four or five inches, should
be well beaten with spade or shovel
<to exdode moisture and frost. The
potato stalks, however apparently
dry, should never be laid between
the potatoes and the earth in these
accumulations, for ^hey soon ferment
and rot, and injure all the potatoes
in contact with them. Straw is at
least uselessw The length of the pit
depends on circumstances, but the
. breadth should not exceed four feet,
aa large accumulations are most lia-
ble to fermentations."

The potato crop is commonly be-
low 200 bushels the acre, but by good
management 400 bushels may be ob-
tained.

<' The only decided diseases of the
potato, besides the dry rot, is Hhe
earl,' wluch is an imperfect forma-
tion; and a rot of the new tubere,
'which seems to be owing to a fungus,
and may be overcome by liming or
using salt to the land. One thing,
however, is clear, that from a crop
of which any part is intended for
seed, aU the plants affected with curl
should be carefully separated before
the general removal commences.
The dxy rot, or decay of the set, is
also still unexplained as to its real
cause, though the press has teemed
with essays and very plausible theo-
ries respecting it. The same malady
wa» remarked for many years, and,

FrrS

we have rsaaon to think, m seasoM
similar to those which we have ex-
perienced in latter years. The set,
though apparently sonnd when plant-
ed, has either failed to germinate at
all, and rotted away, or has feebly
and partially thrown out its sickly
shoots. The most contvadictory
causes have been assigned: over-
ripening in the preceding year ; un-
der-ripening; fermentation in the
pits ; fermentation of the set in the
gronnd when placed in contact with
hot dung (which is utterly absurd,
for when in the ground no injurious
fermentation can arise); very hot
weather, great drought, hot sun, cold,
parching wind, dry and heating ma-
nure, sea-ware, which is always
damp ; exhanstion of the kind from
a long course of culture, contradicted
by many instances, in which it ap-
pears that the produce of the same
variety — for instance, the apple — ^has
been successively cultivated during
sixty-five years without any failure ;
or the loss of vitality from prema-
turely shooting.

" If potatoes have fermented in
their accumulated state, they would
bear dbvious evidence of it, and
therefore be rejected. Fermentation
cannot be the true cause in every or
even the majority of cases, nor does
the fhilure, probably, proceed from in-
sects in the eyes, as has been sug-
gested ; for if so, it is difficult to ac-
count for the fact that sets from the
same heap planted at one part of the
day have totally failed, while others
put into the ground at another have
pushed forth healthy shoots. As to
decay in the land, from the contiguity
of fermenting manure, How is it
to be proved that the gases evolved
by fermenting manure can injure the
setsi Fermenting manures would
rather stimulate by their wanntb^
and excite their growth by the ali*
ment which their essential qualities^
carbon and ammonia, supply to plants.
Why do not the gaseous exhalations
from rank and fermenting hot- beds
destroy the tender plants which are
raised in them?'

(• The same causes which are ser-

617

POT

rnnSHy assigned for the total or pw-
tial failure of the potato in number-*
less instanoeSt and to a most distress-
ing extent in Ireland, have existed
since the coltore of the potato com-
meoced, but without the effects de-
plored» which have only prevailed
within a very recent space of time.
But from the frequent and searching
investigation of the subject by the
most competent and practical men, a
preventive against the failure has
been ascertained, namely, the plant-
ing of entire tubers. When cut sets
bare failed, the entire tubers have
resisted premature decay ; wherher
it arises from atmospheric influence
or debility of constitution, or from
any of the conjectured causes, the
entire tubers resist these noxious in-
fluences, and germinate healthily and
freely. AU reports agree on this
point : there is no risk in this ease,
if the tubers be sound when fdanted ;
and it may be added, that in all
stages of their growth, the uncut tu-
bers maintain a decided superiority
and yield a corresponding produce.

" The farina of the potato, properly
granulated and dried, is sold in our
shops as tapioca, to which It bears
the closest resemblance both in ap-
pearance and essential properties.
For confectionery, the flour is so del-
icately white, and it is so digestible
and nutritious, that it ought to be in
BiDre general use. Few housewives

aw ignorant «f the iiistlnd«folil«tB»

ing it by the use of a common band*
grater and sieve; but for yielding
larger supplies, some machinery is
necessary. The preceding flgara re|^
resents an approved inspleRient : h is
the hopper ; the potatoes are aeraped
by the wires set in the revohhag
wheel a/'

Manures for the Poiata.'^-'lAme m
eminently servioeabie in improving
the mealiness and flavour of the p»>
tato; salt, at the rate of fiye buih>
els th(B acre, is also an invaluable ana-
nure ; but all gross animal composts
are injurious, many of thorn render-
ing the tubers waxy and of bad fla>
vour. The fresh potato oontatna 7$
per cent, water ; 1000 pounds in the
ordinary state yield 8-28 poonds ash*
es. The composition of the ash is, by
Sprengel,

1000 Iba. tahen.
Potash and soda . . . 6-36
Lime and roa^^neiia . . *tf5
Phoafihoric aekl . . . *40
Solpaurio aci4 . • . « '54
Silica .... . . '06

Chlorine ..../.. "lO

Iron, alnmina, Ac . . '08

5^ ao-8»

This analysis also explains ^H9
plaster is sometimes uspful in ooflH
posts intended for the potato. A light
soil abounding in humus is most p^
itable for this crop.

POTATO FLY. See Bh»uriag
Fly.

POTATO PIES, CAMPS, or
PITS. See Potato and Barrm.
Earthen mounds to store potatoes
and other roots.

POTATO STARCH. The farina.
See Potato.

POTATO SUGAR. The sugar
produced from potatoes by boiling po-
tato starch with sulphuric acid, ft
is ghicose. See Sug-ar.

POTATO WASHER. The fignw
on the following page represents a
simple and eflTecttve implement. It
consists of a trough containing water,
on which is made to revolve a cylta-
drical cage (c) containing the pota^
toes. The cage opens to allow the
tubers to be introduced and with-
drawn.

iqoobm.

e»

l-«7
0-41
494
0-50
0-06

«18

POTS FOR PLANTS. The com-
mon imglued -eHTthen pots are tu-
perior lo ihusB ihat are glazPd. he-
oeuie they aHow excess of flnid lo
drain off bj their pores. The srae
■bouM bp pniportianal to the plsnti.

POT-STONE Atoaghsosp-sione.

POTTER'S CLAY. Plastic city
letther of a white or red colour.

POTTING. The placing of young
plants in small pots for the following
purpoBCB ;

" The first and greatest end al-
tained by pntiing is the power of mo-
ving phiflis about fVom place to place
— "' — t injury ; green-buuse plants
lie open air to the house, and
rerse; hardy species, difficult
te transplant, lo their final stations
in the open ground without dislurti-
ing their roots ; annonia raised in
beat to the open borders, and so on :
and when this power of moTing
plants is wanted, pots afford the only
neana of doing so. It also cramps
the roots, diminishes the tendency to
Ibrtn leaves, and increases the dispo-
sition to flower. Another ohjecl is
lo effect a secure end constant drain-
age from roola of water ; a third is,
to expose the roots to the moat fa-
Tourable amoDnt of bottom heat,
wbieh cannot be readily accomplish-
ed when plants of large sise are made
lo grow in the groand. even of a hot-
hoase ; and, finally, it is a conveni-
ent process for the nourishment of
delicate seedlings. Unless some one
of these ends is to be anewered, and
eanDOt he effected in a more natural
manner, potting is better dispensed
thth."—{lAmiUy.)

POUDRETTE. Dried nigbt soil
miied with charcoal powder, with
gypanm, with lime, with peat, or
merely dried in ihe air. The mana-
facturers uaually reserve the process:
that with gypsnm and charcoal is
beat. From twenty to thirty buahela
Ihe aere are used with great effect in
the drill, or sown over growing cropis
in spring. It rorwards the plant con-
siderably, but seldom lasts for mora
than one season. See Niglu Soil.

POULTICE. " An eiiernal appli-
cation employed for promoting the
euppuraiion of tmaours, or abating
painful inflammation. The chief m-
teniion of the poultice is to retain Ihe
heat on the tumour ri>r a sufficient
length of linie ; oonsequently, com
meal, linseed meal are the host fitted
for puuttices. The fatty matter uau-
ally added is to give softneas to Ihe
poultkse, which is otherwise apt to
harden as the moisture evaporates.
Kew farraers are aware of the value
of these simple applications in abating
inRammation, relieving pain, cleans-
ing wounds, and disposing them to
heal. The poultice may be rendered
more soothing by opium, or increased
activity may be given by the addition

ir chloride of

, of foul uloera pow-
dered charcoal may be added. Aa
an emollient poultice for grease aitd
cracked heels, and especially if ac-
companied by much unpleasant smell,
(here is nothing preferable to a pnul-
llce of mashed carrot* with cAarcoal.
it is always best t« enclose poulticea
in bags."

POULTRY (from tho French poti-
«1&

POULTRY.

M). The ieni Indodes all the do-
mesticated birds reared for the table T
fowls, tariceys, geese, ducks, and
Ouiiiea fowls.

" FowU.-^* The strong feet of the
gaiUnaceous birds are adapted to the
region where they chiefly resort for
their food and the purposes of incu-
bation ; their toes and nails peculiar-
ly formed for scratching up the grains
and seeds which constitute the main
part of their subaistence ; their short
wings and the weakness of their pec-
toral mosoles, which cause the heavi-
ness of their flight, a deficiency which
is oounterbaiaDoed by the strength of
those muscles of the thighs and legs
that contribute to their powers of
running ; their gregarious, and, gen-
erally speaking, polygamous habits ;
the ease with which they are domes-
ticated ; their wholesome flesh, to-
gether with many striking peculiari-
ties in their anatomy, serve equally
to distinguish them.*

'* Some foreign varieties have not
even the rudiment of a tail, while
others are distinguished by it. The
gamecock, which is probably a native
of India, has an unusual length of
spur, bis natural weapon of combat.
11>e flesh of this variety is delicate-
ly white and of the finest flavour, the
plumage brilliant, and the form sym-
metrical ; but from their pugnacious
temper, there is great difllcolty in
rearing even those of the same brood ;
and for companionship with the gen-
eral inmates of the fowl-yard they are
very exceptionable fur the same cause.

"The best breed of Dorking fowls
is the produce of the Dorking cock
and the common dunghill fowl. This
cross is larger and plumper, and more
hardy than the pure Dorking, without
losing delicacy of flavour or white-
ness of flesh.

*'The characteristics of the pure
Dorking are, that it is white-feather-
ed, short-legged, and an excellent
layer. The peculiarity of this estab-
lished variety, which has frequently
^'f^ daws perfectly articulated (with
sometimes a sixth springing laterally
from the fifth, but always imperfect),
is well known. But though the true

DoffciBg, wfaiob ia wUto» m
teemed, that cokmr is rare, and prixad
for the ornament of the poultry-yard :
speckled colours are most generally
seen.

<' The PaUnii breed, which is blacks
feathered, with white topknots, Jays
well, and is highly desiraUe wheie
the production of eggs for the table
is the principal object ; but they sel-
dom sit.

"The CkUugeng, or Ifo^oy, which
is a veiy laige Indian variety, is gea-
eraUy long-legged, with yellow body
and coarse, yellow fleah. Faaaeia
used to like them f^r their fine sp-
pearance and their large eggs; bat
as their long legs incapacitate then
from steady sitting, they are not gen-
eral favourites. One of our piaeticsl
acquaintances reoommeiMie the male
produce of the Poland and Chittagong
as a good croes with the oommoa
dunghUl hen, as their progeny wiB sit

'* Parmentier thus deaohbes the
cock : * He is oonsidered to have ev-
eiy requisite quality when he is of a
good middling size ; when he canrias
his head high ; hasaquidk, animated
look, a strong and shrill voice, short
bill, a fine red comb, shining as il
varnished ; wattles of a large siia^
and of the same colour as the oomb ;
the breast broad ; the wings strong;
the plumage black, or of an obscurs
red ; the thighs very muscular; the
legs thick, and furnished with strong
spurs ; the claws rather bent, and
sharply pointed. He ought also to be
free in his motions, to crow frequent-
ly, and to scratch the ground oAen ia
search of worms, not so much for
himself as to treat his hens. He
ought, withal, to be brisk, spiriied,
ardent, and ready in caressing the
hens; quick in defending them, at-
tentive in soliciting them to eat, ia
keeping them together, and in aBsen
bling them at night.* "

" The Bantam is a beautiful little
bird, usually white ia colour, with
short legs, feathered oftentimes to
the extremity of its toes. It is often
of variegated colours, inclined to red,
brown, and white, prettily mixed. Oo-
casionally a variety is met with that

POULTRY

ase uooOHbAeggtA, Tber ara very
domestic* often making their neat in
the kitchen and cupboards of the
dwelling, when permitted. They are
excellent layers and good nurses,
bat require a dry location, on account
of their short, feathered legs. The
males are wonderful crowers, exceed-
ingly pugnacious, and make three
times the fuss about the poultry-yard
that anything, but a bantam, should
do. They arrive at maturity early,
and are well worthy of propagation.
"The Bucks County breed has re-
ceived some celebrity in the neigh-
bourhood of Philadelphia as a valua-
ble variety of ibwl, principally on ac-
count of its enormous size. I have
seen many specimens of this fowl,
paid some attention to its habits, and
learned from those who have tried
them their principal merits. It is a
large bird, weighing, at maturity,
eight, and even ten pounds, rather
thinly feathered, of various colours
from gray to black, and frequently
apeckied black and white. They are
ooarse in their legs, tall and bony,
and have evidently a cross of the Ma-
lay in their composition. They are
but moderate ligrers; their eggs very
large and good. They are bad sit-
ters, frequently breaking their eggs,
on account of their great weight and
size, by crushing them ; are not hardy,
and, on the whole, will not compare
with the common dunghill fowl for
ordinary uses. They do not breed
tguaUy in size and appearance, show-
ing them, evidently, to be a cross from
other breeds ; but from what they are
derived, other than the Malay, it is
difficult to say. A gentleman of my
acquaintance, who is very curious as
well as nice in the selection of his
fowls» tried them eflectually for his
poultry-yard, and they disappointed
him. He then crossed them with the
game breed, and has succeeded fine-
]y, the cross being reduced in size,
fuller feathered, hardier, and better
layers, with an excellent carcass, and
finer desh. As a fancy fowl, or to
make up a variety, they are very
well, bat they can never become of
great uiilf% except to cross with the

eommon oir the game foiwi, to tM

farmer.

<*The Java or Indian fowl is a
large, ooarse bird, covered with a
coarse, long down or hair, of a dirty
white or yellow colour, and running
from that into all the shades of brown,
even to a smoky black. It appears
to differ little from the Malay fowl,
save in its crowing, and peihape lay-
ing deeper-coloured eggs. Its gener-
al characteristics are the same. In the
Northern States it is hardly worth
propagation : as a fancy bird, it pos-
sesses neither beauty nor utiUty."

'* Those who intend to rear fowls
or any kind of poultry on a large scale
should have a distinct yard, perfectly
sheltered, and with a warm aspect,
well fenced, secure from thieves and
vermin, and sufficiently inclined to be
always dry, and supplied with sand
or ashes for the cocks and hens to
roll in, an operation necessary to dis-
engage their feathers from vermin :
running water should be especially
provided ; for the want of water, of
which all poultry are fond, produces
constipation of the bowels and in-
flammatory diseases ; and for geese
and ducks bathing is an indispensa-
ble luxury. A ccmtiguous field is also
necessary for free exercise, as well
as for the supply of grubs and grass
to the geese. The fowl-hoose should
be dry, well roofed, and fronting the
east or south, and, if practicable, at
the back of a stove or stables, warmth
being conducive to health end la3ring,
though extreme heat has the contra-
ry e£ct. It should be furnished with
two small lattice windows, that can
be opened or shut at pleasure, at op-
posite ends, for ventilation, which is
frequently necessary ; and the perch-
es should be so arranged that one row
of roosting fowls should not be di-
rectly above another.

** M. Parmentier has shown by
what arrangement a house twenty
feet long and twelve feet wide may
be made to accommodate 160 hens
at roost. The plan is simply this:
the first roosting-peroh (rounded a
little at the upper angles only, for gal-
linaceoo^ fowls cannot keep a firm

6S1

FOOLTRT.

Md on pmtMtf eyfkMoal sapporU

ers) should be placed lengthwise, and
vest on tressels in escb end wali, six
feet from the front wall, and at a cod-
▼enient height, which most depend
on the eleyation of the house from
the floor, which should be formed of
some well consolidated material that
can be easily swept. Another perch
should he fixed ladder-wise {en eche-
lon) above this, but ten inches nearer
to the back wall, and so on, until
there are four of these perches, like
the steps of a ladder when properly
inclined, but with a sufficient distance
between the wall and the upper one
to allow the pouUry>maid to stand
coDTeniently upon when she has oc-
casion to examine the nests, which
it is her duty t<r do every day at least
once, and in the forenoon. The high-
est of these she can reach by stand-
ing on a stool or step-ladder. By this
contrivance the hens, when desirous
of reaching the nests, have no occa-
sion to fly, but merely to pass from
one stick to another. If the size and
form of the house permit, a similar
construction may be made on the op-
posite side, care being taken to leave
an open space in the middle of the
room, and a sufficiently wide passage
for the attendant to pass along the
walls. It is not at all required to
have as many nests as hens, because
they have not all occasion to occupy
them at the same time ; and besides,
they are so far from having a repug-
nance to lay in a common receptacle,
that the sight of an egg stimulates
them to lay. It is, however, true that
the most secluded and darkest nests
are those which the hens prefer.

" The nests, if built into the wall,
are in tiers from the bottom to the
top, the lowest being about three feet
from the ground, and a foot square.
If the laying chambers consist of
wooden boxes, they are usually fur-
nished with a ledge, which is very
conrenient for the hens when rising.

*« But the best receptacles for the
eggs are those of basket-work, as
they are cool in summer, and can ea-
sily be removed and washed. They
ought to be fastened, not direetly to
6SS

tbe win, as is generaily aie «ase, &«it
to boards fixed in it by hooks, neeH
clinched, and with a little roof to oov-
er the rows of baskets. They wili
thus be isolated, to the great oatSa-
faction of the hen, which delights to
the absence of all disturbing Influ-
ences when laying. All the rsngea
of nests should be placed cbeck-vnae,
in order that the inmates, when com'
ing out, may not startle those imme-
diately under. Those designed for
hatching should be near the ground
(where instinct teaches the hen to
choose her seat), and so arranged
that the hens can easily enter tbem
without disturbing the eggs. The
house should be thoroughly fumigated
with tobacco and sulfur in spring,
to kill the disagreeable lice, the straw,
dec., all chaoTOd, and the dung care-
fully removed.

" Wheaten or rye straw is the most
approved material for the bedding,
being cooler than hay : the bens ai^
sometimes so tortured 1>y lice as to
forsake their nests altogether, in as
agony of restlessness. A housewife
has assurred us that she once lost an
entire clutch, from having, as she be-
lieves, given a bed of hay seeds to
her sitting hen. The chicks were aH
glued to the shells, and thus destroy-
ed, owing, as she thinks, to the high
temperature occasioned by the fer
menting seeds.

** For all purposes two cocks in a
good run are constderd as sufBcient*
for twelve or fouiteen hens, but ia
France they allow twenty mistresses
to each cock, which no doubt is on*
accouQt of the higher temperature-
there. In a confined yard, five hens
are sufficient fur one cock, and a
double set will not answer in rery
limited space. Wben there are two
or more cocks, care should be taken
not to have them of e(|ual age or sise,-
for in this case they are always jeal-
ous and qtiarrelsome ; if one is deci-
dedly ascendant, the other will nev«
er presume to dispute with him. ft
will be judicious, also, to avoid the in*
troduction or changing of cocks ia
the breeding season, for the hens re*
quire constant intercourse with them,

POULTRY.

and serenl days frequently elapse
befbre they become familiarized with
a stranger . The trast way is to bring
in the new coek in the snmmer, ei-
ther as a ehick, or late in the year in
the moolting season, when he will
not take too nrach notice of the hens.
As a general mle, it would be well to
hare one a yearling, and the other a
year older. In the third year, the
cock, wtio then becomes lazy and ex-
cessirely jealoos, should be killed.

** lo order to have the earliest chick-
ens, hens should be induced to sit in
October, which they may do if they
haTC moulted early. By attention
in this particalar, chickens can be
bfrooght to the market at Christmas ;
hot the object should be, in general,
to set the eggs as soon as possible
after Christmas, in order to have
Sickens with the forced asparagus
in March.

''In selecting eggs for hatching,
care should betaken that they are not,
at the utmost, more than a month old,
but their condition for hatching will
greatly depend upon the temperature
of the weather: Titality continues
longest when the air is cool.

** it has been asserted that the fu-
ture sex of the bird is indicated by
the shape of the egg, the round pro-
ducing the female, and the oblong the
male. But this is contradicted, and,
we believe, with sufficient reason,
and it is impossible not only to foretell
the sex, but even to ascertain wheth-
er the egg be fecundated. This, how-
ever, is certain, that if the air-bag (at
the obthse end), which has been mis-
taken for the germ, and the purpose
of which is to oxygenate the bh>od of
the chick, be perforated even in the
least conceivable degree, the genera-
ting power is lost altogether. Those
eggs only which have been fecunda-
ted by the male are possessed of the
vital principle. The number of eggs
for a hen should not exceed sixteen,
as she cannot impart the necessary
warmth to more. It is by no means
uncommon with experienced breed-
ers to place two hens on the same
day on their respective eggs, and then
on the twenty-first day, when tlie

broods are out, to give the maternal
charge of both to one of the hens, re-
moving the other to another set of
eggs, which, if she be a steady setter,
she will hatch as in the first instance.
This, however, must bo deemed a cru-
elty, though ' some hens would in-
stinctively continue to sit until death.
They would, however, become so at-
tenuated by continued sitting, as to
lose the power of communicating to
the eggs the necessary degree of
warmth. The practice of the Surrey
breeders is to feed the hen on oats
while sitting, as less stimulating than
barley, which they give to the laying
hens on account of this very quality.

" Some fanciers use artificial moth-
ers, which effect the j)nrpose of im-
parting the necessary heat to the
young chicks aAer birth, when there
is no natural mother nor a trained
capon to brood them. These artifi-
cial mothers — as used by Mr. Mou-
bray, and described by him — are box-
es lined throughout with wool. He
recommends that a curtain of flannel
should be suspended over the open-
ing of the box for the exclusion of
cold air.

•* Mr. Young states that * five broods
may at once be cherished under an
artificial mother. This mother may
be framed of aboard ten inches broad
and fifteen inches long, resting On two
legs in front, two inches in heij»ht,
and on two props behind, two inches
also in height. The board must be
perforated with many small gimlet-
holes, for the escape of the heated
air, and lined with lamb's skin dressed
with the wool on, and the woolly side
is to come in contact with the chick-
ens. Over three of these mothers a
wicker basket is to be placed for the
protection of the chickens, four feet
long, two feet broad, and fourteen
inches high, with a lid open, a wooden
sliding bottom to draw out for clean-
ing, and a long narrow trough along
the front, resting on two very low
stools, for holdi ng their food . Perches
are to be fixed in the basket for the
more advanced to roost on. A flannel
curtain is to be placed in front, and at
both ends of the mothers, for the

POULTRY.

Atekens to nm aader, from whloh
they soon learn to push outward and
inward. These mothers, with the
wicker baskets over them, are to be
placed against a hot wall, at the back
of the lutchen fire, or in any other
warm situation where the heat shall
not exceed 80 degrees of Fahrenheit.

**^ When the chickens are a week
old, they are to be carried, with the
mother, to a grass-plat, for feeding,
and kept warm by a tin tube fill^
with hot water, which will continue
sufficiently warm for about three
hours, when the hot water is to be
renewed. Towards the evening the
mothers are to be again placed
against the hot wall.'

"The artificial mother, however,
is only a mechahical house for chicks
already hatched ; but the process of
bringing the embryo of organized life
in the egg through all the stages of
the vital principle, until it becomes
matured, by means of heated ovens,
has been long and successfully prac-
tised in Egypt.

"These ovens, which are con-
structed with bricks, are about nine
feet high, with galleries extending
through the whole length, and con-
taining chambers into which a man
can creep, through a very contracted
orifice, for the purpose of deposit-
ing the eggs, which are laid, to the
amount of several thousands, on
mats or beds of fiax over the brick
floors. The heat is conveyed through
fire-places ; and the material of the
slow fires, which are most effective,
is the dung of cows or camels com-
bined with straw. The fires are kept
up for as many days (according to
the temperature of the weather) as
are sufficient to impart such a degree
of heat as will continue to the expi-
ration of the 21 days required for
the hatching of chickens, care being
taken to confine the warmth by clo-
sing up all the orifices communica-
ting with the external air. One hun»
dred millions of chickens are said to
be thus annually produced in Egypt.

"M. Reaumur made various ex-
periments in hatching with ferment-
ed dung in hot-beds, but unsuccess-

faBy ; life was denelapedt iMt ■
matured ; the chicks were in MHBa
cases even feathered, bat lon^ be-
fore the full time they ioet vitality.
He succeeded at length, * after tnala
enough to wear out the most enda-
ring patience,' with an otob free
from the infiuence of the ▼f^oor ex-
haled from the dung, which in the
previous experiments had been de-
structive of the embrjFO. He after-
ward succeeded, to a great ^Segree,
by using a box or ^^ves over an
oven, with due regard to uoifommy
of temperature. Several of the eggs
in this latter case were heldiked oe
the twentieth day, by whic^ the usu*
al course of nature was anticifis^
by one day. But thoagh aitificisl
hatching has long been practised
with success in Egypt, it has not
been found worth the expense and
trouble in France, from the TanaUe-
ness of temperature there oompered
with that in the Delta, where, in the
autumnal season, when the mammals
(hatching-ovens) are used, it is re-
markably steady and extremelj
warm.

** Since the attempt to pursue the
Oriental system has failed in France,
there is no probability of its euoeeed
ing in the climate of Great Britain ;
but it by no means follows that suo^
cess may not attend such manage-
ment as will obviate the ofaetructions
which arise from irregularities of
temperature. The object was par>
tially attained some years ago by
means of steam, but uniformity of
heat was not preserved, and, coose*
quently, that experiment failed. It
would appear, however, that the ap-
plication of the Eccaleobion* ma-
chinery, exhibited in London by Mr.
Bucknell, the inventor and proprie
tor, may be successful. Mr. Buck
nell asserts that his eccaleobion pos-
sesses a perfect and absolute com-
mand over temperature from 300
degrees of Fahrenheit to that of cold
water; so that any substance sub-
mitted to its influence shall uniform-
ly be acted upon orer its whole sur-

* From UtcaXhat t eutt fnihf tnil fii^f^

POULTRY.

f^B at any reqatre^intenRediale da- 1
gree wHhin the above rangOt and such
beat roatnuioefl imaltered, without
tiouble or diffioaltjT, for any length
of time, and that * by means of this
mbeolote and complete command over
the temperature obtained by this ma-
ehtne, tbe impregnated efg of any
bird, not stale, placed within its infla-
eaeeat the proper degree of warmth,
is, at the ex|Mratioa of its natarai
time, elicited into life, withont the
possibility ef failure, which is some-
times the case with eggs subjecMd to
Che caprice of their natural parent.'

» That ehickens are thna hatched
in eonsidarable aumhers is onqnes-
tioaable, upward of thirty tboosand
having been already broaght into ex-
istence by this single eccaleobion ma*
chine ; nor has any difficulty been
found in the subsequent rearing of
those ehickens, when proper yards
and suitable temperature were pro-
vided, more than in the natural way ;
ifideed, rn some respects less so, as the
losses sustained in poultry by the sud-
den changes of the weather, and the
influence of dampness in particular,
and accidents from various causes,
are very considerable. Supposing Mr.
Bockneirs experiment to answer the
purpose in every respect, the increase
m the production of pouttry might t>e
rendered incalcuhibly great by the
adoption of his principle on a great
scale, wherever the essentials of a
dry soil, warmth, and proper build-
ings can at the same time bo supplied.

***It must have struck even the
most superficial observer, that the
extraordinary fecundity of gallinace-
ous fowls is a wise and most benev-
oleot dispensation of nature to pro-
vide the more abundantly food for
man, as, in those tribes of birds not
suited for his table, the female lays
no more eggs than she can incubate.
With respect, therefore, to domestic
poultry, the most nutritious of all hu-
man food, this rich provision of a
bounteous providence is, for the first
time, available to Europe.'

**The eccaleobion machine, capa-
ble of containing 2000 eggs, rpsem-
bles an oblong box, nine feet in length,

Gee

throe feet kt hreadth, and the same
in height. It has no connexion with
the walls, against which it is placed
oa the table on which it stands ; its
regulating power is within.

**The following striking passage,
from Mr. Buokneirs work ' On Arti-
ficial Incubation,' above alluded to,-
will show the importance of this sub-
ject in its commercial and domestic
bearings.

** Mr. Bucknell observes (page 16),
* We call the Egyptians barbarous ;
the procuring, however, by art and
industry, an abundant supply of that
necessary of life, good animal food,
is DO evidence of barbarism. If
the population of the United King-
dom, which, as respects Egypt, is as
twenty-four to two, were as well
supplied with this artificial produo-
tion as Egypt, it would require, not
92,000,000, but 1,104,000,000 of poul-
try annually, for them to be as well
fed in this respect as the uncivilized
natives of Egypt. But how stands
the account in this matter < Full one
third of our population subsist almost
entirely, or, rather, starve, upon po-
tatoes alone ; another third have, in
addition to this edible, oaten or infe-
rior wheaten bread, with one or two
meals of fat pork, or the refuse of
the shambles, per week ; while a con-
siderable majority of the remaining
third seldom are able to procure aii
ample daily supply of good butoher*s
meat, or obtain the luxury of poultry
from year to year.

" • On the Continent of Europe the
population is still in a worse condi-
tion : fish, soups made from herbs»
a stuff* called bread, made from every
variety of grain, black, brown, hard,
and sour, such as no Englishman
could eat ; olives, chestnuts, the pulpy
saccharine fruits, roots, stalks, and
leaves, and not unfrequently the bark
of trees; sawdust, blubber, train-oil,
with frogs and snails, make up and
constitute a good part of the food of
the greater portion of the inhabitants
of Europe. There is no o.t^er cause
for this than the exces/sive ignorance
of its population'

*»Tbe co(\teoPLpla|ioQ of the prOf

62Q

FOULTRY.

freaaive stages throogb which life ie
developed and matured in the egg is
highly interesting. The contents of
the shells, of the species under im-
mediate consideration, taken out and
placed on a plate or a saucer on Mr.
Buckneirs table, present the follow-
ing appearances, according to the re-
spective periods :

** On the third day, the embryo or-
ganization of the skull, brain, heart,
and blood, is perceptible by the aid
of a magnifying glass.

<* Fourth day. The pulsation of
the heart is distinguishable by the
nak^ eye.

" Sixth day. The chief vessels and
organs rudimentally formed ; the pul-
sation and circulation of blood appa-
rent.

*' Ninth day. Intestines and veins
formed, and the deposition of flesh
and bony substance commenced ; the
beak for the first time open.

* » Twelfth day. The feathers have
protruded, the skull has become car-
tilaginous, and the first voluntary
movement of the chick is made.

" Fifteenth day. Organs, vessels,
bones, feathers, closely approaching,
in appearance, to the natural state.

*» Eighteenth day. Vital mecha-
nism nearly developed, and the first
sign of life heard from the piping
chick.

"Twenty-first day. The chick
breaks the shell, and in two or three
hours is quite active and lively.

" The exit of the chick from the
shell is assuredly one of the most
interesting processes of animated na-
ture ever mvestigated by naturalists.
It was supposed that the motlier bird
broke the sliell ; but M. Reaumur has
long since detailed the processes, and
we ourselves have witnessed the ev-
olution of the chick in the eccaleo-
bion, by its own unassisted efforts.
The French naturalist to whom we
have just now referred thus explains
some jjateresting facts : ' I have seen
chicks coftlinue at work for two days
together. Some, again, work inces-
santly ; others take rest at intervals,
according to their physical strength.
I have observed some« in consequence

of thehr tniNitieBee to Me the iigbC.

begin to break the shell a great deal
too soon ; for they ought, befoi« tli^
make their exit, to have within fliem
provision enou^ to serve for tweatj-
four hours wiUioat taking food, aad
for this purpose the uncooemned por-
tion of the yolk enters thrangh the
navel. The chick, indeed, wfajch
comes out of the shell bef(»re takiag
up all the yoUc, is oertahi to droo|>
and die a few days after it ie batcked.
The help which 1 have oet^nHomMf
tried to give to several of them to-
wards their deliverance baa affocded
me an opportunity of observing those
which had begun to break Uieir sheila
before this was aooomplished ; and 1
have opened many eggs mooh frac-
tured, in each of which the chick had
as yet much of the yoik not absorbed.
Besides, some chicks have greater
obstacles to overcome than otherBr
since all shells are not of ao eqoal
thickness nor of an eqosl consist-
ence ; and I think it probable that \h»
same inequality takes place in Xbe li-
ning membrane. The shells of the
eggs of birds of various species are
of a thickness proportional to the
strength of the chick that is obliged
to break through them.**

** If the chick should be gioed to
the shell, as sometimes occurs, and
is indicated by the faintness <yf its
chip and the non-enlargement of the
fracture for some hours, it must be
assisted (but not until the necessity
is fully ascertained) in its liberation
' with a key, or some such instru-
ment, and by cutting the membrane
with the points of a pair of scisaon.
The operation, though painful to the
chick, does not prove mortal ; for it
is no sooner freed than it exhibits aa
much vigour as any other chick of ita
age.^t But unless the chick, after a
full day's effort, is found unable to
chip the shell, from weakness or ad-
hesion to its envelope, it is better not
to assist it in its extrication ; for kt
ninety-nine cases out of a hundred
aid proves ineffectual, through the
injury inflicted upon the delicate or-

* *' Dfimestto Hahiu of Birds,'* Library ^
Emi€rtmmimg Kmnritdg^* t Ibid.

POULTRY.

gftirixationoftttftbird; or, more prob- [
ably, the previous weakness or im-
perfection of the chick, which occa-
stoneil the neeessity for assistance,
also occasions its death at the mo-
ment of its birth, ami woald take place
even if its disengagement were ef-
fected without any injury.

••There is a cantioit to be observed
in all cases regarding the eggs when
the chicks are on the verge of matu-
rity : they shookl not be stirred when
within two days of the evolvement
of the chicks. If any ciroumstances
render it absointely necessary to do
so, care shookl be taken to place
them with the broad end inclining
upward, as the beak of the chick is
then in its proper position ; and if
this be reversed, the cbick becomes
tinahle to chip the shell, and most
therefore die.

••Chickens shoald be fed the day
after their birth with crumbs of bread
eoaked in mtUc, or with the yolk of
an egg boiled h»rd; and they will
quickly learn to eat curds, grits, and
barley-meal and milk. If not design-
ed for immediate use, they should
soon get raw corn« and occasionally
alteratives of green food, such as
bruised leeks, nettles, lettuces, dec.
For the first week they should be con-
fined to the house altogether ; after
that time they may be let out for a
^ort time in the sun, and gradoafiy
habituated to the weather. To ren-
der the hen, which has already dis-
charged her duty, still more produc-
tive to her owner, she is frequently
confined to a coop, called, in Surrey,
a np. for some weeks after the chicks
have seen the light. Her ofispring
during this time pass freely through
the prison bars, returning at her call,
or on occasions of alarm, to the ma-
ternal wings, and then hopping out
again, to the inexpressible misery of
their imprisoned mother, who is kept
in this state of confinement until she
becomes indifferent to the chickens
and disposed to lay again.

•* The courage of the hen in de-
fence of her offspring has been a
common theme of admiration ; the
force of her matamal solieitiide ef-

fects the most surprising change in
her disposition and temper. Before
she attained her matronly character,
she was greedy, and always search-
ing for f(M>d, fond of gadding about,
and timid in the extreme. Now she
becomes generous, self-denying, and
intrepid ; she assumes the fiery tem-
per of the cock, and becomes a vira-
go in defence of her helpless brood.
An anecdote is told by White, in his
* Natural History of Selbome,' of the
punishment inflicted by some bens
upon a hawk which had, at difibrent
times, killed their chickens. By some
means this hawk was caught, and the
owner gave him up to the tender mer-
cies of the bereaved mothers. In his
own words, • Resentment suggested
the laws of retaliation. He clipped
the hawk's wings, cot off his talons,
and, fixing a cork on his bill, threw
Mm down among the brood hens.
Imagination cannot paint the scene
that ensued ; the expressions of fear,
rage, and revenge inspired were new,
or, at least, such as had been unno-
ticed before. The exasperated ma-
trons upbraided, they execrated, they
insulted, they triumphed. In a word,
they never desisted from buffeting
their adversary till they had torn him
in a hundred pieces.'

•• The same writer calls attention
to the language of the fowl, from a
pleased twittering to a scream. A
laying pullet utters a complacent, soft
note ; but when she has been deliv-
ered of an egg, her cackle of delight
and importance is loud enough to ex-
cite the sympathetic voices of all her
companions ; when her chickens are
batched, she has a diffbrent language,
which is intelligible to her little ones.
The crested cock has yarions notes ;
his tone and language, for such it is
in efifect, as he calls his favourites to
partake of the food which he gallant-
ly scrapes for them, is of a very pe-
culiar Kind, and very diflTerent from
his ordinary voice, tint is so familiar
tons.

" Poultry are the better for high
feeding from the very shell, and, on
this account, the heaviest corn is oft-
en far cheaper for them ia the end

627

POULTRY.

than tailings, as TegndB tbe tosh, or
the size and substantial goodness of
the eggs. Chickens may be pat up
for f^ing as soon as the hen has
ceased to regard them, and before
they lose their first good condition.
When chickens are wanted for do-
mestic purposes, they are oAen left
at liberty in the farm-yard; and if
they have plenty of good food, they
will be in the most healthfhl state for
the table, and rich and jnicy in fia-
Tour. Mr. Moubray ascertained that
pullets hatched in Mareh, if constant-
ly high fed, laid eggs abundantly in
the autumn ; and if killed in the Feb-
ruary or March following, were so ex-
cessirely fat from the run of the yard
as to open more like Michaelmas
geese than chickens. Experienced
poulterers will fatten fowls in two or
three weeks with the aid of grease,
which gives a luscious, but, in our
judgment, a very disagreeable fla-
vour to the flesh, whicii, though not
actually diseased, is very inferior to
that of the fowl fed at large in the
common way at the barn-door.

** The practice of cramming poul-
try by the hand is quite common. A
machine for this purpose is used in
France, by which one man can cram
fldy birds in half an hour. It is some-
what on the principle of a forcing-
pump. The throats of the birds are
held open by the operator until they
are gorged through a pipe, which
conveys the food IVom a reservoir be-
low, placed on a stool. In fifteen
days fowls arc said to attain the high-
est state of fatness and flavour by
this feeding. In addition to the or-
dinary paste of barley-meal, or meal
made into little balls with miik. the
dried seeds and leaves of nettles have
been recommended by the continent-
al poulterers, some of whom give a
little henbane seed to induce sleep,
while others put out tbe eyes of the
prisoners, as the most efibctual way
of keeping them in a state of dark-
ness, which is considered essential
to their becoming rapidly fat; and,
under tbe pretext of relieving them
from the irritation of vermin, they
pluck the featheri> from their heads,
628

bellies, and wings. Whie ftiwta nrm
thus preparing for the knife, though
their bodies are closoly confined, tbear
hinder parts are free for evaeoatiDR
and cleantiness, and their bends nre at
liberty to take in fresh supplies of
nutriment.

*' Tbe practice of making e^ions
(emasculating the males) is practised
a little in some of the Bngl^ ooon-
ties, and very much in France, where
the females are also rendered tnoa«
pable of breeding, and termed in their
unsexed condition pouiafdegj im order
to give them the tendency to ftttten.
An incision is made near Uie pnta,
and through this the finger is intro*
dnoed to tidce hold of and bring away
the genitals, but so earefnUy as not
to injure the intestines : the wound is
then stitched np, and mbbed with ofl
or grease ; and the comb (which ap-
pears to be an unnecessary and gratu-
itous pain and insult to the soflSbrcn*) is
often cut oflT. The fenudes are treated
much in the same way, when they do
not promise well for laying, or when
they have ceased to be fertile ; they^
are deprived of the ovarium. Tbe
subsequent treatment is simttar to
that in the former case. Care is ta-
ken to give them good food for three
or four days, and during that time to
keep them in a place of moderate
temperature, to avoid the danger of
gangrene, which, considering the
time of the year — ^midsummer, when
the operation is usually performed—
is a very probable conseqaeace. Pol*
lets of the largest breed are selected
for the purpose, as they yield the
greatest weight to the povlterar ; and,
if employed in hatching, cover the
greatest number of eggs.

'* Cuvler states that the capon may
be taught to hatch eggs, and to act
the part of a gobd nurse, with a little
bell round his neck to supply ^e want
of a good voice. He asserts that tbe
natural courage and energy of this
bird are not abated by the alteration
of his condition, in which his audaci-
ty enables him to impose on the cocks
and hens, so that they allow him to
strut about with his former gait of
consequential importance, and to ful-

POULTRY.

M hh ddtiM without iotevferenee or
molestattoa. This seems inoredible,
as a bold and baoghty spirit uoder
suoh circamstanoes is uonatural in
the extreme. The pallidness of his
bead and the diminutiTeness of his
oomb and giite iodicate the eontrary
dispoeitioA, and he is so despised by
the other fowls that they wiU hardly
oondMcettd to roost with him.

*< Mr. Youngv m his * Report of the
C01U1I7 of Sassex,' aays that much
art and aMention are reiiaisite to
nafce capoBs, aad that the Basaex
breed are too long ia the body for
Boeeeas i& the operation, by which
many are lost. K perfectly fat capon
will weigh from aeTen to ten pounds.

" As soon as fowls are rendered
aoffiotently fat^ they abould be kiUed,
or they will loose flesh and become
Enbealtfay. The most hamane and
expeditious mode of putting them to
death is by a smart blow with a blunt-
edged stidc, each as a child's bat, at
the back of the neck. Higglers break
the vertebre of the neck ^ a sudden
twist» and never bleed fowls, as this
mode of despatching them dries up
the juices of the flesh. They bleed
turkeys and geese, however, after a
flftumiing blow on the neck, not by
cutting the throat, but by an incision
in the upper part of the mouth.

" Store fowls will feed weU upon
the tailings of corn, potatoes, and in-
sect and require little attention ex-
cept when laying, during which time
the food for the hens should be abun-
dant, and their roosting places dry
and warm.

" The diaeasea of all poultry prin-
cipally arise ttom cold and moisture.
Rhtumatism decidedly arises from
ilba» cause. Daring or after moult-
ing in a wet season, fowls frequently
beeome diseased, as is evident from
their drooping appearance, swelled
and watery eyes, and the dropsical
aflfections of the legs. Severe laying
also sometimes causes emaciation
and i\lness, which give way to a more
healthy condition after the mouhing
aeason, if they have good food and
dry weather.

• Chickens are veiy subject, in wet

Goa3

or variable weaiher, to a disease call-
ed the chip, which appears in about
a fortnight after their birth, when
they are changing their feathers.
Warmth and sunshine are the only
restoratives within our knowledge.

" The roup is properly a gathering
upon the rump, which is cured or re-
lieved by opening, squeezing, and
bathing with warm water. Mr. Mow-
bray, however, who is a good practi-
cal authority, states that the roup is a
general term for all diseases, though
it is chiefly applied to catarrh, which
is indicated by watery eyes and run-
ning at the nostrils. This last disease
resembles glanders in horses, and
is infectious, and generally fatal. As
all these diseases originate in moist-
ure, dryness and warmth are the
beat counteracting influences. The
nostrils should be washed with soap
and water, and the eyes with milk
and water. Mr. Mowbray recom-
mends a pepper-corn in dough at first,
to impart warmth, and afterward
calomel three times a week, as a fin-
ish to the cure.

*< We have had the trachea of a
chicken dying of the gapes (which is
the incipient stage of roup) cut and
opened, and have taken out narrow
worms, about half an inch in length,
which lay imbedded in a serous fluid.
A medical friend has frequently cured
fowls of the same disease by putting
the upper part of a feather, stripped
for the purpose, down the trachea,
turning it round, and thus bringing
up the worm, which he thinks is the
sole cause of the disease. It may,
however, be the efi*ect of the malady,
as is the opinion of many.

" The pipt which the same individ-
ual considers analogous to the thrush
in the human kind, he cures, not by
scraping roughly, but by an applica-
tion of powdered borax dissolved in
tincture of myrrh and water, and
rubbed on the tongue with a camel's-
hair brush two or three times a day.
This, at the same time, assists the
bowels. The^K;; is not uncommon.
Solid corn is the most certain reme-
dy for this disease. Taken at the
commencement, it is rarely serious,

629

POULTRY.

Init If onoe estaMished in the eoirati-
tntion, it becomes incurablei and, ac-
cording to some, contagions. For
constipation, bran, or pollard, with
xnilk, beet leaTes, and lettucesi afibrd
a certain cnre.

** Much of the foregoing matter ap-
plies to the rearing and management
of all poultry^. The succeeding ob-
servations will be brief

**7Vr*eyt. — The greatest weight
to which oor domesticated poultry
can be made to attain is thirty pounds,
and a turkey of even half this weight
is a * dainty dish/

'* The varied i^tmiage of the bird
in the domesticated state is well
known to every one ; and in no spe-
cies is that snre mark of subjection
to man more strongly seen. The
bronze, or copper-coloured, is not
considered hardy, nor often reared,
and tiie varieties may be stated to be
only twofold, the dark-coloured and
the light.

The dark-coloured birds are most
prized for size and hardihood.

" Turkeys, though extremely deli-
cate in their infancy, become very
hardy, and, if permitted, will roost on
the highest trees, in the cold dry
nights of winter, without suffering
injury. The hen, which lays many
eggs early in spring, sits thirty days,
and covers from twelve to fifteen
eggs. It is unnecessary ftnr the tur-
key-cock, as is the case with gaUtna-
ceous fowl, to be in constant inter-
course with the hen during her pe-
riod of laying. Two visits from him
in that season are sufficient to im-
pregnate all the eggs. She is a very
steady sitter, and must be removed
to her food and supplied with water,
for she would never leave her nest.
She wants the alertness, and courage,
and sagacity of the common hen, and
might be called a fool with much
more propriety than the goose, which
is an intelligent bird. The turkey
hen is incapable of teaching her young
ones how to pick up their food, on
which account a poultry maid should
always attend them urtil they are
reared. #

** On account of the constiratioiial

ttdo

delicacy of this VM, tbs ^aMaag
should not be comaicnoed toe cvty
in the spring, and when the ehicl»
are hatched they alioald be guarded
from the extremes of heat end cold
for some weeks. Raia is afanoet
always fatal to them in their eaily
stage. Cufd, boiled eggs, and barley
or oatmed, kneaded with aOk (or
water, in caae Inilk should pradoee
looseness), potatoes, nettles, pantey,
Swedish tvmipe, with chopped beet
leaves,' after a little time, are their
proper food. As they retaia no naodi
of their original wild nafure aa to
stray a eensiderabie dietanee, if per
mitted, the hen should be tied &»
cooped for at least six weeks« whc»
the chicks will be hardy enough to
follow her about, under the vigilant
eye, however, of the ponltry maid,
who should beware of their being
caught by a shower.

'* They are soon fomiliansed to the
society of fowls in the poultry or
farm yard. Without the advantago
of the latter, it is an nnptofitaMe
speculation to rear any description of
poultry on a large scale ; hut where
a farmer's yard presents facilities, te
economy of having all those kinds to
which the soil and elimate are aatta-
ble is considerable. The only cau-
tion with regard to turkeys, where
gallinaceous birds nre nnnaenMis, ia
to have separate houses for them at
night. These should he very lofty
and wdl ventilated. They may ha
altogether open to the air in front, the
doors being of tieHis-work. Fowls
(which are equally unsocial with the
capons of their own kind) have a
strong disinelination to roast with
them.

** When well grown, tuikeys sv^
ply themselves in their raiabbngs so
far as to require food only when leav-
ing their house in the morning and
returning at night. The chanoea of
rearing a second brood are not so
great aa to reader it expedient to
make the trial.

*« After six months, turkeys may
be crammed like fowls, hot they re-
quire a much longer period to render
them folly fat. Those great birds

POOLTRT.

whieh are sent lo the market aboat
Christmas, fre^ientiy weighing from
tweiity to twenty-live pounds, are
oanaUy coeks from the preceding
year.

«• Gmjt0€ F«wi.-r-Thts bird, which is
not mneh larger than the common
barn-door fowl» is of beautifol ibrm
and plumage, and, though not a
eouree of profit to those who rear
ponltry for immediate sale, is usually
kept where there is proper accommo-
dation, as maeh on account of the ez-
oelleace'and abundance of the eggs
(which, though small, are well-fl»-
▼onred) as for the sake of the flesh,
whieh is prised. The number of hens
flowed to the male is about the same
as among the gallinaceous family.
The cock, little distinguished in ap-
pearance from the female, is an at-
tentive and affectionate mate, and
even obtrusively so to his favourites,
whom he will attend to the nest, and
remain with until they have laid their

** Retaining some of their original
wildness, Guinea fowl dislike the con-
finement or a house. For the pur-
pose of laying, they prefer shrubber-
ies, clover meadows, or corn-fields,
in which they will deposite their
eggs, unless closely watched. The
Guinea hen is fruitful during the en-
tire summer, but not earlier than May.
On this account, and the diflicttlty of
rearing a late brood, it is more bene-
Acial to keep her entirely for laying,
and to put the earlier eggs under a
common hen, or capon, which will
eover from twenty to twenty-five,
than to encourage the incubation of
the nataral parent, which is, more-
over, indisposed to it, especially if un-
der cover. If left to her instinct, this
bird would, at a late season, in the
open air, sit for the natural period,
which is twenty-eight or twenty-nine
days.

*' The cock, having the same dis-
like to incobation which character-
izes the male of pea fowl, will de-
stroy the eggs if he can discover
them. Though the shell is remarka-
bly hard, the chicks break through it
at the proper moment, and are soon

after as yigoroos and leady to eat
as the young of any other tribe of
poultry.

" The loud cry of these birds is not
agreeable, but, like the scream of the
pea fowl, it announces with certainty
an approaching change of weather.
The hen utters a cry when she de-
sires to roost, to call in her compan-
ions, to summon assistance, or to give
notice of any of those alarms which
her sensibilities cause her to express
with such energy of voice, and in all
which cases she is sure of receiving
a ready sjrmpathy.

** The same food which is suited to
the young of gallinaceous fowls and
turkeys is good for the chicks of this
kind ; but as they are not often des-
tined to the coops for fattening, a
good deal of garden or field green
food may be combined with their
grits, dec, after the first month. They
have a great relish for insects of ev-
ery* kind, and thrive upon them as
well as upon hemp seed. When de-
signed for the table, they ought to be
killed at an early age, at which time
the flesh is more juicy than that of
other poultry of the same age, and
very like that of the pheasant, though
when old it becomes exceedingly
tough.

^* Duck*. — ^The white duck, being
the largest of the common domesti-
cated kinds, is perhaps the best for
the poulterer, though it is not deem-
ed so delicate in flavour as the dark-
coloured, such as that bred from in-
termixture with the Rhone duck,
which is also large. The Muscovy
variety is said to be a good breeder.
One drake is sufficient for five fe-
males. It is generally believed that
the duck lays no more eggs than she
can cover (from twelve to fifteen),
but Mr. Moubray states that, if well
fed, some ducks will lay a great num-
ber, and he gives an instance of one
laying an egg every day for eighty-
five days.

" For a fortnight after their birth,
ducklings should be kept from rush-
ing into the water, to which their in-
stinct soon leads them ; and with
this Tiew the mother is frequently

631

POULTRY.

eonfined (where there is any pond
within her reach) to the rip, already
described, which should be placed on
a field of short grass with a flat dish
of water near it. The ducklings wad-
dle about in search of insects, and at
the maternal call return to the coop.
This restraint upon the liberty of the
poor mother should be aroided if cir-
cumstances permit, for to protract
her close confinement after more
than four weeks' sitting is a cruel re-
straint. It is very common to place
duck eggs under a hen, on account
of her excellent qualities as a nurse.

"Any kind of meal is good for
ducklings at first, and this may soon
be mixed with potatoes. The refuse
of the kitchen will not only support,
but fatten them ; but to have them
quickly and highly fattened, they
should have oatmeal made into paste.
They will also devour any animal of-
fal, and have no fastidiousness what-
ever. If allowed to follow a plodgb,
or attend on the gardener when his
spade is at work, their greediness
and activity in picking up worms are
extreme ; and for gobbling up snails
and slugs, and other such delicacies
in the field or garden, they are most
useful, wbile they are at the same
time putting themselves into high
condition. Having no fastidiousness
of appetite, they never require cram-
ming; indeed, they act as if they
considered it their duty to get fat as
quickly as possible, and therefore re-
quire no artificial aid.

*' In a poultry-yard the ducks and
geese are frequently lodged on the
lower floor of the fowl-bouses, but it
is better, if the locality will permit, to
give them distinct chambers, partic-
ularly where a good pond (free from
ccis) is available ; on the margin of
this their huts may be placed, with
very trifling labour, and an invisible
paling all round the water, construct-
ed ai bottom on the principle of the
cage-trap, so as to prevent the in-
gress of rats or weasels, while it af-
fords them a ready outlet, renders
this department of the poultry estab-
lishment complete, though far too
expensive for common adoption.
63S

** Geete. — Tbo prop^rtum of lb-
males to the males is the same «a in
the duck tribe, and the period of in*
cubatton and the number of egge tbat
may be set correspond exactly. Tbe
goose lays in a mild spring very ear-
ly, and on this account (but only with
high corn-feeding in the previous win-
ter, and stimulating food dunug tbe
entire breeding season) two broods
may be had in the same year. Un-
like the peacock and the Gutnes cock*
the gander is not only indisposed to
do any mischief to tbe nesta, but is
very attentive to tbe hatching buds»
whom be vigilantly proteets ss he
sits patiently by ; nor is bia parutee-
tion, as he socompasiea tbe gostiAgs
in due course, less creditable to his
paternal character. The gooae is a
very steady sitter, but usually rises
often enough to drink and take sus-
tenance, without its being necessary
to remove her from her nest for ibe
purpose.

** The early treatment of the goa-
lings is similar to that of duckbags^
The mother should be penned up for
some days upon dry graas, but nei-
ther too early nor very late in the
day : beet leaves, or other green food,
may be mixed even with tbe early
diet, if immediate fattening be nut
the object.

"Green geese are broiight vejy
early to market ; they can be made
quite fat with oatmeal and pease^
and skimmed milk or buttermilk^
when from four to six months old :
many prefer oats alone.

*'Tbe management of them is thus
detailed in a communication to Mr.
Moubray :

" * Cleanliness, punctuality, and reg-
ularity prevail ; the business is con-
ducted, as it were, by machinery, ri-
vallinir the vibrations of the pendu-
lum in uniformity of movement. The
grand object of preparing, not geese
only, but poultry in general, for mar-
ket, in as short a time as possible, is
effected solely by paying unremitting
attention to their wants ; in keeping
them thoroughly clean ; in supplying
them with proper food (dry, soft, and
green)i water, exercise ground, &a

POU

On arriTin^ at the feeders, they are
classed according to condition, &c. :
tbey soon become reconciled to their
new abode and to each other. They
are fed three times a day, and it is
truly astonishing how soon tliey ac-
quire the knowledge of ttie precise
time; marching from the exercise
ground to the pens h'ke soldiers in
close column. Goslings, or young
geeso, come to hand generally about
the month of April, ailer which a
regular and constant supply arrives
weekly throughout the season. At
first they are fed on soA meat, con-
sisting of prime barley or oat meal,
afterward on dry corn. An idea pre-
vails with many that any sort of com
-will do for poultry: this is a grand
mistake. Those who feed largely
£now better, and invariably make it a
mle to buy the best. The Messrs.
Soyce, whose pens are capable of
vilding the extraordinary number of
1000 geese, independent of ducks,
lurkeys, &c., consume 80 bushels of
oats daily, exclusive of other food.'

•' But though green geese bring an
enormous price in the spring, if thor-
oughly fat, farmers generally find it
more profitable to feed goslings on
the stubbles, where they supply them-
selves with the best food without
cost, and become sufficiently fat at
Michaelmas, when ancient custom
renders them a favourite dish.

" Though young geese are subject
to a disease called the cramp, the
greater number of those which die in
summer are destroyed by starvation,
and the change from corn, and other
nutritive food, to the miserable her-
bage which the fields and commons
yield ; and this constitutes their chief
diet until the harvest season. Cold
and wet weather are oflen fatal to
them in the earlier months, if they be
neglected. Much mortality also pre-
vails among grown geese, wherever
the horrible system of plucking them
alive is practised. It is generally
urged in excuse for this barbarity
that feathers are most elastic and
valuable before the period of moult-
ing, and that geese have been thus
treated ever since feather beds came

POU

into fashion. The offence Carrie
some punishment with it, for it ren-
ders the flesh very tough, and in
many respects deteriorates the value
of a bird, if it does not destroy it al-
together ; but the immediate gain
from the feathers counterbalances
this and every humane consideration.

"The cramming system is prac-
tised in France, when the object is
to render the liver unnaturally en-
larged by disease, with circumstan-
ces of great cruelty. We do not in-
tend to give any information upon
practices which we cannot recom-
mend, and which we strongly con-
demn.

" £ff^'- — ^The most certain way of
preserving eggs fresh is by greasing
them with some unctuous matter, or
immersing them in milk of lime. In
packing, they should be laid on end ;
for otherwise the yolks, preserving
their centre of gravity, fall to the
lowest side, and, by adhesion to it,
become tainted sooner than if they
were suspended in the centre. Briny
salt, or sawdust, are good packing
materials.

" The only management, besides
warmth and high feeding, by which a
perpetual succession of eggs can be •
obtained in winter, is by having pul-
lets and hens of diiferent ages, which,
moulting at difl!erent periods, do not
all cease laying at the same time."

POULTRY DUNG. The urine ot
birds is solid, and voided along with
the matters rejected from the bowels ;
their dung is, therefore, nearly ap-
proaching to urate or the dried urine
of animals, and is richer the less ve-
getable food they take ; hence the ex-
crement of sea gulls forms guano,
the best manure known. The com-
position of poultry dung varies with
their food, the husks and green, indi-
gestible parts of vegetables being im-
purities which diminish the value of
the white solid uric acid. The com-
position of the urine or white part is
the same for aU birds, and consists
chiefly of

Uric acid . . 88-711
Ammonia . . J-M 1 ^>^j^

688

POU

PRA

The uric acid by decay becomes
converted into bicarbonate of ammo-
nia, ao that the manure ia nearly ap-
proaching to commercial carbonate
of ammonia, with a little bone earth.
Four or five bushels composted with
moist charcoal, gypsum, and peat,
and allowed to rot partially, forms a
very stimulating application to young
plants and seeds, being as good as
about one half the quantity of guano.
Johnstone makes the following re-
marks on the comparative valne of the
different kinds of dung, but it is to be
remembered that fowls fed on in-

sects or animal matters will make
manure as rich as guano.

" Pigeons* dang is much prized as
a manure, wherever it can be obtain-
ed in any considerable quantity. In
Belgium it is esteemed as a top-dress-
ing for the young flax, and the yearly
produce of 100 pigeons is sold for
about 20«. Its immediate eflfect de-
pends upon the quantity of soluble
matter it contains, and this varies
much, according to its age and to
the circumstances under which it has
been preserved. Thus, Davy and
Sprengel obtained respectively of

Solablfl matter in figtma* dtinr

Recent

(D«Ty.)

93 jwr cent

Six inoatlwohL

(Spreq^l.)

16 per cent.

SperceaC

**The soluble matter consists of
urio acid in small quantity, of urate,
anlphate, and especially of carbonate
of ammonia, common salt, and sul-
phate of potash ; the insoluble chiefly
of phosjrfiate of lime, with a little
phosphate of magnesia, and a varia-
ble admixture of sand aud other
earthy matters. When exposed to
Hioisture, the pigeons* dung, especial-
ly if recent, undergoes fermentation,
loses a parivoL of its ammoniacal
saltb, and thus becomes less valuable.
When it is intended to be kept, it
should be mixed with a dry vegetable
soil, or made into a compost with
earth and sawdust, with a portion
of pulverized or charred peat, or
with such a disinfecting charcoal as
that which is employed in the man-
ufacture of animalized carbon.

**Fowl dung oAen accumulates,
decomposes, and runs to waste in
poultry-yards, when, with a little care,
It might be collected in considerable
quantities

** Goose dang is less rich than that
of hens or pigeons, because this bird
feeds less upon grain, and derives a
considerable portion of its nourish-
ment from the grass which it crops
when allowed to go at liberty over
the fields. Its known injurious ef-
fects upon the grass on which it falls
arise from its being in too concen-
trated a state. In moist w^eather, or
yhere rain soon succeeds, it does no
injury, and even when in dry weath-
634

er it kills the blades on which it
drops, it brings up the succeeding
shoots with increased luxuriance.*'

POUND, LB. The avoirdupois
contains 16 os. and 7000 troy grs.
The troy pound 12 oz. and 5760 grs.
Also, an enclosure for cattle. In
England a penal enclosure for tres-
passing cattle.

PGUP ART'S LIGAMENT. A
tendinous expansion, running from
the top, or crista^ of the ilium to the os
pubis, under which hernias protrude.

POVERTY GRASS. Aristida,
dichotama, A grass growing on steril
places.

POWER. In mechanics, denoting
a force which, being applied to a ma-
chine, tends to produce motion. A
ntechanieal power denotes one of the
six simple machines, viz., the /rccr,
the inclined plane, the wr«r, the wheel
and axUj tlie teedge^ and the pulley.

POZZUOLANA. Volcanic ashes,
used in making hydraulic cements.

PILECORDIA. The fore part of

tho cbcst

PR^MORSE, BITTEN. Stumpy
roots which appear to have been
bitten.

PRAIRIE. This name is given to
the immense tracts of grass land oc-
curring throughout the West. They
are usually gently rolling or undula-
ting lands, the grass of which is
thickly matted, and from a few inches
to three or four feet high, being most
luxuriant in wet, swampy places.

prairhl

2in

The prairie is often adorned with
beautiful flowers in spring, and^iinv
deed, tbrougboat tlie year^viT^ie
grass is of various kindo)' somo^ as
that called buffkkk grassy riming: bf
great Talueiittoi^bolBviSihawevor,
Butrltiqoa, <lkii^iisUri irs oxefa;. hdraea;
aoA M\ieapinrem^irk^hi9) veUioithetft
W» '. momenHW \ lape^iea/ 1 fThflUgfcai
defect of tbepraSriO' is ^^aiit of (!ra^
ber ; in some places this is provided
on the islets of the rivers, or on
blu0s, but it is often altogether absent
for great distances. There is a de-
scription of partially timbered land,
called harreia, in which the trees
Atand apart, with a tender grass grow-
ing between them.

The method of breaking np the
prairie, and other interesting topics
to the emigrant, are contained in the
following remarks by Mr. Robinson,
of Indiana :

•« Breaking up ike Prairie. — ^Fancy
upon a leveC smooth piece of ground,
free from sticks, stumps, and stones,
a team of four, five, or even six yoke
of oxen, hitched to a pair of cart
wheels, and to them hitched a plough
with a beam fourteen feet long, and
the share, ^c., of which weigh from
aixty to one hundred and twenty-five
pounds, of wrought iron and steel,
and which oats a Airrow from sixteen
CO twenty^foitr inches wide, and yon
will figure the appearance of a * break-
ing team* in operation.

*• 1 do believe, though, that a smaller
plough and less team would be bet-
ter for the land, though it is said it
would be more expensive ploughing.
It is true that the sod is more tough
than can be believed by those wbo
have never ploughed it. It requires
the plough to be kept very sharp, and
for this purpose the ploughman is
always provided with a large file, with
which he keeps a keen edge as pos-
sible upon the share and coitlter.

** Such a team ploughs from one to
two acres a day, usually about four
inches deep, which is not near down
to the bottom of the roots, so that
the sod turned up affords but a scanty
covering for grain that is sowed upon
it at first, yet rerj fine crops of w|)e^t

ar#vaised>iB fUais^y^ ' itiis'tdteit
^mnH>a.prictiee.to brea1c«p.iirthe
iftpiingj^md>ilBclpfaorn in everf second
/ar)r;thirdi[iarrow4:.jin4 .firom.>wlMnh
iwettyioto thiBtyrbmbefe tetthb aeite
are roileo!. gathered, >jiQthiiig^hBving
wwfBi \m^4oab:to k* after. phuiiingt
It takes tw(Kor Chared Toas^ foar.ttaesf
sodS'to h6dorae:iilK)ijrongUy'td^om-
posed, and then the soil is of »iUght(
loose, black, vegetable mould, very
easily stirred by the plough, bat of a
nature that it adheres to the plough
in a troublesome manner. In fact,
no plough has ever been found to
keep itself clear ; and the ploughman
is generally obliged to carry with him
a small wooden paddle, with which to
clear oflT the adhering mass of dirt
upon the mould-board. With this
exception, the prairie soil is gener-
ally one of the easiest in the world to
tilC and of course remarkably fertile.

"By far the greatest portion is
based upon a snhsoil of clay, though
in many places the subsoil is sand
or gravel, and there are large tracts
of which the surface is of this mate-
rial. The streams are often broad
and nearly covered with vegetable
growth, in some instances to that
degree that sheets of water, many
rods wide, actually burn over during
the autumnal fires.

*< Notwithstanding the many 'in-
teresting aooounts of burning prai-
ries,* the fire upon a dry prairie, in a
oalm time, does not blaase as high as
it would in an old stubble field ; bnt
in the marshes, or wet prairies, it
sometimes rages with grandeur.

** Enclosing, — ^The settlements al-
ready made are upon the smaller
prairies, the centre of which are not
more than four or five miles from
timber, or along the border of * the
Grand Prairie,* taking care not to ex-
tend out beyond the reach of conve-
nient woodland. But there are many
places where the groves are barely
sufficient to furnish the land moat
contiguous, and vast tracts of prairio
are to be fqt^nd ten or fifteen miles
frorn timber. That these tracts w^l
forever remain uncultivated. Oannqt
for ^ m^vnei^t be thQughl nf. That

685

PRE

timber can be pHinted and raised in
abundance is certain. It is equally
certain that they can be fencfd with
ditches, and, perhaps, with hedges,
though the experiments that have
as yet been made in the United States
to enclose land with hedges have
generally proTed failures.

*• The most feasible plaii, it seems
to me, would be to enclose large
tracts by ditching, and cultivate the
land without division fences, even
between many occupants. Such is
the mode in many parts of Europe.
Or this kind of land could be profit-
ably improved by grazing herds of
cattle and sheep, under the care of
shepherds. Houses of a most com-
fortable kind can be built of clay
without burning into brick, and the
expense of hauling lumber for roofs
and inside work would be trifling.
The only difficulty would be fuel.
In many parts of the West coal ex-
ists in abundance, and where that is
not to be had, the expense of hauling
wood over a smooth and nearly level
country would not be a serious ob-
stacle. It is also thought that peat
will be found abundant.

" At present, however, there is an
abundance of unoccupied land so con-
venient to timber as to be easily
fenced in the common way, with
Virginia or worm fence ; and the oak
limber of this region is very durable."

PRASE. Green quart*.

PRECIPITATE. A solid matter
thrown down in a clear fluid by chem-
ical action.

PREDIAL. Belonging to a farm

PREDISPOSING AFFINITY.
Chemical affinity arising in the pres-
ence of three bodies, whereby a union
is accomplished bet^i^een two, which,
without coming in contact with a
third, would not readily unite.

PREGNANCY. The state of be-
ing with young, carrying young. The
signs and determination ofpregnancy
are often important. The following,
from Mr. Youati, is of great service
in coming to a conclusion on this
point.

*' Among healthy animals, tlie im-
pregnation of the female rarely f4iis I
936

PRE

to be the result of an intercourse be-
tween the sexes. The assurance,
however, of this having taken plac^e
is occasionally an affair of consider-
able interest, and of no little diflScuJ-
ty, and the value and the destiny of
the female may very much depend on
the decision of the question. A cer-
tain time having elapsed, tbe thing
will speak f[>f itself; bat are there
any symptoms or circumstances that
will warrant the vetennaiy sur^geon
or the agriculturist in giving a Sect*
ded opinion on the case in an early
period of supposed pregnancy?

<*It occasionally happens that the
fifth or the sixth month arrives, and»
even to the practiced eye, theie ate
few or no indications of conception
having taken place. There are, also,
but somewhat unfrequently, diseases
which very closely simulate this nat-
ural process. Can the veterinary
surgeon or the breeder decide ? The
answer is in the affirmative, and
plainly and unequivocally. This is
one of the boons which the veterina-
ry art can now confer on the agricul-
turist. The altered character of the
female is regarded, and very proper-
ly, as a circumstance of no little
weight. She is comparatively calm
and quiet ; her appetite returns, and
she regains her former condition and
her former habits. Five or six weeks
pass, and there is no outbreak of any
kind. The owner concludes, and he
is not often wrong, that she is im<
pregnated. He, however, has had
little to do with mares or with cows
who has not witnessed the return of
the most furious cestrum, after a much
longer period of time has elapsed. 1
have known more than three months
pass in this delusive quietude, and
then a salaciousncss worse than at
first has indicated that no actual im^
pregnation had taken place. On the
other hand, the oBstrum, but not with
all its former fury, has returned two,
and tbrcyc, and four months after the
connexion^ and yet, as the result
finally nhows, impregnation had ta-
ken place at their first intercourse.

'*Many circumstances may cause
the owner to be axixim^po know the

PREGNANCY.

tnith of tba matter. He toMy w»h

to sell her, or be may be unusually
desirous to breed from ber. Let tbe
animal be examined per vaginam.
Let the hand be slowly and cautious-
ly passed up tbe Yagiaa until it reach-
es tbe OS uteri. I^t there be no at-
tempt to penetrate farther. No in*
formation can be gained from intro-
dacing the fingers into the uterus. It
is simply wished to ascertain the
character of the os uteri. In its nat-
ural and unimpregnated state it will
be closed ; but it will not be tightly
or spasmodically so, and the contrac-
tion of the mouth of the womb will
form a kind of cup, with the base to-
wards that viscus. If she is impreg-
nated, the entrance to the uterus will
be more firmly closed, and the pro-
trusion will be towards the vagina.
This is the only exploration per vagi-
nam which I would allow ; it is easi-
ly made, and it will be satisfactory.
If an exploration of this kind is at-
tempted when half or more than half
of the period of pregnancy has passed,
it is not at all unlikely that so much
irritation of the parts will ensue as
to cause the expulsion of the foetus.

'* I will suppose that two months
have passed since the supposed im-
pregnation. The fcBtus is siill re-
maining in the pelvic cavity. The
heart has begun to beat, and the
blood to circulate through its little
veins. It will be situated immedi-
ately below the rectum. I introduce
my hand into that intestine. I have
no occasion to pass it very far up.
I feci the little substance ; for it then
is small in proportion to its alter
growth. I feel it under my hand. I
am certain that 1 am pressing upon
the Qterus and its contents. I can-
not, perhaps,' detect the pulsation of
the embryo ; but if I had delayed «iy
examination until the fcetus was three
months old, I should have assurance
that it was there by its now increas-
ed bulk, while the pulsation of its
heart would tell me that it was liv-
ing.

*• For two months from this period
in the cow, and for three in the mare,
I should have no other indication of
Hhh

the presence of the fcBtue, nox of its

life and growth, except from the grad-
ual enlargement of the abdomen of
the mother ; and by that time the lit-
tle one would have increased in size
and strength, and would have begun
to take occasional exercise in its first
domicil, and then would become tbe
more evident, but not more satisfac-
tory proof of the life of the foetus ;
its motion strong enough to be seen
through the integument.

*' I might, perhaps, wish to give
this assurance of the life of the foetus
to some curious spectator, or to some
intended purchaser. I would not gal-
lop the mare in order to effect this ;
I would not so UiT disturb her or the
young animal that she bore within
her: much less would I give her
cold water to drink, and which she
usually would drink until she annoy-
ed the foetus, and the unborn animal
told us how much we annoyed him
by endeavouring to shift bis quarters
and get away from the action of the
cold. I would not run the hazard of
giving her the colic, and perhaps de-
stroying him or her by this unscien-
tific and somewhat cruel method of
exploration ; but I probably should
give a tap or two on the outer wall
of his dwelling, just sufficient to rouse
him from bis slumbers, and induce
him to express his auger at the an-
noyance by a tolerably distinct plunge
or kick.

" Most certainly, if it was a cow
that I was exhibiting, I would not
give, nor would I suffer any one else
to give, those terrible punches in the
right flank, which, I have no doubt,
are the cause of much unsuspected
injury, and, occasionally at least,
connected with, or the origin of, a
difficult or a fatal parturition

" I may here observe that the foe-
tus of the mare, from the beginning,
occupies nearly the centre of the bel-
ly. In the early stage, Mr. Mogford
generally found it * lying across the
pelvic cavity, the spine being imme-
diately under ; the head on the led
side, and the tail on the right side.*
In the latter portion of its foetal state
its motions are pretty equally dis-

637

PRE

tributed on wittier side, and the beat-
ing of the fcBtal heart is most plainly
heard at the very base of the abdo-
men. The foetas of the cow is hud-
dled up on the right side or the belly.
There its motions are most seen, and
the beatings of its heart best heard.
The enormous paunch, lying princi-
pally on the left side, presses every
other viscus, and the uterus among
the rest, into the right flank. This
also explains a circumstance familiar
to every breeder. If the cow should
happen to carry twins, they are crowd-
ed together io the left flank, and one
seems absolutely to lie upon the oth-
er. Whenever the farmer notices the
kicking of the foetus high up in the
flank, he at once calculates on twins.

*' To return from this digression.
If half the period, or more, of utero-
gestation had passed, and I could get
the little stranger to move by my gen-
tle tapping, and it was a cow with
which we had to do, and a quiet one,
I would have her carefully held by
the cowherd, while I stooped and ap-
plied my ear flat upon the flank, and
then, slowly, and with gentle pressure
upward and downward, and forward
and backward, over the flank and the
lower part of it, until 1 beard — and
which I should do in a great majori-
ty of cases — the pulsations of the fioe-
tal heart. I should recognise it by
their quickness, the pulsations of the
foetus being double, or more than
double, those of the mother.

** If it was a mare, I would have a
halter put on her, and an assistant
should hold up one of her legs, while
some person interested reached un-
der, or, perhaps, knelt under the belly
of the mare, and, passing one ear
along an imaginary line from be-
tween the teats to the chest, and de-
viating a liitle from one side to the
other, he would then also recognise
the quick pulsation of the fcetal heart.

'* These observations are address-
ed to practical men, and will be speed-
ily put to the test by them. The ob-
ject of the author is to get rid of the
vulgar and inefficient methods of de-
tecting pregnancy which are now in
general use, and to introduce others
038

that are Ibonded on a atunrand

scientific basis."

PRESERVATION OF FOOD.
The process of salting, rubbing with
nitre, and smoking or drying, is that
usually performed by the farmer, and
it is successful. The exclusion of air,
mechanically or by chemical means,
is another certain means of preserv-
ing food. Drying perfectly, so as to
separate the water necessary for pu-
trefaction, is also a perfect process,
and much used in keeping fruits, as
dried apples, peaches, &c. Sugar,
alcohol, molasses, alum solution, are
also serviceable in preserving some
kinds of food. They do this by remo-
ving their interior water. Coldness
and absence of air, or moisture proco*
red by mechanical means, are also
sufllcient.

PRESERVATION OF TIMBER,
Careful drying and preservation from
moisture is the commonest process ;
but, for a perfect preservatioo, it is
necessary to saturate the pores of the
wood with metallic salts. This sat-
uration has to be made in a press,
and is hence very expensive. The
fluids used are solutions of blue vit-
riol (sulphate of copper), pyrolignite
of iron, sulphate of iron, corrosive
sublimate. M. Boucherie, three jreara
since, recommended the immersion
of the trunks of newly^cut trees in
these solutions, which, under these
circumstances, rose through the stem
and branches to the leaves, and im-
pregnated them thoroughly. The in-
convenience of this process for large
trees has induced him to modify it to
the following :

*' The ingenious process of impreg-
nating wood, by the way of vital as-
piration, is not without certain ob-
jections. In the first place, it can
on4y be performed at those periods of
the year when the sap is in motion
and the trees are covered with leaves.
This time is limited to a few months
of the year, and the usual practice
being to fell timber in tlie winter,
usage is opposed to cutting down
trees in the spring and autumn. To
meet these objections, M. Boucherie
engaged in new experiments, which

PRE

led him to a means of impregnating
timber at all seaeone, in winter aa
well as spring and autumn, and in a
▼ery short space of time ; this second
method is applicable to wood that has
already been squared as well as to
the round trunk, provided it has been
recently felled.

"To impregnate timber by this
process, the logs are placed upright,
and the upper extremities are fitted
with an impermeable sack for the re-
ception of the saline solution destined
to charge them ; the fluid enters from
above, and almost at the same mo-
ment the sap is seen to begin running
out below. There are some woods
which include a large quantity of air
in their tissues ; in this case the flow
does not go on until this air has been
expelled : once begun, it goes on
without interruption. The operation
is terminated when the fluid, which
drips from the lower part, is of the
same nature as that which is enter-
ing above. In my opinion, this meth-
od must be preferable to that by as-
piration. In the second mode of pro-
ceeding, in fact, we accomplish our
object by a true displacement; al-
most the whole of the sap is expelU
ed, and the saline solution introdu-
ced has only to subdue or neutralize
the very small quantity of soluble or-
ganic matter which may remain ad-
hering to the woody tissue. By ac-
complishing such a displacement by
means of simple water, we should un-
doubtedly obtain results favoarable
to the preservation of timber, inas-
much as we should have freed it from
almost the whole of those matters
whidi are regarded as the most al-
terable themselves, and the first
cause of rotting in timber. The ra-
pidity with which the fluid introda-
ced is substituted for the sap whiSh
it displace8,and the quantity of this ex-
yelled sap, which may be readily col-
lected, exceeds anything that could
kave been imagined before making
the experiment ; thus the trunk of a
beech-tre<% about 62^ feet in length,
by 33| inches in diameter, and con-
sequently forming a cube of some-
what more than 29 feet and a half,

gave, in the eoorse of twenty*llTe
hours, upward of 880 gallons of sap,
.which were replaced by about 350
gallons of pyroligneous acid. The
liquid which penetrates in this way
acts so eflTectoally in displacing the
sap, that M. Boocherie says we can
readily procure or extract by its
means the saccharine, mocilagtnoos,
resinons, and coloured jaiceb con-
tained in trees. It would, perhaps,
be possible — and I beg to suggest this
idea to colonial planters — ^to api^y
the method of displacement to the
extraction of the colouring matters of
dye woods."

PRESS FOR CIDER. The com-
mon press is represented in the fig-
ure at the head of the following page ;
a rougher press, made by means of a
lever, is also much used.

PRESS FOR OILS. See OiU.

PRESS, HYDRAULIC. "The fra-
ming consists of two stoat east-iron
plates, d, d, which are strengthened
by projecting ribs, not seen in the
section, Fig, 1. The top, or crown
plate, b, and the base plate, i, d^ are
boand most firmly together by four
cylinders of the best wrought iron,
c, e, which pass np through holes
near the ends of said plates, and are
fast wedged in them. The flat pie-
ces, e, e, are screwed to the ends of
the crown and base plates, so as to
bind the columns laterally, fn the
hollow cylinder of the press, whiobr
as well as the ram, g, is made of cast
iron. The upper part of the cavity
of the cylinder is cast narrow, but is
truly and smoothly rounded at the
boring mill, so as to fit pretty closely
round a well-turned ram, or piston :
the under part of it is left somewhat
wider in the casting. A stout cup of
leather, perforated in the middle. Is
pnt upon the ram, and serves as a
valve to render the neck of the cylin-
der water-tight, by filling up the space
between it and the ram ; and since the
mouth of the cup is turned downward,
the greater the pressure of water up-
ward, the more forcibly are the edges
of the leather valve pressed against
the inside of the cylinder, ax»d the
tighter docs the joint become.

009

"o or lawe, A, resls . it u called | ram closely in its moTeraenf

closely in its moTeineota.

*>k,k (Pigt* 1 and 3) is the fn^
ming of a forcing pump, with a nar-
row barrel ; « is the well containing
water to supply the pump. Fig. 3 is

Fig, 3. Fig.i.

a aectioo of the pump and its valves.
The pump, m, is of bronze ; the sue-
tioQ pipe* n, has a conical valve with
a long tail ; the solid piston, or plun-
ger* p, is smaller than the barrel in
which it plays, and passes at its top
through a stuffing-box, q; r is the
pressure-valve, » is the safety-valve,
wbieb, in Fig. 3. is seen to be loaded
with a weighted lever ; t is the dis-
charge-valve, for letting the water es-
cape, from the cylinder beneath the
ram, back into the well. See the
winding passage in Fig. 4. u is the
tube which conveys the water from
the pump into the press-cylinder. In
Fig. 3 two centres of motion for the
pump lerer are shown. By shifting
the bolt into the centre nearest the
pump rod, the mechanical advantage
of the workman may be doubl^.
Two pomps are generally mounted
}n one frame for one hydraulic press :
the larger to give a rapid motion to
the ram at the beginning, when the
resistance is small ; the smaller to
give a slower but more powerful im-
pulsion when the resistance is much
increased. A pressure of 500 tons
may be obtained from a well-made
hydraulic press with a ten inch ram,
and a two and a one inch set of
pumps."— (l/re.)

PRICKING. The same as nick-
iDg» which sea*

HbhS

PEO

PRICKING OUT. Thinning
plants in drills, 6cc.

PRICKLE. A sharp thoroj pro-
duced by a thickening of the bark or
skin of the plant.

PRIM^ VIJE. The passage
through the bowels.

PRIMARY ROCKS. Theunstrati-
fied, crystalline rocks, as granites.
Sometimes the transition slates and
stratified rocks are included in this
term.

PRIMINE. The outermost cov-
ering of the ovule ; afterward it be-
comes the skin, or testa, of the seed.

PRIMROSE. Pretty flowering
perennials of the genus PrimtUa.

PRISM. '* A solid contained by
planes, of which two that are op-
posite are equal, similar, and parid-
iel, and all the rest parallelograms.
Prisms take particular names from
the figures of their ends, or opposite,
equal, and parallel sides. When tlie
ends are triangles, they are called
triangular prisms ; when the ends are
square, square prisms ; when the
ends are pentagonal, pentagonal
prisms ; and so on. A right prism
has its sides perpendicular to its
ends ; an oblique prism is that of
which the sides are oblique to the
ends. The solid conljnt of a prism
is found by muhiplying the area of
the base into the perpendicular alti-
tude ; hence all prisms are to one
another in the ratio compounded of
their bases and altitudes." The opti-
cal prism is of three similar sides.

PRISMATIC COLOURS. Light
passing through a prism is divided
into seven colours, called the pris'
malic spccirum ; these colours are, in
their order, red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, indigo, violet. They have each
peculiar chemical properties.

PRIVET. JUguttrum tmigare. A
small shrub with pretty white flow-
ers and black berries, used as an or-
namental hedging in gardens. They
are readily propagated by seeds, lay-
ers, or cuttings.

P R O B A N G. ODsophagiis tube.
See Ojc. The tubes (see Fig.) are of
leather, covering a spring ; they are
sometimes hollow^ and contain a sti-

641

nto

rao

O '

^'Sri a

a FIS2

cL FLg-S

lette. i, Fig.y represents the mouth*
piece to keep the jaws open ; it is
fixed between the teeth, and kept in
its place by the strap. The probang
is introduced through tiie hole in the
wooden centre-piece, or gag. In t
the stilette has a corkscrew end,
which can be made fast in substan-
ces which obstruct the gullet, and
will enable the fanner to pull them
upward.

PROBE. A wire of silver, with a
blunt or sharp point, used to ascer-
tain the depth of wounds, sinuses, dec.

PROBOSCIS. A trunk, or nasal
projection.

PROCESS. In descriptions, a tu-
mour or eminence on a bone or part.
A projection.

PROCUMBENT. Laying on the
ground.

PROGNOSIS. A conclusion re-
specting the termmation of a disease.

PROLAPSUS. A falling out or
protrusion of any part of the body ;
as of the intestines, womb.

PROLEGS. The imperfect legs
of caterpillars.

PROMUSCIS. The suctional or-
gan of the hemiptera.

PROPAGATION. Seeds are the
most general means of propagation,
but they do not perpetuate many im-
proved varieties, especially of fruits ;
buds do, however. Buds are propa-
gated by budding, graftvng^ setting
slips, cuttings, layers, ofibhoots, suck-
ers, and in some plants, as the straw-
berry, by natural runners. The bulb
is a peculiar bud, which also propa-
gates varieties by oflsets. Tubers,
or rhizomes, are underground etems,
643

as in the potato, dahlia, flag, and they
propagate the varieties also. «• Cut-
tings are portions of shoots, either of
ligneous or herbaceous plants ; and
they are made of the young shoots
with the leaves on, or of the ripened
wood either with or without its
leaves ; and after they have, either
iu an herbaceous state with the
leaves on, or with the wood mature,
and with or without the leaves, been
properly prepared and planted, they
form roots at their lower extremity,
each cutting becoming a perfect plant.
In general, cuttings should be taken
from those shoots of a plant which are
nearest the soil ; because, ^ from the
moisture and shade there, such shoots
are more predisposed to emit roots
than those on the upper part of the
plant The young, or last-formed
shoots, are to be taken in preference
to suoh as are older, as containing
more perfect buds in an undeveloped
state, and a bark more easily perme-
able by roots ; and the cutting is to be
prepared by cutting its lower extrem-
ity across at a joint, the lentieells, or
root-buds, being there most abundant.
When the cutting is planted, the prin-
cipal part of the art consists in ma-
king it quite firm at the lower extrem*
ity, so as eompletely to exclude the air
from the wounded section. Cuttings
emit roots at this section, either in
consequence of the action of the ac-
cumulated sap in the cutting, as in
the case of the ripened wood in de-
ciduous trees and shrubs ; or in eon-
sequence of the joint action of the
accumulated sap and of the leaves,
as in the case of oottinga of sefl wood

PRO

"Wfth the leaTes on, and in a living
state. A few plants are propagated
by cuttings of the leaves, the petiole
of the leaf being slipped off from the
parent plant, and probably containing
the latent embryos of bods. Graft-
ing and badding are processes whidh
have been already explained. In-
arching may be described as a spe-
cies of grafting, in which the scion is
n(»t separated from the parent plant till
it has become united with the stock."

PROPEDS. The same as prolegs.

PROPHYLACTIC. Preventing
disease.

PROPORTIONS, CHEMICAL.
See Equivaknis and Atom.

PROSENCHVMA. Elongated cel-
lular tissue, as that of woody struc-
tures,
% PROTEIN. The pure basis of the
animal principles : it is separated
from albumen, or fibrin, by dissolving
them in caustic potash, and precipita-
ting by acetic acid. It is gelatinous,
gray; when dry, aemitransparent,
and insoluble. Its composition is C
66-7 . H 6-8 . N ICl . O 21-2 ; formu-
la (Mulder) C40 Hst N5 O19 (Liebig
construes the composition into C4S
Ne Has O^) ; symbol Pr. It is a body
of great interest, sisoe in its combi-
nations with sulphur, phosphorus,
ammonia, dec., most animal tissues
are formed. Thus 10 Pr. -|- sulphur,
i phosphorus, is albumen. 10 Pr., 2
sulphur, i phosphorus, is another form
of albumen.

PROTOTHORAX. The first seg-
ment of the thorax in insects.

PROTO-SALTS. Oxides ; com-
pounds, the bases of which are com-
bined with but one equivalent of ox-
ygen.

PROTOZOA. The lowest animal-
cules.

PROTRACTOR. «< A mathemat-
ical instrument for laying down an-
gles on paper, used in surveying,
plotting, dLC.

" In its simplest form, the protract-
or consists merely of a semicireuiar
limb of metal divided into 180^, and
subtended by a diameter, in the mid-
dle of which is a notch to mark the
position of the eeotre. Oa plaoing

this notch orer the angular point, and
laying the diameter along a given
straight line, an angle of any number
of degrees may be made by marking
the point on the paper which coin-
cides with the given decree on the
limb, and joining this pomt with the
centre when the instrument is re-
moved. The iirotractor is rendered
more commodious by transferring the
divisions to the edge of a parallel ruler.

" When a survey is to be plotted
on a large scale, and it becomes ne-
cessary, in consequence, to lay down
the angles with considerable precis-
ion, a more complex apparatus is re-
qohred. The most approved form of
the protractor may be described as
follows : It consists of an entire cir-
cle, connected with its centre by four
radial bars. The eentre of the metid
is removed, and a circular disk of
glass fixed in its place, on which are
drawn two lines crossing each other
at right angles, the point of ioterseo-
tion denoting the centre of the pro-
tractor, l^und the centre, and con-
centric with the circle, is fitted a col-
lar carrying two arms, one of which
has a vernier at its extremity adapt-
ed to the divided circle ; and the oth-
er a milled head, which turns a pin-
ion working in a toothed rack round
the exterior edge of the instrument.
The rack and pinion give motion to
the arms, which can thus be turned
qoite round the circle, and set the
vernier to any angle that may be re-
quired. Each of the two arms is pro-
longed beyond the edge of the pro-
tractor, and carries a fine steel prick-
er, which is pressed down when the
inatmment is placed in its required
position, and makes a small punctuie
in the paper. It is essential that the
points of the two prickers and the
centre of the instrument be aoeu-
rately in the same straight line.*'-^
(iStmstf on Matkematical Iiutnunents.)

PROTUSILE. Capable of being
protruded and withdrawn.

PROVENDER. Dry food. See
Fodder*,

PROXIMATE ANALYSIS. The
separation of a compound organie
body inte its eeveral complex parts,

643

PRtJ

M Vtte floor of wheat into stardi,

8Qgart gmii> fibrin, glateiit atbameo.
These are also called yroximale prinr
cipUs. This kiod of analysis is made
by means of solyents, as alcohol,
ether, water, potash, and acids : it is
doarse and nnsatisfactory.

PRUNING. " The art of cutting
oflf parts of plants, and more eape>
cialty of trees and shrubs, with a
▼lew to strengthening those whidi
leniaiQ, or of bringing the tree or
plant into particular forms, calculap
ted to increase iMtrtieular products.
Pruning, therefore, varies aooordiDg
to the kind of plant or tree to be
|>niiied, and acoording to the object
ra view. In the case of forest-
trees, the general object of pruning
is to inorease the quantity of tim-
ber in the tnink by diminishing the
side brandies, commencing at the
lower part of the tree when it is
quite young, and gradually advancing
upward as the tree increases in
growth. In the case of hedges, the
object is to produce a ^ense mass
from the ground upward, which is ef-
fected by shortening the side branch-
es. In the case of pruning trees
which are cultivated for the sake of
their fruit or blossoms, tbe object is
to thin out the branches so as to ad-
mit the light and air more freely to
their leaves and blossoms, and to
concentrate and increase the nour-
ishment to the branches which re-
main . In the case of trees or shrubs
cultivated' for the beauty of their
shapes, whether natural or artificial,
the object of pruning is to deprive the
trees or shrubs of all those branches
which deviate firom or interfere with
the natural shape, or with the form
wh«ch is intended to be fModuoed by
art. In pruning with a view to pro-
duce frait, it is necessary to know on
what description of branches and
bods the fruit is produced. In some
trees, as in the peach, it is generally
produced on tbe wood of the prece-
ding year ; in others, as in tbe apple
and pear, it is generally produced on
wood of two years' growth ; and in
the vine it is produced on shouts of
the current year. The genwal efieet
644

of prontng on plants is to ii
their longevity ; since the tendency
of all vegetables is to exhaust thean-
selves, and, consequently, to shortan
their duration, by the production of
seeds. In the operation of pnmiiig,
tl!e shoots are out off doee to the
buds, or at a distance from them not
greater than the diameter of the
branch to be out ofiT; because, with-
out the near proximity of a bud, the
wounds will not heal over. In shoots
which produce their buds alternately,
the cut is made at the back of the bod,
sloping from it, so as that it may be
readily covered by bark in tbe same
or in the following year. This is
readily done with a pruning knife, by
a slanting cut, made at an angle of
45° with the direction of the branch ;
but in the case of branches where/
the buds are produced opposite each
other, either one bud must be sacri-
lioed, or the branch most be cot oST at
right angles to its line of direction,
and is more oonveniently done by the
pruning shears. The operation of
pruning may, in many casea, be sn-
perseded by rubbing ofi*, or pinching
out the leaf-buds, so as to prevent
superfluous shoots from being pro-
duced.'*— (Lindley.)

Where IHeeding occurs in summer
pruning, the stem should be first
pinched by the thumb and finger, to
destroy the tissues, and removed
when dead : in thia way vines and
figs may be pruned at any time. The
best time for pruning trees is in Jane
and July, when the wounds heal
readily

PRUNING KNIFE* "A knife the
blade of which has a straight edge,
formed of well-tempered steel, and
of no great breadth, with a narrow
point, in order that it may be more
readily introduced among crowded
branches. Formerly, pruning-knives
were hooked at the point ; hut the
cuts made by such knives had a ten-
dency to crush the shoot, and leave
a rongh section, more readily injured
by tbe air and water, and less likely
to be speedily healed over. 8uoh
knives, when of a large size, were
caUed pruning hooks.

PUL

PUM

PRUNIKO SHEARS. Shears Hi |
which one of the blades moves oo a
pivot, which works is an obloag open-
ing instead of a circalar one, by
which means a draw cut is produced
similar to that effected by a knife,
instead of the crushing out produced
by common shears, which fractures
the section left on the braoob, and
renders it liable to become diseased,
or to decay, instead of being covered
over with fresh bark. Prwiing shears
are particularly adapted for cutting
^piny or prickly shrubs, such as the
different species of thorns, gooseber-
ries, or roses.

PRUSSIC ACID. Hydrocyanic
acid. See Cyanogen. It is distilled
from many flowers and seeds, which
owe their odour to it, as peaches,
cherries, apple seeds, 6lo.

PSEUDO. A common prefix,
meaning false.

PTYALISM. Increased sali-
Tation.

PUBESCENT, PUBESCENCE.
Covered with soft hairs.

PUCCOON. Amerioan alkanet.
Baisehia caneMcejts, A perennial-root-
ed plant of the borage tribe, the root
of which yields a red pigment, with
which the Indians colour themselves.

PUDDINGSTONE. A eooglom-
crate.

PUDDLING. Ramming clay with
sand and water until it is converted
into an impervious mortar.

PUERPERAL. Relating to partu-
rition.

PUFF-BALL. The genus Lycoper-
don yields numerous puff-balls. The
dust was at one time used to stop
bleeding from woands, as a styptic.

PUGGING. The stuff laid be-
tween floors to deaden sound.

PUGIL. A pinch of any stuff.

PULMGNARIES. A kind of spl^
der.

PULMONARY. Relating to the
lungs.

PULQUE. The fermented juice
of the Mexican aloe {Agwe Amer-
ieana).

PULSE. Leguminous crops.

PULVILLI. The hairs* or a mem-
brane, which covejcs the feet of «ame

insects, enabling tliera to walk on tto
ceiling of rooms against gravity.

PUMICE. Porous lava. It consists
of silica, 77-5 ; alununa, 17-6 ; potash
and soda, 3-0 ; oxide of iron, 1-76.

PUMICED FOOT. In. farriery, a
wide-spread hoof, the sole of which is
flat with tbe ground.

PUMP. This machine is of great
use on the farm for many purpo*
aes. The various forms may often
be employed for collecting or distrib-
uting fluids. " Though tbe forms un-
der which this useful engine is con«
stnioted, and the mode in which the
power is applied, may be modified in
an infinite nnmber of ways, there are
only three which can be considered
as differing from each other in prin-
ciple. These are the sucking' pumpf
itae forcing pump, and the hfungpumpt
so called from the manner in which
they act.

'*Tbe ntoking ^mnp, or oommon
household pump, is an apparatus of
which the principle and construction
will be evident from the annexed fig-
ure. A A is a pipe of any convenient
length, the lower end of tig* t
which reaches below tbe
surface of the water in the
well or reservoir; Bis a bar*
rel, generally of greater di-
ameter than the pipe ; C a
valve opening upward ; D a
piston moved by the rod E :.
in this piston there is also a
valve opening upward. When
the piston is raised, the air
in the barrel between the valves is
expanded, and its tension, conse-
quenlly, diminished ; the pressure of
the air in the pipe, therefore, opens
the valve C, and the whole air in the
pipe and barrel becomes less dense.
In this state the atmospheric press-
ure on the surface of the water caus-
es it to rise in the pipe, until the ten-
sion of the confined air becomes equal
to the pressure of the atmosphere.
On again depressing the piston, the
valve in it opens, and the air passes
through it from the bsrral as it de-
scends; but the valve. C, is e\o»i!n^
by tbe downward pressure, and tbe
volume of water which has entered

PUMP.

tliB pipe remaios. On a^n raisiag |
the piston, the same effiaot is repeat-
ed, and an additloBa] quantity or wa-
ter enters tbe pipe. Tboe, by the al-
ternating motion of the piston, a ool-
amn of water is raised in the pipe
mitil it reaches the piston when at
the hottom of the barrel, and the
whole of the air below it has been
exdnded. On raisin; tbe piston
wtien the water has reached it, the
flaid will be compelled to follow by
tbe pressure of the atmosphere on its
surface in the well. WIten the pis-
ton is a^ain depressed, the water
flows throufh the valve in it, and as-
cends into the barrel, and by the suc-
ceeding strokes of the piston is liAed
up until it reaches and flows out of
the spout, F.

'* Although in theory the limit of
the height to which water may be
raised by the sucking pump, from the
surftoe of the fluid in the well to the
highest position of the rooreaUe pis-
ton, is about thirty-four feet (the
height of a column of water whkh
balances the pressure of the atrao-
sphere), it is not found practicable,
with pomps of tbe ordinal^ constroo-
tion, to raise it more than about twen-
ty-eight feet. The diflerence arises
from tbe difficulty of making the ap-
paratus absolutely air-tight.

** The farcing pump is repreaented
in jPtg^. ». The piston-rod, E D, is
attached to a solid
plunger, D, adjusted to
the cavity of the bar-
rel. A pipe, O H, fur-
nished with a valve,
F, opening outward,
communicatee with
tbe barrel at G. On el-
evating theptunger, ]>»
the water will ascend
through tbe valve, C,
in the same manner as
in the sucking pump,
till the barrel is filled to D. Now when
the plunger is depressed, the valve,
C, will shut, and the water between
D and C be forced through the valve
F into the pipe G H. When the
plttnger is raised, the valve at F shots,
the pressure on its imder aide being

646

rig.%.

removed, so that the water w&Mi
was forced into U^e pipe by ihe pre-
vious stroke cannot return iato the
barrel. At the next atroke of tbe
piston more water is again forced
into the pipe, and so on tiU it is rais-
ed to the height required.

** In this pump tbe pipe, A A, may
be dispensed with, and the barrel, B,
immersed in the reservoir ; in which
case the aetion of the pump ia ind^
pendent of the atmoepherie presoare,
and could be oiaintained equally welt
in a vacuum.

** In order to produce a continued
stream through the pipe, G H, an air
vessel, m ii, may be i^. t.
attached to the lateral m

branch above tbe valve
F, Figr. 3. Tbe pipe,
G H, reaches to near
the bottom of the air-
vessel ; and when the
water has been forced
into the vessel by the
action of the pump, un-
til it reaches above the
lower end of the pipe at G, it is evi-
dent that, as all communication is
then cut oflf'wiih tbe external atmo-
sphere, every additiooal quantity of
water thrown into the vessel wiU tend
more and more to compreaa tbe air
within it, which, acting by its press-
ure on the surface of tbe water, for-
ces it through the pipe, GH, in a con-
tinued stream.

** The lifHmgr fuwf is represented
by Fig. 4-. The barrel of tbe pump
is immersed in the water
and fixed to an imroovea-
ble frame. The piaton,
with its bucket and valve,
C, opening upward, is at-
tached at £ to another
frame, G H I K L, consist-
ing of two strong iron rods,
H I and L K, which move
through holes in frame-
work to which the pump
is fixed. An inclined
branch, M N, either fiarad to tbe top
of tbe barrel, or moveable by means
of a ball and socket, is fitted exactly
to tbe barrel, and furnished with a
vake at M. i>appose the barrel im-

FUP

PUT

mersed tfi the water to a certaHi depth r
if the pistoo frame be now thrust down
by the handle at G, the piston will
descend, and the water be forced by
its upward pressure through the valve
G, so as to maintain the same level
in the pump as in the well. But when
the piston frame is elevated, the valve
G will shut (as shown in the figure),
and the water above G be l^ted wp
with the piston, and forced throngh
the valve M into the branch, M N, from
which its return wilt be prevented by
the shutting of the valve M when the
]tt9ton descends.

^ In each of these diffbrent kinds
of pumps which have been described,
the total eflbrt required to work the
machine, independefilTy of friction, is
equal to the weight of a column of
water, the base of which is equal to
the area of a section of the working
barrel, and the altitude equal to the
distance between the surface of the
water in the reservoir and the point
to which it is raised. In the suck-
ing pump the whole of this efihrt is
expended in raising the piston ; in
the fbrcTftg prnnp one part is expend-
ed in raising and the other in de-
pressing tbe piston, and it is advan-
tageous to dispose the machinery so
that these two parts shall be nearly
equal In small pomps for domestic
purposes, the strength of man is usu-
ally employed as the moving power ;
but in raising water from great depths,
as the bottom of mines, the steam-
engine is applied to this purpose." —
{BraTide's Eneyclopadut.)

PUMPKIN. CueuthUa pepa. The
best varieties are the family, mam-
moth, Connecticnt field, white befi,
Valparaiso. They are cultivated Kke
melons, but may be planted in eom-
fields. They are kept during the
winter by placing them on shelves in
a cetlar where the temperatnre is
uniform and not below the freezing
point. They form admirable food for
stock, and are extensively employed
in the West to fatten hogs.

PUNCHEON. A measure of 64
gallons ; a short post.

PUNCTATE. Dotted.

PU PA . A nymph, grub, i ir cNryKalis.

( POPiPARGS, P€PIPARA. Those
insects are said to be popiparoua
which prodaoe their young in the con-
dition of a pupa or nymph, as the for*
est fly {Hfpfobtmca tfuma).

PUPIVORES, PUPIVORA. Thtt
name of a tribe of bymenoptevous in-
sects, comprehending those- of which
the larve live parasiticaUy in the in-
terior of the larviB and pope- of oth-
er inseets.

PUROATIVEa Medicines wbiofa
prodnce purging. See Plmrwacopma,

PURGING. Often used for diar-
rb«a or over-pnrging. See the ani-
mals respectively.

PURIPORM. Like pus.

PURLINE. In buildiiig, a piece
of tifliiber lying on the principal raH-
ers to support them in the mtddAe.

PURPURIC ACID. A red com-
povnd produeed by tbe action of nitric
acid on uric acid.

PURSIVENESS, PURSINESS.
Shortness of breath.

PURSLANE. PontuUucA oUra^
CCA. An annaal with soceuieat leaves,
partially cultivated as a salad and
pot-herb.

PUS, MATTER. A yellow, cream-
like fluid formed in abscesses and
from wcrands. It contains globules,
and is Ueod modified by iaflammato*
ry action.

PUTAMEN. The sheU of a fruit.
Tbe endocarp.

PUT LOGS. Short timbers used
in scaffolding.

PUTREFACTION. The fcBtid de-
composition of animal and vegetable
sobetanees containing much nitrogen.
The bad o^rars are due to the for-
mation of eompoonds of sulphur and
ammonia with sulphuretted hydro-
gen. Putrefliction can only take plaoe
when oxygen is present with moiat*
nre, and a temperature above 32®
Fahrenheit. Everything which hin-
ders the aeeomfdisbment of these
conditions binders putrefaction, as
drying, salting* coldness, placing in
air-tight vessels. S^ine substances
hinder putrefhetion by either coagu-
lating and changing the nitrogen com-
pound, or withdrawing tbe water by
their greater affinity.

«47

whiting.

PYLORUS. The passage or valve
of the stomach into the intestines.

PYRITES. Native snlphurets of

iron or copper.

PYRO (from irep, fire). A comr
raon ohemieal prefix, indioating com-
pounds modified by the action of heat,
as pyrDphosphoric, pyrotartaric acids.

PYROACETIO SPIRIT. A vol-
atile, inflammable, and limpid fluid,
formed by the distillation of aeetate
of lead. It is also called acetone.

PYROLIGNEOUS ACID. The
vinegar (acetic acid) procured by dis-
tilling wood. It contains creasete
and other tarry compounds, but is
extensively used to form solution of
iron or red liquor for dyers. Ite oom-
poonds are called pyrolignites.

PYROLIGNEOUS SPIRIT.
PYROXYLIC SPIRIT. Hydrate of
mythylene, wodd naphtha, a very
velatile, inflamBuible fluid, from die-
tilled wood, sometimes used for
lamps. It is one of the most pow-
erful antiseptics, but of an unpleas-
ant odour.

PYROMETER. An instrument
for measuring degrees of heat above
600<' Fahr. They are all veiy im-
perfect except Daniers, and seldom
used.

PYROSIS. Acidity of the stom-
ach, with a discharge of hot fluid into
the throat and mouth.

PYROXENE. Augite.

PYROXYLIC SPIRIT. Pyrolig-
neons spirit.

PYXIDIUM (from irvfif, « tmrnll
box). A fruit which splits into an
upper and lower half, as that of the
pimperneL

QUAORICORNES. A family of
wingless insects, with fonr antenn».

C^ADRIFID. Four-deft.

QUADRILATERAL. Four-sided.

QUADRIPENNATES. A tribe of
insects with four membranous wings.

QUAGQA. A quadruped alUed to
the zebra.

QUAGMHUC. Aimidd3r,aoftbQ9

or marsh.

QUAIL. The genus Cidumix.
Birds like the. partridge, but of pas-
sage.

QUAKING GRASS. The genus

QUART. The fourth of a gallon.

QUARTAN. An intermittent le-
ver, appearing eveiy fourth day.

QUARTER. Eight bushels, a
fourth part.

QUARTZ. Silica, saicic acid crys-
tallised, rock crystal.

QUARRY. A pit or excavation,
from whence stones are taken, by
blasting or otherwise.

QUASSIA. A bitter wood, from
the Q. txctUa of -South America. A
strong decoction, sweetened with su-
gar, is a certain and safe poison for
flies.

QUEEN POST. In. building, aa
upright post in a roof for suspending
the beam when the principal raRera
do not meet in the ridge.

QUERCITRON BARK. The ia-
ner bark of the black oak. See Oak.

QUICKLIME. Caustic, fresh-
bumed lime.

QUICKSILVER. Mercury.

QUICKS. The young white thorns.

QUICKSET HEDGE. A h^^lge
of white thorn.

QUINATE. Five-parted.

QUINCE. Cydmtia wlgaru. A
well-known fruity readily cultivated
from seed, cuttings, and suckers.
The stocks are much used for working
pears and apples, which they bring
forward, but render short-lived. The
Portuguese, eatable, orangOt and
musk kinds are most esteemed ; the
Chinese is very long.

The quince prefers a moist, loose
soil; it requires little pruning, ex-
cept the removal of suckers. The
fruit is chiefly used for preserves.
"QUINCUNX. In the IbUowing

o o

and a fifth in the centre of the square
QUININE. The active principle

of Pernvian bark, a white, orystalbne

alkaloid.
QUINOA or PERUVUN RIGE.

RAO

Ckenopodittm guinoa.' A platlt of the
Andes, similar to the goosefoots, the
leaves of which are used as spinach.
The seeds are Tery natritious, and
are eaten boiled in soups.

QUINSEY. •* Inflammation of the
tonsils. This is common inflamma-
tory sore throat : it is not infections.
It begins with pain on one side of the
throat, and swelling of the tonsil, at-
tended by febrile symptoms, which
sometimes run high, especially as the
tnmefaction adyances ; there is great
restlessness and anxiety, and oHten
the utmost difficulty of swallowing
even liquids, and of breathing. The
disease has proved fatal by producing
allocation, but it generally termi-
nates in resolution or suppuration :
in the latter case the abscess breaks,
and a good deal of pus is discharged,
and the patient is at once relieved of
all his urgent symptoms ; but it oc-
casionally happens that the other side
of the throat becomes aflfected, and
goes through the same stages."

QUITCH GRASS. Couch grass.

QUOIN. The corner of a building.

RABBET. A moulding.

RABBIT. Lepus euniculus. A
well-known rodent. They breed at
six months, and hare seven to eight
yonng in a litter. They devour the
young, green vegetation of the farm-
er, but are readily kept, and yield
an abondant supply of food. The
dung is of the same character as that
of slieep.

RACEME. A form of inflores^
oence, consisting of a main stem with
stalked flowers arranged along it.

RACEMIC ACID. An old name
for a form of tartaric acid ; thepara-
tartaric acid.

RACHIS. An u)[>nght axis of in-
florescence.

RACK. A railed space above the
manger, in whieh grase is plaeed.
Below should be a box to collect the
grass seeds. The rack should not be
placed above the animaPs head ; for
the dust of the hay, ftlling into bis
eyes, may produce irritation, and, ul-
tinnataty^ htindness. TMa ia. indeed,

RAO

one of the oinef causes of the bihid-
ness of horses.

RACKING FLUIDS. Decanting^;
separating the clear portions from
the dregs. The barrel into which
the fluid is racked should be perfectly
clean and fumigated with sulphur.

RADIANT. A Inminoas spot or
body.

RADIATION. The emission of
rays of heat or light through air or
space, whereby little is lost.

RADICAL. A base in chemistry.
Compound radical is a compound base
in organic bodies.

RADICLE. The miniature root
of the embryo. Also, small roots.

RADISH. Rapkmtug aaJtiwt, An
annual cruciferous plant, enltivated
for its roots. VmrieHes : Long scar-
let, scarlet turnip, white turnip-root*
ed, long white Naples, parple tnmip,
white Spanish, black Spanish. The
early crops must be forwarded in
frames and hot-beds. Warm bor-
ders are also selected for crops ia
May. The seed is sowed broad-cast
or in drills nine inches apart. The
soil sbOQld be light, drained, and mod-
erately fertile. When the crop is
large, 10 to 14 lbs. of seed the acre
are employed. The leaves are in-
fested by skipping beetles, and should
be sprinkled with air-slacked Ume,
snuflT, &c. The roots are also sub-
ject to a maggot. The green pods
are sometimes pickled, and the young
plants need as salad.

RADISH, WILD. The charlock,
a weed.

RADIUS. 'Die length of a straight
line drawn from the centre to the cir-
cumference of a circle.

RADIUS BONE. One of the bones
of the forearm.

RAFTER. A timber of the roof.

RAFTERING LAND. Ploughing
only half the land, and turning the
grass side of each fanow-sUee opoo
an naplotighed bed.

RAG. Woollen rags are very use-
ful as a manure. They are chopped
fine, and used at the rate of half a
ton to the acre. They last four or
five years, and advance vegetation,
especially tbahop. The raga, by da*

049

RAI

3AP

o»7, beoone oooveited into etilimiate
of ammociia, in the same way as hair
aad bonis, with which manures they
are identical.

RAG WEED, GROUNDSEL.
Composite-flowered weeds.

RAIL. The hortEontal parts of
framing. Pieces of limber of 1 2 feet,
used for fencing.

RAIN. The water of CUmda,
which see. I'he average amount
that falls in this state is 36 inches,
the largest amount following south-
west and northwest winds. Rain is
a true manure, containing carbonic
•eid, a little ammonia, and saline
matters. It is preferable to preserve
it in tanks, for watering gardens,
than to use well water.

RAINBOW. A display of the pris-
matic colours in the air, produced by
the action of particles of water on the
Mil's rays.

RAIN GAUGE. An instrument
to measore the amoimt of rain fallen.
A eoBvenient form of the instrument
is represented in the annex-
ed figure, where the rain
which enters the fonnel is
collected in a cylindrical
Teasel of copper, connected
with which, at the lower
part, is a glass tube with an
attached scale. The water
stands at the same height in the cyl-
inder and glass tube, and being visi-
ble in the latter, the height is read
immediately on the scale ; and the
eyUnder and tnbe being constructed
80 that the sum of the areas of their
eeetions is a given part, for inatanee,
a tenth, of the area of the fonnel at
its orifice, each inch of water in the
tube is equivaleni to the tenth of an
inph of water entering the mouth of
the funnel. A stop^jock is added,
by which the water is drawn off when
the obsewation is made. It should
be placed in an open space.

RAISINS. Grapes allowed to dry
on the Tine. As soon as they are
ripe, the leaves are pmned od, and
none but sound fruit left. The stalk
is also half cat through. When dry,
they are plucked, dipped in a solution
<if lye, and dried on fmaee.

RAISING PLATE. The

to which the upper ends of the raf-
ters are nailed.

RAKE. An implement consistini^
of one or more rows of long teeth,
to tear the ground or collect hay,
dec. The revolving hay rake is fig-
ured u nder Hay-making. The horse-
rake is only a large r^e drawn by a
horse, and furnished with handles to
be held by a Ubourer.

RAM. The male of the sheep.
See Sheep.

RaMENTA. Thin, brown scales
seen on ferns and young shoots.

RAMOSE. Branched.

RAMPIONS. CumjMmUa rtpum^
cuius. This is cultivated, to a limit-
ed extent, for its roots, which are
said to be better than radishes. They
are cultivated like radishes, and are
lit for use in September and the iaU.
The soil should be rather moist. The
roots are eaten raw, in salads, sliced
with the leaves, or they may be boiled,
and treated as asparagus. Seed i»
obtained by setting out a few of the
last year's roota in spring.

RANID^. The reptiles resem-
bling the frog (ranay.

RANUNCULUS. Plants reaeui-
bling the buttercup and crowafoet.
They are vile weeds in meadows,
many of them being acrid and poi-
sonous. They have been miioh im»
proved for the flower garden.

RAPE. Braasica najms. '* This
plant, which is of the eabbege tribe,
is cultivated, like cole, or oolza, lor
the sake of its seeds, firom which oil
is extracted bygrinding and presaare.
It is also extensively oidtivated in
England for the suocnlent food which
its thick and fleshy stem and leaves
supply to sheep whim other fodder is
scarce.

**The mode of cultivation of the col-
za and rape for seed is nearly the same.
The oolEa takes a l<Miger time to oome
to maturity, and prodnces more seed.
The rape grows on less fertile soils,
and may be sewed in apring as well
as in autumn. Both are hardy, and
resist the winter's frost.

" The seed-bed, where the onltiva-
tioa ia «D a small aeaJe^ Ik^ umUv

RAPE.

prepared hy digpng or trenching with
the spade in a good lojmy soil, nei-
ther too sandy nor loo wet. A large
proportion of rotten dnng is spread
evenly over it, and dug in six inches
deep, and the sarface is raked fine.
The seed is sowed broad-cast or in
drill ; the latter is the best method :
it is then slightly covered with the
rake ; and if the ground will allow
of it, without risk of its being boond
too hard in case of dry weather, it is
well rolled or trodden with the feet.
The seed most not be sowed too
thick; and the plants, as soon as
they have six leaves, must be thin-
ned to a distance of four or five inch-
es in the rows, which will make them
stronger and better furnished with
roots. One acre of seed-bed will fur-
nish plants for ten acres or more.
The seed is sowed in July or August,
that the plants may not run to seed
the same year, which they are apt to
do if sowed early ; and they are trans-
planted in September or October, on
land which has already borne a prof-
itable crop. As this crop is a substi-
tute for B fallow on rich, heavy land,
too much pains cannot be taken to
keep it free from weeds. Winter
barley and rye, which are reaped
early in July, are very proper crops
to be succeeded by rape or colza.
The stubble should be ploughed two
or three times, to pulverize and clean
it. A good coat of rotten dung should
be put on, and the land ploughed in
ridges, as for turnips. The plants
should be put in on the ridges ten
inches apart. It requires great care,
in taking them up, not to break the
fibres of the roots ; they should be
raised with a fork, and placed gently,
with the fine earth adhering to them,
in flat baskets, and in a slanting posi-
tion, so that the tops may be upward.
In planting, the holes should be made
with a large, thick dibble, tJmt the
plants may be introduced without
doubling up the principal roots or
breaking the fibres. The earth shooM
be pressed to the root by a short dib-
ble, inserted to the right or left of the
hole made by the first dibble ; or,
wbich kt better in sliff BoilB» m bote

shonid be made with a narraw hoe
of sufficient depth to aHow the plant
to be placed in it, and another hoe
should follow to draw the earth le
the plant. Thus, two men with hoes,
and one woman, will plant a row more
rapidly than oould be done in any oth-
er way The man who fills np the
holes places his foot by the side of
each plant as he goes on, to preaa
the earth to the roots.

** An expeditious mode of planting
rape is used in Flanders. A spade
ten inches wide is pushed vertioally
into the ground, and, by drawing the
handle towards his body, the labour-
er makes a wedge-like opening; a
woman inserts a plant in each side
of this opening, and when the man
removes the spade the earth falls
back against the plants. The wom-
an puts her foot between the two
plants, and they are then fixed in
their places. In this operation the
man moves baekward ; and the wom-
an, who pots In the plants, forward.
Instead of the spade, an instrameat
is also used called a piantoir. It con-
sists of two sharp-pointed stakes, a
foot or more apart, oonneeted by a
crosa-handle at top, and a bar at about
eight or ten inches from the points.
This inatmment is pressed into the
ground by the handles, assisted by
the foot placed on the lower bar, and
makes two holes, a foot apart, into
which the plants are placed, and
earthed round as before. Thia ia
done when the land has not been laid
up into high ridges.

*' When a large field ia to be plant*
ed, a more expeditious mode is adopt-
ed ; and this ia the most usual prao*
tice in Holland and Germany. The
land having been prepared, and the
manure well incorporated, a deep for*
row is drawn with the plough ; wmb-
en follow with baskets of planta,
which they aet, a foot apart, slantinf
against the fltrrow slice. When the
plough retnma, the earth ia thrown
against these plants, and a man or
wonnan followa, who, with the foot,
preaaea the eertfa down upon the
Toota. Sometimes plants are pat
into cook tevow* wbieh ia then ten

RAP£.

indies or more wide ; Imt tlie tiert
coitivatOTB pat f hem only in eveiy al-
ternate furrow. la this case, also,
there are no ridges. The season of
the year affbrds sufficient moisture,
in the north of Europe, to ensure the
growth of the plants ; and if they
have escaped the fly in the seed-bed,
they are now tolerably safe ; no far-
ther attention is requisite till spring ;
the weeds are then carefully extirpa-
ted by hand and hoe, and where the
distance of the plants admits of it,
the light plough stirs the ground be-
tween the rows, throwing the earth
towards the stems, yet so as to leave
each plant in a little basin, to catch
the water and conduct it to the roots.
When the plants are inYigorated with
riefa liquid manure, such as ni^rht soil
mixed with water, or the drainings
iVom dunghills, they become extreme-
ly luxuriant, and every trouble or
expense bestowed upon them is am-
ply repaid. The diilerence between
a crop partially neglected and anoth-
er carefully cultivated often exceeds
fifty per cent.

** A moderate return of seed for
colza is thirty bushels per acre ; but
it frequently exceeds fifty. The value
on the Continent is nearly the same
as that of wheat. In England it is
somewhat less, owing to tlie quanti*
ty imported. It is usually sold by
the last of ten quarters.

"There is not much diflterence
between the value of coisa and rape
seed (called navette in French), but
the latter produces less. When the
rape is transplanted before winter it
is much more productive than when
sowed in spring. In the latter case
it produces seed the same year. It
is sowed in drills, and thinned out by
the hoe ; and in favourable seasons
a tolerable crop is obtained. It is
generally sowed on land which could
not be brought into a proper tihh af-
ter harvest, and which would require
the frost of winter to mellow it.

" Great crops of cole seed and rape
have been produced by merely paring
and burning the surface and plough-
ing in the ashes ; and these crops,
alternating with oats, have m many

iDfltsnees so exfaauBtadliie aoi a» t»
cause a great prejudice against them
in the minds of the landlords. Many
leases have a clause prohibitiiig its
cultivation, except to be eaten green
by sheep. The principal canse, how-
ever, of the diminution of this crop
in England is the inferior price ob-
tained for the seed when compared
with wheat, which can be raised on
the same land, and is a more certain
crop.

'*The rape and colza ripen their
seed very unequally. The lower peds
are ready to burst before those at the
top are full If the season is wet at
harvest, much of the seed is lost ;
and, without great attention, aonae
loss is sustained in the most favour-
able seasons. It should be cut when
the dew is on it, and moved as Uttle
as possible. If the weather permits,
it is thrashed out on a doth in the
field ; and as many thrashers are em-
ployed as can be conveniently col-
lected, that no time may be lost when
the weather is fair. The seed is
spread out on the floor of a grana-
ry, that it may not heat, and is turn-
ed over frequently. It is then sold
to the crushers, who express the oiL
The pods and small branches which
are broken oflf in thrashing are much
relished by cattle.

"This crop returns little to the
land, and is of itself very exhausting.
Not so, however, is the rape wh^
sown as food for sheep ; it is, on the
contrary, a valuable substitute for
turnips, upon land which is too wet
and heavy for this root. The Bra9-
tica oleracea is more succulent Xh^a
the Bra9sica napiu. Its stem is not
so hard, and the soft pith which it
contains is much relished by eveiy
kind of live stock. To have it in per-
fection, the land should be prepared
and manured as for turnips. The
rape should be sown in drills, ten
inches apart, about the beginning or
middle of August, which gives amide
time for preparing the land without
interfering with the turnip crop. It
will be sufliciently forward before
winter, and it should then be hoed
over once. If the orop ia very for-

RAP

ward, it maf be slig^tlf fed off; Irat»
in general, it is best to let it remain
untouched till spring. In the end of
March and the beginning of April it
will be a great help to the ewes and
lambs. It will produce excellent food
till it begins to be in flower, when it
should immediately be ploughed up.
The ground will be found greatly re-
cruited by this crop, which has taken
nothing from it, and has added much
by the dung and urine of the sheep.
Whatever be the succeeding crop, it
cannot fail to be productive ; and if
the land is not clean, the farmer must
have neglected the double opportuni-
ty of destroying weeds in the prece-
ding summer and in the early part of
spring. If the rape is fed off in time,
it may be succeeded by barley or
oats, with clover or grass seeds, or
potatoes, if the soil is not too wet.
Thus no crop will be lost, and the
rape will have been a clear addition
to the produce of the land. Any crop
which is taken off the land in a green
state, especially if it be fed off with
aheep, may be repeated, without risk
of failure, provided the land be prop-
erly tilled ; but where cole or rape
have produced seed, they cannot be
profitably sown in less than five or
six years after on the same land.

" When the oil has been pressed
out from the seed, the residue and
the husk of the seed form a hard cake
known by the name of rape-cake.
This is used on the Continent to feed
cows and pigs with, as we use the
linseed cakes ; but it is also used as
a rich manure. When rape-cake is
ground to a powder and drilled with
the seed on poor, light lands, it sup-
plies nourishment to the young plants,
and greatly accelerates their growth ;
but if it be added in a large propor-
tion in immediate contact with the
seed, on heavy, impervious soils, it
often undergoes the putrid fermenta-
tion, which it communicates to the
seed sown, and, instead of nourish-
ing, destroys it. > In this case, it is
useful to mix it with some dry, po-
rous earth, or with ashes, which will
prevent the too rapid decomposition :
•izteea busheto are used to the acre.

IiiS

RAS

Biseolved in water, and mixed wtm
urine, it forms one of the most effi-
cacious of artificial liquid manures
Hence it is probable that the most
advantageous mode of using it on the
land, after it has been dissolved in
the urine tank, is to apply it by means
of a water oart to the rows where the
seed has been already drilled, or some
time before it is put in. Where flax
is to be sown, this mixture, applied a
few days before the seed is sown, so
as to altow it to sink into the soil, is
considered, in Flanders, as next in
value to the emptyings of privies,
which with them hold the first rank for
producing fine crops of flax. W hen a
crop appears sickly, and not growing
'as it should do, owing to poverty in
the soil, a top-dressing of rape-cake
dissolved in water, if no urine is at
hand, will generally excite the pow*
ers of vegetation ; and it is highly
probable that it may greatly assist
the efifects of saltpetre or of nitrate
of soda, where these salts are applied.
The cultivation of rape or cole for
spring food cannot be too strongly
recommended to the farmers of heavy
clay soils."— (W: L. Rham,)

RAPE-SEED CAKE. See Rape.

RAPHE. A suture. Parts which
appear as though they bad been uni-
ted. In botany, the thread passing
from the ovule to the placenta.

RAPHIDES. Crystals of oxalate
of potash and other salts found in the
juice of rhubarbs, docks, and other
plants.

RAPTORES, ACCiPITRES.
Birds of prey, as the hawk, owl, eagle.

RAREFACTION. The act of di-
minishing the density of air or other
bodies : it is done by the air-pump in
the case of air.

RASORES. Scratchers ; gallina-
ceous birds, such as the fowl, turkey,
pheasant, 6lo.

RASPBERRY. Rubut idaut.
This shrub, in its wild state, is found
growing in our mountainous woods
and thickets : it flowers in May and
June. The root is creeping. The
stems are biennial, erect, three or
four feet high, branched, round, pale,
or por^iahy more or less besprinkled

668

RAT

irilih tmafi, straight, lender pridcles,
frequently rather resembling bristles
than prickles, and sometimes alto-

tether absent. I.eaves pinnate, of
ve or three ovate, rather angular,
lateral leaflets, serrated or cut, and
angular, green, and nearly smooth
above, very downy beneath, and a
larger terminal leaflet. The foot-
stalks are furrowed, downy, and
prickly, with narrow lateral stipules.
The flowers are small, white, or pink-
ish-white, pendulous, in drooping ter-
minal clusters. Fruit crimson, of
numerous juicy grains, beset with the
permanent styles, and highly fra-
grant, with a very deliciously-per-
fumed, sweet, and acid flavour, more
exquisite in the wild state, in general,
than when cultivated.

** The wood of the raspberry bush
produces fruit but one year, there-
fore that should be carefully cut down
below the surface of the earth, and
the young shoots should be shorten-
ed to about two feet high ; and not
more than three or four shoots should
be left to each root, as these will pro-
duce a greater number of berries, and
larger fruit, than would be obtained
if twice that number of suckers were
led. The middle or end of October
is the proper time for this pruning.
The fruit is produced from young
branches out of the last year's shoots
or suckers. The plants raised by
layers are much preferred to those
taken from suckers ; they should also
have plenty of room, for when there
is not space for the air and light to
pass between the rows, the fruit will
be small, and will not ripen well.
They require a fresh, strong loam,
deeply trenched and well manured in
the first instance, for in warm, light
ground they produce but little fruit.

** The following selection is recom-
mended for a small garden : Baruet,
Cornish, double-bearing red Antwerp,
Williams's preserving yellow Ant-
werp."— {Johnton. )

RAT. Musraitus. "Few animals
are more destructive of every kind of
grain than rats. When a barn is in-
fested with them, it is scarcely pos-
sible to get rid of them. They will I
•64

leave it for a time, and th9
imagines that they are all destroyed ;
but no sooner is the corn brou|;ht in
than they resume their depredatioDs.
There are means, however, of de-
stroying them, and aome of these
means are equally effectual and inge-
nious. The most obvious way of de-
stroying rats is to poison them, whieh
appears an easy matter ; but it is not
so without an accurate knowledge of-
the habits of these creatures. Their
sense of smelling is more acuta than
we can well conceive, and their cau-
tion is not easily deceived. It is dif-
ficult to entice them with food when
they have plenty of grain to satisfy
their hunger. Patience and perse-
verance alone can lull their caution
to rest.

"The principle on which all rat-
catchers proceed is to entice the ratu
to some particular spot convenient
for their future operations. There
are some strong scents which these
animals seem to delight in, and by
means of these their natural sagacity
is deceived. Oil of rhodium, of cara-
way, or anise seed, and musk, are
great favourites with rats. Rags im-
pregnated with these, and which have
not been in contact with any part of
the body of a man, being laid, as if
by accident, will induce ihem to come
out of their hiding-places in the ni^tt^
and frequent the spot where the smell
attracts them. Gradually they will
become familiarized with the place ;
and pieces of tallow, or cheese, or
malt-dust may be placed pear with-
out exciting their suspicion. After
they have been fed for a time, they
will readily eat anything that noay be
thrown down, provided it haa not
been touched by the hand without the
covering of a glove properly scented.
It will take some time to aocoia-
plish this ; and when they are to be
poisoned, a quantity of poisoned food,
similar to what they have oeen ac-
customed to feed on, must be pre-
pared, sufllcient to poison all thoae
which are supposed to frequent the
place. The poisons commonly osed
are arsenic, nux vomica, powdered
Spanish flies, and cocculus indicuB^

RAT

wbieh ioieKtatefl Ui#Bi,Ba tfairt thigr

may be taken by the hand. A small
chamber, or a large chest or box, is
convenient to collect the rats ; and
in order to indace them to go in,
pieces of toasted cheese, or red her-
ring, are trailed along the ground
from the rat holes to the place where
it is wished that they should assem-
ble. As soon as they have been ac-
cmstomed to find food which they like,
they will all come to it in the nigbt ;
and they can be poisoned, or caught
by some contrivance by which the
only entrance to the place or box can
be suddenly closed. When traps are
set, they should be left open for a
time, and the rats allowed to go in
and out without hioderance« till they
crowd together in them, and can be
taken in great numbers. When rats
have been caught in a trap, and have
soiled it with their excrements, it
should not be washed nor much han-
dled: it should be left in the same
spot as long as any rats are caught.
Any change of position excites their
caution. An ingenious trap is made
by stretching a piece of parchment
over the open end of a cask, and en-
ticing the rats to eat the food laid
upon the parchment. When they
have evidently been there to feed,
press cuts, a few inches long, are
made in the parchment with a pen-
knife ; and in the bottom of the tub,
which has four inches of water in it,
a brick is set on its edge, so as to
rise just out of the water. The rats
coming for food, as usual, some one
soon slips through the parchment,
and, falling into the water, seeks ref-
uge on the brick ; as more fall in,
they fight for the possession of the
brick, and their noise attracts all the
rats within hearing. Thus it is said
that a great numt^r may be caught
in one night."

RATCHET. A small lever which
plays into the teeth of a ratchet-
wheel, and allows it to turn freely
only in one direction.

RATTLESNAKE. Snakes of the
genns Crotalus. Their bite is ex-
tremely venomous. The wound
should be cut out and scarified, and

REA

thepaliaiit flostaiiied bybnadranA

ammonia.

RATTLESNAKE ROOT. Sen-
ega root.

RAT*S TAIL. A disease in hor-
ses, in which the hair of the tail is
permanently lost

REAPING. *• The common reap-
ing-hook, or sickle, with which grain
is cut, is one of the oldest instruments
of husbandry. In reaping with it, a
portion of the stems is collected with
the left hand and held fast, while the
sickle in the right hand is inserted
below the left, taking the stems in
its semicircular blade, and cutting
them through by drawing the sickle
80 as to act as a saw, for which pur-
pose the edge is finely serrated in a
direction from the point to the han-
dle. The heads of the grain, with the
upper part of the straw, are then laid
on the ground in quantities, which
may readily be collected into a sheaf.
Practice soon gives dexterity to the
reaper, and he finds it more expedi-
tious to cut small quantities in suc-
cession, until he has filled his hand,
than to attempt to cut through a large
handful at once. Severe wounds are
often inflicted on the fingers of the
left hand by beginners, even to the
loss of a finger ; but this soon makes
them cautious and expert. The di-
vision of labour is introduced with
advantage among a band of reapers.
A certain number cut the grain, while
others follow to gather the sheaves ;
some only preparing the bands, and
others tying them and setting up the
sheaves into stocks, or shocks, which
usually consist of ten or twelve
sheaves. The smaller the sheaves
are, the less injury the grain sustains
in a wet harvest, as the moisture in
a thick sheaf does not so readily evap-
orate. Hence it is the interest of
the farmer to see that the reapers do
not make the sheaves too large. In
many places there is a regular meas-
ure for the circumference of a sheaf,
which should never exceed thirty inch-
es. The bauds are made by taking
two small handfuls of the cut grain
and crossing them just below the ears
into a knot. The sheaf is then press-

6&6

REAPING.

odwitbtlie knee^ and tlie band drawn

tightly around it. The ends are
twisted together like a rope, and in-
serted under the band, which effect-
ually fastens it. This operation is
soon learned, and is done very rapid-
ly. The sheaves should be so tied
that there may be no danger of their
falling loose when pitched into the
cart or stacked, without being so
tight as to prevent the moisture in
the straw from evaporating. They
should not be tied too near the ears,
but rather nearer to the butt. The
sheaves, when tied, are placed tw^o
and two on the butt ends, with the
ears leaning against each other :
sometimes they are placed in a circle,
all th^ ears being together, and the
butts slanting outward: a sheaf is
then opened by inserting the hand
into the middle of the ears, and re-
Yersed over the tops of the preceding,
forming a cone, and covering all the
other ears, while it hangs down
around them. In this position they
will bear much rain without injury.
It is a good practice to place the
shocks across the furrows between
the stitches or lands, so as to allow
the air to circulate more freely around
them. In this case four or five sheaves
are placed in a row, leaning against
as many in a parallel row, and two
sheaves, being opened, are reversed
over them to protect the ears. What-
ever be the mode adopted in reaping
the corn, the same kind of sheaves
are formed, and set up in shocks.

" Wherever the sickle is used for
reaping, the straw is cut at a certain
height from the ground, and the re-
mainder forms a long stubble, which
may be mown at leisure after har-
vest, and carried into the yard for
litter ; but in the neighbourhood of
large towns, where straw is sold at
a good price, or exchanged for sta-
ble dung, it is important that as much
as possible of it should be cut with
the grain. This has introduced the
practice called fagging. The instru-
ment used for this purpose partakes
of the nature of a scythe, as well as
of a reaping-hook. It is shaped like a
sickle, bat is much larger and broad-

6A6

er, and, instead of being iddented
a saw, it has a sharp edge like a
scythe, which is renewed when blDot
by means of a stone or bat. The fag-
ging-hook cuts the straw close to tte
ground by a stroke of the hand ; and
its curved form is only useful ia col-
lecting stray stems, and holding a
certain quantity of them between it
and the left hand of the reaper when
he makes up- a sheaf. A certain
quantity is cut towards the standij^
grain, the left hand pressing it down
at the same time. When as much
is thus cut as would make half a
small sheaf, the reaper comes tnck-
ward, cutting in a direction at right
angles to the first, and rolling togeth-
er the two parts, which he carries in
the bend of his hook and plaoes on
the band which had been prepared
for him. A full sized sheaf is usu-
ally composed of two cuttings. Two
men will fully employ a tliifd to makn
bands for them, tie up the sheaves,
and set them up. This method of
reaping is laborious, on account of
the stooping required to cut near the
ground. The Hainhault scythe does
the work better, and with less fatigue;
it is, in fact, a fagging-hook, not quite
so curved, of which the handle is
longer, and placed at an angle with
the plane of the blade. It requires
some practice to give the proper
, swing to it by a peculiar motion of
the wrist ; but when this is once ac-
quired, a considerable saving of la-
bour and time is effected. A better
instrument, however, on extensive
farms, is the cradle-scythe, which, in
the hands of an expert mower, will
do more work, and more effectually
secure all the straw, than any other
instrument.

** The objection to the great bam
room required for so mudi straw is
obviated by the practice of stacking
the grain in the open air on proper
stands, to keep it dry and out of the
reach of vermin. The additional
trouble in thrashing is not so great
as that of mowing or raking the stub*
ble, which is generally deferred till
half of it is lost by decomposition bj
the air and moisture. W^hen the sa-

Vug of time Is considered, aa veil as
the saTiDg of expense, there seems
to be no doubt that on an extensive
farm the scjUie is far preferable to
the sickle for cutting cier; kind of
grain. Barley and oats are usually
Blown and carried without tying Ihem
into sheaves ; but this is a slovenly
and wasteful practice : by means of
the cradle-scyihe they may be mown
8o regularly as to be readily tied into
sheaves ; and the additional expense
will be fully compensated by the sa-
TJDg of all the grain which, being on
the outside of the stack, is lost by
the depredations of small birds.

■' Beans are usually reaped by the
sickle, the sterna being too strong
and too wide apart to admit of the
scythe. Where it can be done con-
Tcniently, without the soil adhering
too much to the roots, it is belter to
pull them ap and tie them in baa-
dleswithslrawbands.or twine, which
will bo found both a conrenient and
ecoDomical method.

" Pease are generally reaped by
means of two large hooks similar to
the fb^lng booka, one of which is
betd in each hand ; and the stems,
which are generally much interwo-
ven,'b-e partly cut and partly torn
from the roots, and so rolled up into
a unall bundle laid loose, inorderthat

REA

it may dry. Tares are reaped in tha

same way.

" There have been many attempts
to introduce machinery for reaping.
Some of the Inventions were inge-
nious and promised well, but none,
when put to the test, answered the
expectations formed. The Tarioiia
inclinations of the straws prevent any
regular mode of catting. The prin-
ciple of most reaping machines is that
ol^a revolving edge to cut the straw,
and a drum to lay the cat grain down
regularly. Whenever the grain is
laid or lodged, it ia evidcDi that no
machine can collect straws lying in
every imaginable direction and inter-
woven with each other. Till some
better invention appears, the scythe
will probably be found the cheapest
and moat expeditious instrument for
reaping."— < W. L. Rhara.)

REAPING HOOK. See Reaphig.

REAPING MACHINE. Seveiir~'
patents have been taken for machines ~
to cut grass and grain crops. One of
these, which promised much, is the
invention of Mr. Smith, ofDeanston,
and has been modified and patented
by Mr. Wilson in the United States.
Tlie original machine is figured bo-
low. They have given satiefactloa
on smooth meadow lands.

Mr. HatMty't reaping machine is

an admirable and durable implement. I fhnn several committees, and is used
tthasuMtwithcnnsiderableapirianBe I in Delaware. Virginia, and other

•MtM. Tbe gralii i* ent by an n-

rangement of Knives, acting in a way
■early reaenibling adsMiiB. Tbe pri-
ces are SlOO and SIDO. It cute from
fifteen to twentj acres penSaf. See

'CormUk't Teaping mBcbiOB

Fig a-
Mr. M'i

haa bMt) vaed wtch MKceii OB tbe flit
lands of tbe Jame* Riveir. It coots
SIOO.

Mr. Ctarmltr, ot Caledonia, New^
York, is also the iDTeotoT of a ma-
cbiiM for reaping aivdthraabtBg grata ;
it is said to finiah <ill«en acras a day

with Ihs belp of oae man to dnVe,
and one man to ti?nd tbe machine.
.Cost, (600.

Mr. EMUrly, of Heart Prairie, Wia-
consln, has recently patented a har-
vest iag mac liine for reaping the heads
or wheat, barley, rye, and limolby : it
is warranted to cut twenty-fire acres
aday of wheat, attd requires two men,
a boy, and three horses. It ie highly
recommended by those who haye
seen it in action, and the Stale Agri-
caltnral Sncicly, at their fair in 1641|
awarded the inventor an extra pre-
mium for it. We believe this to be
a machme of great promisB.
. REBATE The groove sunk on
'.he cdj!« of any building iiraterial.

RECEPTACLE, In botany, has
four different aigniScations : 1. That
^rl of a flower upon which the car-
pella are situated ; or, in other words,
the extremity of tlic frait stalk. 3,
The aiia of the theca of TrkhomancM
and Hymtnophyllum. aniong ferna, 3.
That part of the ovarium from which
tbe ovula arise, and which is com-
moDly called the placenta. And, 4.

That part of the aiia of a |dantwbieb
beers tbe flowers when it is depreas-
ed in >ls development ; so that, ia-
Btead of being elongated into ■steoh
it fiurma a flattened area, npoa wbdk
the flowers are airaaiged, an ia aator

RECTIFICATION. Aaeoond
distillation.

RECTRICES. The tail feathetl
or a bird.

RECTL'M. The lowest inteetiiM,
ending in the anus,

RECUMBENT. Leaning down.

REUBAY. AnindigenouaSautb-
cm laurel, the Laurut CaTnlinnuut
it is an evergreen of 10 to 35 feet.

REDDLE, or RUDDLE. A red
aluminous marking stone

REDGUM. Akindofblightwhich
afTecta grain.

RED LIQUOR. Crude pyrolignalf
of alumina, used in dyeing as a mor-
dant.

RED-LEAD. A mixtoro of (he
protoxide and peroxide of lead, used
aa a paint.

RED ROOT. A ame giren M

RET

'«miie dozen dtfllinttiit plaiito wftb red-

disb-ooloared foots.

RED SPIDER. PLANT MITE.
AcMriua eeUrius. A small red insect
which spine a net, and lives on the
juioes of many plants and trees, at-
taching itself to the lower side of the
leaf. It is especially injurious to hot-
houses. They are destroyed by fre-
quent syringing with cold water, by
fumigations and washes of whale-oil
soap and water.

RED TOP. A name sometimes
giyen to herd's grius, and also to a dry
perennial grass of the Middle States
(Tri«wpi*)of little or no value.

RED WATER. A disease of cat-
tle. See Ox.

RED WORM. An old name for
the wire- worm.

REED. The genus Arundo^ tall,
aquatic, and boggy grasses. They
may be destroyed by draining the
soil, by liming and ashes. The soil
is usually very fertile.

REED GRASS. Canary grass.

REFLECTION. The throwing
back of the rays of heat or light by a
polished surface or mirror.

REFLEXED. Bent back, turned
back.

REFRACTION. The action ex-
erted by water, glass, and all trans-
•pttrent bodies of changing the d Sec-
tion of rays of light, so as to make
Hhem Appear bent.

REMIGES. The quill feathers of
birds.

REMIPES. An order of ooleop-
teroos insects which are capable of
swimming.

REMITTENT FEVERS. Fevers
wtiich are subject to periodical par«
oxysms, as the ague, bilious fever, dec.

RENAL. Relating to the kidneys.

RENIPORM. Kidney-shaped, of
the shape of a kidney bean.

RENNET. See Che^e.

REPENT. Running on the
ground.

REPTILIA. Cold-blooded verte-
brate animals, as snakes, tortoises,
•frogs, lizards, dec.

RESIN. An inflammable product

of the vegetable kingdom, rich in car-

*4k>si wA hydrsogeot solitbli) in alcobol.

but IttsoMIe In w«ler» Tiier» mo «
great number of species, some of
which are evidently oxidyzed oils.
They are used in varnishes.

RESERVOIR. A tank or artificial
excavation to hold water.

RESOLUTION. In farriery, the
discussion or dispersion of inflamma-
tory gatherings or abscesses, by ap-
plying leeches and other means.

RESPIRATION. Theactof
breathing. It is accomplished by the
movements of the diaphragm and
muscles of the chest. Atmospheric
air passing into the lungs is changed,
oxygen being separated from it and
absorbed into the blood, and four per
cent, of carbonic acid thrown out.
Water also passes off from the lungs.
By these changes heat is produced.
The effect of respiration is to alter
the colour of the blood from black to
bright red; it is at the commence-
ment of life, and any kitermption of
the function is rapidly fatal.

REST HARROW. Ononis, a
prickly shrub.

RETE MUCOSUM. The part of
the skin immediately below tlie scarf-
skin (epidermis).

RETIARIES. Spiders which spin
webs.

RETICULATE. Like a net.

RETICULUM. The honey-oomb
bag of ruminants. See Ox.

RETINA. The nervous layer at
the back of the eye which receives
the images of things.

RETORT. A chemical vessel em-
ployed in a variety of distillations.
It is generally made of glass or earth-
en-ware, and sometimes is provided
with a stopper so placed above the bulb
as to enable substances to be intro-
duced into it without soiling the neck ;
in this case it is called a tubulated
retort. A recener ia usually annexed
to it for the purpose of collecting the
products of distillation. Pig. 1 rep-
^.1.

650

MCU

nMBUitplunietwtudraMiTflr; in

Fig. 3. boih are Lutiulaled.— (firaniic.}

REVERBERATORY FURNACE
A furnace with an arched toof urer
the fire, so that ihe flame and beat
may be reflected and a tiigb lemper-
alure ubtained.

REVOLUTE, Rnlled backward.

RHAPONTICIN and RHEIN.
SabstaDoea obtained fcoai Ibe rool«
of rhubarb.

RHEUMATISM. A nervous di»-
eaae, aometimes attended witb in-
flanunation or the fibrous membraiies
and awellinR o( the joints.

RHIPIPTERAKS. An order or

Jl order of planta leaembliag Aid-
gi, but having sexes.

RHlZO^tlA. A root atacklike that
uf the Bag.

RHODIUM. A rare metal, of great
hardaes*, found in some of the plalina

RHODODENDRON. A genua of
han<tsome flowering ahrubs ; lUe^ are
bardy, and prefer a peat soil.

RHUBARB. FUiils of the genua
Bh^um, hardy, perennial, and large
herb* of the same family as the Docii.
The leaf stalk* vf several apecies,
which grow two feet and more in
length, are much used as a subsiituie
for gooseberriea ; preaetves are also
made of ^em, and even a wine of
ng.i.

Dwir jaLc«, vpfaiob i* mU to

the best gooseberry wine.

The edible kinds are Buck's new
scarlet, of a deep red i the Tobolafc.
whicb is the earliest ; the Goliatb and
Admiral, of great size 1 £1 fort, giant,
Wilmot'a early red 1 Myatt's Victoria,
of ibe largest size i and the Aubu»-
Iian, which is of the flavour of appli^
aod yields atema nearly the wbole
summer. Tbese are varieties of tlu
fiAeun TkapoHticum, tutduialum. and
EmoiHAutlrMU) {Fig.l). Tlierateo
yield medicinal rhubarb when the
toot* are allowed to remain from four
to seven years. But the s^^cios
whicb produces the best European
rhubarb is the R. palnuaua {Fif. S>.
Fie.t.

The source of the Chineee drag u
uaknowo.

CuIiiMhon.— " The soil beet aait-
ed to these plaot* it ooe that is light,
rich, deep, aod modarately uout. a
poor, heavy, or shallow soil never
produces them Id perfection.

"It may ba propagated by cuttiqg*,
but the mode almost universally prac-
tised is bj seed. This aboitid be
sown sTHin after it is ripe, in Septent-
ber or October, for if kept out of the
ground tintil the apring, it will oRt*
oontmuB dormant for tvtelve months ;
if the danger of this, however, m
risked, It must be inserted eariy in
February or Marcli. The seeds am
hest insencd in drills three feel ijiait,

main where ruised ; for ^iih^
Uiey will Uur riimoviDg, jm it

witre elkeAa and sotiMWh*! Iew«n«
theirgrowth. When tiieynmke the?r
appearance in the Bpring, and bave
been ttaoraughly cleared of weeds,
tbey may be thinned to bix or eig^t
inebes asunder, and tbe surface of
the ground about them iMMcoed witb
tfae hoe. Towards the oaockiakin of
■DQiiner, when it can be detenninad
wbich are the strongest plants, tbey
must be Snail]' thinned to Uirae or
four feet, or the hybrid to six. They
mast be continually kept clear of
weeda. In ■utomn, when the leaves
deMy,tfaeyare renoTed. and the bed
beinf genOy turned OTer, a little well-
pntretodBttUe dooE added, and some
of tfaeeartii applied over the stools.
In Iha spring, the bed may be again
dag, prevjona to the plants malung
Ibeir appearanoe : and as the stalks,
wlwa blanched, are much leas hareh
in taste, require less sugar to be ren-
dered palataUe, and are greatly im-
proved to appearanee, at this period
a neneh may be dug between the
rowa, and the earth from it laid about
k foot tbiok over the aloul. This
Mvenng muM be ntmovad when the
(fitting oeasea, and the {riaots allow-
ed to grow at liberty. As the earth
in wet aeasona is apt to indnce de-
tmj, the covering may be advania-
geoaaly fonned ofeaai ashea or drift
•and, wtatcfa are much less retentive
of m^atnie. Tboee plants produce
the seed in greateat perfection that
■re not gathered from, but on no ac-
count must they be subjected to the
process of Uanching."

The stems may be forced very
readily by covering them with barrels
oi band frames, and surrounding the
aotside by fermentioK horse dung,

Wbcn the toots are wanted, the
alalks ahoold not be removed to any
peat eUent ; the soil is to be tbor-
MVbly looaeoed about the plants,
onee a year at least, by spoiHDg or
treoohing. They are taken upat six
yeara, in the autumn, cleaned, scra-
ped, and hung on strings to dry m the
•un ; a hole is oflen bored through
Ibe centre of the large roots for this
parpose ; the yoanf roots are reject-
ad. They are ilao dnad, in part, by

expsettrelD beat open slabaof Mom,

anil the large roots cut into slicoa.
The process must be perfectly ao-
oomplnhed, aud often requires sev-
eral months ; the losa by drying ia
foor flilhs of the weight.

RHUii. A genus of ahrabs, some
of wbich are of eoonomieal value, as
the R. tariarta, which yields moeb
tannin, and is used for dyeing and
luakiog leather ,- the R. glabra, which
is a very common indigenoue grianl,
is also useful in tasning ; the puison
oak (K. (cixicfidn^im), poison sumaeb

tfi..

a (fl.r

and R. /nmi/a), are all remarkable
for their poiHoaims joice and exhala-
lioiui. See Poitm Oak.

RIBAND GRASS. Canary grass,
and the striped leafed PAsftfru; sown
as an ornament in gardens.

RIB GRASS. A name for tha

plantain (Plaatcgo vajor).

RIBS. The curved booee attach-
ed to the vertetgrs behind ; those
which meet at the chest and are ar-
ticulated to the sterouto are called
true ribs ; those nhose eitreroitie*
are only furnished with cartilage ate
the false ribs, i* badiing, curved
timbers for roofing.

RICE. Plants of the genus Ory
to, especially tf- "

«(«fl(*V.),0.

ter rice, cultivated \t
in South Carolina 'f
and other Sonthem
and Soutbweateto j
States. In India 'j
and Africa several I
mountain ordryspe- 3
cies are cultivated, f
as the 0. n

they are mi
er sjid yield lets than
tbe aquaiio kinds.
The cultivatioi '
South Carol im

very saeceasful on

\\(I \

rich ri»er bottoms,

\ V

the yield being forty

busheU or more the

acre, and one hand

managing five acres.

The process is weU

BIO

UK>

"^ B«9te to piast abmt tte WA of
March, trench shaJlow snd wide, and
scatter ibe seed is the row ; make
7S or 76 rows in a task, and sow two
husheJs to an acre.

** Hoe about the end of April or be-
gaming of May, whon the rice it in
the fourth leaf ; then flood, mnd clear
the field of trash. If the planting be
iate, and you are likely to be ini^rass,
flood before hoeing ; but hoeing first
is preferable. The best depth to flood
is three or four inches, it is a good
mark to see the tops of the rice just
out of the water; the deep places are
not to be regarded : the rice will grow
through in three or four days. Ob-
serve to make a notch on tbe frame
of the trunk when tbe water is at a
proper depth ; if the rains raise the
water above the notch, or it leaks
out, add or let oflT accordingly: This
is done by putting a small stick in the
door of the trunk, about an inch in
diameter : if scum, or froth^ appear in
eight or ten days, freshen the water,
take OflT the trunk doors, run off
the water with one tbbj and take in
the next fiood ; then regulate as be-
fore. Keep tbe water on about fif-
teen or seventeen days, according to
the state of the weather ; that is, if
a hot sun, fifteen days, if cool and
cloudy, seven teen days, counting from
the day the field is flooded ; then leak

«flr wfth n obmB slack finr two days ;
then nm off the whole, and keep ibe
field dry. In four or five days aAer,
hoe tbe second time, stir the ground,
whether clean or not» and comb op
the fallen rice wiih tbe fing^B. JlCeep
dry and hoe through the field. Hoe
tbe third time and pk:k clean. This
will be about tbe faM»ginning of Julj.
Then flood as you hoe. X^et tbe wa-
ter be the same depth as before. If
any grass has escaped, it must be
pickd in the water after it shoots
out. This is called the fourth hoo*
iog, but Che hoe is oev^ used except
for some high places, or to dean the
dams, if the rice is flaggy and liko-
ly to lodge, flood deep to aiq^poit it,
and keop it on until fit to harvost."

Most of the rice exponed in in the
form of jmddyt or cleaned ; tbe hull-
ing is readily aceomplished fay gcnia
cleaners.

Ths ChemiMl CompttUum, — The
grain of rice has been examined hy
Braoonnot and others. U omaiato of
S& 0 starch, 3 6 gluten, and Old £M
per cent. From this eompositioa we
are at no loss to account for ite tnfi»-
riority as an article of lood ; indeed,
the parts removed. by cleaning Ihe
chit or germ are much the hehest
portion. The ashes of the grains
chaff, and straw have beoo detenuia-
ed by Professor Shephand per cent. ;

Pluitphata uf'limo . . . .
Phosphate of potMh (nwrly) .
Silica (nearly) ....!.
Sulphate of poiMh . . . .
Chloride pf potassium and loss
Carbonate of lime ....
Carbonate of magji««i» . . •
Potaah from the Mhoate . .

Tbe

cletfl gmia,
peroenb

76«0

5-OU

SO-OO

iraoea.
<>

M
«l

Chair,
UT per cava.

sah.

1U24
trace.
97-U
trace.

lis

0-89

RICE WEEVIL. Caliandra oiy-
za. An insect very similar to the
grain weevil, and which produces
much destruction in crops of rice and
wheat at the South : it is destroyed
by kiln-drying the grain.

RICE, WILD, or WATER. Zu
zanra aquatica^ miliaeeay and fivUnnf.
Indian rice. It grows in the margins
of lakes and rivers. The aquatica is
large and abundant in the Middle
Western States, and was mudi used
662

IMper

ttaCB.
84'7«

by the Indians and early Freaeh set-
tlers, and called by them FoSUtMwm.
Tbe Indians collected the gnda hf
first tying the fruit stems in bandlM^
and when they became dry, they pass-
ed through the plants in canoos, and,
bending over the heads, beat the
seeds from them into a bliinfcet pfa^
ced in their canoes.

RICINIC ACID. An oily acid,
produced by distilling castor ofl at a
high tempeFStave.

RDA

RICK. A stack.

RIDDLE. A coarse siere to sep-
arate grain from dust, 6lc.

RIDGE. The upper timber in a
rooh againat which the raftera pitch.

RIDGIICG. Laying ap the aoil in
narrow ridges.

RIDGLING. A male animal haU*
eaatrated. They are troableaome,
laeleaa creatures.

RIGGIL. An imperfect sheep.

RIME. Frost.

RIMOSE. Resembling the broken
ippearance of the bark of old treea.

RING BONE. In farnery, a cal-
ns growing in the hollow circle of
JielHtle pastern of a horae, just abore
the eoroneL

RINGING. An operation in hor-
ttcoitQre ; cutting out a ring of bark
down to the new wood, but not into
it, for the parpoae of makkg a kuni-
riant branch fnutful. It arvasta the
descent of the elaborated aap, and
swells out the flower bods. It is
done in spring. When the woood is
aiade into or throogh the new wood,
the tree is killed, and this plan is por-
aoed in forests to kill them preinra-
unry to burning. Roots are also e«t
Into or ringed for the purpose of
throwing out new, healthy shoots.
The width of the wound when fruit
fa wanted shouM not be great, and it
is wei\ to leave a part of the bark an-
eat, by wMch the place heals over
more rapidly. Fruit has been doubled
in aixe and much improved in flavour
by this process.

RINGENT. Grinning. A name
given to the personate corolla, aa in
the genus AnHtrkinufH.

RINGS, FAIRY. Ringa of green
grass, enclosing a less fertile spot :
they are prodneed by tin growth and
decMV' of fungi, the graen grass ap-
pearing where the fangi teve just
died.

RIPPLE GRASS. The smaller
plantain.

RIPPLING FLAX. Separating
the seeds by beating the planta against
a board, or other contrivance.

RISTLE PLOUGH. A pariog
piengh for catting torfa and the roota
af heath or other abroba.

RIVOSCT. AaarftoaiMntedwMi
irregular furrows.

ROADS. In the construction of
good, duraUe roads, the following
points are to be attended to :

*< i>raia«ge.-»All exertion to eon-
atruet or repair roads ia considered
unavailing until the bed of the road is
freed from water, and aeeored againat
ita return. Of what aervice can atone
be when the road ia iomieraed in w»>
ter t To oorrect and prevent a re-
currence of the evil, anhatantial diteb^
es should be opened, so aa to give a
slope of one mch in twaoty-four be-
tween the crowns of the road and
bottoms. If open dvaina cannot be
made on both aidea^ owing to the de-
clivity of the sarfaoe, under draina
should be conatrueted, with outleta,
through the bed of the road to the
lower aide ; and if apringa exiat ia
the site of the road, their water must
be eoneentrated and coaducted off"
by under draiaa. When a particuhur
piece of road ia obaerved to be con-
tinually heavy, and in a bad atate, it
is either caused by spring water, or
is situated in a iat, from which the
water eaanot eacape. Theae sug*
gestioa sheald not be lost to us. A
principal defect ia our roads is the
want of efficient drainage. Wherever
water ia permitted to lemaio, either
upoa the surfoee or substratum, ia
wet seasooa then will be a aloughy
and the had of the road will be en«>
tirely broken up.

'* TJu tuUtanee or thkknetf o/Ma^
teria^.-^Without a sufficient depth
of consolidated materiala, there will
not be a reaiatance equal to the weight
which a highway iaaubjeot to. There
moat be weight to resist weight if
the weight of metal forming the sob*
stanoe be of an imperfect quality^
more will be required than when
sound and clean. In proportion to
the quantity of deleterious matter
contained in the body (aa earth, small
gravel, soft stone, dtc.) must the thick-
ness be increased. Any matter that
ia not of a aoond nature has no pow-
er in road making, and therefore
the hard materiala alone contained
m the roada can be calculated upoa

ROA

ROC

n poflseMing the qualHy to Tcsfst
weights. £x{)eriencehas taught that
there can be no real security against
a road giving way, taking the year
through, unless 12 inches aX least of
good consolidated materials form the
body of a road, and this upon a founds
ation rendered sound and dry by ef-
fectual drainage.

'* Sort of Afafmo^.— Not the kardr
t9iy bat the toughett stones, are the
best : the first will break, the latter
bend. The trappean and basaltic
rocks are therefore preferred ; then
whinstone, dark-ooioured granite, and
limestones.

" Preparation and aize of Material*.
— The stone to be employed is first
freed from dirt, and then broken so
small as to pass through the inch
meshes of a wire sieve. Some al-
low the stones to retain the sioe of
two inches, but none larger. The
tougher the natare of the material,
the smaller the size should be.

** Quantity of Materials to be laid on
at a Time. — Mr hen a thick coat is laid
on, the destruction of the material is
very great before it becomes settled
or incorporated with the road. The
stones will not allow each other to
lie quiet, but are continually elbowing
one another, and driving tlieir neigh-
bours to the left and right, above and
below. This wears off their angular
points, produces mud and dirt, and
reduces the stones to an angular
form, and prevents their uniting and
becoming firm. If there be substance
enough already on the road, it will
never be right to put on more than a
stone's thickness at a time. A cubic
yard, nicely prepared and broken, to
a rod superficial, will be quite enough
for a coat, and will be found to last
as long as double the quantity put on
unprepared and in thick layers. There
is no grinding to pieces when thns
applied ; the angles are preserved,
and the. materials are out of sight
and incorporated in a very little time.
Each stone becomes fixed directly,
and keeps its place, thereby escaping
the wear and fretting which occur
when they are applied in a tbiok stra*
turn. Ob new roads, the covering]

664

should be applied tn thin coats. As
soon as one is imbedded, apply anotb-
er, until the desired power is obtained.

"To say nothing of the savin|r in
a course of years by the durability
of a road formed under the new sys-
tem, and which has been found ia
some cases, even where the traffic is
considerable, by the side of a laifa
town, to last for seven yasrs without
an additional stone being applied ; to
say nothing of the saving to the public
in wear and tear of horses, carts, and
tackle ; to say nothing of the oomfoit
of travelling a smooth road, and also to
say nothing of employment found fcr
the poor, yet a road can be maintain-
ed good and perfect for half the sum on-
der the new system, which under the
old is expended without improvement.

** SDreading»-^9uae the load to be
shot aown a short distance from the
place upon which you wish the ma-
terials to be finally spread, and direet
the spreader to cast every shovelful
from him equally all over the sur-
face, and in such a manner as he
would do if he were sowing wheat
broad'Cast. The road will then he
not thicker in one place than anoth-
er, and a section will be produced per-
fect and trae.

** Serafhtff.'^lf it is desitahla id
keep a road dry at the foundsa'os, it
must be equally ao at the surftoe."

HOAHINO. A disease in horaet
called broken wind. It is the result
of ii^ury to the cells of the lui^gs*
brought on by too violent exereiss,
especially afler meaJs.

HOCHAMBOLE. AUmmscorodo-
proMum. '* Spanish garlic. Ithashulbs
or cloves growing in a duster, form-
ing a kind of compound root The
stem bears many bulbs at its sum-
mit, which, as well as those of ths
root, are often preCerred in cooking
to garlic, being of much milder fla*
vour. It is best propagated by the
rout bulbs, those of the stem being
slower in production. The planta-
tion may be made either in March or
the early part of April, as well at
throughout the autumn. They may
be inserted either in drills or by the
dibble, ill rows six. iaobes apart aaeii

9ie>

waj, and asaall7 tvo indMs wjthhi

the grnund, but thrive better if grown
on the surface. A very Boial) bed is
eufEcient for the supply of ihe largest
family,"

nOCHELLE SALT. Tartrate of
soda and patasaa ; used as a geulle

ROCK CRYSTAL. Transparent

ROCK SALT. The coarse natice
salt, found in immeuae masses in
some parts of the globe. It consists
of salt chiefly, but sdulterated with
chloride of calcium, ^psum, and marl.

ROD. The same as a pole, 16i feet.
Four of these make Gunter's chain.

RODENTS, RODENTIA. Gnaw-
ing quadrupeds, with two long cbiael

ROE STONE. Oolite, rocks tbe
slructuro of which is made of small
rounded panicles.

ROLLERS. Rounded logs, or cyl-
inders of iron or stone turning on an
axis, and capable of being drawn by
hand or horses. They ire of great
service in lerelling the surface of
fields and breaking lumps. On looae
soils they compress the earth and
render it mure fertile, and are much
used tu intbed small seeds and run
over grass. The common roller is
no more than a heavy log, but nu-
merous varieliea have been proposed.
The improved kinds (see Fig. 1) are

'on, in two or more I wooden frame (or roeks, a
pieesB, to M to run over two lands, weighted aocordinglo
>the hone walking in the ditch, or Instead of the frame for weights,
oaatial furrow. They ^so carry a I or io addition to it, a box (a) is soma-

toMiB vmf^mi, for 1km ^pM« m(
watering oi apriokling fluid mtDnren
over the young plants. As they are
rolled, the mBD who leads the hor«e
maoagea the wateriac by a itring at-
tached to the end of tia leTer (i).

«Woh, M«traiMd,l0to fbe IkUmm
through the Binall boles (e). The
cylinder, or roller, ia also set wiih
BeariSera and other oonLrivancea for
cutting or cniahiiig tbe wul, as in tba
clodcrUshei(Fif.8) la aome impto-

menta the roller laoraconteal form,
or of the figure of two cooea, aniled
It their bases for the purpoae of roa-
aingbetwaenfurrowsoTTidges: they
■re also made of a aeriea of separate
ringa or wheels wfaieh ran betweea
drills firill rolUri), and may be uaed
in raariting Che ground before aowing

ROMAN VITRIOL. Blue Titriol,
salpfaale of copper.

HOOD. AaquuremeBsure.equalta
40 perches or square poles. The
fourth part of an acre.

ROOF. Th« corerjng of a bnUd-
ing. The pitch, or inclination, should
be much greater in northern posi-

■I iacliDBiiou of the aides af the
roof is requn«d by the rHmam. la to
place two eloping raften, C C, vpaa
the walls, B B, as in k^. ].

tbe auhjoined diagram - ~
{Fig. 1), nieeting at j
theapez. A, where we i
will suppose ifaem so ,
coanecled with a f
as to be iua^>- \

rT\

traUe,

9 tend to rot the timbera
roore rapidly. Those which are cov-
ered with shingles must also be
more pitched than ihoM of alate or
metal.

" A roof, aa respects its ooostruc-
tlon, involves some knowledge of
mattiematics Of the general prioei-
plea on which its proper

Sravity. as shown in
No.S. The walla are
considered aa solid
masses, ntoveable on points, P. If
the walls be not of aufflcienl weigW,
tbe thrust that will be ihua extttti
on tbetn by the tendency of the raf-
ter* 10 spread at their feel will throw
the walls out of an upright, aa in No.
2. and tbe whole assemblage will ba
destroyed. By the laws of nie«tit»-
ioa, it is iiBoWB UiU iIm homooul

moo

tfemsl tJhiM aetinf on tfee waBs ie
proportional to the len^h of a line,
d, e, drawn at right angles to the raf-
ter, intersecting a vertical line drawn
from the apex, which it is manifest
must increase as the roof becomes
flatter. To counteract the thrust above
mentioned, nothing more is necessa-
ry than to tie together the feet of the
rafters, as in the following diagram
{Fig. 2>, in which A B is the tie in
FVg.9. question, and thence
^^jr^f'^^^t^, ** called a de-beam. If
A.f* ^|B the extent be not very
• ■ great, the rafters may

be kept from spreading by a minor
tie, as at'ft ft, called a collar. Beyond
oertain lengths or spans, however, it
will occur to the reader that a tie-
beam wUl itself have a tendency to
bend, or sag, as the workmen call it,
in the middle ; and from this circum-
stance a fresh contrivance becomes
necessary, which will be seen in the
annexed diagram {Fi^. 3), marked e
Fig.^, d : this IS called a ^in^-
5jj^ pott^ or, more properly,
"Sk ^'ttir-jn>£e, inasmuch as
n it noes not perform the
•ffioe of a post, but rather of a tie,
ibr it ties up the beam to prevent its
bending. If the rafters be so long as
to be liable to bend, two pieces, a, a,
called Hruu, are introduced, which,
having their footing against the sides
of the king- post, act as posts to sup-
port or strut up the rafters at their
weakest point The piece of framing
thus contrived is altogether calicMl a
truss. It is obvious tiuit by means of
the upper joints of the struts we ob-
tain more points of support (Fig. 4),
j^. 4. or, rather, suspen*

sioB ; and that but
Ibr the compies-

jwt dwBrfbed, whMh wb iAMI %BtB
brielly notice, and whereof the ftil-
lewing is a diagram (F^r. 6). This
roof has three Fig.f,

points of support,
A, B, A ; the posts
A A, A A are call-
ed quemiF^Hfsts ; the ooUar, A B A, is
here a »^stiitii^ p**e€f instead of a
tie, as it was in the example of ties
first noticed, its operatioD being ex-
actly the reverse of a tie. The curb
or numsard roof is one in which a
story is obtained, as may be seen in
the annexed diagram {Fig. 6). Its
principles are the same ji^. s.
as those already men-
tioned, and do not here
require farther notice.
In the execution of
roofs the expense of trussing every
pair of rafters would be unneces*
sary, and the practice would also load
the walls with a far greater wei^^t
than would be expedient ; it is there-
fore the custom to place these prin*
eipal parts of a roof at certain inter-
vals, which, however, should never
exceed ten feet. The rafters which
are actually tmsaed are called prmd"
pal rafters ; and by the intervention
of tbeimrftfi^, A. in the diagram (J^j^.

» sibility of the tim-
ber, there would be no limit to the
space which a roof might be made
to cover. This compressibility takes
plaoe at those points where the fibres
of the wood are pressed at right an-
il^, or nearly so, with their direc-
tion; and many ways are adopted for
avoiding this inconvenience. There
is a species of roof, dependant in con-
i^ttolioft o» to prinoipte we have

Fig*y.

7), are made to
bear the smaller
or common raf-
ters, which are
notched down on
it. These common rafters are re-
ceived by, or pitch upon a plate, B,
called a poU-pUte ; and the principal
rafters, which fallen the tie-beam, are
ultimately borne by the wall-plate, 0.
When beams in either roofs or floors
are so long that they cannot be pro-
cared in one piece, two ^^ g,
pieces, to form the requi- ^ j^ ^
red length, are msm/eii to- ^y _ \
gether by indenting them \ i r 1
at their joints, and bolting them to-
gether, of which practice two modes
are here subjoined {Fig. 8)."

ROOK. Corffus frugiUgus. The
gregariouacrowt alinoet domesticated
in England in rookeries. They live,
for the most part, on insects. The
youAg.arcr sometimes eaten.

ROOT. ** THat |Mit atthe oentnil
taus of a plant which is formed by
the deeoendiog fibres, and whose
function is to attract liquid food from
the soil in which it is mingled. It
differs from the stem in not having
leaves or buds upon its surface, and
in its tendency to burrow under
ground, retreating from light ; nev-
ertheless, some kinds of roots are ex-
clusively formed in air and light, as
in the ivy, and other such plants."

Roofts are of various figures, as
fibrous ; spindle, as in the radish ;
knotted, &c. ^The rfaiaome of the
flag and the tuber of the potato are
not roots, but subterranean stems.
The cormos of palms and aroid» is a
mere expansion of tissue, which is
neither a root nor stem.

ROOT CROPS. Crops of beets,
turnips, carrots, dec.

ROOT STOCK. The rhiaome of
the flag, ginger, arrow-root.

ROSACEJS. "A large and im-
portant natural order of plants, the
species of which are, for the most
part, inhabitants of the cooler parts
of the world. They are in some ca-
ses trees, in others shrubs, and in a
great number of instances herba-
ceous perennial plants : scarcely any
are annuals. No natural orders con-
tain more species of general interest,
in the beauty of their flowers or their
perfume : there is the roee itself, and
various species of the genera Rubus,
SjnrtBA, PoiefUilla^ Oeum, and Fyrut.
The apple, pear, plum, cherry, peach,
nectarine, apricot, raspberry, straw-
berry, and similar valuable fruits, are
the produce of othere. As medicinal
plants, some are of considerable im-
portance. Prussic acid is obtained
from the leaves and seeds of the bit-
ter almond, peach, plum, and other
species. This imporUnt assemblage
of plants is distinguished by having
several petals ; separate carpels ; dis-
tinct, perigynous, numerous stamens ;
alternate leaves, and an exogenous
mode of growth.'*

ROSE. The genns Aota, which,
by cultivation, has been extended to
upward of a thousand varieties. They
require a good loamy soil) and are

ROT

mwsli impfovra by jttdicfoos pmniB^
Many diseases infect the rose shrabs;
of these, the aphis is the most com-
mon. They are also attacked with
blight, and by the rose-bng, a coleop-
terous insect, of the fwanikj of tfae
cockchaflfers. But by proper clean-
ing, and syringing with water, or
with tobacco water, the plants sat
easily preserved in health. Several
varieties are worthy of cultivation for
the perfume {attar) distilled from their
petals. The French rose is used by
druggists.

ROSEBAY. The handsome
dodendron maximum.

ROSE BUG. Insects of the
family as the cockchaff^r, infesting
the rose, vine, and fruit-trees during
June and July. The perfect insect
issues from the earth in June, to
which the female retires at the end
of July and lays her eggs. Thej
cannot be destroyed except by direct
violence, fumigations and washes be-
ing of little service. The most usual
means is to catch them by the hand,
or by shaking the plants they infest^
and burning or crushing them. The
insects pass through all their trans-
formations in one year in the soil,
and emerge only in the beetle form.

ROSEMARY. RotmaHmu offid-
nalxM. A handsome evei^freen shrub,
cultivated for its odorifertws leaves,
from which an essential oil is distill-
ed. It requires a dry soil, and lasts
many years.

ROSIN. The resin remaining
after distilling the spirit from turpen-
tine. Colophony.

ROSTELLUM. The name given
to the retractile sucking tube of ap-
terous insects.

ROT. A fatal disease oi stock,
especially Skeev, which see.

ROT IN WOOD. See Dry JZM
and Preservation of Timher,

ROTATION OF CROPS. ««As
crops of the cultivated ]dants succeed
to each other upon the same ground,
a question to be determined is the
order in which the difl^rent kinds
should follow each other.

"All plants which are coltivated,
aad which Meoanied from Asgmttid

ROTATION OF CROPS.

'WkMe tboy «re ivodooedt tend to rea- 1
Aer the soil less productive, or, in tlie
IsLoguage of farmers, to exhaust it.

** But plaots which are suffered to
decay, or which are consumed by an-
imals on the ground on ^which they
grow, do not exhaust the soil. On
Xhe contrary, the decay of the stems
and leaves of such plants, either nat-
urally or by the consuming of them
by animals, tends to add those de-
composing organic matters to the
soil which form one of the elements
of its fertility. This process may be
imperceptible and slow, but it is that
-which Mature herself employs to form
the soil, as distinguished from what
has been termed the subsoil.

" Sometimes this process of decay
is counteracted by the singular nat-
ural provision of a conversion of the
decomposing vegetables into a sob-
stance which itself resists decompo-
sitio n, peat. But with this exception,
the tendency of the decay of vegeta-
bles upon the surface is to add to the
fertile matters of the soU.

"This is well understood in the
practice of agriculturists. When the
productive powers of a soil have been
exhausted by cultivation and the car*
lying away of its produce from the
surface, it is laid down to herbage, in
which state the future vegetation
which it produces tends, by its de-
composition upon the surface, to ren-
ovate the productive powers of the
soil. Land in this state is said to
rest.

"When land, however, has been
impoverished by successive crops,
and has become full of weeds, the
laying it down to rest in that state
is attended with less beneficial con-
seqoences than when the soil has
been previously cleaned of injurious
weeds, and fertilized by good culture.
In the former case, the process of
renovation is slow, if perceptible at
aU ; the useless plants increase, and
not those which are beneficial, and
afford food to pasturing animals.
Land, when properly laid down to
grass, therefore, tends to recover its
wasted powers of production. Land
not properly laid down has less of

this heaKng property, and maty be
more full of weeds, and no richer
when ploughed up again after a time
than when laid down. Under good
management, however, the laying
down of cultivated land to grass and
other herbage plants to be consumed
upon the ground, is a means of rest-
ing the soil and renovating its powers
of production ; and this ooode of re-
cruiting an exhausted soil being ^-
ways at the conunand of the farmer,
its application is important in prac-
tice. It is to be observed, also, that
the poorer soils require this species
of rest and renovation more than
those which are naturally productive.

** The experience of husbandmen,
from the earliest times, has shown
that the same kinds of plants cannot
be advantageously, cultiyated in con-
tinued succession. The same or sim<
ilar species tend to grow feebly, or
degenerate, or become more subject
to diseases, when cultivated success-
ively upon the same ground, and
hence the rule which forms the basis
of a system of regular alternation of
crops is, that plants of the same or
similar species shall not be cultivated
in immeidiate succession; and far-
ther, the same rule has been thus far
extended, that the same species shall
recur at as distant intervals of the
course as circumstances will allow.

*' All herbaceous plants, whose pro-
duce is carried off the ground which
produces them, may be said to ex-
haust the soil upon which they grow.
But all such plants do not exhaust
the soil in the same degree ; for after
some species the soil is seen to be
more impoverished than after others.

" And not only do different species
of plants exhaust the soil in a greater
or less degree than others, but the
same species does so according to
the different period of its growth at
which the plant is removed from the
ground.

" When an herbaceous plant is suf-
fered to mature its seeds, it exhausts
the soil more than when it is removed
before its seeds are matured. AU
herbaceous plants, therefore, when
cut in their green state, that is, be-

66Q

ROTAavoN OP ostom.

fore they have mat«red their eeede, (
exhaust the suil less than when they ;
remain until they bare ripened their .
seeds. Thus the turnip* when used
in its green state, is one of the least
exhiusiiog in the agricultural class
of plants to which it belongs ; but the
turnip, when allowed to remain upon
the ground until it has ripened its
seeds, is one of the most exhausting
plants that is cultivated among us;
and so it is with the rape and others.

** Farther, certain plants, by the
larger or smaller quantity of manure
which the consumption of them afford,
are more or less useful in maintaining
the fertility of the farm.

** When an herbaceous plant is suf-
fered to mature its seeds, and when
any part of these seeds is carried off
the farm, the plant affords, when con-
sumed by animals, a smaller return
of manure to the farm than if the
same plant had been cut down before
it had matured its seeds, and been
in that state consumed by animals.
Thus it is with the turnip plant re-
ferred to. This plant is, with us,
sown before midsummer. In the first
season it forms a napiform root, and
puts forth a large system of leaves,
karly in the following season it puts
forth a long stem, which bears flow-
ers, and the seeds are generally ma-
tured about midsummer. If this
plant is removed in the first stage of
Its growth, that is, after it has p^ut
forth its large leaves and formed its
bulb, and is then consumed by ani-
mals, it returns a great quantity of
manure ; but if it remains until the
second state of its growth, then the
consumption of its stems and leaves
return scarce any manure. The
iuices of the root have apparently
been exhausted in affording nutrition
to the flower stem, the flowers, and
seeds.

" It is beyond a question, that, in
order to bring a plant to its entire
maturity by the perfecting of its seeds,
a larger quantity of the nutritive mat-
ter of the soil is sucked up by it than
when it is brought only to its less
advanced stages. When crops of
plants, therefore, are suffered to ar-
070

rive at m«taii^, tVey $g&
more exhausters of the soil on which
they grow than when they are cnii
down while they are green ; anti iS
those seeds are in whole or in part
carried off the farm, the crops are ex-
hausters of the ^rm, as weJi aa oi
the ground which had produced Uiem.
Were the ripened seeds to be whotlj
returned to the soil, it may be be-
lieved that they might give haok to a
all the nutritive matter which bad
been derived from it. But, in prac-
tice, seeds are emfdoyed for many
purposes, and are generally earried
off the farm which produces tbem.
When this is done in whole or in part,
the plants produced are ra an emifkeat
degree exhausters of the farm, ae i^eD
as of the soil oo which they have
grown.

" Farther, certain plants, from tbeir
mode of growth and cultivation* asre
more favourable to the growth of
weeds than other plants. The oereaJ
grasses, from growing closely togeth-
er, and not admitting, or admitting
partially, the eradication of weeds,
are more* favourable to the growt.ii
and multiplicatioD of weeds than aueh
plants as the turnip and the potato,
which are grown at a considerable
distance from each other and admit
of tillage during their growth, and
whose broad system of leaves tend
to repress the growth of stranger
plants.

" Having these principles in view,
certain rules may be deduced from
them for the order in which the crops
of plajsts in cultivation in a country
shall succeed to each other on the
same ground.

*' Ut, Crops consisting of plants of
the same or similar species shall not
follow in succession, but shall return
at as distant intervals as the case
will allow.

"2d. Crops consisting of plants
whose mode of growth or cultivation
tends to the production of weeds,
shall not follow in succession.

**3(i. Crops whose culture admits
of the destruction of weeds shall be
cultivated when we cultivate plants
which favour the production of weeds,.

ROTATION OP CROPS.

And ftrther, crops whose consump- 1
tion returns to ihe soil a sufficient
quantity of awnare, shall becaltivated
at intervals sufficient to maintain or
increase the fertility of the farm.

** And, 4<A» when land is to be laid
down to grass, this shall be done when
the soil is fertile and clean.

** These rales may be applied to the
plants which form the subject of
ccnnmon cultivation in the fields. In
this country, the plants chiefly culti-
vated on the large scale are, the
cereal grasses, chiefly for the farina
of their seeds ; certain leguminous
plants, as the bean and the pea ; plants
cultivated for their fibres, as the flax
and hemp; for their leaves, roots,
and tubers, as the turnip, the cab-
bage, and the potato; and certain
leguminous and other plants for for-
age or herbage. The plants of these
different classes are yet to be descri-
bed ; and they are now only referred
to with relation to the order in which
they may succeed to each other in
cultivation. The Ut class of these
^nts consist of the cereal, grasses.
These are chiefly wheat, Indian corn,
barley, oats, and, partially, rye. All
these plants are, in an eminent de-
gree, exhausters of the farm. They
are all suflSsred to mature their seeds,
and are wholly or partially carried
away fVom the farm. Farther, from
the manner of their growth and mode
of cultivation, they all tend to favour
the production of weeds. For these
reasons, and on the general principle
that plants of the same or similar
kinds should not follow in succession,
the cereal grasses should not succeed
each other, but should be preceded
or fallowed by some crop which either
exhausts the soil less, or admits of a
more perfect eradication of weeds.

** 2d. The leguminous plants culti-
vated for their seeds^ as the bean and
the pea, are all exhausters of the soil.
They ripen their seeds, and the seeds
are for the most part carried off the
farm. Some physiologists suppose
that they are lem exhaustera of the
BOil than the cereal grasses. But the
essential difference between them,
wtai Gonaidered with relation te

their efl^ct upon the soil, is that, fhna
their growth and the manner of cul-
tivating them, they are greatly less
favourable to the production of weeds
than cereal grasses. By their broad-
er system of leaves, they tend to stifle
the growth of weeds more than the
cereal grasses ; and, farther, they ad-
mit of tillage during a great part of
their growth. This is especially the
case with the bean [and maize],
which is therefore regarded as a use-
ful cleaning crop, and so is cultivated
in rotation with the cereal grasses,
as a means of preserving the land
clean.

"Sd. Hemp and flax, which are
cultivated for their fibres. The ex-
haustion of hemp and flax is not great
when they produce no seeds. All
plants cultivated for their oils are ex-
hausters of the soil. They are suf-
fered to form and ripen their seeds,
and their stems afford no return of
manure to the farm.

" The next class of plants, from the
large return of manures which the
consumption of them affords, may be
regarded as enriching or restorative
crops, in contradistinction to the
others, which may be termed ex-
hausting crops :

" 1. The turnip, the rape, and other
plants of the cabbage genus, cultiva-
ted for their roots and leaves, and
consumed upon the farm.

*'2. The potato, the carrot, the
parsnip, the beet, and other plants
cultivated for their tubers and roots,
and consumed upon the farm.

*'3. The leguminous plants, the
clover, the tare, the lucern, and oth-
ers, when cut green for forage, and
consumed upon the farm.

*'The plants of the latter class,
namely, the leguminous, when mixed
with gramineous plants, as the rye
grass, are commonly termed the arti-
ficial grasses, but would be more cor-
rectly termed the cultivated herbage
or forage plants. They are of\en suf-
fered partially to ripen their seeds,
and are made into hay ; and in this
case they follow the general law, ex-
hausting the soil more than whea
MseAfram. And wtieo the hay crop

. 671

ROTATION or CROPS.

Is carried away from the farm, they
are to be regarded as exhausting
rather than restorative crops.

"In speaking of these diflerent
classes of plants, the following terms
may be employed :

** I. The cereal grasses may be
termed com crops.

** 3. The leguminous plants culti-
vated for their seeds, pulse crops.

"8. The turnip, and other plants
of the same kind, coltiTated for their
roots and leaves, may, with reference
to their mode of consuming them, be
termed green crops ; or, with refer-
ence to the manner of preparing the
ground for them, fallow crops.

" 4. The potato, and plants of oth-
er families cultivated for their roots
and tnbers, may, in like manner, be
termed green or fallow crops.

" 5. The leguminous plants culti'
vated for green food, as the tucem
and tare, may be termed green for-
age crops.

" And, lastly, the mixture of gra-
mineous and leguminous plants culti-
vated for herbage or green feed may,
in compliance with common lan-
guage, be still termed the sowed or
artilcial grasses.

" Farther, distinguishing these dif-
ferent classes of crops according to
their effects upon the fertility of the
farm, they might be divided thus :

" 1 . Com crops — exhausting erop^,
and favourers of weeds.

**2, Pulse crops — exhaasting' or
cleaning crops, or capable of l^ing
rendered so.

•* 3. Green or fellow crops — ^resto-
rative and cleaning crops.

"4. Green forage crops — ^restora-
tive, and sometimes cleaning crops.

**5. The sowed grasses — restora-
tive crops.

" Knowing these the general char-
acters of the cultivated plants, we
have, in devising a rotation, to cause
the restorative and cleaning crops so
to alternate with the exhausting crops
as that the land may be preserved
fertile and clean. Farther, when we
find that land cannot be sufficient-
ly cleaned by means of cleaning crops,
we must make use of the summer
fallow ; and again, when we find that
land requires rest, we may iay it
down to grass for a longer or shorter
time, taking care, when this is done,
that the land shall be in as fertile a
state as circumstances will allow,
and free from weeds." — (Low.)

There are not many established
rotations in the United Slates. The
following is one which is found suc-
cessful in Pennsylvania. It is, how-
ever, adapted only to strong, new
soils. The manure should be added
to the Indian corn :

FiHd No. 1.

PMd Ro.«.

rteMKo.3.:FieldNo.4.

Field No. ft.

Field Nn. b.
Wheat

FieM No. 7.

FaUllQ.1.

UtTw. .

WlieM

Ilya

Wlieftt

Clover

Cora

Clorer

Oat*

M " . .

R>a

Clover

Corn

Wh«4t

Oats

Clover

Wbcaft

Wheal

*l " . .

ClOVOT

WbMt

Oata

R>e

Wh««l

Wheat

Cora

Clover

4tb " . .

Wh«at

Corn

WbMt

Clover

Use

Clover

Oala

Wheat

6Ui " . .

Corn

o«u

Clover

Wheat

Rie
Ckver

01k •* . .

o«t«

WlM«t

Wheet

Com

Kye

Wlieat

Clover

Till « . .

WhMt

Clor«r

Rt-e
Clover

Oata

Clover

Cora

WbciA

Wheat

8th *• . .

Clev«f

Wlwkt

Wheat

Oat*

Kye

Con

It is very defective, as there are
neither roots nor pulse crops ; pota-
toes or roots might be introduced in
part, after the ley^ , which may be of
grass ; and beans or pease can oome
after wheat, with the manure, or
SQoceed the Indian com.

Where a particular staple is culti-
vated, as tobacco, hemp, angar, or
eocton, it is to be introduced m its
place according aa it is a grain or
green crop. Thus, in the above ta-
ble, oottott or iMO^ oulttviled lar

era

seeds, may come in the place of
wheat, and tobacco after manure.

Near cities, where there is a de-
maud for everything raised, the rota-
tion becomes much more managea-
ble, and may be made to approach the
very complicated formulas given in
£urope, of which the one on the o^X
page is a good specimen.

The chemical princii^es of rota-
tions are under discussion, and can-
not, therefore, be entered upon in a
praotieal vrwk. It may, liowi'ver, he

BOTTATiaiV OF <)ftOV&

»». THOITA* BLACni*8 BCHiaS Or DO-
TATION UPON A ITAHM Or ONJS BUN-
DBBO ACRB8, AS PBOPOtBD TO TRB
PBENCH OOVBBNMBNT.

III §

o n

one*

3
O

i
t

pfi Huaac^ A.>m
iQ lO « e« et'o n M

«^«i^»^i<S»'s*-

«ie«t«

lis ' fr e

1 1 I

O iO

0«ft«A

• A ■ • •

» — »-

Nil III

B *8 9 o

J D"3 sa _^

g"* s

brieily stated that legamiiioas erofM
are regarded aa time erof»a ; the com
eropa as ^taah and bone-earth erops,
and iDoat roots and green crops as
potash crops ; and that these should
senreraUy soeoeed eaeh other in a
well-ttlled and prepared soil.

« To Im ploi^(li«d «p tftcr mtotk ynm, «ad fpnemmA
L L I.

BooasingaiiH, who has taken an;
other view of rotations, and main*
tains that they should be so directed
aa to economize the nitrofpen or am-
monia of manures, has entered into
an extensile series of researches to
determine the best rotations. He
analyzed his crops and manures, and
calculated the amount of each com-
ponent they carried IVom the field.
As the rotations are good, we have
no hesttatiott in presenting themi^
with his results.

" The measure of dung in use at
Bechelhronn is the wagon drawn by
four horses. After repeated weigh-
ings, it was found that this measura
contains nearly 1 ton, 15 cwt., 2 qrs.,
23 lbs. of moist material, or 7 cwt.^

1 qr., 16 lbs., if that he computed dry.
The first course of the rotation re-
ceives 27 loads of this manure, weigh*
ing about 48 tons, 14 qrs., 5 lbs.,
equivalent to 9 tons, 19 cwt., 0 qr.,

2 lbs. of dry manure per hectare, or
20 tons per acre.

^''The preceding analyses show
toat this charge of manure, which is
to fertilize the soil during the course
of the rotation (five years), contains*

Carbon 8,0S71|m.

Hjdragvii •••••.•• MS

Oxygeo ftfTOT

A2i>te 447

Salts and earth 7,188

**Such are the principles which,
together, form the organic matter
that is to be oonsnmed, and, in a ma-
jor part, assimilated by the crops
grown. I say partly, because I do
not believe that the whole organic
matter necessarily enters into the
constitution of the plants which
spring up during the rotation ; no
doubt a oonsid^ble portion of the
manure is lost throogli spontaneous
decomposition, or is carried away by
the rain; and another portion may
remain a long time dormant in the
soil, to act as a fertilizer at a more
I or less distant period ; just as, in the
: present rotation, the manure former-
ly introduced co-operates with that
recently added. One thing is cer-
tain, viz., that the proportion of ma-
nuro indicated is essential for aver-

fi73

iMn*ATiON OET CRom:

age crops ; by dimioisbiog it, the prod* |
Qoe is necessarily lessened. Lastly,
it is proved that aAer the rotation the
crops have oonaujDed the manure, aod
the earth will not yield its increase
unless a fresh quantity be added.

<* I now proceed to consider the re-
lation sttbsiatiog between the quanti-
ty of organic matter buried in the soil
as manure and what is recovered in
the crops. In this way the respect-
ive proportions of elementary matter
which various crops derived from the
air and ttie soil may be determined
approximately, and a knowledge ob-
tained of those rotations which least
exhaust the land, or, in other words,
which obtain from the atmosphere
the largest amount of organic matter.

«* The rotations set down in tables
Nos. 1 and 2 are those adopted at Be-
ohelbronn and throughout the great-
er part of Alsaco. These two rou-
tions, which differ only in the hoed
erop introduced, potatoes in one,
beet root in the other, are almost
identical, nearly the same quantity of
dry matter being produced per aci%,
and nearly the same quantity of or-
ganic material withdrawn from the
atmosphere.

*' The rotation No. 3 was introdu-
ced by Schwerts, at Hohenheim ;
theoretically, it is one of the roost
advantageous; it was tried at Be-
chelbronn, but abandoned, because
pease and vetches fail frequently.

** Table No. 4 shows the triennial
rotation with manured fallow; this
is disadvantageoos in point of theory.
The organic constituents of the crop
exeeed but little those of the manure.
Supposing that even the whole of the
straw were converted into manure,
the farmer would still be compelled
to procure manure from abroad, in
eompensation for the outgoing of
wheat. It is thus obvious why tri-
ennial rotation always requires a
great deal of meadow land.

<* In table No. 6 the result of the

continuous cultivation of Jerusalem

artichokes is given. At Bechelbronn

these are dressed every two years

1174

with alioiit ten loads of dung per acre.

Upon an average, 20 loita uf tubers
and about two tons of woody stems
are gathered in the course of two
years. It will be perceived, from
perusal of this table, that the culture
of Jerusalem artichokes presents,
theoretically, considerable advanta-
ges. The organic matter of the ersp
greatly exceeds that of the manura
Moreover, in Alsace, where it is very
common, it is held to be most pro-
ductive. Still, the organic matter of
the stems roust be taken into account,
which, practically speaking, are near-
ly worthless.

" Table No. 6 comprises the data
relative to a quadrennial rotatioa
adopted by M. Crud, and in which are
grown successively, 1st. Potatoes or
beet root. 2d. Wheat. 3d. Red clo-
ver. 4th. Wheat. The first aowmg
is dressed ynlh about 18 tons of hal^
wasted farm-yard dung. The gain in
organic matter obtained by this iot»>
tioo surpasses that of the preceding ;
but as the clover crops are not very
sure when repeated every four years,
M. Crud, for reasons whi^ may be
called in question, follows this rota*
tion with one of lucem, which gets a
fresh supply of manure. It cannot
be denied that lucem fumtsbes a
great mass of fodder, and in this re-
spect the fertility of the land ought
to be vastly enhanc^, were this con-
sumed on the spot ; but I can discov-
er no objection to the renewal of clo-
ver, if the lucem succeeds so well as
M. Crud says it does. From too fre-
quent repetition, farmers have gone
into the opposite extreme of culti-
vating clover only every five or six
years. This subject olfers an impor-
tant field for research. It is not im-
possible that the ill socoeas depends
often on premature mowing of the
clover during the first year, and be*
fore ita roots have acqaired soiBeient
vigour. Tb is practice has been aban-
doned with us for some years, and
there is now everything to aaaare oe
that the second year's erop is ther^
by secured.

MTATIQIBI OF CROPS.

BOTATioir, eovnnn no. 1.

Tawa.

Crnpa
paracfc

Cmpa
diy.

Carbon.

Hjdro-
gea.

Oxy(«n.

Aaofte.

Salta

and

•artii*.

Iba.

H>«.

Mm.

lb*.

Ifaa.

tba.

Iba.

let

Potaloaa

ItTSS

8888

1844

104

ISM

MHiaat . .

1«1 I0A3

486

467

WTbeat aUaw

97M

9070

1003

110

805

146

CloTarhur . . • .

4Sli

snga

i7ao

18A

1396

284

•Mh

Wheat . ....

lasi

irrfn

Wheat atniw

.^«n8

9M7

136

996

17V

Tumipa (Sd crop)

8764

6afi

itai

978

0«ta

I»3

WTJi

358

Oatatniw
Total .

ineo

117«

468

S7UQ0

16.107

10.>«i

l»l

6676

SiO

996

Van ore ««aplo]red

t •

»tM

34«t

SOI

9408

186

9999

tmm

«81U

fiOO

417«

9073

ROTATION, COURSE NO. 3.

Taata.

Sobataacfla.

Cropa
per acre.

Cropa
dry.

CariMB.

Uydro-

OXJgfitL

Acote.

8alU
and

•arlha.

lbs.

Iba.

Um.

Iba.

IbaL

lat

Mangel wunal .....

8383

8<J07

1344

167

1902

189

Wlieat .

1080

496

403

Wlioat straw

9468

1827

883

710

128

Ciorrrh^y .

11675

3603

1T49

186

4th

VVbeat .

1480

1300

6«4

31.

VVbaat stnar

3I66

3667

1»)7

136

9<J6

179

Turntpa

8764

666

981

977

. Mb

Oau

1939

076

368

Oat straw

Total . .

1660

1176

609

468

979M

10018

7606

»ii«

6493

981

076

Manoie enfjofad

0814

S4«

a»l 9409

186

9990

PUrwaacii

1 1

6704

4079

473 -uno

9094

ROTATION, COURSE NO. 3.

Xmn,

Cropa
per acre.

Cropa
diy.

Caitoik

HjJro-

Oiyiaa.

*«.

Taito
aad

eartha.

lbs.

Iba.

lb«.

Ibi^

Iba.

Jba.

Iba.

lae

11733

9896

1844

104

19M

113

Wbaat ....

1931

1064

486

467

Wheat straw

9796

907U

1002

110

806

146

ChiTerh«jr . . .

8876

3693

1760

188

1896

984

4th

Wheat. . . .

1616

1300

A90

664

Wheat atraw

a48«

9668

1930

136

098

IT0

Tumipa . « .

8764

666

989

978

Bth

Poaae (diufed) .

1001

916

496

366

Pea straw

9668

9966

loaa

119

803

066

eui

Rjra . . • •

1630

1978

600

666

Rye atraw .
Total

M90

9780

1387

166

1190

100

148980

913R8

10036

lUfO

8899

3»t

1940

MaouTv enpldyed
DiSerence .

11176

4000

470

9883

933

aaoA

10919

6036

600

6730

100

9369

ROTATION, COURSE NO. 4.

Taaca.

SnhataaeeiL

Cropa
per acr&

'Cropa
dry.

Caiboo.

Hydro-

Oxyfea.

Salti
eartha.

let

•d*3d

Dnagad tUbv

WheSrt

Straw

Total ......

MaiHiie employed • . . ■

DilEirence

lbs.

3041
8876

lbs.

960O
6080

Iba.

061
8469

lbs.

970

ibs.

II98
KTTO

' Iba.

60
90

69
366

9016

7680
ST96

3413
1368

♦20
160

8107
979

80
76

418
1999

8880

9066

. «1

9198

804

NO. 5, CONTINUOUS

JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE CROPS.

Taan.

Subataaeea.

Grape

par tcre.

Cropa
diy.

Cafhon.

Hydro-
gen.

OxyRMi.

Asote.

TStS"
aad

eartha

bl*9d

Artichokes . ....
Sialka . . ...

Total

Maoa re employed ....

Diflereoce

Iba.

48473

96880

Nml
1008S
89487

Iba.
4866

10980

Ibn.
686

1916

4386

10980

iba.
161
00

Iba^
SOS
680

74893

3iE80

8094

14666
8087

1800
969

14666
9996

961
179

1986
9777

930.M1 1 11668

1438

19480

164»

ROT

RUB

MO. 6, QTTiTBSifirui* wnxaon jat^vrmo by v. cmvh.

CMP*

Cvop*
da.

Eipmentary mgndlifUtm oTtiM rmpw

Y«ui.

Cuton.

Hrdro-

OviBHk

JSI

MA4th
3d

RairMMeTpMirtaM. . . .
Ditto of b««t roaU ....
Wbest,153biuh«lfl ....

Wteatatrsw

C1»TW, thtve CQttiqfi .

Total

Jfanur* coMnoMd ....

DMfefwac*

»■.
9187

1R333
3331
7383
7333

SJ09

4937
»47
»249
5193

lbs.
978
967

1311

8537
S74<t

Ibm.
128
130
18ft
978
890

Hm.

987

970

1838

8040
8190

tbm.

191

1«

4«

4MI7

8349

8&^24

»i89

991
360

74tt
«1M

998
ftS7

111*

M^V

9980

AA35

6SS8

lAl

STTKHAIT.

Dfj imnnr*

Dry prod DC*

Gaia inorfaaic

VDQft WIS ^£

BotaUow.

•xpmdod npoa
oa* acre in one

Aaolecoiitaiaad
IB tba inaaar*.

obtajaadiaona
jroar upon ona

A.ia«aooa«Biaed
in tbapiDdoce.

matter in ooa
jaar npoa ana

year.

aciaw

aeraw

ItM.

Im.

Rh.

Aa.

Iba.

Hal .

1808

3981

1889

Has .

1802

3204

1341

Mo. 3 .

1868

«7

3664

1708

Now 4 .

1906

8561

S«

1998

Ka.5 .

4318

16290

188

11976

Bo-Q .

9087

468B

9495

" From all that precedes, it is ob-
▼ious that rotations which include
trefoils, red clover, laoem, and sain-
foin are those that afford considera-
bly the largest proportiop of organic
matter ; a fact, indeed, which, if not
legitimately established, has still been
long acted on in that system of crop-
ping which embraces forage plants
as an element. Lucems, too, when
they have taken kindly, yield an ex-
traordinary quantity of forage, as ev-
ery one may see by turning to the
produce of the piece under that crop
which, in the system of M. Crud, suc-
ceeds the qnatrennial rotation. At
the end of his rotation, M. Crad al-
ways lays on manure in the ratio of
18 tons per acre, which lasts for six
years, and may be said to suffice for
the succession of crops in the ap-
pended table : p^^

pcrai
MSO
0S4O
11458
0S40
7SSS
1448
S044

40ISS

Total fain in ftsote . 775

Gain to azote per annaai sad per wen ISO

•* In glancing at these tablet, it is
obvions that the azote of the crop al-
ways exceeds the azote of the ma-
nure. Generally speaking, I admit
678

Crapa.

Lnoera,
t«

Wheat,
Straw .

di7,l8ty««r .
Id year .
Id year -
4th year.
Ml year.
8chy«ar.

Dnng^ eiBplojed . .

that this excess of azote is derived
from the atmoephere ; bat I do not
pretend to say in what precise nua-
ner the assimilation takes place. I
shall only quote the conclusion of «
paper which I published on the sub-
ject in the year 1887. Aaole bi^
enter inmiediai^ly ioio the coBstits-
tion of vegeubles, provided their
green parts have the power of fixing
it ; azote may also enter vegetahleB
dissolved in the water which bathes
their roots, and which always con-
tains it in a certain proportjon. Last-
ly, it is possible that the air may con*
tain an infinitely minute quantity of
ammoniacal vapour, as some oatonl
philosophers have maintained, and
that this, assimilated, decoo^>osed,
and recomposed anew by the plaatt
is the source of its aiot^ed ooBstii-
uents."

ROTTEN STONE. A soft aki-
minous mineral used in polishing awl-

Still

ROUP. A disease of P<wAfy,
which see.

rowan-tree. TtM ttountaiB
ash {Pvrug aucupturia).

RO WEL. A seton ; also the shaip
wheel of a spur.

ROWEN. A name for after-malh
hay.

RUBEFACIENTS. Sobstanoea
which produce redness on the skin
without blistering.

RUT

RYE

RUB6LE-8T0NE8.
of brickbats, kiose stones.

RUBBING-POST. A useful ap-
pendagie to the eattle-yard.

RIJBiGO. Rust in plants. See
UrtdQ.

RUDDLE. An oehreous clay, red-
tie.

RUE. Ruia gra»eoUn9, A fcetid
ehrnb ; the leaves are repated of use
as an antispasmodic. It grows readi-
ly in a day soil without manure, and
is propagated by slips.

RUMEN. The paondi, or first
stomach, of ruminating quadrupeds.

RUMINANTS. Animals, as the
ox, sheep, and deer, which haTo four
stomachs and cloven hoof, and chew
the cud.

RUMINATION. Theactof CiUw-
mgr tike Cudf which see.

RUNCINATE. In boUny, hooked
back, or curved in a direction from
the apex to the base, as the lobes of
tiie leaf of the dandelion.

RUNNER. The stolon, or run-
ning stem, as in the strawberry:
it is a convenient means of propa-
gation.

RUNT. A variety of common
pigeon ; small black cattle of Wales
and Scotland ; decrepid pigs.

RUPTURE. A hernia or sinking
of the bowels through, so as to form
a large^ soil tumour.

RURAL ECONOMY. The man-
agement of all things pertaining to
the farm.

RUSHES. The family of sedges,
called by botanists Junau and ^Sctr-
jHM, growing in rich wet lands : they
are destroyed by draining, tiUage,
and liming. Roshes make excellent
mats, coarse basket-work, and bot-
toms of chairs.

RUST. Peroxide of iron, with
some amount of oarbonate. A family
of parasitie fungi inlbsting grain and
plants, sometimes called i{uS^. See
■Ur^do,

RUSTIC-WORK. In building, a
term applied to work jagged ont into
an irregular surface. Work, also,
which is left rough.

RUT. To cut a line on the soil
with a spade. The citation of deer

Li.i.8

ia the mtttng season; thetTaekafa
cartwheel

RUTA BAGA. See Turnip.

RYE. Secale cereale, of the fam-
ily Orammem. ** It bears nadced seeds
on a flat ear furnished with awns like
barley. The straw is solid, the in-
ternal part being filled with a pith,
which, if it causes it to be Inferior as
fodder, makes it more valuable for
litter, and still more so for thatching.
The value of the straw is often near-
ly equal to that of the grain. Rye
grows on poor, light soils which are
altogether unfit for wheat, and hence
tracta of light sands are often de*
nominated rye land. On these soils
this grain is far more profitable than
wheat, which can only be raised there
at a great expense of marling and
nuinnring. From experiments made
to ascertain the quantities of nutii*
tious matter in rye and wheat, Thaer
states their real comparative Talue
to be as 64 to 71. If the soil is capa>
ble of bearing a moderate crop of
wheat, it would be much more advan*
tageous to sow one portion of a field
with rye and another with wheat;
and if mesUn bread is desired, the
two grains may be mixed in any re-
quire proportion. Excellent bread
is made of two parts of wheat and
one of rye, ground together. Rye is
at present raised in very small quaup
tities in the United States.

^ Rye is extensively cultivated in
Europe, especially in the Nether-
lands, where it is the chief grain from
which the spirit called Hollands is
distilled ; and it is also the source of
whiskey. When malted, it makes
excellent beer,' one bnshel of rye malt
being equal to at least one and a quar*
ter of barley malt. The cultivation
of rye is very sioqile ; it is usually
sown after wheat,, where the soil is
light and rich, or after turnips and
potatoes, in those soils which are
not strong enough for wheat.

**It is mostly sown as a green
crop, and when fed oflf early in spring
with sheep, the land is invigorated,
and will bear excellent potatoes or
other roots the same year. This
practice cannot be suflioieotly ree*

677

RT£.

MunMBded ; and if the rye is sown
Tery e^rly in autumii, it may be fed
off in October and November, when
sheep feed ia beginningr to fail, with-
out any detriment to the eoeeeeding
spring produce.

"Winter bariey and winter oats
have been substituted Ibr rye as
spring fodders by some farmers ; but
on land of moderate quality rye is
generally preferred. It bears the se-
verest winters, which is not the case
with barley or oats. The rye which
has been fed off very early may be
allowed to remain for seed, which it
will produce more or less abundantly,
according as it has been fed off ear-
lier or later.

^ The preparation of the land for
rye is the same as for wheat, except
that in very light soils no more
{dough ings are required than will
dear the ground of weeds. If rye is
sown after harvest, one ploughing
only is usually given, it will thrive
upon rich wheat soils, as well as
upon lighter, and, as it throws out
numerous stems in rich land, it is the
more profitable as fodder, although
the crop of grain might not be so
abundant when the plants are too
much crowded. To have as much
green food as possible, the rye is al-
ways sown broad-cast, three bushels
at least to an acre ; some sow a sack,
and with advantage.

** There is a variety of rye men-
tioned by continental authors by the
name of SeigU de la Si. Jean, or St.
John's-day rye, because it grows so
rapidly that, if sown about St. John's
day (S4tb of June), it will be fit to
mow green by the middle of Septem-
ber, and in favourable seasons may
be fed off again in November, with-
out preventing its giving ample feed
in spring, and a good crop of grain
at the next harvest. It might be ad-
vantageous to introduce this variety.
There is no doubt that there are va-
rieties of the same kind of plants
whieh have a much more vigorous
vegetation than those oommooly cul-
tivated, and the introduction of them
where they are not known is an im-
portant benefit to agriculture. The
•78

oelebfvced agriOQUniiil Dq HMMi da
Monceau mentions an individiMl vpiia
had obtained, from one sowing, five
abundant cuta of green rye for cattk
m two years, if any green iriaot it
cut down before the fhicttficatioa it
completed, it will, in geneiaU ttunv
out fresh stems; and in very
soils its blossoming may thm be
tinually retarded until the roots bei*
come too weak to force soopeaaisf
stems.

" Although the value of rye as a
green crop is fully admitted, r&y lit-
tle is grown for food ; yet on soma
poor soils, where wheat and barley
are now often sown with a very poor
return, and at a great expense of
manure, rye and buckwheat would
give a much greater clear profit, and
would require OMieh leas manuring:
and where there are not rmdy meana
of improving the soil by claying or
marling, the cultivation of rye wouM
be Ibund most advantageous; and,
by means of sheep, very poor sandy
soils might thus be made profitahla
The grains of rye from the distiUeriea
are excellent food for milch cows and
hogs, which fatten readily on them.

** Rye is subject to most of the di»-
eases which attack the plants of the
family of the Gramnettt such as rust,
mildew, burned ear, and smot-baJL
But there is one remarkabJe disease^
which, although it is soneiimes found
in wheat, ia much more oomuioiibr
observed in rye. It is called the
ergot, the French name of a coek*s
spur, which the diseased grain r^
sembles in shape. By some perver-
sion of the vital functions of the
plant, the embiyo, orgermen, instead
of growing into a regular seed filled
with farina, shoots out a long hiaok
fungus-like substanoe, several times
the length of a oommon seed, which
rises above the ehafi; and has the
appearance of a alender pyramid,
slightly beat on one side. This sub-
stance is soft and easily broken or
cut, and is uniform ia its iatemal tex-
ture, without any husk or skin over
it. If it were merely the loss of the
grain of whidi the ergot takes the
plaoe» the mischief oocaaiooed itty

SAD

8AI

fiuB 4nB9M iraBld be c<MHp>r>Hfttly
tdfling ; bttt ibis fmigiM, when taken
iBteroaUy, mixed with tbe rye flour
eoBverted ieto bread, bas a meet
powerful aod deieterioua efieet oa
tbe animal Irame. Wben taken la
•ay censiderabie qoantity, it produ-
eee the most dreadful dieeaaea. This
was first observed ta Fraaee* where
a great seatrcity from tbe faUure of
the eropa, aeoompanied with a more
than osoal production of tbe ergot in
lye, obliged the poorer inhabitants
of oenaitt distncts to make bread
fkom diaeased rye. Tbe eonaequen-
^ee were horrid to behold ; their
imbe rotted and separated from tbe
trunk before death relieved them from
tbeir misery. The ignorant aseri-
bed it to witchcraft, but experiments
oMde on animals by feeding them on
ergotted rye soon showed the real
oause.

'* The extrsordinary effects of the
ergot of rye have Duuto it the subject
of experiments in medicine, and it
lias been found extreme^ uaeftil in
certain cases of protracted labour,
it is consequently become an article
of commerce as a drag."

KY£ GRASS. See Grassu.

SACCHARIC ACID. An uncrys-
tallizable acid, produced by the action
of nitric acid on sugar. Its salts are
oalied saccharates.

SACOH AROM bITER. An imi^e-
meot for taking tbe specific gravity
of aimps and worts. Baumi's hy-
drometer ia chiefly used.

SACCHAROULMIN and ULMIC
%.CID. A brown, brilliant substance
>btained by digesting sogar for a long
ime in dilute nitric or sulphuric acid.

SACCHOLACTIC ACID. Mucic
acid, obtained by treating augar of
milk with nitric acid.

SACK. A coarBCf large bag; a
measure of three bushels.

SAC OF THE EMBRYO. In bot-
any, the small enclosed body in which
the embryo is placed during its
growth.

SACRUM. Tbe lowest portion of
^■e spine.

SAFFLOWBE. The GSsnUawt
tmcionuMt bastard saffron. An an-
nual of tbe family Com^otiia, tbe
flowers of which yield a rich red col»
our when treated with solution of
carbofiate of soda. Ronge is made
from them. There is no difllculty in
their cultivation.

SAFFRON. CrocuM muHvus. A
bulbous plant with purine flowers, the
stamens of which yield a bright yel-
low cotoar to hot water. They are
Qsed in medicine, but are of no im-
portance. The cultivation presents
no diificulties. The stamens, or in-
ternal, thread-like parts of the flow-
er, are to be collected when of the
brightest colour, and dried loosey
without compression. Tbe bulbs are
placed in a fair soil six inches apaii«
in June, and the flowers gathered ia
September, tbe stigmas twing pluok-
ed out and dried in a warm room.
The firat year the yield does not ex-
ceed three pounds, but in tbe seooad
aod third twenty-four are obtainedL
The bulbs sre taken up and divided
the third year.

SAFFRON, MEADOW. Colchis
cum.

SAGAPENUM. A fostid gum rer
ia from a species of ferula.

SAGE. SMivtaegkimUU. Awdi
known aromatic perennial. The soU
should be dry, and tolerably rich. It
is propsgated by splitting the root%
or by root shoots.

SAGITTATE. Shaped like an arw
row bead.

SAGO. A starchy farina from the
pith of several pahn-trees, as the 8th
gtu farnuftTa^ Akumpkii^ 6lc. It is a
good, wholeeome food, and much e^
teemed for puddings and gruel. In
England a gruel of sago is often giv-
en to horses after a hard run. The
Florida arrow-root is a kind of sage
obtained from the pith of the Zomie
inUgrifoUA and jncmtio, indigenous
plaats.

SAINFOIN. Hedysarum anobrv-
chU ( Fig. ), upareeUe. A long-rooted,
perennial, leguminous plant with red
flowers. It is native in calcareooa
soils.

'< There are few planta which have

Arn; andintheTidieTkindaoDotOi,
which contain ■ oonsidcrable propor-
tioQ of catcareouB mitter, ils Tahie
Min>>sBr> even ihM of broad ctoner.
giTing full7 as great a return, wrth a
mochamallerezpeiiilitDra ernianura.
Tbs plant has a atronf. woody, tad
fibroas root, which ineutuaie* iiaclf
into the fiasures of ca lea reons rocks,
and finds moiBture in the drreat aes-
BOna, while its Rpresding fibres keep
the «Bith from being waabed down
tlw sleep ahipea of the htlis. [n fa-
vourable BitBBtioDs, it ma; be made
iato bty twico in IhJe year, or cnt oD-
ener as green ft>od. In (he moet arid
and exposed sftuatioM it gives at
leaat one good crop of hay. The
plant gmwa about two feet high, and
tba stem branches oat into many
cempound leavea. Alter it has heea
mown, it shoata out rapidly again,
and may be adrantageoosly depas-
tured by every kind of cattle or sheep.
There are varietioa of the plant which
diffbr in the rapidity of their growth:
the best ie called, In France, (tpaniiJe,
or nun/oin i itniz eoupet. From
France it has been introduced into
England. The duraiinn ul sainruin
depends on Ihe nature oflhe soil, end
the Blsie it WHS in with respect to
weeds when it u-aa sown, A cold,
wet eubsoil soon destroys ilie roots,
Wbereaa a trse and dry one, whether 1

roe^ «r grewOy, gtwa Hiaia vtfow.
Oran and wseds, wbieh cbiAe Ab
crown of the plant, ••«■ ea«M it u
decay, as m the cms with luaiua;
With every adTsotage, it DMy laat ia
Tlgow ten years, especially if rtia an-
oaatoMlly invigatated with a lo^
draaaingo f mapat* or asfaea. or, vsbwb
ja boat of all, with dllaud niiae. or
the drainings fn>Bi doogtMla. Do-
ring that time it may be oat tmee te
hay every year, taking care to em it
before the Bower i« faded «r the aMi
Anaed ; and if abaep are Mied oa
it after the second oMting, the next
crop will well repay the trosUe. n
is neoally sown in spring in a crsp at
beriey or osis. which should be town
thin in order Ibst the sainfim May
ttot be enoihered. The land eboold
iMve been prepared by a eieaMMg
CTop. From three to fOnr buahele of
seed may be sown, harrowed in, mt
rolled It is not often drilled, al-
though (his me(bod, by altowi^ Ita
use of the hoe between the rows,
would mnch strengthen itaa yeoof
|danU, and protect ItMOi againat
coarse grasses, whicti are tbetr great-
est enemies. In the first year tka
Bsinruia ahoutd not be fed atf t^

Thee:

nown too close to the grousd.

wn of the root in the young
piani Tiaes a little abevs the groaad,
and ]f thia be bit off, or cut with tita
scythe, Ihe plant dies. It ianBeful ts
harrow the giooad lightly, to draw
the ekrth round the roota, aial to d^
stroy seed weeds soon aAar the bar-
ley or oats are reaped. The aaiafoia
does not pradoce a large crop ito
firat year, for aaon of the seeds will
lie a twelvemonth in the ground be-
fore they spring up. It is in perteo-
lion al^er the aeccMHl year, when a
portion may be reserved fi>r seed.
Ssinfoia hay is extienuly nouristaing'
for every kind of cauie, especially if
it has been made withoat rain. Al>
though it is ont apt to heal in the
stack, it must be put op in a very dry
state; and ifit has suflered from rsia,
too much care cannot be taken ttaor-
oDghly lo dry it : for the water insin-
Itself fay oapiUai7 BtnaobsN

SAINFOIN.

jam ti» htiUwr tftnw, wd is lo«f to
evaporating, oo that when it feels
qaite dry it may yet comtaia much
water. The mode of discoveMng thia
is to twist it stzOiDgiy in the hands
into a rope, when the moisture, if
tkiere is aay, wiH ooae out. It is bet-
ter to iet it dry thoroughly, than, by
carrying it in a hurry, to run the risk
of its beeomiag mouldy within. In
▼ery preearioos seasons it may be
carried in a green state, provided
there be no moisture in it from dews
or showeiB, and stacked in alternate
layers with good straw. It will im-
part some of its fragrance to the
fliraw, and lose none of its nutritive
qu^tties. The same may be done
with lucem or clover. The most ad-
vantageous use of sainfoin, however,
ia to cut it green and give it immedi-
mtely to the oattie. There is no dan-
gar of their being hoven by it, for it
^rmetats Teiy slowly, owing to the
fibrous nature of the stem. If the
aitaation of the field admits of occa-
sional irrigation, without danger of
Hie water stagnating, the produce of
the sainfoin will be greatly iaereased ;
and it may then be eut four or even
fire times in a season without fear
af exhausting its strength. When it
begins to appear thin on the ground,
and other plants seem to get the heU
ter of the sainfoin, it is time to break
it up. The land will be found mueh
improved in fertility by the sainfoin.
A poor chalk or gravel, which before
would scarcely repay the seed 6own
in it, will now, by the gradaal decay
of the roots and fibres of the sain-
foin, produce several good crops with-
out any other manure. The prudent
fotmer, however, wdl not entirely de-
stroy, by repeated crops of grain, that
aohesion of the soil which is produ-
oed bj the roots of the sainfoin ; but
by a judicious comae and proper ap-
plication of the raannre, which the
sainfom enabled him tu make, he will
keep up the newly-acquired fertility
until, in the oourse of ten or twelve
years, he can again sow sainfoin seed
in it with the prospect of a crop more
abundant than the first. Many a poor,
barren tract of otlearaoos rock and

gravel haa been fertiKaed and raised

in value by the sole effect of the sain-
foin, without which it must have re-
mained in its unproductive state.

"Although a chalky soil is best
adapted to the growth of sainfoin, it
may be sown with advantage in all
light loams, provided the substratum
be sound and dry. On very rich, deep
moulds lucern is a more profitable
crop ; but sainfoin will thrive where
lucern would fail ; and it is particu-
larly adapted for poor, dry soils.

** There is nothing peculiar in the
manner in which sainfoin is made
into hay. It should not be shaken
about too much, for fear of injuring
the flower and breaking oflTthe leaves.
The swarth should be merely turned
over, when dry on one side, and then,
as soon as it is dry through, it should
be put into smaU cocks, occasionally
spread out in the sun, when the dew
is olT the ground, and carried to the
stack as soon as it is sufficiently made.
It should take a good heat in order to
make it compact, but without acqui-
ring too dark a colour. Experience
alone can teach the exact time when
it abould be stacked. When it is leil
for seed, it should be examined care-
fully after the blossom fades. The
lower pods will be filled with ripe
seed before the blossoms at the top
of the spike of flowers are withered
or the seed formed in them. If the
sainfoin were left standing till these
seeds were ripe, the lowest would be
shed ; but by cutting it at a proper
time these may be preserved, while
most of the latter will ripen in the
straw sufficiently to vegetate when
sown. Rainy weather is very inju-
rious to the seed crop ; a fine time
should therefore be selected, if pos-
sible, even at the risk of a smaller
crop. The seed is only gathered for
sowing ; but in case there should be
more than is required for that pur-
pose, and no ready sale, it is excel-
lent food for horses. The produce
varies from three to five or even six
sacks per acre. It is easily thrashed
out, and this operation is oilen done
on a doth in the field, when the weath-
er pefroita. It is readily done by a

681

SAL

fiAZ.

tTirashlng machine, and winnowed
like corn. On the whole, there are
few plants the cultivation of which is
BO advantageous as that of sainfoin
on the soils on which it thrives best."

SAINT JOHN'S WORT. John's
wort.

SALAL BERRY. A fruit from
the Columbia, of a daric colour, sweet
taste, and the size of a grape.

SAL AMMONIAC. Muriate of
ammonia. A common salt of am-
monia much used in the arts. It is
very soluble in water, and has been
used as a steep by Mr. Campbell ; one
pound, being added to one gallon and
a half of water, is sufficient for one
bushel of seed. A small amount of
it exists in putrescent fluids. The
expense of this preparation will prob-
ably hinder an extensive use.

SALEP. The farinaceous product
of the roots of the Orchis mascula.

SALICIN. A neutral crystalline
body existing in willow bark.

SALICYL. An hypothetical com-
pound radical, Cm He O4, existing in
salicylous acid, dec, bodies derived
from salicin.

SALIFEROUS. Containing salt ;
a name given to the new red sand-
atone formation.

SALIFIABLE BASE. A sub-
stance which combines with acids to
form salts.

SALIVA. The spittle : it is pre-
pared by the parotid and other glands,
and mixed with the food during mas-
tication: its office is important. Ac-
cording to Liebig, it is a means of
introducing oxygen into the stomach
to accomplish the first step in diges-
tion. Its loss is always injurious to
animals.

SALIVATION. An excessire dis-
charge of saliva, slobbering ; change
of food, with salt, are preventives in
cattle

SALLOWS. Willows which grow
in marshy lands, and produce tough,
strong branches, arc so called.

SALLOW THORN. Hippophae
rhamnaides. An ornamental shrub
five feet in height.

SALSIFY. Tragopogonporrif alius.
Vegetable oyster. A biennial com-
683

poaife plant, fhe root of '
to the size of a small carrot, is wiMte,
and an excellent vegetabla.; tlie
young spring shoots of the wicnnd
year are also eaten as aaparagos.
Sow the seed in April or May, m
drills, twelve inchee apart, tbin td six
inches, and work when wanted ; tbe
roots are taken up before late firoeis»
and kept in a moist ceUar. Foraeedat
set out some thrifty planta in sprinf^
or some may be left in tbe gromicl.

SALSILLA. An berlMoeous ptet
of Peru, of the genna Alttrtu^unm,
cnltirated for its edible roota.

SALT, COMMON. Chtoride of
sodium. It requirea three timea ita
weight of water for solittioo, and is
composed of one equivalent sodtam
(23-31) and one chlorine (85-47).

It is a substance of great impoi^
tance in agriculture: intheiKiiealata,
as a means of preserving butter and
meats, or 8Ui4>lying cattia with a
wholesome and necessary Ibod, and,
in the impure atate, as a nSaanre and
steep for seeds.

As « SiMp. — A Btrong aohxtion, or
ordinary brine, is an admirable prep-
arative for wheat, oata, and graina ;
it destroys the seeds of sroot and
other parasites, aa well aa the eggs
of insects, and also enables us to sep-
arate the plump, heavy Icerneis from
the light and motheaten It haa
proved a certain remedy, even when
tbe grain was known to be araiitted.

In doses of fifteen to thirty bttsfaeb
to the acre, it is used in Cheahire on
a clean fallow to destroy inserta in
the ground, couch grass, and other
noxious weeds ; tlie land ia left un-
sown for three to six months after ;
as a manuring, in quantitiea of three
to five bnshela, on wheat, oafs, rye,
potatoes, turnips, and other crops, it
has often produoed the t»e8t rea\^.
It is not indicated on thoae soils
which are within reach of the sea air,
aa they receive a sufficiency.

Plants absorb weak solutions of
salt, but are injured by a strong dose;
they also possess the power of de>
composing it, and appropriating its
soda. There are failures when salt
Sa used iadUieriinin(ataly ; bat afi ttM

8AF

plaiitB tvliiofa reiioire niiMh 8oda, or
alkali, and grow dislant from the sea,
are undoubtedly benefited thereby.

Salt ia of great use in compoats
with lime, vegetable matter, and
earth. If tbeae be kept moist, but
aheltered, there is gradually formed
the cai4K>nate of soda and chloride of
calcium, both of which are excellent
maauree. The heap should be stir-
Ted often, and contain as much lime
as salt, with a sufficient quantity of
Tegetable matter and earth to keep
the whole moist. Or the heap, in-
stead of containing salt, may be wa-
tered with salt water, or made up
with sea-weeds or salt muck.

Salt, in small quantities, ia also a
deairable addition to the farm-yard
manure, and all Tegetable composts.

SALTING MACHINE. « The in-
strument resembles a common syr-
inge of more than ordinary dimen-
sions, and, although not quite so sim-
ple ia its construction, it is intended
to be used in the same way aa the
syringe, provided the point or tube
bie not exposed to the air. The ad-
Taotages to be derived from the use
of the instrument are explained by
the fact that a joint of meat may, in
the simplest manner, be properly
salted in less than ten minutes. The
brine is made of the usual ingredients,
and after the salt and other substan-
ces are completely dissolved, the li-
quid is poured into the machine, and
the nipple, or tube (the circumfer-
ence of which is perforated with
three small holes), is inserted into the
most solid part of a joint of meat,
and the contents are, by a very strong
pressure, forced through the fibres
until the brine is seen to escape on
the surface. For this purpose, a
smaller quantity of pickle is used
than ia employed in the ordinary
method of curing meat, and the bone
(if there be any) in the centre be-
comes thoroughly impregnated with
the fiuid. By the present mode of
salting meat, it is a matter of some
difficulty to inject the brine into
the innermost part of a large joint,
whereas by the process which is
adopted in the use of the inatromeDt,

the sin or substance of the meat

presents no additional trouble to the

operator."

. SALT MARSHES. Marshes

washed by sea water: the herbage

is coarse, but often very nutritious,

and preferred by cattle.

SALT OF LEMONS. Binoxalate
of potash, used in removing iron
mould from linen.

SALTPETRE. See mtre.

SALT, SPIRIT OF. Muriatic
acid.

SALTS. Chemical compounds,
which are usually (oxysalts) formed
of a base and acid, and possess nei-
ther acidity nor alkaline action. Ha-
loid salts are those which are binary,
containing a metal in combination
with an eTectro>negattve element.

SALTWORT. The genus SaU-
comio, which grows on silt marshes :
the ashes yield barilla.

SALVE. An ointment.

SALVER - SHA PED. Hypocra-
teriform. A monopetalous corolla,
with a long tube and spreading limb
at the top.

SALVING SHEEP. Anointing
them with a mixture of tar and but-
ter or lard. See Sheep.

SAL VOLATILE. Sesqulcarbon-
ate of ammonia, or smelling salts.

SAMARA. An indehiscent, few-
celled seed, with an expansion of tia-
sne resembling wings, as the pods of
the ash and alanthus.

SAND. Divided siticious matter:
it is extremely permeable to water,
retains heat well, but is infertile.
Sand is much used to improve the
texture of stitT clays, but vegetaUe
matter does this better, while it en-
riches the soil.

SANDAL WOOD. Pteroearjnu
tantalinus. Red saunders, a dye
wood, but giving fugitive reds.

SAND BATH. A quantity of sand
heated by a flue, and used in the lab-
oratory.

SAND CRACKS. Fissures in the
hoofs of horses, from which matter
exudes ; it is customary to fire the
edges of the wound, dress with hot
pitch, and bandage. They produce
much lameness.

ess

fULff

8 ANlXnt>NE. A rock mtAe of
iand cemented togetber, or merely

compressed together.

SANDWORT, PlanU of the ge-
nus AreuMriM .• they are socculent and

harmless.
SANICLE, SANICULA. A genus

of nmhelliferotts weeds.

SANIES. A thin, fcettd discharge
from sores.

SAP. The fluid of Tcgetables and
trees. That absorbed from the soil
is'called the ascending gap ; it passes
to the leaves along the cellular tissue
of her^ and along the new wood
{alburnum) of trees. In the leaf, by
the action of light, it is converted
into a mucilaginous fluid, the elabo'
rated eap^ which, moving from the
leaf, is diffhsed to all parts of the
plant along the space between the
bark and new wood ; out of this sap,
new roots, buds, flowers, seeds, and
partially the fruit is formed.

SAPAN WOOD. A dye wood re-
sembliog Brazil wood.

SAP WOOD. The alburnum, or
new wood.

SAP SAO O. A Swiss cheese,
flavoured with melUlot.

SAPHENA. The large vein of
the thigh.

SAPKOPHAGANS. A tribe of
Goleopterans, many of which feed on
decaying matters.

SARCOCELE. A tumefaction of
the testes.

SARCOCARP. The fleshy sub-
stance of fruits.

SARCOCOLLA. A kind of gum.

SARMENTUM. A runner, such
as that of the strawberry.

SARSAPARILI-A. The rooU of
several species of SmUaz growing in
tropical Amerioa ; the deooetion is
much used as an alterative.

SASH. In building, a piece of
framing for holding the squares of
ghiss i n a window. It is of two sorts,
viz., that called the French sash,
which is hung like a door to the sash-
frame ; and that in which it moves
vertically, from being balanced by a
weight on each side, to which it is
attached by lines running over pul-
leys at the top of the sasb-frame.

6a4

WhM, In la wta«na, tatib tto
and lower aasbes are onoveabie, tke
sashes are said to be doable bnn^,
and single hung when only o«e of
them moves.

SASSAFRAS. Lemrus aa**ttjrm9.
A wefl-koewn tree, the wood and
roots of which are highly
in poor, worn lands it is little
than a shruh, but on the bovden of
Southern swamps sometimes attaias
fifty to seventy feet The wckmI in
tonigh and very durable, reBimtrng
worms : it is but little known. A
beer is made of the bark of theyooBg
shoots, boiled w itb soger or molaaso,
and fermented.

SATURATION. A chemical ex-
pression, signifying either that no
more of a giv^n substaaoe, or aalt«
can be dissolved ; or that, in a com-
pound, the combination of its pai«o
is complete or saturated.

SAUER KRAUT. See CaUaga.

SAURIANS. The aubdivisioa of
the animal kingdom, including the
crocodiles, lizards, dec. ; they hav»
four legs, and are covered with a sea*
ly epidermis.

SAVANNAHS. Extenaive alio-
vial flats ; the prairies.

SAVIN. Juniperue Mabtna^ the
leaves of which are a powerful ixv^.
In the United States, the red cedar is
often called savin.

SAWDUST. When rotted in the
compost heap, or with lime and earth,
it forms a good manure for improving
the texture of soils.

SAW FLIES. An extensive fam-
ily of hymenopterous insects, of the
genera Cimbex, Tentkredo, SoUmdrto,
dec. The perfect insects, resembling
bees and wasps, are seen in summer
hovering over the planta they feed
on. The female lays her eggs in a
slit made in the young stem, or in
leaves ; the larve, which are called
false caterpillars, feed on leaves and
buds, and are extremely voracious.
In aome eight weeks, they descend
to the ground and form a web either
among the dead leaves, in the bark,
or under ground : the grub remaios
eight months before changing to the
fly. They are vesy destructive: whale*

SCO

•1 tettp walOTi tobM0o water, aad
Haie are osed to destroy them.

SAW, PRUNING. TbisigasinaU
8SW, ael in a long handle, and used
to prune trees.

SAVORY. The sommer savory
(Satureja harUnsi*) is an annual, and
propagated by seed ; the winter {S,
monianay is perennial, and managed
in the same way as sage, whieb it
greatly resembles. They are labiate
plants.

SAXIFRAGE. Flowering plants
of the genns Saxtfraga.

SAXON BLUE. A solirtion of in-
digo in sulphnric aeid, used as a dye.

SCAB. A disease of sb^p.

SCABIOUS. Weeds of the genus
Seabiaga, at one time celebrated for
curing the itch.

SCABROUS. Rough, from mioote
inequalities.

SCAFFOLDING. The temporary
Ihime-work put up in building.

SCALDED CREAM. Clotted
cream ; cream raised from milk by
beating.

SCALLION. Akind of Onion,
which see.

SCALPEL. A small knife, con-
venient for dissections or surgical op-
eiations.

SCAMMONY. The gum resin of
the CcTwolvulu* Mcamnunua, an East-
ern plant. It closely resembles jalap.

SCANDENT, SCANDENS.
Climbing branches.

SOANSORIALS, SCANSORES.
Climbing birds, as the woodpeckers :
they have two toes before and two
behind on each foot.

SCANTUNG. •* In building, the
measures of breadth and thickness
of a piece of timber or other mate-
rial. It is also the name of a piece
of timber when under five inches
Mfoare."

SCAPE. A flower stem or pednn-
ole rising from the ground, as in the
hyacinth, flag.

SCAPULA. The shoalder-Uade.

SCAPULARS. The shoulder
feathers which cover the sides of the
back in birds.

SCAPUS. The stem of a feather.
Iff arehiteetore, a shaft.

Mum

SCARAB^IDANS. A fsffOf mf
lanicUtcorn beetles.

SCARCEMENT. A rebate or set
back in a wail, or bank of earth.

SCARFING. 7'he union of two
timbers, to answer as ooe : they are
made fast by bolts.

SCARFSKIN. The epidermis, a
delicate covering of the true skin.

SCARIFICATOR. A cupping in-
strument.

SCARIFIER. An implement be-
tween the harrow and cultivator for
pulverizing the soil. See CuUwatm;

SCARLET DYE. Preparation.-^
For each pound of cloth take 14
drachms of cream of tartar; when
the water boils and the tartar is all
dissolved, pour in 14 drachms of so-
lution o( tin, and let the whole boil
a few minutes : introduce the clothe
boil two hours, let it drain and cool.

For the Colour Bath. — For each
pound of cloth take two drachms of
cream of tartar ; when the bath be-
gins to boil, add one ounce of fine
cochineal powder, stir well with a
willow switch, and Jet it boil for a few
minutes ; ponr in gradually one ounce
of solution of tin, stirring continual*
ly. Introdoee the prepared cloth and
dye as quickly as possible : it will be
a beautiful scarlet. In the colour
bath, two onnces of solution of tin
may be taken, and no cream of tartar.

SCELIDES. The posterior or low-
er extremities.

SCHAPHOID. Shaped like a Ut-
tle boat.

SCHEELES GREEN. Mineral
green, arsenite of copper.

SCHIST. A coarse slate.

SCIATIC. Relating to the hip
joint, as the sciatic nerve.

SCIRRUS. An indnrated gland ;
it becomes a cancer when suppura-
tion occurs.

SCIURINES. The squirrel family.

SCLEROTICA. The white mem*
brane of the eye.

SCOLOPENDRJB. The genus of
centipedes.

SCOPIPEDS. A tribe of raeliif-
erotts insects, some of which have
the posterior feet furnished with a
tecpOf or little toil of hair.

8or

SCORE. 90|HeoeB,«rMpoii]il8.

SCORIiE. Cindens especially of
the forge.

SCORZONERA. Scorzonert^ HtM-
ftnica. '* This plant has long been
raised in British gardens for culinary
purposes, and especialiy as aa ingre-
dient in soupo, on account of its pal-
atable and nourishing roots. Some
boU and eat them like carrots, dtc,
in which case they should be depri-
Ted of their rind, and immersed in
cold water for half an hour, or they
will be bitter. They are raised pre-
cisely in the same manner aa salsify.
If the seeds be sown in April, in a
good deep soil, the roots will attain
perfection in autumn, and continue
good all the winter. They last from
three to four years, according to the
quality of the earth and the care be-
stowed upon them ; but it is better
to raise a few from seed every year."
— < Bridgeman. )

SCOURING. Excessive purging.
See Ox, Skeepy dec.

SCRAPER. An implement to
scrape roads, like the mouldebeart.

SCREEDS. Wooden rulea for
running mouldings.

SCREENING. Siaing by pass-
ing through a screen such as masons
use.

SCROFULA. A disease of the
glands about the neck, followed by
debility and skin diseases.

SCRUPLE. Twenty grains ; the
third of a drachm.

SOU FFLER. A light scarifier, or
horse hoe.

SCUTATE. Protected by large
scales

SCUTELLIFORM. Of the figme
of a shield ; leaves having the foot-
stalk terminating in the centre of the
lamina.

SCURVY GRASS. CochU^ria of-
ficintUis. A plant belonging to the
same genus as the horseradish, and
sometimes cultivated for its leaves.
It is propagated by seed, and prefers
a moist soil.

SCUTCHING. Breaking flax or
hemp. See Flax.

SCYTHE. " The common so>the
» an instrument too well known to

raqotvB a mloots Qeacviptim* ba^ ^s-
much of its utility in agriculture «ie-
pends on a correct adjustment of its
parts, wo shall briefly advert to them.
The blade of the scythe, which is al-
ways curved, with the cutting ed|^
on the concave side, is fixed to tte
handle at an angle both to the plane
of the blade, and to the tangent to
the curve. It is on the nice adjust-
ment of these angles that the perfec-
tion of the instrument depends. A
scythe must cut the corn or grassy
especially the latter, as near to the
ground as possible, and where tlie
land lies flat and the stones have been
removed from the sun'ace, a good
scythe, in the hands of a skilful mow-
er, will cut the grass so near to the
ground that little or no stubble is left.
Every farmer knows well that an inch
of the grass near the ground adds
more to the weight of the hay Lhaa
several inches higher up, and that a
skilful mower, with a good scythe,
can easily add much more to the v^oa
of the crop than his earnings amount
to, however liberally he may be paid,
and that it is of the greatest impmv
tanoe that none but the best mowers
be intrusted with the work, and that
attention be paid to the form of their
scjTthes, and to their being frequently
whetted.

** In some ooantries the handle of
the scythe is nearly straight, and the
end of it passes over the tipper part
of the left arm. The position of the
mower is then nearly erect, and his
body turns as on a pivot, carrying the
blade of the scythe parallel to tlio
ground, and cutiiog a portion of a
considerable circle. The poaitioo sf
the handle in this case mast be such
that when the scythe is in the middle
of its swing, and the blade parallel to
the ground, it resia naturally on the
left arm above the elbow, while the
mower is nearly in an erect position.
By turning his body to the right, and
stooping towards that side, he begins
his cut. and by raising btmiBelf up, the
muscles of his back greatly assist in
swinging the scythe ruond.

** The blades of the scythes on the
I Continent are mostly nadv of soil

SCT

•I9el, and they vre so soft that the | in Belginm, whm« it was lint no-
edge can be hammered to sharpen it ticed. It is commonly used in dif-
and keep it thin. In England the | ferent parts of the Continent. The
scythes are forged thin and well tem- j Hainanlt scythe is swning by the pow-

pered, and to prevent their bending
they have a rim of iron along the
back to within a few inches of the
point. This saves much time in
sharpening, and they very seldom re*
quire the grindstone.

" Most scythes have two projecting
handles fixed to the princi[Mil handle,
by which they are held, and these are
variously put on, according to the
fashion of the district. The real line
of the handle is that which passes
through both the hands and ends at
the head of the blade. This may be
a straight line or a crooked one, gen-
erally the latter, and by moving these
bandies up or down the main handle,
each mower can place them so as
best suits the natural size and posi-
tion of his body. Hence it is that one
man can seldom mow well with an-
other man*s scythe.

" In mowing grain when ripe, which
is the best mode of reaping, the scytbe
need not have so great a sweep, nor
is it necessary to cut the straw so
near to the ground. The great diffi-
nnlty here is to lay the cot grain even-
ly, 80 that the binders can readily
collect it and tie it into sheaves.
When the grain is only slightly bent
down, a scythe with an addition of a
cradle collects the slanting straw
Qiore easily. The cradle is a species
of comb, with three or four long teeth
parallel to the back of the blade, and
fixed in the handle. This inserts it-
self behind the straw to be cut, raises
it up, and, by a peculiar twist of the
scythe after the stroke, it is left so
as to be easily collected. Those who
are acoostomed to use the cmdle-
aeytbe do the work rapidly and welL
" When the grain is much laid and
entangled, it is impossible to use the
common seythe, even with a cradle.
This has probably suggested a scythe
to be used with one hand, while a
hook in the other gathers the strag-
gling grain. The most perfect of
these scythes is called the HmiunUi
i^tkh fxam a proTUiee of that, name

er of the wrist principally. It does
not cut the straw by so oblique a
stroke as the common scythe, but
rather as a bill-hook or axe would do,
meeting the straw nearly at right
angles. The hook eoUeota a small
bundle, which is severed at a stroke,
and the left foot assists in holding
what is cut and rolled together with
the hook, in the hollow of the bhide.
It is thus laid aside, and fit to be tied
up. This iostnimeat is a great im«
provement on the English fagging^
hook, which is used in Uie same man-
ner, the left arm of the reaper acting
the part of the hook ; but as the han-
dle is inserted in the plane of the
Made, it causes the reaper to stoop
low, which is fatiguing to the lotas,
especially of elder^ people, who can
more readily reap with the Hainaalt
scythe.

"The scythe is an instrument
which should be more generally in-
troduced in harvest, and ezperienee
has proved that it has many advanta-
ges over the sickle or reaping-hook.**
See Harvest.
SEA-KALE. See KaU, Sea.
SEAM. In geology, a thin layer
of a given rock between large masses.
Also, a measure of eight bnshels, or
a horse-load of wood.

SEA MUD. The muck, or mire, of
salt marshes.
SEA WARE. See Weed*.
SEA WATER. This has been
used as a manure near the shore, o<^
casionally with good effect. It is
oseful to apply it over compost heaps
eotttaining lime, as the whole is much
improved in fertilizing power.

SEA-WEEDS. They are used as
manure in the finesh state, being tiira-
ed into the soil as soon as spread. Aa
they contain nearly ninety per cent
vtrater, the quantity to be applied la
very great. Some farmers waste
them by allowing the weeds to dry.
It is more common and better to
pnt them into composts and ftirm-yard
the pig-peo is a lavourite

«8ir

^tee to oast sea-weed into. Ttiey
deoompoee rapidly, and will even act
as a fermeat to peat, and are fertili-
sing from the large amoont of salt
and nitrogen they contain.

SEBACEOUS GLANDS. The
minute glands of the skin, which ex-
crete a Atty matter.

SEBACIC ACID. An acid prodo-
oed during the destructive distillation
of fats.

SECALE. Ergot See R^.

SECHIUM. A new Tegetable
fruit, resembling a small squash in
size, but different in flavour and struc-
ture, said to be from the Seehium edu-
lit, a South American plant.

SECONDARY ROCKS. The for-
mations lying above the coal and be-
tween it and the tertiary series.
They are fossiliferous and stratified.

SECRETION. The separation
from the blood or sap of certain prod-
ucts, by a glandular or other appara-
tus ; the perspiration, urine, bile, sal-
iva, dec, are secretions. They per-
form important offices in the econo-
my, and cannot be arrested without
the occurrence of disease.

SECUNDiNE. The second en-
velope of the ovule in plants. The
word secundinet also means the mem-
branes which cover the animal foetus.

SECURIFERS, SECURIPERI
(from securis, a kaicheit and fero^ I
hiar). The name of a tribe of Tere-
brantia^ or boring hymenopterous ii»-
•eets, comprising those in which the
females have a saw-shaped or hatch-
et-shaped terrebra or appendage to
the posterior part of the abdomen,
for the purpose of preparing a place

to receive the eggs, and ofdepositutg
them therein.

SECURIPALPS, SECURIPJlXPr
(from »eeuri$t a katchec). The nacse
of a family of coleopterous insects^
comprehending those in which the
maxillary palps terminate in a joint
which is elongated and hatchet-sfaa-
ped.

SEDATIVES. Medicines wIugIi
produce sleep and diminish pain,
henbane, camphor, morphia.

SEDGES. Plants of the
CareXf perennial, coarse false grass-
es, inhabiting marshes and wet pla-
ces for the most part.

SEED. The reproductive part of
the plant. It is usually enclosed
within a carpel or ovarium, except io
pines, which are gymnospermous, or
have the seeds placed in an opea
carpel. Seeds consist of an external
coat or testa, an embryo, and one or
two seed lobes {cotyledons). They
reproduce the species, and not the
variety of the plant, and in this re-
spect difibr from buds and bolba.
The finest plants should be selected
for seed, and only the principal grain
stems allowed to remain, the small
side branches being pruned off.

The seed is a reservoir of the most
nutritious parts of the vegetable, con-
taining often ten times more nourfsb*
ment than any other part. In sowing,
sound, plump, and wdl-matured seeds
only should be selected, and this is
done by screening and then steeping
in a brine snfficiently strong Co float
an egg, rejecting the grains that float.
The vegetative power of seedskeptin
the usual way is often much impaired

Wheat

Oau

Barley

Rye

Beana .

Pease

Buckwheat ....

Clover, Re J ....

Red Clover / (

Rye Grusi

Tttmipa

Mangal-wanal . . .
PotatoM

Tims at Sow mg.

September tu November

March and April

Marrh to May

September

March and April

April

March and April

M
II
11
II

May to Aarnat
April and May
March to June

Breed-caeL

tl to tft buah.
i to6

3 to 4

^to^

S ui4

StoM
19 to 10 Ibn.
3 to 4 '*
% '•

9 "

1 peck
9 to 3 lbs.

u
tl

OrilL

DibbM.

StoSlnMh.

Pto S "

9lo4 "
9

10 to H tba.

1| to 9 Iba.

99 1 ) Sj buah.

U lot baa
iiioi **

ttol

•«*

in two or Hetee yoars, but if kept ab-
solutely dry, or out of the contact
of air, some retain their vitality for
ages.

Manuring the seed by steeps, and
roUing them in mixtures of blood and
lime, &c., has of late been practised
with great success ; at all events, it
aeems to destroy rust and many in-
aects.

The preceding table shows the
quantities of seed usually sown in
England per acre. They exceed our
applications, but their harvests are
very superior.

SEED LIP. A sowing basket.

SEED LOBES. The fleshy sub-
stance of the seed, the cotyledon* :
there are two in dicoiyledanou* or
exogenous plants, but one in endo-
gens, such as grasses, cerealia, palms.

SEEL. A season.

SEGMENT. A slice, a portion
cut from a solid by a line or plane.

SELENITE. Crystallized sul.
phate of lime.

SELENIUM. An elementary body
closely resembling sulphur. Selenic
acid is isomorj^ous with sulphuric
acid : it is very rare.

SELLENDERS. A skin disease
of the bend of the hock in horses,
produced by want of cleanliness : the
part is to be kept clean.

SEMEIOTIC. RelaUng to the
signs or symptoms of diseases.

SENEGA ROOT, SENECA
SNAKEROOT. Polygala senega.
A perennial-rooted, common plant,
especially in the South, the roots of
which are used as an expectorant:
it is not to be trusted as a remedy
for snake bites.

SENNA. Catsia {aeiaifolia^ obo-
va/a, &G.,) senna. A small iegumin-
ous shrub of Africa and Arabia, the
leaves of which are much employed
in decoction as a purge. The Mary-
land senna (C Marylandica) is of the
same genus, but a perennial herb ; it
grows from four to six feet high : the
leaves should be coUeoted in August
and carefully dried.

SENSIBLE FROG. The part of
a horse*8 hoof immediately above the
bony covering ; tike- fleshy sole.

Mm MS

SENSITIVE PLANTS. I^attt*
or shrubs of the genus Mimosa, whose
leaves fold when tauched, or shaded
from the son.

SEPALS. The leaaets of the calyx,

SEPTUM, SEPTA. A partition,
especially in a seed vessel.

SEPTARIA. Large nodules or
masses of a oofttrly day foand in some
geological fonnations ; when burned,
they form Roman cement, which has
the property of hardening under
water.

SEPTEMBER. This is the month
for sowing wheat ; com is gathered,
and preparations are made to fatten
off the stock for sale ; prepare for ma-
king cider, and let the root crops be
hoed and kept in good order, for they
grow much this month : potatoes are
to be taken up as soon as the vines
die.

In the garden, fall crops are to bo
attended to ; budding can also be
practised on some trees. In the
South, tobacco is ripening, cotton is
to be picked, and preparations for the
sugar harvest are to be made at the
end of the month. Wheat, rye, and
winter barley are to be sowed.

SEPTIC. Substances or causes
hastening putrefaction.

SERICEUS. SUky, covered with
short, soft hairs.

SERICIC or MYRISTIC ACID.
An oily acid obtained from the butter
of nutmegs.

SERON. A buffalo's hide used
for packing drugs.

SEROSITY, SEROUS FLUID,
See Serum.

SERPENTINE. An injected
rock of a greenish colour, consisting
(^a silicate of magnesia (43 percent.),
with various proportions of iron and
alumina.

SERRATE. Having an edge cQl
into sharp teeth, like a saw.

SERRICORNS. A coleopterous
iamily, many of which have serrated
antennae.

SERUM. The fluid portion of the
blood ; it consists of a solution of al-
bumen in soda, with salts, and con-
tains 7 per cent, solid matter : in the
form of a secretion from membranes^

eeo

8HA

ft is oalled aerowiy, or aerow flaid.

The whey of milk.

SERVICE. PyruM UrminalU, A
small tree of the apple geous, the fruit
of which, when half decayed, is eaten,
and closely resembles the medlar:
they are small. The P. domestiea
yields a better fruit of the same kind.

SESAMOID (from <n|ff<yHr, a seed).
Small bones not larger than a pea,
found at the joints of the toes and
fingers.

SESASUM. See Bene.

SESQUI. One and a half Seequi-
oxide. An oxide containing three
equivalents of oxygen, and two of
metal.

SESSILE. Without stalk, siuing
on the stem.

SETA. A term used by botanists
m various senses. It is the stalk
that supports the theca, capsule, or
sporangium of musses ; the awn or
beard of grasses, when it proceeds
from the extreme point of a palea or
flume ; sometimes the glandular acu-
leus of roses, and also the abortive
stamens or rudimentary perianth of
cyperaceous plants.

SETACEOUS. Bristle-like. Se-
tose, bristly.

S E T O N. An artificial ulcer,
made by passing a skein of silk or a
piece of riband under a portion of the
skin by means of an instrument call-
ed a seton needle, which is a flat
blade with a needle e>e ; the thread
is occasionally anointed with irrita-
ting substances, in order to keep up
a discharge from the sore.

SETS. The pieces of poUto used
in planting : when the whole is plant-
ed, it is called a whole set.

SETTING. In building, the act
of solidifying, as in mortar.

SETT OFF. The projecting part
of a wall that is built thinner above
than lielow.

SEXES. In plants, the stamens
and pistils ; the former being called
the male, and the latter the female
organs, from a fanciful analogy.

SH AB. The scab of sheep.

SHADDOCK. An inferior but
very large orange ; the fruit of the
Ciirue deeumtria,
690

SHE

SHAFT. The trank^if a eoImiiD «:

the entrance or downward excaTa-
tion of a mine ; a handle.

SHAKES IN TREES. Fissures.
cleAs, rents, or black and rough pia'
ces in trees or timber.

SHALE. A loose, rotten, or
crumbling slate.

SHALLOT. Alium esralimieumL.
It is stronger than the onion, but has
a better flavour. The oflTsets for
propagation are set in rows, 12 inches
apart, 5 inches in the row, in August
and September, and taken up in May.

SHANK BONE, The femur.

SHARE OF A PLOUGH. The
point.

SHEARING. " When the sheep
are to be shorn, they are driven to a
pen or other enclosed space, and
brought one by one to the shearers.
The sheep to be shorn Is first placed
upon his rump, and the shearer, with
the shears, beginning at tlie uerkt
clips in a circular direction down the
belly towards the back. The animal
is then laid on his side, and kept
down by the leg of the shearer, who
clips the fleece all round to the back.
Turning the animal on the other side,
he clips, in like manner, round to the
back ; then raising the sheep, he clips
the part of the fleece not yet cut
away, and so lets the animal go, ta-
king care that it shall not entangle
itself with the fleece. The fleece, as
soon as it is shorn, is taken away by
an attendant, spread out, neatly reli-
ed up with the inner surface outmost,
and then deposited in some dry place
until it is packed in the wool sheets."

SHEARING RIVERS. **The
plowing of weeds in rivers and ponds
is done in the usual way from a boat,
in which the operator stands, and iB
rowed forward by another as requi-
red. Sometimes scythe-blades are
tied or riveted together, and worked
by means of ropes like a saw from
one shore to the other, called shear-
ing ; but the first mode is generaUtf
reckoned the best, and is unquestion-
ably so in agriculture.''

SHEARLING. A sheep once
shorn.

SHEARS. A hirge kind of scia-

SHEEP.

8dT$ used {a elfpping hedges and pru-
ning young branches ; they are often
Worked hy a rope at the end of a
long handle. Sheep-shears are well
known : they have been unimproved
in ages.

SHEEP. Oris aries. The follow-
ing is principally from Mr. Youatt
and Mr. Spooner, the two best wri-
ters on sheep :

"The sheep belongs to the class
mammalia, to the order ruminoTUia,
with four stomachs, and the organs
of digestion disposed for chewing the
cud ; to the trihe caprida, with horns
persistent, and placed on an osseous
nucleus ; and to the genus 09i>, with
or without horns, but these, when
present, uniformly taking, to a greater
or less degree, a lateral and spiral
direction. The forehead of the sheep
is arched, and protrude4 before the
base of the horns ; there are no lach-
rymal ducts ; the nostrils are length-
ened and oblique, and terminate with-
out a muzzle ; there is no beard prop-
erly so called ; the ears are small, and
the legs slender. The hair is of two
kinds, one bard and close, and the
other woolly, the wool prepondera-
ting in proportion as the animal is
domesticated.

" There is a breed of sheep now
extending over the north and south
of Asia, and Palestine, and Russia,
and of which the flocks of the Cal-
mucks and Tartars of the present
day are almost entirely composed.
They are distinguished by two mass-
es of fat commencing at the loind,
gradually swelling into a considera-
ble mass towards the rump, and pre-
senting behind two enlargements of
a more or less globular form. The
owners of the modern improved
breeds would find great fault with
some points about them ; but many
of their defects have doubtless been
the result of neglect.

** Some naturalists have traced the
origin of the sheep to the Argali or
the Mouflon. The Argali is a spe-
cies of mountain-sheep, found in small
flocks on the high grounds of Asia,
extending from the precipices ~of
Khamtachatka in the north, to those

of Mongolia in the e«otre, and of
Caucasus in Western Asia- The
Mouflon is an inhabitant of Southern
Europe, Corsica, Crete, and the isl-
ands of the Grecian Archipelago.
They congregate in large groups, and
possess all the wildness of the Argali.
Neither of these, however, has the
slightest claim to being the original
parent of the sheep. They are de-
scendants of thoee who have escaped
from the dominion of man, and are
retreating from desert to desert, in
proportion as the population of the
country increases.

" It will be most satisfactory to the
reader to commence with the histoty
of the British sheep, and then com-
pare with them the breeds and man-
agement in other countries.

** Different names are given to the
sheep, according to its sex and age.
The male is called a ram or tup.
After weaning, he is said to be a ko/Tf
a hogget, or hoggertl, a lamb hog, or
tup hog, or teg ; and if castrated, a
wether hog. After shearing, and when
he is probably a year or a year and a
half old, he is called a shear hog,
shearling, dinmont, or tup ;» and when
castrated, a shearing wether. Afler
the second shearing, he is a two-shear
ram, tup, wether. At the expiration
of another year, he is a three-shear
ram.

**The female is a ewe or gimmer
lamb until weaned, and then a ^'m-
mer or ewe hog, or teg. Afler being
shorn, she is a shearing ewe, gimmer^
theavc, or double-toothed ewe ; and
after that, a two, or three, or four, or
shear ewe, or theave. The age of the
sheep is reckoned, not from the pe-
riod of their being dropped, but from
the first shearing.

** The teeth give certain indications
as to the age. The sheep has no
incisor teeth in the upper jaw ; but
there is a dense elastic cushion or
pad, and the herbage, firmly held be-
tween the front teeth in the lower
jaw and this cushion, is partly bitten
and partly torn asunder. The sheep
has thei whole of the incisor toeth by
the time that he is a month old, and
he retains them until the fourteenth

601

m sizteenCh tnoDtli. They then be-
gin to diminish in size, and are dis-
placed. The two central ones are
first shed, and the permanent ones
supply their place, and attain their
full growth wbeq the animal is two
years old. Between two and three,
the next pair are changed ; the third
at three years old ; and at four, the
month is complete. After this there
is DO certain rule, until, two years
more having passed, the teeth one by
one become loosened and are lost.
At six or seven years of age the
mouths of the ewes should be occa-
sionally examined, and the loose teeth
removed, and then, by good pasture
and good nursing in the winter, they
may produce lambs until they have
reached the ninth or tenth year, when
they begin rapidly to decline. Some
favourites have lingered on tp the
fifteenth or sixteenth year ; but the
usual and the most profitable method
is to fatten and dispose of the ewes
when they are five or six years old,
and to supply their places by some
of the best shearing ewes.

** The rings at the base of the horns
afford very imperfect indications of
the age of the sheep.

" The history of the sheep will be
most naturally divided according to
the quantity and quality of the wool
of the difiTerent breeds, the uses of
the skin, and the quantity and quali-
ty of the flesh. The covering of the
original sheep consisted of fi mixture
of hair and wool, the wool being
short and fine, and forming an inner
coat, aud the hair of greater length,
projecting through the wool, and
constituting an external covering.
When the sheep are neglected, or
exposed to a considerable degree of
cold, this degeneracy is easily tra-
ced On the Devonshire moors, the
mountains of Wales, and the high-
lands of Scotland, the wool is deteri-
orated by a considerable admixture
of hair. Even among the South
Downs, the Leicesters, and the Rye-
lands, too many kemps occasionally
lessen the value of the fleece. It is
only by diligent cultivation that the
quantity of hair has been generally
693

diminiabed, aftd (hat ctmA
ed in our best breeds.

** HW.— -The filaments of wool
ken from a healthy sheep present m
beautifully polished and even glitter-
ing appearance. That of the neglect-
ed or half-starved animal exhibits a
paler hue. This is one valuable in-
dication by which the wool-stapler is
enabled to form an accurate opinioa
of the value of the fieece. The mix-
ture of hair in the wool can often be
detected, by close examination, with.
the naked eye, but most readily tij
the assistance of a microscope.

** Among the qualities which influ-
ence the value of the wool are j&ic-
ne»s, and the uniformity of that fine-
ness in the single fibre aod in the col-
lected fleece. This fineness, howev-
er, diflfers materially in different parts
of the fleece.. It prevails on the neck,
the shoulders, the ribs, and the back.
It is less on the legs, thighs, and
haunch, and still coarser on the neck,
the breast, the belly, and the lower
part of the legs. The fineness of the
wool is considerably influenced by the
temperature.

" The fineness of the fieece is also
much influenced by the kind of food.
An abundance of nutriment will in-
crease both the length and the bulk
of the wool. This is an important
consideration with the sheep-breed-
er. Let the cold of winter coroe^
let it continue fbr a considerable pe-
riod, yet if the sheep is well kept, al-
though the fleece may lose a little
\Ceigbt, this will be more than com-
pensated by its fineness and increase
of value. If the sheep, however, be
half starved while exposed to unu-
sual cold, the fibres of the wool, al-
though perhaps somewhat finer, will
be deficient in weight, and strength,
and usefulness.

•* That which is called trucnesM of
staple y or the fibres being of an equal
size, is of much importance in the
manufacture of wool ; for whenever
the wool assumes an irregular and
shagged, or brcachy appearance, there
is a weakness in the fibre, and will
be an irregularity in the manufacture,
especially if the fleece is submitted ta

8HE15F.

Oe operation of tbo comb. Oonneet*
ed with this, and a most importaot
qaalityp is the elasticity of the woolly
fibre — ^the disposition to yield, or sab-
init to some dongation of substance,
some alteration of form, when it is
distended or pressed upon, and the
energy by means of which the origi-
nal foim is resumed as soon as the
external force is removed.

"Referrible to this elasticity or
yielding character of the woo! is its
pliability and softness, and without
which no manufacture of it can be
carried to any deffree of perfection.
The last quality which it is necessary
to mention is its felting property —
that quality by which it may be beat-
en or pressed together and worked
mto a soft: and pliable substance of
almost any size and form. It would
seem that the process of felting is of
iar older date than that of weaving ;
and it is still coatinned, not only by
the nomadic tribes of Southeastern
Europe and of Asia, but it is made
occasionally to vie with the finest
productions of the loom.

" Some late mioroscopie obseira-
lions have unravelled the whole mys-
tery of felting, and of the employ-
ment of wool in almost every form.
The fibre, examined under a power-
fill microscope, appears like a con-
tinuous vegetable growth, from which
there are sprouting, and all tending
one way, from the root to the other
extremity, numerous leaves, assu-
ming the appearance of calicos or
cups, and each terminating in a sharp
point. It is easy to conceive how
readily one of these fibres will move
in a direction from the root to the
point, while its retraction must be
exceedingly difficult, if not impossi-
ble. It was a fibre of Merino wool
that was first submitted to microscop-
ic observation, and the number of
these serrations or projections count-
ed. There were S400 in the space
of an inch. A fibre of Saxon wool,
finer than that of the Merino, and of
acknowledged superior felting quali-
ty, was substituted. There were
2720 serrations. A fibre of South
Down wool, in its felting power well

known to be inferior to that of the
Saxony and the Merino, was placed
in the field of vision. There were
only 2080 serrations in the space of
an inch, or 640 less than the Saxony
exhibited. The Leicester wool is
acknowledged to possess a less felt-
ing property than the South Down.
There were only I860 in the space
of an inch.

" There can be no doubt as to the
structure of the woolly fibre. It con-
sists of a central stem or stalk, from
which there spring, at different dis-
tances, circles of leaf-shaped projec-
tions, possessing a certain degree of
resistance or of entanglement with
other fibres, in proportion as these
circlets are multiplied and they pro-
ject from the stalk. They are sharp-
er and more numerous in the felting
wools, and in proportion as the felt-
ing property exists. They are con-
nected with, or, it may be confidently
asserted, they give to the wool the
power of felting, and regulate the
degree in which that power is po9-
sessed.

•* Skins. — ^The skin of the sheep is
often partially tanned, and then used
in the common sorts of book-binding;
or it is manufactured into parchment,
and becomes exceedingly valuable on
account of its durability. Immense
numbers of lamb skins are dressed in
a peculiar way, and converted into
gloves with the wool remaining on
them, or used, in some countries, for
the linings of valuable garments. It
is scarcely credible to what degree
vanity and cruelty are sometimes car*
ried. The ewe is slaughtered a little
before the time when her pregnancy
would have expired, and the lamb is
taken from the womb and immediate-
ly destroyed. It is supposed that the
fur nearest to the skin is more beaU'*
tifol than could have been obtained
from the same animal after birth.

" Varieties. — It will now be proper
to take a rapid survey of the dilTereot
breeds of sheep, commencing with
the South Downs, The South Downs
and the Hampshire and Wiltshire
breeds were formerly, according to
Mr. Ellman, of * a very small size,

693

and far iVom poaaessing a good ahape,
being long and thin in the neck, high
on the shouldera, low behind, lou* on
the loins and on the ramps, the tail
aet yery low, perpendicalar from the
hip-bones, sharp on the back, the ribs
flat, but good in the leg, although
having big bones.*

" It is pleasing to compare this with
the account given by the same breed-
er of the South Downs (Ft^. 1) of the
present day, the change being eflfect*
ed by him and a few spirited individ-
uals : * The head amall and hornless ;

the face speckled or gray, and nei-
ther too long nor too short ; the lips
thin, and the spaces between the
Doae and the eyes narrow ; the un-
der jaw fine and thin ; the ears tol-
erably wide, and well covered with
wool ; the forehead also, and the
whole space between the ears, well
protected by it, as a defence against
the fly.

"*The eyes full and bright, but
not prominent; the portion of the
frontal bone arching the eye not too
prominent, that it may not form a fa-
tal obatacle in lambing.

" * The neck of a medium length,
thin towards the head, but enlarging
towards the shoulders, where it
should be broad and high, and straight
in its whole course above and below;
the chest wide, deep, and projecting
between the fore legs, indicating a
good constitution and a disposition
to thrive ; the shoulders on a level
with the back, and not too wide above,
but bowing outward from the top to
the breast, leaving room for the
apringing rib behind.

'* * The ribs coming out horizontal-
ly from the spine, extending far back-
6H

ward, and tb« laat rfb projectjtijg raoie
than the others. The bac*.k flat fnooi
the ahouldersto the setting on of the
tail ; the loin broad and flat ; the
rump long and broad, and the tail aes
on high, and nearly on a lerel with
the spine ; the hips wide ; the apace
between them and the laat rib oo ei-
ther aide as narrow as poasible, anl
the ribs presenting a circular fortMk,
like a barrel

*' * Tlie belly as straight as the back.

"'ITie Ipgs neither too long nor
too short ; the fore legs straight frtxii
the breast to the foot, not bending iii«
ward at the knee, and standing fiar
apart both before and behind ; tb0
hocks having a directien outward,
and the meeting of the thighs beio^
particularly AiH ; the bones fine, but
having no appearance <tf weakness ;
and the legs of aapeckled, dark colour.

***The belly well defended wnli
wool, and the wool coming down, be-
fore and behind, to the knee and to
the hock ; the wool short, close, enrt-
ed, and free from spiry, projecting
hairs.

•* 'The South Down is adapted to
almoet any situation in the northern
and middle parts of the United States.
It has a patience of occasional short
keep and an endurance of hard stock-
ing equal to any other sheep ; an ear-
ly maturity scarcely inferior to the
I^icesters, and the flesh finely grain-
ed and of good flavour.'

" According to Mr. Elhnan, the ar-
tificial food resorted to at the begin-
ning of spring, and soon after lamb-
ing, is green rye ; but it must be very
cautiously given, on account of its
occaaionally producing diarrbiea or
dysentery. This bad effect, howev-
er, may be prevented by removing
the ewes, once in the day, to old pas-
ture ground.

** The rye being fed off or running
to seed, the ground is ploughed in
May for turnips or rape. Rye grass
succeeds to the rye until the latter
end of June, when clover, Incern, or
sainfoin will come in. One crop
should follow another in proportion
as it is wanted.

'* Tares, clover, or rape next take

SHECF.

tirair turn; the tsres, perhtps, are
Bomewbttt inferior to the others. As
a winter food, the ruta baga or beets
oome in until lambing time, but not
after that, lest it should prodnee pur-
fing in the Iambs.

*' About the middle of October the
rams are admitted to the ewes, and
a plentiful allowance of nutritious and
stimulating food will have considera-
ble influence in increasing the nam-
ber of lambs. Much to the credit of
the breeder, great care is taken of
the sheep during the lambing time.
The ewes are either driren home, or
there are sheltered places construct-
ed in the fields.

" The average dead weight of the
South Down wether varies from eight
to eleven stones ; but at the Christ-
mas show there are usually some
pens in which the weight is double
that. The average weight of the
fleece used to be two pounds ; but,
from the altered system of manage-
ment, it is now at least three pounds
in the bill sheep, and nearly four
pounds in the lowland sheep. This
wool has likewise changed its char-
acter. It has become a combing in-
stead of a carding wool. Fonnerly
devoted to the manufacture of ser-
vants* clothing, or being sparingly
mixed with other wool, it is now used
for flannels, and baizes, and worsted
goods of almost every description ;
thus becoming of considerably in-
creased value. The hogget wool is
particularly improved ; it is finer than
the other long wools, and is applica-
ble to many new and valuabLe pur-
poses.

** The South Down sheep have suc-
ceeded admirably in aJl the southern
districts of the kingdom; but the
northern hills have occasionally been
too cold for them. Crosses between
the South Down and almost every
breed of middle-wool sheep have an-
swered well ; while in counties where
it could have been least expected, the
old breed is, in a great measure, su-
perseded by the South Downs.

" In Kent many South Downs are
kept, and much prized ; but on the
marshes and their neigbbevxhood

they have given way to the Homney
Marsh sheep.

" The South Down difler material-
ly in the different districts of Surrey.
In some of the lofty and barren heaths
a small and profitable sheep, distin-
guished by the name of the Bagshot,
still prevails. The old Wiltshire
sheep are occasionally seen here,
while the Dorsets have possessed
themselves of many extensive dis-
tricts, and are employed in supplying
the London market with early lambs.
Still, however, the South Downs are
numerous, and vie with any of the
others in excellence and profit.

*' The oM Wiltshire breed of sheep,
the largest and the heaviest of the fine-
woolled sheep, has gradually pass-
ed away. They were crossed by the
South Downs until every trace of the
old breed had vanished, and a useful
variety remained, which would have
been called true Sussex sheep, only
they were of a somewhat larger size
and lighter colour, and a lighter, finer
fleece. This breed is now rapidly
yielding to the true South Downs.
In the lower land pastures of Wilts
a breed is found evidently derived
from the South Downs, but larger in
size, and with a heavier fleece.

" In Dorsetshire we find a very dif*
ferent and valuable breed of sheep ;
they are white, the face long and
broad, with a tufl of wool on the
forehead ; the shoulders low but
broad ; the chest deep ; the loins
broad, and the bone small : a hardy
and useful sheep. Their chief pecu-
liarity is the forwardness of the ewes,
which supply the market with lamb
when it produces the highest price.
If they have plenty of nutritious food,
the ewes will be in lamb as early as
April, so that the young one will drop
in September, and be ready for the
market at Christmas.

'' The RyeUnds.'^They are small,
polled, with white faces, the wool
growing close to and almost covering
the eyes, the carcass round and com-
pact, the animal quickly fattening,
and the superabundant fat accumu-
lating within ; they are hardy, and
peculiarly free from disease; they

6d5

8HEE1P.

are paitieidarly diitiiifafolied hj the ]
fineness of their wool. The number
and the nature of the serrations place
it precisely where the manufacture
had lonff done* It is decidedly supe-
rior in nnenesa and in fulness to the
Sooth Down, but yields in both of
these qualities to the Merino wool
It was attempted to cross the Rye-
land sheep with the Merino, in order
to increase the value of the wool
To a certain extent this was ^ccom*
plished, but it was at the eiEpense of
the carcass. The Merinos were then
crossed by the Ryelands, with a view
to the improvement of form, and
greater tendency to fatten, but this
also failed. While these experiments
were proceeding, arrived the period
when the fleece of the sliort-woolled
aheep, both the South Down and the
Ryeland, was materially changed by
the altered system of sbeep-husbaod-
ry that was introduced, and the wool
of both was rejected by the manu-
facturer for the purposes to which it
had hitherto been applied.

** The Delamere sheep is the only
short- wooUed breed deserving of no-
tice in Cheshire. The wool is short
and fine, and still used by some man-
ufacturers, but it is no longer used
for any of the fine cloths.

" The different districts of South
Wales afford a small and valuable
breed of sheep, principally used for
the aupply of the London market,
where the Welsh mutton is in con-
aiderable request. These sheep seem
scarcely to have changed their char-
acter for many centuries, but some
crosses of the South Downs have been
lately introduced, and even some
flocks of this sheep have begun, and
with much prospect of advantage, to
spread over the lower part of the
country.

'* In North Wales, and particularly
in Anglesea, the old South Down re-
appears, or a sheep whose likeness
to the unimproved South Down is
too striking to escape observation.
The purest and best blood that the
mouDtaina of Wales are now suppo-
sed to be capable of producing is
foand at the foot or on the decUyi-
696

ties of Cader Idris. All the bills of
North Wales are covered with ahee^
wbich are sent in the spriog^ frocD aA
parts of the low cooatry . The atronif-
est wethers remain on the mcMintaias
during the winter, and without the
slightest artificial provision for their
support ; the others arc brought dowa
to the low ground about Michaelmas,
to be returned in the spring.

** The Ckeviou extead from West-
moreland far into Scotland ; their
birthplace, or where they were origi-
nally observed, and are still found in
their greatest purity, is the Cheriot
Hills in Northumberland. They dif-
fcr essentially from both the black
and the dun-faced breeds by which
they are surrounded ; but neither
history nor tradition has given the
slightest clew to their origin. The
following is a description of the pore
breed, thirty years ago, before they
began to be crossed by the Leieea-
ters : * The head polled, bare and
clean, with jaw bone of a good length;
ears not too short, and countenance
of not too dark a colour ; neck full*
round, and not too long, well covered
with wool, but without any coarae
wool depending beneath ; stMMildera
deep, full, and wide ; chest fuU and
open ; chine long, but sot too much
so ; straight, broad, and wide acroaa
the fillets ; horna round and TuU \ the
body in general round and full, and
not too deep or fiat either in the ribs
or flanks ; the fleece fine, close, short,
and thickset, of a medium length of
pile, without hairs at the bottom, and
not curled on the shouldors, and with
very little coarse wool on the hips,
tail, or belly.'

** Sir John Sinclair adds the fol-
low ing account of them : ' Perhaps
there is no part of the whole island
where, at first sight, a fiae-woolled
breed of sheep is lese to be expected
than among the Cheviot HUls. Maoy
parts of the sheep walks consist of
nothing but peat boga and deep mo-
rasses. During winter the bills ars
covered with snow during two, thrM,
or even four months, and they have
an ample proportion of bad weather
during the other aeasons of tUu year,

md yet a sheep is to be fband that

will thrive even in the wildest part
of it. Their shape is excellent, and
their fore quarters, in particular, are
distinguished by such justness of pro-
|x>rtion, as to be equal in height to
the hinder ones, which enables them
to pass over bogs and snows through
which a shorter-legged animal could
not penetrate. They have a closer
fleece than the Tweeddale and Lei>
cester breeiis, which keeps them
warmer in cold weather, and pre-
vents either rain or snow from in*
commoding them. They are excel-
lent snow-travellers, and are accus-
tomed to procure their food by scra-
ping the snow off the ground with
their feet. They have never any
other food but the grass and natural
hay of their own fields, except when
it is proposed to fatten them. They
weigh from 12 to 18 pounds per quar-
ter, and their meat is fully equal to
any that the Highlands can produce.'

'' The wool is inferior to that of
the South Downs, it is not so fine
as before the attempted improvement
of the carcass ; and the use of it is
abandoned in the manufacture of fine
doth.

"There are many flocks of pure
Cheviots, but in the majority of the
flocks there is a cross of Leicester
blood.

♦» The other breed of short- woolled
sheep which contend with the Che-
viots in number and value is the black-
faced Scois ; they extend from Lan-
cashire to the very north of Scotland.
The males are mostly horned, the
horns ot a spiral form, but the fe-
males are frequently wiibout horns.
The iisices and legs are always black
or mottled; they are covered with
wool about the forehead and lower
jaw ; the fleece is long and some-
what coarse. The carcass is pecu-
liarly compact ; so much so, that on
account of the shortness, roundness,
firmness, and handsomeness of the
carcass, it is called the short sheep,
in opposition to the Cheviots, or long
sheep. The weight of the carcass
does not differ materially from that of
the Cheviot, and the fleece weighs

N ir N

aboQt three potindB after it is washed.
These sheep have been improved by
selection, but have derived little ad-
vantage from any of the crosses that
have been tried.

"As these axe the prevailing breeds
in the northern parts of the kingdom,
if not to the exclusion of the short
horns and the Leicesters, yet, being
far more numerous than they, it may
not be uninteresting to institute a
brief comparison of their respective
merits. The three important points
with respect to sheep in such locadi-
ties are the weight and value of the
wool, the carcass, and the degree of
hardihood.

" As to the wool there can be no
question. The weight of the indi-
vidual fleece may be somewhat, but
not a great deal, in favour of the
black- faced breed ; but in point of
value and the price which the wool
will obtain, the advantage is most
decidedly in favour of the Cheviots.
As to the carcass, the Cheviot is
ready for market a full twelvemonth
before the other. If so many sheep
cannot be kept on the same quantity
of ground, the quantity of meat that
can be produced is greater, and eoh-
sequently the profit of the farmer is
greater; and as to hardihood, they
are both of them excellent breeds,
and it might be difficult to decide
which wool would most successfully
endure the hardships of a Highland
wmter. The adjudication, on the
whole, is most decidedly in favour of
the Cheviot breed, with this excep-
tion, perhaps, that on the wildest of
the Grampian, or other similar bills,
the black-faced mountain sheep may
have the best chance of doing well ;
and the acknowledged fact is, that in
almost every northern district the
Cheviots are rapidly superseding the
native black-faced sheep.

" Long'VfoolUd Sheep. — There is
much more similarity between the
varieties of the long-woolled sheep
than those of shorter fibre. The d^'
ficiency of horns, the form of the
head, the expression of the counte-
nance, and the white faces and legs,
show that they had one commoii

697

SHEEP.

oriffia ; wliile the colour and weigbt,
and uses of the wool, speak their com-
XDOo origin.

*• The following description of the
nojo LeicMter {Fig. 2), by Mr. CuUey,

Fig.%.

will, to a very considerable degree,
serre for all the varieties of the long-
woolled sheep. The head should be
hornless, long, small, tapering to-
wards the muzzle, and projecting hor-
izontally forward. The eyes promi-
nent, but with a quiet expression.
The ears thin, rather lonf, and di-
rected backward ; the neck full and
broad at its base, but gradually taper-
ing towards tlie head, and particular-
ly fine at the junction of the head and
neck. The neck seeming to project
straight from the chest, so that there
is, with the slightest possible devia-
tion, one continued horizontal line
from the rump to the poll. The
breast broad and full ; shoulders also
broad and round, and no uneven or
angular formation where the shoul-
ders join either the neck or the hack,
particularly no rising of the withers,
or hollow behind the situation of
those bones. The arm fleshy through
its whole extent, and even down to
the knee. The bones of the legs
small, standing wide apart, no loose-
ness of the skin about them, and com-
paratively bare of wool. The chest
and barrel are at once deep and round
in the ribs, forming a considerable
arch from the spine, so as in some
cases, and especially when the ani-
mal is in good condition, to make the
apparent width of the chest even
greater than the depth. The barrel
ribbed well home. No irregularities
of line on the back or the belly ; but
on the sides the carcase very gradu-
698

ally dhmhoilshing in width towards fto

rump. The quarters lon<j and fuH,
and as wide as the fore legs. The
muscles extending down to the bacji^,
the thighs also wide and full. Tbe
legs of a moderate length ; the peil
also moderately thin, but soft and
elastic, and covered with a good qaao-
tity of white wool, not so long as in
some breeds, but considerably finer.

''Such is the Leicester sheep as
Bakewell made him. He found him as
different an animal as it was possible
to conceive — flat-sided, large-boned,
coarse- wooUed, slow to fatten, and his
flesh of little value. Were there room
for its insertion, a detailed history of
the diflTerent steps of the changes
would be most interesting to the read-
er. The means were simple, and the
eflTect was almost magical. The prin-
ciple was, that * like produces like ;*
and therefore he selected a few sheep
with aptitude to fatten, with a dispo-
sition to produce an unusual quantity
of valuable meat, with little bone and
oflTal, and with quietness of temper ;
and from these he exclusively bred.
He cared not about near or distant
affinities ; but his object was to in-
crease every good point, and gradu-
ally to get rid of every bad one. They
were not diflTerent sorts of sheep that
he selected, but the best of the breed
to which he had been accustomed.

«* Such was the origin and the
eventual triumph of the new Lei-
cester breed of sheep. They have
spread themselves to every part of
the kingdom. There are few other
varieties of long-wooUed sheep which
do not owe much of their excellence
to the new Leicesters, and even some
of the short- woolled flocks are deep-
ly indebted to the breed introduced
by Bakewell. There is no other spe-
cies of sheep that possesses so deci-
ded a propensity to fatten, or that is
prepared for the butcher at so early
an age. It will not, however, thrive
on a poor soil, nor if it is compelled
to travel far in order to procure its
food ; but on soils of a moderate
quality there is no other sheep so
profitable. Other breeds, as the
Teeswater and the Lincoln, may be

aHBBR

aoperior in si«e» 1»at it i» •! aa ex*

pense of time and of food, and, event-
Dally, a palpable deterioration of flesh
and diminution of profit. The new
Leicesters, on fair keep, wiJl yield a
greater quantity of meat, for the same
quantity of food, than any other breed
of sheep. The meat is of a peculiar
character. It is disliked by some on
account of a supposed insipidness.
The fatly matter is too much intro-
duced between the muscular fibres,
and there may be the appearance and
the taste of a mass of fat. This, how-
ever, is the fault of the breeder, and
not of the animal : it marks the point
to which the fattening process should
be carried, and where it should stop.
It is the fault of the grazier if he con-
verts that which is an excellence into
8 fault.

** There are accounts of the Lei-
cester sheep attaining a very great
weight. Two prime wethers exhib-
ited by Mr. Painter at the Smithfield
cattle show, in 1835, weighed 165
and 155 pounds. It should, howev-
er, be remarked that the new Leices-
ter sheep has a smaller quantity of
bone, in proportion to its weight, than
any other sheep.

" The deficiency of the fleece was
formerly objected to in the new Lei-
cester sheep. The truth of the mat-
ter was, that with the early breeders
the fleece was a perfectly secondary
consideration, and comparatively dis-
regarded. There is now little cause
for complaint on this head. The wool
has considerably increased in length,
and it has improved both in fineness
and strength of fibre. It averages
from six to seven pounds the fleece,
and the fibre varies from five to more
than twelve inches in length. Like
all other British wools, it is applied
to a purpose difl!erent from that to
which it was formerly devoted, and
is mostly used in the manofacture of
serges and carpets.

" The chief value of the new Lei-
cester breed consists in the improve-
nent which it has efibcted in almost
every variety of sheep with which it
has been crossed. Most of the breed-
ers of the Sooth Downs were at first

avene to admit a crate wUh theLe )•

cestera ; but when the wool of the
South Downs began to be applied to
purposes very different from those to
which it had been formerly devoted,
a cross with the Leicesters was reluc-
tantly attempted. A sheep was pro*
duced, probably not so hardy, but
coming earlier to the market, yield-
ing a longer and a finer fleece, of
nearly double the weight, and with a
combing wool adapted for many val-
uable purposes.

** A short account most be given
of the other breeds of long-wooUed
sheep, although some of them are
rapidly passing away. The 7>e«tM-
ter, inhabiting the aouthern districts
of Durham and the north of York"
shire, was once in considerable re-
quest on account of the weight of its
carcass, the goodness of its flesh,
and the remarkable degree in which
the ewes were prolific. Its greatest
fault was that it was too heavy for
the lowlands in which it was placed,
and the pasture was trodden down
and destroyed. Some of the Leices-
ters found their way to the banks of
the Tees, and the old breed was
crossed by them. The carcass be-
came somewhat smaller, but it was
more compact and profitable. More
mutton was produced on the same
quantity of land ; and, after a consid-
erable time, for the improvement was
always slower with regard to the wool
than the flesh, the flef^e became finer
and closer. 'She old breed gradually
diminished and almost disappeared.

"The largest and most ungainly
breed of sheep was the Lincoltut
* hornless, with long, thin, and weak
carcasses, large bones, weighing from
twenty to thirty pounds a quarter;
the wool averaging from eight to
twelve pounds the fleece ; the sheep
a slow feeder, and the flesh coarse*
grained.' This is the account given
of them by a good but a prejudiced
observer, Mr. Culley. In fact, while
Bakewell and his admirers were al-
most neglecting the fleece, the Lin-
colnshire farmer was quite as inat-
tentive with regard to the carcass.
Both parties were wrong. The old

609

i Tailed, while ttie LeicesWre
boasl oT a dispoeition to fatten which
tba other could neverequal. Atlength
tbs itiempt was honestly made to
amalgamate the valuable qualities of
ths two breedB. In consequence of
Ibe oroas. the wether aitain«d its
nalurit; a roll year sooner than it
waa accustomed to do, and the fleece
became finer and improved in colour,
'but ii waa shorter and more brittle,
and not filled Tor aome a( its former
purposea. On the whole, a great im-
proTOment has been efl%cted both in
the earcBsa aad the Beece ; and ao
■atisftctorr did this prove, that i( is
DOW difficijt to find tuij aheep in Lin-
colnshire that have not been crossed
with the Leicestera. This cross is
deeper on the wolds tbao in the marab
lands, which naj serve to accouat
Ua the dMbrenoe of the fleece in the
two. Thebreed of these aheep gen-
erally has beeo greatly inoreased
•tnce the introduction of the turnip

■• AmoDc the long-woolled sheep
that have oeen improved by the ad-
mixtare of the old and new lonf-
woollod breeds and the altared ays-
tem of husbandry, Uie RemneyMarth
must not be forgotten. Prom time
immemorial the prodnoe in wool and
tbelhickneaain stocklngwere scarce-
ly equalled in any other breed or sit-
ualinn. The Kentiah men obstinata-
Ij resiated every enaroachmeot
their favoarite breed, and predicted
disappoinlmenl and loss in every pos-
sible form. For a while it aoemed
as if they had reason on their aido,
for the SIM of the sheep was cooaid-
erably leaaened, and (be wool was
not so valuable, nor yielded in its for-
mer quantity, fiy degrees, however,
it began lo be found that these amali-
er. deeper, closer, and more compact
sheep weighed heavier than the old
lonK-legged end long-bodied ones ;
that they did not consume so much
food, that the hard stocking of former
days might be increased, that they
were read; a full year at ' "'
market, aad therefore
TOO

more prvfitalble. That the fst fonn-

ed more on the exterior of the an-
imal, where it was advantageouslT'
placed for ihe fanner and the consu-
mer, and did not accumulate witbin
for the profit of the butcher nlmie :
and that, by catefa] selectioo, al-
though the wool was somewhat shori-
er and lighter, it was improved in
tirmoesa and odoar and felling ptop-

" Some valuable breeds of lonc-
wooKed sheep are fonitd in the Sontk
Hams in Devoashire, exteitdtng fma
Axmineter to Dartmoor, and fntn
the north of Devon to the vale of
Taunton, under Ibe name of the
Bampton sheep, and also, but small-
er in number and size, in the aeigb-
boorhood of Exmoor.

The Cottmoli tlutr IFig. 3). so

called from the oats or sheds in which
they were housed, formerly inbahited
the counties of Qloucester, Herefard,
and Worcester. They were a long'
woolled breed, yielding, (brmeriy, a
descriptton of wool much valued oo
account of the labrics in the oon-
Btruotion of which it waa em^oyed.
Even ihey, like Ihe r«8t, have amal-
gamaied themselves with and been,
in a manner, lost aioaag the I^ices-
ters. They wsrstallerttaanlhe pres-
ent aheep, flat^idod, deficient in the
fore quarter, but foil in ibe hmd quar-
ter, not fattening so early, but yield-
ing a long and heavy fleece. Maiqr
of these good qualttiea have been pre-
served, and to them have been added
that which is ofso much importaaos
the farmer, the capahiUty of nar-

brinEiiig them so ni

h eailier to the

"SpanMSktr^ — The English wool
being, from tbe increasecl coaiseness
of tbe fibre, rejected by the manurao-
turerin the constrution of fine clothe,
recourse was had to foreign wools,
and to those chicfl]' that were de-
lived from tiie Merino sheep {Fig. 4).

As eartf as the cominenceraent ofthe
Christian era, the wool ofthe Spanish
aheep was in gt-cat request for the

froductinn ofthe most costly dresses.
a leas than half a century afterward
we find Columella busily employed
ia improving the Spanish sheep, and
tbe effect of his labours remained
dnring the long dark ages thai auc-
ceeded. The Merino fiocks ivith-
Blood the baneful influence of almost
total neglect, and continued, lo a
greater or less degree, to furnish the
finest and the choicest wool.

" By degrees tbe Menno sbeep
found its way to almcet every part
of tlie European continent, and by
eaceful management its Seece rapidly
increased in Gnenesa and in uaeful-
neaa. In 1884, Hie prime wool pro-
duced in Spain readily found a tale at
bom St. ei to *t. per lb. fn Saxony
it reached io5i. 3il.perlb.,8ndinsoiue
part* of Hungary to 5a. 6d. In Ads-
iralia the cultiiratKni of the Merino
theep aod its fleece haa proceeded
IBoel rapidly and prosperously.

"The Merino sheep are small in
•lie, with flat sides, narrow chesta,
Htd long lega Tbe wool is usually
■bite, but dark» on the l^s, and
Oce, and eara, and a tuft of coaraa
wool la round on the fotakead ; die

Nuns

akin is of a reddiah colour, and thera

ia a looseness of the akin under the
throat, which is cnnsiderFd favoura-
ble, aa indicatire ofgood fleece. The
males have large spiral horns, but the
females are without any. With theas
peculiarities, it must be evident that,
aa regards the carcase, the Merino ia
by no means a prnliiable animal, and
to this must be added, that they aro
bad nurses, so that one hundred ewes
will not bring up move than 6fty
lambs : they are also by no meana
hardy, and the flesh ia inferior. To
atone fur these bad qualiliee. Ihe wool
ia superior to every other kind, artd
forms, indeed, the principal sourca
of profit : the fleece is close, ahort,
and abounding in yolk, weighing
heavy, and ia superior to all otbera
in its felting propertiea.

" It is computed thai not less than
ten millions, or a moiety of thewhola
number of aheep kept in Spain, are
migratory, and occupy no leas than A
quarter of the year in going and re-
turning to their aummcr and winter
pastures. These Transhum antes, as
they are termed, leave their winter
quartera in the soBth about the mid-
dle of April, and proceed slowly on
their six weeks' journey. One divis-
ion travels towarrls the east, aod the
other in a more westerly direction.
During Iheir journey they are shorn
in large buildings, built expressly for
the purpose, which are divided into
two large compartments, wiihaamall-
er one uljoining. Those abeep which
are tu be aheared first are driven into
the small hut aa closely aa praajble,
and there remain throughout the
night, so aa M oceasion a consider-
able sweat, which softens the nnctu-
ooB mailer, and renders the shearing
eaaier. No previous washing is em-
ployed, hot in Ihis manner a thousand
ore shoni in a day, there being a auf-
ficieot number uf shearers in attend-
ance for the purpose. Tbis singular
coatom, which baa existed for cen-
turiea, is protected by certain lawa,
which give to these sheep the right
of psaturage on the common lauds on
their paaaage, and regulate ottm
uatleiB relatiiiK to it "^ ' '"

Hie wool is

701

SHEEP.

dlTided into three different parcels, as \
it 16 taken from the back, rump, and i
thighs, and shoulders, or head, belly,
and hocks, and these are respectively
Talued as superfine, fine, and waste.
The wool is washed first in water at
120° Fahrenheit, and afterward in
running brooks. It is stated that
there are no less than fifty thousand
shepherds employed in tending these
sheep, which are generally divided
into flocks of a thousand each. These
shepherds are a singular race of men,
sleeping on the ground while on their
journey, and living in huts during the
rest of the year, and existing on a
•pare diet, varied occasionally with
some mutton from their flocks, which
accident or disease may have afford-
ed them.

" The sheep remain in their sum-
mer quarters till September, when
they set out for their return. The
rams are put to the ewes in July, so
that the lambs are dropped soon after
the flock arrives at tlieir winter
quarters.

" in these long and tiresome jour-
neys, it cannot be otherwise than ex-
pected that great loss should be ex-
perienced from casualties and dis-
ease. A great mortality takes place,
and no less than half the Iambs are
destroyed, in order that the others
should have the advantage of a double
number of nurses. The migratory
system is more ancient than advan-
tageous. It would, indeed, be far
more profitable if the sheep were
stationary, and the breed varied so
as each to be bred on the most suit-
able pastures.

** The stationary sheep are termed
Estantes, and consist partly of large
sheep, and partly of Merinos, besides
the mixed breeds ; and it is found that
the stationary Merinos do better than
the migratory ones in every respect.

"For many centuries the Merino
sheep were confined to Spain, and
preserved with jealoos care. Sweden
appears to have been the first countiy
which succeeded in procuring them ;
•nd in 1723 a small flock was im-
ported from Spain, and there are now
about seven hundred thousand in
708

Sweden, but they are aomewfaat is*

ferior to the original breed. la
France many attempts have faeea
made to cultivate them during the
last century, but altogether with boi
little success. In Germany, how-
ever, the experiment has be«n ea^-
nently successful. The Elector of
Saxony introduced the first flock m
1765, and about ten years aAerward
another small ilock was bnmgbt to
Austria ; and in 1786 and I80S thej
were introduced to the imperial do-
mains of Holditch in Hungary, and
Maunersdorf in Austria. Such is the
origin of the German Merino, which
has now spread so extensively over
these vast countries. There appear
to be now two distinrt breeds, difler-
ing from each other both in appear-
a nee and the quality of the wooL
First, the Infantado,orNegretti, hav-
ing shorter legs and a stouter body
than the others, and the head and
neck comparatively short and broad ;
the nose short and somewhat turned
up, and the body round. The woo],
observes Mr. Carr, is often matted
upon the neck, back, and thighs, and
grows upon the head to the eyes, and
upon the legs to the very feet. The
grease in its fleece is almost pitchy^
so as to render the washing difficult.
This breed is descended from the
sheep imported directly from Spain
into Austria, while the other breed,
called Escurial, aro those which were
first imported into Saxony. They
have longer legs, with a long, spare
neck and head, with very little wool
on the latter; and a finer, shorter*
and softer character in its fleece, bol
less in quantity than the other breed.
The fleece, in the Escurial, averagea
from one and a half to two pounds ia
ewes, and two to throe pounds in
rams and wethers ; while in the In*
fantados it is from two and a quarter
to three and a quarter in ewes, and
from four to six pounds in rams and
wethers.

** Many attempts hare been made
to amalgamate these breeds, but
without success ; the advantages ot
each can only be retained by pre*
serving them pore.

MSD.

" < Tb6«e aheep^* observ«a Mr.

Carr, a large owoer in Germany,
■cannot thriYO in a damp climate,
and it is quite necessary that they
shoold have a wide range of dry and
billy pasture of short and not over
nutritious herbage. If allowed to
feed on swampy or marshy ground,
even once or twice, in autumn, they
are sure to die of hver complaint in the
follounng tpritig. If they are per-
mitted to eat wet grass, or exposed
frequently to niin, they disappear by
hundreds with consumption. In these
countries it is found that the higher
bred the sheep is, especially the £s-
curial, the more tender. They are
always housed at night, even in sum-
mer, except in the very finest weath-
er, when they arc sometimes folded
in the distant fallows, but never taken
to pasture till the dew is off the grass.
In the winter they are kept within
doors altogctlier, and are fed with a
amall quantity of sound hay, and ev-
ery variety of straw, which has not
suffered from wet, and which is vari-
ed at each feed ; they pick it over
carefully, eating the finer parts, and
any grain that may have been left by
the thrashers. Abundance of good
water to drink, and rock-salt in their
cribs, are indispensables.* By these
means the Saxon sheep has been
formed, which is more valuable in
the fleece than the Merinos.

" Our notice of the sheep in other
eountries must be exceedingly brief
Al«ng the western coast of France
the traveller continually meets with
the semblance of those noble ani-
mals which Edward IV. permitted
to be annually sent to improve the
breed of foreign sheep on the other
side of the Channel. The wool is
DOW about the same in value as that
of our inferior Lincoln or Kentish.
In Normandy is a larger and a coars-
er variety of the same breed. In the
old province of Maine succeeds the
old, unimproved, long, and thin-car-
cassed native French breed. In Bre-
tagne and Gascony will be recognised
the native short- wools, some of them
exceedingly valuable ; in Navarre, a
mountain breed, with its kempyHeece ;

in the Lower and the Higber Pfve>

nees, the two essentially different
breeds which coantriea so different*
yet so near to each other, produce.
On entering Rousillon some migrato-
ry breeds scarcely 'inferior to the
Merinos are found, and also in Lan-
guedoc and Aries. The whole num*
her of sheep in France is calculated
at about 30,000,000. The royal Me*
rinos are called RamhouiUeU.

^* Notwithstanding the accounts
given by some authors of the Italian
sheep, and of the CAre bestowed oa
them, there are few deserving of no-
tice except some Merinos. With the
exception of a few of the valleys,
the same may be said of the Swis*,
and also of the Savoy sheep, but in
Piedmont there has been from time
immemorial a breed of sheep inferi-
or only to the Merinos. In most of
tlie German Stales^ the Merino, the
Saxon breed, is almost the only sheep
that is cultivated. It is the same in
Prussia, except that the sheep are
somewhat diminished in size, wh3e
the wool retains all its value. The
chief wealth of Hungary is derived
from the cultivation of the Merino
sheep. Of the two Hanoverian breeds,
the larger one has almost disap-
peared ; the smaller has been cross-
ed with the, Merinos, and yields a
wool of some value for ordinary pur-
poses. The Dutch and Flemish breeds
are of English origin, although some
of them have considerable resem-
blance to the Irish long-wooUed breed.
Their wool is used for the production
of the coarser kinds of goods.**

The following answers to queries
are by Judge Buel, and peculiarly
adapted to this season :

" What sheep are the most profit-
able ? The Saxon and Spanish Me-
rino for fleece *, the South Down
and new Leicester for mutton. The
fleece would probably be the roost de-
sirable object in Tennessee and the
West.

<* Wliat is the best time to move
themi In September.

" What pasture bests suits them,
and how many can be kept on an acre 1
Sheep want a dry pasture, and if hiQy

703

8^B69.

«BdBtOD7, the belter. Althougti thef
will tiirwe best upon good herbage,
•iK^ as other farm stock hke, they
will U9€ where other animals will
8tarT6« They bite close. An acre of
good pasture will summer six sheep.

" How many should be kept togeth-
er ? what shelter do they require, and
what food, in winter 1 The number
in small enclosures, or in a yard, or
in a shed, should not exceed 100 :
when in large pastures, it may ex-
ceed 100: sheds are only neces-
sary to protect them from storms,
and to keep them dry in winter.
They want air and exercise. Sheep
are kept upon hay and straw in win^
ter ; some add oats, or corn, or roots,
either of which is serviceable in
keeping them in good plight. One
quart of grain may be given to a doz-
en sheep per day, beginning to feed
with a less quantity. In Tennessee
aheep will get much from the pas-
tures in winter, where they should be
permitted to range in dry weather.

** How is wool managed for expor-
tation, the time of shearing, 6cc. 1
The wool is carefully rolled up, each
fleece separate, and tied, and sent to
market in bales like those used for
cotton. Shearing is generally per-
formed here in June, after the cold
rains have subsided. It is consider-
ed bad policy to shear lambs the first
season, as they want their fleece to
protect them during our cold winters,
and it is found that nothing is gained
by early shearing. It is advisat)Ie
to tag ewes in spring and autumn.
Sheep enrich the land on which they
run. A good shepherd and his dog
ean take care of lOOO to 1500 sheep,
or more, and feed them in winter."

«» This will be the proper place to
speak of the shearing of the sheep, or
Ihe separation of the fleece from the
animal. The time for this operation
will vary much with the state of the
«aimal, and of the season. After a
cold winter, and the animal having
been neglected, the sheep will be
ready at an early period, for the old
coat will be loosened and easily re-
moved. The operation should never
be commenced until the old wool has
704

separated from the skin, and u new
coat of wool is sprouting up. Tb«
coldness or warmth of the spring wiQ
also make a great difTereDce. The
usual time for shearing is about tbe
middle of May, and the sheep-master
will in a moment perceive when tbe
fitting time is come. It is a bad prae>
tice to delay the shearing, for the old
fleece will probably have separated*
and the fly will have longer time to
do mischief, and the growth of tbe
new fleece will have been stinted, or
a portion of it will be cut away by
the shears.

** Custom has very prqperly required
that the old fleece shall be cleansed
before its removal, by washing the
animal in some running stream. Two
or three days are then allowed for
the drying of the wool previous to its
being shorn, the sheep being turned
into a clean rick-yard, or field, or dry
pasture, and remaining there uottl
the fleece is dried, and that the new
yolk, which is rapidly secreted, may
penetrate through it, giving it a littte
additional weight and a peculiar soft-
ness. As soon as the sheep is shorn,
the mark of the owner is placed upon
it, consisting of lamp-black and tal-
low, with a small portion of Ur, melt-
ed together. This will not be wash*
ed away by any rain, but may be re-
moved by the application of soap and
water.

" On the score of humanity, one
custom must be decidedly protested
against — ^the shearing of a flock of
sheep before they are driven to the
market in an early part of the spring.
The farmer thinks that he shall get
nearly or quite the same price for tbe
sheep whether the wool is off or on.
But does he find this to be the case f
When the poor animals are shivering
under tbe influence of the cold air, do
they look so attractive 1 Do they
handle wellt la there not an ap-
pearance of disease about themt
Does not the rheum that hangs about
the nostrils indicate the actual eom-
mencemt^'nt of disease 1

*• Few rules can be laid down with
regard to the rearing and feedinunf
sheep that will admit of anytiiinglika

SH££P.

i
P

■
P

P
I

genera] apt^icatton. A great deal
depends on the kind of sheep, and
the nature of the pasture and the
food.

** Suppose the larger kind of sheep,
and on arable ground. The ewes are
generally ready to receive the ram
at the beginning of October, and the
duration of pregnancy is from about
twenty-one to twenty-three weeks,
bringing the period of parturition to
nearly the beginning of March, at
which time most of the lambs will be
dropped. It is best to postpone the
tupping till November, so that the
lambs may be dropped in April, when
there is grass. The ewes should be
fed rather better than usual a short
time previous to the male being in-
troduced. Rams are fit to propagate
their species in October and Novem-
ber of the second year, and that is
also the proper period for the im-
pregnation of the ewes. The ewe is,
after impregnation, suffered to graze
on the usu^ pasture, being supplied,
as occasion may require, with extra
food, and especially in cases of snow,
until within five or six weeks of
lambing, when turnips or roots are
given to her, and continued from that
time until the spring of grass renders
them no longer necessary. The tur-
nips are laid out for the ewes in the
grass fields in certain quantities each
day, bat by no means so many as
they would consume if permitted to
feed without restriction, as it is con-
sidered to be most important that
they should not be too fat when the
lambing season approaches. The
hogs and the fattening sheep of the
previous year, now one year and a
half old, are put upon the turnips
whenever the pastures cease to im-
prove their condition. The turnips
required for the cattle, or the ewe
flock, are then drawn off in alternate
rows, in the proportion of one half,
one third, or one fourth, as the con-
venience of the situation, the good-
ness of the crop, or the quality of the
land may dictate. The remainder are
consumed on the ground by the oth-
er sheep. .

'*A8 the period of parturition ap-

proaches, the attention of the shep*.
herd should increase. There should
be no dogging then, but the ewes
should be driven to some sheltered
enclosure, and there leH as much as
possible undisturbed. Should abor-
tion take place with regard to any of
them, although it does not spread
through the flock as in cattle, yet the
ewe should be immediately removed
to another enclosure, and small doses
of Epsom salts, with gentian and gin-
ger, administered to her, no great
quantity of nutritive food being al-
lowed.

*' The ewes should now be moTed
as near home as convenience will
permit, in order that they may be un-
der the immediate observation, of the
lamber. The operation of dotting
(tagging), or the removal of the haii
from under the tail and around the
udder, should be effected on every
long- woolled ewe, otherwise the lamb
may be prevented from sucking by
means of the dirt which often accu-
mulates there, and the lamber may
not be able at all times to ascertain
what ewes have actually lambed. The
clatting before the approach of win-
ter is a useless, cruel, and danger
ous operation.

" The period of lambing having ac-
tually commenced, the shepherd must
be on the alert, yet not unnecessari-
ly worrying or disturbing the ewes.
The process of nature should be per-
mitted quietly to take its course, nu"
less the sufferings of the mother are
unusually great, or the progress of
the labour has been arrested during
several hours, or eighteen or twenty
hours or more have passed since tiie
labour commenced.'*

" The following very useful obser-
vations, from an essay by Mr. Cleeve,
in the first volume of the * Journal ot
the Royal Agricultural Society of
England,* are worthy of much con-
sideration : * The shepherd must not
be led, by the appearance of uneasi
ness and pain, to interfere premature
ly ; he must watch the ewe closely,
and so long as she rises at his ap«
proach, he may be assured that, what
ever uneasiness she may exhibit, att

706

SHEEP.

is well. Much uneasiness is gener-
ally apparent ; she will repeatedly lie
down, and rise again with seeming
distress. If this occurs when driving
her to fold, he must be very cantious
and gentle in urging her. These
sympioms ought to be continued for
two or three hours, or even more, be-
fore he feels imperatively called on
to interfere, except the lamb is in
such a position as to warrant fears
of losing it. In cold weather partic-
ularly, the labour is likely to be pro-
tracted. Should the ewe appear ex-
hausted, and gradually sinking under
her labour, it will be right to give
her some oatmeal gruel, with a little
linseed, in the proportion of a spoon-
ful of the latter to two of the former.
When the ewe feels that she is una-
ble of herself to expel the lamb, she
will quietly submit to the shepherd's
assistance. In giving her this assist-
ance, his first duty is to ascertain
whether the presentation is natural.
The natural presentation is with the
muzzle foremost, and a foot on each
Bide of it. Should all be right in this
respect, he must proceed to disen-
gage the lamb, first very gently draw-
ing down the legs, and with all pos-
sible tenderness smoothing and facil-
itating the passing of the head with
his fingers, rather than forcibly ex-
tricating it, the particular attention
of the shepherd being given to these
points. This may be effected by pass-
ing the finger up the rectum, until
he feels the back of the lamb's head,
and then urging it forward at the
same time that he gently pulls the
legs. Sometimes the head is suf-
ficiently advanced, but the legs are
too backward. In this case the head
must be gently pushed back, and the
hand being well oiled, must be intro-
duced into the vagina, and applied to
the legs so as to place them in their
natural position, equal with the head.
Should the fore feet, on the other
hand, protrude, they must in like
manner be returned, and the same
assistance given to advance the head.
If the hinder quarters present them-
selves first, the hand must be ap-
plied to get hold of both the hind legs J
706

' together, and draw them getxQf httt
firmly : the Iamb may often be easily
removed in this position. It is no
uncommon occurrence to find the
head of the lamb protruding, and Tnu<ck
swollen ; but still, by patience aad
gentle manipulation, it may often be
gradually brought forward ; or evea
nature, not unduly interfered witJi,
will complete her work if the peiris
is not very much deformed. Shoold,
however, the strength of the mother
be rapidly wasting, the head may be
taken aWay-; and then, the operator
pushing back the lamb, may inir»*
duce his hand, and laying hold of the
fbre legs, eflTect the delivery. It also
oflen happens that the legs are thrust
out to the shoulder, and from the
throes of the ewe, it is not posstlde
to replace them so as to get up the
head of the lamb. By partially skin*
ning the legs, you may disunite them
from the shoulder-joint ; there wiA
then be room for the introduction of
the hand, and by laying hold of the
head you can deliver the ewe. A
single season of practice will do more
than volumes of writing to prepare
the farmer for the preceding and some
other cases of difficult labour. Bat
let him bear in mind that, as a gen«
eral rule, the fcetus should, if possible,
be placed in its natural position pre*
viously to any attempt to extricate
it by force. When force must be
used, it should be as gentle as is con-
sistent with the object of delivery.
I need scarcely observe that the ewe
must be the object of careful nursing
and care, until she is completely re-
stored.'

** Abortion. — ^Though not so com-
mon as in cows, this disease, as if
may be termed, sometimes occtrra
very extensively, and becomes of se-
rious consequence to the sheep-own-
er, disarranging all his plans, as well
as occasioning a severe pecuniary
loss. It may occur at all periods of
pregnancy, but is most frequent when
the ewe is about half gone. The
causes of abortion are various : sud-
den fright, jumping over hedges or
ditches, being worried with dogs, and
the too free use of salt, hstve aU been

kntfvm to prodvce it ; bat that which
causes it mor^ than anjahing else is
the unlimited use of turnips and suc-
culent food. Many fanners may have,
doubtless, been in the habit of per-
mitting tliis with impunity, and would
therefore be disposed to doubt the
evil consequences of the practice ;
but it is not in every season that it is
attended with the danger ; but when
vegetation has been abundant in the
autumn, and the winter has been
Unusually wet, there is considerable

Erobability of the ewes casting their
imbs. Such was the case during
the past spring in numerous instan-
ces in this locality, and several of
wbicb came under my own particu*
lar attention. One farmer had near-
\y a hundred aborted, and lost a good
many of the ewes. They had been
turned on a fine field of turnips, and
aubsisted entirely on them and wa-
ter-meadow hay for some time pre-
vious to the commencement of the
mischief, which began soon after
Christmas, and continued for several
weeks. Though the greater number
cf ewes recovered, yet they suffered
much, and some died from inflamma-
tion of the womb, and others became
paralyzed.

" The synvptotM first manifested
are dutness and refusal to feed ; the
ewe will be seen moping at a comer
of the fold, and will be heard to bleat
more than usual. To these succeed
restlessness, and often trembling, with
alight labour pains, and in the course
cf twelve hours abortion will have
taken place. Sometimes the parts
will be so relaxed, that the uterus or
Tagina will become inverted, and the
expulsion of the placenta will precede
that of the fietus. In the flock be-
fore alluded to the lamb was almost
universally dead, and often exceed-
ingly offensive, and the abdomen was
distended with a bloody, watery fluid,
pointing out pretty clearly the nature
and source of the disease.

** The treatment to be adopted is of
two kinds, preventive and curative :
the former, however, is the most im-
portant. In the first place, it is im-
prudent to turn ewes ia larab into

I lilt

tamips; tbey should have instead
some dry pasture, and be well sup-
plied with hay. If feed is short, the
turnips may be drawn and given them
on the ground in moderate quantities,
or, which is better, cut up and mixed
with chaflT, or bruised corn in troughs.
It is better that the condition of the
ewes be in some degree impaired,
than that so great a danger as abor-
tion should be incurred. If this pre-
caution has not been observed, and
abortion should appear, what then is
to be done ? The flock should be re-
moved from the turnips to a dry pas-
ture, and supplied with the best hay
on the farm ; the aborted parts should
be carefully buried, and the ewe re-
moved from the rest ; and, if possi-
ble, the same man that attends the
flock should not touch or go near the
abortion, for there is very consider-
able danger from infection. The ewe
should be placed in a sheltered situa-
tion, but allowed plenty of fresh air,
and the following medicine may be
given with some nourishing gruel -

Epaom salts i oance.

Tinntan of opiam ... I drachm.
Powdered camphor . . ^ **

" The two latter medicines may be
repeated the following day, but not
the salts, unless the bowels are con-
fined.

" The immediate cause of death in
fatal cases is inflammation of the
uterus or womb."

" If any of the newly-dropped lamba
are weak, or scarcely able to stand,
he must give them a little of the milk,
which at these times he should al-
ways carry about him, or he must
place them in some sheltered, warm
place ; in the course of a little while,
the young one will probably be able
to join its dam. The lambing field
often presents at this period a strange
spectacle. *Some of the younger
ewes, in the pain, and confusion, and
fright of their first parturition, aban-
don their lambs. Many of them, when
the udder begins to fill, will search
out their offspring with unerring pre-
cision ; others will search in vain for
it in every part of the field with in-
eeaaant and piteous bleating; othen^

707

ig^t win hmg over their dead oH^

•pring» from vrhich nothing can sep-
arate them, while a few, strangely
forgetting that they are mothera, will
graze unconcernedly with the rest of
the flock.'

" The shepherd will often have not
a little to do in order to reconcile
some of the mothers to their twin
o&pring. The ewe will occasionally
refuse to acknowledge one of the
lambs. The shepherd will have to
reconcile the little one to its unnatu-
ral parent, or to find a better mother
for it. If the mothers obstinately
refuse to do their duty, they roust be
iblded by themselves until they are
better disposed; and, on the other
hand, if the little one is weak and
perverse, he must be repeatedly for-
ced to swallow a portion of her milk
until he aduiowledges the food which
nature designed for him.*'

It is said that placing salt on the
hack of the lamb, and inducing the
ewe to lick it, is a certain method
of causing them to recognise their
young.

Castration. — The following method
is by Mr. Spooner :

** The earlier this operation is per-
formed, the less likely is it to be fol-
lowed by injurious effects. A fa-
vourable day should be selected, dry,
but neither hot nor cold ; and if the
flock is considerable, it will be better
to operate upon the lambs at differ-
ent periods, by which they can all be
operated on at pretty nearly the same
age, than to wait and perform the
whole at the same time : a fortnight
is a very good age. It will also save
trouble, and be quite as well, to dock
them at the same time. There are
different methods of performing the
operation, but the following, which
we have generally practised, is as
expeditious, convenient, little painful,
and satisfaotory as any :

*'The operator sits astride on a
long stool, with one of the lamb's
hind legs under each thigh, the fore
legs and head being held by an as-
sistant. With the finger and thumb
of the left hand, he draws up the Jow-
fu part of the scrotnm or bag, and

cuts air a pavtioii of Ite
sbarpscalpel or knife. Ha then crasf»
the upper part of the scrotum, whioh
forces the testides forward* aod -with
one incision separates the part whieh
divides the testicles, sofficieotiy ta
cause them both to escape from tka
bag. He then plaoes the iroe claoM
on the cords above the teatielea,
with a hot iron divides the ooitlB,
the operation is oomptoted. By
moving a portion of the sktn« thoagh
the wound is rather lopwer bealingv
there is less likelihood of matter cal-
lectiog within the bag. A little lavd
may be smeared on the parts aller»
ward, to keep off the fleas, dto. Befoi*
the operation is perforined the
should be examined, in order to
whether any rupture exists, ia which
case some of the intestines will have
escaped into the scrotum. la such
case, the operation must be perfona-
ed in a more careful and difficult mask
ner. Four small slips of wood, about
four inches in length, nrast first ha
provided. Two sticks of elder cut is
half will be most suitable; and it
will be better if the pith is removed
and the vacancy filled with soma
caustic. One end of each pair meat
be fastened together with waxed
thread. The intestines should be
gently forced op into the abdomeo, at
any rate as high as possible. An in-
cision should then be carefully made
over each testicle, and through tha
skin alone : the testicle, with its cov*
erings, should then be pressed throagk
the opening in the ^ua, which, being
heki back, the elder-sticks should be
placed on the cord above the testicle ;
and one end having been previoos^
united, the other should be hrongfat
together, and firmly tied by an assist-
ant with waxed thread. The other
testicle may then be operated on in a
similar manner. Care must be takes
that neither the skin nor any portion
of the intestine be included in the
wooden clams, and they must be
pressed together as olosely at pos-
sible.

**In the course of three or foor
days the lamb should be examined^
and if the iestiole ha» fsiiea sC sr

cm bo* moKuftd bx tlw liftiid« tli6
thread may be cut and tbe dams re-
moved.

•« lo oaetrating^ lull-grown lambs, it
is better to take out each testicle
separately, through an incision made
into each compartment of the scro-
tum, and the same method may be
adopted as is practised with the horse.

*' Doeking.^-Th.iB simple operation
is performed on most lambe M an
early age, generally, and very prop-
erly, at the period of castration. In
the Dorset and Somerset honied
sheep, and a few others, it is, how-
ever, customary to leave the tails;
hat if diarrhcea should attack the
laaib, as it is likely to do in some de-
gree, the loDg tails harbour filth* and
sometimes cause sores, on which the
fly will depostte its eggs.

**The best method of performing
the operation is to place the tail on a
block of wood, and excise it with a
•harp iron red hot, about four inches
from the root, it may, however, be
cut off without any bad effect.*'

** Unless tbe pasture on which the
ewes are placed is very good, it wiU
he advisable to continue the use of
the turnips or roots. A moderate
quantity may be given twice in the
day, care being taken that the whole
of one quantity shall be eaten before
any more is placed before them.
This is a better practice than hurdling
off certain portions of the field for
the sheep, unless the land is perfect-
ly dry.

** A little hay will always be ser-
viceable while the flock is fed on tur-
nips. It corrects the occasional wa-
tery quality of the turnips, and the
sheep usnatty thrive better than if
they are fed either on hay or turnips
•kme. Bran and oats, with oil-cake,
have been recommended for the ewes
before weaning time ; but this is an
expensive measure, and its cost can
hardly be repaid either by the ewe or
the lamb.

M By the end of March or the be-
ginning of April the turnips are gen-
eridly nearly consumed, and the farm-
er is occasionally a little punled to
Imd suiBeteDt food for his floek. Jie

Ooo

should have had some ptots of lyettt
support them for a while. Rye grass
and clover are very serviceable. Swe-
dish turnips that have been carefully
stacked on dry straw will be most
useful, for the Swedes, properly pre^
pared and housed, will retain their
nutritive quality until the flock can
be conveniently supplied with other
food. Ruta baga are always usefid
for spring food. The after-grass like-'
wise furnishes plentiful and whole-
some food for the lambs.

^'At length comes tbe time for
weaning. In a poor country it takes
place before the lambs are much more
than three months old. In a more
plentiful one the lambs may be left
until the fourth month is nearly or
quite expired. If the pasture is good,
and it is intended to sell the lambs in
store condition, the weaning may be
delayed until six months. Which-
ever time is selected, it is of essential
conseqnenee that tbe mothers and
the dams should be placed so far
apart that they cannot hear the bleat-
ings of each other. The ewes should
be somewhat carefully looked after,
and if any of them refuse to eat, they
should be caught, the state of the ud-
der ascertained, and proper measures
adopted.

" The lambs should not be put on
too stimulating food. Tbe pasture
should be fresh and sweet, but not
luxuriant. It shouki be suflloient te
maintain and somewhat increase their
condition, but not to produce any dan-
gerous determination of blood to any
part. In the Northern and Eastern
States it will be advisable to house
sheep in large bams during winter.

*' The Dismseg of Sheep.^-Thervp*
id progress which tbe veterinary art
has lately made has thrown great
light on the maladies to which the
sheep is liable, and the mode of pre-
venting or removing them.

** Commencing with the muzzle
and head, there is a disease, or rath-
er annoyance, to which sheep are ex-
posed by the persecution of a fly, the
<Stru9 Mtf, or gadfij of the sheep.
At a period between May and July
tliisfly is peraavafiiHIly endeavottrittf

709

I» kor lis fi0i on tbe imier nofgin of

the Doitril of the sheep, whence,
hatched by the warmth aod moisture
of the situation, and asauming its lar-
Ta form, it crawls uito the nostril in
order to reach the frontal sinus, or
cavities in the skull bone. Instinct-
ively alarmed by the buzzing of the
fly, or the motions of the larvs, the
sheep congregate with their heads in
the centre, pawing continually with
their feet, and expressing their dislike
and fear in ^very possible way. It re-
mains in the sinus a certain period,
until it has attained its full growth,
when it endeavours to escape, in or-
der to undergo another transforma-
tion. It escapes from the nostril,
burrows in the earth fur a while, as-
sumes its pupa state, undergoes its
final change, and assumes the form
of a fly, and then becoming impregnap
ted, seeks again the nostril of the
•heep. All that can be done with re-
gard to this nuisance is to destroy the
flies, which are generally to be seen
on the walls or pales in the neigh-
bourhood of the flock, and which the
shepherd, or shepherd's boy, should
be taught to recognise.

** Another parasite is a species of
hydatid, the Canurtis, or Hydatis
polyuph«lu4 ccrehralU. It has the ap-
pearance of a bladder, sometimes
filled with pellucid water, or, occa-
aionally, with myriads of minute
worms, or smaller hydatids. Its res-
idence is the brain, either beneath
the inner membrane of the brain, or
lA the fissure between its two hemi-
spheres. The origin of it is not clear,
except that it is connected with bad
management, being scarcely known in
upland pastures, or in grounds that
have been well drained. As the par-
asite grows, it presses upon the
neighbouring substance of the brain,
and interferes with the discharge of
its functions. There is an aberration
of intellect ; the sheep is frightened
at any trifling or imaginary object ; he
separates himself from his compan-
ions ; he commences a strange rotattn
ry motion even while he grazes, with
the head always turned towards the
wne side^ Tiiia is tba cbaraetem-
710

tie floraptom> and as flooB 98 It ia

ceived the animal should be destroy-
ed, for there is no certain core, and
many of the operations thai some
persons have described are eroel and
inefficient. The duty of the ianoer
is to destroy the sturdied sheep aa aooa
as the disease is ascertained, howev-
er poor it may be in condition.**

It may be well to remark, that
when the hydatid is situated near the
bone, and especially in the forehead,
between and above the eyes, the skoll
becomes soft at the place, and this
being discovered, a < ure has sooie-
times been efl^ected by cutting down-
ward through the soft bone, so as to
reach the hydatid ; if this is cut
through, it frequently dries; and
should there be no more, a cure oc-
curs. The puncture should not reach
to the brain ; half an inch is enough.

" A somewhat similar disease, hot
with which the hydatid has nothing
to do, is HydrocephaUu, or vuUer in the
head, generally indicated by a Utile
enlargement of the skull, a disincli-
nation to move, a alight staggering
in the walk, a stupidity of look, and
a rapid loss of condition. This dis*
ease seldom admits of cure or pallia-
tion. If any amendment can be ef-
fected, it will be by the administration
of good food, tonic medicine, and gen-
tle aperients. When water in the
head is aa occasional Visitant in a
flock of sheep, there is something
wrong in the land, or its management^
or in tlie nature of the food, or the
character of the sheep.

** Another species of pressure on
the brain is ol' too frequent occur-
rence—wl^op^cxy. A flock of sheep
shall be in apparently as good and
fine condition as the farmer can de-
sire. They have for a eonsideraUe
period grazed on the most kixuriant
pasture, and are apparently in the
highest state of health. By and by,
one or more of them is, without any
previously observed change, suddeiH
ly taken ill. He staggers, is uocoa-
scious, falls, and dies, and perhaps
within a quarter of an hour from the
first atiaok. With regard to how
many over*&tteoed sheep is this the

SHEEP.

^se ! The owners, talcing them to
some cattle-show, say that they died
of inflammation. Inflammation had
nothing to do with it. The sheep had
been brought to the highest and most
dangerous state of condition. Every
▼essel was overloaded with blood,
and then some trifling exertion being
required, or the animal being a little
disturbed, the nervous functions were
suspended, and the vital current sud-
denly arrested. Very few persons
have gone into a cattle-show without
being painfully struck with the evi-
dent distress exhibited by some of
the over-gorged animals.

•' If there is time for resorting to
curative means, the jugular vein
should be opened, and aperient medi-
cine administered.

•• Injtammaiion of the Brain is a fre-
quent consequence of this strange
over-feeding. It is ushered in by
dulness and disinclination to move ;
but presently the eye brightens, and
the animal attacks everything with-
in his reach. If it can be managed,
the same treatment must be adopted
— ^bleeding, physic, and low feeding.

" Locked Jaw is not an unfrequent
disease among sheep. It commences
with an involuntary spasmodic mo-
tion of the head, accompanied by
grinding of the teeth ; but the latter
symptom is presently succeeded by
fixedness of the jaws. The disease
oflen runs its course in a little more
than twelve hours. The principal
cause is cold and wet. After an un-
usually cold night, it is not uncom-
mon to find many ewes that have
lately lambed, and many lambs re-
cently dropped, dead and stiffened.
Tt sometimes occurs after castration,
and at weaning time. Bleeding, ape-
rient medicine, an opiate given an
hour after the physic, and also a warm
bath, are among the most likely means
of cure.

" Epilepsy is a not unfrequent dis-
ease amor.g young sheep which are
exposed too much to cold, or dismiss-
ed from the fold too soon in the morn-
ing. Care and nursing will some-
times recover them, or a little exer-
cise forced npon the patient.

" Pafjy.-— The appearance of thfe-
disease is mostly confined to the ewe
and lamb at weaning time, or when
they are left at night in a bleak and
exposed situation. The vital heat is
abstracted by the cold bed on which
they lie, and the cold air around them,
and there follows a compound of
rheumatism and palsy, the latter pre-
dominant and most obstinate. In the
majority of cases they wfll never re-
gain their former condition or value,
but continue a disgraceful exhibition
of the carelessness and inhnmanitf
of the owner. It is dread ftil to think
how many animals in some diatricts
are th us destroyed . No little a rt and
kind treatment are in some eases re-
quisite in order to recover these neg**
lected and abused creatures. Warm
gruel or milk, and a moderate degree
of warmth, are the chief restoratives
that can at first with safety be appli-
ed. A little ginger and spirit of ni*
trous ether may be added to the gniel
when the patient begins to recover.

** Rabies. — ^The rabid dog aeeras to
have an irresistible propensity to
worry sheep, and the poison is as fa«
tal in this as in any other animal
There are cases on record in which
from twenty to thirty have been bit-
ten by the same dog, and all have
died. If it can be proved that the
flock has been attacked by a mad dogv
every sheep should be most carefully
examined, and if the slightest wound
is found upon him, he should be d^
stroyed. When the disease has bro-
ken out in the flock, no sheep thai
has exhibited the slightest trace of it
should be used for hnman food.

" There is no cure for rabies, and
he will incur fruitless expense who
has recourse to any pretended noo*
trum for this purpose.

" Ophthalmia is a very freqnent die-
ease among sheep. The old people
nsed to say that the animal had die-
turbed a lark's nest, and that the lailc
had spurred htm blind. If any in-
flammation of the eye is detected,
that organ should be frequently bath-
ed with a weak solution of Gooland'a
lotion, to which a few drops of lauda-
mim have been added. It is aom^

711

-~ J

SHEfi^.

tintj UttcMh tdfet rid of tlilB aflfee-
iion, and eataraot and permanent
bltndness will ensue. The Eurtck
shepherd aaya that * a friend will gen-
erally attach itaelf to the sufferer,
waiting on it with the most tender
aasidaity, and by its bleating calling
it fi«n danger and from going astray.'

^* Hfibfte is a morbid distention of
Ifae paunch with food, and the extri*
cation of gas from that food. An ac-
eennt has been given of this disorder
in the article Ox« so that every pur-
pose will be answered by referring
to it. The same may be said of aU
the diseases of the digestive organs.
Their structure is the same in cattle
and in sheep ; and the causes and ap-
pearances and treatment of the dis-
eases are the aame.

" There is, however, a disease of
the liver — the Rot — ^far more frequent-
ly occurring in sheep than in cattle,
and bearing a peculiar and more de-
structive character.

**ln the very earliest stage alone
does it admit of cure. The decisive
symptom, at that time* is a yellow
colour of the eye, that surrounds the
pupil and the small veins of it, and
particularly the corner of the eye,
which is filled with a yellow serous
fluid, and not with blood. There is
no other apparent morbid appearance
until it is too late to struggle with
the malady ; on the contrary, the
Bheep» although perhaps a little duller
than usual, has an evident propensity
to fatten.

** The rot is a disease of the liver,
attended by inflammation of that or-
gan, and the vesaels of it contain
fasciolflD {flukes). The flukes are
probably more the effect than the
oause of the disease. They aggra-
vate the disease by perpetuating a
state of irriubility and disorganiza-
tion. Tlie rot is evidently connected
with the state of the pasture. It is
precisely the same as marsh fever in
men, originating from the poisonous
vapours uf marshes. It is confined
vuher to wet seasons or to the feed-
ing on ground that is moist and
marsliy. In the same farm there are
fields on which no sheep can be tura-
71S

ed wifhont g^thig the rot, and tliere
am others that never give the roc
Afler long-continued rains it is ahnoot
sure to appear. The disease may be
communicated with extraordinary ra-
pidity. A flock of sheep was halted
by the side of a pond for the purpose
of drinking ; the time which they re^
mained there was not more than a
quarter of an hour, yet two hoodied
of them eventually died rotten. In
the treatment of the rot little that ia
satisfactory can be done. Somesiie^
have recovered, but the decided ma-
jority perish in despite of every ef-
fort. The patients, however, may,
as giving them a little chance, be
moved to the driest and soundest
pastures ; they may undergo a regu-
lar course of aperient medieitie. Merw
curial friction may also be used, bat,
above all, plenty of salt should be
placed witliin the animals* reach, and
given to them in the way of medicine.
Doses of calomel may be given in the
early stages.

" In the way of prevention, the
farmer may do much : he may draiA
the moat suspicious parts of his faim.
No money would be more profitably
expended than in accomplishing this.
Some of the little swampy spots
which disgrace the appearance of hia
farm, possibly he at the root of the
evil.

^* Red-water, or the eflfhsion of »
bloody serous fluid in the cavity of
the abdomen, is a frequent and very
fatal disease among sheep. The
cause of it is a sndtten change frona
one pasture to another of almost op-
posite quaUty, or the moving of the
flock from a dry and warm to a damp
and cold situation. It is most de»
structive to lambs H exposed to a
hard frost, or snflered to lie on a damp
and cold soil. The sheep will separ-
ate himself from the rest of the flock;
he will evince a great deal of pain, by
rolling about and frequently lying
down, and immediately getting up
again ; and sometimes be dies in less
than twenty-four hours from the first
attack. The belly wiU be found swell-
ed and filled with the red water, or
aamua fluid tinfed with hiood, irom

VbifSb tike <iittafle derives its ttsme.

The treatooeat should consist of mild
aperieots, with gentian and ginger,
and a liberal allowance of hay and
corn. InflaoiinatioQ of the coats of
the intestines (enttritU) would not
always be readily distinguished CtoiA
the last disease, except that there is
more stamping on the ground and
striking the belly with the hind legs,
and occasional lying on the back.
The principal causes of enteritis are
improper food, or an excess of that
which is healthful, or exposure to
cold and wet. Here, also, bleeding
is imperatively required, but the pur-
gative should not consist of anything
stronger than sulphur. DiarrhtM. is a
Tery prevalent disease among lambs,
and especially after a change of diet
or of situation. When it is not vio-
lent, and does not seem to be at-
tended by colic, a little absorbent
and astringent medicine, with a few
grains of opium) may be administered.
The diarrhcsa of sheep may be simi-
larly treated ; but when the disease is
assuming the character of dysmOen^
when the discharge is nxire frequent
and copious, and mingled with mucus,
a larger quantity of this medicine
should be given, and some blood ab-
stracted if there is any degree of f»*

»»

Ter.

Cosliweness, or 9iretche», is attend-
ed with loss of appetite. The animal
also frequently lies down andstretcl^
6s itself: two table-spoonfuls of cas*
tor oil or one ounce of salts will rera->
edy it. The disease is said to arise
from want of ^een food. Brasy ap*
paars to be aa inflammation or the
stomach ; the sheep refuses food, ia
costive, drinks often, mouth parched,
ejes red, belly swollen and tender.
Bleedi and give febrifuge medicines ;
place in the house* and, after a few
days, give aperient medicines.

"The diseases of the reMpinaoty
orgMu arei often of a serious charae^
ter. During the greater part of the
winter the noatrUs will sometioiea
be filled with raueus, and the sheep
is compelled to stop for a moment at
•very second or third bite, and snort
fic^ntly, and stand vith his iwMade

Ooo2

extended and labouring Air breath.
If his general health does net seem
to be affected, this fuuaL glett will aH
pass away as the spring appreeehes.
If, however, any of the flock should
now appear to be losing flesh and
strength, it is too probable that cot^-
sumfUon is at hand. The only cha nee
of saving or doing them any good wtQ
be to place them in some coir.fortable
pasture, letting them have salt within
their reach, and giving them the hy-
driodate of potash, in doses gradual-
ly increasing from three grains to
twelve, morning and Urght.

** Lambs, when too early and too
much exposed, are subject to disease
es of the npper air passages (/aryTi^
/iff and branekuia), the one attended
by a ringing cough, and the other by
one of a more wheezing sound.
Bleeding will always be necessary
for the first, with aperient medicine.
A mild pargative will usually sufllce
for the second, or, possibly, an ounce
or an ounce and a half of common
salt may t>e given dissolved in six
ounces of lime-water.

** Ii^lammutitm of tke lung-i, recog-
nised by difficulty of breathing, heav.
ing at the flanks, and distressing
cough, is a disease of frequent occur-
rence in sheep. It speedily runs its
course, and the lungs are found to be
one disorganised vnass. Bleeding and
purging are indispensable ; but as
soon as the violent symptoms seem
to remit, tonics, composed of gentian
and spirit of nitrous aether, mast fol-
low.

** Epidi7tde». — Sheep are not so lia-
ble to the attack of these diseases as
horses and cattle. Sometimes, how-
ever, sheep sufTbr from epidemic disi*
eases very seriously. They have
cough, and discharge from the nose
and eyes. The appetite ceases.
Those that are afllbcted by the dis-
ease separate themselves from the
rest of the flock ; they continually lie
down, and many of them die. They
exhibit, after death, inflanmiation
through all the contents of the chest
and abdomen, with efftosion into the
cavities of both. The disease is most
ta^ i& 4te ooorse. The shepherd

713

m&w.

may laave his flock m ito nofBtng*

iree, apparently, from aoy immediaie
danger, and when he returns in the
afteroooD he will find two or three of
them dead. Epsom salts with nitre
may be given. Blood should be ab-
stracted if the case seems to require
it; and the medicine should be re-
peated sufficiently oAen to keep the
bowels gently open. If the purging
beooffies considerable, a Utile starch,
with chalk and cinnamon, may be ser-
viceable. Those that will eat should
be foddered with good bay, and the
others forced with gruel, being kept
dry and comfortable, with plenty of
clean straw under them. The de-
tadied horn should be pared from the
feet where there was any separation,
and the parts washed with a solution
of blue vitriol, and then smeared over
with melted tar. The mouth and
tongue, on which there are generally
some ulcers, should be dressed with
a strong solution of alum in water.
Under this treatment most of the pa-
tients will probably recover.

*' Garget. — Inflammation of the ud-
der is more frequent in the ewe than
in the cow. The udder should be
well fomented with warm water, and
then, if there are no large knots or
kernels, she should be returned to
her lamb, whose knocking about of
the udder will generally be produc-
tive of good rather than harm. If,
however, she refuses the lamb, a
drachm of camphor and mercurial
ointment may be w«ll incorporated
with an ounce of elder ointment, and a
little of it well rubbed into the adder
every morning and night. If the ud-
der should still continue to eolargp,
a free incision must be made into
that part where the swellings are
largest. A weak solution of chloride
of lime should then be applied, and
when tlie putrid smell is gone, the
friar's balsam should be used. In a
few days the wound will generally be
healed, and the lamb may be retam-
ed to its mother.

*♦ JOiaea»ta of the Fei<._There is a

small opening at the bifurcation of

the pasterns, which leads to a canal

ninning down the ioner face of each

714

The function of this canal is a matter
of doubt ; but dirt or gravel, or other
foreign bodies, soioetimea get into
these canals, and prodoce ooDsadera>
ble pain, inflammation, and ulcera-
tion. The treatment consists io ttB
extraction of any of those extraoeosa
substances that can be got au and the
fomenting and poulticing, or scarify*
ing the parts, or efiectiog iiicasj<ifis
into the canal, and applying a cauatic
or a balsam, as tho case may in-
quire."

Foot-rot arises from wet pastures.
It tirst produces lameness^ origin:^
ting in the soUening of the cmat
of the foot ; ulcerations appear, aod^
huaily, the animal is unable to move,
and dies.

" The treatment of foot-rot esseo-
tially consists in paring aw*ay all loose
and detached horn. This is the cor-
ner-stone of skilful and suocessaiU
practice. All fungous granulations
must either be cut away, or do*
stntyed hy the muriate of antimo-
ny, and the foot well washed with
a solution of chloride of lime. The
muriate of antimony must then be
lightly appUed over the whole of the
denuded surface This must be re*
peated daily, until the whole of the
foot is covered with new horn. The
diseased sheep most not be permitted
to join his companions until the cute
is oomplete; for it is a sadly infeo-
tious disease, and may easily spread
thniugh the whole flock."

FouIm is an irritation and suppura-
tion of the gland in the cleft of the
hoof. It is easily remedied by apply-*
ing warm tar. It is not cootagienai

" The Scab is a very troublesome
disease, common in the spring and
summer. The sheep is cootmuaUj
scratching himself with his feet, tear-
ing off the wool, and violently rubbing
himself against every protruding sub-
stance. The disease first appears m
the form of minute pustules ; bat sev-
eral <fi these unite, and form a scan.
The health of the sheep becomes rap-
idly afl^ted under this disease, and
some of them p»ae.away and die. It
10 a.very ioleotioua 4Ueea8e ; for m*

efj place againsft tvhidh tbtiFel^o^ean
rub himself becomes tainted with tlia
(loison. The sheep must be housed,
and shorn as closely as possible, and
then well Washed with warm water.
An ointment composed of one part of
mercnrial ointment and seven of lard,
or strlphur and lard, most then be pro-
cared, and such a quantity of it as the
diseased parts seem to require rubbed
in on every second day. Every plaee
in the field and in the fold agjainst
ivhich he can possibly have rubbed
himself must be well cleaned and
painted before be is permitted to re-
turn. The cause of scab consists in
the presence of a minute insect or
tick {Aearu*), which may be convey-
ed from one sheep to another when
an infected sheep comes in contact
with a sound one ; or it may be left
on the rubbing-poet, and entangled
in the wool of the next animal that
comes in contact with it ; or it may
be the product, and is too often so,
of disease of the part. It is of spon-
taneous origin, as well as the prodnct
of contagion, and is called into exist-
ence by the derangements which our
neglect, or accident, or disease has
knade in the skin. This is a view of
the case that should never be forgot-
ten by the sheep-owner.

" Lice and Ticks will be best got
rid of by the application of the mer-
enrial ointment just recommended,
or dipping the sheep in a decoction
of tobacco.

" The Fly. — Several species of fly
frequently deposite their ova on the
wool of the sheep. If there are any
sore places, they are selected for the
habitation of the larvaB. The head,
as the most exposed part, is the one
oftenest attacked, and the sheep are
sadly tormented by the fly and the
larvos. The best preservative or cure
is the applioation of a plaster compo-
sed of a pound of pitch and a quarter
of an ounce of bees^ wax, spread on
soft leather or linen. The attack
may, however, be generally prevent-
ed by the application of a small
quantity of spirit of tar to the head,
or any bare or sore part. Two or
ibree applieatiOBa of tfaia^wffi be auf-

fbient for the whole of the aommffiv
and not a fly will approach a sheep
thus guarded.*'

For medictnea and their doses, see
Pkarmaeopctia.

SHEEP-FOLD. A yard for sheei^
to be gathered into in cold weather
or during night. It sboald be well
littered, and in a dry aitoation. Sheda
of slabs may be placed around, or
facing the sonth, so as to afibvA
them shelter from cold. Shelter and
warmth during winter eflTect a great
saving, even aa much as one hsJf of
the f<M>d.

SHEEP.PENS. Enclosures made
by hurdles. They should be situated
on dry places. They are convenient
for sorting and examining the anw
mals, separating the sickly and lamb-
ing, dtc.

SHEEP, PERUVIAN. The al-
paca, or llama. See Alpaca.

SHEEPS SORREL. Rumex 009-
toseUa. A small acid weed, growing
in thin, poor soils.

SHELLER, CORN. A maohino
for removing the grain from the cob.
There are innumerable patents for
corn ahellers. The machines are of
two classes, eittier for shelling one
or two ears, or acting on a large quaii*
tity. 'i'be former usually consists of
a wheel of cast iron, roughened over
the whole surface by knobs, which is
rotated against the ear placed in a
spring case; by this means, the knobs,
grating against the ear, tear oflT the
seeds, and the cob is gradually push-
ed out of the case below : the case is
connected with fi hopper. For larger
purposes, a cylinder is roughened and
made to rasp against the esora. F. N.,
Smithes com sbeller seems to be the
most effective of the latter kind ; it
is made by Hanna and Peaslee, Va-
latie, New- York : tbey will shell and
separate the cobs of upward of 100
bushels in the hour. Ftice $40,

SHELL LIME. Lime procured
from burning sheila. If well made,
it is excellent for agricultural purpo-
ses, as it contains nearly two per
cent, of bone earth, and is free from
caustie magnesia. The term lime
sheUs ianad by many writers, from

71^

SHI

8IA

Die lamps of fresh-l

fllackioff.

SHELL MARL. This is vciy rich
in the remsins of shells: it is the
best kind, and may often be profitably
bttmed for lime.

SHELLS. When bamed, they
fi>nn the best lime. In the pounded
state they resemble the best marls,
but the shells of crabs, lobsters* and
animals of that kind {Cnu(ace€nM)
are rich in animal matter and bone
earth, containing from 30 to 40 per
cent, of the former, and l% to 14 of
the latter, the remainder being car-
bonate of lime ; it would be a great
lou to bam them : but oyster, and
other similar shells, contain very li^
tie animal matter.

SHELL SAND. The sheUy ssnd
of the seashore, or ancient sea beach-
es, is extensively employed in Franee
and Ireland as a manure, or, rather,
amendment : fifty or more loads are
put to the acre of stiffish soil. It is
identical with sandy marl in its ef'
fects, but somewhat soperior, inas-
much as it often contains a small
amount of animal and saline matters.
Its value is, like that of all marls,
measured by the proportion of shells
tt contains.

SHEPHERD. The man who tends
sheep ; he should be of a kind dispo-
sition, as sheep are wayward and ub-
stinate ; he should be well acquaint-
ed with their diseases, and take an
interest in his oharge. Many diseas-
es of sheep are so sudden and fatal,
that unless they are constantly under
the eye of a well-informed and kind
person, numbers will die annually.

SHERDS. Fragments of garden
pots, used to under-draie the soil of
boxes, pots, dic«

SHIELDS. " In botany, little col-
onred cups or lines with a hard disk,
surrounded by a rim, and containing
the sporules, or seeds of lichens."

SHIFT OF CROPS. Rotations.

SHIM. " A tool of the tillage kind,
used in breaking down and reducing
the more stiff and heavy sorts of
land, as well as catting up and clear-
ing them from weeds. They are made
of difiTerent forms and ooostructions,
716

to rah 4iAnat poipooes.**-

#011.)

SHINGLE. A coarse, sea-slioie

gravel.

SHINGLES. <• In architecture^
small slabs of wood, or qoarterai
boards, used instead of slates or tdes
for covering roofe. They are sawa
to a certain scantling, or, rather,
cleft to about an inch thick at oas
end, and shaped like wedges by ma-
chines or the drawing-knife, four or
five inches broad and eight or nine
inches long." The oedar yields tbe
finest shingles. Shingle roolb should
always have a Tery considerable pitcfc
to let off water.

SHOCKS. Stooks, or hattocka^
horse-heads ; assemblages of sheaves,
from six to twelve, independently of
the two or four hood, or roof sheayes.
Also, an accumulation of hay of IM
to 300 pounds.

SHORE. A piece of timber whidi
props up a wall.

SHORT HORNS. Tbe breed of
cattle with short horns, considerably
improved, and now much celebrated
in the United States under the name
of Durhams.

SHOVEL. The wide curved spade
for casting earth, and not digging.

SHREW. Saricid^, \ family of
small, insectivorous, rodent quadru-
peds : they resemble the moles, and*
on the other hand, mice, and live, for
the roost part, in excavations made
in the soil.

SHRUB. " A small, low, dwarf-
ish tree, which, instead of one single
stem, puts forth from the same root
several sets or stems.** A coUeotlon
of these, tastefully arranged, is a
shrubbery.

SHUCK. Tbe bosk, or coliectjoa
of involucre aboot the corn ear.
Shucks are much esteemed for fod-
der, being very superior to straw and
corn fodder. When cut into sbred%
they make a good material for mat^
trasses. This word is also used for

MktfCk^

SHY. Starting aside, in horses:
the result of fear, produced by strange
objects.

SLA.LAGOQSS. Dmgs which pni*

SIL
dow nlhTi^inni m ao, uuhumiI flow

Offlaljva. ■

SIUKLE. The reaping hook. See
Harvctl.

SIENITE, SYENITE. A gray
sraaile ; Boston granite : it contaias
Eornblend in Uie place of mica.

S I L E X, SILICIC ACID. Pure
Band, rock crystal. Tliis familiar body
is an acid, and conaista of l equiva-
lent of ailicium (32-32), a body resem-
bling in appearance charcoal, and 3
equivalenta of oiyBen, 46 23. In the
cold it is inactive,butat a white beat
it forms an exceediDgly active acid,
combiDtng with bases, and displacing
most other acids, except the phos-
phoric and boracic. The silicates are
Dearly all insolnbte in pure water ;
glaas and common earlhen-ware are
specimens of atlicatea, hut they grad-
ually decay in the presence of acids,
aod of carbonic acid and water. Bui
the compounds of silicic acid, with
two or three times ita weight of car.
-bonate of potash or sodai are soluble
silicates, and have been recommend-
ed aa manures for (he cerealia, which
always contain a large amount of si-
licic acid in their sterna, leaves, and
busks. Moat of the minerals and
racks of the earth are silicates, this
.acid forming from one quarter to one
third uf ita entire solid mass.

Soluble and other silicates are
formed by fusing together sand and
the desired chemical body, usually in
tbe' state of carbonate, in a black-lead
crucible, at a full red beat.

The etores of potaah, soda, lime,
and magnesia in the soil which sup-
ply plants with aahne — "

SIL

oR«D in dte fonn of aOIeates ; tliesa
are sluivly decomposed under the iri-
fluence of the carbonic acid of the
air, or from decaying Tegciable mai-
ler, which converls them into soluble
carbonates, whereby they gain ac-
cess to the plant.

SILICAltS. Sails containing si-
licic acid ; they are usually flinty and
insoluble : slate, feldspar, and granite

that it is shorter, and contains fewer
seeds. It is never more than four
times as long as broad, and usnallj
much shorter."

SILIQUA, SILIQUE. " A one or
two ceUeil, many-seeded, linear fhilt,
dehiscent by two valTcs separating '
from a septum ; Ihe seeds are at-
tached to two placenta adhering to
the septum, and opposite to the lobes
of the stigma. The fruit of the mus-

SILIQUOSE PLANTS.' Improper-
ly applied to legominous plants, bat
properly to the cruciferous family,

SILK, On this subject much has
been written and said of late ; there
is no question that by judicious man-
agement a good proRt can be made
by raising the worms.

The silk worm is the larva or cat-
erpillar ofthe Phalana bomtn/i {Bom-
byz mcn-i, Lin.) ; a represents the male,
and 4 the female moths ; c, the grub,
or chrysalis. The eggs are hatch-
ed in April or May, but may he kept
back until the end of May by placing
them in a cool, dry place. The eggs
should be hatched in parcels, and not

SILK.

titogether, as by this means the la-
bour 19 increased, and casualties, as
frost, may depriTe the grower of hie
whole crop. The natural food is the
mulberry leaf, which should be fed
BO as to aoit the age of the worm,
the youngest worms receiving the
.young leaYes, and the full leaves
being fed to the large worms. In the
beginning, if mul&rry leaves are
scarce, UUuces will answer ; but these
do not answer for the whole season,
but only at first. Mulberry leaves of
. the previous year, carefully dried of
a green colour, and moistened for
nse, will also answer for the early
crop of worms. The worms grow
about six weeks, but this depends on
the variety and state of the weather:
they moult, or change their skin, four
times in the season. Having com-
pleted their growth {Fig.t c2), they be-
come restless, and retire to crannies,
branches, or the corners of their
apartments to spin a cocoon; here
the worm is changed into a grub, or
chrysalis ; this, in some 15 days, be-
comes changed to a moth, which eats
its way through the cocoon. The per-
fect insects live but two or three
days, the eggs being laid in this time :
the eggs are received on paper or
cloth, and dried before being put
away.

The silk grower proceeds to obtain
the silk fibre from the cocoon before
these changes are completed, and de-
stroys the grub by alcohol, or boiling
water. The cocoons are plunged in
hot water, and examined to find the
end of the silk fibre ; twelve or more
of these are now brought together,
and made fast to the reeling arrange-
ment. The best reel is called the
Piedmont reel, but this is to be tended
by experienced persons, and is best
set up at proper filatures, of which
there are many, especially at the
manufactories. Mr. Van £pps has
established one in New- York, and is-
sued the following judicious tuggta^
turns to silk growers :

" The nursery for worms should be
furnished with a stove for raising the
temperature in damp, cold weather
Artificial heat may frequently be em
718

ployed to ridTantage ftwrtkartaity te
New.£ngland), previously to the thiri
moulting, while the worms rc^ixv
but little space and air.

** We would here caution groweia
against noise ; every prepa ration r»>
quiring pounding or jarring sIkheM
be attended to before the vrorms are
hatched, that everything i n and a ronnd
the building may be pefectly coiet
throughout the whole feeding.

*'The feeding frames whicli we
use, and prefer to any other fixtoMS
we have seen, are very simple, eoa»-
bining all the advantages of • Gilt^
ventilating cradle,' witli none of iia
disadvantages, saving macb tioae and
some expense in their conslroctloa,
besides being a sure defence agsiost
mice, rats, ants, and other enemies
of the silk- worm. Should any of cms
readers be disposed to adopt oar
plans, the following description wffl
be sufficient :

" In the first place, attach the pte^
ces of timber designed for sua^cnid-
ing the frames to the rafters, ^iow*
ing them to come down to within two
feet of the ground. These shouM be
about seven or eight feet apart at
the top, and four or five at the bot-
tom, which will cause the frame to
enlarge in nearly the same proportion
with the worms, and thus prevent
their becoming too much crowded :
this is the chief exceltence (we think)
of Giirs cradle. Cross pieces should
be fastened at the lower ends of the
upright timbers, on which to lay
boai^s to receive the worms from
the nursery. About two inehes above
these boards should be placed sticks,
one inch square, resting on pieces
running lengthwise at the sides;
these, at first, should be six inches
apart (aAer a few days* feeding, one
half can be drawn out), and in feed-
ing, the branches should be laid be-
tween them, until they are filled up
to the top, when they should be laid
across. Alter two or three days'
feeding, the boards and dry branches
should be removed from under the
worms, and they left to feed on the
branches above. If care is taken to
feed no more than is needed, the

BtLlL

hnUih wfH rantin vary «p6n, alfdw.
fng all the pieces of leares and the
exeremento from the vrorms to fall
directly through to the ground, from
whieh they should be often swept
out, fiirAisbiDg a free cireolation of
air from beneath. At the sides and
ends of these frames it is necessary
So hare something to keep the branch-
es in order, and prevent the worms
IVom falling off; these may be made
of narrow boards or lath ; between
tliese and the brush most of the co-
ooons will be placed, as it secures
the worms fVom the light, and fur-
nishes them with places for fasten-
ing their floes whenever they have
fiiUshed eating and are ready to spin.
These directions, of course, are ap-
Idieable only where branch feeding is
practised. Cocoons should not be
gathered until dried, that is, in six or
seven days from the time the worms
began to spin. Those designed for
eggs should be selected first, taking
BQoh as have been spun by the most
healthy worms. These should be
elosely flossed, and spread out thin
oo the shelves in the nursery.

** We now come to the destruction
of the chiysalis, and the curing of
the eocoons, upon which the value of
tte silk must depend. We cannot
dwell upon this point with too much
care. We have received at our fila-
ture eocoons that had been almost
mined by the means used for stifling
the chrysalis. Our standing ofl^er is
from $3 00 to $3 ftO per bushel ; yet
we have had cocoons sent us which
would not pay the expenses of reel-
ing and transportation. Among the
many means resorted to fbr this pur-
pose, tUeokol is doubtless the begl, as
U not only destn^s the chrysalis, but
leaves the fibre of the cocoon in fine
order for reeling, and is supposed by
some actually to add to its original
beauty. Not more than half a pint
(some use only a gill, others a pint)
is needed for a bushel of cocoons.
They should be placed for this pur-
pose in a tight box ; first a layer of
oocoons (very thin), then a slight
sprinkling with alcohol, and so en till
the box is filled, which should then

be nailed up tight After remaining
in the box about 24 hours, they should
be removed and spread out for dry-
ing, which will take several days,
even in very warm weaiher. If the
chrysales are not entirely diy, they
undergo a putrefaction, which fre-
quenfly injures the silk, and renders
them very oflbnsive to the reeler.
Persons designing to send their co-
coons to our filature are requested to
adopt the above method, and as soon
as dried the cocoons should be for-
warded, as it is exceedingly hazard-
ous purchasing when they have been
lying for some months and become
very dry."

The following important facts are
gleaned from the correspondence of
various silk conventions :

1st. That of the varieties of mul-
berry, the Canton is the most val-
uabto, then the multicaulis ; the broo-
sa is as early, and larger leaved than
the white. The worms are fed with
small branches.

3d. It is best to feed in open sheds,
which may be of tarred canvass, and
temporary. The cradles of Mr. Oill,
or those just described by Mr. Van
Epps, are the best places to feed
them on : shelves should not be set
up. The greatest attention should
be had to cleanliness.

9d. There should be no attempt to
raise two crops the same year. Early
hatching is altogether to be preferred
to late.

4th. The best varieties are the pea-
nuts ; they are hardiest, mature ear-
ly, and produce a cocoon that reels
well : the sulphur and white are also
esteemed kinds. The eggs are hatch-
ed from the papers on which they
were laid in seven to ten days after
being brought out, and at a tempera-
ture of 70° Fahrenheit : the rooms
should be kept at that heat.

6th. It is beet to sell the cocoons
at $3 or $3 60 the bnshel than to at-
tempt reeling without experience.

6th. On an average, 3500 worms
will yield a bushel of cocoons, which
reels into from one pound to 80 oun-
ces, and sells at upward of $5 the
pound. The eost of raising is 93.

719

aiLK.

According ta Dr. Smitli, eacb worn

consumes an ounce of leaf; 120 ie-
xnales yield an ounce of eggs, con-
taining 39,000 egga.

7th. The nature and quality of the
staple obtained are Uius described by
an able weaver and judge of silk from
^italfields :

" I am qualified to affiroa, from Ta-
rious experiments I ha^e tried, that
the silk is superior to any I have seen
from Italy, China, France, Piedmont,
or Valencia, where the worms are
fed upon multicaulis, or Italian ; its
brilliancy, strength, and scent are su-
perior. I am aware that an exposure
to the saline air, in the passage across
the ocean, may be the canse of the
loss of fragrance to imported silk;
but the brilliancy is peculiar to A.mer*
ican silk, if reeled in a proper man-
ner, with cleanliness.

** I am confident that the mammoth
sulphur worm is the pure Fossam
brown. To try this, I had about
three pounds of silk reeled, and en-
closed it in an air-tight box for three
weeks. When I took it out it had
the fragrance of the Fossam brown
stronger than any that I ever smelled
in England, which convinced me that
the mammoth sulphur is the identical
silk which is always from five to eight
shillings per pound higher than ordi-
nary silk. The mammoth white and
the pea-nut white are Novi, and su-
perior to any I have seen in England.
The yellow, or orange, 1 cannot, sat-
isfactorily to my own mind, yet de-
fine, but am trying experiments in
order to ascertain. I am strongly
persuaded it is a Bergam; should
this be the ease, it will prove a great
acquisition to manufacturers of silk
velvet. Some have supposed the
pea* nut white is the Piedmont, but
they are mistaken ; the Piedmont
oocoon is lily-white, very diminutive,
with a sharp point."

Mr. Young, a dyer of Detroit, also
remarks, concerning the cleansing of
silk: *<Most people clean the silk
with soil soap, destroying the native
gloss in freeing it of its gum, owing
to the vegetable alkali the soap con-
tains, the silk being animal substance ;
7S0

it w« cieaytoioly
applied strong enough, fortxang
of itself. Many dyecv a
but the best white soap ; ^eif^
from mineral alkali, soda «cs
on animal substanees ; nor does tf
give that yellow tinge the wegudm
bie alkali prodnoes. It
ceasary to bleach silk for
shades, to give them a otear
About 85 powKis good wbtte
dissolved in sufficient «ieaii, aoll wa-
ter, for 100 pounds aiik ; p«t %he a^
loosely in their bags; Ml geaci^
say 3^ boors; eool aad wash vnellia
a ruoaiiig stream : beat ooeaaiofiafl^
to free it from all impvuity. Tltia I
know by practice.**

We shall oonehide by ofi4»rin^ set-
eral letters from the ablest ratsers af
silk, addressed to theeonventioa Md
at the American Institaxo in ISiS:

Afr. GiWs Later,

^ Mt Plesssat, JefibrscD Co., OhioL

** 1. I have fed worms fur five yoais
past : results various, owing to the va-
rious fixtures used» and experimeats
tried, attention or neglect of the feed-
er. 1 neuter k^ a lot of wtrau dueu'
td, er die, if from, a ketdUt^ si^ck tf
\ceU-k$pt eggMt VfithmU kemg •He <e
trace the eaute^ which toe* mtwofe htd^
and eaeiiy remedied.

**%. I have used both one and two
story buildings, built of brick and of
wood; have used stoves, and alas
fireplaces with chimneys: prefer fire*
places on account of their drawing
oflf impure air. I think artificial heal
beneficial in cold, damp weather, es-
pecially when worms are. spinning.
My cocooperies are ventilated if
openings, with shutters near the floor,
with ventilators from each story
through the roof.

*' 3. I have fed in open sheds and
tents with confute evicceu. I fed this
year four several siiceessive k^ls,
and. gathered the oooooos from the
same cradles. The first was fed in
June, the last in September, both per-
fectly healthy: they made superiof
cocoons.

*' 4. The salmon pea- nut is the best ;
white pea*nut next ; gold pea-nut 3d ;

fllLK.

Ptodmoiit 4A, Mimnolh '▼sriitiBs
are also good. I have no faith in any
iwo-cro|y TarieCiee whatever, aAer
five years* ejcperimenting with all
kinds reeommended ; bat would ob-
serve, that those who wish eggs to
hatch, must select the pure white co-
coons from the first lot fed, to get
iBiUers to lay eggs for the second lot.

"6. White mulberry and raulticau-
lis are best. I ooltivate them as I do
eorn, and replant the muhicaulis ot-
ery three years.

«* 6. In previous years, my first lot
of worms were fed early in (he sea-
son : they have always been lYSd best.

•* The Ceuauof Diitase. — 1st cause
is, eggs saved from iMi|icil)Hiy stock ;
8d. Eggs being im]K-operly preserved ;
3d. irregular feeidj\% and unwhole-
some foml ; 4th. Changing the worms
while moalting; 5tfa', and most fire-
quent cause, want of pure air, and
neglect to remove the excrements
immediately from the worms; 6th.
Letting the mice eat them daring
their last i^e, and while they are
winding their cocoons.

*'I have been successful beyond
my most sanguine expectations in
feeding in the shed and ventilating
cradles. Have gathered four lots
from each, averaging seven bushels
"ler cradle, or near two bushels at
fach gathering per cradle.

'* I think our cocoons will average
twenty ounces of silk per bushel. The
cost to me this year for producing
them win not exceed two dollars per
bushel.

«* T am completely satisfied that ray
system of shed, or tent and cradle,
and branch feeding, is a system for
general adoption, and will produce
more cocoons than any other method
yet introduced, at half the usual ex-
pens<», during three to four months
each feeding season. Cold weather,
in early and late feeding, may retard
the worms in eating, and lengthen
their time a little in spinning, caus-
ing, however, no other injury ; and
ft)r warm, sultry weather nothing can
supersede them. Many others have
used them, and advised me of their
complete success.

<* Da. BAmci Stebbhts, Northam^
tOTij Massachusetts. — I give the fol-
lowing answers to your several ques
tions :

** I have fed worms for seven or
eight years, with the sole view of
showing that it could be done. This
year I made twenty-five to thirty
pounds of silk.

" This season I erected a new co-
coonery in the midst of a mulberry
patch, forty>two by twenty, posts
eight feet out of ground. Roof cov-
ered with boards and battened, the
sides and ends covered with slats
three inches wide, and half an inch
apart, extending from the eaves to
the ground. Floor of earth.

" Adjoining the above is a tent
tohcUy covert^ with bass matting,
through which the rains had a free
passage. The success of the tent
was superior even to the cocooneiy.

" I have fed for several years in:
an open shed, in the barn-yard, but
nothing to exclude birds and fowls ;
in other respects the experiment was
successful.

** For making silk, the pea- nut va-
riety has the preference, being less en*
cambered with floss, less gum, more
length, lustre, and strength of fibre
than other varieties, as testified by a
skilful silk-dyer.

"Having the hlaek^ white^ Cantm*,
Asiaticy Broosa^ muUicaulis^ and some
other varieties, I have not found any
to excel the Canton for its foliage,
and the Asiatic for its abundant
branches. The foliage of the Canton
continues to the latest season in
greater perfection than any other.

"An early crop of worms is pref-
erable to a late crop. The foliage
becomes abundant the latter part of
the season, but is very unfit for the
worms, being too hard, or deprived
of its richness by drenching or long-
continued rains.

*<It was my expectation and in-
tention to test the use of the mulber-
ry foliage, both in its green and dry
state, for making paper, and for that
purpose had sent a quantity to the
paper-mill, hut cannot have the ex-
periment fnlfy tried at present."

SILK.

"BiB. H. P. Btkax, Brandtniwrgi
Ky. — With pleasure I rcspuod to the
questions contained in the * Silk Cir-
cular* of the American Institute.

** I have fed silk-wonas to a greater
or less extent in the State of Ken-
tucky, every season except one, since
the year 1837 inclusive, and generally
With good success, loss by disease in
no Jot exceeding fifteen per cent., aad
often not over three per cent.

** I have fed in enclosed buildings,
Tentilated by doors, windows, and
openings under the latter, and beat>
ed by a stove when necessary.

"The present season I fed in an
open 9htd with decidedly good suc-
cess: worms healthy: they wound
Urge, fair cocoons.

** I have fed every variety of worms
that I could procure, and give the
preference to those called the Chinuc
Imperial^ and a variety represented
to me as the pea-nut,

** I feed from the multicaolis in the
first stages, and in the last stage use
all the white and Canton that 1 can
procure.

'* The multicaulis should be cat off
near the ground every three years,
one third of the field each year. The
other varieties I head dtnon every
year. I feed branches in the last
stages.

*' I have hatched and fed worms in
every month from April to August,
the earliest fed always producing the
heaviest cocoons. The Utter equally
healthy when the eggs have been
properly kept and managed. But few
persons have succeeded in late feed-
ing, from the want of proper care of
the eggs.

^' The causes of bad success that
have come to my knowledge have
been owing either to bad eggs, bad
management, or the want of free cir-
culation of air in the apartment.

*' The hatching of eggs can be per-
fully retarded by being phiced in a
tin box, enclosed in a wooden one, and
suspended in the body of the ice ntar
the bottom of the ice-house. This is
done by introducing a long box, cut
in three lengths and placed on end,
aoon after the first portions. of ice are

thrown iota ths bowse. Tbeta^.
can be removed as tlie loe seUies:
the eggs at no lime to be at»ove tlie
body of the ice. They should be pte-
ced in the ice in Fehritanr or early m
March."

Mr. BABBOva, Oxford^ Mm
is fifteen years since I b^gaa to
amine the silk business.

** The results of my own
are decidedly in favour of oarij fee4>
ing. Out of all the crops thnt i Jisve
carried through by the n»iddle of
August, I have never lost bj disenae
five psr cent, in any case. Not no
with later crops genenU^, althoafk
this year nj kifir crops were healthy,
and made first-mte cocoons.

'* As to buildings, I have fed in m
large, open garret, in n oorn^oose
and a carpenter's shop. In 1840 1
built a regular cocoonery, thirty by
twenty feet, two stories high, with ten
windows in each stwy, and wnnnod
by a hot-air chamber in the cettsr.
In 1843, fed a lot also in an opes sM,
and this year in a l«n/, with cradles*
on Mr. GilPs plan. The resnltof tke
whole is, in my judgment, tkt man
air the belter, only guarding asaiast
sudden gusts of wind, that wm dis-
turb your leaves or bushes.

" As to ordinary turns of coM weath-
er, in our summer months, their eC-
feet is to reader the worms torpid.
Of course they wiU not, in this stale,
eat and grow, and there 19 a loss of
time in getting them thfoogfa; and
this is the only loss to be apprehend-
ed. Upon returning wsiatb they re-
vive, and go on with their taboars,
apparently uninjured.

*' Treet. — ^My first movement (1837)
was wrong. I bought a lot of.nNiJ-
berry seed as ' gensioe Chinese MuU
berry Seed,* which proved to be an in-
ferior variety of the white : lost two
seasons in getting started, and some
patience withal. In 18S9, planted
one hundred dollars worth Alpine cut-
tings. According to the ' ioab,' I
was not to Jose one in fifty : in the
result, did not get one in fiAy. I
should almost as soon recommend
the propagation of oak hnshea by est*

81I»

tfiifS fw^the Alphie or other hwrdy

▼arieUes of the molberry. Same
year, planted Canton and malticaulis.
They vegetated very well, but made
a small growth. I had been taught
to believe that the mulberry* tree
would flourish where nothing else
would grow — quite a mistake. I took
my trees up too early, and lost many
the ensuing winter.

"Thus far I had been operating
apon rented lands. In 1640, began on
the farm where I now live — lands all
Bddly exhausted ; not an acre on the
farm that would give half a ton of
Itay. I planted two acres, chiefly
with multicaulis and Cantons, by lay-
ing the trees whole length in the fur-
row, maouring them with a cheap
compost, made principally of peat
nind properly prepared. They did
well, and made an average growth
of three feet. Let them stand as
they grew, and they all wintered safe-
ly. In 1841, planted three acres more
in like manner ; season dry, average
growth two feet : left all out as b&-
tore.

**But the winter of 1841-42 was
very open : no snow, frequent and
heavy rains, with constant freezing
and thawing. My ground is a plain,
very level, and the water stood and
fme in many places : trees not ridged
op with the plough in summer oulti-
Yatton, as tl^y ^ould have been on
such land, to guard against this dan-
ger. The result was, that I lost the
whole of the three-acre lot, and at
least three fourths of the other.

" To me this was a sad disappoint-
ment, and for a few days in March,
1842, for the^si and the last time, I
had feelingsof unconquerable discour-
agement In th 8 state, my first move-
ment was to despatch some twenty-
five to thirty letters of inquiry to silk-
growers in New- England. The mails
in due time brought me this return,
that the injuries of the winter, severe
as it was, had been confined to trees
planted, as mine were, tohole and hari-
zoniaHy^ on flat ground, without being
ridged up, and those of small growth.
I was greatly relieved to learn that, in.
all cases where they had been set

SIL

itep, MM root in a place, on dry, do-
ping land (or ridged, if flat), rich
enough to make good extended root*
the first season, they had gone through
the winter safely, pre-eminently bad
as it had been.

** Feeling, therefore, that I then
knew the worst of the case, I went di-
rectly to work, with augmented confi-
dence, to repair my loss. I (toughed
up all my lands, saving every live
tree, sent thirty-five to forty miles
and bought others, so as to plant
oAven to eight acres, and thus iegan
the silk business anew^ in 1842, and b^
gan right.

** As to trees, I prefer the multi-
caulis, the large-leaf Canton, and the
Asiatic. Managed as indicated in the
above details, they are essentially safe
from the periks of winter anywhere be-
tween Canada and the Gulf of Mex-
ico. If not thus managed, they are
in danger anywhere and everywhere,
where it is cold enough for ice to form
and the ground to freeze. It is not the
degree of cold that does the injury in
this and similar cases, but freezing
and thawing. Everybody knows that
a peach-tree is more safe on the north
than on the south side of the wall, and
fur the reasons here stated. I would
not, therefore, give a dollar for a full
ensurance on all my trees if the ther-
mometer, in December, will drop
down to twenty degrees below zero,
and stay there until the last of March.

'*A8 to the feasibility of the silk
business in this country, I have no
doubt. I must nnleam all that I have
learned upon the subject for fifteen
years, undo all that I have done, and
unsay all that I have said — unhinge
and upset all the abiding and fixed
impressions upon my own mind be-
fore I can begin to doubt."

SILK-WEED. The Aselepiasssri.
acay the seed vessels of -which con-
tain a long, silky down, sometimes
wrought into fabrics by private. per-
sons.

SILL. The horizontal and lower
piece of a window or other framing :
alao, the shafts of a cart.

SILT. The loose sandy matters
that accumulate in rivers.

SKI

SILURIAN ROCKS or SYSTEM.
The upper portion of the transition
rocks found below the old red sand-
stone.

SILVER. A well-lcnown metal:
St is soluble in nitric acid, the salt
{nitrate of silver) being used as a caus-
tic in farriery, and in the laboratory
88 a test for chlorine, with which it
produces a white, curdy compound
{ehloride of silver) that is soluble in
ammonia, and blackens by exposure
to light. Equivalent 108-3, symb. Ag.

SILVER GRAIN, IN WOODS
The bright markings ; the medullary
rays.

SILVER-WEED. PotentiUa an-
gerina. A perennial running weed
with yellow flowers, and five-parted,
silvery leaves, growing on poor soils.

SINAPISM. A mustard poultice
or other preparation.

SINCIPUT. The forehead.

SINUS. A cavity: the veins of
the brain are so called.

SINUOUS. Full of cavities, tor-
tuous.

SIT-FAST. "In farriery, an ul-
cerated sore in which a part of the
skin has turned horny ; if it cannot
be dissolved and softened by nibbing
with mercurial ointment, it must have
a mild blister applied, which will
cause it to separate. It generally
proceeds from a warble or little tu-
mour resulting from the pressure of
the saddle."

SIZE. A thin glue made from
skins.

SKEGS. The Aveiui atipiformis.
A kind of oat cultivated in Notting-
hamshire, England.

SKELETON. The bony frame on
which the muscles and soft parts are
placed.

SKID. A drag chain.

SKIM COULTER. See Plough.

SKIN. The external coat of ani-
mals. It consists of a scarfskin, or
epidermis, a rcte mucosum, which is
thm and coloured, and the cviis vera,
which forms the substance, and from
Which hairs, &c., proceed

SKIRTING In building, thenar-
row, honzontal board running along
the walls of a room at the floor.
724

SKIRRET. Shtm
vis. '*This plant is first cuUirated
by seed, and afterward by ofl^eis
taken from the old roots, and planted
very early in the spring, before t^
begin to shoot ; but it is best to raise
a small bed from seed every year, as
the roots grow longer than those
raised from slips, and are less lialds
to be sticky. The seed may be sows
in drills the latter part of March, <a
early in April, and managed the same
as salsify, parsnip, &c. In aotomnb
when the leaves begin to dec^y, the
roots are fit to use, and continue so
till they begin to shoot in the spring.

** Skirrets should be planted in a
light, moist soil, for in dry land the
roots are generally small, aniess tfae
season proves wet.

" The root of the skirret is compo-
sed of several fleshy tubers as la^
as a man's finger, and joined together
at the top. They are eaten boiled,
and stewed with batter, pepper, and
salt, or rolled in flour and fined, or
else cold, with oil and vinegar, being
first boiled. They have much of the
taste and flaToor of a parsnip, and
are by some considered a great deal
more palatable."— (Bndecm««).

SKUNK CABBAGE. Bymftoc^-
misfottida. Marsh cabbage. A large-
leaved plant of the family ArMz^
growing in wet places at the north ;
it has a vile odour, and is reputed an-
tispasmodic.

SL.\TE. Any rock which has a
close texture and is readily split into
slabs. The term is more particularly
applied to the fine alominons slates
used in roofing and for writing upon.

SLEEPER. Timbers on which
are laid the ground joists of a build-
ing or railway.

SLEET. A cold rain mixed with
snow.

SLIPS. Twigs or small branches
torn from a tree or bush for the par-
pose of propagation. Spring or au-
tumn is the time to do this. They
should be set in a rich spot and kept
moist. Flower slips are commonly set
in pots in the green-house ; charcoal
forms a good soil to strike thrm in.

SLOE. In Europe, ihii» ti\ki\\\i is

gtren to a tnull wild plum, the Pnt' '
»■( apirmia, whicli is used ss a dwarr
stock lor grafting plums. In tbe
United States it is giien to the Pm-
""* IVS""'^ '"^ ^'^ ^''^ Viburnum

nut pvgiT

prumfolii,

SLOt

LOUGH. A name given to
decayed matteis separating fram a
wound : proud flesh ; a muddy hole.
It may be remedied io & road by aink-
ing pebbles and small stones iato it
SLUGS. Naked moluseous ani-
mals. See Iruectt. This name ia
also given to the lanre of some eaw-
llias which infest pear, cherry, and
other trees, Tbey are all destroyed
by salt, lime, or whale-oU soap eolu-

ingtG

« thow

TOff

T canal, and, when necessary,
to give it vent. See Irngaiiim.

SMUT. For an account of the
Tarious diseases known under tbis
name, see Barntd Ear and Undo.
The best preventives known are to
keep the lands occasionally liraed or
salted, never using too much rank
■table manure without some saline
matters ; and, secondly, steeping the
seeds before sowing in solution of
tulphaic of copper (blue vitriol). One
ounce and a quarter of the salt is used
to a bushel of wheat : it is dissolv-
ed in just enough water to wet the
graio, which is steeped for three
quarters of an hour, and dried by be-
ins spread out. A strong brine and
milk of lime are also used with good
success ; but the copper solution is
very superior.

SMUT MACHINES, or GRAIN
CLEANERS. These are of service
to the miller chiefly. They consist
of interior brushes revolving in a
rooghened cylinder, usuaUy set in an
inclined direction. The brushes rub
the grain against the rough surface,
and by this means rub off the smal,
or break open the injured kernels.
A fan ia added for the purpose of
driving a current of air through the
cylinder, which carries off the smat
balla and other light rubbish out
above, end allows the perfect grains

SNS

reach the bottom of the cylinder
and pass out. There are a great
number of patents : those of Messrs.
Young, Henry A. Buck, George O.
Waldo, and Wm. C. Grimes are in
great esteem. The figure represents
Messrs. Bird and Weld's machine ;
it possesses decided advantages, hav-
ing separate pulleys, d and t, to drive

the fan and beating cjMinder at dif<
ferent velocities, by which arrange-
ment buckwheat and other lender
grains may be cleansed without
breaking, by reducing the speed of
the beating cylinder, while a full cur-
rent of wind may he kept up with the
fan, running at any required apeed
for that purpose. When in use, s
pipe is added to a, to increase the
draught, and a aieve at b, to separ-
ate the grain : c m the hopper.

SNAILS. Hilicida. Seo Iiueclt,
SNAKEROOT, THE VIRGIN-
IAN, Arittoioclua terpenlaria. A
pereonial-rooted plant, growing wibl
m woodlands, the root of which is
collected for the druggists, and used
as a bitter and tonic.

SNEAD, or SNATHE. The han-
dle of the scytbe : it should be of ash,
lij^t, bat not llexibl/).

7SB

80A

6QA

SNOW. CoDgeaM moiatare: it
is produced whenever a cold wind
below 83"^ Fahrenheit acta upon the
BBoiatareof warmer clouds. It is an
excellent covering for winter crops,
fnnotectfng tbem from the winds and
sodden changes of winter; it also
protects roots and the bark of trees
fft>m mice.

SOAP. "This useful compound
is obtained by the action of alkaline
upon oily substances. There are,
accordingly, a great variety of soaps ;
but those commonly employed may
be considered under the heads of, I.
Fine white soaps, scented soap, &c. ;
%. Coarse household soaps ; 3. Sofl
soaps. The materials used in the
manufacture of white soaps are gen-
erally olive oil and carbonate of soda :
the latter is rendered caustic by the
operation of quicklime, and the solu-
tion thus obtained is called soap lye.
The oil and a weak lye are first boil-
ed together, and portions of stronger
lye are gradually added till the soap,
produced by the mutual action of the
oil and alkali, begins to become tena-
cious and to separate from the water ;
some common salt is then generally
added to promote the granulation and
perfect separation of the soap : the
fire is then drawn, and the contents
of the boiler allowed to remain for
some hours at rest, so that the soap
may more completely collect. When
it is perfect it is put into wooden
frames or moulds; and when stiff
enough to be handled, it is cut into
oblong slices and dried in an airy
room. Perfumes are occasionally
added, or various colouring matters
stirred in while the soap is semiflu-
id, to give it a mottled appearance.
The Spanish soap is marbUd by stir-
ring into it a solution of sulphate of
iron, which is decomposed by the
soap, and black oxide of iron separ-
ated in streaks and patches through
the mass. The action of the air con-
verts the exterior into red oxide,
while the interior long retains its
black colour ; hence a slice of this
aoap presents a black mottled centre,
surrounded by a reddened external
layer. I

726

<*CoaiiiMm houseboid soaps nm
made chiefly of soda ash and cal-
low ; or if potash ia used, a large ad-
dition of common salt is made to
harden the soap, which it probably
effects by the transference of soda.
Yellow soap has a portion of nuria
added to it. Soft soaps are geaeratty
made with potash, instead of aoda,
and fish oil. The commoa aofl soap
is a compound of this kind ; it haa a
tenacious consistence, and appeaia
granulated. Soap is soluble in pore
water and in alcohol ; the latter so-
lution jiUiet when oonoentrated, aad
is medicinally known under the tiaoM
of opcdeldoe. When carefully eva^
orated the soap remains in a gelati-
nous slate, which forms, when dry,
the article sold under the oaaie of
transparent soap.

** The earths and common metaHie
oxides form insoluble soap* ; and, ae-
ourdingiy, these are precipitated when
earthy and metallic salts are added
to solution of soap. It is the sal-
phate of lime and carbonate of lime
in common spring water which thus
render it unfit for washing, and give
it what is termed hardness ; and, upoa
this principle, a spirituous sohition
of soap is a simple and valuable test
of the fitness of any river or spring
water for the purposes of the laundry.
If it merely renders the water slight-
ly opalescent, as is the case with
rain and other soft waters, it may be
used for washing ; but if it become
milky, it is usually too hard to be
conveniently employed; and when
we wash or shave with hard water,
the separation of the insoluble cal-
careous soap is extremely disagree-
able ; it adheres to the skin, and aoHa
instead of cleansing it.

'* The chemical nature of soap baa
been laboriously examined by Chev*
reul, who has shown that the alkali
in the process of saponification cofr-
verts the oil into peculiar acids, as he
terms them ; the elain of the oil form-
ing oleic acid, and the stearin margar-
ic acid : so that soluble soaps are ole-
ates and margarates of soda and pot-
ash. He has enumerated several
other faUy acids similarly produced.

SOD

fiOI

** AH new MMpe eontain a oansid-'
erabte portion of adhering water* a
great part of which they lose when
kept in a dry place ; benoe the econ*
amy and exoellenoe of M aoap ; aad
henoe the deaiera in soap generally
keep it in a damp cellar, that it may
Bot lose weight by evaporation ; or,
aa it is said, sometimes immerae it in
brine, whM^h does not dissolve it, bat
keeps it ia its utmost state of ho-
midity."

SOAPER'S WASTE. The refuse
of the soap-works has been much
used as -a manure. The aature of
the manure depends on the use of
ashes or soda ash in the manufao
tare: in the first case, it 19 a very
.valuable amendment; in the latter,
oonaiderabiy leas so. The first con-
tains a large quantity of ash, the
chloride of potassium ; the second
eontains but little soda salts, and
when barilla is employed, the ash is
merely calcareous matter : of the lat-
ter ashes, in the fresh state, from 60
to 200 bushels have been used on
grass lands with great effect. If
aahes and common salt have been
used, 10 to 20 bushels of refuse will
be enough. The gelatinous substance
remaining after &e separation of the
aoap is called glycerine, and does not
contain nitrogen ; it is not, therefore,
of much moment alone.

SOAPSTONE, STEATITE. A
gray, soft mineral, consisting of sili-
cate of magnesia, coloured by two
and a half per cent, of iron.

SOfiOLE. An underground creq>-
ing stem.

SOD. A tnrf of grass.

SODA. PRarOXIDE OF SODI-
UM. An alkali very analagous and
isumorplious with potash. Equiva-
lent, 31 31, or 23 31 sodium and 8
oxygen : symbol, Na O. It is con-
stantly found, in the aahes of plants
performing the same function as pot-
ash ; but in the vine and some other
plants it is not equally serviceable.
In the mineral kingdom it is abun-
dant as a silicate, but especially in
the form of chloride of sodium, or sea
salt (see Salt) ; the nitrate, which
is an important manure, ia also

abondaal In oertain plaoes (aee JRh

Kelp, barilla, and soda ash all owa
their value to the carbcmate of 8oda»
which is used in making hard aoaps.
The carbonate of aoda resemblea
pearlaah veiy closely in its propertieay
but is less active.

SOIL. «* The nature and compo-
sition of soil, and, consequently, its
greater or lesa aptitude, to t^e growth
and maturity of vegetable produo-
tions, depend ohietiy on the propor-
tion and mechanical structure of the
various substances of which it coi^
sista. When the soil is favourabto
to the chemical action by which the
elements are combined to form ve-
getable substances, and admits that
quantity of air and moisture without
which this chemical action cannot
take place in any given climate or
temperature, vegetation goes on rap-
idly, and all the plants which are suit-
ed to the climate grow in the great-
est perfection and bear abundant
fruits.

** It is not, however, very frequent-
ly the case that a soil possesses all
those qualities on which great fertil-
ity depends. So many circumstan-
ces must concur to make a soil high-
ly fertile, that the great majority of
soils can only be made to produce
abundantly by being improved by art
both in their texture and composi-
tion. Hence the practice and sci-
ence of agriculture, which is founded
on experience, but to which every
progress in science also affords great
assistance, by the additional light
which every new discovery thrown
on the true theory of vegetation.

" There are various modes of dis-
tinguishing soils, without here entei^
ing into a minute analysis (see Anal'
yais) of their component parts. The
simplest and most natural is to com-
pare their texture, the size and form
oi the visible particles of which they
are composed, and to trace the prob-
able source of their original formation
from the minerals which are found
around or below them, or the rocks
from which they may have been slow-
ly separated by the action of the el^

787

aoih.

Tbe Bdenae ef geology,
which teaches the relative position
and nature of the miiMrals of which
the outer crust of the earth is formed,
is ooBsequently of the greatest utii-
ity in aiding os to compare different
•oils, and ascertaintog their compo-
aition.

**The knowledge which geology
imparts is, however, not sufficient
for the minuter classification of soils ;
for it is found by experience that the
Boils which lie over or near the dif-
ferent strata, as they appear near the
surface, vary greatly, although they
retain some general character which
distinguishes them from others. The
streams which descend from the hille.
and flow towards the valleys, and
tiirough them to the sea, carry to a
great distance the minuter portions
of the minerals which they flow over
in their course, while the larger and
heavier are deposited much sooner.
Hence the heterogeneous mixture of
Tarious earths and stones, and their
stratification in thin layers, as is ofV
en found when a soil is examined
which has never been disturbed by
cultivation. A sudden Hood, rising
rapidly, carries stones and fragments
of rocks in its course, while a gentler
stream depositee fine sand or clay
over these, and forms every variety
of sandy, gravelly, or clayey soil.
If chalky hills are near, carbonate of
lime abounds in almost every propor-
tion, with its usual concomitant, ir-
regular flints. If the waters have
accumulated in a basin, aad formed
a temporary lake, the soil will con-
sist of all the finest portions of the
minerals, which, from their minute
size, have remained long suspended |
in the still waters, and slowly depos-
ited in the form of mud. In propor-
tion to the shallowness of the lake,
vegetable matter will have been pro-
duced, and intimately mixed with the
minerals ; and, where vegetation has
gone on rapidly, peat and soft bogs
are formed.

" It is not sufiScient to class soils
according to the substonce which pre-
dominates, as has been usually done,
auch as sandy, gravelly, chalky, or
7^

day aofls ; fivr ifaia givies ^v^ety
lect information respecting^ ibetr
tore or fertility; neitiier is it
gether soflicient to daaa tbes
oordtng to any partieolar ^aoiogieal
formation. It is important to enter
into a more miniae exasainatioa of
their oompooent parte. But ss the
geological inveatigatioa of tba difler-
ent strata is a great help in tke ex-
aminaiion of aoils, we will in the first
place give a short description of tfao9ft
which have the most distinct chaxaoo
ters, from their connexioa with dif-
ferent geological formations.

** Tl^ aoils which are immediately
derived from those rocks in which no
traces of organic remains are to ba
found consist either of visible frag^
ments of quartz and other hard im^
erals, which are not affected by ex-
posure to air or water, and are only
ground and coomiinated by being rub-
bed against each other in floods and
torrents, or of minuter particles of
the same, of .which the ^ape is not
readily distinguished by the naked
eye. When they are altogether com-
posed of visible particles and stones,
tlie water readily passes through
them ; and unless they are kept ooo-
tinually moist by a regular irrigation,
witlMHit any stagnation of the water,
they are absolutely incapable of sus-
taining vegetation, or of bringing
fruits to maturity. It is seldom,
however, that any gravel or sand
does not contain some portion of
earth or other matter, of which the
particles bec<}me invisible when dif-
fused through water, and to which,
for the sake of perspicuity, and to
prevent confusion, we will here give
the general name of imptUp^bU suh^
atanct. A certain portion oi this finer
part of the soil, and ito due admix-
ture with the coarser, especially
where there is some regular gradsr
tion in size, and no stones of too large
dimensions to obstruct the instru-
ments of tillage, may be considered
as essential to fertility. The cliera-
ical composition of the impalpable
substance, no doubt, greatly affects
the degree of fertility ; but the gen-
eral tejcture must be considered as

Btanoe. To impTOTe this texture
pennanently is the great object of
all the laboors of ttra husbandman.
For this purpose, he carries various
earths from one spot to another;
clays one field, and Itoies or chalks
another ; brings peat upon sands and
clays, and carries gravel and lime on
fats peat bogs. Without an adequate
knowledge of the composition and
texture of a soil, it is impossible to
make permanent improvements with
any certainty, or without incurring
the risk of failure or of useless outlay.

'* The soils which have been form-
ed from the disintegiation and de-
'oomposition of the primitive rocks,
auoh as granite, basalt, schist, or
limestone, and especially those which
oontain all these minerals, minutely
divided and intimately mixed, are al-
ways naturally fertile, and soon en-
Tiolked by cultivation. The hard par-
ticles of quartz maintain a certain
porosity in the soil, which allows air
and moisture to circulate, while the
ahimina prevents its too rapid evap-
oration or filtration. The silicate of
potash also seems highly fiivourable
to the vegetation and growth of those
plants which contain silica in their
stems, such as the graminee, espe-
cially wheat, of all plants the most
important to the husbandman in our
northern climates. If organic mat-
ter be an essential ingredient in a
fertile soil, it is soon produced by
cultivation, or added by judicious
manuring.

^* Where there is a deficiency of
impalpable matter, and the fragments
of the rocks of which the soil is com-
posed are large, and lie loosely, it is
m vain to expect vegetation, except
along gently flowing streams, which
supply the roots with moisture, and
thus form a bed of vegetable matter ;
but in a climate suited to the vine,
and in a good exposure, these loose
soils often produce excellent wine,
as maybe seen along the steep banks
of the Rhine and other rivers. The
roots of the vine run deep into the fo-
sures of the rooks below, and there find
nonnsbment suited to their nature

««Tfae ptinilive.iiiBestoiiey ii4n<li
is very hard, is yet gradually decom-*
posed by the action of air and water,
being, in a very small degree, soluble
in the latter. The water which flows
through these rooks is soon satura-
ted; but when it springs out and
comes to the light, the carbonate of
lime is deposited by the evaporation-
of the water ; and if this meets with
the clay which results from the de-
composition of the slate, it forms a
marl, which, naturally or artifieiaUy
added to silicious sand, forms the ba-
sis of a very good soil, particularly
well adapted to pasture.

" The soils which have been evi«
dently formed from the rocks which
are supposed to be of secondary for*
mation are fertile according to the
proportion of the earths of these rodm
which they contain. It is of these
chiefly that those loose, sandy soils
are formed of which the particles ap-
pear as distinct crystals, easily dis-
tinguishable with the aid of a lens, or
even by the naked eye. Air and wa-
ter have been the chief agents in the
decomposition of those secondary
rocks called sandstones, and agita-
tion in water has washed from them
the finer portions, which have remain*
ed suspended. The immense sandy
plains which are either barren, or
have been fertilized with great trou-
ble and expense, have probably once
been the shores of the sea, from which
the waves have washed all that por-
tion which was impalpable and easi^
suspended in water, depositing this
in the depths, which, by some con-
vulsion of nature, may some time or
other be raised above the level of the
waters, and form hills or plains of
clay, such as are often found in ej^
tensive basins of great depth.

" Argillaceous earth exists in some
proportion in almost every rock.
Some of the hardest gems are chief-
ly composed of alumina. It has the
property, when mixed with other sub-
stances, as sflica or lime, of fusing
into a stone of great hardness and
insolubility. In this state its effect
on the soil is not to be distinguished
from 4iat of silica ; and by burning

7«9

soft.

comnon <TOy» or €tey ttoincff wftli car-
bonate of lime, a sandy substance is
prodtrced resembling burned brick,
which tends greatly to improve the
texture of those clays which contain
little or no sand in their composition.
It must be remembered that the stiflT-
est days contain a large portion of
nirra in an impalpable state ; but
this, instead of correcting their im-
permeable and plastic nature, rather
mids to it. It is only palpable sand
which, with clay, forms what is com-
monly called loam, and which, when
the sand is in due proportion with a
mixture of organic matter, forma the
richest and most easily cultivated
toils. Some of the rocks of second-
ary formation contain a considerable
portion of alumina and lime; and
when these earths meet with crys-
tallized sand, a compound, or, rather,
a mixture is formed, which has all the
requisite qualities, as to texture, to
produce the most fertile loams. The
only deficiency is that of organic mat-
ter ; but this is so readily accumula-
ted wherever vegetation Is establish-
ed, or can be so easily added artifi-
cially, that these loams may always
be looked upon as the most favoura-
ble soils for the usual agricultural op-
erations : and if a considerable depth
of loam is fonnd which neither re-
tains water too long nor allows it to
percolate too rapidly, it may be look-
ed upon as a soil eminently capable
of the highest degree of cultivation,
and on which no judicious outlay of
labour will ever cause loss or disap-
pointment to the farmer.

"The alluvial soils formed by the
deposite of a variety of earths in a
state of great division, and mixed
>Rrith a considerable portion of organ-
ic matter, form by far the most pro-
ductive lands. They will bear crop
after crop with little or no additional
manure, and with a very slight culti-
vation. These soils are found along
the course of rivers which traverse
extensive plains, and which have
such a current as to keep very fine
earth suspended by a gentle but con-
stant agitation, but not suflSciently
rapid to cany along with il coarse
780

gravet or 9aiid. IwliCWfW titfBw 4b
an obstruction to the cnrreot and an
eddy is formed, there the ami is de-
posited in the form of mud, and grad-
ually accumulating, forms tfaose aJJo-
vial soils which are so remarkable for
their fertility when carefoily protect-
ed from the inroads of ttie
In these soils the impalpaMe
greatly predominates; but the tati*
mate mixture of the earths 'witb or*
ganic matter, in that state id whMb
it has been called kunms^ prevents
their consolidating into a sti AT day ;
and the gases which are contiouaUy
evolved from the organic matter keep
the pores open, and give scope lo the
growth as well as the nourtshmeotef
the roots. It is in the ailuvtal eoile
principally that an accurate analysis
is useful ; because the proportion of
their constituent parts varies in in-
numerable degrees. It may be laid
down as a general mle, that the moat
fertile of these soils are those r^
which the primitive earths are nearly
in equal prop(»rtions, silica being the
most abundant, with about ten par
cent, of organic matter ; a gisater
proportion of this last wooM farm too
loose and spongy a soil lo bear good
crops of com, especially of wheat.
But four per cent, of humus, witb a
good mixture of earths, and sonw
phosphate of lime from the <tecompo-
sition of bones and marine she^
produces a very good wheat soiL
The rich warp-lands ak>ng the Horn-
her are artificial alluvial soils, and
although they contain but a small
proportion of humus, are highly fer-
tile ai^er their first deposition, bat it
is observed that they gradsally b»>
come more tenacious and difficult of
cultivation as this hmnos is carried
ofl^ by the crops, and that it is soon
necessary to add animal and vegeta
ble manures to supply ita deficiency.
" Organic matter is no doubt essen-
tial to great fertility in a soil, but
some soils require more of it than
others. Humv»^ which is the form
! which organic matter naturally o<Hnes
to by slow decomposition in the
earth, gives out certain elemente
which the roots ean csks ap in

naseent surte; tfift fVdiii wfttch ihey
obtain the carbon wbicb is so abun-
dant in all vegetable prod actions.
But organic matter, in eTery stage of
its spontaneous decomposition, keeps
the pores of the soii open, and ad-
mits, if it does not even attract^ air
and moisture to the fibres of the
roots. In all rich soils which have
been long cultivated, especially in
gardens, there are partides of a darit
colour and fibrous texture, which, in
the microscope, appear like minute
logs of eharrad wood. These keep
the soil open, and supply carbonic
acid, when the air reaches them, or
ibey are slowjy transformed into hu-
nus, which remains inert as long as
it cannot imbibe oxygen and form
carbon ic acid by a species of slow
combustion. Humus is no doubt one
of the chief causes of fertility, but
its presence does not appear to be
•o indispeBsable as has been ima-
gined. A proper textuie seems a
much mere indispensable ooaditien.
Humns can undoubtedly be formed
from the elements of water and of
the atmosphere. Whether it be di<
rectly, or by the alow prooess of ve-
getation and subsequent decomposi-
tion, does not so readily appear, but
it is certain that there are soils which
are highly fertile in wbieh scarcely a
trace of humus can be discovered,
and which, fhmi their igneous forma-
tion, oannot well eentain organic
matter ; such are the soils which are
produced by the decomposition of
the lava which has run in a liqiyd
state from the craters of volcanoes.
This is composed of different miner-
als, which have been fused by the ac-
tion of heat, but in which the aixtuie
of the earths and salts has not been
In such proportions as to form a per-
fect glass. When exposed for a time
to the influenceof the atmosphere, the
lava crumbles into an earth, which is
neither so loose as silicious sand, nor
so plastic as day, and which has such
a porosity as suits the growth of the
roots of vegetables. By the efkct
of a warm climate and frequent rains,
'vegetation goes on rapidly, and by
•atttratimr iMODuaia aaoa fanned ami

) aooimNdatBdi ao tM it fa avir Ift^UMi

more recently cultivated lavas that it
can be said that vegetation goes on
witbo ut any supply of organic matter ',
and the addition of humus greatly in*
creases the fertility of these soils. /*
It is much easier to supply the defi-
ciency of humus, which at best forms
but a very small portion of the soil,
than of silica or alumina, which should
enter into its composition in ^e pro-
portion of one half or a third of the
whole. It is practicable to carry lime
or chalk upon soils which do not co(^
tain <*4ilcareous matter ; clay may also
be carried upon loose, sandy soilsi
where it can be found below the sur-
face, or at a moderate distance *, but
if a soil is very deficient in silica, it
requires so large a proportion of this
earth to give porosity to stiff day*
that it very seldom can repay the
trouble and expense. Hence the dif-
ficulty of bringing poor, wet, clay
soils into a fertile state, except where
an abundance of chalk and vegetable
manures can be easily procured. Ii|
this case, the perfect draining of the
land, and exposure of the ploughed
surface to the frosts of winter, with
the addition of chalk and manure,
produces such au alteration in the
texture of the clay, that, by contin-
ttihg the improving process, it is en-
tirely changed into a mellow and fer-
tile loam. The burning of a portion
of the retentive subsoil into a brick-
like earth gives it a porosity which
renders it mechanically siniUiar to si*
licions sand, and converting the iron
which all these clays contain into a
peroxide, the soil is thereby greatly
improved in fertility; for it seema
tiiat iron, in a state of slight oxida-
tion, or combined with any acid, is
hurtful to vegetation, whereas the red
peroxide is not only innocuous, but
seems to have fertilizing properties.
*' The comparison of the different
fertile soils leads, therefore, to the
conclusion that the texture or porosity
arising from the admixture of parti-
cles of various dimensions is the most
important object of cxamiuatiun ; and
subordinate to this is the chemical
constitution of the earths and other

SOili.

la the examination and analyBis of
soils for the purpose of asoertaining
their power of production, we must,
therefore, first examine them raechan*
ically, and afterward chemically, and
on this principle has been proposed
the mode of ana^zing soiU, in a pa-
per which obtained one of the first
prizes given by the Royal English
Agricnltaral Society, and published
in the first number of iU journal.
We will here insert a short account
of the process, with such alterations
and additions as more extensive prac-
tice has suggested.

" There are two easy methods of
ascertaining the size of the particles of
a soil. The first and simplest is by
drying the portion under examination,
gently triturating it with a wooden
pestle in a mortar, so as not to pro-
duce a grinding of the more solid
portions, and then separating the
coarser from the finer parts by means
of sevend metallic sieves of different
fineness. A simple instrument is rec-
ommended for this pur-
pose, which is very porta-
ble, and consists of three
or four sieves fitting into
each other ; the coareest
sieve being uppermost and
covered with a lid ; the fi-
nest fitting into a recipient,
and the whole forming a
cylinder three or four inch-
es in diameter, and from
six to eight in height. The
coarsest sieve has threads
at the distance of ^ of an inch, the
second has 80 in an inch, the third
120, and the fourth is the finest me-
tallic tissue which can be made.
"What remains in the first two ia ea-
sily examined by the eye, or with the
help of a lens. The third and fourth
require a microscope to see whether
any crystallized particles remain in
the impalpable dust which has gone
through all the sieves. By carefully
weighing these dififerent earths their
proportion is known, and by taking
the specific gravity of each their na-
ture can be guessed at with tolerable
•ecu racy.

733

**M tk» ««4fwb is not
for experienced diemiste, the sim-
plest methods are preferred to the
more accurate. There is a mode of
taking the specific gravities of sub-
stances which are in the form of pow-
der insoluble in water, so easy a4Mi
so Rttle liable to error, that any per-
son, however unaocustoined to exper-
iments, can soon become saffici^ilj
expert to have full confidenoe in the
residt. It is as follows : a small,
pear-shaped vial is blown of this
glass, and the neck cut and groand

smooth. The size is such as to cobp
tain 300 grains of water, more or
less; the exact quantity is not esse^
tiaL It is now filled with pare water
at 60*' of Fahrenheit's aeale* and ae»
curately poised in a d^cate halanre :
100 grains w«ght are then placed ia
the same scale with this vial* and*
by means of a very fine tube, water
is gradually sueked oat of the vial
till the equtlibrinm is restored ; that
is, exactly one hundred grains of wa^*
ter have been taken out« A oouateiw
poise is now made of lead or braea,
when the 100 grains weight has been
removed, and this serves for all fu-
ture experiments. When the speoif*
ie gravity of any substance is reqaU
red, the vial, partly filed with wa*
ter, is plaoed in one scale, and the
coooterpoise, made as above desert-
bed, is plaeed in the other; water is
added or taken from tha vial till an
equilibrium is obtained. The sab-
stance to be tried is slowly and ears-
fully poured into the vial, until tha
water rises to the grouod amfu^e of
the neek and stands quite level, whioh
is easily seen by observing the refleo-
tion of the light from the eurfaoe^ It
is then oareiully replaoed ia the scale,
and grain weights are added to the
otherseala ta mstaia-tha eqailihriaaa^

SOIL.

The nnnber ef tlnse grtins at onee
indtoates the specific grarity of the
BQbetanoe ; for the space above the
water was that of 100 grains of water,
and this space is now filled ap by the
earth examined. Its weight, there-
fore, denotes its specific gravity com-
pared to water as 100 ; and as a del-
icate balance readily tnms with a
decimal of a grain, the decimals give
the speoiilc gravity to the third fig-
ure. Thus, if the grains are U6
and the deeiroals 4, the speeifie grav-
ity is acoorately $S664, water being
1000.

** By taking the specific gravity of
the pure earths, it is found that sili-
ca is the heaviest, the next is car-
bonate of lime, and the lightest is
alumina, while oiganio matter is much
lighter than any earth. Thus, a tol-
erable guees can be made of the com-
position of that impalpable portion of
the soil which generally contains all
the salts and organic matter. To
separate these chemically requires
more experience and a more exten-
sive apparatos ; bat the quantity of
carbonate of lime in any soil which
effisrveeoes with aaids, when its pres-
enee is thus ascertainedt can be cal-
culated by a simple process, atanost
as easily as the specific gravity ; lor
this purpose, it is necessary to have
a balance with a aomewhat larger
scale, in which can be conveniently
plaoed a small glass cup and a vial.
The cup is placed in the scale with
100 grains wei^t in it; and the vial,
also containing 200 or 800 grains,
more or less, of very dilate moriatic
acid. The whole is aecurateiy podsed.
Fine dry sand is the most convenient
eonnterpotse when the exact weight
18 not required. The 100 grains are
BOW 'taken out and replaced by the
dried soil to be examined. When
the equilibrium is restored, the dilu-
ted muriatic acid is poured carefully
and gently on the earth in the cup
as long as it continues to effervesce ;
it is then left for a while, and a little
more of the acid added. If no bab-
bles appear, then all the carbonic acid
haa been eiq>elled, and the opposite

Qqq

QocRiinB Of gnnns Tvqmeu vo res^Rv
the equilibrium give the weight of the
carbonic acid expelled, which will
sometimes be considerable. Since
100 grains of carbonate of lime con-
tain 44 grains of carbonic acid, we
have only to take the proportion as
foUows : let a denote the grains of
caihonio acid indicated in the experi*

100s

ment ; then, 44 : 100 ; : a : -T^-i=tbe

quantity of carbonate of lime in the
soil ; that is, multiply the grains add-
ed to the scale by 100, and divide by
44. This experiment, repeated with
a very accurate balance, will surprise
by its correctness ; and no chemical
analysis could give it with equal cer-
tainty, especially in the hands of an
inexperienced person. When the
weights are ascertained by substitu-
tion, the accuracy of the balance is of
less consequence ; all that is required
is that it be sensitive, or turn read-
ily by the addition of very minute
weights. Thus, by two simple and
easy experiments, some of the most
important qualities of the impalpable
portions of a soil may be accurately
ascertained, vi«., its specific gravity,
and the quantity of carbonate of lime
which it contains.

*' It is more difficult to separate the
fine silica from the alumina, and this
is of less importance than might be
supposed ; for silica, when extremely
divided, so as to remain long sus-
pended m water, and mixed with alu-
mina, becomes as impervious to wa-
ter as alumina itself, and therefore its
mechanical etlbct on the soil is the
same. For farther information, see
art. AnaJysif.

•* The coarser portions of the soil,
which have been separated in the
sifting, are easily examined by the
eye. If repeated washing carries off
nothing from them, they may be con-
sidered as so many crystals, which
have no other effect in the soil than
to keep it open. If some of these
are of a calcareous nature, they will
dissolve with effervescence in mu-
riatic acid, and their proportion can
be ascertained by the process above
described ; if not, they may be all

788

SOIL.

gravel

*' A good soil is composed of one
third eoame sand, one third very fine
sand, and one third impalpable mat-
ter, in which there is silica in tbe
greatest quantity, alnmina and lime
in a smaller, and from four to ten per
cent, of organic matter, without any
appearance of tannin, which is readi-
ly discovered by pouring into the wa-
ter which has filtered through it a
weak solution of sulphate of iron ; if
a blackness appears, the gallic acid
is present, and in proportion to its
quantity the soil is less fertile. In
this case quicklime is the best correc-
tive.

*' In ascertaining the value of a
soil for the purposes of agriculture,
two circumstances should be care-
fully noticed : the first is tbe permea-
bility of the soil to water ; and the
second is its power of absorbing moist-
ure from the atmosphere. To ascer-
tain the first, it is only required to
place an equal weight of difierent
soils in glass tubes of equal diameter,
pressing ihem so that they shall oc-
cupy equal spaces, but nut filling the
tubes; then pour an equal quantity
of water over each soil, and place
them upright with cups under them.
Examine which has the surface first
dry, and how much water runs through
each in a given time. That which
presents a dry surface, while it holds
most water in its pores, is probably
the best. To ascertain the compara-
tive absorption of moisture, the soils
are dried in pairs on a plate of metal
heated by steam, or at a heat of 212*^,
to expel the water ; they are then
placed in equal quantities in similar
flat cups or dishes, and placed in op-
posite scales of a balance, and poised.
The apparatus is exposed to a moist
aimusphere out of doors, or in a cel-
lar, and occasionally examined. That
which is heaviest i8« in general, the
most fertile, and contains most hu-
mus. If there are more than two
soils, they are compared with each
other, and with a third as a stand-
ard.

By theae simple means any per-

or unaccustomed tu make acscurate
experiments, may soon satisfy him-
self as to the comparative value of
different soils which have never y«i
been cultivated; how they n»y ba
improved, and what cropa are best
sailed to them : things of the greii-
eat importanee to those who go to
distant ooloniea in the hopea of oh*
taifling good laiid at a moderate price,
and cultivating it to advantage.

" But we have intimated that iheaa
were other meaaa of eaoertainog tbe
mechanical texture of soils than by
sifting them ; this is by waahing with
pure water. For this porpoae, no-
thing is required but a few fiat plates
and large cups. Some of the aoii ie
formed into a very thin mud by etk-
ring it in a cup nearly fuU of water.
The finer partidea are aoceeaaivdiy
poured off from the sand or grit,
which at last remains pure, eo thai
the water added to it is no longer
discoloured: this being dried and
weighed, gives the coane sand. The
water and earth poured off are al-
lowed to settle: a conunon seep-
plate is foiiAd a veiy convenient ves-
sel for this puipose. On the anrlace
of the deposited earth will be found
all the undecompoeed vegetable mat^
ter, which, with a little care, is ^sUy
taken off, dried, end wetgtied. The
finer portions of the evth can be
poured off suocessively by shaking
the whole moderately till nothing but
very fine aand remains. The aJumi-
na and impalpable silica will remain
long suspended in the waler, and al-
low any sand yet remaining to be de-
posited. They may be rapidly eep*
aratod from tbe Mraler by filtration
through stout blotting paper ; but it
is preferable to poor them into a glaaa
tabe about one inch in internad di-
ameter, with a cork fitted into the
lower end. In this tube the earths
slowly fall to the bottom»and any
variety in the sixe of the particles
causes a line more or leas distinct,
which can be observed through tbe
glass ; and thus a very good idea
may be obtained uf the proportion of
the di^j3»ia ea^JUs as iar as refiarda

801

chemical diffeTenees, the preceding
procefts mo»t be adopted.

*'It is often useful to aseertatn
nearly the composition of a soil with-
oot hanng time or opportunity to
maire accurate experiments. A grad-
uated glass tube which can be carried
in the pocket, and a small viai with a
gronad stopper, containing dilated
minriatio acid, and seemed in a wood-
encase for fear of accident, are all the
apparatas required. A Httle of the
aoil is taken aad moisteaed with wa-
ter ; a few drops of the acid are pour-
ed on ; and by the greater or less dis-
engagement of babbles the proportion
of oadcareous matter is guemed at,
and its presence proved. The soil,
mixed with water, is poured into the
glass tube and weU shaken. In a few
minutes the coarse sand is deposited,
shortly after the finer sand, and, last^
ly, the day and impalpable matter, of
which the Itghlest remains longest
suspended. Distinct rings can be ob«
served in the depositee, and the grad-
uated tube shows their proportion.
A person accustomed to this method
will guess with great precision the
general qualities of the soil; and
when the geological stractnre of the
neighbourhood and the nature of the
subsoil are taken into consideration,
the value of the land for pasture or
cultivation is guessed with little dan-
ger of making very glaring mistakes.
To sm^eyofs and valuers this meth-
od is of very great help, when other
means are not at hand.

<* in practice, soUs are usually di-
vided into light, meltow, and stiff;
but this gives very little information,
there being every imaginable variety
in each of these. In the article Ar4^
hk Landf we have given a more par-
ticular chnsification fWMn Thaer, but
this is found chiefly applicable to al- i
lovial soils. There are still minute
circumstances which produce great
fertility or the reverse, and which it
is difficult to investigate. An accn-
rate chemical analysis, joined to a
careful medianical examination, and
very correct accounts of the average
ptodnce under difibvent ayatema of

emftf^wliani am aiane' giv^ .na ■#' \
according to which the natural fertili^
of difibrentaoils ean be classed ; and
thta must be the work of time and in-
dustry joined to science and practical
knowledge. We ahall therefore con-
clude thia article by recomniending to
every lover of agriculture to obaerve
and note the peculiarities of the soils
with which he is best aoqnatnted ; to
analyse them fireqoently and under
various circumstanoee, and thus en-
deavour to find to what peculiar sub-
stance or condition is to be ascribed
a greater or less degree of fertility ;
so as to lead to the simplest and ea-
siest mode of rendering indifferent
soils fertile, and increasing the pro-
ductive power even of the best.*'^
(Rham.)

SOILING. '« This is the name giv-
en in agriculture to the mode of feed-
ing horses and cattle in the stable or
yards with food brought to them aa
it is cut in the meadows or fields.
The great advantage of soiling cattle
is the increase of manore of the best
quality which is thereby produced ;
and this circumstance alone can coun-
terbalance the great trouble and ex-
pense incurred in cutting and carry-
ing all the green food firom a distance
to the farm-yard.

" The system of soiling is not very
generally adopted, it being so much
easier to allow the cattle to crop their
food in the pastures; but in those
countries where property in land is
greatly subdivided, and where farms
ire small and good pastures scarce,
aa in Flanders, France, and Switaer-
land, especially where the vineyarda
render manure scarce and dear by
taking a considerable portion of it
and returning none, there the soiling
of cattle ia almost a matter of necea-;
sity. A cow or ox requires from two
to three acres of pasture or meadow
to feed it all the year round, allowing
a portion for hay; but by raising clo-
ver, lucem, sainfoin, taies, and other
green crops, tluree cows or more can
be fed with the produce of one acre,
especially if a portion is in turnips or
other succulent roots. Thus the
straw of the white crops ia converted

SOIUNG.

InCft oiEOMtofet utnvfB, ttira fho isnci
kept in a state of fertility.

** In proportion as a farm is larger
in extent, so the expense of soiling
increases, Iwth from the distance of
the fields where the green crops
grow, and from the same distance
to which the dang is to be carted.
There is a limit, therefore, to the
soiling system, unless there be many
yards or stables in different parts of
a farm, so as to subdivide it, and
make each yard the centre of a dis-
tinct system of soiling, with fields
near at hand for the green crops. In
almost every experiment on a large
scale, it has been found that soiling
was only a certain mode of purchasing
dung, and that it often was more ex-
pensive to procure it in this way than
to send to a considerable distance to
purchase it in towns. Where it can-
not be purchased at all, there are no
other means, in many situations, of
producing a sofficient quantity ; and
the trouble and expense of soiling
must be submitted to. In almost ev-
ery case where sheep oan be folded
to feed off the crops, the soiling of
cattle is a loss, because the sheep pay
something for their food ; the cattle
in the stall seldom do.

** But there are animals which
must be fed for the work of the farm,
such as horses or oxen ; and these
are much more profitably and eoo-
Domically fed by soiling than by any
other means. A horse or ox, if he
works eight or ten hours, has no time
for rest if he has to crop his food
from a short pasture, however sweet ;
whereas an abundant supply of clo-
ver, Ittoern, or tares enables him to
take a hearty meal and lie down to
rest. He wants no oom with this
food, and does his work without los-
ing flesh or activity.

** There is nothing easier in a mild
climate, and especially a moist one
like Britain or Ireland, than to have
a succession of green food from the
beginning of spring to the end of au-
tumn. Rye and winter barley, sown
early in autumn, will be ready to cut
as soon as the mild weather of spring
commenoes ; some sown later with

wfntcr twnsy Mid tlio yiwiiig
which has not been cron^ed in au-
tumn, will soeeeed. Alter this esaw
artificial grasses, as Itatiaii rye ^raas
and the grass of water meadows
mown early ; although this last is aoi
so hearty food fbr workmg caiilB$
bat when joined to a Bnxttnre of asts
and cut straw, their watery natnn m
oorreded. Clover and Biprukg
(when these can be raieed aft
intervals), lucern and sainfoia (if Iks
soil is salted to them), wiil mtRivi a
oonstaat and abuodant eapply to tfea
scythe which cats thedaily aUoaranea.
It is pnideot to provide agalnet ttM^
nre, and have more land
than is absoliitely necessary,
the surplus can always be made lass
hay, or reserved to ripen ite seed;
and these green crops, Tahiable as
they are, far from deterioratiag tks
soil, clear it of weeda, and ranSer it
more fit to bear com afterward. la
this esse, soibng is profitaMe aai
eoonomieal.

*' It is generally thought in those
countries where the soiling ^yatem is
most universally adopted, that it as
best to allow the green feed to re-
main twelve or tvrenty4bar hoars tf-
ter it is cut before it is given to cat-
tle. This may be prudent with cows
and oxen, who are apt to eat vora-
ciously, and are subject to be hovea
from the fermentations of the greea
food in the paunch or rumen ; but fiir
horses there is little danger ; and if
the food is not wet with dew er rain,
the fresher it is eaten the better it
will nourish the animal, and the mors
he will relish it.

*' If any one is desirous of cafcnilaF
ting the expense of soiling any nam*
ber of beasts, he has only to reckon
what time of men and horses it will
take to cut the food and carry it to
the cattle, fWim the average dtstanes
of the fields in which it can be raised
in succession. Mnoh of their time is
lost in the morning and evening ia
going backward and forward from the
field to the yard ; for there eansearoe-
ly be an establishnieBt ao lai^ as ts
beep them employed a whole di^;
and if thsie was» tke Mida most le

800

00 large avifiodSBlaiitaa to gre^ijl
tncreftse the ezpeawe of carriage.
Not to enter into minute calculations,
it is fully proved tbat, to a certain ex-
tent, soiling is profitable and econom-
ieaC when it can be done before and
after the usoal hours of labour ; but
that, when undertaken on a large
•cale in any one locality, it is usually
attended with loss, the manure pro-
duced beiog pnxehased at too great a
price."

SOLANACRfi. A natural order
ef herbaceous or shrubby exogens,
inhabiting aU parte of the world ex-
eepting the arctic regions. This or-
^r contains nightshade, henbane,
mandrake, tobacco, stramonium, the
potato, and the tomato, the leaves of
ail which are narcotic and exciting, but
in diflbrent degrees, from Atraiimpel'
iadofuia, whichcauses vertigo, convul-
sions, and vomiting ; tobacco, which
will frequently produce the first and
la^ of these symptoms ; henbane and
stramonium, down to some of the so-
lanum tribes, the leaves of which are
so inert as to be used as kitchen herbs.
Even in the potato plant, the narcotic
acrid principle is found in the stem
and leaves, and even in the rind of
the tuber. But the principal part of
the latter consists of starch ; and the
small quantity of deleterious matter
being volatile and near the surface,
is readily driven off by the heat used

in cooking.

SOLIDUNGULATES. Ani-
nals with an undivided hoof, as the

liorse.

SOLUTION. The diffusion in wa-
ter or other menstrua of the particles
of a solid or other body. The amount
dissolved is definite at the same tem-
perature, and is usually increased by
beat. A fluid already holding in so-
lution a given substance will not dis-
solve so much of a third as if pure,
and sometimes none at all.

SOOT. " Soot is a complicated and
variable mixture of substances pro-
duced during the combustion of coal.
Its composition, and consequently its
effects as a manure, vary with the
quality of the coal, with the way in
which the coal ia buxned» aad with

Qqq2

800

the height of the ehlnaey ia whisli

it is collected.

** Soot has not been analyzed since
the year 1826, when a variety exam-
ined by Bracoonot was found by him
to consist, in a thousand parts, of

Ulaiio ftoidi (a •obMaoM reMmbUni:^
that portion of the vegetable matter l3Q§.o
of the soil which is koluble in caustic f
potmh) J

A reddish bvowa aolable substaiice, ooH' \
tainiog nitrogen, and yielding ammo- > SOOH)
nia when heated . . . • /

ilsboline 9H>

Carbonat* of lime, with a trace oC nag- ^
nesia (prob^ljr derived ia part from >H6 5
the Rides of the chimDey) . . .J

Acetate of lime

Sulphate of lime (gypsvm) .

Aoetate of magnesia

Phosphate of lime^ with a trace o

Chloride of potassium . ' .

Acetate of potsah .

Acetate of ammonia . •

Silica (sand) . •

Charcoal powder .

Water . . i .

iron

M*5
50^

5<3
150

S'«
41*0

9-5

38-9

lasto

1000^

*< The earthy scbstanees whieh the
soot contains are chiefly derived from
the walls of the chimney, and from
the ash of the coal, part of which is
carried up the chimney by the draught.
These, therefore, most be variable,
being largest in quantity where the
draught is strongest, and where the
earthy matter or ash in the coal is the
greatest. The quantity of gypsum
present depends upon the sulphur
contained in the coal : that which is
freest from sulphur will give a soot
containing the least gypsum. The
ammonia and the soluble substance
containing nitrogen will vary with
the quantity of nitrogen contained in
the coal and with certain other caus-
es, so that the composition of differ-
ent samples of soot may be very ua»
like, and their influence upon vegeta-
tion therefore very unequal. The
consequence of this must be, that the
results obtained in one spot, or upon
one crop, are not to be depended
upon as indicative of the precise effect
which another specimen of soot will
produce in another locality, and upon
another crop even of the same kind ;
and thus it happens that the use oi
soot is more general, and is attended
with more beneficial effects in some
diatriote than in othe|s.

787

soo

"In geMMil, it m^j. be iBsOBMid

that where ammonia or its salts will
benefit the crop, soot also will be of
use, and hence iu suocessful appli-
oation to grass lands. From its con-
taining gypsum, it should also espe-
cially benefit the clover crops ; yet
Dr. Anderson says, * I have used soot
as a top-dressing for clover and rye
grass in aH proportions, from one
hundred bushels per acre to six hun-
dred, and I cannot say that I ever
could perceive the clover in the least
degree more luxuriant than in the
places where no soot had been ap-
plied ; but upon rye grass its effects
are amazing, and increase in propor-
tion to the quantity, so far as my tri-
als have gone ;* and his general con-
elusion isy that soot does not effect the
growth 0} claoer in any way, irAt^ it
wonderfully promotes that of rye grass.

** The presence of ammonia in soot
causes it, when laid in heaps, to de-
stroy all the plants upon the spot.

** This ammonia aJso causes soot
to injure and diminish the crop in
very dry seasons. Thus the produce
of a crop of beans, after oats, in 1842,
open an

UnmanonMl p«rt of the Held wm . . i9| both.
Dreieedwiiiifoiirbvahelaof aoot . . S8 "

^* It also diminished, in a small de-
gree, the potato.

With menaie eloae, the pn^

duce wee .11 tooe 17 cwt.

With thirty bushels of eoot

sprinkled over the lititxg . 11 *' 4 **

*'Like rapc-dast and saline sub
stances, therefore, soot seems to re-
quire moist weather, or a naturally
moist soil, to bring out all its virtaes.

•• Yet even in the dry season of
1842, its effect upon wheat and oats
in the same locality (Erskine) was
very beneficial. Thus the compara-
tive produce of these crops, when un-
dressed and when top-dressed with
ten bushels of soot per acre, was as
follows :

Vniuanored . . Wheat 44 Oats 49

Top-dressed with eoot . "54 '* AS

" But the dressed wheat was infe-
rior in quality to the undressed, the
former weighing only 68, the latter
62 pounds a bushel. In the oats there
was no difTereaoe. Are we to infisr
738

IfiromthMe reanlts thai, even in ^
; seasons, soot may be safely applied
! to crops of com, while to pulse aed
f roots it is sore to do no good 1 Far-
ther precise observations, no donh^
are still necessary, and the aaore e»>
pecially, as the experiments upon oata
and wheat made in a drimr locality
gave a decrease in the produce of
grain, while i€ Mr. Fleming's expei^
iments npon turnips, 60 bushela of
soot, applied alone, gave an increase
of four tons in the crop.

"Another experiment enables 00
to judge of the efficacy of soot in e
dry season, compared with that of ni>
trate of soda and of guano, upon the
produce of bay. Thus the crop of hay
per acre from tbe

Undressed portion, weighed
Dressed with 40 liush. of snot

Xs.4

I 8

1 IS 0 11 8
*• 160 lbs. nitr. of soda 1 » 1 15 t
" ItiUlbe. of guano .9 S 1 16 f

** In this experiment the soot pro^
ved a more profitable applioatioii thae
either of the other manures.

*" In regard to this substance, I
shall only advert to one other
vatiott— but it is an important
made by Mr. Morton, whendescribifie
the management of a well-eondnetei
farm. *T\\e quantity of soet used
upon this farm amounts to 9000 bosh
els a year, one half of which is a^
plied to the potato, the other half te
the wheat crop.* All the slrmw grsmm
upon this farm is sold for UuUch, and
for the last thirty years the only
nnre that has been purchased to
place this straw is aoot."-*(JoAir#fmt.)

The amount applied is firom twen*
ty-tive to forty bushels the aore.
j SOPORIFICS. Drugs whieb pro-
■ duce sleep.

I SOREDIA. Masses of powdery
! bodies lying on the thallus of liehene^

SORI. The small heaps of repnK
ductive granules found growing upoe
the fronds of polypodiaceous ferns.

SOROS! S. A fruit resembling the
mulberry, being a succulent spike.

SORREL Rumex aeetossUm, A
small perennial weed of the doek
family, with a aour taste, arising from
the binoxalate of potash. It

sow

on pf>or lands, and marks sterility.
A good hining and tilth are wanting to
improve sucti soils, not because they
are sour, or the sorrel should be kill-
ed, but because they are poor lands.
The wood {oxalis) sorrel grows only
in rich places.

SOKREL-TKEE. Andrtnneda or-
horca. A handsome shrubbery tree
in the North, with beautiful white
racemes of flowers. In the Sooth it
becomes a large tree.

SOUTHERNWOOD. Wormwood.

SO WENS. A dish made from oat-
Bcieal.

SOWING, AND SOWING MA-
CHINES. '< The sowing of the seed
has always been looked upon as one
of the most important operations of
husbandry. Much of the success of
the fbture crops depends on the time
and the mode in which the seed is
committed to the earth. After the
land has been well prepared by ju-
dicious tillage and manuring, many
accidents and circamstaoces may dis-
appoint the hope of the farmer, and
the crop may be scanty or fail alto-
gether. The weather and the sea*
sons are not nnder his control ; but
much also depends on his own judg-
ment and skill. If he selects the best
seeds, chooses the proper season for
sowing them, and has them carefully
distributed and properly covered with
earth, as their nature requires for the
most perfect germination, and thus
also protects them from the voracity
of birds or insects, he will have a
much greater prospect of success,
under all circumstances, than if he
were careless or negligent.

** The most cmnmon mode of sow-
ing the seed is by scattering it as
evenly as possible over the ploughed
surface, as it lies in ridges from the
ph>ugh. The harrows follow, and
crumbling down the ridges, cover the
seed which has fallen in the hollows
between them. It requires an ex-
perienced sower to scatter the exact
quantity over a given surface, with-
out crowding the seed in one spot,
and allowing too great intervals in
another. Hence the farmer who
dues not hfansekf sow the seed* inva-

riiibly chooses the moot eorperienced
and skilful labourer to perform this
work. Notwithstanding every care
and attention on the part of the fann*
er, the lab<mrer will often relax and
become careless, and cbe result ap-
pears only when it is too late to rem*
edy it. This has given rise to Uie
various attempts which have been
made to invent machines for sowing
the seed, such as should ensure per-
fect regularity. Of some of these
we will now give a short account.

** One of the simplest of these ma«
chines consisted in a hollow cylin-
der, with one or more rows of botes
in a line parallel to the axis. These
holes can be stopped in part, if re-
quired. The seed is put into the cyl-
inder, the length of which is equal to
the width of the land, or stitch, wbteh
it is desired to sow at a time. By
shaking this when held horizontally
and at right angles to the path of the
sower, ttw seed is scattered with coa-
siderable regularity. One inconve-
nience of this instrument is, that it
requires to be filled frequently, and
that much still depends on the atten-
tion of the operator. Accordingly, it
was very soon laid by. The idea,
however, was followed up and im-
proved upon in the sowing harrow^
an instrument still extensively used
for sowing grass seeds, it consists
of a wooden trough placed on the
frame of a light wheelbarrow. An
iron spindle, furnished with circular
brushes at regular intervals, runs the
whole length of the trough, and is
turned by means of simple machin-
ery connected with the wheel. Op-
posite each brush is a brass plate,
with holes of different sizes, which
can be partly closed by means of a
circular slide. According to the size
of the seed to be sown and the quan-
tity to be scattered, the holes are
opened or shut. The seed is put
into the trough, which has a cover or
lid ; and by merely wheeling the bar-
row in a straight line, a breadth is
sown equal to the length of the trough,
usually 12 or 16 feet. But this ma-
chine cannot conveniently be used la
windy weattor, whieh disperses the

fiOWINO, AND S0WINO HCACHINES.

iMd« inegofoilsr; and it is ▼errylitHe
saperior to towing by the hand, ex-
cept in the case of small seeds, which
eannot so well be spread evenly by
the hand.

** The <faill bosbandry has suggest-
ed other more complicated machines,
of which some account will be foand
in the article Drill. The principle
of these is to deliver the seed by
means of funnels, each corresponding
to a small furrow made by a coulter
placed immediately before the fun-
nel; and some of these machines
perform the work very regularly and
satisfactorily. As the inequalities of
the ground require that the coulters
should move up or down, to allow
for these inequalities, the seed can-
not be accurately deposited at a given
depth ; and some improvement in the
mode of drilling is yet desirable, and
has, in some measure, been effected.
The patent lever drill in common
use is very imperfect in its work, and
the remedy lies in the greater atten-
tion to the preparation of the surface.
When this is effected, the levers may
be set aside, and a much simpler drills
such as was used at first, may re-
place it. The object is to make fur-
rows of equal depth in which to de-
posite the seed, and to cover this uni-
formly. The land must oonseqnently
be more carefully prepared by repeat-
ed harrowing and rolling, till the sur-
face resembles the seed-beds in a
garden. A simple drill, which makes
equidistant furrows at a given depth,
in which the seed drops regularly,
will then do better work than a more
oomplioated machine ; but i{ still
greater accuracy and perfection are
desired, the dibble must be had re-
course to. No one will deny that
seed deposited by means of a dibble
is distributed more equally and cov-
ered with a more equal depth of soil
than by any other means, and that
there is a great economy of seed in
this mode of sowing ; but the slow-
ness of the operation, and the num-
ber of hands it would require to dib-
ble all the seed on a large farm, have
prevented its being very generally
adopted. See AinMe LmuL Manyat-
740

tempts have been made to invent nw-
cbines to imitate the work done by
hand in dibbling, and hitherto witli
no marked success, owing chiefly to
the difficulty of clearing the dibbles
from the adhering soil, and makings
clean hole, and also of letting 5io
seed fall exactly in the dibble holes.
Several patents have lately been ta-
ken out for dibbling machines, at
which we shall only notice three.
The first machine consists of large
hollow disks, armed at the circum-
ference with blunt projections or
knobs, which make a depression in
the surface as the disk revolves :
these knobs are hollow, and open bj
one half sliding upward as the knob
leaves the depression it has made.
The seed which has been deposited
in the hollow knob falls into the hole.
This machine is said to do its woric
well.

<* The next is Bradshaw^ patent,
which is not so generally known,
having only been tried by the invent-
or and his friends. Here the dibbles
are moved op and down by means o(
a crank, or eccentric circle, and are
twisted in the ground by means of a
projection from the shank of the dib-
ble, which is connected with the frame
of the machine; andwhenthedibMeis
moved by the crank, the rod is twist-
ed by the difference in the motion of
the crank and the machine. The
seed is delivered by means of a cyl-
inder with cavities in its surface,
which revolves very near the ground,
the seed being kept in these cavities
by a leather belt, which only lets
them out at the lowest part.

** The last is somewhat on the
same principle, and was invented by
the late Rev. W. L. Rham. This ma-
chine, which was exhibited at the
meeting of the Royal Agricultural So-
ciety of England at Liverpool, in 1841,
is thus noticed by the judges of the
implements appointed by that So-
ciety :

" * The Rev. W. L. Rham exhibited
an implement, the principal object of
which is to extend and improve the
system of drilling and dibbling wheat,
beans, dco. It is chiefly in its latter

BOWOM, ANB flOWma MAQlilNBS.

cffpadty, as a dibbler of seed and
manurci that we sh^ attempt to give
a slight description of it. The op-
erative part of the machine is sus-
pended upon an iron carriage having
four wheels, the two hinder ones
being fast upon their axle and turn-
ing with it. On this axle is a spur-
wbeeli giving motion to a pinion on
an intermediary axle, which carries
a wheel geared into a second pinion
fixed on its axis, having six cranks
arranged spirally. The velocity given
to the axis is such that the cranks
make one revolution for every six
inches of the circumference of the
hind wheels, or whatever is the dis-
tance desired between dibble holes.
The radius of each crank is such
that this distance shall be equal to
the circumference described by one
revolution. Thus the space described
by every crank coincides with that
passed over in the same time by the
nind wheels ; and as the cranks turn,
during the half of a revolution, in an
opposite direction to that of the
wheels, the result of this compound
motion is a pause or rest of short du-
ration, at the point where the crank
in its rotation commences to retro-
grade from the line of progress of the
machine, t. e., at the lowest point,
and when the dibbles are in the
ground. The crank raises the dib-
bles up and down by means of con-
necting rods and levers, which double
the vertical without increasing the
horizontal motion ; and in order that
the point when in the ground may
be perfectly stationary, it is made the
centre of motion while the machine
progresses; and to enable it to re-
tain that position for a sufficient
length of time, for the purpose of
leaving a hole truly rertical, the dib-
bles move between checks in the rod
which connects it with the crank,
and which has a spring to restore it
quickly to its proper pUce as it rises
out of the ground. During* therefore,
the entire time occopied in its pier-
cing the hole and being withdrawn
from the soil, the dibble retains its
perpendicularity.

i3y an ingenious and simple

a (

contrlTanoe, a slow rotatoiy motioB
about its own axis is given to the
dibble, by which means its point may
be said to bore into the ground, thus
assisting in the formation of the hvie ;
and by the same action the dibble is
cleared of any adhering soil, and the
hole left firm and clear.

*'«The seed-valve consists of a
cylinder, with a cavity in it of dimei^
sioBs sufficient to hold one or mere
seeds. This cylinder is iumbUd over»
and the seed discharged into a recip-
ient of the shape of a quadrant, from
which it is pushed oh/, when the cyl*
inder returns to its first position aiid
takes in a fresh supply. As this mo*
tion is sudden, the seed is sorely de-
livered, even when rather damp :
when tbe cylinder is delivering, tha
quadrant is receiving, and vice vena.
The delivery of manure is effected by
a similar apparatus, only of a larger
size, tbe valves being furnished with
bashes, or other means, to remove
the superfluity.

" * The valves are connected with
the dibbles in such a manner as to
deposits the manure and seed in the
hole last formed, while tbe dibbles
are stationary in the advancing one.
The dibbles bore their holes in shal-
low drills made by the pressure and
sliding action of an iron shoe shaped
like a boat, and forming a smooth
furrow.

" * The whole of the machinery is
supported by an iron frame, one end of
which rests on trunnions attached to
a projecting part of the back of the car*
riage. It is suspended at the other end
by a cross shaft, carrying two |Mnioa8«
working in arcs of circles fixed on the
frame, so that it can be raised or de*
pressed at pleasure, or elevated clear
of the ground by one turn of a winoh.
At the same time, the pinion cbuh
necting tbe machinery with the hind
wheels is put out of gear, and the
whole can be moved about on the
carriage.

** * The object of the reverend gen*

tleman in contriving this original and

singularly ingenious implement, has

been to imitate the more minute and

' cartain auukipulatiooa of the garden*

7A»

SOWING, AND SOWmO MACmiNSS.

er« and so to adapt his machinery to
the drilliog and dibbling of seed upon
land previously laid flat and well
prepared, that erery field, however
extensive, shonld present the neat-
Dess and regularity of a highly fin-
ished garden.

" * The distinguishing pecnliarities
of this remarkable piece of mecha-
nism are the arrangements for the
dibbles to bore holes, causing them to
be perpendicular and truly cylindri-
oal, and the apparatus forgiving cer-
tainty to the valves in receiving and
delivering the manure.'

** In order to render the above high-
ly commendatory report of the judges
ncnne intelligible to those who have
not seen this imi^ement, we will add
a alight diagram, to ezpUiin the most
essential parts :

** A C B is a lever, whose falerum
is at A ; BO, the rod of the dibble
M> which tarns on it by means of a

socket; O D E is the rod whldi eom*-
muiiicates the motion to the lever
A O B, by means of the crank h £,
moved by the machinery. ^ D is a-
rod connecting the crank with the
rod of the dibble, and having a slit or
cheeks in which this rod moves. F
is the spring which keeps the rod in
its place when the dibble is out of the
ground, a 6 is an iron plate with a
slit or cheeks to keep the dibble from
swerving from the line of the furrow
made by the shoe, c is a thin pin
projecting upward from this plate,
and bent at its upper end. This pin
meets one of four arms projecting
horizontally from the shank of tlie
dibble whenever it descends into the
ground ; and as it proceeds with the
carriage while the dibble is at rest,
it gives this a motion round its rod
to the extent of a quarter of a circle.
When the rod rises, it clears the
arms from the pin, which, at the next

descent, meets with another arm ;
and thus a complete revolution is ef-
fected in four descents of the dibble.
**H is the vessel which contains
the seed. The valve consists of a
cylinder, <2, with a cavity sufficient
to receive the required number of
seeds to be deposited in each hole,
a brash to remove any soperfluous
seeds, and a recipient, V, in the form
of a quadrant, in which they drop
when the cylinder is suddenly turned
half round on its axis. This is ef*
footed by a small crank fixed to the
axis, and oooncNStad by a rod r with
749

the quadrant Y. The quadrant it-
self moves a quarter round its centre
X by meana of a rod g, which cod*
nects it with the dibble, or with the
crank when the dibble is not used ;
and the seed is dropped into the dib-
ble hole or the furrow when the
quadrant is pushed back in its place.
A rake and roller are attached to the
implement to complete the operation.
** This may give some idea of this
new machine, and if it answer the
expectations of the inventor, it will
cause a great saving in the seed and
labour of sowing, while it will de-

8BE

API

pcMdte<the soed mueh mora Tigniariy, |
and at an equal depth.**

SOW THISTLES. Composite
plants of the genus Sonchus. They
are smooth perennials^ with a mUky
juice.

SPADE. A well-known garden
implement. The spading of land pro-
duces the best results from the thor-
ough loosening and great depth to
which the soil is stirred. Astonish-
ing crops have been obtained on small
lots by using the spade for wheat and
root culture ; but the expense is the
great drawback.

SPADIX. A form of inflorescence,
m which the flowers are arranged
around a fleshy rachis, and enclosed
within a kind of bract called a spathOi
as in palms and araceous plants. The
Indian turnip is an instance.

SPANISH NEEDLES. Annual
weeds of the genus Bidetu, the seeds
of which adhere to the skin of ani-
mals and clothes.

SPAN WORMS. The caterpillars
called geometers, loopers, or canker-
worms. See Canker-vDorm. The fe-
male of the prefect insects are inca-
pable of flight, and crawl up trees to
lay their eggs ; various contrivances
have, therefore, been adopted to hin-
der them passing, such as a rope of
straw bound round the trunk, a layer
of tar spread on paper and fastened
round, or lead and tin troughs con-
taining oil, water, or other prepara-
tions, have been affixed to the trunk
with great advantage.

SPASM. A cramp. Rubbing the
skin with turpentine, when it is of
the external muscles, often alleviates
the pain

SPATHE. See Spadix.

SPAVIN. See Horse, DUeaset of,

SPAYING. The operation of ex-
tracting the ovaries of the females of
different kinds of animals, as sows,
heifers, mares, &.c., in order to pre-
vent any future conception, and pro-
mote fattening.

SPEAR GRASS. A name given
to the Poapratensis.

S P E A R M I N T. Common green
mint : also the weed Mentha tenuis.

SPECIES. In natural history, an

individaa) separated from others of a
genus by certain slight but permanent

ch&racteiHB

SPECIFIC GRAVITY. SeeCh-av-
ihf.

SPECTRUM. An image, usually
applied to the image of the sun seen
through a prism, and which consists
of seven colours:

SPECULUM. A reflector or mir-
ror of metal.

SPEEDWELL. The genus FeroTr-
ica^ perennial plants, often with beau-
tiful spikes of blue flowers.

SPELT. Spelter wheat. See
Wheot.

SPERMATIC ANIMALCULES.
Minute, thread-like animalcules found
in the secretion of the testes.

SPERMATIC CORD. The col-
lection of blood-vessels passing from
the abdomen to the testes.

SPERMIDIUM. Thesameas
akenium, a small seed vessel resem-
bling a seed.

SPHACELUS. Mortification, gan-
grene.

SPHAGNUM. A genus of mosses
growing in bogs, and forming a great
deal of the peat.

SPHENOID BONE. A bone in
the base of the skull.

SPHINCTER (from a^iyx<^, I
close). The name of muscles which
close the natural openings of the
bodv.

' SPICE WOOD, or BUSH. Law-
rus benzoin. Benjamin bush, fever
bush. An indigenous shrub, four to
ten feet hi^h, the wood of which yields
an aromatic smell. It grows on damp
places.

SPIGEI^ Fennel.

SPIKE. An inflorescence, in which
the flowers are sessile upon an up-
right stem.

SPINACH. Spinaciaoleracea. An
annual of the family Cktnopodiacea.
Varieties: Large round-leaved, broad-
leaved Savoy, Holland. The New
Zealand, which is a superior vegeta-
ble, is very large and running : it is
the Tetragona sxpansa. The seeds
are planted in hills six feet apart,
three to the hill, in May : twenty hills
supply a family.

743

8PI

"The soil requires to be rich to pro- '
duce large, fine leaves, though spin-
ach will grow even in the poorest
soil, if well manured. The time of
sowing for a winter crop, to come in
from March till May, is from the mid-
dle of August to the 8th of Septem-
ber ; but if frost occurs soon after the
latter sowing, it will seldom survive
the winter. For a summer crop, to
come in after the winter crop has ran
to seed, the end of April is the prop-
er time ; though, if an August sowing
have been neglected, seed may be
sown in the end of February or even
in January. When sown in June and
July, it will run rapidly to seed.

" The sorts are the prickly-seeded,
or, what is better, the Holland, for the
August sowing, and the round-leaved
for spring.

"For a bed five feet wide and
twelve feet long, an ounce of seed
will be enough, or half an ounce for
the same space drilled.

" Sow thinly broad-cast in a finely-
dug bed, or, rather, in very shallow
drills six or eight inches apart ; or,
as some prefer, double that distance,
with rows of radishes or lettuce be-
tween, treading it well before raking.
The earth over the seed should not
exceed the third of an inch, for if
much thicker, the seed will be lost.

" Sparrows and other birds, if not
prevented, will endeavour to purloin
the whole sowing, as has frequently'
occurred within our knowledge ; and
when the young plants come up, pi-
geons, if they get at them, will devour
the whole. Careful weeding and hoe-
ing up the earth, so as not to choke
the hearts of tho plants, are indispen-
sable. Thinning also must be duly
attended to, and the plants should be
left three or four inches apart. If a
few plants of the winter or spring
crops are allowed to remain, they will
produce an abundance of seed, which
should be protected from birds. For
summer crops, it is a good plan to
sow the seed in drills, between the
rows of pease, as the latter will af-
ford It shelter and shade, and assist
jnuch in preventing it from running
to seed ; besides which, the ground
744

will thus be better and more profita-
bly occupied.

"While beet of the curled sort, and
several wild plants and weeds, suc^
as Good King- Henry^ goomtfoot, m
myUsy yield leaves little iniertor ts
spinach."

SPINDLE. The axis of a wheel
or roller.

SPINDLE-SHAPED, FUSI-
FORM. Roots are so called which
taper at both ends, as the radish.

SPINDLE-TREE. Euonmus Em-
ropauM. A small tree or shrub, the
wood of which is extremely bard, and
used for spindles. It is improperly
called strawberry-tree by some nur-
sery men.

SPINDLE WORM. The caterpil-
lar which destroys the young ear of
corn, Gortyna Zca of Harris : they
make known their presence by leav-
ing a small hole on the shuck, and
should be destroyed when found, as
they hinder the formation of the ear.
See Com^ Diseases of. The moth is
thus described by Dr. Harris :

" The fore wings are rust-red ; they
are mottled with gray, almost in
bands, uniting with the ordinary spots,
which are also gray and indistinct ;
there is an irregular tawny spot near
the tip, and on the veins there are a
few black dots. The hind wings are
yellowish-gray, with a central dusky
spot, behind which are two f<iint,
dusky bands. The head and thorax
are rust-red, with an elevated tawny
tud on each. The abdomen is pale-
brown, with a row of tawny tu/ls on
the back. The wings expand nearly
one inch and a half.'*

SPINE. The vertebrated column
of quadrupeds. It is composed of
forty or more pieces, or vertebra, ar-
ticulated by cartilage ; through these
runs the spinal marrow, or pith,
which sends off at every bone a pair
of spinal nerves, which distribute the
sensation of touch and the power of
movement to the skin and masdes,
over which they are distributed.

SPINES. In botany, imperfect
branches.

SPIRACLES. Thebreatbingopcn-
ings or pores of insects.

SPIRAL VESSELS. In ^ato,

elongated cellules, which contain a
delicate internal tbread, spirally
wound, and capable of being drawn

SPIRIT. A dkatilleU alcoholic

SPIT OF EARTH. A Bpadeftal,
aa dug from the aoil.

SPLANCHNOLOGY [from oirXay-
voir, an enlrttil). An account of Uie

SPL.iYED. In building, an angle
cut olToblLqmtj.

SPLEEN. "A spongy tiscus, of
an OTal form, the use of which is un-
known ; placed in the human subject
In the left hypochondrium, belween
the elcTenlh sod twelfth false ribs."

SPLINT. "In farriery, a bard
excrescence grauiiig en tlie shank
bones u( horses. It appears first in
the form uf a callous tumour, and
afterward ossifiea. If the splint in-
terfere with the action of some ten-
don or ligament, the hair should be
reinoved, a little strong mercurial
ointiaeni be rubbed in fur two days,
and then an active blister applied."
Also, a thin buard of a suitable 6g-
ure, or pasteboard, tu sustain a bro-
ken limh.

SPONGtOLE. The small spongy
eitreraity uf the rootlets.

SPORADIC. Springing up singly,
or in smalt numbers. Diseases are
sporadic which are not epidemic or
endemic.

SPORANGIUM. The case or re-
ceptacle containing &e spores,

SPORIDIA. The covering of the
spores, the sporeiike bodies of alga.

SP0RULE3, or SPORES, Tlie
minute, sinipte, reproduciire grains
of cryptogaiDic plitnts.

SPItlNGS Natural founUiDS of
Hater, formed wherever the rain, fa"
ing on a pervious bed, is interrupt
by an impervious slrstuiD of clay
ruck. See Draauigt.

SPHAY. The young braitchea m
twigs of trees.

SPRUCE PINB. Finat Canaien-
til. Hemlock pine, a haudsorae ever-
green tree, witli excellent wood. It
T. i,, New-York and tbe

EastoTB Stat«s. ThebarktoiiMaftr

tanning,

SPUD. " An implement osed a6-
vanlagenusty in cutting op weeds.
It consists of a chisel- formed tool,
about two inches wide on the cutting
edge, inserted into a handle of solqe
four or SIX feet m length. It is odea
made use of by the farmer as a use-
ful Bubstiiute for the wallting-cane,
affurding an opportunity of destroy-
ing weeds with the utmost facility
while walking over his grounds."

SPUR. The short, fruit-bearing
branches of apples and pears. The
hind toe of gallinaceous birds, A
well-linawn implement used by horse-
men. In botany, an elongated ap-
pendage of Che corolla.

SPURRED RYE. Ergotted lye.
Sec Ergol

SPURGE. The genua Eupkarha,
the juice of which is usually acrid.
Many species are highly ornamenlaL
The unripe fruit of the E. taUa/ri* »
used as a pickle.

SPURGE LAUREL. Dofkntltta-
■idt. A shrub of the aame genus aa
the Miser eon.

SPUR OF RYE. Ergot. Set,Ryt.

SPURRY. SperevitaniejitiilJig.).
Corn Bpurry, an indigenous annual.

growing in sandy wheat and grain
fields. It msy be cultivated on the
poorest soils, and is so quick of
growth and short of duration, that it
is often made to take an intennediata
place between the harvest and tlM
spring sdlring, without any strict ail-
berence to the regularity of aoorea-
sion I< is sown aometimes in tba

Mfriog, bttt in general in the autamn,

immediately after harvest ing the corn
crops. One light ploughing is suffi-
cient, and as the grain is very small,
it is but Ycry lightly covered. About
twenty-four pounds of seed to the
acre is the usual quantity. Its growth
is so rapid that in five or six weeks
it acquires its full height, which sel-
dom exceeds twelve or fourteen inch-
es. The crop is of course a light
one, hut is considered of great value,
both as supplying a certain quantum
of provender at very little cost, and
as being the best food for milch cows
to improve the quality of the butter.
It lasts till the frost sets in, and is
usually fed off by milch cows tether-
ed on it, but is sometimes cut and
carried to the stalls.

Where spnrry is sown in spring,
the crop is occasionally made into
hay ; but from the watery nature of
the plant, it ehrinks very much in
bulk, and, upon the whole, is much
more advantageously consumed in
the other manner. It is indigenous
in Flanders ; and, except when culti-
irated, is looked on as a weed, as in
this country.

Von Thaer considers it the most
nutritious herb of any, but the crop
is too small. Crome makes the fresh
plants to consist of water, 710;
starch, sugar, and gum, 75; albu-
men, 2 3 ; woody fibre, ISO percent.

SQUAMA. A scale : rudimentary
scale, like leaves or other parts of
a plant. SguamouM is scaly, or scale-
like.

SQUARROUS. Ragged in appear-
ance.

SQUASH. Cueurbita nulopepa is
the simhling or round squash ; C.
verrucosa^ wharty squash ; the vege-
table marrow, C succado. Varieties :
Early orange, early bush scollop,

£«en-striped bnsh, early crookneok,
rge cushaw, vegetable or autumn
marrow, Canada or winter crook-
neck, Lima cocoanut, acorn or Cal-
ifornia, and Valparaiso. Of these,
the early orange and autumn marrow
are best for the uble ; thd%alparai-
eo, which sometimes becomes up-
ward of 100 lbs. weight, is also ex-
746

STA

oeUent for the table and a erop. The

Canada or winter crook neck keeps
well through winter, and is good for
a crop for cattle. The ciiiture is the
same as for the cucumber and mekMia
the bills being from six to ten feeu
according to the variety. They sbooU
be well aired and dry bef<H« being
put away for winter, and sbouid bo
placed on straw or ahelves, and not
allowed to press on each other.

SQUASH BUG. Coreus iriBiia
See Cucumber.

SQUEAKERS. Pigeons under six
months old.

SQUILL. The genns &t£U. Bnl-
bous plants with handsome flowers
like the hyacinth. The root of S.
mariiimA, a native of the sandy ohorea
of the Mediterranean, is an excellent
medicine in diseases of the throat
and chest ; it is also diuretic.

STABLE. The buikUng in which
horses are lodged. It should be well
ventilated and often cleaned, the
urine and dung being collected into a
suitable tank, or duircoal and gyp-
sum should be spread* on the floor to
catch the urine and improve the air.
The fbllowiog account of stable man-
agement is from the ** British Hns-
bandry :"

*' Notwithstandiog that the cost <fl
horses forms a prominent item in the
farmer*s outlay, there is fre^ueotij
no part of his live-stock, nor any
branch of his business^ either so i^
understood or so much neglected af
ttabfe management. Let any one look
into the low-roofed, narrow, dark, and
nnstalled building in which teams are
often huddled together in some of the
old homesteads, and the fumesarising
from stagnant urine lying upon the
uneven pavement, as well as from
accumulated heaps of fermenting lit-
ter, and he must be eonvineed that it
is a place as noxious to health as^the
cobwebbed rafters, the unwhitewash-
ed wails, and the confusion of the
harness and utensils, show it to be
devoid of neatness and order. Let
him examine the horses, and be will
find that, although perhaps sleek from
good feeding, their coats are foul and
their heels greasy. Instead of ex-

nxBLB:

bibitingthe sfirightty appearaiice indi-
cated hy animals that have been com-
fortably bedded, their heavy eyes and
alugiftsh appearance distinctly mark
the state of the stable tbey hare qait-
ted. But though this description is
strietly applicable to many stables, it
must vet be admitted that those on
most (arms of magnitude wear a very
difTerent appearance.

'* A stable for Arm horses need not
be rigged out like one for hunters ; but
it should be roomy, clean, and well
ventilated, and everything belonging
to it should be kepi in its proper place.
Neither is it necessary that it should
be completely stalled : team cattle are
generally quiet ; if vicious, they should
be fftit rid of. A pair of horses,
worked together, will stand and feed
together qhite as conveniently as in
separate stalls, if allowed sufficient
room, and two in one stall are more
convenient to the carter. Horses
gather their feet under them ; and 6
feet, or 4^ feet if the cattle be not
large, are sufficient width for the fore
quarter. A division between each
pair is, however, desirable; but a
strong post and rail will be sufficient,
without close boarding, provided a
partition be made about four feet
long, and extend mg from thence up-
ward at least the full depth of the
manger, so as to enclose both that
and the rack. Horses, however,
sometimes acquire a habit of not ly-
ing down at all in the stable, if they
be not very conveniently lodged;
■nd as this cannot but prove highly
prejudicial to their health, they should,
m such cases, be accommodated with
roomy single stalls, or else turned
out under a loose shed. Double
stables, in which horses stand heel
to heel, are objectionable ; and hay
is better when cut fresh daily from
the stack, as well as more economi-
cally used, than when kept in lofts.
Comer racks are preferable to those
which extend along the front ; and
If bars be nailed across the manger,
at about a foot distance from each
other, they lyill prevent the horses
from throwing out their food, which
tbey are apt to do, in search of the

com, when it is mixed wUh chaff, as
well as when they have filled them-
selves. Every kind of food should,
also, be administered in small quanti-
ties at a time ; when manger meat is
given, and even when ncked up for
the night, the provender should be
served out sparingly. A cart horse,
fed on dry food, will require from two
to three hours to consume bis morning
feed; the men should therefore be
early in the stable, and all food should
be punctually given at stated hours.
Regularity should also be observed in
the hours of their work. A farm
horse can well support ten hours' la-
bour in the day, provided he be not
hurried, and the time be divided into
two equal periods, with a rest of at
least two or three hours between. In
the short days of winter, when that
cannot be allowed, the time may be
prolonged to six or even seven hours,
but ought never to extend beyond
eight, with a short bait.

** Care is also requisite in watering
horses in the stable; and it should
never be given either immediately be-
fore or alter their com, unless they
first eat some hay. On the road
they may be watered moderately, and
then put gently into motion, instead
of allowing them to stand at an ale-
house door while the carter refreshes
himself Some persons imagine that
hard spring water is the most whole-
some for cattle, but horses invariably
prefer it soft.

<* Farm ttabUs are merely intended
to protect the cattle from the weather,
for, being much exposed to changes
of the temperature, they should nev-
er be kept hot ; and as fresh air is
an essential element of health, the
windows should be merely latticed,
like those in granaries ; and two or
three wooden funnels, according to
the size of the stable, should be in-
serted from the ceiling through the
roof, thus forming so many chimneys
for the escape of foul vapours. The
floors of all stables should be paved
with eithef Clinkers or table-stones,
laid close and even, and well bedded
nnder the foundation, as otherwise a
I portion of the urine will be absorbed

T4T

STABUb

I17 tlie soil, and wiUeBiH a naiueovs
and uDwholesome exhalation. The
floor should be slightly raised at the
firont of the stalls, but the ^pe sbonld
not exceed three inches, and that
should be proTided for by raising the
litter behind them, or they will stand
in an uneasy position. The doors
would be more conveniently placed
at one end of the stable than in the
side, as the dung will be more easily
removed, and a fre» passage may be
allowed to the uiwie by a gentle slant
in the gutter of the pavement at their
feet, which may then be convenient-
ly carried off by a drain.

«<Some very intelligent farmers
keep their teams entirely in open
yards»«or JumwuU, surrounded with
well littered sheds for them to run
nnder at {Measure ; and experience
has proved that, in this manner, their
health may be maintained as well, if
not better than in stables. Such a
yard does for the whole year;— for
summer soiling and winter feeding —
but it is attended with the inconve-
nience of exposing them to accidents
when many are thus together ; nei-
ther can their food be so equally di-
vided, nor can they be kept equally
clean.

«* Carura think it no harm to pilfer
00m to pamper their teams; they
have no idea of any better mode of
feeding than to cram them to the ut-
most, and, if allowed the free use of
hay, they will not only waste it, but,
out of mistaken kindness, do the ani-
mals sehous injuiT by overloading
their stomachs. On every consid-
eration, therefore, of health and econ-
omy, they should be allowanced.
The chaff, as well as the corn, should
be weighed or measured, and if hay
be given in the racks, it should be
bound, and given out in trusses : the
expense of binding will be more than
repaid by the saving in consumption.
Marshall has justly observed, in his
Minutes of Agriculture, that, by stint-
ing the quantity, the men become
more careful ; they look upon it as
aoraetbing, and know that if they lav-
ish to-day they will want to-morrow ;
^us the servant learns frugality,
748

while his eatUe have UMir Ibod
uhirly : he will give them a little ac
a time, and see that they eat it 19
dean. There is a sjrmpathy between
the human and the brate civatioB,
arising from acquaistance, which b
more easily observed than comnumv
oated. -There are carters who WDold
sooner starve themaelvea than their
horses, and among sUKdE-feeden in
general it is obvious to conmioB ob-
servation ; though this kindiiesa does
not extend eqnal^ to the beetowal
of their labonri and, irom hahit, as
well aa idleness, they are veiy gea-
eraUy neglectful of the eeaeatial du-
ties of cteanliness. Moch of thh
must, however, be attributed to thev
masters, who too commonly treat
them as men not to be trusted, and
suspicion naturally begets deceit.
There is, consequently, but little sym-
pathy existing between them : bat
wh^ servants are ited with kind-
ness, they often retara it with inter-
est, and devote themselves with sia-
cerity to the service of their em-
ployer.

«* Condition is a word of kisa
meaning in the stable of a genttonan ;
in that of a farmer, whose bones
should be kept more for work thaa
for show, it should be understood to
mean a sufficiency of wholesome
food, evidenced by a healthy, mellow,
dean-skinned hide, without much
fat, a lively eye, and a general ^
pearance of health. Common worm-
ing horses require but little groom-
ing ; yet their coats should be kept
dear of scurf, and their feet should
be well attended to. The rough hair
which encumbers their fetlocks is
useful in some countries as a protec-
tion against flints, but a much leas
quantity would serve that purpose,
and when allowed to remain dog-
ged with dirt, it engenders greaae.
Through a very unwise economy of
some masters, the shoes, too, aie
seldom removed until they are either
completdy worn or broken, by which
much injury is done to the hoof;
thdr shoulders are galled by waat of
timdy attention to ttie state of the
cdlaro, and time is continually lost

8TABLB.

hj the breaking and ptMaag of tbe

liarnes^. In all these casee, preven-
tion is better than cure ; and, besides
the established regulation of remo-
'viog the dung and * setting the stable
fair' eveiy moming, as well as see-
ing that eaoh horse be thoroughly dry
and clean, his feet washed, and coca-
Bionally oiled and st«]pped, before
* making up for the night,* it would be
n good rale to have a regular inspec-
tion of the cattle, harness, and imple-
ments, once every week, even were
a portion of the Saturday evening's
usual work devoted to that purpose:
"iSAonn^.-- Although the better
class of veterinary surgeons are men
of education, it is yet to be regretted
that the common run of farrieiB are
of a very different description, who,
though usually employed m common
cases, yet shooki never be intrusted
in one that incurs danger. They,
however, are generally handy work-
men, and possessed of knowledge

and observation snffietent to shoe a
horse with propriety, though it is oft-
en an operation which requires con-
siderable delicacy, and, in tbe com-
monest case, shonld never be confi-
ded to a man who is not perfectly
master of his business. Though usu*
ally executed through the general do-
cility of the animals, without any ex
traordiaary difficulty, yet there is no
one who has not witnessed repeated
instances of accidents to both men
and horses, through the violence oi
the imperfect performance of the op-
eratioot through the unsteadiness of
the liUter ; and it. even sometimes
becomes necessary to cast them, in
Older to avoid danger, from the want
of a proper machine for the purpose <
of security.

'* This difficulty may, however, be
avoided by the adoption of the Flem-
ish forge, which is in general nse
throughout the Low Couatries, and
consists of strong posts and rails, by

Rbb9

740

which (be horaet «re eomliMd
very simple apparatna. which may he
easilr erected, tnd which we parti;
copy rmm ene or the plates i[ "
worii of Coynt Lasteyrie on agricul-

STACK. A refolar atrocture of
hay, oatt, wheat, or other pntdaee,
fortheur •forage and praaervation.

" SiatdMA-K reqniaite Bxtarea of the
■ta^-jrard : they are baaeaientt ~'
limber, at masunry, or aometiniei
inio, OD which to build the Btack,
their object is to keep the lower part
of the slack dry and eiclode rer-
min. Ilie uaaal mode of eonslrucling
ataads ia to place a atout frame vf
timber on uprigtit stones, two leet
4i>gh, and having projecting caps of
flat stones. They are also ounstmct-
ed wholly of stone, with circolar
polygonal walla I Fig. I, a, b), built

the same height as in the former case,
in a rather slanting manner outward,
and covered on (he tops with copinga
of oak planking, or flat stonee, which
projert over Ihe edges scTeral inches.

and ii

t way p

It the B

— e stackL. _..

both these modes, pieces of timber
are placed as a frame ia the mtddie
to support [he grain upon, and gener-
aMy a cone of spars in the centre, to
form a column of air in the heart of
the corn. Some suppose the first of
these sorts of com stands '» hn thn
best for general pnrposes.

vellai

conslrucled, and. at the annie time
permilting the air to enter and circa-
late with more freedom underneath,
in the bottom of the stand, which is
of much advantage. It is obvious
that the form of these standa or base-
iIIOTts must vary according to that in
which the stechs are to be made.
Which ta iitSbnut in dififareot dia-
■HO

But wheravcrr tbe tl
; is intmddced, the circolv
ba«e, as producing a stack ot a kmhI-
erate aiie, with ottier advantages. ■
generally preferred. BbI e*»t-in»
stands {Pif. 3), wkh «r witbwiit fin-
Fig.a.

nela. are foand preftrabta, aad admit
of stacking the coin somewhat ear-
lier. The pillars of these Masdaare
three feet high, and weigh half a hun-
dred each. A stack reiqoires serea
pillars, besides the framing, which
may either be made of poles or young
trees. In the wet climate of Clack-
mannanshire, wheat has been stack-
ed in Ave days, beans in eight, and
barley and oats in tea days, anrf some-
times earlier. No vermin can find
their way into tbese stadcs to con-
sume the grain, and the straw is bel-
ter preserved. The cope or triangle
keeps up a circulation of air. and pre-
vents heating or other damage

" The etack-yard, or enetoaare,
WTlhin which cam, hay, &c., are
siackfid, is placed exterior to that side
of tbe bailding which conialna tlie
bam. Stack-yards sbould always be
HufHciently apacioas and airy, having
a firm, dry bottom ; and some advise
then to be ridged up to prevent the
accumulation of surface water; as
by raising the ridges pretty well in
tha middle, and covering the iriacet
where tbe stacks are to be built, ei-
with ronoh atones, with a mix-
of greveU or with pavemeot in
Mme manner as streets, much
adrantace would ba gained at little

STACK.

expenae; tmtamiiohlwtttt' matliod
is to have them raised eoasiderahly
above the suriaee, and placed upon
pillars of wood or stone, with a cov-
ering of wood round the oiremnfid-
rence, and beams laid aeross. The
eudosiog of staofc-yards should be
well peiformed, either by means of
walls or palings, or, better, with a sunk
fence ; as in this way tlie staeks will
have the full benefit of the air from
top to bottom, a oixmimatance of no
small momentt since it is often found,
especially in wet seasoits, where the
fenceof the stack-yards is only a tow
walLnhat the whole of the staeks are
damaged or spoiled as high up as the
wall reaches, while the upper part is
perfectly safe. Should any addition
be required to the sunk fence, a rail-
ing upon the top may be quite suffi-
cient. This fully shows the vast ad-
vantage of having stack-yards suffi-
ciently airy. The proper arrange-
ment of the stands, for their being
removed to the thrashing-mill, is also
a mattor of much consequence in the
economy of the work that is to be
performed in them.

*' The proper site of the hay stack
should probably be different in some
degree, according to the state and na-
ture of the hay ; but a middling siae
is perhaps the best, say from twenty
to thirty loads of about one ton each,
as there are inconveniences in both
small and large stocks, the former
having too much otutside, while the
latter are liaUe to take on too mnch
heat, and, at the same time, permit
less moisture to be preserved in the
hay. In small stacks, the belying
forms, with very narrow bottoms,
have often much advantage, and are,
in some districts, termed sheep
stacks, probably from the slovenly
practice of sheep having been per-
mitted to feed at them.

" In building every description of
stack, the stom, or body, should be so
formed as to swell gradually out-
ward, quito up to the part termed the
eaves ; aa by this method it is more
perfectly secured against the en-
trance of jnoisture, and, at the same
time, reqoires a lessjspace of stand

to rest upon ; and, when the bialdiof
of them is weU performed, they have
equal 8Dlidtty» and stand in as firm a
manner.

*«The stem should contain aboat
two thirds, and the roof one third, of
the whole stack. If it be baHt on a
frame, the stem shonkl contain lean
and the roof more ; if on a bottom,
the reverse. Tlie corners of the
stem shoidd not be bnilt too sharp,
but should be carried up rather round-
ish, by which the sides will look MU
er, and the swell given by the presa-^
ure will be more perceptible.

** The ends of the roof should have
a gentle projection, answerable to
the stem ; and the aides should be
carried up rather convex than fiat o».
concave. Perhaps a roof gently con-
vex shoote ofir the rains bettor than
any other.

** Where grain is stocked that has
not been sheaved, and in building
hay stacks, it is the usual practice to
have a number of persons upon the
stock, the corn or hay being forked
up and deposited on the difiTerent
sides all round in a similar method ;
after this, other parcels are laid all
round on the inside of these, so as to
bind them in a secure manner from
slipping outward, the operator pro-
ceeding in the same manner till the
whole of the middle space is perfect-
ly filled up, when he begins another
course in the same method, and goes
on in this mode, with course after
course, till he has raised the whole
of the stem, when he begins to take
in for the roof, in a very gradual maup
ner, in every succeeding course, un-
til the whole is brought to a ridge or
point, aooording to the manner in
which the stack is formed. But for
the purpose that the roofs may throw
off the water in a more perfect and
eflectual inanner, they should he
made so aa to have a slight degree
of fulness or swell about the middle
of them, and not be made flat, as is
too frequently the practice with in*
difiTerent builders of stacks.

**Jn stacking, where the grain is
bound into sheaves, there is seldom
moie than one person employed in

7W.

sttack.

managing the woik of bnikliiig the
stack, except in cases where the di-
mensions are rery considerable, in
which case it is found necessary to
hare a boy to reoeire the leaves
ftom the pitcher and hand them to
the man who builds the stack. In
executing the work, it is of the nt-
most importance that the centre of
tiie stack be oonstaotly kept in a
somewhat raised state abore the
sides, as the sheaves have thus a
sloping direction ontwards by which
the entrance of moisture is more ef-
fectually goarded against and pre-
vented. To aooompitsh this in the
most perfect manner, the workman
begins in the middie of the stand or
staddle, setting the sheaves together
so that they may incline a little
against each other, placing the rest
in snocessive rows against them till
he comes to the outside, when he csr-
ries a course of sheaves quite round,
in a more sloping manner than in the
preceding courses. The bottom of
the stack being formed in this way,
it IB afterward usual to begin at the
outside, and advance with different
oourees round the whole, placing
each course a little within the other,
so as to bind them in an exact and
careful manner, till the stacker comes
to the middle. All the ditRsrent cours-
es are to be laid on in a simiUir manner
uitil the whole of the stem is raised
and completed, when the last outside
row of sheaves is, in most cases,
placed a very little more out than the
others, in order to form a sort of pro-
jection for the eaves, thai the water
may be thrown off more effectually.
But in cases where the steins of the
atacks are formed so as to project
outward in the manner already no-
ticed, this may be omitted without
any bad consequences, as the water
will bo thrown off easily without
touching the waste of the stack. The
roof is to be formed by placing the
eheaves gradually a little more in and
in, in every course, until it comes to
a ridge, or point, aooording to the
form of the stack, as has been al-
ready observed. But in forming and
constructing this part of the stack.
7fit

great care should coDSlaatly be takea
to give the ear ends of the sheaves a
sofficiently eloping direction upward,
in order that they may be the better
seenred from wetness ; and to the
outside ahonld be given a rouoded
form, in the manner that has heea
already aotieed.

** A funnel or ohunney is freqoeot-
ly formed or left in circular stacks,
especially in wet districts, in order
to prevent their taking on too moeh
heat: where these funnels are not
formed with the basement of Limber,
iron, or masoary, they are prodoced
by tying a sheaf op in a very tight
manner, and placing it in the nitddie,
on the foundation of the stack, pull-
ing it up oecasicmally as the baikling
of the stack proceeds all round iL In
setting up ricks in t>ad harvests, it is
a practice in some placea, particular-
ly with barley crops, to have three or
four pretty large poles tied together^
by winding straw ropes round tbeai»
set up in the middle, round wbi^h the
stacks are then built. Bat except
the stacks are large, or the grato*
when put into them, is in an iraperieet
condition, such openings are quite
unnecessary.

" The stacking of hay requires
much care aad attention in the per-
son employed for the purpose, thoogh
less than that of baitding grain stacksw
There should constantly be a proper
stand or foundation, somewhat raised
by wood or other materials, prepared
for placing the stacks upon ; but no-
thing of the coping kind is here ne-
oesaaiy. In the business of stacking
hay, the work should be constantly
performed, as much as possible, while
the sun is apon the hay, as considera-
ble advantage is thus gained in its
quaUty : and it is oeoesaaiy to havo
a stacker that has been accustomed
to the business, and a proper number
of persons to help upon the atadc, in
order that it may be well apread out
and trodden down.

'* The building of hay sta<to should
be conducted much in the same way
as the building of stacks of loose
grain ; the middie of the stack being
always well kept up a little higher

8TAGK.

fban tke sMes, sndtbe sides and ends
well bound ia by tbe proper applies^
tioQ of the socoessive portions of hay
as the work advances^ and during
which it is a good way, where there
are plenty of hands, to have the sides
and ends properly pulled into form,
as by this means much after labour is
prevented. It is likewise of advan-
tage that the bay du>uld be well sha-
ken and broken from tbe lumps du-
ring the operation of stacking. The
form in which the stacks are built is
not of much consequence ; but if
large, and made in the square form,
it is better not to have them too broad,
or of too great width, as by this
means they are less apt to heat.
With the intention of preventing too
much heat, sometimes in building hay
stacks, as well as those of the grain
kind, holes, pipes, and chimneys are
left in the middle, that the excessive
heat may be discharged ; but there is
often injury sustained by them, from
their attracting too much moisture.

•< The hay staofcs of Middlesex,
England, are more neatly formed and
better seoured than anywhere else.
At every vacant time, while the stack
is carrying up, the men are employed
in pulhng it with their hands into a
proper shape ; and about a week
after it is finished the whole roof is
properly thatched, and then secured
from receiving any damage from the
wind, by means of a straw rope ex-
tending along the eaves, np the ends,
and near the ridge. The ends of the
thatch are afterward cot evenly be-
low the eaves of the staek, just of
suiBcient length for the rain water to
drip quite clear off the hay. When
tbe stack happens to be ^aced in a
situation which may be suspected of
being too damp in the winter, a trench
of about six or eight inches deep is
dug round, and nearly close to it,
wluch serves to convey all the water
from the q>ot, and renders it perfect-
ly dry and secure.

•• The stack guard {Fig, 8), or oor-

er'mg of canvass, is employed in some
districts to protect the stack while
boHding in a wet season. The worn
sails of ships are sometimes made
use of for this purpose, though, in
most parts, a covering of loose straw
or hay is foand sufficient in ozdinaty
cases ; but where, from a continued
rain, the stack is penetrated some
way down, a part is removed on re-
oommencing, and dried before being
replaced. It is observed by Marshal,
tlial asail dolht thrown over andnn-

mediately npon the hay of a stack in
full heat, is liable to do more injury
by increasing the heat, and, at the
same tuase, checking the ascent of the
steam, than service in shooting off
rain water. The improved method
of spreading the cloth he describes as
follows : two tall poles (a, a) are in-
serted firmly in two cart wheels (&, ft),
which are laid flat upon the ground at
each end of the stack, and loaded
with stones to increase their stability.
Another pals of the same kind, and

76$

STA

somewhat longer than Die stack, is
furnished at each end with an iron
ring or hoop, large enough to admit
the upright poles and to pass freely
upon them. Near the head of each
of the standards is a pulley (r, e), over
which a rope is passed from the ring
or end of the horiaootal pole, hy
which it is easily raised or lowered
to suit the gi^en height of the stack.
A cloth being now thrown over the
horizontal pole, and its lower mai^
gins loaded with weights, a complete
roof is formed and neatly fitted to
the stack, whether it be high or low,
wide or narrow ; the eaves being al-
ways adjusted to the wall plate, or
upper part of the stem of the stack ;
thus effectually shooting off rain wa-
ter, while the internal moisture, or
steam, escapes freely at either end as

the wind may happen to blow. This
contrivance is readily put up or ta-
ken away ; the poles being light, are
easily moved from stack to stack, or
laid up for another season, and the
wheels are readily removed or re-
turned to their axles.*' — {Loudon.)

STADDLES. The contents of
haycocks spread out in circles of five
or six yards to dry.

STAK£ AND RICE. A fence
made of stakes driven into the ground
with branches intertwined.

STAG. Sometimes used fbr a
young horse.

STAGGERS. Apoplexy. See
Htfirtt^ Diaeaseg of.

STALL FEEDING. The feeding
of cattle in stalls for the purpose of
fattening them more readily than by
simple grazing, and at a time when
they cannot get fat on pastures, as a
regular part of the process of hus-
bandry, is comparatively modem. In
former times cattle were slaughtered
in October and November, which lat-
ter, in must languages derived from
the Teutonic, is called Slaughter
month ; there being no possibility of
buying fresh meat of any degree of
fatness during winter, and salt meat
was the Ibod of all classes in that
•eason. But now the process of fat*
tening oattle goes on without inter-
roption duiing the whole yaar, and hA
76i

ATA

beasts come as regalarlj to market
in winter as in summer. Stall fee<J-
ing is now the principal means by
which oxen and cows are rendered
fit for the market.

** It has been observed in the arti-
cle Soiling, that one object of that
system was to save the waste of food
which is occasioned by the treading
of cattle' in pastures, and by their
choosing the sweetest grasses to the
neglect of the coarser. The princi-
pal object, however, is to save the
manure, which in the pastures goes
to waste, but in the yards or stall is
all preserved. Tn stall feeding an-
other object is looked to, that of in-
creasing the substance of the animal
especially the fat ; and to do this ju-
diciously and with profit requires
I much experience and attention. It

has been proved that animals require
a certain portion of meat and drink
to keep them alive, and that this quan-
tity, in the same species, is, in gen-
eral, in proportion to the weight of
the animal. If an animal has his ex-
act ration of food, he will continoe in
health, but he will not increase in
weight : in this case, therefore* it
only produces a certain portion of
manure, which it not equivalent to
the food consumed. If a larger quan-
tity be given, the animal, if in bcalih,
will increase in weight, and the more
food he has, within a certain limit,
the faster will be this increase : bat
there is a point where increase stops ;
and if by any means the animal is in-
duced to take more, his stomach will
be deranged, and he will become dis-
eased, and occasion loss by over-
feeding. It is consequently of great
importaoee to the stall feeder to as-
certain what is the exact quaotirv
of food which it will be most prof-
itable to give to a stall-fed animal.
Experience alone can teach this ;
but some rules may be given which
will enable any one who wishes to
stall feed cattle not greatly to err
in his mode of feeding, and soon to
find oat what is the most profitable
course to pursoe. For this purpose,
it is essential that, after having as-
certained by experifiieiit «be quantity

STALL FEEDING.

of fbod whieh will give tbe greatest
increase of llesh per week on a cer-
tain weight of beasca when put ap to
fatten, all the food given to the cat-
tle be carefully weigiied, and no more
giTen in aoy day than ict needful.
The quality of the food should also
be attended to ; for a truss of fine,
well-made clover, lucern, or sainfoin
hay, may contain double the nourish-
ment of another truss of coarse marsh
bay. The best kind of food should al-
ways be reserved for fattening cattle.
Roots are excellent helps ; but roots
alone are too watery, and must be
corrected by dry food, such as straw
cut into chaff, or good hay, and es'
pecially farinaceous food, whether it
be corn ground or bruised, or oil-cake
aAer the oil has been expressed. By
a judicious mixture of food, a much
greater increase of Aesh may be pro-
duced than by an irregular mode of
feeding, however good the quality or
abundant the quantity given may be.
To over feed is as unprofitable as to
starve a beast, and produces similar
effeots. It is of great importance
that the cattle shonid be fed with
great punctuality at certain hours du-
ring the day, and that tbe troughs
should be cleared of all the remains
of food which they do not eat at each
time of feeding. Rest and sleep are
great aids to digestion, and a little
gentle exercise alter sleep prepares
the stomach for a fresh supply of
food : air, also, is highly conducive to
health ;*and hence those beasts which
are allowed to move about in a loose
stall or a small yard, protected from
Che rain and wind, thrive better in
ffeneral than those which are tied up.
It is the practice of many good feed-
ers to put oxen in pairs in small
. stalls, partly open, so that they may
be in the air, or under shelter, as they
prefer ; and the finest oxen, if not the
fattest, are prepared for the market
in this way. Experience shows that
all domestic animals like compapy.
and that they are more contented and
quiet when they have a companion
than when they are alone. This is
the reason why they are put up in
pairs. Whatever promotes the heahh

and comfhrt of the animal will be
most profitable to the feeder. When
a beast has acquired a certain degree
of fatness, it is a nice point to decide
whether it would be best to send liim
to market or continue to feed him.
This is often decided by mere caprice
or fancy ; but if the food has been
weighed, and the weekly increase of
the beast is noted, which is best
done by weighing, but may nearly be
guessed 1^ measuring, it becomes a
mere question in arithmetic to deter-
mine whether his increase pays for
bis food and attendance ; if it does
not, there is a loss in keeping him ;
and if a lean animal put in his stead
would increase faster on the same
food, every day he is kept there is a
loss of the difference between the in-
crease of the two. The pride of pro-
ducing a wonderful animal at a fair
or show may be dearly paid for, and
must be put down to the account of
luxuries, such as keeping hunters or
race- horses.

" The most profitable food for fat-
tening cattle is, in general, the prod-
uce of the farm ; the expense of all
purchased food ts increased by the
profit of the dealer and the carriage
of it ; and the only compensation for
this additional cost may l)e in in-
creasing the manure, where the straw
and roots of the farm are deficient.
In that ease, oil-cake, or even corn,
may he purchased with advantage ;
since by means of the manure, crops
may be raised which without it must
fail. The stalling of cattle, as well
as the fattening of pigs, is in many sit-
uations the best means of carrying
the produce of the farm to market.
An ox can be driven many miles,
while the food be has consumed
would not repay the carriage, and
all the manure would be lost, and
must be purchased at a great expense,
if it can be had at all. If a farmer
can feed cattle so as to pay him a
fair market price for the food con-
sumed, and something for tbe risk of
accidental loss, he may be well con-
tented to have the manure for his
trouble : few stall feeders get more
than this in tbe long vin»"-^Rham.)

755

8TA

STAMENS. The male apparatus
of a flower. They are situated im-
mediately within the petals, and con-
sist each of a filament, the anther,
and the pollen ; of which the two lat-
ter are essential, and the former not.
They are a modified form of the pe-
tal, and are placed next it on the in-
side, towards the centre of the flower.
Independently of their physiological
importance, they are much used as
good marks of discrimination in sys-
tematical hotany.

STAMINAT£. HaYiog stamens
only.

STANDARD TREES. Such trees
as are not trained, but grow erect and
without support.

STARCH. Amylacehus matter,
fecula, composed of carbon 12 ; hy-
drogen 10; oxygen 10. "Starch is
one of the commonest proximate prin-
ciples of vegetables. It is character-
ized by its insipidity, and by insolu-
bility in cold water, in ^ohol, and in
ether. It dissolves in, or at least
forms a gelatinous compound with
water, healed to 175° ; and this solu-
tion, even when much diluted, is ren-
dered blue by iodine. This admira-
ble test of the presence of starch is
not eflfective in hot solutions ; and by
boiling, the blue colour disappears,
but returns in strong solutions as
they cool. The term starch is com-
mercially applied to thai obtained from
wheat, which, for this manufacture,
is ground and diffused through vats
of water, where it undergoes a slight
fermentation, and acquires a peculiar
sour smelL A part of the gluten and al-
bumen of the grain is thus separated in
the form of a viscid scum ; the starch
being in the form of a finely-divided
white powder, is gradually farther
separated by washing in large quan-
tities of water, from which it is ulti-
mately allowed to settle, and put into
boxes lined with linen to drain ; it is
then cut into squares, which are dried
first in airy chambers upon porous
bricks, and aflerward rolled up in pa-
pers and stove dried ; it is in this lat-
ter operation that the starch acquires
that peculiar oolumnar texture and
fracture which is well exhibited on
766

opening a peper paro^ as it
from the stove. A little smaii is _
erally added to the starch, by vehick
it acquires a very pale Une tint, aad
is better adapted to conceal or cover
the yellow tint acquired bj worn lin-
en. Starch may be obtained froa
many other grains, and from potatoes
and several other esculent vei^etaMesu
Arrowroot is the starch of the Jtsra»'
ta orundinMcem; sago, of the SmgMM
farimfera^ an East India palm-tree;
and tapioea and coMsava of the Jaiwr^
pha mamhot. In the process of ger-
mination, and by various chemical
agents, starch may be converted into
a species of gum, dextrin, and sa-
gar."

STAR-WORTS. Coropoaite plants
of the genus Aster.

STAVES. Staves for spirit poa-
cheons are of white oak, for sugar
hogsheads of red oak ; but ash and
white oak are also used. They axe
cut of several lengths to make into
hogsheads, puncheons, and tiereea.
I'he largest sixe is 72 inches loag, 7
wide, and 3 inches thick ; for punch-
eons, tierces, brewer's casks, pipes,
dec., staves are 33, 42, 45, 54 indMS
long, and from |, li, l|f» 2^, to Z
inches thick. The most usual dimen-
sions are 72, 42, and 33 inches, with
3, Ih and one inch thickness; these
measures are exclusive of sapwood.
The British duty on staves has been
reduced to 28#. the 50 cubic feet, and
hence they will be largely exported.

STEAMING FOOD. By this means
many roots, especially potatoes, are
reduced almost to a powder. Com
and other mea^ when boiled, is more
perfectly digested, and in this way, by
answering for imperfect grinding, the
steaming of food, or bojjjng, serves
to assist a more perfect assimilation.
There is no increase in nutritiousnesa,
and in many cases the economy is
very questionable. See Food.

STEARIN. The solid part of
fats. It is a stearate of glycerine.

STEARIC ACID. The acid ob-
tained by saponizing stearin, and de-
composing the soap by a dilute acid.
It is a brilliant white, ao/t body, in-
soluble in water.

snn

8TD

STEATITE. Soapstone.

STEATOMA. A fatty tumour.

STEEPING SEEDS. See Urcdo,
Manuring" SeedSf Smui.

STELLATE. Star-shaped, resem-
bling a star.

STEM. In botany, the upward

?irolongation of the axis of a plant,
t is distittgaished from aU other parts
by bearing buds.

STENELYTRANS. A family of
coleopterous insebts, many of which
haye the elytra narrow at the poste-
rior part.

STEPPE. An extensive plain.

STERCORARY. A place where
dung and manure is kept.

STEREOMETER. An instrument
for taking specific gravities.

STERNUM. The breast bone, to
which the ribs are attached.

STETHESCOPE. A wooden tnbe,
twelve inches long, used to assist the
ear in determining the character of the
•oonds of respiration and other func-
tions occurring within the body, to
form an opinion of the diseases, dtc.

STHENIC DISEASES. Those of
increased, action or inflammation.

STIGMA. The upper extremity
of the style, or female organ of plants :
it has ahnost uniformly a humid sur-
face. It is the part upon which the
pollen lalls, and where it is stimulated

toto the prvdiietion of the pdlen tubesy
which are indispensable to the act of
impregnation.

ST I L E. In building, an upriglit
piece in framing. In rural affairs, a
rough ladder, or set of steps, to al-
low the passage of men, but not of
animals.

STIMULANTS. Substances
which produce increased circulation
or heat, as alcohol.
. STIPULE. A small leaf or scale
situated at the base of the leaf-stalk
(peHoie) of some plants.

STOCK. The live stock, or ani-
mals of the farm. ^

STOLON, STOLE. A runnfl|
stem which throws off young plants
at certain points, as the strawberry.
Stolonifenms is a derivative.

STOMACH. The cavity or pouch
in which food is digested. In most
animals there is one stomach only,
but in the sheep and ruminants there
are four. See Ox. In the stomachy
properly so called, a fluid termed the
gastric juiu is secreted at meal times,
which serves to digest the food.

STOMACH PUMP. An instru-
ment of great value to the larroer to
remove poisonous matters or bad food
from the paunch of animals. It is
also serviceable for administering
glysters, and one pump» with a nam*

8 Si

767

OTO

ST&.

ber of tubes of diffiMvnt soes* will
aoBwer for oxen, horses, or sheep.
The instrument consists of a sjrringe,
a, having a side opening, 6, and an
ordinary opening at the bottom, d. It
is used both for throwing fluid into
the stomach, ^tc., and removing it
from the body. Fig. 1 shows the fix-
ture for injections. The extremity,
d, is placed into the pail of water, dec,
and a long probang sorewed on to the
side opening, b ; by pumping, the flu-
id is driven along the prohang or in-
jection tube. When used to remove
matters from the stomach, the pro-
b«|^ is screwed on to the lower end^
d^Sif\ introduced : the fluid from the
stomach paisses out at b (Fig. 2).

Where matters are to be removed
from the stomach, tepid water is first
injected; the syringe is then un-
screwed from the probang at &, and
screwed on at d. It is now a stom-
ach pomp, and will draw any thin flu-
ids out of the stomach.

The intniduction of the pump is ef-
fected by the help of an assistant, who
holds the animal by a horn and the
dividing cartilage of the nose ; the
operator now takes tbe tongue in the
left hand, and introduces the tube
with the right, the ffiBsistant holding
the head and neck in a straight line,
so as to assist the passage. Tbe
jaws are kept open by a regular bit
of perforated wood, or by any piece of
stick introduced between the teeth.

STOMATA. Minute openings on
the under side of most leaves. They
are surrounded by small cellules,
which have the power of shutting
them up.

STONE. A weight of 14 pounds.

STONE CROP. Small, succulent
plants of the genus Sedumt growing
on old walls and roofs.

STOOK and STOCKING. The
same as shock and shocking.

STOOL. " The root of a tree or
plant, similar to the oak, beech, elm,
&e , which throws up shoots. Cop-
pice wood consists chiefly of the
shoots sent up by the roots or stools
of trees or shrubs which have been
cut over by tbe surface. In general,
au aieotyledonons treea are endowed

by Batore with the fyropetty of
ing up shoots from the stamp or
stools ; but this is not the cajte witii
most of the gymnosperms or oonif.
eroQs trees. A wckxI of pines or firs.
therefore, when once cut down,
never be renewed except by

STORK'S BILL. The
Erodium and Germitium, which liir*
nish many beautiful flowers ; they ai«
propagated chiefly by slips.

STORY POST. An apngfat post
or tiakber to support a floortii^, dbc

STOVE. '* In horticulture, a strao-
ture in which plants are cuHivated
that reqoize a conaiderahiy higher
temperature than the opes air. There
are two or three kinds of stoves, but
the principal are Uie dry slave mad
the damp stove. The dry stove is a
structure, tbe atmosphere of which
is heated to tbe temperature of fross
55'' to 60*^ during winter, in which
are chiefly cultivated suecolents, sueh
as the diflferent species of CeretuMf
CereiUt SlaphehA^ JSupkarbm^ Mtaem-
biyafUkenmmt and other soecalenta
having similar habits. During win-
ter these plants require very little wa»
ter, and during summer tfa«y require
intense beat, and abimdsQce of air
and water during fine weather. The
damp stove, someiimes also eailed
the bark stove, requires a tempera-
ture of between da"" and 70° during
winter, with a proportionate increase
during summer, accompanied, in both
aeasons, with a high degree of at-
mospherical moisture. This moist-
ure is prod used partly by evaporation
from the bark bed in which tbe plants
are plunged, but chiefly by watering
the floor of the house, and by syr-
inging the plants. During summer
the plants in the bark stove require
all the light whidi the atmosphere in
this country is capable of producing,
together with abundance of air, as in
tbe dry stove. Both stoves are heat-
ed by smoke flues, or by hot water or
steam, circulated in metallic or other
tubes. The plants cultivated in the
moist stove are exclusively those of
the tropics ; andHliose which require
the highest degree of heat mxg chiefly
monocotyledonous plants, such as the

STR

ant

Seiitminta^ which inchide the ginger,
plantain, banana, sugar cane, palms,
Oi-ekidatea ; and such dicotyleUonaus
filanta as the bread fruit, the yam,
inangosteen, and other East Indian
plants. The bark bed is chiefly em-
ployed for producing a uniform de-
gree of moisture and heat to the
roots, and also as a reservoir of heat
I6r the atmosphere of the bouse in
eastfof any diminution fr6m the flues,
water or steam pipes, or the sun.
Stoves of every description require a
constant degree of attention from the
gardener throughout the year, more
especially such as are devoted to the
palms, the banana, the pineapple, and
tlie Orchidatea^-^LifidUy,)

STOVER. Refuse hulls, coarse
fodder.

STRAINING PIECE. A timber
inlfended to keep two posts or other
pieces at a certain distance.

STRAINS, SPRAINS. Injuries
produced by over-stretching the lig<
amenta of nmscles ; they are often
very severe, and require copping and
leeching. Occasionally fomentations
are sufficient, with rest, and banda-
ging the part tightly.

STRAMONIUM. Jamestown
weed. See Datura.

STRANGLES. A disease of young
horses. See Horsty Diteases of.

STRANGURY, or SUPPRES-
SION OF URINE, INCONTI-
NENCE OF URINE, BLOODY
URINE. ** Strangury may arise from
an injury done to the kidneys, or to
the bladder, by strains, or by the ab-
sorption of irritating matters. In
these cases, bleed if there be fever ;
if not, merely give the horse absolute
rest ; mash him» give gmel, and warm
the water given him for drink. B/o«fy
urtiM should be treated in the same
way. Some horses have such a nat-
urid or acquired weakness of kid-
neys, as to stale blood with their
urine on every occasion of over-ex-
ertion. The means frequently used
for relief are such as aggravate the
complaint, and, indeed, are often the
occasion of it, which are diuretics.
Strong 4inretics injure horses more
than strong physic, and benefit tiiem

tees than any otiier of the pNDpnIar
means made use of In retentions of
urine, but particularly in the case of
bloody urine, they are absolutely im-
proper."

STRATH. A small valley.

STRATUM. A bed of rock» Of
other deposite.

STRAW. The culm or stalk ol
the cerealia. It is used both as litter
and fodder. For the latter purpose,
the diflSsrent kinds are of unequal
value. See FoodL.

STRAW CUTTER. A machine
to cut straw into chaff: a chaff en-
gine. The simplest kind is no more
than two, three, or more curved
knives working between iron bars;
but the better sorts consist either of
knives set on a fly wheel, or on roll-
ers which press on the straw as it is
pushed along* the feeding-trough, or
hopper, in the best, the straw is
pulled forward by the machine, so
that the labourer has only to turn the
handle and feed the hopper. The
number of patents is very great.
The machines of Willis, Boynton,
Green, Worley, Hovey . Safford, Sand-
ford, and Botts are well known. The
cost is from $16 to 8fiO, and they cut
from five to thirty bushels per hour.
An English machine, by W. Lester, is
a very simple and admirable contri-
vance. Sandford's machine is of a
durable construction, and the knives
are readily sharpened. Price, 915.

STRAWBERRY. This admirable
fruit is yielded by several species ol
the genus Fragaria. The European
wood is JF*. vt9ca ; the scarlets are
from P. Virgimana ; the Alpines from
F. coUma ; and the F. CaroHnensis,
elaHar, Chilietmgy also furnish some
of the best kinds.

** The best soil is a strong, rich
loam, and one that is tolerably adhe-
sive and retentive of moisture ; for,
as strawberries are generally injured
in this country by excessive drought,
it is best to provide against this ca-
lamity by planting them in a rather
wet soil. A rich soil, however, is
not indispensable, as almost any
mould that is not too dry will pro*
duoe agreateroxiess quantity of firoiL

7S»

8TR

" Trenching the ground a foot and

a half deep, and mixing plenty of
well-rotted dung with the soil that is
brought to the surface, is the best
preparation.

*' The time of planting is the first
week ia August for the offsets of the
first spring runners, always choosing
those that are large, and rejecting
small ones. During the first year,,
cut off all runners as they appear.
Any lime from October to May will
do for planting out old stools which
have borne fruit once. Those which
have borne twice are good for no-
thing, and should be thrown away.

** The offsets may be planted in a
single row along the borders of the
walks, at ten or fifteen inches apart :
if another row be made, it ought to
be fifleen inches from the other;
they may also be planted in (dumps
of three or more together, six inches
or less apart, and three feet between
the clumps. Beds with four rows
each, and two feet between the beds
for cabbages, answer well. But the
best situation for planting strawber-
ries is where a row of dwarf apple,
pear, or other trees is grown on ei-
ther or both sides of a walk, to have
a bed of strawberries, four or five feet
wide, beneath them ; for in this situa-
tion they wilt be afforded that degree
of shade which is necessary for them
in dry weather, without injuring the
trees or being injured by them. In
these beds they should first be plant-
ed in four rows, two on each side of
the trees, and the offsets from these
should be allowed to spread so as to
extend themselves over the whole of
the bed, only cutting off annually
those that are disposed to wander
from the prescribed bounds of the
bed. A strawberry bed of this de-
scription would produce a far great-
er crop than if planted out in single
rows, and will continue bearing for
a greater number of years, as well as
be less liable to injury frooMlrought.

" It is imporunt to fix the roots
well in the ground, otherwise they
may be drawn out by earth worms,
or pushed out of the ground on a
thaw suooeeding a bard frost.
760

I «<The beat aorta are Keen's
ling, Hovey*s seedling, Myatt*s Brit-
ish Queen, Swainstone^s seedKo^
old pine, red wood, the roseberry, and
the bautbois. The' scarlet ia tbeear-
liest, and the small red Alpioe, 'vrbieli
some say is best when raised iinaai
seed, others say best from mnners.
planted in August or September, at
six inches distance, will produce ^uit
from the end of May till the frost sets
in. For a late crop, all the flower
stems should be cut oflf as ihej show,
up to the end of Jnne.

" Strawberries are much injured liy
hot, dry weather, and therefoiB tliej
must be abundantly supplied with war
ter when this occurs, particularly just
as the blossom falls ; but the tdosecmi
must not be wetted. Weeds most
be cleared ofiT, but in stirring the
earth with a fork, not with a apa^
care must be taken not to go too near
the roots, as reconunended by some.
Birds must be guarded against, as
well as snails and slugs, which would
eat the blooms and spoil the froit.
Pieces of slate, tiles, tin, boards, or.
what is preferable, hay, straw, or diy
moss, should be laid three or four
inches thick under the fVuit as it be-
comes ripe, to keep it clean from
sand: but this precaution is seldom
necessary. The superfluous ruoneia
and dead leaves should be removed
in September. What are termed male
or barren plants should always be
grubbed up.*'

STREAK. In mineraJo^, the
mark left by a mineral when drawn
along the surface of paper.

STREET MANURE. The sweep-
ings of streets, consisting of the dung
of animals, vegetable garbage, earthy
matters, rubbish from buildings, soot,
dec. It is necessarily of very differ-
ent values. It is chiefly useful to
lighten stiff soils, and may be used
at the rate of 20 to 30 loads the
acre.

STRENGTH. «* In mechanics,
this term is used in the same sense
as force or power. Ilius, strength
of animals is the muscular force or
eneri^ which animals are <^|pable of
exerting ; strength of materuua is the

8TR

STR

resistance which bodies oppose to a
force acting npoo them. It is obvi-
oasly a matter of much importance
to be able to estimate with tolerable
accnracy the efibrts which an animal
of the average strength employed in
labonr is capable of exerting, and, ac-
cordingly, Tory nnmerous observa-
tions have been made on the subject ;
but this species of force is subject to
variation from so great a number of
circumstances, both physical and me-
chanical, that the results given by
different authors present very little
agreement with each other, though
they are of great value as affording
data for determining the modes in
which animal labour is most advan-
tageously employed.

** Of all animals employed as first
movers, the horse is, beyond ques-
tion, the most useful, and that whose
labour is susceptible of the most nu-
merous and varied applications. For
the purpose of determining his mus-
cular power, the dynamometer may
be conveniently used ; but as the ac-
tion of the animal is very quickly re-
duced by continued exertion, it is
more usual to estimate it according
to the amount of daily labour perform-
ed. Desaguliers and Smeaton esti-
mate the strength of a horse as equiv-
alent to that of five men ; the French
authors have commonly stated it as
equal to seven men ; and Schuize
makes it equal to that of fourteen
men, in drawing horizontally. Ac-
cording to Desaguliers, a horse's pow-
er is equal to 44*000 lbs. raised one
foot high in one minute. Smeaton
makes this number 22 916, Hachett
28000, and Watt 33 000. The last
estimate is commonly understood by
the term horse jwwer as applied to
steam-engines. The quantity of ac-
tion which a horse can exert dimin-
ishes as the duration of the labour is
prolonged. The following table, by

TiOMOf

Mmivb in
Boon.

%
3
4
5

Qrmttm

Vslocky

per Hovr

iaMUM.

14-7

10-4

8-5

7-3

6-6

S BtS

Tine of

Marcli in

Bounw

Onmtmt
ValocHir

per Hour
inMOa*.

6-0

5-3
49
4-fl

TredgoM, shows the average maxi-
mum velocity with which a horse un-
loaded can travel, according to the
number of hours per day.

" The useful effect a horse is capa-
ble of producing depends much upon
the manner in which his strength is
applied.

** Strength of MateriaU. — There are
four different ways in which the
strength of a solid body may be ex-
erted : first, in resisting a longitudin-
al tension, or force lending to tear it
asunder; secondly, in resisting a
force tending to break the body by a
transverse strain ; thirdly* in resist-
ing compression, or a force tending
to crush the body ; and, fourthly, in
resisting a force tending to rend it
asunder by torrion. Mr. Hodgkinson
gives the following results of his ex*
periments on the resistance of a
crushing force on short pillars of some
of the most common descriptions of
wood, the force being applied in the
direction of the fibres :

DeKriptknof Wood.

StmiKtli per aquaro
loch, in lb&

Alder

Aah

Bay

Beech

Birch

Cedar,

Bed deal

White deal ....

Elder

Elm ........

Fir (spruce) ....

Mahogany ....

Oak (Quebec) . . .
Oak(Engltah) . . .
Pioe (pitch) ....

Piiie (red) ....

Poplar

Plum (dry) ....

Teak

Walnot

Willow

6831 to 6960~
8683 9363
7518 7518
7733 9363
39«7 640S
5674 5863
5748 6666
6781 7293
7451 9973

10331
6499 6819
8198 8198
4231 598S
6484 10058
6790 6790
5395 7518
3107 5134
8341 10493

12101
6063 7337
8896 6138"

— (Briiiui«*« Diet, of Science ; Barbw's
Treatige on the Strength of Timber,)

STREPSIPTERANS. An order
of insects possessing rudimentary
elytra in the form of scales.

STRIATE. Grooved, coloured
with narrow lines or streaks.

STRIGIDiE. The raptorial birds
of the owl kind.

STROBILE. The conical fruit of
the pines, firs, hop, dco.

761

ST0

ara

STROWGTIiUS. A genua of par-
ftsitical intestinal worms.

STRONTIA. An alkaline earth,
very similar to lime.

STROMA. A swelling.

STRYCHNIA. Anextremely
poisoDoos vegetable alkali, obtained
from the nux vomica and other
strycbnoos plants. It produces vio-
lent convulsions.

STUBBLE. Th6 roots and stems
of grain plants left in the soil after
harvest. If they are long, it will be
best to burn them, but on light soils
they may be turned in.

STUD. A post or upright in a
building: an establishment of hor-
ses.

STUMP MACHINE OR EX-
TRACTOR. A contrivance for the
extraction of stumps from new lands.
They are usually on the principle of
a windlass. The machines of Pratt
and Witney have been often recom-
mended . One of these will raise from
100 to 200 stumps a day ; they cost
from 9200 to 4^400. The Western
Farmer and Gardener gives the fol-
lowing method of removing stomps :

"Procure a dry, red-eJm lever,
about twenty feet long, and about six
to eight inches in diameter ; a good,
stout log chain, with two yokes of
oxen : this is all the machirury that
is necessary. The mode of operation
is thus : wrap the log chain round the
stump, a little above the ground, and
make what is called a log hitch ; lay
the lever horizontally on the ground,
the large end next to the chain and
against the stamp ; make the other
end of the chain fast to this end of
the lever, drawing the lever tight
against the stump; the cattle are
hitched to the small end of the lever,
and driven round the stump in a cir-
cle of which the lever is the radius.
One revolution of the oxen romid the
stump will generally twist out the
largest of them ; but should nut the
power thus applied be sufficient to
move the stump, the side roots may
be uncovered and cut partly off*; after
this is done, the stump will he easily
removed. You will find this plan
much preferable to wy * pateat atnmp
768

extractor' that y<m fnay have
puffed in the papers.*'

STY. See Hog-sty,

STYLE. The stem which SDfK
ports the stigma ; it is the upper por-
tion of the oarpels.

STYLOBATE. An unintemi]iled
base common to many columns.

STYPTICS. Substances whioii,
when applied to small wouada, re-
Btram the flow of blood, as idam.
The word scarcely diflers from as*
tringents*

SUBCLAVIAN. Any part under
the davicle or coUar bone.

SUBERIN. Tbe substance of
cork. By digesting it with nttrio
acid, it is converted into suberic acid.

SUBLIMATION. A process by
which solids are by the aid T>f heal
converted into vapour, which is agaut
condensed, and often in tbe crystal-
line form. This operation is frequent-
ly resorted to for the purpose of pa*
rifying various chemical preducta,
and separating them from substances
which are less volatile.

SUBLINGUAL. The parts lyio^
under the tongue.

SUBSOIL. The earth hnmediato-
ly below that which is tilled. Tlie
value of land depends almost as tDOch
on the subsoil as the tilth : if if be
wet and full of stagnant water, it
must be under-drained ; if it be haid
and rocky, the surface soil dries too
readily to a dust ; if it he deep and
too light, water and fluid manures*
may drain away wastefully.

SUBSOILING. Loosening the snb-
soil by a plough without any moulds
board to torn it, has been strenuously
recommended of !ate, as a great ira*
provement in tillage. A heavy plough
is first run along the field some six or
eight inches deep, and a subsoil
plough (see Phugk) follows in the
bottom of the furrow, deepening it te
fourteen or sixteen inches in alL
This diflTers from trench ploughing, in
which the subsoil is east up and
mixed with the surface, by which the
soil is either benefited or injured, ac-
cording to the nature of tbe subsoil.

The principal effect of subsoil
ploughing is, that the earth is deep-

TOP

8tTO

ened to a considerable d«pftk, andj SUOAR. One of the indi^erent

ami ordinary products of plants. It
18 recognised by its flarour. Chem-
ists dietingaistt a variety of species
of sugar, of which- the crystallizable,
or cane sugary and uncrystailisable, or
d^uUly erystallizttbUf or grape su^
gar (glueofe), are the representatives ;
these diflfer in composition, cane su-
gar beih9 Gis Hn On, and grape sa-
gar, Ci9 Hm Om ; but their chief dis-
tinction rests in the circumstance that
grape sugar is capable of undergoing
fennentaiion, whereas cane sugar
most first be converted irito glucose
to ferment. Grape sugar is identical
with that from fyuits, green stalks,
and with dialietic and starch sugar
Sugar for commercial purposes is ob
tained chiefly from the cane, but the
beet is also extensively manufactur-
ed (aee Beet)^ and the maple (see 3fa-
pie) yields a large quantity. Some
sugar or molasses is also made from
starch of potatoes by boiling it in sil-
ver or lead boilers with dilute sulphu-
ric acid : for this purpose, 200 parts of
starch, 4 of strong acid, and 800 of
water are used, and the boiling con-
tinued thirty hours : by steaming at n
high pressure, six hours will answer.
SUGAR CANE. Arundo sacrha*
ri/era. U is very readily destroyed by
light frosts, and cannot be grown
north of 82^ N. In Louisiana the
frost sometimes destroys the crop,
and to save it, the cat stems are piled
up, or mattressed on the field in mass-
es three or four feet high. The press-
ing is done between rollers worked
usually by animals, but sometimes by
wind, water, or steam power. Tho
process of making the sugar is de-
tailed under the article Beet. The
following short rules may, however,
be of service :

" 1 . To cut the cane as ripe as pos-
sible, but before any acetic acid is
formed : litmus paper, touched to the
fresh-cot cane, will tnm red if acid.

" 2. Express the juice without loss
of time, as every moment after cut^
ting will deteriorate its quality.

" d. A small quantity of clear lime-
water, say one quart to a hundred gal-
loos of jaioe, should be added the mo-

768

root culture is much improved ; the
soil is also considerably drained, and,
if moor pans exist in it, may be re-
claimed from sterility. It is there-
fore an admirable process in stiff soils
imperfectly drained, but in loose
gravelly or sandy soils subsoil plough-
ing is often very injurious. By the
tillage of years, the treading of cat-
tle, and the pressure of the sole of
the plough and rolling, the surface
soil becomes compact, and holds wa-
ter and manure sufficiently for the
crops ; but by subsoiling these ad-
vantages are thrown away, and a
thirsty, loose soil again established.
SUBSTANTIVE COLOURS.
Colouring matters which stain the
texture or yarn permanently, withoat
the necessity for a mordant ; the lat-
ter being called adjective colours.

SUBSTITUTION. In chemistry,
the doctrine advanced by Dumas, that,
ia many organic and complex com-
pounds, one element can take tlie
place of another without changing the
relations of the others.

SUBSTRATUM. The stratum of
a different geological kind immedi-
ately below the surface.

SUBULATE. Awl-sbaped, round,
and tapering to the end.

SUBULICORNS. A family of neu-
roptera, with awl-shaped antemue.

SUBULIPALPS. A section of
caraboid beetles, some of which have
the exterior palpi awl-shaped.
SUCCORY. See Ckiconf.
SUCCULENT. Fleshy, full of
water.

SUCKERS. The shoots from the
roots of trees or plants near the stem.
They are ollen serviceable for prop-
agation
SUCTION PUMP. See Pump,
SUDORIFICS. Medicines which
produce increased perspiration.

SUET. Fat which contains a large
proportion of stearin, and is hard.
It is best from the loins or kidneys of
the sheep, and next from the ox. It
is used for the best tallow candles.

SUFFRUTEX. An under shrub,
a small shrub, a portion of whose an-
nual stems die away. Sifffnuicoaa is
like an under shrub.

SUGAR CANE.

meot it iBexpfe88ed,aalM8 tiM juice
shows acidity with litmus paper ; in
that case, do lime should be ueed, but
a solution of sal-soda, or soda ash,
should be added until it is precisely
neutral.

" 4. When the juice is neutral, free
from excess of aoid or alkali, it should
be evaporated io such an apparatus as
would finish its charge in thirty min-
utes : if the boiling power is too small,
good crystallization cannot possibly be
obtained.

wtK>d or

When movilds cannot be ob-
tained, conical vessels of
metal, with a hole at the
answer equally well."

The stools of the cane throir up
stems or ratoons for two or three
years, unless destroyed by frost» to
guard against which they are hffled
up in the fall, and opened in part in
spring: the same treatment is por-
saed in regard to the cattings for
propagation. The Une riband cane
is that most used in Louisiana. The

" The whole time occupied, from
the cutting of the cane to finishing its
boiling, should not exceed one hour.
*' 5. To know when the boiling is
finished, place a thermometer in the
kettle, and continue to evaporate un-
til it stands at 239'' Fahrenheit. If,
when placed to run off after cooling,
it should be found too freely boiled,
the next time boil to 240®, or, if too
light to run off, to 238®, and so on.

" 6. The kettle or boiler should be
so arranged, that the moment it is
done its charge should be thrown into
a cooler capable of holding a number
of charges. The first charge should
be \et\ in the cooler, without stirring,
until the second charge is thrown in ;
then with an oar scrape the crystals
found on the side and bottom of the
cooler loose, and gently siir the whole
mass together : the less stirred the
better ; so continue at the letting in
of each charge, to stir gently: and
when all is in the cooler, let the
whole stand until it cools down to
175® ; then fill out into sugar moulds
of a capacity not less than 14 gallons.
When cooled in the mould sufficient-
ly, say fourteen hours, pull the plug
out of the bottom of the mould, and
insert a sharp point, nearly as large
as the hole, some six inches ; with-
draw the point, and stand the mould
on a pot to drip.

<' 7. If the su^ar is intanded to be
brown, leaving it standing on the pot
for a sufficient length of time, in a
temperature of 80®, will run off its
molasses, and leave it in a merchant-
able shape : it will probably require
twenty days. It can then be thrown
out of the moulds, and will be fit for
764

following fVom Boussingault gir^B an
account of the eoltivation in the West
Indies and Central America r

*« Three principal varieties of so-
ger cane are cuHiTated — the Creole,
theBatavian,andtheOtBheitan. The
Creole cane has the leaf of a deep
green, the stem slender, the knots
very close together. This species, a
native of India, reached the New
World after having passed through
Sicily, the Canaries, and the West
India Islands. The Batavian csane is
indigenoas in the Island of Java ; ita
foliage is very broad, and has a pur-
ple tint : the sap of this Tariety is
much employed in making mm. The
Otaheite cane is that whi«i is most ex-
tensively grown at the present time.
It was introduced into the West In-
dia Islands and neighbouring conti-
nent by BougainvHle, Cook, and Bligh,
in their several voyages, and is cer-
tainly one of the most important ac-
quisitions which the agriculture of
tropical countries owes to the roy-
ages of naturalisto. This variety of
cane grows with extraordinary vig-
our : ita stem is taller, thicker, and
richer in juice than that of the other
species. I observed it along the
whole coast of Venezoela, of New
Grenada, and of Peru ; far from hav-
ing degenerated by its transplantation
to the American continent, it appears
to have preserved all ita original qual-
ities without altaratlon.

" The sugar cane is propagated by
cuttings. Pieces of the stem about
18 or 20 inches long, and having sev-
eral bods or eyBs, are jdaced two or
three together in holes a few inches
ia depth, aiM are covered with loose

SOOAROANK

nolstearth. Fromafortii^ttoiluree

weeks are required for the shoots to
show theoiselves above ground. The
space to be left between each clump
of plants depends mucb on the fertil-
ity of the soH ; in the most fertile
soils the distance may be about a
yard, or a little more ; and along the
rows the spaces. may be about eigh-
teen inches. Where land is of no
great value it is found more advantar
geous to give greater space, and so
to favour the access of the air and
the light. It is not uncommon to see
plantations where the canes are spa-
eed at distances of between four and
five feet. The time at which the set-
ting of the slips takes place cannot be
definitively indicated ; it depends en-
tirely upon the epoch at which the
periodical rains are anticipated. Bat
in places where irrigation is possiblCi
the setting goes on through all the
months of the year. The holes for
the reception of the slips are usually
dug with a hoe, and a n^o will make
from sixty to eighty holes in the
course of a day. 'When the ground
has been previously ploughed, as it is
in some of the West India islands, he
will make twice as many. Loose,
rich soils, when they have a certain
moisture, are the best adapted to the
sugar cane : it does not thrive in an
argillaceous soil, which drains with
difficulty. In these moist soils the
slips are not laid horizontally and cov-
ered, but with one end projecting a
little vray out of the ground. Wl^n
the young shoots are covered with
narrow and opposed leaves, watering
is particularly advantageous, and the
plants are repeatedly hoed until they
have acquired sufficient vigour to
choke noxious weeds. About the
ninth month after the plantation of
the slips, the shaft of the sugar cane
begins to lose its leaves, the most in-
ferior falling first, the others in suc-
cession, so that when arrived at ma-
turity it only presents a tuft of ter-
minal leaves. The flowering gener-
ally takes place with the conclusion
of the year ; and the cane is held suf-
ficiently ripe in from two to three
months after this epochi when the

stem has acquired a yeHow or straw
colour. The planters, however, are
by no means agreed as to the proper
period of the sugar cane harvest ;
some even insist upon cutting before
the flowering, believing that the quan-
tity of sugar diminishes on the appear-
ance of the flower. It is unquestion-
able, however, that the period that
elapses between the planting and the
harvest must vary with the nature of
the soil, and especially with that of
the climate ; while in sonie places the
cane may be cut when it is a year
old, doubtless there are others where
it requires to stand from fifteen ta
sixteen months. In Venezuela, where
the Otaheite cane is grown at the lev-
el of the sea, and where the mean
temperature of the year is between
81'' and 82° Fahrenheit, the cane ri-
pens, according to Colonel Codazzi,
in eleven months. In districts at
greater elevations under the same
parallels of latitude, where the cli-
mate is of course not so hot, the cane
requires a longer time to come to
maturity ; where the mean tempera-
ture is about TS*' Fahrenheit, twelve
months are required ; where it is
about 74^ Fahr., fourteen months be*
come necessary ; and where it is no
more than about 67^ Fahrenheit, six-
teen months are requisite. The Ota-
heite cane grows to very difllierent
heights : in very favourable circum-
stances it will reach a height of 16
feet and upward, but its general
height may be stated at from 9^ to
10^ feet. Great cane plantations are
divided into squares of from 100 to
130 yards on the side, each of which
coming to maturity in succession, the
labour is easily performed, both in re-
gard to field-work and the manufac-
ture of the sugar.

" The cane is cut close to the root,
and before being carried to the mill
the terminal tuft of leaves is struck
oflT. These heads in the green state
afford excellent food for horses and
cattle : when dry they are used for
thatching houses. After the first cut-
ting, freeh sprouts arise, which re-
quire no other attention than hoeing.
In good soils one planting will yie&

76fi

8UOAR OAHB.

Ave or six harvests \ff suooessive I in<leed cofne to the same coneltxnon
shoots ; but I have bear^ planters af- ' some considerable time ngn — ^s far

firm that the produce in sugar dimin
ishes from year to year. In Venezu-
ela, cane pieces are replanted every
five or six years.
** The cane with its top strock off*

hack as 1826; but his ]al>oars «rere
not made known by publioatidn t:ll
1840. M. Casaseca. professor of
chemistry at Havana, has wery late-
ly confirmed these conclustona, so
is carried to the mill, where the juice ; important for the sugar hasbandry of
is expressed, and the stems, which l the world. The composition of the
are sfiokenofunderthe name of trash, < juice of the segar cane is therefore
are dried and used as fuel. | less complex than it was once heltev-

" The expressed juice contains j ed to be ; making abstracti^ta of very
eiystallisable sugar, an azotized sub- minute quantities of an aJbiiminoos
stance analogous to albumen, and axotized substance, of several salts
some saline matters dissolved in a and a little silica, substances which
large quantity of water, which is dts- altogether do not amount to more
sipated by boiling, and the sugar final- I than two or three hundredths, cane
ly won by crystallizatiun. The man- 1 juice may be said to consist of water
ufacturing process is conducted with ' and of crystallixable sugar in the pro-
very different degrees of perfection < portion of from 17 to «0 percent The
in different places. In some the prod- , Otaheite cane, analyzed by M. Peltgot,
uce is obtained almost without ad- * actaally yielded

W»tor n-l

mixture of molasses, in others the
quantity of this article which drains
away from the sugar is very la/ge.
It is now generally agreed that mo-
lasses proceeds in great part from im-
perfections in the manufacturing pro-
cesses employed, especially to chan-
ges which the sugar undergoes in the
course of its concentration by boiling
at a high temperature. By the em-
ployment of what are called vacuum
pang of various construction— pans
from which the pressure of the at-
mosphere is removed either by the
air-pump, or the condensation of the
vapour as fast as it is formed, rapid
evaporation is efi)5cted at a tempera-
ture much below that of boiling wa-
ter, by which it is found that the reU
ative quantity of sugar to that of mo-
lasses is greatly increased. It was
long believed, indeed, and that on the

WfwdjiiMtur 9>9

Solable naUer (ragmr) . . . 18-0

100 0

" This conclusion was verified by
M. Dupuy at Guadaloupe in 18-41,
who, operating on the spot, found the
composition to be as follows :

Water 7M

WuoJt natter 0-8

Solobf* matter (ranr) • . . 17*6

Salts 0-4

1000

<* The analyses of the Creole cane,
made by M. Casaseca at Havana, ap-
pear to indicate a larger qaantity of
woody fibre :

Water «-0

Wood 10*14

Sugur 17*7

lOQ-d

" The quantity of sugar yielded by
the cane difibrs considerably. M.
Codaszi assigns fi and 16 per oeot.

authority of the first chemists, that i as the extremes, and 7^ per cent, aa
there were two kinds of sugar con- i the mean. M. Dupuy gives 7*1 per
iained in the sugar cane, one crys- cent, as the average. The quantity
tallizable, the other uncrysUllizabJe, \ ja. of course, first and most intimatc-
and constituting the molasses or trea- ly connected with the quantity of
de. The researches of M. Peligot juice obtained. But the produce of
have shown definitively that this con- 1 juice is extremely variable. In Goa-
elusion IS erroneous ; that the cane i daloupe, the juice varies between 66
contains no sugar that is not crystal- 1 and 69 percent, of the cane subjected
lizable, and that the pre existence of to pressure. The geaeraiity of mills
uncrystallizable sugar or molasses is do not, in fhct. enable us to obtaia
entirely chimerical. M. Piagae had more than about 6« per cent At
f66

SUGAR CANE.

New-Orieami the anoal quantHy ob-
tained i-3 said to be 50, and in Cay-
enne only 36 per cent. At Havana,
according to M. Casaseca, the riband
eane yields 46, the crystallioe 85, and
tlie Otaheitan 66 per cent, of juiee.

"The Otaheite eatie vaa examin-
ed by M. Peltgt>t, under a variety of
ciroomstancea of age, growth, part
of pDint, dec. The following table
contains the condensed results of his
experknents :

First shoots

Second do. from ori|^iiaI 8]mmts
Third do. from •ecund do.
Fourth do. from third do.
Inferior put of cane ....

Middle part of do. . . . . .

Snperiorpwtofdo. ....

Knots

Cane of eisrht months . . .
Cane of tea months ....

Water.

Solttbte IMtr

t«ra (safikr).

Woody flbn.

73-4

17a

71-7

1T.8

ID'S

71.6

I«-4

W«0

73-0

108

10.3

73-7

15-5

ID'8

72-6

lfl-5

100

7S-8

14-5

11-7

70-8

ISO

17«

73»

18-9

7-9

7«-8

18-5

9-2

**It would therefore appear, ma-
king exception always of the knots
^ich occur in the course of a cane,
that the composition of the plant, in
its various states and conditions, is
atanost identical. M. Peligot*s im-
portant paper, while it informs us of
the average composition of the Ota-
heite cane, satisfies us that the gum-
my and mucilaginous substances and
the uncrystallizabte sugar, the exist-
ence of which was held as demon-
strated, are, in fact, nowise constitu-
ents of the sugar cane. Whence we
may conclude, with M. Peligot, that
every drop of molasses which drains
from the sugar is the produce of the
manufacture ; an opinion to which I
assent the more readily from having
myself seen, oflener than once, the
juice of the cane yield nothing but
crystallizable sugar. These analyses
farther demonstrate, more powerful-
ly than could any discussion, the im-
perfection of the processes usually
followed in manufacturing sugar.
They prove, in fact, that in the mill
rather more than a third of the whole
juice contained in the cane is left in
the trash. This loss might be con-
siderably diminished were more |^r-
feet pressure employed in extracting
the juice. But it appears that the
planters are indisposed to crush the
trash too much, as hy this it is ren-
dered less fit for fuel, a considerable
quantity of which, by the present
mode of manufacture, is indispensa-
ble. M. Dupree, however, says that by

insisting on obtaining from 65 to 66
per cent, of juice in all cases, the trash
is still left with all its value as a com-
bustible. The trash, on coming from
the mill, appears quite dry. I have
seen some which, after having been
pressed twice consecutively, looked
as if it were impossible, by any far-
ther amount of pressure, to express
more liquid. Nevertheless, it was
enough to taste this pressed cane, to
be satisfied that it still contained a
considerable quantity of sugar. To
procure this without using more pow-
erful machinery, M. Peligot proposed
to steep the trash in water, and to
press it a second time. By this
means a weak juice is obtained,
which, added to the first pressings,
raises the produce of sugar from sev-
en to ten per cent, upon the whole
amount of cane employed. By fol-
lowing this process, suggested by the-
ory, upon the great scale, M. Dupree
has succeeded in obtaining one fifth
more than the usual quantity of su-
gar without making any change in his
apparatus, and without finding the
trash too much shaken to be burned
under his coppers'. In some circum-
stances the increase in the quantity
of juice which this procedure implies
might be f6und an objection on ac-
count of the larger quantity of fuel
required for its evaporation ; but
wherever a supply of wood is to be
had, M. Peligot*s method ought on*
doubtedly to be applied.
** The very dissimilar quantities of

suo

orystaltiasble sngar obtained from
caaea, which, as we have seen, all
contain very nearly the same quan-
tity of this substance, prove that the
processes of concentration and puri-
fication of the sap also contribute to
the loss which has been indicated.
M. Peligot has pointed out several
causes which concur to deteriorate
sugar ; among the number : 1. A vis>
cous fermentation, which renders the
sap thick and stringy, like mucilage,
by which the boiling becomes difficult
and the' crystallization of the sugar
which has escaped change is render-
ed imperfect. 2. An acidity, which
takes place when the juice is not run
at once into the coppers and boiled,
an acidity which requires the addi-
tion of lime to destroy or to prevent
it. The alkaline earth, as I have had
occasion to say, is by no means indis-
pensable ; its utility, under ordinary
circumstances, is probably confined
to assisting the defecation by form-
ing an insoluble precipitate with some
of the organic substances which are
always met with in small quantities
in cane juice ; perhaps, also, to ma-
king an earthy soap with the fatty
matters which adhere to the cane
and are expressed in the crushing.
When lime is added to correct acid-
ity, it forms an acetate or a lactate,
salts which are peculiarly soluble,
uncrystalUzable, and which necessa-
rily retain a quantity of sugar in the
fiirupy state. 3. The presence of
certain mineral salts in the cane.
Common salt, for instance, in com-
bining with sugar forms a deliques-
cent compound, in which one part of
salt is united with six parts of sugar ;
such a compound as this of course
renders a large quantity of sirup in-
disposed to crystallize. It is therefore
impossible to be too cautious, accord-
ing to M. Peligot, in the choice of
manure for a cane field ; that which
contains any common salt must
needs be injurious in one way, how-
ever advantageous it may be in an-
other. The entire absence of this
salt in the soil of plantations which
are very remote from the seashore
is perhaps one of the causes which

7«8

. 8UL

increases the quantity of aogar ob-
tained from the crop, and makes it
more easily manufactured in such
districts.

** M. Codazzi reckons the quantity
of white sugar produced by a hectare
of land (3-473 acres), planted with
the Otaheite cane in the province of
Caraccas, at 1875 kilogrammes, or
36 cwt. 3 qrs. 9 lbs. avoir., which
is at the rate of 15 cwt. 1 qr. 10 lbs.
per acre. Taking 7k per cent, as the
average quantity of sugar obtained,
the weight of cane brought to the
mill must obviously have amounted
to 19,134 kilog , or 18 tons, 15 cwt. 3
qrs. 10 lbs. ; or 7 tons, 11 cut. 3 qrs.
25 lbs. per acre. Assuming the av-
erage oomposition of the plant to be.

Wood (dry) . . . . p . . 110

Sagrar (minimuni) 15 S

W»ter 73-5

one acre of land will consequently
yield a crop of

ToMb Cwti. Qrib Lba.

WoodCdrj) ... 0 16 S M

Sagar .... X S S S

Waur .... 5 n « W

7 11 9 SS

** The trash of (he sugar cane un-
dergoes rapid fermentation ; it soon
exhales a distinct smell of vinegar,
and almost the whole of the sugar
which is left in it is destroyed.**

SaGAR OF LEAD. Acetate of
lead, so called from its sweet taste.
It is much used in lotions ; and in
solution with a little vinegar forma
Goulard's lotion. It most not be
used incautiously, as it is poison-
ous.

SULCATE. Marked with furrows,
or parallel deep lines.

SULPHATES. Salts of sulphuric
acid. The principal in agriculture
are the sulphate of lime (see Oyp^
turn), the sulphate of soda {Glaubtr^s
sale), and sulphate of potash. Tlia
latter is, however, too expensive ; U
is found in the ashes of some plants.
Glauber's salt may be obtained for
81 to 91 50 the 100 pounds, and ta
serviceable as a steep, or as a mnnore
in gardens for the cruciferous plants.
The chief value of the sulphates ns
manures arises from the necessity for

SOL

mTL

aolf^iir in plants, espeefally tbe eru-
ciferoua and leguminoas fartiiHes. It
woolfl appear that plants possess the
property of decomposing the sol-
pbates, for they chiefly require the
sulphur, which is an ingredient of
fibrin, casein, amit«ibanien. as well
as some oils. The sulphate of cop-
per is of great Talae as a steep, and
a solution of salphate of iron, or green
vitriol, is much used in Switzerland
to fix the ammonia of putrescent niA-
nures.

SULPHITES. Salts of sulphurotis
acid.

SULPHOCYANATE OF POTAS-
SIUM. A solution of this hody is
used to detect iron, with which it
forms a brownish-red eoloor.

SdLPHOSINAPlSIN. A pungent
body obtained from mustard, contain-
ing both sulphur and nitrogen.

SULPHUR Britiulone. A solid,
fasible, insolnbte, yellow etement-
ary b >dy ; equivalent, 161: sjmibol
S : specific gravity, 1*9. It is a non-
eoodnctor of eteetricity, and power-
fully eleotro- positive in its com-
pounds. It is very inflamniaMe, uni-
ting with oxygen, and forming the
White, suffijcating vapours of sul-
phurous acid, with three eqalva-
lents of oxygen it forms sulphuric
acid, or oil of vitriol ; a dense, oily
acid, of great causticity, and weU
known in the arts: equivalent, 40*1.
Sulphur anites directly with metals
at a heat below redness, forming gul-
pkurei* The gaseous compound of
1 equivalent of sulphur with 1 of hy-
drogen, or tulphurett€d hydrogen, is
remarkable lb r its great fcetor ; it is
given off* by decaying organic mat-
ters eontalnrng sulphur, and, with the
sulphuret of ammonium, constitutes
the principal cause of the stench of
putrefying animal matters.

Sulphur is abundant in the mineral
kingdom about volcanoes. It is pres-
ent in all vegetables, existing in al-
humen, casein, and analogous bodies.
It has been used to destroy insects,
and when made into an ointment
with lard and applied to the parts,
is oflen effective. When burned, tbe
pungent, sulphurous acid destroys

Ttt

Kfb, but is also injurious to vegeta-
tiotl. It has the property of blead^
ing many colours, and especially that
of straw. A solution, formed by boil-
ing equal parts of quicklime and sul-
phur in twenty or thirty times their
weight of water, is extremely foetid
and poisonous to insects : it is called
the kydrorulphuret of lime.

SULPHURETS. Oompounds of
sulphur with metals

SULPHURETTED. Containing
sulphur chemically united. A solu-
tion of selphuretted hydrogen gas in
water is much used as a test for
metals in solution.

SULPHURIC ACID, OIL OF VIT-
RIOL. It is procured in commerea
by burning sulphur and nitre togethr
er in chambers made of lead. Tbe
vapours are condensed in water,
which is afterward boiled down in
platina boilers until the solution be-
comes of the appearanee of oil, and
specific gravity 1 -8. It should be col-
ourless, but is often brown ; is dread-
ftilly canstic, destroying the skin in-
suntJy. When water is added, the .
mixture becomes quite hot, and will
often break glass vessels. It com-
bines with all oxides, fonning sul-
phates. Sulphuric acid, mixed with
fiOO parts of water, has been applied
to clover and grass with advantage,^
but is not better than gypsum, and
much more expensive and difficult to
manage. It is now used to dissolve
bones, but is inferior to muriatic acid.
160 pounds of the best acid dissolva,
after much time and with repeated
stirrings, about 200 pounds of iine
bone dust, converting it in part into
a sulphate of lime (gypsum), and into
a superphosphate of lime, which is
soluble : the solution is enough for an
acre, and should be diluted with 200
parts of water, and applied as a top-
dressing. The solution must he made
in an earthen- ware vessel with great
care, lest the acid be spilled.

SULPHURIC ^THER. Common
«ther.

SULPHUROUS ACID. It is com-
posed of sulphur 161, oxygen 10. It
is a gas readily condensed, soluble in
watery and very soar, with the odmtr

700

SUM

of solplnir ; in contact with oxygen
and moistnre, it readily becomes
changed into sulphuric acid. See
Sulphur.

SULPHUR SALTS. A class of
salts in which the acid and base both
contain sulphur in the place of ozy-
geit, or as their electro-positive ele-
ment.

SUMACH. {SeeRkut.) "The
powder of the leaves, flower stems,
and* young branches of the Rhus co-
riaria, and Rhus eotimUf shrubs which
grow in Hungary and the lUyptan
ProYJoces. Both kinds contain tan-
nin, with ' a little yellow colouring
matter, and are a good deal employed
far tanning light-cokmred leathers :
but the first is the best. With mor-
dants, it dyes nearly the same colours
as galls. In calico printing, sumach
affords, with a mordant of tin, a yel-
low colour; with acetate of iron,
weak or strong, a gray or black ; and
with sulphate of zinc, a brownish yel-
low. A decoction of sumach red-
dens litmus paper strongly; gives
white flocks with the proto-muriate
of tin ; pale yellow flocks with alum ;
dark blue flocks with red sulphate of
iron, with an abundant precipitate.
In the south of France, the twigps and
leaves of the CoriaruL myrti/oiia are
used for dyeing, under the name of
redoul or rodou"

The common aumach {R. gidkrum)
of the United States is extensively
used by dyers and leather dressers ;
it is more valuable from the South
than North, but is inferior to the R.
coriarut, or Italian sumach of Sicily
and the sooth of Europe. This phint
is propagated by layers, as it does not
mature fruit.

SUMMER FALLOW. A fallow
made during the warm months to kill
weeds — a green fallow.

SUNFLOWER. Helianihu ««-
nuuM. A weU-known, large compos-
ite plant, yielding an abundance of
seeds, which are excellent for feed-
ing poultry. It requires a good soil
of a clayey basis, but will grow on
most tilled landa. It is raised in
Prance for oil, and should be sown
tooad-oast and thinly, or ia Mwa 18
770

SCR

inches apart. It soon grows vnfll*
cicntly to cover weeds. An acre will
carry 25,000 plants 12 inches apart,
and yield 60 bushels of seeda, and
upward of GO gallons of good oil, val-
oable for the table, lamps, or soa^
makmg. The eike is one of the
most nutritions fodders known : 1600
pounds will be obtained from tlie
above crop. The leaves are also
eaten by cattle, and the young pbnta
tamoved in thinning form good prov*
ender. The stalks are rich in pot-
ash, yielding from eight to ten per
cent, of it in their ash, but should bo
returned to the land as manure, ft
also contaias a large proportion of
nitrate of potash (nitre). The young
plants form as good a crop to plough
in as the Jerusalem artichoke, which
is indeed of the same genos as the
sunflower.

SUPPOSITORY. A solid medi-
cioe introduced into the vectam tm
produce purgation.

SUPPURATION. The coonrKm
healthy teiminatioa ofinflammatioiia
of the cellular tissues, in which paa
is formed. It should be thorooghly
evacuated as soon as formed.

SUPRACRETACEOUS. The
formations above the chalk, now call*
ed tertiary.

SURFEIT SeeiforM,i)weaM»4^.

SURVEYING. In agriculture, the
determination of the contents of any
piece of ground or estate ; itisusaal-
ly done in a rough way by a compasa
with sights, or a plane table and
chain of 100 links, or 22 yards. Tho
external boundaries of tho field ara
measured by the chain along straiglit
lines determined by setting up tho
compass, level, and a staflT. The dis-
tance between these is ascertatoed Ia
chains and links ; every torn or anglo
of large site is determined by ita
bearing with the compass and staflT*
and a measurement of tho length ol
the straight line, made as oAen aa
there are sidea or aoglea. In thia
way a plan is obtained, giving tho
angles, bearings, and lengths of tho
sides bounding the field, lliis is
plotted, and a calculation made of the
oontento by tho ordinary lalea of

SWA

SW£

Bienauation. For this purpose, ttie
contents are divided into triangles,
the side of any of which can be meas-
ared on the ground, to assist or cor-
rect the reckoning. The chain coa-
Uiins 100 links of 7-92 inches. A
square chain forms the tenth of an
acre ; the calculation is therefore
made in links, which are a decimal
portion of the acre ; and the resulting
area being reduced by three figures,
gives the number of acres in a field.

But in better examinations the the-
odolite is used, and the distances de^
termined by trigonometrical observa-
tions, and not'£y measurements with
a chain. The ioelioations of hills, 6iC
Kte also reduced to a plane surface.

SUTUR£. The serrated junction
of two bones, especially of the skuU.
In insects, the line along which the
wi ng cases meet. In botany, the nat-
ural division or opening in a fruit.

SWAMP. A low lake or morass
in which trees grow. The emana*
. lions from swamps in the spring and
fall are extremely injurious, ai|d fatal
to men and animals. They should be
drained, if possible. The mud from
them consists, in a great measure, of
vegetable matter, and when compost-
ed with lime or putrescent matters,
ftirms a good coarse manure for
amending the character of lands.
Twenty to forty loads are used to the
acre.

SWAN. Cygnug dor. The most
graceful and majestic of the family
of birds. They are much nsed in Eu-
rope to adorn rivers and small lakes,
are not destructive to fishes, but feed
on vegetables and grains. The fe-
inale breeds in the summer, lays five
to eight eggs, sits a month, and pre-
lers a retired islet. The oygnets are
driven ofiT the next spring, and are
not in full plumage till three years.
These birds are disposed to migrate
in the fall, and should have the feath-
trs of one wing clipped. They are
also very qaarrelsome, and seldom
live in peace when more than one
pair are placed on a small water. The
black and all other kinds of swan are
inferior to the large white {Cjfpiut
olor), the base of whose upper bill is

fumisbed with a black praminenoe.
They require to be fed in the winter,
and the ice broken for their accom-
modation until the weather is very
severe, when they should be allowed
to retire to a sheltered yard.

SWARD. The green surface of a
meadow.

SWARD GRASSES. A name giv-
en to the genus Poa, which forms the
best natural meadows.

SWATH. The bands of hay or
grass cut in mowing.

SWAYS. Long bramble or other
ilexible rods, used in thatching with
coarse straws or reeds.

SWEATING HAY. The slight fer-
mentation which occurs when fresh
grass, clover, &c., are placed in heaps.
It is atteaded with considerable beat
if the quantity is great, and should,
therefore, be looked after. Fruits
and grain also undergo a sweating
process, if heaped soon after collec-
tion. It is the best method to pre-
pare the dififerent kinds of hay. See
Hay'^making,

SWEAL. To singe the hair from
hogs or other slaughtered animals
with lighted wisps of straw.

SWEET FLAG. Aeorug calanuu,
the root of which is pleasantly aro-
matic.

SWEET GRASS. The genua
Glycaria, for the most part water
grasses. The seeds of G. Jlvitansj or
Marona grass, are cultivated in Ger-
many for gruel. The G. aquatics, or
water fescue, is a large, permanent
grass, growing in rich marshes and
the edges of rivers, and afibrding an
abundance of good provender.

SWEET POTATO. ConvamUu*
baitatus. A convolvulus, the root of
which attains a large size, and coa-
tains much sugar mixed with an
agreeable farina. They require a
rich, light soil. The potatctes are set
out in a warm place early in April.
In the Northern and Eastern States
a warm bed is necessary. They sprout
in two or three weeks, and throw out
a number of runners ; these are ta-
ken off when three inches above the
aoU, and tmnsf^anted to beds proper-
ly prepared In bills four to five feet

SYO

apart each way. The old tabdra con-
tinue to throw out runners daring
April and May. Somethnea they are
aet out in hills, and not in a bed, and
allowed to grow with little interrup-
tion : in this way the potatoes are
sooner fit for ase. The bills must be
carefully weeded and worked. They
may be taken when large enough for
use, but the winter crop ahonld not
be removed until the vines are dead.
To keep them daring winter, they
ahonld be dried in the sun till the
moisture is driven off, sweated in
heaps, and when dry, packed in dry
sand in a cellar not sobject to wet or
frost. There are many varieties of
sweet potato, but they are not classi-
fied. The kind cultivated in Florida
is very large, and altogether superior
to those which are known to us. The
Nansemond potatoes are also large,
and in high repute. The yams are of
a different gen as ; the varieties are
derived from the Dioscorea satita and
ahua; the roots are often palmated,
and often weigh thirty pounds.

SWEET-SCENTED SHRUB. Ca-
fycantkus Floridus. Allspice, a pleas-
ant, fragrant shrub with dark flowers.

SWINE. See Hog,

SWINESTONE. A bituminous
limestone, which becomes foetid when
rubbed.

SWING PLOUGH. The plough
without a fore wheel under the beam.
It is difficult for a novice to manage,
from the point sometimes running
unequally, and sinking or rising sud-
denly, and in very rolling land Is in-
ferior to the wheel ploughs ; but in
the hands of an experienced plough-
man is often preferred.

SWINGING-TREE, SWINGLE-
TREE, WH I PPLE-TREE. The bar
of wood or iron to which the traces
of each horse are fastened, and which
are hitched on to the cart, plough, or
other implement to be drawn.

SWITCHING HEDGES. Catthig
oflT the year's shoots. This is done
with a sharp hooked blade called a
rmtching'hook, or with large hedge
shears.

SYCAMORE. The buttonwood.

SYCON, SYCONUS. A fruit con-
772

sfstiDg Of a fieahydisik or
ceptacle, as in the ^,

SYENITE. A granita wHli biadl^
spots of horablefid. Haddam or Bos-
ton granite.

SYMBOL. In chemistry, tbe aittro
Tiation used to distiiigrttiAb an efo-
ment or chemical body. It oaBaUy
coDsiBts of the initial letfer,
times of the first and aeeond.

SYMPATHY. A ▼eterioaiy
medical term used to express tbe i
istenee of certain sjrmptoiBs in a dis-
ease which are remote Iroaa tbe pait
injured.

SYMPATHETIC MSRVEL A
grand comiezioa of nerves fpom <nh
end of the body to the otber, Hunnb-
ed with nenrona centres or gangii^
by which some physiologietB suppose
a aniformity in the operatioiis of the
difibrent Tisoera ia maintajaed. It is
also called the triapianeliiiie nerve.

SYMPIESOMETER. A kind of
barometer.

SYN (from aw, t9geAar\ A oom-
mon prefix in descriptive voids,
nteaning united.

SYNAPTASE. llie white matter
of almonds freed from oil, albmnen,
and other mattem. It is proiiably the
same as enralain.

SYNCARPOUS FRUITS (fiwn
0w, and sopiror, c/hts/). Sncb as eon-
tain aevenl carpels united, as tiie ^
pie, pear, dec.

S YNCHONBROeiS (frtmi <m>, and
Xovdffoc, A cartilage). The janction of
bones by a cartimge.

SYNCOPE. Fainting : whenever
the circnlation and reapiration be-
come very feeble for a time.

SYNGENESIA (fr-om aw, and yt-
veoic, nproduetum). The oompoaite
family ofplants. A class ofLJomeaa,
in which tbe anthers are united into
a tube, the filamenta being mualfy
separate and distinct.

SYNOCHA. Contintsed inflamma-
tory fevers.

SYNOYIA. The allmminoas or
aerona fluid secreted in the joints, to
diminish the friction of the eztrsml-
ties of tbe bones ; it ia poured oat
from little pottohee^ called synovial
baga.

TAQ

TAN

SYNTHESIS. In cfaemi«try» the
prodoctioii of a eompomid body by a
union of its elements or parts.

SYRINGE. A machine consisting'
of a small cylinder with an air-tight
piston or sncker, which is moved up
and down in it by means of a handle.
The lower end of the cylinder ter«
minates in a small tube, through
which a fluid is forced into the body
of the cylinder by the atmospheric
pressure when the handle is drawn
up, and then expelled in a small jet,
by pushing the handle in the opposite
direction. The syringe acts on the
principle of the sucking pump. The
syringe is also used as a pneumatic
machine for condensing or exhaust-
ing the air in a close Tessel, but for
this purpose it must be Airnished
with two Talres. In the condensing
syringe the TalTes open downward
and close upward ; in the exhausting
syringe tbey are closed downward
and opened upward. The garden «yr-
inge, so usefiil for watering plants,
and remoTing caterptUaTs, red spi-
ders, and other insects, is no more
than a large squirt, of a pint or quart
size, which discbarges fluid from a
rose or peribrated end instead of a
point.

fSYRUP. A thick solution of sugar.

8YST0LE (from mi^reXXij, lamr
trae(y. The contraction of the heart,
the diastole being its dilatation.
These two alternate movements pro-
duce the beating.

SYTHE. See Scythe,

TAGAMAHACA. The Pajndue
haleamiea of Canada, which yields a
resinous, balsamic exudation in the
spring, which is sometimes called Ta-
ambae,

TAG. A sheep of the flrst year.
Tags are the masses of dirt that ac-
cumulate on the wool of the tail ;
the process of remoying them is call-
ed tagging, and sometimes, when
they cause the tail to be fastened to
the body, that state is oalled tagbelt
or pinning.

TAGLIA. A combinatioii of pul-
leys, a tackle.

TttS

TAGLIACOTIAN or TALIACO

TIAN OPERATION. Any opera
tion in which the skin is nearly cut
from one part and made to cover an-
other.

TAIL DRAIN. The main drain,
which receives the water of the less
er drains.

TALC. A mineral closely resem
bling mica, but not elastic.

TALLOW. The melted or ren
dered fat of the ox or sheep. The
greater part of the bodies of sheep
and oxen are thrown into immense
caldrons, and rendered by steam at
a high pressure, in the West and in
New Holland. The fat of bones,
which amounts to eight or ten per
cent., is obtained in the same way,
and forms a coarse tallow. Its com-
position is similar to that of oils, but
the stearin is in excess.

TALLOW-TREE. Croton eebift-
rum. A large, lauraceous tree of
China, the seeds of which, when
pressed, jrield a fatty body very simi-
lar to tallow. Some specimens ^
this tree are found growing in the
shmhberiea of the Southern States.

TALUS. A heapa>f rubbish accu-
mulated at the foot of a cliflf or steep
rock.

TAMARIND. Tamarindue InOca.
A large tree of the leguminous fiim-
ily, native of the tropical East and
West Indies. The prepared pods,
preserTod in sugar, form a refreshing
sweetmeat. They contain much cit-
ric acid.

TAMARIX. The genas Tamarix^
small, ornamental shrubs.

TAMPING. In blasting, filling the
hole with sand and pieces of rook
after a cartridge has been introduced.

TANK. "A reservoir for water
or other fluids. The name is some-
times applied to large open recepta-
cles, or ponds, formed by excavating
the ground and disposing the removed
earth in the form of banks to retain
the Water ; but the tanks which will
here be especially treated of, are the
smaller covered reservoirs used to
collect and retain water and liquid
manure ibr domestic and agnculturai

TANK.

«* The hnportance of coQecHng rain
water for domestic purposes, espe-
cially in districts where springs are
deficient or lie at a great depth, has
been much overlooked. Waistell ur-
ges the importance of placing spoots
round all the buildings of a farm to
collect the rain water which falls
upon them into a tank or tanks, ob-
serving that, besides the value of the
supply of water thus obtained, the
buildings wiH be benefited by the
walls and foundations being kept
drier than when the water from the
roof is suffered to fall upon them.
He states that the quantity of water
that falls annually upon every hun-
dred superficial feet, or square of
building, is about 14O0 imperial gal-
lons. If, therefore, the external sur-
faces of roofs were adapted to the
collection of the rain water which
falls upon them, and means were
provided for conveying it to covered
tanks, in which it might be preserved
from evaporation, and kept free from
any admixture of impurities, almost
every house might be readily and
cheaply supplied with a quantity of
wholesome water sufficient for the
ordinary wants of its inhabitants.
The extensive roofs of churches and
other public buildings might be em-
ployed in like way to collect water
for the supply of ponds or tanks for
public use. In some cases, even the
drainage of lands might also be made
available, as the water may be sub-
mitted to any required process of
filtration before it is allowed to enter
the tank.

** Tanks or cisterns to hold water
for domestic purposes may be conve-
niently situated beneath the surface
of the ground, so that, being paved
over, they occupy no valuable space.
They are formed of stone slabs
grooved into each other and set in ce-
ment ; of slate ; of large paving tiles
bedded in cement; of brick-work;
of plates of cast iron ; or of thidc
wooden planks, protected by charring
and pitching, or lined with sheet lead.
The brick tanks described by Waist*
ell are circular, the sides being built
like a well, with bottoins of tn m-
774

verted dome-shape, of 'very
convexity. The top is also di
shaped, and has an openiDi^ hi tke
centre, large enough to receive a
man, in order that the tank may be
thoroughly cleaned out when aecev-
sary. This opening, which may be
upon the surftioe of the itrouDd, or a
little above it, should be covefed with
an oak flap pierced with i nimiher «f
holes, or with an iron grating. The
depth and width of the tank ^oaid.
it is stated, be nearly equaL If ne-
cessary, a smaller brick ehamber may
be constructed alongside of the tank,
in which the water may be filtered
through gravel, sand, charcoal, 6lo.,
before entering it. It is reconunead-
ed to make the opening by which
water enters the tank near the top.
Brick tanks of this deacrtpitioa may
be rendered water-tight by layiag the
inner course of bricks in cement, and
plastering the whole of the inside
with the same to the thickness of
about three quarters of an inch. To
enable them without injary to has
the great weight of water when near-
ly full, the earth should be rammed
closely round the brick work, and it
should be allowed to settle thoroughly
before any great quantity of water is
admitted. Ixmdon describes anoth-
er kind of brick tank, contrived to
save expense in constraetion, by
adopting a figure of maximum cafia-
city and minimum surface. When
the tank is large, it is proposed to
adopt the spherical form ; and when
of less than five or six feet in diam-
eter, that of a short vertical cyluidery
with hemispherical ends. By pad-
dling with day ronnd about the tank,
the necessity for the use of Roman
cement is avoided.

"In addition to tanks for water,
every farm-yard should have one to
collect the liquid portion of the mar
nure, which is washed by the rain
through the refuse litter, and also the
urine of the stalled cattle. Though
not yet generally adopted, in France,
Germany, and especially in Belgibm,
such tanks are considered as neces-
sary to a farm as any of its most com-
mon buildings. They ara nsuaHy

TANK.

eouBtnicted of ftn obloi^ »hape, of
brick well cemeoted, with one or
more divisions, aad capable nf con-
taining at least teo times as many
bogsheada as there are heads of catUe
OD the farm. They are vaulted over,
having a small aperture, in which a
pump is plaoed, suffieieot to aUow a
man occasionally to clear out the sed-
imeat when the liquid has been pump-
ed op. The' best shape to contain a
large quantity in the smallest space
would be like those before described ;
but they oaanot conveniently be made
suffioiently large, and a cubical form,
or, rather, that of several oubea in
BuccessionT is preferred. A tank for
R farm of 200 acres of arable land
should be 16 feet wide, 15 deep, and
45 long, giving three cubes of 15 feet,
or a cavity capable of containing up-
ward of 10,000 cubic feet of liquid.
In this tank the urine is diluted with
water to prevent too rapid decompo-
sition, and also to retain the ammo-
nia which is formed ; for which pur-
pose gypsum and sulphate of copper
are sometimes put into the tanks.

" If the soil be not sandy, clay will
answer, instead of mortar, to con-
nect the brick-work, and a plastering
of lime or cement will be sufficient to
keep out the worms : but in very
porous soils the bottom and sides
must lie puddled, to keep in the liquid ;
and it may be advantageous to build
the walls in cement altogether. The
liquid from the yards and stables is
carried into the tank by a main drain
constructed of brick or stone, and
which receives a number of ^smaller
drains from every part of the yards
and caule sheds. Thus the litter in
the yard is always dry, and none of
the richness of the manure is lost by
evaporation.

"Sometimes the tank is vaulted
like a cellar under the cow-house and
stables, which are washed out twice
every day, and all the dung and wa-
ter are swept into a cess-pool com-
municating with the tank. Thus a
very diluted but rich liquid soon fills
the first division of the tank : a sluice
is then shut, and the next washings
ran into a second division, aiKl when

thai 18 full, iato a third. In the mean
time the contents of the first tank
have undergone a certain fermenta-
tion, by which the caustic ammonia
first evolved has become mild and
impregnates the water. It is then
in a fit state to be carried on the land
in tubs or water-carts. When prop-
erly diluted, it accelerates vegetation
in a surprising degree ; but if pot on
fresh, it burns the grass or any ve-
getable it touches, because the am-
monia is in a caustic state. If a cow
drop her urine in a field in a hot
summer's day, ail the grass it has
touched becomes yellow and is burn-
ed up ; but if the same happen in
rainy weather, the spot soon becomes
very green, and the grass luxuriant ;
because, in this case, the urine is
amply diluted and its caustic nature
corrected. Those who live near gas
works may collect the ammoniacal
gas water in a tank, and, by the ad*
dition of sulphuric acid in very small
quantities, they may produce a very
fertilizing liquid, which will stimulate
vegetation, and be a very good ma-
nure.

** Tlie necessary concomitant of a
tank, whether for water or manure,
is a water-cart, that is, a large cask
put upon wheels to bring water from
some distance. When there are no
means of bringing water in pipes, a
water-cart is quite indispensable. It
is simply a cask placed on the frame
of a cart, with a plug>hole in the end
or lower part, from which the water
may be let out by a cock, or drop on
a flat board or into a bucket with
holes, so as to spread it about. The
plug-bole is shut by a valve inside,
which can be opened by means of a
string, the pre.ssure of the liquid
keeping it close to the plug-hole.

"Many of the artificial manures,
of which a number have been lately
proposed, would make excellent li-
quids by merely mixing them with
water in a tank, and allowing a cer-
tain degree of fermentation to take
place. Thus nothing is lost, and all
volatile substances are taken up by
the water. The soluble portions are
dissolved and the earthy matters dif-

775

TAN

fiised, so «8 to be more equally spread f

orer the land. If it be true that the I
ammonia found in some plants is
chiefly derived from the very small
portion discovered in rain water, it
follows that a scarcely perceptible
impregnation with this salt may have
most powerful effects on vegetation.

" when a farm-yard is situated on
a hill, and there are fields or pastures
on a lower level, at no great distance
from H, the liquid from the tank may
be condncted by channels lined with
clay, having small sluices to direct
the streams to any particular field.
It may thus be made to irrigate tem-
porarily a considerable surface, which
it will greatly enrich. It may be led
into the common f\irrows between
the lands, or stitches, in ploughed
land, and allowed to soak in them, and
Uien it can be spread with the earth
of the furrow, by means of broad
shovels, over the growing crops, and
will greatly invigorate them. This
species of irrigation is common in
XiOmbardy, where much ingenuity is
sbown in the manner in which water
is made to flow in small rivulets t>e>
tween the rows of growing vegeta-
bles. The water here is supplied by
streams, but the same method would
distribute the tank liquor with great
effect. A very small quantity of this
liquor, allowed to flow into the main
feeder of a water meadow, will soon
prove how great effects are produced
by impregnations which are scarcely
perceptible by chemical analysis.

"Small as the experience has hith-
erto been in this country of the ad-
vantages of liquid manure tanks, it
has sufficiently proved their nse to
induce every man who constructs a
farm-yard and erects buildings to take
in the tank as an essential part of his
plan ; and even if it only collected tho
refuse fluids which are allowed to run
off in common sewers fVom most
houses, it would soon repay the cost
of its construction, while it rendered
the ditches in the neighbourhood less
subject to noxious emanations from
the corrupted matter which now flows
into them."

TANNER»S BARK. The bark of
776

TAN

otk^ dbe., nsad-lbr taanisff ;
bansted it is serviceable to the larm-
er and gardener, and may be vaed
in stoves (see Stave), or composted
with lime and earth, f>r potresoeBt
manares, into a good coarse mamireL
Where the quantity is large and tiis
land in good tilth, it may be benifid*
and the ashes applied at tbe late of
ten to fifteen bushMa tiie aere,
cially to clovers and

TANNER'S WASTE,
ture of lime and hair, ocrapings and
trimmings of skins, as well aa ih0
fluid of the lime and sleeping ratSr
are all serviceable in comiMtsts ; the
solids being mixed w^itb e&rth, char-
coal, spent bark, or sawdust, and tbe
fluids being used to moisten the com->
post heaps.

TANNIN. The astringent princi-
ple of galls, suaaach, catecba, aad
numerous barks. It is very si^Dble
in water, and possesses the proper^
of uniting with aHMuninous matteza,
and forming (annO'gefMtine^ or leather.
When separated from the other sub-
stances in bark, it is found to be a
white, astringent powder, with acid
reaction, and known as ismnc metdf .
by the action of moisture and air it
absorbs oxygen, and becomes eon-
verted into the insoluble gallic ackl.
The formula of tannie aoid is Ci«
Hi Oo-^S HO : it is tnbasic, and its
salts are oalled (saksim.

Tbe value of any specimen of bm%
for tanning and certain dyes ia as-
certained by the amount of tsnnie
acid tliey contain. Tbe amoooc in
the follQiving table is from Davy. Ia
480 parts,

0«k barii eoataias .... 19

Spftaiah ch«ataat . . . . SJ

IJeicester willow (luy») . . 33

Elm IS

Comiuon willow OafS*l • • >1

Ash ta

Beech 10

Burie-chcstnvt ..... 9

Sycamore 11

LomtMinly ptgilar .... IS

Birch 8

Hazrl 14

filarkihora IS

CitpiMce emk 4 39

lau«r nod of oak bttrk. * . 73

Oak cut ID auiuma. ... 81

lrfu«h col ia MiioBa . . . i

TAN

To this may be «dded the

Sicilian amnnch 78 Ito.

NatffalU It7

Catechu S61

TANNING ON THE PLANTA-
TION. The advantages of having a
means of preparing hides on the plan-
tatiun, in the South and Southwest,
need not be enlarged upon ; the fol-
lowing simple process is by Mr. Af-
fleck, and NTora the American Agri-
culturist :

"Tanning leather for the use of
the plantation is an item of good
management that should not be over-
looked by any planter ; nor wonld it
be as moctt overlooked as it is, if the
simplicity of the process was gener-
ally known — that process, I mean,
that will suffice for making leather
for home use. The tanner by profes-
sion, in order to prepare an article
that will command a good price in
market, and have a merchantable ap-
pearance, pots the bides and skins
tbrongh a greater number of manip-
ulations ; and, that he may work to
better advantage, has his arrange-
ments on a more extensiye scale.

" The Tats, tools, and implements
really needed are few and simple.
Four wt* will generally be found all-
sufficient : one for a pool of fresh wa-
ter, and for bailing ; one for liming ;
another for ujUmring ; end a fourth
for tanmng. The best size, in the
clear, is sev«ft feet long, four and a
half feet wide, and five feet deep.
They should be placed so as to be
easily and conveniently filled with
water from a spring, running stream,
or cistern. Dig the holes nine feet
by six and a half and six ; if the found-
ation is clay, the depth need not be
over five feet. Form a stiflf bed of
cUm mortar in the bottom, on which
to lay the floor, and on it erect the
sides and ends of the vat, of plank of
ahnost any kind, sufficiently thick to
resist the pressure from without:
two inches will be thick enough.
When this is done, and the whole
sailed fast, fill in the vacant space all
round with vstU tempered clay mortar,
lamming it efiTectnally -, it is on this,
md not the planks, that dependanoe

is ]daoed for rendering the Tat per-
fect. When well made, a vat will
be good for a long lifetime, the ooze
preventing the decay of any but the
top round of plank. Such a vat will
hold fiAeen large beef hides (thirty
sides), besides a number of small
skins.

** The material used for tanning is
the bark of the red or black oak,
stripped when the sap flows in the
spring, stacked and dried, of which
about four pounds are supposed to be
necessary to produce one pound of
leather. There is an article occa-
sionally used, called * catechu,' which
is an extract made from the wood of
a mimosa-tree, a native of India, half
a pound of which answers the same
purpose. Galls, willow bark, the bark
of the Spanish chestnut, and common
elm, as also sumach, are all used by
the tanner. It has been recently
found that the root of tho palmetto
answers an equally good purpose with
the best oak bark.

" Bark has to be ground as wanted ;
or if the quantity needed is small, and
it is not thought advisable to incur
the expense of a bark mill (from ten
to eighteen dollars), it may be pound-
ed in a large mortar, or beat up on a
block. It will require one third more
of pounded than of ground bark to af-
ford equally strong ooze, which is the
infusion of bark.

" The principal tools requisite are
Afleehing-knife, currier* s knife, a brush
like a stiflf horse-brush, and ^JUeUng-
beam. The fleshing-beam is made by
splitting in two a hard- wood stick of
about a foot in diameter, inserting
two stout legs, some thirty inches
long, in one end, on the split side, so
that the other end rests on the ground,
with the round side up, the elevated
end being high enough to reach the
workman's waist. A fleshing-knife
may be made by bending an old draw
knife to suit the round of the fleshing-
beam.

" The skins of bulls, oxen, cows,
and horses, are called hidee; those
of calves, deer, sheep, &c., are known
as ekina.

** Freeh and dried hides receive the

777

TANNING ON THE PLANTATION.

earae treatment, except in the wash-
ing process. Those that, are salted
and dry (and no hide should be dried
with less than from two to four quarts
of salt being rubbed on the flesh side :
dried without salt, it is extremely
difficult to soften them) require to
be steeped, beaten, and rubbed sev-
eral times alternately to bring them
to a condition sufficiently soft for
tanning.

** Green or fresh hides must be
soaked in pure water from twelve to
twenty-four hours, to extract all the
blood, dtc, and soften the extrane-
ous fleshy matter, which must then
be removed by throwing one hide at
a time on the fleshing-beana, grain or
hair side down, and scraping or sha-
ving it off with the fleshing-knife,
which must be somewhat dull, or the
skin is apt to be cut. They are then
put in the liming »«/, which is sup-
plied with strong lime-water, by fill-
ing the vat a little over half full of
water, and adding thereto four bush-
els of unslacked (or of ah-'Slacked)
lime, or at the rate of two thirds of
a bushel of Ume to the barrel of wa-
ter. This will suffice for fifteen
hides ; each time that they are re-
moved and a fresh lot of hides put
in, add another bushel of lime, which
will keep up the strength for a twelve-
month. Before using, stir the lime
well up, and while it is thus mixed
with the water put in the hides even-
ly, so that the lime will settle on ev-
ery part of them. They are to re-
main here from ten to fifteen days,
or for three or four days after the
hair wiU rub ofl!* with the finger com-
pletely and with ease. While in the
iiminff vat, they must be moved up
and down every other morning, to
expose them to the air, and to the
equal action of the lime. Being now
ready for un hairing, cut each hide in
two, by slitting them along the cen-
tre of the back wg|th a knife, forming
them into siilcs. '1 brow ten or twelve
of these sides on the fleshing-beam,
and strip the hair off with the knife ;
and as they are unhaired, throw
each one into the vat of fresh water
to bait or soak. When the aides

778

and skins In hand haye been all no-
haired and thoTonghly washed, throw
them again, and at once, on the flesh-
ing-beam, with the grain or bair sicle
up, and work tkem over (rub and press
them) vrith the knife until aJJ the
mucus or mucilaginous matter is
worked out. This should he repeat-
ed two or three times daring' ten or
twelve days, being each time baited ^
anew in fresh water. And this tcerk-
ing oter must only be done when the .
sides feel soft and amooib to the
touch ; as they will, at times, from
some unexplained caoae, feel rough,
at which time they most not be trorf.
ed over. While they are thus Uiiiing,
they must not be neglected, or tfaef
will soon spoil. Tanners are in the
practice of mding a 1000th part of
sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) to the
last bait, which has the effect of
swelling the pores and distending th<
fibres, and thus rendering the skint
more susceptible to the action of the
ooze : forty-eight hours generally suf-
fice for this last bailing.

«*In the mean time, some good
strong ooze should be prepared for the
first tanning process, called coUmring,
Fill a vat a little more than half fult
of water, and add bark, in the pro-
portion of one bushel and a half of
groundy or two bushela of poanded
bark, to the barrel of water, which
will brinff the vat up to about two
thirds full. When the terfc has soaked
from four to five days, the sides itre put
in, and allowed to remain fifteen days ;
during which they roust be onee well
and carefully ^«Aed and varked ot«r,
and must be drawn up and down ev-
ery morning, for the first week at
least, and the bark vfeHpfMngedor stir-
red up, to have them colour erenty.

•• After this, the vat being now two
thirds full of this same ooze, after
drawing out the hides, lay a good
coating of fresh bark, of say an inch
thick, on top of the water, on which
it will float ; lay on this a side, spread
out evenly ; and if it has io be lapped
over in any part, lay on more bark
until it is all well coated, taking care
to place those hides at the bottom of
the vat now that were at the top last

TANMINO ON THB PLANTATIOI^.

L
I

k
ii

tine. On thift^lde toy an indi coat-
ing of bark, and on that another side,
and 80 OR, with alternate layers of
bark, until the vat is full, or the sides
all laid away.

** In this, which is called the fitBt
httrk^ the sides must lie four weeks ;
they are then drawn out, and the
spent bark taken out with a skmmtr
or drainer. The sides are then re-
placed as before, with alternate lay-
ers of fresh bark in the same ooze,
which has acquired some additional
strength, notwithstanding the amount
of tannin and cKtractire matter, con-
tained in the bark, that has become
intimately combined with the animal
fibre of the hide. In this second bark
they remain six weeks undisturbed,
when they receive a third bark in the
same way, in which they are left an-
other six or eight weeks. Three bark*
will suffice to tan deer, hog, calf, and
other small skins; four barks will
make good sole leather, but five are
preferable.

'* The tanning process being com-
pleted, Mole leather is taken out of
the vat, rinsed effectually, and dried
in the shade, hanging the sides up by
two of their corners to joists, where
they may remain until wanted. I'hose
sides intended for upper and harness
leather (which are those of cows,
6lc.^ the largest and thickest bullock
hides being used for sole leather), as
also deer, bog, and other small skins,
being thoroughly rinsed, are spread
out on a strong table, with the grain
or hair side up, and scoured with a
stiff brush, like a very stiff horse-
brush, occasionally throwing on pure
water, until all the ooze is scoured
out. Tanners use the edge of a stone,
made smooth, to assist in rubbing out
the ooze« and all the water that can
possibly be rubbed out. They also
nse what they call a slieker, being a
dull edge of copper of about six or
seven inches long, set in a piece of
wood to serve as a handle.

** After they are all served thus,
and rubbed as dry as possible, the ta-
ble is cleaned off, and the vkins thrown
back upon it, grain side up, and are
rubbed with tanner's oil (codfish oil)

as long as the leather wSl xeoeiTe it.

Harness leather must be completely
saturated.' As they are oiled, fold
them up and lay' them aside. When
they are all gone over, lay one on the
table at a time, JUsh side up, and with
a rag rub on all the dubbing that the
leather will absorb. Thin bides re-
quire but a small quantity. Harness
leather must have a heavy coating.

** Dubbing, which consists of equal
parts of Ur and tallow, melted to-
gether, and well mixed, must be made
the day previous to being used. Lard
may be used in place of tallow, but
will require a less proportion of it.
Each side of leather is then hung up
by two corners to joists, there to re-
main until dry, or until wanted.

"if iron or steel touches a hide du-
ring the process of tanning, when in
the least wet, or even moist, it will
discolour it, forming an indelit^e black
mark.

** To blacken harness or other leath-
er, take the skin when completely
dried, and if any gre-aay spots ap-
pear, showing that more oil or dub-
bing has been applied than the leath-
er could absorb, wet the spots with a
little strong ooze, and scrub them
out with the brush ; then apply a good
coat of copperas (sulphate • of iron),
dissolved m ouze, until the leather
has a good colour all over. After
this, when dry, put on another good
coat of oil The leather may then
be smoothed off with a rounding edge
of polished steel, or glass, or stone.'*

A discovery has recently been
made which seems likely to revolu-
tionize the tanning trade. By means
of a tanning machine, or pair of hori-
zontal rollers, fixed over a tan-pit,
between which is fixed a band or belt
of hides attached by ligatures to each
other, to the number of 60 to 100,
and by which the rollers are con-
stantly fed or supplied, the hides are
lifled out of the pit on one side of the
machine. As tliey pass between the
rollers, the exhausted ooze or tan-
ning liquid is pressed out of them,
and they are deposited in folds in the
pit on the other side of the machine,
where they absorb another supply of

77»

TAP

TiS

tnab tannin. The flnt iHe kaviuf
bren inserted between the Totlera,
tlie nlberi follon in succession, ind
upon arriving at ihe end oflbe ttand
the motion of the roller is rereraed,
and the belt is returned throogh the
machine lo receive unolher Bqueero.
This alternatiBg motion is cnnsUntlj
repeated, the pit being replenished
Irum time to limewilli fresh «olu- litis Gr-

tions of tan till the operation a com- pjremnatic matters, and acetic
pleted. The efffecls produced bjthis
simple plan are, 1. The shortening of
the lime of tanning to one fourth of
that generally required. B. The pro-
duction of a considerable increas
freight. 3. The leather tanned by
method resists

uther with a sweet re
ia prepared with beat.

TAPROOT. The main mat wbicA
descends Tertically from tree«.

TAR. " A dark-brown, viscid li-
quor, obidiwd by elMrruig tbe vrood of

;r long I

tanned by the old process. 4 Th(
new method is cheaper than the old.
C, II is applicable to Ihe existing tsn-
yards, at a com para lively triflirig ex.
pense, wjLh a capability of working
in rounds or series, and of expending
tan or liquor. 6. That it is available
for all sorts of leather.

TANSy, The plants of Iho genus
Tanacflum: they are composite, her-
baceous, and tonic.

TANVSTOMES. A family of dip-
tera, most of which have a project-
ing proboscis.

TI'APETUM. a coat of the eye
under the black pigment, andpeculi
lo quadrupeds.

TAFE worms. Flat worms
(Tania) of great length, and consist-
ing of a nomher of pieces, which in-
fest the inlestioes. They are dc-
Btroyed by large doses of turpentina.

TAPIOCA. A starchy farina from

When inspissated by boiling, ii
verted into pilch. The manii
is timple ; a conical hole, usually in
tbe aide of a bank, being nutde, toou
and billets of pine are let tntathieca*^
ily, and the whole is coTercd iriik
tnrf, which is beat firmly down alM>vft
the wood, Tbe wood beiof kiixtte^
a alow combostioc takes place. A
cast-iron pan at ttio bnttom of the
cavity receives tbe fluid, and baa a
•pout which projects ibrough \ba
bank and carries tbe tar JMo barreb.
A* quickly as Ihe barrels ara SIM
they are closed with bungs, when ike
material is ready fi>r eiponation-
This manner of preparing tar baa
been derived trma tbe earliest age*.
Tar is a very compound aubMaDoe f
it eontains modified resin, and oil of
turpesline, acetic acid, charcoal, Wft>
Dsed in msdictDe as

Q tbe a

It u

Tar may b« found asefol as an
appllcalion for cuts in sheep by clip*
ping, and also to Ihe parts affected
by the fly. It is also of great use is
acme cases for applying as a paint to
boarding, &a, ; bui in this use, a lit>
tie tallow, or other coarse fat, sbanld
be melted with it, *■ by thm means it
resists tlie weaiher more effectnaUy."
TAKE. In the great interest at
preaent taken in sheep hosbandiy,
full information is desirable on tlua
crop ; for, although tares have not
succeeded well in some imperfcci »•
pertmenta bilberto mnde, there is a»
reason why. on poorisli Mils, Ibey
abuuld fail if property managed.

crop in tbe improTed ajsteina ofagi
culUjre, eBpeciaJty od heavy loils,
ivhcre Ihey thrive beal. Whea sown
in aatamn, with a small sprinkling of
wheat or rye, they cover tbe ground
in Bpriog, and supply aiiiuulaace of
Ibdder in summer. A good crop of
Urea is fully equal in value, if nol sd-
penoT.tonneof reddoTBr: it comes
ofr the ground in eufficisDt time to
giT« the land a hasty summer tillage,
wbicb ia so uaaful in destroying
weeds, and to allow, turnips to tie
•own in tbe same season. They
Mnotber annual weeds if the crop is
plentiful, which should always be se-
cured by an abiindsnt msnuriagithus
they are a good substitute fur a sum-
mer fallow in heavy soils, and amply
repay the labour and manure bestu wed

"There are many species snd va-
rieties of tares; but that which ia
found die best adapted for agriculiu-
lal porpoaes is the cumman tare(yi-
eto nrlna. Pig.), of which there are

two priacipal Tarjetiea. rery aligfaUy
diOeriDg in appearanee, one of which
i« hardy, and will etand the severest
winlara ; the other ia more tender,
and is therefore only sown in spring ;
bot it has the advantage of vegeta-
ting more rapidly, so that spring taies
town m March will be fit to cut with-
in a fiinnight or three weeks after

By sQWkig then ai ragidar'intervals

from Septeraher to May, a succession
of green tares in perfection, thiit is,
in bloom, or wtien llie puds are form-
ed, may be cut for several muniba,
from May tu October. A prudent
farmer arranges hie crops tio that be
shall have artificial green food for
hia hursea and catlte at least sis
months in the year, by having tares
fit to cut between the first and see-
uod cut of clover. When there are
mure tare* ifaau is absolutely requi-
red for Ibis purpose, and the weather
permits, they make excellent hay ;
or, if the weather is not favourable,
they are cut and given tu sheep,
which are fuJdcd on the portion al-
ready cut. It is an advantage lu have
ponable racks for this purpose, that
the fodiier may not be trodden under
fool and wasted ; or the tares may
i>e placed between hurdles, tied two
aad two, which form extemporaneous
racks. It ia prudent to raise suffi-
cient seed for another year ; but a
crop of seed tares raised fur sale ia
seldom profitable, as they greatly ex-
haust the soil ; and the price varies
so much in different seasons, that it
becomes loo mirch of a speculation
for a farmer. The difficulty in dis-
tinguishing the seed of the wioier
tare from tbe spring variety is so
great, that it should either be raised
at home, or only purchased from
neighbours or from the most respect-
able aaedslhca. It is a commoa prac-
tice with dealers to mix the seeds ol
tbe winter tares, after the time ol
sowing ia past, with spring tares,
whiob are in request at a later period.
The inconvenience of this ia, iha
they do not vegetate equally, and con-
sequently tbe winter tare is not in
bloora when the spring tare is fit for
the scythe. Foreign lares, which are
imported in large quantities, are oflen
tbe growth of southern climates, and
wit] not stand the winter ; or they
have been raised from seed sown ia
spring, so as to be really spring tares.
The difference is probably mute ow-
ing to habit than to any real buiani-
eal distinction between them. Wheit
spring tares ara sown in autumn
TBI

TARiSS.

instead of winter tares, tbey may oc>
casionally stand the frost, if not very
severe ; but, in general, tbey rot
on the groand and never recover ;
whereas, the real hardy winter tares,
whose vegetation is slower, seem in-
sensible to the severest frosts.

'* In the early part of summer, green
rye and tares, mixed, are sold at a
great price in large towns, for horses
which have worked hard and been
highly fed in winter. Tbey act as a
gentle laxative, and cool the blood :
near London, where every produce
is forced with an abundance of ma-
nure, tares are often fit to cut early
in May, and the land is immediately
ploughed and planted with potatoes^
or sown with mangel-wurzel or ruta
bags, which come off in September or
Octol)er, in time for wheat sowing.
Thus two very profitable crops are
raised during the time that the land,
according to the old system, would
have been fallow ; and, at the same
time, it is lefl as clean, by careful
hoeing, as the best fallow would have
made it.

" There are a great many species
of tares or vetches, for the terma are
synonymous, many^of which have
been proposed to be introduced into
general cultivation ; but none seem,
on the whole, to be so well adapted
to our climate as the common tare :
some have biennial and some peren-
nial roots. The Vieia bienni* has a
strong stem and large leaves, and
grows four or five feet high ; but it is
not so succulent as the common sort.
It might, perhaps, by cultivation and
early cutting, bet^me a useful early
fodder, and it may be worth while
to make some experiments with it.
There arc several species of tares
which grow wild in bushes and hedges,
but they have never been cultivated
in tiie fields, perhaps from the d\fR-
culty in collecting the seeds, which
shed as ihey are ripe. Of these, the
Vicia craca appears most deserving of
attention. U hears its blue fiower on
stems or spikes longer than the leaves,
which are downy. It is very com-
mon in France among wheat; and,
•Ithongh 8 decided weed there, it ia
782

I not moeh dreaded hy the'
it improves the fodder greatty. 2c
has the appearanoe of great laxoii»
ance in its growth, where it
with a proper support. If it
mixed with some lAanta with a
stem, such as the Bokhara dover
{Mdilotus mrbona aUisnma}^ 'wbicJk it-
self afiforda mooh fodder, it miglit
probably be cnltivated to great ad-
vantage.

** In the aouth of France there is a
white perennial vetch or tare, called
Vtcia puiformiMf which ia coltivafed
for its white seeds, of which eoa|M
are made, as with the pea and leatiL
It grows in very light aoils ; aad, al-
though iodigenooB to a aoothem cli-
mate, it is said not to be iinpatieat of
frost. It has been called by sonoe the
Canadian lentil, or Uie white tare.

" We shall only notice ooe Dore
of the wild tares, which is an annual :
it is called the yellow tare {Vida In-
ua). It grows in atony aoila and
among bushes, ia veiy hraiichiBff,aod
rises ^nm one to two feet high. From
some experiments made by. the Ag*
ricultural Society of VeraaiUeB sev-
oral years ago, it would appear that
this tare might be eultivated with
great advantage, and is even snperi*
or to the common sort, because it
can be cnt two or three times daring
the summer, and afibrda a veiy good
pasture in winter, which does not
stop its vegetation ; it will even bloom
in a mild winter. Althoogb short, it
is so thick upon the ground, that its
first cut is as heavy as that of the
common tare, which is seldom worth
cutting a second time.

" Tares should be sown on land
which is well pulverized. If after
wheat, the stubble should be plough*
ed in with a deep furrow after a pow-
erful scarifier has gone over the land
several times to loosen it ; &ve or six
cart-loads of good farm-yard dung
should be ploughed in. The tares
should be drilled or dibbled, and the
surface well harrowed. The. inter-
vals should be hoed early in spring :
this will accelerate the growth, and
ensure a complete covering of the
ground. As sooa as the tares show

TAR

TEA

the dower, they may be eot daily till
the pods are fully formed ; after this,
any which remain uncut should be
made into bay or given to sheep ; for
if the seeds are allowed to swell, the
ground will be much exhausted. An-
other piece should be ready to cut by
this time, and thus there may be a
succession of tares and broad clover
irom May to November. Tares may
1^8 sown as late as August, on a bar-
ley or rye stubble, for sheep feed ear-
ly in winter, or to be ploughed in to
rot in tho ground where beans ^nd
pease are intended to be sown early
in spring : this is perhaps the cheap-
est mode of manuring the land, the
only expense being the seed, for the
tillage is necessary at all events. In
light soils, tares and buckwheat, sown
together immediately after barley or
rye harvest, will produce a consider-
able crop of vegetable matter, which
may be ploughed in in November. In
favourable seasons, wheat may be
sown immediately after, without fear-
ing the effect of two white crops fol-
lowing each other ; for the tares and
buckwheat coming between, by their
shade, and the two plooghings of the
ground, one when they are sown, and
the second when they are ploughed
in, will entirely destroy all w^s,
and give to the soil that improvement
which will enable it to bear as good a
cnip of wheat as it would have done
had it been sown the year after on a
clover lay. Clover, which could not
be sown with the barley, from the foul
state of the land, may be sown among
the wheat in the next spring, when it
is hoed for the second time. This is
held out as a hint to show how an
accidental interruption in a rotation
may be remedied without any loss of
crop or great deviation. As no rule
is without exception, so no rotation
can always be strictly adhered to ;
and those crops which admit of being
sown at different times of the year
are of the greatest use as substitutes
for others which could not be con-
veniently sown without materially al-
tering the succession of crops. In
the common course of cultivation of
baavy aoilsi where occasional fallows

are necessary to clean the land, one
half of the land which requires fallow-
ing may be sown with tares ; and thus
the dean unproductive summer fal-
low wiU only return at every second
rotation. If the tares have been m^-
nured, or if they are fed off with sheep
folded upon the land, the wheat or
other crop which is sown alter them
will be as good as on a dean fallow,
or after a good crop of clover. This
alone would make tares a valuable
crop ; and they may be compared in
their effect on heavy lands to tnrnips
on lifter soils.

** The seeds of the tare are occa-
sionally ground into meal and made
into hread. It is a very poor food ;
and when there is more seed than
can be profitably disposed of, it may
be given to pigs ; but poultry, espe-
cially pigeons, are veiy fond of it.
When given to horses, the seeds of
tares are found very heating ; and al-
though they produce a fine glossy
coat, they ar& not to be recommended
for this pJarpose-^-^Rluan.)

TARO. A cultivated Arum of the
Columbia River.

TARRAGrON. Aritmesia draeun-
etUua. A bitter pot-herb, of the same
genus as the tansy.

TARSUS, TARSE. The bones
articulated to the tibia, and forming
the upper part of the loot.

TARTAR. The sediment of wine
casks.

TARTAR, CREAM OF, Super-
tartrate of potash, obtained by purily-
ingtartar.

TARTAR EMETIC. Tartrate
of potash and antimony, a powerful
emetic, sedative, and expectorant. ■

TARTARIC ACID. The acid of
grapes or of tartar. See Acid*,

TAXICORNS. A family of cole-
opterans, in many of which the an-
tennee enlarge towards the upper ends.

TAXIS. The replacement of parte
by the hand.

TEA. The tea plant has been par-
tially introduced into North Carolina
with a view to cultivating that impor-
tant staple ; we therefore present the
reader with an abstract onf the Chi-
nese plan from Ix>udon :

783

TEA.

" The t^a dIatrictB of China extend
from the 37ih to the 31st degree of
latitude. Aceordine to the niisaiona-
riea, it thrives in the more northern
provinces ; and from Kaempfer it ap-
pears to be cultivated in Japan as far
north as lat. 46°. It seems, accord-
ing to Dr. Abel's observation, to suc-
ceed best on the sides of mountains,
where there can be butliule accumu-
lation of vegetable mould. The soils
from which he collected the best spe-
cimens consisted chiefly of sandstone,
sohistus, or granite. It grows well
in St. Helena and Rio Janeirt*, and
will grow anywhere in a meager 8o>'
and moderate temperature.

••The culture of the tea plant in Chi-
na has been given by variims authors.
It is raised from seeds sown where
the plants are to remain. Three or
more are dropped into a hole four or
five inches deep ; these come op with»
out farther trouble, and require little
culture, except that of removing
weeds, till the plants are three years
old. The more careful stir the soil,
and some manure it ; but the latter
practice is seldom adopted. The third
year the leaves arc gathered, at three
successive gatherings, in February,
April, and June, and so on till the
bushes become stinted or tardy in
their growth, which generally hap-
pens in from six to ten years. They
are then cut in to encourage the pro-
duction of fresh shoots.

" The gathering of the leaves is
performed with care and selection.
The leaves are plucked ofT one by
one : at the first gathering only the
tmexpanded and tender are taken ; at
the second, those that are full grown ;
and at the third, the coarsest. The
first forms what is called in Europe
imperial tea ; but of this and other
names by which tea is designated,
the Chinese know nothing ; and the
compounds and names are supposed
to he made and given by the mer-
chants at Canton, who, from the great
number of varieties brought to them,
have an ample opportunity of doing
BO. These varieties, though numer-
ous, and some of them very difibrent,
are yet not more so than the diiTer-
78i

ent varieties of the graf«;
now generally considered as belonjr-
ing to one species, the Thea 3^kc^
now Camellia Bohea {Fig. 0« of bo<>

anists. Formerly it was thought that
green tea was gathered exekmivefy
from Camellia viridis ; but that is now
doubtful, though it is certain there is
what is called the green tea district
and the black tea district; and the
varieties grown in the one dt^iicC
difier from those grown in the other.
Dr. Abel could not satisfy himself as
to there being two species or one, but
thinks there are two species. He was
told by competent persons that either
of the two plants will afiTord the black
or green tea of the shops, bat that the
broad, thin-leaved plant (C viridis) is
preferred for making the green tea.

•* The tea leaves being gathered*
are cured in houses which contain
from five to ten or twenty smaH fur-
naces, about three feet high, each
having at the top a large, flat iron
pan. There is also a long, low table
covered with mats, on which the
leaves are laid, and rolled by work-
men, who sit round it : the iron pan
being heated to a certain degree by
a little fire made in the furnace un-
derneath, a few pounds of the fresh*
gathered leaves are put upon the pan :
the fresh and juicy leaves crack when
they touch the pan, and it is the bu-
siness of the operator to shiA them
as quickly as possible with his bars
bands, till they become too hot to be

TEA

T^A

li^ endured. At fhte inataiit lie )
takes off the leaves with a kind of
fthorel resembling a- fan, and pours
them on the mats before the rollers,
^rho, taking small qoantities at a time,
roll them in the pafans of their hands
in one direction, while others are fan-
■ioff them, that they may oool the
■M»re speedily, and retain their enrl
the longer. This process is repeated
two or three times or oftener, before
ibe tea is put into the stores, in or-
der thataH the moisture of the leaves
may be thoroughly dissipated, and
their curl more completely preserved.
On every repetition the pan is less
heated, and the operation performed
more slowly and eaatiously. The tea
im then separated into the different
fcinds, and deposited in the store for
domestic use or exportation.

'* The diilbrent sorts of black and
green are not merely liromsoil, sttna-
tion, and age of the leaf; but, alter
winnowing the tea« the leaves are ta-
ken up in sueeession as they fall ;
those nearest the machine, being the
heaviest, form the gunpowder teai
the light dust, the worst, being chief-
ly used by the lower classes. That
which is brought down to Canton un-
deigoes there a second roasting, win-
nowing, packing, dec, and many hun-
dred women are employed for these
purposes.

" For more select sorts of tea, the
blossoms of the Ctundlia tasanquA
{Fig. b) appear to be ooUected, since
they are brought over land to Russia,
and sold by Chinese and Armenians
in Moscow at a great price. The
bnds also appear to be gathered in
some cases. By far the stn>ngest tea
which Dr. Abel tasted in Chins was
that called Yu-tien, used on occasions
of ceremony. It scarcely coloured
the water, and on examination was
(band to consist of the half-expanded
leaves of the phint. <v.

" As substitutes for tea, used by
the Chinese, may be mentioned a spe-
cies of moss common to the mount-
ains of Shan-tung ; an infusion of
fbms of different^sorts, and Dr. Abel
thinks the leaves of the conmion
eamellta and oil cameHia may be add-

UuuS

•d« Dn Haide observes that aH tha
plants caUed tea by the Chinese are
not to be considered as the true tea
plant ; and Kempfer asserts that in
Japan a species of Camellia, as well
as the OleafragTOMs, is used to give
it a high flavour."

TEAK. Tuttma grandis. A splen-
did tree ef the elevated hinds of In-
dia, the wood of which appears to he
superior even to oak. It is strong,
light, oily, and free from dry rot

TEAM. '« Nothing is of greater
importance in the management of a
farm than the cattle which perform
the necessary work in ploughing end
other operations on the soil, in draw*
ing manure to the land, and carrying
the produce to market. It is evident
that the smaller the expense of the
team which does the requisite work
in proper tune, the greater the profit
of the farmer, and every saving in
this part of the expense of cultivation
is so much added to the dear gain.
Wherever the land is only partially
cultivated, and a portion of it remains
in coarse pasture, which costs little or
nothing to the occupier, or where-ex-
tensive open commons afford cheap
food for oxen, these last are naturally
employed in (hrm labour. If four oxen
do only the work of two horses, they
aro maintained at a much smaller ex-
pense, and, after working for two or
three years, their value is improved
for the purpose of fattening for the
butcher. The necessary gear is much
less expensive, especially where the
old yoke is still in use, whether across
the neck or the horns. In fact, for a
poor man who has only a few acres
of land, and who is situated near a
waste or common, oxen are by far
the most economicai team. Many
writers on agriculture, who in gener-
al have more theoretical than practi-
cal knowledge of husbandry, have
maintained the general superiority of
an ox-team over that composed of
horses, and have given calculations
whtcb appear clearly to establish that
point. But, on the other side, it may
be observed, that wherever ardbte
land is the chief object of the farmer's
attentioaf and the tillage of the sod

TBS

TEJM.

is bMogkt to asr degvee of per&6-
tton, there oxen are neTer Been at
work, but have been invariably an-
perseded by aotive horaea.

** In Switaerland, which ia tolera-
bly advanced in ita agrieultore, oxen
are very generally ased for the work
of the larm ; but there the ayatem of
8tall*feeding ia univeraal, and haTing
a eonaidorable portion o( graas land,
which can be irrigated by the atreama
from the mountaina, they cot the
coarse, long graaa produced there for
their cowa and oxen ; and ibia Ibod
ia more congenial to their nature than
to horsee, which do not thrive on
ooarae watery graaa, and require hay
and corn nearly all the year round.
But where there is leaa graaa land
and more artificial graaa, auch as lu-
oern, sainfoin, and clover, which is
the case in all exteaaive farma, there
horaea are chieHy uaed, thia food being
auited to their conatituiioa. Not to
enter farther into the oomparatiye ad-
vantage of oxen and horses, we ahall
turn our attention to the moat profits
abJe management of the latter, which
now almost univeraally pompoae the
farmer'a team.

** The choice of the horaes for a
farm is of great importance. It may
be very satisfactory to a rich fanner
to see fioe, large, well-fed horses in
his wagon, moving along as if they
followed a procession, with bright har-
ness ornamented with shining braaa.
This ia a luxury like that of the rich
man's coach- horaea, and aa auch ia
very natural and innocent. It is the
pride of tnaoy a wealthy farmer, and
we would not curtail his pleasure or
despise his taate ; but as a matter of
pront or loss, the caae ia very differ-
cut : a fat horse does little work, no
more than a fat cuacbmao. Horses
to be in working condition should be
muscular and active. The great,
heavy cart*liorse may, for a moment,
be capable of greater exertion at a
dead pull, his weight assisting him ;
but in a lung day the thin, active horse
will do witli e4ae what would sicken,
if not kill, bts heavy companion. Hor-
aes about lUteen handa high, with
short lega and broad cbeats* such aa
708

the CsMdisn liorae, wbidi
fast aa an ordinary man, are tbe
economical for farm work. A. pair of
auch horses will draw a lofkl in a cart
sixteen miles and reuun, or pioqgh
one acre and a quarter in tea wrorkiag
hours, having a rest of two iioan ;
while the heavy, slow cart-hoisss
conld not walk tbe distanoe in tiie tuns
without being overdriTen. Tkia is
more thsn the average work ; bat is
the busy time of the year it is a sreat
advantage to have horses wliicali ess,
with good feeding, work longear nA
faater without Buffering in tbeir beakk
The carriers on the roads» who liia
entirely by the work of their horsei^
know how to choose tbeos and how
to feed them U> the greatest adva^
tage, and. without overworking then^
to make mem do as much as is cos-
aistent with their health. If haid
work ia the cause of some diseases m
horses, oomparativs iodoieace causes
many more. Where horses are sli^
giah, the men soon become so lik^
wise. To aee a wagon with Ibsr
strong horsss returning empty, at the
rate of two miles in the boor, wjti
two men, or at least a man and a boy»
lying laady in it, ia a sure sign that
the work on the iarm to which thej
belong is done at the same rate. A
single horse-cart, or a light spring
wagon with two horsea, drives by a
man or boy with reias sod a whip,
and trotting at the rate of five nules
an hour, is a psrfect csntrast to this,
and no doubt the owner has bis work
done much more expeditiously, and
consequently at a cheaper rate. The
stage-coach proprietors bsve gener-
ally very light, four-wheeled camagBS
to carry their oorn from their diiei
sutiooa to places where they keep
horses, and they oAen carry as heavy
loads aa a farmer's wagon does when
OArrying com to market ; yel the two
horses in the light carriage trot with
their load, and tbe three or four heaTy
horaes of the fanner move at the rate
of two miles and a half in the huur at
moat, both going and rotumiag- It
is evident that there is a waste of
time and power here, whieh ia so
much lost. Horsss half-bred between

TBiUf.

ft cart mare and a blood hone ara
reared by some spirited farmers, aod
if they are more delicate and suscep-
tibie of cold than tbe common cart-
horses, tbey have many advantages :
sometimes tbey inherit so much cour-
age and vigour from their sire, that
they become valuable as carriage bor-
868 or banters, and well repay the ex-
pense incurred in rearing them ; and,
at aU events, tbey are superior to any
others fbr the work of the farm, and
are in general docile and tractable.
Tbe only inconvenience arises from
tbeir spirit. When any sudden ob-
struction arises in ploughing, such, as
a considerable root of a tree or a large
stone, they make violent exertions,
and sometimes break the ploughs or
Giber implements. In this respect
oxen are more phlegmatic, and stop
when the collar presses on them ; so
that in breaking up rough commons
or newly-clear^ woods oxen may be
preferred. This is almost the only
case where spirit and courage are not
an advantage.

*< With respect to the food of farm-
horses, as we observed before, a^great
saving may be efibcted by a judicious
use of many vegetables and roots
which are easily raised on arable
land. Varions modes of preparing
tbe food have been recommended,
such as steeping corn till it sprouts,
baking it into bread, or mixing it with
boiled roots. All these may have their
advantage where economy is the ob-
ject ; but, with the exception of baked
bread made of rye, barley, and oats,
and slightly leavened, which is per-
haps the best food which can be giv-
en to slow-wo king horses, there is
nothing so congenial to tbe healthy
stomach of a horse as good hay and
dry oats, or beans bruised in a mill
and mixed with cut chaff. Tbey re-
quire no cooking to be fully digested,
and the digestive power of the horse
will extract all the nourishment which
they contain. But there are cheaper
fodders than hay and corn, especially
in summer, when they can be given
fresh and green. Tares, clover, lu-
cem, and sainfoin, cut as they are
wanted, will keep a horse in health

and workbig conditioii with little or

no corn, aiKl at a comparatively tri*
fling expense : carrou are peculiarly
relished by horses, and are very whole-
some ; and Swedish tumtpa, or ruta
baga, given raw in moderate quanti-
ties, tniake their ^ins shine, and thus
prove that they tend to keep them
in condition. Every prudent fanner
takes care to have a sufficient supply
of these cheaper substitutes lor bay
and com, keeping these last as a re-
serve and auxiliary to the former. In
a prize essay of the Highland and
Agricultural Society, on tbe compar-
ative advantages of raw and boiled
grain as food for farm horses, tbe
author adducea soma experiments^
which lead to tbe conclusion that
there is no advantage in boiling grain,
but rather the contrary. The cost ol
keep of a horse per day on different
food has been given as follows :

10 lb«. ofctniiir cat into chaff . . . JdL

10 llM. of Ottts, »c 3#. per Uaahel . . 9

16 Ibi. of turuips, at iO«. per tin . . 1

Ezpenae of cutting .... . . H

1*. OK

or,

16 Ifae. of hay, at 3<. M. per cwt.
5 lbs. of oats, at S<. per bushel .
10 Ibe. of tumipa, at iHs* per ton .

6d.

or.

28 lbs. of steamed turnips . • .

7 Ibe. of ooali, at 1<. per boshel .

Expense of steaioias^

16 lbs. of

straw, at U. per ton

" This last appears the most eco-
nomical food, but steamed turnips
and straw only would probably not
keep a horse in good working condi*
tion, and it is not said bow long the ex-
periment was continued, nor whether
the horses thus fed lost weight. The
food is also valued at a low rate.

** It is evident that if farm horses
can be kept in condition for 6^<L a
day, which is not 4«. a week, while
on hay and oats, in the common mode
of feeding, they will cost more than
double that sum, tbe saving in a year
would amount to nearly £10 on each
horse; and as every twenty-five
acres of a farm of moderately light
land will raqoixe one horse for ita

Tfi4jr:

eoKiTatioii, there will be a evring of

eight shillings per acre, probably half
the rent, and more than half the prof-
it. However this may be, there is no
doubt that it is of great importance
to ascertaia what is, on the whole,
the best and cheapest mode of feed-
ing farm horses ; and without enter-
ing into minute calculations, it will
be found that various artificial grass-
es may be made to succeed each
other by successive sowings so reg-
ularly that the horses shall be kept
for six months of the year entirely
on succulent green food, which will
enable them to do all the necessary
work, and keep them in good health
and condition. Thus, with the help
of carrots, potatoes, and ruta baga,
a great saving of hay and oats may
be effected in winter, and these crops
will take up much less land fof their
production than hay and oats, and
exhaust the soil less, if we except
potatoes, which are more profitably
used as human food, or to fatten pigs.
'*Tbe example of tradesmen and
manufacturers who keep horses, and
cut all the hay which they use into
chafi*, mixing it with oats, may be
good for a fiirmer to follow where
hay is scarce and beans a good price,
but otherwise it is fully as economi-
cal to give the hay in racks, provided
no more be given at once than a horse
will eat up entirely, and a certain ra-
tion be allowed for each horse, which
experience has shown to be sufficient.
In the cavalry, where great atten-
tion is paid to economy, the horses
have their rations of hay, oats, and
straw, according to the exercise they
take, or the fatigue they are exposed
to ; so likewise it should be with a
farmer's team. In the old mode of
feeding horses with as much hay as
they would eat, and two bushels of
oats for each horse per week, during
at least nine months in the year, and
giving them tares or artificial grasses
between spring sowing and harvest,
when there was less to be done, the
expense of a horse was much greater
than most farmers could now afl^ord,
and more land was devoted to the
keep of the team than was necessary.
788

<« It la oTgfealimpQvtaiMse to m per
son about to manage a lann to know
exactly what nunsber of hoTsee wS-
be required for iia proper cultiTotioB ;
and this depends apoo many eircuBi-
stances, whioh most all be ^kea info
consideration, and which will loako
a very mat^dal difference, oileo as
much as half the reot el* tbe bad.
He is to consider the eitaatioii of the
farm buildings, espeoiallj tbe etaOs
and cattle-yards, where tbe maaeie
is to be made, with respect to their
distance from the fields ; tbe state d
the roads and the aocesa to tbe fields^
the distance of a good market-tewa,
and whether the fields tie in a riag-
fence or are scatierad. A lorca of
good light loam wiU require one
horse for every twenty-fi^e acres lor
its culttvaUon, with an additional ooe
for every two fauadred acres ; that
is, nine horses fbr two hundred acres.
The additional horse ahmrid be light-
er and more active than the vest, ftr
the farmer to ride on and to drive ia
a light cart ; yet it should be capable
of supplying the place of any of the
others in case of illness or aocideot,
or when extra work ia reqoired, as
in harvest or seed time, llie larger
the fhrm, or rath^ the fieMa, the
fewer horses are required in propor-
tion to its siae, because nrach tmie im
lost in turning the plough where th^
farrow is riiort ; and pfoughing iaaU
ways the principal work of the team.
If more than two horses are requi-
red to plough the groand, tbe soil
must be very compact and heavj;
and if this is not compensated by
greater fertility, the expense of the
horses will much redooe the profit of
the farmer. It i» the custom in
some farms for each ploughman to
have the charge of his own horses ;
but it is far better to make the feed-
ing and cleaning of hoises the busi-
ness of regular servants, who should
sleep in or near the stables, and rise
very early, so that the horses may be
fed and ready to go to work as soon
as the ploughman comes. When a
man has been eight or ten hours
holding a plough, he is not so capable
of cleaning and rabbiog the horseB as

TEA

OBB who hM oalj bad b^ woik hi
the day. The horae keepi^rs can
ftrapare nianaie, make nompoalB.ciit
hay and straw into chair fur the bor-
sea, mow Ur«s or other penu fuod,
or hoe tbe crupa in tho aeniiDa wliite
the horseB are at work, antl the last
thing belbre they Ue down at nijjht
^lould b« to give the huraea Ibeir
proper ration of bay, and see ttial
their beds are comTonable aod eveiy-
thing in proper order in the atabJea :
good grooming is of as great use lu
a horse aa good feeding, anil without
it they will never be in perfect worli-
jng oondilioB. The harness sliould
bIwbjb be cleaned and oiled, and
hung up in a aeparate place, not, ae
ia loo cumiaoiily done, hnng up be-
bind thehorseain thesUbles. There
should be DO unnecessary oraanienta,
but strength and simplicity should be
Atudied. The weight and size of the
ocdiara are in many places abanrd :
they cannot be too light, provided
thay are of Miffleieat strength. The
work in the field, when the days are
long, should be divided lo aa to give
the horses at least two hours' rest.
daring which they abould be fed with
oats or corn. When the Gelds are
near the atables, the boraea may be
bniaght home, but a portable manger
is easily carried into the lieldi such
,as is used at the inns on the roads
where carriers atop to bait. In win-
ler it may be as well to Sni^ the
daye' work with only an interval of
half an hour The time in bud
should t>e from five iu tbe morning
till ten, and from two till seven if the
weather is very warm, resting fonr
boors 1 or from six till eleven, and
Ihim one till six, resting two hours,
in winter the time is froni aevea till
three, resting half an hour or an hour
between eleven and twelve. With
good feeding and grooming this is by
no meana too bajd work when the
work reqkiires to be carried on briak-
ly. The heavier and lighter kind of
work Bhoald be bo arranged that
irbeo horses have worlied bard for a
dayoriwo, they may have one or two
days of lighter work."
TEATHINO Feeding or alack-

TKA

ing hay for «ie OB the told : eating

turnips, &o., on Gelda.oryoung wheat
- e(;ring.

TEASEL, or FULLER'S TEAS-
EL. Dipiaait fuUoauni. It is an
berliai;eou8 bienoial. of the conipusite
faintly, growing four to sis feet high,
and cultivated for the rough, priekly
flower head, which is used in the
manufaeture of clnlb. fiannel, dio.
Tbo soil best auited ia a clayey loam.

; the

April or May, either broad-cast or in
drills eighteen inchea to two feet
apart. Sumetimea caraways are
sown with them. One to two pecks
of seed are aowa to the aero. Tlie
plants are weeded, tbianed, and deep-
ly worked as they grow, to six inches
in tbe row. or one foot each way, in
the broad^cast field. They are fit f<w
cutting the secuDd year about July,
or as soon as the hlossoma begin to
fall from the beads, and are now lo
be cut immediately above the upper
leaves (see Fig.) with a sharp knife

or book, and received into a basket ;
the cutter should have bis hands woU
provided with stoot gloves. Three
enttinga are made at intervals of eight
to ten daya, the ripe beads only being
taken. They are to be aunned for a
day. and then conveyed into dry
rooma or sheds ; no water should
touch Ihem. They are aorted for
sale : the finest and firmest are call-
ed klqgs ; the aecond, mtddlings : and
7B9

TER

the inferior, unripe, and brittle kinds
Bcrabft. The sorts are put into open
bales of sticks for sale. 9000 heads
ef the first form a pack, and 20,000
of the second. An acre will yield ten
to fifteen padts in all. The haolm is
bnrned on the ground. The crop is
not exhausting, but sometimes fails.

TECTRICES. The small feathers
which cover the quill feathers.

TEDDING HAY. Spreadingitout.

TEETH. To learn the age of
horses by, see Horte.

TEGMENTA. The scales of win-
ter buds.

TEGUMENT, or TEGMEN. In
anatomy, the general covering of the
body In entqmology the term is ap-
plied to the coverings of the wings
of the order Orihopura, or straight-
winged insects.

TEMPORAL BONES. The tem-
ple bones.

TENACITY. Cohesion. The
power of resisting a pulling force.

TENACULUM. A simple small
hook, used to seize bleeding vessels
in operations.

TENDRIL. A clasping stem, as
that of the vine.

TENESMUS. A straining and in-
effectual effort to relieve the bowels ;
it is a symptom of irritations and in-
flammations of the bowels.

TENON. The end of a rail intro-
duced into a mortice.

TENSOR MUSCLES. Those
which tighten a part.

TENT. A plug of lint or sponge
introduced into wounds to dilate
them, or to stop hemorrhages.

TENTACULA, or TENTACLES.
Prehensile, thread-like organs in the
lower animals, usually arranged
around their mouths.

TENUIROSTERS. Incesao-
rial birds, with a slender bill.

TEREBRANTIA. A section of
hymenopterons insects, the females
of which are furnished with a terebra,
or borer, with which she bores into
the bark of trees, or the bodies of an-
imals, to deposite her eggs. The ich-
neumons, wheat insect, dec., are of
this class. See ImecU.

TERETE (from tcret, round), A
790

TET

term ipplied to rornid vtrnms, aofsB-

nae, dec.

TERGUM. In insects, the upper
part of the abdomen or back.

TERMITES. A gemis of insects
inhabiting tropical Africa and Amer-
ica, and allied to the ants.

TERRACE. A raised bank,ftra
promenade and ornamental objecu.

TERTIARY FORMATiOJi.
Strata situated above Uks chalk aad
green sand, disposed in bssia^s, anj
for the most part sedimentary, bat
containing some hard rocks. It is di-
vided into three portions, tbe etf&BSf
mioeine. and pliocine, which see.

TESSELATED. Marked rate
squares, or trapezoids : a pavetneiR
laid with square stones of diflereol
colours.

TEST. In chemistry, anythinf by
which we distinguish the chemieal
nature of substanees from eaoh-oib-
er ; thus, infusion of galls is a test of
the presence of iron, vrhieh it ren-
ders evident by t!he production of a
black colour in water and other li-
quids containing that meul ; in the
same way, sulphuretted hydrogen in a
test of the presence of lead, and ni-
trate of baryta, of snlphuric aeid. In
metallurgy and assaying, tbe ponma
crucible which absorba the liquid vit-
rifiable oxide of lead and other met-
als combined with it is sometimea
called the test.

TESTA. The shell or integument

TESTACEANS. Animais provi-
ded with a shell.

TESTES. The glands which pro-
duce the reproductive secretion of
male animals.

TESTUDINATA. A tribe of an-
imals like the tortoise, famished with
a carapace or homy covering.

TETANUS. Locked jaw.

TETHERING. Fastening cattle
or horses by a rope, or chain, to a
post, or tree, to give them a limited
pasturage.

TETRADYNAMIA. Having fonr
long and two short stamens, as tha
cruciferous plants.

TETRAGONA. The New Zea-
land spinach. See Spiiutek,

TBA

TSA

TETRAGYNIA. HaTifigfoor pis-
tils.

TETRANDRIA. With four sta-
mens.

TETTIGONIANS. The Cieadi-
ans, or tree locusts.

THALAMUS. In aoatomy, the
part of the brain from which the op-
tic nerves have part of their origin.
In botany, the part on which the
ovary is seated. The saccalent red
centre of a stiawberfy, the core in
the fruit of a raspberry* are the thai-
ami of these j^nts^ Some botanists
3a)l it the receptacle of the frait.

T H A L L T I S. The leaf-like ex-
pansion of lichens, sea-weeds, &xi.
Hence these plants are sometimes
called ThaUogenM, or Thcdhphytet.

THATCH. "This is a covering of
straw, rushes, or reeds, as a substi-
tute for tiles, or slates, for houses,
barns, and principally for sheds for
cattle. The increase of agrhsohural
produce on a farm makes the stacking
of corn out of doors a matter of neces-
sity as well as convenience. The
temporary thatching of tbese stacks,
as well as of hayricks, has made it
necessary that some of the regular
servants of the farm should be capa-
ble of thatching in a neat and sub-
stantial manner, that there may be
no delay from want of a reguhir
thatcher. We will first describe the
mode of thatching hayricks and com
stacks, as tbe simplest.

'* Tbe rick, or stack, having been
formed into a proper shape, either
with a roof slanting from a ridge, or
conical, and ending in a central point,
tbe straw is prepared by moistening
it, that it may more easily bend with-
out breaking. It is then forked up
in a loose heap, the straws lying in
every direction, and somewhat mat-
ted. Portions are now drawn out
from this heap in handfuls, which
lays the straws agsin in a more paral-
lel order : these are placed in a fork-
ed stick, which will hold several of
these bundles or handfuls, and are
thus carried to the thatcher on the
top of the rick, or stack. He seizes a
handful, and bending one end into a
bod of ttooae, be inserts this into tiM

bay or «tra\r near tbe boltoin of the

roof, at one end if it be a square roof,
or at any convenient part if it be a
round one. He presses down the
straw which he hss thus inserted to
about half its length, in order to form
the eaves, which extend a little be-
yond the lower part of the roof.
When he has thus laid several hand-
fuls side by side, so as to cover about
a yard in width, that is, as far as he
can conveniently reach without mo-
ving his ladder, he begins another
row a little above the place where
he began, so that the lower end of
the straw now inserted may cover
the upper part of the first row, as tiles
do each other. Thus he proceeds
upward till he comes to the upper
ridge of the roof, or to the point of
the cone in a ronnd stack. In the
latter case the covering diminishes
to a point, so as to form a triangle.
The ladder is now shifted a yard to
one side, and the same operation is
performed, care being taken that each
fresh handful put on shall be inter-
woven with that which lies beside it,
so that no water can possibly pass
between them. Thus the work pro-
oeeds till the roof is completed, and
it only remains to secure the upper
ridge in a square stack, or the point
of the cone in a round one. In the
first case, the highest layer of straw
is made to extend beyond the ridge
on both sides, and tbe ends are brought
together and stand op like the bristles
on a hog. A rope of straw has been
prepared, and many small rods, about
two feet long, and cot sharp at the
point: these are inserted just below
the ridge, in a line with it, and aboot
a foot apart ; one end of the straw
rope is inserted into the stack, and
twisted firmly round the projecting
end of the first rod ; it is then wound
once ronnd the next rod, and so on
the whole length of the ridge : this is
done on both sides. The straws which
form the ridge are now cnt with shears
horizontally, to give it a neat finish,
and at each end a kind of ornament
is usually made by winding a straw
rope ronnd a handful of the project-
ing stiaw, loitning a kind of knot or

791

THS

Ijiyw, aeoordtiif to the tasle of tlie |
tbatcher. Rods with straw ropes
twisted round them are ioserted near
the edge of the slanting side and all i
along the eaves, which prevent the
wind from blowing off the thatch.

" The only difference in the thatch
of a roand rick ia, that it ia brought
to one point, where it is tied with
straw rope wound round it, and form-
ed into a kind of bow ; the rods are
inserted a little below in a circle, and
a straw rope twisted round them,
and likewise around the circular
eaves. Barley is generally put into
square stacks* and wheat in round
ones. When the outside is neatly
trimmed and cot smooth, so that no
birds can lodge in it, wheat may be
kept for years, without danger of in-
jury or loss, much better than in a
bam, or even in a granary.

** In thatching sheds and buildings
which are to last many years, the
straw is prepared in the same man-
ner, but the ends of the handfuls, as
they are put on a lathed roof, are
kept down by means of k>ng rods,
which are tied to the lathaof the roof
by meana of strong tar twine. A
much thicker coat of straw is put on ;
and rye straw, which has a solid
stem, is preferred as more lasting,
and less liable to be filled with water
than hollow straw. Instead of straw
ropes, split willow is need, and the
rods which are inserted are much
nearer each other and more carefaUy
aeeured. As this kind of thatching
is a peculiar trade, it requires a reg-
ular apprenticeship to be master of
it. The thatching of temporary ricks
may be done from mere description,
aad a very little practice will enable
any one to protect his stacks suffi-
ciently by a thatched covering."

TH£CA. A case, usually the urn
of mosses, in which their spores are
aitoated.

THEC0ST0ME8. Those insects
which have their atxdcers aurrounded
hy a sheath or case.

THEODOLITE. A surveying in-
strument for measuring both vertical
and horizontal angles, and necessary
40 accurate aiUTTeya. i

782

'raEORT. Tfco

general law based on nQmeroos
certained facts. An faypotbesis
merely a guess, without any basis
fact.

THERAPEUTICS. The
which treata of the action of mtdt-
cines.

THERMO-EIXCTRICITY. Tfce
study of the conditions for tbe prodoe-
Uon of an electrical current by hsai.

** When one part of a metaAie bar
is heated and another cooled, an elee-
trie current is generated in its sab-
stance, which may be rendered en-
dent, and its direction asoertaioed by
the galvaaometer. When two raelais
of difffTOot temperatures are brongbi
into contact, similar eleetrie eorreats
are generated, the quantity and di-
rection of the electricity varying with
the nature of the metals and their re-
spective temperatures. The best ap-
paratus for exhibitinir these tbemio-
electric currents consists of attemase
bars of antimony and bismuth sol-
dered together at their ends, so as to
form a compound bar or parallelo-
gram, the junctions of which may
be alternately heated and cooled. In
this case, the direetion of the cerrent
is from the antimony to the bismuth ;
so that these metals bear the same
relation to each other in the thenno-
electrie series as the zinc and silver
in the simple voltaic circuit. The
term stereo-dectric has also been ap-
plied to these corrents, anplying their
production in solid bodies independ-
ent of a fluid, and as opposed to the
hydro-electric or voltaic current." —
{BroMde,)

THERMO-ELECTRIC PII^.
See above

THERMOMETER (ftom ^epfioct
toorm, and fietftoVf sumuktv). An in>
strument to measure sensible heat.
It most usually conusts of a tube of
small bore, with a hoib at the lower
end containing mercury, which, by its
dilatation from heat* ascends within
the tube. There ia a scale attached*
marked into degrees, and the altitude
of the mercuiy is measured by its
poaition opposite the degrees. The
marking ia after the plan of Fahrea-

TBI

lieil, d2<^ Fahrenheit boiog the freez-
log of water, and 212° Fdhrenheit
its boiliDg point. The 0 {zero) is as-
certained by the cold produced from
mixing snow and 9alt so as to melt.

The centigrade scale is used by the
French, in which the zero is the
freezing of water, and 100° cent, its
boiliog point.

The thermometer is of great ser-
vices to the gardener in the hot-house,
to regulate its temperature. Ruther-
ford's thermometer marks the lowest
and highest degrees of temperature
during any given time. '* It consists
simply of two thermometers : a mer-
curial thermometer, A, and a spirit
thermometer, B, attached horizontally

o the same frame, and eaoh provi-
ded with its own scale. The index
of A is a bit of steel, which is puslied
before the mercury; but, in conse-
quence of its horizontal position, re-
mains in its place when the mercury
recedes, and consequently indicates
the highest degree of the scale to
which the mercury has risen. The
index of B is of glass, with a small
knob at each end. This lies in the
spirit, which freely passes it when
the thermometer rises ; but when the
spirit recedes, the cohesive attraction
between the liuid and the glass over-
comes the friction arising from the
weight of the index, and the index is
consequently carried back with the
spirit towards the bulb. As there is
no force to move it in the opposite
direction, it remains at the point near-
est the bulb to which it has been
brought, and thus indicates the low-
est temperature which has occurred.
By inclining the instrument, the in-
dices are brought to the surfaces of
their respective fluids, and prepared
for a new observation."

THERM OSCOPE. Ageneral
term, including any implement for
measuring heat.

THICKET. A dense accumula-
tion of shrubs or young trees.

Xxx

TSO

THILL. The central beam or

draught-tree of a wagon.

THINNING OUT. Removing
some plants or branches of a tree to
give the rest a better opportunity of
growing large. It is an important
operation in the orchard, as a tree
overburdened with fruit will not pro-
duce such fine specimens as one that
has a few to perfect.

THISTLE. The genus Carduut,
The commonest kinds in the United
States are the C. lanceolatus and or-
vensu : the latter is the well-known
Canada thistle. Coiibidered as a
weed in our fields, our principal ob-
ject is to eradicate it, which, in con-
sequence of the ready dispersion of
the seeds by the wind, is not easily
done, as a slovenly farmer may seed
the whole country around.

"Those crops which are usnally
hoed can readily be cleared of this-
tles ; but where the seed is sown
broad-cast, the labour of weeding
them out is much greater. If they
are not extracted with the root, they
will soon grow again with redoubled
vigour. In a moist season they may
be pulled up by means of a wooden
or iron pincers, which grasps them
strongly near the crown of the root.
When a field has been long infested
with thistles, the best way of clear-
ing it is to watch when the thistle is
in full bloom and the seed just form-
ing ; if it be then cut ofiTat the root,
it will die. Thus in two years a field
may be entirely cleared of thistles.

** It is chiefly in arable land that
thistles are most troublesome. In
pastures it is sufficient to eradicate
them once, and to permit none to
grow along the hedges and ditches.
The seed does not readily vegetate,
unless it finds a loose soil ; and little
birds are so fond of it, that they will
leave none that is not covered with
earth, especially in the beginning of
winter **

THORACIC. Relating to the
chest. The thoracic duct is a vessel
which receives the contents of the
lacteals and absorbents^ and con-
veys it to the blood by the subclavian
vein.

7WI

TRR

THORAX. The chert. The car-
ty of the chest is termed the thora-
cic cavity, and contains the heart and
longs. In entomology, the second
segment of the frame.

THORN. The genus Cratagus:
thorny shrubs of the family Rosacea.
The C. ozyacdntha is the May, or Eng-
lish hedge thorn. The C. criu galli,
or Newcastle thorn, is much used in
Delaware as a hedge ; it is supposed
to be superior to the C. cordata, or
Virginian thorn.

THORN-APPLE. The strarao-
Diam.

THRASHING AND THRASH-
ERS. " The separation of the grain
from the ear in corn has always been
one of the most laborious operations
on a farm.

" Where the grain is thrashed out
immediately after harvest, to be put
into a granary, the most common
practice is to level a portion of a field,
and laying the grain in the straw in a
large circle, to drive oxen and horses
over it till it is all trodden out. Till
ingenuity had produced machines to
supersede the flail, this was the only
instrument in use. The first idea of
a machine for thrashing was that of
imitating the motion of the flail, but
80 much depends on the eye of the
thrasher, that no mechanism could
well imitate the motion of his arms.
This was consequently given up, and
an imitatfon of the rubbing of the
grains from the ears between the
hands, combined with the beaters
of a flax -dressing machine, grad-
ually produced the present improved
thrashing machine.

" Without a figure it would be dif-
ficult to describe the difl^erent parts
and motions of a thrashing machine.
They are, however, now so common,
that it will suffice to give the general
principal of action, and to mention
some of the latest improvements in
it. A rapid motion is given to a hoU
low cylinder round a horizontal axis ;
on the outer surface there are pro-
jecting ribs parallel to the axis at
equal distances from each other,
or, what is more common, spikes.
Around half the cylinder is a ease,

the inner snrfkoe of wbieh is ISmei
with plates of cast-ron ^ooired ia
the direetion of the axis, or fnmiahied
with spikes. The ribs or beaten
come quite close to these, so that sa
ear of wheat or other f^rain cnnnOt
well pass between them i^Uioiit &»•
ing flattened. The sheaves ^ gnia.
having been untied, are spread oo a
slanting table, and in some madiiaes
are drawn in by the spikes. The
motion of the cylinder or drum h
very rapid. The l>eaters act on the
straw as it comes thron^h, and beat
out most of the grain ; hoc what re-
mains is carried in between the beat-
ers and the case, and when it h»
made half a revolution all the giaia
has been beaten and rubbed out. it
falls on a sieve, which lets the grain
through, but retains the straw, whidi
is raked ofiT by band, or by cirralar
rakes moved by the machinery. The
great perfection of a thrashing ma-
chine is to rub out every grain and
to break the straw as little as posst
ble ; the larger the scale of the ma
chine the better it does this. Raad
machines* have been made on the
same principle, but they do not eifeet
any saving in the expense, requiring
many men to produce the effect of
one horse. Moveable Uirashing ma-
chi nes are veiy generally in use where
farms are small. They are often the
property of an industrious mechan-
ic, who undertakes to superintend
the work, the fanner findmg horses
and men. Thns he goes from Arm
to farm. The best machmes will
thrash 25 to 60 boshela the hoar."
The thrashers best known are Pitt%
Hairs, Hale's, Whitman's. StafltonTa^
Warren's, Bostwick's.

TH REAVE. Twelve sheaves of
grain in the straw.

THROAT. Faux, the commence-
ment of the tube of a personate or
labiate flower.

THRIPS. The genus of vine fret-
ters, minute flies which destroy the
buds, leaves, and flowers of several
fruit-trees. They are extremely act-
live, and skip considerable distances
See Insects.

THYME. The genus Thymus, oi

TIL

urbicb T. vulgaris is cultivated as a
u^ell-knnwn aromatic pot-herb of the
family Labiaia. It ia a perennial, and
propagated both by seed and slips : it
abould be placed in a moderately fer-
tile bed in a dry situation.

TH YRSUS, or TH YRSE. An in-
florescence similar to that of the com-
knon lilac.

THYROID GIJVND. A gland
situated in front of the throat: its
office is nnknown.

TIBIA. The largest of the iwo
bones of the fore leg. In entomolo-
gy, the fourth joint of the leg.

TICK. A well-known race of in-
sects found on grass, decayed wood,
Ac. : they are easily removed by
smoking with tobacoo. The sheep
tick is destroyed by merenrial or sul-
phur ointment, or dipping the sheep
into a strong infusion of tobacco.

TIE. In building, a timber or met-
al used to bind together two parts
which are liable to separate.

TILLAGE. *< Applied to arable
land, the stirring and preparing the
surface of the soil, so as to render it
fit for the Tegetation of seeds ; its
object, also, is the destruction of
noxious weeds.

" The whole art 0f cultiration con-
sists in tillage and manuring, and the
profit of the husbandman depends on
the perfection of the tillage and the
economy of labour in producing the
effect. A defect in tillage will cause
a great deficiency in the crops in or-
dinary years. To ensure good crops,
the soil should be in such a state that
the rains and dews may readily be
diffused through it, without giving it
a wet appearance, or evaporating too
rapidly. It requires great knowledge
and experience to give any particular
soil the exact portion of tillage which
is suited to it. A fine garden tilth,
as it is called, is the most perfect for
light soils which have been long cul-
tivated and manured : when they can
be brought to such a state, that afVer
continued rains the surface dries
without forming a crust, and crum-
bles of its own accord, the tillage has
been good ; and the deeper this soil
is stirred, the more it will produce ;

but where day abounds in the soil,
which in dry weather caa> be readily
pulverized by crushing the dry clods,
and be reduced to the finest powder,
too much tillage may do more harm
than good. The fine clay is soon
converted into mud at the surface by
the least rain, because it is not sufil-
ciently porous to let the water through
it ; it dries ipto a hard crust, which
effectually precludes the access of
air, and consequently stops the ve-
getation of the seed. It is only by
abundant manuring with organic mat-
ter that this natural tendency in ciays
to cohere can be overcome ; and un-
til this is efilected, it is best to stir
day soils as deep as possible by
means of subsoil ploughs, but they
should not be pulverized so that the
water cannot run down between the
lumps and clods, and especially the
surface should be left in such a state
of roughness that heavy rains cannot
cover it with a coat of mud. The
clods which are left on the surface
imbibe the moisture more gradually,
and, in drying, fall to pieces, by which
the young phints are invigorated,
and, as it were, moulded up. This ia
particularly the case in winter after a
jfrost, as all clay land farmers aro
weU aware. It is very easily ascer-
tained whether a soil will bear much
tillage or not. It is only necessary
to try some of it in a large pot or
box ; make the surface very fine by
breaking the clods, then water it
abundantly, and let it dry in the sun ;
if a crust is formed in drying, that
soil will not bear too much harrow-
ing and pulverizing, and should be
left in a moderately rough state after
sowing or drilling the seed ; but if,
after it dries, the surface is loose and
porous, then the finer the tillage the
better the seed will vegetate. The
whole depends on the ready admis-
sion of air or its exclusion. When
grass seeds are sown, the surface
should be well pulverized; but this
cannot be safely done if the soil is apt
to run together when much rain falls
soon after the seed is sown. Soma
plants, like beans, will force theii
way through a very hard surface;

7»5

TILLAGE.

trot small seeds are teo weak to 4»
BO, and their ^owth is cniiTcly stop-
ped by the least crust oo the soraioe.
Besides the preparatory tiUage ef the
soa before sowing the seed, there is
great advantage in the stirring it as
the plante are growing. On this de-
pends all the merit of the row cultare
ibr every kind of plant, espeoiaUy
those which have esc^oit roots or
extensive foliage, and which are
ehiefly ooltivated for the sustenanoe
of cattle. The effect of deep tillage
IB here most remarkable. If rows of
tomips or cabbages be sown at such
a distance that a small ploagh or oth-
er stirring implement can be used be-
tween them, and the intervals be
stirred more or less, and at difierent
depths, it will be found that tiie deep-
er and more frequent the tillage, until
the foliage covers the whole intervalt
or the bulbs swell to a great size, the
beavier and more abundant the prod-
uce will be. It is worth while to tiy
the experiment : Sow Swedish tur-
nips or mangel wursel in rows three
feet apart : let some of the rows be
merely kept clear of weeds by surface
hoeing, and the plants be thinned out
to the distance of a foot apart : let
other intervals be stirred to different
depths ; some three inches, some six
inches, and some nine inches or more.

iaee may be. It was tkia wldob led

TuU, the father of dhB husbaadry^i^
the coBclufiion that tillage w^ al
that the soil required to maintaia
perpetual fertility. He carried h^
oonclnsion too far ; but we ehali oot
be wide of the truth, if we asaeit t^
with proper tillage the soil wiH he
gradually improved, and a maA
smaller quaatity of manure oocaaioB-
ally added to recruit the waste pro-
duced by vegetation will render the
soil much more fertile than it wooU
be with more manure and less till-
age : aad as tillage cao be iocseasad
by mechanical contrivances where
labourers are scarce, whereas the
supply of manure must generally be
limited, it follows that, as a geneial
rule, the laad should be well ao^
deeply tilled, due attention beii^ paid
to the nature of the soil, and its prop-
erty of retaining or transmitting
moisture. Very loose sands should
not be much stirred until they are
consolidated by the admixture of
marl, clay, peat, or well-rotted dung;
but in all cases the manure should
be mixed as intimately as possible
with the soil, and as deep as the til-
lage has gone, not including the stir-
ring of the subsoil ; for the roots wifl
always penetrate thus far, and find
the nourishment which they require.

inches, ana some nmo invnes w luwrc. ^^ M^^-i «»«"«." rr"7r ^ -^ V tTir:
The result will be, that the first rows Those plants which throw out roots

will appear to have been sown mw^
too far from each other, not half the
ground being covered with the fo-
liage of the planu ; the others will
be covered more and more as the till-
age has been deeper, and the hist
will completely cover the whole in-
tervals. The roots or bulbs wUl be
in exact proportion to the richness
of the fohage, and the weight of the
deef^y-tilled rows will far exceed
that of any of the otheis, while the

poor and soanty crop, however clear
of weeds the surface may have been
]cept. The soil best suited for this
experiment is a good, light loam on
a dry or well-drained subsoil; for
stagnant moisture under any soU will
chill the fibres and check the growth
of the pkukts, however dry the sur-

7»6

from the bottom of the stem, as
wheat, barley, and oats, require the
surface to be most pulverized and
enriched to allow these roots to
spread ; a spring tillage is therefore
highly advantageous, which can only
be given when the seed has been de-
posited in rows by drilling, or in
patches by dibbling. This last meth-
od is found to give much finer crops,
from the ciroumstsnce that the hoe
not only loosens the earth between

first will, by comparison, appear a the rows, but also between the dif-
ferent patches of the growing corn,
by which the coronal roots are
strengthened, and the tillering of the
stems so much encouraged, that it is
not uncommon to see twenty, thirty,
or more strong stems, all bearing fine
ears, arising from one tuft of plants,
the produce of one or more bccds.

TILLAGE.

wliose roots are matted togetb^ and
send out fibres in eveiy direction.
Ttie crowding of sereral plants does
not prerent their growth, proTided
the fibres eaa spread aroand in a
rich, mellow soO, wen palverixad,
and admitting the air and moisture
readily.

** Asa perfect tillage requires mneh
labour and minute attention, and in
many situations where the farms are
large labourers cannot be procured
at moderate wages, nor can they al-
ways be defended upon to perform
the work with sufficient care, me-
chanical ingenuity has been taxed to
invent implements of tillage by which
it may be more perfectly accomplish-
ed, and at a smaller expense, by
using the power of horses instead of
tluit of men, and making implements
which will till a considerable breadth
at once, and thus save time.

" The old plough, and which, how-
ever it may be improred, stiU acts on
the same principle of turning tip a
fyesh portion of the soQ, burying that
which has for some time been at the
surface, will probably always contin-
ue to be the chief implement of tillage ;
but the minuter operations, which are
tiUcen f^om garden culture, require
particular contrivances to efifeet them
by instruments. The barrows are bat
an imperfect substitute for the gar-
den raSce, and do not stir the soil to a
sufficient depth. Other implements
hare therefore been invented, which
by means of wheels can be regulated
so as to act at a greater or less depth.
These have reoeired the diffbrent
names of scarifiers, grubbers, or cul-
tivators, according to the fan<7 of the
inventors. Many of these answer
the purpose well, and save labour.
They can be used in all directions, so
as to pulverize the soil to any degree.
Heavy rollers, with and witheut
spikes around them, are used when
many clods require breaking; and,
although not yet adopted in this eouo-
try, the Belgian traineauj a stron?
frame of wood, boarded over and
loaded with weights if required, is a
most effectual instrument in levellilig
the lurface and crushing clods, witl^

Xxx%

out pressing them into the soil, as the
roller frequently does.

** It would be endless to enumerate
afi the implements of tillage which
are daily invented. As the cultiva-
tion of the soil approaches more to
that of the ^rden, more perfect in-
struments will be used, such as can
be directed with great aoeuraoy be-
tween parallel rows of growing plants
without danger of injuring them.
When the width of the stitches or
beds aocnrately corresponds with the
width of the instrument, so that the
wheels wiH run in the intervals and
the horses step in the same, the soil
may be tilled perfectly^ although the
rows of plants have but a small in-
terval between them ; and the lar-
gest field will thus present to the
eye extended seed-beds or equal
rows of growing plants, as we are ac-
customed to see in a Idtchen-gaTden.
The result wUl be the same as when,
for the sake of experiment, we sow
the common grains and leguminous
plants of the fields in a plot of garden
ground ; in such case the produce is
so far grsater, that it quite baffles
our calculation when extended to a
laiige surface, and hence the incredi-
ble reealts which we continually
meet with in the reports of experi-
ments on some new produce lately
introduced : everything is on a mag-
nified scale, owing to superior tillage.
No doubt many fields possessed of
fertile soils might, by attentive tillage,
be made as productive as the best
garden ground. The Chinese have,
as we are told, ahready accomplished
this by their incredible numbers and
indefatigable labour ; but science and
mechanical contrivance are a substi-
tute for millions of labourers when
judiciously applied. The same in-
genuity applied to tillage might in-
crease the produce of the earth, if
not indeftnitely, at least far bejrond
what we may now suspect.

** In the early ages of agriculture,
usage was almost confined to the
ploughing of fallews to clean the
land, wbidt was very imperfectly
executed, and in plooghinff the stubble
of Ode Cfop to prepare for the seed

797

•f aiMther, u loi^ w Ae Ind would

gire a rnajn fur the labour. 'Hie
iilei of tillage for the soke of a per-
manenl improvemeol of the soil was
onlj enlertainait by a few men who
reflecled. and thai of encouraging ihe
vegeutioo wbtle Itie crop was grow-
ing wa« nut Bien ibou^t of. The
plough to Btir, BOd the barrowa to
cover the aeed, were the only inatni-
nwntB in uae, and tbejr were tgi?
rude of iheir kind."

TILLER. The branching ofBteina
from the root.

TILTH. The AneneM and prep-
aration of the soil. See TiUugt.

TIMOTHY GHASS. /•«««
praitnit. Meadow cat's-tail gnaa.
'■This hns been highly extolled by
many Hgriculturisti for Ihe profusion
of hay nhtch il niakes, and also for its
rapid growth when depastnred. It is
but a coarse grass when allowed to
stand till il i« fit for hay : and in rainy
weather it too readily imbibes rooiat-
ure. It is said to give a very sweet
and early herbage for sheep in spnitgi
and, mixed with other grasses, is
found very useful in laying down
land to pasture for a few years.

" The soil wbich euita timothy
gt«Ba best is a good, iDoiBt, and rather
stiff loam. On gravel it soon dies
off. It is scarcely to be recommend-
ed without a miituie o( other grau-
es, although very heavy crops of it
have been grown ; and from its strong
stem when fuU grown, it should al-
ways be fed off when young, or cut
for soiling horsas and cattle before
theatembaa acquired ita full growth.
In rich land which ia tired of clo-
ver. It may form a very good aub-
stitule, to eut up green and depasture
afterward."

Tbe seed is nsually
wheat in tbe apriag, or ii may be
•own with oats ( two peeks ari
commonly ua«d, but it ia better tc
use three pecks, or even a buahel
whea other graaaes are not used.
Clover and timoiby do well together ;
eight poopda of clover and three
peoba of timothy seed may be ui«d.

TINCTURE. A solution in proof
almbol ; the subslaaae is oaaallj cut

fonrteen days, and tben a

TiNE. A tooth or spike of a bw-
row. &c

TIN MORDANT. Tbe commas
mordant is made of 8 parta of aqm-
foriia, 1 pan contmoa aalt, or sal am-
moniac, and 1 part gr>Dula.t«d lia.

TISSUE. A membTBoe. or expaa-
siiiB of a eellular Btrueture ia aniiiiila

TITHONICITY. A new iaipn-
derable exlatiog in aucJigbt, and p»-
ducing chemical changes.

TOAD. Sana hufo (Sm/o Ama-
eoHut). A well-known bvirachian. of
great use in the garden to devour ia-
sects : It is perfectly hsmtless.

TOADFLAX, Wet-ds of the ge-
nus Antirrhinum and XiOtcna : IJiey
are usually perennial, and should be
eitirpaled,

TODAOCO. Plants of the geaos
iVicofiano, cultivated for amokiug. and
of great service in medicine aad gar-
dening : in the latter, for tbe destroc-
tioo of insecta by smoking, iDfuaian,
or aouff. its activity as a sedative
poison arises from tbe preseocc of
nicoiine, an oily base, which is pro-
duced during the curing of the leaves.

Varwti^. — Tbe principal varieties

of tobacco in coliivatioo are the ff.

labeeun {i'lg. 1), or Virgioiaa ioba»

Fig. I.

«•; tIie*ariatrwiihalaTg«lBar(iiwk

cropbylia) is preferred ; Lhe fi'. nulica
(.fig. 2), tbe green, or Oriaoko, u

thfrbMiHtvaut ttejr.fiMlnHbw.
(t) and nana (c) make good tobacco,
and are cultivated by the Indiana for
that purpnae.

The natural soil or the tobacco is
a format mould ; but it growa well on
any light, well-tiJIed Mil which has
been impresnaied with manure, U
reqoirea a dry soil with a gooi expo-
sure, proteetigd from heavy winds,
which break the leavea. The follow-
ing BocouDt of the cultivation ia
oluedy rrom Mr. Edmunds :

'■ Halting the Platii:— The land for
the plaMl-Ud is usually selected in a
warm exposuA on the soulb or aouth-
oastorn side of a hill in a wood, new
gronnd being always preferred. From
tlim Ihc roola should be grubbed, the
rabbisb cleared away, and Uie oU
leaves raked off. Brush of pine or
other wood is then to be piled on
until fioin two In three feet thick all
over the bed, and this ia to be set on
Are. As Ike beds should be prepared
, for aeeding iraBieJiately after tba
I frost is out af Itie ground, the brush

ebould be collected and pot in place
some lime during the winter. In-
stead of barnine over tbe whole bod
at once, a part may be lired for an
hour or so at a time, proceeding thus
over the mtire bed. The place is
then to be broken up with hoes, and
•onetimes wHh conHers drawn by
hiriwi oi osen, and tba work r^teat-

ed oDtil the earth ia made perfeotl;
fine, being careful to avoid toroiog
under the surface. All tbe roots
ahoold then be ezlTacied. and the
land laid off in beds (slightly elevated,
if dry, and more if moist or wet) fonr
feet wide ; and to 16 sqaare yards a
cnoimon pipe-bowl of seed is sown.
ttte bed is Utea trodden or pressed

TOBAOCa

ivfib hoes, and well edTered witli
brush to protect the plants from
frosts. When the plants have come
fully out, they should be slightly ma-
nured with strong manure made fine ;
this should be repeated frequently,
and in largfer quantity as the plants
ioerease in size and are able to bear it.

« When the plants have attained a
good size, and there Is no longer dan-
ger of frost, the covering of brush is
removed, and the bed weeded with
the hand, those employed in this duty
taking great care to avoid bruising
the tender plants. The beds require
frequent picking to keep down the
weeds.

** Preparation and Planting. — The
plants will be generally ready for re-
moval about the last of May or first
of June* They are to be drawn out
after a rain and transplanted in good
ground previousiy well prepared for
their reception.

" Field CuUure.-^The land for to-
bacco should be of the best quahty,
either newly cleared and viigin soU,
or old ground highly manured and
well pulverized, or good clover fal-
low, ploughed in the fall, manured
and cross-ploughed in the spring,
just before planting, well harrowed,
and then laid off with a plough in
rows three» three and a half, or four
feet apart each way. Every square
thus made is to be scraped with the
hoe so as to form a hill, in which one
plant is to be set. In case the plants
die firom drought, or are destroyed
by worms, a very common occur-
rence, others must be set in their
places.

** Cui/too/ion.— The culture is very
niuch like that usually adopted for In-
dian com, the plough, cultivator, and
hand hoe bcang freely used to keep
down weeds and loosen the earth.

** It is important to the early growth
of the plant to ploogh and work deep
once or twice, so that when it is ri-
pening, the ground will be broken
deep and fine. (The coulter is prefer-
red for this operation.) Thia sfaouki
be effected without much interference
with the roots, as that would check
the growth, and pnvent the plant

from attaining its proper
hence the advantage of g^reater di
tance 'between the rows thao
common distance of three and a half
feet, because the wide rowa can be
ploughed, and worked with leas daiB-
age to the roots. In this, as in aH
other crops, if we wish a gONod letoniy
** we must speed the plough*' aad hoe
before the roots run out. On oor
high lands, we should endeavour, by
deep and horisontal piougfaiog, to
counteract the bad effects of dnxigfat.
On our flats, we should aim to pre-
vent the ooUeotion of water by draina
discharged at the lowest pmnt.

*< The bed is best for high land, be-
cause it retains more moisture where
it is generally needed. The hill, re-
taining less moisture, ia beat for flat
land, where there is commonly a an-
perabundance.

" Priming, Topping, Smciering, and
Worming. — As the tobacco plant
grows and develops, a blossom bod
puts out from the top, wfaidi is term-
ed buiioning. This top must he polled
off^along with such of the upper leaves
as are too small to be of any value.
The plants are thus left usually about
two or three feet high. The plants
also shoot out suckers from every
leaf, which must be broken olT, care
being taken not to break the leaf from
the main stem. This causes the
leaves to spread.

<* The most regular topping is per-
formed by measure. The tapper car-
ries in his hand a measure six inches
long, by occasionally applying which,
he can regulate the priming with
great accuracy 3 and as the remaio-
ing leaves are numbered, this govema
the operation, and gains the object of
even topping. The topper should
always carry this measure in his
band, as it serves to prevent excuses
for negligence and uneven topping.
Prime six inches, and top to eight
leaves. We have foimd, hy experi-
ence, that this is the best average
height. We sometimes, hut seklom,
vary froiu this general rale. If the
land is poorer than oommoB, or ilf,
from the backwardness of the ptoot,
and the advaneed state o£ the Memoo^

TOBACCO.

vn uppnihcai firosl, we do not piiaie
as high (say four inches.) If we have
an uncommonly rich spot, and there is
danger that the top leaves will come
to the gnnutd, we sfaonkl rise in the
same proportion. The crop should
be wormed and suckered at least
once a week.

** CuUing and Htnumg. — In about
three months after setting out» the
plants assome a spotted and yellow-
ish appearance, indicating that they
liaye attained sofficient maturity for
ootting and housing. This stage of
the tobaeoo enltore is geneyally reck-
oned the most difficoh and delicate
part of the whole bosiness, and the
lUanterr if he wishes to be successful,
must give it aU his attention, as the
profit of a whole plantation for the
year greatly depends upon the dilir
gence and skHftil management exer-
eised during the few days of cutting.
He should, therefore, be well prep^
red for this state of the crop, by baT-
ing the bams dose, carts and wag-
ons in good order, and everything
arranged to despatch business as
mnch as posstUey since it is baid
work he has to enconnter. To save
a heavy onop in the best manner re-
quires both energy and activity. The
most judicious bands should be se-
leeted for cntiera. The plants are
eni with a knife near the groond^ and
solTered to lie in the sun for a few
honra, to cause them to * faU' or wilt.
When the field is a pretty large one,
a middling or average hand should
count the whole number of plants he
oots, so that, allowing each cutter the
same nnmber, we may arrive at near-
ly the whole quantity cot. We should
never eut more nor less than will fill
the contemplated barn ; otherwise
there is labour lost in attending to a
bam not ^, or the overplus is in-
jilrQd for want of firing. The tobac-
co, after it has * fallen,' or becomes
eofitoiently limber, is carried to the
bam in carts or wagons, being from
six to ten plants on a stick, and stow-
edaway i&r firing. It isalso of great
importanoe to be particular in the
airangenient of the sticks. The
cqaal and general isireulation of heat

threogiioiit the house depends on tha.

manner in which this is done. Our
barns commonly have three firing
tiers above, and three below the joists.
We commence arrang^ing the sticks
on the most elevated tier in the roof,'
to which we give kve inches distance j
and on each tier, as we descend, we
gain one indi ; so that on the lowest
tier, nearest the fire, the sticks are
placed eleven inches apart. This dis-
positfon of the sticks, I have ascer-
tained by late experiment, is impor-
tant. The sticks of tobacco being
wider apart next to the fires, gives a
freer circulation, and, consequently,
a more equal temperature than the
usual way of equal distance from bot-
tom to top. The heat having more
space to ascend, must be more equal
and generally difiTosed, and will give
a more uniform house of tobacco. I
esteem this a considerable improve-
ment ; and if we have house room,
and make a greater difference in the
proportionate distance between the
sticks, it will be a still better arrange-
ment. The stems of the tobacco are
often split to hasten the drying.
. " Curing. — We commence our'
warming or preparing fires the day
afler housing. We prefer what is
commonly called the 'bed logs' of
green, and the 'feeding* of dry or
seasoned wood. By this arrange-
ment the fires are rendered more
governable. The bed logs should be
nicely fitted to the barn floor, two
lengths to reach across, the large ends
placed outward, to guard against the
tendency of heat to the centre. We
keep up our warming fires from 36 to
48 hours, the mercury ranging from
lOO'' to US'". This will generally
bring the leaf to the drying state ; the
tail, or end of the leaf, now begins to
curl handsomely, and then the planter
mu$i be on the alert. If he is careless,
and his fires are made too hot, the
aromatic oil passes ofiT with the sap
and smoke, and he has a house of red
or dark inferior tobacco. If his fires
are kept too low, his tobacco gets
into a clammy sweat, and the oil es-
capes. There is much more danger
of the former than of the latter evil.

801

TOB

There is more tobacco injured by too
much heat than bytbe want of a suf-
ficiency. The fires should now be
kept steady and regular, with a grad-
ual increase of heat, so that in 48
hours the mercory will stand 150° to
160°. It must be kept at or about
that temperature until the tobacco is
cured.

** Stripping^ Presntig^ 4«. — After
the plants become sufficiently dried,
known by the stems getting hard,
which will be in about two months
after housing, the leaves are stripped
from the stalks. For this operation,
a moist time in the spring or late in
winter is chosen, to prevent the leaves
from crumbling. They are divided
by select hands into three classes for
stripping: 1st, that which is of the
best colour and quality; Sdly, that
which is somewhat inferior, compri<
sing the balance of the leaf; 3dly,
lugs, or ground leaves. Some planters
make still more classes, but this re-
quires more attention and discrimi-
nation than can be generally bestow-
ed, at least by ordinary hands. After
sorting, the leaves are neatly tied up
in bundles called * hands,* consisting
of four leaves in each bundle of the
first class, or six of the second and
third classes. The hands are next
' put down to condition,' as the pro-
cess is commonly termed. This con-
sists in putting it in large bulks
and subjecting it to pressure from
weights, in which state it undergoes
a sweat. It must be watched during
this process, and as soon as it is ob-
served beginning to heat, taken out
and hung up to dry. After drying
thoroughly, it must be again taken
down and put into bulk, a damp time
being chosen, so as to prevent the
leaves from breaking or crumbling.
At the close of each day^s stripping,
and oftener, if the weather is drying,
we bulk down what has been strip-
ped, being careful to pack straight.
It is left in this situation until we
wish to commence pressing, and then
hung, from twelve to fifteen bundles
on a smooth stick, and hoisted in the
barn, the sticks placed six inches
apart, the hoister carrying a measure
SOU

in his hand. It Is important to
ure, as the order will be metre uai^
form. It should remain ontil the
stems are perfectly dry ; after vbich
it should be taken down for presBtogy
as dry as it can be handled withoiit
breaking. It remains in this slate a
few days, until the leaves are preased
together, and we have soft vreatlier
for packing. Sach bundle m tken
carefully straightened, repacked, and
heavily weighted. It ia then ready
fbr pressing. We shoald ihvss in
weather when the order of the tobac-
co will not change. Eaeb ImibAb
should be straight, and closely paeii-
ed in hogshead In the usual way."
The press is a long lever weighted
vrith stones.

The hogshead contains from IKM
to 1300 pounds. One hand can at*
tend to 6000 plants, or ratber more
than an aere, and these will average
from 1000 to 1100 pounds of eared
tobacco, and commands, if of goad
quality, seven cents the poand.

New land tobaoeo and the Oruiolio
variety are often sun-dried, -wkhtmt
any heat ; ty this means they acqoiie
a rich golden eolenr, and are of sape>
rior excellence for chewing tobacco.

Disease* of Toftoeco.^-Tlie first diffi-
culty the (banter encounters is in the
dryness of the season at the time of
transplanting, for the yomig fdaata
will not take except in moist weather
and a wet soil. The next is the large
born worm, which increases the ex*
pense of cultivation by Tequinng the
attention of pickers, and the wornK
holes injure the vahie of the leavea.
Hail storms and lieavy winds are
often causes of damage. Sun burn-
ing during cutting and hoose Iwniingr
are also sources of loss. But pep-
haps the greatest cause of loss ia
firing or Fire Blight, which see.

TOBACCO, CHEMICAL RE
MARKS CONCERNING. The fla«
vour and value of tobacco depend
entirely on the sweating or prepara-
tion : during this time the i^rmentfr^
tion set up converts the fat which it
contains into the aromatic prineipla
nicotin. If, therefore, the beat is too
little, the quantity prodi»ed is defi-^

cleot ; if too great, the volatile nico-
tin is driven out. The object in cu-
ring is, therefore, in the first place,
to retain all the fat of the leaA and
in the second, to get the largest quan-
tity of aromatic principle in the pre-
pared tobacco.

Special Manures. — ^The analysis of
tobacco in Europe has brought to
light a reinarkable fact, that the beat
varieties contain much potash in their
ashes, and the inferior kinds most
lime.'^Pelouze*) Now these bases in
tobacco can replace one another, and
the planter wilt produce Ikne tobac-
co in any soil in which that base is
more abundant.

One hundred parts of the ashes of
leaf tobacco contain, according to
Fresenius and Will,

Potuh 90*67

Umfl aad imgnenR S3-30

Sulphate of lime (gypeum) 5-60

Chlortde of lodtam (oommon mU) . . 5-06

Phnephatee 6'OS

Silica I&30

From this, which is the examina-
tion of a good specimen, we learn
that the plaiats require not only pot^
ash and Ume« but gypsum and salt :
the former is indeed added with great
effect in Virginia ; the latter is very
worthy of a trial ; one boshel to the
acre in a compost, applied to the
plants at the time of hoeing, or three
or fonr bashels to the acre, would no
doubt show good esfiects. Where the
New-Jersey green sand, or the ashes
of oaks or hickories can be obtained,
the potash salu can be procured. In
the red clays of Virginia, an addition
of lime wouki unquestionably be ser-
viceable. By these means we meet
the demands of the plants for miner-
al matters ; but it is not to be over-
k)oked that nitrates of potash and am-
monia, as well as sai ammonia (ehl(h
ride), have been found in large quan-
tity in the juice : these are destroyed
by burning for the ash. Eveiy kind
of animal offal and putrescent matter,
especially when composted into nitre
beds (see Nitre Beds), will therefore
be indicated as special manures.

TOIS tl. Six French feet, equal to
e 39 English feet

TOR

TOKAY. A Inacioua and spright-
ly wine made from the Tokay grape
when nearly dried into raisins.

TOLU. A balsam, from the Jlfy-
roamlon toluiferum of Sooth America.

TOMATO. SoUtrmm. lycoperticum.
An annual of the thmtly Solanacea^
the fruit of which is much used as a
vegetable, preserve, and pickle.

The seed is sown in March in a
hot-bed« and the plants set out in May
akmg a fence, or near trellises where
they can be supported: place them
four feet disunt. They are to be
hoed and weeded, and ripen in Au-
gust and September. There are four
priftcipal varieties, the large red and
yellow, the pear-shaped, or fig, and
the cherry tomatoes, or small-sized.
The soil should be rich, dry, and well
exposed to the sun.

TOMENTOSE. Coveredwith
downy hairs.

TON. A weight of 20 cwt., or
2240 pounds.

TONGUE. The soft, fleshy organ
of taste. It is covered by nerves and
blood-vessels. The salted and dried
tongues of deer and oxen are much-
esteemed delicacies. They are cured
like hams, bui usually with more nitre.

TONICS. Those medicines which
improve the general health and appe-
tite. They are commonly calted bit-
ters.

TONKA BEAN. The fruit of the
DivUrix odoratat used to flavour snuffl

TONSILS. Small glands situated
in the throat.

TOP DRESSING. Applying ma-
nures to the surface of land, or to the
growmg crop, grass, &o. Spring is
the proper time, but care should be
taken that the soil is not too much
pressed in carting.

TORMENTIL. Potenlilla qficina^
lis. An exotic with an astringent root.

TORREF ACTION. Roasting min-
eral bodies, usually under a red heat.

TORTIUCES. A tribe of noctur-
nal lepidoptera, the larvfe of most of
which conceal themselves by rolling
up leaves and living in the interior.

TORUS. The end of the flower
branch on which the carpels are sit*
uated.

SOS

TOURMALTNE. A ^m, valued
flrotn its property of polarizing light.

TOURNIQUET, A bandage which
may be tightened to any extent by
means of a screw, so aslo eiert
preBsnre upon a cushion, and eom-
prcBS the artf^rial [runks to nhieh it
IB applied. Il ia ditefl; used to pre-
vent hemorrhage in the operatione of

training : on espaliera, walls, or sa
dwarf standards. The etpalier is uso
ally a trelliB, consisting of posts teo
feet high, set eight or twelve fm
apart, and Eusiaining horiznntal latha
or wires ■ the trees are therefore
trained horizontally. This is usually
intended for grapes, apples, or pescs.
But the posts are somi^tiinefl set is
eireles, around which thrt^e or more
brancbcs arc trained. This is caDed
spiral or hoop training (b«« Fig. i).

TRACHEA. The windpipe,

TRACHE.£. The spiral tessels
of leaves and insects.

TRACHELIDANS. A family of
coleoptera, in many of which the head
18 supported on a kind ofnedi.

TRACHEOTOMY TheopcrWion
of cutting inio the windpipe to ex-
tract foreigri bodies, &c.

TRACHYTE. An ancient lava.

TRAGAGANTH A variety of
gum, which swells, but is not soluhio

TRAINEAir. A Flemish imple-
ment of agriculture. See T^iagt.

TRAINING. The education of
botSBB. See Hone.

TRAINING TREES. The man-
egement, by pruning, of the stem and
branches of trees, so as to secure an
inorease of fmit of a superior quality. | wire 'is wound around

Training against walls has also the i of a foot. Light irott I . .

advantage of enabling the orcliardist ' limes uaed instead of the woodeQ
to cultivate soatbem fniils, and ri- ! posts.

pen them more perfectly. ThechQI- j WflU».— The ohoieeat varietiea of
ai,^. _^ -.:., . ,__ f^^^^ which reqaire additional heal.

ynnnel training is a mod i Scat ion ■
the posts are set in an inclined direc-
tion, BO as to meet at their surnmitB,
and produce the outtine of a cone :
' " at interv^

ing effects of winds and excessive
evaporation are averted, while the in-
creased temperature tu which the
fruit is exposed renders it sweeior.
There are three general plans of

are placed on walls, as apricots, neo-
tarines, peachea, phmts, grapes, figs,
and some cherriss and pears^ Tbs
method of arrauging the branches iit-

TRAINmG TRRES.

fen wrlh the ftuit. bot the iori^oninl
plan is most recommended, esjii!-
cially for plums and peara ; but sonje
gardeners gire it the prererence in
nearly every case (fig. 1).
J-'an Iraiidng is the mast
eepeeiiUy for peachet ,
npricots, almonds, figs, pimns, i
cheiriea of small growth (.Fig. 3),

Besides these most common mefli'

ixls, pendonf, vertical, and high train-
ing are practised. In the first, the
bmnches are curved downward : in
the second, several slioots, seleplej
from twohnrizonlai branches, are car-
ried upright : in the [bird, the niain
st«m is allowed to run nearly to VM
top of the wall wiihont branchias.

and Ibeo the nppemDost shoots are
trained horizontally and drooping.
This is especially recommended in
the ernpe sad pear. liisagoodplBn
for suing up a waU, the lower pans
ofwhich are covered witbpeachesand
other fan-trained trees.

8ome gardeners combine sereral
of these plans lugeiber, so as to give
tiie branches partly a horizontal, and
partly a fan training, and instead of
one main stem only, others select two.

Slandardi. — ^The commonest train-
ing for Btaodarda is iaarjaig. The
leading ^oot is kept down to eight
or ten feet, and the lower branches
tramod oat and thinned, so as to give
the tree the appearance of a shnib.
Jn (his way af^le orchards sre man-
aged in Europe, and it is wonderful
how many varieties ere thus culti-
vated on an acre. For this purpose,
crab or paradise stncka are chosen
for gralting, and the trees of small
growth taken. The main stem is
made to branch at eighteen inches,
■lul the trees set at eight to twelve
feet apart.

The filbert is trained in a peculiar
manner : Ihe leading shoot is headed
dawn to eighieen iocheB, and vight

Strang shoots obtained within twelra
inches of the ground, and these ara
trained outward by placing a hoop
between them : when they are well
formed, they are trained carving up-
ward. The centre is to be kept free,
and the shoots encouraged to six
feet 1 the small fif.i.

lateral branch-
kept down to six
inches, and will
bear tbe fruit.

Trmung e»
guenouillet or dis-
ta17 fashion, is a
favanrile method
in France and
Brussels for ap-
ples and pears
{Figure 4). The
branches are tied ,
down to stakes
driven near the
root, or to the
stem, until the
wood is firm. The
height of these
trees is nsually

eight feet, bat In Tnoe* tbey ar*
. 8l»

Annther French plan or tniniDg
•UD^rde ia in a pjraniidal faim (n>
wyramide. Fig. 6) ; >luai vvitk the pie-

ceding, is the comnioa method of

managing apples and pears. The
is eiLher cut down to a dwarf of eiEht
or teji feet, or alJuwed to rati up to
twenty or more.

TRAM ROAD. A road set with
atone llaga at such dislancea that the
nhctis of wagons, it-c, may conlin-
ualJy roll on ihem.

TKAKSiTION ROCKS. The ex-
tensive series of stratified and an-
cient rocks lying between the granit-
ic series and the coal. It cnnsista
of slates, gneiss, and cryBtalline lime-

TRANSPI.ANT1NG. The remo-
val of plaoia or ireRs from one place
to annther. .See I'Uniiig.

TRAPA WATAN3. The water-
ohestnut.

TRAP ROCKS. Ancient rocks
III fusion occurring in nioiinlaina
and large seama. They consist of
various mixiurcs of hornblend and
feldspar, and nhen containing much
iron arc very destructible, hnt usual-
ly resist the action of weather for an

TRAUMATIC (from rpavya. a
uwiu'). Relating lo or arising from
a wound.

TBI

TTUVELtER-S JOT.
viulit. AclimbiDgahrub vritb vtiite

TREFOIL. A geiter«l name for
the clovers, luceni, &c. Plants arhsek

have leaves of three leaflets.

TRENCH. A deep ditch- Trench
ing, in gardening, is Ibe prepaxatwa
of soils by digging two or mare spade*
deep, and exposing the soil.

TRENCH PLOUGHING. De^
ploughing^ Eubsoiling.

TREPAN and TREPHINE. Ib-
strumenls for removing a part of the
skull in disease or accidents.

TRIFOLIUM. Trtfaiium imcMrnM-
tiuB. " This is an annual of rapal
growth, so that in aouthem diisatea
it may be sowed m sumioer mtter am
early crop of com, and fed ofTor col
hefurc winter. It will stand the wia-
tec well if sowed later, and give verj
early feed in spring. It pretjnoes a
great abundance of aeed if allowed to
ripea. It is a valuable addiiioo lo
the plants usually raised far fudder.
and lUis up an interval between other
l^nta by its Tery early and rapid ve-
geiati'in. The modo of sowing Ibe
Th/alium iMomiUiHii is simple, and
attended with very little expense.
In tlie month of August, as soon as
the crops of grain hare been reaped,
"ie stubble ia well harrowed, lo rmisa
small portion of monid ; the trifo-
Ii»m isthensowedat therateof (bar

iBhels of the leed, in the huslc, per

re. 'Hiere is a double advantage

sowing it in this manner; it saves
the thrashing required lo separata
the seed, es a very slight beating nil!
separate the florets of the head or
spike sufficiently to sow them ; and
it vegetates sooner frtun the moist-
ire retained in the husk which en-
■elopes the seed. A bush-hsrrow ia
Irawn over the land to cover the
seed, and it is rolled with alight roll-
er if the land be of a finn nature, or
with a heavier roller if it be a loow
soil, Thua the Irifolium will Tfge-
tate much more certainly than if the
land had been regularly ploughed and
wed, which would have loosen-
ed it too moch.

'i is nut advuitageouB to let it be

ent for hay. lu stem then has ac-
' quired a hard, woody texture, and it

inakea very inferior hay. Its prinei-
' pal value is to feed off with ewes and
^ iambs before other feed is ready in
* spring, or to cut it green for horses

and cattle. The ground may be
■ ploaghed and prepared for spring

> crops as early as is required ; and
thus the trifoUum in no way inter-

^ feres with the usual rotations. When

the common broad clover has failed

> from any cause, and bare patches are
F left in the fields in autumn, the trifo-

linm may be sowed there with advan-
tage ; it win overtake the clover sow-
ed in the preceding spring, and fill up
the deficiency. In this case a mix-
ture ofTrifolium inedrnatum and Ital-
ian rye grass {Lotium perenne bait'
cum) has been found very useful.
If the trifoh'um be sowed early in
spring, it wilt produce very good
feed in a few months, and the land
may afterward be sowed with tur-
nips, without any loss of time. It
must be recollected that the Trifdi-
um ineamalttm is a catch crop, that
is, one which comes in between two
regular crops, without interfering
with the rotation, and that it coats
little more than the seed, which is
easily raised, or may be bongbt at a
very moderate rate. AH cattle are
Ibnd of it in its young state, and it
comes in a fortnight earlier than lu-
eern, which is one of the first of the
artificial grasses fit for cutting in
Spring. The great expectations rais-
ed at its first introduction not having
been fully realized, this plant has
rather fallen in the estimation of
farmers ; but if it is not so valuable
as the broad clover in a regular rota-
tion, it ought not to be despised as a
subsidiary crop. When the season
has prevented the sowing of spring
eorn, it may be advantageous to sow
it. together with Italian rye grass, as
soon as the land is clear of root-
weeds. They may e fed off with
sheep early in autumn, and the land,
being manured or not, as may be
thought necessary, may be ploughed
and sowed with wheal. Thus the
trifolium and rye grass wfll come ia

the ptooe of a dean IhHow; aad the

ground having been covered during
the heat of the summer, and manu«
red by the sheep fokled on it, will be
much improved for the wheat crop.
It must be remembered that the tri-
folium requires a solid bottom, and
that the heavy roUer should not he
spared before it is sowed. This ia
chiefly to be recommended on soils
which do not suit spring tares, and
as a substitute for these ; for under
favourahle circumstancea the tares
will prodooe the greatest quantity ol
feed. It is, however, useful to have
a choice of difilerent green crops,
from which may be selected those
which ofier the greatest prospect of
success, when the season, the soil,
and other circumstances are taken
into consideration.*'

TRIMERANS. A section of co-
leoptera, in many of which the tar
sus eontains three joims.

TRIMMER. In buUding, a pieee
of timber framed at right angles to
the joists opposite chimneys or the
well holes of stairs, which reoeives
the ends of the joists intercepted by
the opening.

TRIMMING JOIST. In build-
ing, a joist into which a trinomer i.i
framed.

TRIPLE SALT. A salt with two
bases combined with one acid.

TRISMUS. Locked jaw.

TROCAR. An instrument for let-
ting out water in dropsies, wind in
hoven, d&a It consists of a sharp
rod of metal contained within a case
or tube of silver up to the sharp per*
tion. When used, the tube is separa-
ted in part from the rod and held
against the part, and then the rod ia
driven in so as to penetrate into the
cavity, and, on being withdrawn, tito
tube is pressed into the perforationy
aad enables the fluid to escape per*
fecUy.

TRONA. The impure cArbonate
of soda, or natron.

TROPHI (from rpe^y I nouriMhy.
A name given to the different instru-
ments or organs contained in the
mouth or elosing it, and employed in
manduoation or dec^tition. They

ttrr

inclade the laihrum, /«3««m, momliMtf,
mazilt^j linfrva, and pharynx.

TRU OK. A kind of wheel-barrow.

TRUFFLE. "A subterranean fun-
gus, of a roandish, oblong form, and
a blackisli brown colour, much em-
ployed in cookery. It is found by
dogs and pigs, trained for the pur-
pose, in soil beneath trees, especially
beeches and oaks; it is, however,
very local. It is propagated by spores
included in sinuous chambers in the
interior ; but has never yet been cui-
ttvated with success, notwithstand-
ing many attempts that hare been
made. Botanists recognise several
kinds of truffles, the commonest be-
ing the Tuber ciifarium." — (Lindley.)

TRUNCATED. With the smaller
parts cut off or removed.

TRUNCHEONS. Stout stems of
trees, with the branches lopped off for
rapid growth.

TRUNK. The shaft of a eoiamfi ;
the body without extremities; the
large stem of a tree. In entomology,
the segment which lies between the
head and the abdomen.

TRUSS. A bnndto of hay or
straw : the truss of hay weighs 56 lbs.,
of straw 36. A frame of timbers for
supporting a beam or piece. Any
bandage intended to support a part
of the body, as in hernias.

TUBE. A pipe.

TUBER. In botany, a kind of
fleshy stem, formed under ground,
and filled with starch. It is com-
monly looked upon as a root, as in
the potato, but diiTera from roots in
having buds.

TUBERCLE. A roundish tumour
of small size, and of the consistence
ef cheese, found fti diseased struc-
tures.

TUCK A HOE. Indian loaf. An
underground fungus, often two feet
deep, but sometimes partly exposed,
and from the size of a nut to a man's
head, roundish, and of a brovkn col-
our. It is the Lyeoperdon tolidug
of Clayton. When fresh, it is of an
acrid taste, but becomes eatable
when dry.

TUFA. A voloanie rock, consist-
ing of cemented weorim.

TUR

TUFO. A light, eaiearcotM

rVLlP. The genus T^ipa,
taining numerous oraaniental
cies : they are all bulbous.

TULIP-TREE. Lihedemdrw
lijnfera. White wood. It attaun s
great siie on fertile bottoms, me^
uring even 150 ieet in the Bliddte
States, with a trunk of sucty to etflK
ty feet without branches. The Aow-
era are very attractive to bees and
other insects. The wood is 'while sr
yellowish, and very soft ; it is maeh
used by cabinet-makers and in bail-
ing, under the name of poplar.

TUMBREL. A itmgb cart.

TUMBRIL. A feeding trough
made of basket-work, or withes, s&
coarse, so that many sheep caa take
hay from it at the same time.

TUMOUR. Anunnatunaenlaife-
ment. This term was formerly seed
to express any swelling or enlarg e-
mest, as that of an abscess, or fron
a bruise ; bnt it is now more stnetiy
applied to enlargements of a more
permanent nature, ia wbich a chsags
of structure takes place, ot a new sub*
stance is prodseed, as &tty, fibrous,
or bony tumours, in which the swell-
ings are respectively formed of fatty,
fibrous, or osseous matters. These
being organic diseases, are not to bo
trested by poulticing or lancing, and
seldom give way to any treatment
but an entire removal by the knife.

TUN. A measure of 353 gallons,
or four hogsheads.

TUNIC, TUNICA. A membrane
or coat covering an organ.

TUPELO. The name given by
Michaux to several species of Nyttot
or black gum.

TURBINATE. 'V^Tiiried, and ot
a conical figure.

TURF. « The sod whicli cov-
ers the surfaee of pastures, Tba
word ia often also applied to the
substance which is generally call-
ed ptaL We shall here notice the
uses to which turf is applied, when
we mean a sod taken from the sur-
face on which some living plants are
still growing, or have lately done so.
Near extensive heaths which have
never been rsolaimed, sad in aitua-

TDRP.

tions wbere lio regidar paacWboga are

to be found, turf becomes a very use-
fal fuel. It is pared off the surface
with the heath growing on it, in dry
weather, in sods of a convenient size,
generally round and about one foot io
diameter. The thickness of the sod
depends on the depth and abandance
of the roots found in it, as tbey are
the sole cause of the turf continuing
to burn when the blaze caused by the
burning of the heath is over. As the
soil of the places where turf is usual-
ly cut is generally of a sandy nature,
turf ashes are not so valuable for ma-
nuring the land as peat ashes ; still
tbey contain portions of potash and
other vegetable salts, and produce a
very good effect when spread as a
top-dressing on moist meadows the
soil of which is chiefly composed of
clay.

** Turf is used for many oihfft pur-
poses, as well as for fuel ; laid like
tiles en a roof, overlapping each oth-
er, they form an excellent and cheap
protection against rain ; cut some-
what thicj^er, and in the shape of
bricks, they serve to build walls,
which are durable.

" The surface of good pastures, es-
pecially of commons, is often pared
for the purpose of forming an artifi-
cial turf for ornament, or for the pur-
poses of pasture. In the first case,
those spots are chosen where Uie
grass is of the finest and closest pile.
The surface is pared as thin as can
conveniently be done, so that the
sward shall not break. A proper
Sl^t having been chosen, it is divided
by the spade, or some sharp instru-
ment like a knife stock across a long
handle, into stripe about a foot wide ;
•and a very sharp flat instrument with
a bent handle, so as to work horizon-
tally, is thrust an inch, or a little
more, below the surface, paring off
the strip which has been marked.
As the workman who oats the sod
advanees, another rolls it up before
bim, until it is of a proper size to be
carried off. A cut is then made
across the strip, and another roU is
begun. Thus a large space may be
completely bared, or parallel stxips

Yy yS

may be oat oat, leaiing^ffiaie of tlw

turf uncut between them. In this
case the loss of the herbage will be
soonest repaired by the spreading of
the grasses from the strips which are
left. Whan an ornamental lawn is
to be formed by laying down the turf,
the ground is levelled, or laid in any
dasired fona. It is well rolled and
beaten, to make it firm ; and if the
weather is dry, it is well watered be^
fore the turf is applied. As lawns
require frequent mowing, a close,
slow-growing turf is a great advan-
tage ; it should therefore be taken, if
possible, irom a poor, thin soil. If
the ground to be covered is of a rich
quality, it is best to remove the soil
and lay .some of the poorer subsoil
bare, to place the turf on : a rich
moist soil woukl make the grass grow
too rank, and require constant mow*
ing and rolling to keep it down. Brick-
bats and rubbish are often spread
over the ground, where a lawn is to t>e
formed by turfing it over : these not
only form a poorer soil, but also keep
it drier by their porosity. It need
not be observed, that where turfing
is resorted to, to cover bare places in
meadows or pasture^ the reverse of
all this should be done, and manure
spread over the places where the turf
is to be laid, so that the roots may
be invigorated and a rich pile of grass
may spring up.

^* When there are banks and ine-
qualities in pastures, it is often use-
ful to pare off all the turf, rolling it
up from the places which are to be
levelled. The superfluous soil is
then removed, and if it has been long
in the form of a dry bank, it is spread
over the grass, which it greatly in-
vigorates. The new surfece is en»
riched with manure if it reciuires it,
and in moist weatlier, or after' wa-
tering it, the turf is unrolled over it
and well beaten down. A heavy
roller drawn over it will greatly as-
sist its rooting, and thus an unsight-
ly bank, on which the grass was usu-
ally either coarse or burned up, ao-
cording as the season was wet or dry,
becomes a good and neat pasture.
Another important use of turf is to

TUR

ent it n^ smril strip* nd 4ivideJ
these into pieces of a square inch in ]
mee, or somewhat more, for the pur-
pose of laying land to grass by tiM>ct*-
Ulion. This is only a partial turfing,
which extends rapidly, and, in the
course of a very few years, oonverte
a field which was not reiy produc-
tive, as arable land, into a valuable
meadow, especially if it is so situated
as to be capable of occasional irri-
gation."

TURKEY. See PouUry,
TURMERIC. " The root of the
Curcuma longa. This root yields a
fine yellow powder, which is ocoa-
aionally used as a dye-stufif in medi-
cine ; it also forms one of the ingre-
dients of curry powder. Paper stain-
ed with turmeric is often used in the
chemical laboratory as a test of the
presence of free alkalies and their
carbonates, by which its yellow col-
oar is converted to brown."

TURNER'S CERATE. It is made
by melting h^f a pound of yellow
wax with two pounds of lard, and,
when cool, working into the mixture
half a pound of prepared oalamine.
It is used to excoriations, or galled
places, burns, and is a mild astrtn-

TURNIP. BrAtaica rapa. *♦ This
weli-knowo plant is cultivated for iu
bulbous rooU, both in the garden and
the field. As a culinary root it has
been prized from the earliest times,
and many varieties have been culti-
vated for the table ; but it is those of
a larger kind, cultivated in tiie fields,
which form so imporUnt a part of
the most improved systems of agri-
culture on all light soils, that the suc-
cess of the farmer is, in general, pro-
portioned to the quantity of turnips
raised on his farm. They are the
great foundation of all the best sys-
tems of cropping, by supplying the
manure required for the subsequent
crop, and, at the same time, clearing
the land of ail noxious weeds, by the
numerous ploughings, stirrings, and
hoeings which they require.

** Turnips were first raised upon
land which had already borne a crop
that was reaped early in summer, and

aio

TUR

on Idiawa wliioh had teen wi
and cleared early, so aa to leave a
sufficient interval between the lasc
ploughing and the time of sowing
winter corn to have a tolerable ciop
of turnips. These turnips, however,
which are still cultivated by the name
of stubble, or eddish turnips, never
grow so large as those which had
been sown earlier on land well pre-
pared and highly manured.

" The regular cultivatioa of tur-
nips on a large scale was ori^oaliy
introduced from Flanders into Nor-
folk two centuries ago. It was long
confined to one or two individuals,
who cultivated turnips very success-
fully ; but at last it spread, and was
greatly improved by introducing the
row culture, according to TuU's sys-
tem, which acquired the name of the
Northumberland mode of cultivation-
The usual mode of sowing turnips,
both in Flanders and in Norfolk, was
broad-cast ; and, as the labourers io
both countries became very expert in
hoeing them out at regular distances,
this mode was long preferred. In
fact, the cultivation of fbrnips in
rows is scarcely practised at all ia
Flanders, and, notwiihsUnding its ev-
ident superiority in respect to quan-
tity of produce and economy of la-
bour, it cannot be said to be yet uni-
versally adopted. The Northumber-
land method of cultivating the crop,
which is particularly adapted to moiat,
cold, or tenacious soils, or to farms
where manure is scarce, and which
is mostly managed with but litUe use
of the hand hoe, is illustrated iajf Hie

following cuts :

^.1.

ZeJJi

b^^

ftr a

" Fig. I shows a .transverse seo-
tiott of the ground when prepared for
receiving the manure, it being gath-
ered io one-bout ridgeleto. The dung
carts pass lengthwise, and the dung
is dropped, or pulled out into the fur-
rows : lads follow the carts and spread
out the dung from the little heaps
along the holtow of each drill. The
horse with the loaded cart walks in
the interval of the ridges, so that a

TURMIP9.

wheel of the cart shall go in each ef
the hollows of the two ridges adjoin-
ing. The person who directs tlie
horse follows the cart, which is open
behmd, and with a crooked two-prong-
ed fork, or dung-hack {Fiff. %), drags

rig 9.

out the dung, as the horse mo^es
along, into little heaps in the hoUow
of every tbird ridge, at the distance
from each other of from eight to ten
feet. Behind follow three young per-
sona, with each a two-pronged or
three-pronged fork (fV^.3)« each walk-

Pig^r

ing in the interval of a ridge, and
spreadini^oat the dung in as regular
a manner as possible, as a cross sec-
tion of the ridgelets with the dung
deposited in the intervals would show
{Fig. 4). It is immediately covered

Fig. 4.

It miiivm'fUii ■'■■■iiiiiiii'ir;!

'Jm

by the plough, which, passing down
the middle of each ridgelet, splits it
into two, so that a new drill is
formed, who&c top is immediately
above the former hollow of the old
drill, as may be seen in Figure 6.

For this purpose, the double mould-
board plough may be employed, bot
the single plongli\ is preferred, as it
does the work better, though it re-
quires double the time. The tomip
seed is sown upon the top of the ridg-
es, above the manure, with a horse
o'^ hand drill, the former of which
has a roller, which precedes the coul-
ters and flattens the ridges. When
the seed is sown by hand, a hand roll-

er is drttWR over the ildgta (i^O}*

Fig. 9.

**As soon as the plants have as
sumed what is termed the rough leaf,
and are about two inches in height,
the process of hoeing commences.
This is done by turning first a light
shallow furrow from the plants, ok
by the horse hoe, or euhivator with
lateral coulters.

**The great object on poor ligiit
lands, espeeially those which have
lately been brought into cultivation,
is to raise a crop of turnips ; for when
once this is obuined, and the land
has been improved by the folding of
sheep upon it, there is no great diffi-
culty in maintaining the fertility thus
prodaced by judiciooa management
and frequent green crops. Great im-
provement in poor soils has been ef-
fected by the ihtroduction of ground
bones as a manure, which have the
peculiar property of favouring the
growth of the turnip, and have con-
sequently been used on poor light
sands and gravels to a great extent,
and with unvaried sucoess, without
much help from farm-yard manure.
It has, however, been found that a
much greater profit is obtained from
the himi by uniting the regular appli>
cation of farm-yard dang with that of
thebone dnst. For this purpose, the
best fanners prepare their land, where
they intend to sow turnips, early after
harvest, by giving it as complete a
cultivation as they can before win-
ter ; and they put on it a good coat
of manure and plough it in. In the
beginning of summer another plougb-
iag ia glTea, with r^eated harrow-

Bll

TORifiFar.

In^, ta destroy fbe wwis vrhkh

have sprung up. If the subsoil is
dry, or the land has been thoroughly
drained, the seed may be drilled in
rows from two feet to thirty inches
apart, with bones or any equivalent
arti^cial manure on the flat sutfaoe :
a iiound of seed the acre is a good al-
lowance. The turnip seed can scarce-
ly fail to vegetate soon. Less dan-
ger arises from dry weather than if
they were on the top of a ridge, and.
the intervals can be readily stirred
by the plough, or any other instru-
ment adapted to the purpose. The
manure, which has had time to in-
corporate with the soil and to impart
to it the various gaseous products of
its decomposition, is in the best state
to nourish the young plant, until it
ean push forth its roots ; a more rap-
id growth is ensured, whieh is the
best preservative against the fly ; and
experience has proved that this ia a
much flM»re oertain way to ensure a
good crop of tumipe, espeeially of
Swedes, than the old method of put-
ting ail the manure immediateiy un-
der the seed in the rows, where it
often remains inert if dry weather
comes on soon after the seed is sown.
The quantity of manure pnt on in au-
tumn, or very early in spring, depends
on the means of the farm. If ten
cubic yards of short dung can be af-
ibrded per acre, the crop of turnips
will amply repay it ; and twenty bush-
els of bone duet or less per acre will
be sufficient to drill with the seed.
Long fresh manure may be safely
ploughed in before wintert which
would be very improper in a light
soil if used in summer. This will be
rotten before the turnips are sown,
and all the expense of forming dung-
hilis and turning them over is saved.
Where farm->«rd manure is scarce,
half the above quantity may be used,
and a fair crop of turnips may still be
expected. We have ourselves fol-
lowed this method with abundant
manure, and also with half the usual
quantity, the suecess being always
in proportion to the quantity of farm-
yard manure.

The early vegetation of tAie seed

ia eaaeotial to a goq[» enep of 1
In its young and tender state it is
liaUe to a variety of aoeideats. Ite
great enemy is the turnip iky {HmUica
ncmonm), which appears alwaja ia
great quantities if there is aoj con-
tinuance of dry weather. The moic
frequently tumipa are sown n the
same ground, the more abundant m
the fly ; but where the surface has
been pared and burned there is sel-
dom any loss from this cause. It is
generally fbund that in moist weath-
er the fly does comparatively little
harm, as then the vegotatioft ia rapid*
and the phint, when once it has pot
forth its reagh leaves, is oonsidered
safe. Whatever, therefore, accel-
erates the vegetation will secure the
growth of the turnip. In very diy
seasons, if water is at hand, it is well
worth while to water the newly-sown
rows by means of a oommon water-
cart i and if some liquid manure be
mixe4 with the water, the efliect wiH
be astonishing. By means of two
leathern hose two rows may readily
be watered at once ; and i^he pood
or stream be not above half a mile
off, a vast extent of ground may thus
be watered in one day. Nothing
brings on vegetation so fast as dilu-
ted liquid manure, care being taken
that it be not too strong. The best
time for watering is in the eveningy
or early in the morning ; and if in a
fine summer's night the water-cart
were used before daylight, there
would be no great iaconvenieuee to
the horse or his driver. It some-
times happens in soils rather com-
pact, that a cnMt is formed on the
surface which ha ) been harrowed fine
and rolled, and this impedes the ve-
getation by exoluding the air neoea*
sary to germination. In this casOi
no better remedy can be applied than
watering, which aofiena the crust
and lets the young plant through. As
soon as the turnip plant has put forth
its rough leaves, the intervals be-
tween the rows should be stirred witb
a light plough drawn op by one horse.
The plough can be made to go with-
in an inch or two of the plants, throw-
'w% (he earth from tiie row into t^

TURNIPS.

joterval : a smaBliarrow, vhieh can |
be set to any required width, ia then
drawn between the rows, to loosen
the earth raised by the plough : thia
greatly increases the absorption of
moisture, and invigoratea the yoong
plants. They may now be thinned
oat in the rows by means of a hoe
about twelve inches broad. See Fig.
7 £ « is the blade, which will hoe out ^1

Fig,7.

the superfluous plants, leaving little
tufts a foot or more apart. These
tofts are thinned out by hand, leaving
only one healthy plant in each. Thus
the turnips are left at a proper dis-
tance, iind, having ample room, will
soon cover the rows. A horse-hoe
is now drawn between the rows, to
eradicate all weeds and keep the soil
open for the fibres of the roots to shoot
in. It IS not advisable to throw the
earth over the tnrnips, unless it be just
before winter, to protect them from the
frost ; oiv the contrary, in wet weath-
er the earth is more likely to cause the
turnip to rot than to help its growth.
The fibres which draw the nourish-
ment strike in the soil below, and
spread between the rows wherever
they meet with a loose and mellow
earth.

*' In order to have a heavy crop,
especially of Swedish turnips, or mta
baga, it is advisable to sow the seed
early, that is, in the beginning of July ;
they will then have the advantage of
the summer showers, and be beyond
the reach of the fly in a very few
days ; and when the dry weather sets
in, they will already have a supply of
moisture in their roots, and the fibres,
having struck deep, will not sufibr
any check. The only inconvenience
of sowing early is, that many of the
plants are apt to run to seed. This
is in many cases owing to the seed
which is used. If the seed has been
raised from fine roots which have
stood the winter, there is little dan-
ger of the plants running to seed in
the first summer ; but, as is often the
case, if small, imperfect roots are ta-

kM, or tlMise which nm to need In
autumn, then the plants will have a
tendency to prodnce seed, and not
bulbs. The white Norfolk turnip and
its varieties should be sown aboot
midsummer, to have a good and heavy
crop before winter. The distance at
which they may he left in thinnh^
them out most depend on the variety,
whether it has a wide-spreading top
or not. Tlie best crops, both of
Swedes and common field turnips, •
are generally those where the tops
are vigorous and moderately spread-
ing. A small top will not nourish a
large bnlb ; but when the growth is
chiefly in the leaves, the bnttw are
seldom large.

** It may be considered as a gener-
al rule, that the most advantageona
mode of consuming tnrnips is to draw
them and ent them in slices in the
field, to be there consumed in troughs
by sheep, to whom corn or oil-cake,
as weH as hay, is regularly giren.
When the crop of turntpe is abon-
dant, part of them may be stored for
the cattle in the yard or fatting-stalls,
and for the miksh cows and heifers.
They win require nothing but good
straw, if they have plenty of turnips,
and no hay whatever need he used,
unless it be for the horses ; and even
they will thrive well on Swedish tnr-
nips and straw, with a small quanti-
ty of oats. Turnips are often left in
the field all the winter, which great-
ly deteriorates them. If they cannot
all be fed ofi* before December, they
should be taken up, with the tops on,
and set close together, covered with
the tops, on a piece of grass, or in
some dry spot. They will thus be
quite sufficiently protected from the
frost ; or the tops may be cut oflf
within an inch of the crown of the
root ; and they may be stored in long
camps five feet wide and four feet
high, sloped like the roof of a house,
ami covered with straw and earth, in
which state they will keep till they
are wanted. It is advantageous to
have difiTerent varieties of turnips,
which will come to perfection in suc-
cession ; and it ia useful to sow some
at different times for this purpose.

Pi«

TURNIPS.

The small turnip, whfch from its rap- i
id growth 18 ealled the nimble tarnlp.
may l>e sown aa late as the end of
Augast, and in the mild seasons of
the Middle States will produce toler-
able bulbs in winter and early in
spring. The frost will not injure a
growing turnip so readily as one
which is oome to perfection, and the
leaves of which are withered. Some
varieties, like the yellow Aberdeen
and the green round turnip, are hard-
ier than others, and wiU stand the
winter well in a light and dry soil"
The method of taking up the crop
for winter store is by running a fur-
row along the rows, and. turning the
earth from the roots ; the turnips can
then be pulled by the hand, or with
the hook {Pig. 8).

The following account of the prod-
net and profits of rata baga is by
Judge Buel :

*' ProJU9. — From many years* ex-
perience, we estimate as an average
product, under good management,
600 bushels to the acre. We may
assume the following as the average
expense of cultivating and harvesting
an aero :

Om plotighinf nnd a thoroogh harrow-

ing $3 90

to wagon Inada manare, at 75 Matt . 15 00

1 pound seed I 00

1 clay spreading rnanare and drillinjc seed 0 75
t draningi with caldvator, nan and

horse one day 1 SS

9 dressinji^^s with hoe, six days, Ox. . . 4 50

d days harvesting' and pulling, 6«. . . 8 75

which divided by 600, the number of
bushels, would bring the cost of the
roots below five cents the bushel.
But if we abate half the cost of the
manure for the after crops, and allow
a fair consideration for the tops, say
86, it will reduce the cost of the roots
to less than three cents a bushel.
Now a cow or bullock virill do well
and thrive upon two bushels a day ;
bence an acre will afford 800 daily
rations, or maintain five cows SO
days, at the actual cost of Sl6 25,
or $3 25 for each the two montlia.
S14

I^ us contrast this e!q)ense 'vrrtfa
that of feeding hay. We believe a
ration of hay is 28 lbs. Let us sop-
pose it to be 25 lbs. Then, to lcc*ep
the five cows 60 days would require
7500 lbs., or 8 tons 15 cwt. of hav.
which, at a fair medium price oT^fo
a ton, would amount to SS7 50, in»-
king a difierence in favour of the tur-
nips of $21 25, or nearly three fifUs.
Let us test the relative profits in an-
other way. The average product of
our grass lands is about two tons the
acre ; say the product of two acres
would be 7500 lbs. ; then the prod-
uct of an acre in rata baga wooJ^ go
about as far in feeding stock as tfae
product of two acres in meadow;
with the farther advantage, where
the turnips are sown upon a young
clover lay, that one half the hay may
also be cut from the acre which pro-
duces the 600 bushels* of turaipe, the
latter being raised as a second crop."

" There are so many varieties cul-
tivated that it is difficult to enumer-
ate them. The Swedish turnips may
be classed according to the colour
and size of their tops and tbe shape
of the bulb. The best have but liule
stem rising from the bulb, and a good
tuft of leaves. The substance of tlie
turnips is of a bright yellow, and has
a strong smell, especially when they
have been kept some time. No frost
w.ll hurt them, if they are kept dry ;
but alternate rain and frost will do
them harm "UTien they are stored,
it is advantageous that the air should
have free access ; and for this pur-
pose it has been recommended to
place them between hurdles set Up-
right, and to slightly thatch them
with straw to keep out the TBtn. In
this way they keep longer sound than
when put in camps covered with
straw and earth.

" Of the field turnip there are nu-
merous varieties. The common Nor-
folk turnip is round and flat, the bulb
being half buried in the ground ; it
I throws out no fibres, except from the
slender root which proceeds from the
centre of the hulb. IThere is a sab-
f variety which is reddish at the inser-
1 lion of the leaves, suid another of a

TURNIPS.

green hue ; the latter is the hardiest.
The globe tarnip takes its name from
its shape ; it rises more out of the
ground, and grows to a greater size ;
like the last, it is either entirely white
or red, or green near the crown. It
is, on the whole, the most prodactive
and hardy. The tankard tarnip rises
high out of the ground, and approach-
es in shape to the mangel wurxel.
It grows to the greatest size ; but it
is apt to become spongy if left long
on the ground, and its weight is not
in proportion to its balk. There are
red tankards and green tankards, as
well as white. The green round tur-
nip is considered very hardy, and is
usually sown late, to be consumed
after the winter. The yellow Aber-
deen, although somewhat less, is
compact, and stands the winter well ;
It is ar very useful variety.

** Next to those above mentioned
come the smaller turnips of quicker
growth, which have mostly been ta-
ken from the garden. They should
not be sown early, as they are very
apt to run to seed in dry weather ;
but in a moist climate they may be
sown at any time in the summer, and
they will be in perfection in three
months. Thus they may be made to
fill up the interval between the early
rye or trifolium fed off in spring, and
the wheat sown in autumn.

" Those who are possessed of a
good variety will do well to raise their
own seed, as that which is bought
cannot always be depended upon for
this purpose ; the best-shaped, mid-
dle-sized bulbs should be chosen, the
leaves being cut off not nearer than
an inch from the crown. They should
be planted in a mellow soU, in rows
three feet wide, and a foot from bulb
to bulb in the rows, about March or
April. When the pods are well filled
with seeds, and these are round and
hard, the stem should be cut close to
the root and carefully laid under a
shed to dry. The seed will ripen
there without shedding, and when the
pods are quite dry, the seed is easily
beaten out with a stick or light flail.
Birds are so fond of it that a con-
stant watch must be kept ; and this

is the reason why so few farmoTB
grow their own seed. Turnip seed
is often raised in the gardens, and is
a branch of industry which every
farmer should encourage. He can
readily see that good bnlbs only are
used, and he secures the seeds he
wants. If the seed is kept in a dry
granary, it will be good for several
years. It is, however, best to use
fresh seed, as it always germinates
sooner. The seed is seldom steeped,
but generally drilled in the rows by
a drill- barrow or more perfect sow-
ing machine. The best farmers, even
on land well manured and in good
heart, sow with the seed some artifi-
cial manure, as bones, rape cake, or
rich dried compost, to accelerate the
first growth of the plants."

Diseases.-^** The diseases and iiN
juries to which turnips are liable are
various. At their first appearance
their leaves are liable to the attacks
of the fly {Aphis and Haltiea)^ the
caterpillar, the slug, and the mildew.
Their bulbs and roots are attacked
by worms of different kinds ; by a
singular tendency to monstrosity,
known provincially by the name of
fingers and toes ; by the anbury ; by
canker* and by wasting or gangrene
from water or frost. Of all or most
of these injurious diseases, it may be
observed, that they admit neither of
prevention nor cure by art. Under
favourable circumstances of soil, cli-
mate, culture, and^weather, they sel-
dom occur ; therefore, all that the cal-
tivator can do is to prepare and ma-
nure his land properly, and in the
sowing season supply water when the
weather is deficient in showers or
the soil in humidity.

** The fly {Haltka) attacks the tur-
nip when in the seed leaf, and either
totally devours it, or partially eats
the leaves and centre bud, so as to
impede the progress of the plants to
the second or rough leaves. Wheth-
er the eggs of these flies are deposit-
ed on the plants or in the soil, does
not appear to be ascertained ; in all
probability they are attached to the
former, as in the gooseberry cater-
pillar, and most cases of flies and in-

815

TOR

•ecu which feed on pUnts. Fr&^
aratioDs and mixtures of the seed, as
already treated of, are all that have
yet been done in the way of prevent-
ive to this evil.

'* The caterpillar makes its appear-
ance after the plants have produced
three or more rough leaves ; these
they eat through, and either destroy
or greatly impede the progress of the
plants There can be little dou^t
that the eggs of these caterpillars
are deposited on the leaves of the
plants by a species of moth, as the
catej-pilJar may be detected when not
larger in diameter than a hair. As
preventives to the moths from fixing
on the turnips for a depository for
their eggs, it has been proposed to
place vessels with tar ia different
^rts of the field, the smell of which
IS known to be very offensive to moths
and all insects ; or to cause a thick
offensive smoke from straw or weeds
to pass over the ground at the time
when it is supposed the moths or pa-
rent flies are about to commence
their operations. To destroy the cat-
erpillar itself, watering with tobacco
water, lime-water, strong brine* and
laying on ashes, barley awns, dec,
have been proposed.

'*The slug and snail attack the
plants both above and under ground,
and eat both the leaves ana roots,
^tolling, soot, quicklime, awns, dec,
have heen proposed to annoy them ;
but the only effeetual mode is, im-
mediately after the turnips are sown,
to strew the ground with cabbage
leaves, or leaves of any of the Brat-
»ica tribe. On these, especially if
sweet from incipient decay, the slugs
will pasture, and may be gathered off
by women or children every morn-
ing. If as many cabbage leaves, or
handfuls of decaying pea haolm, or
any similar vegetable, be procured as
will go over a ridge or two, say at
the rate of a leaf to every square
yard, a whole field may soon be
cleared by picking off the slugs and
removing the leaves once in 24 hours.
This mode we have found most ef-
fectual, and it is extensively prac-
tised by market and other gardeners.
616

The mildew and Uight
turnip in different stages or its prog'-
ress, and always retard its growth.
Its effects may be {palliated by wa-
tering and strewing the leaves wiih
sulphur ; but this will hardly be ooe-
sidered applicable to whole fields.

'* The worms attack the roots, and,
when they commence their raFages
at an early period, impede tbev
growth. and ruin or greatly injure
the crop. They admit of do rei»edj
or prevention. .

** The forked excrescences knowa
as fingers and toes in some places,
and as the anbury in others, are coo-
sidered an alarming disease, and hith-
erto it can neither be guarded againat
nor cured." See Ar£ury.

TURNIP CABBAGE. The kobi I
rabi.

TURNIP CART. " This is an in-
genious adaptation of the disk tornui
cutter to the turnip cart. The d»c
is pat in motion by a face- wheel fixed
upon the nave of the cart-wheel, •
which, as it revolves, commuDicates
by means of cog wheels with the axis
of the cutting plate. It offers a very
convenient mode of feeding sheep
on pastures or lawns, and was intro-
duced about the year 1834 by Arthur
Bidden, farmer, of Playford, the in-
ventor of the well-known searifier
which bears his name." — (Jo4iuob.}

TURNIP CUTTERS. In feed-
ing sheep and stodc with turnips, as
well as other roots, it is necessary to
cut them into small pieces to hinder
choking and facilitate digestion. Far
oxen and pigs, it may be better to
steam them ; but for sheep, the com-
mon practice is to cut them. The
simplest form of vtgctahU cutter is
like the simplest straw cutter, two or
more knives set in a lever and worked
upon a table {Fig. 1) ; but this is a
slow machine, and l^ been, for the
most part, superseded by impleinents
of the construction shown in Fig. 8,
which consists of a side hopperi con-
taining the roots, and a wheel set
with blades on two or more of its
spokes. As these are revolved be-
fore the bottom of the hopper, the
turnips or other roots are cut into

TUa

OLC

tdlees inS Mt belov. The upright i spokes ne set irith fcaives at ngfet
position or the hopper ooaslantl; sngles with the former, which split
brings down more of the regetablps. the slices into smtill pieces u their
In Gariita't unDroted machine, two | are cut b^ the long kniiea.
Fig. I.

Fit*.

TIIRNSOL. Litmus.

TURPENTINE. The
of pine-treEB, especially of ihe Pvtut
aMiirtlii, the long leaved or southern
pine, atinunJing in the »andr barrens
of the Southern States. It is pro-
cured by making aa excavation in
winter of the size of about three
pints in Itie sCem. near the ground ;
liom tbe upper part of this ibe tur-
pentine exudea duriug spring, sum-
gourds or oilier Tossels, and emptied
into barrels, which are exposed lu dry,
and then headed and shipped. It ie
a Baefut application to many wounds.
The ail, or tpirii, is obtained by dis-
tilling crude turpentine with water ;
the spirit passes OTer, and common
rosin remains in the aiiU. It is rec-
tified or redistilled for commerce.

TUSS.^C GRASS. DutlylU ca-
tpuota. Falliland Island grass. A
targe, sedgy grass, gniwing on the
■easliore of Ibusc islands. It is very
nutritions and hardy, ISO acres fat-
tening S&O cattle and TO horses du-
ring the winter. The grass grows to
a great height, and mainiains its ver-
dure even m winter. Governor Moo-
dy of the islands found it would grow
00 high and dry land if the stools
werfe set out in apriiig. It bean

three cuttings per annum ; is peren-
nial. If seed be sown, it reqiiirea
three years to arrive at maturity.

TUSSOCKSOFGRAS3. Clump*
or hillocks of growing grnaa.

TYMPANUM. The membrane of
Ihe ear which roceiTea the vihratiooa
of sound.

TYP£S. In (Aeraistry, a certain
number of elements combined to-
gether, every one of which may be
replaced by another, and. indeed, ev-
ery one in ita turn, tbe arrangement
of the elements in every case re-
maining always the same with re-
gard to each other, the type being
no precise compound, but the mao-
ner of grouping. The new compounds
(as when chUirine replacca hydro-
gen) have often the seme properties
as the original.

TOPHUS. Continued fevers, at-
tended with great debility. .They
arise from impure air. bad food. &o.,
and are therefore ofXen epidemia.
TyfKoid fevers are those in which
there is a tendency to great debility.

TWITCH GRASS. Couch grass.

U.
UDDER. The milk-aecreting
gland of the cow.
ULCER. An open sore diseliar.

UlCB

ging matter. Ulcers sometimes be-
come torpid and difficult to heal, in
which case stimulants are used. The
application of caustic is necessary
when there is fungous growth ; the
nitrate of silver or red precipitate is
best. Calomel is extremely service-
able to heal healthy ulcers : tar is also
Dsed for this purpose.

ULTIMATE ANALYSTS. The
determination of the elements of an
organic body. See Organic Analysis.

UMBEL. In botany, a form of in-
florescence in which all the pedicels
proceed from a single point. If there
is no subdivision, the umbel is called
simple ; but if the pedicels produce
other umbels, as in parsley,* the um-
bel is compound.

UMBELLIFERiE, UMBELLIF-
EROUS PLANTS. They are a race
of great frequency in all cool or
temperate climates, and even occur
in hot ones, though much more rare-
ly. They are known in general by
their flowers being disposed in an
umbel. They have an herbaceous
stem ; leaves usually much divided,
often ii\flated when they join the
stem; and they have universally a
dry fruit, which divides into two seed-
like pieces. Some of them are poi-
sonous, as hemlock, fool's parsley,
and water dropwort ; others are es-
culents, as celery, carrots, and pars-
nips ; many yield aromatic fruits, as
caraway, coriander, and anise ; a few
secrete a foetid gum resin, of which
asafcetida, ammoniacum, and galba-
num are examples. The species are
extremely numerous, and difficult to
recognise with accuracy ; and, un-
fortunately, no general rule has yet
been discovered for distinguishing
the poisonous from the harmless
kinds ; but those which grow in damp
or wet places are to be suspected,
whereas those that are aromatic and
found in dry soils are often innocuous.

UMBILICAL CORD. In animals,
the cord of blood-vessels which pass-
es between the placenta and foetus ;
the navel string. In botany, the
thread which attaches the seed to the
earpel or placenta.

UMBILICUS. ThenaTeL
816

UNCIFORM BONE.
bones of the wrist.

UNCONFORMABLE STRATA.
Strata which do not incline or ikip m
the same direction as tfaose b^ow <ir
above them.

UNDERWOOD. CotpiMce, maaB
trees, or shoots from old stools.

UNGUIS. The claw or smafl ex-
tremity of a petal, where it is insert-
ed into the stem.

UNGULATES. Those quadrupeds
furnished with a hoof.

UNILOCULAR. Seed vessels
which contain but one cavity.

UPAS. A Javanese tree, frofs
which the upas poison is seereted;
the Antiarit toxicarieu

UPONG. Ilexvomittria^nd cas^i-
na. The black drink, medicine, or
tea plant of North Carolina, used bj
the Indians.

UREA. A pecnliar ciystaUaabls
substance held in solutioD in the nrine.
When dried in vacuo it consists,
cording to Dr. Proat, of,

Nitrogen ..... S

Carliua S

IIydrug«n ..... 1
Oz/g«n _•

4S6S

SSHff

Urea is readily soluble in vrater*
tasteless, inodorous ; and when mix-
ed with the other contents of the
urine, very prone to putrefaction, the
principal result of which is carbonate
of ammonia.

UREDO. «*As the diseases of
corn occasioned by fungi befong^iog
to the genus Uredo are of great im-
portance, we shall describe them
particularly. In the article Burwa
Ear, a diseased state of wheat is de-
scribed, in which the Uredo segetum.
appears.

*« Vrtio earin, De Candolle (CT.
feetida, Bauer), is fbund on wheat;
the sporidia are included within the
ovary of the fruit, and are exactly
spherical, rather large, globose, and
black. When this plant appears on
wheat it is said to have the bunt,
smut-balls, or pepper-brand. The
sporidia may be detected in the yoang
seed in the very earliest states or
the flower-bod, and when perfectly

M iKe vbole interior of

tlic grain, hut does liut buratthe akin,
BO that the grain retains Ihe charac-
ter or being perfeclly sound. The
apnridia are TrequeDtlf mixed with
deJrcale Abres. which seem to consti-
tute Ihe niycelia of the plant. Hens-
law catcutates that a single grain
of wheat raaj contain mnre than
4,000.000 of sporidia. Each of Ihese
apiiriilia probably contains mJlltiinB
of sponiles; hence some idea ma;
be furmed of their minaleneas, as
well MS their capacity for spreadiog
themselves in every direction, An-
otb^ peculiarity of this fungu* '^•
that it has a very disgusting smelti
end the consequence is that flour
made fhim grains containing it can-
not he eaten Flour thus spoiled is,
however, sold to gingerbread -makers,
who have found out that mixing it
with treaiTle concealu its disagreeable
odour. It does not appear to act in-
junoualy when taken. In raising
wheat for seed, the greatest care
should be taken that none affected
with Ihe SDiot fungus is used, as ii
aeems proved that where the spornles
of tbe fungus are present in the seed
•own, thpy will grow up with the
plant, and be developed at the period
of its ripening tbe fruit. Many rem-
edies have been proposed Tor getting
rid of tbe sporutes from wheat about
to be sown. Washing with clean
water has been found e^eclual. and
wilh lime-water much more so. but
of all applications a solution of sul-
phate of copper (blue vitriol) aeeniB
to auawer best. The following is a
good instance of the effect of dress-
ing wheat: 'Mr. John Woolnough,
of Boylon. sowed a large field in al-
Cernale breadths wilh wheat taken
from a gaud sample without dressing,
and wheat that had been dressed.
Long beFore the grain was ripe tbe
.,-D- 1 diatinguiahable.

Tba eODHDon obaraeter of tbe fun-
gi of this class nf, I,
is (heir production
within tbe plant. ^
through Ihe skin ■■
of which they oft- |
en break, as in the «
Urtde diffnta, that ^
attacks fruit-treea '
<.Fig- 1).

" Urtdo nhigo
and linnrtf fo/nt
yellow and brown

blotches of an or-
ange and yellow

slem, leaf, and chafTof grain, and va-
rious grasses. The sporidia of U.
lineittit are more ohlong than those
of U. rabiga, bnt Ibey arc frequently
round together. When these plant*
are present Ihe disease of ihe grain
is called rust, red rag, red robin,
and red gum. This is the plant
which Hen slow believes to be ideO'
tical With the Puoritiin gramina,

which occurs in wheat affected with
mildew." Figure 2 represents the

Upon

wilh

dresaed wheat il was difficult to find
any branded care, while Ihe others
were so branded as to make bioi t!
termine to carry tbe wheat at at
arate limes to different places.'"
ILifln. TraBj., vol. t.)

Fueeinia graminii, OT Tast : it is of the
natural size in the stem, a, magnified
in b. and Ihe stem also magoilied in t.
■'The mildew and the rust are often
confounded together by farmers, and,
as shown by Hcnslow, there ia do
difference in the essential character
of the plant which is Ihe offspring of
the disease. Htut and mildew are
»\9

URE

URI

not 80 certainly preTented at amut,
although there is reason to believe
that the sporules of the U. nthijgo are
taken less up by the roots, in the
same manner as those producing
smut. As a dressing, the use of the
lime-water or sulphate of copper
should never be neglected ; although
it may not always prevent rust, yet
there are instances recorded in which
undressed wheat has had rust, when
dressed wheat from the same sample
has not had it.

'* Connected with the question of
blight in com is one that has produ-
ced much discussion, and that is, how
far the barberry {Berberis vulgarit) is
the cause of it. There is a very
general impression among farmers
that the barberry-bush produces rust
in corn, and there are numerous well-
authenticated instances of blight oc-
curring in the vicinity of barberry-
bushes and hedges. Botanists, not
seeing how this could occur, have
generally treated the fact as a coin-
cidence, and acquitted the barberry
altogether of the crime of producing
blight ; but the evidence of blight oc-
curring as the consequence of the
{)resence of the barberry is constant-
y increasing. One of the best ex-
planations of this curious circum-
stance is, that the barberry itself is
subject to the attacks of a fungus,
the JEcidium berberidisj similar to that
which produces the disease in wheat.
The specific characters of the two,
however, are very different, and it
is only by having recourse to the
supposition that many of the record-
ed species of JEcidium are merely
varieties changed in character by
change of position, that such an ex-
planation of the fact can be admitted.

" Besides the species of uredo men-
tioned, corn and all other plants are
subject to the attacks of a large num-

ber of those fungi €>a ^FtMrtever

plant they are found they are iml^^ ■ -
tive of disease, and tbe produce oi
the plant will not be so ^reat as
when in a state of health. Sir H
Davy found that 1000 parts of good
wheat yield, on an average, 955 pans
of nutritious matter, while specimen^
from mildewed wheat yielded ooiy
from 650 to 210 parts in the same
quantity." See, also, MiUUto.

UR£T£RS. Tbe tubes which con-
vey urine from the kidneys to the
bladder.

URETHRA. The passage from
the bladder outward, for the discharge
of urine.

URIC ACID, LITHIC ACID. An
acid occurring in large quantity, con^
bined with ammonia, in the urine of
birds and reptiles, and to a small ex-
tent only in the urine of canuvorons
quadrupeds. In the pure state it is a
very insoluble white powder ; it dis-
solves in nitric acid, and when evap-
orated to dryness and mixed with a
little ammonia, gives the rich red osA-
our of marexide. The composition
of uric acid is Cio H^ N4 0« : it is con-
verted by putrefaction into bicarbo-
nate of ammonia. Peruvian guano
contains eight to twenty per cent. cC
this acid, but the Afrioan is usually
without it.

URINE. The fluid excrement of
quadrupeds : in birds and reptiles it
is solid. Tlie urine contains the
greatest portion of the nitrogenized
matters of the excrements, and is
therefore the most important portion
of manure. The composition of hu-
man urine is given in the anide
Night SoUj the management of that
of the cow under the article Ftandert
Husbandry.

" The efficacy of urine as a manure
depends upon the quantity of solid
matter which it holds in solution.

l7no«of

Man .
Rorae.
Cow .

Sheep

Water

1000 parte.

969
940
990
926
960

Solid matter in 1000 partei

Oifanic.

33-4

«7

Inorjipink.

7-6
93

SO
18
19

Total.

60
70
74
40

A»ef.

Toid«iIia84

iMNITSw

S "
40* "
t

830

• Not in niUc. When in milk, about half of tbia.

URINE.

upon the natare of this solid matter,
and especially upon the rapid changes
which the organic part of it is known
to undergo. The preceding table ex-
hibits the average proportions of wa-
ter, and of the solid organic and inor*
ganic matters contained in the urine
of man and some other animals in
their healthy state, and the ayerage
qaantity voided by each in a day.

" The numbers in the above table
show that the urine of the cow, esti-
mated by the quantity of solid matter
it contains, is more valuable than that
of any other of our domestic animals,
with the exception of the pig. But
the quantity voided by the cow must
be so much greater than by the pig,
that in annual value the urine of one
cow must greatly exceed that of many
pigs.

" It might be supposed at first that
in all animals the quantity of urine
▼oided would have a close connexion
with the quantity of water which each
was in the habit of drinking. But this
is by no means the case. Thus it is
the result of experiment, that in man
the drink exceeds the urine voided
by about one tenth part only, while a
horse, which drank 36 lbs. of water
in 24 hours, gave only 3 lbs. of urine
during the same time; and a cow,
which drank 132 Hw. of water, gave
18 lbs. of urine and 19 lbs. of milk. —
(Boussingtt ult. )

" How very large a quantity of the
liquid they drink must escape from
the horse and the cow in the form of
insensible perspiration ! That this
should be very much greater indeed
than in man, we are prepared to ex-
pect from the greater extent of sur-
face which the bodies of these ani-
mals present.

** Let us now examine more closely
the composition of urine, the changes
which by decomposition it readily un-
dergoes, and the effect of these chan-
ges upon its value as a manure.

"Human Urine. — ^The exact com-
position of the urine of a healthy in-
diviiiual, examined in its usual state,
wa#fouDd by Berzelius to be as fol-
lows:
Water «£•;

ZssS

Urieaeid i-f

FrM lactiiB aeid, lactate of anmoDia, and

anjinal matter not separable .... 17*1

Mucus of the bladder O'S

Sulphate of potash 3*7

Sulphate of sod* 3*3

Phosphate of soda 2*9

Phosphate of ammonia 1*6

Common salt .......... 4.5

Sftl-smmoBiao 1'5

Phosphates of lime and magnesia, with
a trace of silica and of fluoride of cal-
cium . I'l

1000^

"From what I have already had
occasion to state in regard to the ac-
tion upon living plants, of the sever-
al sulphates, phosphates, and other
saline compounds mentioned in the
above analysis, you will see that the
fertilizing action of urine would be
considerable, did it contain no other
solid constituents. But it is to the
urea which exists in it in very much
larger quantity than any other sob-
stance, that its immediate and mark-
ed action in promoting vegetation is
chiefly to be ascribed. This urea,
which is a white, salt-like substance/
consists of,

percent

Carbon SOO

Hydrogen 6*0

Nitrogen ........... 40-7

Oxygen . •_^5!Z

lOOO

" It is, therefore, far richer in nitro-
gen than all other richly-fertilizing
substances.

"But urea possesses this farther
remarkable property, that when urine
begins to ferment, it changes entirely
into carbonate of ammonia. Of the
ammonia thus formed, a portion soon
begins to escape into the air, and
hence the strong ammoniacal odour
of fermenting urine. This escape of
ammonia continues for a long period,
the liqtiid becoming weaker and weak-
er, and consequently less valuable as
a manure every day that passes. Ex-
perience has shown that recent urine
exercises in general an unfavourable
action upon growing plants, and that
it acts most beneficially after ferment-
ation has iVeely begun, but the longer
time we suffer to elapse after it has
reached the ripe state, the greater the
quantity of valuable manure we per-
mit to go to waste.

921

URINE.

** The urine of the emo has been an-
alyzed in several states by Sprenj^el,

Water ....
Urea ....
Mucus ....
Hippuric and lactic acids
Carbonic acid

Asunonm .....

Poush

Soda

Sulphuric acid ....
Phuaphoric acid ....
ChloriDe .....

Lime

Magnesia

Atumtna, oxide of iron, and osida of
SilK»

wHh the ibikming reanlcs in 1409

parts:

. SM-9

. 40-0

. 2-0

. «1

. «*6

. SI

. 6-6

. 5-5

. 4«0

. 0-7

. a-7

. w

loou-o

▲Jlofwed to ftimaat fer S
«re«k* in tlie iifiea tat.

A. A.

«54'4 9S4-S

100 6*0

0-4 0*3

7-9 •-«

1-7 J5-S

4-0 16-«

00 0-«

5-5 «-«

s§ s-a

O-S 1-5

87 a-7

trace trwte

OH 0-4

trace —

0-1 O-l

096-3

M9i)

"The first variety of fermented
urine (A.) had stood four weeks in
the air in its natural state of dilution ;
the second (B.) had been mixed
while recent with an equal bulk of
water — which is again deducted from
it in the analysis — with the view of
ascertaining how far such an admix-
ture would tend to retain the volatile
ammonia produced by the natural de-
composition of the urea.

"An inspection of these tables
shows three facts of importance to
the agriculturist :

1*. That the quantity of urea in
the urine of the cow is considerably
greater than in that of man. 2°.
That as the urine ferments the quan-
tity of urea diminishes, while that of
ammonia increases ; and, 3°. That
by dilution with an equal bulk of wa-
ter the loss of this carbonate of am-
monia, which would otherwise natu-
rally take place, is in a considerable
degree prevented. The quantity of
ammonia retained by the urine^ after
dilution^ was in the same circumstances
nearly three times as great as when it
was allowed to ferment in the state in
which it came from the cow.

** But even by this dilution the
whole of the ammonia is not saved.
This shows the necessity of causing
our liquid manures to ferment in cov-
ered cisterns, or of adopting some
other means by which the above seri-
ous loss of the most valuable constit-
uents may be prevented.

'* The urine of the htfrse, sheep^ and
8»

pig have not been so carefully avB'
lyzed as that of the cow. They con-
sist essentially of the same constita-
ents, and the specimens which have
been examined were found to contaia
the three most important of these in
the following proportions :

Water .... 040 WO o£

Urea 7! 88 56

SaUae subetancses . 53 18 18

1000 1000 lOUO

"Some of the saline substances
present in the urine, as above stated,
contain nitrogen. This is especially
the case in the urine of the horse, so
that the quantity of urea above given
is not to be considered as represent-
ing the true ammonia-producing pow-
er of the urine of this animal. The
urine of the pig, if the above analysis
is to be relied upon as anything Jike
an average result, is capable of pro-
ducing more ammonia from the same
Quantity than that of any other of our
omestic animals.
*'Ofthe WasU of Liquid Manure —
of UratCf and of Sulpkattd Urine.
Waste of Hunan Urine. — The quan-
tity of solid matter contained in the
recent urine voided in a year by a
man, a horse, and a cow, and the
weight of ammonia they are respect*
ively capable of yielding, may be rejH
resented as follows ;

. „ >.;..„, AwlrM4-

nibs.
?

tSQ

Men
Horse

Cow

Quanti^
orariiM,

1,000 IlM.
1,000
. U,000

Solki

471ba.
60
000

30UW.

?
400

DRI

URO

** How ronob of all this emiching
matter is permitted to ran to waste 1
The solid substances contained in
urine, if all added to the land, would
be more fertilizing than guano. If
we estimate the urine of each indi-
vidual on an average at only 600 lbs.,
then there are carried into the eom-
mon sewers of a city of 15,000 inhab-
itants a yearly weight of 600,000
pounds, or 370 tons of manure, which
would, no doubt, prove more fertil-
izing than its own weight of guano,
and might be expected to raise an in-
creased produce of not lesa than 8000
bushels of grain.

"The saving of all this manure
would be a great national benefit,
though it is not easy to see by what
means it could be effectually accom-
plished. What is thus carried off by
the sewers, and conveyed ultimately
to the sea, is drawn from and lost by
the land, which must, therefore, to
a certain extent, be impoverished.
Can we believe that in the form of
fish, of sea-tangle, or of spray, the
aea ever delivers back a tithe of the
enriching matter it daily receives
from the land ?

" Urate. — In order to prevent a
portion of -this waste, the practice
has been introduced into some large
cities of collecting the urine, adding
to it one seventh of its weight of
powdered gypsum, allowing the whole
to stand for some days, pouring off
the liquid, and drying the powder.
Under the name of urate this dry
powder has been highly extolled, but
it can contain only a small portion
of what is really valuable in urine.
The liquid portion poured off must
contain most of the soluble ammoni-
acal and other salts, and even were
the whole evaporated to dryness, the
gypsum does not act so rapidly in fix-
ing the ammonia as to prevent a con-
siderable escape of this compound as
the fermentation of the urine proceeds.
'* Sulphated Urine — A method of
more apparent promise is that now
practised by the Messrs. Turnbull of
Glasgow, of adding diluted sulphuric
acid to the urine as the ammonia is
formed in it, and subsequently evap-

omtiiig the whole to dryness. From
the use of this substance very favour*
able results may be anticipated. Still
none of these preparations will ever
equal the urine itself, part of the effi-
cacy of which depends upon the per-
fect state of solution in which all the
substances it contains exist, and upon
the readiness with which in this state
they make their way into the roots
of plants.

" Loss of Cows^ Urine. — ^When left
to ferment for five or six weeks alone,
and with the addition of an equal bulk
of water, the urine of the cow losesi
as we have seen, a considerable pro-
portion of volatile matter, and in
these several states will yield in a
year.

Recent nrina . . . , 000 Ibi. S20 Ibf.

Mixed with water, after | g^ «, ^oo **

six woeke . . . {

(Tnmixed, after 6 weelu . 950 '* 80 **

'* Those who scrupulously collect
in tanks, and preserve the liquid ma-
nure of their stables, cow-houses,
and fold-yards, will see, from the
great loss which it undergoes by nat-
ural fermentation, the propriety of
occasionally washing out their cow-
houses with water, and by thus dilu-
ting the liquid of their tanks, of pre-
serving the immediately operating
constituents of their liquid manure
from escaping into the air. Even
when thus diluted it is desirable to
convey it on to the land without much
loss of time, since even in this state
there is a constant slow escape, by
which its value is daily diminished.
Gypsum, sulphate of iron, and sulphu-
ric acid are, by some, added for the
purpose oi fixing the ammonia, but
in addition to diluting it, an admix-
ture of rich vegetable soil, and espe-
cially of peat, will be much more eco-
nomical, and, except in so far as the
gypsum and sulphuric acid themselves
act as manures, nearly as effectual."

URN. Ths small receptacle of
mosses in which the sporules are
placed.

UROCERATA. The name of a
tribe of the Terebrantia, or boring hy-
menopteroas insects, in which the ier^

8Sft

V£8

ehrot or borer, of the femalet i$ aome-
times very long and promiBent, and
compused of three filamentary pro-
cesses, sometimes capillary, and coil-
ed in a spiral form in the interior of
the abdomen.

USTILAG 0. A name given to cer-
tain fungi which produce the appear-
ance of burning on the leaves of
plants; fire blight. This term was
formerly applied to the burrud car, a
disease of grain.

UTERUS. The womb.

UTKICLE, UTRICULUS. A one-
celled, one or four seeded, superior
membranous fruit, often bursting by a
transverse suture. A little bladder.

U V A U H S I. Arbulus uva ur*i
Bear's berry, a small shrub, the
leaves of which are used in medicine.

UVULA. The pendulous portion
of the soft palate which hangs over
the cavity of the pharynx.

VACUUM. A void space. The
cavity of any vessel from which air
has been extracted by the air-pump
is called a vacuum. A TorriceUian
vacuum is that above the mercury of
a barometer.

VAGINA. A sheath : the passage
from the uterus outward. .

VALERIAN. VaUriava qfficinalU.
A perennial herb, the root of which is
a nervous stimulant.

V ALLESNERIA. A genus of wa-
ter weeds.

VALVE. lo mechanics and zool-
ogy, a flap or small door opening only
in one direction, apd serving to close
a tube or passage. There are many
kinds of valves, as the door valve, the
sliding valve In botany, the pieces
into which dry fruits or anthers burst
naturally, are called valves.

VANILLA. The succulent fruit
of the Eptdcndron vaniUa^ an orchid-
eous climbing shrub of Mexico and
tropical America. The seeds have a
delightful aroma, and are used in fla-
vouring confectionery and chocolate.

VAPOUR. The temporary gase-
ous condition of fluids.

VEERING. A ridge made in
ploughmg where two lands meet.
824

VER

VEGETABLE
The chemical examination of all prod-
ucts of the vegetable world, as weQ
as the functions of plants.

VEGETABLE OYSTER. Seo
Sedxify,

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.
An examination of the growtJi aad

functions of plants.

VEIL. Calyptra. A membrane
connecting the pileus with the stem
of some mushrooms.

VEINS. The vessels whi<di eoft-
vey blood that has circulated throogh
the body back to the heart.

VENA CAVA. The great Teias
which discharge the venous blood into
the right auricle of the heart.

VENTER. In entomology, Uie
lower part of the abdomen.

VENTILATION. The estabiidi.
ment of a current of air through any
room or place.

VENTRICLE. A cavity of the
heart, brain, die.

VENTRICOSE. Any part which
appears blown out.

VERATRIA. An active alkaloid
principle, fVom the Yeratrmm olhmm^
or white hellebore.

VERBENA. The vervain {VerVt-
JUL leucHoideg), a shrubby plant, vrith *
leaves of a delightful lemon odour,
and which are distilled for perfumeiy.
It is propagated by slips.

VERJUICE. The juice of green
grapes or apples, from which a viae^
gar is made.

VERMIN. Destructive animaJs or
insects.

VERNATION. The manner in
which the leaflets of a bud are folded,

VERRUCOSE. Having a wart-
like appearance.

VERTEBRiE, The bones of the
spine, which is also called the verte-
bral column.

VERTEBRATES, VEHTEBRA-
TA. All animals having a spinal col-
umn.

VERTICAL. Upright, pointing to
the vertex, or uppermost point over*
head.

VERTICELLUS. A whorl. W.
ticeiiau is a derivative ; disposed in n
whorl.

VIN

VERTIGO. Giddiness.
VESICANTS. Substances which
produce blistering.

VES ICLE. A small bladder.
VESPID.^. The family of wasps.
VESTIBULE. A porch or ante-
room.

VETCH. The genus Vieia, sev-
eral of which bear pretty leguminous
flowers. The V. soHva is the com-
mon tare.

VETCHLING. The genus Lathy-
rusy leguminous plants, A^quently of
great beauty, as the L. latifoUus^ or
sweet pea.

VEXILLUM. The standard : the
npper petal of a papilionaceous or pea-
like flower.

VIBRISSA. The pointed bristles
which grow from the upper lip of an-
imals, or from the jaws of birds, and
are used as feelers.

VILLOSE. Woolly, covered with
soft, flexible hairs closely set.

VILLOUS. Having the appear-
ance of the pile of velvet.

VINE. Vitis vinifera^ the Syrian
vine, from which the numerous Eu-
ropean varieties are produced ; but
in the United States there are indi-
4fenous the V. labrusca^ or fox grape,
of which the Isabella, Catawba, and
Alexander grapes are supposed to
be hybrids ; the V. ttiiivaHs^ or little
summer grape ; V. riparia, the odorif-
erous grape. In the South there are
also the bullet grape, V. nUwndifolia,
and the V. palmata.

Varieties. — The kinds of vines
more or less cultivated in the United
States are very numerous, and are
divisible into two classes, foreign and
domestic grapes.

Of the foreign kinds, most are cul-
tivated for the table, and, according
to the evidence of many speculators
in the North, cannot be profitably cul-
tivated north of Maryland except un-
der glass, every effort to acchmate
them in vineyards having failed, and
few vines succeeding except in warm,
sheltered spots, or in cities. These
kinds are, however, of such remark-
able excellence, and so superior to
the native varieties, that they are ob-
tained whtrever the meam of culti-

VIN

vation exist. The best are the black
Hamburgh, black Muscadine, Miller's
Burgundy, black, grizzly, and white
Frontignan, royal Muscadine {Chat-
Melas)^ early white Muscadine, white
Sweetwater {white Chasselas), Muscat
of Alexandria, white and red Malaga,
white St. Peter, and white Tokay.
Of these, the sweetwater is acclima-
ted in Virginia and South, and the
black Hamburgh will stand the open
air in Pennsylvania.

Of the American grapes, the Alex-
ander (Vevay, Madeira of York), the
Catawba, Cunningham, Eisinburgh,
Norton's Virginia, black Scuppemong,
and Warren's Madeira, are best:
most of them are, however, southern,
the Isabella, Catawba, Alexander, and
Elsinburgh growing north of Penn-
sylvania. Of these, the Scuppernong
is used for wine in North Carolina.
The Catawba and Cunningham also
yield good wine in Virginia ; the Alex*
ander (or Vevay) and Warren's Ma-
deira are cultivated in Pennsylvania
and Ohio for wine. Several seedlings
are also of good repute from Ohio ;
but, on the whole, the Seoppemong
and Catawba appear to be in the high-
est esteem of all native grapes for
wine.

Training. — ^The favourite method
of training vines which require no
wall is along espaliers ; but in North
Carolina they are carried over flat
arbours, rising eight to twelve feet
above the ground. The short bush
method of pruning, by which the plant
is stunted to a small bush of three or
four feet, is common in some parts
of France. In Italy they are allowed
to grow over mulberry trees. Mr.
Hoare's treatise is the text-book
of the vine cultivator ; we therefore
abstract the following, which is the
plan pursued by the principal dress-
ers in New- York and Pennsylvania :

** Awpect. — ^The warmer the aspect,
the greater perfection does the grape
attain in the North, provided all oth-
er circumstances are alike; and if
the greatest quantity of the sun's
rays shining on the surface of a wall
were alone to be considered as con-
stituting the best aspect, there would,

8S6

VINE.

of course, be no difficulty in naming
a due southern one as better than any
other. But warmth alone is not suf-
ficient ; shcUer from the wind is equal-
ly necessary. The best aspects are
those that range from the eastern
to the southeastern, both inclusive.
The next best are those from south-
east to south ; but this depends some-
what on local peculiarities.

" Soil, — The natural soil which is
most congenial to the growth of the
vine, and to the perfection of its fruit
in this country, is a light, porous,
rich, sandy loam, not more than 18
inches in depth, on a dry bottom of
gravel, stones, or rocks. A strong
argillaceous soil is injurious to the
vine ; it checks the expansion of the
roots, and retains too much moisture.
In calcareous soils the vine always
flourishes, especially if the bottom
be stony or gravelly. No subsoil can
possess too great a quantity of these
materials for the roots of the vine,
which run with eagerness into all
the clefls, crevices, and openings in
which such subsoils abound. In these
dry and warm situations, the fibrous
extremities, poshing themselves with
the greatest avidity, and continually
branching out in every possible direc-
tion, lie secure from that excess of
moisture which frequently accumu-
lates in more compact soils ; and,
clinging like ivy round the porous sur-
faces of their retreats, extract there-
from a species of food more nourish-
ing than that obtained by them under
any other circumstances whatever.
All borders, therefore, made express-
ly for the reception of vines ought
to be composed of a sufficient quan-
tity of dry materials, such as stones
and brickbats, broken moderately
small, lumps of old mortar, broken
pottery, oyster shells, &c., to enable
the roots to extend themselves free-
ly in their search after food and nour-
ishment ; to keep them dry and warm
by the free admission of air and so-
lar heat, and to admit of heavy rains
passing quickly through, without be-
ing retained sufficiently long to sat-
urate the roots, and thereby injure
their tender extremities. Theaweep-
8X6

ings obtained from a tampilce
or from any other high road kept to a
good state of repair by the freqaesl
addition of stones, acd on ^'hicb
there is a considerable traffic of bos-
ses or other cattle, is the very best
compost that can be added to snr
border intended for the reception of
vines. Its component parts, consist-
ing chiefly of sand, gravel, pulverized
stones, and the residuum of dung an^
urine, afibrd a greater quantity of
food, and of a richer and more last-
ing nature, than can be fouDd in any
other description of compost that I
have ever seen or heard of being
used for that purpose. Borders in
which vines are planted shouM ner-
er be cropped nor digged.

"Manure. — ^The best species of
manure for the vine are those whieh
afford a considerable degree of nour-
ishment, but at the same time slow^
decompose in the soil. Such are
bones, whole or crushed, the horns
and hoofs of cattle, the entire car-
casses of animals, cuttings of leath-
er, woollen rags, feathers, and hair,
and the leaves of the vines them-
selves. Liquid manures are also val-
uable, and forcing in their effect ; of
this class the most powerful aro
urine, soot water, blood, the draia-
ings of dung heaps, and soap suds.
It should, however, always be recol-
lected that the more manure is used
the poorer the wine procured from
the grapes. As a to{>> dressing, and
to be forked into the border, night-
soil, refuse fish, stable manure, and
the excrements of all birds asd ani-
mals, will be found highly enriching
substances as fertilizers, and their
nutritive and stimulating properties
have been frequently alluded ro in
the progress of this wori[ ; but if rich
manures are used, they should be
mixed with turf and sand. In the
Alto Douro is a law which prohibits
the vine being * littered/ as this op*
eration, though it considerably aug-
ments the produce, tends to deterio-
rate the quality of the wine.

" On the Construction of Walls.-^
No general rule can be laid down as
to the height of the wall, \iHiieh must

VINE.

necessarily vary under different sita-
ations and circumstances. Mr. Hnare
states that in unsheltered situations
and exposed aspects he has never
Been fine i^rapes produced mach high-
er than eight feet from the ground ;
but in favourable situations height
is of no consequence. If built for the
express purpose of rearing grapes,
low walls of not more than six feet
are to be preferred, as more conveni-
ent for pruning and training the vines.
Brick walls are undoubtedly the best,
the surface being smooth and even.
A considerable Beat is obtained by
blackening the walls.

" Propagation. — ^Vines are propa-
gated in the open ground by layers
and by cuttings. The former is the
most expeditious mode* provided the
slioots be laid down in- pots and
planted out the same summer. The
latter mode is much the best. To
provide cuttings to be planted at the
proper season, select, at the autmn-
nal pruning, a sufficient number of
shoots of the preceding summer's
growth. Choose such as are well
ripened, of a medium size, and mod-
erately short jointed. Cut them into
eonvenient lengths of six or eight
bads each, leaving at the ends not
less than a coaple of inches of the
blank wood for the protection of the
terminal buds. Stick these tempo^
rary cuttings about nine inches in
the ground, in a warm and sheltered
situation, where they will be effectu-
ally protected from the severity of
the winter. The best time to plant
them out is about the middle of
March, but any time from the 1st of
that month to the lOtb of April will
do very well.

** Pruning and training ftve so close-
fy connected together, and so mutual-
ly dependant on each other, that they
almost constitute one operation. The
judicious pruning of a vine is one of
the most important points oCc^ture
throughout the whole routine ixfjts
management. The object is to^^t
rid of all the useless and superabun-
dant w(fod; for those shoots of a
vine whioh bear fruit one year never
bear any aiUrward There are three

methods of pruning vines in practice
among gardeners, namely, the lung
pruning, spur pruning, ^nd the fan or
fruit-tree method. The first is con-
sidered to be the most eligible meth
od, and is that which is practised and
recommended by Mr. Hoare. As the
sole object in view in pruning a vine
is to increase its fertility, the best
method to accomplish this is to leave
a sufficient supply of bearing shoots
on the least possible proportionate
quantity of old wood.

*' Long pruning appears to recom-
mend itself by its simplicity ; by the
old wood of the vine being annually
got rid of; by the small number of
wounds inflicted in the pruning ; by
the clean and handsome appearance
of the vine ; and by the great ease
with which it is managed, in conse-
quence of its occupying but a small
portion of the surface of the wall.

*' 1st. In pruning, always cut up*
ward, and in a sloping direction.

** 2d. Always leave an inch of blank
wood beyond the terminal bud, and
let the cut be on the opposite side of
the bud.

" 3d. Prune so as to leave as few
wounds as possible, and let the sur-
face of every cut be perfectly smooth.

" 4th. In cutting out an old branchy
prone it even with the parent limb,
that the wound may quickly heal.

** 5th. Prune so as to obtain the
quantity of fruit desired onthe small-
est number of shoots possible.

*• 6th. Nevex prune in frosty weath-
er, nor when a frost is expected.

"7th. Never prune in the months
of March» April, or May. Pruning in
either of these months causes bleed-
ing, and oooasions thereby a waste*
ful and an injurious expenditure of
sap.

**8th. Let the general autumnal
pruning take place as soon after the
1st of October as the gathering of the
fruit will permit.

'* Lastly, use a pruning knife of the
best description, and let it be, if pos-
sible, as sharp as a razor.

" Training. — To train a vine on the
surface of a wall is to regulate the
position of its brancbesi the principal

8S7

raasL

objects of wbich are» to protect them
from the influence of the wind ; to
bring them into close contact with
the wall, for the purpose of receiving
the benefit of its warmth ; to spread
them at proper distances from each
other, that the foliage and fruit may
receive the full effect of the snn's
rays, and to retard the motion of the
sap, for the purpose of indocing the
formation of fruit bads. The flow of
aap, it must be remembered, is al-
ways strongest in a vertical direc-
tion, and weakest in a downward
one. For this reason, the method
of serpentine training may be con-
sidered preferable to every other, be-
ing calculated in a greater degree to
check the too rapid ascent of the sap,
and to make it flow more equally into
the fruiting shoots, and those intend-
ed for future bearers. On walls that
are much less than five feet high, a
portion of the shoots most be trained
horizontally.*'

In respect to the msdcing of mne
much is to be learned ; it seems that,
in order to preserve it, an addition of
sugar, brandy, or spirits is universal-
ly made ; this is not, however, making
wine in the proper sense of the word.
I am informed by the largest wine
maker in North Carolina, that one
fourth part brandy or spirits is added
to each gallon of souppernong wine,
or that two pounds of sugar are fer-
mented with a gallon of the must.
Mr. Weller, of North Carolina, breaks
his grapes by passing them between
rollers, and then strains the juice
through flannel, to deprive it of a por-
tion of the extraneous matters. Gen-
eral Van Ness, of Washington, pro-
duced a wine resembting hock, by
mixing equal parts of Isabella and
Catawba grapes, and adding 1 lb. 7
ounces of fine unrefined sugar to each
gallon of must ; but no spirits to the
wine. The following particulars of
the culture and management of
grapes are from Mr. Rl^m and M.
Boussingault :

« It may, however, be interesting to
know how the vine is cultivated in the
countries which produce good wine,
of which Franoe is one of the principal.

l^e vine grows beet in a safl wihem
few other ahrnhs or plants 'woaM
thrive. The vine delights iD a dee^
loose, rocky soil, ^liiere Its jnoota caa
penetrate deep into fissarea, so as to
ensure a supply of moisture whea the
surface is scorched by the soil's rays.
On the deep slopes of hiUa lowaiUs
the south, and shelt^'ed frana tte
northeast, the grapes attain tbe
greatest matarity, and tbe Tintage is
most eertatn. So great an iolliieBee
has a favourable ezposore, that in the
same vineyard tbe greatest difiereaoe
exists between the wioe made froat
one part and that made from aootJier,
merely because there is a turn round
the hill, and the aspect vanes a very
few degrees. A efaaoge of soil pfe*
duces a similar efl!^ct. Tbe ftmoiia
Rhine wine called Johannisberg,
when made from the grapes whiiSi
grow near the castle, is worth twiee
as much as that made a few haodred
yards farther ofiT. Here both soil and
aspect change. The CI99 de VougtMU^
which produces the finest Burgundy,
is confined to a lew acres ; beyond a
certain wall the wine is a comaiott
Burgundy, good, but without extia-
opdinary merit.

"The best vineyards in Europe
formerly belonged to monasteries, and
the quality was then thought of more
importance than the quantity ; of late
the demands of commerce have made
tbe quantity tbe prineipsi object, and
to this the quality is firo^eoUy sacri*
fioed.

** When a vine is first eatabUshed
on any spot where none grew before,
the first thing is to prepne the ground
for planting. In steep places, where
the soil might be carried away hf
rains in winter or spring, terraces are
formed by touildtag massive stone
walls along the stops, and levelling
the soil behind them. The walls
serve to reflect the heat, and form a
shelter to the vine below. Thus a
wliole hiil is sometimes covered with
terfaces from top to bottom, and
there the wine ia generally good, if
the exposure is favourable^ Lime-
stone, gravel, or coarse sand, with a
small mixture of clay» form a good

TIKJ^

soil for a vine ; vegetable sobstaiieee
alone shoald be used to earich it, such
as the leaTee and tendrils of the viae,
the residue of the grape when press-
ed, and, failing these, the leaves of
trees colleoted when green, and form-
ed into a compost with earth. The
ground should be well trenched, if it
will admit of it, or loosened with the
mattock and piokaxe, as we should
do a mass of gravel which was to be
spread on a rmd, and whieb was too
hard for the shovel or spade. The
different parts of the sou should be
intimately mixed, keeping some fine
earth or soil at top to set the plants
in. When the groond is prepared,
holes are dog in rows four or five
feet wide, at the same distance from
each other, so as to alternate ; some
of the finest of the soil is put into
each hole, and the vine plants which
have been rooted in a narsery, or else
simple cuttings, are carefolly insert-
ed, pressing the mould ronnd the
roots, and levelling the earth round
them. Rooted plants will bear the
second or third year, but cuttings
take a moch longer time. The sea-
son for planting is during the winter,
when the weather is open. If cut-
tings are used, they are taken off the
vine on which they grew at the usual
time of pruning after the vintage ; a
piece of the preceding year*s wood is
left on the cutting, and when it is
planted, the end where the €»ld wood
is left is beat or twisted to facilitate
its striking : three or four eyes are
buried, so that the end is at least a
foot onderground. If the plant is al-
ready rooted, care is taken not to
wound or bend the roots, but to
spread them out and eover them with
monki. During ail the time that the
vine is growing, the ground must be
regularly caltivated and kept perfect-
ly clear of all weeds. The usoal in-
strument of tillage in stonv and rooky
soils is a two-pronged fork fixed in a
short handle, at an angle less than a
right angle with the prongs, which
are a foot long and very strong, like
a double pickaxe (see Fig.). Tliis is
gtruck into the ground and then
drawn towards the workman, while

the handle is lifted, which acts as a
lever in raising the soil. The roots
are \)y this means enabled to spread
through the soil in search of moisture
and food. The next year it is usual
to prune the young vine down to one,
or, at most, two eyes or buds ; but
some experienced vine dressers rec-
ommend deferring this operation to
the second year, by which, although
the vine will not be so forward in
fruiting, it will be much strengthen-
ed, and fully repay the apparent loss
of time in the end.

*' In the third year the vine is train-
ed, thai is, the shoots are tied to up-
right stakes planted at each root, or
they are laid in an aroh and tied from
one root to another along the groond.
In southern climates trees are plant-
ed at a certain distance from each
other, and the vine, planted at their
foot, is allowed to run op their branch*
es, from which it is led in festoons
from tree to tree, while the head
and branehea of the tree are cut off
to prevent too mach shade. This is
by far the most elegant mode of
training the vine ; but in France the
stakes and the tow training are the
only methods suitable to the climate.
The pruning is generally done in the
beginning of winter.

" When viueyards are established
io the plains, where sometimes, as
those of Medoc, they produce very
good wine, the intervals between the
plants can be stirred by the plough,
although forking and digging by hand
is more common; hoeing is as ne-
cessary in a vineyard to destroy
weeds as it is in a field of turnips or
any other crop sown in rows. Wher-
ever a vineyard is overrun with
weeds, yon may be sure that there is
no good wine, and much poverty in
the proprietor. The pruning of a
vine in bearing* the object of which

VINB.

iB to produce much froit without
weakening the plant, can only be
learned by experience and practice ;
much of the success of a vineyard
depends on this operation. In the
best vineyards no manure is used ex-
cept that which we mentioned before,
of leaves and tendrils ; but some soils
require to be recruited, and without
manure would produce little or no
wine. In this case there is no alter-
native, and composts must be formed,
as is done in common cultivation,
with animal and vegetable substan-
oes mixed and decomposed. Horse
dung should be avoided, if possible ;
cow dung is cooler and more nearly
of a vegetable nature ; tliis should be
mixed with as much virgin earth from
pastures and meadows as can be pro-
cured, and laid in small heaps in the
intervals between the rows. It may
be led a little while if it has any rank
smell, and then forked in round the
roots ; the more it is decomposed the
better. Many a vineyard has lost its
reputation after having been abun*
dantly manured. The Johannisberg
was much reduced in value after hav-
ing been dunged, while in the pos-
session of General Kellennan, and it
has not yet regained all its former
reputation.

** After a certain time, which dif-
fers in different situations, the vine
becomes less productive from the ex-
haustion of the soil, as is the case
when the same crops are repeatedly
8own in the same ground: this de-
pends on the depth of the soil. All
perennial plants shoot out their roots
farther and farther every year in
•earch of fresh earth, and it is by
this means that trees flourish for a
long time on the same spot ; but if
the roots are prevented from spread-
ing, or, the plants being too crowded,
their roots interfere, a diminution of
vigour is the consequence. So it is
with the vine. In some situations,
where the roots strike in crevices of
rocks in which rich earth is accumu-
lated, the vines will continue in vigour
for many years ; but where their prog.
ress is arrested by a solid rock or
substratumf they will, in time, show

t sigm of ezhaiMitioa. In thf s ease tbe

i remedy is the same as for laod bear-
I ing corn. A fallow, or rest, as it ^
j usually called, is necessary, to^^Uier i
' with the addition of such man ores as *
shall restore the lost iertiiity. Fw \
this purpose, a portion of the oiUest i
roots are dug up every yeax> smd Uie '
ground trenched or loosened iwo leei
deep or more with the matto<^ to
expose it to the influence of the at-
mosphere. A compost is prepared
with sods taken from pastures, or any
virgin earth which can be procured ;
this is mixed with sooae lime and
turned over several times, to rot ail
the roots and grass which m^ be ia
it, and to make it a uniform and rich
mould. Holes are now made, exact*
ly as when a new vine is planted, and
in each of them a basket or harrow,
ful of earth is thrown; in this the
new plants or cuttings are planted lo
produce new vines in due tine : thus
the vineyard is gradually renovated.
The proportion thus fallowed every
year depends on the natural duration
of the vine in that particular situa-
tion. In inferior soils one seventh is
thus renewed every year ; in some a
twentieth part ia sufficient ; and there
are vineyards which have never been
renewed in the memory of the pres-
ent generation, but these are few in
proportion to the rest."

** Grape juice contains, 1st, grape
sugar ; 3d, albumen and gluten i 9d,
pecttne ; 4tb, a gummy matter ; 6th,
a colouring matter ; 6th, tannin ;
7th, bitartrate of potash ; 8tb, a fra-
grant volatile oil, cream of tartar.;
9th, water. It is obvious, therefoTO,
that grape juice contains within iu
self the elements necessary for the
production of the vinous fermenta-
tion. The relative proportions of
these different elements* however,
are singularly modihed, according to
the nature of the vine, the quality of
the soil, and especially the heat of
the climate. The limits to the cul-
ture of the vine in Europe are gen-
erally fixed where the mean tempera-
ture is from 50^ to 52° Fahr. Under
a colder cUmate no drinkable wine is
produced. To this meteorological

VINE.

datum mast be added the fsrtber fact
that the mean heat of the cyde of
▼egetatioD of the vine must be at
least 59° Fahr., and that of the sam-
mer from 66** to 67® Fahr.

"As the quality of wine depends
mainly on the ripeness of the grapes,
the vintage does not take place until
this is complete, or until there is
no longer any prospect of iroprove-
ment.

'* The must of the grape is procu-
red by treading and pressing the
fruit ; the juice is run into vats, and
the fermentation takes place in eel*
lars : different procedures, however,
are followed in different places. The
fermentation having subsided in the*
larger vessels, the wine is drawn off
into smaller casks, which are care-
fully filled up from time to time, and
in which it is preserved.

«* Wine may be defective, especial-
ly by wanting strength and being too
acid. Sharp wine contains an ex-
cess of cream of tartar and free ve-
getable acids, and is always the prod-
uoe of grapea which have not been
completely ripe. The deficiency of
strength is due to the same cause,
for it is well known that as the grape
ripens, its acids disappear and are re-
placed by sugar. I'his deficiency of
saccharine matter in the must is now
habitually supplied by the addition of
a quantity of artificial grape sugar,
prepared from starch. In warm coun-
tries, where the grape always ripens,
the quantity of tartar is small ; the
sugar then predominates greatly —
sometimes to such an extent that the
azotized substance of the roust is in-
sufficient as a ferment, and it is then
that we have wines of too sweet a
flavour, such as those of Lunel and
of Frontigoac. When these musts,
which are so rich in sugar, contain
the proper quantity of ferment, they
produce very strong wines, in which,
of course, the sweet flavour no long-
er predominates. Such are the dry
wines of southern vineyards, of which
that of Madeira may be taken as the
type. There are some wines which
participate at once in the properties
that distinguish the two Torieties

that I hare mentioned, or that show
one of them in excess, according to
circumstances; such are the wines
of Xeres, Alicant, and Malaga. Some
of these wines are what are called
boiled wines, that is to say, a por-
tion of the must, as it flows from the
press, is concentrated to a fourth or
a fifth of its original bulk by boiling ;
and this being added to the rest, the
strength of the resulting wine is in-
creased. Sometimes the concentra>-
tion of the juice is effected by drying
the grapes partially. It is in this
way that the celebrated Hungarian
wine, called Tokay, is prepared ; the
dusters are left upon the vines after
they are ripe, and alternately exposed
to the cold of the night, which prob-
ably decomposes, to a certain extent,
the texture of the grapes, and to the
heat of the sun. They shrivel and
become partially dry. In this state
the grapes are subjected to pressure,
and a Tery sweet must, as may be
conceived, flows from them. In less
favourable climates, where the raina
of autumn prevent the drying of the
clusters upon the vine stocks, the
same thing is effected by laying the
bunches upon straw in open or well-
aired granaries or sheds. It is with
the must procured from grapes so
treated, that the sweet and often
strong wines, which are called vin*
de pailUt are obtained. Wines, when
stored in the cask, always deposite
with time a copious sediment, the
lees. This sediment, in which tar-
tar predominates, appears to be the
consequence of an increase in the
proportion of alcohol in the liquor.
The alcohol may increase from two
causes : first, by the fermentation
which, though nearly insensible, goes
on in most wines so long as there is
any sugar left unohanged ; and next,
from mere keeping. It is well known,
in fact, that wine pot into the best
casks, and kept in a well- ventilated
cellar, loses a very perceptible quan-
tity by evaporation. It is found ne-
cessary to fill up the casks from time
to time. The loss has taken place
through the pores of the wood, in
virtue of an attraction exerted be-

831

VINE.

twees the sobstaDce of the wood and |
the included liquid ; and as this at- \
traction is much greater ttetween the |
organic matter and water than be-
tween organic libre and alcohol, it ia
easy to conceive how wine kept in
wood should improve. The very same
thingt in fact, appears to go on in re-
gard to wine in corked bottles : the
cork does not oppose all evaporation,
and it seema probable that it is not
merely upon some new and little
known change of a chemical nature
in the constitution of the wine that
its improvement and mellowing in
bottle depend, but also upon the loss
of a certain quantity of its water
through the pores ot the cork.
'* Throwing quality, flavour, dec,

oet of the question, ii is ipreB
that a vineyard, eultivnted in tki
same way, year after year, reeetv-ioi
the same quantity of the ssiiie kmi
of manure, of which the TmUtfe ii
managed in the aacne maoDer* the
wine made by the same metifeod, &c^
yields a produce which diflers greatty
in regard to the quantity of aloobal it
contains in diffhrent years. The viaa-
ymrd of Sohroalzberg, for examipie;
near Lampertsloch, whieh lias beea
under ray manageraent for aeveni
years, yields wines of die most dia-
strailar charaeters from one year t«
another. Some idea of this may ha
formed from the diflTerent qaaotities
of alcohol which the wine of difiereot
years contains :

Ye«n.

IR33
J 634
1836
1S3A
1837

M^an Icfor-rratur*.

or the whole t«in ot
Uiu gruwtli uf Um:

I4-7C. 584F.

17-3 631

15 8 CO-9

li'8 MZ

15-9 &0 5

oriiM

I73C.
M-3
19-5
21-5

18-7

63- IP.

67
71
M

Of the bepnntiif of
■Btumn.

Wiw

p*r ■erf
in fafloas.

11-4C. 513P.
17-a «3
13-3 M

isa M

11-9 54

311
314
631
M4
184

iMl

5-0
11-3
61
71
7-7

cotel
pw *:Te

11-4
46-3
5IM»
39^
14-0

** If we now inquire how the me-
teorological circumstances of each of
these live years influenced the pro-
duction of our wine, we see at once
that the mean temperature of the days
which make up the period of the cul-
tivation of the wine has a perceptible
influence. The temperature of the
summer was 63 1® of the year which
yielded the strongest wine, and only
68 4° in 1833, the wine of which was
scarcely drinkable.

" The produce of a vineyard also
depends upon its age ; and it would
be curious to examine the progress-
ive increase of the quantity of wine
yielded. This information I am able
to give in connexion with a vineyard
established in Flanders. I only re-
gret that I have no means of present*
ing parallel obsenrationa from a conn-
try more favourable to the vine. The
^i"^y^^oo ^^.t'"a**berg was plant-
ed in 1832 wrth new cuttings from
France, and from the border; of the
Rhine. The vmes are trained as es-
pahers. and are now rather more

than four feet in height. The vine*
yard began to yield wine in 18S5, and
the following table ^hows the re-
sults in the saocessive years up to
1837:

T«rt.

WiwpwM

}825 . . , .

.... 68-:^

1810 . . . .

.... IflM

1637 ... .

.... 00

J838 . . . .

.... 1150

18V9 . . . .

.... 53 9

1830 ....

. . . , frO

1831 ....

. . . . w-o

1838 ... .

• . . . 30M

1633 ....

.... 311-6

1834 ....

.... 413-4

1839 ....

.... 689-9

1836 ....

.... 544 5

1837 ... .

.... J84-4

** The mean quantity of wine fur*
nished by this vineyard from the date
of its ptantation is UStA^ gallons per
acre. M. ViUenettve reckons the
mean produce of many vineyards in
the southwest of France at froai
about 146 to 193 gallons per acre:
considerably less, consequently, tbaa
our vineyard at Schmaiaberg; aod
official documents, while they gii^

VIN

the meanjprodttce of the Tine for tbe
whole of France aa 170-9 gsllona per
aere, slate the whole of the wine pro-
dnoedOTeFthe country at 976,906,414
gallons. "*—( Bcnssifkgault. )

VINEGAK. *«Tbt8 term is ap-
plied to Tarioos modificaitons of tbe
acetic acid. The simplest mode of
obtaining Tinegar is to- excite a sec-
ond or acetous fennentation in wine,
beer, or cider. In this case oxygen is
absorbed, a variable proportion of ca^•
bonic acid is generally evolved, and the
alcohol of the wine passes into acetic
aoid. Very good vinegar is also made
from a wort or inftwion of malt pre*
pared for the purpose, or from a de-
coction of common raisins, or from a
mixture of about one part of whis-
key with eight of water, aod some
sugar and yeast. See Cider.

'* When vinegar is distilled, various
impurities which it contains remain
in the still, and the liquid which pass-
es over is the acetic acid, nearly
pure* but largely diluted with water.
In this state it is usually called dia-
tilled vinegar^ and is chiefly used in
phanoaey ; but the market is chiefly
supplied from another source, which
is the destructive distiUation of wood,
[t has long been known that when
certain kinds of dry wood, especially
beech and such woods as are not
resinous, instead of being burned in
the open air, are converted into char-
coal in close vessels, so as, in fact,
to be submitted to distillation, that
the vapours which pass off yield,
when condensed, a large quantity of
tar and of very acid water : the lat-
ter is, in fact, an impure vinegar.
When this impnre acetic acid is freed
from the tar and empyreumatic oils
with which it is mixed, it is called
crude yyroligneout add. To convert
it into pure acetic acid, that is, to
separate from it the empyreumatic
products with which it is intimately
combined, is a somewhat circuitous
process. It is first distilled, by which
jnfroxilie acid and oil of tar first pass
over, and these are followed by a
quantity of impure or rough acetic
acid. This rough acid is used by dy-
ers and calico printers, and by ma-

4A3

VIT

kefs of sugar of lead. The pure ace-
tic acid, in its most concentrated state,
is extremely acrid, sour, and pun-
gent, and is often called radical vine^
gar, OTy when perfumed, aramatie inn^
egar ; it is also occasionally termed
glacial acetic acid, from its property
of congealing at a low temperature,
and remaining frozen at temperatures
below 60°. In this state it is a com-
pound of 1 atom of real acetic acid =
51, and 1 of water = 9, the real or
anhydrous acid, as it exists in the
dry acetates, being composed of

Carbon 4

UjrdRigttik 3

Osygea 3

** When this strong acetic acid ia
diluted with water and slightly col-
oured, it forms a very pure and ex-
cellent substitute for common vine^
gar, and is cheaper than acid of the
same strength prepared in any other
way.

** The combinations of acetic acid
with various bases are called acetates;
and of these salts some are impor-
tantly useful in the arts : such, espe-
cially, are the acetates of lead, copper,
iron, and alumina, which are chiefly
employed in dyeing and calico print-
ing ; the acetates of ammonia and of
potash, which, as well as acetate of
lead, are used in medicine ; and the
acetates of lime and of soda, which
have been mentioned as steps in the
preparation of strong acetic acid. The
acetates are recognised by their sol-
ubility in water, and by the fumes of
acetic acid which they evolve when
acted upon by sulphuric acid. The
specific gravity of the strongest liquid
acetic acid is 10629 ; that of good
malt vinegar is 10200 ; and that of
distilled vinegar about 10023. The
strength or value of vinegar, and of
acetic acid, can only be learned by its
saturating power."

VINEYARD. A plantation of
grapes. The vines are set in rows,
four to six yards apart, and usually
sustained against trellises or stakes.

VIOLET. The genus Viola, of
which V, odorata is the perfumed vio-
let, and V. tricolor tho heart's ease.

VITELLUS, An occasional cov-

833

WAG

WAI

ering of the embryo in seeds. The
white of the egg.

VITRIlOUS humour. Thefhiid
or humour which fills the posterior
chamber of the eye.

VITRIOL. An old name for the
sulphates.

VITRIOL, OIL OF. Solphnric
acid.

\1 VES. A disease in horses, con-
sisting of an enlargement of the glands
at the curve of the jaw, and nearly
resembling strangles. It is treated
by slight bleeding and purging ; and if
it does not give way, becomes changed
into strangles.

VIVIPAROUS. Producing living
young, and not eggs.

VOLATILE ALKALI. Ammonia.
See Nitrogen.

VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY. Gal-
Tanism.

V 0 LUTE. In architecture, a scroll .

VOLVA. The wrapper or veil of
certain fungi, as the ag^ricus.

VOUSSOIRS. "In bridges,
the stones which immediately form
the arch, being of the shape of a
truncated wedge Their under sides
form the intrados, or soffit. The
length of the middle voussoir, or key-
stone, oDght to be about one fifteenth
or one sixteenth of the span, and the
rest should increase all the way down
to the imposts. Their joints should
be cut perpendicular to the curve of
the intrados ; consequently, the an-
gle of the sides is determined by the
curvature." — {Hvtton's Tracts^ vol.i.)

WACKE. A hard rock of the ba-
saltic kind.

WAGON. " A wheel-carriage, of
which there are several varieties, ac-
commodated to the different uses
which they are intended to serve.

'' In the business of husbandry, I

wagons conatmeted in dMbiet
formS) and of various dimeiisioos,
are made nse of tn different
and mostly witboat much
to the nature of the roads, or tbe ar-
ticles which are to be <H>nveyed igr
them, being in general heavy and b-
convenient.

" Wagons require more pcnrer a
tbe draught than carts, which is
tainly an objection, though they
a much greater load, and are far fnm
being so bandy and convenient ; aai
Mr. Parkinson is of opinion that more
work may be done in any particeter
time, with the same number of hoff-
ses, by carts than by wagons, on level
land, in the general run of husbandly
business, especially where the dis-
tance is smaU between loading- and
unloading ; a fact which has kmg
been known and attended to in Scot-
land.

** Where wagons are used for hus-
bandry, they should be made wide
and low. Mamu^s may foe earned
in this sort of wagon almost as watt
as in carts. Broad wheels are in»-
proper for passing and repassing opon
tillage lands ; for, if in fallow, thej
press the land too much, and make
it so hard as to prevent its being
ploughed; bot on grass land broad
wheels are proper for aU uses, as
there they operate as rollers.

«* Wagons are probably the beat
conveyances for diflbrent soils at
heavy loads to a distance; but for
home business, espeeiatty harvest,
and other work which requires to be
speedily performed in the field, carts
with proper shelving will be found
preferable."

WAIN. A light harvest wagao. The
following (/^/r-X wfateh is called the
Cornwall wain, is an excellent kind.

WAINSCOT. A panelled framing
between rooms or against a wall.

884

WAR

WALL. Fov Hs 0868 in horticul-
ture, see Hot'WaU,

WALL EYE. Opacity of the cor-
nea or glaucoma

WALLPLATE. A timber lying
on a wail on which girders, joista,
dLC.y rest.

WALNUT. The European, or
Madeira nut, is the fralt of the im-
proved Juglmu TtgiAy a very large
tree. It does not bear well until some
16 or 80 years old. It is suggested
to graft them by aj^oach with bear-
ing branches of an older tree. The
wood is very valuable for cabinet pur-
poses, and especially sought for gun
Bttjcks ; it is not, however, of the rioh
colour of the American walnut (J.
mgray, or black walnut. The hulls
of the firuit are rich in tannin, and
used in France to dye brown col-
ours.

The black walnut is not found north
of New-Jersey, but exists in immense
quantities in the woods of Virginia,
Ohio, Tennessee, and in rich soils,
Tvhere it attains an altitude of 70 feet,
and a oircumferenoe of ftve to seven
leet. The fruit is well known, but
rather inferior to that of the Europe-
an tree ; the wood is, however, bet-
ter, and extensively employed.

WARBLES. Black sores, sitfast.
See GaiU.

WARP. The sediment of rivers
or the sea. In weaving, the long
threads which run the lengthway of
the fabric.

WARPING. •* A mode of produ-
cing a deposition of the earthy mat-
ter suspended in rivers of which
the current is frequently changed
by the rising and falling of the tide.
This causes a stirring of the water,
which prevents the finer particles
from being deposited. It is only ne»
oes^sary to produce a stagnation of
the water for a few hours to have a
copious deposite, leaving the water
clear over it.

** On the low flats which border the
mouths of rivers occasional inunda-
tions often cause a deposite which is
\\\^\\\y fertilizing. Thus, the polders
in ilollnnd and Flandnrs have been
formed of the mud uf large rivers,

and, being drained and kept dry by
dikes and sluices, have formed the
most fertile soils.

** Warping is an imitation of this
natural process : a bank of earth is
raised along the course of the river,
so high that the floods cannot pass
over it. In some part of this dike is
a rinice for the double purpose of let-
ting in the water and letting it out at
pleaaure. When the tide is setting
in and counteracting the natural cur-
rent of the river, the sluice is opened,
and the water flows in by one or
more channels made for the purpose
of conveying it over the lower land,
and covers it to the depth of high
water. The sluice is now shut, and
the imprisoned water, becoming stag-
nant, deposites all the mud which it
held suspended before. The sluice
is opened at low water, and the wa-
ter is allowed to run out slowly ; it
leaves a coating of mnd or sediment,
which hardens and dries rapidly. This
operation is repeated until a thick-
ness of several inches of new soil has
thus been warped, when it is allowed
to dry, and then ploughed and cultiva-
ted like any other field. It takes some
time before any com will grow on
the new warp : at first it looks like
barren mud, but it soon dries to a
better texture, and ultimately produ-
ces very extraordinary crops. If its
fertility decrease, and its surface is
still below high-water mark, a slight
warping, like the inundations of the
Nile, immediately restores the fertiW
ity. What is curious is the almost
total absence of organic matter in the
warp soils, or, rather, its intimate
combination with the earths, so that
it is not readily separated from them.
It is neither like clay nor sand, but
something between the tifro, soft to
the touch, but not hardening into
lumps when dry ; neither very porous
nor very retentive of moisture. The
principal earth is silica in a very fine
state. It generally contains a portion
of calcareous matter, probably from
comminuted shells. It pro<luces oats,
beans, potatoes, and wheat in abun-
dance, without any manure. It is
admirably adapted to the growth of

886

,WAS

flK^MpadiUr vtian tlie wwp ia of
■ good depth.

" Tbe principal espeoae in warpiog
u tbe sluice, and the canal Ihmagb
which the water i» cooductnd ovei
the lasd ; the longer this latter ia,
the Blower the pn>ceaa, aa much warp
is deposited in tbe canal, which has
■ometiiDei to be dug out. Accurate
lerela moat be taken, or moch ex-
pease may be inourred useleMl;, if
the water will not cover the surface
to B sufficient depth.

•'It iB of little eoosequence what
tbe soil was origioallj, for a new aoii
li deposited over it. ll should, hew-
ever, not be too wet nor maiaihy : a
porous soil is best, as this becomes
thesubsoil. AUtbeinequalitieswhich
existed b^ore are obliterated by tbe
warping, which fills tip all cavities,
uid leaves a perfectl; level aurface."

WARK.EN. A place in which tab-
hits or other gSBie are preserved, or
in which they are uaturalty found,

Wash. The rermented liqnor
from which the spirit is diaiUled.

WASHEK. la building, a pUte of
iron set between a wall and timber,
aoit the nut uf a screw.

WASPS. The genus YtipA.- the
F. train is the bornet. The; an io-

WAT

jnrioBa to qplenltnso, liiirtiwJi m
they destroy bees and eat (ruita, «•■
pecialty grapea, and tfaoac of tte
skins. The greater nnmber die ■
tbe approach of winter, (mtT- a few
femalea surviving in the in ■!■

WATER. ThUorriTeraaadwdh
is iinpare, from containioe miBerd
matter! dniwn from tbe soil. Hebed
snow and rain water are pat«r, hM
canlain anunonia, easea, and a aaaO
anotint of a^is. It ia oolj ut be **-
tained ptire by frequent diariilladaa,
and tbMi coDsiats of one eiiniTalDtf
of hydmgea and one of oi^f^en, or
one part by weight of tbe fomer and
eight of the latter. Ita inOaeBee m
vegettfitea need not be dwelt uptm.

WATER CHESTNUT. The &wv
yw Atierasiu, a tush cuttivated in OH'
na and Italy I(ir ita root, whieh icsew-
blea a chestnut. It grows ia pendi
aod dilebes.

WATER-CHESS. See Cum.

Watering cart. This i« na

more than a eooimon barrel, of laif*
siae, set on a cart or on wheels ( JV-X
and fumiabed with a tin tube, ■, bcmd
with numerous holes. Cor the diethlia>
tion of water. A valve, i, is plaoed be-
tween tbe diatribuUiV lubea aw) the
interior of the hair^ Xke waisr is

WAX

tfitrof!tt<*ed hy a iHMe at e^ the tobes >
for distributiun are sapported by the
rod, i, and the water flows ffom the
barrel by 0 and «.

WATBR MEADOWS. See Irri-
gaium.

WATERMELON. See MtUm,
Water.

WATER OF CRYSTALLIZA-
TION. Water contained in crystals.

WATER PLANTAIN. The genus
AlUma^ consisting of useless water
nveeds^

WATERING PLANTS. The ap-
plication of water by the common
watering-pot to garden vegetables is
not a practice altogether safe or use-
foL Where it is persoTered in, and
the soil is well worked, it may pro-
doee good results ; but if not oau-
tionsly applied, the soil is rendered
stiff. It is cooled by the water, and,
should it want diatnage, stagnant
water is accumulated. It should only
be done after sunset, and with rain
water collected in tanks and exposed
to the air. Newly^phmted ▼egetables
Tequtre watering.

WATER WHEEL. An engine
for raising water in large quantities.
Also, a wheel turned by the force of
running water. Of these there are
two kinds : the undershot wheel, and
the overshot wheel. In tbe case of
the undershot wheel, tbe water strikes
the float boards below the axle, and
acts by the impulse doe to its Teloci-
ty ; in the case of the overshot wheel,
the water is brought over the top of
the wheel, received in buckets, and
acts solely by its weight.

WAVELLITE. A mineral of a
radiated or stellated character, con-
sisting of a bydrated phosphate of
alumina.

WAX. A hydrocarbon, eomposed
of Cs3 H40 Oi, insoluble in water, and
but slightly affected by oMst acids.
It is obtained from plants and from
bees' wax. It is prepared by drain-
ing and then washing the honeycomb,
and finally melting in hot water. The
yellow product is bleached by being
run into strips, and exposed to the
air until whitened sufficiently.
WAX MOTH. SeeBeeMoih.

WEA

WAYFARINO'TRBC. The goal*
der rose. Virbumum optUits.

W E A L D E N FORMATION. A
portion of the upper secondaryi con-
sisting of heavy clays and green sand.
It is remarkable for the great number
of large saurians it contains.

WEANING. ''The means em-
ployed to reconcfle a young animal to
the loss of its mother's milk and ha-
bituate it to take common food. The
process of weaning calves is vari-
ottsty managed by different farmers.
When not let run with the cow, the
most advisable mode, as it regards
tbe calf, is to place it loose in a crib,
and to suckle it by hand with the
mother's new milk, of which it witt
consume for some time not more
than about four quarts per day : the
quantity, however, most then be grad-
ually increased, as it will, in the
course of a few weeks, require as
much as three gallons. If the wealh*
er be fine, it should be, within a fort-
night or three weeks, turned out dai-
ly in tbe orchard, or some well-shel-
teit9d encloaure of sweet herbege;
and, as it wiU in tbe course often or
twelve weeks have acquired aome
relish for the pasture, it may be reg-
ulai^ weaned by gradually dimintsb*
ing the quantity of milk, and then
substituting the skimmed for tbe new.
Calves may, however, be reared with
skimmed milk and meal, withont any
portion of new milk except the first
few days* biestings, and many per*
sons give them nothing but water-
gruel and bay tea within a fortnight
after they have been removed from
the cow. Sago and linseed jelly are
also very nutritious, and calves may
be wecmed on them without any oth-
er food.

" The time of weaning lambs dif-
fers materially, according to tbe lo-
cality of the farms and tbe quality of
tbe pasture. Four months old is
about the period usually selected.

^ The Iambs should be turned into
somewhat better pasture than that to
which they had been accustomed, in
order to compensate for the loss of
the mother's milk. Many farmers
are very fimcdful as to the provisioo

897

WEA

for the weaned Iambs, ^ne 6]ov«r, |
or the sainfoin, or the after-math are j
selected by some ; others pot their i
amaller and more weakly lambs to
weed the turnip crops ; but there ean
be nothing more desirable than a fresh
pasture, not too luxuriant, and yet
sufficient to maintain and increase
their condition/* — {YiMuUt en Sheep.)

WEAR. A fence or dam made of
twigs and set in a stream.

WEATHER. *♦ The state or condi-
tion of the atmosphere with respect
to heat, cold, dryness, moisture, wind,
rain, snow, fogs, 6lc. The apprecia-
tion of the Yarious causes which de-
termine the state of the atmosphere,
and produce those changes which are
incessantly taking place in its condi-
tion, and which are popularly called
the teeaiher, forms the subjects of
Meteorology and Climate, (See those
terms ; also, Atmosphere, Barometer,
Cloud, Dew, Hail, Rain.)

** In all ages of the world, ittankind
have attempted to explain and prog-
nosticate the changes of the w«atber ;
but such is the complication of the
subject, and the vast multitude of
circumstances to be taken account
of, that no theory can furnish roles
for determining the order in which
they succeed each other, or for pre-
dicting the state of the weather at a
future time, with any approach to cer-
tainty. Nevertheless, all the differ-
ent modifications of the atmosphere
are the necessary results of princi-
ples not only fixed and unalterable
in their nature, but (many of them at
least) well known in their separate
and individual operation. The diffi-
culty of tracing the results of their
oombined influences arises chiefly
from their complexity and endless
concatenation.

" The principal cause of all the va-
riations which take place in the state
of the atmosphere is the heating ac-
tion of the sun's rays ; but in order
to appreciate correctly its effect, it is
necessary to know not only the ex-
tent of the atmosphere, but the prop-
larties of all the substances of which
it n composed. Modern science has
discoverod that the atmosphere is |
A36

cottpoaed of three diftrent
fluids, everywhere combined lo the
same proportione, and peoet rated kf
an ever- vary mg quantity of clatMie
vapour. These two di^unct ewe>
lopes of air and vap«)ur merbaoieafly
mixed have different reiations to heat;
and therefore, in consequeiM^e of the
unequal temperature of the soi^Me
of the earth, with which chej are m
contact, they cannot both be ia a
state of equilibrium at the aanie tJiae.
Ia consequence of the diarna]
tion, the different parts of the
sphere are ooostantiy recei vin^ dilfe^
ent quantities of heait, as the seter
rays penetrate more or less obliquely.
This ineqnahty of temperature pfo-
duces winds, whiefa, if the aurface ec
the earth were perfectly regular and
homogeneous, would always blow ia
the same direction ; but the surfaca
of the earth being composed of n»-
terials of various kinds, and itregu-^
larly disposed, the distribution af hiat
over it is extremely irregular. The
winds, sweeping along the sarface,
acquire its temperature ; aad heaoe
the atmosphere also beeomes irrega^
larly heated. This prodaces an ae-
curanlation of air at one plaoe« and a
deficiency at another ; and hesae a
subsequent rush to reatore the equi'
librium. As the air is coaled it he-
oomes also incapable of holding the
same quantity of aqueooa vapoar, a
portion of which is therefore set free,
and gives rise to cloods, raist, rain,
dew, snow, dec. Besides aJJ ihia*
there is to be taken into aceoont tiie
development of electricity ; the infio.
enoes of light and galvanism ; the agi-
tation of the atmosphere produced
by the rise and lall of the tides ; and
probably a variety of other eircum^
stances with which we are entirely
unacquainted. This very imperfect
enumeration may serve to give an
idea of the difficulties lo be overconne
in forming a theory of the weather.

** It baa always been a favourite
prejudice that the weather ia influ-
enced in some mysterious manner by
the moon. The moon can be sup-
pospd to act Oft the earth only in one
ol laiee wu^^, ; fituiiciy, by liio UgUt

WEE

"WEB

wbleTi it reflects ; by its attraotion ; or |
by an emanation of eome unknown !
kind. Now, the light of the nM>on '
doee not amount to the 100,000th part
of that of the sun ; and the heat which
it excites is so smalt as to lie alto-
gether inappreciable by the moet del-
icate iostramentSt or the best devised
experiments. No efibct can be at-
tributed, therefore, to the moon's
light. With a regard to the attrac-
tion of the moon, we see its influence
on^ the tides of the ocean, and imght
therefore be disposed to allow it a
similar influence on the atmosphere ;
but when we take into account the
email specific gravity of atmospheric
air in comparison with water, and the
consequent smaiiness of the mass of
mMter to be acted upon, it will read-
iky be perceived that this influence
also must be extremely feeble. In
ilict, it has been demonstrated by I^a-
place that the joint action of the so-
lar and lunar attraction is incapable
of producing more than an atmoapher-
io tide flowing westward at tbe rate
of about four miles a day, and con-
sequently scarcely, if at all, appreci-
able. As to the remaining supposi-
tion, that the moon may act on the
atmosphere by some obscure emana-
tion, it is sufficient to remark that bo
meteorological observations that have
yet been made atibrd the slightest
traces of any such connexion be-
tween the earth and its satellite. The
registers which are now kept in va-
rious observatories and other places
dso prove, contrary to the popular
belief, that the changes of weather
are in no way whatever dependant
on the lunar phases."

WEATHER-BOARDING. Board-
ing nailed either upright or horixon-
tally, asd lapping on the outside of
the framing.

WEATHERGLASS. SeeBorom-
Her.

WEDGE. One of the simple me-
chanical powers, the efficiency of
which is proportional to the length
of the side. Knives are wedges.

WEEDS. *♦ Every plant which
grows in a Aeld other than that of
which the seed has bean sown by the

hnsbeiidman is a weed, and, inas*
much as it interferes with the in-
tended crop, should be carefully erad
icated. It is a proof of good culti
vation when few weeds appear amoni
tbe growing crops, and many of the
operations of tillage are intended
chiefly for their destruction. One o
the principal ases of summer fallowt
is to destroy the weeds which com<i
up in spring, and which would shed
their seeds in summer if they were
not destroyed before the seeds ripen.
When roots are sown in drills and
careftiUy hoed, they produce the
same cleansing eSect, and supersede
the fallow ; but in heavy loams which
have been neglected and overrun
with weeds, a clean fallow is some-
times indispensable, before any ink-
pro vedmethoU can be adopted. When
a farmer enters on lands which are
in a foul state, it is the ctieapest
way, in the end, to sacrifice a crop,
and thoroughly purge his fields from
weeds, especially those which have
vivaeious roots, and cannot be extir-
pated by simple ploughing. The
mode of doing this must depend on
the nature and duration of the weeds,
whether their roots are perennial, or
die off after the plant has borne seed.
Annual weeds are most readily ex-
tirpated by repeated barrowings, by
which the seeds are brought within
the influence of the atmosphere, and
when they have fairly vegetated may
be buried or rooted out, and by ex-
posing their roots to the influence of
a hot sun they are efliectually destroy-
ed. Tbe seeds of annual weeds are
chiefly brought on the land in tbe
manure which is made in the yards,
where the cattle fed on hay or straw
swallow the seeds, which pass
through them undigested. By exci-
ting a great degree of fermentation
in tbe mixture of dung and litter
some of the seeds may be destroyed,
but many of them will keep their
vegetative powers even after having
been exposed to a considerable beat ;
and as it is not advisable to let the
manure undergo a great degree of
decomposition before it is carried on
tbe Iftad, many seeds always escape

WBEB8.

destructiMi, and Tegetate as soon as

they are placed in a favoaraUe situ-
ation. Those which ar« buried deep
lie dormant for a long time, and ve-
getate as soon as the plough brings
them up again.

**Tbe experienced fanner knows
well what peculiar species of weeds
infest his fields, according to the soil
and situation ; and by studying their
habits, time of flowering, and of ri-
pening their seed, he learas the best
mode of destrojring them.

** One of the greatest advantages
of composts made with human excre-
ments mixed with earths and mineral
substances is, that they introduce no
weeds into the soil. It is reported
that in China, where the dung of cat-
tle is liule used, in comparison wittr
human excrements, no weeds are to
be found in the fi€^ ; and if more
attention were paid to the preserva-
tion of this highly enriching manure,
and its proper application to the soil,
noeh expense would be saved which
is now unavoidably inouxred in de-
stroying weeds.

** Feeding sheep on roots and com,
while they are folded on the land, is
another mode of manuring a field,
without introducing weeds, especially
if no hay is given them, except clo-
ver hay of the second crop, which is
generally most free from the seeds
of weeds. It would be impossible to
enumerate all the various weeds
which may infest our fields. This
would be giving a flora of all the
British plants; but we will select
some of the most common and troub-
lesome to the farmer, with such an
account of each as may suggest the
most ready means of destruction.

**Of the annual weeds, we may
mention the following, noticed by
Professor Low, in his Elements of
Practical Agriculture :

" Sin4pu nrt«n9i»^ or wild mustard,
usually oalled charlock, is a weed the
seeds of which, being of an oily na-
ture, will remain dormant in the soil
for an indefinite time, if buried above
six inches. Hence some farmers
fcar to deepen their ploughings,
which otherwisa would be veijr ad-
««0

that, in some soils, a ploughing h&
yond six inches deep will caose the
crop to be overrun with charJocfc, m
as to choke it with its yellow floweeb
It- only requires a Uule resototisa,
and an outlay which will be well le-
paid in the end, to destroy this eaeaj
Hoed crops will deetroy the |rfaatsas
they come up. Winter tares, which
may be cut before the charlock per-
fects its seeds, will help to dasinj
it, and if they are aueceeded hy tur-
nips, there will be little charlock left
in autumn. Wherever it appears
and raises its yellow flower it ouist
be puUed out, whatever be the coat,
and care must be takea to carry the
plaots out of the field to burii or lot
them ; for the seeds will vegetate
when they are but half ripe ia the
pods. We have dwelt at length o«
this weed, because it is one which
infests many of our best soils, and
which must be eradicatiMl before the
land can be properly cultivated.

*' Somewhat allied to the last is
the wild radish {lU^Mnu *-fyA<fmt-
brum), which is often alao called char*
lock : the mode of deatruction is the
same.

^^Prnptner rktum^ or com poppy,
infests some soils in particular sea-
sons. If the seed is aUowed to ripen
and shed, it will increase rapidly;
good tillage, however, soon destroys
it ; clover ajud tares which are cut
while the poppy is in flower ifeneial-
ly eradicate it. In some seasons it
will appear in great profusioo, and in
others not a plant will be seen.

*' CenUurw eymuu, or blue-botlle,
is seldom found in any quantity, ex-
cept where there is a slovenly cul-
ture, or two white crops are taken iu
succession, a practice which, it is
hoped, wiU soon be obsolete.

*' Ckry^anthtmttm se^ctum, com
marigold, infests some soils, and
must be eradicated by careful weed-
ing ; when the crops are drilled, thia
is not a diflScult task.

** Pyrtthrum inodorum, com fever-
few, often called May-weed, as is
also the wild camomile, often infests
the cropa of grain, and with everv

WEEDS.

care in weeding, some of the seeids
'w'lli be carried to the barn. We may
here observe, gtHieraliy, that where
the gTaiii is reaped by the sickle and
a long stubble is left, the seeds of
weeds reinaia oa the land, and al-
though some of them are eaten by
birds, yet many are ploughed in after
the stubble has been raked off or
mown ; whereas, if the com is mown
or cut close to the ground, which is
called fagging or bagging it, all the
weeds are tied up with the corn, and
go into the barn or stack ; and if care
be taken in the winnowing and sift-
ing of the corn to separate the small-
er seeds from the straw and bum
them in a heap, the straw will be
clean and the dong of the cattle will
contain no seeds of weeds. This is
by far the best moiie of proceeding ;
and by careful hoeing and weeding,
and burning the small seeds, the land
may be kept tolerably free from seed
weeds.

'' The sow thistle (Sonehus oUrace-
U9} often raises its head above the
oat. The seeds are blown about by
the winds, and if the hedges and head-
lands are not kept clear of them, they
will sow themselves in all directions ;
but it is a conspicuous plant, and ea-
sily pulled out by hand before its
flower exoands. To destroy thistles,
in general, it is only necessary to cut
them down just as the flower is ex-
panding ; the roots will then die, and
in a few years, by the united atten-
tion of the farmers in a district, this-
tles may easily be eradicated. In
soniB places the infirm paupers are
employed ia pulling up all the thistles
ia tne hedges which border the roads,
and wiierev'T tbeymake their appear-
anco m the higUwa>s and lanes of a
parish. This practice cannot be too
goiieraUy recommended, for the hedg-
ed and ditches^ and the sides of roads
and lanes, are often perfect nurseries
of weeds.

*' Arctium lappa (burdock) is a very
common weed in fields ; but with a
little care it is easily extirpated.

" AgrosUmma gitkago, or corn
cockle, is a very injurious weed, be-
cause its seeds ripen al)Out the time

of harvest, and, from its sixe, oannot
be easily separated from the wheat by
sifting; it contains a farina, which
is oily, and, when ground with the
corn, greatly deteriorates the flour.
The only mode of extirpation is by
hand-weeding.

^* Steliaria mediae or common chick-
weed, is a small plant which grows
profusely on light soils which have
been abundantly manured. If it be
allowed to overspread the ground, it
will choak the young crops, especial^
ly turnips, carrots, and all slow-grow-
ing seeds. Drilling the crops and
early hoeing them is the best means
of destroying this weed ; as soon as
the erop gets above the chickweed,
it is soon destroyed, if the latter cov-
ers the ground well. It often does'
harm to young clover, but the latter
soon overpowers it. Tares smother
it readily. The same observations
are applicable to the Spergula arven*
tU, or corn spurrey, a larger variety
of which, however, is cultivated as
excellent food for milch cows.

** Galium aparinei or goose grass»
also called cleavers, is a weed which
is dispersed by the seeds attaohing
themselves to the wool of sheep by
means of hooks with which they are
provided. They increase rapidly in
some soils, if they are not carefully
pulled up and the hedges cleared of
them.

'* Urlica urensf stinging nettles,
generally grow where the ground
has been strongly manured, especial-
ly where heaps of dung have lain.
They are seldom very troublesome,
and are easily eradicated by repeated
ploughing ; they infest gardens more
than fields.

" Pidygonum convolvulus y climbing
buckwheat, is a very troublesome
weed, which winds round the stems
of the corn, and often overtops them.
The seeds are said to be nutritious,
and not to injure the oats when mix-
ed with them ; but in wheat it is very
destructive, and diminishes the prod-
uct while it injures the quaUty of the
corn.

''AH the common grasses are
weeds in cornfieldsi and in the al-

841

WEEDS.

ternate husbandry are inlrodaccd in
the regular cultivation When the
grass is ploughed up. if the sods are
not covered sufficiently so as to rot,
tufts of grass remain, which greatly
increase, to the injury of the next
crop. However carefully the land
may be ploughed, if it be sown im-
mediately, the roots of grass will be
raised to the surface by the harrows.
The only remedy is to have them
carefully forked out, and carried to
some corner or waste spot, there to
form the foundation of a dung heap
or compost. When the land is plough-
ed up before wjnter, and the seed
sown in spring, the grass will be
rotten and have lost its vegetative
power.

"The bearded wild oat {Aveiuifa'
tua) is a very troublesome plant, and
sometimes almost exceeds the true
oat in quantity ; but this can only be
the case with very slovenly farmers.
It ripens sooner than the corn, and
sheds its seeds before harvest. Crops
cut green for fodder, such as rye,
winter barley, and tares, repeated if
necessary, soon destroy this weed,
which has no perennial root.

"These are some of the most
common annual and biennial weeds.
They may all be easily destroyed by
weeding at the time when they have
pushed up their seed stems and the
flower is about to expand ; if they
are cut up at that time they seldom
recover. Hoeing them when very
young, unless the weather be dry
enough to scorch the roots exposed,
often increases them instead of kill-
ing them. But the last-mentioned
weeds are easily got rid of in com-
parison with those which have peren-
nial roots, and some of which in-
crease the faster the more the roots
are divided. It may be proper to ob-
serve, that too little attention is paid
to the weeds in our upland meadows
and pastures. One would imagine
that every plant which increases the
weight of the hay or covers the
ground in spring is wholesome for
cattle, whereas many are detrimen-
tal when they are eaten for want of
better food. Of this kind are the ra-

642

nunculi, eommonly eaHedtrauer-i
whidi, far from deserving this name,
are never touched by the cows, 90
long as they can find other food.
Without going the length of aacribui^
to the butter-eupe the power of caus-
ing epidemic diseases in caUle, and
even in men who eat of the milk and
butter of cows who have eaten them,
there \A no doubt that where tbe
cows are iVMTced by hunger to est
many of them, they may be very id-
jurious to their health, and to the
production of good. milk. As tbese
plants have strong perennial Toots»
they take • possession of rich, moiai
soils, to the exclusion of good grass-
es. When not very i^ndant, the
plants may be weeded out by means
of a sharp spud or hoe, and the ex-
pense will be well repaid in the qual-
ity of the hay or paalnre. Whers
they are very abundantv the only
remedy is to break op the grass in
autumn, let it be exposed to the frost
in winter, take a crop of com next
season, and lay it rough again the
winter aller. In the sooceeding
spring the land may be inoculated
with good tufts of graas, and before
the next year an improved pasture
will have been formed ; or, if thia is
too much trouble, it may be summer
fallowed, and sown in August with
pure seed of the best grasses. This
is expensive, as a whole year's prod-
uce is lost, but the subsequent j^s*
ture will be so much better, that the
expense may be considered as a prof-
itabie investment. The moat com-
mon species of butter-cup are tlie
BMiuncuiu9 aerit, rtptns, and &sZ6o-
the JR. JUtmnmla is highly poi-

3US

sonous, but not eommon, except m
marshy pastures.

" Senccio Jaeobaa, OT rag wort, is
another troublesome weed; but as
sheep eat it readily when young, it
is easily kept down by pasturing and
folding. In moist weather, also, it
is easily pulled up by hand.

•♦ Tussilago farfdra, colt's foot. By
its large leaves it kills the finer grass-
es under it. As moisture is essen-
tial lo its luxuriance, draining tends
to diminish its growth ; careful ma-

WEEDS.

niinng, also, makes the msses get
the belter of it, and choke it when
young.

** Chrysanthemum Uucanthemum^ or
great white one eye, sometimes
abounds in inferior pastures, and is
only extirpated by tillage and impro-
▼fng the soil by manuring it well.

*» We have already mentioned an-
nual and biennial thistles, but the per-
ennials, such as the Cnicus arvensis
and Sonchtts arvensis^ or corn thistle
and sow thistle, are much more dif-
ficult to eradicate, as the roots strike
deep in the ground and throw up
fresh shoots every year. The most
eflTectoal mode of destroying them is
to draw them out with an instrument
like large pincers, made of wood or
iron, and caHed *a thistle-drawer,'
the form of which is well known, and
which may be bad in most ironmon-
gers* shops. The time to draw the
thistles is when the stem is grown
sufficiently to give a good hold of the
crown of the root. Great care must
be taken not to break the root too
near the ground, but to draw it out
completely. In ploughing, also, a
broad and sharp share, cutting hori-
sontally seven or eight inches below
the surface^ will cut off the long roots,
•0 as to prevent their making fresh
shoots ; and when this is done while
the thistle is in a growing state, the
root will bleed and be destroyed. In
fnas land they are soon destroyed,
if they are carefully cot down, with
a scythe just as the flower is expand-
ing, and before the seed is formed.
If this is done for two or three years,
not a thistle will be seen ; but then
all the neighbouring farmers must
agree in a general war upon thistles,
whether on the land or in the hedge-
rows.

** The dock {Rumex obtutifoliu* and
others) is another most troublesoihe
weed, both in fields and pastures, and
ia only to be eradicated by similar
means with the thistle. Docks are
often left in the field after harvest,
where they shed their seed at leisure,
whereas they should be collected
with as great care as the corn itself,
and invariably be burned in heaps ;

this is the only sure means of de-
stroying the seed. They are often
thrown into the roads, supposing tha^
they will be crnshed by the wheels
of carts passing over them ; but it
must be remembered that birds may
swallow them, and void them again
with their vegetative powers unin-
jured, if not improved ; and that thus
they are again sown on the land.
Nothing but burning is a sure de-
struction of the seeds.

** CerUaurea nigraj black knapweed
or horse-knot, is a coarse plant which
chiefly infests pastures, and takes up
the room of useful grasses, most an-
imals refusing to eat it. It is only
to be eradicated by pulling the plants
up by the roots or cutting them close
to the ground wherever they appear.
Manuring ihe surface highly and
mowing the grass soon makes them
disappear.

** Polygonum amphihium^ commonly
called amphibious persicaria, is found
on very wet land, and is best destroy-
ed by draining.

*' Besides the common couch grass
{THticum revens)^ which is the pest of
farmers on tight soils, there are a va-
riety of plants which spread both by
the roots and by creeping along the
surface ; of this kind are the differ-
ent sorts of quitches, as they are pro-
vincially called, which grow in wet
soils. Of these, the Agrostis stdonif-
era, once so highly praised as fodder
under the name of fiorin^ and the
Agrostis alba (March bent grass), are
the most common ; when they take
possession of a spot they exclude all
other grasses. The only mode of
extirpating these last is draining and
oareful tillage. But to return to the
common couch. This weed some-
times takes such possession of the
soil that nothing else can thrive in it.
It is not a single fallow or cleaning
which will get rid of it, but a regular
system. Ploughing does often more
harm than good, by dividing the root
(which is, in fact, an underground
stem), and thus increasing the num-
ber of plants. The most effectual
means of destruction is by the fork.
If, after the ground has been once

848

WEE

WEI

plougned, it be forked ap earefolly in
dry weaiher, and the tufts of couch,
with their roots, be exposed to the
hot sun, they may be raked off and
burned : but as these roots contain
much nutritive saccharine matter, it
is often worth while to wash them,
if the adhering earth cannot be beat
out, and to give them to horses and
cattle to eat, taking care that the
litter and dung made at that time be
reserved to manure grass land, and
not arable fields. Heaps of couch
may be rotted by pouring urine or
the drainings of dunghills over them ;
and if they are frequently turned, will
produce a rich compost. Any incon-
venience from the extreme vitality
of the roots is obviated by using this
compost, mixed with earth, as a top-
dressing for pastures.

"Another weed with perennial
and very vivacious roots is the Ar-
rhenatherum aTycnacevm^ common oat-
like grass. The root is bulbous, and
the bulbs, separated, grow again. It
is difficult to eradicate, but the means
employed to get rid of the couch
grass will succeed with this and most
other perennial roots. These troub-
lesome weeds may have been wisely
dispersed through the soil by Provi-
dence, to induce the cultivator to
give his land a more perfect tillage
than he might have done otherwise.
I^e expense of forking, and what
is usually called couching, is gener-
ally amply repaid by the finer tilth it
gives to the land, and the crops are
more certain and abundant in conse-
quence.

" There are many other weeds,
both in arable and pasture land, which
indicate slovenly culture, and which
disappear on careful cultivation ;
such as briars, furze, broom, and
rushes, the last being a well-known
sign of superabundant moisture, and
only to be destroyed by under-drain-
ing. The whole process of cultiva-
tion is a continual struggle between
the farmer and the weeds natural to
the soil he cultivates. The sooner
he subdues them entirely, the less
will be his subsequent trouble ; and
the perfection of agriculture is to
Hi

prodaoe crops of aoch ^e^
are useful and profitable, and
snited to the soil which ts cultivated,
while all others are excluded wbicsh
might interfere with .the crops to be
raised. That much remains yet to
be done in thia respect on fanm
which are looked upon as modcds of
cultivation will be acknowledged on
simple inspection. The almost nai-
versal adoption of the system of drill-
ing and hoeing the crops tends great-
ly to the destruction of useless plants
on arable land; much yet may be
done by way of improving the prod-
uce of meadows and pastures by the
destruction of all noxious and oseiese
plants, and the introduction of those
which are nutritious and improve the
herbage, whether depastured or made
into hay ; and nothing is so likely to
do so as a good system of alternate
husbandry, where the best grasses
are cultivated as carefully as the
plants which are immediately apfdi-
ed to the food of man."

WEEVILS. The true weevils aie
coleopterans of the f«nily Rkynchh
vhorida, distinguished by the head
being prolonged into a snout, and
sometimes into a narrow tube. The
grain weevils will be found figured in
the article on Insects. The weevils
are all destructive to grain wd trees,
the HylabiuM ps/e<, fUiwrnm*^ &c., be-
ing particularly injurious to pine-
trees. They are, however, the food
of numerous woodpeckers, which
keep down their numbers. The pine
weevils appear in the fall, from An
gust to October.

WEIGH. A oommen term for a
certain quantity of produce, which is,
however, indeterminate.

WEIGHTS AND MEASITRES.
" System of lAnedl Measures. — ^The
unit of lineal measare is the yard, all
other denominations being either mnU
tiples or aliquot parts of the yard.
The yard is divided into 3 feet, and
the foot subdivided into 13 inches.
The multiples of the yard are the pole
or perch, the ihrlong, and tlie mile ;
5^ yards being a pole, 40 poles a far*
long, and 8 furlongs a mile. Bat the
pole and furlong are now scarc^y

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

ever used, itinerary dwtanees being
reckoned in miles and yards.

"The relations of these different

dpnomi nations are exhibited in toe
following table :

Iiicbea.

Feet

Y«nb.

Pokn.

Psrlonp.

mOm.

0083

0.088

0 0050ft

0-00012626

0.0000157828

0-333

0-06000

0-00151515

0-00018030

0-1818

0*004545

0-00056818

108

18-5

5-5

0-025

0003125

7M0

660

220

40 .

0-125

63M0

5360

1700

320

** Of the different measures of
length used, the foot is the most uni-
versally prevalent. We subjoin the
relation between the foot of different
countries and the English foot.

EDgliah loot

RuMiftn fMt I*

FliriB foot 1065765

Praaaiui and Daaisb foot . 1 029722
Austrian foot 1037128

'^Measr/kTcs of Superficies. — In square
measure the yard is subdivided, as in
general measure, into feet and inch-

es ; 144 square inches being eqiial to
a square foot, and 9 square feet to a
square yard. For land measure, the
multiples of the yard are th's pole,
the rood, and the acre ; 80| (the
square of 6^) square yards being a
pole, 40 poles a rood, and 4 roods an
acre (see Acre). Very large surfaces,
as of whole countries, are expressed
in square miles.

<*The following are the relations
of square measure :

Bquarerwu

2?2-25
10800
4.1560

nans YnnJA.

O-llll

30-25
1210
4840

Polen.

0-003(i7309
0-03305708
1

160

RanJ«

0 000091827

0000826448

0035

Arrv*.

0000022»57

000U206612

000625

0^25

"Land is usually measured by a
chain of 4 poles, or 22 yards, which is
divided into 100 links. Three chains
in length, and one in breadth, make
an acre, which equals 169 square
perches, or 4840 square yards.

Square^ or Superficial Measure.

144 squareUniJhes ^ 1 square foot.
9 J* feel *= 1 '* yard.

30^ " y(H«k == 1 ** rod.

40 " rods *"'= 1 " acre.
640 *' scree hs I *" mile.

*^ Measures of Volume. — Solids are
measured by cubic yards, feet and
Inches ; I72d cubic inches making a
cubic foot, and 27 cubic feet a cubic
yard. For all sorts of liquids, corn,
and other dry goods, the standard
measure is declared by the act of
1824 to be the imperial gallon, the ca-
pacity of which is determined imme-
diately by weight, and remotely by
the standard of length.

" The parts of the gallon are quarts
and pints, 2 pints being a quart, and
4 quarts a gallon. Its multiples are
the peck, the bushel, and the quarter ;
the peck being 2 gallons, the bushel 4
pecks, and the quarter 8 bushels.

4B8

Pint*.

QllRrtN.

GalluiM.

Perk..

lla«liel«.

Quartern.

0-5

0-125

O-Otiil

OK)l«r^^

n^)i|l<J6:tl2fi

0-i5

0-lM

0HQ1S5

OOOcMUiftf

0126

OiiibfKh

O^ifi

(H>aiC5

•1

0-125

1512

266

M ^

Cubic ^ or Solid Measure.

1738 eubic inches make . . J cubic foot.

27 cubic feet 1 cubic yard

40 feet of rough timber > , ,„^

SO feet of hewn timber ] * **^

"Thiscomprehendslenglh,breadtb,
and thickness.

•*And 108 solid feet, that is, 12 feet
in length, 3 feet in breadth, and 3 feet
deep, or, commonly, 14 feet long, 3
{eet 1 inch broad, and 3 feet 1 inch
deep, are a stack of wood.

" And 128 solid feet, that is, 8 feet
long, 4 feet broad, and 4 feet deep,
are a cord of wood.

Gratn Measures.

No. or»qiiiil

Knme of

Comiria*.

Dntbeli)

to Kn{(I>sb

MeMtnre.

Qnartvn.

Snirliind .

l-oon

tiOOO

Sctitinod .

i-oa

Ttnr

Fnutr«

4-4n

IHOJ

9«tier.

HoUmuI .

3-1 "VT

tfM

Muiliie.

Fnuwia .

l-iW

b-4(»

SrhelTeL

9nau . .
FolMDd. .

l-f^

600S

I'na-iAS.

l-^&l

Mi9

R<Mxr«.

846

WEIGHTS AJUD MEASURES.

((

JSngluh Com Measures,

2 pints = 1 quart = «[«* „ i

4 quarts = 1 gallon = J? '*
2 jralloni = 1 peck = JJJS
8 ^':iil(»n» = 1 buthel = 3«|»t
Sbu.Uols = Iquurter = m<^«^lf^

5 quarters = 1 It""* = ^**

»• The Winchester quarter is more
than the imperial quarter, beingin
the proportion of 1 to 0 96945. The
English innperial quarter, in estima-
ting weight, means the ith of a ton of
2240 lbs.=:560 lbs., or 1 quarter.

•' Measures of Wood and other Fuel
—Cord-wood, being the bigger sort
of fire-wood, is measured by a cord
or line, whereof there are two meas-
ures : that of 14 fet't in length, 3 feet
in breadth, and 3 feet in height ; the ,
other is 8 feet in length, 4 feet in
breadth, and 4 feel in height, which
is generally employed.
TaUe of Weights and Measures ac-
cording to the Jmpcnal Standard.

AvoiriliipoM wfi-ht. * Fwnch grammm.

1 drarhm = TTTl

16 drachms 1 ounce = 28'S4fl

16 ounces 1 pound = 453'M4

28 i»ouuds 1 qr. cwt, = 13-699 kilogram.

4 quortcrs 1 cwt. = 50-796

• 20 cwt. 1 ton =1015-920

** The Stone is generally 14 lbs.
avoirdupois weight, but for butcher's
meat or fish it is 8 lbs. Hence the
cwt. equals 8 stone of 14 lbs., or 14
stone of 8 lbs.

''Wool Weight.— lAke all other
bulky articles, wool is weighed by
avoirdupois weight, but the divisions
differ thus :

7 pounds = I clove.

3 cloves = 1 stone.

2 stoue = 1 t'Hl.

9 weys = 1 sack.

12 sacks = 1 last.

** Cheese and butter,

8 pounds = 1 clove.

S2 cloves = 1 «ey in E»*«x.

49 olov<>s == I wey in Suffolk.

56 pounds = 1 Arktn of butter.

" A cubic foot of loose earth or
sand weighs 95 lbs.

A cubic foot of tallow
oak

brick

air

M
CI

-a7S3

4 cubic ft. of common soil weighs 124 lbs.

♦• ♦* strong soil ♦' 127 »•

♦» " clay «* 135 "

" " distilled water " 62-5 "

" " caatiron " 450-45 »'

** « lead ** 709 5 "

" " ooppw " 486-74 «

646

*' The quintal is 100 lbs. ; the ton

2240 lbs.

*• The weight of a cubic inch ofdhi-
tilled water, in air, is 252 458 gr^as.

*• The Turkish pound is 7578 grauts ;
the Danish, 6941 ; the Irish, 77T4 ;
the Neapolitan, 4952; the Scotch
pound troy, 7620-8.

" The imperial gallon contains 10
lbs. avoirdupois of distilled water^
weighed in air at 62°, with I he ba-
rometer at 30 inches. 2 g:aIlons are
equal to a peck, 8 gallons to a bush-
el, and 8 bushels to a quarter.

•* Heaped measure, per bushel, is
28l5i cubic inches clear.

"The Winchester bushel is IS J
inches in diameter, and 8 inches deep,
containing 2154 42 cubic inches.

. •* 1000 ounces of rain water are
equal to about 71 gallons wine meas-
ure, or to a cubic foot.

" 7 pounds avoirdupois are a gallon

of flour.

** A chaldron of coals is 681 cubic

feet.

♦* 12 wine gallons of distilled water
weigh 100 lbs. avoirdupois.

"The imperial dry bushel, when
not heaped, is 2218 192 cubic inches ;
the peck, 554 548 ; gallon. 277 274 ;
and quart, 69 3185. The bushel is 8
inches deep, and 18 8 wide, with a
heap 6 inches high.

" A bushel of wheat is 60 lbs. ;
rye, 53 lbs. ; barley, 47 lbs, : oais, 38 ;
pease. 64; beans, 63; clover seed,
68 ; ra|)e, 48 lbs.

" A Scotch pint is equal to 4 Eng-
lish pints. ^ ^ ^.

"A Scotch quart is 208 6 cubic

inches. ^ ^. .

«' There are 545,267,00<lcubicyarda

in a cubic mile. . -r., -i j ,

" According to usage, m Philadel-
phia and other parts of the United
States, building-stone, when piled or
' perched,* as it is usually termed, is
measured by allowing 25 cubic feet to
the perch ; but when placed in the
wall, only 22 feet are allowed to the
perch. In measuring stone wall, 14
inches of tluckness is usually allow-

WEIGHTS AND M£ASUE£S.

ed. When the thickness of the wall
exceeds 14 incheef, the extra thick-
ness is estimated, and made an addi-
tional charge. This is the common
-rule when the walls have only one
face, in double-faced walls there is
commonly an allowance of about one
third more. 3 pecks of good lime
will generally suffice to lay 1 perch
of stone wall. Aboat 2 one-horse
loads of sand are allowed to make
tnortar for 3 perches of stune wall.

** To convert cubic feet into perch-
es, divide by 25 ; or, what is still
iiwre easy, multiply by -(W.

'* In brick-work, 14 bricks are usu-
ally allowed to the cubic foot : some-
times only 13 are allowed. To con-
vert cubic feet into cubic yards, di-
vide by 3, and the product by 9.

" Lumber Measure. — In estimating
the number of feet in a board, the
length in feet is to be multiplied by
the width in inches, and the result,
divided by 12, shows the contents in
feet. When boards are more than 1
inch thick, all over is added. A
board 12 feet long and U inch
thick would of course be estimated
to contain one fourth more than a
board only 1 inch thick.

" Capacity Measures, — Wine gal-
lon, 231 cubic inches ; beer gallon, 282
cubic inches ; bushel, 2150-42 cubic
inches ; lime bushel, 13^ inches diam-
eter at bottom, 16 inches at top, and
13*47 inches deep. A cord of wood
contains 128 cubic feet. A hogshead
of cider 1 10 wine gallons.

" Weights. — ^A Troy pound is equal
to that of the United States mint, and
the avoirdupois pound bears to it
the ratio of 7000 to 576.

60 lbs. of wheat pun for a baabol.
58 " rye.
58 " com.
48 ** buckwheat.
47 »« barley.
82 •* oau.

85 " coano salt (foreign).
70 ** ground eaU.
62 " fine.

60 *' anthracite coal, 113 lb«. make %
cwt., aod 9240 lbs. =i 1 ton.

** If the square of the diameter of
a circle be multiplied by -7854, the
product is the are^. If the diameter
of a sphere be cubed and multiplied

by -6236, the produet ifl the solidity ;
and the square of the diameter, mul-
tiplied by 3-14159, is the surface of
the sphere.

*' To find the contents of a cask^
add double the square of the bung di-
ameter to the square of the head di-
ameter^ and multiply this sum by the
head of the cask ; then divide the
product by 1077 for ale gallons of
280 cubic inches each, or by 882 for
wine gallons of 231 cubic inches each.

" Method of ascertaining tks Weight
of Cattle while living. — This is of the
utmost utility for all those who are
not experienced judges by the eye,
and 1)y the following directions the
weight can be ascertained within a
mere trifle. Take a string, put it
round the beast, standing square, just
behind the shoulder-blade ; measure
on a foot-rule the feet and inches the
animal is in circumference ; this is
called the girth ; then with the string
measure from the bone of the tail,
which plumbe the line with the hind-
er part of the buttock; direct the line
along the back to the fore part of the
shoulder-blade ; take the dimensions
with the foot-rule, as before, which
is the length, and work the figures in
the following manner : Girth of the
bullock, 6 feet 4 inches; length, 5
feet 3 inches ; which, multiplied to-
gether, make 31 square superficial
feet; that, again, multiplied by 23
(the number of pounds allowed to
each superficial foot of all cattle
measuring less than 7 and more than
five feet in girth), makes 713 lbs. ;
and allowing 14 pounds to the stone,
is 50 stone 13 lbs. ; and where the
animal measures less than 9 and more
than 7 feet in girth, 31 is the number
of pounds to each foot. Again, sup-
posing a pig or any small beast should
measure 2 feet in girth, and 2 feet
along the back, which, multiplied to-
gether, make 4 square feet, that mul-
tiplied by 11, the number of pounds
allowed for each square foot of cattle
measuring less than 3 feet in girth,
makes 44 lbs. ; which, divided by 14,
to bring it to stones, is 3 stones 2
lbs. Again, suppose a calf, sheep,
<S&c., should measure 4 feet 6 inches

847

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

in girtli, aiul 3 feet 9 inches in length,
which, multiplied together, make 16}
square feet ; that multiplied by 16,
the number of pounds allowed to all
cattle measuring less than 5 feet and
more than 3 in girth, makes 264 lbs. ;
which, divided by 14, to bring it to
stones, is 18 stones 13 lbs. The di-
mensions of the girth and length of
black cattle, sheep, calves, or hogs,
may be as exactly taken this way as
it is at all necessary for any compo-
tation or valuation of stock, and will
answer exactly to the four quarters,
sinking the ofTal, and which every
man who can get even a bit of chalk
may easily perform. A deduction
must be made for a half-fatted beast
of 1 stone in 30 from that of a fat
one, and for a cow that has had calves
1 stone must be allowed, and another
for not being properly fat."

" French iSystem of Weights. — ^The
French denominations of weight oc-
cur so frequently in works connected
with the physical sciences, that it is
convenient to be acquainted with their
values. The unit of weight is the
grammtf which is the weight of the
100th part of a cubic mitre of distil-
led water at the temperature of melt-
ing ice. A gramme is equal to 15-434
Troy grains ; whence tlie following
comparative table of French with
Troy weight :

Onmino.

•001 =

•01 sss

■1 =

1 s:

10 ==

100 ==

1000 =

Dyers' weed, or yeHow rodcet,
annual used for dyeing purpo6es»

Tmj |:Tiiiim.
-0IM3
•154S4

=r 1-5434

s: )5-434

== 154-34

= 1543-4

= 15134

= 154340

is equal to 3

Mtlligramine =s
Ci*utigntni(n6 :=
Dec I gramme =
Gramme =

D«cssnrumme =
Hpctofrranime =
Kilugrammo =
Myriac(raramo = 10000

"The kilogramme
lbs. 3oz., 4 43S drachms avoirdupois
weight. In the Systeme Usuel the
standards are the same as the above,
but the denominations are those
which were anciently in use. It was
found impossible to introduce the
new terms. The divisions are bina-
ry. Half the kilogramme forms the
livre rtsucl, which is divided int«)
halves, quarters, eighths, &c., down
to the gros, which is the eighth of
the once, or the ^l^th of the litre.

WELD. Reteda luteola (Fig.),
848

pecially for yellow dyes. The fol-
lowing is London's accoant of its
cultivation : .

" The soil being brought to a fne
tilth, the seed is sown in April or the
beginning of May, generally broad-
cast. The quantity of seed is from
two quarts to a gallon per acre, and
it should either be fresh, or, if two or
three years old, steeped a few days
in water previously to being sown.
Being a biennial, and no advantage
obtained from it the first year, it is
sometimes sown with corn crops in
the manner of clover, which, when
the soil is in a very rich state, may
answer, provided, also, that bueing,
weeding, and stirring take place as
soon as the com crop is cut. The
best crops, however, will obviously
be the result of drilling and cultiva-
ting the crop alone. Tho drills may
be a foot asunder, and the plants
thinned to six inches in the row. In
the broad-cast mode it is usual to
thin thera to six or eight inches' dis-
tance every way ; often, when weld
succeeds corn crops, it is never either
thinned, weeded, or hoed, but left to
itself till the plants are in full blossom.

" The crop is tdikeix by pulling up the
entire plant, and the proper period
for this purpose is when the bloom
has been produced the whole length
of the stems, and the plants are just

WEL

beginning to turn of a light or yellow-
ish colour; as in the beginning or
middle of July in the second year.
The plants are usually from one to
two and a half feet in height. It is
thought by some advantageous to
pull it rather early, without waiting
for the ripening of the seeds, as by
this means there will not only be the
greatest proportion of dye, but the
land will be left at liberty for the re-
ception of a crop of wheat or turnips ;
but in this case a small part must be
left solely for the purpose of seed.
In the execution of the work, the
plants are drawn up by the roots in
small handfuls, and set up to dry afler
each handful has been tied up by one
of the stalks, in the number of four
together in an erect position against
each other. Sometimes, however,
they become sufficiently dry by turn-
ing without being set up. Afler they
have remained till fully dry, which
is mostly effected in the course of
a week or two, they are bound up
into larger bundles that contain each
60 handfuls, and which are of the
weight of 56 lbs. each, 60 of these
bundles constituting a load. These
last, in places where this kind of crop
is much grown, are tied up by a string
made for the purpose, and sold under
the title of weld cord.

"The produce of weld depends much
on the nature of the season ; but from
half a load to a load and a half is the
quantity most commonly afforded. It
is mostly bought by persons who af-
terward dispose of it to the dyers oc-
casionally as they find it convenient.
The demand for it is sometimes very
little, while at others it is so great as
to raise the price to a high degree.
It is sometimes gathered green, and
treated like woad or indigo ; but in
general the dried herb is used by the
dyers in a state of decoction.

*• The use of weld in dyeing is for
giving a yellow colour to cotton,
woollen, mohair, silk, and linen. Blue
cloths are dipped in a decoction of it,
which renders them green ; and the
yellow coloar of the paint called Butch
pink is obtained from weld. It yields
a brownish yellow decoction, the col-

our of which is rendered paler by
acids, and richer and deeper by alka-
lies. Alum throws down a yellow
precipitate, and leaves the clear liquor
of a fine lemon yellow ; tartar also
brightens its colour ; and solution
of tin gives it a dilute green tint.
When a mixture of whiting and alum
is added to a hot decoction of weld, a
yellow precipitate is obtained, which,
when collected, washed, and dried, is
of a fine delicate colour, and much
employed by paper-stainers.

" To save seed, select a few of the
largest and healthiest plants, and
leave them to ripen. The seed is
easily separated.

*' The chief disease of weld is the
mildew, to which it is very liable
when young, and this is one reason
that it is often sown with other crops."

WELDING. The union of two
pieces of metal at a white heat by
hammering ; iron, steel, and platfnum
are the only metals susceptible of
welding. The surfaces are cleaned
by borax in welding steel.

WELL. " Before proceeding to
dig a well, it ought first to be deter-
mined on whether a mere reservoir
for the water which oozes out of the
surface soil is desired or obtainable,
or a perpetual spring. If the former
is the object in view, a depth of fifteen
or twenty feet may probably suffice,
though this cannot be expected to
afford a constant supply unless a
watery vein or spring is hit on : if
the latter, the depth may be various,
there being instances of 300 and 500
feet having been cut through before
a permanent supply of water was
found.

** The art of well-digging is gener-
ally carried on by persons who de-
vote themselves exclusively to that
department. The site being fixed on,
the ground-plan is a circle, generally
of not more than six or eight feet in
diameter : the digger then works
down by means of a small short-han«
died spade, end a small implement of
the pickaxe kind, the earthy mate-
rials being drawn up in buckets by
the hand or a windlass fixed over
the opening for the purpose. Where

849

WEL

WHE

persons conversant with this sort of
business are employed, they usually
manage the whole of the work, brick-
ing round the sides with great facility
and readiness ; but in other cases it
will be necessary to have a bricklayer
to execute this part of the business.

•* There are two methods of build-
ing the stone or brick within the well,
which is called the steening. In one
of these a circular ring is formed, of
the same diameter as the intended
well ; and the timber oC which it is
composed is of the size of the brick
courses with which the well is to be
lined. The lower edge of this circle
is made sharp, and shod with iron, so
that it has a tendency to cut into the
ground ; this circular kirb is placed
flat upon the ground, and the bricks
are built upon it to a considerable
height, like a circular wall The
well-digger gets within this circle,
and^ligs away the earth at the bot-
tom ; the weight of the wall then for-
ces the kirb and the brick-work with
which it is loaded to descend into the
earth, and as fast as the earth is re-
moved it sinks deeper, the circular
brick wall being increased or raised
nt top as fast as it sinks down ; but
when it gets very deep, it will sink
no longer, particularly if it passes
through a soft stratum : in this case,
a second kirb of a smaller size is
sometimes begun within the first.
When a kirb will not sink from the
softness of the strata, or when it is
required to stop out water, the bricks
or stones roust be laid one by one at
the bottom of the work, taking care
that the work is not \e(t unsupported
in such a manner as to let the bricks
fall as they are laid ; this is called
underpinning.

*' Well-diggers experience some-
times great difficulty from a noxious
air which fills the well, and sufiTocates
them if they breathe it. The usual
mode of clearing wells of noxious air
is by means of a large pair of bellows
and a long leathern pipe, which is
hung down into the well to the bot-
tom, and fresh air forced down by
working the bellows.

** The aae of the auger is common
8M)

in well-digging, both in asoertainhis.
before comiiicocpm*3nt, the nature of
the strata to be dug into, and also is
course of digging for the same pur-
pose ; and because, by boring in th€
bottom of a well to a considerable
depth, the spring is sometimes hit
upon, and digging rendered no longer
necessary.

" The use of the borer alone may
procure an adequate supply of water
in particular situations. This mode
appears to have been long resorted
to in this and other countries. From
what we have already stated as to
the disposition of strata, the ctrndi-
tions requisite for its success wtl! be
readily conceived ; via , watery strata
connected with others on a higher
level : the pressure of the water con-
tained in the higher parts of such
strata on that in the lower will read-
ily force up the latter through any
orifice, however small. All that is
necessary, therefore, is to bore down
to the stratum containing the water,
and, having completed the b<}re. to
insert a pipe, which may either be
left to overflow into a cistern, or it
may terminate in a pump, fn maoj
cases, water may be found in rhis
way, and yet not in sufficient qtVAth-
tity and force to rise to the surface ;
in such cases a well may be sunk to
a certain depth, and the auger-hole
made, and the pipe inserted in it at
the bottom of the well. From the
bottom it may be pumped up to the
surface by any of the usual modes "

WETHER. The castrated ram :
it yields the best mutton, especially
at three to five years old.

WHALEBONE SCRAPINGS.
They form a manure very similar to
woollen rags: half a ton is applied
to the acre.

WHALE-OIL SOAP. A solution
of this substance, at the rate of one
pound in four or five gallons of water,
is found the best application for de-
stroying plant lice, whether on the
stem or roots of trees. A weaker
solution, sprinkled over vegetables
attacked with hce, will also be found
serviceable.

WHEAT. Triticum hyl^mum

•> Some baunislB have divided wheats
into difl^rent species, from sninc
marked peculiarity in their formaliou.
Others, considering liiat the; moBtly
ronii hybrids when mixed in the sow-
ing, and that their pecuharilies vary
with the soil and climate, have loolt-
ed upon all the cultirated wheats as
mere varieties. There are, however,
three principal Tarielies, so difTerent
in appearance that they claim pecu-
liar atleolion. These are the hard or
flint wheats, the soft wheats, and Iho
Polish wheals. The hard wheats arc
the produce of warm olimatea, such
B« Italy, Sicily, and Barbary. The
«oft wheats grow in the northern
parts of Europe. The Polish wheats
grow in the country from which they
derive their name, and are also hanl
wheats. It la from their eilernal

form that they are dislingnithed Ihim

other wheats. The hard wheals have
a compact seed nearly transparent,
which, when hiiten ihrounh. Iireiiks
short, and shows a very while Huur
within. The soft wheats have an
opaque coat or skin, and which, when
first reaped, give way readily to the
pressure o( the linger and thumb.
These wheats require to be well dried
and hardened tie fore ihey can lie
conveniently ground into flour. The
Polish wlieat has a chaff which is
much longer than ihe seed, a Idrse,
oblong, hard seed, and an ear cylin-
drical Id appearance It is a delic^ite
spring wheat, and not very proiluc:-
iTTe ; hence it has only been ncc^-
sionally cuJiivated by way of exper-

" The fallowing cuts reprcseitt

WHEAT.

some pecoliar species of wheat. The ]
first is a compound ear, prodaced by
▼ery luxuriant vegetation, and is com-
mon in Egypt. The second is the
spelter wheat, of which the chaff is
so strongly attached to the grain as to
be separated only by passing through
a mill. It is an inferior variety, but
grows in less fertile soils. The third
is the Polish wheat, with very long
chaff and hard grains. The fourth is
a variety which only ripens one seed
in each spikelet, and is not much cul-
tivated. The fifth is common sofl-
bearded wheat. If the awns of this
kind are obliterated, it forms our
common sofl wheat. The existence
of awns seems not to affect the na-
ture of the wheat, and they differ so
much in length that the varieties of
amooth-eared and bearded wheats run
insensibly into each other.

"The hard wheats contain much
mor^ gluten, a tough, viscid substance,
which is very nutritious, and which,
containing a portion of nitrogen, read-
ily promotes that fermentation, or n-
singt as it is called, of the dough,
which is essential to good, light bread
The soft wheats contain the greatest
quantity of starch, which fits them
for the vinous fermentation, by its
conversion into sugar and alcohol ;
for brewing or distilling, therefore,
the soft wheats are tho best."

VAKIRTIfiS OP WBKAT.

White Flint. — ^This is one of the
most valuable kinds in the Northern
States. The heads are not long, but
well filled, with thirty to fbrty grains ;
the kernel is white and flinty, large,
and with thin bran. They are firm-
ly attached to the chaff, and do not
shell out except when tery ripe. The
heads are rather drooping, with few
awns, the straw medium length, and
very white and strong. The flour is
very superior : the perfect wheat
weighs Trom 63 to 67 pounds the
bushel.

Harmon's While Flint. — A variety
improved from the above, in which
the berry is larger, bran very thin,
and the flour equally good, if nni su-
perior : weighs 64 pounds the bush-
85S

el. This and the above are little in-
jured by the Hessian fly, and wiH
stand a good deal of wet weather
without injury.

White Provence. — ^Heads middlii^
and bald ; chaff bluish ; berry Xai«e
and white ; bran thin ; floor good. It
is early, but the straw is small, long,
and soft, and very liable to fall.

Old Red Chaff. —-An old and favour-
ite kind, but now liable to rust and
the fly. Red chaff, bald ; lon^ straw;
berry white, large, weighing 62 pounds
the bushel ; bran thin ; superior floor.
Kentucky White- bearded, Ca»ad4g
Flint. — White chaff, bearded ; heads
short and heavy, well filled ; shells
readily ; berries round, short, and
white ; weighs 60 to 65 pounds the
bushel ; flour very good, but not equal
to the white flint. It tillers little ; the
straw is strong, but liable to injury
from insects.

Indiana Wheat.— White chaff, haW ;
berry white and large ; bran thin ; the
berry not as flinty as the white flint,
some of the best quality weighing six-
ty-four pounds to the bushel, proda-
cing flour of snperior quality and
quantity ; straw is larger and longer
than the white flint ; shells easily, so
that there is considerable loss if it re-
mains in the field till fully ripe. In-
sects have attacked it more than the
flint, and it is more liable to be win-
ter-killed.

A variety of white wheat is much
esteemed in western New- York
which resembles an improved Indi-
ana. It is called Scotch tokeat.

Virginia White May —It has a white
chaflT, bald, much resembling the white
flint in its growth and straw; the
heads are more clomped ; the berry
standing out more, and shells easier.
The berry is white, with a very hard
and flinty appearance, weighing from
63 to 66 pounds to the bushel ; bran
of a medium thickness, producing
flour o f a good qua I ity I ts early ma-
turity makes it valuable.

Wheatland Rrd. — This is a new va-
riety which origin atpd wi^h General
Harmon, from the Virginia May U
has a red chaff, bald ; hi.'ads of medium
I length, and well filled w^ith a red ber-

WHEAT.

iy, weighing 66 pounds to the bu«he1,
and produciog flour of good quality.
This is a very hardy variety ; straw
of good size, and very bright ; it has
the quality of the Virginia May in its
early ripening.

Red Bearded. — Red chaff*, bearded ;
beards standing out from the head ;
berry white, weighing from 60 to 62
pounds the bushel ; yields flour well,
and of good quality ; this is a hardy
variety ; succeeds well after com, or
on light soils. Straw not large or very
atitr. This variety would be more
extensively cultivated if its beard
were not objectionable.

Mtdilenanuan. — This was introdu-
ced into Maryland irom the Mediter-
ranean Sea. It is a light red chaff,
bearded ; berry red and long ; very
flinty ; bran thick, producing flour of
an inferior quality. This variety may
prove valuable at the South, being
seldom aflTected with the fly, and its
early ripening is favourable on ac-
count of rust. Its long, stiff beards,
heads short, shelling very easy (so
much so, that if it is not cut while
in its doughy state, there will be a
great loss), and the inferior quality
of its flour, are strong objections to
its culture, where wheat of superior
quality succeeds well.

Blue Stem. — Has been cultivated in
Virginia for about thirty years ; white
chafl*, bald ; berry white ; weighs 64
pounds to the bushel ; bran thin ;
produces flour of superior quality.
Formerly this was a red wheat, now
it is changed to a beautiful white
Straw fair size, producing well. It
is now one of the most productive
varieties cultivated in Virginia.

Besides these well-known varieties
of winter wheats, several are of local
reputation and worthy of trial. Some,
as the Valparaiso and Humes's white,
are of great promise, but remain to
be fully tested. The choice English
varieties, as the Talavera, golden
drop, are found too tender for our se-
vere winters in New- York.

Of tpring wheats, the Tm, or Sibc'
rian^ bald, and Biack Sea are the best.
The Ilalian spring, formerly in great
demand, has much degenerated.

<< The distinction between the win-
ter and summer wheats is one which
arises entirely from the season in
which they have been usually sown ;
for they can readily be converted into
each other by sowing earlier or later,
and gradually accelerating or retard-
ing their growth. The difference in
colour between red and white wheats
is owing chiefly to the soil ; white
wheats gradually become darker, and
ultimately red in some stiff, wet soils,
and the red wheats lose their colour
and become first yellow and then
white on rich, light, and mellow soils.
It is remarkable that the grain soon-
er changes colour than the chaflT and
straw : hence we have red wheats
with white chaff, and white wheats
with red chaff, which on the forego-
ing principle is readily accounted for.
The chaff retains the original colour
when the skin of the grain has al-
ready changed to another. We state
this on our own experience, ^he
soil best adapted to the growth of
wheat is a deep loam inclined to clay
with a dry subsoil. If this is not so
naturally, it must be drained artifi-
cially, to ensure good crops of wheat.
In such a soil, wheat may be sown
eveiy third year, with proper inter-
mediate crops. Formerly, tlie prep-
aration for a wheat crop was gener-
ally by a clean, naked fallow, with a
certain addition of manure, the re-
mains of which were thought sufli-
cient for a crop of barley or oats;
after which the fallow recurred. It
was soon found out that, by this
means, a crop of wheat could never
be forced beyond a certain average;
for if more than the usual portion of
manure was carried on the land, the
wheat failed, by being laid before it
arrived at maturity. Thus a limit
appeared to have been set to its in-
crease. New modes of cultivation
have shown that this was not with-
out its remedy, and that it was recent
manuring which caused the wheat to
lodge; but that an increased fertility,
produced by judicious preparation, en-
abled the land to bear crops af wheat
far superior to what it ever could be-
fore. Wheat requires a soil in which

863

WHEAT-

tii0 organic mmtter is intimately mix- 1 this subject It is well known, bowev-
ed with the earthy ingredients, where { er, that, proTided asoUbe coinpact, its
it can have a firmer hold by its roots, | fertility is very nearly proporttoBed
and can at the same time strike the \ to the quantity of humus which it
fibres of them downward as well as . conUins, especially if there be calcft-
around, in search of food. When it | reous earth or carbonate of lime ia
meets with such a soil, and is depos- 1 its composition. Lime has been oft-
ited at a proper depth, it vegetates { en considered as the most efficai^oas
slowly, pushing to the surface one | manure for wheat, even more tteni
cylindrical filament, while numerous dung. As long as there is orfanic

fibres strike into the soil from the
seed. These supply the plant with
regular nourishment, and in due time
a knot is formed at the surface of
the soil, from which several roots and
stems branch out. This is called the
tillering of the wheat. The new roots
near the surface soon become the
chief source of nourishment, and in
a rich, compact soil, where there is
room, numerous stems arise, forming
a tuft, and each of these in time bears
a large ear well filled with seeds ; so
that, from a very moderate quantity
of ^ed, a great return is produced.
The strong stems supporting each
other are well able to resist the ef-
fect of storms and rains, which would
lay weaker plants level with the
ground. The effect of abundant ma-
nuring immediately before the seed
is to produce too rapid a growth,
weakening the straw, and increasing
its quantity at the expense of the ear,
which does not attain its proper de-
velopment. This is called running
to straw. All strong manures, which
contain many azotized particles, have
this effect, which is corroborated by
late experiments with saltpetre and
nitrate uf soda. They produce more
straw and less corn, and hence are
not found of the same use, when ap-
plied to crops which are cnltivated
for their seed, as Uiey are on grasses.
" Decayed vegetable matter, or hu-
mus, soems essential in a good wheat
soil ; and it ma/, in the slow prog-
ress of its entire decomposition,
when it is continually absorbing the
oxygen of the air, have some chem-
ical eflfect on the nitrogen «lso, so as
to make it of use in the vegetation,
whether by first forming ammonia, or
m any other way. Farther experi-
ments may, perhaps, throw a Ught on
854

matter in the soil lime acts benefi-
cially ; and the richer the land whic^
does not contain carbonate of iirae
already, the more powerful the effect
of liming. But experience has pro-
ved that lime has little efiect on poor
soils in wheat, until they are first ma-
nured with animal and vegetable sab-
stances. To produce good wheat,
then, the land should be gradually
brought to the proper degree of fer-
tility, by abundant manuring, for pre-
paratory crops, which will not sufi^er
from an over-dose of dung, and will
leave in the soil a snfficient quantity
of humus, intimately blended with it,
for a crop of wheat. Clover is a
plant which will bear a considerable
forcing, and so are beans, and both
are an excellent preparation lor
wheat. The roots left in the gronnd
from a good crop of either decay
slowly, and thus furaiah a regular
supply of food for the wheat sown in
the next season. Potatoes, also,
admit of much forcing, but the neces-
sary loosening of the soil for this crop
renders it less fit as a preparation for
wheat. Experience has fully proved
that, as a general rule, it is better to
sow barley and clover after potatoes,
and let the latter be succeeded by
wheat.

"Improved chemical analysis has
discovered various substances in mi-
nute quantities in the grains and
straw of wheat; and this has led to
the doctrine that these substances,
being essential to its formation, must
be excellent manures for it, if they
do not already exist in the soil in
sufficient quantities. Most of these
substances are found in all soils
which contain a due proportion of
clav. Silica, in a very minutely-divi-
ded state, and probably in coinlnna*

WHEAT.

lion with soda or potass, seetns one
of the most ini{5ortant to give due
strength to the straw ; atid hence, in
some soils, potashes or wood-ashes
whit^h contain it may be advanta-
geously used as manures to the wheat.
The analysis of the ashes of grains
of wheat chosen out of the ears, by
Theodore de Saussure, gives the fol-
lowing results :

Potass 15

Phovphato of potass 3f

Marmto of potass 0*16

Sulphate of iNiiass a trac«.

Earthy ph(»!phates 44*5

Silica 0-5

Metallic oxides 0-S5

Loss 7-59

lUU

*' The analysis of the ashes of the
straw gave the following results :

Potass 13-5

Phosphate of potass 5

Muriate of potass ...... 3

Sulphtitc of pcMass 9

Earthy phnsphatea 0'S

Earthy cartKHuites 1

Stlit-a 61-5

Mntallic oxides 1

Loss v^ . . . 7-8

100*

" The analysis of the ashes of the
whole plant, when m blossom, gives
of

Soluble salts 41

Earthy phosphates 10*75

Earthy .carbonates 0-95

Siltca 20

Metallic oxides 0'5

Loss 21 >5

100-

"By comparing these results, it
will appear that, from the time of
flowering to the maturity of the seed,
a portion of the soluble salts is re-
placed by earthy phosphates; that
silica accumulates in the straw, but
not in the grain ; and as potass is
the principal means of rendering the
silica soluble, it is an important in-
gredient in a wheat soil, as well as
the phosphoric acid. This last is
found chiefly in bone earth and ani-
mal manures.

** Although wheat thrives best on
heavy soils, and, without due prepar-
ation, produces only scanty and un-
certain crops in those which are nat-
urally light and loose, it may be made
to give a very good return in soils

which would once have been tboaght
fitted only for the growth of rye and
oats ; but then the texture and com-
position of these soils most have been
greatly improved by judicious tillage
and manuring. While the heavy soils
are repeatedly ploughed and pulver-
ized to render them mellow, the light-
er are rendered more compact by
marling, where this can be readily
done, by adding composts in which
the principal earth is clay, and espe-
cial^ by such plants as have sub-
stantial and long roots, by which the
soil is kept together, such as clover,
lucern, sainfoin, and other grasses.
If these plants have been well manu-
red, and cover the ground well, keep-
ing in the moisture, the soil will have
become sufficiently compact to bear
wheat. One ploughing is then quite
suflfioient ; and if a heavy land- press-
or is made to follow two ploughs and
press in the furrows, so as to leave
deep, smooth drills, eight or nfne
inches apart, in which the seed can
find a solid bed, there will be every
probability of a good crop of wheat,
which will come up in regular rows,
the roots being at such a depth as
to run no risk of wanting moisture
till the stem has arisen to its full
height and the ear is formed ; a few
showers at that critical time will
make the grain swell, and ensure a
good crop.

" On some soils it may not be ju-
dicious to attempt to sow wheat ;
but these are the poorest loose sands,
which naturally would bear only oats
and buckwheat ; on these, unless
they can be abundantly marled, it is
much better to sow rye. When
wheat is sown on light soils in good
heart, it grows vigorously in spring,
if it has not been injured by the frost,
which is very apt to rahie up the
roots and throw them out of the
ground. The driving of sheep ovei
the field presses the roots into the
ground, and prevents this throwing
out ; but a vigorous growth of straw
is not always a sure sign of a good
crop at harvest, as many farmers
know by sad experience *, what would
be advisable in heavy soils is not al-

856

WHEAT.

Irays 8o in lighter. A heavy rolling
in spring after a light harrowing is
very useful at a time when the sur-
face is moist. It closes the pores
and ciiecks the evaporation : and the
tighter the surface can be made, the
better chance there is of a fair crop.
The Norfolk rotation, as it is gener-
ally called, in which wheat is sown
after clover, is the only one well
adapted for wheat on light soils.
The manure having been put abun-
dantly for the turnips or roots, and
the land being freed from weeds, the
barley wbich follows is generally a
good crop ; and the clover, which is
sown in this, is trodden in the reap-
ing and carrying of the barley ; and
there is only one ploughing from the
time the barley is sown to the sow-
ing of the wheat. If this be dibbled
on the turned sward of the clover,
the land will receive another tread-
ing by the dibhlers, the seed will be
regularly deposited at a proper depth,
and no preparation of light land can
be more likely to produce good wheat.
On heavy soils the process must be
varied ; the surface, instead of being
rendered more compact, will often
be so b(jund as to require to be stir-
red by harrowing or hoeing before
the wheat plant can properly tiller.
If a farmer is anxious to have good
crops of wheat, he must not rest sat-
isfied after he has ploughed, manured,
and sown ; he must watch the growth
of this important crop daily, and use
the means which experience and ob-
servation have suggested to assist
the growth and to remove the caus-
es of failure.

'* In heavy soils nothing is more
detrimental than excess of moisture.
Even in well-drained fields the water
will stand too long in the furrows if
there is not a proper outlet for it.
Tile furr(»ws should be well cleared
out with the spade as soon as the
seed is sown, drilled, or dibbled, the
earth being thrown evenly over the
surface of the stitches, and not left
in ail un8i<jhily ridge, which crumbles
down with the furrow at the first
frost. In proper places and at regu-
lar distances, deeper water^furrows
866

I should be dug out alter the ploiigt

I has ploughed a deep farrow in the
intended line ; and this should then be
tiTiished as is said above ; so that if
a heavy fall of rain should come sod-
denly, the water will have a regular
course and outlet into the ditches
which lie in tlie lowest part of the
land, without soaking into the soil,
which is already too retentive of
moisture. It is chiefly in spring and
when snow melts that there siMHild
be a daily inspection of the wheat-
fields. An experienced eye, going
along the bottom of the ridg«s of a
large field, will discover at once
whether there is any stoppage of the
water ; and by means of a spade oi
shovel it will be remedied with little
trouble. When the surface binds,
as it does in some soils, and pre-
vents the access of air to the roots,
the land is harrowed, and In a few
days the effect will be apparent.

" Soils which lie on a very porons
subsoil, or which, by artificial drain-
ing, have been so dried and meHow-
ed that horses can go over the land
at all times without making such an
impression as will retain water if it
rains, may be laid fiat, wiihoat more
open furrows than are necessary for
the convenience of ploughing with a
fixed turn-furrew ; and thua a con
siderable portion is made productive
which would be taken up by furrows,
and, perhaps, produce weeds. But
if the soil is of a tenacious qaality,
easily compressed when moist, and
horses cannot safely be allowed to
pass over it when wet, it is absolute-
ly necessary to divide the land into
stitches, or beds with furrows be-
tween them, in which the horses can
walk while they draw harrows or
any other implement over the land.
All the implements should be so cun-
tstructed that, if they have wheels,
I these may run in the furrows, so
' that nothing will disturb the even*
I neas of the stitdies, which should
I have a gentle slope from the centre to-
i wards the two furrows which bound
! it. For sprin^j crops this is not so
! essential, although it is advisable not
1 to deviate from the usual form, even

WEEAT.

when barley and cIoTer are sown ;
because, when the surface is laid in
double stitches, as i» sometimes done,
it is not very easy to lay it in narrow
stitches again, at one ploughiog, for
wheat. No doubt a very expert
ploughman would do so, but it is not
often that many expert ploughmen
are on the same farm. Even in very
light soils, as in Flanders, narrow
stitches - with deep intervals are
thought most advantageous.

" It is a very common notion that
good wheat and bean land is not well
adapted to the growth of roots, espe-
dally of such as are usually fed off
the land by sheep, because the tread-
ing of animals is injurious in winter
and spring, when these crops are
usuaUy wanted ; and if they are cart-
ed ofi; the wheels and the horses
make such impressions as are equal-
ly detrimental, or more so. But all
roots, even the white turnip, will
grow luxuriantly on heavy soils, well
prepared and manured; and they
may be so managed as to be taken
off before the winter. The bulbs
wiii not be so large, but they will be
more succulent, and may be kept in
various ways till they are wanted for
the cattle. The land, being plough-
ed immediately on the removal of
the roots, will be well prepared for
wheat, or, when mellowed by the
winter's frost, may be sown in spring
with beans, barley, or oata. The
manure will be incorporated with the
soil, even if it has been put on in a
very fresh state for the roots, which
can only be recommended on very
compact soils. If the root crops are
well cleaned, fallows may be avoid-
ed, or, at least, recur very seldom,
and then only when weeds have ac-
cumulated from neglect.

" When the wheat has blossomed,
and the grain in the ear is fully form-
ed, it should be watched, and as soon
as the seed feels of the consistence
of tough dough, and the straw is dry
and yellow below the ear, it should
be reaped. The skin of the grain
win he thinner, and its substance
will harden readily, by mere drying,
while the straw is better fodder for

4C2

the cattle. It is found by experience
that the increase of flour by adopting
this metliod is very considerable.

" It was the custom of our fore
fathers to cut the straw half way be-
tween the ear and the ground ; and
their reason was, that tlius less room
was required in the barn, and no
seeds of weeds were carried there
in the straw ; but the lose of half the
straw, which might have afforded lit-
ter or fodder for cattle, was over-
looked : and if the weeds were not
taken into the barn, where they could
do little harm, except giving a little
more trouble in winnowing and sift-
ing the com, they were left to shed
their seeds on the land, and thus per-
petuate its foulness, or add much to
>the labour of weeding the succeed-
ing crops. The stubble or haulms bad
to be mown or raked oif before the
land could be well ploughed ; and,
although this might make a very good
shelter for cattle in a yard, when
made into haulm-walls, as they are
sometimes called, there was a great
loss of labour in thus going twice
over the field. The most approved
mode of reaping now is that which
is called fagging or bagging (see
Harvest) ; but the most expeditious
is mowing, which, by means of a cra-
dle scythe, may be done so regularly
as to allow all the corn to be tied up
in sheaves without any loss. The
weeds are tied up with the corn, and
when the whole is thrashed, the
seeds of the latter are winnowed out
and burned ; thus they cannot infest
the land, and there is double the quan-
tity of straw to convert into manure :
a matter of great importance where
cattle are fed on turnips in the yard,
chiefly for the sake of their dung.

'* The choosing of wheat for seed
is a matter of great importance.
Some^ farmers liiie to change their
seed often ; others sow the produce
of their own land continually, and
both seem persuaded that their meth-
od is the best. The fact is, that it is
not always the finest wheat which
makes the best seed ; hut it depends
on the nature of the land on which it
grew. Some soils are renowned fai

867

WHEAT.

and wide for prodacing good seed,
and it is well known that this seed
degenerates in other soils, so that
the original soil is resorted to for
fresh seed. Many places have been
noted for this peculiarity, and among
them we may mention Genesee* New-
York : the wheat which grows there
is sold for seed at a price considera-
bly above the average. It has been
asserted of late, and we have no rea-
son to doubt the assertion, that the
various noted seed-wheats, when
anal3rzed, are found to contain the
different elements of which they are
composed in nearly the same propor-
tion, especially the starch and glu-
ten. For bread, that which contains
most gluten is preferred, as we ob-
served before ; but to produce a per-
fect vegetation there should be no
excess of this substance, nor any de-
ficiency. The seed, also, should have
come to perfect maturity. This last
is usually obtained by beating the
sheaves over a block of wood or a
cask, without untying them, by which
means the ripest seeds fall out. The
proportion between the starch and
gluten is easily ascertained by care-
fully washing the flour when the
wheat has been ground. It is most
convenient to tie up the flour in a
cloth, which, shaken and beaten in
water, will let all the starch pass
through, and retain only the gluten.
The operation should be continued
as long as the water is tinged with
the white starch. Any one can read-
ily make the experiment ; and as
soft wheats vary much in the propor-
tion of the gluten they contain, the
ditftrence will be readily ascertained.
This leads to a practical conclusion :
if we wish to grow any peculiar sort
of wheat for seed, and if we find
that, by our preparation of the soil,
or its original composition, we pro-
duce a wheat in which the gluten and
starch are in a different proportion
from that of the original seed, we may
conclude that this is owing to nu>re
or less animal or vegetable manure
in the soil ; and by increasing the
one or the other, we may bring our
wheat to have all the properties of
858

the original seed. This is a vt^oMs
discovery, and deserves to l»e fully
confirmed by experience. The giii-
ten varies from 10 to 35 per oent

^* Diseasa. — While the wheat is
growing, it is exposed to various ao-
cidents, which it is often difficBll to
foresee, and more diflicoU to guard
against. The smut and burned ear
are diseases which may be generally
prevented by a proper preparation of
the seed before it is sown. (See
Smut.) Many corrosive substances
have been recommended to steep the
seed in« such as blue vitriol and arse^
nic, and those who have used these
steeps place great confidence in them.
It seems, however, that washing the
seed well with plain water, or with
salt and water, and afterward drying
it with quicklime, sufficiently destroys
the germ of the smut to prevent its
propagation. The most common steep
is water in which so much salt has
been dissolved as will enable it to float
an egg. In this the seed may be lefifor
twelve hours or more, and then spread
on a floor, and mixed with as much
quicklime as will absorb the moisture,
and allow it to be sown ordrilied, with-
out the grains adhering to one another,

'* In the second volume of the
* Journal of the Royal Society of Agri*
culture of England,' Part I., is a val-
uable paper, by the Rev. T. S. Hens*
low, on the diseases of wheat. He
describes the different fun^ which
produce the various diseases of pep-
per brand, dust brand, rust, and mU-
devv ; he doubts the truth of the as-
sertion that Berbery trees or bushes
cause mildew in wheat which grows
near them, although this is believed
by many farmers.

*^ The ergot in wheat is an excres-
cence from the ear, like a small horn,
into which the seed is transformed.
It has a poisonous quality, and is
medicinal. See Ergot.

*' Another disease of the seed is
called ear-cockles, and is caused by
extremely minute insects, like eels,
which fill the skin of the seeds instead
of flour. This insect, which is call-
ed Vibrio tritici, is described by Mr.
Bauer in the * Philosophical Trans-

WH£

WHB

actions' for 1823. This disease ia
not 80 common as the smut and pep-
per brand It is probable, according
to Mr. llenslow, that the animalcules
may be killed by exposing the grain
to a certain heat, so as not to destroy
its power of vegetation, but sufficient
to kill the vibrio/'

The chinck bug, in the Southern
States, is oilen more destructive than
the Hessian fly.

"Great attention has been lately
paid to the introduction of the best
and most prolific varieties of wheat,
and by merely observing what ears ap-
pearmuch superior to others in a field
of ripe wheat, and collecting these to
be sown separately in a garden or por-
tion of a field, the variety, which may
have been produced by some fortui-
tous impregnation, or some peculiarity
in the spot where it grew, is perpet-
uated. By carefully selecting the
seed which is best adapted to the
soil, by a more careful and garden-like
cultivation, and by adding those ma-
nures which are found most adapted
to favour its perfect vegetation, crops
of wheat have been raised which, at
one time, would have been thought
miraculous."

WHEAT, CULTIVATION IN
WESTERN NEW-YORK. The fol-
lowing, from General Harmon, is
worthy of great attention from its
practical value :

** The soil that I have under culti-
vation is probably as well adapted to
tiie producing of as fine a quality of
wheat as any in the world. It is a
gravelly loam, with limestoo^of small
size gravel up to several pounds each.
It is what has been called the hard
oak openings. My rotation is of three
years shiit. Clover is invariably sown
on wheat in March or April, about
eight pounds to the acre ; and as
soon as the ground is dry in April, sow
one bushel of plaster to the acre.
The next year pasture or mow ; the
third year, in June, plough seven or
eight inches deep. The clover should
be mostly eaten ofiT when ploughed.
The turning under of a great growth
of clover I believe to be injurious to
the next crop of wheat. If fed oS*

witli sheep, the manure they drop is
worth more to the wheat crop than
if it had been turned under in its
green state. In turning under green
clover, there is in the next crop fre-
quently a coarseness in the leaf and
straw that is not favourable to the
production of a fine quality. I go
over the ground thus ploughed with
the cultivator harrow three or four
times by the first of September ; then
cross-plough, and sow on the furrow
from the lOth to the 15th of the
month ; then harrow it in with the cul-
tivator harrow. It buries the wheat
deeper than the common harrow, giv-
ing the plant a more vigorous appear-
ance, and rendering it less liable to in-
jury by the thawing and freezing in
March and April. Wheat, for seed,
should be selected from that part o(
the field that is first ripe and where it
ripens evenly. All lodged or rusty
straw should be rejected, for wheat
from such straw does not fully mature.
It will grow as soon as any other,
but wheat of superior quality is se.-
dom obtained from such seed. Ail
small or imperfect kernels should bis
silled out, and nothing but the pure
seed sown. Twenty-four hours be-
fore the wheat is sown it should be
washed in a brine as strong as salt
will make it. Ailer draining a few
minutes, mix with each bushel two
quarts of newly-slacked lime, and
then sow one and one fourth bushels
to the acre. The above is my course
of operation. My average crop for
several years past has been over 20
bushels per acre, of very superior
quality, mostly sold for seed ; the
past season over 1100 bushels. My
price has uniformly been twenty-five
cents over the millers. One great
difficulty in the way of farmers im-
proving their wheat crops is, the sow-
ing of poor grain mixed with other
seeds, and believing that Wheat turns
to chess. While at the State Fair,
at Poughkeepsie, last fall, I saw sev-
eral barrels of wheat, of different va-
rieties, all mixed with so much cockle
and chess, that a Wheatland miller
would not take such for flouring as
first quality. The man that had it

869

WHE

said it was sent to him fh>in Western
New-York for seed, and he was try-
ing to sell it as such. As long as
such seed is sown, we shall have
those farmers that believe wheat will
degenerate into chess. In selecting
the best winter variety, I will name
the ones that I believe will do best
on the different soils where wheat is
sown. There are some varieties that
succeed better on some soils than
others. If the soil is rich clay loam,
it is important to sow « small and
early variety : the Kentucky white,
better known as Hutchinson wheat ;
Mediterranean; or Wheatland red. If
sandy, gravelly loam, the improved
•white Flint, old Genesee red, Chaff
bald, Saul's wheat, and Flint. In se-
lecting the variety that will do best
on all soils, I am confident the im-
proved white Flint stands first for the
quantity and superior quality, proda-
cing more flour of superior quality
than any other of nearly forty differ-
ent varieties that I have had under
cultivation. I know of no spring va-
riety that will come up to the winter
where they succeed well. In some
sections of country none but spring
varieties will succeed. The Black
Sea red, Chaff bearded, are the hard-
iest and most productive of any of
the spring varieties of good quality.
The Tea wheat is a very beautiful
spring wiieat, white, chaff bald, berry
white. It is not as productive as the
Black Sea ; the quality is superior."

WHEAT, COW. See Cote Wheat.

WHEAT GRASSES. Grasses of
the same genus as wheat {Truicum),
of which the couch grass (T. repens)
is best known. They are not indige-
nous in the United States, and, al-
though very nutritious, are not ob-
jects of special cnltivation.

WHEAT, INSECTS OF. The
two most severe enemies are species
of Cccidomyia^ a genus resembling
the gnat.

The Hessian fly {C. destructor). Fig.,
J, is represented of the natural size
at c ; it has a black head, thorax, and
wings, with a brownish body. Two
generations appear in the year : the
£rst in spring, the second in S^tem-

860

WHB

her and October. The females Isy
their eggs on the yonng shoots oif
spring or fall wheat. The worm,
which is hatched in a few days, de-
scends to the lower parts of the stem
near the earth, where they become
changed into grubs of the size and
appearance of a flaxseed (<0; here
the winter generation remain, and
are converted into winged insects in
spring. They destroy the plant by
sucking its juices, and hinder the de-
velopment of flower stems. The most
effective means to avoid this fly ie by
selecting wheat with a tough straw,
as the Mediterranean, by sowing ear-
ly, and preparing the ground and seed,
so as to give it a good start. Scat-
tering lime, and using nntritious ma-
nures, such as guano, early in the
spring, may do good. Close feeding
by sheep is also adopted where the
grubs are found early. Burning the
infected straw is a preventive. The
Hessiarrfly is attacked by ichneuinon
flies, which deposite their eggs in the
body of the grub.

The wheat mdge, or fly {C. tritict^.
Fig., II, has been of late a severe pest
in the Northern and Eastern States.
It is smaller (e) than the Hessian fly,
of a yellow colour, vnth clear wings.
They are seen in June, when the
wheat is in flower, and the eggs are
deposited during dusk in the scales
of the chaff. The maggots (/) are
of a yellow colour, changing to brown,
and eat the young seed as it is form-
ed. g represents one of the worms
magnified. The maggots fall to the

WHE

ground to change into chrysales, and I
are protected in the soil until the
next aeason, when they come forth in
spring.

Fumigations with sulphur -and
smoke hare been tried during the
erening to destroy the worms ; the
success is, however, only partial.
Sprinkling lime and ashes is much
better : a mixture of half a bushel of
each may be used to the acre. The
lime should be water-slacked. After
an invasion of these destructive in-
sects, the stubble should be burned,
the soil ploughed deep, and no wheat
sown for one or more seasons. Barly
or late sowing wiU do little towards
saving a crop of wheat, for it ap-
pears that the midge lives for thirty-
nine days.

The English papers mention an-
other insect, the Ascius pumilarius,
which attacks wheat in the same way
as the Hessian fly.

In Virginia, and some other South-
ern States, the ehinck bug is oAen
destructive. See that insect.

The wheat weevils found in the
United States are the Calandra {Cur-
euUo) granaria and oryzct; they are
both readily destroyed by kiln-drying,
at 150^ to ISO"" Fahr. A figure of the
former will be found in the article on
insects.

Besides these, other insects are
occasionally found in smaller quan-
tities, preying on the roots and young
stem, but they seldom produce the
destruction of the crop.

WHEEL and AXLE. A common
mechanical contrivance lor raising
weights, especially water from wells ;
the advantage is increased by en-
larging the wheel and diminishing
the axle, but always with a kras of
thne. The best form for great me-
chanical advantage is that represent-
9(f in the figure. •

WHEELBARROW. A light car-
riage driven by a man and moving on
one wheel. It is made of stout plank
for carrying stone and earth, and is
lighter and larger for the transporta-
tion of grain.

WHEEL PLOUGH. A plough
with a wheel in the heel to diminish
the friction of the sole. See Plough.

WHEELS OF CARRIAGES.
The wheel consists of three parts :
the nave, centre, or hub ; the spokes ;
and the circumference, or felloes,
bounded with its iron tire. Tlie ma-
terials may be of iron or wood ; if the
latter, elm or white oak is preferred
for the nave, white oak for the spokes,
and ash for the felloes. The centre
of the nave is furnished with an iron
box to receive the axletree. The
wood should be thoroughly seasoned,
and the framing of the wheel set to-
gether some weeks before the tire is
put on. The manner of setting the
tire is well known : it is heated in a
brush fire until nearly red hot, and
then placed over the felloes and at
once chilled with water. It should
be so set as to allow the nails used
to fasten it to be driven into the
spokes. Great improvements have
been made in the axle, whioh is en-
closed in iron or of wrought iron :
the latest improvement is that of sur-
rounding it with a system of friction
wheels, which lie between the box
and axle, and reduce the friction to
a minimum.

The advantage of the wheel is two-
fold. " In the first place, they greatly
diminish the friction on tiie ground
by transferring it from the circum-
ference to the nave and axle ; and in
the second place, they serve to raise
tlie carriage more easily over obsta-
cles and asperities met with on the
roads. The friction is diminished in
the proportion of the circumference
of the axle to that of the wheel ; and
hence the larger the wheel, and the
smaller the axle, the less is the fric-
tion. Large wheels are, therefore,
best adapted for surmounting inequal-
ities of the road. There are, howev-
er, circumstances which prescribe
limits to the height of the wheels of

861

WHE

carriages. If the radios exceeds the
height of that part of the horse to
which the traces are attached, the
line of traction will he inchned to the
horizon, and part of the power will
be exerted in pressing the wheel
against the groand. The best aver-
age size of wheels is considered to
be about six feet in diameter. The
fore wheels of carriages and wagons
in this country are usually much too
small.

•* Cylindrical wheels are best adapt-
ed for level roads ; and the breadth
of the rim should be considerable (not
less than three inches), to prevent
their sinking into the ground. In
hilly and uneven roads a slight incli-
nation of the spokes, called dishinfr^
tends to give strength to the wheel ;
but it is very frequently carried to
excess."

•* Carriages with four wheels are
much more advantageous than car-
riages with two wheels, as carts ; for
with two wheels, it is plain the tiller
horse carries part of the weight in
one way or other ; in going down hill
the weight bears upon the horse, and
in going up hill the weight falls the

tng speed or gaining power. Motioa
is communicated from the circumfe*
rence of one wheel i<i the axis or pin>
ion of another by teeth, l»clts, or oc-
casionally by friction. The teeth of
all the wheels and pinions ia the
work must be of the same size ; tbey
should also be smooth on their surfa-
ces, and curved gradually to the sum-
mit to diminish friction. ^* Toothed
wheels are of three kinds : sjmr
wheelSf crown vkeds, and hevelitd
wheels. When the teeth are raised
upon the edge of the wheel, or are
perpendicular to the axis, the wheel
is a spur wheel ; when they are rais-
ed parallel to the axis, or perpendic-
ular to the plane of the wheel, it is a
crown wheel; and when Ibey are
raised on a surface inclined tu the
plane of the wheel, it is called a bev-
elled wheel. The combination of a
crown wheel, with a spur wheel as
pinion, is used when it is required to
communicate motion round one axis
to another at right angles to it."

WHEEZING IN HORSES.
Broken wind.

WHELP. The yoong of the dog.

WHETHERING. Ketenlion o€

other way and lifts the horse, which I the after-birth in cows. Jt should be

is still worse. Besides, as the wheels
sink into the holes in the roads, some-
times on one side, sometimes on the
other, the shafts strike against the
horse's sides, which destroys many
■nimals ; moreover, when one of the
wheels sinks into a hole or rut, half
the weight falls that way, which en-
dangers the overturning of the car-
riage.'-

Mr. Scripture, of New-York, has
reci-nily patented a carriage wheel
which promises well. It is furnished
with two sepjiraie hubs, which can

the pressure of the spokes on the fel
loes and tire is easily regulated, and
the lire can neither become bound
nor so loose as to want cutting.

WHEEI^SHAPED COROLLA.
A rotate corolla : it is monopetalous,
with a spreading border and very
short tube.

WHEEL WORK. A combination

of wheels for the purpose of increas-

862

removed by hand if retained too long,
as the decomposition of the substance
will otherwise destroy the animal.

WHETSTONE A siliciaus slate
used for whetting implements.

WHEY. The watery parts of
milk containing the sugar of milk,
with a little casein and saline mat-
ters. It is fermentable, and made
by some of the Asiatics into an in-
toxicating drink. In the dairy there
are two kinds of whey ; that which
is clear and separates from the milk
when rennet is added, and that which

be screwed together ; by this means { is pressed out from the curd. The

latter is white, and used to make
whey butter or cottage cheese. See
Butler. Whey is used for feeding
hogs, and given in Scotland even to
horses.

WHEY BUTTER. See Butter.

WHIN. Gorse. Sec Furze.

WHINSTONE. A kind of basalt.

WHIP GRAFTING. Tongue
grafiiuif. See Grafimg.

WHI

WIL .

WHIPPING OUT GRAIN. Stri-
king the ears against a stone or the
edge of a board till the corn is sep-
arated from the straw.

WHIPPLE-TREE. A swinging
tree. The bar to which the traces of
the horse are fastened.

WHIRLBONE. The knee pan.
In the horse, the articulation of the
thigh bone in the pelvis ; the ace-
tabulam.

WHIRLWIND. A revolving wind,
blowing to a centre. The tornado is
a violent whirlwind.

WHISKEY. A strong spirit dis-
tilled from the fermented mash of
com, barley, wheat, or other grains.

WHITE ARSENIC. Common
arsenic, arsenions acid. It has been
recommended for dusting grain after
brining, but should never be nsed ;
for other substances, as blue vitriol,
answer muchbetter, and are not so
dangerous.

WHITE CEDAR. See Cedar.

WHITE CROPS. Grain crops;
the Cerealia. They are exhausting,
from the quantity of seed they form,
and are foul crops, from allowing
weeds to grow among them. White
crops require to be followed by clean
crops, and should be preceded by root
crops, as far as practicable.

WHITE-LEAD. Carbonate of
lead, a valuable pigment, but liable to
adulteration with sulphate of barytes.
This is detected by mixing a sample
with dilute nitric acid, which will dis-
solve all the true white -lead an0
leave the barytes. It is the basis of
all colours used in common painting.

WHITE PRECIPITATE. A vio-
lent mercurial poison, used in oint-
ments for destroying vermin.

WHITE ROOT. Aulepias tube-
roM. Colic or pleurisy root; but-
terfly weed. It is used in domestic
practice as a cathartic, diaphoretic,
and expectorant.

WHITE SCOUR. Diarrhoea.

WHITE THORN. The haw-
thorn.

WHITE TOP. Agrostis alba. A
grass very similar to red top.

WHITE SWELLING. An indo-
lent, acrofuloua tumour» usually aitr ;

I uated near the joints. It is very dif«
ficult to manage.

WHITE VITRIOL. Sulphate ol
sine. It is a powerful emetic, and is
also used in lotions.

WHITEWASH. Awash of milk
of lime with size, to enable it to ad-
here. Whitewashing not only im-
proves the appearance of wood- work,
but protects it from the weather and.
insects. It is a good means of puri-
fying rooms in which substances of a
bad odour have been stored.

WHITE WEED. The larger per-
ennial May weed {Ckrysanthcmum),
occurring in wheat Aelas and mead-
ows.
W'HITE WOOD. The tulip-trce.
WHITING. Prepared chalk, lor
cleaning brasses and silver.

WHITLOW. A painful inflamma-
tion near the bone, tending to suppu-
ration.

WHITLOW GRASS. The genus
Draba: cruciferous plants, some oi
which are ornamental.

WHORL. In botany, an arrange-
ment of leaves or other organs around
the stem, and apparently on the same
level, as the leaves of madder.

WHORTLEBERRY. The genus
Vacciniumf yielding the berries called
bilberries, huckleberries, and whor-
tleberries. The plants are small
shrubs, often evergreen, and growing
in rocky wastes or boggy places. The
leaves contain much tannin, and turn
red when dead. They are readily
propagated by root suckers, by root
or stem cuttings, or seed.

WICKET GATE. A small, light
gate for the passage of men and hor-
ses only, and not for wagons.

WILD INDIGO. Baptisia Undo-
ria. A perennial leguminous plant,
with wedge- ovate leaves, and yellow
terminal racemes, flowering in July.
It grows three feet high, is common
in the woods throughout the States,
and affords a good amount of indigo
dye.

WILDING. Young trees produ-
ced from seeds naturally distributed.
WILD PEAR. The June berry.
WILD RICE. Zizania aquatica
Water oats. See Riu^ 'mid.

863

WIN

"W ILLO W. The genos Salix, con -
taining thirty-five species indiieenous
to the United Slates. They are
amentaceous and diceciuus trees and
shrubs, growing for the most part in
swampy lands. The genus includes
large trees, as the iS. Babylonica.,
weeping-wiilow, and some shrubs of
only a few inches height. The light
and elegant appearance of many spe-
cies have introduced them into shrub-
beries and parks, as the S. viiclltna^
yellow willow ; S. alha, white willow ;
*S. RussfUianay the Leicester or Bed-
ford willow : the last is also valua-
ble for timber, the tannin of its bark,
and the proportion of salicine it con-
tains, and is therefore extensively
cultivated in England.

The wood of most of our willows
is of no service except for charcoal,
and of this they produce a kind pre-
ferred for the manufacture of gun-
powder. The commonest species are
5. nigra^ the root of which is very
bitter, and used as a domestic medi-
cine ; S, lucida, or shining willow,
the twigs of which are used for coarse
baskets. The bark of some kinds is
used for domestic dyeing, and produ-
ces a yellowish red colour. In the
north of Europe the iS. alba is put to
a variety of purposes : the bark is
employed for tanning and dyeing, and
the leaves and young shoots used as
fodder, both in the fresh and dried
state. See Osier ^ for basket willows ;
also Salloic. Nearly all the species
are readily propagated by cuttings
placed in a moist soil or well watered.

WILLOW HERB. The genus
EpUobium, perennial herbs, growing
in wet soils : a few are cultivated
for their flowers.

MALLOW LICE. Aphidiana, plant
lice.

WILLOW WEED. An annual
weed, Polygonum, lapeUhi/oliunij grow-
ing in wet, light, arable lands. The
aeed resembles a small buckwheat ;
they are relished by birds and hogs.

WINCH. A bent or rectangular
handle for turning an axis, attached
to grindstones, the windlass, and
other machines.

WIND. The motion of large por-
864

{ tion» of Btmospherio air. It occurs

, with a velocity differing from a few
miles to sixty or more miles the min-
ute. The origin of winds is usually
referred to the unequal temperature
imparted to the earth's surface by the
sun ; this not only varies with the
latitude, but with the elevation, geo-
logical character, and extern of wa-
ter, and, secondly, to the sudden con-
densation of large quantities of its
vapour. The excess io expansion of
the air produced at any place cau&es
an upward current, which affects the
bulk of air lying around, and gener-
ates a motioh from all points to the
centre. In seeking the centre, the
motion is spiral or centripetal, ac-
cording to the best theories. Winds
are of interest to the farmer from the
meteoric effects they produce, as
rain, snow, frost, increase of the
drying power, and hail. A body of
air in motion increases the evapora-
tion of water from the land and plants
even to double the extent of the or-
dinary action at the same tempera-
ture ; this increases their coldness,
and may produce frost even during a
mild season ; in hot, dry weather,
plants wither more rapidJj during
windy weather. For this reason,
tender plants require shelter from
rough winds. The character of any
wind is dependant upon the countrjr
over which it passes ; those which
sweep over hundreds of miles of the
sea or lakes are usually surcharged
with moisture, and produce rain if
they pass into a northern region, as
in the case of our southwestern
storms. Winds which sweep over
hot, dry deserts become simooms ;
their contact withers vegetation in a
few minutes. So winds produce
coldness which come from snowy
districts, and warmth when they come
from the 8outl>. The study of the
peculiarities of every wind, and the
season of its prevalence, is to the
farmer one of the roost important ob-
jects, and, taken in connexion with
the fluctuations of the barometer and
thermometer, will afler a time enable
him to foretell rain for many hours
before its appearance.

^tmana

WIN

WIND FLOWER. Anemong Ptr-
A wood flower.

WIND GAUGE. SeeAnftnonuter.

WliND IN HORSES. Respira-
tion. See Broken Wind.

WIND GALLS. Small tamoors
near the fetlocks of horses, produced
by strains and over-driving: they
contain a serous fluid. The animal
should have rest : astringent lotions
may be used, and a bandage applied
very tight. If they do not disappear,
a little blistering ointment may be
applied near them.

WINDLASS. A simple mechani-
cal contrivance, of the wheel and axle
kind, the winch, D C B, being the
representative of the wheel {Fig.).

In heavy windlasses, as those em-
ployed on shipboard, the axis is large,
and moved by levers inserted into
mortices cut into it at convenient
distances. A strong windlass, made
by taking the trunk of a tree for the
axis, and adjusting it lengthwise
against the stems of two trees, might
be used in tearing up stumps. This
axis should be pierced with mortices
and turned with handspikes ; it should
also be furnished with ratchets (pauls)
or wedges, to hinder it from turning
backward when the handspikes are
out. A strong chain made fast in the
stump, and to the windlass, will af-
ford a means of acting upon the for-
mer, and, by cutting the longest roots
at a little distance, it may be drawn
out sufficiently to permit the use of
the plough.

WINDMILL. "In mechanics, a
mill which receives its motion from
the wind. The building containing
the machinery is usually circular. To
the extremity of the principal axis, or
wind shaft, are attached rectangular
l^amea (generally five), on which
canvass is usually stretched to form
the sails. The surfaces of the sails

WIN

are not perpendicular to the axis, but
inclined to it at a certain angle, about
72^ at the extremities nearest to the
axle, and 83° at the farther extremi-
ties ; so that their form is in some
degree twisted, and diflferent from a
plane surface. The wind-shaft is in-
clined to the horizon in an angle of
from 8*> to 16°, principally with a
view to allow room for the action of
the wind at the lower part, where it
would be weakened if the sails came
too nearly in contact with the build-
ing.

" As the direction of the wind is
constantly changing, some apparatus
is required for bringing the axle and
sails into their proper position. This
is sometimes effected by supporting
the machinery on a strong vertical
axis, the pivot of which moves in a
socket firmly fixed in the ground, so
that the whole structure may be turn-
ed round by a lever. But it is now
usual to construct the building with
a moveable roof, which revolves upon
friction rollers ; and the shaft, being
fixed in the roof, is brought round
along with it. The roof is brought
into the required position by means
of a smali vane wheel, furnished with
wind sails, which turns round when
the wind strikes on either side of it,
and drives a pinion which works into
the teeth of a large crown wheel
connected with and surrounding the
moveable roof."

This is the vertical windmill, but
sometimes the sails are fixed on a
horizontal axis. Windmills are sel-
dom made because of their inferiority
to water and horse, or steam power
mills. The internal machinery is the
same as that of the water-mill.

WINDROW. A lino or row of
grass, peat, or produce exposed to
dry. The untiUed borders of a field.

WINE. See Vine,

WINE STONE. Crude tartar,
argal.

WINGS. Ala. In botany, the
side petals of pea-like flowers, the
membranous expansions of the seeds
of the ash, alanthus, parsnip, and oth-
cr seeds.

WINLESTRAWS. Bents, the

866

WIN

withered fluwcr-stalks of grasses
standing in meadows.

WINNOWING. The separation
of wheat or grain from chaff, an-
ciently performed by throwing np
shovelfuls into the air on a windy day,
bat now accomph'shed by the fan.

WINNOWING MACHINE. The
wheat or grain fan. A machine for
separating grain from chaff, and
cleaning wheat from cockle, cheat,
and other small seeds. It consists
of a frame-work enclosing a fan,
which is moTod by a crank and
wheel-work on the outside. The
grain falls from a hopper at the top
of the machine apon a sieve, to which
a jogging motion is given by the
crank ; in this way it is sifted from
stones or bodies larger than the grain.
The current of wind produced by the
fan blowing oyer the sieve drives ont
all light particles of chaff. The seeds
which pass down from the sieve fall
on the npper parts of an inclined
shaking screen of wire, set too close
for the transmission of plnrnp grains,
but allowing shrivelled seed, cockle,
dec, to pass through. A machine is
provided with three screens and
sieves to enable the farmer to use it
for different grain. Forty to fifty
bushels can be cleaned in an hour
with the common fans.

The English winnowing machines
are combined with smut machines,
and are therefore much more expen-
sive and complicated. The follow-
ing description is of Mr. Salter's pat-
ent:

"The undressed grain from the
hopper passes through a cylindrical
sieve, having within it a rotary spin-
dle, upon which short, blunt arms are
arranged in a spiral direction ; these
agitate the grain as it passes along,
and thus separate the small dirt ami
dust as welt as the awns of barley,
which fall through in a closed box or
cupboard. The cylinder is placed in
a slanting direction, and is provided
at each end with slides, which regu-
late the quantity and speed with
which the grain shall pass. Through
the slide aperture at the lower end,
the grain is xntrodaeed upon other

WIR

8ieve.% which, having a backward and
forward motion, distribute it equally
over their surface, when it is sub-
jected to the blast of the fan, dririag
obliquely through the sieves; this
carries >he chaff out of the machine ;
the grain falls on a screen, triuch,
having a similar motion to the sieves,
separates from it ail small seeds, and
the dross com is carried away in a
division formed for the purpose. The
grain, dross corn, and chaff are thus
all thorougly separated from each
other, and the dust, dirt, and small
seeds, having fallen in an enclosed
box from the cylinder, oiay be entire-
ly removed."

WINTER BERRY. Prinos wr-
iieiiUuU. False alder, a shrub of fom*
to eight feet, with permanent red ber-
ries, adapted to shrubberies.

WINTER CRESS. Barbara pro-
eox. An indigenous, perennial, cru-
ciferous plant, growing in the Nor-
thern and Eastern States, near spring
branches. It is very similar to wa-
ter-cress, but moro pungent in fla-
vour. B. vulgaris, also indigenous,
is the water-radish, or rocket.

WINTER GREEN. The genos
CUmapkila ; pretty Alpine plants.
They are perennial, with long roots,
and grow in the shade of woods. The
C umbeUtUa, pipsissiwa, is used in
domestic medicine as a tonic and as-
tringent.

WINTER PROUD. A terra ap-
plied to wheat or barley which ap-
pears too forward in winter, and
hence frequently gets injured, and
yields a poor harvest.

WIPERS. " In some kinds of ma-
chinery, as oil mills, powder mills,
fulling mills, pieces projecting gen-
erally from horizon tai axles, for the
purpose of raising stampers, pound-
ers, or heavy pistons, in vertical di-
rections, and then leaving them to
fall by their own weight. The prin-
cipal object to be attended to in the
construction of wipers is to give them
such a form that the weight shall be
raised with a uniform force and ve-
locity."

WIRE GRASS. Several grasses
are so called, but the true wire grass

WOA

fa the Sleatiiu Indict, an annual, flow-
ering in spikes.

WIRE WORM. Elatir tcgclit.
See Imecu. The fuUowing plan for
the destruction or trire-worma la bj
a practical Tarnner, Mr. Tarrant : He
deans the infeatetl held of all weeds '
and roots, and drills while mustard
seed, keeping the land hoed, and fay I
the end of the season finds tlie worms
entirely gone. — {Britith Farm. Mag.,
1831.)

WISP. A smalt bundle of hay or

WITHE. A flexible twig or bough.

WITHERITE. Mineral carbonate
of baryta. I

WITHERS. The high portion ofi
nn animal's hack ovpr the shonlders. I
Honu-'s with high withers are said \
to have (be fore hand well up^ they
go high above the grnnnd, anil are
quick and safe. In draught horses
the breadth or weight of the fore
hand is desirable.

The word is sometimes applied to
the womb of the cow. Calling the
vUhera is inversion and protrusion of
the womb. It should be retorned hy
the hand and arm, and maintained in
its plare by a roll of linen introduced
into the vagina in a wet state. The
animal must be kept quiet and free
from fever.

W 0 A D. Itatii lincloria. See
Fig. "It has been greatly superseded

hj indigo, which gives a attonger

WOA

and finer bine; but on some soils it
might be still cultivated lu great ad-
Yaniage, especiallyas it is said to im-
prove ttie quality and colour of indi-
go when mixed with it in a certain
proporl:on,

"The noad ia a plant of the natu-
ral order of the Craci/cra. It has a
sIningtBp-roal.whicblaHtBtwoyears.
The height of iho plant, when in per-
fection, IS from three to four feel. It
throws out many branches from the
Dpper part of the stem. The leaves
are alternate and smooth. The flow-
ers are yellow, in panicles at the eX'
tremity of the branches. I'ho Iruit is
a heart-shaped pod, with two valvea,
containing one seed only. It grows
well on thcborders,of the Baltic, and
is very hardy.

" It is still cultivated to a consid-
erable extent in the south of Franc«
Flanders. It requii'Cs a good
substantial soil of considerable depth
andfenility: for the larger anil more
numerous the leaves are, the more
profit is derived from the plant. A,
wet elay soil is not at all suited to
1(3 growth, nor a loose saody one.

" When it was largely cultivated in
England, old paaturea jrioughed np

^uid be naturally very rich,

much manure should be intimately
iiuxed with it some time before. No-
thing bat completely decomposed
duDg should be used, or compost
made on purpose a long time before.
"The land, having been prepared
by repeated pkiughings, and perfectly
clean, is laid into narrow beds with
deep intervals. On these beds the
seed is sown as early in spring as
possible. ItisBometimessownbroad-
cast, and ibe plants thinned out ; but
sowing it in dtiUs, two rows on a
four-feet bed, is much the beat prae-
tiee. The driUs are one foot from the
edge, with two feet clear between
tbeiQ : some make five-feel beds, and
there is an inteml of thirty inches
between the rows, which allows of
better cleaoing, and givea the plants
more ro«n to spread. When the
I plants aro come up in. the rows, ttMf
867

WOAD.

must be thinned out by hand, leaTini^
the strongest about two feet apart :
the leaves will soon fill up the inter-
vals. They begin to ripen in June.
They are fit to gather when they be-
gin to droop and become yellowish :
This should be done in very dry weath-
er, and after the dew is oflT. The
leaves of the woad are either twisted
off close to the stems, or cut down
with a sickle. Great care must be
taken that no dirt or earth adheres to
them. Some recommend taking off
the lower leaves first, when they ap-
pear ripe by drooping and turning
yellow, and letting the upper leaves
remain till they show the same ap*
pearance ; then nothing but ripe
leaves will be gathered. This strip-
ping may be repeated two or three
times, as the leaves grow again. The
plants destined for seed are only strip-
ped once or twice, for fear of weak-
ening them. It might probably be ad-
vantageous not to strip them at all,
but to leave the whole strength for
the formation of the seed, which will
be larger and produce finer plants the
next year.

** The first gathering of the leaves
is the best ; they should therefore be
kept separate, to obtain the best dye-
As soon as the leaves arc gathered
the beds should be well and deeply
hoed or dug, to give a fresh impulse
to the roots.

" The leaves are naturally full of
sap, and soon begin to decompose if
laid in a heap. They should there-
fore be partially dried, and imme-
diately carried to the mill to be man-
ufactured.

♦* There is a variety of this plant
cultivated in Flanders and about Va-
lenciennes, which has seeds of a
violet colour, and the leaves very
smooth ; it is larger than the other,
and gives a belter dye. It is that
which is cultivated near Avignon,
whence the best woad dye is procu-
red. The leaves are ground in a mill,
like an oil mill, into a paste, which,
when quite uniform and smooth, is
laid in heaps under a shed, and pressed
with tlie hands or feet into a mass :
each addition is carefully joined to
668

the preceding, so that the wbole crop

forms a long heap. A fermentation
is soon established, by which the blue
dye is separated. A black crast is
formed all over the heap, which keeps
in the gases produced. If any part
of this crust is cracked, it must be
immediately stopped up with some
of the paste. It takes a fortnight to
complete the operation. W'hen the
disengagement of gas ceases, which
is soon perceived by the smell, the
heap is broken up, the crust is mixed
with the inside, and small portions,
like bricks of about one pound weight,
are made up with the bands by press-
ure in a mould, which, wiien dry,
are fit for sale. As great attention
is required both in the growing and
preparing of the woad, it is best done
by those who make a trade of it,
and have the necessary experience.
When the crop sucoeeds, the profit
is very considerable ; but, like all oth-
er crops, it is liable to many acci-
dents.

"Woad is often shamefully ad<il-
terated with earth and other impuri-
ties. In Germany the process of pre-
paring the woad is somewhat differ-
ent. The leaves are first washed,
and then put into a tub three quarters
full of water, and kept under water
by blocks of wood laid on them. The
fermentation soon begins, and is
shown by a blue scum on the water.
When it has gone on to a certain
point, the water is drawn off below,
and it comes away of a deep green.
It is strained through a chith, the re-
maining leaves are washed with fresh
water, and this is added to the first.
Lime-water is now added, in the pro-
portion of two or three pounds for
every ten pounds of leaves used, and
the mixture is well shaken for some
time ; the dye is deposited in the
form of a powder, as starch is ; the
water is decanted off, and the thick
part at the bottom is filtered through
very fine cloths ; the powder which
remains is washed repeatedly, t.ll the
water comes off without being dis-
coloured. The residue is cut into
squares and set to dry. If there is too
much water added^ the dye is infe-

woo

lior; and if not cnoogh, there is less
of it. The exact quantity can only be
decided by practice and experience.
"The seed will vegetate when two
years old» bnt cannot be depended on
after that.

" Woad is also occasionally sown
as food for cattle ; and as everything,
old and new, has been brought for-
ward by the late renewed zeal for
agriculture, it has been recommend-
ed for this purpose under its French
name of * Pastel.* Its vigorous
growth and hardy nature have rec-
ommended it ; but it will only grow
in very rich soils. There are many
other plants as vigorous and hardy,
which will thrive well in inferior
soils, and therefore are to be pre-
ferred. But for its dye, this plant
is well worthy of tiie attention of
those who have good rich and deep
soils."

WOLF. On the prairies much loss
is sustained by shepherds from the
attacks of wolves ; these may be de-
stroyed in the same way as the fox,
or poisoned by sprinkling twenty
grains of arsenic on some oSal placed
in their way. Some use a quarter of
a grain of itrychnine^ inserted in a
piece of meat.

WOLF'S BANE. Monk's hood.
WOLLASTONITE. A species of
prismatic augite.

WOOD. The substance of the
trunk of exogenous trees ; it consists
of an internal hard and coloured por-
tion, the heart-wood (duramen), and I

an external, softer, and more perish-
able part, the new wood, sap wood,
or alburnum. It consists of woody
fibre and ducts. (See Timber, and the
different trees.) The composition of
oak wood, according to Gay Lussac,
is, carbon, 62-5 ; oxygen, 4J 8 ; hy-
drogen, 5 7 per cent. Wood decays
slowly, and yields water and carbonic
acid when in contact with air.

WOOD ASHES. The saline bod-
ies of trees : they are obtained for
their potash. Oak and hickory ashes
contain from twenty to twenty-five
per cent, of real potash, and yield the
best ashes. As a manure, ten bush-
els of fresh ashes to the acre in com-

4D2

WOO

post are enough, but if nnleaehed,
twenty or more may be employed.
See Ashes and Potash.
WOODBINE. The honeysuckle.
WOOD SORREL. The genus
Oxalis, the leaves of which are sour,
and contain oxalate of potash: they
grow in rich, shady places. Many
species bear beautiful flowers.
WOOD WASPS. The saw tiea.
WOODWAXEN. Genista tinclo-
ria. Dyer's broom, a perennial legu-
minous plant, with yellow flowers,
growing one foot high, leaves lanceo-
late, smooth, stem round, upright,
without spines. It is exotic, but
grows readily in the Northern and
Eastern States. The plant in flower
yields a yellow dye, which is fixed
by solution of tin or acetate of alu-
mina. It may be readily raieed from
seed, in drills a foot apart, and the
plants kept clean by the cultivator.

WOODY FIBRE. Very slender,
tapering cellular tissue, containing
lignin, and forming, when compacted
together, the tough fibre of hemp, flax,
and vegetables, as well as the bulk
of wood.

WOOL. Hair which is somewhat
curled and possesses the quality of
felting ; this results from numerous
serratures on the staple. For the
qualities of wool, see Sheep. The
value of wool depends upon the fine-
ness, felting quality, and trueneas of
the staple, which are explained in th«
article on Sheep ; bnt the quality of a
fleece is not the same throughout : it
is, indeed, divisible into four parcels.
In some parts of Europe it is the cus-
tom for the farmer to make the sep.
aration, but in the United States this
is left to the manufacturers. The
only preparation necessary is to re-
move burs, tags, and the coarse hairs
of the legs, which is done before
shearing. The sheep is washed a
week or ten days before shearing, in
a cistern or trough, or, what is prefer-
able, a running stream ; the tags are
first removed, and the washing made
perfect by squeezing the wool. In
the case of Merino bucks a little soft
soap may be used, for the cleaner
the wool the higher the price obtain-

S69

WOOL.

ed. In Spain, it is the castom to
sweat the sheep the night before
shearing, by keeping as large a num-
ber as can be crowded together in a
hut : the wool is removed the next
day without being washed, that op-
eration being conducted afterward.
The wool is first sorted into three
parcels ; in some places these parcels
contain the differei\t qualities : 1st,
superfine picklock (re/ina), taken from
the back, flanks, and sides of the
neck; 2d, fine iJina), from the
breast, belly, sides of the haunches,
and upper part of the neck ; 3d.
third kind (tercera), from the cheeks,
upper part of the throat, the fore legs
above the knee, the hams, and back
of the haunches ; the fourth quality,
or caydUf is refhse, and is from the
tail, rump, lower parts of the legs, and
between the legs. The assorted par-
cels are hence treated separately:
first they are beaten on hurdles ; then
placed in vats containing water heat-
ed to 120° Fahrenheit, where they
are stirred with sticks ; then removed
to drain and transferred to a running
stream ; here the wool is pressed by
the feet of the workmen, and finally
thrown out lo dry on the grass : in a
few days of hot. dry weather it be-
comes sufficiently dry to be packed.
When sheep are washed, as with us,
the wool is by no means so clean ;
indeed, Spanish Merino wool by
scouring only loses ten per cent.,
whereas American Merino loses for-
ty per cent. The washed sheep are
transferred to clean meadows, and if
fed in sheds, they should be laid with
clean straw. If the weather be fine,
in a week the fleece will be dry, and
a new secretion of yolk will have in-
creased its weight.

The shearing must be postponed
to fine, warm, settled weather, and
may take place in a well-lighted barn,
the floor of which is spread with
straw and then covered with a can-
vass ; but a clean sward is well
enough. (See 9h€a ring.) The fleece
is to be removed carefully, the wool
cut truly, and not clipped irregularly,
but severed with each stroke of the
•hears. A good workman can man-
670

age 85 to 80 aheep a dsf of the Me

rino breed. All tags, burs, and hah
about the legs should be removed
before bringing the sheep od the can-
vass, which is to be done with man-
agement, and not violently. Tlie re-
moval of hair is importaAt, as it af-
fords slielter to ticks, and may hide
d iseases of the skin. After shearings,
the sheep should be classified, accord-
ing to the wool they produce, their
healthiness and form, and marked so
as to carry out the views of their
owner. They may be marked with
a hot iron on the forehead, or with
an ointment of lampblack and lard :
tar is objectionable oo the wool-bear-
ing parts.

The fleeces are piled one on the
other until the shearing is done ; or
they may be removed by a new hand,
and carried to a table, one by one, to
be rolled. With each fleece the loose
locks are taken, but the hair of the
legs separated and placed in a bag or
elsewhere. The fleece is carefully
spread out on the table, the ragged
portions on the edges are separated,
and, with all the loose wool, thrown
into the middle. The workman next
presses the sides inward, so as to
condense the wool; the sides and
ends are thea turned over, so that
the folded fleece forms an ohlong two
or three feet long and one and a half
feet wide ; this is drawn to the front
edge of the table and rolled, during
which the assistance of a boy is ne-
cessary to press the wool together
and condense it; the roll is finally
tied with a stout twine. The fleeces
are preserved in a well- ventilated loft.
When sold, they are put up in hales :
these are made of burlaps ; a piece
of a yard wide and three yards long
is used for a sack. The sack is kept
open by a hoop, and the fleeces press-
ed down by a man until the bag is
nearly full ; it is then made up and
sewed along the top.

The weight of a fleece, and the price
it fetches in the market per pound,
are subject to considerable difierence.
The following represents the average
fleece : Saxons. 2 to 3 lbs. ; Merinos,
2i lo 3 lbs. ; South Downs, 8 to 4 lbs. ;

woo

new Leioesters, 6 to 7 lbs. ; Cots*
wolds, 7 to 8 lbs. ; Lincolns, 8 to 10
lbs. The price of wool per pound, as
reported in 1845, was, Saxony, 35 to
50 cents ; pure Merino, 30 to 85
cents; half-blood Merino, 25 to 30
cent« ; common country sheep, 20 to
25 cents. The wool of the English
kinds are not separated, but are worth
aboat the same as the half-breed Me-
rinos.

WOOL-GROWING. In the arti-
cle Food, we remarked that provender
differed in its effects, some kinds, as
the oily seeds, producing rapid fatten-
ing ; others, as the dry grains, serv-
ing to sustain strength. The fod-
ders best calculated to increase the

WOR

weight of wool may be ascertained
theoretically by considering the com-
position of that staple (see Woollen
Rags) ; it is there seen that 100 lbs., in
the ordinary state, contain 17*7 nitro-
gen, a quantity unusually large. The
inference is, therefore, that azotized
or nitrogen food is best calculated for
the increase of wool, and that pease,
beans> rye, barley, may be judiciously
given. On this point theory is also
abundantly confirmed by the experi-
ments of M. de Raumer, of Silesia.
The following table exhibits the value
of 1000 lbs. of various fodders in in
creasing the live weight, producing
wool and tallow: the sheep were
Saxons :

IncmM of

Pnodoeeil

Produced

Nitrocen

Xinds or food.

weight in
lire animal.

woot

Ullow.

per ceaU
ia Ciod.

ttM.

OS.

Iha. OS.

1000 pouuds

ol niw putatoei, witb sail . . .

464

12 5*
10 H

0-36

1000

" •« withontwat .

0-36

1000

nw maagold wcnel . . .

6 ft

asi

1000
1000

PAAfO ••••••'•••

134
195

14
13

41 6

3-83
S09

wheat

134 59 0

1000

rye, with talt ......

14 35 Hi

SOO

1000

TjB, without salt

10 >33 ti

SOO

1000
1000

oats , . . ■ . . • . .

146
136

0
11

12 40 6
04 60 1

1-70
1-90

barley

1000

buckwheat

130

33 6

210

1000

good hay

hay, with itraw, without other

12 14

115

lOOO

fodder

6 11

1000

whiskey still-graiQs or waeh .

4 0

The daily ration of the sheep is
regulated in the same way as for cat-
tle ; two per cent, of the weight be-
ing allowed for those in an ordinary
.8tate, and more for such as are put
up to fatten ; 2 to 2}^ lbs. of hay, or
its equivalent in other fodders, are
about the average. In M. de Rau-
mer's experiments the animals Were
permitted to eat all they would, and
the result shows that they took each
daily of potatoes, sliced, 7 lbs., with
straw ; mangold, 8 lbs., with straw ;
pease and beans, 2 lbs. : these should
be soaked in water or steamed, to en-
able the sheep to chew them ; wheat,
rye, barley, oats, from 2 to 2i lbs. ;
buckwheat, 3 lbs. : in every instance
where dry fodders were given, the
animals required two or three quarts
of ivatef

WOOLLEN JUGS. They are
used as maDore, at the rate of half a
Utii to the acre, either alone» chop-

ped into pieces not exceeding half an
inch square, or in compost . The hop,
tobacco, turnips, and plants requiring
much putrescent manure, are most
benefited. Wool is almost identical
in composition with hair, horns, and
feathers : it consists of 50*6 carbon ;
70 hydrogen ; 17*7 nitrogen, and 24-7
oxygen, with a very small amount
of ash. The rags alone will show
good effects for four or five years.
In their decay, 100 pounds produce
20 pounds of ammoia, which is liber-
ated in the form of carbonate. When
rotted in compost^ 200 pounds will be
enough to the acre, spread as a top-
dressing on growing plants.

WOOL SHEARS. Sheep shears.

WORM. A common name for cat-
erpillars and the tribe Vermes. See
Cut Worm, Wire Worm,

WORMING. An operation per-
formed on puppies, consisting in the
remoTfilfof a vermiform ligamentfrom

871

wou

7AM

under the tongue: it is sometimes
supposed to prevent madness, but, in
fact, merely breaiis them of their hab-
it of gnawing.

WORM SEED. Goosefoot, Jeru-
salem oak. An oil is distilled from
the seeds, and called worm-seed oil :
it is exceedingly nauseous, and is giv-
en to children in the dose of five to
ten drops, and followed by cathartics.
• See Goosefoot.

WORMS, INTESTINAL. There
are many species infesting animals,
especially horses. ITie principal are
bot9; lumbricu or round, long worms,
resembling the earth worm: ascaridcsy
which are slender and with flattened
heads, and tania, or tape worms.

The effects of worms are soon seen
in the health of animals; they get
poor, low-spirited, and weak, notwith-
standing their appetite is often vo-
racious. As soon as these symptoms
are discovered, measures must be ta-
ken for the expulsion of the worms :
this is not easily accomplished, but
purgatives containing calomel, jalap,
and aloes are must effective. The
tape worm must be previously killed
. by doses of turpentine ; for this pur-
pose, a wine-glassful should be giv-
en at intervals of six hours, three
or four times, until portions of the
worm are evacuated by the purge.
Sec BotSy Horse.

WORMWOOD. The genus Arte-
misiat including southernwood, mug-
wort, 6iC. They are composite, bit-
ter perennials, with a strong, rank
odour, and have been much used as
tonic bitters, and some species are
vermifuges. Common wontiwood is
A. absinthium : the French flavour a
cordial with it. The seeds of any of
the species grow readily in the Uni-
ted States : they are also propagated
by root slips.

WOR r. A decoction of malt ; an
old rjame for an herb.

WOULFE'S APPARATUS. A
series of two or three necked Iwttles,
connected by intermediate tubes, used
in the chemical laboratory for impreg-
nating water and other liquids with
various gases or vapours.

WOUND. A division of the soft
872

parts. If it be a clean cat or incised
wound, all that is necessary is to
wash the parts with tepid water to
remove all dirt, and bring the sides
of the w^ound together with sticking
plaster. Torn and contused wounds
do nut heal so kindly, but often run
into suppuration. If an artery be di-
vided, it is first to be tied with a silk
thread before the wound is dosed.

WOUNDWORT. The genus
Stachysy weeds of little account.

WROUGHT. Materials which
have been brought to a surface by
hammering or other labour.

XANTHINE (from favOof, yelleit).
A yellow colouring principle in mad-
der.

XANTHOPHYL (from ^avOor, and
((tv?.?^oVi a leaf). The yellow colour-
ing matter of autumnal foliage.

XYLITE (from ^v?.ot>, wood), Lig-
noncy an empyreumatic spirit exist-
ing in the products of vinegar distil-
led from wood.

XYLOPHAGANS, XYLOPHA-
GA (from ^Xov, and ^y«, I eat). A
tribe of coleopterous insects, compre-
hending those of which the larvae de-
vour the wood of trees in which they
are developed ; also applied to a fam-
ily of dipterous insects, the larvie
of which have similarly destructive
habits.

XYLOPHILANS, XILOPHILI
(from fvAov, and ftAeu, I love). A
tribe of beetles, consisting of those
which live bn decayed wood.

XYLOTROGES, XYLOTROGI
(from ^^ov, and rpuyo, I gnaw). A
tribe of serrictfrn beetles, compre-
.heading those which perforate timber.

YAK. The Himalayan bison, re-
sembling the bufTalo, three a.nd a half
feet high, and with ^ne, long hair.

YAM. The tuber of the Dioscorea
saliva.^ alaia, and other species. It is
similar to the sweet potato, but much
larger. The cultivation is the same,
only that a stake is driven near each
plant, to allow the stem to climb.

YAM ROOT. JHoacarta vOUua,

TEL

YEL

An indii^enons perennta] climbing
plant, of the same genus as the yam.

YARD DUNG. Farm-yard ma-
nure.

YARD OF LAND. A measure
varying from 15 to 34 acres.

YARROW. The genus AchUUa.
Bitter, aromatic weeds, of the com-
posite family. They are wholesome,
and are foand in good pastures, es-
pecially A. millefolium^ common yar-
row. They have been recommended
for cultivation.

YEARLINGS. Calves and other
stock one year old.

YEAST, BARM. The substance
produced during the vinous ferment-
ation of vegetable juices and decoc-
tions, rising partly to the surface, in
the form of a frothy, flocculent, and
somewhat viscid mattetf insoluble in
water and alcohol, and gradually pu-
trefying in a warm atmosphere. It
excites fermentation, and accelerates
the process when added to saccha-
rine liquors. It is changed gluten
and other protein compounds in in-
cipient decomposition.

Artificial yeast, or that made with-
out recourse to the introduction of a
portion of yeast, is very important in
families. The following recipe gives
a good yeast : Boil a handful of bops
in three pints of water; add three
mashed boiled potatoes, strain, and
mix with a cupful of flour; set aside
to cool, and then add a tea-spoonful
of sugar, and bottle up for use. A
more permanent ferment is made by
boiling a quantity of wheat bran and
hops in water ; the decoction is not
long in fermenting, and when this
has taken place, throw in a sui£cient
portion of bran to form the wh61o into
a thick paste, which work into balls,
and aAerward dry by a slow heat.
When wanted for use, they are bro-
ken, and boiling water is poured upon
them ; having stood a proper time,
the fluid is decanted, and in a flt state
for leavening bread. In the place of
bran, Indian corn meal may be used,
if a little of a previous ferment be
broken up in the mass.

YELLOW DYES. Persian her-
ries, weld, quercitron bark, fustic,

turmeric, dyer's broom, annotta, wil-
low leaves, berberry roots, are the
principal vegetable dyes. Chrome
yellow, oxide of iron, sulphurets of
antimony and arsenic, and nitric acid
are obtained from the mineral king-
dom. Solutions of alum and tin are
used as mordants.

YELLOW FEVER. A bilious re-
mittent fever of a malignant kind.
It attacks animals as well as men,
but does not so readily destroy them.
Large doses of calomel, with bleed-
ing, in the earliest stages, form the
best treatment ; but in the later sta-
ges the system is often so prostrated
that it requires sustenance from spir-
ituous liquors and carbonate of am-
monia.

YELLOW RATTLE. The weed
Rhinanthtts erisiagalli.

YELLOWS. Jaundice, irritation
of the liver, attended with a yellow-
ness of the eyeballs. A calomel
purge is necessary, and bleeding, if
there be fever.

YELLOWS IN TREES. This,
which is called a disease of trees, is
only an eflTect produced by different
causes, such as plant lice, worms at
the root or in the bark, and improper
soils. The leaves turn yellow, and nu-
trition being cut off, they usually die.
Whenever this symptom is seen du-
ring early summer, the tree should
be thoroughly examined, to ascertain
the cause, and treated accordingly.
Scraping the bark, making an incis-
ion from the branches to the root, and
washing the stem, root, and large
branches with solution of whale-oil
soap may be found serviceable. Plant
lice are to be smoked with tabacco.
See Plant Lice, Borers, and Scale In-
sects. Peach trees are very liable to
this ailment in the Northern States.

YELLOW SEED. Theweed
Thlaspi campeslre, false flax, mithri-
date mnstard, a cruciferous annual
with mustard-flavoured pods, which
abounds in flax fields, and is very
troublesome. It can only be avoided
by screening the flax seed carefully,
and omitting the cultivation of flax
for a season, introducing cleaning or
hoed crops instead.

873

YOL

ZEO

YELLOW TOP. White top.

AgTostis alba.

YELLOW WASH. An applica-
tion to ulcers. It is made by adding
a drachm of lime-water to two grains
of corrosive sublimate dissolved in
one ounce of water.

YELLOW WEED. The butter-
cups, or RanuneuluSf are so called.

YELLOW WOOD. Virgtlia lutea.
A raedium-sixed leguminous tree of
West Tennessee, seldom attaining
forty feet, and growing in rich, deep
soils. The leaves are large, smooth,
pinnate ; the flowers in pendulous
clusters, like the locust, and white.
It is a highly ornamental tree, and
an infusion of the bark affords a yel-
low dye.

YEW. The genus Taxus, conif-
erous trees and shrubs, with ever-
green, small leaves, of slow growth,
but producing very hard, strong wood,
formerly reputed for bows, and now
used in cabmet-work. The T. bac-
cata is the yew-tree ; the T. Canaden-
sis is a shrub of five feet. They make
good hedges, but the leaves are poi-
sonous.

YOKE. A frame of wood fixed
with bows over the necks of oxen,
whereby they are coupled together,
or yoked. It is sometimes written
**yoak," and is composed, 1. Of a thick
piece of wood that passes over the
neck, and^ is properly called the
" yoke ;'' 2l Of a bow, which encom^
passes the neck ; and, 3. Of the
♦' wreathings," or " stitchings,'* that
serve to connect the whole. Besides
these parts, there are employed a
ring, denominated the "yoke-ring,"
and a chain for securing the traces.
For a new method of yoking, see Ox
Yoke.

Yoke is also an old measure of
land, the quantity ploughed in a day
by a couple of oxen.

YOLK. The yellow of the e%^.
An animal soap, also called gum, se-
creted by the skin of sheep, and per-
vading the wool. Tlie finest fleeces
contain most yolk, especially that of
the Merinos. It is readily softened
by warm water, and may be washed .
out without trouble; but there i«.|
874

mains an oil among the wool, which

is only separated with troable. The
amount varies from twenty to fifty
per cent, of the fleece, and is most in
warm climates and fine fleeces.

YTTRIUM. The metallic base of
yttria, a rare earth resembliii^ alu-
mina.

YUCCA. Adam^s needle, bear's
grass. ' A genus of shrubby, Uliaceoiis
plants, with large, rigid leaves, inhab-
iting the sandy soa-ooaats of Georgia
and the South. The Sisal hemp is
of this genus, and the leaves of all
the species may be wrought into a
long staple. The Y. gloriosa, petrc,
is celebrated for its magnificent in-
florescence, and yields strong hemp.
The roots of some species altf>nnd in
farina, and were used by the Indians
for food.

YULE. Christmas.

2AMIA. A genus of cycadeoas
trees, the stems of which yield a kind
of sago. The Z. iniegrifolia and Z.
pumila grow in Floriiii, and furnish
sago, or what is improperly called ar
row-root.

ZAPZIEGER CHEESE. Sap
sago. See Cfuese.

ZEA. The generic n^ne of the
Indian com (Z. mays).

ZEBRA. The zebra is of the size
and general appearance of the mule,
but with a skin striped with brown, or
black and white : it has not been do-
mesticated.

ZEDOARY. Curcuma Zedoaria.
An East Indian plant, of the same
family as the ginger, but producing
rhizomes not quite as pungent.

ZECKSTEIN. A magnesian
limestone, lying below the red sand-
stone.

ZEIN. The azotized product of
Indian com, similar to albumen.

ZENITH. The vertical point in
the sky of any place ; the point im-
med lately overhead.

ZEOLITE. A family of minerals
which fuse and boil before the blow-
pipe ; they arc silicates of alumina
and lime, or soda with water. The
soda zeolite is called NatroiUe.

ZIZ

zoo

ZERO. Nothing; it is used to
desigoate the 0° point of graduated
scales, as the thermometer, areome-
ter, and usually means a degree equal
to a given test ; thus, the zero of the
areometer is the specific gravity of
pore water at 69° Fahr. ; the zero
of Fahrenheit's thermometer is the
temperature of snow mixed with
salt. The zero of the Centigrade
and Reaumer scales is the freezing
point. Degrees above zero are plus
(-1-), below it minus ( — ).

ZERUMBET. An East Indian
rhizome, similar to ginger.

ZIMOME. That part of the glu-
ten of wheat which is insoluble in al-
cohol.

ZINC. Spelter. A valuable met-
al for rooting and the construction
of vessels, such as arc made of tin
plate, than which it is more durable
and stronger. In chemistry, it is of
great use for the construction of gal-
vanic circles and batteries, forming
the positive surface or pole of single
circles. It is rapidly acted on by the
strong acids, and forms an oxide
vhich combines with most acids. Of
its salts, the nulphate^ or white vit-
riol, is most employed ; it is emetic
and irritant, and used chiefly in lo-
tions. See Pharmacopaia. Calamine
is an impure native carbonate of zinc.
Tutty is an impure artificial oxide.

ZINCOUS, ZINCOID, ZINCODE.
Resembling zinc. This term is used
to designate any metal or other body
which, in a galvanic circle, occupies
the place of the zinc. It is the same
aa positive metal or pole, positive
electrode, anode, and the derivatives.
Zincolysis means the same as elec-
trolysis ; zincoli/tet as electrolyte.
These terms are indeed to be prefer-
red over those previously in exist-
ence, because they refer to the zinc
element, or its substitute, as the ori-
gin of the galvanic action.

ZINGIBER. The generic name
of the ginger plant {Z. officinalis).

ZIRCONIUM. A rare metal, the
base of zirconium.

ZIZANI A. WUd rice. See Rice,

ZIZiPHUS. The generic uame of

the shrubs yielding the jujube {Z.ju
juba).

ZONE (from ^wvi;, a belt). A worn
much used by naturalists to denote a
band or stripe running around any
object. In geography, a division of
the earth's surface. There are five
great zones. The tropic or torrid
zone^ occupying the central or equa-
torial regions of the earth to a dis-
tance of 23^ degrees north and south,
and therefore having a width of 47
degrees. The north temperate zone
lies between 23J N. lat. and 66^ N.
lat., and occupies 43° of latitude. The
south temperate zone lies in the same
space on the south side of the globe.
The north and south frigid zones oc-
cupy the space beyond 66^ degrees
to the poles : they are also called the
arctic and antarctic regions.

ZOOLOGY (from ^ufov^ an animal
and Aoyof, a discourse). The history
and classification of animals. The
objects of the animal kingdom are so
extremely various that a classifica-
tion of them is one of the severest
labours. Numerous suggestions have
been made as a basis for classifica-
tion, but the advance of knowledge
has shown them all to be w^anting in
comprehensiveness. When it is re-
membered that under the term ani-
mal is grouped thousands of species
differing from the scarcely organized
and imperceptible dots of jelly called
monads, to the most complicated quad-
rupeds, the difficulties of classifica-
tion will be apparent. The following
view by Profiessor Owen is the most
complete we have seen.

In this there are four primary di-
visions, or sub-kingdoms : 1. Verte-
hrtUay or animals furnished with a
regular back bone ; 2d. Articulata,
animals which contain no internal
skeleton, but are covered with a crust
or shell made of distinct parts or ar-
ticulations, as the lobster ; 3d. Mol-
luscay animals destitute of skeleton or
articulations, but usually inhabiting
shells ; and, 4th. Radtatay animals of
the lowest organization, destitute of
an internal respiratory organ, and
having a nervous system composed
oi mere Unes, which are often radia-

875

zoo

ZYM

ted from a centre. These sab-king-
doms contain each seyeral classes, as
may be seen in the table.

Kingdom Animalia.

Sub-kingdom Vertebrata*

Class Mammalia, nuunmaU.
Atbs, birds.
KsPTLLiA, reptiles.
ViicmMy fishes.

Sub-kingdom ArticulaUL

Class Ceustacxa, such as lobsters.
Arachnioa, spiders.
Insgcta, insects.
Anellata, vorms.
Cirripeoia, barnacles.

Sub-kingdom MoUusca,

Class Cephalopoda, with a cartilagi-
nous head.

Gastbropoda, with an organ
for locomotion situated under
the stomach, as the snail.

PtEROPODA, organs of locomo-
tion two membranous fins,
situated at the sides of the
neck.

Lambllibrarchiata, without
head, the gills disposed in
bands, as oysters.

Brachiopoda, without head, en-
closed in a mantle, with two
fleshy arms.

TuNioATA, without head, with-
out shell, covered with a
membrane.

Sub-kingdom Radiata,

Nematoneura, nerves apparent.

876

Aerita, nerves rudimentary.
Class EcRiNODERMA (Cuvier), those
furnished with a crust.

AcA LBPH A (CuvierXtikoee which
are without crust.

C<ELELifxirrRA (Owen), Enlo-
zoa, with a distinct alimen-
tary canal.

Stbrelmintha (Owen), witboat
a separate abdominal cavity,
hydatids.

CxLioBBAcmATA (F^FTe), with a
distinct abdomen and anus.

NuniBRACHiATA (Farre), corals
withoot intestines or sepa-
rate anus.

RoTTPBRA (Ehrenb.), Infusoria,
furnished with a nervous sys-
tem, a distinct abdominal
cavity, and ciilis around the
mouth.

PoLYGASTRA (Ebronb.), Infuso-
ria, a simile jelly containing
many cavities or stomachs.

ZOONOMY. General animal
physiology.

ZOOPHYTES, ZOOPHYTA (from
fcM>v, and ^vTov, a ptatU). Plant-like
animals, as the corals, corallines,
sponges.

ZUMIC ACID. An acid found in
sour bread, and other vegetable bod-
ies, resembling the lactic acid.

;ZYGOMA. The zygomatic pro-
cess of the temporal bone, which,
with the molar or cheek bone, forms
the zygomatic fossa or cavity under
the temple.

ZYMOME. Zimome.

TUB Bim.

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