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FARM FOODS:
OR,
THE RATIONAL FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS.
FROM THE SIXTH EDITION OF
' LANDWIRTSCHAFTLICHE FUTTERUNGSLEHRE:
BY
Professor EMIL v. WOLFF,
DIRECTOR OP THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, HOHENHEIM, WiJRTTEMBERG.
TRANSLATED BY
HERBERT H. COUSINS, M.A.Oxon.,
LECTURER IN CHEMISTRY AT THE SOUTH-EASTERN AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, WYE, KENT.
LONDON :
GURNEY & JACKSON, 1 PATERNOSTER ROW.
(Mr. van VOOEST'S SUCCESSORS.)
MDCCCXCV.
D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY,
FIAMMAM.
PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS,
RED LION COURT, FLEET BTKEET.
AUTHOR'S PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
As long ago as the year 1868, when the first edition of
my "^ Practical System of Manuring^ appeared, I had
pledged myself to bring out a companion volume, in
which the nutrition of the body and the economy of
Farm Food-stuffs should be treated on similar lines.
But at the same time I expressed my intention of
reserving the work until the principles underlying its
teaching had been placed upon a clear and systematic
basis. The science of Agricultural Dietetics was then
beginning to assume definite proportions, and from the
great energy with which it was being prosecuted it
seemed more than probable that in a very short time
it would attain a position which would enable it to
offer practice a firmer and sounder support for the
acceptance of the latest scientific principles. In my
opinion that time has now come.
Thanks mainly to the rich harvest of results which
has rewarded the zealous labours of the Munich
School of Physiology, the general laws of animal
nutrition, as well as those of flesh- and fat-formation
in the animal body, are now clear and patent; the
necessary investigations which were so admirably
executed by Voit and Pettenkofer have attained a
present conclusion. The formation of salts in food
a2
0^ ^^ 1825;
IV AUTHOR S PREFACE.
has been explained by new and direct experiments,
and the experimental stations have contributed largely
to our knowledge of the digestibility of food-stuffs^ as
well as of the food-requirements of farm animals.
With this knowledge it is now possible in practical
farming to base calculations upon ^' digestible pro-
portions '^ and " real food/' and generally to place
food and feeding on a scientific basis. Much detail
still requires working out, but so good a beginning has
been made already that it invites a confident expectation
of quick advance in the right direction. The glorious
results already to hand in this field of research have
clearly proved the value of Agricultural Experimental
Stations in strengthening the combined efforts of
Physiologists and Agricultural Chemists.
It seems to me that we have at length attained such
a position with regard to the results of recent research
in Animal Physiology that it is now possible to collect
the produce of the last fifteen years into a compact
form, which will render them not only of value to the
practical man but also of general utility.
The task of sifting and arranging the appalling pile
of material and of presenting it in a suitable form is
no light undertaking, and I approach it with due
diffidence. In writing this book I have constantly kept
before me the necessity of a simple and striking pre-
sentation of the principles of nutrition, and to fulfil
this object I have rigorously excluded all side-issues of
a purely scientific and technical character, and have
only set forth those fundamental principles of animal
nutrition which the farmer must always bear in mind
in the rational feeding of his stock. Details as to the
housing and general management of stocky the pre-
paration of food- stuffs^ &c. are to be learnt by practical
experience or in books of a more practical character,
and are not dwelt upon here. I have attempted to
found a rational system of feeding for the varied re-
quirements of farm animals upon the latest scientific
results as to the laws of animal digestion and nutrition,
and have restricted myself to a few common food-stuffs,
the composition, nature, and effect of which, as well
as of their decomposition products in the body, are
simple and easily understood. To secure a clearer
understanding I have consistently explained the prac-
tical methods by which the given results were obtained.
To all farmers and practical men who are trying to
feed their farm animals on a rational and economical
system I dedicate this book, and it also suggests itself
as a suitable text-book for the instruction of the coming
generation of practical farmers who are studying at
Agricultural Colleges. Most earnestly do I hope that
its contents, scope, and form may enable it not only to
arouse general interest in the subject, but that the
practical application of its teaching may result in great
advances in this important branch of the Economy of
the Farm.
July 1874.
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.
In preparing an authorized English translation of the
Sixth Edition of Professor von Wolff^s ' Futterungs-
lehre/ an attempt has been made to supply English
agriculturists and students of agriculture with a book
of which only those who have read the original can
appreciate the urgent need.
It is significant of the paltry and inefficient way in
which England has approached the problem of applying
science, system_, experiment, and education to agricul-
ture, that such an epoch-making book as this should
have been allowed to remain inaccessible to the
farming community for 20 years, and to pass through
6 editions in its native German, without finding a
translator, or even evoking a feeble imitation, in this
country.
Without excuse and with every confidence in the
merits and usefulness of the original, I place an
English version of this famous little book at the dis-
posal of all thoughtful and intelligent agriculturists.
What blemishes of style and wording it may possess are
due only to the inexperience of a novice who makes
his first essay in book-making.
The reader will hardly fail to be struck with the
rather obtrusive fact that the book is simply the record
viii translator's preface.
of 42 years' work by the experimental stations of the
German government on the feeding of farm animals
and the feeding-values of farm foods. As an illustra-
tion of the apathy of our own government towards the
application of science to agriculture, witness the fol-
lowing returns as to agricultural experiment stations
for the year 1892 :—
Germany 67
United States 54
France 53
Austria 35
Sweden 24
Italy 17
Russia 14
Belgium_, Switzerland, Denmark, 1
Norway, Holland J ^^
Java, Portugal, Roumania, Spain, Brazil, Japan, and
Sumatra possess one apiece. In England such insti-
tutions are solely represented by the private enterprises
of Sir John Lawes and the Royal Agricultural Society.
Two or three of the counties are now employing their
Technical Education grants in the direction of Agri-
cultural Colleges, and the results are already becoming
apparent. A rapid development in this direction is
urgently needed.
With the present low price of food-stuffs, a shrewd
farmer can produce milk, mutton, beef, and pork at
a cheaper rate than has ever been possible before
in modern farming. Many practical men scoff at
'^balanced rations '' and scorn the ''^albuminoid ratio.''
TRANSLATOR S PREFACE. IX
Even the authors of recent text-books for the student
evaluate foods by their chemical composition, and
deduce albuminoid ratios not from the digestible
constituents but from the crude constituents of the
food-stuffs.
Wolff makes it possible for every practical man to
understand the meaning oi real food, of digestibility, of
digestible constituents, and their mutual proportion as
expressed in the so-called ''albuminoid ratioy The
economic standards for feeding cows, bullocks, sheep,
&c., which Wolff lays down have been deduced from
exhaustive and accurate experiments. Any farmer of
moderate intelligence could easily calculate such a dis-
tribution of the food-stuffs at his disposal for the various
animals on his farm that each animal shall receive a
diet that will give the greatest return with the least
waste and at the lowest cost.
This does not mean that the cowman should dispense
a rigid ration weighed to half a wurzel, but simply that
the diet of each animal should be subject to a general
supervision as indicated by the rules laid down in the
text with the assistance of the tables in the Appendix.
This book does not assert the dogmatic guesses or
opinionated maxims of a self-constituted authority on
farm foods, but is simply a digest of the general prin-
ciples of animal growth and nutrition, the essential
constituents of a rational diet, the actual composition
of farm foods and their digestibility for farm animals.
The latter has been deduced from elaborate experiments
which have been steadily continued for more than a
quarter of a century.
The experiments carried out at Rothamsted through
the munilicence of Sir J. B. Lawes, and under the
scientific guidance of Sir Joseph Gilbert^ have led to
several highly important practical conclusions, and the
Rothamsted experiments are not only models of ac-
curate and exhaustive investigation in themselves, but
have encouraged experimenters in Germany and else-
where to prosecute a similar line of research.
Perhaps the most valuable feature of the book is that
o£ the tables given in the Appendix. These are uni-
versally recognized, and form the basis of most of the
data as to foods and feeding given in the agricultural
press and general agricultural literature.
I am extremely indebted to my colleague Professor
Percival, who has read all the proofs, and has not only
been of the greatest assistance as a literary critic, but
has also been of much service in matters relating to
botany and biology.
HERBERT H. COUSINS, M.A.
South-Eastem Agricultural College,
Wye, Kent.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Page
Author's Pbeface to the First Edition iii
Translator's Preeace yii
Introduction xvii
PART I.
The General Laws of Animal Nutrition,
CHAPTEK I.
The Composition of the Animal Body.
§1. Constituents of the Body. — Water 1
Fluids 2
Solid Constituents 2
§ 2. Non-Nitrogenous Constituents of the Body 4-6
Fat 4
Other Organic Substances 6
§ 3. Nitrogenous Constituents 5_10
Albuminoids 7
Gelatinoids 9
Horny Matter 9
§ 4. Mineral Matter 11-17
Common Salt 16
XU TABLE or CONTENTS.
CHAPTER II.
Organic Nutrients and their Digestion.
Page
§ 1. Organic Constituents 19-20
Albumen 19
Fat 19
Sugar 20
§ 2. The Digestion of Organic Substances 20-25
Eespiration and Digestion 20
Decomposition of Nutritive Substances in the Body 22
CHAPTER III.
Experimental Methods.
§ 1. Determination of Nitrogen and Mineral Matters 27-28
§ 2. Determination of Fat and Water 28-35
Digestion Results 30
Examples of Calculation 32
CHAPTER IV.
Flesh Production.
§ 1. ^ Circulatory ' and * Organized ' Albumen 36
§ 2. The Laws of Flesh Formation 38
§ 3. Consumption of Albuminoids 39
§ 4. The Storage of Albumen in the Body 45
CHAPTER V.
The Formation of Fat.
§ 1. Sources of Fat 53
Formation of Fat from Albuminoids 55
Production of Milk-fat by Cows 58
TABLE OF CONTENTS. XUl
2. Experiments on Fattening 60
Oxen 61
Pigs 63
Geese Q6
Dogs 67
3. The Consumption of Fat 68-73
CHAPTEK VI.
The PnoDucTioN of Force.
Work and the Consumption of Albumen 74
Excretion of Nitrogen as Gas 77
The Hohenheim Experiment on a Horse 79
The Sources of Muscular Power 82
PART II.
The Food of Farm Animals,
CHAPTER I.
The Constituents of Food.
Classification 92
Definitions 94
1 . Nitrogenous Constituents 95
{a) Vegetable Albumen 96
(6) Other Nitrogenous Constituents 99
2. Crude Fibre 102
3. Crude Fat 103
4. Nitrogen-free Extract 103
5. Pure Ash 104
xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER II.
The Digestibility of Food.
Page
Method of Determination 106
Sources of Error 107
Digestibility of Fat 109
1. Digestibility of Crude Fibre 110
2. Digestibility of Nitrogen-free Extract 113
3. Composition of N.-free Extract digested 115
4. Undigested N.-free Extract 115
6. The Water Extract 116
6. Crude Fat 116
7. Crude Albuminoids 117
Method of Artificial Digestion 118
8. Inorganic Substances 122
CHAPTER III.
§ 1. Conditions affecting the Digestibility of Coarse Fodder . . 124
1. Effect of Quantity 124
2. Green vevstis Dry Fodder 125
3. Ordinary Hay 126
4. Effect of Storage 126
6. Period of Growth 127
6. Effect of Season, Soil, and Manuring 129
7. Influence of Methods of Preparing 129
8. Influence of Work 131
9. Different kinds of Ruminants 133
10. Horses 133
11. Influence of Breed 135
12. Age and Growth of Animal 136
13. Individuality 137
§ 2. Digestibility of Concentrated Foods and their Influence
on the Digestibility of Coarse Fodder 138
1. Increase of Albuminoids 139
2. Nitrogenous Special Foods 139
TABLE OF CONTENTS. XV
Paofe
3. Effect of feeding Corn 140
4. Carbohydrates 141
5. Koots and Tubers 143
6. Fat and Oil 146
7. Salt 147
8. Lime and Phosphoric Acid 147
CHAPTER IV.
The Food-stuffs.
§ 1. Coarse and Green Fodders 149
Hay, Aftermath, and Pasture-Grass 149
§ 2. Red Clover 158
Brown Hay and Silage 163
§ 3. Lucerne 175
§ 4. Vetch-Hay 177
§ 5. Lupine-Hay 178
§ 6. Other kinds of Green Fodder and Hay 180
§ 7. Straw of the Cereals 187
§ 8. Straw of Leguminous Plants 188
§ 9. Chaff and Husks of the Cereals and Leguminous Plants. 190
CHAPTER V.
Concentrated Food-stuffs.
§ 1. Cereal Grain 191
§ 2. Leguminous Seeds 197
§ 3. Oil Seeds and Cakes 200
§ 4. Animal Products 203
§ 5. Tubers and Roots 207
XVI TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PART III.
The Feeding of Farm Animals.
Page
Chapter 1. Feeding Standards 218
II. Feeding for Maintenance 227
III. Production of Wool 232
IV. Production of Work 240
V. Production of Milk 248
VI. Feeding of Young Animals 267
VII. Fattening 277
APPENDIX.
Table I. The Average Composition and Digestibility of
Farm Foods 290
„ II. The Digestibility of Food-stuffs 313
,, III. The Nitrogen of Foods expressed as Albuminoids
and Amides 329
„ IV. Feeding Standards for Farm Animals 338
„ V. Percentage Composition of different parts of Oxen,
Sheep, and Pigs 352
„ VI. Composition of Carcase of Oxen, Sheep, and Pigs 357
FARM FOODS.
Part I.
THE GENERAL LAWS OF ANIMAL
NUTRITION.
CHAPTER I.
THE COMPOSITION OF THE ANIMAL BODY.
§ 1. Constituents of the Body.
Water. — The entire animal body is largely composed
of water_, and the amount in proportion to the live-
weight of the animal decreases with its age. Imme-
diately after birth the percentage of water is about
80-85 per cent, of that of the live animal^ but during
the period of rapid growth this generally decreases
to about 60 per cent., while in the mature animal,
and especially if fat, the water contained in its body
(including the water in the stomach and intestines) is
only about 40-50 per cent, of the whole.
All parts of the animal are affected by this alteration
B
N. C. State College
2 THE ANIMAL BODY.
«
in the amount of contained water, the blood least and
the bones to the greatest extent. Thus the bones of
a new-born animal contain about 70 per cent., while
those of a full-grown and well-nurtured beast of the
same kind often contain less than 20 per cent, of water.
It is clear that these variations must be taken into
consideration when the effect of a given diet on the
increase in live-weight has to be estimated.
Fluids. — In the animal organism the more or less
solid portions — i. e. the cellular tissues — are by weight
far in excess of the liquids and animal fluids.
The fluids circulating in the blood and lymph-vessels
constitute less than 7 to 9 per cent, of the live-weight,
and in the case of old or very fat beasts only 4 to
6 per cent. The gastric juices and other secretions and
fluid excretions, although produced in large quantity
during a space of 34 hours, can hardly be considered a
part of the animal body, since they are being constantly
produced directly or indirectly from the blood, and after
being partially re-absorbed by the blood, pass out of the
body in the form of decomposition products. A new
supply of food is thus required for their renewal, while
the blood, despite constant give and take, remains very
uniform in its composition.
Solid Constituents. — Fresh bones constitute, ac-
cording to the breed, age, and condition of the animal,
6 to 12 per cent, of its live- weight, muscle and sinews
30 to 48 per cent., and fat, as far as it can be separated
from the kidneys, bowels and flesh, 5 to 40 per cent.
It is to be noted, however, that fresh bones contain 20
to 50 per cent, of water, while muscle contains 60 to
over 75 per cent.
CONSTITUENTS, 3
If the average of the results obtained by experiments
with various farm animals be taken^ it appears that
per cent.
Bones comprise of the live- weight 8*9
Flesh and Sinews 40*1
Fat (by mechanical separation) 23'9
Residue 27-1
Total lOO'O
The residue of 27*1 per cent, represents the blood,
skin, hair, and the offal, as well as the contents of the
stomach and intestines. The percentage weights of
the different portions of Oxen, Sheep, and Pigs are
given in Table V. in the Appendix.
I will only- observe that the bulk and weight of the
contents of the stomach and intestines vary greatly
according to whether the animal has been fed on a
concentrated or a bulky fodder, and especially, with
ruminants, upon their fat or store condition. For
example, in some investigations carried on at Hohen-
heim with sheep of the same breed and age, the
following results were obtained : —
p, -J -, Contents of Stomach and Intestines
®^* as percentage of live-weight.
Chiefly straw 22*3
Hay with a little beans 15*7
High diet 9*4
Fat pigs gave even a smaller percentage, only 4 to
6 per cent.
The total weights of the various parts of the carcase,
after deducting the contents of the stomach, intestines,
and bladder, is called the "dressed weight^^ of the animal.
b2
4 THE ANIMAL BODY.
The Dry Substance of the animal body consists of
organic and inorganic matter^ and the former are either
nitrogenous or non-nitrogenous substances.
§ 2. The Non-Nitrogenous Constituents of the
Animal Body.
Fat is by far the most abundant of the non-nitro-
genous material. To a minute extent (0*1 to 0'3 per
cent.) it is present in the bloody but although it is
found in larger quantity in the nerves and bones^ it is
chiefly enclosed in special cells or tissues under the
skin^ in the kidneys^ omentum_, and mesentery, and in
the flesh between the bundles o£ muscular fibres.
A thin membrane forms the cell-walls of the fat-
tissue. This is a nitrogenous substance and constitutes
0'8 to 4 per cent, of the whole tissue — dependent on
the richness of the cells in fat. The amount of water
in fresh fat is directly proportional to the amount of
membrane (5 or 6 to 1)^ so that the quantity of water
may vary from 4 to over 24 per cent.^ decreasing as the
cells become richer in fat.
Most of the fat-cells of a live animal are filled with
fat. At the temperature of the body this is liquid
and transparent ; but its consistency varies in different
organs^ and on becoming cold solidifies more or less
easily to a butter-like or solid mass according to
whether the oily or liquid fats predominate. Not only
does the appearance, but also the smell and taste of fat
obtained from different kinds of animals, or different
parts of the same animal, vary exceedingly on account
of admixtures of small quantities of colouring-matters
NON-NITROGENOUS CONSTITUENTS. 5
and various volatile substances : this, however, has
hardly any influence on the elementary composition of
fat, which is very constant.
For instance, Schulze and Reinecke at the Weende
Experimental Station, found 28 samples of mutton,
beef, and pork fat taken from different parts of the
body, and from different individuals, to have the follow-
ing composition : —
Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen,
per cent. per cent. per cent.
Maximum 76-85 12-16 11*94
Minimum 76-27 11*76 11*00
Average of ain ^^.^ ^^.^^ ^^.^
the analyses J
Almost identical results were obtained as to the com-
position of the fat of horses, dogs, cats, and human
beings.
It is evident from these figures that we are justified
in regarding all forms of fat in the body as practically
of identical composition despite the many modifications
it undergoes in passing from one part of the body to
another; and, strange to say, even vegetable fats con-
tained in the food of animals have absolutely the same
elementary composition and general properties as
animal fat. The quantity of fat which may be stored
up in the body is often enormous. In the carcase of a
fat beast or pig the amount of fat is often 25 to 40 per
cent, of the live-weight, or 2 or 3 times that of the
nitrogenous materials. On the other hand, in lean
animals the quantity of fat is decidedly less than that
of the fleshy tissues.
6 THE ANIMAL BODY.
The other Non-Nitrogenous Organic Substances,
other than fat, which exist in the animal body, though
insignificant in quantity, play a very important part in
the functions of the various organs and active fluids.
Lactic Acid is found in the gastric juice, flesh, and
(in minute quantities) in the blood and most animal
fluids.
Sugar also occurs in the blood (about 0*1 per cent.),
and in larger quantity in the vein leading from the hver
to the heart, while the liver itself contains a consider-
able quantity of a sugary or sugar-producing substance
called Glycogen. The muscles also contain small
quantities of a peculiar substance like sugar in com-
position and properties, which is known as Inosite.
Lastly, a variety of non-nitrogenous organic sub-
stances occur in the bile and the so-called " Alcoholic
Extract"" of the tissues and animal fluids; but their
weight is so small, when compared with the vast pro-
portion of fat and flesh in the body, that they are hardly
appreciable.
§ 3. Nitrogenous Constituents.
Three groups of nitrogenous substances — viz., the
Albuminoids J Gelatinoids, and Horny Matter — are found
in the animal body. Of these the albuminoids are by
far the most important, since all manifestations of
animal life are based on them, or on organs which are
made of them, and since they also provide the material
from which both the other nitrogenous constituents
are formed, while the latter, once formed, cannot be
NITROGENOUS CONSTITUENTS. 7
changed back into albuminoids and are unable to
nourish the body.
Albtjminoids. — The albuminoids are found in many
modifications in the various organs and fluids of which
they form the chief constituents ; and all these forms,,
under the influence of the vital process, experience a
constant alteration.
Three classes of albuminoids must be recognized :
Albumen (represented by white of eg^), Fibrin (lean
meat), and Casein (cheese).
Albumen predominates in all animal fluids, especially
in the chyle, in the colourless serum of the blood, as
well as in the fluid contents of the blood-corpuscles,
where it is tinted red by the colouring-matter of the
blood. It also occurs in the juice of the muscles and
in the nerves. Albumen is distinguished by the pro-
perty of coagulating when heated to 70° or 80° C.
When coagulated it is insoluble in pure water.
Fibrin is found in the blood mixed with albumen,
but is easily recognized by its rapid coagulation at the
ordinary temperature. As soon as blood escapes from a
living animal, the fibrin forms a clot which entangles
the red corpuscles of the blood and separates from the
colourless blood- serum. The fibrin of blood diff'ers
from the fibrin found as the chief constituent of flesh
in that the latter is of a highly organized and cellular
character.
Flesh-Fibrin (Myosin) behaves somewhat differ-
ently in its chemical reactions from blood-fibrin, but
both, like all insoluble albuminoids, are easily con-
verted by the action of the digestive juices into soluble
albuminoids or " peptones. ^^
:8 THE ANIMAL BODY.
Casein is only found in quantity in milk, and as
it is a product o£ the milk-glands only, it cannot be
looked upon as a general constituent of the body. It
does not coagulate on heating; the tenacious skin
which forms on the surface of milk when it is evapo-
rated is a substance which has been produced by the
action of the air. When a small quantity of rennet is
added to milk, or when warmed with a small quantity
of dilute acids or various other substances, as well as
in the natural souring of milk, the casein coagulates and
separates completely from the rest of the milk.
Composition of the Albuminoids. — All the albu-
minoids are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, and sulphur ; and the proportion of the
constituents is so constant that it is impossible to
distinguish the various albuminoids by their com-
position, samples of the same albuminoid from different
sources often differing as much as absolutely distinct
and different kinds.
The following numbers give the extremes of varia-
tion : —
per cent.
Carbon 52-54
Hydrogen 7
Nitrogen 15-17
Oxygen 21-24
Sulphur 1-1-5
It is usually assumed that the average amount of
nitrogen in albuminoids is 16 per cent., and the total
albuminoids in a substance are generally estimated by
multiplying the percentage of nitrogen found by the
figure 6-25 (6-25 x 16 = 100).
NITROGENOUS CONSTITUENTS. \)
The phosphorus which always accompanies the albu-
minoids is generally in the form of phosphoric acid,
and does not appear to enter into the organic composi-
tion or to be an essential constituent of albumen.
Gelatinoids. — These constitute nearly as large a
part of the body as the albuminoids. They form the
nitrogenous substance of bone and cartilage, and build
up the bulk of the tendons, ligaments, connective-
tissuesj and the skin. By long boiling with water the
gelatinoids are dissolved and turned into glue. Their
composition is very similar to that of the albuminoids,
except that they generally contain rather less carbon
(50 to 51 per cent.), and in the case of cartilage less
nitrogen (15 per cent.), while the gelatin of bones,
tendons and skin is richer in nitrogen (18 per cent.).
Sulphur is either entirely absent or is found in smaller
quantity than in the albuminoids.
Horny Matter. — This is formed chiefly on the
outer surface of the body, either in a thin layer as the
scarf-skin (epidermis), or in well-characterized tissues,
such as hair, wool, horn, nails, hoofs, claws, feathers,
&c. The average composition of these tissues is very
constant : —
per cent.
Carbon 50-51
Hydrogen about 7
Nitrogen 16-17
Oxygen 20-22
Sulphur 3-5
Except that they contain more sulphur, their com-
position is almost the same as that of albumen and
gelatin.
10 THE ANIMAL BODY.
Average Composition. — It is thus evident that all
the nitrogenous organic constituents of the body have
on the average almost the identical composition of the
pure albumen from which they have all been directly
or indirectly produced in the processes of growth and
nutrition. Lawes and Gilbert, who experimented
with whole oxen, sheep, and pigs, both in the fat
and store condition, also observed this agreement
when they estimated the total water, fixed mineral
matter, fat, organic matter not fat, and the nitrogen
it contained.
The amount of '^^ organic matter not fat" deter-
mined directly agreed almost exactly with that obtained
by multiplying the quantity of nitrogen found by the
usual factor 6*25 (see infra) . Thus, all the ^' organic
matter not fat " was found to contain on the average
almost exactly 16 per cent, of nitrogen. By taking the
average of all the experiments, the " organic matter
not fat^^ comprised 14*67 per cent, of the dressed
weight, and the amount of the albuminoids calculated
from the nitrogen was 14*83 per cent. This clearly
shows that all the nitrogenous organic constituents of
the body not included in the three classes we have just
considered, such as the liquids in the bile, muscles, &c.,
are in such relatively small quantity, that they exercise
practically no influence on the composition of the
organic substance of the body, and especially none on
the percentage of nitrogen.
MINERAL MATTER. 11
§ 4. Mineral Matter.
The ash or mineral matter of the body in round
numbers is : —
In Cattle 4-5 per cent, of the live-weight.
Sheep ... 2'8-3-5 ,, „
Pigs 1-8-3-0
The lower numbers correspond to a fat, the higher to
a lean condition of the animal.
About ^ of this total is composed of phosphoric acid
and lime_, while the remaining fifth comprises potash_,
soda, magnesia, iron, chlorine, sulphuric acid, carbonic
acid, and a slight trace of silica. Sulphur, which
forms a portion of the organic composition of the
albuminoids, has been mentioned before and is not
included in this category. In the bones, as is well
known, the quantity of mineral matter (bone-ash) is
very great, and amounts in a full-grown animal to
about f of the dry, fat-free substance of the bones.
Immediately after birth, the dried bones contain only
about 50 per cent., but in advanced age often as much
as 75 per cent, of ash. The outer and more solid layers
are always richer in ash than the inner and porous
parts, especially in the hollow bones. Seven-eighths
of the total bone-ash consists of phosphate of lime; the
rest is carbonate of lime containing a little magnesia,
calcium fluoride, and sodium salts. The fat-free, drv
matter of bones contains : —
per cent.
Phosphoric acid 27
Lime 38
Carbonic acid 3-4
Magnesia O'5-l
12
THE ANIMAL BODY.
Fresh bones are frequently rich in fat^ more espe-
cially when the animal is old and fat. In certain
diseases occasioning an advanced brittleness of the
bones, the quantity of fat frequently rises to more
than 40 per cent., and while the percentage of
phosphate is reduced, that of carbonate of lime is
increased.
Lime exists in bones to a larger extent than phos-
phoric acid, and while this ratio holds good for the
whole body, in the softer tissues the phosphoric acid
exceeds the lime, though the actual amount is exceed-
ingly small. For instance, fresh flesh free from fat
contains 25 per cent, of dry matter, of which 0*6 to 0'8
per cent, is phosphoric acid. In the nerve-tissues
about the same amount is found, while in blood, lymph,
and digestive juices the amount is much smaller, only
0"1 to 0*2 per cent.
In flesh, blood, and lymph the percentage of lime is
hardly appreciable — only 0*01 to 0'02 per cent., — while
in the digestive juices it rises to O'l to 0*2 per cent.
Magnesia seems to be an almost unnecessary sub-
stance for the growth and maintenance of mammals, at
any rate its importance is far less than that of lime,
the total quantity being hardly one-thirtieth to one-
fortieth of that of the lime in the body. At the same
time it is not safe to conclude from the insignificant
amount of a constituent of the body that it is abso-
lutely unnecessary for bodily growth and nutrition.
Iron, for instance (calculated as iron oxide), forms
only 0'013-0'042 per cent, of the live-weight of a Farm
animal, but is nevertheless a necessary constituent of
the blood and contained in the so-called haemoglobin
MINERAL MATTER. 13
of the red corpuscles. Iron, in fact, is absolutely
essential for a healthy condition of the body.
From the researches of Hosslin with puppies of 20
to 40 lbs. weight, it appears that a daily supply of as
little as 0*06 to 0*09 grain of iron was sufficient to
make the further growth of the body (muscles, liver, &c.)
possible, while no increase, or at any rate none in
proportion to the growth of the animal, resulted in the
proportion of haemoglobin in the blood. The general
results produced were large blisters, a rapid weakening
of the animal, and a quickening of the pulse. It was
also found that by gradually reducing the quantity of
haemoglobin, the quantity of blood was at first only
slightly reduced*, but when the amount of haemoglobin
had sunk from the original 14 per cent, to 7 per cent.,
which is the extreme minimum for the preservation of
life, the quantity of blood began to decrease rapidly.
Although the actual amount of Potash, Soda, and
Chlorine (generally existing as Salt) is not large, still
these substances are necessary constituents of all the
secretions and tissues in which the whole process of
nutrition is carried out with especial vigour, and which
continually undergo destruction and renewal. They
thus pass largely into the excreta, and a constant and
definite addition is required to maintain the digestive
process in its normal condition in all directions.
It is highly remarkable that potash predominates
over soda in all ^dtal processes of cell-building, such as
in the muscles and nerves, and in the blood-corpuscles
as distinguished from the blood-serum, and it is clear
that potash plays a prominent part in the mechanism
of cell-formation in the tissues in question. On the
14 THE ANIMAL BODY.
contrary^ in cartilage and bones one finds soda as the
predominant alkali_, although its actual quantity is very
small. Soda in the form of salt is a characteristic
constituent of blood-serum, lymph, the digestive juices,
and the gummy substances in the body. This peculiar
distribution of the two alkalies in the animal organism
is very constant in quantity, though only amounting to
3 parts in 1000 of live- weight.
But as the alkalies are continually excreted in the
urine, a marked disturbance of the digestive process
would result if a fresh daily supply were not provided in
the food. This has been demonstrated by experiments
carried out at the Agricultural College at Poppelsdorf as
well as at Bonn, and by J . Forster at Munich. These
researches proved that animals fed with food lacking in
salt rapidly became unwell or completely collapsed, and
that lack of potash, as well as lack of salt, lime, or
phosphoric acid, is a serious deficiency. This was not
only observed with young animals still in a condition
of rapid growth, but also with fully matured animals.
Salts. — The salts existing in the body are of two
kinds. The first, or '^ Constitutional Salts,''^ form more
or less definite compounds with the organic material,
and while they comprise the greater proportion of the
mineral constituents, are found in very constant
quantity. The other kind includes salts which dissolve
in the animal fluids in small quantity without definite
combination as the result of rich feeding ; within certain
limits these salts can cause a greater concentration of
the digestive fluids, but they can never be collected to
any considerable extent. They are rapidly discharged
in the urine and are accompanied by the other salts
MINERAL MATTER. 15
-which are set at liberty by the breaking-up or oxidation
of combustible materials in the food. These latter are
not completely and immediately discharged from the
blood in its passage through the kidneys, but partially
pass over into the circulation, where they are dissolved and
are able to unite with albuminoids, if such substances,
as a result of an insufficient supply of salts, pass from
the digestive tract into the circulation. The researches
of Forster already mentioned have proved that the
excretion of salt was smaller when a full diet lacking in
salt was supplied, than when the animal was left without
food. Thus it seems that the body exercises an
economy of constitutional salts and can manage with a
minimum; but at the same time the supply of salt
cannot sink below a certain limit, as although its
excretion can be greatly reduced it never actually
ceases to take place. "When the supply proves abso-
lutely inadequate, the body continually parts with salt
and rapidly collapses.
In practice, in the feeding of mature animals which
are to be kept in a medium condition or to be fattened,
a lack of the requisite mineral matters is scarcely ever
to be feared, as they are usually present in large excess.
In certain respects, however, common salt is an
exception, as will be explained more fully below.
Young animals rapidly growing of course require a
larger supply of lime and phosphoric acid than full-
grown animals, and the daily requirements of a young
animal can be easily estimated from the amount found
in a full-grown individual.
A lamb requires 30 grains per day, a porker 40
grains, and a calf about half an ounce of lime per day,
16 THE ANIMAL BODY.
and about tlie same quantity of phosphoric acid. Since
young animals are generally fed on a liberal diet of
easily digested food, such as corn, potatoes, and roots,
all of which contain much more phosphoric acid than
lime, an addition of lime in the form of chalk is often
advisable.
The total amount of lime and phosphoric acid must
also be considered in the diet of a milch cow, and this
is further discussed in Part III.
Common Salt. — Under the general conditions of
farming a lack of potash is never likely to affect farm
animals, since the supply provided by all farm foods
is far in excess of the demand. But it is quite other-
wise with soda in the form of common salt. Salt not
only plays an active part in the production of cells
and digestive fluids, but materially assists digestion
by increasing the diffusibility of such substances as
albumen and promoting their " resorption '' into the
circulation from the digestive tract, as well as by
stimulating to a certain extent the digestive fluids^
promoting active assimilation, and generally increasing
the vital energy. For this purpose a certain excess
of salt seems to be necessary, which after circulating
rapidly through the body is excreted in the urine in
quantity proportional to the amount taken.
Salt is more necessary with vegetable than with
animal food. Carnivora obtain from living animals
almost equal quantities of salt and potash in their food :
milk also supplies these materials in suitable quantity ;
in cow^s milk, for instance, the proportion of the two
alkalies is about 1 to 4.
In a wild state or when kept on a good permanent
MINERAL MATTER. 17
pasture,, cattle are able to supply themselves with food
yielding an adequate supply of Soda; the so-called
'* salt meadows ^' are famed for producing an especially
strong and nourishing fodder, while most of our
domestic animals are fed with a food such as corn,
chaff, seeds, and the general coarse fodders, which are
frequently rich in potash but lacking in soda. Since
salt is a necessary constituent of the body, and actual
experiments have proved that excess of potash causes
an increased loss of salt in the urine, many foods are
apt to promote an increasing lack of salt and a conse-
quently unhealthy condition, and eventually a total
collapse of the animal body. For farm animals, as well
as for human beings who live on such food as bread
and potatoes, salt is not a mere condiment but an
essential article of food. It is true that by an auto-
matic economy the body can subsist on a relatively
small quantity of salt when the supply is small ; but a
certain excess is always desirable in the food of animals,
as it makes it more palatable.
18 ORGANIC NUTRIENTS.
CHAPTER II.
ORGANIC NUTRIENTS AND THEIR DIGESTION.
The process of animal nutrition, not only in the
varied structure and chemical properties of the animal
organism, but also in the physiological functions of
individual organs, is on the whole a very simple process,
and for our purpose its progress and results can be very
briefly stated. We are justified in regarding the entire
body as a systematic structure of Albuminoids, Fat,
Water, and Fixed Mineral matter. A certain amount of
these materials is constantly being destroyed by the
processes of life and the mutual activity of the tissues
and juices ; and the force required for the internal and
external work of the body, as well as the heat required
to make good the continual loss by radiation, are
provided by the decomposition of matter. To prevent
the complete destruction of the organism, and still
more to keep it in a normal condition, a certain amount
of Food is necessary to make good the loss of material
resulting from the life processes, and a still greater
supply is necessary if an actual growth or increased
production is to be made possible.
Water and Mineral Salts have been already discussed,
and we will confine our attention to the organic com-
bustible constituents only which are supplied in food
and altered in the body.
ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS. 19
§ 1. Organic Constituents*
The organic substances which pass from the digestive
tract into the circulation as long as any nourishment
remains, or are "resorbed," are practically Albuminoids,
Fat, and Sugar. This is strictly true for Herbivora,
while flesh-feeding animals, a dog for instance, can
maintain a fair condition of nutrition and can make
good all bodily waste by a food consisting only of albu-
minoids (lean meat), water, and the requisite mineral
matter. But even the nutrition of flesh-eating animals
is much simplified, and a larger and quicker growth
promoted, when the meat is supplemented with fat or a
mixture of fat and carbohydrates (starch, sugar, &c.),
which latter play a very prominent part in the feeding
of herbivorous animals as well as of those which take a
mixed diet.
Albumen is partly absorbed in its various soluble
modifications by the blood and lymph vessels, while
the rest remains in the gastric juice in the form of the
so-called " Peptone/^ The latter substance appears
from the latest researches to be capable, after resorp-
tion, of being again partly converted into albumen, and
is then capable of building-up the animal tissues.
Even after this change albumen is not resorbed from
the stomach alone, but also from the whole length of
the intestines by the action of capillary vessels.
Fat passes as such, or in the form of a fine emulsion,
by the combined action of the bile and pancreatic
juice into the vessels of the body ; it is not necessary,
as some have thought, that the fat should first undergo
complete saponification in the digestive tract. The
c2
20 ORGANIC NUTRIENTS.
animal membrane must be permeable by pure fat, or
else the concentration of fat in the closed cells of the
fat-tissue in the process of fattening, as well as its dis-
appearance from the cells under opposite conditions,
would be incomprehensible.
Sugar passes easily and directly from the digestive
organs into the blood, and is partly supplied ready
made in the food of Herbivora and animals partaking
of a mixed diet, and partly produced from other con-
stituents of food. Starch, as well as the so-called
^^ Nitrogen-free Extract,^^ and perhaps also a portion of
the coarse or ^' woody fibre,^'' is turned by the process
of digestion into sugar or a similar substance and can
only be ^' resorbed ^^ after this change has taken place.
§ 2. The Digestion of Organic Substances.
Respiration and Digestion. — The constant stream
of nutrient material which passes from the digestive
system and circulates through all parts of the body
meets a continual stream of oxygen in the blood. All
the conditions for the phenomena of life are presented
by the interaction of the respired oxygen with the food-
products and the cell-structure of the body. This inter-
action supplies power and heat and regulates the
building-up and destruction, the laying-up and loss of
flesh and fat in the animal body.
The oxygen of the air passes from the lungs into the
circulation of the blood, where it is absorbed by the
blood-corpuscles, which serve as oxygen carriers and
bring it into direct contact with all the organs of the
body, and there, as well as in the blood, a destructive
or '^ oxidising ^^ action is set up.
DIGESTION. 21
To quote from a memoir by C. Voit and Petten-
kofer: — "Blood-corpuscles can be compared to little
vans which on the main road (the stream of albumen)
daily carry oxygen in one direction, and on the return
journey deliver carbonic acid, and this in the body of a
full-grown man amounts to a load of 5 lbs. a day.
Noiselessly they thus export and import concentrated
gases. At night, when the business of carbonic acid
export is quiet, the import of oxygen is brisker, and
thereby the whole body obtains a store for the labours
of the next day.''^
The Quantity of Oxygen which passes into the
blood is by no means determined by the depth and
frequency of the breathings, but by the amount needed
in the body ; that is, in the first place, by the rapidity of
the decomposition of substances in the blood and tissues,
and, in the second place, by the number and quality of
the blood-corpuscles. The blood-corpuscles are in-
creased in number by a liberal supply of albumen, and
thus render possible a greater absorption of oxygen.
Under conditions of powerful nutrition, and with organs
of larger size, the absorption of oxygen is increased and
a greater " storage " of oxygen can take place in the
body.
Numerous researches conducted by Voit at Munich
on healthy men, and by Kenneberg at the Weende
Experimental Station on oxen, have proved that during
rest a certain amount of oxygen is stored up in the
body, and rapidly given off again with production of
carbonic acid during active work.
According to fixed laws, material is decomposed at
first independently of oxygen in the cells by the passage
22 ORGANIC NUTRIENTS.
of the animal fluids^ in the circulation of the blood
(blood-cells or corpuscles), as also in the tissues, and,
in fact, wherever cell-growth exists. The decompo-
sition-products having been first produced, seize the
oxygen and regulate its absorption in the process of
respiration. The splitting-up of substances in the body-
to form simpler compounds must be considered the
primary process, and the taking-up of oxygen as the
secondarij, although it was formerly believed that the
opposite was the case. If, by an increased supply of
food, or by violent muscular exertion, this decomposi-
tion of material is increased and facilitated, then, as a
consequence, more oxygen will be absorbed in order to
burn these products and remove them from the body.
Decomposition of Nutritive Substances in the Body.
Sugar. — As soon as food passes into the circulation
and comes in contact with every organ, the sugar is
rapidly decomposed, and is burnt or otherwise changed
in the process of respiration. An enormous amount of
sugar or sugary substance passes from the digestive
tract into the blood of herbivorous animals. For in-
stance, a full-grown ox in the course of 12 hours re-
sorbs 12 to 18 lbs., although the normal blood of the
animal contains the minutest traces of sugar (not more
than 0*1 to 0*2 per cent.), and no deposition or collec-
tion of sugar occurs in the body except as glycogen in
the liver.
This is only explained by the fact that during the whole
process of digestion sugar is gradually resorbed, and
as the blood completely circulates round the body in
less than a minute, the sugar undergoes rapid oxidation.
DIGESTION. 25
Albuminoids. — The albuminoids in food, as far as
they undergo decomposition at all, are resolved by the
activity of the cells, directly or through intermediate
stages, into Urea and Fat"^. In the Herbivora there are
also formed varying quantities of Hippuric acid, ac-
cording to the fodder and the species of the animal ;
but this always represents a far smaller part of
the decomposed albuminoids than the urea, and often
disappears almost completely from the list of the sub-
stances formed and excreted as the result of tissue-
change.
The Urea is rapidly taken up by the blood, separated
from it again in the kidneys, and excreted in the urine ;
it ought never to be stored up in a healthy animal. In
the normal blood and in the tissues only small quan-
tities of it are found, although the total quantity which,
is formed daily in the body of a fattening bullock may
amount to a pound or even more. Urea is a crystalline
substance, easily soluble in water, and it is a remarkable
fact that all animal membranes are more easily per-
meated by crystalline bodies (crystalloids) than by
amorphous, sticky substances (colloids) like gum, glue,
albumen, &c. Many of the digestive operations are
intelligible if considered from this point of view. For
instance, the rapid removal of urea, the easy passage of
sugar into the circulation of the blood, the rapid re-
sorption and excretion of the salts provided in excess by
food, &c. &c.
The nitrogen in 100 parts of water-free albumen
can be separated from it in the form of 33*5 parts of
urea. The remainder of the albumen, 66 '5 parts, after
* See Chapter on the Production of Fat in the Body.
24 ORGANIC NUTRIENTS.
taking up and uniting with 12'3 parts of water, contains
the elements for the formation of 51*4 parts of fat and
27*4 parts of carbonic acid.
The Fat produced from Albuminoids is, according to
circumstances, deposited in the body of the animal,
employed in producing milk, or undergoes a complete
combustion in the respiratory process. The fat pro-
ducible from the albuminoids must always be added to
that which is contained ready formed in the food and
resorbed from the digestive apparatus, in calculating
the results of a particular method of feeding.
According to the results of recent researches, the fat
formed in the body from albuminoids appears to unite
more readily with oxygen — to burn easier — than the
ready-formed fat taken in the food, and this again
is more easily oxidised than that which is already de-
posited in the fat-tissues.
Fat, either ready formed in the food or produced in
the body of the animal, does not appear to undergo
direct combustion with oxygen to carbonic acid and
water, but is first changed iato sugar, which is then
combusted in the process of respiration.
From 100 parts of pure fat, through the help of
oxygen and water, 189 parts of dry grape-sugar (the
general form of sugar in the animal body) are produced.
This change is clearly exhibited by the disturbed cell-
functions caused by the disease known as ^' diuresis ; "
but one is forced to allow that in the healthy organism
quite as much sugar is produced from albuminoids and
fat as by the severest diabetes, but as this sugar is
rapidly burnt, hardly any traces of it are excreted in
the urine.
«»f£»7T ubhary
^. C. StaU C»Uege
DIGESTION. 25
We have assumed in the foregoing paragraphs that
the changes in the animal body are on the whole of a
very simple character: that sugar is the final and
only form which can undergo combustion in the respi-
ratory process to carbonic acid and water ; that fat is
only combusted after having been converted into sugar ;
that albumen is resolved into urea and fat, and the
latter again into sugar. This of course only refers to
the final result of the changes, and many intermediate
products of change and decomposition which form a
part of the tissues or juices, and more or less determine
their activity, have been altogether left out of con-
sideration.
26 EXPRIMENTAL METHODS.
CHAPTER III.
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS.
The practical result of a particular method of feeding
is represented, if we set aside for tlie moment the pro-
duction of wool and milk, by a gain of flesh or fat in
the body of the animal or by the amount of work
produced by the latter. We have, then, to consider in
greater detail the various conditions which are favour-
able or unfavourable to the production of fat or flesh,
and by which a greater or less amount of useful work
can be performed by the animal. But, first, it will be
advisable to cast a brief glance upon the methods
used in practical investigations on the subject — on the
actual ways and means by which our knowledge of
the laws of flesh-production has recently been enlarged
and made clearer.
In 1857 Bischoff and C. Voit, of Munich, first
showed clearly that the total Nitrogen of the Food, or
its practical equivalent under normal and favourable
conditions, was represented in the ^^ sensible " excretions
of the animal (urine, dung, milk, hair, wool), and that
the Nitrogen in the Urine was an accurate measure
of the extent of the decomposition of albumen in the
animal organism. From that time a reliable method
for the determination of ^^ Laws of Flesh Production,"'^
or the laws of the absorption and decomposition of
DETERMINATION OF NITROGEN. 27
albumen, was available. After this had been proved
by feeding dogs on pure flesh, it was soon confirmed
for the most various food- stuffs by experiments with
oxen, cows, sheep, goats, horses, and men at the experi-
mental stations of Weende, Halle, Mockern, Proskau,
and Hohenheim.
§ 1. Determination of Nitrogen and Mineral Matters.
The amount of Nitrogen in the form of gaseous nitro-
gen or ammonia which leaves the body of a healthy
animal of good digestion and not over-worked, is so
insignificant that it can be completely ignored in
calculating the results of ^' Digestion ^' experiments. As
albumen is the principal nitrogenous constituent of
ordinary food, and as we have also found that the
average nitrogenous materials in the body have the same
composition as albumen or lean meat free from fat, it
is clearly possible to compare the carefully determined
nitrogen of the food with that of all visible excretions,
and thus learn if any and how much flesh (albumen)
has been produced in the body or was given up and
lost under the influence of the food in question.
In the same way the chemical analysis of the food
and the excrement (including milk, &c.) determines
the amount of mineral matter (lime, phosphoric acid,
&c.) absorbed or rejected by the body.
It is self-evident that the greatest care must be exer-
cised to secure absolutely the whole of the excretions
produced, and that especial apparatus and precautions
are necessary (stall-fittings, dung-receptacles, funnels,
&c.), and that a particular experiment must be carried
on for a considerable length of time to get a correct
28 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS.
average result for a day of 24 hours. While the in-
fluence of a food on the gain or loss of albuminoid on
which flesh-production depends can be determined in
this way, the extent of the decomposition of albumen
€an often be found by simply determining the urea.
§ 2. Determination of Fat and Water.
To determine the relationship of Fat and Water in the
body in addition to the Albuminoids and Salts requires
not only a complete examination of the liquid and solid
excretions, but also of the gaseous and vaporous ema-
nations from the body.
The products of animal respiration and perspiration
can only be accurately determined by the help of
special apparatus, such, for instance, as that first con-
structed in Munich for this purpose, and which is still
generally known under the name of " Pettenkofer's
respiration apparatus. ^^
The principle on which this apparatus is based is that
of the ordinary stove : — " As long as the chimney draws,
no smoke escapes from the doors and draughts of the
stove, but, on the contrary, the air presses from all sides
into the stove to pass out through the chimney. If, in
the pipe leading the smoke from the stove to the chim-
ney, an exact measurement of the air were possible,
and if also the composition of the air entering the stove
and that passing out could be exactly determined in an
aliquot part of it, we should have all the factors neces-
sary for determining what had been added to the air by
its passage through the fire in the stove. ^■'
In the respiration apparatus the place of the stove
DETERMINATION OF FAT AND WATER. 29
is taken by a small room constructed of boiler plate,
wbicb is used to contain tbe animal under experiment.
This room has windows at the side cemented air-tiglit,
and a door which is provided with slides, through which
the outside air has free entrance. The chimney is re-
placed by large air-pumps kept in uniform motion at
any required velocity by powerful clockwork which is
kept wound up by a small steam-engine.
The air which is pumped out of the '' saloon ''' is
accurately measured by a large gas-meter, and in order
to obtain an aliquot part of it, and at the same time to
analyse the air as it enters the room, small mercury-
pumps are provided which regularly withdraw a certain
proportion of the air (about 40^00*^) before and after
leaving the room.
The moisture in the air is absorbed by oil of vitriol
and weighed, the carbonic acid by slowly bubbhng the
air through baryta water of known strength, and lastly
it is passed over caustic baryta and the absorbed car-
bonic acid determined. The difference in water and
carbonic acid between the air as it enters and as it
leaves the '^ saloon,^^ calculated to correspond to the
whole volume of air passing through the room, repre-
sents that produced by the animal. By employing
special precautions the amount of hydrogen, hydrocar-
bons, and possible traces of ammonia given off by the
animal can also be estimated.
It will be seen that this apparatus is so arranged
that the man or animal experimented upon is under
perfectly normal conditions, i. e., under the same at-
mospheric pressure and in a similar atmosphere to that
30 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS.
of a stall or a room. This is a great advantage, because
this is the only way in which the experiment can be
carried on long enough to obtain normal and reliable
results. It is true great precautions have to be ob-
servedj and difficulties overcome, especially when ex-
perimenting on large farm-animals_, but we cannot
discuss them here.
The " Feeding Effect " or '' Digestion Result '' can
be ascertained after direct determination of the requisite
elements by calculating the difference between the
supply and loss. By multiplying the Nitrogen Id the
daily food and in the total excretions by the factor
6*25 (see page 8)_, we obtain the actual quantity of
Albumen pro^dded and rejected by the animal, and thus
the gain or loss of flesh occurring in 24 hours can be
determined. In a similar way the total or separate
mineral substances concerned can be estimated. To
obtain accurate results as to the influence of food on
the total fat of the animal, not only the carbon in the
dung and urine, but also the respired carbonic acid and
the hydrocarbons given off from the body have to be
determined.
The difference between the carbon in the total food
and excretion must next be corrected by the carbon
represented by the loss or gain of albuminoid (con-
taining 53 per cent, of carbon), and the remainder
by multiplication with the factor 1*3 (more accurately
1*307), which represents the fat corresponding to 1 part
of carbon, and gives the total fat gained or lost by the
body.
The alterations in the water contained in the body
DETERMINATION OF FAT AND WATER. 31
are easily estimated with fair accuracy by comparing
the total of the other constituents (albuminoids^ mine-
rals, and fat) with the increase or decrease of the live-
weight of the animal.
The atmospheric oxygen employed in the process of
digestion need not be directly determined, but can be
deduced with fair accuracy from the water-vapour given
off from the body, and which can be measured in the
respiration apparatus.
To make this clearer, an illustration of a digestion
experiment, conducted at Weende by Henneberg, on
full-grown sheep of Gottinger breed is appended
(p. 32).
The food was entirely hay and water, and the results
are calculated out for an average animal of 105 lbs.
live-weight for a space of 24 hours ; the average tem-
perature of the stall during the experiments was 10° C.
It is, of course, self-evident that any loss by the body
is placed on the '^ consumption " side of the account,
and any gain on the " production '' side.
The excess of water produced over that supplied
(274*9 grams) represents 30*55 grams of Hydrogen in
the organic matter which have been turned to water.
If we deduct from the total bodily increase the wool
(9*5) and the minerals lost by the body (0*8), we get a
total of 70-3 — 10-3 = 60 grams (2 oz.) as the actual daily
gain in the bodily weight as Flesh, Fat, and Water.
In this experiment a bodily increase, though only a
small one, resulted, and the food supplied was some-
what richer than was necessary to maintain the animal
in an unaltered condition.
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS.
Digestion Calculation,'
T2 DO
n
Mineral matter
(grams).
Nitrogen
(grams).
1. Consumption.
2936-5 Food and Drink :—
1216 hay
997-3
5-7
1-8
0-8
218-6
0-3
1712-7
67-9
5-7
1-6
0-8
460-1
"o-i
85-8
003
190-3
18-1
584
0-27
1522-5
587-6
6 salt
0-8 loss from body
587'6 ox^'gen from air ...
Total... 3524-9
1931-6
760
460-2
276-2
18-1
2694-4
2. Production.
1814-5 Excrement :—
1257 dung
424-9
79-7
7-4
7-8
17-1
832-1
477-8
2-1
"35-9
858'6
44-0
31-1
0-9
202-5
23-2
3-5
4-1
13-1
212-7
1-1
117-5
55-5
0-7
0-6
2-1
4-0
"0-'4
95-4
8-45
7-65
0-75
1-25
884-6
439-9
3-7
1-9
1-9
31-9
567-3
763-2
557 "5 urine
70*3 Bodily increase : —
9*5 wool (including
sweat and fat) . . .
7-8flesli
17-1 fat
35-9 water
1&40-1 Products of Respi-
ration:—
780-0 carbonic acid ...
1-5 marsh-gas
858-6 moisture
Total... 3524-9
2206-5
76-0
460-2
276-2
18-1
2694-4
* 1 gram may be taken to equal 15 grains, or 28 grams =1 oz.
DETERMINATION OF FAT AND WATER.
33
The mineral matters taken and rejected daily were
found to be as follows : —
Excretions.
Dung
Urine
Wool
Total Excretions . . .
Total Consumption
Difference : —
Gain ,
Loss ,
Potash.
4
g
i3
.2'
0
r
.0
CO
CD
a
1
0
1
1-14
1%
i'35
g-
3-67
g-
4-03
0?86
g-
22^2
42-80
18-01
3-09
0-40
1-14
0-07
1-31
8-41
0-43
32-86
0-76
0-03
0-01
0-01
0-04
0-05
0-01
0-91
19-91
4-52
9-78
4-82
4-11
2-21
8-46
22-76
76-57
75-61
21-27
5-68
8-44
4-47
4-08
2-46
9-74
19-47
1-36
1-16
...
0-25
1-28
134
6-35 0-03
...
3-29
0-96
1
It should be noted that the excessive quantity of
silica and sand in the excretion is not derived from
the body^ but through accidental impurity in the food.
It is thus seen that a small quantity of alkalies and
chlorine was retained in the body^ a certain quantity
of lime and magnesia was lost_, while with respect to
phosphoric acid no difference occurred in the body.
A similar research on young calves was carried out at
the Experimental Station at Vienna by Soxhlet. The
calves weighed from 90 to 145 lbs. each, and were entirely
fed on fresh milk. Here the investigation was based on
an absolutely digestible material which produces rapid
growth with young animals, and the results are in
interesting contrast to those which we have just con-
sideredj in which full-grown sheep were kept in fair
condition without much bodily growth on a diet of
34 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS.
hay. It was found that the average growth of a calf
weighing a hundredweight (50 kilos) averaged 2 lbs. a
day, and the following results in grams were ob-
tained for an average animal two to three weeks old,
weighing 50 kilos, for a period of 24 hours (p. 35).
For the production of the Carbonic Acid given off by
the lungs and skin_, 422 grams milk-sugar, 78'5 g. fat
in the food^ 32' 7 g. fat produced by the decomposition
of 63*5 g. albumen were employed, and the rest was
obtained from the decomposed albumen after separation
of fat and urea. The total carbon thus provided
(168-8 + 60 + 25 + 4-8=258-6)
equals the amount found in the carbonic acid breathed
out by the animal. The daily increase in the live-
weight amounted to 925 g. per day (2 lbs.), and con-
sisted of 168 g. albuminoids, 158 g. fat, 33 g. mineral
matter, 566 g. of water. Very nearly 1 pound of in-
crease in the live-weight of the animal was produced
by 1 pound of dry matter in the milk provided.
These examples of Digestion Experiments illustrate
the great care and labour involved in determining the
feeding-effect of even a single food on a particular kind
of animal, and it is easily understood that in many
directions the progress of the science of feeding farm
animals can only go on slowly.
When only the give and take of albuminoids is to be
determined, the process is much simpler and less
laborious, and consequently, while our knowledge of
the laws of '^ flesh production ^Ms in a fairly advanced
condition, we are still greatly in the dark as to the
conditions which determine the highest and most
economical production of fat and work.
DETERMINATION OF FAT AND WATER.
35
o o
o 2-
Q
p
3-
o
2.
S*
QTQ
•^r CO
tCi OS
Dry matter.
CO CO
oi. o
CO
to to
Nitrogen.
§
fcO
O CO
bO
CO CJi
Albumen.
Carbon.
bO
O CO
o o
CO dr
bO
CO
Fat.
O bO
o to
Milk-Sugar.
Ash.
o 1—
O 00
o ob
O CO
bO
Phosphoric
Acid.
C5 >f='
c5t
Potash.
d2
36 FLESH PRODUCTION.
CHAPTER IV.
FLESH PRODUCTION.
§ 1. Circulatory and Organized Albumen.
The general laws of animal nutrition owe mach of
their clearness and value to the results of the extensive
researches conducted at Munich by Karl Voit, which
led to the division of the Albuminoids in the body
into two classes, the stable organized albumen and
the easily decomposable circulatory albumen ■^. Under
the latter Voit does not include the total albumen
circulating in the blood and lymph, but only the
dissolved portion which penetrates into the tissues and
saturates the organs with fluid nutriment.
The amount of circulatory albumen under conditions
of feeble nourishment is but small, and in a condition
of hunger amounts to less than 1 per cent, of the total
albumen ; its amount, however, increases considerably
with a rich supply of albuminoid in the food, and can
rise as high as 5 per cent, with flesh-feeding animals.
However large or small the quantity of albumen circu-
lating in the juices and through the organs may be, the
greater portion of it (generally 70 to 80 per cent.) is
inevitably decomposed in the course of 24 hours, and a
corresponding quantity of nitrogen in the form of Urea
or Hippuric acid is discharged in the urine, while less
than 0'8 per cent, of the *' organized albumen '' suffers
* " Circulations-Eiweiss."
CIRCULATORY ALBUMEN. 37
decomposition. This latter quantity has been deter-
mined by experiments on starving dogs. Under con-
ditions of starvation or of complete lack of food, the store
of circulatory albumen is rapidly exhausted, and after a
few days the destruction of albuminoids, as represented
by the nitrogen in the urine, is solely due to the
quantity of organized albumen which is daily taken
into the system and undergoes decomposition. By
adequate or liberal feeding the amount of decomposed
organized albumen is still less. The old idea that all
the organs of the body undergo rapid decomposition,
and that in the course of a few weeks the whole
organism undergoes complete change and reconstruction
is quite false. This state of things only exists in the
case of a few cell- systems, as in the blood- corpuscles
and the milk-glands, which during the period of their
greatest activity are being constantly decomposed and
reformed. The majority of organs, when once pro-
duced, are very stable in themselves, although the
quantity and quality of the contents of the cells vary
considerably with the food of the animal. The circu-
latory albumen, on the contrary, undergoes a continual
change.
" A powerful stream of fluid charged with albumen
leaves the blood, bathes the organs, and flows back again
to the blood. In this way, and by the action of the cells
on the plasma, the decomposition of the fluid ^not-
organized^ albumen is effected, probably in a similar way
to that in which we separate chemical compounds in our
relatively crude researches by osmosis or by the action
of capillary tubes.^' {Voit.)
Further evidence of the fact that organized albumen
38 FLESH PRODUCTION.
is stable, while circulatory albumen readily undergoes
decomposition, has been given by further direct investi-
gations at Munich and afterwards at Leipzig.
It was observed with dogs that living blood, which as
a whole can be considered an organ, when transfused
into the circulation of another animal, withstands de-
composition much longer than if the same quantity of
not-organized albumen was introduced into the same
animal in the same way, or if blood was served as food.
In the latter case, by the process of digestion, the
^' organized '^ albumen of the blood was changed into
^^ circulatory ''■' albumen, and entered the circulation in
that form.
§ 2. The Laws of Flesh Formation.
The Laws of Flesh Formation were first studied with
reference to the Carnivoraj i. e. with dogs; but they are
essentially the same for all the higher animals.
The various species of animals differ in the food which
they chiefly eat as well as in their powers of digesting
certain foods; but the real nutrients which are re-
sorbed from the digestive system, even under most
varied systems of feeding_, are always the same, viz.,
albuminoids, fat, sugar, water, and mineral salts. Since
all mammals are very similar with regard to the
structure, chemical composition, and functions of their
organs, the decomposition process must follow the same
course, i. e. the substances once resorbed and taken up
into the circulation decompose or are deposited in the
body according to the same laws.
The laws deduced from experiments with Carnivora
have been completely confirmed in their general scope
CONSUMPTION OF ALBUMINOIDS. 39
and bearing by recent experiments on Herbivora^tbougli
tiie total amount of material decomposed or stored np
in the body varies Tvitb tbe proportion of tbe different
nutrients which the animal is capable of resorbing
under normal conditions.
The capacity of Camivora and Herbivora for resorbing
the various nutrients is not, however, so different as is
generally supposed. It has been found, for instance,
that a dog is able to digest and resorb as much as
i ounce of starch per lb. of live-weight per day, while
a well-fed milch-cow, or even a fattening ox, resorbs
from its food not more than ^ to ^q oz. of carbo-
hydrate per lb. of live-weight per day. Although
this similarity for the resorption of albumen has been
observed, it appears that fat is resorbed in far greater
quantity by Carnivora than by Herbivora.
§ 3. Consumption of Albuminoids.
It is not always possible to distinguish accurately
between the consumption and production of albuminoids
in the body ; frequently the two increase or decrease
simultaneously, and often one varies oppositely to the
other. I will now detail the conditions which affect
the rate of consumption of albuminoids, while the
question of flesh-production or the deposition of albu-
men I will leave for the present out of consideration.
1. Supply of Albumen increases Consumption.
In the first place the quantity supplied determines-
the consumption of albumen in the body. In a con-
dition of starvation all animals are carnivorous, since
they feed on their own flesh and fat, and the con-
40 FLESH PRODUCTION.
sumption of albuminoid is relatively small. For a
large dog this amounts to 17 grains of dry albumen
per lb. of live-weigbt per day, for an ox only 5 to
7 grains.
Under conditions of moderate nutrition and a fairly
mixed diet a large dog lost 70 grains of albuminoid per
lb. of live-weigbt, a cow 25, a man 28 grains^, a full-
grown ox at rest only 10_, and a sheep 17 grains.
As a result of a liberal diet this quantity can be
doubled or trebled^ and when sheep or oxen are being
fatted amounts to as much as five times that consumed
under ordinary conditions of feeding. By feeding
dogs exclusively on meat the amount of albuminoid
was fifteen times as much as that consumed under
starvation conditions.
Experiments on fat sheep conducted by Kern and
Wattenberg at Gottingen showed that a continuous
increase in the supply of albuminoid resulted in a
small quantity only being stored up in the body, while
the greater portion of the albumen (87 to 97 per cent.)
was decomposed, the nitrogen passing into the urine
and the rest under favourable conditions contributed to
the production of fat.
2. '^ Nitrogen Equilibrium/'
The albumen consumed during fasting is not a
measure of the amount required by an animal to main-
tain itself in a constant condition, as was formerly
supposed. The quantity is more often twice or two
and a half times as great, and the consumption of
albumen rises above this minimum in proportion to
the amount taken in the food.
CONSUMPTION OF ALBUMINOIDS. 41
As a matter of fact a condition of " Nitrogen Equi-
librium " is set up sooner or later corresponding with
the amount of albumen which the animal receives in
its food ; that is, the amount of nitrogen in the food is
eventually represented in quantity by that daily ex-
creted in the dung and urine (as well as milk_, &c.) .
The excess of albumen resorbed is first turned into
^^ circulatory '^ albumen, and then undergoes almost
complete decomposition. This equilibrium of nitrogen
is more quickly set up, the greater the amount of
nitrogen in the food and the leaner the animal, and
is generally attained more quickly by Carnivora than
by Herbivora.
As soon as the equilibrium of nitrogen has been set
up, and the body is also in equilibrium through loss or
gain of flesh or albumen, the same quantity and kind
of food is required every day to maintain this constant
condition. Each particular condition of body requires
within certain narrow limits a peculiar and corre-
sponding food-supply, and we cannot well speak of a
superfluous consumption of food by animals as we do of
plants, i. e, of a wholly useless and unnecessary excess
of some one nutrient.
A waste of Food, however, often occurs in practice,
when more food is given than is required for the object
in view, such as the production of milk or wool, and
the feeding of draught animals and young cattle. Even
when fattening animals, as we shall see later, the same
or a better result may often be produced by a food
poorer in albuminoids than one which contains a very
large quantity.
42 FLESH PRODUCTION.
3. Influence of the Condition of the Animal,
From the preceding paragraphs it will be seen that
the total mass of the organs^ the proportion of ^' organ-
ized^^ to ^* circulatory^' albumen, as well as the ratio of
the total bodily albuminoid to the fat tissues, or, in
brief, the Condition of the animal has a powerful
influence on the extent of the consumption of albumen,
although a much smaller one than the supply of albumen.
When the amount of flesh is large the amount of
organized albumen decomposed is large in proportion.
It is possible to make this clear by sudden changes in
diet — for instance, if a highly nitrogenous diet be
suddenly replaced by one poor in nitrogen, then for the
first few days the nitrogen discharged is much greater
than that received in the food ; but when the store of
circulatory albumen has been exhausted the excreted
and supplied nitrogen again come into equilibrium,
until the bodily condition is exactly equivalent to the
amount of nitrogen contained in the food provided.
When, however, a return is suddenly made to the highly
nitrogenous diet, a restoration of the organized albumen
to its original amount does not take place, but a con-
dition of nitrogen equilibrium is quickly set up through
the more rapid production of circulatory and unstable
albumen and the slow and small production of organized
albumen. Only under favourable conditions, which we
will consider in a future chapter, can the increase of
organized albumen and the consequent increase of the
animal be effected.
4. Effect of Salt on the Consumption of Albumen.
A moderate supply of salt in the daily food increases
CONSUMPTION OF ALBUMINOIDS. 43
the flow of the active juices in the body, and conse-
quently the consumption of albumen. Voit, in his
experiments, found that with dogs fed on flesh only,
salt increased the consumption of albumen 4*5 per cent.,
and similar results were obtained with vegetable diet
and also with cattle. The advantages of salt as an
article of food especially for Herbivora has already been
spoken of. Adding salt to the food is therefore of
especial value when a stimulation of all the vital
functions is desired, as in horses, working oxen in good
condition, young animals and males for breeding pur-
poses &c. ; while in fattening only as much should be
given as is required to make the food palatable, and
necessary for the normal nourishment of the auimal.
Salt is a diuretic and often considerably increases the
excretion of urine. This is especially noticeable if the
animal is prevented from drinking much purposely or
accidentally. For the excretion of the excess of salt
more water is necessary, and this is withdrawn first from
that excreted by evaporation from the lungs and skin,
and, if this is not sufficient, from the body itself.
When large doses of salt and little water are given the
live-weight can sink rapidly, while if the animal is
eventually allowed to drink a large quantity of water,
much of it may be laid up in the tissues and the live-
weight of the animal may be again increased.
5. Influence of Water on Albumen Coiisumption.
It is not advisable to give animals too much salt, as
they are then inclined to drink too much water, with a
resulting increase in the consumption of albumen and
an increased destruction of valuable food material.
44 FLESH PRODUCTION.
especially when the excess of water is not retained in
the tissues but is rapidly excreted by evaporation or in
the urine.
Experiments with starving dogs at Munich showed
an increase of albumen consumption in this way of
25 per cent., and this has been confirmed with domestic
animals by Marcker and with men by Mares. Henne-
berg_, of Weende_, found that an increase of l in the
supply of water caused an average increase of albumen
consumption amounting to 7'2 per cent. Even this
amount is by no means insignificant, as it amounts to a
third or perhaps even a half of the albumen which
might otherwise have been deposited in the body. In
any case, to get the most satisfactory results possible,
especially in the feeding of young animals and in fatten-
ing, we must avoid everything which involves or conduces
to an excessive consumption of water, e. (/., watery food,
excessive heat of the stall, too much salt, unnecessary
movement, &c. This is especially important in the case
of sheep, since they naturally driuk less water in pro-
portion to the dry matter of their food than cattle.
Animals in milk may be allowed excess of water with
less disadvantage, and an increased milk production can
be thus produced, but it is not advisable to increase the
proportion of water beyond a certain limit.
6. The Effect of Stimulants
on the consumption of albumen seems to be inappre-
ciable. At any rate Voit found no effect produced when
he supplied dogs in a condition of hunger, or fed on
various diets, with coffee. The action on the nervous
system seems to be caused by so minute a change of
STORAGE OF ALBUMEN. 45
albuminoid matter that its significance is nil when
compared with the total consumption of albumen in the
body. It is quite another and as yet unanswered
question whether the increased nervous activity may
not cause an increased consumption o£ fat in the body^
such as is produced by muscular effort and severe labour.
It has been actually observed that a mechanical
stimulation of the walls of the intestines^ as well the
nerve stimulus caused by cold air, produces an increased
discharge of carbonic acid and a larger consumption of
respiration materials.
7. Influence of Fat.
An increase in the supply of fat slightly increases
the consumption of albumen, as more albumen is put
in circulation. But this effect can only clearly be
observed when the animal is starving or receiving an
inadequate supply of albumen in its daily food. With
a large supply of circulatory albumen provided by a
liberal diet, fat acts in quite the opposite way and
exercises a very material economy of albumen.
^ § 4. The Storage of Albumen in the Body.
The rapid increase of the absorption of albumen is
one of the chief objects of stock-keeping and fattening,
since the amount of organized albumen (flesh) in the
animal''s body which, when once formed, is stable and
does not readily undergo decomposition, together with
the fat and water represents the increase of the live-
weight of the animal. From the facts already given
much can be learnt as to means of increasing the storage
of albumen, since those conditions which are favourable
46 FLESH PRODUCTION.
for the change of albumen must in general be equally
favourable for its storage. But it is a matter for serious
consideration that there are means of economizing the
albumen in the daily food, and of reducing its con-
sumption for feeding-purposes to the lowest minimum,
whereby the laying-on of flesh is favoured, and the albu-
men required for the production of the various valuable
animal products expended to the best advantage.
1 . Supply favours production of Flesh,
It is self-evident that a large supply of a uniform
food must produce more increase in the body than a
small one ; but this effect is not only generally true but
also often proportional to the quantity, as Henneberg
and Stohmann found at Weende by various experiments
on oxen. In one instance, when the total supply of
digestible food was increased from 18J lbs. to 20^
lbs. per day (the proportion of nitrogenous to non-
nitrogenous food remaining the same), 32 per cent, of
the resorbed albumen was formed into flesh instead of
only 18 per cent, with the smaller food-supply.
In other experiments in which the animals were fed
with clover-hay in quantity rising from 4 to 5 lbs.
each per day, the percentage of flesh formed rose from
9 to 14, and in another instance from 11 to 15 per cent,
of the total albumen digested. These facts show how
very important it is to take care that fattening beasts
receive as large a quantity as possible of the food
in question ; a little more or less can produce a great
difference in the rate of increase, as is often illustrated
by the marked slowness or rapidity of the increase of
the live- weight of fattening pigs.
STORAGE OF ALBUMEN. 47
2. Influence of an Increase of Albumen.
When the albumen is increased while the non-nitro-
genons food remains constant, the circulatory albumen
is increased and its destruction increased in proportion,
but a certain amount of the excess of albumen is laid
up in the flesh ; after a certain amount of this albumen
has been stored in the body, a condition of ^^ nitrogen-
balance'^ is setup — not immediately, but in a shorter or
longer time dependent on circumstances. Great care
should be exercised in increasing the amount of albu-
minoids in food, as the loss of albumen is often increased
and only a very small quantity stored up in the body
as flesh_, so that the ration produces little or no effect
and results in a dead loss.
The condition and previous diet of the animal must
therefore be taken into consideration.
3. Influence of the Fat of the Body.
The fat stored up in the body reduces the consumption
of albumen, and therefore favours the laying-on of
flesh. The absolute quantity of fat is not so important
in this respect as its proportion to the flesh in the body.
It has been found that with an equal quantity of flesh,
the consumption of albumen in the body is less the
fatter the animal. For this reason the laying-on of
flesh is most easily done by Herbivora, since they are
especially adapted for producing fat, and even under
ordinary conditions of feeding have much more fat in
their bodies than Carnivora. On this same account it
is often possible to increase the proportion of albumen
in the food of Herbivora with the most satisfactory
results. At the same time even with cattle one can-
48 FLESH PRODUCTION.
not afford to disregard the appropriate food-supply for
the condition of the animal ; especially is this the case
at the commencement of feeding, since the most suitable
food is very different for lean animals out of condition
than for others in good condition. The capacity of
Herbivora for fattening depends on the nature and
method of their normal nourishment, as well as on the
quality and quantity of the blood produced, and also
perhaps on the size and structure of their organs of
respiration. The fatter the animal becomes, the
smaller as a rule the consumption of material in the
body, the less the absorption of material by the blood
and lymph from the digestive organs, and the less the
quantity of food required to satisfy the animal.
These facts are especially noticeable in the case of
fattening swine, which often suffer from fatty degen-
eration of the organs ; very fat young cattle also even-
tually cease to grow and increase in a normal manner.
Researches conducted at Hohenheim on fat sheep and
oxen have shown that it is possible to maintain a well
fattened animal in an unaltered condition by a very
ordinary diet, if no further increase is desired or the
increase of the body-weight has already attained its
maximum.
4. Fat in the Food supplied.
The proportion in which the different nutrients albu-
men, fat, and sugar (starch &c. generally included in
the term "Carbohydrates"') are digested and resorbed
has a highly important influence on the economy of
albumen in tbe body. I will first consider the influence
of tbe fat supplied in the food.
STORAGE OF ALBUMEN. 49
If a large dog weigting 65 lbs. be daily fed with a
pound of fresh meat free from fat containing 4 ozs. of
pure albumen, the supply is insufficient for the needs of
the animal, and it rapidly loses flesh and at length
nearly dies of starvation. About 3 lbs. of lean meat
are necessary to keep such an animal in a normal con-
dition. But if to the one pound of meat 7 ozs. of fat
be addedj the animal ceases to starve but remains in a
healthy and sound condition, and it is even possible for
flesh to be formed and the bodily weight to increase.
This gain takes place for the most part in the tissues,
the organized albumen increases in quantity, thereby
increasing the live-weight of the animal. By the ad-
dition of 7 ozs. of fat, 2 lbs. of flesh were economized,
or a mixture of 1 lb. of flesh and 7 ozs. of fat achieved
the same nutritive effect as 3 lbs. of flesh.
It would be quite a mistake to suppose that if the
dog which had been fed entirely on 3 lbs of flesh a day
were to be supplied with 7 ozs. of fat in addition, that
the daily eonsumption of flesh in the animal would be
at once reduced to a pound, and that the extra 2 pounds
provided in the food would be stored up as flesh. The
consumption of albumen in the first place (see page 39)
is increased by the amount of albumen supplied ; the
greater the amount of meat eaten, the greater the
consumption of albumen, quite independently of the
addition of fat.
The fat does not protect the albumen from decom-
position to any appreciable extent, and when the fat
in the food sinks below a certain minimum, even this
feeble protection entirely ceases, and the consumption
of albumen is increased in order to make good the
50 FLESH PRODUCTION.
deficit of fat. The reduction of the albumen con-
sumption (production of flesh) through the additional
provision of fat is not very great. Voit found as a
result of many experiments with Carnivora which
received moderate and large rations of flesh, that it
amounted to from 1 to 15 per cent., or on the average
7 per cent, of the total consumption. But this action
often goes on for a long time with a constant food
supply, so that before equilibrium between supply and
consumption has been set up, the total effect of the
feeding can be very considerable.
The economizing influence of fat on the albumen
consumption of Herbivora is not so evident as with
Carnivora, because its action is hidden by a large mass
of carbohydrates. The fat in the food of cows ought not
to exceed a certain amount. Small quantities exercise
generally a beneficial action_, while excess produces
hurtful effects, and as a result of the disturbance of
digestion the animal rapidly loses appetite. At the
same time the different kinds and conditions of fat
behave very differently in this respect, and it is worth
while to pay attention to the fat in the food of young
cattle, fattening beasts, and horses, especially when the
ration is rather a nitrogenous one.
5. Effect of the Carbohydrates,
Carbohydrates have a far greater importance in
the feeding of Herbivora, and they effect a greater
economy of albumen in the body than fat. This
was found in experiments with Carnivora fed with
starch and meat to be 9 per cent., while a diet
with an equivalent quantity of fat only resulted
STORAGE OF ALBUMEN. 51
in an economy of 7 per cent, of the consumption of
albumen.
Starch differs from fat in that it does not cause
an increased consumption of albumen when fed with
an insufficient amount of flesh to an animal in a
starving condition. Starch exercises under all con-
ditions a preservative action on albumen, although it
can only reduce and is unable wholly to prevent its
consumption.
The physiological value of starch is therefore quite
apart from its so-called "Respiration value.^^ This
latter value, which represents the amount of oxygen
required to completely burn starch and fat, is in the
proportion of 1 : 2*44, while the economizing action of
equal quantities of starch and fat on the consumption
of albumen is practically the same. Recent researches
by Rubner at Munich have shown that so far as the
more important vital functions of the different nutrients
are concerned, they can practically replace one another
according to their heat-producing value, or are '^ iso-
dynamic''^ (see Production of Force).
Herbivora take an enormous quantity of Carbo-
hydrates in their normal food, and on this account
they require little albumen to maintain them in con-
dition, so that on a high diet a portion of the digested
albumen readily remains in the body and is stored up
in the organs as organized albumen. A certain minimum
of albumen, however, must be present in the food of
cattle, and cannot be replaced by any other food-
constituent. The most important and difficult problem
which the science of Feeding is slowly solving is that
of determining this minimum for all the purposes for
r2
52 PLESH PRODUCTION.
whicli farm animals are kept^ and especially that of
fixing the necessary quantity and best proportions of
nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous materials in the daily
food of any animal. In a subsequent chapter the latest
contributions to our knowledge of these matters,
which are due to the Experimental Stations, shall find
a place.
FORMATION OF FAT. 53
CHAPTER V.
THE FORMATION OF FAT.
§ 1. Sources of Fat,
The Fat o£ the Food, when digested and resorbed,
may, under suitable conditions, remain undestroyed
and be stored up in the body ; this is now as certain
as the fact of the formation of fat from other con-
stituents of the food. I will only refer on this point
to some experiments which we owe to the activity of
the Physiological Institute at Munich.
Carnivorous animals which, as a result of restricted
feeding on flesh, have become rich in flesh and propor-
tionately poor in fat, after a period of complete hunger
eventually lose the whole of the fat ; the time when all
tlje fat has gone is easily recognized by the fact that
the excretion of urea, which during hunger is very
constant, at last increases quite suddenly, because, after
the disappearance of the fat, more albumen is consumed
in the body to replace it. In an experiment by F.
Hofmann, such a fat-free dog weighing 40 lbs. was
starved for thirty days, and then fed for five days with
as large a quantity of pure fat as possible, whereby
13 ounces of pure fat were digested. This is such a
large quantity that it is impossible to suppose it to
have been completely oxidized in the body, for then
54 FORMATION OF FAT.
37 ounces of carbonic acid should have been excreted,
while direct determinations of the amount excreted by
dogs double the size gave far smaller quantities. In
the body of the animal,, which was killed at the end
of the experiment, 47 ounces of fat were found on
the various organs, instead of the 5 ounces which,
according to other investigations, was the greatest
quantity that could have been present in the body
after thirty days' fasting, so that in this case about
8 J ounces per day of the fat of the food remained
undestroyed and were deposited in the body.
In other researches with dogs which were fed with a
more normal diet of fat and flesh, it was proved, with the
help of the '' respiration apparatus,'^ that as a general
thins: a considerable amount of the fat in the food was
stored up in the body; Voit and Pettenkofer found
this to be in three instances IJ ounces, IJ ounces, and
4 ounces of fat a day.
The fat, however, must be similar to the animal fats
or easily altered into such, since absolutely foreign
fats are neither resorbed from the alimentaiy canal at
all or are rapidly oxidized in the animal fluids. This
does not, of course, prevent the fat in the food of
Herbivora from contributing directly to the formation
of fat in the body, since most vegetable fats are very
similar in composition and properties to the animal
fats.
Formation of Fat in the Body.
No special proof as to the formation of fat in the
body from other substances need be adduced, as daily
experience in fattening and the production of milk
make it sufficiently evident.
SOURCES OF FAT. 55
But a very important question needs consideration,
and this is : ^' What food-materials are prominently or
exclusively concerned in the production of Fat ? ''
Clearly the answer is limited to the albuminoids, the
nitrogenous organic substances, and the carbohydrates ;
for besides these nutrients and fat itself, there are no
other substances present in sufficient quantity in the
food of either Herbivora or Carnivora to be capable of
producing fat.
Formation of Fat from Albuminoids.
It is now generally accepted as a fact that fat can be
produced from albuminoids. The fact that the albu-
minoids by fermentation, as well as by treatment with
alkalies and acids and oxidizing agents, produce fat,
amongst many other products of decomposition, favours
this view.
Former observations that the albuminoids of milk
and cheese are converted into fat on standing have not
been confirmed, at any rate for cheese, by a recent careful
investigation by O. Kellner at Hohenheim. On the
contrary, however, it is often found that in the milk
of the same cow the quantity of albuminoid decreases
as the fat increases and vice versa, which points to a
relationship between the two substances.
The production of the so-called Adipocere on dead
bodies, and the fatty degeneration of the muscles and
other organs in living animals through certain diseases
and often from excessive fattening, is a common occur-
rence with pigs : both point to the same fact.
The fatty degeneration of all the organs of the body
as a result of phosphorus poisoning is very marked.
56 FORMATION OF FAT.
and from the researclies of J. Baur, of Muuicli, there
is hardly any doubt that the fat is produced from the
albuminoid tissues, since urea is produced at the same
time and excreted.
A large dog, which had been starved 12 days until
practically all its fat had disappeared, was slowly
poisoned with phosphorus. Death resulted during the
night of the nineteenth day of hunger.
Before poisoning, the nitrogen excreted in the urine
had averaged constantly ^ ounce per day; after the
phosphorus poisoning the amount of nitrogen in the
urine increased rapidly, and eventually reached | ounce,
or more than three times as much as before. A similar
dog, experimented upon under like conditions, gave
off in the respiration apparatus only half the normal
amount of carbonic acid and only absorbed half the
normal quantity of oxygen.
Two changes are therefore produced by phosphorus
poisoning — (1) decomposition of albuminoids into fat
and urea; (2) a smaller absorption of oxygen and, con-
sequently, reduced oxidation of the fat.
Both processes combine to produce fat in the body,
as was proved by observations of the dog poisoned with
phosphorus; for in the dry matter of the muscles
42-4 per cent., and in the liver 30 per cent., of fat was
found, a quantity three times greater than the normal
and ten times as great as the quantity would have been
if the dog had not been poisoned and kept without
food for twenty days.
The liver of a man who died from phosphorus
poisoning was found to contain 76'8 per cent, of fat ;
SOURCES OF FAT. 57
but a rapid collection of fat in tlie liver may have been
made from other parts of the body.
If a doubt still remained as to the formation of fat
from albuminoids^ it must vanish on consideration
of the results obtained with healthy animals fed on a
normal and natural food. For example^ the eggs of
ordinary flies have been allowed to develop on pure
blood, and from seven to eleven times as much fat
found in the larvae as was originally contained in eggs
and blood together, although the insects had not con-
sumed all the blood : this excess of fat must have come
from the albuminoids in the blood. Still more im-
portant are the numerous experiments made by feeding
dogs on large quantities of pure (fat-free) meat. Thus
Voit and Pettenkofer found an excess of 1^ ounces of
carbon in the food over the total excretions; the
nitrogen in the excretion exactly corresponded to that
in the food, a condition of "nitrogen-balance'"' had
been set up, and a certain amount of the carbon in the
albuminoid present in the food must have remained
behind and been stored up as fat, since no other
organic substance is known which can be stored up in
the body in so large a quantity.
From the knowledge which we now possess as to the
processes of decomposition in the animal body, we can
assume that an amount of fat corresponding to the
total consumption of albumen (about 51 per cent.), as
far as this escapes fermentation in the intestines, is
produced in the body, and, together with the digestible
fat received in the food, is mostly burnt up in the
process of respiration ; but under certain conditions it
58 FORMATION OF FAT.
can be completely absorbed as fat-tissue, or be used
for the production of milk.
The calculation of the fat-increase produced by any
given supply of food must always include the ready-
made fat in the food as well as the fat produced by
the decomposition of albumen. Only when these two
sources of fat are insufficient for the increase of fat
observed, can other food constituents be considered in
this respect. On this account, a very pertinent question
arises as to how the Herbivora, especially the animals
of the farm, are so easily fattened although their food
contains but little albumen and still less fat. To
answer this question, we will examine the results of
practical researches in which the feeding effect of a
diet was either simply and directly determined by the
increase of the live-weight of the animal and the
composition of the carcase, or by the method of deter-
mining the quantity and composition of the visible
excretions.
Production of Milk-fat by Cows.
This was the subject of researches by Yoit at Munich,
G. Kiihn at Mockern, and others carried out at Hohen-
heim; in the first series a rich diet, and in the two
latter a poorer and less nitrogenous diet, was provided.
The proportion of fat resorbed from the food, and of
fat which might have been produced from the albu-
minoid in the food_, the total available fat, and, finally,
the amount of fat actually found in the milk are
given in the following table. The figures are expressed
as grams per head per day : —
SOURCES OF FAT.
59
[28 grams =
1 oz]
Digestible Fat
in food.
Fat obtained
from albumen.
Total Fat
in food.
Fat found
in milk.
Munich ex- |
periment J
Mockern ex- 1
periment J
Hohenheira 1
experiment /
276
183-5
168
308-5
74-5
164-3
584-5
258
332-8
337
284-8
296-9
In the Municli and Hohenheim experiments the fat
supplied was more than sufficient to account for that
contained in the milk. In Mockern, however^ an
excess of milk-fat over that in the food was found ; but
even if this excess had been considerably greater, no
definite conclusions with regard to its source could be
drawn. Equilibrium between the supply and excretion
of nitrogen was certainly established with the animals
under experiment at Mockern as well as at Hohenheim ;
but whether the animals were in equilibrium as to
carbon, or whether the fat of the body took part in the
milk- production (as is often the case with milch-cows,
evefn when well fed), could only have been decided with
certainty by the help of a respiration apparatus.
At any rate, it is very remarkable that in the above
experiments, in which good milch-cows were fed on a
poor diet, it was unnecessary to take into consideration
any appreciable quantity of any other constituents of
the food except the crude fat and the fat from albumen
to explain the production of milk-fat.
60
FORMATION OF FAT.
§ 2. Experiments on Fattening, .
Something more definite as to the source of animal
fat may perhaps be learned from the results of fattening
experiments on domestic animals_, if we conclude from
the well-known English experiments of Lawes and
Gilbert that the percentage composition of the live-
weight in fattening is as follows : —
Ash.
Albumen.
Fat.
Total
dry matter.
Water.
Pigs
Sheep
Oxen
0-53
2-34
1-47
7-76
7-13
7-69
63-1
70-4
66-2
71-4
79-9
75-4
28-6
20-1
24-6
Average ...
1-45
7-53
66-6
75-6
24-4
Many fattening experiments^ for the most part on.
full-grown sheep, have been carried out at the different
Experimental Stations. Generally, the chemical com-
position of the food and the actual increase in the live-
weight were determined, and to get trustworthy results
the investigations were continued in each case for a
period of 2^ to 3 months. At the end of the experi-
ments the animals were slaughtered and the products
weighed. The following average results were thus
obtained, although the digestible food-constituents were
only directly determined in a few cases and were
generally calculated : —
EXPERIMENTS ON FATTENING.
61
No. of
experi-
ments.
Digested
per
per head
iay.
Eatio of
Food-con-
stituents.
Increase per cent, of live-weight
per head per day.
Albumen.
Non-
nitrogenous
Foods.
Total.
Dressed
carcase.
Suet from
kidneys, &c.
7
grams.*
110
grams.
824
1 : 7-49
grams.
55-5
per cent.
48
per cent.
7-2
13
134
779
1 : 5-81
79
51-9
9-9
20
164
794
1:4-7
94-5
53-5
10-9
19
192
769
1 : 4-01
103
54-9
11-2
These figures are very eloquent as to the favourable
influence of albuminoids in food on fat -production.
Although the other constituents of the food were prac-
tically constant and could not materially affect the
increase in the live-weight, it is clearly seen that an
increase of the albuminoids results in a normal and
proportional increase in the weight of the animal.
This gain is clearly due to the albuminoids,, which were
provided in excess, since the animals only received
in the various experiments from ^ to 2 ounces of actual
fat per head per day in their food.
Fat Oxen. — Similar results have been obtained with
fat oxen. General experience, confirmed by direct ex-
periments, has shown that within certain limits food
rich in nitrogen exerts the most favourable influence
on oxen, and that the albumen and fat digested from
the food provides the requisite material for laying-on
fat. Hitherto in researches on the feeding of ruminants
* 28 grams =1 oz.
62 FORMATION OF FAT.
it has never "been necessary to regard the carbohydrates
supplied in such enormous quantity in ordinary fodder
as a direct source of fat-production.
In recent researches by Kern and Wattenberg at
Gottingen on sheep of diflPerent ages, it was found that
the increase of fat was in ten cases 24 to 64 per cent,
lower than that theoretically possible from the albumi-
noids and fat supplied in the food.
In only a single case, that of a full-grown sheep,
were other results obtained. This animal laid on fat
at such a rate that the production could only be ac-
counted for by recognizing the carbohydrates as an
auxiliary source of the fat produced.
The sheep were fed on Lucerne hay, mangolds, maize,
and oil-cake, and the fattening lasted for seventy days.
By the chemical analysis of one animal at the beginning,
and of one at the end of the experiment, it was found
that during the process of fattening 21 4 lbs. of fat
had been collected in the body, while practically no
flesh or nitrogenous matter had been laid on.
If the composition of the food be corrected by its
digestible ratio, then 15 lbs. is found to be the maximum
quantity of fat producible from the albuminoids and
fat in the food, and 61^ lbs. or 30 per cent, of the
total quantity (4 ounces per day) must have been
produced from other food-constituents, that is from the
Carbohydrates,
From the fact that even after the fullest deductions
have been made, the fat-production is not otherwise
accounted for, we are forced to the conclusion that fat
miist have been produced from carbohydrates. Similar
observations have been made at Gottingen by Pfeiffer
EXPERIMENTS ON FATTENING.
63
and Lehmann, who fed sheep with considerable quan-
tities of sugar.
Pigs. — In the case of pigs it has long been recog-
nized that fat can be produced from Carbohydrates. A
long time ago experiments on pigs were carried out at
Proskau, with direct analysis of the animals under ex-
periment, which failed to yield definite results because
after a quite insufficient feeding — mostly on potatoes —
the growth of the pigs was poor, and in no way a
normal one. But in many other instances, first at
Rothamstead and then in Germany, it was observed
that pigs frequently increased 100 lbs. in weight with
a food containing only 10 to 15 lbs. of ready-formed
fat and 50 to 70 lbs. of albuminoid. In one investi-
gation, from 82 lbs. of albumen and 14 of fat in the
food, 200 lbs. of bodily increase resulted, and the
live-weight raised from 7S to 271 lbs. per head.
Almost identical results were obtained at Hohenheim
by feeding young pigs for 108 days on barley and
maize meal and with the occasional addition of pure
starch. The digestibility of the food was also deter-
nqjned, and the results in lbs. are given in the follow-
ing table : —
Increase in live-weight.
Digested food required to produce
100 lbs. Uve-weight.
Total.
Per day.
Albumen.
Fat.
Carbo-
hydrate.
Total
lbs.
1
2
41-3
53-5
0-382
0-495
39-2
38-1
9-3
8-9
300-8
263-3
349
310
\
64 FORMATION OF FAT.
The final weight of the pigs was respectively 174 and
212 lbs. These figures make it quite impossible to
explain the increase of fat in the body in any other way
than by concluding that the carbohydrates had assisted
in its production. In these experiments the digestible
fat and albumen in the food could only produce 29 per
cent, of the resulting fat-production, while as much as
60 per cent, or more of the increase of live-weight in
fat pigs, even when they are still young, was found in
these experiments to consist of fat.
The production of fat from carbohydrates by pigs
has now been absolutely and definitely, proved by
Soxhlet at Munich, Tschirvrinsky at Moscow, and at
Vienna by Meissl and Strohmer; at the first two
places by actual chemical analysis of the animals before
and after the experiment, and at Vienna on the living
animal with the respiration apparatus.
At the Munich Experiment Station three pigs 16J
months old, and weighing 212 to 219 lbs. apiece,
were selected. One was first killed and then the other
two were fed on steamed rice to the extent of 35*9 lbs.
(water-free), as well as 90 grains of salt and a little
meat-extract, the albuminoid ratio being 1 : 11. The
increase in live-weight was very uniform, 85^ lbs. in
78 days, or 8 ounces per head per day. The chemical
examination showed that during this time 35J lbs. of
fat had been formed in the body, and as only 10 ounces
was contained in the food, 34 lbs. 14 ozs. had been
freshly made. 19 lbs. of albumen were digested from
the food, of which 8^ lbs. were stored up in the body,
so that 10 J were left to assist in the production of fat,
from which, under most favourable conditions, 6 lbs.
EXPERIMENTS ON FATTENING. 65
(51*4 per cent, of the albumen) might have resulted
in body-fat — that is^ about ^ of the total fat formed in
the body, or nearly | of the fat produced, must have
been made from carbohydrates.
Exactly the same results were obtained at Moscow
by experimenting on farrows of Windsor pigs in 1880-
1881, and of the Yorkshire breed in the next year. In
the first experiments they were fed entirely on barley-
meal, and in 126 days the live-weight increased from
16 lbs. to 53 lbs. 16^ lbs. of albumen and 1^ lbs. of
fat were digested from the food, and 3^ lbs. of flesh and
19 lbs. of fat stored up in the body ; so that 19 minus
1^, or 17^ lbs. of fat had been freshly produced. The
digestible albumen in the food, 16i lbs., after deducting
the 3J lbs. flesh produced, leaves 13 lbs., which are
13 X 51*4
theoretically capable of yielding — ^7^1 — ^^ ^^^j or
6'68 lbs. Deducting from this the amount of fat
hitherto unaccounted for, viz. 17'5 minus 6*68, we get
a residue of 10"82 lbs., or 57 per cent, of the total
increase of fat in the body, which must have resulted
from the carbohydrates.
^ In the second series of experiments the pigs at first
had cow's milk, then barley, and later an addition of
starch and sugar. In 100 days the live-weight had
increased from 24 lbs. 5 ozs. to 54 lbs. 9 ozs. llj lbs.
of fat had been produced in the bodies of the young
pigs, of which only 2^ lbs., or 23 per cent, of the total
increase of fresh fat in the body, had been made
from the albuminoids in the food, and therefore 77
per cent, of this fat was due to the carbohydrates in
the food.
66 FORMATION OF FAT.
Of extreme interest are the results obtained at the
Vienna Veterinary College by experiments which were
conducted in the respiration apparatus on a pig 14
months old and weighing 300 lbs. The diet con-
sisted of well-boiled rice, and by comparing the total
waste products (dung, urine, and respiration products)'
with the food-supply, a daily increase of IJ ounces of
albumen and 14 ounces of fat resulted in the body of
the animal. For the production of the latter an extreme
•quantity of 2-^ ounces digested and decomposed albumen,
equivalent to IJ^ ounces of fat as well as ^ oz. of food-
fat, can be allowed. Deducting this {l^ + i) from the
14 ozs. of fat stored up in the body, we obtain a balance
of 12^ ozs. of fat, representing 89 per cent, of the
(total fat increase, which must have been derived from
the carbohydrates in the food.
Experiments on Geese. — The production of fat from
carbohydrates in the case of geese has been established
by careful chemical analysis, before and after fattening.
The first experiments were made by Weiske and
B. Schulze at Proskau, who employed a food consisting
o£ rye-bran and potato-starch, in which the albuminoid
ratio is as low as 1 : 5, and from which they proved that
the carbohydrates considerably assisted in the produc-
tion of fat. When all the fat in the food, and that
possibly producible from the digestible albumen and
asparagine in the food, had been allowed for, there still
remained an excess of 2^ ounces, and in another case
of 3 ounces, or 13 and 17*6 per cent, respectively of the
total fat produced in the body of the goose, which could
only have resulted from carbohydrates.
In a still more decisive manner Chaniewski, of the
EXPERIMENTS ON FATTENING. 67
Experiment Station at Peterhof near Riga_, obtained
results proving that full-grown geese can fatten on
carbohydrates. After 18 days of a diet of barley aud
rice, there resulted an ^^ excess " of fat_, beyond that
accounted for by the fat and albuminoids in the food,
of 64 ounces in one case and 17| ounces in another
(or 71*7 per cent, and 78-6 per cent, of the total fat-
production)^ which could only have been produced
from the carbohydrates.
In another research, in which geese were starved
5 days until they were fat-free, and then fattened on
barley and rice, it was found that in the course of
14 days, 14 ounces of the fat produced in the body,
or 86*7 per cent., must have resulted from carbo-
hydrates.
Incidentally it may be mentioned that A. v. Planta
and Erleumeyer, of Munich, found that Bees produced
wax, which is a similar substance to fat, from sugar;
and that O. Kellner, who carried out researches on
Silkworms in Japan, fouud they were able to produce
fat from non-nitrogenous substances, and even from
the digestible constituents of mulberry-leaves.
Experiments on Dogs. — The dog being a carnivorous
animal does not appear capable, so far as experiments
have gone, of producing fat from carbohydrates. In
the course of 22 respiration experiments at Munich,
a dog weighing about 66 lbs. was fed on 6 to 22 ounces
of dry starcb per day, sometimes entirely, and in
some cases with the addition of greater or less quanti-
ties of meat. The results showed that the fat obtaiued
from the albumen was always more than enough to
account for the increase of fat in the body, and that
f2
68 FORMATION OF FAT.
this did not depend at all on the amount of the carbo-
hydrate, but was unmistakably related to the propor-
tion of flesh decomposed. By increasing the starch
from 13J to 22 ounces per day no increase in fat re-
sulted, while by increasing the albumen with a constant
supply of starch, the production and laying-on of fat
were increased, in one case from 1 to 2 and 5 ounces.
At the same time M. Rubner, of Munich, has shown
that even Carnivora can form fat from carbodydrates if
the organs be supplied with an enormous excess of car-
bohydrate. By feeding a dog weighing 14 lbs. with
4 ounces of cane-sugar and 3 ounces of starch per day,
a production of 3| oz. of fat per day was produced
from the carbohydrates. J. Munk also arrived at
similar results.^ This production of fat, however, is of
secondary importance as far as Carnivora are concerned,
since they never, or hardly ever, receive a food so rich
in carbohydrates as this.
§ 3. The Consumption of Fat.
Much still remains to be elucidated with regard to
the theory of Fat- formation, by which the various
species and breeds of domestic animals may be assisted
to an especially rapid and large production of fat ; but
already the results of exact investigations make it pos-
sible to lay down certain general principles which
demand careful consideration in the rational feeding of
our domestic animals, with especial reference to the
most remunerative production of fat.
I will specify these principles by mentioning the con-
[* This hardly agrees with the opening statement. — Tb.]
r^
CONSUMPTION OF FAT.
69
ditions which favour the Consumption of Fat, or which
bring about an Economy of Fat and consequently an
increased store of fat in the animal body.
1. By one-sided increase of the supply of fat the total
fat-consumption is somewhat increased, but with a
sufficiency of fat a greater or lesser quantity is at the
same time stored up in the body. A full supply of
albumen in the daily food increases the storage of fat.
2. Fat produced from albumen more easily undergoes
combustion than ready-made fat ; the fat in the food
with a small supply of albumen slightly tends to in-
crease the change of albumen, larger quantities to
reduce but never to completely protect it from change
(see page 45). Fat does not protect albumen from
decomposition, while an adequate quantity of albumen
can completely prevent the destruction of fat.
3. In the case of a fat animal the total consumption
of fat is greater than in a thin animal ; a lean animal
is more easily fattened than one in which fat has already
been considerably stored up.
4. The water-supply, if excessive, not only increases
' the waste of albumen, but creates a greater destruction
of food-stuff in the body and increases the amount of
carbonic acid given off. When one wishes to bring
about the greatest and quickest production of flesh and
fat, a fattening beast should not receive food which is
too watery or be allowed to drink to excess.
5. The stall-temperature should not be too high, or
else the resulting excessive drinking and evaporation
from the body will probably cause the animals to suffer
from disturbed rest and appetite ; nor should it be too
low, as an increased oxidation will be necessary to
70 FORMATION OF FAT.
maintain the bodily heat. A mean stall-temperature
of from 45° to 68° Fahrenheit is most suitable for the
purposes of economical feeding.
6. The size of the animal influences the demands on
the food-supply. Small animals require as a rule re-
latively more food than larger ones, since they present
a larger surface for radiation in proportion to their
weight, and therefore give ofi" relatively more heat to
their surroundings.
With animals of the same kind the heat production
or loss corresponds to the surface area of their bodies.
For a definite area of surface both large and small
animals require the same number of '^ heat units "'^.
On the other hand, the intensity of combustion in the
bodies o£ animals of the same size, but of different
kinds, is often very different.
Rubner found at Munich for equal body-weight and
practically equal body-surface, and at an air-temperature
of 15° C, that for one square centimetre of surface a
dog required 1136 units of heat per day, a rabbit only
717, and a hen 892.
Similar results have been obtained with farm animals;
thus the heat requirements of oxen, sheep, and goats
do not depend only on the size and external surface
of the animals.
As the average of direct experiments, a full-grown ox
consumes for 1000 lbs. of live-weight about 0*6 lb. of
albumen and 7'4 lbs. of non-nitrogenous foods, a full-
grown sheep 1*2 lbs. albumen and 10*5 lbs. non-nitro-
* A " heat unit " is that quantity of heat required to raise 1 gram
of water from 0° to 1° C.
CONSUMPTION OF FAT. 71
genous material (calculated as starcli) to maiDtain
its bodily temperature.
7. Muscular effort and every mechanical exertion
considerably increase the fat consumption, as we shall
see worked out in the next Chapter, and on this account
the movements of fattening beasts and milch-cows
should be carefully avoided.
8. Loss of Blood increases the consumption of albu-
men, but at the same time decreases the absorption of
oxygen, the giving-off of carbonic acid, and the con-
sumption of fat, so that the fat contained in the
food or produced in the body is more easily stored up.
Practical experience supports the conclusion that a
poverty of blood in the body is especially conducive to
the production of fat, and in many districts it is the
custom to occasionally bleed fattening beasts. At the
same time the amount of oxygen taken up by the
blood is determined by the digestion, and not vice versa,
and the particular maximum of oxygen capable of being
absorbed at any moment is determined by the quantity
of the blood, and especially by the number of corpuscles
or the amount of haemoglobin it contains, and this is
directly reduced by a diet poor in nitrogen. In this
way the generally superior capacity for fattening
exhibited by the Herbivora, and again that of different
kinds and breeds, can be traced among other factors
(such as powers of circulation, lung capacity, &c.) to a
smaller amount of haemoglobin in the blood.
9. The influence of Carbohydrates on the consumption
and storing-up of fat is a very important consideration
for the purposes of the Stock-keeper. They act
similarly to the fats in food, since they reduce the con-
72 FORMATION OF FAT.
sumption of the body-fat ; supplied in larger quantity,
by economizing the fat in the food and that produced
from the albumen, they bring about a complete storage
of the fat. According to Voit the carbohydrates
exercise a greater effect than that corresponding to
their respiration-value; so that 175 parts of starch
instead of 244 (the respiration-value) are equivalent
in this respect to 100 parts of fat. Even if this is not
the case, the carbohydrates (sugar for instance) are
more easily burnt in the process of respiration than fat,
and thus protect the fat from more rapid destruction.
It is possible to determine the smallest quantity of
albumen and carbohydrates which will enable the body
to maintain its store of albumen and fat — that is, in
a normal condition or in equiUbrium of nitrogen and
carbon. If the quantity of albumen supplied is kept at
a minimum and excess of carbohydrates be provided, fat
is stored up, but only in small quantity. I£ the quantity
of carbohydrate is kept at a minimum and the albumen
increased, more albumen is consumed and only a small
quantity of albumen and fat is stored up in the body.
If plenty of albumen as well as carbohydrate is
supplied, the storing-up of albumen increases, and
especially that of fat, because ample material is then
supplied for the production of fat and a favourable
proportion of nutrients is provided in the daily food.
The general laws of flesh and fat production clearly
show us that for the most satisfactory and complete
attainment of the ends of stock-keepiog, not only is a
sufficient supply of food essential, but also a definite
ratio of albumen to carbohydrate, or of nitrogenous to
non-nitrogenous food constituents, must be observed.
CONSUMPTION OF FAT. 76
We must reserve the detailed consideration of this
question for a future occasion. I will only here
observe that productive feeding is most favourably
carried out under a moderate ^' Albuminoid Ratio.^' If
the albumen be too small, the energy of digestion is re-
duced, and a deficit of material for the rapid and extensive
production of fat and flesh results. Excess of albumen
in the food distinctly increases the stream of circulatory
albumen, and thereby the decomposition of valuable
nutriment. A proportional deficit of carbohydrate
conduces to a lesser protection of albumen from de-
composition, and a reduction in the amount of fat
stored up from that produced from the albumen. Too
much carbohydrate results in its unnecessary decompo-
sition without rendering any practical service. It may
even cause injury to the system, since the latter is
unable to continually deal with so much material, and
frequently a considerable quantity is discharged in the
dung quite undigested.
Only with a medium Albuminoid Ratio is it possible
to expect under otherwise suitable conditions that
the largest amount of flesh and fat may be produced
from the food. We can only discuss the influence of
variations in the Albuminoid Ratio on the feeding of
farm animals after we have learnt the composition
and digestibility of the commoner farm foods, and
more especially their content of real food-stuffs or
*' nutrients."
74 PRODUCTION OF FORCE.
CHAPTER VI.
THE PRODUCTION OF FORCE.
It was formerly believed, in accordance with Liebig's
teaching, that mechanical ivork and continued activity
of the muscles resulted in a considerable wear and tear
of the organs, and produced a double or even treble
consumption of albumen. Since then researches by
Voit and Pettenkofer at Munich have shown that this
is not the case, but that with a constant supply of food,
or even without food, the consumption of albumen in
the body is no greater under conditions of muscular
exercise than those of perfect rest, provided the animal
be in fair condition, the exercise not too violent and its
duration not too protracted.
Although more albumen may be consumed in the
specially active organs by the flow of a larger quantity
of blood, this is balanced by the proportionately inactive
condition of the other organs, so that the total con-
sumption of albumen by the whole body remains
practically unaltered. On the contrary, the consump-
tion of fat, and especially that of carbohydrates, is
decidedly increased by arduous work, since more
carbonic acid is produced in the respiration process,
and increased heat is generated with a corresponding
increase of evaporation and loss of heat to the sur-
rounding air.
PRODUCTION OF FORCE. 75
The first experiments in this direction were made
with a large dog weighing about 32 kilos (70 lbs.) . The
work which it performed on working days (by running
in a treadmill) was very considerable, being estimated
at 12 foot-pounds ^ per second for the whole twenty-
four hours ; while the work performed by a man eight
hours in twenty-four is estimated at only 16 foot-lbs.
per second, or little more than for the dog.
A slight increase of the consumption of albumen was
found for the day^s work, wliich represented 11 '5 per
cent, of the albumen consumed in a condition of com-
plete rest, when the animal received no food, and 4*8
per cent, when it received a large amount of meat.
This increase is partially explained by the fact that the
working animal required more water, whereby more
urine was excreted and the consumption of albumen
somewhat increased (see p. 43).
In other experiments on a strong and healthy man,
this source of error was removed by regulating the
supply of water. The experimental man on working
^ days turned a heavy wheel fitted with a brake for
9 hours, which made him feel as tired at the end as if
he had done a hard day's work or a long march.
With the aid of the respiration apparatus the follow-
ing numbers, which refer to 24 hours and give the food
consumption under conditions of work and rest, were
obtained : —
* A foot-pound is the force req^uired to raise 1 pound 1 foot
hierh.
76
PRODUCTION OF FORCE.
Results in grams per 24 hours.
Albumen
consumed.
Total
consumed.
Carbonic
acid
excreted.
Oxygen
taken up.
Water excreted.
Fasting.
Eest
79
75
137
137
209
380
219
320
716
1187
928
1209
762
1072
832
1006
844
746
1056
1155
821
1777
931
1727
Work
Average diet
Rest
Work
These figures clearly prove that the consumption of
albumen is no greater during work than rest, but, on
the contrary, the consumption of fat and the con-
sequent excretion of carbonic acid and taking-up of
oxygen is greatly increased, as also the amount of
water evaporated from the lungs and skin. In hunger
the difference between the carbonic acid produced in
rest and in work is more considerable (471 grams)
than on an average diet (281 grams) ; the oxygen
shows a similar result, 310 g. against 1 74 g., while the
differences in the water evaporated are relatively less,
viz., 956 g. : 796 g.
Hirschfeld confirmed Voit and Pettenkofer in the
conclusion that with a large supply of food either
rich or poor in nitrogen, the consumption of albu-
minoids was not increased by muscular activity; while
EXCRETION OF NITROGEN.
17
Argutinsky found a very severe form of muscular
exercise, such as climbing hills for several hours at
a stretch, produced a decided increase of albumen con-
sumption which could not be prevented by an increased
supply of sugar.
Excretion of Nitrogen as Gas.
It has sometimes been asserted that in severe work
a portion of the nitrogen arising from the destruction
of albumen is excreted in the form of gas from the skin
and lungs, and that consequently the consumption of
albumen cannot be calculated from the nitrogen in the
urine. According to this, the close agreement found
in the above and many other experiments between the
nitrogen in the urine on the days of rest and work is
entirely accidental— a thing not only very improbable
in itself, but which is disproved by the following con-
siderations and experimental results.
If, as a result of work, the total consumption of
albumen is considerably increased, there must be a
correspondingly increased excretion of sulphuric and
phosphoric acid in the urine ; for with every portion
of albuminoid tissue destroyed, the sulphur and phos-
phorus which it contains must be oxidized to sulphuric
and phosphoric acids, and finally leave the body in
the urine, since these substances cannot assume the
gaseous form at the temperature of the body. In
the above experiments the quantity of these acids was
determined in the experiments made on an average
diet, and the followmg results were obtained :—
78
PRODUCTION OF FORCE.
Sulphuric acid.
Phosphoric acid.
Eest
grams.
2-61
2-57
grams.
419
4-11
Work
From which it appears that their quantity under con-
ditions of work and rest was absolutely constant and
equal. In the face of these results and others obtained
by the most careful and accurate determination of the
total visible and gaseous excretions from the body, one
is obliged to treat other contradictory observations as
of little consequence or value.
All experiments have confirmed the increased con-
sumption of fat and excretion of carbonic acid during
work^ and this was well illustrated by Henneberg's
experiments on full-grown sheep at Weende. He found
that without any unusual muscular work more carbonic
acid was produced by day than at night, the difference
being due to the increased activity of the muscles con-
cerned in swallowing and chewing. When the animals
were fed in the daytime, as usual, 54 per cent, of the
total carbonic acid was given off in the 12 hours of the
day ; but when the animals were fed at night with the
same quantity of hay, only 46 per cent, of the carbonic
acid was produced during the day, and 54 per cent,
during the night.
With reference to the large increase of fat consump-
tion, as a result of muscular work, it is indifferent
whether the source of the fat is that provided in the
EXCRETION OF NITROGEN. 79
food, that stored up in the tissues of the body, the
fat produced by the decomposition of albumen, or the
equivalent quantity of carbohydrate supplied in the
food. At any rate the greatest care must be exercised
to prevent the animals from any excessive movement or
muscular exercise i£ they are to be fattened as quickly
and profitably as possible.
In the experiments on a man already alluded to, the
consumption of albumen was unaltered by work either
in a condition of hunger or on a normal diet. Of
course it is clear that this could only hold good if the
bodily condition were good and for a short time only,
and would cease when the rapid consumption of organic
matter produced by the hard work was effected at the
expense of the fat of the body. If the daily food is
insufficient, after a certain time the flesh-tissues of
the body will be attacked, at first slowly and then
more rapidly, and an increased excretion of nitrogen in
the urine will result.
The Hohenheim Experiment on a Horse.
Instead of restricting the experiment to 24 hours, as
at Munich, at Hohenheim the time was considerably
extended. The day's work was measured by a special
apparatus, and calculated as kilogramme- metres.
In one series of experiments the horse received daily
during the whole course of the experiments 11 lbs.
hay, 13 lbs. oats, and 3 lbs. wheat and chaff. The
amount of digestible matter in the food remained
practically constant the whole time, and amounted to
12-89 lbs. per day with a ratio of 1 : 6*57. Each
80
PRODUCTION OF FORCE.
period of experiment lasted 8 to 14 days, and the
followinor results were obtained : —
1
Period I.
II.
III. IV.
1
V.
Day's work (kg.-m.). 475,000
Nitrogen in urine | gg
per day (grams) J
Live-weiglit(lbs.)... 1174
950,000
109-3
1166
1425,000 950,000
116-8 110-2
1150 I 1116
475,000
98-2
1140
In a second series of experiments the periods were
longer still, extending 3, 4, and 8 weeks. A highly
nitrogenous food was provided consisting of 16J lbs. hay
and 9 lbs. beans per day, and the amount digestible was
kept constantly at llf lbs. with a ratio of 1 : 2*96.
The results obtained were as follows : —
Period I.
II. III.
i
*
Day's work (kg.-m.; ...
Nitrogen in urine per 1
day (grams) 1
Live-weight (lbs.)
810,000
198-6
1093
2,430,000
228
1019
810,000
199-9
1008
In the second series the difference of the albumen
consumption as represented by the nitrogen in the
urine was greater than in the first series; and while
the day^s work was decidedly greater, the amount of
* 1 kilo^-amme-metre (kg.-m.) =7 English foot-pounds.
HOHENHEIM EXPERIMENT.
81
digestible matter in the daily food was somewliat
smaller^ though the albuminoid ratio was much higher.
The original condition of the horse was better in the
first than in the second series of experiments ; and as
the period of actual work was greater in the second
series^ the animal must have further deteriorated in
condition.
In the course of the second series a clear illustration
of the increased combustion of organic matter during
work increasing the consumption of albumen in the
body is given : the hardest work began on March 12th,
and the following amounts of Nitrogen were found in
the urine at various times : —
Time.
Grams Nitrogen in
urine per day.
Live-weight.
March 18-24 ..
211-3
220-7
2291
234-3
lbs.
1060
1034
1032
1018
25-29
March 30 to April 14
April 5-10
The live weight of the horse on March 11th was
1093 lbs. There is no doubt that if the experiment
had been carried on longer the horse would have further
lost condition owing to increased consumption of the
albumen of the body.
It is clearly evident that very hard work increases
the consumption of albumen to a greater or less extent
dependent on the original condition of the animal.
From the first experiments it is seen that a horse
even in a fair condition exhibits an increase in the
6
S2 PRODUCTION OF FORCE.
^consumption of albumen, although the amount is insig-
nificant when compared with the largely increased
oxidation of body-fat and the non-nitrogenous con-
stituents of the food.
The Sources of Muscular Power.
The great increase in the combustion of fat during
-work has led to the assumption that this constitutes
the chief source of muscular energy, that the work
done is the result of the heat produced, and that in the
animal body a conversion of heat into force takes place,
just as the steam-engine produces work through the
heat of the burning fuel by the intervention of steam,
or as the hot-air engine executes work by means of the
heated air. The non-nitrogenous food-stuffs are directly
concerned in this heat-production, and it has been
calculated that 20 per cent, of the heat produced by
their combustion is converted into work, which is a far
larger proportion than that yet attained by the most
efiScient steam-engines, which only convert about 10
per cent, of the heat they receive into work. It is
open to question, however, whether the heat produced
in the body can be directly converted into mechanical
work as in the case of the air-engine, or can even be
considered its direct source, since the necessary con-
ditions of alternate heating and cooling of the whole
or a part do not hold good in the animal body, and
make a comparison between the two impossible. It is
;also a well-known fact that nothing is more hurtful to
the health of the animal system than alterations in its
normal temperature, and any material alteration of
SOURCES OF MUSCULAR POWER. 83
the body temperature results in rapid death. If a
simple conversion of heat into work really takes place in
the body^ then the increased oxidation of organic matter
which takes place during work must result in a con-
tinual and renewed source of muscular power and render
external work possible without any cessation whatever.
The increased production of heat during work and
the increased respiration are but secondary effects —
the result of work — and can by no means be regarded
as its primary or direct cause. The increased heat
produced in work is dissipated in evaporation from the
body and by greater heat radiation, and is eventually
reduced again to the normal.
But apart from the question as to the way in which
force is produced in the body, a measure or equi-
valent for the work performed or to be performed in
the day is found in the increased combustion of the
body-fat or in the increased quantity of food or
generally in the increased material required.
The Hohenheim experiments on the horse already
described clearly show that with a constant diet for
a lengthened period_, the nitrogen in the urine, i. e. the
combustion of albumen, increases at first slowly and
then very rapidly if the daily work remains constant
or is increased for a sufficiently long period. Other
experiments with the same horse have shown that the
increased consumption of albumen ceases at once when
the daily ration is adequately increased with fat and
carbohydrate. It is possible to determine how much of
these latter must be added to maintain a balance of
nitrogen in the body despite the increased muscular
effort, and also to compensate for the increased demands
g2
84
PRODUCTION OF FORCE.
of respiration, i. e. to set up a balance of carbon a»
well as of nitrogen, and thus maintain the animal in an
entirely constant condition.
The food required to produce work varies with the
form of muscular activity or the work done. Katzen-
stein, for instance, found that work done by men
turning a wheel with the arms produced a greater
expenditure of material in the body than the same
work done with the legs. The volume of oxygen used
per kilogram-metre of work done with hand-labour
amounted to 1'96 cubic centimetres, but when the work
was done with the legs only to 1'19 to 1*51 cubic centi-
metres.
Further, the degree of practice in a particular kind
of work influences the expenditure of material in the
body, as Max Gruber found in experiments on himself;
the carbonic acid produced every 20 minutes amounted
to the following : —
Carbonic Acid . .
Work
Eest.
12-83 g.
Walking.
22-42 g.
Climbing :
out of j in
practice. ! practice.
38-83 g.
7376kg.ni.
31-00 g.
7639 kg.m.
The carbonic acid excreted is not a measure of the
work done by a man, because its production decreases
with practice.
Zuntz and Ijehmann obtained similar results in their
experiments on the horse. '^ It can be deduced from the
total experimental results that no constant relationship
SOURCES OF MUSCULAR POWER. 85
■can "be set up between the production of work and
consumption of food; the entire organization of an
animal, its individual and variable peculiarities and
condition, &c. create great differences in the economical
-employment of its power in doing the same piece of
work; with the same individual the quality and
intensity of the work produces great differences, and
further researches are required to reduce the variations
in question by regular use to an individual and perhaps
a typical average value/'
The essential sources of muscular power are seen
in the decomposition processes in the body, i. e. in the
destruction which portions of the body or the food
resorbed from the digestive tract undergo by the passage
of the plasma through the tissues. To this end, as
we have already seen in the case of fat-production,
both nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous substances con-
tribute.
As these materials are resolved by the influence of
oxygen into simple groups of atoms, the energy of
<)hemical force which previously linked the atoms
together in more complicated groupings is set at liberty,
and can be employed as kinetic energy for the external
work of the body. In a condition of rest this energy
serves for the internal work of the organs, or is con-
verted into electric currents, &c. The animal body
often stores up a certain amount of energy; as soon
as this store has been rapidly exhausted by work, a
period of rest is necessary to enable fresh material to
flow through the tissue-cells and generate fresh energy
for the production of more active work.
The force-production and all phenomena resulting
86 PRODUCTION or FORCE.
from the combustion of organic matter in the animal
body must obey the law of the conservation of energy,^
as was first proved by Dr. J. R. Mayer of Heilbronn.
Less work is produced as a result of the combustion
of food-material in the body than that represented
by its '^ mechanical equivalent '' (1000 heat-units =
424 kg.m. of work). And_, as has been abeady
mentioned^ we are not justified in regarding the animal
body as comparable to an air-engine and capable of
directly turning the heat which has been produced and
set free into living force.
A striking discovery is that made by Max Rubner
that the relative quantities of fat, albumen, and sugar
required to make good the loss of material in a starving
animal, as far as their " dynamic equivalent '^ is con-
cerned, are practically equal to their ^' calorimetric '^ or
'' heat-values '' as found by Stohmann, and afterwards
more accurately by Rubner.
The latter found that 100 parts of fat (92400 heat-
units) are equal to : —
Directly deter-
mined from Calculated from Difference-
the animal. the heat-yalue. per cent*
Albumen ... 225 213 = 4424 heat-units +5*6
Starch 232 229=4116 „ „ +1*7
Cane-sugar . 234 235 = 4001 „ „ —0-4
Grape-sugar. 256 255 = 3692 „ „ +0*4
The agreement is practically absolute in the case of
the carbohydrates, not so good in the case of albumen,
but still not such as to render the application of the
rule doubtful — viz., that food-stuffs of equal thermal
SOURCES OF MUSCULAH POWER. 87
value are equivalent or isodynamic for the purposes of
the vital functions.
According to Stohmann and Langbein the values
directly determined by the combustion of a gram each
of albumen,, fat, and starch are as follows : — albumen =
5715 (according to Berthelot and Andre 5691), fat =
9431, and starch =4116 heat-units. The values for fat
and starch are in the proportion of 100 : 299, so that
the usual factor (calculated from the oxygen required
for combustion) employed for calculating the equi-
valent of fat as starch (2*44) is too high.
Recent determinations of the heat-value of albumen
make it equal to starch, viz. 4116 heat-units, while the
figure hitherto employed for albumen after the pro-
duction of urea has been 4820 heat-units.
Rubner has experimentally proved, however, that the
physiological heat-value of albumen is rather lower
than this, since other decomposition products besides
urea are produced in the urine, and a certain amount of
its heat-value is lost in the excretions in the dung. The
ultimate result is only 4386 heat-units, or 76' 8 per cent,
of the "gross combustion-value'''' of 5715 heat-units.
Further, for 1 gram of dry extracted flesh this value is
4233, and for 1 gram of vegetable albumen, such as
the gluten in rye or wheaten bread, only 3960 heat-
units. But since other vegetable albuminoids possess
a higher heat- value, and as the digested albuminoids in
experiments with farm animals is determined by the
difference between food and dung, and as nothing
can be deducted on account of the dung constituents,
for the present the heat-value of albumen in the food of
both Herbivora and Caruivora can be taken as identical
88 PRODUCTION OF FORCE.
with that of starch — i. e. 4116, or in round numbers
4100 heat-units, — the same value which Rubner cal-
culated as that of albumen in human diet containing
3 parts [60 per cent.] of animal albumen to 2 parts
[40 per cent.] of vegetable albumen,
60x4233 + 40x3960 ^^.^ ,^q, a^oa i. + •*
=2540 + 1584=4124 heat-units.
100
Zuntz and Lehmann found the digestible material
required by a working-horse in excess of that in a
condition of rest, expressed in grains per 1000 lbs. of
live- weight, to be as follows : —
(a) Walking on a level road per yard . . . 0*9420
(b) Trotting „ „ „ „ ... 1-3725
(<?) Going up hill per step 1*3483
(d) Drawing a vehicle on a level road
3500 ft.lbs., per step 1'4924
The average of (c) and {d) = 1*4203, and this multi-
plied by 4100 = 5823 heat-units; and as 1000 heat-units
= 2968 foot-pounds, the work theoretically possible
= 11,116 ft.lbs. The work done (3500 ft.lbs.) is only
31*5 per cent, of this theoretical amount.
The figures thus obtained for the work produced
were considered to be rather too high by the author,
as the duration of such experiments was relatively
short and the consumption of food and oxygen was
always greater at the beginning of a piece of work,
and the horse, moreover, was somewhat disturbed by
the apparatus and its surroundings.
In other experiments it has been found that the
SOURCES OF MUSCULAR POWER. ©y
mechanical equivalent of heat in the animal body never
exceeds 33 per cent, of that theoretically possible.
Recent feeding experiments at Hohenheim on a horse,
carried out with a dynamometer arrangement (which
renders possible a more accurate measurement of the
work done than formerly), have given similar results.
By the quiet and regular movement of the horse
round the winch, as well as by excluding all source of
interference with the extra foods supplied in addition
to the food really required to keep the animal in
condition, it was possible to obtain satisfactory results.
Thus it was found that for every gram of food about
5850 ft.lbs. of work were produced (Lehmann found
1 gram food = 3885 ft.lbs. work), or about 31*5 per
cent, of the heat was converted into work.
By '' food ^^ here is understood the digested organic
matter of the food after deducting the cellulose (see
later on, '^ Digestibility of Crude Fibre " and "^ Feeding
of Horses '') ; the albuminoids and carbohydrates are
taken as of equal value, and the fats multiplied by
2 '40 are reckoned as carbohydrates.
Although the non-nitrogenous food- stuffs, i. e. Fats
and Carbohydrates as well as the Albuminoids, con-
tribute towards the production of force, still the latter
have special functions to fulfil, and a certain quantity
plays a highly important part in the vital processes of
the body.
Many observations justify the conclusion that the
albuminoids are capable of producing and making
possible the production of force in the body. No one
expects much work from men or animals fed on a diet
poor in nitrogen^ such as potatoes and rice.
90 PRODUCTION OF FORCE.
Fatness of body is never considered a sign of muscular
strength.
A dog fed largely on bread and fat is lazy and sleepy^
while one fed on a full supply of meat is brisk and able
to do hard work. A horse in hard work is given plenty
of oats every day, and sometimes the highly nitrogenous
food beans in addition.
The lively temperament of the Carnivora in contrast
to the dull and phlegmatic attitude of Herbivora appears
to be largely due to the difference in diet.
Much albumen in food increases the total energy of
tissue-change in the body, and it is quite possible that
a highly nitrogenous food exerts a greater stimulus
towards active movement than one poor in nitrogen,,
and that particular muscles may be thus assisted to the
performance of greater mechanical work.
A rich supply of food is not in itself suflScient for the
production of much work, but the apparatus required for
its digestion and the conversion of the force produced
is also a necessity.
Only by a high bodily condition, a high diet of nitro-
genous food, and a resulting intensity of digestion is
it possible to generate suflScient energy for the pro-
duction of extreme and protracted muscular exercise.
Feeble folk and convalescents cannot perform as much
work with the same food as powerful labourers with
fully developed muscles ; the former must gradually
recover strength by good food and exercise before they
can produce their full maximum of work.
But since the muscular activity increases the require-
ments of respiration, a large supply of non-nitrogenous
food is required for this purpose.
SOURCES OF MUSCULAR POWER. 91
A tighly liberal diet is absolutely necessary to
preserve the flesh and fat in the body^ and at the same
time to keep it in a powerful condition. An addition
of fatj which is the most intense respiration material, is
often a desirable addition and nearly as important as
albumen; and it is a suggestive fact that the working
classes have a decided taste for fatty dishes, and that
oats — a food proportionately rich in fat — are recognized
as an excellent food for horses.
Part IL
THE FOOD OF FARM ANIMALS.
CHAPTER I.
THE CONSTITUENTS OF FOOD.
Classification.
Until recently foods were distinguished as plastic
and respiratory, and a distinction was drawn between
" force-producing '' and " heat- ^' or '^ fat-producing "
foods. The albuminoids were included in the former
category,, while the latter represented the fats and car-
bohydrates. It was considered that mechanical work
used up the organs and muscles of the body and rapidly
destroyed them, while the absorption of oxygen by the
blood was regarded as the primary cause of the com-
bustion of corresponding quantities of bodily substance.
According to this conception the albumen in the food
was solely employed in repairing the wear and tear
of the organs caused by work. A supply of fat and
carbohydrates was considered necessary for the appro-
priation of the inspired oxygen and the generation of the
necessary amount of heat, as well as for the provision
CONSTITUENTS OF FOOD. 9^
of material for the formation of fat. We now know^
from the results obtained at the Physiological Institute
at Munich, that the decomposition processes in the
animal body are carried out in quite a different way,
and that we are only justified in classifying the '' nu-
trients '^ or food constituents according to their general
characteristics, or their effect on the maintenance and
growth of the animal organism.
The decomposition of material in the body does not
take place because heat or mechanical work are neces-
sary, but solely because, under the conditions obtaining
in the body, complicated compounds are no longer
capable of existence.
The absorbed oxygen is not the cause of decomposi-
tion, as the latter would still occur if there was no work
required, or if the body could manage with less heat.
Oxygen is attracted by the products of decomposition,
and their quantity determines the amount equable
absorbed. The resulting heat is a secondary pheno-
menon, and it is possible, in spite of the equable
temperature of the body and the surrounding air, for
the most variable quantities of heat to be produced
according to the method of feeding and bodily condi-
tion, to be again as rapidly equalized by a corresponding
loss of heat from the body.
Only a small portion of the albumen taken in the
food is stored up in the cells and tissues or becomes
'^ plastic,^^ the largest portion mixes with the circulatory
albumen and is decomposed without ever having become
'^ organized.^^
Fat can be produced from albumen and may then be
stored up in the organs. Carbohydrates as well as fat
94 CONSTITUENTS OF FOOD.
in the food tend to economize both albumen and fat,
and under favourable conditions may effect a produc-
tion and increase of fat in the body. Digestion is not
limited to albumen alone, but fat and carbohydrates
are also concerned, and for the growth of individual
organs, as well as for the maintenance of their vital
activity, water, fat, and mineral matter are as absolutely
essential as albumen.
All nutrients must be considered ^^ plastic '' from
this point of view, and all organic food- stuffs, albumen
included, provide material for respiration by their de-
composition. The distinction between ^'^ plastic ^■' and
'^ respiratory " nutrients is clearly erroneous, and we
will content ourselves with the simple classification of
organic nutrients as '^ Nitrogeneous " and ^' Nitrogen-
free.^^ The first class includes the Albuminoids and
Amides, the latter the Carbohydrates and Fats.
Definitions.
Nutrient, — Any single chemical compound which
influences animal growth and nutrition in a definite
direction, and at the same time provides the material
required, is called a " nutrient."
Food'Stvffs are mixtures of the different nutrients in
very variable proportion, and it may often happen that
a particular food-stuff may require suitable addition to
adapt it to the especial needs of growth or maintenance
for which an animal is being fed. We are principally
concerned with the feeding of Herbivora, that is with
stock-keeping ; and to attain all the ends in view, it
is often necessary to provide animals with a mixture of
several food-stuffs^ so as to secure the most favourable
NITROGENOUS CONSTITUENTS. 95
and profitable proportion of nutrients in the daily-
fodder. But before we can go into the details of
Feeding, we must first familiarize ourselves with the
foods of the farm in general use_, and get some idea of
their general composition and constituents.
The following " food-constituents " (besides water)
are generally recognized : —
1. Albuminoids (nitrogenous organic substances).
2. Crude fibre (woody fibre) .
3. Crude fat (ether extract).
4. Nitrogen-free extract (carbohydrates).
5. Minerals (pure ash).
We will now discuss in order their chemical compo-
sition and the way in which they are estimated in Food
Analysis.
1. Nitrogenous Constituents.
These, representing the total nitrogenous organic
substances in food, are calculated by multiplying the
nitrogen directly determined by analysis with the
factor [6'25]. Very different substances are thus
included, and as not even the whole of the albumen
is completely digested in the body, the amount of
albuminoids present cannot be taken to represent
^'real food,^^ or be regarded as a criterion of the
feeding-value of a food-stuff. The albuminoids and
amides are principally concerned in nutrition, while
such inorganic nitrogenous substances as ammonia
and nitrates have little or no significance as food
constituents.
96 CONSTITUENTS OF FOOD.
(a) Vegetable Albumen.
The albuminoids of plants, like those of the animal
body, can be divided into three groups : —
1. Vegetable Albumen.
2. Vegetable Casein.
3. Glutens, or Vegetable Glues.
Recent researches on the albuminoids occurring in
seeds by Ritthausen, R. Sachse, and others, necessitate
the subdivision of groups 2 and 3.
The constituents of the group of Glutens are: —
(a) Gliadin, or Vegetable Glue;
(b) Mucedin ;
(c) Gluten Fibrin.
They are all found in the seeds of cereals ; and while
wheat contains them all, the other cereals contain them
singly or in pairs.
The subdivisions of the Vegetable Casein group
are:—
(a) Legumin, cliiefly found in the seeds of legu-
minous plants.
(b) Gluten-Casein^ in oil-seeds.
(c) Conglutin, in lupines and sweet and bitter
almonds.
Vegetable Albumen is found in all seeds, and especi-
ally in the sap of all green plants. The individual
albuminoids of green plants have not yet been investi-
gated in detail.
These albuminoids differ considerably from one
another in composition, especially as to the amount of
carbon (50*2 to 54*3 per cent.), nitrogen (14*7 to 18-4
NITROGENOUS CONSTITUENTS. 97
per cent.), and sulphur (0'4 to 1*6 per cent.) whicli
they contain.
Legumin and gliadin contain more nitrogen than
vegetable albumen ; and the vegetable albuminoids as a
class are richer in nitrogen and poorer in carbon than
the animal albuminoids. On this account the calcula-
tion of albuminoids by multiplying the nitrogen found
by [6"25] (equivalent to 16 per cent, of nitrogen) does
not always yield accurate results.
It would appear that a result more in agreement
with the actual truth would be obtained in the case of
the seeds of cereals, leguminous plants, and ^' oil-seeds ''
by employing the factor [6].
But as vegetable glue contains 18 per cent, of ni-
trogen, this factor gives still too high results for the
albuminoids in wheat, and even as low a factor as [5*5]
might well be employed for the albuminoids in lupines
and almonds. It is very difficult to come to a definite
conclusion on this point, since these researches have
shown that the individual albuminoids vary in com-
position according to their occurrence, and a different
factor is really necessary for each kind of seed and
plant. Of course this is too cumbrous a process to be of
practical use. In the case of the green parts of plants
and roots the usual factor employed for crude albumen
[6*25] is still further out of agreement with the reality.
Whether the individual vegetable albumens exercise
a different nutritive effect as constituents of food,
and whether under equal conditions they vary in their
adaptability for flesh-formation, are questions that are
still unanswered owing to the complete lack of digestion
experiments in this direction.
98 CONSTITUENTS OF FOOD.
It is clear, however, that a difference of 3 or 4 per
cent, in the amount of carbon would cause a corre-
sponding difference in the amount of fat produced
from the albumen, and an albumen with a high per-
centage of carbon would have greater influence in this
direction.
The diflPerent albuminoids also yield difi'erent quan-
tities of such products of decomposition as Leucine,
Tyrosine, Glutamine, Aspartic Acid, Ammonia, &c., and
on this account they probably produce a different
nutritive effect.
It cannot be granted that all vegetable albumens
are equally good substitutes for animal albumen. At
any rate for human beings the latter are more easily
digestible than vegetable albumen. Gabriel found in his
experiments on sheep at Breslau that animal albumen
(flesh-meal, albumen, and casein) had a more favour-
able influence on flesh-production than vegetable albu-
men (rye, peas, and conglutin). At the same time
the difference is not very great, and in some experi-
ments at Hohenheim, and others at Kuschen by E.Wildt,
it was found that no perceptible difference resulted
from feeding pigs with animal or vegetable albumen.
Similar results were obtained at Gottingen by Kern
and Wattenberg, who compared the effect of conglutin
(lupines) with that of flesh-meal on sheep. In the
present state of our knowledge we are therefore forced
to regard the vegetable albumens, so far as resorption
and digestion are concerned, as of uniformly equal
value.
NITROGENOUS CONSTITUENTS. 99
(b) Other Nitrogenous Constituents,
Asparagus-shoots, the sprouts of leguminous seeds,
certain roots and tubers, and generally all green plants
in a condition of early and rapid growth, have been
found to contain large quantities of dififerent nitrogenous
substances which are not albuminoids, but which must
be regarded as their decomposition products, or as
alteration products of the nitrogenous material in the
food. These substances are the Amides (amides of the
acids, or amido-acids). Peptones, nitrogenous Glucosides,
and Alkaloids,
Peptones.— These hardly occur at all as food consti-
tuents, and are only found in small quantity in germi-
nating seeds, such as malt. Kelluer found in some
experiments at Hohenheim that even the tender shoots
and sprouts of young plants did not contain the slightest
trace of peptones. At the same time, as they are so
similar to albumen in their composition and relationship
to the animal organism, and are produced directly from
albumen by the action of the gastric juice, it is quite
rational to include the two substances in the same
group. It is customary to express the nitrogen in the
albumen as well as that in any peptone that may be
present as a single item and to distinguish it from the
nitrogen existing in other forms.
Alkaloids are only rarely found in farm food-stuffs.
Lupine-seeds contain Lupinine, but only in quantity
amounting to about 2 per cent, of the total nitrogenous
matter, and the amount in green lupine-plants is prob-
ably about the same.
Nitrogenous Glucosides, such as amygdaline, solanine,
&c., are found in larger quantity in many plants, espe-
h2
100 CONSTITUENTS OF FOOD.
cially in many leguminous and oily seeds. At tlie same
time our knowledge of their occurrence and properties
is very meagre, and they can only be considered in a
qualitative sense as food constituents. At the present
time we can only distinguish two classes of nitrogenous
nutrients, '' albuminoids '' and " non-albuminoids.^'
Amides are the chief constituents of this latter class,
and the term includes all the acid amides or amido-
acids which occur as crystalline organic compounds.
The commonest amides met with are asparagine and
glutamine, which are found in beets in conjunction with
betaine, leucine, and tyrosine. Certain colouring-
matters, such as chlorophyll and indigo, also occur.
Some amides are poorer, others richer in nitrogen than
the albuminoids. Asparagine contains 18*66 per cent,
of nitrogen in the crystalline condition and 21*2 per cent,
when dehydrated; Glutamine 17*07 per cent., dehy-
drated 19*2 per cent. ; Betaine 11*96 per cent. ; Leucine
10*68 per cent. ; Tyrosine only 7*73 per. cent. Other
amides richer in nitrogen, such as Vernine with 24*8
per. cent and the Xanthine compounds with 36*8
per cent, to 46*4 per cent, of nitrogen, are only found
in such small quantity that they represent, according
to E. Schulze, only 0*1 to 0*2 per cent, of the nitrogen
of the dry matter of the food. Amides with a medium
percentage of nitrogen, such as asparagine and gluta-
mine, are in such great preponderance that the non-
albuminoid nitrogenous materials in all ordinary food-
stuffs can be assumed to contain an average of 18 per
cent, of nitrogen ■^.
* For the nitrogen of the usual food-stuffs expressed as albu-
minoids and non-albuminoids see Table III. in the Appendix.
NITROGENOUS CONSTITUENTS. 101
It is known that the amides in the vegetable world
are not only decomposition products of the albuminoids,
but in the presence of non-nitrogenous substances, such
as the carbohydrates, they continually undergo a change
into albumen, and can be considered crude material for
the production of albumen.
We are, however, still in the dark as to their rela-
tionship to the animal organism ; we only know that
very often they are produced as intermediate products
in the decomposition of albumen before its final
excretion as urea, and we are quite ignorant as to
whether under suitable conditions a reversion to albu-
men is again possible. Recent researches at Proskau
by Weiske, Kennepohl, and B. Schulze, and stiU more
recently by Gabriel, on sheep, rabbits, and geese, have
shown that asparagine causes an economy of albumen
and increases its storage in the body, and that it acts
like albumen in improving the digestion of crude
protein in a diet in which carbohydrates or non-
nitrogenous foods are in large excess. It also has a
beneficial action on the milk-production of sheep and
goats, and even when a half of the albumen in the
ration was replaced by asparagine, little or no alteration
resulted in the milk-supply.
Schrodt and Hansen of Kiel also observed that the
albumen in the food of milch-cows could be replaced to a
certain extent by other nitrogenous nutrients (in man-
golds and malt-sprouts) without perceptibly reducing
the quality or quantity of the milk produced. The
results of work by J. Munck and C. Yoit, and the more
recent work of Politis and Mauthner, as also that of
Zuntz and Hagemann as to the economy of albumen
102 CONSTITUENTS OF FOOD.
produced by amides, in which rats and dogs were used
for the experiments, are not in complete agreement with
the results obtained by Weiske.
According to the latter it made no difference, at any
rate in the case of full-grown cows, whether all the
nitrogen in the food was in the form of albumen or
whether a part was replaced by asparagine or other
amides. It cannot be supposed that this favourable
action of asparagine is due to its direct conversion into
albumen as in plants, but rather to its decomposition
in place of albumen, whereby the demands on this
valuable material are reduced. Its action as an econo-
mizer of albumen is similar to that observed with
gelatin in the case of Carnivora, and both these sub-
stances must be regarded as true nutrients, although
they cannot replace or be considered equivalent to
albumen in all processes of the animal body.
2. Crude Fibre
is the term applied to the substance remaining after
treatment of the food-stuff with dilute acid and alkali,
after allowance has been made for the small quantities
of mineral and nitrogenous matter which it contains.
^^ Crude Fibre '' is by no means a single substance, but
invariably a mixture of cell-tissue or Cellulose with more
or less '' lignification material '' or Lignin, Cellulose
has the same percentage composition as starch and
contains 44*4 per cent, of carbon ; while the percentage
of carbon in Lignin is much higher, varying from
52-59 per cent, and averaging 55 per cent. The com-
position of crude fibre obtained in this way from different
sources varies considerably : the fibre of hay and cereal
CRUDE FAT. 103
strawj for instance, contains 46-4*7 per cent, of carbon,
while that of clover-hay and the straw of leguminous
crops contains 48-49 per cent, of carbon, due to a larger
proportion of lignin.
3. Crude Fat.
There is still more uncertainty with regard to the
" Crude Fat/^ which is the term applied to the total
matters extracted by ether from the dried substance.
The ether-extract of most of the cereals and cereal
products can be taken to be fairly pure fat, but in the
case of all other coarse and green food-stuflPs it consists
of a mixture of the most various substances. Besides
the fat itself, other waxy and resinous substances,
especially chlorophyll, are usually present in variable
quantity. These latter substances play a very different
part in the digestive process, and are also practically
indigestible.
Fortunately fat plays a very secondary role in the
nutrition of Herbivora, and the amount of fat in most
green and crude fodders is only from 1 to 3 per cent, of
the dry matter.
4. The Nitrogen-free Extract
is the term given to everything in the dry substance
which remains after deducting the directly determined
or calculated amounts of crude albuminoids, crude fat,
fibre, and pure ash. Its amount is therefore simply
determined by difference. With grains and roots its
nature is fairly simple, and it consists principally of
starch, sugar, the so-called pectin substances, and occa-
104« CONSTITUENTS OF FOOD.
sionally mucilage_, wliicli has a similar composition and
nutritive action to starch. In the case o£ the green
and crude fodders variable quantities of gummy sub-
stances occur_, and especially the lignification material
(Lignin) just alluded to. This latter substance, though
partly dissolved by the alternate action of dilute alkali
and acid_, does not appear to be capable of resorption
from the alimentary canal or of contributing to the
nutritive effect of food.
We shall presently see that, with the exception of
fat, all the non-nitrogenous constituents of green and
crude fodder which are capable of resorption have
the same composition as starch, and that the non-
nitrogenous constituents of food can be practically
regarded as carbohydrates. The proportion of their
total amount to that of the digestible albuminoids
constitutes the ^'Albuminoid" or ^'Nutrient Ratio ^^
of the food. The organic acids which occasionally
occur in minute quantity do not materially affect this
generalization.
5. Pure Ash
represents the ^^ crude ash '' minus the charred matter,
sand, and carbonic acid it contains. The latter is first
produced by the combustion of the organic matter,
and its quantity often varies with the temperature at
which the ash was produced and especially when much
phosphoric acid or silica is present. The carbonic
acid in the ash is not, from this point of view, a con-
stituent of the plant minerals which we are at present
considering.
rOOD-STUFFS. 105
From the foregoing paragraphs it is evident that our
methods for the chemical analysis of food-stuffs, as
well as our knowledge of the peculiar properties and
proportion of different food-constituents, leave much
to be desired. At the same time the results thus
obtained are too valuable to be held in light esteem,
and rapid advances on the beaten track of the science
of Agricultural Dietetics forebode a future of the
highest promise.
106 DIGESTIBILITY OP FOOD.
CHAPTER II.
THE DIGESTIBILITY OF FOOD.
Method of Determination,
To determine the digestibility of a food-stuff, both the
food and the dung of the animal are carefully weighed
and analyzed. The difference found between food and
dung gives the total quantity of all or one of the
digestible materials which have been resorbed from the
alimentary canal and have passed into the circulation
of the animal fluids. It is evident that extreme care
is necessary in weighing and dispensing the food, as
well as in collecting the excrement and in preparing
trustworthy samples for chemical analysis. In practice
a high degree of accuracy in ^' digestion experiments ■"
has been reached by the help of various apparatus, such
as stall-fittings and other arrangements. This accuracy
is shown by the results of control experiments, and
has been very marked when the animal is adapted for
the attainment of exact results. Small animals are the
best for this purpose. Sheep permit of a firm fixture
of '^ excrement receptacles,^' whereby the dung can be
collected absolutely without loss for a considerable
period of time and are peculiarly suitable for such
experiments.
The Time occupied in Digestion with ruminants is
comparatively long. It has been found by numerous
METHOD OF DETERMINATION. 107
uniform observations^ made in various ways^ that after
a sudden change of diet the remnants of the former
fodder are still found in the excrement for as long as
five days. It is essential on this account to precede a
digestion experiment by a '^ preparatory ^^ feeding of
the animal for at least 7 days on the same fodder,
before the excrement can be considered the direct result
of the fodder and before a sample can be taken for
chemical analysis.
This preparatory period is the more necessary since
the fodder undergoes a much more intimate mixture in
the body of a ruminant than in that of a dog or a
man, in which latter the dung produced from a previous
diet can often be sharply distinguished and separated
from the rest by its colour or in other ways.
The process of digestion in the case of horses and
pigs is more rapid than that of ruminants ; but even
these demand a certain " preparatory period.^"* Ellen-
berger and Hofmeister found that a horse required 4
days for the passage of the food along the digestive
tract and the complete excretion of the undigested
residue.
Sources of Error.
The amount of solid matter digested must be at
least equal to the difference between food and dung.
The weight of the dry matter of the dung is increased
by the addition of certain products, especially of
portions of bile which escape resorption. Some idea of
the amount of these nitrogenous substances and the
consequent error in the determination of the digesti-
bility of the albuminoids may be obtained by deter-
108 DIGESTIBILITY OF FOOD.
mining the nitrogen in the ether and alcohol extracts
of the excrement^ as well as the sulphur in organic
combination contained in the aqueous extract. The
constituents of the bile are mostly soluble in alcohol
and ether, " Taurine '' being the only important con-
stituent which is not soluble in this way, though this
is easily dissolved by water. Taurine is distinguished
by a large percentage of sulphur (25*6), while that of
the nitrogen it contains is only 11-2. In this way it is
not difficult to find the extreme amount of nitrogen in
the dung which may possibly be due to the presence of
biliary substances.
Some experiments made at Weende by E. Schulze
and M. Marcker showed that in the case of sheep fed
entirely on hay this nitrogen only constituted 4 per
cent, of the total nitrogen in the excrement, and equalled
only 2 per cent, of that in the fodder, so that it could
not cause a very considerable error in the determination
of the digestibility. In the excrement of pigs, which
generally receive easily-digestible food, and therefore
excrete comparatively little solid matter in their dung,
the quantity of biliary matter is relatively great, and
tho nitrogen contained, from experiments at Hohenheim
and Kuschen, amounts to ^ or 4^ of the total nitrogen
in the excrement ; but owing to the highly-digestible
nature of the food, only 3 to 6 per cent, of the nitrogen
in the latter.
These biliary and other products can only materially
affect the accurate determination of the digestibility of
the albuminoids in such foods as straw, potatoes, &c.,
which are unusually poor in nitrogen. Besides the
biliary products, the dung of animals is impregnated
DIGESTIBILITY OF FAT. 109
with ^ummy substances (mucin^ &c.), which are due to
tissue changes. O. Kellner found that 0 36 per cent.
o£ nitrogen in dry sheep's dung was due to this source,
and that a considerable source of error was thus intro-
duced in determination of the digestibility of albumen
in poor foods by the method of diflference.
These facts have no bearing, however, on the calcu-
lation of the requirements of animals (feeding standards)
from the results of digestion experiments, since the loss
to the body by the excretion of these substances has to
be made good by the food-supply.
Digestibility of Fat.
The determinations of the digestibility of fat hitherto
made in digestion experiments are much less accurate
than those of the digestibility of albuminoids. Most
of the biliary products are soluble in ether, and as the
ordinary food of farm animals contains but a small
amount of fat, the estimation of these products, to-
gether with the actual fat contained in the excrement,
makes it appear that the digestibility of the fat is
much less than it really is, and the more so the less fat
there is in the food.
In some experiments at Hohenheim on pigs fed
entirely on potatoes — a food containing little fat — the
total quantity of crude fat in the excrement (or, more
correctly, matter soluble in ether) was considerably
greater than that in the food. Thus the "fat"" in the
dung amounted to 9*2 and 11 grams per day, while that
in the food was only 4'1 and 4*7 grams per day.
Notwithstanding this source of error, digestion
110 DIGESTIBILITY OF FOOD.
experiments yield results for fat which, though not
absolutely accurate, are yet to a certain extent com-
parable and possess a definite value in estimating the
worth of the different food-stuffs.
We will next consider the general digestive ratio of
green and crude fodders, when they comprise the sole
food of an animal. It will suffice if we only consider
the more important results in this direction, which are
prominently due to the experiments of Henneberg and
Stohmann at Weende, and upon which the foundations
of our knowledge of the subject are based.
1. Digestibility of Crude Fibre.
From 30 to 70 per cent, of the crude fibre is digestible,
or at any rate escapes excretion in the animaPs dung.
Ruminants are peculiarly adapted for the digestion of
crude fibre, and can assimilate a great deal more than
horses. Pigs and Carnivora, as well as human beings,
are only able to digest the tender fibre found in roots
and in young and juicy green food.
Cellulose. — The digested portion, or that rendered
soluble in the alimentary canal, is pure cellulose, which
has the same composition as starch (44 per cent, of
carbon). This has been proved by determining by
chemical analysis the composition of (a) the fibre in
the food and {b) that in the dung, and calculating
the percentage composition of the digested fibre by
the difference between {a) and {b) in weight and
chemical composition.
Recent researches by Tappeiner make it very doubtful
DIGESTIBILITY OF CRUDE FIBRE. Ill
whether a feeding-value in proportion to its composition
can be attributed to cellulose. Cellulose is rendered
soluble in the first stomach and main intestine o£
ruminants and in the colon of horses by the fermen-
tative action of Bacteria and similar micro-organisms.
The greater portion is resolved into fluid acids (chiefly
acetic^ with a certain amount of butyric and propionic
acids, &c.), while a smaller quantity is given ofi'in the
form of gas (marsh-gas and carbonic acid). From
100 parts of fermented cellulose 60 parts of fluid fatty
acids result, and Weiske and Fleschig have shown that
the action of these acids is not a favourable one to
nutrition, and that acetic acid^ for instance, does not
behave as lactic acid or the carbohydrates in econo-
mizing albumen and increasing the production of flesh.
It would thus seem that only a half or even less of the
decomposed or digested celhilose actually contributes
to the nourishment of the body.
In the presence of a food rich in albumen the
fermentation of cellulose is increased, as was found by
feeding goats and sheep on lupines. Experiments on
horses at Hohenheim showed that the digested fibre —
cellulose — in the food was absolutely useless for the
production of work and force by these animals, or at
any rate that in the experiments in question concor-
dant results could only be obtained by deducting the
fibre from the total organic matter digested, and con-
sidering the rest in the coarse and concentrated fodder
as of equal value (see "Feeding of Horses ^^).
Zuntz and C. Lehmann, as a result of exact investi-
gations on horses at Berlin, have shown that the labour
of chewing and the general efi'ort involved in digestion
112 DIGESTIBILITY OF FOOD.
by the horse often represented a considerable propor-
tion of the nutritive effect of the food eaten. The
effort of chewing hay represents 11 "2 per cent, of the
total energy derived from its digestion, that of oats
only 2' 8 per cent. ; and the operations brought about in
the stomach and intestines use up still larger quantities
of this energy.
Similar observations were made by Zuntz and
Magnus-Levy at Munich from the results of their ex-
periments on men ; for example : —
'^ The work of digestion involved with a diet of bread
and butter represents 10 per cent, of its nutritive value,
or more than 5 per cent, of the food requirement of a
man in moderate work is used in supplying energy for
the assimilation of the diet in question.''^
In more recent experiments, Magnus-Levy has found
an increase of 10 to 15 per cent, in the gaseous pro-
ducts of the food as a result of the labour of digestion ;
when dogs were fed with bones difficult to digest, this
increase of gaseous products was greater than when the
dogs were fed on meat.
F. Lehmann at Gottingen found, in opposition to
the results of Weiske and others, that the digested
fibre had a distinct influence on the economy of albu-
men, and that it amounted to 61 per cent, of that of
starch ; while in further experiments carried out in co-
operation with Vogel, it was found that a food relatively
poor in fibre produced a greater increase in the live-
weight of a fattening beast than one relatively rich in
fibre, in the average proportion of 100 : 77.
Much still remains to be elucidated in this respect;
but it can be accepted as a useful generalization that
NITROGEN-FREE EXTRACT. 113
as ruminants can dissolve cellulose in the first stomach,
and are not affected by the effort o£ digestion and the
production of marsh-gas in the intestines to the same
extent as other animals (such as horses), the fibre in
food is of more service to ruminants than to any
other animals.
2. Nitrogen-free Extract,
A certain amount of the so-called nitrogen-free
extract remains undigested or is not resorbed from the
digestive tract, and is discharged in the dung.
Compensation. — It is a noteworthy fact that a com-
pensation takes place between the digested portion of
the crude fibre and the undigested portion of the nitro-
gen-free extract, especially in the case of ruminants.
That is to say, these two quantities are always nearly
equal^ so that the amount of the nitroyen-free extract
found by analysis is an approximate measure of the
digestibility of the total non-nitrogenous matter in the
food (crude fibre and extract taken together).
This, however, is only true in a general way and on
the average. In particular cases it is sometimes found
that the quantity of non-nitrogenous substance digested
varies from as much as 120 per cent, to as little as 80
per cent, of the amount of nitrogen-free extract found
by analysis. This variable relationship in the case of
the same green or dry fodder is dependent on the per-
centage digestibility of the crude fibre present, or is
determined by the period of vegetation at which the
food in question was cut and harvested.
The younger and more tender the fodder, the smaller,
as a rule, its percentage of crude fibre and the greater
114
DIGESTIBILITY OF FOOD.
the proportion between the non-nitrogenous food-con-
stituents digested and the quantity of '^ extract '' found
by analysis.
This was illustrated by some experiments at Hohen-
heim in which sheep were fed with green clo^^er cut at
four different periods of growth ; No. 3 was clover in
full bloom. The first line [a) gives the percentage
obtained by dividing the quantity of nitrogen-free ex-
tract actually digested by the amount of nitrogen-free
extract found by analysis, and the second line [b) gives
the percentage of crude fibre digested.
No. 1.
No. 2.
No. 3.
No. 4.
(a)
111-9
60-0
105-5
530
101-8
49-6
88-5
38-8
(b'\ ...
From these results and others in agreement with
them, it is evident that the digestibility of fibre de-
creases more rapidly than that of the nitrogen-free
extract, as will be clearly seen if w^e substitute 100 for
the figures in the first row, thus : —
No. 1.
No. 2.
No. 3.
No. 4.
(a)
100
100
94
88
91
82
79
65
(b)
'' Compensation," therefore, between the fibre di-
gested and the " extract " undigested only occurs when
the food- stuff is of medium quality and it is affected by
the greater or less digestibility of the crude fibre.
NITROGEN-FREE EXTRACT. 115
3. Composition of Nitrogen-free Extract digested.
It has been shown^ by essentially the same method
as that applied to crude fibre, that the digestible portion
of the nitrogen-free extract has very nearly the same
composition as Starch. We may therefore assume that
with the exception of fat, all the digestible non-nitro-
genous materials in the fodder are converted_, like starch
itself _, into sugar or sugary substances, and are resorbed
and taken into the circulation in that form. An excep-
tion must be made in the case of the small quantities of
organic acids, either contained ready-made in the food
or produced during digestion from starch, sugar, and
cellulose (seep. 111).
We are thus justified in regarding all the non-
nitrogenous materials in the food of Herbivora which
are not fat as Carbohydrates, and in concluding that they
must produce the same effects on the digestive process
of the animal body as those experimentally verified
with Carnivora fed on starch and sugar, and which
have been discussed in Part I. of this book. As far
as Herbivora are concerned, the only important non-
nitrogenous constituents of food are fat and carbo-
hydrates.
4. Undigested Nitrogen-free Extract.
The undigested portion of the nitrogen-free extract
is a mixture of various substances rich in carbon^ and
having on the whole the same percentage composition
as the so-called Lignin (55 to 56 per cent, of carbon as
compared with 44 per cent, in starch and cellulose) .
It is therefore a matter of comparative indifference^
I 2
HG DIGESTIBILITY OF FOOD.
in determining the digestibility of food_, whether the
lignin dissolves in the acid and alkaline liquids em-
ployed in the process of chemical analysis, or whether
it remains mixed with cellulose in the crude fibre
as " lignification substance/'
5. The Water Extract.
From numerous experiments executed at Weende on
oxen and sheep, it has been deduced that the total
quantity of solid matter that can be extracted from a
fodder by boiling water — the " Water Extract ''■' — is a
measure of the digestible proportion of the Nitrogen-
free extract. In single cases, however, considerable
departures from this rule were observed on both sides
of the average, amounting to as much as 14 per cent.
This method of judging the quality of coarse fodder
has not found any general application, for the reason
that no necessary connection exists between the di-
gestible nitrogen-free extract and the substances soluble
in water, since the latter includes not only non-nitro-
genous matter but also larger or smaller quantities of
albuminoids and ash.
The digestibility of a coarse or green fodder is gene-
rally greater the more solid matter can be extracted
from it by continued boiling, and although no scientific
importance can be attached to the method, it yet
affords a rough and empirical guide for practical
purposes.
6. Crude Fat.
It has already been explained (p. 103) that the crude
fat, or '^ ether extract,^' of coarse fodder is a mixture
CRUDE ALBUMINOIDS. 117
of various substances, some of which are digestible and
some quite indigestible. The chlorophyll or green
colouring- matter of plants is soluble in ether, but seems
to be quite indigestible, and the same holds good for
the accompanying wax- like substances.
It is therefore to be expected that the digestibility
of the crude fat will vary according to the kind and
quality of the fodder. This is always greater with
young and tender plants than with older ones, and it
has been found that while 50 to 60 per cent, of the
crude fat of clover-hay and of the straw of leguminous
plants is digestible, only 30 to 50 per cent, of the crude
fat of meadow-hay and of the straw of cereals is capable
of digestion.
7. Crude Albuminoids.
The digestibility of crude albuminoids in the various
kinds of coarse fodder is subject to greater variations
than that of almost any other constituent. Of the
albuminoids in clover and meadow-hay, a quantity
varying from 35 to 80 per cent, of the total amount is
digested according to circumstances.
The albuminoids are generally more easily and com-
pletely digested the greater the amount in the fodder
or the closer the proportion between the albuminoids
and non-nitrogenous nutrients. The quantity and
quality of the crude fibre present also influences the
digestibility of the albuminoids. From direct experi-
ments on animals we know that the albuminoids in
meadow-hay of average quality are about as digestible
as those in average clover-hay, but that the albuminoids
in the straw of summer cereals^ and especially those in
118 DIGESTIBILITY OF FOOD.
the straw of winter cereals, are not so digestible; while
the albuminoids in the straw of leguminous plants are
inferior to those in the straw of cereals in this respect.
The digestibility of crude albumen in the various
coarse fodders may be further modified by the condition
of the fodder as well as by the kind of animal and by
the quantity of other nutrients in the fodder. I will give
the results of researches bearing on these points below.
The possibility of the decay and loss of nutritive
albumen in the intestines, comparable to the fermenta-
tion of cellulose (p. Ill), has been recently suggested ;
and Tappeiner, basing his calculations on the amount
of phenols (including skatol and indol), found in the
urine of horses and cattle, assesses the loss of albumen
from this cause at 10 per cent, of the albumen ^' used
up/^ or that not reappearing in the dung. It is still
open to question whether the phenols are solely pro-
duced from albumen, or whether they may not be also
due to the fermentation of other complicated vegetable
foods. According to Hirschler, the presence or addi-
tion of easily-digestible carbohydrates greatly reduces
the decay of albumen in the intestines.
Method of Artificial Digestion.
It is of interest to know that one can obtain exact
information as to the digestibility of the albuminoids
of food by Stutzer's method of artificial digestion, in
which the digestive process is artificially carried out by
the aid of an acid-pepsin solution, obtained by adding
a very small quantity of hydrochloric acid to the
extract of the fresh stomach of a pig. The method was
ARTIFICIAL DIGESTION.
119
afterwards modified, the food being first treated with
acid-pepsin solution and then with alkaline pancreatic
extract, and the corresponding amount of fresh dung
produced by the animal extracted with pepsin solution.
Pfeiffer, of Gottingen, obtained results of natural and
artificial digestion for sheep which agreed remarkably
well. The food employed in five different experiments
was as follows : —
1. Hay only;
2. Hay and Earthnut Cake ;
3. Hay, Earthnut Cake, and dried chopped
Turnips ;
4. Lucerne Hay only ;
5. Lucerne Hay, Earthnut Cake, and Turnips.
The percentage of the nitrogen of the crude albu-
minoids in the food remaining undigested or undis-
solved was as follows : —
No.l.
No. 2.
No. 3.
1
No. 4.
No. 5.
A-niifl/iial T4icrp«tinn
20-57
21-46
14-41
1540
13-22 10-83
13-65 11-32
10-69
9-93
■vr<»+iT..Ql Tlirrpafinn
Calculated from Food'^
mi7ms Dung, without al- |
lowing for Nitrogen de- }
composition products in
TJiinDT
35 69
24-65
25-05
23-71
20-41
If the nitrogenous decomposition products in the
dung be not recognized, the amount of undigested
130 DIGESTIBILITY OF FOOD.
nitrogen in the food may appear double as much as
when due allowance has been made. If we are to use
figures obtained by artificial digestion in the calculation
of the digestible albuminoids in food-stuffs_, we must
allow an additional equivalent for the products of
nitrogenous decomposition which are daily discharged
in the dung^ and which must be made good to the
body by an additional amount of nitrogenous food.
Kellner first suggested as the outcome of his experi-
ments at Hohenheim that this allowance should be 0*4
parts of nitrogen for every 100 of dry matter digested.
Although this figure has been accepted by many as a
safe generalization^ experiments at Hohenheim and also
at Gottingen have shown that great variations may
occur. For instance, it was found in the five experi-
ments quoted above that the quantity of nitrogen in
the dung soluble in pepsin expressed as a percentage of
the dry matter digested was as follows : —
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Average.
0-505 0-455 0-445 0-720 0-450 0-515
The difference between 1 and 4 (meadow and lucerne
hay) is very marked. In other researches at Gottingen
on pigs, a closer agreement with the figure 0*4 was
obtained, for the variations in 9 experiments were only
0-38 to 0-48. Meissl and Strohmer obtained verjr
different results on pigs fed exclusively on boiled rice.
In two cases 1704-8 grams and 1699*71 of dry matter
in the food were digested, and the dung only contained
2-13 and 3*72 grams of nitrogen respectively, some of
which was due to undigested food ; while the nitrogen
due to the decomposition products in the dung alone
ARTIFICIAL DIGESTION. 121
ought to have been 6"82 grams and 6*80 on the basis
of Kellner's assumption. In a further research in
which the pigs were fed on flesh-meal, rice and whey
1451*3 grams of dry matter were digested per day and
only 1'66 grams of total nitrogen was found in the dung.
With a diet poor in nitrogen, such as starch, sugar,
or fat, the nitrogen in the dung is small. H. Reider
found by feeding a dog on a diet containing 130'4 grams
dry matter per day, that only 0*22 gram of nitrogen
was found in the dung, and a man receiving 485 grams
per day of dry matter only excreted 0*54 gram of
nitrogen.
Since the bulk of the nitrogenous digestion products
in the dung of Herbivora is due to Mucin (the slimy
matter of the intestines) , its amount is determined by
the quantity and condition of the dung, and bears no
definite relation to the digested dry matter of the food.
On account of these discrepancies and the doubt
which exists as to whether the substances extracted from
the dung by the acid-pepsin solution can really be
regarded as digestion products, it would be very rash
to substitute results obtained by the artificial method
for those obtained by direct experiment on the animal,
and to employ them for the calculation of digestion
coefficients. According to the kind, individuality, and
method of feeding of an animal, a certain amount of
albuminoids which have escaped resorption, but which
are yet soluble in pepsin, are always present in the
dung.
Direct experiments on the animal are still essential
for securing the influence of all those conditions which
afl'ect the practical utility of a food-stufl;. From the
122 DIGESTIBILITY OF FOOD.
fact that the digestibility of nitrogenous substances is
not the only question at issue^ but that the digesti-
bility of the non-nitrogenous constituents is equally
important^ and as the determination of the digestibility
of these latter substances bv artificial digestion is
impossible at present owing to the lack of passably
satisfactory and accurate methods, the " direct " method
still remains the only complete and satisfactory means
of determining the digestibility of a food-stuff.
8. Inorganic Substances.
Phosphoric Acid. — When ruminants are fed exclu-
sively on coarse fodder, only minute traces of phosphoric
acid are contained in the urine. Only so much of the
phosphoric acid seems to be resorbed as is necessary
for the formation of new tissue or the production of
milk^ all the rest passes into the intestines. In reality,
however, the Phosphoric Acid as well as other mineral
substances of the food are largely resorbed from certain
portions of the intestines and the excess circulates round
the body in the blood and passes again into the
intestines ( Weiske, Wildt) . On the other hand, the urine
of both ruminants and carnivora is very rich in Phos-
phoric Acid (20-45 per cent, of the ash of the urine)
if the animals are entirely fed on milk, or if they are
forced by several days of hunger to exist on their own
flesh and blood.
When calves and lambs are fed on a high diet of corn,
their urine always contains more or less phosphoric
acid. The proportion of phosphoric acid is dependent
on the food-supply, and it seems to be also influenced
by the amount of lime in the daily food.
INORGANIC SUBSTANCES.
123
The following results were obtained at Hohenheim
and are in agreement for both hay and clover-hay,
despite the great difference in the mineral constituents
of these fodders : —
Provided in food. Discharged in urine
Potash
100 parts.
100
100 „
100 „
100 „
100 „
95-97
20-30
I/inic
(ruminants) 2-5
Sill nil nric Acid
100
nVilnTiiip
100
Silica
100
The other ash-constituents of food, so far as they are
not retained for use in the body or employed in the
production of milk, are discharged in the dung. These
facts have an important bearing upon the comparison
of the manurial value of the liquid and solid excreta.
While only 2 to 5 per cent, of the Lime in the food
is excreted by ruminants in the urine, horses excrete
40 to 60 per cent. The amount of Potash excreted by
the horse is less than that excreted by cattle, that of
Phosphoric Acid about the same.
124 DIGESTIBILITY OF COARSE FODDER.
CHAPTER III.
§ 1. Conditions affecting the Digestibility of Coarse
Fodder,
[Under this heading I will propound sundry questions
of special and practical interest to which direct experi-
ments have given a more or less clear and decided
answer.]
1. Effect of Quantity,
The digestibility of the constituents of coarse fodder is
not affected by the quantity supplied.
This has been arrived at by many experiments at
Weende and Hohenheim on oxen^ sheep, and horses
fed on hay alone, and clover-hay or lucerne. Healthy
animals under normal conditions only eat as much of a
coarse fodder as they are able to properly digest. It
cannot be presumed that the digestive juices act more
powerfully on a small quantity of food than on a larger^
as it was found at Hohenheim that the percentage di-
gested by a sheep was just the same whether it received
1, 2, or 3 lbs. of clover- hay. Although these results
have only been so far confirmed in the case of meadow-
and clover-hay of good or average quality, still the
same doubtless holds good for the less digestible food-
stufi*s such as straw, chafi', &c. This constant ratio
is most important^ and greatly facilitates calculations
GREEN VERSUS DRY FODDER. 125
o£ digestible food-constituents or "nutrients/' and
renders possible the estimation of the actual quantity
o£ food-stuff required for the various purposes for
^hich farm animals are kept.
2. Green versus Dry Fodder.
The nutrients in dry fodder are as digestible as those
in green fodder.
This result is apparently in contradiction to the
general experience of farmers. It must be remembered,
however, that this is only true provided the green
fodder and hay are otherwise of exactly the same
quality, that both were cut at the same time and from
the same field, and that none of the leaves or other
tender and especially nutritious parts were lost during
the making of the hay. These conditions are never
completely reached in practice, especially in the making
of clover- or lucerne-hay ; and as green fodder is gene-
rally used in an earlier stage of growth than that which
is made into hay, a greater nutritive effect is generally
observed with the former.
For the present we may leave undecided the question
whether the large quantity of water which animals in
milk receive in green fodder exerts any considerable
influence on the amount of milk produced ; and we will
only conclude that the digestibility of the organic con-
stituents of a fodder is in no way altered by simple
drying in the air, provided no loss occurs during the
process.
1!S6 DIGESTIBILITY OF COARSE FODDER.
3. Ordinary Hay,
In the ordinary method of making hay, much of the
tender part of the plant is lost and the reduced digesti-
bility of the food is self-evident. The loss of dry
matter often amounts to 10 per cent, or more^ and
Weiske and S. Kiihne found that sainfoin and lucerne
were reduced 4 to 5 per cent, in digestibility when made
into hay *.
The loss is still greater if, as a consequence of had
weather at harvest, a repeated wetting and soaking of
the fodder, and perhaps a form of fermentation, has
taken place, resulting in a loss of flavour. Young
plants cut before they have developed much hard fibre
are most liable to this deterioration, the aftermath
for instance more than the main hay-crop.
4. Effect of Storage.
The storing of fodder for a long time may decrease
both its digestibility and flavour, even when all necessary
precautions are observed, such as a dry and airy storage-
place ^c. This conclusion can be drawn from experi-
ments carried out at Hohenheim, when it was found
that the crude albuminoids of a sample of aftermath
immediately after harvest were digestible to the extent
of 62 per cent. ; 3 months later 56 per cent., and in the
following spring only 54 per cent, were digested by
the same animal, while the digestive coefficient for
the other nutrients remained practically constant.
Hofmeister obtained similar results at Dresden with
* See Table II. in the Appendix, where the digestibility of
coarse fodder under various conditions of growth and treatment
is given.
PERIOD OF GROWTH.
127
clover-hay. The deterioration was not due so much to
chemical changes in the dry matter as to the breaking
off of small pieces of the more nitrogenous portions of
the fodder. But whether the commonly observed
deterioration of hay and straw which has been carefully
stored for a season is caused by an actual alteration in
chemical composition^, or is due principally to mechanical
loss and deterioration of flavour, can only be decided by
further experiments. When the hay has not been quite
dried, or has been wetted by rain, a possible reversion
of Albuminoids into Amides may take place, and thus
reduce the feeding-value of the food.
5. Period of Growth.
It is well-known that the nutritive value and digesti-
bility of i^lants varies considerably with the period of
growth.
The following results were obtained at Mockern with
oxen fed on green clover : —
Percentage of
Time of cutting. crude albuminoids
digested.
Percentage of
crude fibre
digested.
May 20th. Just before 1
blooming
71
65
59
51
47
40
June 7tb. Full bloom ...
June 20. Towards end 1
of blooming J
The variation in the digestibility of the nitrogen-free
extract was insignificant.
128
DIGESTIBILITY OF COARSE FODDER.
At Hohenlieim it was found with sheep that the
digestibility of clover in four periods of growth de-
creased with maturity from 76 to 59 per cent, for crude
albuminoids, and from 60 to 39 per cent, for crude fibre.
At Proskau the following results were obtained : —
Percentage of
crude albuminoids
digested.
Percentage of
crude fibre
digested.
Vnmncy P.lovftr
78
61
67
49
TVTnfnvp nlovftr
The aftermath is always proportionately more di-
gestible than the main crop of hay, provided both are
harvested in equally favourable weather ; but, as I have
just pointed out, aftermath is more affected by bad
harvesting and is apt to be less tasty and aromatic than
good hay, and the animals are often unwilling to eat it
unless auxiliary food- stuffs be added. The nutritive
effect of young plants must be greater than that of
more mature plants of the same kind, since they are
not only more digestible but contain a higher per-
centage of crude albuminoids and amides than the
latter. This difference often exerts a great influence
on the albuminoids actually digested. The above ex-
periments at Mockern showed that 13-9 per cent, of
the dry matter of young clover consisted of digestible
albuminoids, while at the end of the flowering period
this was reduced to 7*8 per cent. At Proskau a value
of 21*2 per cent, as compared with 8*2 per cent, was
EFFECT OF SEASON, ETC.
129
observed in a similar case. It is thus seen that the
nutrition in a given crude fodder may be twice or three
times greater under favourable conditions of growth
and harvesting than in a bad season and wet harvest.
6. Effect of Season, Soil, and Manuring.
Differences in season, composition, and character of
soil, as well as in the system of ma7iuring, exert a marked
influence on the nutritive value of a fodder.
The food from the same part of a field or meadow
may vary greatly as to its nutritive value from year t©
to year. For instance, clover and hay grown on the
fields of the experimental station at Hohenheim in
three successive years and under equally favourable
conditions was harvested and fed to sheep (" Wiirttem-
berg Bastards ") . The digestibility of the nitrogen-
free extract was found to be 63, 67, and 75 per cent,
respectively in the three years, while the albuminoids
varied to a less extent, 60, 64, and 65 per cent, being
digestible. In other cases the variations are still greater,
and similar differences exist between food-stuffs grown
in a sunny or a shaded place under otherwise similar
conditions.
7. Influence of Methods of Preparing.
While the subdivision of grain by mashing, grinding,
&c., may further a more complete digestion of such foods
by certain kinds of animals, the common methods of
preparing coarse fodder, such as scalding, steaming,
fermenting, &c., appear to have a less favourable influence
than is commonly attributed to them in practice.
K
130 DIGESTIBILITY OF COARSE FODDER.
Experiments on rye-straw by Hellriegel and Lncanus
at Dahme, showed that when fed to sheep as silage,
its digestibility was in no way increased, and similar
results on a mixed ration for milch-cows were obtained
by Funke at Proskau. A comparison between brown
silage and ordinary hay from lucerne was made at
Proskau by Weiske, which showed that while the crude
fibre was 8 per cent, more digestible in the silage, the
nitrogen-free extract had suffered loss to the extent of
11 per cent, and the albuminoids had also been drawn
upon.
Experiments by Hornberger at Poppelsdorf showed
that steaming hay, and still more turning it into sour
or sweet silage, caused a loss of digestible albuminoids.
In practice, however, the palatability of a food may
often be very considerably increased by suitable pre-
paration, and the animals thus induced to eat larger
quantities of a fodder less to their liking in its raw
state. Although the prepared food may not really
contain more digestible matter, it may yet produce
a greater feeding effect. The flavour of food, as
many experiments and observations have shown, plays
a most important part in the actual production of
flesh, fat, and milk from the digestible matter in the
food, and can probably modify the nutritive result.
The accurate investigation of this subject by direct
experiment is unfortunately fraught with difficulties.
As in the case of coarse fodder, the digestibility of
concentrated food-stuffs is not increased by the method
of preparation. This has been illustrated by the ex-
periments of Kiihn at Mockern on oxen fed with
wheat-bran, in which he showed that boiling, scalding,
INFLUENCE OF WORK.
131
fermenting by the addition of acid ferments, and treat-
ment of the bran with acids and alkalies all reduced
its digestibility to a greater or less extent. This loss
principally affected the albuminoids, and to a less
extent the non-nitrogenous constituents of the bran.
It was further found that various liquid preparations
of the bran, given as an addition to hay in various pro-
portions, had no influence on digestion. Stutzer showed
that the digestible albuminoids in bran were reduced
by scalding. It was found, however, that lactic acid
and the acids of fruit, such as tartaric, malic, and citric
acids, have a very favourable action on the digestibility
of bran, while acetic and butyric acid were found abso-
lutely without effect in this respect.
8. Influence of Work.
It has often been assumed that a keen appetite result-
ing from hard work enables an animal to make greater
use of the food provided. That this is not the case
has been shown by a large number of experiments
upon horses at Hohenheim.
A horse weighing 10 cwt. received a constant daily
ration of 11 lbs. hay, 13 lbs. oats, 3 lbs. wheat-chaff.
The daily work was regulated by a capstan, and its
amount during successive periods and the percentage
of organic matter digested were as follows : —
Period
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
Work 1
Percentage of organic /
matter digested {
4,200,000
foot-pounds
58-7
double.
58-6
treble.
58-7
double.
56-4
as at first.
54-8
k2
132
DIGESTIBILITY OF COARSE FODDER.
/.
The smaller figures for Periods IV. and V. were due
to the reduced digestibility of the hay on keepings and
are not the direct result of the difference in the day's
work. In a further research the same horse received
16^ lbs. hay and 9 lbs. beans per day, and in three
experimental periods the work done amounted to
5,670,000; 17,010,000; and, again, 5,670,000 foot-
pounds per day. The organic matter digested amounted
to 60 per cent., 58-5 per cent., and 57*5 per cent.,
respectively, of the total organic matter supplied in the
constant ration during the three periods. These small
differences evidently have nothing to do with the amount
of work done. This was clearly proved in further experi-
ments, in which each period was considerably extended,
and as a longer period for collecting the excrement was
made possible more reliable results were obtained. The
daily ration was maintained at 13 lbs. hay, 8 lbs. barley,
and 3 lbs. linseed cake ; while the work in Period I. was
5,656,000 and in Period II. 10,829,000 work units.
The figures given show that the amount digested during
he two periods was perfectly constant.
Organic
matter.
Crude
albumen.
Crude
fat.
Crude
fibre.
N.-free
extract.
Period I
60-9
61-1
72-6
72-4
41-6
41-5
33-9
34-3
70-5
70-5
Period II
On the other hand, L. Grandeau and Leclerc in Paris
found that the digestion of a horse was reduced by very
hard work.
The reduction in the amount of the total food digested
RUMINANTS AND HORSES. 133
averaged 2-3 per cent._, and when the same work was
done at a trot instead of walking, the reduction was as
much as 4-6 per cent.
This result, however, must not be considered of
universal application, but only true within certain limits
and under certain conditions. So long as the work
done does not exceed a certain limit, and the animal is
not overworked, the influence of work in increasing
or decreasing the powers of digestion is so trifling as to
be negligible in food calculations.
9. Different kinds of Ruminants.
Oxen, cows, sheep, and goats digest one and the same
fodder to an equal extent. The average of a large
number of various experiments on hay shows that
cows and oxen can digest 2-3 per cent, more than
sheep, while a still larger number of experiments on
clover-hay and green clover show that it is digested
2-3 per cent, more eff'ectually by sheep than by cattle.
These small differences compensate one another.
Digestion experiments with goats have given perfectly
normal results.
10. Horses.
Of non-ruminant farm animals the horse holds the
first place. Since 1876 a large number of comparative
digestion experiments on horses and sheep have been
conducted at Hohenheim. The results are given m a
tabulated form in the Appendix (Table II.). Twelve
samples of hay were fed in this way and the following
results obtained : —
134 DIGESTIBILITY OF COARSE FODDER.
{a) The horse digests 11-12 per cent, less of the dry
matter of hay than the ruminants. — This is true
of the most varying samples of hay.
{b) The crude albuminoids of hay are generally equally
digested by both horse and sheep. — This does not
hold good with exceptionally tender and nitro-
genous hay, which is better digested by sheep,
while coarse, poor hay is often better digested
by the horse.
(c) The horse digests much less of the crude fat than
the sheep. — With easily digested kinds this dif-
ference amounts to 50 per cent., and with less
digestible samples is only 25 per cent.
{d) The nitrogen-free extract is slightly better digested
(7-10 per cent.) by sheep than by horses.
(e) Especially important is the difference in the
digestibility of the crude fibre of hay by horses
and sheep. — The horse digests about 20 per cent,
less of the crude fibre than the sheep, or J less than
that digested by the sheep : this difference, more-
over, so far as the albuminoid ratio is concerned,
is fairly constant for all kinds of hay and is prac-
tically independent of the quality.
(/) It is very different if the digestibility of iiidividual
nutrients be calculated as a percentage of the
dry matter of the hay. Of the total 12 per cent,
of difference in the case of easily digestible kinds
of hay [see («)], crude fibre represents 5-6 per
cent., the nitrogen-free extract about 4 per cent.,
and the crude fat 1-1*5 per cent., besides a very
small amount on the score of albuminoids. In
the case of difficultly digestible hay the difference
INFLUENCE OF BREED. 135
is distributed as follows : crude fibre 7-8 per
cent., nitrogen-free extract about 3*5 per cent.,
and crude fat 0*5 to 1 per cent.
{g) For the horse, the " compensation '' between the
digestible crude fibre and the undigestible nitrogen-
free extract (p. 113) does not hold good in the
case of hay. — As a general rule horses digest
20 to 25 per cent, less of the total nitrogen-free
matter in the food (crude fibre and extract) than
ruminants.
Both horses and sheep digest the crude albuminoids
and nitrogen-free extract of clover and lucerne-hay to
an equal extent ; the difference in the case of the crude
fibre in lucerne-hay is not so great as in that of hay.
On the other hand, great divergence exists in the
digestibility of wheat-straw, but further experiments
are required to determine its extent with sheep and
horses. Concentrated food-stuffs, with the exception of
the fat they contain, are almost equally digested by
both animals. This has been already proved for oats,
barley, maize, beans, peas, and lupines, by a large
number of experiments at Hohenheim.
11. Influence of Breed.
As the various species of ruminants digest their food
to an equal extent, we should still less expect any
difference to exist between individual breeds of one
and the same species. Experiments by Hofmeister at
Dresden, and others at Hohenheim, have concordantly
shown that Merino, Southdown, and the so-called
" Wiirttemberg Bastard'' breeds of sheep digest the
136 DIGESTIBILITY OF COARSE FODDER.
same food-stuffs equally well whether fed on a store
diet of hay or a fattening ration. Weiske^s experi-
ments on Rambouillet and Southdown sheep at Proskau
confirm this.
It is very necessary not to confuse the digestibility
of a fodder with its nutritive effect. The latter may
vary greatly with different breeds, and is determined
partly by the appetite and amount of food the animal
can digest day by day, and partly by the whole organi-
zation of the animal, its respiration, temperament, and
other hereditary peculiarities.
The actual percentage digestibility of a food-stuff has
nothing to do with this; it is constant for a particular
food with every breed, although it may be modified by
individual digestive disturbances, which unfortunately
often occur and spoil the comparison of experimental
results.
12. Age and Growth of Animal.
Even at different ages or in different stages of growth
the digestive power for any given food seems to be
nearly the same, provided the animals are weaned from
milk, and that the fodder is agreeable in taste and
adequate in nutritive effect. This has been shown by
experiments at Hohenheim on sheep of two different
breeds and continued for nine months consecutively
(from the fifth to the fourteenth year of their age).
They received both an exclusive hay diet and a rich
ration of hay and grain. Experiments at Proskau have
shown that sheep from four months to two years old, or
practically during the whole period of growth, digest
hay to the same extent.
INDIVIDUALITY. 137
It is of course possible that this constant digestive
power would be less marked in the case of a poor and
difficultly digestible fodder. So long as young animals
are capable of rapid growth they are unable to thrive
on such a diet, and as they cannot eat a sufficient
quantity for their proper nourishment, they must suffer
from a continuance of such feeding.
13. Individuality.
Individual peculiarities have often a greater influence
on digestion than the breed or even the species of the
animal. Besides temporary disturbances of digestion
and the weakness of digestion caused by old age, animals
of the same species, breed, age, and live-weight often
show constant differences in digestive power, though
these seldom exceed 2-4 per cent, of the total dry
matter of the fodder.
In single individuals striking differences of digestive
power, far below those of other animals of the same age
and weight, are sometimes observed.
For example, a difference of 75 per cent, in the
digestibility of crude fibre, and of 7 per cent, in that of
the total organic matter, was observed in one case at
Proskau.
At the same time it was found that those animals
of a herd which attained the greatest live-weight in a
certain time on a given kind of fodder did not always
possess the greatest digestive power nor produce the
most live- weight from the same amount of food. The
conditions of appetite and the quantity of food daily
eaten are much more important factors in determining
138 DIGESTIBILITY OF CONCENTRATED FOODS.
the increase of grooving and fattening animals than the
intensity of digestive power.
Stunted animals, or those which have been badly
nourished when young (especially during suckling),
generally possess a relatively weak digestive power in
later stages of development. How far the latter can
be improved by the mode of rearing still remains to be
investigated.
§ 2. Digestibility of Concentrated Foods and their
Influence on the Digestibility of Coarse Fodder.
From the foregoing paragraphs it is seen that the
percentage digestibility of coarse fodder, so long as it
is exclusively used, is entirely dependent on the natural
properties of the dry matter it contains, and this again
is determined by such conditions as maturity, weather,
soil, and manuring. Other conditions, such as the
quantity daily supplied, green or dry condition, the
methods of preparing, as well as the kind, breed, and
age of the animal, have but a slight influence on the
powers of digestion of ruminants.
This is an important result and greatly facilitates the
calculation of the daily ration of an animal.
It is still more important to find out to what extent
tbe digestibility of the constituents of coarse fodder is
altered by the addition of concentrated foods, and to
determine the digestibility of the latter. This can be
done by adding increasing amounts of auxiliary food-
stuffs to a constant quantity of daily coarse fodder, and
calculating, from the directly determined digestion of
the mixed foods, the digestibility of the coarse fodder
INCREASE OF ALBUMINOIDS. 139
on the assumption of the absolute digestion of tlie
auxiliary food ; or by assuming that the digestibility of
coarse fodder is quite unaltered by more or less addition
of the auxiliary food, the digestion coefficient of the
latter can be determined.
To condense and simplify my remarks on the latest
results of feeding experiments, I have employed the
term ^^ Nutritive Ratio/' or its popular equivalent
^'Albuminoid Ratio/' for expressing the proportion
between the digestible Nitrogenous and non-Nitrogenous
food-constituents, i. e. between the digestible albuminoids
and amides on the one hand, and the carbohydrates and
the '^ carbohydrate equivalent'' of the digestible crude
fat (obtained by multiplying by the ^' respiration " or
starch equivalent of fat [2-44]) on the other.
1. Increase of Albuminoids .—The addition of wheat
gluten or a one-sided increase of the digestible albu-
minoids has absolutely no effect on the digestibility
of coarse fodder. This was proved at Weende by
E. Schulze and Marcker, who fed sheep with 4 ozs.
and then 9 ozs. of a preparation of gluten of 78 per cent,
purity, in addition to 2 lbs. of hay per head per day.
The small apparent reduction in the amount of the
hay albuminoids digested (4-6 per cent.) may be
accounted for by the fact that traces of gluten re-
mained undigested. This reduction in digestibility
was not observed in the case of any other constituents
of coarse fodder.
2. Nitrogenous Special Foods.— It is a most im-
portant fact that the common '' special nitrogen foods ''
140 DIGESTIBILITY OF CONCENTRATED FOODS.
employed in agriculture (with an albuminoid ratio of 1 : 1
to 1 : 5) do not affect the normal digestibility of the
coarse fodders they supplement. This has been proved
by adding increasing amounts of such special foods to
a constant supply of meadow or clover hay. Experi-
ments have been carried out at Hohenheim_, Mockern,
and Halle, with linseed-cake, bean-meal, rape-cake_,
wheat-bran, and cotton-cake fed to sheep, goats, oxen,
and horses. All the other special nitrogen foods, such
as oil-cake, leguminous seeds, brewer's grains, brandy
'' slump," &c., behave similarly. It should be here
observed that all concentrated food- stuffs are not abso-
lutely digestible so far as the albuminoids or the other
constituents are concerned, but that each constituent
of every food possesses a deliDite Dig estion- coefficient j
which feeding experiments have shown to remain
constant and independent of the quantity provided
to an animal.
It appears, for instance, that the albuminoids of
leguminous seeds are digested by ruminants to the
extent of 89 per cent. ; in linseed-cake 85 per cent, is
digestible, in rape-cake and wheat-bran 80 per cent.,
and in cotton-cake (not decorticated) 74 per cent. The
percentage of crude albuminoids digested from the
coarse fodder remains the same, whether fed exclusively
or with any such additions.
3. Effect of feeding Corn, — The effect of an addition
of corn, i. e. the grain of cereals, which possess a medium
albuminoid ratio (1 : 5 to 1 : 8), have not yet been so
satisfactorily worked out.
In the case of oatSj experiments at Dresden and
EFFECT OF FEEDING CORN. 141
Hoheiheim on sheep have shown that the addition of
oats does not alter the digestibility o£ hay. At
Hohenheim a ration of hay and oats, in the proportions
1 : 1*76, 1 : 3'09, and 1 : 3'30, gave results which, on
the assumption of a constant digestibility for the hay,
made it appear that 78, 78*4, and 78'5 per cent, of the
albuminoids in the oats were digested. At Dresden
with a ration of hay and oats in the proportions 1 : 0*18,
1 : 0*44, and 1 : 0*75, and in which the quantity of oats
was less in proportion than in the Hohenheim experi-
ments, the digestibility of the albuminoids of the oats
appeared less, viz. 74, 74*1, and 67*3 per cent., in the
three series of experiments. The slight differences
observed are probably due to the fact that the oats used
at Hohenheim had a higher albuminoid ratio (1 : 5 "16}
than the oats employed at Dresden (1 : 7*07). Very
concordant results were obtained for all the other food
constituents except for the crude fibre, which in all
grain and grain-products is subject to great variations.
Similar experiments on horses at Hohenheim gave
practically a constant digestive coefficient for oats fed
in varying quantities. It can be safely concluded from
these results that no '' depression '^ of the digestibility
of hay is caused by the addition of grain with an albu-
minoid ratio q/" 1 : 5 or 1 : 6, and that the '* depression "
is first evident when the ratio falls as low as 1 :7 or
1:8.
4. Carbohydrates. — The addition of large quantities
of carbohydrates, such as starch, reduces the digestibility
of both the albuminoids and crude fibre of hay. This
has been proved by experiments on sheep, goats, oxen,
142 DIGESTIBILITY OF CONCENTRATED FOODS.
COWS, and pigs. The ^' depression '* in the case of the
albuminoids of hay is only evident when the added starch
exceeds 10 per cent, of the total dry matter of the hay.
It is small with 15 per cent., but considerable when the
starch amounts to 25 or 30 per cent. For instance, in
one of Schulze and Marcker's experiments at Weende
sheep were fed on If lbs. of hay and 8 ounces of starch
per head per day, and the digestion of the albuminoids
was reduced from 54 to 32 per cent., or the "^depression "
amounted to 22 per cent, of the total albuminoids, or 41
per cent, of the digestible albuminoids. Generally the
addition of ^ part of the weight of the dry matter of the
coarse fodder as starch produces a depression of digestible
albuminoids amounting to 15 per cent. ; \ of starch = 25
per cent, depression, and J of starch = about 40 per cent.
This depression is rather less with nitrogenous hay
(clover-hay and vetches, for instance), and considerably
greater with cereal straw poor in nitrogen.
The depression is reduced or completely suspended
by a further addition of a highly nitrogenous food-
stuff, such as linseed-cake, and to a smaller degree by
bean-meal and similar leguminous products. The
digestibility of the crude fibre is " depressed ■'"' to a less
extent by the addition of starch, but not so seriously as
to be worth consideration in food calculations.
Sugar behaves like starch, but the depression pro-
duced is generally smaller. The digestion of the
'^Nitrogen -free '' extract and the fat of the coarse fodder
is not apparently affected by an addition of starch or
sugar, so long as the added food itself is completely
digested. This is seldom the case, however, if the carbo-
ROOTS AND TUBERS. 143
hydrates be given in large quantity and the fodder itself
be poor in nitrogen.
5. Roots and Tubers.~lt is not probable that any
practical man would actually feed his stock with pure
starch or sugar; but potatoes and many of the roots
used for feeding are very largely composed of starch
and sugar, and must act somewhat similarly to the pure
carbohydrates when fed as an addition to coarse fodder ;
but as they also contain small quantities of albuminoids
m addition, this action may be considerably modified.
To determine this directly, experiments were carried
out at Hohenheim in which coarse fodder was supple-
mented in 23 cases with potatoes, and in 53 cases with
roots (mangolds, sugar-beet, and turnips). If, from
the data obtained in these experiments, we are to
deduce figures of general and practical utility and
convenience, we must bear in mind two things -.—First
that as the object of feeding farm animals is that of
production, this is best secured by a diet of which the
albuminoid ratio is between 1 : 4 and 1 ; 8. ^'Depres-
sion ^^ values are therefore of prime importance in
arranging such a diet.
Secondly, the depression produced by roots and
potatoes aff-ects all the rest of the food, or both coarse
fodder and concentrated food-stuff", so that the latter
must be generally supplied in greater or less quantity
to secure a productive food-supply, i.e. a diet of mode-
rate or fairly high albuminoid ratio. It is true that no
such concentrated nitrogen-foods were employed in
these experiments, but as the hay was of an unusually
rich and digestible character, it might be well considered
144
DIGESTIBILITY OF CONCENTRATED FOODS.
a mixture of coarse fodder and concentrated food-stuff.
"With a uniform increase of auxiliary food the depres-
sion values must also increase uniformly in proportion,
and the actual experimental results can be slightly
modified to correspond. In accordance with this
assumption^ and as a consequence of the two observa-
tions just recorded, I have compiled the following table
of *^ depression^' values for present use in practice. It
should be noted that the auxiliary food is expressed in
terms of the proportion of dry matter, while the "depres-
sion"'^ values are given as percentages of the digestible
constituents in both coarse fodder and the concentrated
food given in addition.
Depression Values.
Proportion of Eoots or Potatoes
to Coarse Fodder.
Crude
albumen.
N.-free
extract.
Crude
fibre.
Organic
matter.
1 :6
per cent.
5
per cent.
3
per cent.
per cent.
4
1:4-1:3
10
5
7
6
1:2
15
7
10
9
1:3-1:1
25
10
14
12
These values are equally good for potatoes or roots.
"When potatoes are supplied in such quantity as to re-
present half as much dry matter as that in the coarse
fodder, the depression values given are too high.
It should be also noted that within the limits of the
rational " productive ratio " (1 : 4 to I : 8) for which
ROOTS AND TUBERS. 145
the figures are calculated, they are rather excessive
for roots with a high albuminoid ratio, and often too
smaU for roots with a low albuminoid ratio.
It is possible to bear all this in mind in food calcu-
lations, without the necessity or even possibility of
employing a special depression value for every albu-
minoid ratio.
It is still open to question whether definite digestion
coefficients cannot be obtained for potatoes and roots
as for the concentrated food- stuffs, by assuming that
the digestibility of coarse fodder remains constant under
all the conditions involved.
Figures obtained in this way from the results of
experiments on ruminants and pigs are given in the
form of a table (II.) in the Appendix, and perhaps they
may be used instead of the ^^ depression ^' table in
calculating food ratios.
At the same time I believe that we are justified
from the chemical composition of ^' roots '' in regarding
the food-constituents they contain as absolutely diges-
tible, and on this score I give the " depression ^' table
the preference.
From the large amount of amides which roots and
potatoes contain they must be considered as exclusive
purveyors of carbohydrate, or in effect non-nitrogenous
foods.
Moreover, this class of food is extremely digestible,
as feeding experiments with sheep have given digestion
coefficients for roots and potatoes as high as 92-95 p. c,
and as much as 98 p. c. of potatoes was found digestible
for pigs.
Pigs possess an abnormal digestion for carbohydrates.
146 DIGESTIBILITY OF CONCENTRATED FOODS.
Experiments at Hohenheim^ in which pigs were fed on
barley-meal and pure starch (alb. ratio of total food 1 : 9
to 1 : 12) resulted in a complete digestion of this
excessive amount of carbohydrates. No depression of
the albuminoids of the barley-meal was observed with
a ratio of 1:9^ but when the ratio was as extreme as
1 : 12 a depression of 9*5 per cent, of the albuminoids
of the barley-meal was found.
6. Fat and Oil. — No reliable and concordant results
have yet been obtained as to the influence of a small
addition of fat or oil on the digestibility of coarse
fodder or of the total diet.
The fat in the food plays a most important part in
promoting the nutritive effect of food, as evidenced
by flesh, fat, milk, and power ; but the old idea that
an addition of linseed or rape- seed oil increased the
percentage digestibility of the individual constituents
of the food appears to be quite a mistake. It is very
important not to give cattle a food too rich in fat, or
else loss of appetite and digestive disturbances are
bound to follow.
It is well to know that this undesirable result is less
likely to occur when the fat is an actual constituent of
the food (oil-cakes), than when the same amount of oil
is separately mixed with the rest of the food. This
was practically illustrated at Hohenheim by feeding
sheep with a fairly nitrogenous diet to which increasing
quantities of partially extracted palm-nuts and linseed
were added, until the oil added had risen to 3 or 4
ounces a day per sheep, the amount of the other
food constituents remaining practically unchanged.
SALT, LIME, ETC. 147
The digestion of the food was quite unaltered by the
added fat.
7. Salt. — I have already stated the important and
essential part played by salt in the process of animal
nutrition, and that salt is even more essential for
Herbivora than Carnivora.
Experiments at Salzmiinde, Dresden, and Proskau
have shown that salt does not exercise any considerable
influence on the digestion of coarse fodder: small
variations in both directions have been observed, but
under normal conditions, and with healthy animals of
good digestion, salt may be taken as absolutely inactive
in this respect. This has been recently decided by
repeated experiments at Hohenheim on sheep and
horses. As a result of the improved taste, an increase
of consumption and generally improved nutrition is
often produced by giving salt with food, but this must
not be confounded with the percentage digestibility of
the food. The latter, we have just seen, is generally
a constant quantity, and is invariably so with coarse
fodder.
8. Lime and Phosphoric Acid.— Viid.Qv certain con-
ditions {cf. p. 15) the addition of such mineral salts
as phosphate of lime is of the highest importance for
securing the best nutritive eflPect of the food for certain
purposes, but at the same time the digestive coefficients
remain practically unaltered. This is true of young
cattle or mature beasts fed on a diet lacking in phos-
phates. Since direct experiments have shown that
phosphate of lime is really resorbed from the digestive
l2
148 DIGESTIBILITY OF CONCENTRATED FOODS.
tract, its addition must be of nutritive value if the
animal body is experiencing a want of this substance.
Young cattle are often fed on potatoes, roots, grain,
and grain products — foods rich in phosphate and lacking
in lime, and in such cases common chalk may be more
satisfactorily and economically substituted for the more
expensive phosphate of lime. Weiske recommends the
addition of a little chalk to a rich diet of corn, since
the mineral ash of corn, oats for instance, has an acid
reaction.
Except for pigs fed on American flesh-meal (the
residue from the manufacture of meat extract), the
practical man will rarely have occasion to specially
provide' potash salts or phosphates for his farm
animals.
THE FOOD-STUFFS. 149
CHAPTER IV.
The Food-Stuffs.
§ 1. Coarse and Green Fodders.
Hay. — In the tables provided in the Appendix, giving
the composition and digestibility of food-stuflFs, various
kinds or groups o£ meadow-hay are included which
clearly show that the higher the percentage of nitrogen
the lower the percentage of crude fibre, and while the
fat and ash increase, the nitrogen-free extract remains
practically constant. As with all coarse and green
fodders, the greater the amount of crude albuminoids
the more easy its digestion ; a further characteristic of
hay and similar gramineous food-stuffs is that the di-
gestibility of the albuminoids and nitrogen-free extract
varies simultaneously, while the crude fibre aud fat do
not exhibit such uniformity. Finally, it will be noted
that the digestibility of crude fibre in all kinds of hay
is proportionately high, while that of the crude fat is
low.
The nitrogen in hay is not the only criterion of its
digestibility and feeding value, but, as can be seen from
the tabulated results, crude fibre is also an important
consideration. Hay rich in nitrogen and lacking in
fibre is clearly the best and most digestible, while that
150 THE FOOD-STUFFS.
poor in nitrogen and rich in fibre has the least feeding
value. Samples poor in both nitrogen and fibre
are distinguished by difficultly digestible albuminoids
and an easily digestible nitrogen-free extract, while
others rich in nitrogen and fibre exhibit the opposite
condition or possess a medium digestive coefficient.
The figures given in the table for the albuminoids of
hay and the digestive coefficients by no means represent
the extremes of variations ; these can range from 6 to
20 per cent, of the dry matter^ and the digestibility of
the crude albuminoids as determined by feeding ex-
periments with 38 samples of hay give a minimum of
42 per cent, and a maximum of 72 per cent, of the
total amount in the hay. This admits the possibility
of 2*5 to 14"4 per cent, of digestible albuminoids^ an
extreme variation that readily explains the commonly
observed fact that different samples of hay vary enor-
mously in practical feeding value. If consideration be
given to O. Kellner^s discovery of a large amount of
amides in tender hay which is rich in nitrogen, these
figures for digestible albuminoids must be reduced from
2*5 and 14*4 per cent, to 2 and 9*3 per cent., though
the proportion between the two remains about as it
was before.
We have seen that the digestibility of a food when
exclusively fed to ruminants is determined by its natural
or inherent properties and the chemical composition of
the dry matter, and is practically independent of all
other conditions, such as green or dry state, cutting up,
scalding, steaming, kind and age of animal, &c.
The horse digests hay and green fodder differently
from ruminants (see p. 134). The natural properties of
COARSE AND GREEN FODDERS. 151
the fodder are very different according to the conditions
under which it was grown^ cut_, or harvested.
The first point to be considered is the period of
growth (see p. 127). It is well known that young
plants contain more nitrogen and less fibre in their dry
matter^ and this of a more digestible kind^ than that
in more mature plants during the flowering period.
Good Pasture-Grass, if provided in sufficient quantity,
must therefore be considered a powerful and productive
food-stuff, while ordinary hay harvested at the usual
time must be placed in a very different category. At
Weende it was found that the dry matter of pasture-
grass cut while still young contained 17 '5 per cent, of
crude albuminoids, while hay from older plants con-
tained only 11 per cent. Hay was harvested from
a sunny pasturage at Hohenheim, one half in two
cuttings, the other in one, and the percentage of albu-
minoids in the double cutting was half as much again
(334 : 225) as in the hay from the single cutting.
Similar results were obtained from a clover-meadow in
Proskau : —
Dry matter. Crude albuminoids.
Hay in 3 cuttings gave 3927 lbs. 825 lbs.
Hay in 2 cuttings gave 3731 lbs. 534 lbs.
The results are given for a German acre (Morgen) .
From these figures it is evident that hay should
not be allowed to reach full maturity, but should be
harvested early to secure the most digestible and
useful fodder.
In the earlier periods of growth the amount of
amides contained in the dry substance of a plant is
152
THE FOOD-STUFFS.
generally actually and relatively greater than at the
time of flowering, and in pasture-grass it is often twice
or three times as much as in ordinary hay. At the
same time the former nearly always contains more
actually digestible albuminoids than the latter. This
was shown by experiments at Hohenheim, in which
fodder was cut from the same meadow during two
seasons, and in each at three different tiraes_, represent-
ing an earlier and later period of growth. The fodder
was carefully dried and its digestibility tested with
sheep. The percentage calculated from the dry sub-
stance of the hav was as follows : —
Crude albuminoids .
„ „ digested
Containing : —
Amides
Crude albumen
1874.
]
1877.
24 April
13 May.
lOJime.
14 May.
9 June.
26 June.
2506
16-31
13-37
18-97
1116
8-46
19-83
11-60
9-24
13-90
8-07
4-70
5-47
3-10
1-83 1
6-55
1-78
064
14-36
8-50
7-41
7-35
6-23
406 '
The amount of amides is here calculated in the same
way as the crude albuminoids and albumen, that is by
multiplying the directly determined amide-nitrogen
with the factor 6*25. The hay harvested on the 14th
of May, 1877, contained an unusually high amount
of amides for its period of growth; but this must be
COARSE AND GREEN FODDERS.
153
considered exceptional and occasioned by cold and wet
weather, and a previous heavy application of liquid
manure.
Alpine Hay.— The best meadow-hay is harvested from
sunny upland meadows, where the plants do not grow
to any considerable height, but form a thick carpet of
grasses mixed with nitritious and aromatic herbs. This
is an especial characteristic of the real Alpine Hay,
which produces such an extremely favourable effect,
even when fed in comparatively small quantities, on
young cattle and milch- cows. The amount of crude
albuminoids contained in Alpine hay equals that in
the best meadow-grass, and the crude albuminoids
actually digested by the animals amount to 12 and 14
per cent, of the dry substance of the food eaten, with
an albuminoid ratio of [1 : 4] . Such hay is in reality
a concentrated food-stuff and acts as such. This
valuable fodder is not always marked by an especially
hiffh amount of albuminoids, as was shown by the
analysis of five different sorts of hay from the Tyrolese
and Swiss Alps by Kramer and E. Schulze. The
average and extreme variations calculated for the same
percentage of moisture (14-59 per cent.) were as
follows : —
Albumi-
noids.
Crude
fibre.
Crude
fat.
N.-free
extract.
Ash.
Average
Variations ...
10-94
10-3-11-8
18-37
16-7-20-2
3-81
3-3-4-9
45-30
43-5-46-6
6-99
4-8-8-6
154 THE FOOD-STUFFS.
The quality and digestibility of Alpine hay seem to
be mainly due to the relatively small amount of crude
fibre and the large amount of fatty substance. The
amount of phosphoric acid in this sort of hay is very
variable (3* 71-9-03 per cent, of the total mineral
matter). The value of a particular hay for practical
purposes more often depends upon its tenderness and
fineness of growth^ and its aroma and flavour^ than
upon its chemical composition, as was clearly proved
by A. Mayer's experiments with several kinds of Dutch
hay. Attention must be paid to the amount of the
so-called rank grasses which may be present amongst
the sweet herbage, and a careful botanical examination
is generally desirable to see if there are any grasses or
herbs intermixed which are distasteful to the animals,
or may even contain injurious substances. " Horse-
tail/' for instance, agrees with horses but has a dis-
advantageous effect upon cattle, and especially upon
milck-cows.
Aftermath. — In composition and digestibility the
aftermath may be ranked with first-class hay, especially
when it has been dried and harvested under favourable
weather conditions ; but its feeding-value is somewhat
diminished by its inferiority to hay in flavour and
aroma. The quality of the aftermath is especially de-
pendent upon the weather at the time of harvesting,
and on this account it is more highly prized in the
southern part of Germany, where the harvest falls
earlier in the year, and the weather is more likely to
be favourable, than in the north. The amount of de-
preciation which hay undergoes in a rainy harvest is
proved by the fact that 20 per cent, by weight of its
COARSE AND GREEN FODDERS. 155
dry substance is lost by simple soaking in cold water.
Stockhardt examined two kinds of hay_, both taken from
the same meadow and mown at the same time : one
sample had been dried in three days and was housed in
its best condition ; the other had to be left lying in the
fields in alternately wet and dry weather for thirteen
days before it could be gathered in. Analysis proved
that the hay which had been left in the rain had lost
12*5 per cent, by weight of the total dry substance^ re-
presenting at least a quarter of its original nutritive
value, since the loss consisted entirely of the more
easily soluble, and therefore especially valuable nutrients
(2-1 parts of albuminoids and 10*4 parts of non-nitro-
genous nutrients and mineral salts). After chemical
examination in two instances, Miircker calculated the
loss of meadow-hay through prolonged and heavy rain
as 18*4 and 17*6 per cent, of the dry substance.
Aftermath is far more exposed to depreciation from
this cause than meadow- hay, because it contains a greater
amount of easily soluble constituents, and on account
of its tender and fine condition it is readily soaked,
less easily dried, and more subject to fermentation and
decay. Under these conditions it is not to be wondered
at that the aftermath is sometimes completely spoiled,
becoming mouldy and not only distasteful but even
injurious to the animals. If quickly dried and har-
vested in favourable weather, it forms an excellent
fodder.
Effects of Manuring. — It is well known that the
natural properties of the soil and its manurial condition
have a great influence upon the quality of the fodder
produced. Hay grown on a rich soil is better, that is
156
THE FOOD-STUFFS.
to say, richer in nitrogen, than that grown on a poor soil.
According to observations made at Tharand, the hay
from a manured meadow contained 12 per cent, of
crude albuminoids, that from an unmanured meadow
only 9 per cent. ; and still greater differences are often
noticed in the same field if the intensely green and
luxuriant patches are compared with the occasional
yellow-green patches of the same crop in a similar period
of growth. This was shown by experiments carried
out by Ritthausen at Mockern. The luxuriant growth
of oats, barley, wheat, and rye contained 16'4 per cent,
of crude albuminoids in the dry substance, the light
patches only 10'4 per cent. An interesting analysis
was carried out by Weiske at Proskau, with fodder
grown upon a heavy clay soil, consisting of Timothy-
grass with a slight mixture of red clover. One sample
was taken from a part of the field which had been
manured in the ordinary way, the other came from rank
patches of the same field, where an especially luxuriant
plant growth had been induced by the excrement of
grazing animals. The percentage of the dry substance
was found to be as follows : —
Crude al-
buminoids.
Crude
fibre.
Crude
fat.
N.-free
extract.
Ash.
Ordinary manuring.
Highly manured ...
110
20-3
22-5
26-6
4-2
4-8
56-3
41-3
60
7-0
Considerable diff'erences will be noticed in the
amounts of crude albuminoids and nitrogen-free ex-
COARSE AND GREEN FODDERS. 157
tract ; and it should be observed that with the increase
of nitrogen in the well-manured plants the percentage
of crude fibre is also increased, and this may perhaps
slightly lessen the digestibility of the crude albuminoids.
Practical experience has shown that very luxuriant
fodder, grown on highly manured soil in shady places
or during a very wet season, is not necessarily of high
nutritive quality, though it may contain a large amount
of crude albuminoids. The reason for this may be
found in the relatively large bulk of the fodder, its
coarseness of fibre, and inferioiity of flavour; but the
principal cause undoubtedly rests with the large
amount of amides produced under such circumstan.ces.
Further digestion experiments are still needed on this
point.
In conclusion, it will be as well to mention the
changes which hay undergoes through " heating ''•' when
packed in a moist condition in a silo.
Silage. — Experiments on brown hay have been carried
out by Mach and Portele (St. Michel in South Tyrol),
in which the hay cut from June 19th until July 16th was
placed in a large silo holding 1132 cubic yards. By the
end of August such rapid decomposition had been set
up that spontaneous combustion was feared ; and on
examination it was found that while the upper layer
remained green and unaltered, lower down the hay was
at first slightly, then strongly browned, and at the
bottom of the silo was completely carbonized. The
percentage of dry substance in the first three layers of
hay was as follows : —
158
THE FOOD-STUFFS.
1. Undecomposed...
2. Slightly browned
3. Strongly
Ash.
Crude al-
buminoids.
Crude
fat.
Crude
fibre.
N.-free
extract.
5-69
1205
3-67
27-77
50-82
7-04
11-23
4-02
2406
53-65
7-93
11-51
4-05
25-03
51-48
Total organic
matter.
94-31
92-96
92-07
The percentage composition of the dry substance of
green hay^ calculated for the same amount of ash, gave
the following figures : —
5-69
9-07
3-25
19-44
43-33
80-78
5-69
8-54
2-92
17-97
36-63
71-75
loss
was therefore as follows : —
0
24-64
11-45
29-77
14-66
19-18
0
29-01
20-80
35-33
27-30
28-25
According to this, the crude fibre suffered most loss,
the crude fat or ether-extract apparently the least, while
the crude albuminoids and the nitrogen-free extract
were reduced in about equal proportion.
§ 2. Red Clover as Green Fodder and Hay.
From the tables in the Appendix it is clearly seen
that in clover and meadow-hay an increase in the
amount of albuminoids causes a corresponding increase
in the amount of crude fat and mineral matter ; and
while the crude fibre diminishes, the percentage of
nitrogen-free extract remains the same or is very
slightly decreased.
RED CLOVER AS GREEN FODDER AND HAY. 159
With clover-hay the amount of albuminoids varies
from 12 to 18 per cent. ; that of crude fibre from 25 to
39 per cent, of the dry substance. An exception must
be made in the case of very young clover, which may
contain as much as 30 per cent, of albuminoids and as
little as 18 per cent, of crude fibre.
The digestibility of the crude albuminoids in clover-
hay increases with their quantity and the simultaneous
decrease of crude fibre. The digestibility of the
nitrogen-free extract in various kinds of red-clover hay
is less subject to variation than that of the crude fibre,
and is exactly contrary to the facts observed in the case
of meadow-hay. It may also be noticed that in clover-
hay the nitrogen-free extract and the fat are more, the
crude fibre, on the contrary, less digestible than in
meadow-hay. This is seen by mutual comparison of
the digestive coefficients for inferior and average
qualities of the two kinds of fodder. The variations in
the digestive coefficient for crude albuminoids are as
great for clover-hay as for meadow-hay, and range from
43 to 76 per cent. Crude fibre varies from 39 to 60,
nitrogen-free extract from 58 to 83 per cent.
The red-clover hay which is used as winter fodder
in general practice is represented by the samples in
the tables marked ^^ inferior '' or '' average/^ and often
contains as small a percentage of digestible albuminoids
as meadow-hay of average quality, while the amount
of non-nitrogenous nutrients may be even less. An
explanation of this is found in the fact that red-clover is
generally cut in full bloom, and made into hay at a
time when it is no longer fit for the exclusive diet of
cattle on account of its small nutritive value.
160 THE FOOD-STUFFS.
The nutritive value of the fodder is still more dimin-
ished by the breaking oflF and loss of the leaves and
other tender parts of the plant during drying and
storage, so that the hay consists almost entirely of coarse
bare stalks. This loss is the more important because
the leaves of clover are especially nitrogenous, and the
albuminoids they contain more digestible than those in
the stalks. Ritthausen calculated that the leaves con-
tained 22*3 per cent, of crude albuminoids in the dry
substance, and the stalks only 12*0 per cent., so that
the leaves alone represent more than half of the crude
albuminoids in the whole plant.
The preparation of clover-hay in unfavourable weather
is a frequent source of deterioration, for this fodder
suffers from rain even more than meadow-hay, as from
25 to 40 per cent, of its dry substance can be dissolved
in cold water. Clover also dries more slowly than
gr^ss, and is therefore more damaged by wet harvest-
ing. Two samples of clover-hay were examined by
Ritthausen at Mockern, which were both cut from the
same field at the beginning of the flowering period : one
sample had been quickly dried, the other was left to lie
for a fortnight in the rain. This latter sample when
completely dried was still of tolerable quality, and could
be used as fodder, but examination showed that 3'8 per
cent, of albuminoids, 20*6 per cent, of nitrogen-free
extract, and 3'0 per cent, of mineral constituents had
been lost through soaking and fermentation, making a
total loss of 27'4< per cent, of the original dry matter.
The percentage composition of the two sorts of clover,
calculated as containing 16 per cent, of moisture, were
as follows : —
COARSE AND GREEN FODDERS.
161
Water.
Crude al-
buminoids.
Crude
fibre.
N.-free extract
and fat.
Ash.
Not rained upon ...
Eained upon
16-0
16-0
14-6
15-8
25-3
37-4
36-1
23-4
8-0
7-5
The clover whicli had been rained upon apparently
contained a higher percentage of crude albuminoids than
the other ; and further observations have led to the con-
clusion that more non-nitrogenous than nitrogenous
nutrients are removed by soaking clover in water.
This explains the fact so often noticed in practice,
that a clover-hay apparently rich in crude albumi-
noids may be of little nutritive value, owing to the
quantity of crude fibre and small amount of nitrogen-
free extract contained, which make it extremely difficult
of digestion. That an increase of crude albuminoids
in red clover is by no means a necessary consequence
of being soaked with rain, but that often a decrease
takes place, was proved by the analyses of two samples
by Baesler, one of which had been harvested without
rain, while the other had been exposed to 4^ inches
of rain during the space of four weeks. The percentage
composition was as follows, calculating 16 per cent,
of moisture : —
Water.
Crude
albumi-
noids.
Crude
fibre.
Fat.
N.-free
extract.
Ash.
Not rained upon . . .
E-ained upon
160
160
14-9
121
21-6
32-2
2-4
1-6
380
30-9
7-1
7-1
M
162 THE FOOD-STUFFS.
It is clear from the foregoing remarks that the plan
o£ making the whole of the clover crop into hay,
which has been recently recommended by several
authorities, will never find acceptance and approval,
at any rate on large farms. The risk and unavoidable
loss which the hay undergoes outweighs the slight
advantage which may be gained by economy of fodder
and a more rational mixture of feeding-stuffs. Green
clover, when fed quite young, has an excellent nutritive
effect, and more than repays the loss sustained in bulk.
At Hohenheim it was found that the percentage of
albuminoids contained in the dry substance of red
clover at different stages of growth was as follows :—
Beginning of May. June 13th. June 23rd. July 20th.
23-3 per cent. 16-6 13-4 11-4
G. Kiihn, at Mockern, found the following per-
centages : —
May 20th. June 7th. June 20th.
19-6 16-3 13-2
It has already been mentioned that with red clover the
digestibility of the crude fibre, and of the whole of the
organic matter, diminishes with the decrease in nitrogen.
Even if no perceptible alteration takes place in the
percentage composition of the dry matter of clover as it
advances towards maturity, a considerable and rapid
decrease in the digestibility of the fodder is noticeable,
especially with regard to the crude albuminoids and
crude fibre. Several experiments carried out at Hohen-
heim on sheep fed with green clover cut at difi'erent
stages of growth have confirmed this view (see p. 128,
and Table II. in the Appendix).
COARSE AND GREEN FODDERS. 163
In the tables in the Appendix I have classified as
^' excellent clover-hay '' the green fodder of red clover,
fed at a time when the heads are just beginning to
show. '*^Very good^"* clover-hay represents clover
at the beginning of the flowering period. ^' Average ''
clover-hay is that which has been mown when in full
bloom and harvested in favourable weather, while that
usually saved for winter fodder comes under the head
of "inferior." Such inferior samples often contain
only 12-13 per cent, of crude albuminoids as opposed
to 33 per cent, or more of crude fibre in the dry
substance. In many places it is customary to cut
clover quite early, i. e. as soon as it can be reaped
with the scythe, whereby a percentage of 20 per cent, of
crude albuminoids is ensured, having a digestive co-
efficient of about 75 per cent, with a corresponding
value for the digestive coefficients of the other con-
stituents.
Brown Hay and Silage, if prepared with all due pre-
cautions from red clover, lucerne, and other green
fodders, forms a pleasant and agreeable food for cattle,
but it is of importance to guard against overheating and
the spread of mould.
To explain the changes which such fodder undergoes
during its preparation, I give below the results of
experiments carried out by Weiske at Proskau, as
also those of an aualysis of the silage of red clover
(just in bloom) by Heiden. The percentages are
calculated from the dry substance : —
m2
164
THE FOOD-STUFFS.
tJh t-p 1:0 CO
cq cq t-dooo
Cl CO(M
TjHCp p p CO
c3o (f 1 th 00 t-
r-l CO CO
I"
^ 03
^
0(MC5(M !M
C0G5O ?0(M
ih CO t-(^IO
1-1 (M Ttlr-H
© OQ
rO O
S 53 a)
O ^ tJD
8
CO (M d ilD (M
fc^ S^ fcl >^
oooot-o
O COt^iOiO
rt
o o >b o t-
1:0 O^ C5 Cti !>•
'o
'a
(D <D (O
1-^5 rQ rQ
^ ^ !-i kt m
COARSE AND GREEN FODDERS. 165
The changes which the hay undergoes in this process
are similar to those which are caused by continued
soaking with rain ; that is to say, the percentage of crude
albuminoids, crude fat, and crude fibre increases, while
the amount of non-nitrogenous extract diminishes,
although the quantitative proportions are essentially
different in the two cases. It will be noticed that the
amount of crude fat or ether-extract in brown hay, and
still more that in silage, is materially increased ; and as
it is impossible that any considerable amount of
additional fat can have been formed, this apparent
increase must be put down to certain decomposition-
products, such as lactic acid (mainly derived from the
nitrogen-free extract), which are soluble in ether.
The decrease of the nitrogen-free extract in brown hay
and silage, moreover, is often as great as that in hay
which has been much damaged by rain, but the per-
centage increase of crude fibre is comparatively less
(see p. 158) . Upon lengthened storage the crude fibre
of brown hay and silage undergoes a partial change,
becoming more easily soluble, and the whole fodder
loses slightly in digestibility, but not to the same
extent as hay damaged by rain. This change in the
crude fibre of brown hay was shown by experiments
upon sheep by Weiske. It is worth noticing that
fodder which has lost much of its flavour through
bad harvesting, can be made more agreeable to the
animals by turning it into brown hay or silage, and it
can then be used during the winter as an aromatic and
digestible addition to less palatable food. This method
of preparation is entirely independent of weather ; and
although the advantages of such fodders are undeniable^
166 THE FOOD-STUFFS.
still an actual loss of substance certainly takes place,
and the digestibility of the fodder is rather diminished
than increased.
Silage has not been adequately tested by direct
digestion experiments^ but its chemical composition has
been carefully determined at the experimental stations
o£ Proskau and Breslau, in the case of silage from
lupines^ lucerne^ and green maize ; also at Bonn, for
Swedish clover; and at Miinster and Halle analyses of
the silage of green maize, potatoes, and dilBTusion residue
(see " Roots and tubers -''') have been carried out.
The changes which green fodder undergoes when
made into silage are seen from the result of an experi-
ment made upon Swedish clover by Stutzer at Bonn.
The clover to the amount of 525 lbs. (containing
.29*3 per cent, of dry matter) was firmly pressed down
into a walled pit on June 28th, and after 128 days
(November 8th) 495 lbs. of silage, containing 24*6 per
cent, of dry matter, was taken out. The whole amount of
dry substance and the proportion of the difierent con-
stituents were as follows (table, p. 167). [It should
be understood that Albumen represents the digestible,
Nuclein the indigestible albuminoids.]
The total loss of crude albuminoids was 20*5 per
cent., that of nitrogen-free extract, 37*3 per cent. It
will be noticed that the digestible albumen and the
more easily soluble non-nitrogenous nutrients, such as
sugar, gum, &c., have suffered most loss ; so that not
only the total amount of dry substance, but also the
digestibility and nutritive value of the silage has been
diminished in comparison with the original green
COARSE AND GREEN FODDERS.
167
Dry
substance.
Crude Albuminoids.
Albumen.
Nuclein.
Amides.
Fresh
lbs.] 53-8
lbs. 121-9
7-8
4-2
7-2
6-8
5-5
5-2
Silaffe ....
Loss in lbs. . . .
Tioss per cent. .
31-9
20-8
3-6
458
0-4
5-7
0-3
5-3
1
Crude fat.
Crude fibre.
N.-free Extract.
Easily
soluble.
Diffi-
cultly
soluble.
Fresh
Silase
lbs. 6-2
lbs. 9-0
35-5
33-3
Ill
69-5
50-6
Loss in lbs. . . .
Loss per cent. .
[gain]
+2-8
+460
2-2
6-2
111
100
18-9
27-2
fodder. This has been confirmed in several other cases.
At Breslau, for instance, silage of lupines, lucerne, and
green maize was prepared according toGoffart^s method,
and after 4 months a loss of 60 per cent, of true albu-
minoids was found, while the amides had decreased only
10 per cent. Other experiments at Miinster showed
168 THE FOOD-STUFFS.
that the amount of true albuminoids in green maize
was 80'7 per cent, of the whole of the crude albuminoids,
while in silage 7 months old the percentage was only
53'6 per cent. ; and again at Halle it was observed that
71*3 per cent, of the crude albuminoids in the green
plant consisted of true albuminoids, but only 50*6
per cent, in silage. From this it would seem that
the amides in the silage of green fodder are more
stable than the real albuminoids; but it must be
remembered that the latter substance is easily changed
back into the former, and much of the amides found
in silage must be considered as due to this change.
Further experiments have confirmed the fact that the
amount of ether-extract or crude fat is often consider-
ably increased in silage ; for instance, Weiske and
B. Schulze at Breslau found that the fat contained in
lupine silage had increased from 4'5 to 13'5 per cent, of
the dry matter, that of maize silage from 2'1 to 13'4 per
cent., and that of lucerne silage from 4*4 to 8*8 per
cent. This was principally caused by the formation of
large quantities of lactic and butyric acids, which are
soluble in ether. The quantity of these acids found in
the maize silage amounted to 3'47 and 7*45 per cent,
respectively, or taken together to 10-92 per cent, of
the dry substance ; in the lupine silage they amounted
to 2*38 and 3*58, or together 5*96 per cent.
The absolute loss of organic substance varies accord-
ing to the duration of the fermentation and the mode
of preparation of the silage, and not according to the
bulk or weight of the fodder. At Miinster 7 cwt. of
green maize lost 10 per cent, of the whole amount of
COARSE AND GREEN FODDERS. 169
its dry substance after being 4 to 7 montbs in silage ;
but at Breslau, wbere a smaller quantity (2 cwt.) was
usedj the loss amounted to 257-36-5 per cent, in four
months, and at Halle experiments with a large amount
(85 toQs) of the same fodder showed a loss of 23*4
per cent, at the end of 6 or 7 months. It is of great
importance that the green fodder should be sufficiently
finely divided by chopping before being very firmly
pressed down into the pit_, and that air should be most
carefully excluded ; but even with every precaution we
may conclude that the average loss in making ensilage
amounts to 15-20 per cent, of the original dry sub-
stance during the six months from the middle of the
summer to the end of the year. This loss is principally
due to the decomposition of organic matter, especially
of the more easily soluble carbohydrates and the
digestible albuminoids.
This has been confirmed by further experiments
carried out on a larger scale by B. Schulze at Breslau.
A certain quantity of green maize, cut into pieces
^ inch long, was pressed down into a space boarded off
in the centre of a silo, which was completely filled
with fodder, and capable of containing 480 cubic yards.
The fodder was analyzed at the beginning of October
when first cut, and again at the end of five months,
when the silage was found to be in good condition, of
a pale straw colour, and possessing a pleasant acid
aroma.
The results were as follows : —
170
THE fOOD-STUFFS.
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COARSE AND GREEN FODDERS. 171
The greatest loss therefore takes place during the
first 2 to 6 months after the fodder is put into the
siiOj after which the decomposition of organic matter
proceeds very slowly.
Latterly the preparation of so-called Sweet Silage by
George Fry^s method has been much recommended and
widely practised. The green fodder is left to wither
until the dry matter reaches 25-30 per cent. ; it is then
pressed into silos under a pressure of 100 lbs. per
square foot_, or put into presses above ground fitted with
powerful screws. The heap rapidly gets hot^ and to
secure success the temperature should be allowed to
quickly rise to 140°-160° ¥., and then^ having been
as quickly reduced to 120° by increasing the pressure,
the silage should be maintained at this temperature for
a considerable time and then be gradually allowed to
cool.
This process results in the production of lactic acid,
but no volatile fatty acids of ofi*ensive odour are formed,
and the loss of organic matter by decomposition is less
in the making of sweet than in that of sour silage.
These two kinds of silage are otherwise very similar,
and either can be obtained at will by regulating the
temperature, as sweet silage is produced at a tempera-
ture of about 120°, and sour silage below that limit.
If the temperature exceeds 160°, or is kept as high for
too long a time, the silage becomes burnt and brown,
and the albuminoids are rendered practically indi-
gestible. This is very apt to occur if the fodder is
allowed to wither to an extent represented by a per-
centage of dry matter as high as 30-40 per cent.
This was confirmed by experiments with sheep at
172 THE FOOD-STUFFS.
Hohenheirn in 1891, in which it was found that the
digestibility of the crude albuminoids in sweet silage
from meadow-grass was only 27 per cent., while that of
the original grass was 56 per cent. ; and by deducting
the amides, &c., it is seen that the digestible albuminoids
had been absolutely destroyed.
Similar observations have been made by many practical
men. For instance, Albert found as the result of several
experiments that the digestibility o£ the crude albu-
minoids was not effected, or only to a very slight extent,
when the silage had been made at a low temperature,
as is often the case if the green fodder contains so much
moisture that the dry substance only amounts to 12-18
per cent. But under these circumstances a change of
albumen into amides and the formation of acids have
taken place to a much greater extent than before and
many volatile ammoniacal compounds are formed,
which according to Albert can amount to 31 per cent,
of the whole of the crude albuminoids.
At Bonn, Stutzer analyzed a sample of very well-
prepared sweet silage together with a sample of ordinary
clover-hay, harvested from the same field at the same
time. He found the following percentage of dry
matter, calculated for 70 per cent, of moisture
(p. 173).
Even in the preparation of sweet silage a more or less
marked loss of organic matter takes place, according to
the way in which the operation is carried out. Inde-
pendently of this, the nutritive value of the organic
matter itself is diminished when a green fodder of good
quality is turned into sour or sweet silage, owing to
the unavoidable decomposition of the more digestible
COARSE AND GREEN FODDERS.
173
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174 THE FOOD-STUFFS.
carbohydrates and the conversion of albumen into
amides. The acidity has practically no influence on the
digestibility of the food, according to experiments by
Weiske at Breslau. It is not, however, advisable to feed
these fodders in too large a quantity at once, and they
should be supplemented by a food rich in digestible
albumen. This is of especial importance in the feeding
of dairy cows ; but the experience of farmers all over
the world has shown that oxen and fat beasts can eat
large quantities at a time without injury. Lawes and
Gilbert found that 65 lbs. of sour silage (red clover)
with a suitable addition had about the same feeding
value for fat beasts as 12 lbs. of clover-hay and 49 lbs.
of roots.
In an experiment upon milch-cows carried out by
L. Broekema and A. Mayer, it was found that a diet of
sour grass silage, compared with the same grass fed as
hay, did not diminish the amount of milk produced.
If anything, it increased the amount of fat in the
milk, but the live-weight of the animals decreased in
a very marked manner, and they rapidly became thin.
Kirchner, experimenting at Halle, found that the sub-
stitution of an equal amount of maize silage for 40 lbs.
of mangolds caused no perceptible alteration in the
amount of milk produced or the live-weight of the
animal, but the taste of the milk was affected and the
butter made from it lacked consistency and flavour and
quickly became rancid. In other places, however, more
favourable results have been obtained.
The preparation of silage in walled pits or silos, or,
better still, in presses above ground, is to be recom-
LUCERNE AS GREEN FODDER. 175
mended in a wet and unfavourable season, especially in
the autumn, and for such fodders as green maize, &c.,
which dry slowly and with difficulty ; but the practical
experience of all farmers has been, that with moderately
good weather it is more advantageous to make ordinary
meadow fodder into hay.
§ 3. Lucerne as Green Fodder and Hay.
This plant is generally more nitrogenous than red
clover, but it rapidly develops woody fibre after the
beginning of the flowering period, as was seen by an
experiment at Mockern, which gave the following
results : —
Time of Percentage of Percentage of
cutting. crude albuminoids. crude fibre.
April 24th 34-4 22-0
May 22nd 26-3 27-5
July 3rd 17*8 48*5
This is a strong argument for cutting lucerne as early
as possible, and for making it into hay if it cannot be
used as green fodder. In all digestion experiments
hitherto made with lucerne fed to sheep and oxen as
green fodder or hay, the sample used has been the very
best of its kind, and the averages, as tabulated in the
Appendix, are comparatively high. At the same time
we may assume that the crude albuminoids of lucerne
have a greater digestibility than those of red clover,
even when both are equally rich in nitrogen, while on
the contrary the crude fibre in the former is less
digestible than that in the latter. Fairly uniform
176
THE FOOD-STUFFS.
factors have been obtained for the nitrogen-free extract,
and the crude fat is apparently as difficult of digestion
as that in hay.
Lucerne is both absolutely and relatively rich in
nitrogen, and in practice it is well to remember that
when fed alone, especially when used as green fodder,
there is greater danger of waste of valuable nitrogenous
matter than with clover. Weiske, experimenting with
sheep at Proskau, first gave direct proof of the fact that
the digestibility of the solid constituents in lucerne is
in no way altered by drying in the air at the ordinary
temperature, i. e. by the simple loss of water. The
possible and often unavoidable losses, however, which
occur in the preparation of hay hold good for lucerne as
well as red clover. If lucerne is left lying in the field for
any length of time during a rainy harvest, the loss of
valuable constituents is very great, as is seen by the
following experiments carried out by Marcker at Halle.
The first sample {a) was lucerne which had been
harvested absolutely without loss ; (b) and [c) were left
in the field exposed to wind and weather for 17 and 25
days respectively. The percentages are calculated for
15 per cent, of moisture.
{a)
Albumi-
noids.
14-2
13-6
11-3
Crude
fibre.
25-5
28-8
34-0
N.-free
extract.
371
35-4
32-6
Mineral
matter.
8-2
7-2
71
VETCH-HAY.
177
On account of the increased percentage of crude
fibre, the loss in dry matter amounted to 25 per cent,
in sample (c) ; but if we take into consideration the
fact that this loss principally concerned the more easily
digestible constituents, and also that the flavour of the
fodder had most distinctly deteriorated, we realize that
the diminution of the actual value of the fodder was
very great.
The high digestibility found by experiment for the
crude albuminoids in lucerne-hay, as well as those in
green vetches and lupine-hay, has some connexion with
the relatively large amount of amides contained. In
lucerne which had been cut just before flowering, and
in lupine-hay cut at the end of the flowering period
according to usual practice, it was found that the amides
amounted to one-third of the whole nitrogenous matter,
or twice as much as is usually found in ordinary hay.
This is also the case with red clover, and is a general
characteristic of all plants which are still in rapid
growth and which put forth young leaves and shoots
at the time of flowering or harvesting. Such organic
nitrogenous compounds as the amides concentrate in
the buds and young shoots of the plants.
§4. Vetch-Hay.
The digestibility of this fodder has been examined at
Hohenheim, and the average results of six separate
experiments with sheep are given in the Tables in the
Appendix. The hay which was used in these experi-
ments was of exceptional quality, having been cut as
the plants were just beginning to flower and dried in
N
178 THE FOOD-STUFFS.
favourable weather : it is therefore comprehensible that
the digestive coefficients were found to be equal to
those of the best clover-hay, while the percentage of
albuminoids digestible aaiounted to 23*8 of the dry-
matter. Vetches rapidly develop woody fibre after the
beginning of the time of flowering, and their composition
changes as vegetation advances. Those which Weiske
examined at Proskau must have been cut when in full
bloom, as they contained 18*3 per cent, of crude albu-
minoids and 34'4 per cent, of crude fibre. In experi-
ments at Waldau it was found that the crude albumi-
noids in the dry matter of vetches decreased from 25*4
to 13'8 per cent, between May 23rd and July 12th as
the plants advanced in growth, while at the same time
the crude fibre increased from 208 to 39'8 per cent.
At the period of growth at which they are generally
used as fodder, vetches have a higher percentage of
nitrogen than red clover.
§ 5. Lupine -Hay .
The yellow flowering lupine, if cut immediately after
the bloom appears, provides the most nitrogenous of all
known green or dry fodders. The lupine-hay which
was used in experiments with sheep at the experimental
station at Kothen was cut when the pods were just
beginning to form, and rather earlier than is usually
the practice. The dry matter contained 27*8 per cent,
of crude albuminoids, the digestibility of which was
found to be 74 per cent., the same as that of vetch-hay
and lucerne. The digestive coefficient for crude fibre
in lupine-hay is remarkably high [74], while that of
vetch-hay^ which has nearly the same composition, is
LUPINE -HAY. 179
[54], and that of lucerne lower still [only 38]. Lnpine-
hay forms an exception to the otherwise universal rule,
that the amount of nitrogen-free extract in a fodder is
equivalent to the amount of this substance and that of
the crude fibre which is actually digested by ruminants,
as the proportion of these two quantities for lupine-hay
is found to be 100 : 134.
It is well known that, as a rule, lupine fodder or hay
can be fed only to sheep, on account of the bitter sub-
stance it contains, to which other farm animals have
a strong objection. Still, on account of the large
amount of nitrogen contained, it is a very valuable
fodder, and especially so as it will grow and thrive on a
light sandy soil, while it considerably improves the latter.
At the same time it must be fed with caution even to
sheep, and should be mixed with some other kind of
fodder poorer in nitrogen. Further analysis has proved
that lupine-hay varies considerably in its composition,
according to the conditions of soil and weather under
which it is grown. The crude albuminoids contained can
vary from 15 to 28 per cent., and the crude fibre from .28
to 40 per cent. The hurtful and even fatal results which
sometimes follow a diet of lupine-hay, such for instance
as jaundice in sheep, seem to be due to a peculiar
product of fermentation (Lupinotoxin) which is formed
in the plant under certain conditions of soil, manuring^
weather, and storage. The evil effects of this fermen-
tation can be neutralized by heating the lupine-hay in
steam for 4 or 5 hours under a pressure of 1-2 atmo-
spheres, or for 1 or 2 hours under a pressure of 4-6
atmospheres, and the fodder then becomes agreeable
and wholesome for sheep,
n2
180 THE POOD-STUFFS.
6. Other kinds of Green Fodder and Hay.
Besides those plants which we have already con-
sidered, there are a number of others, some of which
are used alone as green or dry fodder, and some of
which occur as more or less important constituents of
certain kinds of green fodder and hay. These plants
have all been repeatedly analyzed, but, with a few ex-
ceptions, they have not yet been made the subject of
direct feeding experiments, and their digestibility and
nutritive value can only be approximately ascertained
from their resemblance in chemical composition to other
known fodders.
The so-called Hybrid or Swedish Clover (Alsike) is
very similar in composition to red clover, but is more
tender and nitrogenous, and can be cut with advantage
at a later period of growth, when the plants are in
full bloom. This is also the case, in a still higher
degree, with White Clover, which however is seldom
grown alone for feeding purposes, but is generally
mixed with other kinds of clover and grasses.
Yelloio Clover must also be considered as a valuable
fodder on account of its physical and chemical consti-
tution. Crimson Clover, however, rapidly develops woody
fibre, and generally speaking has but little nutritive
value. According to Stutzer this latter crop is best
harvested at the end of May or the beginning of June,
as after this time no. increase of organic matter takes
place. In one case the nitrogenous substances, not albu -
men, which on May 14th and May 24th amounted to
30*3 and 23*9 per cent, of the whole nitrogenous matter
contained, had decreased to S'O per cent, by May 31st:
KINDS OF GREEN FODDER AND HAY. 181
therefore at the latter period of growth more actual
albuminoids were present. Sainfoin, so far as it has
yet been analyzed, is at least as nitrogenous as red
clover_, and preserves its flavour and digestibility better
during the time of flowering. The Kidney Vetch is
useful for cultivation on dry and sandy soils. This
plant is poorer in nitrogen than the preceding ones,
but it also contains less crude fibre and does not so
rapidly become hard and tough.
Another plant which is frequently cultivated on sandy
soils, Serradella, yields a delicate and easily digestible
fodder of pleasant flavour. It is distinguished from the
other plants in that it preserves its nutritive value and
high percentage of albuminoids up to the end of the
flowering period. At the same time the crop is usually
small, and as the leaves, which form the most valuable
part of the fodder, are easily lost during the process of
hay-making, it is not advisable to put off the cutting of
serradella until too late a date, especially as a consider-
able second cutting may be obtained. The same may
be said of Spurrey, which, though only used as green
food, has an especially favourable influence upon the
production of milk. Latterly, Sand-Lucerne [Medicago
media) and Russian Vetches {Vicia villosa), as well as
different varieties of the genus Lathyrus, such as the
Wood-Vetchling {Lathyrus sylvestris), have been much
recommended for cultivation on certain very poor and
stony soils.
The tall and late flowering kinds of Green Maize j
which yield a large grass produce when grown on a
strong soil, are watery and poor in nitrogen, but the
fodder is agreeable to cows on account of its richness
182 THE FOOD-STUFFS.
in sugar. When fed alone, green maize is apt to have
an unfavourable influence on the quality of the milk
produced, on account of its low albuminoid ratio, but
when supplemented with more nitrogenous green
fodders it produces excellent results. Green maize is
especially suited for the preparation of sour and sweet
silage (see p. 170).
The early kinds of maize are richer in nitrogen and
more adapted for general fodder, but they do not thrive
except in warm climates, and do not yield so large a
crop as the later kinds. The cultivation and use of the
Sorghum plant as green fodder is still more confined to
southern countries. Buckwheat, on the contrary, if
grown on a light soil and sown in conjunction with
some summer cereal, yields a valuable green fodder
even until late in the autumn. An excellent fodder for
horses is provided by the young plants of the common
Thistle. These weeds, so injurious to the good cultiva-
tion of the land, if fed to the animals in the spring-
time, are said to purify the blood.
The leaves of Mangolds and Sugar-Beet are moderately
rich in nitrogen, but contain a large amount of water.
They must be used with care, for, on account of the large
amount of salts and of organic acids, such as oxalic acid,
which they contain, these leaves exert a strong purgative
action. On this account it is best to use them in the
form of silage as an addition to other winter fodder.
It was found by direct experiments at Kuschen, that a
sheep digested 57 per cent, of the organic matter of
silage made from mangold leaves. According to ex-
periments at Hohenheim by O. Kellner_, the amount of
oxalic acid contained in mangold leaves is not so great
KINDS OF GREExV FODDER AND HAY. 183
as has hitherto been supposed. It amounted to 3*51
per cent, of the dry substance, of which 1-44 per cent
was soluble in water, and this was reduced to less than
a third when the leaves were made into silage. It was
further found that often more than half of the soluble
mineral salts escaped in the fluids which are pressed
out from the silage in course of preparation, so that by
this means the leaves lose their injurious action, and
the quality of the fodder is improved. On the other
hand, the loss in bulk is very considerable, from 20 to
50 per cent, of the original dry matter being lost in the
Hohenheim experiments, and from 28 to 60 per cent.
of the original nitrogenous substance. This loss is the
more important because it afi'ects the albuminoids (52
to 68 per cent.) to a greater extent than the other
nitrogenous compounds. In 100 parts of nitrogen
contained in the green leaves, 72 parts were represented
by albumen, 25 parts by other organic compounds, and
3 parts by nitrates ; while in silage 4^ months old the
nitrogenous substance which remained consisted of from
48 to 57 per cent, of albuminoids and peptones, and
from 43 to 52 per cent, of other organic substances
which were principally amides. In other experiments
silage was found to have lost 31 per cent, of organic
substance in five months, and 36 to 39 per cent, of
crude albuminoids and nitrogen-free extract. The care
with which the preparation of silage from any sort of
fodder is carried out determines to a great extent the
quantity and quality of the fodder obtained, especially
with regard to the crude albuminoids.
The following experiment was carried out by means
of artificial digestion : — (a) represents the green turnip-
184
THE FOOD-STUFFS.
tops as analyzed in the autumn^ {b) silage prepared in a
well-lined and covered pit, (c) silage badly preserved in
an earth-pit ; both these last were analyzed in March.
The percentage of crude albuminoids in the dry sub-
stance was as follows : —
(a) Leaves
{b) Silage well made . . .
((?) Silage made in earth pit ...
Digestible.
per cent.
1518
11-62
2-93
Indigestible.
per cent.
6-13
8-CO
12-00
According to these figures the original amount of
indigestible albuminoids alone remained absolutely
unaltered ; in (c) half of the original dry matter had
disappeared, therefore the percentage of indigestible
albumen had been doubled. The digestible albumen,
including the amides, had been gradually destroyed
through decay, and the nitrogen had evaporated in the
form of ammonia, &c.
Carrot-tops and Swede-tops have not the same in-
jurious effect as mangold leaves or only to an insigni-
ficant extent, and practical experience has shown that
Cabbages form excellent food for milch-cows. Potato-
haulm hardly comes into consideration as fodder, and
experiment has proved that it is highly indigestible.
The leaves and tender parts of Artichoke stems, on the
contrary, are readily eaten, and with good results, by
sheep. The same may be said of the leaves of trees,
which contain an average amount of nitrogen and very
KINDS OF GREEN FODDER AND HAY. 185
little crude fibre, this last amounting hardly to 10 or
12 per cent, of the dry matter, while the fatty substance
(ether extract) has been calculated as 10 per cent.
The leaves most generally used as fodder are those of
the poplar, lime, ash, willow, and elder, also vine leaves,
and, in Italy, mulberry leaves in the autumn ; birch
and beech leaves are supposed to be less wholesome,
and green pine needles have often a distinctly injurious
eflPect. The leaves of the yew-tree are so poisonous
that it has been calculated that 5 to 6 ozs. would quickly
kill a strong horse. Those leaves have the greatest
nutritive value which have been gathered from the
trees in July and August, but poplar foliage has been
proved to be fairly easy of digestion even as late as
the beginning of October. According to experiments
by Wildt at Kuschen, 58 per cent, of the whole organic
matter, and 56 per cent, of the crude albuminoids
contained in poplar leaves were digested by sheep.
The value of Brushwood fodder has been recently in-
sisted upon *. According to Ramann^s analyses, young
twigs about \ inch in diameter are richer in nutritive
substance in the winter than in the spring, especially
as regards the crude albuminoids and starch, the former
varying in beech twigs from 5'6 to 31 per cent., in
birch twigs from 6*1 to 4'1 per cent, of the dry
substance.
The brushwood, containing about 62 per cent, of dry
matter, was first pounded and chopped to pieces, mixed
with 1 per cent, of malt, and then hot slump or bran-
mash was poured over it and left to ferment. The
* See Dr. Ramann and Jena-Kothen, ' Holzfiitterung und
Reisigfiitterung,' Berlin (Springer), 1890.
186 THE FOOD-STUFFS.
temperature may rise to 140-160° in two or three days,
but it is better if it only rises to 130-140°. It was fed
to horses to the amount of 6 lbs., oxen received 16
Ibs.^and sheep 1 lb. each per day. In experiments carried
out by Ramm at Poppelsdorf, milch-cows received as
much as 39 per cent, of the dry matter of their whole
ration in the form of brushwood fodder, prepared from
beech brushwood. 123 pounds of this fodder was found
capable of producing as much milk as a mixed feed of
18 lbs. of hay, 33 lbs. of chaff, and 88 lbs. of man-
golds, if the small amount of digestible albuminoids
contained in the brushwood was made good by an
addition of 4 lbs. of earthnut cake.
At the same time, no great future can be pre-
dicted for brushwood as fodder, for it would only prove
remunerative in those cases where it can be obtained
cheaply, as in the neighbourhood of forests, and in a
season when fodder and litter are scarce. Young shoots
of trees cut with the leaves and fed to cattle in July or
August have an excellent nutritive effect.
Brushwood fodder varies considerably in nutritive
value and effect, according to the diameter of the wood,
the kind of tree, and the time of cutting, as has been
proved by digestion experiments with sheep, carried
out by Lehmann at Gottingen. Older branches of
beech brushwood and young acacia branches were both
cut in the winter-time. The former contained 4*7 and
the latter 11*3 per cent, of crude albuminoids in the dry
substance, and the amounts digested were 11*5 and 36'0
per cent, respectively of the whole dry substance, 16*2
and 55*8 per cent, of crude albuminoids^ and 16*4 and
47*4 per cent, of nitrogen-free extract. Poplar brush-
STRAW OF THE CEREALS. 187
wood and foliage^ cut in July^ was digestible to the
extent of 42 per cent, of the dry substance.
The digestibility of the fodder is rather injured than
improved by pounding and fermenting, though its
flavour may be improved in the process. According to
experiments with artificial digestion by Stutzer_, the
crude albuminoids in the beech brushwood fodder pre-
pared by Ramann are far less digestible than those in
fodder from acacia brushwood,, being respectively 28
and 64 per cent.^ while those in pine and elder brush-
wood are digested to 41 and 50 per cent.
Meadow -Gh^ asses, such as rye-grass, timothy grass,
and cocksfoot, all yield a nutritious fodder when young,
and cereals when cut before the flowering period are
only inferior to pasture-grass in point of flavour. The
choice of grasses for cultivation is naturally determined
by the quality of the soil, climate, hardiness of the
plants, amount of produce expected at harvest, and
other practical conditions and considerations. Grasses
cultivated in the fields, and especially those grown in a
strongly-manured soil, seem to be richer in amides than
ordinary meadow-grass at the same period of growth.
§ 7. Straw of the Cereals.
The straw of the summer cereals is, on the average,
poorer in crude fibre but somewhat richer in crude
albuminoids than that of the winter cereals. Among
the former, the straw of oats has been most satisfactorily
investigated with regard to digestibility. According to
experiments by Henueberg and Stohmann in Weende
with oxen fed with oat- straw alone, the digestive co-
efiicients for the crude albuminoids were found to be 44
188 THE FOOD-STUFFS.
and 39 ; but experiments upon sheep at Hohenheim
gave a much lower number^ 24 : though the oat-straw
contained very nearly the same amount of crude albu-
minoids. In the latter experiments the straw was hard
of stem and had been grown in drills. The average
digestive coefficient of the crude albuminoids in oat-
straw can hardly be higher than 35 : the crude fibre is
(]uite as easily digested as that in good meadow-hay,
but the nitrogen-free extract and the crude fat are
decidedly less digestible. Few experiments have as yet
been tried upon the digestibility of barley-straw.
Wildt found that the digestive coefficient of the crude
albuminoids was exceptionally low, but the straw which
he used for the experiment was fully ripened, containing
4'8 per cent, of crude albuminoids in its dry substance.
Nevertheless, 54 per cent, of the nitrogen-free extract
and 56 per cent, of the crude fibre contained were
digestible, and it is likely that the percentage digestion
of the crude albuminoids may often be higher. This
straw may prove to be a valuable fodder, especially
as it is usually mixed in considerable quantity with
young clover or other green fodder.
Similar digestive conditions obtain for the straw of
winter cereals, though the digestive coefficient, and
especially that of the crude albuminoids, is generally
lower. The crude fibre is nearly as digestible as that
in the straw of summer cereals.
§ 8. Straw of Leguminous Plants,
The digestive coefficients given in the Appendix for
the straw of field beans are taken from experiments
made at Weende and at Proskau. In this straw, as in
STRAW OF LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 189
clover-hay, the crude fibre is relatively indigestible, but
the nitrogen-free extract is comparatively digestible.
Further experiments were carried out at Hohenheim
uipoB. pea-strmv (luxuriant haulm) containing 11-4 per
cent, of crude albuminoids and 44*2 per cent, of crude
fibre in its dry substance. The haulm was fed to sheep,
and the substance actually digested had the composition
of good clover-hay, containing 14'0 per cent, of crude
albuminoids and 31*9 per cent, of crude fibre. It is
thus comprehensible that the digestive coeflScients were
correspondingly high (60 per cent.) for crude albu-
minoids^ 52 for crude fibre, and 64 for the nitrogen-free
extract.
That the ripe straw of Soja beans is similar in com-
position and digestibility to bean-straw has been proved
by experiments at Proskau. Generally speaking, the
crude fibre is more difficult to digest in the hay and
straw of leguminous plants than in those of the cereals,
the nitrogen-free extract easier; but, as we have seen,
an exception must be made in the case of lupine hay
and straw.
In an experiment at Kothen, the lupine-straw used
contained 7*0 per cent, of crude albuminoids and 48*6
per cent, of crude fibre in its dry substance, and was
apparently well ripened ; the digestive coefficients ob-
tained were 51 and 65 for crude fibre and nitrogen-free
extract respectively, and 37 for the crude albuminoids.
The amount of nitrogen-free substance digested con-
siderably exceeded the amount of nitrogen- free extract
determined by analysis, in the proportion of 127 : 100
(compare p. 179).
190 THE FOOD-STUFFS.
§ 9. Chaff and Husks of the Cereals and Leguminous
Plants.
Wheat-chafF usually contains a higher percentage of
crude albuminoids than wheat- strav7, but the chaff of
such summer cereals as barley and oats is, on the
average, poorer in nitrogen than the straw of these
plants. The chaff and husks of such leguminous plants
as peas, vetches, and beans are at least as rich in crude
albuminoids as the straw. Chaff of all kinds is generally
poorer in crude fibre than straw, and the digestive co-
efficients for the different constituents will probably be
correspondingly high, but no direct experiments have
yet been made on this point. At the same time the
mechanical composition of chaff makes it a more
pleasant and agreeable fodder to the animals than
straw, when fed in fair quantity. Rape husks are com-
paratively poor in nitrogen, but rich in nitrogen-free
extract. It has been found that the crude fibre and the
nitrogen-free extract in the pods of Soja beans are
more easily digested, and the crude albuminoids less
so, than those in the straw of the same plant.
CONCENTRATED FOOD-STUFFS. 191
CHAPTER V.
CONCENTRATED FOOD-STUFFS.
This term is applied to those food-stuffs containing a
relatively large amount of digestible substance in a
small bulk, and which are mostly purchased from
outside the farm. The nitrogen -free extract of such
foods is largely composed of carbohydi'ates, and the
percentage of fat and albuminoids is often a high one.
§ 1. Cereal Grain.
In the first place_, grain varies as much in composition
as the coarse and green fodders we have just considered,
and particularly is this evidenced by the amount of crude
albuminoids, which varies between wide limits and is
influenced by the general conditions of growth and
harvesting [i. e. soil, manuring, chmate, season, variety,
maturity, &c.].
Wheat and oats seem to be more influenced by these
conditions than either rye or barley. The dry matter
of wheat contains albuminoids which have been found
to vary from 10 to 24 per cent. Preussler obtained the
following results as to the albuminoids in a highly
nitrogenous variety of wheat under varying manurial
conditions.
192
CONCENTRATED FOOD-STUFFS.
Manures applied.
Crude albuminoids
in Corn, per cent.
Crude albuminoids
in Straw, per cent.
Unnaanured
16-3
17-6
214
22-4
3-4
3-7
5-2
Nitrate and Ammonia Salts...
Phosphates and Nitrogen!
manures J
Other experiments have failed to give such decided
evidence of the effect of manuring on the composition
of cereal crops, because such factors as the nature of
soil or weather have intervened and veiled the true
influence of the manurial treatment.
It is safe to conclude that cereal crops grown on a
rich soil will be richer in nitrogen than those grown on
moderate or poor land indifferently manured.
Wheat and Rye have not yet been investigated by
direct digestion experiments, but there is little risk of
error in assuming for them the factors already established
for other cereals. It would thus appear that 95 per
cent, of the nitrogen- free extract and 85-90 per cent,
of the albuminoids in wheat and rye are digested by
farm animals, if fed under favourable conditions and
properly prepared. The results obtained for Oats by
digestion experiments gave an average digestibility of
77 per cent, for crude albuminoids and 73 per cent, for
the nitrogen-free extract ; the same determinations
in the case of Barley gave 77 to 87 per cent. ; and
values of 79 to 91 per cent, were obtained for Maize.
Experiments on maize at Hohenheim and elsewhere
CEREAL GRAIN. 193^
have given higher values (85 and 95 per cent.) for its
digestibility in the case of pigs. Sheep fed on Wheat
and Spelt bran digested 78 per cent, of the albuminoids
and 82 per cent, of the '' extract."' By feeding oxen on
dry wheat-bran, Kiihn obtained values for the albu-
minoids varying from 71 to 89 per cent._, and from 70 to
82 per cent, for the ^' extract/" and found that various
methods of preparing the bran rather reduced than in-
creased its digestibility {cf. page 129).
Experiments at the Dairy Station at Kiel sho wed-
that wheat-bran was an excellent food for milch-cows,,
and yielded far better results in milk and butter than
a diet of rye-bran, and was even superior to a diet of
rye-, oat-, and barley-meal in equal proportions. The
effect of bran on pigs is quite different, f or^ like human
beings, the pig finds bran difficult of digestion.
Samples of wheat-bran or ^^ middlings " are often sold
which contain considerable quantities of Corn-cochles.
As corn-cockles have a bitter taste, animals generally
refuse a food which contains them in quantity. It has
been shown that they are not poisonous, as generally
supposed, at any rate for pigs, as these animals ate them
eagerly and with good results. Even when barley-meal
contained 40 and 70 per cent, of corn-cockles, no evil
effect was observed with the pigs.
A '^ digestion " experiment on pigs showed that for
the production of 100 lbs. of live-weight little more
food was requisite with this mixture than with barley-
meal in a state of purity, and the flesh produced by the
diet containing corn-cockles was of perfectly normal
composition and quality. A diet containing 40 per
cent, of corn-cockles was found to have no visible bad
194 CONCENTRATED FOOD-STUFFS.
effect on young pigs. At the same time we can hardly
assume that^ apart from their bitter taste, corn-cockles
are absolutely harmless for other animals, such as
milch-cows for instance.
Rice-meal is obtained in large quantity as a by-
product from rice-mills. A good sample contains
12 per cent, of albuminoids, 12 per cent, of fat, and
50 per cent, of starch, and serves as an excellent and
easily digestible food for pigs, or favours the production
of first-rate milk and butter when fed to cows. Great
care must be exercised in buying rice -meal, as it is
frequently adulterated to a very large extent with
gypsum and chalk. Samples sold as " Rice-meal '' or
" Rice Middlings '' often contain such a large amount
of hard, indigestible rice husks (even less digestible
than ordinary cereal straw or chaff) that they are not
really concentrated food-stuffs at all^ but ought to rank
and be sold as coarse fodder.
Oats are comparable to wheat in the marked variation
in the percentage of nitrogen they contain. This
variation depends on the thickness of the husk and the
proportion of husk to grain. The latter is generally
rich in nitrogen, and especially so in fat (4-7 per cent.).
The quality of a sample of oats cannot be simply
estimated by the weight per bushel, and it would always
be advisable in buying any quantity of so valuable a
food-stuff to have it analyzed first. It is still an open
question whether the excellent feeding-effect of oats on
horses is due to a stimulation of the nervous system by
a peculiar substance contained in oats which has been
called" Avenin;'' audit is still more uncertain whether
the increased milk-production of cows fed on oatmeal
CEREAL GRAIN. 195
is due to the same cause. After grinding or pulverizing,
the stimulating effect of oats is somewhat reduced.
Barley is not so rich in nitrogen as the other common
cereals, and the more uniform and developed the grains
the poorer they are in nitrogen.
Buckwheat and Maize contain still less nitrogen, and
the amount is subject to considerable variation. The
high percentage of fat in maize (5-8 per cent.) may
partially account for its excellent fattening qualities,
especially for pigs. It has also proved a good food for
horses, and if supplemented vrith bean-meal a desirable,
i. e. medium_, albuminoid ratio can be obtained. The
great Paris Omnibus Company has tried replacing half
the oats usually provided for the horses by crushed
maize (including the cobs), with most excellent results.
The cobs provide the cellulose lacking in the maize,
and the two together are equivalent in composition
and feeding-value to oats. The New York Omnibus
Company give each of their horses 14 lbs. of maize a
day j while the Berlin Tramways Company supplement
3 lbs. of oats with 15 lbs. of maize per horse per day,
with most satisfactory results. Maize has proved an
excellent food for horses doing hard and regular work
at a moderate pace, but is less suited for hunters or
light hacks.
Brewers' grains only contain 20-24 per cent, of dry
matter. As the albuminoid ratio is high and the
animals appreciate the aromatic flavour, they are a most
valuable food for fattening and especially good for
producing milk. Brewers' grains have been recently
placed on the market in a dry condition, and on account
of their concentration, convenience for transit, good
o2
196 CONCENTRATED FOOD-STUFFS.
keeping qualities, and low price, are to be highly
recommended as a food-stnfF. Experiments at Halle
have shown that dried grains are as good as fresh grains
for feeding purposes_, and that as much as 12 lbs. per
day per 1000 lbs. live- weight can be given to cows, with
a decided increase in milk-production. Other investi-
gations have shown that if the "grains^' are heated above
90° C, or the juice be previously expressed, valuable
food material is lost and the amount of digestible
albuminoids reduced.
Gluten obtained as a by-product in the manufacture
of wheat starch is an excellent food for pigs. It is also
to be met with in the market as a dry, brittle mass, in
which form it is eagerly eaten by sheep, and for fattening
purposes serves as a valuable addition to a food lacking
nitrogen.
Malt-sprouts is a favourite food for young cattle,
cows, and fat beasts. Its nitrogenous composition
places it in the same category as leguminous seeds and
oil-cakes. Considerable quantities of amides, however,
varying from 23 to 36 per cent, of the total nitrogenous
substance or amounting to about 4 per cent, of the dry
matter of malt-sprouts, have been observed. When
supplied in quantity not exceeding 4 to 6 lbs. per
1000 lbs. live-weight, malt-sprouts acts as an excellent
milk -producing food; quantities exceeding 10 lbs. per
day are very apt to cause a cow to slip calf.
The good feeding-effect of this food-stuff is often
considerably reduced by the presence of dust and dirty
sweepings, and care is necessary to avoid such impure
samples of an otherwise valuable food.
LEGUMINOUS SEEDS. 197
§ 2. Leguminous Seeds.
The variation in the amount of albuminoids is less
marked with leguminous seeds than with the cereals,
as it lies between 22 and 30 per cent, of the dry matter.
Beans and vetches are usually richer in nitrogen than
peas. Lupines contain an exceptionally high percentage
of albuminoids (from 32 to 48 per cent, of the dry
matter) J and the seeds of yellow lupines are richer in
nitrogen than those of the blue and white species.
Lupines are possessed of a peculiar bitter taste, and are
disliked by all farm animals except sheep. As lupines
will grow vigorously on an arid sandy soil and can be
bought extremely cheaply despite their richness in
nitrogen, it is not surprising that many attempts have
been made to remove the objectionable bitter taste and
to make lupines a possible food for other animals than
sheep and goats.
This can be achieved by steaming the lupines for an
hour and then repeatedly soaking them in water.
O. Kellner has tested this method at Hohenheim by
scientific experiments with sheep, horses, and cows, and
found that the " sweetened '' lupines had an excellent
effect and largely increased the production of milk.
A comparative test with beans resulted in favour of the
lupines. At Halle, they found that all farm animals ate
the sweetened lupines with relish and the best results.
Many other methods for sweetening lupines have been
brought forward and carefully tested. All processes
involve a considerable loss of dry matter from the
plants, which Gabriel found to amount to 15 or 20 per
cent. The nitrogen-free extract and mineral constituents
suffer to the extent of 45 to 65 per cent., while the
198
CONCENTRATED FOOD-STUFFS.
loss of albuminoids in the process only amounts to 5 or
10 per cent, of that originally present in the lupines.
The residue^ especially if Kellnei^s process be employed,
is, if anything, more digestible than before. This
process has proved the best not only because it involves
least loss, but on account of its simplicity. Whether
it is possible, i. e. practicable, to further reduce loss by
omitting the steaming and simply soaking for 3 or 4
days in cold water, as has been suggested, requires
further experiments for decision.
Eesults or Digestion Experiments.
Is'o. of Experiments.
Percentage of Albu-
minoids digestible.
Percentage of N.-free
extract digestible.
Beau'Meal :
18 (on Ruminants)
Average
81-95
88
86
88-95
92
93
Peas-Meal :
Pigs (fed exclusively) ...
So
95
Lupine Seeds :
Sheep (fed with rye- 1
straw as well) J
Sheep (fed with hay as 1
weU) /
Goats
97
92-94
90
81
84-89
Schulze found in one experiment that the loss of dry
matter by soaking lupines in cold water without a pre-
LEGUMINOUS SEEDS. 199
liminary steaming amounted to only 5 to 11 per cent.,
while only 1 to 5 per cent, of the albuminoids^ 15 to 20
per cent, of the nitrogen-free extract, and 4 to 7 per cent,
of the mineral constituents had been lost. At the same
time the bitter alkaloid had been reduced from 0-36 per
cent, to 0-078 and 0*04 per cent. Gabriel found that
steaming lupines in an autoclave at 140° C. reduced the
digestibility of the organic matter from 81 to 68 per cent.,
and that of the albuminoids from 87 to 67 per cent.
Stohmann found that lupines increased the digestion
of the non-nitrogenous constituents of hay, and the
same result was observed for crude fibre in some experi-
ments with sheep at Hohenheim.
The generalization deducible from these figures is,,
that about 90 per cent, of the albuminoids of leguminous
seeds is digestible, while that of the nitrogen-free
extract is rather lower.
Soja Beans (Chinese oil-beans), which have been
recently cultivated in many parts of Germany, are
distinguished by a high percentage of albuminoids
(33-4 per cent.) and of fat (17-6 per cent.). Experi-^
ments at Vienna in which pigs were fed with potatoes
and 2\ to 3 lbs. of Soja beans per day gave highly
satisfactory fattening results. Sheep, oxen, and cows
have been found to flourish when Soja beans were
added to a diet otherwise poor in fat and nitrogen.
Acorns and Horse-Chestnuts are poor in fat and
nitrogen, but rich in easily digestible starch (especially
acorns), and 88 per cent, of the total organic matter was
found digestible for sheep. Pigs are well known to eat
acorns greedily, and even sheep and oxen will willingly
eat acorns and horse-chestnuts in the form of meal.
•200 CONCENTRATED FOOD-STUFFS.
§ 3. Oil Seeds and Cakes.
Oil-seeds^ such as Linseed and Rape seed, containing
80-45 per cent, of fat are not often fed as such, though
the smaller kinds of linseed are sometimes used as an
addition ip a food lacking fat with excellent results,
provided the amount of fat is not so excessive as to
disturb the animal's digestion.
In the first place, few direct determinations of the
digestibility of oil-seeds have been made.
Results obtained at Hohenheim indicated that the
digestibility of linseed was as nearly as possible the
same as that of the cake obtained from it. Many
digestion determinations have been made on Oil-cakes,
such as Linseed cake, Rape cake, Cotton cake. Palm-
nut cake (extracted Palm-nut meal). Coconut cake, as
well as Earth-nut, Sesame, and Sunflower-seed cakes.
Theresults given in the table (see Appendix) for Linseed
cake are the average of experiments on sheep, goats,
and oxen at Hohenheim, Halle, and Mockern, and the
individual results are very uniform.
Results for Rape cake by Hof meister on sheep and by
Kiihn on cows gave 80 per cent, as the digestibility of
both albuminoids and nitrogen-free extract ; while more
recent experiments by Kiihn on oxen gave values of
86 and 75 per cent, for the digestibility of the two
constituents.
Rape cake is apt to contain mustard oil. Some
Indian cakes containing as much as 0*5 per cent, of this
substance have been found to affect the flavour of
milk and butter when largely fed to dairy cows.
Cotton cake has been tested as to digestibility at
Hohenheim and Breslau. The cake from the undecor-
OIL SEEDS AND CAKES. 201
iicated seeds (containing 20-25 per cent, of crude
fibre) proved difficult of digestion^ while decorticated
cotton cake (with only 4 to 6 per cent, of crude fibre)
was found very digestible and was much appreciated
by sheep. Similar results for the other oil-cakes were
obtained and will be found tabulated in the Appendix
(Table 11.) .
The digestion coefficient of Coconut cake was deter-
mined at Hohenheim by feeding pigs on a mixture of
one part of cake to two parts of barley-meal. The pigs
ate the coconut cake greedily^ while they absolutely
refused to touch Candle-nut cake (the richest oil-cake,
containing 58 per cent, of crude albuminoids in the
dry matter), and starved for three days rather than
touch barley-meal containing a small quantity of this
cake. Sheep also refused to touch it, though it has
been found elsewhere that cattle will eat it readily.
Palm-nut cake was found at Hohenheim and Mockern
to be highly digestible, and not only palatable but pro-
ductive of the best results with milch-cows and fat
beasts.
Oil-cakes from foreign seeds, especially the highly
nitrogenous EartJi-nut and Sesame cakes, the cake from
decorticated Cotton-seeds and to a less extent Sunflovjer-
seed cahe, are in universal use in Germany. From
the large amount of albuminoids they contain and
their moderate price, they are especially suitable as
an addition to a food otherwise poor in nitrogen ;
they have proved of great value for dairy cows, but
the daily quantity must not exceed 2 to 3 lbs. per cow,
•or else the milk and butter are apt to sufi'er in flavour.
Earth-nut cake has also been employed as a partial
202
COXCEXTRATED FOOD-STUFFS.
substitute for oats in feeding horses : thus 12 lbs. of
oats may be replaced by 8 lbs. of oats and 2 lbs. of
earth-nut cake. Great care should be taken to avoid
samples of earth-nut cake which are impure or adulte-
rated with sand, woolly masses and stiff hairs, which
are bad for the animals and may even cause their death.
Fraudulent adulteration with powdered earth-nut shells
(possessing no feeding value) is sometimes practised.
Cotton cakes are also frequently adulterated in a
similar way, though it must be admitted that of recent
years greater care has been exercised in cake factories-
to exclude impurities.
All cakes and oil-seeds obtained from hot climates
are very apt to be impregnated with bacteria and mould
spores, and to readily undergo decomposition or become
mouldy. Such cakes are not only distasteful to the
cattle^ but if eaten are apt to cause them injury. It is
highly desirable in the examination of such cakes not
to limit it to a mere chemical analysis, but to supple-
ment it with a microscopic examination and a test
for moulds &c. as well. The frequently observed ill-
effects of cotton and other oil-cakes when fed in a wet
or sodden condition is probably due to the action of
moulds. The fat in Earth-nut and Sesame cakes as
well as in rice- and flesh-meal is very apt to become
rancid and unwholesome, and Ulbricht regards it as
due to the liberation of greater or less quantities of the
free acids of the fat.
Beside the American cakes from decorticated cotton-
seed, another class of cake made from undecorticated
Egyptian cotton-seed is placed on the market, and
ANIMAL PRODUCTS. 203
as this contains finely-pulverized husks of a leathery
consistency^ it is less digestible and nutritious and has
been found of little value for dairy purposes. Owing
to its cheapness^ it has proved much more satisfactory
for sheep and draught oxen, and in England it is often
used in preference to decorticated cotton cake and
found to exert an excellent feeding-effect.
Poppy-seed cake is now obtained in quantity from
Oriental poppy-seed and in South Germany is used
largely by farmers, as it can be bought at a very
moderate price. It is usually fed to the extent of 2 to
3 lbs. per head per day, but if continued for any
length of time or given in larger quantity, the milk
is very apt to become watery and insipid. The dark-
coloured or " blue " poppy cakes appear less liable
to produce this undesirable result than the " white ''
cakes.
Heynp cake must not be fed in too large a quantity,
as it is very apt to disagree with sheep and horses,,
though to a less extent with cattle. The same thing is
true in a more marked manner of Beech-nut cake,
which can be largely fed to cattle, but is so poisonous
to horses that merely a pound or two may suffice to
kill any horse eating it.
§ 4. Animal Products.
Flesh-meal. — For richness in nitrogen and high
digestibility, the American flesh-meal of commerce
holds first place among farm foods. It consists of the
dried and powdered residue from the manufacture of
" extract of meat,^^ and contains 10 to 13 per cent, of
204 CONCENTRATED FOOD-STUFFS.
moisture when air-dried^ and in a completely dehy-
drated condition contains 82-83 per cent, of albu-
minoids and 13 to 14 per cent, of fat. Digestion
experiments at Hohenheim on pigs fed with potatoes
to which from 8 ozs. to a pound of flesh-meal per day
was added, gave results for the digestibility of the
albuminoids in the flesh-meal amounting to 97 per
cent., while 87 per cent, of the fat and 95 per cent,
of the total organic matter was digested.
It is evident from the high digestibility of flesh-
meal, that it must be an extremely valuable addition to
a food poor in nitrogen, when it is desirable to increase
the albuminoid ratio of the diet. It possesses a further
value as a means of persuading animals to eat larger
quantities of such a food as potatoes.
These Hohenheim experiments also showed that the
albuminoids of flesh possessed a feeding-value which
was practically the same as that of the vegetable albu-
minoids in such foods as peas.
Flesh-meal has been found a most satisfactory food
for cows and oxen, and if at first supplied in very small
quantity, and gradually increased to 2 or 3 lbs. a day,
the animals soon overcome their initial prejudice against
it, and eventually get to like it immensely. Sheep are
the most obstinate in accepting this food, but that they
can become reconciled to it has been shown by experi-
ments at Dresden, in which lambs six months old were
fed for 186 days on a food containing considerable
quantities of flesh-meal. The result in this case was
certainly little better than that attained with barley-
meal ; but in some experiments at Kuschen it was found
that sheep fed on barley-straw and flesh-meal, with an
ANIMAL PRODUCTS. 205^
albuminoid ratio for the combination of [1 : 3'5] , in-
creased considerably in weight in a comparatively
short time. It was found that flesh-meal was as easily
and completely digested by sheep as by pigs. Experi-
ments on cows at Kiel showed that when 2 lbs. of
flesh-meal was substituted for 2 lbs. of rape cake and
1 lb. of bran in the daily ration of a cow^ 2 lbs. more
milk per day was obtained, and the percentage of fat
in the milk was not reduced.
' Norwegian Fish-Guano, at first employed solely as a
manure, was tried as a substitute for flesh-meal b^
Weiske and Kellner, and found to be even preferable,
as all animals, sheep included, will eat it eagerly. Fish-
guano only contains about 2 per cent, of fat, and the
nitrogenous constituents are of a gelatinous nature and
generally inferior to albuminoids in nutritive value. In
the Proskau experiments on sheep, however, it was found
that the nitrogenous constituents of fish-guano, owing
to their high digestibility, produced a better feeding-
effect than an equivalent amount of nitrogen provided
in good hay and oatmeal.
Experiments at Hohenheim in which sheep were fed
with fish-guano, showed that 90 per cent, of the nitro-
genous matter was digested, and that the large amount
of phosphates contained in the guano was excreted in
the dung in a more soluble form, and proved a quick-
acting manure. These results set at rest all doubts of
the value of fish-guano as a concentrated food-stuff, but
whether it can hold its own against the present rela-
tively cheaper price of flesh-meal in the market is
questionable.
206 CONCENTRATED FOOD-STUFFS.
Dried Blood contains 91*9 per cent, of albuminoids in
the dry matter. From digestion experiments on dried
blood given as an addition to a diet of potatoes and
barley- straw, it was found that pigs digested 72 per
cent, and sheep only 62 per cent, of the albuminoids
present. Dried blood as usually sold is very hard
and dry, and probably if it were softened by soaking or
boiling, it would prove more completely digestible. The
albuminoids actually digested by pigs appeared exactly
equivalent to the same quantity of vegetable albu-
minoids (peas).
Cockchafers are similar to dried blood in composition,
and are used on the continent as cattle-food.
Dairy Pi'oducts. — Whey obtained from milk in the
process of making cheese is a much-valued food for
pigs, and contains about
1 per cent. o£ albuminoids ;
4*6 „ milk-sugar;
0-3-0-6 „ fat.
Its albuminoid ratio is not exceptionally high and
varies greatly with the extent to which the albuminoids
have been separated from the milk as cheese. Pigs eat
whey eagerly, and if the excessive amount of water it
contains be counteracted by the addition of corn-meal
of some sort, they flourish exceedingly. Even bran and
oatmeal, which are considered somewhat unsatisfactory
foods for pigs, appear to produce good results when
mixed with whey.
" Skim ^' and '' sour " milk are much more nitro-
o-enous and nutritious than whey, and are invaluable
TUBERS AND ROOTS. 207
for supplementing such a starchy food as potatoes. All
the constituents of milk may be considered completely
digestible, though Soxhlet found that when the sole
food of calves was restricted to milk, a certain small
proportion of it escaped digestion.
§ 5. Tubers and Roots,
All roots and tubers produce a general depression and
debility of digestion if fed continuously in excessive
quantity. If supplemented with highly nitrogenous
foods to a normal albuminoid ratio, pigs are peculiarly
adapted for their digestion, and sheep, oxen, and cows
eat and flourish on them when given as an addition to
hay or other fodder. If the amount of roots or tubers
does not exce'ed a quarter of the rest of the ration (cal-
culated as dry matter in each case), excellent results
with young cattle, fat beasts, and milch-cows can be
obtained. Under such conditions potatoes and turnips
are to all intents and purposes completely digestible,
and the " depression ^^ exerted on the digestibility of
the coarse fodder is not of any consequence (see
p. 144). ^
1. Potatoes,— "Yhe variety and conditions of soil,
manuring, and weather cause great variations in the
composition of potatoes, and the dry matter varies from
18-30 per cent., the albuminoids from 1-3-4-5 per
cent., and the starch from 12-27 per cent.
The more starch there is in a potato, the less, as a
rule, the amount of albuminoids, while a watery potato
contains less starch and comparatively more albu-
minoids and mineral matter than one of a more con-
208 CONCENTRATED FOOD-STUFFS.
centrated character. This is at once evident by
calculating the percentage composition of the total dry-
matter.
A potato of average quality contains 25 per cent, of
dry matter, and its albuminoid ratio (neglecting amides)
is 1 : 10 to 12.
A very rich or moist clay soil produces potatoes
richer in nitrogen but poorer in starch than those
grown and well-ripened in a sandy soil or sandy loam.
A clay soil rich in humus often grows much larger
potatoes than a sandy soil, but despite their size these
often contain less starch than smaller tubers grown on
the same soil.
In a soil of sandy nature this reduction of starch
with increase of the size of the tubers disappears, and
potatoes grown on a typical sandy soil often contain
more starch the bigger they are, especially if the smaller
ones have not properly ripened through bad weather.
The effect of manuring on the composition of the
potato crop is considerable : thus, in one case, potatoes
manured with potash and lime contained 2*27 per cent,
of albuminoids, while the same kind, heavily manured
with ammonia salts, contained 4*44 per cent.
With potatoes, as with all other crops, the effect of a
manure is largely influenced by the varying condition
of the soil, method of cultivation, and season ; and the
nature and extent of the effect produced by any par-
ticular manure may be accentuated or entirely sup-
pressed by the varying influence of these important
factors.
It should be noted that potatoes are rich in potash,^
fairly so in phosphoric acid, but contain very little
TUBERS AND ROOTS. 209
soda and lime, and this needs especial attention in
feeding milch -cows or young animals in rapid growth.
Forty per cent, of the crude albuminoids of potatoes
generally consists of amides ; watery potatoes contain
even a larger proportion than this, and at least ^ of the
nitrogen of potatoes rich in starch is due to the presence
of amides.
These latter compounds are principally represented by
asparagine and glutamine. Nitrates and salts of am-
monia are rarely found in tubers, although Kreussler
detected 5 per cent, of nitrates in the stalks and leaves
of young plants.
If potatoes be allowed to become frozen they suffer a
loss of fermentable material, which was found by ex-
periment to amount to 3-8 per cent, of the starch-
value of the dry matter, or 0*57 to 2' 13 per cent, of
the tubers in their natural condition. A conversion
of albuminoids into amides is produced by frost, and
frost-bitten potatoes contain an abnormal amount of
these compounds. Such potatoes do not keep well
unless turned into a sour ensilage. German experiments
have shown that it is necessary to steam the frost-bitten
potatoes before they are allowed to ferment, otherwise
great loss of albuminoids takes place by the escape of
the juices, and as the normal production of lactic acid
is then retarded, the resulting silage is apt to assume a
flavour disliked by the animals.
Milch-cows should never be given more than one
half, young cattle not more than one third of their
food-requirement in the form of potatoes (either raw or
cooked) .
210 CONCENTRATED FOOD-STUFFS.
Potatoes that have germinated should be avoided for
milch-cows, as the solanin contained in the sprouts is
very apt to make them slip calf.
2. Artichokes are only occasionally employed as a
farm food. The tubers contain more water and more
albuminoids than potatoes. Sheep eagerly eat the
leaves and tender parts of the luxuriant upper-growth.
Artichokes appear to contain as large a proportion of
amides to albuminoids as turnips, and some deter-
minations of amide nitrogen at Hohenheim gave results
amounting to more than 40 per cent, of that of the
albuminoids.
3. Roots are characterized by the preponderance of
sugar in the nitrogen-free extract and the pectin which
they also contain. Starch also occurs in some '^ roots/'
such as carrots. Numerous experiments have proved the
high digestibility of pectin, and it was found that as
much as 98 per cent, of it was digested by sheep and
cows even when fed in quantity. It also appears that
the nutrient action of pectin is precisely equivalent to
that of starch and sugar.
It has been generally observed of all roots that the
larger and finer they are, the more watery their con-
sistency and the less the percentage of dry matter.
The amount of nitrogenous substances in the dry
matter is increased by heavy manuring with dung, &c.,
though the different kinds of " roots ^^ vary in this
respect. Sugar-beets, as grown for the purposes of
sugar manufacture, contain the greatest amount of
solid substance, and the lowest percentage of nitrogen
found in any roots. If heavily manured or cultivated
TUBERS AND ROOTS. 211
at wider intervals, so that beets exceeding 2 lbs. are
obtained, they are practically equivalent to ordinary
mangolds.
The albuminoids calculated from the determinations
of nitrogen in roots are invariably in excess of the
truth unless allowance be made for the amides and
nitrates which actually represent part of the nitrogen.
This is especially noticeable with coarse mangolds
grown with a powerful nitrogenous manure, in which
hardly a third of the contained nitrogen really exists as
true albuminoids. This may also explain the observed
fact that the actual feeding-effect of turnips is less than
that deduced from the percentage of nitrogen and the
equivalent amount of albuminoids they contain.
According to Kellner, carrots, turnips, and especially
swedes, contain less amides and nitrates than mangolds,
since these latter contain about 60 per cent, of amides
and nitrates (in terms of the total nitrogen), while the
other roots contain about the same amount as potatoes^,
or only 40 per cent.
The custom, in some districts, of removing the leaves
of a root-crop reduces both the crop and quality of such
roots as mangolds, and a loss of half the crop has been
observed as the result of this practice. Removing the
leaves from a growing root-crop was found to reduce
the amount of sugar 3*8 per cent., while the roots were
not only watery but did not ripen properly.
Practical men are well aware that the different kinds
of roots differ not only in flavour but also in diges-
tibility and feeding-value. Carrots are most highly
esteemed for promoting a vigorous and full-blooded
condition, and on this account are often given in
p2
212 CONCENTRATED FOOD-STUFFS.
small quantity to horses and young animals. Swedes
are a more concentrated and nourishing food than
mangolds.
4. Potato -Slump. — The manufacture of potato-spirit
has been considerably extended on the Continent in
conjunction with the growing of the potatoes themselves
on soils especially adapted for the purpose. By
employing the residue or '^ slump '' (left after the spirit
has been made and separated by distillation) as a farm
food, better feeding- results are obtained than are pos-
sible with untreated potatoes^
To use potatoes to any purpose as a food-stuff, they
must be supplemented with a highly nitrogenous food,
and on light sandy potato soil this would have to be
bought, as the soil would not produce an adequate
supply. Even if lupines were largely grown they could
only be used for sheep. The potato-slump contains
everything in the original potatoes except the exces-
sive quantity of starch which has been turned into
spirit ; and as it possesses a high albuminoid ratio it
serves as a highly productive food-supply, and may
even enable animals to eat large quantities of straw and
chaff to advantage. Without buying anything, the
potato-grower can thus adopt an economical and
rational method of feeding his stock.
Nothing is lost to the farm, as all the nitrogen and
mineral matter which the potatoes have extracted from
the soil, together with that in the malt added to the
^^ mash,^^ are contained in the '^ slump.^^
It is thus evident that a combination of potato-
growing and distilling on some poor sandy soils is the
TUBERS AND ROOTS. 213
only means whereby the land can be farmed highly and
to good profit.
The loss of starch in the potatoes is readily made
good in practice by the addition of any of the non-
nitrogenous food- stuffs which are always readily avail-
able. " Slump/-* like the potatoes and malt used for
its production_, contains amides, but Morgen and
Behrend have observed the interesting fact that in the
process of fermentation a considerable amount of the
amides is converted into albuminoids.
Their results in two cases were as follows : —
Percentage of total Nitrogen as
Albuminoids and Peptones : —
In sweet mash. In mash after fermentation.
A . . 55-06 71-27
B . . 54-46 71-93
This amounts to an increase of about 17 per cent., so
that instead of containing 40 per cent, of the nitro-
genous matter as amides, which is the amount found in
potatoes, the '' slump " must contain as little as 25 per
cent. This throws light on the wonderful feeding-
value of potato-slump.
Formerly, potato-slump contained 7 to 8 per cent,
of dry matter with an albuminoid ratio (by the usual
calculation) of [1 : 3] to [1 : 4], dependent on the strength
of the " mash.^^ Improved methods, which secure
economy of material and a more uniform and energetic
fermentation, have lately been introduced, and the
slump so obtained, though more watery (5 to 6 per
cent, of dry matter), possesses a higher albuminoid ratio,
viz. [1:2-5] to [1:3].
214 CONCENTRATED FOOD-STUFFS.
A further point about slump is the comparatively
high proportion of mineral matter (0'5-0*8 per cent.)
and crude fibre (0-6-0-9 per cent.) which it contains.
Potato-slump can be fed with excellent results to all
farm animals^ and is peculiarly suitable for oxen^ cows,
and fat beasts, but should be used with judgment and
in smaller quantity for young animals, pigs, and horses.
It need hardly be stated that so watery a substance
requires a considerable addition of dry and solid fodder
when used as a cattle food. Overfeeding with slump
produces general debility and is apt to engender disease;
the so-called ^' slump-malanders ^' seems to be due to a
micrococcus that readily flourishes in slump, and it is
very important the slump should be used fresh and hot,
and never be left to get quite cold.
A judicious supply of slump increases the quantity
without reducing the quality of milk ; too much, i. e.
more than 50 lbs. per 3000 lbs. live-weight of the cow,
causes watery milk and bad butter, which latter not only
does not keep but is very apt to develop a bitter taste.
Dutch cows seem to take very kindly to slump, and
were found to produce as much good milk on 10 gallons
of slump per day as on a diet of clover, maize, and
buckwheat.
5. Rye and Maize Slump. — These by-products of the
distillery are even more valuable food-stuffs than potato-
slump, because .they do not undergo so complete a fer-
mentation, and are consequently richer in dry matter.
On the other hand, the " slump '^ from Beet molasses
is a very indifferent food-stuff, and can only be used
TUBERS AND ROOTS. 215
when supplemented by at least twice as much potato-
slump.
This is not due to lack of dry matter, but to the
excessive quantity o£ mineral salts (2 per cent.)_, which
appear to have a bad effect on the animals. At the
same time the nitrogenous constituents appear of
doubtful feeding-value.
" Evaporated slump " has recently been placed on the
market, and this, if obtained from rye and maize, is an
excellent food-stuff, and exceeds even dried brewers'
grains in feeding-value, owing to the higher percentage
of fat and albuminoids and the smaller amount of crude
fibre which it contains.
6. Sugar-Beet Residues. — Wherever obtainable, these
residues are used for feeding purposes, but their com-
position and value vary a good deal with the extraction-
process from which they have resulted.
The pulp obtained from the old-fashioned presses
contains 30 per cent, of dry matter with an albuminoid
ratio as low as [1 : 10] or even less. That obtained by
the centrifugal process possesses the same albuminoid
ratio, but contains only 15 to 20 per cent, of dry matter.
The residues obtained by the modem "diffusion ^' pro-
cess are of quite a different character, as the beets
instead of being treated in a pulp are cut up into little
pieces and treated with warm water ; in this way the
sugar is extracted from the beet by diffusion, while the
non-diffusible albuminoids are left behind. The residue
thus obtained has a high albuminoid ratio, and is the
more valuable for feeding-purposes in that the amides,
216
CONCENTRATED FOOD-STUFFS.
which are easily sohible, are separated from the beet-
chips and pass over to a great extent into the extract.
A serious drawback to the value of fresh " diffusion
chips '^ is their watery nature^ and the small amount of
dry matter (6 per cent.) which they contain. By
moderate compression the dry matter can be increased
to 10 per cent. ; by powerful but expensive pressing a
product containing 15 per cent, of dry matter is pro-
duced. The fermentation o£ '^ diffusion chips " in a pit
or silo always results in loss and reduced digestibility.
The following table gives the observed loss on making
a sample of ^' diffusion chips '' into sour silage : —
Dry
matter.
Crude
fibre.
Crude
albuminoids.
N.-free
extract.
Minimum
Maximum
Averaee
per cent.
14
46
34-8
per cent.
9
52
19-6
per cent.
5
40
24-5
per cent.
15
57
37-8
It is very important that the fermenting mass should
be well stamped down to a compact and air-tight con-
sistency ; the addition of chaff is a bad practice, and
was found to increase the loss of organic matter from
21-8 to 29 per cent.
By using extra precautions for keeping out air and
maintaining a great pressure on the heap, Liebscher
found he could reduce the loss to 6 or 8 per cent.
Stutzer found that frozen " chips '^ became sour, and
that the digestibility of the albuminoids was reduced
TUBERS AND ROOTS. 217
from 86 to 70 per cent., while that of the crude fibre
was improved.
Another method of preserving diffusion chips without
fear of loss, is that of drying them by artificial heat.
This has become much easier and cheaper since
Marcker found that if the chips were mixed with about
0*5 per cent, of lime they could be compressed by
machinery, and the greater part of the water expressed
without appreciable loss. Such dried " chips " have
proved excellent food for cows (6 to 10 lbs. a day) and
for fat beasts (11 to 16 lbs. a day), despite the large
amount of lime contained (4*5 per cent, of the dry
matter) . The results were also far better than those
obtained from slump or fresh chips that had not been
dried. No loss of calves or accidents in calving re-
sulted, and the milk, butter, and meat produced were
superior in every way. Dried chips serve as an ex-
cellent substitute for hay, and can replace bran or
barley-meal in the proportion of 3 lbs. of chips to 2
of the latter. The inventor Marcker thought that the
pressed chips containing lime would not make good
silage owing to their rapid fermentation ; but Miiller
succeeded in making excellent sweet silage from them.
Part III.
THE FEEDING OF FAEM ANIMALS.
CHAPTER I.
FEEDING STANDARDS.
The growth and nutrition of all mammals are
governed by essentially the same principles and laws,
and hence a knowledge of the latter provides a firm
and sound basis for the practical feeding of farm
animals.
The various animals of the farm may eat different
kinds of food, but with regard to the ^^ nutrients '^ or
true food-constituents of such foods, and their general
effect on the body, no distinction can be drawn. It is
true that the digestive system of Herbivora, and espe-
cially that of ruminating species, is able to assimilate
cellulose and convert it into starch, while Carnivora
are practically unable to accomplish this digestive feat ;
but any particular food- constituent once assimilated
by either class of animal undergoes absolutely the
same changes and exercises the same nutritive effect.
The quantitative result is admittedly often unequal
FEEDING STANDARDS. 219
on account of the great variations in the amount o£
the particular food-stuff eaten by diff'erent animals.
It has been found that under certain conditions
Camivora can eat, digest^ and resorb as much carbo-
hydrates as Herbivora (see p. 39).
It is self-evident that only real, i. e. digestible, food-
constituents can be taken into consideration in pre-
scribing the daily ration of a farm animal, and that the
amount of the various nutrients capable of digestion
in a food-stuff* represents its value as a Farm Food.
The old-fashioned method of reckoning from '^ crude
constituents''^ without reference to their digestibility
is no longer permissible. Calculations based on diges-
tible constituents avoid the great errors involved in
giving a different value to the same food-constituent
whether existing in a coarse or a concentrated food-
stuff.
The science of Farm Feeding involves the classifica-
tion of organic food-constituents into two broad classes.
Albuminoids and Carbohydrates_, or Nitrogenous
and Non-nitrogenous Nutrients.
All the non-nitrogenous nutrients can be represented
in composition and nutritive effect by starch if the
amount of digestible fat be multiplied by its '^ starch
equivalent.^^
At the same time we shall quote Fat as such in all
feeding standards_, although the economical minimum
of fat for particular feeding purposes cannot be yet
very rigidly fixed owing to the conflicting results of
the experiments hitherto made on this point. We
only know for certain the general facts : that the fat
of food is more easily stored up in the body than that
220
FEEDING STANDARDS.
produced by the decomposition of albumen; that the
former, under certain conditions, is an invaluable and
concentrated respiration-material, and that fat can be
readily replaced by carbohydrates, so far as its in-
fluence on the decomposition and storage of albumen
in the body is concerned. We are clearly justified in
regarding fat as an essential constituent of the daily
food of milch-cows, fat beasts, and working animals,
and also in prescribing an addition of fat in those cases
where a rich diet containing a high amount of nitrogen
is necessary for the object in view.
A feeding standard should also specify and regulate
the total organic matter in the ration of a farm animal,
and should enable a practical man so to regulate the
supply of bulky and concentrated food-stuffs, that not
only the amount and ratio of the digestible constituents
be that demanded by the ^' standard/^ but that the
volume or bulk of the total ration may also be in cor-
respondence. At the same time a farmer should not
bind himself slavishly to the exact requirements of
these feeding standards. Their practical value does
not lie in half a turnip or a wisp of straw too much or
too little, but in enabling a farmer to tell at a glance,
or by a simple rough calculation, how to secure a
proper albuminoid ratio with the food- stuffs at his dis-
posal for the end he has in view. Used in this way,
they will avoid the inevitable losses arising from rule-
of-thumb methods and individual errors of judgment,
and will enable the stock- keeper to feed his animals in
the best and most remunerative way.
In food calculations the Amides have to be allowed
for among the nitrogenous constituents. If we decide
FEEDING STANDARDS. 221
to employ only the digestible and real albuminoids as
a basis for the calculation of our albuminoid ratios
and feeding standards, very many of the commonly
accepted data reo^uire considerable alteration.
Unfortunately we are not yet in a position to make
this change, as not only the amount of amides in the
various farm-foods, but even their specific value as
food is still undecided {cf, p. 100). For the present
we must rest satisfied in food calculations with an after-
glance at such experimental results as have been so
far obtained.
How this may be done by the help of Table III. in
the Appendix, which gives the proportion of amides in
various food-stuffs, will be explained in a subsequent
chapter; for the present we will leave the Amides
entirely out of consideration in our discussion of
" albuminoid ratios '' and '' feeding standards."
We fully recognize as the most important mission of
the Science of Farm Feeding, and, in this book, as our
most cherished aim and object, the determination of
the productive minimum and best proportion of food-
constituents in the daily ration of an animal for the
particular object in view. On that account our treat-
ment of the subject in the following pages shall be
limited to the working-out of this vital and practical
issue.
The taste and general '^ specific " characters of food-
stufi's for particular animals are matters that concern
practice, and are dealt with in books on practical Agri-
culture.
In the present state of our knowledge we are bound
to consider that any particular nutrient once digested
222 FEEDING STANDARDS.
and resorbed exercises absolutely the same effect on the
animal organism whatever its source may have been.
We cannot expect the true albuminoids in grass and
hay to produce a different effect under comparable
conditions from the albuminoids in the seeds of mature
plants. Our present knowledge throws great doubt on
the uniform value of the nitrogen-free nutrients^ and
especially on that of crude fibre (cf. p. Ill), but further
experiments are needed to explain and confirm the
variation. The practical value of flavour and its effect
on the general '' condition '' or capacity for work of an
animal is a matter for the farmer to decide by practical
experience and personal discretion ; and as science can-
not at present deal with this aspect of the practical
feeding of farm animals, we are consistently bound to
leave it out of consideration in this book.
Practical details as to the general treatment and
rearing of stock, stall fittings, methods of preparing
food, &c., are also out of place here. We only insist
that unless such practical details are attended to in the
most perfect and efficient manner, it is quite impossible
to realize the best results from any system of feeding.
Although the method of preparation — cookings for
instance — does not increase the digestibility of the
food itself, still it may, under certain conditions, im-
prove the flavour of the food and tempt the animals to
eat it more freely and with better results than if it had
been left raw.
Productive Albuminoid Ratios.
A conventional distinction is often drawn between
feeding for maintenance and feeding for production.
PRODUCTIVE ALBUMINOID RATIOS. 223
The distinction is simplj a matter of degree and not of
real difference, and no hard and fast line can be drawn
between the two standards of feeding, as one merges
imperceptibly into the other.
It is clearly evident that if an animal remains quietlv
m a stall, a minimum of albuminoids and a low albu
minoid ratio will suffice to keep it in fair condition
On the other hand, any form of production in addition
to this will require a higher albuminoid ratio in the
food-supply to make it possible.
The albuminoids are directly active and essential for
all forms of production (meat, fat, wool, milk, and
work), and frequently provide the material directlv
employed; the albuminoid ratio of the food must not
be too low, or else the albuminoids supplied will be
insufficient for the end desired. We have also seen
(see p. 141) that too low an albuminoid ratio in
variably reduces and sometimes to a very serious extent
depreciates the digestibility of the albuminoids con
tamed m the food, and thereby militates against the
economic maximum" for the whole food.
On the other hand, the albuminoid ratio should not
be too high, as the excess of albuminoids will increase
the amount of circulatory albumen in the body and
thereby occasion an unnecessary waste and loss of this
most valuable material. The result of an excessive
albuminoid ratio is frequently worse than that of a
lower one, that is a better end may often be attained
With a less expensive diet.
It has been found that the albuminoid ratio of a
rational or economic productive diet lies between verv
narrow limits. -^
224 FEEDING STANDARDS.
The economic ratio for a productive diet for Farm
Animals lies between the proportions [1 : 4] and [1:7].
If the ratio be lower than [1:7] a lack of albumi-
noids for quick and certain production is inevitable ;
and growth and production take place so slowly and
with so little energy that the financial profit is both
delayed and greatly reduced, even though the food itself
be comparatively cheap. A higher ratio than [1 : 4]
for farm animals involves unnecessary waste in the
body of the animal and a comparatively greater waste
of money than that involved by a ratio which is too
low.
Between these limits the effect of a diet for farm
animals will be greater with the same amount of food
the higher the albuminoid ratio, but whether the result
would be satisfactory and economical at this higher
ratio is a matter that requires very careful considera-
tion of the various conditions of the case for decision.
The medium albuminoid ratios [1 : 4] to [1 : 7] fairly
represent the '^naturaP^ food of farm animals.
Average hay is often assumed to be a standard food for
ruminants, but as its albuminoid ratio is as low as
[1 : 8] it can only be considered suitable for purposes
of maintenance or a very slow production, and is quite
unfit for the rapid and large production of meat, fat,
or milk. The normal food of cattle is grass such as
is found on a good pasture, and this possesses an
albuminoid ratio of [1 : 4] to [1:6].
Cows can only be expected to produce a liberal yield
of milk, calves a normal rate of growth, and fat beasts
a satisfactory increase in live-weight, when the albu-
minoid ratio in their food is as high as that of pasture
PRODUCTIVE ALBUMINOID RATIOS. 225
grass, and its meclianical condition such as to make
possible tlie consumption of the necessary quantity of
food required by the animal. Cattle, feeding at will
on a pasturage, crop the young and tender grasses and
sweet herbs, and avoid the loug-stalked plants which
have run to seed, and as hay includes these latter it
cannot be considered a natural or possible substitute
for good pasturage.
Clover-hay of average quality has an albuminoid
ratio of [1:5] to [1:6], and would appear at first
sight a better food than hay ; but on account of its
great bulk and toughness it does not supply sufficient
digestible food-material for the animals, and must be
supplemented with some easily digestible auxiliary
food-stufi" of high albuminoid ratio if actual produc-
tion be desired. Young clover cut before flowering
and fed green has an albuminoid ratio as high as
[1:3] or [1:4]; exclusive feeding with this fodder,
therefore, involves a waste of albuminoids, and a better
result at less cost can be obtained by supplementing
the young clover with straw, chafi*, &c., and reducing
the albuminoid ratio to [1:5].
Clover in full- bloom of course requires no such
reduction, but may need the addition of a special nitro-
genous food-stufi^.
It is very remarkable that in cereal grain — the basis
of all kinds of bread — the albuminoid ratio lies between
[1:5] and [1 : 7]. Maize possesses a lower ratio than
barley, and this again a lower one than oats, rye, and
wheat.
Bran of all kinds has a ratio ranging between [1:4]
and [1:5]; while leguminous seeds, brewers^ grains,
Q
226 FEEDING STANDARDS.
malt sprouts, and " slump ^^ are highly nitrogenous, and
have an albuminoid ratio of [1 : 2] to [1:3]; oil-cakes
rank as high as [1:1] or [1 : 2].
These nitrogenous food-stuffs produce most excellent
results, even when fed in small quantity as an addition
to other food.
Milk is nature^s obvious standard of food for young
animals, and its albuminoid ratio is in agreement with
the standard we have set up. Calculating the fat as
its equivalent in starch, cow^s milk has an albuminoid
ratio of [1 :4'5], as deduced from an average compo-
sition of 3 parts of albuminoids, 3*5 of fat, and 5 of
sugar in a hundred. The milk of Carnivora has a
higher ratio than cow's milk ; human milk, on the
contrary, a lower.
The normal diet of human beings, which one can
certainly regard as "productive^' feeding, has been
made the subject of very many direct experiments day
by day. C. Voit found that a man doing average work
required
5 ozs. albumen per day,
12J ozs. carbohydrates „
4 ozs. fat „
[1 : 4-7] alb. ratio.
Other calculations specify
4j ozs. albumen per day.
18 ozs. carbohydrates „
2 ozs. fat jj
[1 : 5] alb. ratio.
FEEDING FOR MAINTENANCE. 227
CHAPTER II.
FEEDING FOR MAINTENANCE.
Oceen,
In order to determine, as a basis for the rational
feeding of ruminants, the minimum of food required
to maintain a full-grown animal at rest in a staU in
an average bodily condition, oxen were selected as
peculiarly suitable for the purpose of the investigation.
Oxen do not utilize any large quantity of their food-
supply in producing hair or excessive bodily excretions,
and the bulk of the food they eat is employed for the
simple purpose of bodily maintenance. Henneberg
and Stohmann, of Weende, conducted experiments on
oxen of a German breed from 4 to 6 years old. They
determined the digestibility of the food and the albumen
consumed, but they were unable to control the fat
consumption because the experiments were not con.
ducted in a respiration apparatus.
It was found that the animals could be maintained
m an apparently constant bodily condition without
appreciable variation in live-weight by providing the
following rations : —
q2
228 FEEDING FOR MAINTENANCE.
Per day per 1000 lbs. live- weight.
lbs. lbs. lbs.
1. 3'7 Clover-hay, 13 Oat-straw, and 06 Eape cake.
2. 2-6 „ 14-2 „ „ 0-5
3. 3-8 „ 13-3 Eye-straw, „ 0-6
4. 25-6 Mangolds, 126 Oat-straw „ I'O „
5. 19-5 Clover-hay.
Nutrients contained.
Albuminoids.
Nitrogen-free.
0-84 lb.
0-41 „
0-57 „
7-77 lbs.
7-04 „
7-4 „
Average
Albuminoid Eatio [1 : 13].
It was also found that when the temperature of the
stall was maintained at 62° to 69° F. a slight increase
of flesh resulted^ so that the food was fully sufficient
to maintain the bodies of the animals at a normal con-
dition. In one experiment in which the temperature
of the stall was as low as 57°, although the diet was
the highest quoted above, the animal slightly lost flesh,
owing to the increased demands of respiration. The
above standard diet contained 0*05 lb. phosphoric acid,
01 lb. lime, and 0 2 lb. potash and soda; and these
amounts are therefore perfectly sufficient for the main-
tenance of an ox per day per 1000 lbs. live-weight.
The water requii-ed per day varied from 52 to 64 lbs.
per 1000 live- weight, or an average of 5i gallons.
OXEN. 229
It is quite impossible to tell with certainty whether
the fat, as well as the flesh_, in the bodies of the oxen
remained constant during the experiments. It could
only be inferred from the general appearance and con-
dition of the animals that no Joss of fat had taken
place.
With reference to the results of further experiments
made at Weende, and of others elsewhere, in which no
loss of bodily flesh took place, I suggest that as the
temperature of the stall was rather high for winter (62°
to 69° F.), the averages of the numbers obtained are
too low for the minimum requirements of full-grown
oxen at rest, and should be increased to 0*7 lb. albu-
minoids, 8*4 lbs. digestible carbohydrates, giving a total
of 9'1 lbs. The albuminoid ratio is then [1 : 12] ; and
the total quantity of organic matter can be kept at
17^ lbs. per 1000 lbs. live-weight by providing straw
as the main fodder, and supplying hay or small quan-
tities of a special nitrogen-food with or without the
addition of roots.
The amount of digestible fat required to maintain an
ox is not great. In the Weende experiments it was
found to vary between 0*15 to 0*20 per 1000 lbs. live-
weight.
The results of practical experience agree with these
experimental deductions. Henneberg records two
instances, (a) at Weende and {b) elsewhere, of full-
grown oxen fed during the winter months on a constant
diet : —
230
FEEDING FOR MAINTENANCE.
{a).
[lbs. per 1000 lbs. live-weight.]
12-9 Straw.
7'1 Sainfoin-hay.
0-4 Bean-meal.
0*4 Rape cake.
EquiTalent to : —
r 1 lb. Albumen.
7*8 Carbohydrates.
8-8 Total " real food."
1
(6).
[do.]
^16-3 Barley-straw.
0-4 Aftermath.
2-0 Clover-hay.
1"3 Pea-straw.
2*9 Mixed Barley- and
Oat-meal.
Equivalent to : —
r 0*7 Albumen.
<( 8-8 Carbohydrates.
I 9-5 Total " real food."
The animals fed on ration [a) increased 70 to 90 lbs.
apiece ; the oxen fed on ration {h) performed light
draught-labour without losing in condition.
In the first part of this book we recognized as a
general law of animal nutrition that an animal does
not increase, but rather loses in bodily substance, if
with a constant amount of food the proportion of the
albuminoids is increased, as in the Weende experi-
ments. If, for example, an ox receiving 9-1 lbs. of
food, of which 0*7 consists of albuminoids, receives
instead 1*5 lbs. of albuminoids and 7'Q lbs. of carbo-
hydrates, the excess of albuminoids will be decomposed
and hardly any of it be stored up as flesh. It is highly
important to guard against too high an albuminoid
ratio in feeding cattle for maintenance, as not only is
the food itself more expensive than necessary, but it is
also wasted. Still less satisfactory results will follow
if the amount of the albuminoids be reduced and the
carbohydrates be increased to the same extent. An
undue increase of albuminoids will not efi'ect a large
production of flesh, nor will an excessive proportion of
OXEN. 231
carbohydrates conduce to an increase of the live-weight
of an animal^ if the necessary amount of albuminoids be
lacking.
When we desire to do more than merely maintain
the animal and bring about an actual production of any
kind, we must at the same time increase both the
supply of albuminoids and carbohydrates in the food,
but in variable proportion as suited to the particular
end in view. In deciding on this proportion, we must
bear in mind the bodily condition of the animal. If
the latter is rich in flesh but poor in fat, a rather lower
albuminoid ratio is calculated to bring about a further
increase of flesh, than if the animal be proportionately
rich in fat and lacking in flesh. In this latter case a
high albuminoid ratio will be required for the quickest
and most satisfactory production of flesh. Fat produced
from the albumen or other materials in the food is
more easily retained and stored up in the body of a
fleshy than that of a fat animal. A high albuminoid
ratio often induces a very rapid fattening, although the
albumen may not be actually stored up as such.
These facts and observations make it abundantly
evident that it is impossible to fix an albuminoid ratio
at constant value for any particular object in feeding —
variations always occur in individual instances, and the
values given, and in fact all feeding data, must be
regarded as only general averages and approximately
correct in individual cases.
232 PRODUCTION OF WOOL.
CHAPTER III.
THE PRODUCTION OF WOOL.
We have already seen that the food required to
maintain a sheep is proportionately greater than that
required by an ox. A certain amount of the albuminoids
in the food of sheep is involved in the production of
wool. Owing to their lively and active habits and their
comparative restlessness even in a pen, sheep necessarily
require a high amount of material for respiration, and
the more so as they give up a greater proportion of heat
by radiation from their bodies than larger animals
(see p. 70).
It is really remarkable, all things considered, that
the food required to maintain a sheep as compared with
an ox is so small as it really is. This is doubtless due
to the thick coveriug of wool which reduces the radiation
and conduction of heat from their bodies, and thus
economizes the food required for respiration. Under
equal conditions, a goat of the same live-weight as a
sheep requires more food for its maintenance than the
sheep.
Henneberg has conducted elaborate experiments on
the feeding of sheep at Weende, in which not only were
the visible excretions determined and analyzed, but by
PRODUCTION OF WOOL. 233
the additional assistance of a respiration apparatus a
complete account of the ^'consumption'^ and "pro-
duction '' was rendered possible [cf. p. 32) .
The sheep experimented upon were of a coarse- woolled
Gottingen breed, 4 J years old and weighing 106 lbs.
apiece (including wool). They were fed entirely on
hay of average quality and received 26 lbs. (containing
21*4 lbs. of dry matter) per day per 1000 lbs. live-
weight (excluding wool). They digested 1'32 lbs. of
albuminoids, 10*21 lbs. of carbohydrates, and 0*32 lb. of
fat, or, if the fat be calculated as carbohydrates, 11*38
lbs. of total non-nitrogenous matter.
A small bodily increase of 3 ozs. of albumen and
5 ozs. of fat per 1000 lbs. live- weight took place each
day. The food supplied was therefore more than
adequate for the maintenance of the animals; and if we
deduct from the food supplied that stored up in the
body, we shall have the exact amount of food required
to maintain a sheep in a constant condition. This
amounts to about 2 ounces of albumen and 17 ounces
of non-nitrogenous nutrients (calculated as carbo-
hydrates) per head per day ; or, expressed as *' per 1000
lbs. live-weight per day,^^ is equal to
1'14 lbs. of albumen.
10*63 lbs. of total carbohydrates.
11-77 lbs. Total digestible food.
Albuminoid ratio =[1 : 9*3}.
Further experiments were made at Weende on the
same sheep, and the following data (each obtained from
the average of 5 single experiments) may be taken as a
summary of the results : —
234
PRODUCTIOX OF WOOL.
Weende Sheep
Experiments.
[lbs. per 1000 lbs. live-weight.]
Digested
Albuminoids.
Digested
Carbohydrates
and Fat.
Total
digested
food.
Albuminoid
Eatio.
Gain(+)or
Loss (-) of
Albuminoids.
(«)
W
(c)
Average.
104
1-56
1-11
1-24
9-49
9-54
11-70
10-24
10-53
11-10
12-81
11-48
[1 : 9-1]
[1 : 6-1]
[1 : 10-5]
[1 : 8-5]
-0-042
-0-006
+0-124
+0-025
The average of the 15 experiments shows an insigni-
ficant increase of albumen (0'025 Ib.^ or | of an ounce).
We thus see that with sheep^ as with oxen, a high albu-
minoid ratio is to be avoided if they are only to be kept
in condition and not to be actually fattened.
The following results on sheep were obtained at
Hohenheim, the figures being given as lbs. per 1000
lbs. live-weight (exclusive of wool) : —
Albuminoids
digested.
Carbohydrates
and Fat digested.
Total food
digested.
Series I
1-37
1-23
8-92
9-93
10-29
11-16
Series n
These figures are in substantial agreement with
those obtained at Weende. The food used at Hohen-
heim contained less carbohydrates and was smaller in
WEENDE SHEEP EXPERIMENTS.
235
quantity than that employed at Weende, and the
animals slightly lost in weight. The loss of weight
was more marked with sheep of the '' Electoral '' breed
than with ^' Southdowns '^ or ^'^ Wiirttembergs.^^ Sheep
with a fine fleece are always smaller than coarse-woolled
breeds, and on this account require a greater amount
of food in proportion to their weight.
The results of these careful investigations show that
full-grown sheep kept solely for wool can be maintained
on a diet consisting of the following : —
Per 1000 lbs. live-weight per diem.
Digestible
Albuminoids.
lbs.
Digestible
Carbohydrates
and Fats.
lbs.
Total
Organic
matter
digested.
Albuminoid
Eatio.
(a) Larger Breeds.
(&) Smaller Breeds.
1-2
1-5
10-8
120
12
13-5
[1:9]
[1:8]
The digestible fat in the food amounted in (a) to
0*20 lb., in {b) to 0*25 lb., and the total crude organic
matter of the food varied from 20 to 22 lbs. The daily
production of '^ washed '' wool varied from 0*12 to 0*2
lb. per day. These results are referred to 1000 lbs.
^' shorn " weight ; and they might also be used without
alteration for unshorn sheep, as any error involved
would be on the right side.
Feeding for Wool.
Diet has a distinct influence (within certain limits)
on the production of wool. A fattening diet produces
236
PRODUCTION OF WOOL.
no more wool than a ration which is adequate for
maintenance. Henneberg found at Weende that sheep
produced 0-141 lb. of wool (per day per 100 lbs. live-
weight), equal to 0*273 per cent, of their shorn-weight,
when fed on a maintenance diet, and 0*141' lb. of
wool, equivalent to 0'286 per cent, of the shorn-weight,
when fed on a fattening diet. Similar results were
obtained at Hohenheim on young sheep when fed on
a rich diet for 9 months ; the live-weight rose from
56 lbs. to 102 lbs., while others fed on hay only increased
from 56 to 80 lbs. Although there was so great a differ-
ence in live-weight, the quantity of wool was absolutely
the same. The wool of the fat sheep which had been fed
on corn was beautifully white, while that of the sheep
fed on hay was of the usual dirty colour, and even after
washing appeared grey in comparison to the other
wool.
Wool per head,
lbs.
Washed ^vool.
lbs.
Washed wool
(after extraction.
of fat).
Sheep fed on corn.
Sheep fed on hay.
4|
51
3i
2 lbs. 6 ozs.
2 lbs. 6 ozs.
Results quite the opposite of these have been obtained
from experiments on Rambouillet sheep, by Weiske
at Proskau, in which he found an increase of 12*5
per cent, in the wool produced by a fattening diet
as compared with ordinary maintenance. These ex-
periments also contradict the popular idea that the
production of wool is most rapid in the winter, as it was
PROSKAU SHEEP EXPERIMENTS.
237
found that the production of wool throughout the year
was as follows : —
Season.
Wool produced.
Winter
261 per cent.
37-0 „ „
360 „ „
Spring
Summer
Total
100
Experiment showed that repeated shearing yielded
more wool than a single shearing. When a sheep was
shorn 6 times a year, 20 per cent, more wool was
obtained than by a single shearing at the end of 12
months ; at the same time the animal, having been fed
on the same diet throughout^lost weight when frequently
shorn on account of the increased loss of heat from its
body. The growth of wool is slowest in November and
December, and most rapid in March and April, and is
more influenced by the season than by the temperature
of the air.
If the food supplied is not sufficient for the main-
tenance of a sheep in fair condition, the production of
wool suffers in consequence. The Weende experiments
have shown that a slight loss in weight does not
necessarily cause a decrease in the amount of wool
produced. If, however, the animal loses more than a
certain amount in weight, a very marked decrease in
the production of wool is inevitable. The wool pro-
duced in three instances was as follows :—
238 PRODUCTION OF WOOL.
Method of feeding.
Wool per day as
percentage of ' ' shorn-weight."
(a) Insufficient nourishment.
(h) Moderate „
ic) Good
0-237 per cent.
0-292 „ „
0-306 „ „
It was further found that a diet insufficient for normal
maintenance does not seriously affect the yield of wool
if the food be rich in nitrogen^ and that, under other-
wise equal conditions, albuminoids favour the production
of wool. Roberts and Wing (U.S.A.) have confirmed
this by experiments on lambs.
Our experiments at Hohenheim are completely in
agreement with these conclusions.
Hohenheim Experiments on Wool-production.
Two lots of 6 sheep each were fed on a rich nitro-
genous diet of hay and bean-meal just sufficient to
keep them at a constant weight (102 lbs.), and in 121
days each lot had produced 10 lbs. of washed wool.
Two other divisions were fed on straw and mangolds,
and as they lost over 2 lbs. a head in weight, the diet
was obviously insufficient ; the wool produced was only
7i lbs. A fifth division (6 sheep) had a poorer diet still,
consisting of 2 parts of hay and 1 of oat-straw, and
the animals lost 12 lbs. each in weight. The wool pro-
duced was 8 lbs., or rather more than that produced by
lots 3 and 4.
experiments on wool-proi>uction. 239
Table of Results.
Lots.
Diet.
Loss in live-weight.
Wool produced
per head.
Do. as percentage
of shorn-weight.
I- I
11./
in.-i
IV. J
V.
Hay and
Bean-meal.
Straw and
Mangolds
Hay and
Straw.
nil.
2 lbs. per head.
12 lbs. per head.
10 lbs.
n lbs.
8 lbs.
31-9
26-5
27-3
This shows that even with a sparing diet of hay there
is still a considerable production of wool, but that the
maximum is at once attained by a diet rich enough to
keep the sheep in good condition. The results of
feeding mangolds and straw clearly show that this is
not an economical diet ; not only was the wool less in
quantity, but the animals lost considerably in weight.
240 PRODUCTION OF WORK.
CHAPTER IV.
THE PRODUCTION OF WORK.
§ 1. TVork and Rest.
We have already learnt tliat thoroughly developed
muscles in good practice are the first essentials for hard
and continuous physical exercise, and that a high
proportion of organized and circulatory albumen is
requisite for the production of the necessary energy.
In order to maintain an animal in strong working
condition, more food with a higher albuminoid ratio
is necessary than that required for keeping an animal
at rest in a stall in fair bodily condition.
TVork itself does not involve the decomposition of
more albumen than rest {cf. p. 76), but a continuous
and severe form of work can only be satisfactorily per-
formed if abundance of albumen be supplied in the
food and the general activity of digestion kept at a
high pitch.
Although the digestion of albumen is directly deter-
mined by the supply and the bodily condition of the
animal, the oxidation of fat is considerably increased by
muscular exercise. Fat or carbohydrates in the food
can prevent loss of fat from the animaFs body.
Fat is so concentrated a food for the purposes of
DRAUGHT OXEN. 241
respiration^ that under certain conditions it should be
added to the food o£ working animals. It is very-
obvious that an increased supply of both albuminoids
and non-nitrogenous nutrients should be provided in
the food of animals doing hard work and in quantity
proportional to the work done, as the animals would
otherwise lose in condition.
§2. Draught Oxen
require little more food for moderate work than for
complete rest in the stall (see p. 7Q). For hard work
the albuminoids should be increased from 0*7 to 1*6
lb., and the carbohydrates from 8*4 to 12 lbs. per 1000
lbs. live-weight per day. The albuminoid ratio of this
'^ working ration ^' is [1 : 7*5], while that of the main-
tenance diet is only [1 : 12] .
The working diet might be given in the form of good
hay with a small addition of a concentrated food-stuff,
or this combination might be replaced by clover-hay
and straw, or, again, by straw with a little roots and
some special nitrogen-food.
The bulk of the organic matter in the daily ration
specified above is about 52 lbs. The amount of fat
required by oxen doing moderate ^ork at a quiet pace
is not very great, as they can make much use of carbo-
hydrates owing to the size of their digestive organs.
The average diet of such oxen only contains 5 ozs. of
fat per day per 1000 lbs. live-weight. Oxen doing really
hard work ought to have more fat than this, and the
addition of oil-cake to increase the fat to 9 ozs. per
dav is to be recommended.
j342 PRODUCTION OF WORK.
§ 3. Horses,
The general food o£ a farm horse is simply hay and
oats, with a greater or less quantity of chaff. The most
desirable quantity and proportion of these three articles
of food are very variable. In fact the food requirements
of horses are more subject to variation than those of
any other farm animal. The temperament of a horse
prohibits a high diet when it is doing no work and is
resting in the stable, but directly it does hard work a
high diet of oats is necessary to keep it in condition.
For the average work of farm horses, the following diet
is adequate : —
(Per day per 1000 lbs. live- weight.)
1 lb. 9 ozs. digestible albuminoids.
11 lbs. 3 ozs. digestible carbohydrates.
[1 : 7] albuminoid ratio.
21 lbs. total dry matter in food.
8 ozs. digestible fat (included in
the carbohydrates).
The fat is mainly derived from oats, which contain
more fat than any other cereal ; and this fact must be
borne in mind when oats are replaced by any other
food-stuff in the diet of a horse. When horses are doing
very hard work, the diet might well be increased as
follows : —
Digestible albuminoids 2*5 lbs.
,5 carbohydrates 13*8 lbs.
Total digestible food 16*3 lbs.
Albuminoid ratio [1 : 5*5].
HORSES. g43
An even higher diet than this is often given to
dray and heavy cart-horses, as it is not an un-
common practice to feed such horses on oats and bean-
meal.
For hunters, hacks, and carriage horses doing plenty
of work, a diet of oats alone with an albuminoid ratio
of [1 : 6] or [1 : 7] is found advantageous.
Feeding horses entirely on hay is not so satisfactory
as with cows, because horses eat less of it (not more
than 56 lbs. a day), and cannot digest hay so well as
the ruminants {cf. p. 134).
The diet of working oxen and horses is very similar
on the whole, the only difference being that oxen can
do with more hay and straw. Many experiments on the
food-requirements of horses, extending over a number
of years, have been carried out at Hohenheim, and
recently interesting results have been obtained at Paris
and at the Agricultural College at Berlin. Great
variations were obtained in the amount of food-con-
stituents digested by horses, dependent on the pro-
portion of hay and straw to the oats or other concen-
trated food-stuff used. Uniform results could only be
obtained by leaving the crude fibre entirely out of
consideration, and simply regarding the other food-
constituents as actually concerned in digestion (cf
p. 111). ^•^*
The following results have been obtained hj various
experimenters : —
r2
244
PRODUCTION OF WORK.
Food required to maintain a horse at rest.
(lbs. per 1000 lbs. live-weight.)
Total digestible
matter.
Crude fibre.
Digestible matter
minus
crude fibre.
1.
2.
9 lbs. 6 ozs.
8 lbs. 6 ozs.
1 lb. 13 ozs.
13 ozs.
7 lbs. 9 ozs.
7 lbs. 9 ozs.
3.
9 lbs. 6 ozs.
1 lb. 15 ozs.
7 lbs. 7 ozs.
4.
8 lbs. 1 oz.
8^ ozs.
71bs.8J-ozs.
•
7 lbs. 12 ozs.
5| ozs.
7 lbs. ^ ozs.
1 & 2. Hohenheim experiments.
3. Average of 38 experiments at Hohenheim.
4. Average of 6 experiments b}- Grandeau and Leclerc at Paris.
(Diet : 1 part hay and 3 parts of a mixture of oats, maize,
beans, and oil-cake.)
5. Eesults obtained by Lehmann at Berlin.
The following deductions can be drawn from these
and other experiments as to the rational feeding of
horses : —
1. The crude fibre digested by the horse from any
source appears absolutely useless for the nourish-
ment and maintenance of the animal.
2. If the crude fibre be deducted from the food, the
remaining nutrients in both coarse and concen-
trated fodder possess the same value in every
form of food.
HORSES.
245
3. To maintain a horse in stable^ about 7^ lbs. of food
composed of digestible albuminoids and carbo-
hydrates (including fat multiplied by the factor
2*4) are necessary.
4. For every additional pound of this nourishment a
horse will be enabled to produce 1,736,000 foot-
pounds of work (see p. 89) .
The following results were obtained from direct
experiments : —
Digestible organic matter.
K
Hay
Clover-hay
Lucerne -hay
Oats
Barley
Maize
Beans
Peas
Lupines
Linseed cake
Total.
T-^, [Without
I ^^''- I Fibre.
■)
(Per cent, of dry matter,
Equivalent of
Work. I
Per lb. of dry matter.* ;
(Foot-lbs.) I
40-6
11-4
411
120
46-2
110
60-2
20
70-7
4-1
800
1-5
72-4
4-5
66-7
0-5
63-4
8-7
63-4
—
29-2
29-1
35-2
.58-2
66-6
78-5
67-9
66-2
54-7
63-4
481,800
480,150
580,800
960,300
1,098,900
1,295,250
1,120,350
1,092,300
302,550
1,221,000
With regard to the leguminous fodders, it must be
remembered that the cellulose they contain is of a more
digestible kind than that in hay, and on this account
their feeding-value is rather greater than that apparent
* In the original table the " work " is expressed as " Idlogram-
metres per kilo of dry matter ; " 3 "foot-pounds per lb." are approxi-
mately equal to " 1 kgm. per kilo/' and the figures in this column
have been obtained by multiplying by 3.
246 PRODUCTION OF WORK.
from the foregoing table. Foods rich in fat are
desirable when the horses are doing very hard work-
Nitrogenous foods like beans and lupines do not
render possible a greater production of work than
foods of medium albuminoid ratio, provided of course
that a sufficiency of albuminoids be provided in the
latter.
This minimum amounts to 2^ or 3 ozs. of nitrogen
per day per 1000 lbs. live-weight, but is still more
for unusually strong and muscular horses, or for those
doing heavy work, or for fast-trotting hacks and hunters.
Maize has recently been introduced as a substitute
for oats ; 4 lbs. of maize being equivalent to 5 lbs. of
oats.
C. Lehmann makes the following statement : —
'^ Maize contains a high proportion of digestible carbo-
hydrates and tends to make the animals fat and very
liable to sweat ; while it improves their appearance, it
somewhat detracts from their physical energy.^^
The horses of the Berlin Tramways Co. are fed to a
considerable extent on maize, and for all animals in
regular work such food does not tend to produce a fat
and lazy condition. Horses which are occasionally
idle and occasionally undergoing great exertion require
a high nitrogenous diet. We recommend the following,
to practical men : —
To replace 11 lbs. of oats :
Give the horse 5 lbs. oats,
3 lbs. maize,
r IJ lbs. beans, or
11 lb. oil-cake.
HORSES. 247
Dried Brewers' Grains and dried ^^ Slump '^ may be
given in the following quantities : —
Hard work
7^ lbs. oats, per day.
9 lbs. " grains,'^
16i lbs. hay.
I oz. salt.
!54 lbs. oats, per day.
^ oz. salt.
The effect of dried grains has been found to be A^ery
uncertain, and on that account the use of '^ grains ^^
has been given up by the German War Department.
In any case, care should be taken not to give too much
at a time, and to make an addition of such palatable
foods as oats, maize, or wheat-bran. Brewers' grains
are very apt to undergo fermentation and to be impreg-
nated with the foul and unpleasant products of bacteria.
This is due to the fact that they cannot be dried at a
high temperature as their digestibility would be seriously
affected, and there is thus no adequate check on the
growth of micro-organisms.
The flavour o£ food is most important for horses, a&
they are extremely sensitive and easily upset by anything
unusual or unpleasant.
^48 PRODUCTION OF MILK.
CHAPTER V.
THE PRODUCTION OF MILK.
It is highly important that we should have a clear
understanding of the way in which milk is formed in
the body before we consider the effect o£ feeding on
the quantity and quality of the milk produced.
§ 1. Formation of Milk in the Body.
Milk is not a simple secretion and is not separated
from the blood in the same sort of way as the urine
fdters through the kidneys^ but is first formed in the
milk-glands, and is principally the result of the breaking
up of the gland-cells, and is in reality, to quote Voit,
a ^^ liquefied oryan.'^ This fact is indicated by the com-
position of the ash of milk, which contains a considerable
amount of lime and phosphoric acid — a characteristic of
all animal tissues as distinguished from the plasma and
the various liquids separated from the blood. These
latter contain a considerable quantity of common salt.
The ash of milk contains 3 to 5 times as much potash
as soda, while that of blood is 3 to 5 times richer in
soda than potash. If milk were a transudation product
of the blood, it could not possibly serve as a perfect and
complete food as it would obviously lack some of the
materials necessary for the growth of cells. Since
FORMATION OF MILK IN THE BODY. 249
milk is the direct product o£ liquefied cells, it provides
Ihe young with the food required for growth in the
most suitable form and proportion.
The formation of milk is also indicated by the com-
position of the so-called Colostrum, which is the name
given to the first milk produced after the birth of the
calf. Colostrum contains small rounded gland-cells,
but after a few days the growth and liquefaction of
the cells proceed at such a rate in the milk-glands, that
whole cells cease to appear in the milk and are resolved
into the usual " milk-globules/^
Milk is an organ that has been liquefied by fatty
degeneration. The original cells from which the milk
has been produced are composed of albumen which is
changed into the constituents of the milk as soon as
the cells commence activity.
Casein is not found in the blood, but results from
the decomposition of cells, and this explains the fact
that colostrum contains no casein but only ordinary
albumen, and the amount of casein slowly increases
with the growing activity of the milk-glands. Even
the ^^ sugar of milk " it appears, is not supplied as such
to the milk-glands, but is formed in the glands them-
selves by the decomposition of albumen or fat. It is
possible that the grape-sugar produced from albumen
and contained in the blood and liver may also undergo
a change into milk-sugar.
The milk-glands possess a very independent existence.
They absorb material from the blood-capillaries and
lymphatics, and by the disruption of the epithelial cells
which line the interior of the milk-glands, milk is
produced.
250 PRODUCTION OF MILK.
These self-contained functions find further confirm-
ation in the fact that in the udder no nerves connected
with the central nervous system have been found
which could possibly aff'ect the secretion of milk.
Because the capacity of the udder and the dry matter
of the glands appear too small in proportion to the milk
produced, some have assumed that the act of milking^
stimulated the flow of milk. It is difficult to harmonize
this view with the fact that the composition of milk is
practically constant and with the wonderful elasticity of
the organs. C. Lehmann has shown that the supposed
increased rate of production of milk during milking
cannot be appreciable, if it take place at all. Just
before milking, a deep blue dye was injected into the
blood of a goat. No immediate effect was produced on
the colour of the milk during milking, but only after
an hour or two, while the urine and skin of the animal
were almost immediately dyed a deep blue.
§ 2. Quantity and Quality of Milk,
It is very evident that both the quantity and quality
of the milk must be primarily determined by the size
and general growth of the milk-glands.
It is a matter of common knowledge, that two cows
fed in exactly the same way often yield very different
quantities of milk, and that some breeds produce more
butter than others. After the first calf, a cow produces
less milk than after the third or fourth. The age of
the animal and the duration of the period of lactation
often have a greater influence on the amount of milk
produced than the method of feeding, while the growth
of the milk-glands reaches its maximum at or soon
EFFECT OF FEEDING. 251
after the birth of the calf, and the glands gradually
decrease in activity from this time.
Badly developed glands can never produce large
quantities of milk, even with a most nutritious food.-
It is very evident that for the successful production of
milk, cows of suitable breed and of individual me^rits are
the^r^^ essejitial.
Mere size of udder is no safe guide, as profitable
production depends rather on the rapid breaking-up
and rebuilding of the cells and the quality of the milk,,
than on the mere size of the glands.
§ 3. Effect of Feeding.
It is evident from the foregoing description of the
way in which milk is produced, that diet is only a
secondary consideration in milk-production ; but at tie
same time the manner and extent of the feeding have ar
very marked effect on the quantity of milk produced.
Before everything else, a liberal supply of albumen
favours the production of milk, because it induces a
continued and rapid building of gland-cells, which
latter are principally built up with and charged from
albumen. The albumen in the food, however, must
pass into the plasma, for the most part as circulatory
albumen, and thus rapidly reinforces the milk-glands.
The albuminoid ratio must not be too low, or else
the liberal secretion of milk will be reduced on account
of the storing up of flesh and fat in the body. On
the other hand, too high an albuminoid ratio is to be
avoided, as it involves the risk of a considerable pro-
portion of the albumen in the food undergoing decom-
252 PRODUCTION OF MILK.
position, aucl thus becoming useless for the production
of milk.
Too high a ratio is still more undesirable, because the
albumen digested from the food will not pass on to the
milk-glands as sucli, but will first be largely decomposed
into fat, and this latter will come in contact with the
gland-cells. We can, however, provide milch-cows with
a diet of higher albuminoid ratio than fat beasts, since
with the former the excess of albumen is rapidly
excreted in the milk, and has not so direct a tendency
to increase the decomposition and waste of the albumen
in the tissues of the body.
A sufficient quantity of " circulatory albumen '' is
especially necessary for obtaining and maintaining a
high yield of milk, and everything calculated to increase
the stream of albumen in the body must be considered,
within certain limits, as equally conducive to an in-
creased flow of milk (see p. 39 et seq.).
A large supply of water often increases the yield of
milk without reducing its quality.
All practical observations and experiments have shown
that not only should the diet of a milch-cow be adequate
in quantity but that it should also be exceptionally rich
in nitrogen. Such a diet maintains a high production
of milk for a much longer period than a food relatively
poor in nitrogen. This is a very important point, even
if the daily difl^erence between the yield of milk on the
rich and poor diets be not a very large one. The poor
average yield of milk resulting from a diet of ordinary
hay can only be attributed to a lack of albuminoids in
the food.
A good daily yield of milk can only bs maintained
EFFECT OF FEEDING.
25S
on hay of exceptional quality, on good pasturage, or
by supplementing hay with a richer food-stuff. The
reduction in the yield of milk is generally very marked
and rapid, as soon as the albuminoids in the food are
reduced, although the carbohydrates and fats may still
be supplied in abundance.
The following experimental results have been ob-
tained :- —
Wliere observed.
Yield of Milk.
With Food rich in
Albumen.
(Per Cow per day.)
With Food lacking
Albumen.
(Per Cow per day.)
21 lbs. 5 OZ8.
29 lbs. 8 ozs.
If) lbs. 13 ozs.
]« lbs. 6 ozs.
The cows lost in weight on the insufficient diet, and
still more lost in general appearance and condition.
It is true that a food which is not rich in nitrogen,
but is nevertheless appreciated by the cows, often
produces a large yield of milk. The intensity of milk-
production is such with good milch-cows, that a high
rate of milk-production is often maintained for a long
time despite a poor and inadequate diet. This is
effected at the expense of the flesh and fat of the body,
and the cow becomes more or less thin.
It is highly important not to allow cows to lose
condition, as not only are the quality and quantity of
the milk affected, but it is often a very difficult and
254 PRODUCTION OF MILK.
tedious matter to get such a cow into good condition
again and restore a high standard of milk even by most
liberal feeding.
The albumen in the food provides directly or in-
directly the casein of the milk as well as the material
from which the milk-fat (butter^) is produced.
Experiments at Mockern and others at Hohenheim
have shown that when cows had been fed on such a
poor diet that the yield of milk had been considerably
reduced^ and the animals eventually brought to a
condition of ^^ nitrogen equilibrium '^ between the food
supplied and the matter excreted, — that even under these
extreme conditions the albumen and fat resorbed from
the food fully accounted for the fat (butter) found in
the milk (see p. 59) . With a very rich and nitrogenous
diet, even the milk-sugar found in the milk can be
traced to the fat produced from the albuminoids.
In the case of Carnivora, the sugar in the milk must
have been formed from albumen ; while with Herbivora
it is highly probable that the carbohydrates in their
food contribute to the production of milk-sugar.
From a careful study and consideration of the large
number of recent investigations on the production
^f milk, I conclude that the following represents
The Feeding Standard of a Milch-Cow.
(Pounds per 1000 lbs. live- weight per day.)
r Digestible albuminoids 2 lbs. 8 ozs.
J, carbohydrates 13 lbs. 8 ozs.
,j fats 7 ozs.
I Total bulk of dry fodder 24 lbs.
L Albuminoid ratio [1 : 5*4].
EFFECT OF FEEDING. 255
The above standard fairly represents the food pro-
Tided by a good pasturage. It is true that a diet
rather poorer than this, containing 2 lbs. of albuminoids
instead of 2^ lbs. per day, may produce a satisfactory
yield of milk, but at the same time the latter is not the
maximum possible, nor can it be expected to last any
length of time, especially if the cow loses in condition.
In my opinion a standard of 2h lbs. of digestible albu-
minoids should be aimed at under all circumstances.
We will assume that a cow yields 20 lbs. of milk per
1000 lbs. live-weight over a period of several months.
The casein and albumen in 20 lbs. of milk amount
to 10 ozs., the fat to 11 ozs. ; and as two parts of
albumen are required for the production of one part of
fat (100 : 51-4), the albumen required by 20 lbs. of milk
would be (10 + 22) ozs.= 2 lbs.
Even if we assume that all the fat resorbed from the
food of the cow is employed in the production of milk,
a standard of less than 2^ lbs. of digestible albumen
would leave little or no reserve of albumen for main-
taining the energy of digestion, for the production of
the gastric juices, the calf, &c. The effect of an increased
supply of food up to or even beyond the standard we
have laid down will be greatest with the best milch-
cows, and will be greater with a small cow than with a
larger animal yielding the same amount of milk. It
is highly advisable to classify the different cows in a
stall according to their individual milking capacity, and
to feed each group on a diet best calculated to promote
a maximum yield, lasting over a considerable period,
without involving any waste of food.
256 PRODUCTION OF MILK.
§ 4. Quantity of Milk.
Both the digestible albuminoids and fat of the food
contribute towards milk-production, and both ought to
be taken into consideration, as they undoubtedly have a
very great influence not only on the Quantity but on the
Quality of the milk. All the experiments made on the
feeding of cows have shown that we are quite safe in
concluding, at any rate for cows, that
[a) Additional fat in the food increases the yield of
milk ;
(b) Under these conditions, the proportion of the
constituents of milk is absolutely unaltered.
We can easily understand that additional fat in the
food would save some of the albumen from undergoing
decomposition, and thus render it available for the
production of milk. Fat thus increases the total
quantity of milk constituents without aff'ecting their
proportion to one another.
The fat in the food can only assist in the direct
increase of milk-fat to an extent limited by its power
of passing through the membranes of the body by
Endosmosis.
In some experiments at Hohenheim, cows were first
fed on such a poor diet that a rapid decrease in the
production of milk resulted. Fat (rape- and linseed-
oil) was then provided at the rate of 1 lb. per cow per
day, and it was found that neither the quantity of the
milk nor its percentage of fat were increased thereby.
If anything, the milk contained less fat and more water
than before.
QUANTITY OF MILK. 257
G. Kiihn and Fleischer found in some experiments at
Mockern that the addition of 1 pound of rape-oil to a
rich diet increased the yield of milk 1 pound a day,
while the percentage composition of the milk remained
unaltered. In some other experiments it was found
that the addition of a pound of rape-oil to a diet of
hay increased the yield of milk 8 ounces, while the
percentage of fat in the milk-solids was distinctly
reduced.
Stohmann experimented with goats, and found that
the addition of oil to a rich nitrogenous diet of hay
and oil- cake decidedly increased the amount of fat in
the milk, but that the addition of oil to a poor diet of
plain hay reduced the percentage of butter-fat.
At the same time it is quite open to question whether
these results observed with goats would hold good for
cows. The former are in many respects very different
from the latter. In Stohmann's experiments, for
instance, 6| to 6f lbs. of albuminoids per 1000 lbs.
live-weight were required by the goats for a maximum
production of milk. This is more than twice that
required by a cow. It is highly probable, therefore,
that the limits to the direct contribution of the fat in
the food to that in the milk may be much wider for
goats than for cows.
Weiske has carried out similar experiments on ewes.
A certain ewe which had been fed on the following
diet: —
(Per day)
1 lb. Hay,
1 lb. Barley-meal,
2 lbs. Turnips,
258 PRODUCTION OF MILK.
■was then fed on : —
Green food \_ad lib.'\.
1 lb. Barley-meal.
J lb. Linsee dcake.
The yield of milk was not improved by the change
of diet_, though the percentage of fat in the milk was
increased 5 or 6 per cent. When fed on green fodder
alone, the yield of milk was considerably reduced,
while its composition proved identical with that pro-
duced on the original diet.
(a) A diet of 3 lbs. of hay per day rapidly reduced
the yield of milk from 25 ozs. to 21 ozs. per
day, while the percentage of milk-solids and
butter-fat increased.
{b) The addition of 5 ozs. of oil to the green fodder
did not improve the yield of milk, though the
fat and total solids were considerably increased.
Experiment.
Yield of Milk.
Total Solids.
Fat.
Before.
After.
(a)
25 0Z3.
21 ozs.
21 ozs.
21 ozs.
18-60 per cent.
19-64 „ „
7*15 per cent.
8-68 „ „
(b)
Fleischmann has investigated the yield of milk from
Dutch cows in various periods of lactation.
Period of
Yield of
Yield of
Lactation.
Milk.
BuUer.
1-5
7277 lbs.
277 lbs.
5-11
6208 lbs.
211 lbs
QUALITY OF MILK. 259
He also found that the smaller the weight of a cow
the greater the yield of milk in proportion : —
Yield of Milk per
Weight of Cow. 1000 lbs. live-weight.
1162 lbs. 5748 lbs.
1028 lbs. 6244 lbs.
978 lbs. 6670 lbs.
§5. Quality of Milk.
"We must always bear in mind when discussing the
production of milk, that its quality is even more
dependent than the quantity on the breed and indi-
viduality of the cow and is further influenced by the
special properties of the milk-glands.
No amount of feediug could possibly change the
milk of an inferior German cow into the rich milk of
an Alderuey. Such a radical improvement as this
could only be effected by careful breeding and a gradual
development in the desired direction. The prevalent
idea with some practical men that this improvement
may be attained by food alone, is based entirely on a
misconception of the way in which milk is produced.
A sudden change of food often causes a considerable
alteration in both the quantity and the composition of
the milk ; but it is always found that if the new food
be continued long enough the milk returns to its
original condition again. This has been well illus-
trated by experiments at Hohenheim, Mockern, and
elsewhere, in which daily analyses of milk have been
made for months in succession, rendering possible the
calculation of the average of very numerous results.
Isolated analyses or short periods of investigation
s2
260 PRODUCTION OF MILK.
arc quite valueless and only lead to errors and false
conclusions.
Fjord and Friis have carried out a systematic
investigation in Denmark for 5 years^ 1888-1892, on
the milk produced by 1152 cows divided into 112
groups and belonging to 9 different dairies. They found
that the composition of the milk was just the same
whether the cows received barley-meal or an equal
quantity of oil-cake as an addition to their ordinary diet.
Oil-cake, however, decidedly increased the yield of milk,
and also improved the condition of the cows to a small
extent.
The quality of milk has another and very important
connection with the manner of feeding. The appearance,
consistency, colour, keeping qualities, aroma, and
flavour of butter, as well as the ease or difficulty of its
separation from the milk, depend very much on the
food of the cow. With a food poor in nitrogen
and not much relished by the animals, the butter
obtained is generally hard like tallow and of poor
flavour. Such butter contains an excess of solid
fat (stearin), while the soft and oily fats (palmitin and
olein) are in less quantity.
It is well known that butter is not so good in the
winter as in the spring and autumn. The influence
of food in this respect is practically very great, though
the actual amount of fat in the milk may not be
affected by rich feeding. At the same time the amount
of water in the milk may fluctuate; and although
the composition of the milk-solids remains the same,
yet their total quantity may undergo considerable
variation.
QUALITY OF MILK. 261
The milk produced by feeding a cow continuously
on a poor diet is always more ivatery than that re-
sulting from a rich diet. In summer cows fed on
plenty of nitrogenous green fodder yield a richer
and more concentrated milk than on an ordinary diet
in winter, though the difference is not really so great
as is commonly supposed. A difference of only 4- or 1
per cent, in the amount of the milk-solids, however,
means a considerable variation in the yield of butter
obtained from the milk.
In certain cases, perhaps dependent on the individual
characteristics of the cows, a direct increase of the per-
centage of fat in the solid matter of the milk has been
found to be produced by an improved diet. G. Kiihn
has obtained such results at Mockern with palm-nut
cake and malt-sprouts. Bean-meal was found to have
no effect on the amount of fats in milk, while rape
cake sensibly reduced the percentage of the latter.
Recent researches by Schrodt at Kiel showed that
very favourable results could be obtained by feeding
with earth-nut and cotton cakes^ provided the cakes
were fresh and perfectly sound (see p. 271).
In practice the particular effect of any food is shown
by its influence on the quality of milk and butter. The
following table shows the effect of various typical
food-stuffs : —
Food,
Excess of Potatoes.
Excess of Turnips or Mangolds.
Meal from Barley, Spelt, or
Wheat.
Peas and Vetches.
Oats, Wheat bran.
Quality of Butter produced.
Hard, poor flavoui*.
Bitter taste.
Moderate consistency.
Harder consistency.
Softer consistency.
262 PRODUCTION OF MILK.
Oats are peculiarly favourable for the production of
milk^ and all starchy £oods_, such as grain, bran, rice-
meal, &c., improve the flavour of the milk and butter
produced, while oil-cakes are very apt to taint both
milk and butter, and should be used with great care
and not in too large a quantity. This precaution is
most necessary with rape cake and poppy-seed cake.
A. Mayer classifies food-stuff's according to their
effect on the consistency of butter as follows : —
(The order given is that of the hardness of the butter
produced. No. 1 food-stuff" yielding the hardest butter
in each case.)
Coarse Fodders.
1. Straw.
2. Hay.
3. Summer hay and Maize
fodder.
4. Mature grass.
5. Young gras?.
Concentrated Foods.
1. Poppy cake.
2. Linseed and Sesame cakes.
3. Earth-nut cake.
4. Rye.
5. Cotton-seed cake.
The order would be inverted if the foods were
classified according to their influence on the amount
of fluid fatty-acids in the butter produced.
§6. The Dry Substance of Milk.
Many natural circumstances and conditions, quite
apart from the manner of feeding, affect the proportion
of dry matter in milk.
The milk of a cow yielding a large quantity is
generally more dilute than that of another cow yielding
a smaller amount of milk. The yield gradually
diminishes from the birth of the calf, while the per-
centage of dry matter contained in the milk gradually
EFFECT OF FREQUENT MILKING. 263
increases. This increase is generally found to be due
to Casein, while the fats somewhat decrease in quantity.
That the above is not always the case, however, was
proved at Proskau by an investigation upon the milk
from eleven cows at times varying from 3 days to 9
months after calving. It was found that there was no
appreciable difference to be observed either in the per-
centage of dry matter or in that of fat between these
limits of time.
rieischmann, as a result of his researches, found that
if cows be fed on a very high diet, the percentage of
milk-solids and butter-fat steadily increased throughout
a lactation-period] and he maintains that if suitable
cows be fed on a diet far in excess of that usually
recognized and employed, they will pay still better
than if fed on an ordinary diet.
§ 7. Effect of frequent Milking.
The milk obtained from a cow at different times of
the same day is seldom of identical composition. Long
intervals between milking conduce to a more watery milk
than if the cow be milked more often. If milking be
performed three times a day, the milk at noon and in the
evening is better than that obtained in the morning.
It was found at Proskau that the milk obtained by
three milkings per day was superior both in quantity
and quality to that produced by two milkings. Kaull
proved that this increased yield was not due to the
mechanical process of milking, but was caused by the
frequent emptying of the milk-glands. Too frequent
milking is quite as bad as leaving the milk-glands too
long without relieving them of their contents.
264 PRODUCTION OF MILK.
The milk obtained at one milking also varies con-
siderably during the process. The first portions are
always poorer and more watery than the last portion.
All these natural variations and sources of error must
be most carefully guarded against in determining the
specific influence of a certain mode of feeding on the
milk produced.
§8. Mineral requirements of Cows.
Weiske has shown that lack of phosphoric acid and
lime in food reduces the yield of milk. Henneberg and
Stohmann found that an ox required per day per 1000
lbs. live-weight : —
Phosphoric acid... 0*8 oz.
Lime 1*6 ozs.
Potash 3*2 ozs.
If we assume that the milk produced by a good cow
throughout a lactation-period averages 20 lbs. per
1000 lbs. live-weighty this would contain : —
Phosphoric acid... 0*64 oz.
Lime 0*48 oz.
Potash 0-58 oz.
By adding these quantities to the requirements of an
ox as found by Stohmann, we obtain the following as
the Minimum Mineral requirements of a Cow : —
Phosphoric acid... 1*44 ozs.
Lime 2*08 ozs.
Potash 3*78 ozs.
GIVING SALT TO COWS.
265
Lack of potash is not a probable contingency, as it
always occurs largely in vegetable foods. The addition
of lime and phosphoric acid to the diet of milch-cows
is always worth consideration, but is not often
necessary.
In 30 lbs. of average hay (the usual quantity fed per
day per 1000 lbs. live- weight) are contained : —
2 ozs. Phosphoric acid.
4 ozs. Lime.
6j ozs. Potash.
Lime in the form of chalk is necessary when the cows
are entirely fed on such foods as straw, chaff, roots,
" slump '^ or sugar-beet residue. Phosphoric acid will
only be lacking in exceptional cases.
§ 9. Giving Salt to Cows.
Salt is an essential addition to the food of milch-
cows. First, because many foods are lacking in soda
and rich in potash (see p. 17) ; and secondly, because
salt stimulates the flow of the plasma, maintains the
circulatory albumen in more active movement, and
induces the cow to drink larger quantities of water, all
of which tend to increase the production of milk.
Even if the addition of salt to the rich diet of a
milch-cow should have no apparent effect on the quantity
and quality of the milk, still it will generally be found
that at any rate the cow herself looks the better for it,
and that a high yield of milk is well maintained.
It is also a matter of common knowledge that salt
improves the flavour of the food, increases the appetite
266 PRODUCTION OF MILK.
of the cow and induces it to eat food that it would not
otherwise relish.
Half an ounce of salt per day should be given to
each cow ; but care must be taken not to give more
than this, or else the effects will be quite the opposite
of those desired.
FEEDING or YOUNG ANIMALS.
267
CHAPTER VI.
THE FEEDING OF YOUNG ANIMALS.
Calves.— Although numerous practical observations
on the feeding of calves have been made, very many o£
them lack that scientific accuracy and general precision
which are requisite for the foundation of general
principles and laws.
The following results of experiments on calves by
Crusius, though made a long time ago, are still in-
teresting (p. 268) .
The milk employed was fairly nitrogenous, but poor
in fat, as it only contained 2-6 per cent, of butter-fat.
If calves No. I and 3 had been fed on average milk, the
albuminoid ratio would have been still lower.
We see that the increase in weight of the calves
varied with the food in each case. The difference is
not due to any specific effect of the fat in the food, but
is the direct outcome of the difference in the amount
of organic matter and variation in the albuminoid ratio
in each case.
The albuminoid ratio of the food of calf No. 2 was
too high, and a certain proportion of the albuminoids
in the food must have been oxidized in the body of the
animal. If the quantity of food had been increased,
the albuminoid ratio remaining the same, it is doubtful
whether any further increase of live-weight would have
268
FEEDING OF YOUNG ANIMALS.
Organic matter
in food
for 1 lb. increase.
lbs.
?c eg o
Tfl Tf t^
(fl CO Al
Increase in
weight
per week.
lbs.
CO o
22 ^ ^
[1 : 4-47]
[I : 2-05]
[1 : 5-40]
1
r"^' i
&H ^
CI Ttl 00
CO -^ t-
(M lO XO
00 «3 O
1 J
Tfi IC CO
CO "^ ■*!
Organic
matter.
lbs.
14-8
12-4
18-9
Live-
weight.
lbs.
1 S 2
Calf.
No.
^ ci CO
>»
,
■JS
>^
s
CS
T3
s
u
cr
<o
&I
s
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2
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6
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oc
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03
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CALVES. 269
resulted. The addition of fat in the third case pro-
duced very favourable results .
Experiment No. 1, in which the calf was fed entirely
on new milk^ gave a very satisfactory rate of increase_,
although the amount of fat and albuminoids in the
food was rather small. This illustrates the fact that
carbohydrates (milk-sugar in this case) can partially
replace fat in the food of young animals.
This last deduction from the experiments of Crusius
is of considerable practical importance^ since it shows
that young calves can be successfully reared on a
mixture of about equal quantities of milk and whey, or
even on separated milk with the addition of sugar or
starch in some digestible form.
It has also been found that calves can be successfnlly
fattened on skimmed milk (20 to 24 lbs. per day). An
increase at the rate of over 2 lbs. a day for several
"weeks can be obtained with a diet of skimmed milk,
supplemented towards the end of the time with some
other nourishing and digestible food.
I attribute the rapid increase in live-weight observed
in experiments 1 and 3 to the comparatively low
albuminoid ratio, and to the fact that the bodily increase
consisted mostly of flesh. Fat cannot produce any
very rapid increase in the weight of an animal, since
for the most part it simply replaces water which is
otherwise discharged from the body.
Ordinary flesh is three-fourths water, and one pound
of albumen produces 4 lbs. of flesh. It should always
be remembered, when estimating the growth of young
animals, that the proportion of water in the body is
much greater in a young than in an older one.
270 FEEDING OF YOUNG ANIMALS.
Fat. — If the fat of milk be completely replaced by
carbohydrates, a disturbance of the nutritive effect
results in the case of young animals. Fat is well
known to be a concentrated combustible material and of
greater value for respiration than any other food-stuff.
Milk-fat is highly digestible and adds to the general
flavour of the milk, and is thus a very valuable con-
stituent of the food of very young animals. Calves
should always be fed for the first fortnight on plain
cow^s milk. Average milk has an albuminoid ratio of
[1 : 4'5], but owing to the very variable proportion of
fat in milk (2 to 5 per cent.) the albuminoid ratio often
varies from [1 : 3*3] to [1 : 5*5]. This explains why
equal quantities of milk so often produce such different
feeding effects.
A calf fed with 22 lbs. of new milk (containing 3 lbs.
of dry matter) grows at the rate of 2\ lbs. per day
from the fourth to the sixth week of its existence.
This result has been accurately deduced by Soxhlet from
experiments with calves in a respiration apparatus (see
p. 34) . As we have already seen in our previous con-
sideration of these accurate researches, a calf 2 or 3
weeks old practically increases 1 lb. in weight for every
pound of solid food provided in the milk.
Colostrum, — Immediately after birth it is highly
important to let the calf have milk from its own
mother, as the first produce of the milk-glands after the
birth of the calf — the so-called Colostrum — has a very
different composition from the normal milk afterwards
produced.
Colostrum contains more fat and sugar, and less
casein and albumen, than ordinary milk, and the former
CALVES. 271
therefore possesses a lower albuminoid ratio and at the
same time is more digestible than the latter. These
differences disappear after 8 days or so, and more
rapidly with cows yielding a large than with others
yielding a small amount of milk. A calf should receive
one-sixth to one-eighth of its own weight of milk per
day for 6 or 8 weeks.
Weaning. — When the diet of the calf is changed
from the pure milk it has been receiving, great care is
necessary in adjusting the new diet, or else the calf will
lose in weight instead of maintaining its normal rate of
increase. This can only be done when the change of
diet is gradual and the same standard of digestibility,
nutritive value, and flavour is fully maintained.
Crushed linseed mash and linseed cake are held in
great favour, and other palatable oil-cakes, such as
palm-nut, earth-nut, and coconut cakes, as well as
such food-stuffs as oats, barley, malt-sprouts, pea-meal,
&c., have been found excellent additions to the diet of
young calves. It is also advisable to give calves a
little of the very best hay, so that they may become
accustomed to eating it ; clover should be avoided.
If calves are weaned by being turned out on good
pasturage, no difficulty arises ; but if they are weaned in
the stall, the food must be maintained as nearly as
possible at the same albuminoid ratio as milk for some
time, and can then be gradually lowered. It is possible
to gradually replace the fat in the milk by digestible
carbohydrates at a very early period with good
results, if the calves are brought up on milk only.
If the rules already laid down be observed, a calf
will have been weaned when 9 or 10 weeks old, and
272 FEEDING OF YOUNG ANIMALS.
will weigh, if of a medium-sized breed, from 150 to
220 lbs.
After the calf is weaned, it should receive a liberal
diet with an albuminoid ratio of [1 : 5] or [1 : 6],
corresponding to that of a good pasturage. Excellent
results are sure to follow later on as a return for
the good start the calf will thus be enabled to make.
After the fourth or sixth month the diet should be
gradually changed to one which is more bulky, less
nitrogenous, and less concentrated than before. Roots
are very suitable at this stage. To raise good milch-
cows the calves ought not to be fed too long on a rich
diet, as it has a tendency to make them fat and to
eventually reduce their milking capacity.
This fact should be kept in mind when using the
tables of feeding standards for calves given in the
Appendix (Table IV.).
Lambs. — Great care must be exercised in feeding
lambs. When quite young they grow even more
rapidly than calves, and very readily lose ground if the
diet provided is not suitable or sufficient for their needs.
Great importance attaches to the selection of coarse
fodder at and soon after the time of weaning. When
the fodder is too coarse and hard or has been spoilt by
bad harvesting, the lambs will not eat sufficient of it and
gradually lose weight. Even good average hay needs
an addition of a nitrogenous food, such as oats or other
cereal.
Experiments have been carried out at Hohenheim on
young Wiirttemberg sheep from the fifth to the four-
teenth month of their age. The diet varied considerably,
SHEEP.
273
and the actually digested constituents of the following
diets were directly determined : —
{a) Corn alone.
{b) Excellent hay.
(c) Aftermath.
The figures given in Table IV. in the Appendix have
been deduced from these researches_, and are suitable
for maintaining sheep of a moderately fine-woolled
breed, and weighing from 100 to 110 lbs., in a good and
constant condition.
Weiske has obtained very similar results by experi-
ments with a herd of Merino Southdowns. The
following table gives Weiske^s results : —
Weiske^s Sheep Experiments,
Organic
matter in
Food.
Digestible Food.
Age of
Sheep.
Live-
weight.
Albumen.
Carbo-
hydrates.
Fat.
Albuminoid
Eatio.
Months.
lbs.
ozs.
ozs.
ozs.
ozs.
5-6
51
24
n
m
i
[1:5-3]
7-9
66
28
3
15
^
[1:5-5]
10-12
77
29
3
15
1
[1 : 5-8]
13-15
85
30
3
16
1
[1:6-2]
16-24
103
34
2^
. 17*
f
[1:7-6]
The Mineral Matter stored up in the bodies of the
sheep was as follows : —
274
feeding of young animals.
Mineral Matter.
Age of
Sheep.
Months.
Live-
weight.
lbs.
Stored up per head per day.
Potash,
grams.
Soda,
grams.
Lime,
grams.
Magnesia,
grams.
Phosphoric
Acid.
grams.
5-6
7-9
10-12
13-15
51
66
77
85
2-04
2-89
305
2-65
0-84
1-05
0-81
0-72
1-56
2-00
1-81
2-07
012
0-32
0-38
0-35
1-09
1-65
2-50
314
It will be noticed that the amount of phosphoric
acid stored up in the body of a sheep per day increases
from the fifth to the fifteenth month, while that of the
other mineral constituents remains practically constant
throughout that period.
Young Pigs. — No satisfactory researches have yet
been made on the food-requirements of young pigs. It
is customary to feed them generously from the very
first so that they may rapidly become fat. The diet
best suited to this end is discussed in the next chapter.
Mineral Requirements of young Animals.
In feeding young animals the greatest care is necessary
with regard to the Phosphoric acid and Lime in the
food supplied. The other mineral constituents, such as
potash, magnesia, and iron, are always supplied in plenty
and need no especial provision.
At the end of 12 months a calf weighing 770 lbs.
(55 stone) has stored up in its body : —
MINERAL REQUIREMENTS OF YOUNG. 275
I 14 lbs. 13 ozs. of Phosphoric acid,
I 16 lbs. 8 ozs. of Lime;
or r 277 grains of Phosphoric acid per day,
1 307 grains of Lime per day.
The average food of such a calf for the first week
would be represented by 2 gallons of milk containing
r 303 grains of Phosphoric acid,
1 250 grains of Lime.
A new-born calf is thus apparently able to store up
the whole of the lime and phosphoric acid in milk,
while the amount stored up during the later months of
the first year must amount to 30 or 50 per cent, of that
provided in the food (see p. 35) .
The experiments of Weiske and Wildt on calves 5 to
6 months old showed a storage of
r 324 grains Phosphoric acid per day,
t 253 grains Lime per day.
The addition of Phosphate of Lime only results in
assimilation when the calf is unable to get the necessary
amount — viz. :
r 325 grains Phosphoric acid per day,
1 260 grains Lime per day —
from its food.
Although the mineral constituents of milk are to all
intents and purposes perfectly digestible and capable
of complete storage in the body, it is quite different
with the mineral constituents of the other food-stuffs.
In the artificial feeding of young animals, an appreciable
excess of lime and phosphoric acid should always be
provided, especially in the first months, when a rapid
and sound development of the bony framework is most
desirable and necessary. Young cattle are generally
fed on hay and corn, and are not at all likely to lack
t2
276 FEEDING OF YOUNG ANIMALS.
mineral matter, as 1000 lbs. of oats, for instance,
contain : —
J 6 lbs. 13 ozs. Phosphoric acid ;
1 1 lb. Lime;
"while 1000 lbs. of hay contain : —
J 4 lbs. 6 ozs. Phosphoric acid ;
1 9 lbs. 13 ozs. Lime.
The two food-stuflPs thus mutually adjust their
individual deficiencies,- — lack of lime in the case of oats
and of phosphoric acid in the case of hay.
If more roots, corn, straw, or chaff be supplied and
the amount of hay be reduced, a lack of lime may
easily occur. For example : —
1000 lbs. potatoes contain:
J 1 lb. 10 ozs. Phosphoric acid;
I 5 ozs. Lime.
1000 lbs. cereal straw contain :
f 2 lbs. 6 ozs. Phosphoric acid ;
1 3 lbs. 13 ozs. Lime.
The addition of a little chalk to the food in the form
of powder or of '^ lick-stones '' is evidently desirable
under such conditions of feeding as the above. Phos-
phoric acid can be provided artificially in the form of
phosphate of lime. Experiment has shown that this
latter substance is capable of assimilation by calves and
lambs, and it has been found of great benefit to foals.
The food of young animals reared artificially should
always contain 2 to 3 times as much lime and phosphoric
acid as that actually required by the animals.
If these important substances be lacking at all, the
richest food will prove of little or no effect, and the
young animals will lose ground and gradually decUne
in condition.
FATTENING. 277
CHAPTER VII.
FATTENING.
The fattening of animals resolves itself principally
into the storing up of fat. Lawes and Gilbert found
from their experiments that in the process of fattening
10 times more fat than flesh is stored up in the body
(p. 60). Recent researches by Kern and Wattenberg at
Gottingen (see p. 62) also showed that in the fattening
of full-grown sheep the increase was entirely due to fat
and not at all to flesh.
In these researches, however, the animals were in
excellent condition to start with. If this is not the
case, the animals always make a good deal of flesh in
the first stages of fattening. Young animals in rapid
growth can make flesh at a quick rate, while the strictly
" fattened ''' animal does not increase appreciably in
this direction.
The general laws of Flesh- and Fat-formation have
been already discussed in Part I. of this book, and I
will only now refer to a few of the more important
points involved.
Lean oxen, poor in flesh and fat, must first attain a
good bodily condition before they can be fattened. It
is impossible to make the body rich in flesh and fat if
it does not already possess the necessary minimum of
organized and circulatory albumen to render possible
278 FATTENING.
the digestion of large quantities of fat and albumen
and to secure their resorption and storage in the body.
To put lean oxen in good condition, the following diet
would prove effectual : —
Clover-hay with a moderate addition of barley-meal
and oil-cakes {or slump, brewers' grains, malt-sprouts^
bean-meal, ^c.) containing : —
(Per 1000 lbs. live-weight)
2 J lbs. digestible albuminoids ;
12J lbs. digestible carbohydrates ;
[1 : 5] albuminoid ratio.
After a fortnight or 3 weeks the beasts will be in fit
condition for fattening, and the diet must be modified
by the further addition of 3 lbs. 12 ozs. of digestible
non-nitrogenous food, whereby the albuminoid ratio
would be reduced to [1 : 6*5]. The stream of circu-
latory albumen and its rapid destruction will then be
reduced, and some of the albumen will be stored up in
the organs.
At the same time the fat resorbed from the food and
that produced from the albumen will escape combustion
to a greater extent and will be stored up in the body.
The laying-on of fat takes place more readily in the
body of an animal already rich in flesh than in that of
one which is relatively lean.
Pfeiffer and Kalb found that sheep fed first on a very
rich nitrogenous diet, and then on an average fattening
ration containing a fairly high proportion of digestible
carbohydrates, increased in weight at a most extra-
ordinary rate. After one-third of the fattening period
is passed and the animals have laid on a good deal of
FATTENING STANDARD FOR OXEN. 279
fat, it is advisable to gradually increase the amount of
digestible albuminoids in the food from 2^ to 3 lbs.,
and thereby raise the albuminoid ratio of the whole
diet to [1 : 5*5]. A rich supply of albumen for the
production of fat will thus be provided, which is the
more important as the laying-on of fat gradually in-
creases in difficulty as the store in the body gets larger.
There is no risk of increasing the stream of circu-
latory albumen, as already an abundance of fat will
have been stored up in the body.
The standard just laid down should be now maintained
for a considerable time.
Fattening Standard for Oxen.
(Per 1000 lbs. live-weight)
3 lbs. digestible albuminoids per day;
16^ lbs. digestible carbohydrates and
fats per day ;
[1 : 5 "5] albuminoid ratio.
In practice it is usual to employ a rather less nitro-
genous food just at the end of the fattening period,
such, for instance, as the substitution of barley-meal
for the oil- cake or other rich nitrogen -food previously
supplied. Good results can thus be obtained if, as is
often the case, the diet gains in palatability and the
amount of digestible matter be increased. The diet of
lower albuminoid ratio may permit of the laying-on of
flesh without prejudicing the fat already stored up. It
also appears that the final product of the fattening is
thus sent to market in a more tender, juicy, and better
flavoured condition, and is more suitable for the purposes
of the butcher than if a higher albuminoid ratio be
280 FATTENING.
maintained to the very end. The final diet, however,
must not be reduced to a lower albuminoid ratio than
[1 : 6].
Effect of Fat in the Food,
The addition of fat to the diet of fattening animals,
such, for instance, as 8 ozs. to 1 lb. of rape-oil per head
per day for oxen, and 1 to l^ ozs. for pigs, has often
been found by direct experiment to produce excellent
results, especially if the albuminoid ratio of the diet
be a high one.
Such treatment favours the laying-on of both fat and
flesh, and the addition of oil is especially appropriate
in the second or main period of fattening, as the food
would then be more concentrated than ever. At the
same time, the addition of rape-oil or other fat has not
yet found general acceptance in practice. This is
obviously due to the fact that pure fat or oil commands
a very high price, and if the oil be given in even slight
excess or be administered for too long a time, the
animals are very apt to suffer in appetite and digestive
power. The proportion of fat in the diet of fattening
beasts is well worthy of consideration, and may often
be increased to advantage, especially with a high
albuminoid ratio. This addition can be made most
cheaply in the form of oil-cakes or in certain cases by
small quantities of oil-seeds.
In fattening, it is very important to provide a diet
which is not only easily digestible but which is also
relished and liked by the animals, or else they will not
eat it freely and in large quantity.
EFFECT OF FAT IN FOOD. 281
The preparation o£ the food and the addition of a
certain amount of salt both tend to secure this end ;
for though the actual digestibility of the food may not
be increased^ still excellent results follow from the im-
proved flavour of the food, and the larger amount which
the animals are thereby tempted to eat {cf, p. 147) .
Such food-stuffs as potatoes and sngar-beet residues
are benefited by a fairly large addition of salt, but
great care must be taken not to add an excess or un-
satisfactory results will follow. Too much salt, as we
have seen, causes the animals to drink to excess and
retards their bodily growth (p. 43).
Excess of tvater in the food of fat beasts should be
guarded against. The proportion of water to dry
matter in the food of fat oxen should not exceed 4 or
5 to 1, and in the case of fat sheep a proportion of 2 or
3 to 1 should be maintained.
Fat Sheep. — All the experiments on the fattening
of sheep point to the especial value of a high nitro-
genous diet. Such a diet was found not only to pro-
duce a more rapid increase in live-weight than one of
low albuminoid ratio, but after slaughtering the carcases
were found to contain a greater proportion of fat (p. 61) .
. This fact finds confirmation in the ordinary ex-
perience of farmers. A diet of 2 lbs. of bean-meal a
day in addition to hay is well known to rapidly fatten
sheep.
The same general rules laid down for the feeding of
fat oxen hold good in the case of sheep ; but as they
are usually in fair condition to begin with, the prelim-
inary feeding can be dispensed with in the case of
sheep. To start with, a diet with an albuminoid ratio
282 FATTENING.
of [1 : 5*5] should be given, and then this may rapidly
be increased to [1 : 4*5] and maintained at that
standard for a considerable time.
It cannot be denied, however, that a diet with a
lower ratio than this [1 : 5 to 6] often succeeds well
with fattening sheep. The principal considerations in
fattening are, that the diet should be highly digestible
and should be also relished by the animals. Watery
food is even more hurtful for sheep than oxen, and
excess of slump or roots should be avoided. On the
other hand, the addition of potatoes permits of a
favourable ratio of 1 : 2 or 1 : 3 between the dry
matter and moisture in the food. The best results
with sheep are obtained with good hay and an addition
of corn or meal.
In proportion to their live-weight, sheep require
food containing more dry matter, and that of a higher
albuminoid ratio, than that suitable for oxen. As a
general rule the best results will be attained both with
fat sheep and oxen if the fattening diet contains 18 lbs.
of digestible food per day per 1000 lbs. original live-
weight. In the case of sheep, an average increase in
live-weight amounting to 10 or 12 per cent, of the
weight of the digested food ought to result, and rather
more in the case of oxen.
The various breeds of sheep exhibit great differences
with regard to the amount of food they will eat and
its resulting nutritive effect. Sturdier breeds, such as
English sheep in general and Southdowns in particular,
are more easily fattened than the smaller breeds
found on the Continent, such as the Merinos and
Negrettis,
EFFECT OF FAT IN FOOD. 283
Sheep fatten most rapidly between the ages of 18
months and 3 years. It is true that^ like all young
animals in rapid growth^ sheep will make a more rapid
increase in live-weight during the first year with a
rich diet than that attained by more mature animals
of the same breed under similar conditions. The result
is not so satisfactory, however^ from the butcher^s point
of view, for not only is the dressed carcase more watery
in itself^ but it is also less in proportion to the live-
weight and the amount of fat is smaller than with
older sheep.
In an experiment at Hohenheim^ lambs were fattened
in 8 or 9 months to the same extent as older sheep in
3 months, and the cost of the former was far in excess
of the latter. Two-year old sheep achieve the best
fattening results both as to quality and quantity. Full-
grown sheep (over 4 years old) rapidly develop fat in
the region of the intestines and on the kidneys, but the
meat is notof sofine aflavour as that of younger animals.
The results obtained by Kellner at Hohenheim
by weighing the animals alive and the carcases when
dressed, show that fat sheep can be maintained in
prime condition without loss for a long time on an
ordinary maintenance diet. He found that 12 fat
sheep 1^ years old and 12 others 2 to 4 years old had
been maintained in constant bodily condition for 2
months on a diet of 2| to 3 lbs. of ordinary hay per
head per day.
Similar results were obtained with oxen. This is
quite comprehensible when we recollect that/a^ is the
chief product of fattening, and that this, when once
produced, requires no further nourishment to maintain
284 FATTENING.
it and even acts as an economizer of albumen. If the
animals be debarred from unnecessary movement and
be kept in strict seclusion in a stall, a very moderate
diet is all that is required to keep them in a constant
condition.
Effect of Shearing,
Sheep generally fatten more quickly after than before
being shoym.
Stohmann found by experiments that before shearing
a high nitrogenous diet gave better results than one of
lower albuminoid ratio, but after shearing both diets
yielded the same increase of live- weight, and a difference
was only found on comparing the dressed carcases in
each case. The more rapid increase in live- weight
after shearing is simply due to the improved appetite
of the animal and the fact that it eats more food.
In one of Henneberg's experiments a greater increase
of live-weight was obtained with the same amount of
food after than before shearing.
The sheep in this experiment drank less water after
being shorn, and thus was enabled to make better use
of the food supplied, and to produce a greater increase
of live-weight (see pp. 43 and 69). Kern and Watten-
berg have shown, however, that the consumption of
albumen is only reduced for the first few days after
shearing, which is perhaps due to the fact that more
nitrogen is employed in the production of wool.
Weiske found under similar conditions that sheep
after being shorn drank less water than before, but he
did not observe any appreciable increase of live-weight
in consequence. The consumption of albumen had
ADVICE AS TO FEEDING STANDARDS. 285
increased 5 per cent., and the rate of flesh -formation was
thereby reduced, but this does not prohibit the possi-
bility of an increased storage of fat in the bodies of
the shorn sheep. The digestibility of the food was abso-
lutely the same both before and after shearing, and the
increased appetite of the shorn animals remains the
only explanation of the facts observed.
Advice as to the Interpretation of Feeding Standards.
I would here urge farmers not to assume that the
standards I have laid down for fattening oxen and
sheep are suited to all conditions without modification.
Some animals have a constitutional capacity for fatten-
ing, just as some cows are peculiarly adapted for giving
milk, and in such cases food considerably in excess of
our standard should be given at the discretion of the
stock-keeper.
Marcker, as a result of a large number of practical
experiments, has proved that a very highly nitrogenous
diet caused a rapid increase of live-weight with fat
sheep, although the improvement in the quality of the
meat was doubtful.
The return made in the manurial value of the dung
in the form of nitrogen and phosphates is an important
item in the consideration of the financial outcome of
this method of feeding. An increase in the carbo-
hydrates and fats often gives excellent results ; but in
the case of sheep the quantity must not exceed 20 lbs.
per 1000 lbs. original live- weight, whether the albu-
minoids be high or low in amount, as both the quality
and quantity of the product would suffer. Up to this
286 FATTENING.
limit the increase of both groups of food- constituents
is highly desirable.
The chief lesson to be learnt from all these experi-
ments, as Marcker insists, is this : —
Only animals of the BEST quality will pay for
fattening ; feeding inferior beasts on a high diet is simply
waste of time and money.
The Fattening of Pigs,
The feeding-standard I lay down for fattening pigs
is one in which the albuminoid ratio is gradually reduced
with the progress of the fattening. I prescribe a lower
albuminoid ratio towards the end of the fattening
period^ because bacon of a firmer and better quality
is thus obtained and the pigs are less likely to become
diseased than with a rich nitrogenous food. If lean
swine of fair size be fattened, they will eat an enormous
amount of food at first (exceeding 40 lbs. of dry matter
per 1000 lbs. live-weight), and rapidly increase in
weight, but the fatter they become the less they eat and
eventually their appetite is hardly as great in proportion
as that of fat beasts. This is still more noticeable if
young pigs be fed on a fattening diet from the time
they are weaned until they are a twelvemonth old, and
have attained a weight of about 3 cwt. per head. With
suitable food and pigs of a breed adapted for fattening,
an average increase of 1 lb. for every 4 lbs. of dry matter
in the food can be attained. At first an increase of 1 lb.
results from 3 lbs. of food, but later on 4 or 5 lbs. of
food are required to produce the same eflPect. Older
pigs require more food in proportion to the increase
produced than young ones. These facts have been
FATTENING OF PIGS. 287
confirmed by repeated experiments at Hohenheim and
at other German as well as Danish experimental
stations.
With regard to the tables in the Appendix (Table
IV.) giving the feeding standard for fat pigs as de-
duced from the results of direct experiments^ I should
state that the high albuminoid ratio prescribed for
the first few months after weaning the young pigs is
open to objection because it may lead to the animals
over-eating, and is more apt to engender diseases and
lameness than a food less rich in nitrogen. It would
be a wise precaution, therefore, to reduce the amount
of the albumiDoids in the food until an albuminoid ratio
of [1 : 4-5] or [1 : 5] be obtained, and after the sixth
month to gradually lower the ratio until it has reached
[1 : 6-5]. With full-grown pigs, or at the end of the
fattening period, the albuminoid ratio can be kept as
low as [1 : 8] or even [1 : 10], provided the food be
digestible and palatable. Good fattening results have
been obtained on these lines at Hohenheim, where a
diet of starch and barley-meal was employed, and also
at Gottingen, where Henneberg found raw sugar pro-
duced excellent fattening results.
The addition of about ^ oz. of powdered chalk per
head per day undoubtedly contributes towards the
health of fattening pigs. This addition of chalk should
never be omitted with young pigs, as the food usually
provided is rich in phosphates but invariably lacking
in lime. A small amount of salt (J oz. per head per
day) should always be added to the food of pigs.
It is very evident that the feeder has at his disposal
a large number of possible combinations of food-stuffs
288 FATTENING.
which conform to the feeding standard, and one of the
most important questions for him to decide is, " What
foods at my disposal will achieve the best result at the
smallest expense ? ''
Experience has shown that barley-meal, maize-meal,
and pea-meal, mixed with steamed potatoes, are
excellent foods for fat swine, while oatmeal and bran
have proved of little value in this respect. The addition
of whey or sour milk is a great improvement to a
food which the animals do not relish by itself. The
waste-products of the dairy are of the greatest value
for feeding pigs.
Henry, of the Wisconsin experimental station U.S.A.,
found that pigs fattened on a diet of corn (maize, pea-
meal, &c.) required 552 lbs. of food for 100 lbs. in-
crease in live-weight, but that results as good were
obtainable if half or even two-thirds of the corn diet
were replaced by whey (containing 6*1 per cent, dry
matter. Albuminoid ratio [1 : 6*6]). Henry estimated
that 760 lbs. of whey were equal to 100 lbs. of corn.
Fjord states that he found 12 lbs. of whey were equal
to 1 lb. of barley- or rye-meal.
Flesh-meal is a highly digestible nitrogenous food,
and is an excellent addition to a general diet in which
albuminoids are lacking (see p. 203).
Raw sugar acts like whey, which contains the sugar
of milk (lactose) i and is a capital food for fat pigs.
German farmers would gladly use it for fattening pigs
at a good profit were it freed from the tax placed upon
it by a short-sighted government.
A large number of experiments on feeding pigs with
sugar have been made in Hanover.
FATTENING OF PIGS.
289
The addition of 3 lbs. of sugar to the food of fattening
pigs resulted in the production of 1 lb. of pork, and
the pigs were found capable of eating 1 to 1^ lbs. per
head per day without waste or any disturbance of
digestion. The rate of fattening was thus increased
and the amount of food required to produce it decidedly
reduced. Pigs eat sugar with relish; it increases
their appetites, and they do not get tired of it. Calves
and sheep do not take kindly to sugar. The bran of
wheat and rye does not suit fattening pigs (p. 193).
Friis and Petersen found bran far inferior to barley-
meal for pigs ; not only was the pork of poor quality
but there was 4 per cent, more loss in killing and
dressing the carcases.
APPENDIX.
TABLE I.
The Composition and Feeding-value of Food-stuffs.
The figures given in this Table are AVERAGES,
and must not be regarded as absolutely accurate for
all cases or under all conditions. Their value lies in
enabling a farmer to easily reckon up the feeding-value
of his stock in hand, or to get a fairly accurate idea
of the best and most economical combination of the
food-stuffs at his disposal for any particular branch of
stock-keeping.
It is highly necessary that such figures should be
based as far as possible on the latest scientific results,
and that all those errors and inconsistencies, which
are so glaringly evident in former tables, in which
the compilers have selected standard values suited to
their own fancy or limited experience, should be rigidly
excluded. Averages are most valuable as an index
and guide to the intelligent and rational use of feeding-
stuffs.
The following remarks are intended to throw further
light on this table : —
1. I have set forth in the case of Hay, Clover, Straw,
APPENDIX. 291
and some other farm foods the composition of different
qualities in each case. The values given are calculated
from the average of direct experiments in each case,
and with a little experience a practical man can easily
decide in which class to place any particular sample
with which he is concerned. To guide the farmer as
to how to judge the probable quality of a sample of
hay or straw or other food-stuff, I have fully discussed
in Part II. the various conditions which determine or
modify the feeding- value of the various farm foods in
general use. I append a brief resume of the conditions
affecting the quality of a food-stuff.
(a) Period of Vegetation, — A young plant contains
more albuminoids and less crude fibre than one in a later
stage of growth. The alteration in the composition of
grass is not so marked in its first vegetative growth as
at the period of flowering and just after. Clovers
develop excess of fibre more rapidly than grasses.
(b) The leaves often contain two or three times as
much albuminoids as the stalks of a fodder-plant, while
the latter contain more crude fibre. The more the
growth of leaves is favoured and the less the loss
of leaves in any method of preserving or storing, the
more valuable the fodder.
(c) The Soil has a very great influence on the crop
grown upon it. A rich soil encourages luxuriant
growth and the production of shoots, stalks, and
leaves. A light sandy soil usually yields corn, roots,
and fodder-crops less rich in nitrogen than those grown
on a heavy clay, although the product of the lighter
soil is often possessed of better flavour and aroma. A
u2
292 FARM FOODS.
wet sour peat always detracts from the high quality of
a crop.
(d) Manuring, Weather, and Climate. — Chemical
analysis has proved over and over again the marked
influence of these agencies on the composition of a crop.
By a liberal dressing of manures rich in nitrogen and
phosphates a poor soil has been proved capable of
yielding large crops. The season determines the
quality and quantity of a crop producible under given
conditions of soil and manuring. A favourable season
which is both warm and moist can produce as good a
crop on a poor soil as powerful manures under less
favourable conditions of weather.
(e) The weather during Hay-making is well-known
to have a most important influence on the quality of
the Hay. If hay be soaked with rain, it not only loses
in flavour but also in actual feeding-value. Aftermath
is more easily spoilt than Hay, and Clover most of all.
Clover-hay is often rich in nitrogen, but is found to
contain an excess of crude fibre and to be greatly
lacking in nitrogen-free extract, because the latter has
been washed out by rain during hay-making.
Fodder is always the worse for being soaked, and is
often actually hurtful if it has become mouldy in
consequence.
(f) Many other causes contribute to variation in
the quality of foods — for instance, the situation of the
field with regard to sunshine, the closeness with which
the plants grow together, the general methods of
cultivation, harvesting, preservation, storage, &c. It
is impossible to allow a definite and fixed value for all
these variables in food calculations, and each must use
APPENDIX. 293
his own judgment in deciding as to the comparative
quality of any food-stuff.
More analyses of food-stuff are still much needed
with special reference to the growth and general
conditions under which the crops have been grown and
harvested. Marcker has conducted this new branch of
food-analysis with great zeal, and it is now possible to
obtain data referred to the quality of many food-stuffs^
The monumental work of Dietrich and Konig, in
which they have made a complete and systematic
compilation of all the food-analyses on record, is an.
invaluable guide and an ideal work of reference.
2. This table contains the amount of actually
digestible food supplied in the various food-staffs^
under the headings '^ Digestible albuminoids/' '^ Diges-
tible fats/' and " Digestible carbohydrates." It was
not possible to base these values on direct ^' digestion
experiments '' in all cases ; but so many of the typical
food-stuffs have been investigated in this way, that
little risk of serious error is involved in calculating
digestion values from a comparison with others based
on direct experiments. The figures I have obtained by
calculation may of course be modified in future to
a certain extent when the results of direct experiments
have been obtained. In the year 1874, when the first
edition of this book appeared in German, it was necessary
to start with such figures, as the employment of " di-
gestible '' values is the only way in which the general
laws of animal nutrition and the rational feeding of
farm animals can possibly be placed on a sound and
firm basis. In framing my tables, I have brought just
the same considerations to bear on the results obtained
294 FARM FOODS.
by experiments on the digestibility of food-stuffs as
an intelligent farmer would apply if he wished to
determine correctly the feeding-value of any food of
known composition.
Any food-stuff of practically the same composition
as that given in the table may be safely concluded to
possess the digestible value attached to it there. If,
however, a sample exhibits a decided variation from
the typical samples given in Table I., its digestibility
will vary in proportion, and by consulting Table II. its
probable extent can easily be found.
3. I have put in separate columns the digestible
carbohydrates (nitrogen-free extract) and the digestible
fibre (crude fibre). This is necessary on account of
the recently established fact that much of the fibre
which is apparently digested undergoes decomposition
and passes off as gas from the intestines. Foods rich
in fibre require greater efforts of digestion and rumi-
nation on the part of cattle than the easily digested
roots and concentrated food- stuffs. I have decided
that the crude fibre apparently digested (from the
difference between food and dung) should be considered
as only half that value for cattle, and oino feeding-value
at all' for horses.
4. The most striking results of scientific investigations
on the feeding- value of farm foods is that the digestible
constituents of foods — the so-called nutrients — measure
the real feeding- value of a food.
Digestible albuminoids, fats, and carbohydrates are
the only materials that represent the real value of any
food-stuff, and it is highly desirable that some system
of money valuation should be adopted so that a farmer
APPENDIX. 295
may see at a glance what food-stuff at the current
market price would be actually the cheapest for his
purpose.
The customary scale for valuation has been that of: —
Crude albuminoids = 5
Crude fats = 5
Crude carbohydrates = 1
Carbohydrates = | of a penny per pound.
The author proposes the following scale as more in
accordance with current market prices : —
Digestible albuminoids = 3 ^
Digestible fats ~ ^ t
Digestible carbohydrates = 1 (
Carbohydrates = 4 of a penny per pound. /
The values so obtained require a reduction of about
a third in the case of such coarse fodders as chaff and
straw. This is due to the fact that the returns made
for digestible albuminoids in these food-stuffs include
a certain proportion of amides or substances other than
true albuminoids_, while the ether-extract always con-
tains waxy substances, and the nitrogen-free extract
contains more fibre (cellulose) than is the case with
concentrated food-stuffs.
The calculated values obtained in this way are fre-
quently at variance with the market price, which fluc-
tuates in obedience to supply and demand. Food-stuffs
employed for human food are generally abnormally
high (wheat, rice, and generally peas and potatoes), as
is also the case with foods employed in manufactures,
such as barley, sugar-beet, oily seeds, &c. Such foods
as oats and linseed cake, which possess a reputation
as excellent foods for special purposes, are generally at
296 FARM FOODS.
a premium_, while foods that are apt to disagree with
cattle or are not relished by the animals (lupines,
poppy cakes, &c.) are usually sold at prices below their
apparent value.
For the control of the sale and purchase of food-
stuffs in Germany, the seller has to provide a guarantee ;
and in case the analysis should prove that the sample
was not up to the standard guaranteed, the buyer is
entitled to compensation based on a system of food
units. The unit values recognized officially for
Crude albuminoids = 5
Crude fats ... =5
Carbohydrates = 1
To give an example of the working of this system,
let us consider the unit feeding- values for rape cake.
A sample of rape cake guaranteed to contain
31 per cent. Albuminoids,
10 „ Fats,
28 „ Carbohydrates,
is sold at £6 per ton.
Here we are dealing with
31x5 = 155
10x5= 50
28 X 1 = 28
Food units = 233
Two hundred and thirty-three units are therefore
sold for £6j so that a single unit is worth 6d.
[6*17 pence]. From this the compensation due for
a certain deficiency on analysis can easily be deter-
mined.
When it is necessary for a farmer to buy a special
APPENDIX. 297
food-stuff as addition to his own supply on his farm, a
comparison of '^ food- values ^' with the current market
price will enable him to decide on the cheapest sub-
stance suited to his particular purpose.
All foods possess a certain manurial value quite
apart from their direct feeding -value. The value of
the manurial constituents in concentrated food-stuffs is,
roughly, Qd. per lb. for nitrogen, 4c?. for phosphoric
acid, and 2d. for potash. Owing to the inevitable loss
incurred in the manipulation of farmyard dung, these
values require considerable modification. A reduction
of 50 per cent, on these values in the case of nitrogen,
and of 30 per cent, for potash and phosphoric acid, is
necessary, so that the practical manurial value of these
substances in food-stuffs is as follows : —
Nitrogen ... 3c?. per lb. : roughly, ^d.
Phosphoric acid 2'8c?. „ „ 2d.
Potash ... l*14fi?. „ „ Id.
It should be remembered that feeding and manurial
values depend on quite different conditions, and the
value of a food is primarily measured by its feeding-
value, while that of its manurial efficiency is a secondary
consideration.
It is a very difficult problem to adjust a valuation
between these two considerations, and many food-
values are calculated entirely without reference to the
subsequent manurial value of the dung produced.
298
FARM FOODS.
TABLE I.
Giving the average Percentage Composition and Percentage of
Digestible Constituents of Food-stuffs ^
FOOD-STUFFS.
I. Hay.
(a) Meadow-hay and Grasses.
Meadow-hay, poor
„ better
,, average
,, very good
,, extremely good
Alpine hay
Aftermath
Moorland hay
Salt meadow-hay
Sour hay
Woodland hav
Rye "
Oats in ear
Hungarian Brome-grass
jRye-grass, English
„ French
„ Italian
Pasture-grass (^average)
Timothy grass
Schrader's Brome-grass
Total.
14-3
14-3
14-3
150
160
14-3
14-3
110
11-7
130
150
14-3
11-5
13-4
14-3
14-3
14-3
14-3
14-3
14-3
5-0
5-4
6-2
7-0
7-7
6-2
6-6
6-4
7-4
6-3
5-0
51
6-1
5-7
6-5
9-9
7-8
5-8
4-5
9-4
7-5
9-2
9-7
11-7
13-5
13-5
11-7
9-2
8-1
7-6
8-7
10-4
7-5
10-8
10-2
11-2
11-2
9-5
9-7
9-7
33-5
29-2
26-3
21-9
19-3
22-7
22-0
26-7
28-4
32-8
260
23-1
30-1
29-4
30-2
29-4
22-9
28-7
22-7
22-8
38-2
397
41-4
41-6
40-4
39-4
42-3
44-2
41-7
35-7
43-2
44-5
42-4
38-5
36-1
32-6
40-6
391
45-8
41-6
o
1-5
2-0
2-5
2-8
30
3-9
31
2-4
2-7
4-6
2-1
2-8
Digestible.
3-4
4-6
5-4
7-4
9-2
9-2
7-4
5-1
4-3
3-4
5-0
6-6
be %^
O -k^
2'4 3-8
2-2
2-7
2-7
3-2
2-6
30
2-2
61
51
5-6
7-1
5-3
5-8
5-4
15-6
15-3
150
13-8
12-7
13-9
13-2
15-7
16-4
19-3
21-1
25-7
27-9
30-1
27-0
291
28-3
24-6
20-9 i 14-8
27-6 1 15-3
28 -9, 15-4
24-2|l4-7
23-4 117-6
19-9 15-4
17-5 15-6
26-6 14-9
23-6 17-3
29-8 13-6
25-7! 13-3
^
0-5
0-6
10
1-3
1-5
2-3
1-4
1-3
1-4
1-5
11
1-3
0-9
0-9
0-8
0-8
1-4
11
1-4
0-9
Eefer to Explanation of Table on page 290.
APPENDIX.
TABLE I. {continued).
299
FOOD-STUFFS.
Total.
Digestible.
1
14-3
15-8
16-7
16-7
12-5
16-7
160
16-5
15-0
16-0
16-5
16-5
160
16-0
16-7
160
16-0
16-5
16-7
160
16-7
16-7
16-7
130
16-7
16-7
17-3
160
160
160
15-6
16-5
8-0
6-7
6-2
6-0
6-8
51
6-2
6-8
51
5-3
60
70
7-5
70
61
60
8-1
60
6-4
7-3
7 0
8-3
9-3
5-4
4-6
31
4-8
5-9
5-8
5-2
5-8
4-3
i
a
©
o
16-7
154
13-3
146
13-5
122
14-4
16-0
111
12-3
13-5
15-3
14-9
11-9
15-2
15-0
16-2
14-5
13-8
21-8
14-3
14-2
19-8
21-9
171
23-2
18-5
21-6
14-2
21-2
231
17-3
£
ea
Q
30-3
24-9
271
26-2
22-5
30-4
330
26-6
28-9
26-0
24-0
22-2
24-8
331
30-1
27-0
25-6
25-6
25-5
23-3
25-2
25-5
23-4
20-2
28-5
25-2
26-0
27-7
35-5
19-6
16-4
25-3
fi
27-9
340
34-2
33-2
41-7
32-6
27-9
31-6
37-7
38-2
371
35-8
34-6
30-5
28-9
32-7
30-3
33-9
35-1
28-8
34-2
32-8
28-5
36-6
30-9
28-6
28-2
25-4
26-3
35-2
37-4
34-6
'S
Q
2-8
3-2
2-5
3-3
30
3-0
2-5
2-5
2-1
2-2
2-9
3-2
22
1-5
30
3-3
31
3-5
2-5
2-8
2-6
2-5
2-3
2-9
2-2
22
5-2
3-4
2'2
2-8
1-2
2-0
CO (U
11
it
<
8-5
10-9
9-3
9-2
7-4
6-2
101
12-3
5-7
70
8-5
10-7
9-4
61
11-7
8-6
111
8-1
7-9
16-7
9-4
9-4
151
15-3
11-3
17-2
13-9
16-2
9-1
15-4
16-2
12-1
(0
S
II
18-1
252
25-3
23-2
27-1
21-2
19-5
221
24-6
25-3
26-0
26-8
24-2
18-3
20-2
22-5
18-2
23-7
22-8
18-6
20-5
19-7
18-5
24-2
17-8
17-6
18-3
15-2
160
26-8
28-0
25-2
1
o
13-6
10-7
9-8
131
11-2
13-7
13-9
11-4
11-6
11-7
11-3
iro
11-6
13-2
12-9
12-3
11-5
12-2
12-8
12-8
12-6
12-8
12-6
110
19-5
18-4
130
13-3
20-5
10-8
10-5
13-2
a
P^
1-6
2-1
1-6
2-0
1-5
1-4
10
1-2
1-0
1-2
1-7
2-1
1-3
0-7
1-2
1-8
2-5
2-0
1-4
1-7
1-6
1-5
1-4
1-7
0-7
0-7
31
1-8
0-4
1-9
0-5
1-3
(b) Clover and Leguminous Crops.
T^nVViai'fi, C!lnvfiT vnimo' . . ....
Hop Trefoil
Bird's-foot Trefoil
Crimson Clover ( Tr. incarnaUim)
Ijucerne avera^'e
tiverase
excellent
„ ,, not rained upon
Sand Lucerne {Medicago media)
\ ust in bloom
Alsike
T^lnifp dlnvpr avprapfp
Kidney Vetch just in bloom
T-*P!iQ iii'stin bloom
Vpfpli nveraP'ft
WoodYetch
Meadow Vetch {Lathyr. sylvestris)
Vicici d u7}ietoTU7n bloom
Tufted Vetch {Vicia cracca) jusi
Tufted Vetch in bloom
300
FARM FOODS.
TABLE I. {continued).
FOOD-STUFFS.
Oat Vetches
Vicia monantha in bloom
Kidney Vetch iu bloom
Wild Vet^ch ( Vicia sepium)
(c) Other Fodder-plants.
Spurry in bloom
Yellow Broom, tops
Mustard in full bloom
Gorse
Prickly Comfrey, before bloom . . .
Water Thyme (E/odea canadensis)
(d) Foliage, Herbs, Leaves.
Stinging-Nettle leaves
Hop bine
Spent Hops
Potato haulm
Leaves at the end of Jiily
Poplar leaves in October
Artichoke tops
II. G-REEN Foods.
(a) Grasses.
Oats
Eje
Grass, j ust before blooming
„ rich meadow
„ meadow
„ water-meadow
Maize, American
,, earlier
Hungarian Bi'ome-grass in flower.
Total.
16-7
16-0
16-0
16-0
16-7
8-3
16-0
15-0
150
17-0
11-4
10-6
150
10-0
16-0
16-0
12-5
81-0
760
750
78-2
800
80-8
82-8
80-6
750
7-2
8-8
5-6
6-0
9-5
7-9
71
3-5
150
10-4
14-0
10-8
4-0
11-6
7-0
7-5
11-8
1-4
1-4
2-1
2-2
20
1-7
1-5
1-2
1-8
12-6 28-0
20-3 17-5
9-4 30-8
19-2 27-5
120
15-9
11-2
9-0
20-7
15-3
18-3
12-5
15-8
9-4
10-5
10-8
14-4
2-3
2-9
30
4-5
3-5
3-5
1-4
1-7
31
220
331
29-4
41-8
11-5
13-9
10-6
24-5
18-7
26-0
14-2
17-4
14-9
6-5
6-5
60
4-0
40
4-9
5-0
5-6
8-5
O *3
u X
33-2
35-0
35-9
28-9
36-6
29-5
33-4
28-7
351
35-5
38-0
381
40-5
40-6
49-3
38-6
42-9
8-3
12-4
131
101
9-7
8-4
8-9
10-4
10-9
2-3
2-4
2-3
2-4
3-2
5-3
2-9
2-0
2-7
1-9
7-7
3-5
60
2-4
30
8-7
3-5
0-5
0-8
0-8
10
0-8
0-7
0-4
0-5
0-7
Digestible,
5 c
7-2
14-2
5-2
14-6
7-6
10-3
6-9
3-6
12-0
9-0
12-8
8-0
5-0
3-8
6-2
60
1-3
1-8
20
3-4
2-5
2-4
0-7
1-0
1-8
19-6
28-0
21-9
15-4
8-8
14-8
20-3 141
23-7
16-3
21-7
17-2
29-7
24-5
131
15.0
151
16-7
21
300
6-0
27-1
7-6
20-3
2-8
24-4
9-6
32-5
5-3
26-2
5-6
32-4
8-8
5-0
3-9
8-1
4-3
9-1
3-9
8-1
2-8
7-3
2-6
6-3
3-2
5-5
2-7
6-7
31
6-8
5-0
APPENDIX.
TABLE I. {continued).
301
FOOD -STUFFS.
Eye-grass, English
„ Italian
Sorghum (Indian Millet).
Stubble catch crop
Pasture-grasses (average)
Timothy grass
(b) Clover and Leguminosce.
Total.
700
3-4
77-3
70-0
00
700
Bokhara CloYer, young
Sainfoin just in bloom
Hop Trefoil
Crimson Clover
Lucerne, quite young
„ just in bloom
Red Clover before blooming ...,
„ ., full bloom
Sand Lucerne {Medic, media)....
Alsike just imbloom
,, full bloom
Serradella in bloom
Bokhara Clover in bloom
Red Clover in stubble
White Clover in bloom . .
Kidney Vetch
Beans just in bloom
Peas in bloom
Vetch in bloom
Lupines, average
„ very good
Sand Peas {Pisum arvense)
Meadow Vetch {Lath, sylvestris)
Sand Vetch in bloom ( Vicia villosa)
Tufted Vetch ( Vicia cracca) ..
Polish Vetch ( Vicia monantha) in
bloom
87-5
81-4
80-0
81-5
Sl-0
74-0
83-0
80-4
78-0
85-0
82-0
sro
79-7
83-4
80-5
83-0
86-1
81-5
82-0
85-0
85-0
83-2
810
83-3
750
83-8
20
2-8
11
6-4
2-1
2-2
21
1-2
1-5
1-6
1-7
2-0
1-5
1-3
1-9
1-5
1-8
rs
2-3
1-5
20
1-3
1-5
1-5
1-8
0-7
0-7
1-2
11
1-2
2-9
1-7
3-6
3-6
2-5
3-7
3-4
3-4
2-9
4-2
3-5
2-7
4-5
4-5
3-3
30
40
3-3
3-3
3-7
41
4-3
3-5
2-8
30
3-2
3-5
31
4-2
3-5
4-2
4-3
4-6
3-9
10-6 12-8
71|121
6-7 11-7
7-4 11-0
10-1 13-4
80 16-3
3-6
5-2
60
6-2
50
9-5
4-5
5-8
8-0
4-5
60
5-8
5-7
2-9
60
5-3
3-4
5-6
5-5
51
4-5
5-9
60
5-5
4-9
3-4
3-5
7-3
8-2
7-3
7-2
9-2
7-0
8-9
7-3
51
6-3
6-9
7-3
7-0
7-2
5-2
5-5
7-6
6-6
5-7
5-2
5-6
6-5
5-0
11-9
1-0
1-0
0-7
1-5
1-0
11
0-4
0-7
0-8
0-7
0-6
0-8
0-7
0-6
0-8
0-6
0-6
0-8
0-8
0-9
0-8
0-4
0-5
0-6
0-6
0-4
0-4
0-6
1-2
0-7
0-7
0-5
Digestible.
S 5
3 a
1-8
2-3
1-6
2-5
1-9
2-1
1-6
30
2-2
1-5
3-5
3-2
2-3
1-7
31
2-1
1-8
2-5
2-6
3-2
22
1-6
22
22
2-5
20
31
2-4
3-2
3-3
3-2
2-9
6-9
8-0
7-9
7-5
8-1
11-2
2-0
5-7
5-7
4-8
51
5-4
4-9
5-8
4-3
3-6
4-5
3-7
5-0
5-2
5-0
4-7
3-9
4-6
4-0
3-2
3-2
3-7
4-2
30
7-7
40
5-3
4-6
4-0
4-5
61
4-8
1-6
22
30
2-7
22
3-7
2-5
2-9
3-2
2-2
2-4
2-6
2-8
1-5
2-9
2-7
1-6
2-8
2-7
3-5
3-3
30
30
2-5
4-4
2-0
302
FARM FOODS.
TABLE I. {continued).
FOOD-STUFFS.
(c) Other Fodder-plants.
Total.
80-0
„ end of blooming
Tliistle (young)
Heather!
VV^inter Eape in bloom
Brushwood in winter
,, in spring
Beech brush wood fodder ^
Mustard, full bloom
Grorse
Prickly C< )mfrey before bloom . .
Water Thyme {ELodea cana-
densis)
(d) Foliage, Herbs, Leaves.
Birch foliage, August
Beech foliage, Aug.-Sept. ...
Cabbage
Leaves, July
Hop bines and leaves
Potato haulm, October
„ „ July to August
Kohl Rabi leaves
Swede leaves
Carrot leaves
Poplar leaves, beginning of
October
Mangold leaves 90-5
Cabbage stalks |87-6
Prickly Comfrey leaves !91-7
88-0
5.5-0
57-0
84-7
55-0
66-0
8-0
85-0
850
4
82-2
55-0
20
1-4
2-4
20
3-7
1-3
1-5
1-6
1-4
1-4
2-8
2-2
2-4
1-6
3-1
1-6
3-8
4-1
3-0
1-6
1-8
2-3
3-6
40
1-8
11
1-9
2-3
2-4
1-8
2-9
3-7
2-8
4-6
2-6
2-4
2-1
5-3
30
2-2
7-9
6-9
2-5
5-6
4-7
2-3
3-6
2-8
21
3-2
5-8
1-9
2-3
2-6
5-3
4-2
6-2
1-4
19-7
3-5
26-7
28-2
23-9
5-b
24 0
17
20
2-4
7-6
9-2
60
30
1-4
1-6
30
9-3
1-3
20
0-9
9-7
6-4
15-3
61
151
5-7
40-3
36-2
Digestible.
■>7-2
7-5
18-1
5-0
5-1
24-7
21-7
81
26-5
14-7
9-7
6-2
8-2
5-2
7-1
21-3
4-0
6-8
2-4
0-7
0-6
0-7
0-9
3-0
0-8
1-9
1-4
11
0-5
1-1
0-4
0-3
3-9
1-5
0-7
1-5
1-3
10
0-7
0-8
0-5
10
4-6
0-5
0-2
0-5
la
<1.
SI
1-5
1-5
10
2-2
1-9
20
21
1-2
11
1-4
2-2
1-8
1-4
6-5
4-0
8-5
50
91
3-9
20-2
181
13-6
4-9
10 9
43
3-5
4-8 16-3
4-2 14-3
1-8
3-8
3-0
1-0
21
2-0
1-5
2-2
3-2
1-2
1-7
15
65
1-7
17-5
30
9-4
3-8
60
2-3
3-8
1-4
6-7
0-9
41
10
5-3
1-7
140
31
3-2
0-8
50
1-3
1-7
0-5
^ Brushwood pressed, moistened, and mixed with 1 per cent, of malt and left to
ferment 24 hours.
APPENDIX.
TABLE I. {continued).
303
FOOD-STUFFS.
Pine and Fir needles
Artichoke tops
White Cabbage
Sugar-Beet leaves
(e) Sour Fodder, Silage, "Brown
Hay."
Brown hay : Sainfoin
Grass
Lucerne
Maize
Red Clover
Sour fodder : Sainfoin
Rye
Oats
Grass
Maize
Potato haulm
Clover
Lupines
Lucerne
Red Clovei*
Alsike
Mangold leaves
Serradella
Artichoke tops
Silage : Buckwheat
„ Grass
„ Maize
„ Lupines
,, Lucerne
,, Red Clgver
„ Meadow Vetch
Oat Vetch
TOTAI
53-5
67-7
89-0
88-0
110
15-8
20-0
30-0
14-5
S3-3
S6-9
76-3
SO-6
83-0
7-0
80-0
84-0
82-9
79-2
75-4
80-0
78-3
77-7
72-3
68-0
81-8
80-3
725
70-0
650
81-3
6-3
7-3
8-8
6-6
8-6
1-3
0-9
1-8
20
1-4
5-3
2-4
11
2-1
2-1
21
4-1
1-9
3-4
2-2
2-7
1-7
1-4
3-5
2-3
3-2
2-4
2-5
3-4
1-5
2-6
17-3
10-2
12-9
5-7
13-8
3-4
1-6
1-9
20
1-3
2-9
3-4
31
3-8
4-2
3-3
30
3-9
2-3
2-8
3-8
20
2-9
40
5-6
10-3
3-4
14-8
5-4
20
9.-9.
31-0
23-5
21-4
21-8
23-7
5-9
4-4
8-5
6-5
54
4-7
60
4-9
5-0
5-9
6-7
2-7
5-8
6-0
7-7
9-9
5-5
9-5
10-7
8-5
8-9
5-5
22-5
17-4
5-9
4-4
30-2
40-2
33-8
34-3
36-8
51
5-7
10-7
8-1
8-0
7-5
7-2
4-4
4-7
6-4
10-6
9-0
9-2
101
14-i
12-9
7-8
4-9
61
11-6
10-1
6-6
4-2
3-0
31
1-6
2-6
1-0
O-o
0'8
08
0-9
2-6
10
21
1-5
2-2
1-8
1-2
0-9
0-5
0-9
2-7
1-2
10
3-2
20
2-5
0-8
Digestible
•
QD
0'T3
^H
®
11
§1
ri T5
^h
©
= c
2 t<
-O cS
<
^
o
^
1-3
11-3
5-9
1-5
20
131
2'2
0-6
11
4-6
1-4
0-2
1-7
3-4
1-2
0-2
11-4
19-3
130
2-8
6-6
28-1
13-9
1-8
9-0
18-6
9-6
1-6
2-7
21-9
12-9
1-0
8-9
25-0
11-4
1-6
1-7
30
2-4
0-7
0-9
3-4
2-6
0-3
1-1
5-9
51
0-4
1-4
4-7
3-8
05
0-8
5-4
3-4
0-7
1-2
4-4
1-8
1-2
2-2
5-1
3-3
0-6
2-2
2-7
3-4
11
2-8
3-3
20
09
2-8
4-3
2-9
1-5
2-0
61
3-3
1-2
20
4-8
1-5
0-7
2-6
6-5
2-9
0-5
1-2
6-1
30
0-5
1-7
91
3-9
0-5
19
7-5
5-9
1-6
1-2
4-8
3-2
0-8
1-8
2-9
5-2
0-6
30
4-2
4-3
1-9
3-9
7-8
3-8
1-3
7-6
6-7
4-5
1-6
20
4-0
3-0
0-5
304
FARM FOODS.
TABLE I. {continued).
FOOD-STUFFS.
III. Straw.
(a) Cereals.
Oats
Millet
Maize
Rice
Summer Barley
„ ,, with Clover.,..
,, Straw, average
,, ., very good ....
Winter Spelt
,, Barley
„ Rye
„ Wheat
„ Straw, average
,, „ very good
(b) LeguminoscB.
Beans
Peas
Vetch
Garden Beans
Leguminous Straw, average....
,, ,, very good.
Lentils
Lupines
Meadow Vetch
Sand Pea
Sand Vetch
Soja Beans
(c) Other Plants.
Buckwheat
Total.
Digestible.
s
s
.
r.i
»
3
h
i
II
a o
'^ rt
1
u
C3
^
^
<D
3
t%
i3T3
1
^"
^
<5
o
o
'<^
o
^
■<<
o
^
14-3
4-0
40
39-5
36-3
20
1-4
16-7
23-4
0-7
15-0
7-4
4-6
350
35-5
2-5
1-4
13-8
19-3
0-9
15-0
4-2
30
400
36-7
10
11
16-5
240
0-3
15-6
15-3
5-7
37-6
240
1-8
2-6
9-4
21-4
0-9
14-3
41
3-5
40-0
36-7
1-4
1-3
18-6
220
0-5
14-3
6-7
6-5
38-0
32-5
20
3-2
16-2
20-9
10
14-3
4-1
3-8
39-7
36-4
1-7
1-4
17-7
22-7
0-6
14-3
6-7
6-9
36-7
32-9
2-5
2-5
16-7
20-2
0-8
14-3
5-0
2-5
450
31-8
1-4
0-7
9-6
22-5
0-4
14-3
5-5
3-3
43-0
22-5
1-4
0-8
9-9
21-5
0-4
14-3 41
3-0
440
.33-3
1-3
0-8
12-3
24-2
0-4
14-31 4-6
3-0
100
36-9
1-2
0-8
13-6
220
0-4
14-3
4-8
30
420
34-9
1-3
0-8
12-9
231
0-4
14-3
5-3
4-5
37-8
36-7
1-4
1-2
13-5
20-9
0-4
16-0
4-6
10-2
340
34-2
1-0
5-0
20-9
14-2
0-5
160
4-5
6-5
380
340
10
3-2 18-2
15-2
0-5
16-0
4-5
7-5
42-3
290
10
3-4 151
16-8
0-5
150
6-2
7-0
31-2
391
1-5
3-7 |28-4
12-5
0-8
150
4-5
8-1
38-0
32-4
10
3-8 ! 18-1
15-4
0-5
160
5-1
10-2
34-5
33-2
1-0
5-0 19-6
150
0-6
16-0
6-5
140
33-6
27-9
20
6-9 16-8
140
1-2
16-0
4-1
5-9
40-8
321
11
2-2 20-9
20-7
0-3
14-0
4-8
120
32-7
33-6
2-9
6-0 18-1
131
1-5
15-5
3-9
7-0
410
31-2
1-4
3-2 16-9
16-4
0-7
11-3
4-8
6-2
40-2
361
11
2-9
19-5
161
0-6
15-0
10-2
6-7
270
38-6
2-5
3-4
251
10-5
1-5
10-4
5-0
3-9
45-9
33-2
1-6
20
17-3
20-6
0-7
APPENDIX.
TABLE I. (continued).
305
Total.
FOOD-STUFFS.
Poppy ....
Eape
Clover seed
IV. Chaff, Hulls, &c.
(a) Cereals.
Dari
Spelt
Oats
Millet husks
Barley
Green corn chaff
Maize cob
Rice husks
Rye
Wheat
(b) LeguminoscB.
Beans
Peas
Lentil husks
Lupines
Soja Beans
Vetches
(c) Other Plants.
Buckwheat
Earth-nut shells
Chestnut shells ,
Linseed
Gold of Pleasure (Came/ma sativa)
Rape
14-8
160
160
5-7
14-3
14-3
11-2
14-3
9-8
131
9-7
14-3
14-3
15-0
150
140
14-3
140
150
13-2
10-6
84-4
11-6
11-2
12-9
9-4
41
5-6
8-0
8-3
100
11-2
130
6-6
2-3
15-7
7-5
9-2
5-5
60
8-5
3-5
8-1
8-0
2-2
30
0-9
58
7-2
7-6
6-7
3-5
9-4
3-9
3-5
4-0
4-8
30
2-3
3-5
3-4
3-6
4-5
10-5
8-1
21-2
4-5
5-1
8-5
4-6
71
01
35
2-7
4-2
31-5
400
420
25-8
400
340
40-8
30-0
29-2
38-9
42-8
43-5
36-0
330
320
18-9
37-0
290
33-0
43-5
60-8
4-5
40-7
45-2
'7
^5
361
35-4
250
55-7
32-6
36-2
290
38-2
50-6
41-3
270
29-9
34-6
340
36-9
35-3
390
425
33-5
35-3
15-3
9-8
350
32-6
350
1-5
10
20
0-9
1-3
1-5
2-3
1-5
1-5
0-9
1-4
1-2
1-4
20
2-0
21
1-7
1-3
20
11
3-2
0-3
3-4
11
1-6
Digestible.
Is
3 C
30
1-4
4-2
1-5
ri
1-6
1-9
1-2
0-9
1-6
1-2
11
1-4
51
4-0
11-7
1-7
2-2
4-2
2-1
2-5
0-1
1-7
1-3
2-1
20-8
190
12-5
33-4
13-9
19-6
14-5
18-5
25-4
22-2
13-9
131
15-6
21-4
221
21-2
25-8
31-1
201
14-8
61
5-8
17-5
17-1
17-5
131
18-2
23
16-3
18-1
17-4
306
FARM FOODS.
TABLE I. {continued).
FOOD-STUFFS.
Total.
Digestible.
1
4
i
5
o
u
O
1
II
o
<
1
2
Eg
1
-ki
^
V. Roots and Tubers.
88-0
750
73-5
61-6
66-5
68-9
88-2
87-0
85-6
85-0
88-3
87-0
91-5
800
92-0
81-5
111
14-8
14-5
14-0
12-4
14-0
12-7
11-5
12-4
140
14-0
15-2
14-4
0-8
0-9
1-4
1-2
0-7
0-9
1-0
1-0
M
0-9
0-7
0-8
0-7
1-0
0-7
0-7
2-6
37
1-7
2-7
30
3-3
1-6
1-5
3-3
0-5
1-8
1-7
1-7
1-1
21
22
1-6
21
1-7
2-3
1-3
1-8
1-4
1-6
1-2
0-9
20
1-1
10
10-2
10-0
13-5
100
10-4
11-8
10-1
8-0
100
7-7
110
9-8
13-0
0-9
11
0-6
0-8
1-0
0-9
1-5
11
2-2
1-7
1-0
1-2
0-8
1-3
0-8
1-3
1-7
16-5
1-5
4-9
11-2
9-5
2-3
6-7
11-6
2-2
3-5
2-5
3-0
91
20-7
21-8
34-7
29-6
27-5
6-9
9-5
91
10-8
10-2
9-6
60
15-5
.0-3
15-4
71-3
52-3
67-2
66-1
57-8
57-4
68-6
68-4
58-6
7o'2
67-4
67-5
66-4
01
0-2
0-5
01
01
0-1
01
01
0-2
0-2
0-2
0-2
01
0-2
0-1
01
3-1
1-5
1-6
2-3
5-2
40
4-7
3-9
4-1
0-4
20
3-3
1-5
1-1
2-1
2*2
1-6
21
1-7
2-3
1-3
1-8
1-4
1-6
1-2
0-9
20
11
10
8-2
7-5
12-2
77
80
8 9
8-0
6-0
7-6
6-9
9-9
7-8
11-7
9-1
20-7
21-8
34-7
29-6
27-5
6-9
9-5
9-1
10-8
10-2
9-6
6-0
15-5
5-3
15-4
66-4
36-1
63-6
56-1
42-5
40-2
67-0
58-1
43-9
71-6
63-7
55-8
62-8
0-9
1-1
0-6
0-8
10
0-9
1-5
11
2-2
1-7
10
1-2
0-8
1-3
0-8
1-3
0-8
6-6
0-8
1-5
22
4-8
ri
40
5-8
1-1
1-7
1-3
1-5
01
02
Oo
01
01
0-1
01
01
0-2
0-2
0-2
0-2
01
0-2
01
01
2-5
11
1-3
2-3
4-3
3-2
40
31
2-7
0-3
1-6
2-7
1-2
Potatoes
frozen
„ frozen and steamed
„ ,, ,, fermented ...
Kohl Rabi
Swede
Carrots
Laree Carrot
Articliokes • <
Suffar Beet .
VI. Grain and Fruits.
(a) Cereals.
Dari
Spelt
Barley
Oats
Millet
Golden Millet
Rice without husks
Rye
Sorghum (Durra)
Wheat
APPENDIX.
TABLE I. {contimiecl).
307
FOOD-STUFFS.
(b) LegwninoscB.
Peas
Lentils
Lupines, blue, ,
„ white
„ yellow
,, „ sweetened
,, ,, „ air-dried
Meadow Vetch
Rice (without husks) ,
Saud Vetch
Serradella
Soj a Beans
Vetch
Vetches and Barley
Sugar Beet
(c) Oil Seeds.
Cotton seeds
Beech-nuts
Earth-nuts ,
Hempseed
Gold of Pleasure {Camelina sativa)
Linseed
Madia
Poppy seeds
Palm-nuts
Rape seeds
Sesame
(d) Other Seeds and Fruits.
Apples
Cyder residue, fresh
Total.
14-4
14-4
14-5
140
14-0
14-0
66-0
14-0
11-6
14-0
160
8-7
100
13-4
17-0
12-2
11-4
11-0
6-3
122
8-4
12-3
8-4
14-7
7-6
11-8
4-6
84-8
74-0
3-2
2-7
30
2-9
25-0
22-6
23-8
29-5
3-0 29-4
3-3 36-6
16-7
0-7
1-8
2-9
0-5
3-0
3-5
5-0
3-2
4-0
17-7
42-3
250
7*7
231
22-0
33-4
26-4
19-3
10-8
4-3 19
4-2 '13
3-2 ,28'
4-5 116-
6-8 I21'
3-4 20
4-7 20'
5-3 17
1-8
3-9
8-7
0-5
0-8
0-4
1-6
5-4
6-9
112
12-2
14-2
71
18-0
41
22
7-1
210
4-8
6-6
7-6
27-6
189
18-5
13-9
21
11-5
7-2
20-5
61
60
10-3
115
1-5
4-9
48-9
530
49-2
36-2
34-2
27-2
7-3
18-4
54-5
75-2
49-3
37-5
29-2
48-6
49-8
27-5
20-2
25-5
7-2
1-3
21-8
19-6
7-0
15-4
26-8
12-1
1-6
1-9
2-6
6-2
7-2
4-7
2-2
5-5
1-9
0-4
1-5
7-3
17-6
1-8
2-3
4-2
25-3
27-4
41-2
33-6
300
37-0
38-8
410
49-2
42-5
19-1 37-0
12-5
17-5
0-3
1-2
Digestible.
"3 -c
Is
-1 cz
220
201
21-4
26-3
26-1
^2-9
15-0
38-1
22 6
6-9
20-4
16-5
301
23 3
16-4
6-5
14-5
10-7
23-7
12-2
17-2
20-1
15-4
14-7
0
15-5
16-1
0-3
0-8
45-0
49-5
46-8
31-2
29-4
24-7
5-8
14-7
50-7
716
45-8
22-5
181
450
47-3
16-5
9-3
168
50
15-2
15-3
12-4
4-2
12-3
25-4
9-6
13-4
10-6
12-3
x3
308
FARM FOODS.
TABLE I. {continued).
FOOD-STUFFS.
Cyder residue dried
„ „ fermented
,, ,, mashed
Pears
B uck wheat
Acorns, fresh
„ half-dry
„ without shells and dried .
Pumpkins (field)
(garden)
Carob Beans
Horse Chestnuts, fresh ;
„ without shells, frt sh
„ „ dried
Vegetable Ivory
Cattle Melon
VII. By-Peoducts and Eefuse.
(a) Grain.
Buckwheat bran
Spelt bran
Pea hulls
ground
Pea meal
Earth-nut bran
,, „ with shells
Barley seed
„ groats
„ brau
„ refuse
Green Corn bran
Oathulls
Oats, red meal
„ white meal
Oat bran
Total.
Digestible.
1
1
ii
i
11
1 ^
1
u
«
(S
0)
Srri
bo 2
£
?<
"^
'3
^V\
T3
3?
O -*J
'S
-d
i s
■Q §
is s
3
-tf
^
^
O
O
12;
O
<
^
o
f^
14-8
5-8
5-6
21-4
49-1
3-3
2-8
34-4
8-6
20
75-0
11
20
5-6
14-5
1-8
1-0
10-2
2-2
11
44-3
2-1
4-7
12-7
32-2
40
2-3
22-5
51
2-4
83-8
0-3
0-3
3-4
120
0-2
0-2
11-5
1-7
01
13-2
1-8
10-1
15-0
58-4
1-5
7-5
43-8
8-0
11
55-3
10
2-5
4-4
34-8
1-9
20
31-3
2-7
1-5
37-7
1-6
3-5
7-8
46-6
2-8
2-8
41-9
4-8
2-2
17-0
20
5-1
4-5
67-4
40
4-1
60-7
2-8
3-2
90-9
0-5
1-3
1-7
5-2
0-4
1-0
4-7
11
0-3
80-8
0-9
1-8
1-8
7-9
0-8
1-4
7-1
1-2
0-8
130
1-8
4-0
5-9
73-3
20
2-7
69-6
4-6
11
49-2
1-6
4-3
20
41-3
1-6
3-4
36-9
1-2
1-3
49-0
1-8
31
0-8
43-2
21
2-5
410
0-5
1-7
18-8
1-8
6-9
4-0
65-3
3-2
5-5
59-4
2-4
2-5
9-4
1-3
4-4
76-6
71
1-2
1-8
3-5
22-8
0-4
91-4
0-7
1-2
1-5
5-2
0-9
4-6
10
"
20-9
2-6
11-6
28-3
33-8
2-8
7-7
23-7
8-5
20
13-0
5-6
14-0
8-2
54-9
4-3
10-9
45-0
2-1
3-8
12-3
3-0
8-0
43-7
30-5
2-5
5-6
24-4
21-9
20
12-3
4-2
131
3M
37-8
1-5
9-2
30-2
15-6
1-2
11-4
3^5
23-7
4-5
54-5
3-5
20-9
52-5
2-9
2-8
10-8
5-1
22-4
18-7
23-8
19-2
16-8
15-7
9-3
16-3
8-0
10-2
8-2
53-7
16-3
41
4-9
8-1
161
2-4
13-2
2'9
12-6
30
65-4
2-9
10-2
54-3
1-5
2-4
12-5
4-6
12-2
7-2
60-2
3-3
9-5
47-6
2-4
2-6
12-3
7-0
10-3
16-5
50-6
3-3
7-8
36-9
41
2-5
121
6-9
111
15-7
50-7
3-5
8-8
42-5
7-8
2-3
9-1
12-9
10-6
15-2
45-5
6-7
7-4
37-3
4-6
50
9-4
6-5
2-7
27-9
52-2
1-3
1-3
261
14-0
0-6
101
8-3
7-4
19-4
50-9
3-9
4-8
33-1
9-7
3-2
10-5
6-8
11-0
14-5
52-2
4-5
8-3
40-9
7-3
36
110
8-3
8-4
216
47-3
3-4
4-0
23-6
10-8
1-6
APPENDIX.
TABLE I. {continued).
309
POOD-STUFFS.
Millet husks
Maize bran
Rice meal
„ husks
Rye meal
,, bran
Sorghum bran . . .
Wheat meal
„ bran, fine
(b) Agricultural Manufactures.
Brewers' grains, fresh
., „ dried
Dry Malt, without sprouts
Green Malt, with sprouts
Maize sprouts
Malt sprouts
Distillers' grains, dried
Potato " slump "
„ „ dried
Maize „
dried
dried
Molasses ,
Rice ,
Rye „
„ „ dried
Rye and Maize " slump," dried
Yeast " slump "
Wheat „
dried ,
Total.
10-6
11-8
10-5
9-5
120
12-4
10-5
11-5
12-1
13-6
761
9-3
7-5
47-5
13-5
11-8
6-9
94-4
12-6
90-6
12-0
900
14-9
91-0
9-5
10-5
94-8
90-5
120
Starch Manufacture.
Potato fibre, pulp |86-0
„ „ pi'essed j64-7
11
4-2
2-3
1-7
5-9
7-6
10-4
0-7
110
0-4
3-5
31
0-6
0-5
50
5-8
0-4
0-5
4-8
0-4
0-6
5-3
20-2
9-4
6-5
20-7
23-3
22-1
1-4
21-8
20
18-7
2-8
14-2
2-3
230
20-5
10
2-7
250
0-8
1-9
28'
61
45'
44-
63'
58-
65'
63'
3 58'
54'
3-9
150
8-7
4-3
5-8
12-4
14-7
0-6
94
0-8
7-5
90
1-9
9-2
9-8
0-4
0-8
7-4
1-0
2-5
12-9
43-6
42-8
40-6
2-7
41-3
5-2
48-9
4-1
8-8
4-8
48-2
451
31
50
46-1
11-7
301
G 2
3-6
3-8
120
3 3
2-9
3-2
4-5
3-3
4-2
3-4
1-5
7'7
2-3
1-5
14-5
21
5-3
0-2
10
9-4
0-5
0-5
51
8-3
0-3
0-5
4-7
Digestible,
2-4
7-9
7-3
4-2
10-6
11-5
11-0
10-8
iro
10-6
3-9
14-9
7-5
5-2
17-4
19-1
161
1-4
3-9 21-8
1-6
150
2-8
12-8
1-8
18-4
18-4
08
2-2
120-0
0-8
1-9
II
15-0
53-6
42-0
30-9
51-2
45-2
52-6
51-6
44-8
42-3
8-3
27-9
62-8
34-7
34-9
37-7
261
2-6
41-3
4-7
44-0
4-1
65-4
4-6
461
42-9
2-8
4-5
41-5
11-7
30-1
310
FARM FOODS.
TABLE I. (continued).
Total.
Digestible.
i
9
s
^ S
T3 T3
i
£
FOOD-STUFFS.
si
s
2 S
'^ eg
r2
^
i'^
^1
^
^
J2
3
■tJ 0}
-o §
-tJ (B
s
-li
^
<
o
o
^
o
<
f^
O
^
Maize slime, half-dried 40-8
0-7
11-2
0-6
45-0
1-7
90
410
0-4
1-4
„ dried 12-6
1-0
181
1-3
60-7
6-3
14-5
55-2
0-8
5-4
Rice „ 55-8
0-6
12-3
05
29-5
1-3
9-8
26-9
0-3
11
„ dried 13-9
1-2
18-1
21
61-8
2-9
14-5
56-2
1-3
2-5
7-8
1-2
11-9
101
59-5
9-5
9-0
53-6
50
8-5
Residue from manufacture of
71-4
0-3
4-2
2-8
20-2
11
3-6
17-6
1-4
0-9
Residue from manufacture of
rice, dried 7"8
1-7
36-3
0-5
526
M
290
47-4
0-3
09
Dried gluten 11-6
1-6
68-9
0-3
129
50
68-9
12-8
01
50
Sugar Maimfacture.
Sugar-Beet refuse from centrifugal
machine 820
1-2
1-0
3-6
121
0-1
0-6
10-1
31
0-1
„ „ from diflFusiou
machine, fresh . 94*0
0-4
0-5
1-4
3-6
01
0-3
30
1-2
01
„ „ from diflFusion
machine, pressed 89-8
„ from diffusion
0-6
0-9
2-4
6-1
0-2
0-6
51
20
0-2
machine, ieruiented 88'5
0-9
0-9
2-3
7-2
0-2
0-5
60
1-9
0-2
„ „ from diffusion
machine, dried . 11 "6
7-1
6-6
19-3
54-8
0-6
4-1
45-9
16-0
0-6
Maceration resid ue 78 9
2-8
1-5
4-4
12-3
0-1
0-9
10-5
3-7
01
Sugar-Beet residue from press ... 730
22
1-9
5-4
17-3
0-2
1-2
14-5
4-4
0-2
M fer-
mented 7(54
2-9
1-4
4-5
14-5
0-3
0-9
12*2
37
0-3
Sugar-Beet molasses. 180
10-3
11-8
—
59-9
—
11-8
59-9
—
—
(c) By-Froducts from Oil
Factoi'ies ^.
Cotton cake
106
9-8
7-2
8-8
24-7
'>8-3
24-9
18-4
5-7
260
29-0
19-7
6-6
7-7
14-9
180
21-2
36-9
120
15-7
18-7
5-7
2-2
5-9
6-7
13-1
■nnrififtd . .
,, decorticated
8-9
r.j
43-6
^ The oil residues called "meal" are from extraction processes, those called " cake
from the other processes.
APPENDIX.
TABLE I, (continued).
311
1
FOOD-STUFFS.
Total.
Digestible.
1
1
1
3
o
£
II
i
U
o
3 ,
<
i
II
£
o
6-6
6-8
7-2
6-7
7-2
10-3
9-5
5-2
11-0
6-2
20-4
8-3
9-6
21
7-2
9-7
13-7
8-8
3-3
10-6
9-0
3-6
7-6
2-4
7-9
12-6
9-7
125
17-5
11-5
21
6-8
8-1
11-2
Beech -nut cake
16-1
12-5
9-8
100
11-9
100
7'7
13-3
10-3
11-8
9-9
11-8
11-8
9-7
10-7
10-8
9-7
10-7
11-5
13-8
10-2
10-5
104
8-5
10-7
8-5
8-7
17-3
5-7
111
6-0
13-4
10-8
13-7
5-2
7'7
6-9
4-6
7-8
8-1
8-5
6-5
5-9
6-6
5-8
6-9
7-3
7-3
7-5
6-2
4-3
11-2
8-0
6-8
40
40
7-7
7-9
7-7
10-3
7-8
6-1
11-9
10-9
10-8
5-2
6-7
5-0
18-2
37-1
31-0
47-5
29-8
18-8
5l'-9
•26-3
19-7
20-0
36-1
33-1
28-7
33-2
31-8
13-5
41-3
35-4
331
6-0
161
17-0
30-7
331
32-7
18-2
21-5
19-8
171
37-2
46-4
40-3
32-8
34-6
23-9
5-5
22-7
5-2
24-7
15-5
4-0
28-2
14-4
13-4
141
11-6
9-4
8-8
192
8-6
8-9
11-3
19-6
33-4
18-3
20-2
11-3
134
7-8
29-6
15-6
14-9
27-1
7-5
7-7
5-5
13-5
6-4
28-3
29-8
20-7
24-9
17-3
36-4
16-3
19-9
38-7
42-0
11-5
27-4
32-1
38-7
21-7
50-1
20-6
21-6
23-4
26-8
41-9
44-0
30-1
34-1
3M
15-4
32-5
241
13-2
20-5
26-7
28-1
27-1
27-8
8-3
7-5
8-9
7-8
8-0
11-2
10-6
5-8
11-0
6-2
22-7
9-2
10-7
2-3
9-0
10-8
15-2
9-8
4-1
13-2
9-5
3-8
9-8
30
10-0
180
13-9
17-8
25-0
12-8
2-4
7-5
9-1
12-5
13-5
31-2
24-8
i3-2
20-9
12-4
47-6
19-5
170
23-5
15-5
24-4
10-4
25-5
14-7
100
5-2
20
3-5
0-8
6-2
2-5
1-5
5-6
8-9
8-3
6-3
4-7
41
3-9
38
5-3
1-8
4-5
5-3
13-4
150
16-6
09
1-3
0-8
13-3
7-0
6-7
12-2
2-3
2-4
7-7
4-1
1-6
„ „ without shells
Earth-nut cake
„ „ without shells
Hemp cake
Cacao cake
Candle-nut cake
Capoc cake
Coconut cake
15-0 31-4
15-2 34-0
,, meal
Pumpkin-seed cake
32-5
26-5
24-7
10-1
21-9
'?.5-7
Cake from Gold of Pleasure
seeds
Linseed cake
,, meal
27-8 31-0
22-3 130
10-8 |44-1
37-2 20 2
30-4 17-3
26-5 18-7
3-6 18-8
15-3 39-4
16-6 41-4
24-9 22-9
26-5 2.1-9
Madia cake
Maize " chit " cake
Almond cake
Poppy cake
Cake from Ramtilla seeds
Olive cake
Palm-nut cake
,, meal
Rape cake
,, dust
Summer Rape cake {Br. rapa) . . .
Anise residue
26-2
100
11-8
10-9
9-4
33-5
41-8
36-3
27-9
31-1
23-4
7-7
19-5
14-5
6-6
13-2
16-8
21-7
21-0
26-6
Fennel „
Carraway residue
Thyme residue
Sesame cake
„ meal
Soja-Bean cake
Sunflower cake
Walnut cake
312
FARM FOODS.
TABLE I. {continued).
FOOD-STUFFS.
Total.
Digestible.
1
,.
a
M
IS
o
1
O
sin
II
o
00 <D
11
<
£
o
i
(d) Animal Products.
120
90-1
890
8-4
12-6
10-8
73-7
87-5
900
90-5
70-4
13-5
93-6
75-6
81-3
84-0
910
11-8
86-9
4-1
0-7
0-4
50
36-6
4-6
11
0-7
0-8
0-7
2-3
6-7
0-6
0-3
0-8
11
0-4
11-5
0-9
80-8
40
2-2
61-3
49-0
710
12-6
32
3-5
39
18-8
55-3
0-8
3-7
6-3
7-2
21
63-7
3-7
4-8'
13-9'
2-6
41
60
0-5
0-6
5-0
5-0
4-5
4-9
2-8
4-7
3-1
5-3
4-4
0-5
11
1-6
25-3
1-8
131
121
3-6
0-7
0-4
3-7
10-9
0-1
17-6
6-8
4-6
1-2
13-4
41
54-1
40
2-2
58-2
44-1
67-5
12-6
3-2
3-5
3-9
130
:^-0
0-8
3-7
6-3
7-2
2-1
BO-5
3-7
2-6
41
60
0-5
0-6
5-0
50
4-5
4-9
2-8
4-7
31
5-3
4-4
—
0-5
11
16
23-3
1-6
12-8
121
3-6
0-7
0-4
3-1
91
0-1
17-6
6-8
4-6
1-2
12-4
41
Butter-milk
Ass's milk
Greaves .
Flesh meal
Hens' eggs
Cow's milk
, ,, skimmed
sftnaratpd
Cockchafers, fresh
Whej (Cow's milk)
Cream
Ewe's milk
Sow's milk
M!are's milk ••.
Groat's milk
The indigestible chitine of the Cockchafers.
APPENDIX. 313
TABLE II.
The Digestibility of Food-stuffs.
This Table contains the results of direct experiments
on the digestibility of individual foods. I have deduced
them from the results of about 1000 experiments^, 600
with sheep and the rest on oxen, cows, goats, pigs, and
horses. The subject was thoroughly discussed in
Part II. of this book.
I have stated in each case the number of individual
experiments, and the maximum and minimum values
recorded ; all the experiments conducted on the same
sort of a particular food- stuff have been taken into con-
sideration and the average values obtained are employed
in all the calculations involved.
This was necessary because of the errors arising from
the individual peculiarities of the animals experimented
upon. We know, as a result of direct experiments,
that the percentage digestibility of coarse and green
fodder depends principally on its chemical composition,
as determined by the conditions of soil, manuring,
and season under which it was grown, while other con-
ditions, such as the quantity supplied, whether green or
in the form of hay, as well as the kind, breed, and
age of the animal, have but a trivial influence on the
digestibility of the food.
The differences observed between different individuals
of the same species of animal are nearly always trace-
able to disturbances of digestion. The variable value
of food for the production of milk, flesh, or fat, with
314 FARM FOODS.
different individuals, is an important item for considera-
tion in feeding estimates, but has no real connection
with the digestibility of a food or its digestive
coefficient.
From the data given in this Table very interesting
comparisons can be drawn between different food -stuffs
or variations in the same kind brought about by
different conditions of cultivation &c.
Table B offers a comparison between the actual and
the digestible composition of the dry matter of a large
series of food-stuffs.
APPENDIX.
315
TABLE II.
The Digestibility of Food-stuffs.
A. Average and Extreme Variations of the Digestive Coefficients.
(Calculated from tlie results of direct experiments.)
FOOD-STUFFS.
I. Experiments with
EUMINANTS.
(a) Green Fodder and Hay.
Pasture-grass ^
Meadow aftermath
Meadow-hay
„ rich in nitrogen
average
inferior
„ fed dry 2
,, steamed
Meadow-grass in autumn
„ „ as ensilage
Timothy grass
6
30
118
46
68
18
2
2
4
5
4
77
75—78
64
62-71
62
46—71
65
56—71
60
46—59
55
46-59
56
56
60
54
58
52—67
75
72—79
62
61—68
61
42—72
64
57—70
57
42—72
51
42—56
44
30
56
27 3
50
45—60
75
72-80
64
59-68
57
46—71
62
55—71
58
46—66
54
46-61
57
58
62
71
52
43—62
66
63-69
46
31—56
53
10—63
51
! 31—63
49
10—63
41
! 10-57
37
41
46
61
47
35—55
550 U
75-84
66
63—74
64
49-76
68
58—76
62
49—73
58
49—61
59
59
61
52 I
64 i
58—72
^ " Pasture-grass " = grass in good meadows, not too wet, April to middle of May.
^ A poor and tough sample.
3 Only the amides of the crude albuminoids were digested, the albumen was almost
indigestible.
316
FARM FOODS.
TABLE II. {continued).
FOOD-STUFFS.
Cock's-foot grass, end of flowering
Bent-grass, in flower
Couch-grass, in flower
Millet, end of flowering
Clover ley
Green Clover and Clover-hay...
„ ,, before flowering .
Clover-hay, very good
average
Green Clover before flowering ^.
„ „ just in flower ,.
„ „ in flower
„ „ end of flowering
Alsike, full bloom
White Clover, full bloom
Lucerne hay, very good .
„ before flowering .
in flower
„ fed green
Same, as dry hay
,, overheated hay ..
Lucerne, fed green
„ artificially dried
„ carefully dried ..
,, wetted with rain
Sain foin , fed green
1
1
1
1
2
46
15
12
19
2
2
2
2
4
1
28
18
10
4
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
O
56
59
61
64
75
61
54—74
66
59—74
61
58—63
57
54-62
74
68
63
bS
58
56—63
67
60
55-67
62
58—67
56
55—57
58
55
54
67
62
61
57
59
60
64
62
78
62
43-76
66
60—76
62
55—69
55
43—61
74
76
69
59
58
49—64
73
74
67-83
77
72-83
70
67—73
78
73
72
81
78
72
67
73
51
61
69
63
67
49
39—60
53
47—60
47
39-52
45
39-52
60
53
50
39
47
44—51
61
43
34-48
43
34-48
42
37-45
34
37
45
45
42
48
45
42
51
44
60
60
64
62
35—74
64
58-74
60
44—72
51
35-70
65
67
61
45
49
35—55
51
39
29—55
39
30^4
39
29—55
44
32
43
52
33
66
62
67 I 78
^ The green clover was taken from the same field at four periods of growth, had
grown very luxuriantly, and was much beaten down by the heavy rains.
APPENDIX.
317
TABLE II. {continued).
FOOD-STUFFS.
Siune, as bay
,, 'brown hay'
,, ensilage .. ..
Vetches before bloom
Soja-Bean hay
Lupine-hay in bloom
Serradella in bloom
„ end of blooming.
Rye, young
Green maize ^
American maize, pickled —
dried
Green Sorghum
Prickly Cumfrey
Potato tops, beginning October
Poplar leaves „
Man gold leaves (silage)
Spent hops^
Beech brushwood in winter
Acacia ,, ,,
Poplar „ with foliage in
July
(b) Straw and Chaff.
Wheat straw
Rye
Barley
62
59
45
65
61
58—63
47
74
70
62
61—63
63
62—68
73
69
48
58
57
37
33—41
12
36
42
45—48
46
42—51
53
51-55
70
64
50
76
69
63—76
74
75
63
79
73
48
45—54
48
44-52
62
58
42
56
65
31
26-37
16
56
39
17
8—26
21
17—25
20
17—24
45
29
54
53
46-58
74
50
37
79
72
56
47—64
64
56-71
59
18
36
35
54
15
5-24
7
21
28
56
52-59
60
49—70
56
55-56
66
76
74
60
30
14-48
30
65
66
74
75
85
82—86
67
52-79
85
71
24
79
60
64
52—77
9
23
39
36
27-44
32
21—41
42
41—43
74
67
53
66
66
59—71
62
63
48
71
67
68
66-72
66
64—68
78
85
60
65
54
49
45-53
16
47
51
39
37-40
37
35—38
54
51—57
Early maize exceptionally rich in nitrogen and probably grown on a rich soil.
Hops left after making beer.
318
FAKM FOODS.
TABLE II. (continued).
FOOD-STUFFS.
Oat straw
Maize ,,
Straw from paddj^ rice..
,, upland rice
Bean straw
Garden „
Soja „
Lupine ,,
Pea „ very good ^
Soja-Bean pods
(c) Gi
Oats
Barley
Maize . ,
Dari .
Beans.
Soja
Peas . .
Vetches
Lupines
„ steamed at 100° C. ..
„ ,, and sweetened
Oth^r sorts of Lupines
,,' ,, sweetened
Lupines, not steamed
steamed at 140° 0.
Linseed
39
50
35
}— 56
14—48
37
50
47
44
44
51
49
...
54
55
50
55
37
59
61
63
44
70
62-77
86
81—91
91
89-92
86
89
83—94
85
90
92
95
92—100
92
97
84
85
81
68
77
70-85
78
68-86
70
63—77
72
60-79
65
88
81-95
37
91
90—94
92
94
88
90
87
67
91
84-98
57
48-64
52
58
55
39
?
38
51
52
51
20
0-44
50
0—100
77
62—100
51
72
25—92
168
139
95—176
95
121
79
85
77
69
61
30—91
35
20—49
28
41
52
56
53
60
30
46
57
83
75-92
89
78-79
85
82—89
70
86
55—100
91
75
92
92
90—94
90
94
87
88
71
84
86
85-87
45
39—45
40
35
29
64
72
66
65
64
73
76
67-88
92
87—86
94
91—96
91
93
88—95
62
93
100
106
84—134
89
84
81
70
76
66
55
42-68
Pea-straw of unusual quality and fed freely.
APPENDIX.
TABLE II. (^continued).
319
FOOD-STUFFS.
Acorns
Horse-chestnuts
Carob or Locust-beans
(d) Manufactured Prodiicts
and Befiise.
' Diffusion ' residue
Wheat-bran, fed dry
J ) •>
Same, made sour ^
„ cooked
Wbeat-bran, fed dry
„ scalded with chop
ped hay
„ scalded as a sloppA
mash
Spelt chaff
Eesidue from manufacture o\
wheat-starch
Rice meal
,, other sorts
Malt sprouts
Brewers' grains
Eape meal (extracted)
,, cake
Linseed meal (extracted)
„ cake
Palm-nut cake
„ meal (extracted)
87
94
82
72
67—78
76
67
64
74
69
69
76
91
78
67
81
80-84
65
63-67
68
66
56 — 75
71
81
78—83
75
91
89—93
■^3
o
c
§
'3
1
O C8
©
5P S
"73
3
1
Q
Q
o
^
83
62
88
91
60
0
85
93
68
78
54
95
63
83
100
84
78
33
70
77
71—89
20-39
50—80
70-82
88
20
79
80
79
13
83
71
70
0
87
74
74
34
74
80
71
9
74
78
67
13
83
78
78
25
89
82
88
100
46
92
61
51
86
92
45
34
83
84
78
85
50
86
73—82
65-95
35-65
82-88
72
42
84
67
71—73
33-45
81—84
64-70
84
0
85
81
8
79
76
76-86
0—16
69—88
74—78
82
0
91
73
86
44
90
80
84—87
26—62
89—91
70—91
77
54
94
79
95
82
95
94
89—100
72-92
89—100
92—96
^ Made sour by addition of ferment.
320
FARM FOODS.
TABLE II. {continued).
FOOD-STUFFS.
Earth-nut cake..
Sesame cake
Sunflower cake ...
Cotton-seed cake
(purified).
Coconut ,
Flesh meal....
Dried blood ^.
Fish guano .
New milk ....
(decorticated)
(e) Boots and Tubers.
Potatoes
Sugar Beet
Mangold .
Turnips ^ .
Swedes ....
II. Comparative Experiments
WITH Horses and Sheep.^
Meadow-grass — Sheep
,, ,, Horse
I
a
*3
O
85
77
76
50
56
55-57
80
78
95
63
98
97—98
88
83—90
89
84-93
88
87—88
78
97
62
57—76
50
43—62
51
43—62
91
90
90
73
75
74-76
85
76
95
62
90
94
91-97
16
31
31
23
12
10—15
0
62
65
64—67
...
62
56-68
76
66—86
57
62
100
60
61
53-73
51-80
60
41
54-69
33-57
59
41
51—69
33-57
90
88
91
89
88-91
88
100
1^
bo u
63
77
46
54
53-55
95
81
98
100
100
76
100
98
99—100
93-98
93
89—96
95
95—96
95
...
94—96
89
94
99
52
66
43-65
56-76
22
59
10-42
49-67
20
59
7-42
49-68
1
^ Hard and solid.
2 The turnips were full of holes inside and somewhat tough and hard.
' These comparative experiments on Sheep and Horses were carried out at Hohenheini .
APPENDIX.
TABLE II. (continued).
321
FOOD-STUPFS.
S
H
0)
2
eg
a
0
CD
B
-3
1
J
1,
g 1
(4-
«4-l
*2
0
<s
©
bci3
0
0
03
T3
ns
n3
2 «
•
.
bO
S
3
3
is «
0
0
fH
f^i
u
1.1
^
t2i
0
0
0
0
S
Pasture-grass from meadows-
Sheep...
1
2
76
73
80
65
76
Do. do. Horse...
1
1
62
69
57
13
66
Meadow-hay rich in nitrogen |
Sheep ]
4
10
64
65
63
54
65
63-65
59-72
61-66
48-63
62—68
Do. do. Horse...
4
6
51
62
42
20
57
49-55
55—66
36-46
14—42
52—61
Meadow-hay, average — Sheep . . .
4
8
59
57
56
51
62
57-63
55—61
51—60
45-56
56—68
„ „ „ Horse...
4
4
48
57
36
24
55
43—56
55-60
33-42
19—31
49—67
Meadow-hay, poor in nitrogen "1
Sheep J
3
7
59
54
58
46
62
58—61
53-56
54-61
43—49
56—65
Do. do. Horse...
3
4
47
57
39
24
56
45-51
54-62
38-40
16-33
48—61
Clover-hay— Sheep
4
8
56
56
50
56
61
55-58
55—58
48—52
56-62
58-64
„ Horse
4
6
51
56
37
29
64
49—45
51-60
35—39
28—31
61—67
Lucerne — Sheep
4
12
59
71
45
41
66
56-62
68-74
40-47
29-56
64—70
„ Horse
4
6
58
73
40
14
70
55-61
70-75
36-44
0—30
67-71
Wheat-straw — Sheep
1
2
48
59
44
37
„ „ Horse
1
2
23
19
27
18
Spelt straw— Horse ..
1
1
25
23
30
20
18
Oats — Sheep
3
13
71
80
30
83
76
66-74
67-87
21—44
75—89
72—79
„ Horse
3
8
68
86
21
71
74
63—71
82-89
1-38
63—78
72-76
8
22
67
79
20
70
74
j> >'
62-71
68-89
1—38
60—78
72—76
Barley — Horse
1
1
87
80
100
42
87
91
Maize — Sheep
1
2
89
79
62
85
„ Horse
2
2
89
77
70
61
94
87-91
75-78
41—100' 59—63
94-94
Beans — Sheep
1
6
90
87
79 84
91
„ Horse
1
5
87
86
65 i-"^
VI.
93
322
FARM FOODS.
TABLE II. {continued).
FOOD-STUFFS.
Peas — Sheep
,, Horse
Lupines — Sheep
,, Horse
Linseed cake — Horse
Linseed — Horse ....
Potatoes — Horse
Carrot — Horse
III. Experiments with Pigs
Barley-meal
Maize-meal
Pea- meal
Eice, boiled
Rye-bran
Coconut cake^
Flesh- ra eal
Dried blood^
Cockchafers
Sour milk
Potatoes
5
a
'3
&
O
90
72
69
64
93
87
83
82—85
92
90—95
91
88—95
99
67
80
95
72
57
95
93
89
83
88
94
88
75
78
75-80
86
84—88
88
85-90
89
66
74
97
72
69 3
96
73
66
8
97
51
12
0—27
40
19—57
71
55—89
55
75
9
78
27
53
52
68
65-77
76
76-77
49
36—67
67
58
83
87
83
95
93
89
78
51
94
98
99
94
90
89—91
95
93-96
96
95—99
100
75
89
92
98
^ Poorly digested by the pigs, despite apparent richness.
^ Same sample as in previous table.
^ Excluding chitine.
APPENDIX. 323
TABLE II. {continued).
B. Average Composition and Digestibity of Foods as found
by direct Experiments,
(Calculated as percentage of dry matter.)
FOOD-STUFFS.
I. Experiments with Eusiinants.
(a) Green Fodder and Hay.
Pasture-grass from meadows
Meadow aftermath
Meadow-hay
„ ,, rich in nitrogen
„ ,, average
,, „ inferior
„ ,, fed dry
,, ■ ,, steamed
Clover ley
Hay from Timothy grass
Green Clover and Clover-hay
,, „ before blooming ...
Clover-hay, very good
„ ,, average
Green Clover before blooming . . .
„ ,, just in bloom
,, ,, in bloom
„ ,, end of bloom
Lucerne-hay, very good
„ ,, before blooming ...
Lucerne in bloom
„ fed green
„ as hay
,, as 'Brown hay'
,, fed green
, , dried artificially
„ dried without loss
,, dried and rained upon ...
Sainfoin fed green
19-7 19-5
13-8 ;26-3
11-3 '30-2
14-1 |25-8
10-0 130-9
9-3 !34-6
1
271
7-9
15-9
18-3
15-5
13-9
18-4
18-7
15-3
34-5
35-8
16-7
34-4
29-6
26-6
28-2
33-7
26-6
27-9
26-3
15-6 129-9
17-9 132-0
18-9 |29-7
16-8 35-0
20-6 130-3
18-4 1.34-0
^2-4
17-4
17-2
17-0
14-9
23-8
37-0
28-2
29-9
4-8 43-9
3-9 ;46-7
3-0 47-5
3-9 ;47-4
2-9 48-6
2-4 i4{V3
48-6
47-5
42-1
50-6
2-1
2-1
5-1
2-6
3-3 143-8
3-8 142-8
3-4 46-5
2-3 43-5
4-2 ,43-5
4-7 41-7
3-7 47-9
4-2 [43-8
2-8 :39-6
2-8 |40-7
2-8 j38-2
3-7 37-6
2-3 1880
2-7 29-6
3-0 42-8
2-2 42-1
31-8 43-8
33-9 44-2
26-0 I 4-0 139-:
121
9-3
7-9
8-9
7-7
7-2
6-6
6-5
9-0
4-5
7-2
8-4
6-3
6-7
7-3
7-0
6-8
6-5
7-4
7-9
6-8
7-8
7-3
8-3
8-6
8-3
7-4
6-9
6-4
Digestible.
14-7
8-6
7-0
49-0
48-0
47-8
9-0 |48-0
5-7 48-2
4-7 45-7
3-7 48-2
48-8
2-7
21-2
3-3
9-9
12-1
9-6
7-6
13-6
14-2
10-6
9-1
13-2
14-6
11-7
16-1
13-5
16-2
14-2
13-4
12-2
9-9
17-3
y2^
45-1
5M
44-7
45-2
45-8
43-4
51-9
45-9
47-5
42-6
39-9
41-3
38-9
35-3
371
32-5
45-1
42-1
3-2
1-8
1-6
20
1-4
1-0
0-8
0-9
3-3
1-2
2-1
2-4
2-1
1-2
2-7
3-1
2-3
1-9
1-1
1-1
1-1
1-6
0-7
1-5
1-6
0-7
44-4
42-7
42-1 I 2-7
324
FARM POODS.
TABLE II. {continued).
FOOD-STUFFS.
Sainfoin as hay
,, as brown hay
„ as silage
Vetch -hay (before bloom )
Soja-Bean hay
Lupine-hay (in bloom)
Serradella (in bloom)
,, (end of bloom)
Green Maize
Gi-reen Sorghum
Prickly Comfrey
Potato haulm, beginning October ...
Poplar leaves ,, „
Mangold leaves, silage
Spent Hops
Beech brushwood in winter
Acacia brushwood
Poplar brushwood with leaves, July
(b) Straw, #c.
Wheat-straw
Bye-straw
Barley-straw
Oat-straw
Bean-straw
Soja-Bean straw
Pea-straw, very good
Lupine-straw
Soja-Bean pods
(c) Grain.
Oats . ,
Barley
Maize .
Beans .
Peas .
231
21-0
21-2
23-8
16-9
27-8
22-6
19-1
13-8
7-5
19-9
10-6
12-9
11-8
18-6
4-7
11-2
7-8
5-2
4-4
4-8
6-2
10-7
7-9
14-0
7-9
5-9
12-5
11-6
13-3
30-9
29-9
26-9
31-8
34-2
28-1
42-3
30-2
29-7
35-7
27-7
331
13-2
27-3
20-7
10-8
220
45-6
36-0
47-7
46-2
42-0
42-0
41-4
31-8
31-9
48-6
33-7
12-7
5-9
1-8
8-2
6-6
3-9
4-9
6-2
2-8
2-5
2-4
5-2
3-9
5-6
6-6
2-7
4-5
10-3
4-8
71
1-8
1-9
3-4
1-1
1-4
2-5
2-3
ri
30
2-4
1-2
1-5
6-3
2-2
4-8
1-8
1-6
Digestible.
39-7
35-2
31-4
34-3
31-3
34-8
30-9
32-5
47-9
59-4
42-4
43-9
47-2
36-3
|47-7
44-8
46-7
451
431
44-7
41-7
40-3
45-4
44-4
39-8
49-5
64-1
77-2
78-4
54-9
58-3
6-4
71
7-1
111
7-0
4-9
11-6
8-8
50
3-3
21-8
13-7
8-9
36-3
4-6
31
4-2
3-9
6-2
5-3
5-9
7-6
6-5
120
7-3
3-4
9-4
4-4
31
1-7
4-2
4-6
16-2
13-3
10-6
18-2
10-8
20-7
16-8
120
100
4-8
11-6
4-4
7-2
7-6
5-8
0-8
6-3
30
0-9
0-9
1-0
2-2
5-3
4-0
8-5
2-6
2-6
9-7
8-9
10-4
272
26-6
39-3
38-0
26-6
37-7
43-4
43-6
34-2
28-7
521
59-9
39-3
36-2
37-8
25-5
26-5
10-5
29-8
341
41-9
43-3
47-5
41-8
41-6
42-3
45-1
50-5
51-3
49-3 5-2
67-2
72-7
56-2
,58-7
19"9 of this was sand, so that the pure ash is only 164 per cent.
APPENDIX.
TABLE II. {continued:).
325
FOOD-STUFFS.
Soj
Lupines
steamed
,, and sweetened .
(different kind)
„ sweetened
Linseed
Acorns ,
Carob Seans ,
(d) By- and Waste Products.
Wheat-bran
dry
fermented
boiled
dry
scalded and ied with hay,
„ as a sloppy mash . . ,
Spelt chaff
Residue from manuf. of Wheat-starcb
Rice-meal ^
„ other sorts
Malt sprouts
Rape-meal (extracted)
Rape cake
Linseed-meal (extracted)
Linseed cake
Palm-nut meal (extracted)
„ „ (partly extracted)
Earth-nut cake
Sesame cake
Sunflower cake
Cotton-seed cake, decorticated ..,
,, „ „ not decorticated
„ „ „ purified
Coconut cake
39-3
43-2
43-2
47-9
42-6
49-2
31-3
6-5
4-6
15-4
16-1
15-3
16-1
20-4
16-8
121
32-1
40-6
36-2
37-0
34-5
21-5
15-9
152-7
49-1
r39-4
47-4
26-2
32-2
24-3
5-4
16-4
17-6
20-9
16-6
20-9
4-8
10-4
6-7
9-8
8-6
10-1
9-4
6-7
10-3
13-3
14-4
13-5
11-9
8-0
9-5
27-6
260
61
71
14-8
41
27-6
18 2
15-7
19-4
6-3
60
6-7
5-4
6-5
37-2
4-6
2-3
31-6
29-7
28-5
22-9
31-6
21-3
21-2
76-7
84-4
4-4
4-6
4-8
6-1
4-9
19-1
100
2-5
0-9
13 5
4-4
12-0
3-7
18-1
10-9
11-5
16-2
17-9
7-0
90
19-0
620
63-9
43-5
56-0
40-7
35-7
309
42-3
34-2
42 8
35-2
25-9
21-3
21-8
22-5
31-4
33-1
34-1
4-3
3-9
4-7
1-6
3-8
21
5-5
1-8
2-0
63-5
64-0
63-4 6-4
6-4
4-1
10-3
8-6
10-3
8-5
7-0
8-3
9-8
4-4
4-8
4-3
11-0
7-7
8-1
7-7
7-5
6-9
Digestible.
34-3
39-4
39-6
45-2
37-5
44-3
30-7
5-4
31
28-8
54-3
42-2
44-4
38-7
32-7
19-9
76-6
85'8
12-0
14-2
12-7
11-2
11-3
10-9
10-2
12-5
18-0
13-0
5-5
26-2
341
29-3
30-2
29-6
20-3
12-4
479
44-3
35-3
40-2
19-2
[l84
17-71
5-8!
5-4
6-3
4-7
5-7
31-6
4-0
1-2
52-2
52-6
46-3
47-4
54-3
50-3
50-6
53-3
65-3
50-4
51-5
49-4
30-3
24-0
30-9
31-7
62-9
37-3
26-4
15-6
21-4
21-4
20-8
20-0
37-3
30
3-7
3-8
40
3-6
3-6
40
5-4
2-3
16-9
8-3
1-2
0-3
10-6
4-0
10-
3-5
16 9
9-3
10-3
14-2
15-7
64
80
190
A sample unusually rich in albuminoids and fat.
326
FARM FOODS.
TABLE II. {contimied).
FOODSTUFFS.
Flesh-meal
Dried blood
Fish guano
New milk
(e) Boots and Tubers.
Potatoes
S ugar Beet
Mangolds ^
Turnips ^
II. Experiments with Horses
AND Sheep.
Meadow-grass— Sheep
„ „ Horse
Pasture-grass — Sheep
„ „ Horse
Meadow-hay rich in nitrogen — Sheep
„ „ „ ,. Horse
„ „ average — Sheep ..
„ „ „ Horse ..
Clover-hay — Sheep
,, „ Horse
Lucerne-hay — Sheep
„ „ Horse
Wheat-straw — Sheep
,, „ Horse
Oats — Sheep
„ Horse
Barley — Horse
Maize — Sheep
,, Horse
Beans — Sheep
,, Horse
Peas — Sheep
Horse
^
1
1
r6
Digestible.
tn
c
o
g
®
'^
TJ
© ,
C-
S
.^
£
=3 m
g
g
le
^
i
-^
f.^
3
o
dj
r2
r2
M
R
s
X3
T.
^
K
U
O
O
^
f^
79-4
O
13-2
1
83-5
13-4
2-9
i
91-9
0-7
29
4-5
o70
2-9
0-7
1
56-0
2-1
41-9
50-4
—
1-6
0
254
—
24-6
43-6
6-4
24-0
42-8
24-6
3
9-2
2-4
03
84-0
4-1
6-0
78-0
0-3
2
5-9
5-6
O-o
83-5
4-4
3-7
81-5
0-5
o
11-6
7-2
0-9
69-4
9-4
8-8
661
0-9
1
12-7
13-1
1-8
57-0
11-5
7-3
6-9
50-6
48-2
1-8
1-5
10
11-3
32-5
2-9
44-4
8-9
6-9
12-9
38-3
49-3
0-6
21
1
17-6
230
3-2
40-9
15-3
121
8-1
400
49-7
0-4
1-7
3
12-1
32-9
31
43-9
8-1
7-8
5-4
39-0
46-7
0-7
1-2
5
9-6
34-1
2-6
450
8-7
5-5
7-9
37-2
420
06
1-2
2
13-9
380
22
38-2
7-7
7-3
14-6
36-9
41-9
0-6
0-7
19-8
320
2-4
38-6
7-1
14-8
103
40-9
43-8
0
0-6
3-8
48-5
1-4
40-7
5-6
10-7
11-4
200
53-7
0-7
5-5
13-2
11-4
6-5
647
4-2
11-4
521
5 0
14-7
4-8
1-4
74-9
4-2
11-8
10-4
70-2
72-7
06
4-1
13-3
1-8
4-8
78-4
1-7
10-3
29-0
75-4
54-9
3-0
1-4
33-3
8-0
1-6
53-3
3-7
28-7
26-6
55-3
58-7
0
1-2
29-0
6-6
1-6
58-3
3-6
24-8
52-4
01
Deficit in total of percentages due to nitrates.
APPENDIX.
TABLE II. {continued).
327
FOOD-STUFFS.
-^
^
3
1
ri
Digestible.
5^
<D
i
"1
9
1
s
"5
1
i
"3
^
fl
^
c «
o
■%
o*
3 S
"o
*-
^
u
&.
s
k^
o
O
U
'^
p-l
<
O
f=q
13-1
50
31
75-4
3-5
10-2
68-4
20
12-3
2-2
51
781
2-3
10-5
74-8
3-9
27-4
7-5
1-7
59-8
3-6
241
62-8
0-8
6-8
0-1
0-5
92]
0-5
60
91-6
0-3
20-6
64
5-7
59-6
7-7
13-6
44-8
3-3
26-6
140
8-6
44-3
6-2
19-8
48-2
7-2
82-4
13-5
4-2
79-6
11-8
91-9
—
0-7
2-9
4-5
65-8
2-7
—
641
16-11
7-3
4-7
7-8
45-2
—
6-1
31-5
6-7
53-5
8-3
30-2
52-7
6-4
o
10-2
2-8
0-5
82-4
4-2
7-4
82-3
—
III. EXPERIMEXTS WITH PiGS.
Barley-meal
Maize-meal
Peas
Rice, boiled
Rye-bran
Coconut cake
Fiesh-raeal
Dried blood
Cockchafers ,
Sour milk
Potatoes
C. Extreme Variations in the Composition of Foods which have
been used in Digestion Experiments.
(Calculated as percentage of diy matter.)
FOOD-STUFFS.
I. Experiments with
Ruminants,
Pasture-grass from
meadows
Meadow aftermath . . .
Meadow-hay
„ ,, rich in
nitrogen
16-3— 25-1
10-7-16-1
7-4— 19-4
11-
■19-4
17-4-230 3-2- 5-9
230— 31-1 31— 4-3
21-8— 38-2 1-6— 5-2
21-8— 29-0 1-6— 5-2
9t
381-521
441— 49-5
39-8— 56-2
41-8— 52-0 6-8— 10-0
i
Si
88
2—15-3
8-7- 9-7
4-2—110
Chitine.
328
FARM FOODS,
TABLE II. (continued).
FOOD-STUFFS.
Meadow-hay, average
,, „ inferior
Green Clover and Clover-
hay
Green Clover before
blooming
Clover-hay, very good
,, „ average ...
Lucerne-hay, very good
Lucerne before blooming
,, in bloom
Spent Hops
Wheat-straw
Bye-straw
Barley-straw
Oat-straw
Oats
Lupines
^'^eat-bran
Rape cake
Linseed cake
Palm-meal (extracted)
Potatoes
Sugar Beet
Mangolds
Fresh milk
II. Experiments with
Horses and Sheep.
Meadow-grass
Meadow- hay, rich in
nitrogen.
,, „ average .
Clover-hay
III. Experiments with
Pigs.
Barley-meal
Maize-meal
Peas-meal
Potatoes
24
"I
7-4— 11 -2 24-1— 38-2
7-4-ll-2 32-^-38-2
12-2— 19-6 24-5-38-9
163— 1^-6 24o— 28-1
13 4— 19-9,25-7— 31-5
12-2— 16-6I28-1— 38-9
14-9— 20 •625-1— 37-9
17-3— 20-6|25-l— 320
14-9— 18-4;31-8— 37-9
17-5- 19-7 21-7— 22-3
3-8- 6-646-7— 48-5
4-0- 4-8I42-7— 49-8
4-7— 4-9i41-7— 42-3
3-7— 8-3 40-0- 45-6
9-3— 14-6
28-9— 33-6
36-1— 47-9
14-7— 16-1
34-8— 37-5
32-6- 36-5
19-4— 23-6
8-1- 11-1
4-8- 6-9
10-6— 12-6
22-8- 27-9
10-2-16-2
7-1— 91
14-5— 20-9
8-7— 10-6
10-0— 13-9
9-2— 9-8
24-4-30-8
20— 2-9
5-3— 5-9
6-8— 7-5
8-5- 17-723-0— 38-2
11-2— 12-9 31 -6- 34-9
8-5- 10-930-9— 38-2
12-9— 14-9 37-1— 38-9
127-14-1
10-3— 13-6
26-0-28-8
8-2— 12-7
3-7— 7-1
20- 2-3
6-5- 8-7
1-9— 3-6
1&- 4-2
21— 28
1-4— 4-9
2-3— 4-9
1-6— 4-.'>
2-9
3-7
3-7
3-7
7-9
1-4
1-6
2-5
1-4—
23-
2-4-
2-3-
6-3—
0-8—
1-3—
2-5—
1-2— 31
5-5— 7-1
1-6— 2-4
6-0- 6-7
31— 5-1
13-2—13-7
10-9—13-1
2-6— 4-9
0-3- 0-5
0-4— 0-5
0-8— 1-0
23-8—26-7
go is
43-3— 54-8 4-2-11-0
43-3-48-7
37-7-49-7
40-2— 45 07-0— 10-1
41-4—49-7
37-3-48-4^4-9— 7-8
35-5-44-1
37-6—44-1
35-5— 41 -4 6-3— 7-3
46-1 -49-2 4-6- 4-7
■9-40-7 5-7— 6-8
41 •0—46-2 5-0— 5-6
44-2-45-2 5-7— 6-2
36-6- 4896-0— 86
62-6-67037— 6^3
52-2— 58-o!3 0— 5^5
22-9— 38-1
61-8- 65-86-6- 7-1
2-7 ~
22—
4-0
28
22 2-2
«3 9
4-2— 8-9
4-9— 10-1
6-8
6-3— 8-6
7-1— 8-6
27-8-341
29-6— 38-7
42-6—429
81-1—85-7
82-1— 85-0
67-1-71-8
40-9- 46-8
7-4— 7-6
5—11-1
41— 4-6
3-6— 4-6
4-4— 4-5
8-6—10-2
6-2- 6-7
2-2— 4-040-9— 47-47-2— 15-3
43-3—44-8
43-3—47-4
37-3— 38-2
2-7- 31 73-3-77-1
5-0— 5-3 76-8—80-5
0-7- 21
58-4—60-8
0-3— 0-680 5-84-3
1-7— 4-8
0— 8-2
7-2-11-0
7-5— 7-8
2-8— 4-3
1-7— 3-2
3-2- 4-3
3-8— 4-7
APPENDIX.
329
TABLE III.
Remarks.
Ammonia never occurs as a constituent of food, and
nitrates are only occasionally met with in roots which
have been heavily manured with dung or a powerful
nitrogenous manure.
The Amides of organic acids and also certain amido-
acids represent the nitrogenous substances in plants
other than the albuminoids, and are generally included
in the term Amides.
The following points with reference to amides and
their occurrence in farm foods are Avorthy of notice : —
1. Roots. — Only one-third of the nitrogen in man-
golds is in the form of albuminoids, while 40 per cent,
of that in potatoes exists as amides. The reduction of
amides into albuminoids during the fermentation of
Potato Slump is an interesting fact.
2. Germinating Seeds contain large quantities of
amides produced by the oxidation of the albuminoids.
Young plants generally contain amides, but as they
grow older the amount gradually decreases.
3. Leafy Fodder-plants, such as Clover and Lucerne,
show a gradual decrease in amides as they advance
towards maturity, but not so marked as in the case of
grass.
4. Young Grass and Clover contain a good deal of
amides; but as the albuminoids, as well as the amides,
decidedly decrease as the plants advance towards
maturity, it is evident that young pasturage is much
more nutritious than mature hay. Liberal manuring
with any nitrogenous manure increases the amount of
amides.
330 FARM FOODS.
5. Sour Ensilage involves loss of albuminoids, and
frequently both the relative and actual amount of
amides is decidedly increased in the process of fer-
mentation.
6. The Straiv of the Cereals contains but little amides
if well ripened and harvested in good condition. If,
however, straw be harvested in very wet weather, a
considerable proportion of the nitrogen assumes the
form of unprofitable amides.
7. Cereal Grain contains practically no amides under
ordinary conditions. If a partial germination has
taken place a large quantity of albuminoids is decom-
posed into amides. In the case of malt this amounts
to over 20 per cent, of the total albuminoids.
8. The Leguminosce y or Pod-plants, contain various
organic nitrogenous substances which are neither amides
nor true albuminoids. From ten to twelve per cent, of
the nitrogen in Peas and Beans is in the form of non-
albuminoids, while Lupines contain rather less.
9. Bran and Oil-cakes often contain appreciable
quantities of non-albuminoids. Rape cake and Earth-
nut cake are exceptionally rich in these substances,
while Linseed and Poppy cake contain less, and Palm-
nut cake frequently none at all.
It is impossible to decide a priori whether these
products are derived directly from the seeds, or whether
they are the result of a subsequent decomposition of
the cake resulting from bad storage, &c.
It should always be remembered that damp and any
form of fermentatio^ will inevitably result in the de-
composition of more or less of the valuable albuminoids.
APPENDIX.
331
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33B FARM FOODS.
TABLE IV.
Feeding Standards for Farm Animals.
Remarks,
This table gives the daily requirements of the
various farm animals in terms of " real food" or
the actually digestible constituents of food. The
term " carbohydrates '' includes both the digestible
fibre and nitrogen-free extract ; this is practically
identical in value with the "nitrogen-free extract"
determined by analysis in the case of coarse fodders,
but is somewhat less in the case of concentrated food-
stuffs. The "fat" is calculated from the " crude fat "
by applying the digestive coefficient of fat, but can only
be regarded as pure fat in the case of grain or grain
products. The '' albuminoids " must be taken to include
both the true albuminoids and the amides. Although
our knowledge of the exact proportion of the amides
in all food-stuff s is insufficient for a general classification,
still the facts already established with regard to crude
fibre, as well as the amides, should be borne in mind
in arranging a feeding standard.
For calculating the " albuminoid ratio " from the
digestible constituents the fats are multiplied by the
factor [2'44l, and the product added to the carbo-
hydrates. The total organic matter is useful for re-
gulating the bulk of a diet, and for arriving at its
percentage digestibility.
The values given are strictly averages, and are well
adapted for the guidance of a practical man as to the
APPENDIX.
339
general lines he should adopt in feeding his stock with-
out necessitating a slavish adherence to the exact
quantities prescribed.
Variations above and below the standard will be
required for animals of dififerent breed, individuality,
or milking- capacity.
The following points need consideration in calculating
a feeding-ration : —
(«) Coarse fodders have been evaluated by direct
digestion experiments.
{b) Values for the digestible constituents of con-
centrated food-stuffs are deducible from ex-
perimental results.
(c) Potatoes, roots, and potato slump can be safely
considered to be completely digestible.
(d) If the amount of roots and potatoes in a mixed
ration does not exceed 12 per cent, of the
total food (referred to the dry matter only),
the usual values still hold good ; but if the
proportion of roots or tubers exceed this limit,
an appreciable " depression '' of the digesti-
bility of the coarse and concentrated fodders
included in the ration results. (See '^^De-
pression Table,'^ p. 144.)
The latest results of experiments on animal nutrition
have proved that the digestible value of a food cannot
be simply determined by the difference found between
the food eaten and the dung excreted.
Even if we ignore the many waste products of animal-
digestion and other substances excreted in the dung
(which are not directly derived from the food digested),
on the ground that the food-supply is bound to make
z2
340 FARM FOODS.
good their loss to the body, other difRculties in fixing
the food-requirements of an animal arise. The amides,
for instance, involve considerable difficulty, as we do
not yet know for certain whether their formation in
the body is more akin to that of the albuminoids or of
the carbohydrates, and whether they can be regarded
as a direct source of fat or not — a further difficulty is
that of the fermentation of cellulose in the alimentary
canal of cattle and horses. It has been found that as
much as 40 per cent, of the crude fibre apparently
digested is in reality decomposed with the production
of Marsh-gas by fermentation in the intestines, and it
is very open to question whether the fatty acids pro-
duced in this fermentative process (acetic and butyric
acids, &c.) possess anything like the same feeding- value
as the starch or cellulose they theoretically represent.
(Seep. 111.)
Crude fibre has been found absolutely useless for
horses. (See p. 244.)
Experimental evidence of the fermentative decom-
position of albuminoids in the intestines has been given,
but the proposal to make an allowance of 10 per cent,
on this score cannot be accepted until further and more
reliable results have been obtained.
Despite these difficulties and sources of uncertainty,
it would be very foolish to abolish all food calculations
and standards, and for the farmer to ignore such
guidance as is already obtainable on the subject.
Notwithstanding their imperfections, digestible values
remain the only sure guide as to the choice and
selection of food-stuflPs, and the only possible basis for
a rational system of feeding farm animals.
AP^fENDlX. ^^
The ODly thing to bear in mind is that the greater
the proportion of amides or o£ crude fibre in a food-
stuff the more uncertain is its feeding-value, and the
greater the probability that the food-stuff will require
some addition of one or other constituent to bring it
up to its normal and theoretical value, or to enable it
to achieve its " economic maximum '' as a farm food.
For the practical valuation of food-stuffs, and all
special food-calculations, two methods of calculation are
possible, and provided they be carried out properly
identical results will be obtained so far as the feeding-
effect is concerned.
Method A.
After taking into consideration the conditions of
soil, manuring, season, and harvesting under which
the particular crop was grown, as well as the period
of vegetation at which it was gathered, a general
estimate of its quality is obtained, and values m accord-
ance with that quality are selected from a table giving
- maximum,- ^ minimum," and - average " values tor
the different food-stuffs.
Allowance has then to be made for the probable
percentage of amides, &c. The figures obtained by an
intelligent use of the tables are then employed for
further calculations.
Method B.
By consulting the table giving the average com-
position of food-stuffs, the average composition and
percentage of digestible constituents of any food-stuff
can be obtained. In Table I. several grades of quality
are given in many cases, and the average values for
342 FARM rOJDS.
a food o£ comparable quality with that under con-
sideration can be selected.
It is now possible to try ffeeding-stuffs with a legal
guarantee, and by comparing the analytical values with
those given in the tables, a very close estimate of the
feeding-value of purchased food can be obtained.
Allowance must of course be made for amides and
crude fibre.
The practical man can choose either method, but I
am personally in favour of Method B, and give an
illustration of its practical application.
Example I.
A farmer owns 25 milch-cows averaging 900 lbs.
apiece, or weighing 22,250 lbs. altogether. He wishes
to feed them for 7 winter months, or 212 days, on an
economical diet that will maintain a maximum pro-
duction of milk. His stores at the end of harvest are
as follows : —
40,000 lbs. hay.
20,000 lbs. clover.
30,000 lbs. oat-straw.
150,000 lbs. mangolds.
The hay was of rather poor quality because it was
cut a little over-ripe and was harvested rather badly.
As great care was taken to make the best of it, however,
and it was stacked before it was really sodden, it will
be fairly represented by the quality marked '^inferior''
in the Table.
From a neighbouring brewery a constant supply of
brewers^ grains and malt-sprouts can be obtained, so
APPENDIX.
343
that with this addition to the food already on the farm
the following ration per 1000 lbs. live-weight of the
cows can be provided every day.
Organic
matter.
Digestible Constituents.
Albuminoids
and
Amides.
Carbo-
hydrates.
Fat.
Amides.
Crude
fibre.
8 lbs. hay
lbs.
6-5
31
3-3
3-4
lbs.
0-27
0-28
006
0-33
lbs.
2-79
1-48
1-60
300
lbs.
004
0-05
003
003
lbs.
003
005
0-21
lbs.
1-25
0-47
0-94
0-27
4 lbs. clover
4 lbs. oat-straw...
30 lbs. mangolds .
Total
30 lbs. grains ...
2^ lbs. sprouts ...
16-3
6-8
20
0-94
117
0-48
8-87
2-97
1-24
015
0-39
003
0-29
004
013
2-93
0-48
0-30
Total
251
2-59
1308
0-57
0-46
3-71
Feeding Standard
240
2-5
12-5
0-4
—
1
As the cows are of a good milking-breed it is highly
important that their diet should be fully as high as that
laid down in the standard, especially with regard to
albuminoids. With cows of poor milking-capacity this
is not so important a consideration.
The proportion of roots referred to '^dry'^ or ^^ organic
matter'^ amounts to 16 per cent, of the total, so that
a small " depression ^^ will result. This amounts (see
p. 144) to 5 per cent, of the albuminoids in the rest of
the diet (2*26 lbs.), so that a reduction of O'll lb.
344 FARM PODS.
must be made from the albuminoids on the score of
'' depression/'
The carbohydrates are already in excess of that re-
quired by the standard, and we need not trouble about
them further, as the amides will probably compensate
for any " depression '^ brought about by the roots.
The proportion of amides needs no practical con-
sideration provided it be not abnormal, but if a ration
contains several food-stuffs with a high percentage of
amides it requires especial consideration.
Ordinary hay and clover contain but a moderate
proportion of amides, while the tender herbage of a
pasturage frequently contains a much larger proportion.
For practical purposes in the present state of our
knowledge, we will restrict our especial consideration
of amides to roots and such concentrated food-stuffs as
malt-sprouts, which contain very large quantities of
these nitrogenous compounds.
In the above ration there are two foods highly
charged with amides, viz. the mangolds and the malt-
sprouts. The former usually contains about two-thirds
of its total nitrogen in the form of amides, the latter
about a quarter. We must deduct the following
amounts from the total albuminoids in the table, viz. : —
Amides in mangolds . . , = 021 lb.
Amides in sprouts . . . = 0*13 lb.
*' Depression '' due to roots =0*11 lb.
Total =0-45 lb.
This amounts to about one-fifth of the total amount
of albuminoids (2*59 lbs.). A deficit of one-third of a
APPENDIX.
345
pound of albuminoids is thus apparent if we compare
the ration with the standard we have laid down.
Provided the cows be gocd milkers, it would most
probably be found in practice that the addition of 10 oz.
of flesh-meal, or 1 lb. of earth-nut or sesame cake, or
0*4 lb. of digestible albuminoids in some form or other,
would considerably improve the yield of milk.
Example 11.
Let us next consider the case of a farm on sandy
soil producing poor crops of hay and corn, but growing
excellent potatoes.
A distillery is started for working-up the potatoes,
and 100 lbs. of potato-slump is thus provided for every
8 lbs hay
Total
organic
matter.
Digestible Constituents.
Albuminoids
and
Amides.
Carbo-
hydrates.
Fat.
h.^iA^^ Crude
^^^^^«- fibre.
lbs.
6-5
6-6
4-5
4-9
lbs.
0-27
Oil
009
1-40
lbs.
2-71
3-20
210
3-30
lbs.
004
0-06
003
0-20
lbs.
003
0-44
lbs.
1-25
1-88
102
0-60
8 lbs. oat-straw . . .
6 lbs chaff
100 lbs. " slump "
Total
\\ lbs. rape cake .
2 lbs. sesame cake.
22-5
1-2
16
1-87
0-37
0-67
11-31
0-36
0-38
0-33
0-11
0-23
0-47
004
001
0-52
4-75
001
005
4-81
Total
253
2-91
1205
0-67
Feeding Standard
240
2-5
12-5
0-4
—
—
346 FARM FOODS.
1000 lbs. live-weight of the cows on the farm. The
farm crops provide 8 lbs. of poor hay, the same weight
of very fair oat-straw, and 6 lbs. of chaff per 1000 lbs.
live-weight of the cows per day. The table on p. 345
gives the composition of these various food-stuffs.
Despite the large proportion of slump in this diet,
I do not consider that it would bring about any appre-
ciable '' depression. ^^ If we deduct the 0*44 lb. of
amides in the slump we still have 2*47 lbs. of albumi-
noids left, or practically that required by the standard
(2"5). It would only be desirable to exceed the ration
laid down in the case of cows of remarkable milking-
capacity.
It may also occur that the oil-cake provided proves
richer in nitrogen than the values quoted, which are
those of average samples.
It is very easy to make allowance for the quality of
such cake as represented by the analysis.
Average samples of sesame cake contain 37' 2 per
cent, of albuminoids ; and if a sample contains 42 per
cent., the digestible albuminoids would be increased in
the same proportion.
This method can be employed with any food-stuff
by comparing the analysis with the figures given in the
tables, and altering the digestible constituents in
proportion.
The slight deficit of carbohydrates in the above
ration is more than made good by the digestible albu-
minoids and fat. It is quite another question, how-
ever, whether the excessive amount of crude fibre would
not make the albuminoids too small in proportion.
With the help of Table II. we calculate out the total
APPENDIX. 347
crude fibre as 4*81 lbs , and deduct this from the total
carbohydrates :
12-05 -4-81 = 7-24 lbs.
In the first example we have
13-08-3-71 = 9-37 lbs.
If we assume that the crude fibre possesses half
the nutritive value of the carbohydrates we get the
following : —
Ex. I. . . 9-37 + l-86 = ll-23lbs.
Ex. II. . . 7-24 + 2-41= 9-65 lbs.
It is thus evident that the carbohydrates in Ex-
ample I. are 1'58 lb. in excess of those in Example II.
Our present knowledge does not permit us to decide
whether this is a matter of serious moment with cows
as has been demonstrated in the case of horses.
If it be found that the diet is not succeeding well
with the cows, it would be highly advisable to supply an
addition of digestible carbohydrates in the form of
roots, potatoes, starchy meals, &c.
Example III,
Let us now take the case of a farm without any
meadow-land at all, but growing good crops of red
clover, roots, and beans. There is a plentiful crop of
clover, but unfortunately one half of it was harvested
in wet weather and is only of average quality, while
the rest was completely soaked and sodden, but was
eventually dried, and provided useful winter fodder.
This latter will correspond with that described as
'^ inferior '^ in the Table. Roots, beans, and straw of
very fair quality have also been harvested.
348
FARM POODS.
The following distribution of these food-stuffs^ sup-
plemented with a little oil-cake_, would suflSce to keep
a herd of good dairy cows in first-rate milking con-
dition.
(lbs. per 1000 lbs. live- weight.)
Total
organic
matter.
Digestible Constituents.
Albuminoids
and
Amides.
Carbo- -p^.
hydrates. ^^*-
Amides.
Crude
fibre.
j 8 lbs. clover (average).
I 8 lbs. „ (poor) . .
lbs.
6-3
6-4
3-3
lbs.
0-56
0-46
006
0-28
0-88
lbs. lbs.
2-96 0-10
2-90 1 008
1-62 i 002
2-50 1 003
2-00 : 006
lbs.
Oil
007
0-18
010
lbs.
0-94
0-93
0-91
023
0-20
25 lbs. mangolds
2-8
3-3
Total ! 221
1
2 lbs. palm-nut cake... 17
2-24
0-31
11-98 0-29
109 018
0-46
001
3-21
0-30
Total ration
23-8
2-55
1307 0-47
0-47
3-51
Standard 24*0
1
2-5
12-5 0-4
i
—
—
As the poor clover had been thoroughly soaked with
rain, the values given for carbohydrates are probably
about one- third too high. As the roots are not supplied
in large quantity they will not exercise any appreciable
'^ depression/^ but a deduction of 0*18 lb. for the
amides they contain is necessary. This could easily
be made good by substituting a cake richer in nitrogen
for the palm-nut cake in the Table. Considering the
wonderful results produced by palm-nut cake with
APPENDIX. 349
milch-cows, I do not recommend such a change, and
consider that the small deficit of nitrogen would be
more than accounted for by the specific value of the
palm-nut cake and the beans for promoting a large
yield of good milk.
The crude fibre amounts to 3 '51 lbs. and is even less
than that given in Example I. No objection can
therefore be made to this item, and I consider this
ration eminently suited for the requirements of milch-
cows.
350 FARM FOODS.
TABLE IV. — Feeding Standards.
Digestible.
3 .
ii
© m
. S
1
I
'eS E
1
H
O
^
1 ^^-\ -^
"o
-s s
H
<!
1 f^
H
^
A. Per Day and pei
1000 lbs.
Live-weight.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs. ! lbs.
lbs.
17-5
200
07
1-2
80 ^01.5
8-85
11-70
1 : 120
1: 90
2. Wool Sheep, coarser breeds
10-3
0 20
22-5
24-0
1-5
1-6
11-4
11-3
0-25
0-30
1315
13-20
1: 8-0
1 : 7-5
3. Oxen in moderate work
26-0
20-0
21-0
24
1-5
1-7
13-2
9-5
10-4
: 0-50
0-40
0-60
1610
11-40
12-70
1 : 60
1: 7-0
1 : 7-0
4 Horses in lio^ht work ,.
„ ayerage work
hard work
230
24-0
270
2-3
25
•?-5
12-5
12-5
150
0-80
0-40
0-50
15-60
15-40
1800
1 : 60
1: 5-4
1 : 6-5
5 Milch-Cows
6. Fattening Oxen*, 1st period
2nd
26-0
250
30
27
14-8
14-8
0-70
0-60
18-50
18-10
1 : 5-5
1: 6-0
3rd „
7. Fattening Sheep * 1st period
26-0
30
15-2
0-50
18-70
1 : 5-5
„ 2nd „
250
3-5
14-4
0-fiO
18-50
1 : 4-5
8. Fattening Pigs * , 1st period
360
5-0
^5
32 50
1 : 5-5
2nd ,
31-0
23-5
40
2-7
24-0
17o
28-00
20-20
1: 60
1 : 6-5
3rd .,
9. Growing Cattle.
Age : Average live-wt.
months. per bead.
2—3 150 lbs
22 0
4-0 !
13-8
20
19-8
1 : 4-7
3— 6 300 „
23-4
32 1
13-5
1-0
17-7
1 : 6-0
6-12 500 „
240
2-5
13-5
06
16-6
1: 6-0
12—18 700 „ . ....
24-0
20
130
0-4
15-4
1 : 70
18-24 850 „
24-0
1-6
120
0-3
13-9
1: 80
10. Growing Sheep,
5—6 56 lbs
280
3-2
15-6
0-8
196
1 : 5 5
6— 8 66 „
25-0
2-7
13-3
06
16-6
1 : 5-5
8-11 76 „
230
2-1
11-4
0-5
14-0
1: 60
11—15 82 „
22-5
1-7
10-9
0-4
130
1: 7-0
15-20 86 „
22-0 1-4
10-4
0-3
12-1
1: 8-0
* The food-quantities refer to original 1000 lbs. live-weight before fattening.
APPENDIX.
T.\BLE IV. {continned).
351
1
Digestible.
M 6
m
"o
.S
S
II
1^
1
3'
11. Growing fat Pigs.
Age : Average live-wt.
months. per head.
2- 3 501bs
3- 5 100 „
5- 6 124 ,
6- 8 170 „
8-12 2.50 ,
lbs,
420
34-0
31-5
270
21-0
lbs.
7-5
50
4-3
3-4
2-5
lbs.
30-0
250
23-7
20-4
16-2
lbs.
37-5
30-0
28-0
23-8
18-7
: 40
: 5-0
: 5-5
: 6-0
: 6-5
B. Per Head per Day.
Growing Cattle.
2-3 L501b3
3— 6 300 „
6-12 500 „
12—18 700 „
18—24 850 „
Growing Sheep.
5— 6 56 lbs
6— 8 60 „
8-11 76 „
11—15 82 „
15—20 86 „
Growing fat Pigs.
2- 3 50 lbs
3— 5 100 „
5- 6 124 „
6— 8 170 ,
8—12 250 „
1-65
3-5G
6-00
8-40
10-20
0-80
0-85
0-85
0-90
0-95
1-05
1-70
1-95
2-30
2-60
0-30
0-50
0-65
0-70
0-70
0-090
0-085
0 080
0-070
0-060
0-19
0-25
0-27
0-29
0-31
1-05
2-05
3-40
4-55
5-15
0-435
0-425
0-425
0-445
0-440
0-7
1-2
1-4
1-7
2-0
0-15
0-15
0-15
0-14
0-13
0-023
0020
0-019
0-016
0-013
5
5
8
3
25
1-50
2-70
4-20
5-39
5-98
0-548
0-.530
0-524
0-531
0-513
0-940
1-500
1-750
2-025
2-335
. 4.7
• 5-0
6-0
7-0
8-0
5-5
5-5
6-0
7-0
8-0
4-0
5-0
5-5
6-0
6-5
352
FARM FOODS.
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FARM FOODS.
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355
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356 FARM FOODS.
Note to Tables V. and VI.
Table V. is based principally on the results of Lawes
and Gilbert [' Philosopbical Transactions of the Royal
Society/ 1859, pp. 493-680) ; at the same time some
German ^^ slaughter " results have been included, and
the proportion o£ individual mineral constituents has
not been determined directly, but calculated from the
various analyses of the chief parts of the animal body.
It must also be noted that the figures given in the
table refer to young animals, or those which have only
just reached maturity. If animals of a more advanced
age are fattened the proportion of fat, especially that
on the kidneys, is generally greater, while the weight
of the four quarters is less in proportion. Recently
Lawes and Gilbert have published the results of the
analyses of the ash of whole animals and of certain
parts as well (Phil. Trans. 1883, pp. 865-890).
Table VI. consists of the proportional quantities of
mineral substances expressed as percentage of the total
live-weight as deduced from this latter memoir; while
the average of the directly determined amounts of
nitrogenous matter, fat, water, and ash, as well as the
live-weight of the animals calculated from all the results
published in 1859, has been appended.
APPENDIX.
357
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INDEX.
Acorns, 199.
Adipocere, 55.
Aftermath, 128, 154.
Albert, 172.
Albumen, 7, 19, 39, 72, 166.
„ circulatory, 36.
,, heat-value, 87.
„ increase of, 47.
„ organized, 36.
„ storage of, 45.
„ vegetable, 96.
Albuminoids, 7, 23, 36, 95, 219, 223.
„ composition of, 8.
„ consumption of, 39.
,, crude, 117.
,, increase of, 139.
Albuminoid Eatios, 73, 139, 222,
224, 225, 226.
Alcoholic Extract, 6.
Alkaloids, 99.
Alpine Hay, 153.
American Flesh-meal, 148, 203, 204.
Amides, 100, 152, 220, 221.
Ammonia, 98.
Amygdaline, 99.
Animal Products, 203.
Argutinsky, 77.
Artichokes, 210.
Artichoke stems, 184.
Artificial digestion, 118.
Ash, see Mineral Matter.
Asparagine, 100, 101, 209.
Aspartic Acid, 98.
Avenin, 194.
Baesler, 161.
Baur, J., 56.
Barley, 192, 195, 225, 245.
Barley-straw, 188.
Beans, 197, 245.
„ Soja, 199.
Bean-straw, 188.
Beech-nut cake, 203.
Bees produce wax from sugar, 67.
Beet-molasses " slump," 214.
Berlin, 111, 243, 244.
Berthelot and Andre, 87.
Betaine, 100.
Bile, 19.
Bischoffand C. Voit, 26.
Blood, dried, 206.
,, loss of, 71.
,, oxygen in, 21, 71, 93.
Body, average composition of, 10.
„ constituents, 1.
„ solid constituents, 2.
,, water in, 1.
Bones, 2, 12.
Bonn, 14, 166, 172.
Bran, 193, 225.
Breed, Influence of, 135, 259.
Breslmi; 98, 166, 167, 168, 169, 174,
200.
Brewers' Grains, 195, 225, 247.
Broekema, L., and A. Mayer, 174.
Brown Hay, 157, 163.
Brushwood, 185.
Buckwheat, 182, 195.
Butter, 174, 193, 194, 200, 201,214,
254, 258, 260, 261, 262.
Cabbages, 184.
Calorimetric values, see Heat- values
Calves, 15, 267.
Candle-nut cake, 201.
Carbohydrates, 50,62,63, 71, 115,
141, 219.
Carbonic Acid, 34, 78, 84.
3G0
FARM FOODS.
Carrots, 211,
Carrot-tops, 184.
Casein, 8, 249, 254, 263.
„ Vegetable, 96.
Cellulose, 102, 110, 195.
Cereal Grain, 191, 225
Cereals, Straw of, 187.
Chaff' and Husks, 190.
Chanievjski, 66.
Chinese oil-beans, see Soja Beans.
Chlorine, 13, 123.
Chlorophyll, 100, 103.
Circulator}' Albumen, 36.
Clover, 225.
., Crimson, 180.
„ Hay, 158, 225, 245.
„ Bed. 158.
Swedish, 166, 180.
„ White, 180.
„ Yellow, 180.
Coarse Fodder, see Fodder.
Coctehalers, 206.
Cocksfoot, 187.
Coconut cake, 201.
Colostrum, 249, 270.
Compensation. 113,
Concentrated Foods, 138, 191.
Condition of Animals, 42.
Conglutin, 96.
Conservation of Energy, see Energy.
Constituents, Body, 1.
„ Food, see Food.
,, Nitrogenous, 6, 95,
99, 219.
,, Organic, 19.
Constitutional Salts, 14.
Consumption of Albuminoids, 39.
Fat, 68, 78.
Corn, 140.
Corn-cockles, 193.
Cotton cake, 200, 201.
Cows, see Milch-Cows.
,, Dutch, 214, 258.
production of Milk-fat, see
Milk-fat.
Crude Albuminoids, 117.
„ Fat, 95, 103, 116.
„ Fibre, 95, 102, 110, 222, 244.
Crusius, 267, 269.
Dahme, 130.
Dairy products, 206.
Decomposition in the body, 85.
Depression of digestibility, 141, 142,
143.
Depression of values, 144.
Deterioration of Fodder, due to
storage, 126.
Determination of Fat and Water,
28.
„ of Nitrogen digested,
27.
Diff'usion chips. 215, 216.
Digestion, 20, 106, 107.
artificial, 118.
,, calculation, 32.
„ coefficient, 140.
result, 30.
Diuresis, 24.
Dogs, 67.
Draught Oxen, 241.
Dresden, 126, 135, 141, 147, 204.
Dried Blood, 206.
Dry Fodder, see Fodder.
Dutch Cows, 214, 258.
Earth-nut cake, 201.
Economic Ratio, 224.
Economy of Fat, 69.
Electoral Sheep, 235.
Ellenherger and Hofmeister, 107.
Energy, Conservation of, 85.
Errors in determining Digestion,
107.
Ether Extract, see Crude Fat.
Ewes, 257.
Excrement receptacles, 106.
Experimental Stations, see Breslau,
Halle, Hohenheim, Kothen, Mu-
nich, Mockern, Peterhof, Proskau,
Weende, Wisconsin.
Extract, Alcoholic, 6.
Nitrogen-free, 20, 95, 103,
113, 115.
Fat, 4, 19, 45, 69, 219, 220.
„ Body, 47, 54.
,, consumption of, 68.
„ digestibility of, 109.
,, economy of, 69.
INDEX,
361
Fat, heat-value, 87.
„ in Food, 48, 146, 219. 280.
,, produced from Albuminoids,
24, 55, 220.
„ sources of, 53.
„ Starch equivalent of, 87, 219.
Fattening, experiments on, 60, 277.
Oxen, 61, 279.
Pigs, 286.
Sheep, 278, 281.
Feeding effect, 30.
standards, 218, 242, 254.
„ ,, interpretation of,
285.
Fibrin, 7.
Fish-Guano, Norwegian, 205.
Fjord, 288.
Fjord and Friis, 260.
Flavour, effect of, 222, 247.
Fleischmann, 258, 263.
Flesh-fibrin, 7.
Flesli-formation, laws of, 38.
Flesh-meal, American, 148, 203,
204.
Fluids, Mineral, 2
Fodder, Coarse, 149.
„ digestibility of, 124.
„ Dry, 125, 1.58, 175, 180.
„ Green, 125, 149, 158, 175,
180.
li'ood, 92, 219.
„ analysis, 95.
„ constituents, 92, 95, 219.
Foods, concentrated, 138, 191.
Food-stuffs, 94, 149.
Foot-pound, 75.
Force, production of, 74.
Forster, J., 14, 15.
Fry, G., 171.
Funke, 130.
Gabriel, 98, 101, 197, 199.
Geese, 66, 67.
Gelatinoids, 9.
Gliadin, 96, 97.
Glucosides, nitrogenous, 99.
Glutamine, 98, 100, 209.
Gluten, 96, 196.
„ fibrin, 96.
„ casein, 96.
Glycogen, 6.
Goats, 133, 257.
Goffart, 167.
Gbttingen, 40, 62, 98, 112, 119, 120,
186, 277, 287.
Gottingen Sheep, 31, 233.
Grandeau, L., and Leclerc, 132,
244.
Grass, Pasture, 151, 224.
Grasses, Meadow, 187.
Green Fodder, see Fodder.
„ Maize, 181.
„ „ as silage, 167, 168,
169, 182.
Growth of animals, effect of, 136.
„ of plants, period of, 127,
151.
Gruher, Max, 84.
Haemoglobin, 71.
Halle, 27, 140, 166, 168, 169, 174,
176, 196, 197, 200.
Hanover, 288.
Hay, 126, 149, 180, 224, 245.
„ Alpine, 153.
„ Brown, 157, 163.
„ Clover, 158, 225, 245.
„ Dutch, 154.
. „ Lucerne, 175, 245.
„ Lupine, 178.
„ Eed Clover, 158.
„ Vetch, 177.
Heat produced in work, 83.
Heat-units, 70.
„ values, 86, 87.
Heiden, 163.
Heilhronn, 86.
Hellriegel and Lucanus, 130.
Hemp cake, 203.
Henneherg, 21, 31, 44, 73, 229, 232,
236, 284, 287.
Henneherg and Stohman, 46, 110,
187, 227, 264.
Henry, 288.
Hippuric Acid, 23, 36.
Hirschfeld, 76.
Hirschler, 118.
Hoffmann, F., 53.
Hofmeister, 126, 135, 200.
362
FARM FOODS.
Hohenheim, 27, 48, 55, 58, 63, 79,
83. 88, 98, 1U8, 111, 114, 120,
122, 126, 128, 129, 131, 133, 135,
136, 140, 141, 143, 146, 147, 151,
152, 162, 172, 182, 188, 189, 192,
199, 200, 201, 204, 205, 210, 234,
235, 238, 243, 244, 253, 254, 256,
259, 272, 283, 287.
Hornberger, 130.
Horny matter, 9.
Horses, 43, 79, 83, 88, 111, 131, 133,
195, 203, 242.
Horse-chestnuts, 199.
Horse-tail, 154.
Indigo, 100.
Individuality of animals, 137.
Inorganic substances, 122.
Inosite, 6.
Iron, 12.
Japan, silkworms, 67.
Jaundice in sheep, 179.
Katzenstein, 84.
Katdl, 263.
Kellner, 0., 55. 67, 109, 120, 150,
182, 197, 211, 283.
Kennepokl, 101.
Ker7i and Wattenberg, 40, 62, 98,
277, 284.
Kidney Vetch, 181.
Kiel, 101, 193, 205, 261.
Kinetic Energy, see Energy.
Kirchner, 174.
Kothen, 178, 189.
Kramer and E. Schulze, 153.
Kreussler, 209.
Kiihn, a., 58, 130, 162, 193, 200,
261.
Kilhn and Fleischer, 257.
Kuschen, 98, 108, 182, 185, 204.
Lactic Acid, 6, 165.
Laihyrus sylvestris, see Wood Vetch-
ling.
Lambs, 15, 272, 283.
Lav:es and Gilbert, 10, 60, 174, 277.
Leaves, Mangold and Sugar-Beet,
182.
Leaves of trees, 184.
Legumin, 96, 97.
Leguminous Plants, straw of, 188.
Lehmann, 89, 112,' 186,' 244^ 250.
„ and Fogel, 112.
Leipzig, 38.
Leucine, 98, 100.
Liebscher, 216.
Lignin, 102, 104, 115.
Lime, 11, 12, 123, 147, 264, 274.
„ Phosphate of, 11.
Linseed, 200.
cake, 200, 245.
Loss of blood, 71.
Lucerne, 175.
hay, 245.
silage, 167, 168.
Lupines, 99, 178, 197, 245.
,, as silage, 167, 168.
Lupine-straw, 189.
Lupinine, 99.
Lupinotoxin, 179.
Mach and Portele, 157.
Magnesia, 12, 123.
Magnus Levy, 112.
Maize, 192, 195, 225, 245, 246.
„ Green, 181.
„ as silage, 167, 168, 169,
182.
„ slump, 214.
Malt-sprouts, 196, 225.
Mangolds, 211.
leaves of, 182.
Manuring, effect of, 129, 208.
Marcher, 44, 155, 176, 217, 286.
Mares, 44.
Mayer, A., 154, 262.
Mayer, Br. J. E., 86.
Meadow-grasses 187.
Medicago media, see Sand Lucerne.
Meissl and Strohmer, 64, 120.
Merino Sheep, 135, 273, 282.
Methods of preparing Fodder, 129.
Milch-cows, 101, 174, 184, 193, 196,
200, 201, 209, 210, 214, 250, 251,
254, 256, 264, 265.
Milk, 16, 44, 58, 101, 174, 193, 194,
200, 201, 205, 214, 226.
INDEX.
363
Milk-fat, 58, 254, 257, 259, 262, 270.
Milk, production of, 248, 250, 251,
254, 256, 259, 262, 263.
„ skim and sour, 206.
„ sugar, 249, 254.
Mineral fluids, 2.
„ matter, 11, 95, 104, 123, 274.
„ requirements of Cows, 264.
„ „ of young
animals, 274.
Mockern, 27, 58, 127, 128, 130, 140,
156, 160, 162, 175, 200, 253, 254,
257, 261.
Morgen and Behrend, 213.
Moscow, 64, 65.
Mueedin, 96.
Mucilage, 104.
Mucin, 121.
Miiller, 217.
Munich, 14, 21, 26, 36, 38, 44, 51.
56, 58, 64, 67, 68, 70, 74, 93, 112.
Munich Physiological Institute, 53,
93
Munk, J., 68, 101.
Munster, 166, 167, 168.
Muscular power, 82.
„ work, 74.
Mustard oil, 200.
Myosin, 7.
Net weight, 3.
Nitrogen digested, determination of,
27.
„ equilibrium, 40, 41.
„ excretion as gas, 77.
free extract, 20. 95, 103,
113.
„ „ ,, composition of,
115.
Nitrogenous constituents, 6, 95, 219.
,, ,, not albu-
minoids, 99, 100.
„ glucosides, 99.
,, organic substances, 9.5.
,, special foods, 139.
Non-nitrogenous nutrients, 219,
222.
,, organic substances,
6.
Norwegian Fish-Guano, 205.
Nuclein, 166.
Nutrients, 94, 218, 219, 220, 221
222.
Nutritive Ratio, 104, 139.
Oats, 140, 192, 194, 225, 245.
Oat-straw, 187.
Oil, 146, 200.
„ cakes, 146, 200, 226.
„ seeds, 200.
Organic constituents, 19.
„ matter in food, 220.
Organized Albumen, 36.
Oxalic Acid in mangold leaves, 182.
Oxen, 43, 46, 61, 227, 279.
„ Draught, 241.
Oxygen, absorbed by the blood, 21,
71, 93.
Palm-nut cake, 201.
Paris, 132, 243, 244.
Pasture-grass, 151.
Peas, 197, 245.
Pea-straw, 189.
Pectin, 103, 210.
Peptones, 7, 19, 99.
Period of growth, plants, 127, 151.
Peterhof, 67.
Petienkofer" s respiration apparatus,
28.
Pfeiffer, 119.
and Kalh, 278.
,, „ Lehniann, 63.
Phosphate of lime, 11.
Phosphoric Acid, 11, 122, 147, 264,
274.
Phosphorus poisoning, 55.
Pigs, 48, 63, 64, 65, 145, 193.
„ fattening of, 286.
„ Windsor, 65.
„ Yorkshire, 65.
„ young, 15, 274.
V. Planta and Erlenmeyer, 67.
Politis and Maulkner, 101.
Poppelsdorf, 14, 130, 186.
Poppy-seed cake, 203.
Potash, 13, 123. 264.
Potatoes, 207.
Potato-haulm, 184.
„ slump, 212.
364
FARM FOODS.
Preussler, 191.
Productive Katios, 144, 222, 223,
224.
Proskau, 27, 63, 66, 101, 128, 130,
136, 137, 147, 151, 156, 163, 166,
176, 178, 188, 189, 205, 236, 263.
Pure ash, 95, lOi.
Quantity of fodder supplied, 124.
Eain, effect on hay, 160, 176.
Ba^nami, 185.
Eambouillet sheep, 136, 236.
Bamm, 186.
Rape cake, 200.
„ seed, 200.
Red Clover, 158.
R eider, H.,\2\.
Respiration, 20.
,, apparatus, Petien-
kofer's, 28.
„ value of starch, 51.
Rice meal, 194.
„ middh'ngs, 194.
Ritthausen, 96, 15(5, 160.
Roberts and Wing, 238.
Roots, 143, 207, 210.
Rothamstead, 63.
Rub7ur, 51, 68, 70, 86, 87.
Ruminants, 133.
Russian Vetch, 181.
Rye, 192, 225.
„ grass, 187.
„ slump, 214.
Sachse, R., 96.
Sainfoin, 181.
Salt, 16,42,43, 147,265,281.
Salts, 14.
,, constitutional, 14.
Salzmu7ide, 147.
Sand Lucerne, 181.
Schrodt, 261.
,, and Hansen, 101.
Schulze, B., 169, 198.
E., 100.
and M. Mdrcker, 108, 139,
142.
„ and Reinecke, 5.
Season, effect of, 129.
Seeds, Albuminoids in, 96.
„ Leguminous, 197.
Serradella, 181.
Sesame cake, 201.
Shearing, 237, 284.
Sheep, 31, 40, 44, 62, 134, 135, 136,
179, 232, 281, 284.
„ Electoral, 235.
„ Gottingen, 31, 233.
„ Merino, 135, 273, 282.
„ Negretti, 282.
„ Rambouillet, 136, 236.
„ Southdown, 135, 136, 235,
282.
„ Wiirttemburg hj^brid, 129,
135,235, 272.
Silage, 130, 163, 166, 183, 216,217.
,, Sweet, 171.
Silica, 123.
Silkworms, produce fat, 67.
Silos, heating in, 157.
Skim and sour milk, 206.
Slump, 212, 214, 215, 226, 247.
Soda, 13.
Soil, influence of, 129, 155, 208.
Soja Beans, 199.
,, Bean-straw, 189.
Solanine, 99. 210.
Sorghum, 182.
Southdown Sheep, see Sheep.
Soxhlet, 33, 64, 207.
Special nitrogen foods, 139.
Spelt-bran, 193.
Spurrey, 181.
Stall-temperature. 69.
Starch, 51, 115, 219.
„ equivalent of fat, 87, 219.
„ heat-value, 87.
Stimulants, 44.
St. Michel, 157.
Stockhardt, 155.
Stohmann, 86, 199, 2.57, 284.
,, and Langhein, 86.
Storage, effect of, 126.
„ of Albumen, 45.
Straw of Cereals, 187.
,, leguminous plants, 188.
Stut2er,\U, 166, 172, 180, 187,216.
„ method of artificial diges-
tion, 118.
INDEX.
365
Sugar, 6, 20, 22, 24, 142, 289.
„ beets, 210.
Sugai'-beet leaves, 182.
„ residues, 215.
Sulphuric Acid, 123.
Sunflower-seed cake, 201.
Swedes, 211, 212.
Swede-tops, 184.
Swedish Clover, 180.
„ „ as silage, 166.
Tappeiner, 110, 118.
Taurine, 108.
Tkara7id, 156.
Time occupied in digestion, 106.
Timothy grass, 187.
Tschinuiiisky , 64.
Tubers, 143, 207.
Turnips, 211.
Tyrosine, 98, 100.
Ulbricht, 202.
TJrea, 23.
Values, depression, 144.
Vegetable albumen, 96.
„ casein, 96.
glue, 96, 97.
Vernine, 100.
Vetches, 177, 197.
kidney, 181.
„ Eussian, 181.
Vetchling, Wood, 181.
Veterinary College, Vienna, 66.
Vicia villosa, see Eussian Vetch.
Vienna, 33, 64, 199.
Voit, C, 21, 36, 37, 44, 50, 58, 72,
101, 226.
„ and Fettenkofer, 21, 54, 57,
74.
Waldau, 178.
Water, 43, 69, 281.
„ extract, 116,
„ in body, 1.
156,
178,
Weaning, 271.
Weende, 5. 21, 27, 31, 44, 46, 78,
108, 110, 139, 142, 151, 187, 188,
227, 229, 232, 234. 236.
Weiske, 1U2, 130, 136, 148,
163, 165, 174, 176,
236, 264, 273, 284.
„ and Flechsig, 111.
„ Kellner, 205.
„ Kiihie, S., 126.
„ Schulze, B., 66, 101,
168.
„ Wildt, 122, 275.
Wheat, 192, 225.
„ bran, 193.
„ chaff, 190.
Whey, 206.
White Clover, 180.
Wildt, E., 98, 185, 188.
Windsor Pigs, 65.
Wisco?isin, U.S.A., 288.
Wood-vetchling, 181.
Woody fibre, see Crude fibre.
Wool, 232, 235, 238.
Work, 240.
„ influence of, 131,
,, muscular, 74.
Wiirttemburg hybrid Sheep, see
Xanthine, 100.
Yellow Clover, 180. ^
Yew-tree needles, 185.
Yorkshire pigs, 65.
Young animals, 15, 43, 44, 137,
274.
cattle, 48, 148, 209.
Zuntz and Hagemami, 101.
„ Lehmann, 84, 88.
,, Magnus-Levy, 112.
Printed by Taylor and Francis, Eed Lion Court, Fleet Street.
nOTEKH muKY
TECHNICAL EDUCATION:
AGRICULTURE.
Crown 8vo,pp. xvi and 288, with 22 Illustrations, 6s. Qd.
THE LABORATORY GUIDE
FOR
AGRICULTURAL STUDENTS,
BY
PROFESSOR A. H. CHURCH, M.A., F.R.S.
SIXTH EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED.
This volume is the only English work in which a
complete course of laboratory practice is provided for the
use of students of agriculture. It is divided into three
parts, Chemical Manipulation, Qualitative Analysis, and
Quantitative Analysis. In the Third Part, the best
methods of analysing Manures, Soils, Waters, Cattle-
foods and Dairy-Products are fully described.
GURNEY & JACKSON, I PATERNOSTER ROW.
(successors to MR. VAN VOORST.)
Super-royal 8vo, cloth, 540 pp., with 16 steel plates, carefully coloured hy hand,
and numerous woodcuts, £1 Is.
FARM INSECTS:
Beixg the Natural History aij-d Economy op the
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE FIELD CROPS
OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND,
AND ALSO THOSE WHICH INFEST BARNS AND GRANARIES,
WITH SUGGESTIONS FOR THEIR DESTRUCTION.
By JOHN CURTIS, F.L.S., &c.
SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.
TURNIP AND MANGEL- WURZLE CROPS. Beetles, Saw-fly
and its Black Caterpillar, Plant Lice, Maggots, Caterpillars of Moths
and Butterflies, Weevils, Dipterous Flies and Rove Beetles, Surface
Grubs, Wireworms, Skip-jacks, &c.
CORN CROPS. Wireworms (so-called), Ground-Beetles, May Bugs,
Caterpillars of Moth and Saw-fly, LarvaB of minute Flies, Hessian
Fly, Wheat-midge, Barle3-midge, Thrips, Wheat-louse, Wheat-bug,
Vibrio (Ear Cockle), Weevils, &c.
PEAS AND BEANS. Maggots, Bees, Plant-lice, Beetles, Moths,
Mole-cricket, &c.
CARROTS AND PARSNIPS. Rust, Flies, Millipedes and Centi-
pedes, Caterpillars of Moths and Butterflies, Gall-flies, Miners, &c.
POTATOES. Aphides, Thrips, Ground-fleas, Plant-bugs, Frog-flies,
Moths, Mites, Crane-flies, Wireworms, Centipedes, Potato-flies, Slugs,
Worms, &c.
CLOVER AND PASTURE LANDS. Clover Weevils, Cater-
pillars, Millipedes, Snails and Slugs, Earwigs, Beetles, Crickets and
Grasshoppers, Ants, Earthworms, &c.
GURNEY & JACKSON, 1 PATEROSTER ROW.
(Successors to Mr. VAN VOORST.)
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