Farming for profit. A handbook for the American farmer, a practical work, devoted to agriculture and mechanics, fruit-growing and gardening, live-stock, business principles, home life, and showing how to make money, preserve health and secure happiness on the farm

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Preface.

HERE are many valuable books for the farmer
already in the market, but the author believes
^, that there is both room and a call for another
work devoted specially to the interests of the class
to which nearly half of the population of the country
belongs. The present is a time of rapid progress, and
the man who makes no effort to keep up with the times
will soon be left far behind his competitors.
. Times have changed since a work of this description
•has been published. Foreign markets have been
opened, and the wants of home consumers have been
greatly modified. New theories of tillage and new
methods of fertilization and cultivation have been
advanced and tested. Competition has become closer,
and the necessity for a better style of farming has been
made evident. Farmers have also become more willing
to read and study, and have found that the practical
agricultural writer is both a helper and a friend.

This book is not sectional in its character, but treats
of the various interests of farmers in all parts of the
country. It contains the results of an immense amount

4 PREFACE.

of Study and Investigation. The best authorities have
been freely consulted, and the author has endeavored to
secure accuracy, bring the work down to the present
time, and make it practical and instructive. Special care
has been taken to make It attractive and valuable to the
boys and young men who are coming upon the stage of
active life, and are soon to be the farmers of the
country.

This will be found a comprehensive work. An effort
has been made to bring into one volume a vast amount
of information which will be of practical value. The
subjects treated are not confined to a single class, as is
the case with too many books, but embrace evejy dcpart-
iitent of farm business.

Not only the leading principles, but many of the
minor matters, which writers often overlook, but which
have an Important bearing upon the happiness and suc-
cess of the farmer, are also noted. There are many
suggestions which, it is hoped, will prove extremely use-
ful to the beginner, while there is much which will merit
the consideration of those who have been long In the
service.

The teachings of this book have been adapted to
the present co7idition of the agricultural inte7'csts of the
comttry, and are designed to show how the farmer of to-
day can achieve success in his work. The Interests of
the wife and children have not been forgotten, and it is
believed that in the pages of this work each member

PREFACE. 5

of the household can find something of personal in-
terest.

The author is a practical farmer, acquainted with the
details of farm management, and thoroughly used to
manual labor. He has had many years experience as
a writer for the Agricultural Press, and his articles have
been very favorably received. He has also had exten-
sive opportunities for observation in different sections of
this country and Canada.

Written by a farmer, for farmers and their families, the
Book is sent out with the hope that it will prove
interesting and useful to all who shall read its pages.

Acknowledgments.

The Author tenders his sincere thanks to the many friends
who in various ways have encouraged and aided him in his
work.

Special acknowledgments are due to

Rev. J. H. Seelve, D. D., President of Amherst College,

Hon. Levi Stockbridge,"^

Prof. C. A. Goessman, l^^ *^^ Massachusetts

Prof. S. T. Maynard, J Agricultural College.

T. B. Miner, Esq., Linden, N. J.,
J. B. Brown, Esq., New York City.
Also to many gentlemen and firms who have aided in illus-
trating the book, and whose names appear in connection with
the plates.

Aid has been received from the printed works of
Hon. X. A. Willard, of New York,
Prof. E. W. Stewart, " " "
Joseph Harris, " " "

Prof. S. W. Johnson, of Connecticut,
George E. Waring, Jr., of Rhode Island,
F. D. CoDURN, of Kansas,
Prof. E. ]M. Pendleton, of Georgia,
and many other well-known writers to whom due credit is
given, and from the leading agricultural papers in the country.

(6)

Contents.

PART I— Agriculture and Mechanics.

FARMING AS AN OCCUPATION.

Original work of men— Suited to the needs of mankind— Honorable and useful

calling No occupation equivalent to character — Influence upon National

prosperity — Independence of the farmer— Farming can be made profitable. 1 9-24

WHERE TO FARM.

A story and its lessons— A common mistake— Change not always improvement

Law of Compensations — Change of methods often better than change of

place— Difficulties and their remedies— The "Old Homestead "—Location
of farm laborers — Young men in cities — Exceptions to the principles stated —
Location should not be changed thoughtlessly 24-35

LARGE OR SMALL FARMS.

Farmers want too much land — Special ability required to manage a large farm

Latf^er farms needed West and South than at the East — Size of farm should

be modified by amount of help— Advantages of small farms — Disadvantages
of small farms and advantages of large ones compared — Small farmers should
co-operate — Amount of capital should influence in determining size of farm
— All the capital should not be invested in land 3^44

FARM BUILDINGS.

Buildings necessary — Number required — Expensive — Not wise to do without

Location — House should be near the road — Relative position of other

buildings — Size of buildings — Large buildings costly — Small buildings incon-
venient— Size should be regulated by the needs of the owner — Height of
buildings — Adaptation to purposes which they are designed to serve — Plans
for buildings— Cost^-Repairs— Painting buildings — The House — Modifica-
tion of Plans — Neatness and Comfort — Warmth — Windows — Doors — Floors
— Stairs — Roofs — Chimneys — Eave troughs — Blinds — Piazza — Lightning-
rods — Ventilation — Interior arrangements — The cellar — The Barn — The
Granary — The Hog house — Hen house — Wagon shed — Wood house — Closets
and vaults — Tool house — Repair shop — Store house 44-I21

THE CAPACITY OF A FARM.

Actual production not sure test of capacity — Real capacity not always known —
Should be determined by experiment — Too much should not be attempted at
a time — Land suited to special crops — Owner should find which pay the
best 121-127

ANALYSIS OF SOILS.

Analysis not as useful as was once supposed — Many important points cannot be
determined by its aid — Analysis of plants more satisfactory — Combined with

experience and observation proves a great aid 127-13I

(7)

8 CONTENTS.

PLANT LIFE AND GROWTH.

Great mystery involved — Evidence of a Creator — Conditions of growth — Con-
dition of the soil — Depth of covering the seed — Method of growth by roots
— Leaves important organs — Diseases and insects destructive to plants —
Changes of soil — Modification of plants — Size — Time of ripening — Produc-
tiveness— Reproduction — Life of plants — Flowers — Fertilization — Practical
bearings 132-150

FERTILIZERS.

Plant growth a formative process — Organic and inorganic elements required —
The sources of supply — Atmosphere — Water — Soil — Sub-soil — These sources
sufficient if crops not removed — Insufficient if crops are taken — Elements of
plants must be restored to the soil — Sources of supply — Animal excrement —
Composting — Green manuring — Sod — Complete and incomplete fertilizers —
Wood and coal ashes — Marl — Common salt — Piaster — Bones and mineral
phosphates — Lime — Guano — Sulphate of ammonia — Fish refuse — Leaves —
Waste products — Commercial fertilizers — Special fertilizers — Bulk not a cri-
terion of value — Application of fertilizers — Quantity to be used — The sum-
mer fallow — Covering the soil 151-202

TILLAGE.

Claims which have been made for tillage — Tillage supplies plant food — Objec-
tions to tillage answered — Crops, not tillage, exhaust the soil — Tillage and
manure should be used together — Skill and judgment required — Treatment
must vary with the character of the soil — Results of tillage satisfactory — Till-
age before seeding — Tillage should be adapted to wants of the crop under
cultivation — Good implements required 203-2 1 5

THE CHOICE OF CROPS.

A wise choice essential to success — Farmer must grow what he can sell — Prin-
ciple never to be sacrificed — Knowledge of the market required — Character
of the soil a modifying power — Use of special fertilizers — Cost and value of
the crops to be compared — Crops which can be used at home 215-225

ROTATION OF CROPS.

Benefits of rotation — Why it gives good results — Crops to be grown — Rotation
of crops at the SouTH — The grass crop — Pasturage — Rotation of crops not
to supersede the use of manure 225-232

MONEY CROPS.

Many expenses must be met with cash — Home production and exchange —
Something more required — A special money crop should be grown — Crop for
this purpose must be chosen with reference to soil and market — General
principles of selection 232-235

FARM AND FODDER CROPS.

Classification — Sowed Crops — Barley — Varieties — Soil — Seeding — Harvest-
ing— Buckwheat — Soil — Sowing — Harvesting— Flax — Sowing — Harvest-
ing— Preparing for market — Hemp — Method of cultivation — JUTE — Oats —
Varieties — Seed — Soil — Not an exhausting crop — Fertilizers — Machines for
sowing — Quantity of seed — Harvesting — Peas— Rice — Rye — Methods of
growing — Wheat — Varieties — Good seed — Fertilizers — Methods of sowing
—Wheat Drill— Wheat Hoe— Enemies— Harvesting— Planted Crops—
Beans— Soil — Cultivation — Harvesting — Broom Corn— Fertilizers — Plant-
ing— Cultivation — Harvesting and curing — CoFFEE — CoTTON — First export-
ation— Present value — Climate — Varieties — Soils — Plowing — Fertilizers —
Planting— Cultivation — Enemies — Securing the crop — Preparing for market
— Use of the seed — Corn — Varieties — Yield — Soils — Fertilizers — How ma-

CONTENTS. 9

nure should be applied— Planting— Cultivation— Harvesting— Fodder— Stalks
in the field— Husking — Enemies — Diseases — The stalk crop — Hops— Soil —
Cultivation— Staking— Harvesting— Drying— Onions — Grown from sets-
Rareripe— Potato onion— Shallot— Top onion— The common onion— Good
seed— Fertilizers— Preparation of the soil— Sowing— Cultivation— Gathering

CurintT—Preparing for market— Storing— Growing seed— Varieties— The

Peanut— Climate— Soil— Planting— Cultivation-Harvesting— Potatoes—
Difficult to introduce— Irish Potato— Soils— Fertilizers— Plowing— Selec-
tion of seed — Planting — Cultivation— Destroying the Colorado beetle — Har-
vesting the crop— Storing— Varieties— Sweet PoTATO^Where grown—
Obtaining plants— Preparing the soil— Transplanting — Cultivation — Harvest-
ing—Storing— SUGAR— Sources of supply— Ribbon cane— Cuttings— Prep-
aration of the soil— Setting the cuttings— Cultivation— Harvesting— Machin-
ery required— Sorgo and Imphees— Methods of planting, cultivation, and
harvesting— The Beet Root— Varieties— Preparation of the land— Sowing
—Culture'— Harvesting-Storing— The Sugar Maple— Obtaining sap —
Manufacture of sugar — Tea — Will succeed at the South — Methods of grow-
ing and curing— Tobacco— Varieties— Soil— Seed-Bed— Sowing— Weed-
in|— Preparing and manuring the land — Transplanting — Cultivation —
Enemies— Topping— Suckering— Cutting— Curing— Stripping— Packing —
Chinese Yam— Forage Crops— Grass— Valuable crop— Varieties— Prep-
aration of the soil— Sowing and covering the seed — Care of grass land —
Fertilizers— Cutting and curing the crop— Storing— Growing seed— Bromus
— Clover— Sowing the seed— Catting and curing the crop— Growing seed
White clover— Alsike clover — Grain crops for fodder — Lucerne — Valua-
ble at the South— Sowing— Cutting— Millet— Value— Methods of gro,\-ing
—Prickly Comfrey— Root Crops— Value of roots— Artichoke— Yield
— Method of growing — Varieties— Beet— Soil — Sowing — Fitting the land —
Cultivation— Mangold Wurtzels—Harvebting—CHUFA— Carrot— Prepara-
tion of the soil — Sowing — Cultivation — Varieties — Harvesting — Storing —
Growing seed — Parsnip — Turnip — Preparing the land — Sowing — Culture —
Gathering— Storing— Growing seed— Ruta Baga— Varieties of the turnip. 235-407

DRAINING.

Various methods — Open ditches — Ridge cultivation — Underdraining — Materials
for underd rains — Brush — Turf — Stones — Tiles — The Mole plow — Soils which
need draining — Average rain-fall — Evaporation — Heat required to dry a wet
soil — Benefits of draining — Enables the farmer to plant early — Prevents in-
jury to crops — Tends to prevent drought — Tends to make a location heathful
— Prevents winter-killing of grain — Increases the efficiency of fertilizers —
Draining at the South — Profit secured by draining wet land 40S-419

THE WATER SUPPLY.

Good water necessary for comfort and health — Sources of sujiply — Springs — .
Cisterns — Wells — Ponds and brooks — Wells in pastures — Driven wells — The
money value of good water on the farm 419-431

HOME PRODUCTION.

I'Tecessary to highest success — Involves but little risk — Adopted by pioneers —
Examples in all communities — The specialty system — Practical workings — •
Exaggerated ideas of the cost of farm crops — Specialties tend to exhaust the
soil — Home production leads to a system of rotation of crops — Tends to main-
tain the fertility of the soil — Secures independence to the farmer — Practical
workings of home production and the specialty system compared — S]iecial-.
ties involve considerable risk — Diversified farming the safest and most pro-
fitable 431-446

OVER-PRODUCTION.

3Ter-produclion a great evil — Wise selection of crops required — Frequent

IQ CONTENTS.

changes injurious — Remedy for evils of over-production to be found in the
securing of a higher grade of products — The best will always sell 447-449

GOOD SEED.

No one thing will insure the production of good crops — The selection of seed
important — Too often neglected — Qualities of good seed — Vitality — Seed
should be carefully stored — Injury caused by an excess of moisture — Vigor —
Many seeds weak — Will grow but will not be very productive — Seed from
the strongest plants should be selected — Permanence of Characteristics
— Important quality — Secured by careful selection of seed — Considerable time
required — Early Maturity — Time of maturing can be modified — Purity
— A great deal of seed deficient in this respect — Mixed seed inferior to that
which is pure — Grain that is mixed sells for a lower price — Profit to be
secured by using pure seed — Productiveness — A valuable quality — A large
proportion of seed does not possess this characteristic — Experiments with dif-
ferent kinds of corn — The best seed should always be obtained— The use of
poor seed will involve heavy loss 450-462

THE SELECTION OF SEED.

Care required to produce good seed — Careful selection of plants — Protection
from adverse influences — Improvements can be made — Modifying power of
cultivation shown in difTerer.ce between the potato and tomato — How to secure
good seed — How improvements can be effected — Choice of plants for seed —
Seed plants to be grown by themselves — Inferior plants should be removed
— Gathering and storing seed 462-474

ECONOMY OF LABOR.

Fanners economical in use of money — Labor equivalent to money — Labor not
always economized — Methods by which it is wasted — Use of poor tools —
Inefficient teams — Neglect to do work at the proper time — Frequent changes
— Want of skill — Carelessness — Doing work too nicely — Inconvenient build-
ings and badly arranged famis 475-480

FARM TEAMS.

A team needed on every farm — Best animals for the purpose — Relative cost
and value of horses, mules, and oxen — Number of animals should be propor-
tioned to the work required 481-483

FARM FENCES.

Fences necessary' — Expensive — Cost money and waste land — Roadside fences
— Different styles of fence — Rail fence — Post and rail — Post and board —
Stone wall — Hedge — Embankment — Wire fence — Fences should be well
made 484-489

FARM ROADS.

Farm roads a great convenience — Farmer can make them — Method of con-
struction— Objections answered — Time and labor saved and accidents pre-
vented by having good roads 490-492

TIMBER CULTURE.

Timber a great necessity — Setting timber trees — Varieties — Influence of forests
upon rain-fall, climate, and soil — Influence upon the health of the people. 492-495

POWER ON THE FARM.

Various kinds of power for farm purposes — Dog or sheep power — Horse and
Wind power compared — Steam power for driving farm machines — Steam
power for tilling the soil 496-500

CONTENTS. 11

FARM IMPLEMENTS.

Machines on the farm — Classes required — Plows of various kinds — Roller —
Harrows and pulverizers — Horse-Fork — Threshers — Clover-head gatherer —
Fanning mill — Corn-husker — Corn-harvester — Gorn-sheller — Farm mill —
Cider mill — Root-cutter — Straw-cutter — Sickle-grinder — Stump-puller —
Hoisting machine — Forge — Saws — Scales — Pump — Household machines —
Washing machine — Clothes-wringer — Mangle — Sewing machine — Machines
do not save labor but transfer it — Prevent waste and save time and health . 501-524

Pm llT^ve-Stock.

LIVE-STOCK ON THE FARM.

Importance of live-stock interest — Capital invested — Purposes which animals
serve — Classes which should be kept — Only good animals are profitable.. .527~S3*

THE HORSE.

Value to mankind — Qualities of farm horse — Good disposition — Strength —
Endurance — Activity — BREEDING — Disqualifications for breeding — Old age
—Unsoundness — Bad temper — Influence of the sire — Treatment of the
breeding mare — Care of the colt — Castration — Only thorough-bred, or high
grade, stallions should be kept — Nicking and docking — Breaking and train-
ing— Uniform kindness to be shown — A thorough training desirable — Age for
working — Feeding, driving, and caring for the horse — The stable — Shoeing
— Diseases of the horse — Should not be ignorantly treated — Colic — Manner
of bleeding — Inflammation of the bowels — Costiveness — Worms — Stoppage
of the water — Good care will usually prevent disease — Treatment of old
horses 531-575

THE MULE.

Parentage — Breeding — Care when young — Castration — Breaking and Training
— Kind treatment — Points of superiority 575-579

CATTLE.

Valuable to man — Different breeds — Characteristics — The Short-Horn — The
Ayrshire — The Jersey — The Devon — The Hereford — The Dutch — The
Holstein — The Alderney — The Guernsey — The Swiss — The Brittany —
Native cattle of the South-West — Which breed to keep — Are thorough-breds
required ? — How to improve farm stock — Care and food — Drying off the Cow
■ — Care at time of calving — Care of the calf — Castration — Training steers for
work — Care of the Bull — Winter management of Cattle — The stable — Early
feeding — Quantity of food — Feeding often — Quality of food — Water — Salt
— Lice — Diseases and accidents — Preventive measures — Abortion — Choking
— Garget — Hoven — " Horn Ail " — Milk fever — Importance of good care . .579-628

THE DAIRY.

All farmers interested in dairy business — Present depression — Prospect for the
future — Good cows should be kept — Inferior cows should be sold — Testing
the value of cows — Relative production and cost of keeping — Large or
small cows — Good health required — How to obtain good cows — Feeding
cows — A variety of food needed — Cooking food — Pure water — Kind treat-
ment— Sore teats — Milking — Cleanliness — Animal odor— Cause of decay —
Keeping milk sweet — Cheese-Making — Factory, or neighborhood manu-
factories— Kinds made on the farm — Implements required — Method of man-
ufacture— Curing cheese — Butter-Making — Methods of obtaining cream —
Shallow pans — Deep setting — Large open pans — Closed cans — CoOLEY
System and the Hardin Method— Churning — Temperature of cream —
Time required for churning — Working Butter — Salting butter — Packing
butter in tubs — Securing ice — The dairy business can be made profitable
by improving the quality of the products 631-676

12 CONTENTS.

SOILING CATTLE.

Soiling profitable in some sections — Advantages of the system — Objections —
Methods to be pursued 676-679

ENSILAGE.

Discovery of the system — Object to be secured — Method to be pursued — Remov-
ing fodder from silo — Exf)eriments of Mr. Morris — Influence of this dis-
covery 679-682

SHEEP.

Sheep indispensable to civilized races of men — Old English laws — Sheep profit-
able— Special purposes which they ser\e — Woo! — Flesh — Improvement of the
land — Breeds of sheep — Merino — Oxford Down — South Down — Cot.'- wold
— Leicester — Native sheep — Breeding — Choice and care of the ram —
Choice and care of the ewes — Sheep register — Lambing — Care of the Iambs
— Disowned lambs — Chilled lambs — Raising by hand — Docking — Castration
— Feeding — Weaning — Scmmer Management of Sheep — Washing —
Shearing — Ticks — Winter Management — Separation of weak and old
sheep — Small flocks the most profitable — A good shed needed — Feeding and
watering — Salt — Exercise — Diseases of sheep^Catarrh — Colic — Diarrhoea
— Garget — Grub in the head — Hoof-rot — Poison — Scab — Sore eyes — Sore
lips — Dogs — Sheep on the prairies 683-724

SWINE.

Swine useful and profitable — Money value — Mosaic legislation — Breeds of
Swine — Chester white — Suffolk — Yorkshire — Mngie, or Poland China —
Essex — Berkshire — Use and value of thoroughbreds — Selection of breeding
stock — Age for breeding — Care of breeding slock — Care of pigs — Feeding —
Castration — Spaying sows — Fattening Pigs — Variety of food required —
Give plenty of room — Salt — Cleanliness — Cooking food — Diseases — Pre-
vention better than cure — " Hog cholera" — Diarrhoea — Constipation — Worms
— Mange — Lice — Rheumatism — Curing Pork — Various methods for pre-
serving meat — Sailing — Smoking — Salting in hot weather 724-755

THE INFERIOR ANIMALS.

Hens — Good place required — Yard room — Not keep too many together — Which
breed to keep — Raising chickens — Feeding — Failening — Hens for laying
— Old hens — Male birds — Treatment of disease — Lice — Preserving eggs —
Turkeys — Care of the young — Ducks — Geese — Honey Bees 756-768

PART III —Fruit-Growing.

FRUIT ON THE FARM.

Fruit should be grown for family use — For profit — To increase the selling value
of the land — Fruit-growing and farming combined 77'

TRANSPLANTING TREES.

Preparing the soil — Pruning and setting trees — Time for setting — Give plenty
of room — Dwarf trees with standards — Set a few trees each year 772-774

CULTIVATION AND PRUNING.

Cultivation desirable — Ap])lying fertilizers — Quality of fruit modified by
cultivation— 'Pruning — Commence when trees are small — Constant watch-
fulness— Modification of form of frees — High or low trees — Method to be
pursued 774-776

THINNING FRUIT.
Erils of overbearing — Imperfect fniit — Partial exhaustion of the tree — Failure

CONTENTS. 13

to ripen the wood — Thinning the fruit the remedy — Objections answered—
Example of success in thinning fruit — Thinning increases the size and value
of the fruit 776-777

GATHERING FRUIT.

Hme for gathering — Care required — Assorting — Preparing for market — Storing
for winter use 77*^-779

DRYING FRUIT.

Common method of preservation — Imperfect results of the old system — Can-
ning fruit expensive and uncertain — New method of evaporation 780-781

DISEASES AND ENEMIES.

Fruit trees exposed to various evils — Cultivation a preventive — Diseases —
Blight — Leaf Blight — Black knot — Yellows — Mildew — Enemies — Curculio
— Caterpillar — Tent caterpillar — Fall web worm — Canker worm — Cherry

. slug — Apple worm — Rose bug — Currant worm — Aphides — The Borer —
Mice — Rabbits — Sheep — Cattle — Prevention better than attempts to cure.781-787

PROPAGATION.

Methods of propagating trees and plants — Making cuttings — Setting cuttings —
Root cuttings — Layers — Runners — Budding — Ordmary method — Ring bud-
ding— Grafting — Different methods — Cutting scions 788-792

THE LARGER FRUITS.

The Apple — Varieties for the North, for the Middle and Western States,
for the South and Southwest — Not grow too many varieties — Pears — Dwarf
and Standard trees — Gathering and ripening the fruit — Varieties — Peaches — ■
Growing at the North — Pruning — Varieties — Plums — The Apricot —
The Cherry — The Quince — Soil— Mulching — Varieties — The Grape —
Setting and pruning — Trellis — Pruning bearing vines — Ripening the fruit
— Winter Protection of vines — Varieties — Hybrids — Seedlings 792-800

SMALL FRUITS.

Should be grown for home use — Kinds for the farm — The Strawberry —
Time for setting plants — Cultivation — New plantations — Winter protection —
Varieties — Raspberry — Setting and cultivation — Pruning — Winter protection
— Varieties — Blackberry — Currants — Mulching — Pruning — Varieties —
Gooseberries — Cranberries 800-807

THE FARM-GARDEN.

Improvements suggested — Cold Frames — Transplanting — Setting plants in
dry weather — Garden Crops, with method of cultivation — Asparagus — Beans
— Beets — Cabbage — Carrot — Celery — Corn — Cucumbers — Dandelion —
Herbs — Hoarhound — Sage — Sweet Marjoram — Summer Savory — Thyme —
Horse-Radish — Lettuce — Melons — Onion — Parsnip — Peas — Potatoes —
Radish — Rhubarb — Squash — Tomato — Turnip 807-815

PART IV.— Business Principles.

BOOK-KEEPING.

Farming a safe business— Should be managed upon business principles— Book-
keeping should be taught in common schools — Why the farmer should keep
accounts — Gives accurate knowledge of his business— Prevonts losses — Leads
to good business habits — Tends to keep him out of debt— Books required-
Debts and credits — " Farmer's Accoui.t Book " — Ledger — Balancing accounts

• — Inventory — Profits of farm business 819-S23

14 CONTENTS.

FALSE ECONOMY.

Forms of false economy — Doing without books and papers — Keeping poor
stock — Letting things run — Buying in small quantities — Buying on credit —
Buying poor tools — Growing bulky crops — Buying things which should be
grown at home — " Guessing " — Depending upon others 823-&a€

A GOOD REPUTATION.

A good reputation should be founded upon a good character — Financial
advantages — Illustrations — Methods of securing a good reputation 826-82J

INSURANCE.

Mankind exposed to many dangers — Insurance offers compensations — Life
Insurance — Fire Insurance — Accident Insurance — Importance of keeping
insured S27-830

USEFUL TABLES.

Quantity of hay required for animals — Relative value of foods for cattle — Age
for reproduction and period of jjjestation of domestic animals — Life and
growth of animals — Quantity of seed per acre — Quantity of seed in rows —
Standard weights of grain — Quantity of garden seeds for a given space — Legal
weights of grain, seeds, and vegetables — Number of seeds in a bushel and per
square foot if used on an acre of land — Number of loads of manure per acre
and heaps per load — Number of trees, plants, and hills per acre — Area of
land plowed with furrows of different width — Rule for measuring hay — Rule
for measuring grain in a bin — Rules for measuring corn in the ear — Capacity
of boxes — Weights and measures — Length of cut nails and number in a
pound — Weight of different kinds of earth — Weight of different kinds of
wood — Amount of one dollar at compound interest — Amount of different
sums at compound interest — Time in which money will double at interest.830-836

Pm V.-Home Life.

PLEASANT SURROUNDINGS.

Influence of surroundings upon character — Duty to children — Pleasant rooms in
house — Books, papers, and music — The best rooms 839-84O

LABOR, RECREATION, AND REST.

Labor a duty — Overwork an evil — Education — Reading — Visiting — Saturday
afternoon — Evenings — The Sabbath 840-843

HEALTH AND DISEASE.

Health a great blessing — Care of the sick — Sickness often preventable — Pure
air — Good food — Pure water — Clothing — Cleanliness — Care of the teeth —
Sleep — Obedience to moral laws 843-S48

BOYS ON THE FARM.

Too many boys leave the farm — A great evil — Why they leave — How to induce
them to remain on the farm — Boys should be taught that farming is honorable —
Must be interested in their work — Farm life must be made pleasant — Farmers'
girls should be taught to respect farming — Boys should be given the use of a
little land — Should be consulted about the work — Should be given positions
of responsibility and trust 848-851

ITEMS FOR THE HOUSE AND FARM.

A collection of useful recipes and suggestions 851-855

RED-LETTER DAYS.

Signification of the red letter — More holidays should be observed — Birthdays
^-Marriage anniversaries — Religious and National festivals 855-856

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FRONTISPIECE — Steel, . ...

1. Ground Plan of Buildings . ... 55

2. Farm-House 77

3. Plan of Ground- Floor 78

4. Cottage 80

5. Cheap Hay Barn 103

6. Ingersoll Hand- Press 104

7. Dederick Power-Press 105

8. Germination of Corn 133

9. Young Corn Plant 134

JO. Ancient Egyptian Method of

Plowing 213

11. A Modern Improvement 214

12. Hand Seed-Sower 247

13. Power Seed-Sower 248

14. Wheat Sown Broadcast 260

15. Wheat Drilled 260

16. Hoosier Grain-Drill «6i

17. Travis Wheat-Hoe 264

18. W. A. Wood's Reaper 266

19. W. A. Wood's Self-Binding

Harvester 268

20. Prout's Iloeing Machine 273

21. Cotton-Gin 28S

22. Cotton-Press 290

23. One-Horse Drill 299

24. Double-Row Corn-Planter 299

25. Corn Drilled 301

26. Corn in Hills 301

27. Planet Jr. Horse-Hoe 302

28. Walking or Riding Cultivator. . 303

29. Improved Corn-Harrow 304

30. Double-Row Stalk-Cutter 305

31. Combined Drill and Hoe 318

32. Wheel-Hoe 318

"^■i. Potato-Planter 326

34. Double Mould-Board Plow 328

35. Potato-Digger 332

36. Victor Cane-Mill 339

After Herring,

Sugar Evaporator , . . . 340

Plantation Cane-Mill 342

Buckeye Mower 376

Eureka Mower 377

Bullard Hay-Tedder 379

Taylor Wheel-Rake 381

Sterling Revolving-Rake 382

Foust's Hay-Loader 383

Birdsell Clover-Separator 388

Stone Drain 410

Stone Drain 410

Round Tile and Collar. 412

Sole Tile 412

Sole "V'Tile 412

Barb Wire Fence 488

Dog-Power 496

Horse-Power 497

Wind-Mill 497

Portable Engine 500

Firefly Hand-Hoe 501

" Peace-Maker" Plow 502

Gale Chilled Plow 502

Adamant Plow 502

Slip- Point 502

Oneonta Clipper Plow 503

Sulkey Plow 503

Steel Gang- Plow 505

Roller 505

Clogged Harrow-Tooth 505

Thomas Smoothing Harrow.. . . 505

Spring-Tooth Harrow 507

Acme Leveler and Pulverizer.. 509

Randall Harrow 509

Horse Hay-Fork 510

Farquhar Separator 512

Clover Seed Gatherer 512

Rockaway Fan 512

Hand Corn-Sheller 513

(15)

16

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

IS-
76.

77-

78.

79-
80.
81.
82.
83-
84.
85-
86.

87.

90.
91.
92.
93-

94.

95-
96.

97-
98.

99.
100.

lOI.

102.
103.
104.

105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
no.
III.

112.

"3-

Shuck-Sheller 513 114.

Farm-Mill 514

Root-Cutter 514 115.

Sickle-Grinder 515

Stump-Puller 516 116.

Hoisting Machine 516 117.

Portable Forge 517 118.

Lightning Buck-Saw 518 119.

One Man Cross-Cut Saw 518 120.

Lightning Hand-Saw 51S 121.

Family Scale 518 122.

Portable Scale 518 123.

Standard Farm Scales 520 124.

Suctioii and Force Pump 521 125.

Beebe Washing Machine 522

Clothes- Wringer 523 126.

Mangle 524

Horses (3) 539 127.

White Percheron — Norman 128.

Horse 545 1 29.

Black Percheron — Norman

Horse 546 130.

Clez'eland Bay Horse 549 13 1.

Short- Horn Bull 5S3

Ayrshire Cow 589 132.

Hereford Bull 593 133.

Holstein Cow 599

Jersey Cattle 629 134.

The Perfect Milk-Pail 649

Dairyman's Scale 652 135-

Cooley's Portable Creamery. . . 664 136.
Sectional View of Can and

Creamery 665 137-

Davis' Swing-Churn 667

Motion of Cream in Churn.. .. 667 138.

Eureka Butter- Worker 670

Oxford Down Yearling Lambs. 689 1 39.

Cotswold Lambs 699

Sheep- Shearing Machine 709 140.

Chester White and Essex Swine. 727 141.

Magie or Poland- China Swine. 731 142.

Berkshire Pigs 735

Brown Leghorn fowls, and

White Holland Turkeys... 757
Pekin Ducks and Plymouth

Rock Fowls 765

Jersey Bull 768

Berkshire Pigs 76S

Fruit Evaporator 7S0

Layer 7S9

Sprouts From Layered Cane. . 7S9

Cutting a Bud 790

Prepared Stock and Bud 790

Whip-Grafting 791

Cleft-Grafting '/91

Colored Fruit Plate. Larger

Fruits 795

Colored Fruit Plate. Small

Fruits 801

Transplanter 808

Cold Frame 809

Home Adornment — Shrubs,

Evergreens, and Flowers. . . 809

Tomato Frame 815

Bastian's Half-Long Blood

Beet 816

Early Half- Long Scarlet Carrot 816
Early Jersey Wakefield Cab-
bage 8 1 6

Green Citron Netted Musk-
Melon 816

Egyptian Blood Turnip Beet. . 816
Improved Large Purple Egg-
Plant , S16

Bastian's Extra Early Red

Beet 816

Small Gherkin, or Burr Cucum-
ber S16

Early White Scallop Bush-
Squash 816

Dwarf Celery 816

Martynia 816

Dreer's Selected Trophy To-
mato. 81^

AGRICULTURE AND MECHANICS.

U7)

CONTENTS OF PART I.

FARMING AS AN OCCUPATION.
WHERE TO FARM.

LARGE OR SMALL FARMS.
FARM BUILDINGS.

THE CAPACITY OF A FARM.
ANALYSIS OF SOILS.

PLANT LIFE AND GROWTH.
FERTILIZERS.
TILLAGE.

THE CHOICE OF CROPS.
ROTATION OF CROPS.
MONEY CROPS.

FARM AND FODDER CROPS.
DRAINING.

THE \VATER SUPPLY.
HOME PRODUCTION.

OVER-PRODUCTION.
GOOD SEED.

THE SELECTION OF SEED.
ECONOMY OF LABOR.
FARM TEAMS.

FARM FENCES.

FARM ROADS.

TIMBER CULTURE.

POWER ON THE FARM.
FARM IMPLEMENTS.
(18)

Farming for Profit.

♦ >- ^ « >

FiEBMIMS MB MM ©OOXJFmTIOM,

HEN man was created in the image of God and given
dominion over all the earth, he was directed by his
Creator to dress and to keep the beautiful Garden in
which he found a happy home. Thus at the very
beginning of the history of the race God placed the stamp of
His approval upon the labor of tilling the soil. And after the
Fall, with all of its ruinous consequences, when man was driven
out into the world, he was directed to continue the same employ-
ment. In due time he received the promise that the earth
should be cursed no more, and that seed-time and harvest
should not fail.

As this is the original work which God gave to men, we have
the best of reasons for supposing that it is a form of employ-
ment which is especially suited to their requirements. And the
history of the race to the present time has proved this belief to
be well founded. Although as men multiplied upon the earth
it seemed necessary that some should engage in other callings,
yet agriculture has continued to hold a very prominent place
among the industries of the world. As civilization has
advanced, agriculture has become more and more necessary to
the welfare of society. Although there have always been a few
who have affected to despise manual toil and to look down upon

/?:^.v--,

fWPFIfTT I

20 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

the laborer as a social inferior, this feeling has not lately been
general, even among those who have not been compelled to
work with their hands, and is now rapidly passing away from
the minds of those who were once foolish enough to cherish it.
As a class farmers are becoming more intelligent, thus fitting
themselves for greater usefulness, and compelling the few who
may have laid claim to social superiority to yield them the trib-
ute of genuine respect. It certainly is not meet that the wealthy
and educated classes should look with disdain upon the farmers,
to whom, under God, they are indebted for their daily bread.
Neither should the farmer rely upon the great benefit which his
labor confers upon society as his sole claim to recognition and
respect. All classes should remember that no mere employment
has the power to make a man true and honorable. Character is
something which is distinct from occupation. Some men would
be true and noble, if they were compelled to engage in the
most menial toil ; while others would show no spark of manhood
if they were invested with all of the rights and privileges of
the most sacred calling. If a man is truly good, he will be
good without regard to his occupation. He will be just as good
as a farmer as he would if he were a merchant, a manufacturer,
or a preacher. His employment will not make him either good
or bad. If it is honest, it may be made an aid to the building
and sustaining of a good character ; but the motive and the will,
the resolution and the action, which are the vital forces in the
case, must come from the soul of the man himself, and are
wholly outside of, and foreign to, his occupation. It is true that
a dishonest calling will tend to make a bad man grow worse, but
that it has no power to make a good man evil is evident from
the fact that no really good man would have engaged in such
an occupation. The man was bad before he entered the busi-
ness. There are some honest callings which incidentally throw a
man in the way of temptation, but they have no power to compel
him to do wrong. Other callings surround a man with good

FARMING AS AN OCCUPATION. 21

mfluences and shield him from temptation, but they cannot make
him good. If his heart is corrupt, it will be altogether beyond
the power of any calling to make him an upright and honorable
man. Consequently no farmer should lay claim to respectability
merely because he is a farmer. This is good as far as it goes, but
it is not enough. He ought to strive by a noble character and
a life above all reproach to confer honor upon his chosen
occupation, rather than seek by the aid of his calling to attain a
degree of social recognition which his actual merits do not
warrant. Still he should always remember that his calling is
one which was given and sanctioned by God; that there is noth-
ing in it to degrade, but, when properly followed, very much that
is ''elevating and ennobling. He should never blush to own
that he is a farmer, or be ashamed of the fact that he tills the

soil.

While the influence of agriculture upon the individual is good,
its beneficial effect upon national progress and prosperity is
marked to a much greater degree. History shows us that as
nations rise, agriculture is more and more honored and respected,
while as they decline, and keeping a very even pace with their
downward progress, it falls into disrepute and decay. It was so
with Rome, the greatest of all ancient powers, and it has been so
with states and empires of lesser note. So it will always be ; for
agriculture is the only safe and sure foundation upon which a
nation can be reared. It is plain to be seen that a nation which
should produce none of its food supplies would be constantly
dependent upon foreigners, and in case of war might be almost
utterly helpless. Not only does a well-developed agriculture
give a nation influence and power abroad, but it is also one of
the greatest possible aids to a high state of civilization at home.
It may never have occurred to the eminent artist and the
brilliant scientist that but for the combined skill and labor of
many farmers, they would be obliged to spend their time and
strength working with their hands instead of following their

22 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

chosen pursuits. But this is a fact which all professional men
should remember, that they are deeply interested in the progress
of agriculture, because upon the success of farmers depends the
possibility of their being able to work with their minds instead
of their hands. For if agriculture were to decline to a point
at which each farmer should produce only food enough to
supply his own wants and those of his family, there would be no
food for the non-producing classes, and they would be obliged
to leave their professions and trades to engage in the cultivation
of the soil. This would be the only way in which they could
avoid starvation. Thus it will be seen that the better the
agriculture of a country is managed, the higher the point to
which civilization can be carried. The farmer as well as the
thinker is a power to advance the civilization of the world.

Not only is it for the benefit of society that the agricultural
interests of a country should be well developed, but it is also
essential to the securing of the highest success by the farmers
themselves. If the crops are properly chosen, there will be little
danger of over-production. The higher the rate of production
can be carried without glutting the market, the greater the sur-
plus which the farmer can sell, the more leisure time he will
have, and the greater the number of luxuries which he can en-
joy. The highest development of our agricultural interests will
prove an immense benefit to the farmers, the professional classes,
and to the nation at large. By bringing to his aid the knowl-
edge which is within his reach, and doing all that he can to
elevate, and make successful and remunerative, his own occupa-
tion, the farmer is also helping the great army of laborers in the
fields of literature, science and art.

While the advantages which have been enumerated are of
great importance, the fact that farming gives a man almost
unequalled opportunities for becoming independent, furnishes
another and a strong inducement for choosing this occupation.
There are very few kinds of business in which a snjall amount

FARMING AS AN OCCUPATION. 2S

of capital can be as safely invested, and still yield as good re-
turns as it will in a farm, and there are very few occupations in
which a man can engage with an equal certainty of always
having plenty of work, and work which is so sure to be fairly
remunerated. In order to become a lawyer a man must give
many of the best years of his life to the acquirement of an edu-
cation, which will cost a large sum of money, and he must then
labor constantly and earnestly in order to secure anything like a
reasonable degree of success. In the great majority of cases
the same amount of money invested in buying a farm which
must be spent in educating him, and an equal amount of hard
work afterwards, would give him more money, and ten times
more happiness as a farmer, than he ever can secure as a lawyer.
There are brilliant examples of success in all the professions,
but the majority of professional men never reach eminence nor
obtain wealth. Considering the amount of money which is ex-
pended in fitting them for their positions, and in helping them to
get started in life, they are no more successful than farmers. We
are well aware that many utter the chronic complaint that ." farm-
ing don't pay," but we are sure that they do not know whereof
they do affirm. We know that there are many half-hearted
farmers, men who have no faith in their business and but little in
themselves, who are always ready to sell out, and constantly want-
ing to get into other business because they are not doing well
where they are. But if these men were to show no more energy
and skill in other business than they do in farming, they would
not improve their condition by changing their occupation. Here,
as in regard to character, very much depends upon the man him-
self Some men do not get along well farming, and they would
not get along well doing anything else. Other men make money
on the farm. They would probably do well at other work. Still,
some men have a special talent for certain kinds of business. In
following their desires in this respect they will usually be more
happy and more successful than they will if their wishes are not

24 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

regarded. But a taste for many kinds of work, and especially
for farming, can easily be cultivated. While it is not the duty
of every man to follow this calling, it is an occupation which
most men can learn to like, and in which none except those who.
by reason of ill-health, or of heavy burdens outside of their work,
need wholly fail. The great majority of men whom inclination
has brought, or necessity has driven, to the farm, may secure not
only a reasonable but a highly satisfactory degree of success.
If they will give their earnest attention to the business, and use
the helps which are easily within their reach, they can make
farming Pay. To aid his readers in this work, and show them
how it can be performed, will be the aim of the writer in the
following pages.

N a beautiful story by Longfellow, a highly educated
man is represented as desiring to write a romance.
Month after month and year after year he sought in the
realms of the imagination for the materials of which to
construct the plot. Vague ideas filled his mind. Splendid
visions sometimes came, but he was always seeking something
far away ; something a little better than he had yet secured.
So it came to pass that the years fled away while he was
dreaming, and the romance which he had fondly hoped was to
immortalize his name was never even begun. Yet, during the
time which he thus idled away, the materials for a splendid
romance, even a tragedy involving terrible grief, heroic endur-
ance, and Christ-like fortitude, were accumulating close to his
very door. But his eyes were turned so far away in an effort to
penetrate the mysterious and the unknown, that he neither saw
the opportunity, nor realized that he was throwing away the
greatest help to his cherished work which it was possible for
him to receive. And it came to pass that all his dreams faded.

»

WHERE TO FARM. 25

his years of anxious thought were vainly spent, and the confi-
dence of his friends in his superior ability was destroyed, all
because he would not use the materials within his reach, but
^vas constantly seeking something so intangible and unreal that
it always eluded his grasp. In looking over the record of
such a life, with its glorious opportunities thrown away, it is
very easy to see the mistake, and by far too easy to condemn.
Yet this is only a picture of a multitude of lives. Look where
we will we can find men who have neglected the best of chances,
because, by the dazzling light of something far away, their eyes
were closed to the benefits by which they were fairly surrounded.
In looking over his past life many a man' can see where he made
a terrible mistake in seeking fortune in the distance and the .
future, instead of accepting the opportunities which were close
at hand. And, as human nature remains the same, we find that
the same scenes are constantly being re-enacted. The young do
not always learn from the experience of the old. They prefer
to push out into life for themselves. They insist upon drinking
the bitter water before they will acknowledge that it is
unpleasant and unwholesome. This is the case with too many
of the young men of to-day. But there are many who are open
to reason, who will listen to argument, and who will hearken to
instruction. For their benefit, and also to strengthen in the
faith some of our older readers, who may be wavering, we will
devote a little space to a consideration of the subject of this

chapter.

Farmers in this country are divided into two principal classes:
those who are both the owners and managers of the farms upon
which they live forming one, and those who work for other
farmers comprising the other class. There are a very few who
do not properly hold either of these positions, but an inter-
mediate one, being managers, but neither owners nor laborers.
But the two classes named above comprise nearly all of the
farmers in the country. As a general rule they have the power

26 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

of choice as to the place in which they will farm. They cannot
change without some expense : in a multitude of instances a
change of location would involve quite a heavy loss; but to
almost every one such a change is possible. The question,
then, to be considered, is whether a change is desirable.

The fact that a change would involve some expense is not an
unanswerable argument against a removal from the present
location. Almost everything of value (as well as many worth-
less articles) costs something. Buying a reaper is expensive,
but it is often a necessary expense, and one which proves a
source of great profit in the end. So with many other expenses
which the farmer is obliged to incur. Now if a removal holds
out a certainty of great and permanent improvement, with no
drawback which shall neutralize the apparent gain, the fact that
it is somewhat expensive should not prevent its being made.
But in case that a change of location means only a change of
evils — if in leaving one unpleasant feature the farmer must accept
another equally bad, and perhaps much worse, in his new home
— it does not seem possible that the expense of removal can be
justified. Probably ninety-nine farmers in eveiy one hundred
have something unpleasant in their surroundings, and it is very
likely that a large part of them have a vague and indefinite idea
that if they could only moye to some other town, or some other
State, they would be happier and more prosperous than they
possibly can be while remaining in their present homes. There
are some things which these farmers should have in mind, but
which, unless they have been around in the world considerably,
they are almost sure to overlook. One of these, and it is a very
important consideration, is the fact that there is a great law of
compensations which is in force everywhere, and which balances
many evils with equal and corresponding benefits. The farmer
in Maine will suffer severely during the long and unpleasant
winter, and he may envy the farmer in Georgia, who is not
exposed to the terrible cold. But while the Southern farmer

WHERE TO FARM. ^2.1

is comfortable when the Northern farmer is almost afraid that he
shall freeze, there comes a time when the suffering and the com-
fort are exchanged.

In the summer the Southern farmer suffers from the broiling
heat, while, with the exception of a few days, the Northern
farmer is quite comfortable. Both parties have their time of
pleasant surroundings and their seasons of discomfort. One
suffers from the cold, the other from the heat. Both suffer, and
no one can tell which suffers the most. So with all other things.
The man who delights in mountain scenery and gratifies his
desires must put up with the inconvenience, and perform the
many extra labors, which living in a mountainous region
involves. The farmer who desires a retired place, far away
from the busy haunts of men, can easily find one, but in settling
there he must give up schools, and churches, and mail facilities,
and social privileges. If these things are too valuable to him to
be sacrificed, he must be content to live near other people and
give up the idea of a home in the wilderness. If a farmer is
determined to grow sugar-cane, he must go where the growing
season is very long and extremely hot. If he does not like and
will not endure the heat, he must give up the idea of growing
the cane, for it is utterly impossible to grow this plant in a cool
climate. If he wants to produce a large quantity of maple
sugar, he must locate where the nights, even in the spring time,
are so cold that the ground will freeze. Otherwise his efforts
will be of no avail. The same principle governs everywhere.
No location can be found in the civilized world but what has
certain advantages, and there is none so favored that it has no
drawbacks. The sum of the advantages in one locality may be
greatly in excess of the sum of those presented by another,
but the poorest of all places in which a man can Hve wil^'be
likely to have something to recommend it which more favored
localities do not possess. The farmer should always keep the
fact in mind that there are drawbacks everywhere. By chang-

28 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

ing his location he can escape the difficulties with which he in
now beset, but it is absolutely true that he will find plenty of
other things to make him trouble. Perfection, either of character
or location, is not to be found in this world. The mere fact that
things are not just to his liking where he is, does not furnish
proof that he will find relief from his difficulties by a change of
place. In many cases it is a change in the methods of doing
business which is needed. This a change of location would
not secure. Many a man is spending a great deal of time, in-
dulging many useless longings, and building many castles in
the air, and imagining that if he were only somewhere else he
could do a great deal better than he has ever yet been able to
do, whose eyes are closed to splendid opportunities for making
money on his own farm. These men are not doing very well —
never have done very well. They are dissatisfied because they
do not get along any better, and think it must be all owing to
their unfavorable location. The truth of the matter, in many
of these cases, is, that these farmers do not understand the
resources of their own farms and do not see the opportunities
which are constantly running to waste. They fail to realize
tthat the present is the one grand opportunity which God gives
to men, and that, as a general rule, those who fail to improve
where they are would do little, if any, better if they were
•differently located. Success on the farm depends far more upon
.a man's character than it does upon his surroundings. If he has
no energy, and skill, and judgment, he will remain poor on the
best farm in the world, while, if he possesses these qualities, he
will be reasonably successful under adverse circumstances.
Now every man has his character, and this character will be
likely to stay with him wherever he goes. If a man is energetic
and industrious at the East, he will be likely to exhibit these
traits if he goes West to live ; but if he lacks these elements of
character at the East, merely going West will do nothing to
■ secure them for him. If he manages a New England farm by

WHERE TO FARM. 29

sitting in the village store, or the blacksmith's shop, while his
boys do the work, or it remains undone, he will be very sure to
do just the same with a Western or a Southern farm, if he should
ever obtain one.

It is a fact which should be impressed upon the mind of every
farmer, and every farmer's boy, that mere change of location
does not and cannot, never did, and never will, change the
character or the disposition. It is very important to keep this
in mind. It will not only counteract a false idea which has
taken possession of many minds, but it also furnishes the key to
a solution of the problem which is under consideration. The
man who is restless, dissatisfied, and eager for a change of some
kind, anxious to get away from where he is, but having no defi-
nite idea where he had better go, thereby acknowledges that
there is something about himself which is wrong. It has been
shown that location cannot change the character — cannot make
a different man — therefore it follows that the difficulty is not with
the location, but with the man himself The true remedy is not a
removal but a reconstruction. Instead of going away from his old
home and friends, let the dissatisfied farmer take a calm view of
the situation, look the truth fairly in the face, and find just where
the trouble lies. He will probably find one or more of three
difficulties. Either he does not get along well with his work,
his crops are poor, or his income is not sufficient to meet what
he considers his necessary expenses. Now removal to a different
part of the country is not the proper remedy for either of these
troubles. If a farmer cannot get along with his work where he
is, he cannot manage it satisfactorily anywhere else. His true
remedy for this difficulty is to carefully study how he can do his
work to better advantage. A little thought will enable many a
farmer to see how he can save a great deal of useless labor, and
how he can make available much of the time which does not
seem to yield a return. If he would study to make the most of
his opportunities, and do everything to the best advantage, he

30 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

would be enabled to accomplish a great deal more with the same
amount of time and labor. But if the difficulty is not due to
this cause, if the work can be managed well enough, but the re-
sults are unsatisfactory, if the crops are light and unprofitable,
there is no call, on this account, for leaving the present location.
Good crops do not produce themselves. Even on rich land the
farmer has something to do to secure large returns. The farmer
who can grow paying crops in one part of the country can do
the same in any other section, while he who fails in one place
will be very sure to fail elsewhere. Consequently, removal is
not a remedy for the difficulty now under consideration. The
true course for the farmer who is suffering from this cause is to
study the requirements of the various crops, learn which are the
best fertilizers, and how to apply them, the best methods of cul-
ture— learn these things and put them in practice. When he
does this his special trouble from this cause will vanish. In
case that the farmer succeeds well with his work, obtains good
crops, but still does not get along because his expenses exceed
his receipts, removal is not at all in the line of what is needed,
and will not make him successful. Here the trouble is with his
business habits. Either he does not understand selling his crops
and buying supplies, or else he docs not practice economy in his
purchases. In either case the remedy is to be found in a careful
study of business principles, and a determination to live within
his income, even though much self-denial may be required. One
of the great difficulties with a multitude of farmers is that they
do not understand doing business. It is one of the things in
which boys on the farm should be instructed, and which the
farmer who is deficient therein should make his careful study.
The earlier in life these principles are mastered the better, but
it is " never too late to mend," and a man is never too old to
learn.

Such are some of the difficulties with which many farmers
contend, and such are the remedies therefor. The difficulties

WHERE TO FARM. 31

are of an internal rather than an external origin and nature.
They are inherent in the men and not in the business which
they pursue. They can be overcome without a change of
location merely by a change of practice. Not only is no
change of locality demanded, but in many respects it would
impose an additional burden upon the farmer. If he removes
to another section of the country he will be to considerable
expense, lose some time in going, and much more in learning
the habits and customs of those among whom he locates, and it
will take a long time for him to become thoroughly familiar
with the character and capacities of the soil, and the best
methods of its cultivation. Thus, at the very outset, he is
placed at a great disadvantage, and finds himself much worse
ofif than he was in his old location. As a general rule we like
the idea of handing down a farm from father to son through
successive generations. It is better to keep a farm " in the
family " than to be constantly roaming around. If properly
managed, money can be made on the old place, and more happi-
ness can be secured there than elsewhere. The associations
which gather around the homes of the fathers become sacred
to the younger generations. The tendencies of these associa-
tions are to restrain from evil, and to incite to good thoughts
and deeds. Farmers should be slow to part with the " old home-
steads," not merely because of their own attachments, but also
on account of the influence upon their children. Of course, not
all the children can remain at home : some must go out into the
world and settle other portions of this great country. But
enough should remain to keep the old farms under cultivation,
to sustain the institutions which their ancestors founded, and
keep the graves of the fathers green. This is not merely a
matter of sentiment. Money is at stake. More than this ; the
progress of religion and the permanence of our free schools
are largely dependent upon the retaining of the homesteads by
those who have the same interests which our forefathers labored

32 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

to preserve. In some parts of New England the native popu-
lation has, in a great measure, withdrawn. Many of the smaller
farms are in the hands of foreigners. Others are deserted, and
the land has been turned into pastures. If the process goes on
much longer there will be many towns in which the foreign vote
will decide all local elections. The new-comers are generally
kind neighbors and industrious people, but the majority of them
are not in sympathy with our free schools, they do not believe in
our religion, they have no desire for, or faith in, intellectual prog-
ress, and they will not make these towns centres of thought and
influence. Agricultural societies will receive no help from these
inhabitants, and an intelligent and progressive system of farming
will not be pursued. There should enough Americans remain
to control town affairs, and to cast the town influence in favor
of right and progress. On the same principle the homesteads
of the farmers at the West and South should be kept in the
hands of Americans, and as far as possible, in the families to
which they now belong. Room should be made for foreigners
who are willing to come among us and obey our laws, they
should be kindly treated, and should be encouraged to do well ;
but they should not be allowed to supplant American insti-
tutions, or to come into possession of our present homes.

That it is harder work to cultivate some of the stony farms in
New England than it is the fertile plains of some of the Western
States is very true. And it probably is easier, as many assert,
to take a new farm on the frontier, than it is to restore to its
original fertility one which has been exhausted by a bad system
of cultivation. But the great law of compensations, to which
attention has been called, here comes into play ; and when all
things are taken into the account, there will not remain a balance
in favor of the pioneer. Still, some must go out from our homes
to people the wilderness and establish churches and schools.
Their mission is a noble one ; and, if faithful, they will not fail of
their reward.

WHERE TO FARM. 33

Thus far the question of location has been considered with
reference to the owners of land. The same question presents
itself to those who labor for others. They can change their
location with less trouble and expense than men who have
capital invested in real estate. If there are no special ties to keep
them where they are, they should determine to work where they
can receive a fair compensation for their toil, and also do the
most good to other people. There are thousands of men, many
of them young men, in each of our large cities who are not
needed there, are not wanted there, and for whom there is no
room. They choke all the avenues to professional and business
life, and by excessive competition are constantly injuring them-
selves and all with whom they have to do. But in many places
at the West and Sputh both native and foreign laborers are in
great demand. If the farniers' sons who have crowded into the
cities in hope of finding more profitable or more congenial
employment would go back into the country, where they are
needed and rightfully belong, the exodus would prove an
immense benefit to themselves, their new employers, the cities
which they leave, and the towns to which they would, go; In
some sections of the country, notably in some parts of New
England, there is already a surplus of farm laborers. Those
who have no families dependent upon them, and no special call
of duty to remain, might help themselves and others by going
where their services are in greater demand. Whether they
should go West or South should be made to depend upon the call
for laborers, their own wishes, and the special line of business in
which they would like to engage. If they desire to take care
of cattle they should go to the Western^, States, or to Texas ;
while if they Avould like to learn the processes of cotton-growing
they should go to the Southern States, in which that industry is
prominent. By occasional changes of' location there will be
an opportunity to learn a great deal concerning the soil, products,
methods of culture, and general, characteristics of different parts

34 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

of the country. But much of this very desirable knowledge
can be obtained by reading, and the restless spirit which frequent
changes encourage must not be allowed to become dominant. A
rover is not usually a good farmer. Though he may know
something of many branches, he will be master of none and
will be an inefficient laborer. Besides, an established reputation
for honor and integrity is very valuable, but it can only be
secured by remaining with people long enough to enable the
parties to become thoroughly acquainted. It is better both for
the employer and the employe that they remain together for
several years. Too frequent change of location indicates an
unstable character and a discontented frame of mind.

Such are some of the general principles which should have
an influence in deciding the farmer's choice of a location. As
there are exceptions to all rules, so there will be exceptions to
the general application of these principles. On account of the
ill health of a farmer, or of some member of his family, for
which a change of climate seems to be the best, if not the only
remedy, it may be much better for him to leave his present
home than it will to remain. There are also families — some
may be found in every section of the country — who for gener-
ations have stood at the foot of the social scale. The present
members of these families feel that they have little encourage-
ment to attempt to make any improvement where they
are. Yet there are some who would be glad to do better and
work their way up to social recognition. If they could get
away from the old acquaintances who have always despised
them, and the evil companions who constantly try to keep them
down to their own level, and locate where they are not known
and their past bad name would not affect them if they conducted
themselves properly — where the cost of living is small and
labor is fairly rewarded— they might reform, and become able not
only to respect themselves but also to win the respect of others.
They would carry their old characters with them, it is true, and

WHERE TO FARM. 35

their improvement would be only gradually effected, but they
could be no worse off for going, and some of the principal
influences which have tended to keep them down would be re-
moved. Freed from old companions, thrown upon their own
resources, made in some degree to feel their own responsibility,
and coming in contact with strangers, the result of the change
would be highly beneficial. The young people especially
would feel the force of the new surroundings, and might make
rapid advances in knowledge and in business skill and manage-
ment.

There are also men belonging to the better classes who have
a strong desire to engage largely in a certain line of farming
for which they have both taste and skill. In order to gratify
this desire they will be obliged to leave their present homes.
In many cases it may be well to gratify the wish, while in others
it should be stifled. The farmer has a duty to his family, as well
as to himself, and could not be justified in depriving his wife
and children of too many privileges in order to secure his own
advancement. •

In any and every case, before leaving his present home for
another location, let the farmer carefully consider the question
whether, on the whole, it will be any benefit for him to make the
proposed change. Let him remember that wherever he goes
he will be obliged to submit to many discomforts, that there are
drawbacks everywhere, and that, in order to retrieve the failures
of the past, a change in the methods of managing his businers
is needed far more than a change in his location. Let him con-
sider his present privileges and opportunities as well as the
unpleasant circumstances which trouble him. The best ir^terests
of his family should be considered, and the whole subject should
be examined in all of its bearings. If, in a majority of cases, a
decision not to remove should be reached, we think the parties
interested will have no occasion to either be ashamed or to
regret their choice.

36 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

52f F farmers were in the habit of follo^ving the principle em-
bodied in the old tailor's plan of cutting a coat large or
»» .^ small according as there was a large or a small supply of

•^ cloth for the purpose, there would be no necessity for a
consideration of this subject. But, as a class, farmers are not
in favor of applying this traditional method to the management
of their business affairs. This is especially true in regard to
buying land. Instead of limiting their purchases by their means
they too often buy to the full extent of their desires. Many are
more ready to buy land on credit than they are most other
things because they have an idea that they can make the land
productive enough to pay the interest, meet all the expenses of
cultivation, and make an annual reduction of the principal. The
fact that a multitude of farmers have made this attempt, and been
wholly unsuccessful, does not seem to deter others from making
the effort. To many men there is a sort of fascination in buying
land, which they do not resist, and which leads them to financial
ruin. These men seem to think that because it is a good thing
for a man to have a little land it must be much better for him
to have more — a very simple line of reaso'ning but one which
often leads to bad results in practice. There is such a thing as
having too small a farm ; but the tendency with American far-
mers is to go to the other extreme and buy too much land.
The fact that one man has been very successful in the manage-
ment of a large farm is not a good reason for supposing that
any other man will be equally successful if he can obtain as
large an area of land. Some men have special talents for the
management of great operations. They have good judgment
combined with a large degree of executive ability. They think
quickly, and are both energetic and skilful in action. They
have peculiar abilities, with which the majority of men have not
been favored, and which qualify them for the management of

LARGE OR SMALL FARMS. 37

large estates. But there are many men who do well on farms
of moderate size who could not manage large ones profitably.
This question of ability is of very great importance. It should
be considered first in order when the question of a large or a
small farm is to be determined. We give it preference even to
the pecuniary condition in which a man may be placed. For,
if a man has in a special degree the peculiar ability necessary
for the management of a large farm, he can go in debt for one
and make his business a success, while a man who is deficient
in this respect may have plenty of money with which to buy a
large farm and still not be able to make it pay the running
expenses of its cultivation.

The section of country in which the farm is located will also
have much influence in determining its size. At the East,
where land sells for high prices and is hard to cultivate, smaller
farms should be bought than at the West and South, where
land can be had for lower rates, and where, by the use of im-
proved machines, one man can cultivate as much land and pro-^
duce as large crops as three men can manage in New England.
At the West and South, where the prices of produce are very
low, it is necessary that the farmer should secure larger crops
than the Eastern farmer grows. Otherwise, the income from
his farm would neither pay the interest on his land nor support
his family. The Western farmer who sells corn for twenty
cents a bushel needs to grow a great deal more to obtain a cer-
tain income than the New England farmer who sells for eighty
or ninety cents.

The amount of help which the farmer has, and the particular
line of farm business which he designs to follow, should also be
determining elements in deciding the size of a farm. If he has
several boys who are large enough to work, and who like farm-
ing, he can safely buy a much larger farm than he can if he has
no one to help him. If he designs to grow corn, wheat, and
other crops which require considerable working of the land, the

38 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

farm should be smaller than one devoted principally to the grow-
ing of live-stock. There is neither economy nor safety in buying
land which cannot be put to some practical use. Although real
estate has long been considered one of the safest forms of in-
vestment, the experiences of the past few years have proved
that even with this there is danger of overloading. Many a man
has lost a fortune because his money was locked up in real
estate which was not productive, which he could not sell, and on
which he was constantly obliged to pay heavy taxes. In good
times some men have made money by buying land and holding
it for an advance of prices. But many lost instead of made ;
while, in times of financial depression, multitudes have been
utterly ruined by having too much land and too little money
with which to hold it. It is an eminently safe course for a
farmer never to buy land which he does not need, and which he
cannot make immediately available.

• That there are certain advantages in having small farms can-
not be denied. They require less capital, less hired help, less
teams and tools, and there is less care and anxiety about their
management than is the case with large ones. Many a man can
buy a small farm, cultivate it well, himself and family doing all
of the work, and obtain crops enough to make them comfortable.
If he gets the idea, as many njen do, that he must get rich, and
that in order to secure this end he must have a great deal more
land, the chances are that this pernicious idea will run away with
him, and that his days of happiness are passed. The farmer who
IS doing well, who can comfortably support his family, and educaie
his children, should be thankful that he is so highly favored.
Still, he should not sink into idleness and inefficiency, but should
make the most of his opportunities. By giving more thorough
culture he may be able to increase the amount of his produc-
tions, and thus add to the profits of his business. But there is
no necessity for the purchase of more land. And in the great
majority of cases the owners of medium-sized farms can do a

LARGE OR SMALL FARMS. 39

great deal better by improving their methods of culture, and
choosing more profitable crops, than they can by enlarging the
area under cultivation. Yet there are some men — a great many
in all — who do not have land enough, and who can make it pay
them well to increase the size of their farms. But the average
American farmer does not err in this direction. He goes toward
the other extreme. He buys land without carefully considering
whether he really needs it, and can make it a source of profit.

While there are some things which point to small farms as the
most profitable for the average worker, there are also manifest
disadvantages connected with them, and certain respects in which
larger farms are the most profitable. The cost of buildings
which are needed on a large farm is but little more than the
expense of those which are required on small farms. In the
older States a farm of sixty acres should have at least fifteen
hundred dollars invested in buildings, while on a farm of one
hundred and eighty acres but little, if any, more than two
thousand dollars will be needed for this purpose. The house
for the small farm will do well enough for the large one. The
barn, wagon-shed, and granary for the large farm must be con-
siderably larger than will be needed on the small one, but the
cost of these buildings is comparatively low, and the necessary
increase of size will not involve a very great additional expense.
But it will make a great difference in the profits of the business
whether a large or a small proportion of the capital invested is
put into property which is not directly productive. This is a
matter of great importance, and should be considered with care.
Suppo.se the land to be worth fifty dollars per acre. Then we
have, as the cost of the small farm, sixty acres of land worth
three thousand dollars, and buildings worth fifteen hundred
dollars — a total expense of four thousand five hundred dollars.
The large farm has one hundred a^nd eighty acres of land worth
nine thousand dollars, and buildings worth two thousand
dollars — a total cost of eleven thousand dollars.

40 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

The large farm costs less than two and one-half times as
much as the small one, but it contains three times as much
land, from which an income can be obtained. With money at
six per cent., the interest on the large farm would be six hundred
and sixty dollars per year, whue on the small one it would be
two hundred and seventy dollars. Here the expense is less
than two and a half times as large in the case of the large farm
as it is on the small one, while the productive power is three
times greater. On the small farm one-third of the whole capital
is not only producing nothing, but is a constant source of
expense. Interest, insurance, taxes, and repairs will be constant
outgoes, of which the land must bear the expense. On the
large farm the proportion of this unproductive property to the
whole capital is only two-elevenths. On the small farm the
interest equals nine per cent, on the value of the productive
property, while on the large farm it is reduced to seven and one-
third per cent. These are very evident reasons why many men
who have bought quite small farms have not been as successful
as they hoped. They have put too large a proportion of their
money where they receive no direct return.

There are some other things, closely connected with the above,
in which the large farm has the advantage of the small one.
As a rule the taxes on a farm which is nearly all productive
property are lighter in proportion than they arc where much of
the capital is invested in buildings. The fencing of a large
farm can be performed at much less proportional cost than will
be possible on a small one, and the labor of cultivation can
generally be managed much better in large than it can in small
fields. The cost of tools for a small farm is very much higher
in proportion to the work done with them than it is on a large
one. We have known many farmers who cut only fifteen or
twenty acres of grass each of whom had a mowing-machine, a
hay-tedder, and a horse-rake. These machines would have
done all the work required of them on farms three times as

LARGE OR SMALL FARMS. 41

large, and would have lasted a great many years. If only a few
acres of grain are produced, the farmer needs plows of different
patterns, harrows, planters, cultivators, and harvesters. For
these he has to pay just as much as the large farmer who can
get from three to six times as much use from them. The
small farmer does not require quite as many tools'in number as
the large one, but he is obliged to buy a great many for which
he has but comparatively little use, and the total cost of the
implements which he needs when compared with the total value
of the crops which he grows is many times larger than the
expense incurred by the large farmer. To some extent, though
in a somewhat less degree, the same is true of the cost of teams
for the performance of farm-work. Another d'sadvantage of a
small farm may be found in the fact that its owner is obliged to
do a very small business — a business not small merely in the
aggregate but exceedingly small in its details. He may have
many things for sale, but they are in such small quantities that
buyers will not come to him to purchase, and he wastes
much time in carrying small quantities of produce to m.arket.
It is just as much work, takes just as long, and requires a
team just as much, to take five hundred pounds of straw to a
customer as it does to take fifteen hundred pounds. The
work of loading and unloading is a little greater in one case
than the other, but the cost of weighing and the other expenses
are just the same, while the money received for the large load is
three times the amount of that obtained for the small one. It
takes just as long to go to market with ten pounds of butter
as it does with one hundred, but there is a great difference in
the amount of money received. When the farmer has to go to
market every week with a small quantity of produce he spends
much time for which he receives but little pay. He could just
as well carry three or four times as much, if he had it, and then
there would be a nearer approach to profit in the operation.
If a man produces a large quantity of anything which is in

42 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

demand, buyers will call on him, and a sale can be effected
without spending much time; but if the quantity which is
produced is small, the grower must go where the buyers are.
The man who has a large farm ought to have a large quantity
of products, but the small farmer cannot be expected to produce
very much of any one thing. In many neighborhoods the small
farmers might profitably arrange so that one of their number
should go to market each week and carry the produce for the
whole company. By taking turns each one would bear his
rightful share of the burden, while he would save a great deal
of time and trouble. But even here the large farmer would have
the advantage. All the products would be his own, he would
be able to judge accurately of their quality, and he would feel
at liberty to sell for any prices which to him seemed best. Still
by means of the co-operation suggested above, the advantage of
the large over the small farmer would be reduced to the lowest
point.

" Last, but not least," we must consider the question of
capital as affecting the size of farms. This is an important
point, though, as already suggested, it is far from being the only
one which should receive attention. In order to buy a farm,
safely and manage it successfully, a man ought to have some
money at his command. That some men have bought
farms almost wholly on credit, and then got trusted for the
stock and tools which they needed, who have eventually suc-
ceeded in paying their debts, and thus becoming the owners of
the property which they had nominally held, is true, but they
are exceptional cases, and should not be taken as examples.
Unless a man can pay quite a proportion of the purchase-
money, he had better work for another, or else hire a farm, than
to buy. Few conditions in civilized life are more pitiable than
that of a man who has invested his little all in a firm, worked
on it many years, and when old age is coming on, finds that he
can hold it no longer. A slight depreciation in the price of

LARGE OR SMALL FARMS. 43

real estate often swallows up the entire capital of men who
have bought farms largely on credit. In many instances these
men have made extensive improvements on the land, but by
reason of ill-health or loss of crops are unable to keep up the
interest, and the mortgages are foreclosed, leaving the farmers
and their families without a home. It is much pleasanter to own
a farm than it is to work for another man, but it is not as safe a
thing for a poor man to do. On this account we would not
advise the buying of a farm without considerable ready money.

While a man who is qualified for the position can do better
on a large farm than he can on a small one, and much of the
business of a large farm can be managed to better advantage
than that of a small one, there is altogether too much risk in
buying a large farm, or enlarging a small one, on credit.
Better incur the extra expenses of a small business than run
the risk of losing everything in a large one. It is often quite
easy to figure out a profit in the operation of buying a large
farm, but when it comes to working it out the case seems very
different. In estimates on paper the expenses are usually put
too low, and too little allowance is made for unfavorable
seasons, damaged crops, low prices, sickness, accidents, and
other losses which, to some extent, almost every farmer is
obliged to sustain.

Although in buying a farm it is desirable to pay as large a
proportion of the price as possible, it is not wise for the pur-
chaser to invest all of his money in land. He needs a team,
and tools, and stock, just as much as he does land, and it is
better for him to pay for these and get more credit on the farm,
than it is to pay a larger part of the purchase-money for the
land, and run in debt for small amounts at several different
places. It is bad enough to be in debt to any one for any
purpose, but it is better to have the debt in one large amount,
in one place, than to have an equal amount of indebtedness
scattered in many different places. These smaller purchases

44 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

can be made to much better advantage for cash than they can
on credit ; the buyer will be more careful in making his trades
if he pays down for all that he buys ; if his indebtedness is all in
one place he will know exactly how much he owes, and will not
be in danger of forgetting many little items, while the general
influence of the transaction, both in its present and its future
bearings, will be much more favorable to his permanent success
if he avoids small debts entirely, and incurs large ones with
extreme caution.

Such are some of the principles which should be regarded in
determining the size of farms. Many other things, of smaller
importance but still worthy of regard, will enter-into the account.
Circumstances should be considered and duly weighed. Com-
mon sense should be used and allowed to lead to, or to modify,
conclusions according to its own dictates. But it will be well
to always remember that a large farm involves a great deal. of
care and responsibility, and that a large debt, for whatever pur-
pose it has been incurred, will invariably prove a heavy and a
tiresome load.

feu^ N order that its business may be managed in an economi-

G)|| caland successful manner, and that the comfort and

^(^77 welfare of the farmer and his family may be secured, it
6 ''{^

v2) is absolutely necessary that there should be several

buildings upon each and every farm. The exact number which
will be required will depend upon various circumstances. The
size of the farm, productiveness of the land, and the special
department of business which is carried on, must be considered.
But there are a few particular buildings which each farmer abso-
lutely needs. Of these, the house is the most important, and is
usually the most expensive. In our variable climate, with its
frequent and sudden changes and its great extremes of heat and

FARM BUILDINGS. 45

cold, houses are indispensable to the comfort and health of the
people. In large sections of the country there is also a neces-
sity for providing shelter and protection during several months
in each year for domestic animals. On this account, and also
to provide a place in which food for their sustenance during the
winter can be kept, barns must be furnished. On farms which
to any extent are devoted to the growing of the cereals, a build-
ing, called a granary, should be provided ibr the safe storage
of these valuable products. There should be a small house for
the hogs, and another for the sole use of the hens. . A shed
close to the house should be used for storing fuel, while another,
and' larger one, should shelter the wagons, carriages, farm imple-
ments and machines, when they are not in actual use.

As has already been suggested, it is a strong objection to
small farms that the cost of the necessary buildings bears a very
high proportion to the value of the whole farm. But it is an
objection which the owners of small farms cannot avoid. If
they have the farms they must also have the buildings. Some
farmers attempt to mitigate the evil by making one building
answer the purposes of two or three. They make the barn serve
also for a granary and a hog-house. The wagon-shed shelters
both the wagons and the hens, and the wood-shed is merely a
back room in the house. In this way the cost of farm buildings
is greatly reduced, but the plan cannot be commended". Low
cost is an item of great importance, it is true, but it is not the
only thing which should receive attention. There must not
only be something in the form of buildings, but, if the business
is to be made profitable, these buildings must be so constructed
and arranged as to answer the purposes for which they were
designed. In order to reduce the cost of a farm it is not wise
to attempt to get along without things which the experience of
generations of farmers has shown to be absolute necessities.
When a choice of evils is given we ought always to choose the
least. Consequently, although the cost will thereby be some-

46 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

what increased, we believe in having a separate house for the
hogs, another for the hens, a wagon-shed devoted, as far as the
ground floor is concerned, to the one purpose of storing wagons,
and a granary in a building distinct from any other. We favor
this arrangement on the principle that no man can work advan-
tageously without having something to do with, and having
things convenient for the management of his business. In the
long run it is not profitable to try to get along without suitable
buildings in which the in-door part of the work can be carried
on. If a farmer keeps hens, he ought to furnish a house in
which they can remain undisturbed. If he keeps hogs, he
should provide a building which is adapted to their special
wants. Whatever kind of stock is kept there should be conve-
niences for caring for it, and the surroundings should be so
arranged as to make it a source of profit to the owner. To the
general rule, that without room and without conveniences for
carrying it on, no kind of business can be made to pay, farming
is not an exception. Economy on the farm is a good thing if
it is properly directed ; but when it leads the owner to do with-
out suitable buildings it proves an unsafe guide. Such a saving
is like the course of a man who should put only one kernel of
corn in a hill because he wanted to prevent an undue expense
for seed. Instead of leading to success, such a course would
involve an utter failure.

The size of the farm should, to some extent, govern the number
and should regulate the size of the buildings thereon. The house,
however, should be governed more by the size of the family of
the owner, and the amount of help which he designs to keep, than
it should by the size of the farm. But the size of the barn, the
granary, and the wagon-shed, should be proportioned to the
amount of land cultivated and business performed. W^hen farms
are extremely large it is sometimes better, as well as more con-
venient, to have two or more barns and granaries on different
parts of the farm than it is to have only one building, and that

FARM BUILDINGS. 47

one excessively large, devoted to each purpose. In addition to
the buildings needed upon a small farm, the owner of a large
one should have a tool-house, in which to store his farm imple-
ments and machines when they are not in actual use, a repair
shop, in which worn or broken tools can be put in order, and
little jobs of carpenter work, which are so often needed on the
farm, can be performed, and also a building to be used for the
purposes of a general storehouse. If any special kinds of busi-
ness, not included in ordinary farming, are carried on, it may be
necessary to erect buildings in which these industries may re-
ceive attention. Where many cows are kept, and there are no
butter or cheese factories in the vicinity, or it is not thought best
to patronize them, a milk-house will not only prove a great con-
venience, but will also be a great help in the profitable manage-
ment of the dairy. On farms where tobacco is one of the
standard crops, buildings for drying and curing it will be re-
quired. In the production of flax, or hops, or the manufacture
of maple sugar, and other industries of a similar nature, special
buildings may be required for the particular kind of business
which is added to the ordinary work of the farm.

Location. — This wilj have a powerful influence upon the
happiness of the farmer and his family, and it is, therefore, a
matter of very great importance to have the buildings properly
located. If the house is far back from the road, and the kitchen
and sitting-room, as is too often the case, are in the farther cor-
ner of the house, it will be a difficult matter for the wife or the
children to be happy, or even contented. The farmer and his
grown-up boys will not mind this enforced retirement as much,
because a large portion of their time is spent in the fields, but
they will fail to receive the cheer and sunshine which a better
location of the living rooms would insure, and all who live in
the house will suffer from its too great isolation. For many
reasons a house in a village is not desirable for a farmer, but the
location should be near a road where there is, at least, an occa-

48 FARMIXG FOR PROFIT.

sional passing team and where all the inmates of the house can
often SCO men and women from other families. It is possible to
have the house too near the highway, but many farmers go to
the other extreme, and locate their homes in the fields instead
of near the road. To this undue isolation, together with hard
work and poor health, the latter in a great measure caused by
the monotony of a retired life, miich of the insanity among
farmers' wives can be directly traced. If there are but few com-
panions, if no strange faces are seen, and a ceaseless round of
duties must be performed, there is danger that the mind will
prey upon itself, and lose its balance and power. The tendency
in this direction may be, to some extent, counteracted if preven-
tive means are at hand, and are employed before the mind be-
comes diseased. But this does not make it any less the duty of
the farmer to choose the brightest and pleasantest location which
he can find for his home. Even if terrible evils are avoided, an
unduly isolated life is not as happy, and will not be as useful, as
one spent under more favorable circumstances. It may seem a
little matter whether a house is located near a road or ten rods
away from it, but it makes an immense amount of difference
with the happiness of the inmates. Even though no word is
ever spoken to a passer-by, it makes life more cheerful to see an
occasional team, -and to have the evidence of the senses that
other men and women are living and moving in the world.

We have no hesitation in expressing the opinion that one of
the great requisites of a good location for a farm-house is prox-
imity to a travelled road. This being secured, it is desirable
that a dry and slightly elevated plot of ground should be
obtained. In a great many instances this can easily be secured
on some part of the farm lying near the highway. But in some-
cases the land is flat and wet, and there is no good site for a
building on the whole frontage of the farm. In these instances
skill and labor should be made to overcome natural obstacles.
The best location which can be found should be chosen and

FARM BUILDINGS. 49

thoroughly drained. When this has been accompHshed, the
cellar should be dug, a good wall laid and raised considerably
above the surface of the surrounding soil. A sufficient quantity
of earth should be carted and spread around the house^to give
an elevated yard from which the water will readily flow, thfts
insuring dry and pleasant surroundings as far as the immediate
vicinity of the house is concerned. There are but very few
farms upon which a good building-spot cannot, in this way, be
obtained.

It is also very desirable to have a diy and warm location for
the barn. Though this should be secondary to the location of
the house, it is a matter of considerable importance to have the
barn, and other farm buildings, on good sites and properly
arranged. The work of the owner will be greatly helped by
a suitable location of these buildings, or hindered by a bad
arrangement of them. The barn may be so located as to cause
a great deal of unnecessary travel, thus involving a waste of
time and strength, neither of which the ordinary farmer can
afford to lose. If placed where the barn-yard will be muddy
every time it rains, there will always be reason to regret the
choice of the site. Merely the annoyance and inconvenience of
having to walk through the mud, as the farmer will often be
obliged to do in warm weather, will become, in time, a heavy
burden. It is no great matter to walk once through a muddy
yard and then clean the boots or shoes. But when it comes tO'
going into the mud many times a day and many days a week,
it will be found very unpleasant, and, in the course of a summer,
considerable time will have been spent in the effort to get off the
mud which was loaded on the boots or shoes. Most farmers
could devise fully as pleasant an occupation, and it is certain
that work which would prove more profitable might be found
upon every farm. But this is not the worst difficulty with a wet
yard. If the manure which the yard contains is constantly
saturated with water, much of the plant-food, which it ought to

50 FARMJXG FOR PR OF IT.

furnish to the crops, will be leached out and wasted. Upon
some farms a very heavy loss is sustained every season from
this cause alone. Then, too, the labor of the teams in carting it
to the figlds, and the work of the men who load and unload the
watcr-soakcd material, will be increased from one-third to one-
half, and in some cases in a still greater proportion, thus making
a great waste of time and strength. When wet manure is carted
upon the farm, its weight causes the wheels to cut into the turf,
thus greatly increasing the draft of the load, and seriously
injuring the mowing lots and grain-fields across which it is
drawn. Other objections might be named, but the ones already
given should be sufficient to deter the farmer from placing his
barn upon a wet site if a drf one can be secured. When the
best location on the farm is wet, the owner must make the best
of a bad matter. The land chosen for the site should be thor-
oughly underdrained, the barn set up a little above the sur-
rounding level, as directed for the house, and the yard should
also be slightly elevated. The same general rules should be
followed in the selection and fitting of a location for the other
farm buildings.

But in the effort to secure dry yards and good drainage, the
■owner should not place any of his buildings very far from the
road, or on a steep hillTside. Since this chapter was commenced,
we called upon a farmer whose house and barn are nearly at the
top of a large and steep hill, and are reached by a slanting road
some twenty rods in length. Such an arrangement of the
buildings is very inconvenient, and is a great objection to a
farm. It is not wise to build so far from the highway, and not at
all pleasant to be located on such a steep side-hill. A steep hill
■ must always be a vQ:xy objectionable place upon which to build
a barn. For, if the barn is near the top, most of the hay and
grain must be drawn up the hill, while if it is near the foot these
c^ops can be drawn down ; but nearly all of the manure must
be carted up the grade. No one needs to be told that it is

FARM BUILDINGS. 51

hard work for a team to take a load either up or down a steep
hill, or that it is much more difficult cultivating a hill-side than
it is a level field. While it may sometimes seem best to use
these hills for cultivation, it is often better to convert them into
pastures, and find some more level place upon which to erect
farm buildings. In all cases, before _ finally deciding upon a
location, much careful thought should be given to the subject,
and the best possible place on the farm should be selected.

If the buildings were already located before the present owner
came into possession of the place, and he finds that they are not
where they should be, the question of moving them to better
sites should be considered. It is a somewhat expensive opera-
tion to move farm buildings, and the work should not be
attempted without good reasons exist for making the change.
But when the reasons are sufficient to justify the course, and
ihe means of paying for the work are at hand, there should be
no delay in effecting the change. We do not advocate such a
change merely on the ground of appearances, though, if a farmer
has plenty of money, it will not be an altogether useless expen-
diture, either of time or means, to arrange his buildings so that
they will present a beautiful appearance. The rich man can
afford to do considerable in the way of improving the looks of
his buildings and surroundings. But in the cases in which we
recommend the moving and re-arranging of their buildings b\'
farmers of moderate means, we make the suggestion for the sake
of securing happiness to the family, a greater degree of economy
of labor, the saving of the strength of men and teams, and the
prevention of the waste which otherwise will inevitably occur.

We would not advise the removal from one location without
a certainty of improv^ement in another place. Farmers have
been known to move from a site which did not give entire satis-
faction, and find, when they had got settled in the new place,
that it was not as good as the old. In avoiding a hill-side, some
farmers have built close by the bank of a stream. When the

52 1- ARMING I- OR PRCr/T.

water was not unusually high, all went well ; but when heavy
rains came, when the stream overflowed its banks, their cellars
were filled with water, and their gardens and door-yards covered
with sand and gravel, they found there were inconveniences in
the new location as well as the old. These locations upon the
banks of streams arc not always the most healthful, as there is
frequently a great deal of fog in the morning, which, with the
dampness of the evening air in such places, is injurious to people
whose lungs are weak or who suffer from neuralgia or rheuma-
tism. A location which is not exposed to the gales which so
often sweep over high hill-tops, and which is also free from dan-
ger by overflowing streams, is far more desirable than cither of
these can be made.

Relative Position. — Thus far we have spoken of the gen-
eral location of farm buildings. We ought also to consider their
location with reference to each other. The house should have
the most prominent position and the best location. With the
front view from the house no other buildings should interfere.
Neither should any of the buildings be so located as to cut off
a view of the road from either the kitchen or the sitting-room
windows. Very few farmers would think of putting the barn
directly between the house and the highway; but there are many
farms where some of the buildings obstruct the view from the
windows. There is no necessity for this, and, as long as it inter-
feres with the comfort and pleasure of the family, while answer-
ing no possible purpose for good, it should not be allowed in
the location of new buildings. Whether it will pay the farmer
to remove those which are already located will depend upon his
financial condition, and also upon the peculiar circumstances of
the case. It is a great deal easier and cheaper to locate new
buildings just right than it is to remove old ones and place them
where they ought to stand — a fact which is very evident and
which should be kept in mind by farmers when they are choos-
ing new locations.

FARM BUILDINGS. 53

laKing cai^ to give the house a prominent and, as far as the
highway is concerned, commanding position, the attention should
next be directed to a location for the barn. This should not be
so near the house as to permit the offensive odors of the stables
to trouble the family or allow the drainage of the yard to reach
the well. On the other hand, the barn should not be so far
from the house as to make a great deal of unnecessary travel in
going from one to the other. In bad weather, and especially
when there is a great deal of snow on the ground and paths have
to be shovelled, it makes a great deal of extra work to have the
barn a long distance from the house. Besides, the distance
furnishes an excuse for hired men, or boys, who may be dis-
posed to be negligent, for not attending to the cattle as they
ought.

The granary should be near the barn in order to save the
work of carrying the grain a longer distance than is necessary.
It makes a great difference with the work of carrying the corn
from the barn, where Northern farmers husk it, to the bins in
the granary, whether these buildings are within ten feet of each
other or are four rods apart. In the ordinary methods of farm-
ing at the North, there must be a great deal of passing from the
barn to the granary and back. If these buildings are far apart
there will, in the course of time, be a great amount of work and '
travel utterly wasted. This fact has been so evident to some
farmers that they have had a room for the granary finished off
in the barn, and thus kept the two under one roof To this plan
there are some objections, and it has not met with general favor.
It is not convenient, perhaps not possible, to give as free access,
of air and as thorough ventilation as is needed to secure the
rapid drying of the grain. Rats, too, are likely to be much more
troublesome if the grain is kept in the barn than they are when
it is stored in a separate building. This is because they almost
invariably congregate about a barn, and also because, when the
granary is a separate building, precautions against their inva-

54 FARMING J^OR PROFIT.

sions can be taken which are not possible when a room for the
purpose is done off in the barn.

The location of the wagon-shed also claims careful thought.
If it is correctly chosen, the farmer will be able to do much of
his work to better advantage than he otherwise could. Here, as
elsewhere, convenience is a matter of a great deal of importance.
The idea which some farmers seem to entertain, that it is unwise
to attempt to save labor, and that such an effort is a sure sign
of laziness on the part of the one who makes the triai, is utterly-
wrong. The farmer ought to try to save labor just as truly as
he ought to be careful in his expenditures of money. In reality
labor is equivalent to money. The money value of an article is
in a great measure determined by the amount of labor required
for its production. The farmer who is busy doing work which
is unnecessary, which adds nothing to the comfort of himself or
liis family, and nothing to the value of his farm or any of its
products, is really throwing his labor away. Work which
amounts to nothing had better remain undone, for it involves
a useless wear of the system, and a throwing away of vital
force which can never be recovered. The man who is too lazy
to work, when that work is sure of bringing its reward, is to be
condemned ; but the one who declines to perform labor which
can by no possibility benefit himself or any one else should be
accounted wise. Let it be constantly kept in mind that a waste
of labor is a waste of money, and let all the buildings on the
farm be so arranged that every step may be turned to some
account. Upon this principle the wagon-shed should be near
the barn and granary in order that when a team is wanted, and
when grain is to be taken to market or to mill, no time or travel
shall be wasted in getting the horse to the wagon and the
wagon to the granary.

To determine the best location for the hog-house will be more
difficult. There are advantages in having it near the barn, while
there are also certain disadvantages connected with such a loca-

riir;!!!';'!!EFil:!^--ivr>..ftTr'pii|;;ifi!iilliM

i:;!i'"''"''::i;:;':hi!iiiiiHiMBsia!:::: 'I'JHi'iiiliill

FARM BUILDINGS. 57

tion. If the hogs are to be allowed to run in the barn-yard, they
should have a house near the barn and close to the yard. But
if they are to have a yard of their own it will be better to have
it, in connection with their house, at a little distance from the
barn. We know that some farmers, even at the North, have no
separate building for their hogs, but keep them in a shed pro-
jecting from the barn on the side in which the stables of the
cows are placed. This is open to very grave objections. The
same is true of the method, adopted by many farmers at the
South and West, of allowing hogs to roam at will in the woods
and in uncultivated fields. If properly managed, the hogs can
be made very profitable, and they ought to have a house and
yard of their own, and to be treated like useful and valuable
animals. We prefer to have the house for the hogs at a little
distance from the barn, and to have the hen-house quite near the
pne for the hogs. The only remaining building, on a small farm,
is the wood-shed, which should be joined to the house so that
wood can be obtained without going out of doors. In the
accompanying cut we present a ground-plan for the location
of farm buildings.

Size of Buildings. — Unlike the tenement buildings in our
large cities, there is among the country farm buildings but little
uniformity of either size or appearance. It is best to have some
variety in the appearance of farm buildings, and that their size,
should vary with the requirements of the owner. But these
matters should not be left to caprice or chance, but should be
governed by some law which will insure the attainment of the
object desired. Before putting up a new, or remodelling an old
building, the owner should carefully consider the purpose for
which he wants the building, and how much room he really
needs. For, building by guess, or chance, is very expensive
work, and will almost certainly fail to give satisfaction. If
larger buildings are erected than are really needed, the extra
•cost for construction and repairs will be heavy and will be

58 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

utterly wasted. But if the buildings are too small, they will
prove unsatisfactory and unprofitable.

Many years ago there was a tendency among New England
farmers to build their houses extremely large. Many a house
for a small family was built nearly, or quite, forty feet square,
and with timbers heavy enough for the strongest barn. Though
this fashion has departed, there still seems to be a tendency to
make the houses altogether too large, and the extra size not
only costs for building and repairs, but the expense of furnishing
is considerable, and the work of keeping the interior clean and
bright is a heavy task for the almost invariably overworked
housewife to perform. Besides, a large, overgrown house is not
as pretty as a cosy cottage, and its effect upon the home-life of
its inmates will be depressing rather than cheering. The pas-
sion for large rooms, in which some of our ancestors indulged,
is not an economical one to gratify. We do not approve of low
rooms, but there is no necessity for having the rooms in an
ordinary farm-house extremely large. We have bought carpets
for rooms requiring thirty yards and found this, with the other
extra cost of furnishing, quite an expense. The rooms might
just as well have been of a size requiring only twenty yards
of carpeting, and the cost of furnishing them would thus have
been reduced one-third, as well as the labor of cleaning and the
cost of keeping them painted. There should be rooms enough
in a house, but they should not be too large.

In some sections the New England style of putting up large
buildings has not prevailed. Houses have been made very
small, with but very few rooms, and barns have been smaller
.still, or else wholly wanting. This extreme is worse than the
other. It involves constant inconvenience, and insures a con-
tinual loss of both happiness and money. There is no necessity
for going very far toward either extreme. By. careful thought,
and a little study, concerning what is wanted, the extremes may
,be avoided. In building a barn, however, some allowance should

FAIiM BUILDINGS. 59

be made for a possible increase of crops, and some more room
may be safely provided than is absolutely needed at the time of
building. A farm ought to become more productive each year
that it is cultivated. Too much allowance should not be made, as
it is to be hoped, and expected, that as the products of the farm
increase in quantity and value, the ability of the owner to make
additions and improvements will also become greater. But
room enough should always be secured. It involves a great
loss to keep hay or grain out of doors. Other crops are often
seriously injured by undue exposure to the elements. Unless he
has determined to sell his farm, the man who finds his barn
room insufficient for the proper storing of his crops should make
haste to either enlarge the old or else put up a new building.
If the present buildings are strong, and in good repair, it will
probably be better to enlarge them than it will to either pull
them down and build larger ones, or to build other small ones
to be used in addition to the old ones. A tendency toward
many small buildings upon a farm is not to be encouraged. To
obtain a certain amount of room in one large barn costs much less
than it does to obtain the same amount in three different struc-
tures. Not only is the first cost of the three small buildings
much larger, but the expense for repairs is very much greater.
A still stronger objection than either of these may be found in
the fact that the room in small buildings cannot be used to as
good advantage as it can in larger ones, and that in the use of
several small ones convenience must very often be sacrificed.
We would much rather add twenty feet in length to a good barn
already built than to put up a new one twenty feet square. A
few large buildings are not only better, but they also present a
more attractive appearance than a whole cluster of small ones.
The barn is not the only building which farmers sometimes
have altogether too small. On many farms the granary is a
httle " tucked-up " building not more than half as large as it
ought to be. There are not bins enough to hold the grain, be-

60 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

cause there is not room enough in which the bins can be made.
When the corn is shelled the work is invariably done at a dis-
advantage, because there is so little room. The wagon-shed,
too, is one of the buildings which farmers seem to have a chronic
desire to make a great deal too small. We once helped build a
wagon-shed, which we used some ten years, and which we found,
after it was all finished, was at least two feet too small each way.
It was too short, and so narrow that it was almost impossible to
get out, after running a wagon in, without getting the clothes
dusty or muddy. There was room enough in which the wagons
could stand, but not room enough for a man to go between them
without a great deal of inconvenience. A multitude of other
sheds have been built in like manner, and, though good enough
other ways, are proving a constant cause of vexation and regret
because they are so small. As far as our observation has gone,
the hog-house, where there is one, is usually of better size than
any other of the out-buildings. Some farmers, of course, have
not given room enough to their swine, but a great many have
furnished good-sized houses, and by the greater convenience of
caring for them, and the better thrift of the animals, they are
constantly obtaining their reward. The poultry-house, so often
omitted altogether, is frequently built too small. This is not
done by design, but because a great many farmers fail to realize
how much room the hens require. These little animals will not
bear confinement well, and the man who attempts to keep them
in too close quarters will not be likely to succeed as well as he
hopes or expects. Diseases of various kinds will be vcr}- likely
to thin out his flock by carr}'ing off his most valuable specimens.
If there is any one thing which experience with hens has fairly
demonstrated, it is that they must have room or they cannot be
made to thrive.

Height of Buildings. — The number of square feet of ground
surface which a building covers is not the whole test of its
capacity or its usefulness. It makes a great difference with

FARM BUILDINGS. gj

both of these essentials, whether the building is high or low.
That a high building will cost more than a low one of equal size
in other directions is very true. But it should be remembered
that room under cover is one of the great objects for which a
building is erected, and that a great deal of extra room can be
secured by merely increasing the height of the structure. Take
a barn forty feet long and thirty feet wide, with posts fourteen
feet in length. Aside from the gables, this barn will contain
sixteen thousand and eight hundred feet. With the same size
on the ground and the use of posts sixteen feet long, the barn
will have a capacity of nineteen thousand and two hundred feet;
thus by the addition of two feet in height adding one-seventii
to its size. The first cost of this increase in capacity will be
very small, and the extra expense for repairs will be next to
nothing. It will cost no more to keep the roof in repair,
and but little more to keep its sides covered. In this way a
large amount of room is secured at a very trifling cost. A
wagon-shed with posts eight feet long will do very well for this
one purpose, but it will be good for nothing else. If the posts
are thirteen feet long, quite a room can be had over the wagons.
This will be sure to be convenient for the storage of rowen,
beans, corn-fodder, or other farm crops. In a building thirty
feet by twenty, there would be room on the ground for a wagon-
shed, while in the loft from four to six tons of hay could be
easily stored. A shed for open wagons will not need to be
more than seven feet in height from the floor, but the part
designed for top carriages should not be less than eight feet
between the floors.

The granary should also be built higher than many such
buildings have been made. Here there is not as large a gain of
room as in the other buildings which have been named, because
bins for wheat, oats, and similar grains, should not be made
very high. This, partly on account of the inconvenience of
filling and emptying them, and in the case of wheat and shelled

(J2 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

corn, partly because of the strong pressure which a \er}' large
quantity' would exert upon the sides of the bin. The crib for
containing ears of corn is the only one which can well be carried
higher than the usual level. By the use of a good step-
ladder this can be conveniently filled, and though the room in
a high granar}' docs not seem to be as well utilized as it is in a
low one, it is still a question whether what is wanted in such a
building cannot be secured at a less cost by increasing the
height than it can by .enlarging the ground surface. The upper
part of the room, around the sides occupied by the wheat and
oat bins, might be used for the storage of traced seed-corn, and
shelves might be arranged which would furnish a place for
keeping many little articles which are needed on a farm in
connection with the growing, har\'esting, and cleaning of grain.

If these buildings are to be used for no other purposes than are
indicated by their names, the hog-house and hen-house need
not be built verj- high ; but in all cases there should be abundant
room for a tall man to stand upright with his hat on, in the
lowest part of the building. Vv'e have seen many buildings for
these purposes, in which even a short man could not stand erect.
With one of them we have had a practical experience, the results
of which have been anything but satisfactory.

Adaptation. — A very important point to be considered in
either building new, or remodelling structures which have already
been erected, is adaptation to the purposes for which they are
designed. A barn should be so constructed as to answer all the
purposes for which the owner wants a barn. A hog-house should
be built for thi one special purpose. The combination buildings,
which are made to answer for hogs or horses, hens or sheep,
according as the owner is supplied with the various kinds of
stock, are not desirable. They are like some patent pocket-
knives, designed to answer many purposes, but answering none
of them well. These buildings usually cost as much to put up
and keep in repair as good ones would, while in practical use

FARM BUILDINGS. 63

they prove ver>' unsatisfactory. Upon this subject some curious
theories have been suggested. A few years ago a man recom-
mended a style of barn, which he proposed to build, anu which
he was confident would give satisfaction. This barn was to be
built of stone, was to be one hundred feet square, and have a
flat roof It was to be merely a covered shell, into which the
owner could drive through large doors, and then go where he
pleased. Hay was to be thrown off wherever he took a fancy,
some years in one place and others in another. He thought he
could "clap up a horse-stall" when and where he chose, and
change the location of the stalls for cattle when and as he
pleased. A long description of this plan appeared in one of the
leading papers. Merely in the point of a. theory it was a
curious production, but it did not possess the slightest practical
value. The first cost of such a building would exceed the value
of a good farm, and after it was built it would have no sort of
adaptation to the wants of a farmer, or any one else. In this
latter point, however, it differed but little from some barns which
have been erected since this theorist's day. For many farmers
have applied to architects, or consulted books for plans, and
selected something which looked nicely, or was highly recom-
mended, who have found,. when it was too late to remedy the
mistake, that their fine-looking buildings were not adapted to
their circumstances and wants.

Not that architects and plans are useless. On the contrary
they'are great helps. But there should also be a clear idea in
the mind of the owner as to just what he wants, and just what
his business requires. Of these points no one can judge as
well as himself He needs the architect or the plan for an aid,
not for a pattern to be strictly followed. The fact that a certain
style of barn has just suited one farmer, gives no reason to
suppose that it will be perfectly satisfactory to another who
lives in a different town, and whose style of farming may be
altogether different. In order to secure a building which will

64 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

be satisfactory', the size and style should be adapted to the ,
special needs of the owner. The kind and amount of business
which is to be carried on should be kept constantly in view,, and
instead of doing just as his neighbors have done, the owner
should put up a structure suited to his individual needs. A
granary which is suitable for a large farm at the West would
be wholly out of proportion for a small farm in New England.
It would not be adapted to the Eastern farm, either in size, or
shape, or interior arrangement. A plan which would do very
well for a farmer in one of these sections would be of no benefit
to one living elsewhere. The New England man needs
buildings adapted to the style of farming adopted in that
section, while the farmers West and South should arrange their
buildings so that they will be adapted as perfectly as possible to
the methods in use in their respective sections of the country.

Cost of Buildin'gs. — There are few points upon which the
judgment of the average farmer is more at fault than in esti-
mating the cost of erecting new buildings, or repairing and
remodeling those which are old. This fact does not indicate
any special want of penetration on the part of farmers, for the
same charge can be justly brought against men engaged in many
other occupations. Even the figures- of the architect himself
are quite often at fault, and his estimate proves but little nearer
right than the farmer's guess. Almost every one knows that the
cost of either building new or repairing the old usually greatly
exceeds the estimates of the owner and the architect. It has
been said to be a good rule to carefully estimate the cost of
material and labor, together with all the items of expense which
can be thought of, and then to the sum total of these add from
one-third to one-half of the whole. And though the figures of
the architect often seem a great deal too high, it seldom happens
that they cover the cost. Various causes operate to bring about
this result. It often happens that changes are made in the plan.
These, though small in themselves, in the aggregate consid-

FARM BUILDINGS. 05

erably increase the expense. Lumber is not always bought to
the best advantage. Then, too, many workmen are not as
careful as they should be, and by their negligence considerable
waste of material is effected. The cost of building or remod-
eling depends far more upon the honor and skill of the work-
men than many employers imagine. Then, too, the degree of
ornamentation of a building has a great influence upon the cost.
Several hundred dollars can be used upon a house in this
manner, and not make a great deal of display either. Upon
some houses, which have been erected by farmers for their own
use, the cost of the ornamental features bears a large proportion
to the expense for what was really necessary for the construction
of plain but comfortable structures. As an almost invariable
rule ornamental work, whether outside or inside, if it is really
nice, will be quite expensive. Compared with the plain but
tasteful work, which seems specially appropriate to a farmer's
home, it is very costly. An excessive amount of ornament is
not only terribly expensive, but is also wholly out of place
upon a farm-house. Very few farmers have the means which
they can safely use for the purpose of making their houses as
elegant as those of their city neighbors. Good, substantial'
work is v/hat the farmer needs. This will cost something, for
all good work is somewhat expensive. There can be no
excellence in any department of industry without some cost.
But if the plan is carefully made, good materials secured, and
good men are employed to do the work, suitable farm buildings
can be erected, and the cost kept within the means of the
prosperous farmer. In some sections it costs as much again to
erect buildings as it does in others, because lumber, nails,
bricks, and other materials have to be transported long
distances, and paid for at the high rates which scarce commodi-
ties always command. Therefore no specific sum can safely be
stated as the cost of a certain style of building. An estimate
may be too high for one section^ and too low for another. But

66 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

an estimate should be made by the proposed builder, and be
carefully examined by the one who is to pay the bills. In case
it seems unreasonably high, another contractor should be con-
sulted, and the figures of the two compared. In his excellent
work on " Country Homes," Mr. Todd assures his readers that
professional builders aim to keep people very much in the dark
concerning the real cost of all kinds of edifices, and that it is
customary with the profession to place the estimate for a house
at from one to four thousand dollars higher than it should be.
And there is a great deal of force in his suggestion that an inex-
perienced man, who is about having a building erected, should
carefully examine every item for which the contractor estimates,
and make sure that the articles are all needed, and in the quan-
tities indicated, or else require him to reduce the price demanded
for the work.

The quality of the material which is used will also have much
to do in determining the cost of buildings. If everj'thing about
the building is to be of the finest quality, the cost must be
greatly in excess of what it would be if lower grades of material
were used. While it is the very poorest style of economy to
use poor lumber for either outside or inside work on a house, or
for many parts of other buildings, it is still true that a great deal
of lumber which is not strictly first, or even second, class can be
worked in where it will answer every practical purpose as well
as the very best. All parts exposed to the weather, and the in-
side of rooms in a house, should be covered with well-seasoned
material of good quality. Where low-priced lumber will last
just as long, and answer every practical purpose just as well, it
should certainly be used. Where it will not prove durable and
useful it should just as certainly be rejected. When farmers get
out their own lumber, they are very apt to be in too much
hurry to allow it to get fairly seasoned. But in using it green
they make a great mistake, and one which they will always
regret. When the materials are to be purchased, it will pay to

FARM BUILDINGS. gY

employ an honest and careful joiner to make the selection and
do, or assist in, the buying. Some farmers attempt to save
themselves both time and trouble by employing some one to
take the whole charge of the plan and construction. Others
try to secure the performance of the work in an honest manner
by employing men by the day, and paying them for all the time
spent upon the building. If all the parties are strictly honest,
either way will give satisfaction to all concerned. But if either
party is disposed to overreach, there will be plenty of opportuni-
ties in either method. The contractor can slight his work
enough to make several hundred dollars difference for himself
in the cost of putting up a house. He can make slight changes
in the plan, use poor material, or in other ways avoid expense
and put money into his own pocket. The man who is hired by
the day can work slowly when his employer is away, or can do
a great deal of work which is wholly unnecessary, and charge
full rates for its performance. On the other hand, the man who
hires the work done can hinder and worry the workmen so that
they will not be able to do as well as they hope and desire.
Such conduct, upon either side, is worthy of unsparing condem-
nation. The man who is about to build should take pains to
employ none but honest workmen who will not need watching,
and should treat them precisely as he would want to be treated
in an exchange of positions.

Before commencincr the erection of new building's, or the re-
modeling of old ones, the farmer should deliberately and care-
fully count the cost. He should make his estimates not only
of the dollars and cents involved, but should consider the.
subject on a broader basis, including the probable influence
which the proposed improvement will exert upon his future
prosperity as a farmer. He should carefully consider whether
he can safely withdraw from his active business the amount of
capital which his building project will require. Otherwise he

will be very likely to make a ruinous mistake. There is danger
5

68 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

of getting too much money invested in buildings. Upon this rock
many a farmer has been wrecked. When men go beyond their
means in building, they place themselves at the mercy of the
first financial storm, and become liable to lose not only their
opportunities for obtaining wealth in the future, but also a large
part of their past accumulations. It is a great deal better, as
well as safer, for a farmer to live in an old but comfortable house,
and be free from debt, than it is to have a fine, new house with
a heavy mortgage on the farm. A short road to financial ruin
has often been entered when the farmer put up a much more
expensive house or barn than he could afibrd. It should never
be forgotten that money which is invested in a house or barn, for
ordinary farm purposes, is wholly unproductive. If the amount
invested does not exceed the actual necessities of the case the
money is not wasted. If it does not bear too high a proportion
to the productive capacity of the farm it is not unwisely used.
For buildings are necessary as a protection for life and property.
They confer happiness, preserve health, and save the farm crops
from waste, and often from total loss. But their various benefits
may be secured without the use of an excessively large amount
-of money. The buildings should be neat and nice, but they
should also be plain and substantial. A really nice houye is
.not a gaudy one, and need not be very costly. The surround-
ings can be made pleasant, and a plain house will then give a
feeling of contentment which a highly ornamented one will fail •
to supply. An excess of ornament is wholly out of place on a
farm-house. The grounds may be made ornamental and be in
-good taste, but a farm-house modeled after a hotel, or a summer
boarding-house, is not at all appropriate. And the income from
but very few farms will justify the erection of expensive build-
ings. Farmers often over-estimate their financial ability, and
find, when it is too late, that they have drawn too heavily upon
their capital, and crippled their resources by putting up too
• costly houses. If a man has money in the bank, or drawing

FARM BUILDINGS. gg

interest elsewhere, and uses this in building a house or barn, he
thereby not only loses all the interest from the money thus
invested but he also puts it where, even in case of an emergency,
he cannot use it. The only way in which he can realize any-
thing froPxi it is to sell his farm, and experience has proved that
farms with nearly new buildings will command but little higher
prices than those on which the buildings are old. As far as
getting any cash return from it while he lives on the farm, the
money is just as securely locked up as it would be if it were in
a vault which could only be opened by one key, and that key
were lost where it never could be found. If the farm is sold in
order to obtain the money, it is highly probable that only a very
small proportion of it will ever be received. If a farmer is
willing to take the principal and interest of his money in com-
fort he can put it into buildings, but it will not be wise for him
to invest it in this way with a design of obtaining any cash
return.

But the majority of farmers who have a strong desire to put
up new buildings have little or no ready money, and will be
obliged to borrow of others if they carry out their cherished
plans. Such men ought to " make haste slowly." With them
the case is not nearly as favorable as it is with those who have
money. It may be easy enough for them to borrow what money
they need, but it will be difficult for them to pay it. In putting
borrowed money into buildings they assume a heavy burden.
They know that many men have borrowed money with which
to buy land, and that they have not only kept up the interest
but have also paid the principal. From this they infer that they
can borrow money with which to put up buildings and soon get
out of debt. This is a great mistake. There is a vast difference
between buying land for cultivation and investing money in farm
buildings. Land is productive property and can be made to
furnish the means of paying for itself. Year by year it may be
made to not only return money enough to pay the interest but

70 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

considerable more, and, in time, a skilful manager may be able
to pay for it wholly from the receipts from the sale of articles
grown thereon. But money which is invested in a house or
barn not only returns no interest and makes no payment on the
principal, but is a constant source of expense. Interest must be
paid, and the money wifh which to pay it must come from the
farm. It is neither wise nor safe to withdraw too much capital
from the land where it is productive and invest it in buildings
which are a constant source of expense. The wise farmer will
have plain buildings, and invest the remainder of his capital, if
any, in developing the productive powers of the soil.

Rep.airs. — Farm buildings are subject to the natural law that
*' all things hasten to decay." Consequently, frequent repairs
become a matter of necessity for securing their preservation.
There are various reasons why these repairs should be made
promptly and well. In order that the farm may present a fine
appearance the buildings should be constantly kept in repair.
The expense of repairs will also be greatly reduced if they are
made promptly and thoroughly. Besides, the buildings will be
kept in a much better state of preser\-ation if repairs are made as
soon as their want becomes apparent than will be possible if they
are long delayed. Ever)' one knows that the longer a ragged
coat is worn without being mended the greater the amount of
work, and the larger the quantity of material, which will be
required to put it in good order. It is also known that if repairs
are delayed too long the coat will become so badly damaged
that it will not be worth mending. The very same principles
apply with almost equal force to the repairing of farm buildings.
If a house needs painting, the sooner the work is commenced
the less will be the cost. If too long neglected, the surface be-
comes so rough and weather-beaten that it cannot be painted
well, and it will be very difficult to paint it at all. If a roof is
shingled as soon as the need of shingling becomes apparent, the
building will not be injured; but if the old roof is left year after

FARM BUILDINGS. yj

year, continually growing worse, there is danger that the whole
frame will be weakened and decayed by exposure to the weather,
and that all parts of the building will become involved in one
common ruin. Nothing is to be gained by neglecting necessary
repairs, but a great deal will inevitably be lost. Not only should
repairs be made promptly, but they should be attended to in a
thorough manner. If a roof needs shingling, let it be shingled
well. If a house needs painting, let it be well painted. While
doing the work, it will cost but little more to do it well than it
will to slight it, but good work will last as long again as that
which is poor and give much better satisfaction. "

Painting Farm Buildings. — Probably the great majority of
farmers paint their houses and neglect to paint their barns.
Many in all, but still a very small proportion of the whole num-
ber, paint both house and barn, a very few paint all of their
buildings, while a great many leave all their buildings unpainted.
The design of painting is two-fold. It tends to preserve the
timber to which the paint is applied, and it adds to the beauty
of the buildings which it covers. In some cases the motive for
painting is the design and desire to make the buildings present
a finer appearance, in others the paint is applied merely as a
preservative, while many farmers have in mind both these advan-
tages which painting is supposed to secure. That a building
which is well painted looks much better than it otherwise would
cannot be denied. It is also true that paint will tend to preserve
the woodwork to which it is applied. If the farmer is able to
do it he should keep his house painted merely for the sake of
appearances. It will give a great deal of satisfaction to have a
clean and nicely painted house. The wife and children will
rejoice in the freshness and beauty which paint will insure.
Painted buildings indicate a certain degree of refinement and
prosperity, and the man who can easily afford it should not fail
to keep his house painted. But the farmer of small means, who
is often brought face to face with the question, " Will it pay,"

72 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

may hesitate before deciding to paint his buildings. In his case
the matter of appearances must be put over to a brighter day,
and his decision must be made on the sole ground of economy.
If painting the house will make its covering last enough longci
to pay the cash outlay, and the interest thereon, it should by alV
means be performed. If it will not pay, if the cost of painting
will exceed the cost of re-covering the house, when such a
course becomes necessary, it should not be attempted. Whether
it will pay or not depends upon the cost of lumber and labor as
compared with that of paint. In some sections, painting would
prove quite profitable, while in others it would not pay. It will
now be more generally a source of profit than it would a few
years ago. For, within a comparatively short time, what are
called "mixed paints" have been put upon the market and come
into very general use. Some of these brands of paint are both
cheap and good. Though many professional painters opposed
their introduction, they have already proved quite popular. By
using these paints, the farmer who has a little skill with tools
can readily do his own painting. Thus the cash oi:tl:-.y for
painting a building is greatly reduced. Before these paints were
invented, the farmer usually hired a painter to do all the work
in the painting line which he had performed. It was a sort of
necessity for him to do this. He could not mix paints well
himself, and painters did not wish to mix them for him. They
preferred to furnish and mix the materials, and then put them
on. Now the farmer can measure the surface of the building
which he wishes to paint, find just about how much will be
needed to cover it, buy just that quantity of paint, of any color
or shade desired, which is all ready to put on, and can apply it
himself. A very few dollars' worth of paint will give two coats,
of suitable thickness, for an ordinary house, and where lumber
is at all expensive, it will be a matter of economy to apply the
paint for the sake of preserving the covering of the house.
We do not say that the mixed paints are better than the old«

FARM BUILDINGS. 73

fashioned white lead. Some of them we know are not as good.
Other br.inds have worn well and given perfect satisfaction.
Much of the white lead is badly adulterated, and paint made by
its use is very poor. There seems to be as much certainty of
securing a good article by getting a well-known brand of mixed
paint as there is in buying lead and oil, and there is the great
advanLage of having it in a good condition to use whenever it is
wanted. One fact which should not be lost sight of in this
connection is, that while the farmer can paint hie house he can
not clap-board it, and this must be taken into the account, in
. estimating the relative expense of painting or re-covering. If he
paints, the cash outlay is merely for the material and a brush
with which to apply it ; but if he desires to put on a new cover-
ing when the old is decayed, he must not only pay for the
lumber, but a workman must be employed to put it on. As the
cost of boarding a barn is much less than that of a house, upon
which clap-boards are generally used, painting merely for the
sake of preservation will not be as much of an object. But in
many places, where lumber is expensive, it will be profitable.
The same j'ule applies to the other buildings.

Ability to paint well must be obtained by practical effort far
more than by reading. A few general directions can be given,
but a certain amount of practice will be needed to make any
one a rapid and skilful painter. Still a few suggestions may
prove useful. The surface to be painted should be clean and
smooth. If it has become soiled, it should be washed and
allowed to dry ; while if it is rough, it should be smoothed with
sand-paper, or some more effective material. Where it is very
rough, the surface may be rubbed with pumice-stone. For
ordinary outside work, there will probably be but little need of
this labor, but it is often required for inside painting, which is
designed to have a nice finish. The outside of a house which
has been long neglected frequently fails to hold the paint well,
and it rapidly scales off. This is caused by a separation of the

74 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

oil and lead, of which the paint is composed. The oil penetrates
the wood and the load falls off. This can be prevented by
applying one or two coats of cheap oil before the paint is put
on. It is also claimed that some of the mixed paints are so
made that they are not open to this objection. The work
should be done in good weather, cither in the spring or fall,
when it is neither very hot nor very cold. A good brush is also
one of the necessary articles, and a good, strong ladder, a clean
tin-pail, and a hook by w'hich it can be suspended from one of
the rungs, should be secured. Too much paint should not be
put on at a time, as it is no advantage to the building and makes
the work much harder. It is not well to attempt to reach too
far from the ladder, and special pains should be taken to brush
over the laps, where the "works meet," smoothly, so that the
building will present a uniform appearance. Neglect of this
precaution is the cause of a large part of the poor painting
done by farmers and mechanics, who have had but little
experience in using the brush.

The color of farm buildings is a subject worthy of at least
passing notice. Several years ago, that accomplished scholar
and traveller, Mr. Bayard Taylor, called attention to the fact
that a v^ry large proportion of the houses in the country which
were painted at all were white, and he endeavored, in various
newspaper articles, to influence owners to use colors which
would give a greater variety of appearance, and do away with
the unpleasant ghre of white buildings in sunny days. Whether
as the result of his efforts we cannot .say, but it is a fact that
since that time the softer tints have come into very frequent use
for outside work upon houses. As far as protection to the
buildings is concerned, this change has involved no loss, while
the appearance of the villages and hamlets to which this inno-
vation has spread has been greatly improved. It is not in the
best taste to have all of the houses in a village painted any one
color, but, if they were all to be alike, white would not be the
best complexion which could be selected.

FARM BUILDINGS. 75

In the winter, white does not furnish a sufficient contrast with
the covering of the ground in the Northern States, while in the
bright sunhght of a midsummer day the glare of an unsubdued
white is both painful to the eyes and displeasing to the taste.
In the choice of colors and shades there is an opportunity for
the display of considerable skill and a cultivated taste. The body
of the house can be painted one color, and the cornices, corner-
boards, and casings another shade, thus producing a very fine
effect and involving little or no additional expense. The house
may be painted one color, the barn another, while still different
colors or shades are used on the other buildings. If care is
taken to select colors which harmonize, the effect of these many
colors and shades will be highly satisfactory. As variety of
color will add much to the beauty of the work without materi-
ally increasing either the labor or expense of painting, it seems
very desirable that farmers who paint their buildings should
make a careful selection, and have the work done in a manner
which will give a beautiful appearance as well as furnish a pro-
tection against the destructive influences of the weather.

Here some practical man may say, all this is very good as far as
appearances go ; but how can it be made profitable ? If painting
is to be done in order to make a building last longer, one kind
of paint is just as good as two or three sorts, while, if it is not
an object to paint merely to preserve the timber, all the money
and labor are thrown away. To this it may be replied that we
have not advocated extra expense merely for appearance, except
when the parties were abundantly able to meet it ; that the cost
of painting with two or three different colors is but very little m
excess of that of using plain paint, and also that, where men are
able to do it, money is not thrown away which is used to im-
prove and beautify the appearance of their homes. A farmer
who desires to keep his boys with him on the old homestead
will be a great deal more likely to succeed if he keeps the build-
ings nicely painted and his surroundings pleasant, than he will

76 FARMING FOR FROFIT.

if he neglects these things and allows the house to become
brown and weather-beaten. Boys like pleasant surroundings,
and they hav,e an idea that somewhere in the world such sur
roundings can be obtained. If they do not find things pleasing
at home, they are very likely to go elsewhere. That they often
make a great mistake in doing this is true, but this does not at
all alter the fact that boys do, and will, leave surroundings which
are unnecessarily unpleasant. If it is an object to keep them or
the farm, it may pay to do some things which they desire. The
expense involved in " fixing up " things so that a boy of health-
ful tastes will be willing to stay on the farm, will be money well
invested. The father will never have cause to regret it, and it
may be the making of the son. The sooner farmers who have
the means for doing it become aware of the fact that a little
money laid out in improving the appearance of the home and
farm is not only not w-asted, but is well invested, the better it
will be for them and for their descendants.

The House. — The general arrangement of a farm-house
should be determined by the special wants of the owner and his
family. Much will depend upon the amount of money which is
to be invested. The special line of farming which is to be pur-
sued must be considered. The section of country, distance from
a village, and length of time which can be given to its construc-
tion, will, together with many other things, exert a modifying
influence. Fig. 2 represents a very pretty, and not expensive,
house for a farmer. Fig. 3 shows the arrangement of rooms on
the ground-floor — an arrangement which can be readily varied
to suit the special wants of the family. Fig. 4 shows a plain and
cheap, but also neat and convenient, cottage.

We do not present elaborate plans, for we do not consider
them of special value to the farmer. He should not be per-
suaded to build after a certain model, because an architect has
pronounced it good. The owner should be guided more by his
own wants than by \\\z general plans which other men have

FARM BUILDINGS. 77

designed. Many a new house is unsatisfactory because the
owner did not insist upon modifying the plan of the architect
so that it would suit his own tastes and needs. Wc once
noticed some peculiarity in the arrangement of a barn, and
remarked to the owner that such a plan was not common in our
section. He replied that he had the barn arranged for his own
special convenience. The carpenter who built it did not like
his suggestions, and wanted to follow the ordinary models, buf

piG_ 2. — FARM-HOUSE.

the owner told him that for many years he had worked for other
men and worked as they wanted he should, and now that he
was able to gratify his own taste somewhat, he was determmed
to have his barn made just as he wanted it. He carried Im
point, and the barn suited him a great deal better than .t would
if he had allowed the carpenter to go on without regard to h,s
special tastes and wants. In putting up liouses. and other
buildings, this example should be followed. Of course, m
certain departments of the work, the ideas of the farmer should

78

FARMING FOR PROFIT.

not be opposed to those of the skilled mechanic. In regard
to the fitness of certain kinds of timber for certain uses, the
strength of materials, and many things of like nature, the
education and experience of the practical buildCr should be
regarded. But when such questions as the number of the
rooms, the location of the doors, and the size of the windows,
are debated, the farmer should insist upon his right to decide.
If his house does not look just like those belonging to his
neighbors, it may suit him just as well as though it were an

PARLOR
17 X 13

PORCH 1
9X9

,

FIG. 3. — PLAN OF GROUND-FLOOR.

exact copy. Not only should he think about the plan himself,
but the tastes of his wife and children should be consulted,
and should be gratified, if possible. One of the best ways to
secure a house which will be satisfactory is not only to obtain
a plan, and make any changes which seem to be required by
the special needs of the one who is to build, but also to visit the
houses of some of the neighbors and friends who have recently
built. By seeing a house that is already built, a much better idea
of its convenience and adaptation can be secured than will be

FARM BUILDINGS.

79

possible by merely seeing a plan of the structure on paper.
Besides, practical use is the great test of houses, and by inquiry
it can be ascertained whether certain styles have proved
desirable. Thus a great expense, and much trouble and
disappointment may be saved. It is Well for people to learn
both from the successes and the failures of others. For, though
personal experience is a very good teacher in some respects, the
expense of obtaining knowledge by its aid is greater than the
majority of people can really afford to incur. When the past
experience of others can be made to answer just as well as per-
sonal trial, there can be no reasonable excuse for insisting upon
testing the matter again. The man who wants to build a house
will do well to examine several houses which appear to be the
best adapted to the purposes which he wishes to serve. If a
barn is to be erected, the man who is to build should not only
obtain a plan, but should examine barns which have been put
up by his acquaintances. The same rule applies to the con-
struction of other buildings. Excellencies and defects both
show much more distinctly in a building than they do in a
plan and, for this reason, buildings should be examined as well
as plans. Neither should be blindly followed, but both should

be used as aids.

Some of the requirements of a good farm-house should be
briefly considered. They can nearly all be summed up in the two
words, Neatness and Comfort. The house should look nicely,
because it is to be the home of the fal-mer and his family. A
neat and pretty house will have a certain degree of influence
upon its inmates. It is better than a shabby one, though a
shabby one if it is paid for is a great deal better than no home,
and is more desirable than a nice house which has brought
financial ruin to its owner. But comfort is usually considered
the main thing to be secured by those who are not specially
anxious to keep up appearances. Yet, strange as it may seem,
thoucrh the great idea of obtaining a house is to enable a man

80

FARMING FOR PROFIT.

to secure a comfortable home for himself and his family, when
he comes to build, the average man neglects to secure the com-
fort which he might just as well, and without extra cost, obtain.
If any one doubts this let him examine the rooms in an average
house, and he will find ample confirmation of the truth of the

FIG. 4. — COTTAGE.

statement. If comfort had been one of the principal things in
the mind of the builder, the rooms would have been very differ-
ently arranged. Instead of having the kitchen and pantry some
ten or fifteen feet apart, they would have been adjacent rooms,
and both the wood-house and the cellar-stairs would have been

FARM BUILDINGS. g^

close to the kitchen. We know of a house in which the pantry is
some six feet and the cellar-door twelve or fifteen feet from the
side of the kitchen nearest to them. The unnecessary distance
travelled and labor performed by the housewife under such an
arrangement is immense. As one of our common-sense archi-
tects, Emory A. Ellsworth, Esq., has well said : " Need we
wonder, when we consider the many useless, weary steps that
must be taken, and the stock of vital strength that is continually
wasted in the performance of the household duties, that so many
ambitious farmers' wives are broken down in health and spirits at
thirty-five, and must then remain for the rest of life the suffering
victims of thoughtless, careless, interior household arrange-
ment." We wish these words could be indelibly stamped upon
the mind of every man who has charge of the arrangement of
rooms in farm-houses, and that every man who either builds a
new, or remodels an old, house would strive to make the in-
terior as convenient as possible for the wife and daughters who
are obliged to do the work. Life is too short to waste in use-
less and aimless pursuits, and the burdens which rest upon
the farmer's wife are too heavy to justify any unnecessary in-
crease.

In the Northern and Western States warmth is one of the
prominent requirements of a comfortable house. In the sum-
mer, and for a few weeks previous to its coming, and succeeding
its departure, this is not of great importance, but for about one-
half of the year it is absolutely indispensable to the highest
degree of comfort, as well as necessary in order to promote the
health of the inmates. A cold house is not a comfortable
house in which to live, and it is almost impossible to make it
pleasant during the cold season. Upon such houses radical
repairs are badly needed. For the cold from which the inmates
of these houses suffer cannot be kept out, or sufficiently sub-
dued, by fires, and it proves not merely a great discomfort but
also a positive injury. The " hard winters " of New England

82 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

would lose much of their severity to a great multitude of
farmers' wives and children if they could have really warm
houses in which to live. No one who has never lived in one of
the old and loosely boarded houses which are occasionally seen
in country places, has any idea of the degree of suffering which
is inflicted upon the inmates by the cold. That there is such a
thing as having a house too close and warm we admit, but we
think that very {q.\v such houses can be found in the possession
of farmers.

So far as our observation extends, farm-houses go very far
toward the other extreme. Cold air blows upon the inmates
through cracks and crevices, causing many colds and laying the
foundation, in a great many cases, of serious diseases. There is
not only discomfort involved, but, if special care is not taken, it
is absolutely dangerous for a person with weak lungs, or with a
strong tendency toward pulmonary complaints, to live in such
a house. When a house is built it should be made so well that
even when it becomes old the winds will not penetrate its walls.
If built of brick, or stone, there will be no difficulty in securing
this protection from the wind. If wood is used as the principal
material for construction, a good quality should be secured for
the covering, and it should be put on in a workmanlike manner.
The space between' the outer and inner wall should be filled
with bricks, except where posts, studs, and braces are placed.
For an ordinary-sized farm-house quite a quantity of bricks will
be required, but second-hand ones can be used, or a low grade
of new ones, and thus the cost be kept from being a very large
item in the bill for materials. No special skill is required to lay
them. They answer various good purposes. By keeping out
the wind they keep the rooms a great deal warmer than they
otherwise would be, and, by filling up the space, they effectually
prevent rats and mice from taking up their abode in this most
difficult of all places from which to dislodge them. For the last
named purpose alone they are worth five times their cost. If

FARM BUILDINGS. gi.

any one thinks this valuation too high, let him try to sleep for
one night in an old-fashioned house which is infested with rats,
and before morning he will probably be convinced that instead
of being too high the figures are altogether too low. All the
work about the house should be done well. It will take a little
longer to fit every board exactly to its place, but the house will
give much better satisfaction if this is done than it can if the
work i^ slighted. It is not a difficult matter to build a house so
that the wind will not penetrate it and it will not be cold ; but,
when a house has been badly built, it is difficult to repair it in
such a manner as to make it comfortable.

The inside walls of a house should be well plastered, and the
ceiling should be finished as nicely as possible. Though it is
quite common to cover the walls with paper, there should be no
slighting of the work in plastering them. If well covered with
good mortar they can be papered more easily, and the paper will
look better than will be possible on a poorly-finished surface.
The mop-boards should be well fitted, and all the lumber used
in the inside of the best rooms should not only be well seasoned
but should be kiln-dried before being used. This precaution
would have prevented many unsightly cracks in some otherwise
nice houses.

Windows are always considered as necessities in a house; but
they are not always arranged in the best possible manner, and
the number and size are not always chosen in accordance with
the requirement of either beauty or comfort. Wc think there is
a tendency to use too few windows. The sunlight is not allowed
as free access to our houses as the health of tlie inmates- requires.
The power of sunlight to promote health and make people cheer-
ful and happy is not fully recognized by the farming community.
Yet we all know that a succession of cloudy days will depress
the spirits of cheerful people and increase the suffering of inva-
lids. Too many families have shut out the light from their

homes altogether too much. The parlor is not opened to the
6

84 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

sun for fear that the carpet will be faded by his powerful rays,
and even the kitchen and sitting-room are guarded against the
intrusion of too much light. Living in darkened rooms, and
being often worried and overworked, it is not a matter for sur-
prise that many farmers* wives lose both beauty and health in
comparatively early life. In sections of the country where
women are more in the open air and receive the benefit of the
sunshine, they are much more healthy than they are wh^re cus-
tom or necessity requires them to keep in doors nearly all of the
time. The dullest obser\-er knows that plants need the sunlight,
that those which are kept in the shade are imperfectly developed
and lack both vigor' and freshness, and that fruits which grow
in the shade never present the rich and rosy appearance of those
which are ripened in the sun. And it seems as if the observer
who could see all this could also reason that, if the sun is such
a life-giver and invigorator to plants, his influence upon the
human family must also be powerful for good. Prominent phy-
sicians often recommend sun-baths for the cure of certain forms
of disease. As prevention is always easier than cure, it is fair
to infer that sunlight would do much toward keeping people
well. It is well known that people living in dark, damp cellars
are terribly afflicted by disease, and we are justified in believing
that the want of sunlight is one of the producing causes of many
of their maladies. We believe in having a house into which the
sun can shine, and in having the kitchen and sitting-room in the
sunniest part of the house.

Windows should be plenty in number, and of a size to cor-
respond .with the dimensions of the house in which they are
placed. Very small windows do not look well in a large house,
while large windows look almost as badly in a small one. The
windows should not be placed too high in the rooms, as is the
case in some of the old-style houses, neither is it very conve-
nient to have them come down to the floor as some modern
builders propose. Medium-sized glass gives a farm-house win-

FARM BUILDINGS. 85

dow a better appearance than either very large or very small
panes. It is much less work to keep such windows clean than
it is those which are composed of small panes, while they are
less expensive than very large ones. Not only is the expense
of windows increased by using extremely large panes of glass,
but in case that one is broken, a large size cannot always be
obtained at country stores, will cost considerably more than the
medium size, and the difficulty of setting will be increased.

In buying glass always be sure and obtain a good quality. A
window in which there is not a pane of clear glass is a miser-
able thing to look at or to try to look through. It will cost a
very little less than a window with a good quality of glass, but
it will always be a source of vexation and discomfort. The
sashes should be made of heart timber, and should be well put
.together, and thoroughly painted upon both sides. Some kind
of fastening should also be used upon all the windows in a
' house. Many people use fastenings upon the windows of their
lower rooms, in the vague hope that they may prevent the
entrance of intruders, but in the upper stories get along with
sticks, wooden buttons, or some other inconvenient arrange-
ment. There are a great variety of patent springs and fasteners
in the market. Of these many are very good indeed, while
some are, as any one of common sense ought to know without
trying, miserably poor. A fastening should be secured which
will hold the sash either down or up, or at any desired point
between these extremes, and which will not mar the casings.
The windows should also be made to lower at the top as well as
to allow the lower sash to be raised. This in order to admit
of easy ventilation, and also to make the rooms cooler in
summer.

In arranging the Doors considerable skill will be required to
place them so that they will give convenient access to all parts
of the house, and still not interfere with each other. Although
many doors will increase the first cost of a house, and always

3^ FARMING FOR PROFIT.

render painting the rooms more expensive than it otherwise
would be, it is not well to attempt to. reduce the number below
the point which comfort and convenience require. Too few
doors make a house inconvenient, and will add greatly to the
labor required to keep it in order, and care for the comfort of
the family. The doors should not only be enough in number
and well arranged, but care should also be taken to have them
of the proper size. In many farm-houses the doors are much
too narrow, and a great deal of inconvenience is caused thereby.
There is no necessity for using very small doors, and no one
should allow them to be used in an ordinary' house. The doors
will require something in the line of fastenings. There are
various styles in the market. Of these we think the combined
catch and lock, with a knob on each side of the door, is much
the best. That the first cost of fitting all the doors in a house
with these fastenings will considerably exceed that of using the
old-fashioned latch and catch we admit, and some readers may.
be inclined to regard the change as an extravagance. But, as
we have already pointed out, convenience, which is another
word for economy of time and labor, is often worth far more
than its cost. If a convenient arrangement saves work, it
thereby saves what is equivalent to money. If it saves health
and strength, it saves what is worth more than money. Human
life and strength are both limited, and the strongest person has
neither time nor strength to waste. The door-fastenings we
have recommended will save much time. They also furnish,
what the door of each of the principal rooms below and all of
the sleeping-rooms should have, the means for securely
fastening it from either side. But the principal reason why
we favor these fastenings may be found in the fact that they are
not liable to catch and tear the clothes. In a large family the
saving effected in this one direction would be sufficient to
replace the old-fashioned latches with the knobs and locks
which we have recommended. Our own clothes have been torn,

FARM BUILDINGS. 37

and all the members of our family as well as occasional visitors
have had clothes damaged by being caught on the old style of
fastening. Experience has taught us that good door-fastenings
are really cheaper than clothes.

The Floors of a house should be made of good 'material
and carefully put down. The supports should be very strong,
and it is a good plan to have the boards an inch and a half
thick. Few persons whose attention has not been specially
called to the subject are aware how severe a strain sometimes
comes upon the floor of a house. When there is a social
gathering, quite a crowd is often collected in a single apartment.
In a room fourteen feet square it is not difficult to find standing
places for from eighty to one hundred grown persons, and a
man who knew nothing in particular about such matters would
not think any trouble would be caused by allowing them to
enter. But eighty persons of average size will weigh not less
ih^.nJive ions. This is a great strain, and a weak floor will be
very likely to give away under it. It is true that such a weight
is not often brought upon a floor in a farm-house. But it is
liable to be heavily loaded, and, consequently, should be made
very strong with direct reference to emergencies. In old
houses, in which the strength of the boards and joists in the
lower rooms has become somewhat impaired by age, or by
want of thorough ventilation of the cellar, supports should be
placed under the floors of rooms which will be likely to be
crowded. These may be easily and cheaply made by using
posts at each end of the floor, one end of each to be placed
upon a solid stone foundation in the cellar, and the other mor-
tised into a stick four by six inches. This stick should come
up tight to the bottom of the joists, and the posts should be
supported at the bottoms so that they cannot move in any
direction. Where floors are very weak they should be taken
up, and new joists supplied. If it is thought that the floor had
better remain, and that the supports suggested are insufficient,

gg FARMING FOR PROFIT.

a frame, about three-fourths the size of the room, with a four*
inch stick in the middle, across the top, running crosswise of
the joists, may be used in the cellar. If this is properly made,
and put up, it will last a great while, and make the floor per-
fectly save.

In selecting timber for joists and floor-boards, care should be
taken to get that which is well seasoned and which is free from
shakes and knots. This because it is important that timber
used in either of these positions should possess both durability
and strength. It has become quite fashionable to use very poor
boards for floors, and then cover the defects with carpets. This
does not seem to be in good taste, and it tends to compel men
to buy carpets who are not really able to do so. Not every
farmer can spare the money required to carpet all his rooms.
Better have a floor that will look well itself Then when the
owner is able he can cover it ; but there will be no excuse for
his running into debt for a carpet. For floor-boards, yellow
pine is one of the very best kinds of timber. These boards
should be nearly, or quite, an inch and a half in thickness and
not exceed four inches in width. If well laid upon a good
foundation, this will make a very fine floor of which ncithct
farmer nor gentleman need be ashamed.

In modern houses Stairs are not only conveniences but are
absolutely necessary for the comfort of the occupants. In
some houses which we have seen, appearances indicate that the
stairs were considered " necessary evils," and were crowded
into as small a space and put as much out of the way as
possible. While it is very desirable to economize room by
using it to the best possible advantage, it is not well to make the
stairs too narrow or place them where they will be inconvenient
of access. Any one who has had experience in carrying
furniture up narrow, steep, or winding stairs will heartily second
our recommendation that all the stairways in a house, those
from the back-room just as truly as the front-stairs, should be

FARM BUILDINGS. 39

made wide, straight, with a slow elevation, and with a strong
railing at the side opposite the wall. Stairs which rise six feet
in a distance on the ground of three feet and a half are an abom-
inationj yet they are often seen in old houses. For women and
invalids to climb such stairs is terribly hard, while for children
they are still more dangerous. The winding stairs which are
frequently used are much better than the old style of steep and
narrow ways, but these are quite inconvenient about carrying
furniture either up or down. For ordinary farm-houses they are
far inferior to the straight, wide, and slowly rising stairs which
we recommend. If any reader is tempted to think this a matter
of small importance because a farmer does not often change his
residence, and, consequently, is not often obliged to carry
furniture over the stairs, let him remember that the occasional
inconvenience which is almost sure to arise might and ought
to be avoided, that a house ought to be so constructed that a
man can get an ordinary lot of furniture up the stairs without a
great deal of difficulty, and also that in a common farm-house
much of the work of the woman who cares for it must be done
in the chambers. This work cannot all be done at once, but
requires attention at various hours of the day. To go up and
down a pair of steep stairs several times every twenty-four hours
is enough, of itself, to tire a woman who is not very strong.
The farmer who is what he should be desires to have an abun-
dance of labor-saving machinery, and to arrange his work in the
most convenient manner possible. He knows that in saving
time and strength he is saving money. He ought to be just as
ready to arrange the house so that the work of his wife can
be easily and rapidly performed, as he is to invest labor- and
money in securing convenience in managing his own work.
One of the ways in which he can aid her is by arranging the
stairs so that the labor of passing over them will be reduced to
the lowest possible point.

Roofs. — Whether the roof of a house shall be flat or sloping

90 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

will depend upon the style of the house, the amount of room
required, and the tastes of the owner. For ordinar>' farm-houses
we do not favor flat roofs. With a given ground-surface they
furnish less room than the ordinary style, and we know of no
advantage which they possess which can render them general
favorites. At the North, especially, where large quantities of
snow fall, they need a greater amount of care in the winter than
most farmers are willing to bestow. For covering roofs three
kinds of material are in very common use, while iron, straw,
gravel, and various preparations of felt and tar are employed to
some extent. But wood, tin, and slate are principally used by
farmers. Various kinds of wood are used and various sizes and
styles of shingles are employed. Cedar, pine, and spruce make
splendid shingles if no sap-wood is used, and will last from
twenty to fifty years. But if a very little of the sap is allowed
to remain, the roof will leak in eight or ten years.

It is always economy when buying shingles to get the finest
quality, as it costs no more to lay them than it docs poor ones,
and, as they last from two to five times as long, the cost of
several rc-.^hinglings is avoided. Tin roofs, if well made and con-
stantly kept painted, will last a long time ; but in most sections
the cost is ver>' much greater than that of wood, and on this
account tin has not come into general use as a roofing material
for farm buildings. Slate, so often seen upon public buildings,
is frequently used in New England and the Middle States
upon farm-houses and barns. Being close to the quarries, the
cost is not excessive, while, if the roof is very strong and the
slates are well laid, a ver)' durable roof is obtained. In order
to make a good roof with slate, the boards upon which they are
laid must be perfectly tight, so as to prevent the penetration of
rain and snow when the wind blows, and the rafters must be so
strong that no amount of snow which falls upon the roof will
deflect them in the least. If the rafters are so weak as to allow
the roof to settle, the slates will be pried up as surely as a man

FARM BUILDINGS. 91

could do it with a crowbar. Being very brittle, they will fre-
quently break when subjected to such a strain. If they do not
break, the nails will be loosened and the slates will come off.

When wood is used for roofing purposes the application of
some cheap paint has been found an excellent preservative.
The shingles to which this paint is applied should be well sea-
soned, and should be perfectly dry when the paint is used. The
presence of sap in the wood, or of dew on the shingles, will
cause the paint to scale off in a short time. Various prepara-
tions for painting roofs are in the market. Probably the cheapest
material is crude petroleum. This is an excellent preservative.
Whitewash is often used, but is too liable to wash off Roofing
paints having a large proportion of tar are highly recommended
by some, but do not always give satisfaction. Those with slate
or asbestos for their basis would seem to be better adapted to
the purpose. Whenever roofs are painted, an effort should be
made to secure a fireproof article as well as one which will pre-
serve the shingles.

Chimneys. — The old style of building only one chimney for
each house, and making that as large as a good-sized room, is
extremely bad and should never be followed in a new house. ^
All house chimneys should be of small size and conveniently
located. Stovepipes ought never to traverse a long distance
from the fire to the chimney. Many farmers in the older settled
parts of the country have taken down the immense piles of
brick which once answered for chimneys and built new and
smaller ones. We never knew a man to regret making this
change. The use of a larger number of smaller chimneys gives
much more room in the house, much less stove-pipe is required,
the draught of the flues is greatly increased, the danger from fire
is very much diminished, and the general plan and appearance
of the house is improved. Chimneys should be built with the
utmost care, and only the very best and most conscientious
workmen should be employed in their construction. A great

92 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

many houses are burned every year on account of defective
flues. It is also well to carry the chimneys to a good height
above the roof, both in order to secure a strong draught and
also to diminish the danger from falling sparks. They should
always be built upon a solid foundation in the ground. If the
nicest mortar is used it is well to plaster the inside of the chim-
neys, but a poor quality of mortar will only make a bad matter
worse.

Eave-Troughs. — These should be found upon every house.
They will enable the owner to secure rain-water if he wishes to,
and this, where the well-water is hard, is quite an object. They
also make it so much pleasanter going in and out of a house
when it rains, that a man who has once had the benefit of one
would feel as if deprived of a luxury if it were taken down.
But the great benefit of these troughs is to be found in the fact
that they keep a vast quantity of water out of the cellar. This
would pay for their cost every season. Where there are no
eave-troughs there will, of necessity, be a wet cellar. This is
both unpleasant and unhealthy. Consequently, troughs should
be provided, and should lead either into a cistern, or to some
■common point from which the water may be taken by another
trough to a suitable distance from the house.

Blinds. — These may be classed among the luxuries, but as
they are not very expensive they can be secured by the majority
of farmers. Whether they will pay or not, each one must decide
for himself They will protect the windows, make the rooms
cooler, keep out the flies, and give a finished appearance to th.e
house which it otherwise could not possess. They are among
the means for making home more pleasant, and, as such, they
should not be despised. When buying it is always best to get
good ones, and they should be carefully fitted and hung.

Piazza. — A good piazza will add somewhat to the cost of a
new house, and involve a still greater expen.se if attached to an
old one. It will give a better appearance to the house, and

FARM BUILDINGS. 9^

make it more pleasant to live in. Climbing vines may be
trained upon the posts, and a pleasant place will be provided in
which to pass the leisure hour at noon in the summer time, and
also many evenings in warm and pleasant weather.

Lightning- Rods. — On account of the many swindles which
certain agents have practiced, and also because a great many
defective rods have been put up, there is a very common im-
pression that a farmer had -better not have rods put on his
buildings. But this seems to be one of these cases in which a
good article is condemned because a counterfeit has proved
poor, or because some evil-minded person has cheated people
in its sale. While a poor rod, or a good rod badly put up, or
which has got out of order, becomes at once a source of danger
rather than a protection from evil, we think the facts in the case
will warrant the assertion that a first-rate rod, properly put up,
and constantly kept in order, is an almost absolute protection
against danger from lightning. We have known the lightning
to strike buildings upon which there were rods, but we never
have seen a case in which there was loss of life or serious
injury to property when there was a good rod, and it was in
good order. In buying a rod care should be taken to get the
very best one in the market, and to have a first-class workman
put it up. The rod should be of nearly uniform size through-
out. No rod with small joints should ever be bought. It
should rise to a reasonable height above the top of the chimney,
and a point should also go up from each end of the building.
If the building to be protected is very large, more points will
be needed. The height to which the points should rise Avill
depend upon the size of the building, and can be determined
by a skilful and intelligent workman. Never attempt to save
money by using very short tops, or by placing only a little iron
ill the ground. In all cases the rod in the earth should be placed
deep enough to reach a strata of the soil which will never be
dry. If it can be put deep enough to reach a living spring it

J,4 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

will be all the bettor for its contact with water. If a rod gets
out of order, it should be at once repaired. It is to defective
rods that the injury to buildings which are professedly pro-
tected is generally due. We knew of one case in which the
lower section of a rod had been broken, and the owner, instead
of getting a new piece, was in the habit of attaching a chain
whenever he saw a shower approaching. All such arrange-
ments greatly increase the danger. Better not have any rod
than to have such make-shifts as that. But a really good rod,
well put up, we consider a great safeguard, and would not be
without one on both house and barn.

Ventilation. — This is a subject of vast importance — one upon
which many volumes have been written, and which needs to be
kept constantly before the minds of the people. It is the fashion
to call farm-houses cold and open structures, and to consider
them wholly beyond the need of anything in the line of direct
ventilation. That these houses are not as close as many city
houses is true, and their owners ought to be thankful for it ; but
in the whole range of our acquaintance we do not know a single
instance in which a farmer in buikling a house has provided
anything approaching adequate ventilation. We know of cases
in which an effort has been made to ventilate old houses, but not
one in which the ventilation of a new farm-house has received
special attention. As a rule, the new houses are more dan-
gerous than the old. They are closer and warmer, consequently
the danger is increased. We say danger because there is a great
deal of danger involved in breathing the impure air with which
many of our houses are constantly filled. We can gain some
light from a few facts which have been published. Lest our
readers should imagine that, because these statistics are taken
from cities, they will form no basis for calculations concerning
the country, we will say that many careful experiments by
scientific men have fully established the. fact that, except in the
basements and gutters, the air in cities is almost exactly the

FARM BUILDINGS. 95

same in composition and purity as that of the country. Even
in Manchester, England, where two milUons of tons of coal
are burned every year, and the air seems full of smoke, there is
hardly a trace of carbonic acid. This discovery led one of
the learned investigators to exclaim, " How insignificant are the
works of art in contaminating that vast ocean of air that is con'-
stantly sweeping over the surface of the earth." This being the
case, it is probable, that, in respectable quarters of our ordmary
cities, the air is fully as pure as it is in the country, and that, on
account of less attention to ventilation, the women and children
in our most exposed localities really suffer more from impure
air than the better classes in the cities.

To give some idea of what ventilation will accomplish, a sim-
ple fact from the mortality tables of one of the great Dublin
hospitals for infants may be useful. Before any special effort to
furnish pure air was made, the death-rate for twenty-five years
had been one in six, but. during the next twenty-five years after
arrangements were made for thorough ventilation, the deaths
were only one in one hundred and four. In our own country,
Philadelphia is considered a very healthy city; but, in 1866, it
was found that nearly forty per cent, of the deaths each year
were caused by impure air-a sacrifice of nearly seven thousand
lives every year for want of thorough ventilation. In ^ew
York the deaths by foul air are nearly one-half of the immense
number which annually occur. The number of children who
are sacrificed to the destroying influence of impure air in the
cities and country towns every year is almost beyond compre-
hension. The vast number of deaths of adults which are oaused
by consumption are believed to be almost wholly due to foul
air Dr. Leeds, who has given a great deal of attention to tins
subject, says, that it is as easy to prevent consumption by the use
of pure air as it is to prevent drunkenness by the use of water.
Cholera, and many other diseases, are either caused, or else ter-
ribly aggravated, by impure air. The same is true of many

96 FARMIXG FOR PROFIT.

nervous maladies. While wc realize that a great multitude of
farmers' wives have lost their health partly as a result of mo-
notonous overwork, we arc confident that if the houses in which
they lived had been thoroughly ventilated they would not have
suffered one-half the ills to which they have been subjected.
The farmer and his boys spend much of their time in the open
air. Consequently, though they may work hard, they are not
as likely to lose health and strength as the wife and sisters who
are obliged to breathe a contaminated atmosphere.

When a new house is built, or an old one repaired, one of the
great things to be considered is proper ventilation. If the house
is in good repair, but there are no suitable arrangements for
keeping a constant supply of pure air, the owner should not risk
the health of his family by allowing it to remain longer in this
condition. Just how to ventilate a house perfectly without
involving a great expense is a question over which there has
been much discussion. We have neither time nor space to pre-
sent the many plans which have been proposed and the argu-
ments by which they have been sustained. But some simple
suggestions may be made. Windows should be arranged so as
to let down at the top. If they were not put in right when the
house was built, the difficulty may be readily obviated. A car-
penter, or a farmer who uses tools with facility, can very easily
make the change. In summer the doors and windows should
be freely opened. 4^o matter if the sun does fade the ca'pet.
Life and health are to be considered before carpets and furniture.
If there are no other means of ventilation, open the doors right
through the house every few hours in winter. It does but little
good to merely open a single door or window. For the room
is constantly full of air, and while what is in remains no more
can enter. We can no more crowd air into a room than we can
crowd water into a bottle which is full. When a window is
opened to let in air the door or window on the opposite side
should be opened to let the foul air out. An old-fashioned fire-

FARM BUILDINGS. 97

place is a splendid means for ventilation. It allows the impure
air to pass up the chimney, and cold air can be admitted by win-
dows, doors, or, still better, by a pipe specially arranged for this
purpose. Such a fire-place will also allow from one-half to two-
thirds of the heat to escape. This makes it a somewhat expen-
sive arrangement, but, as Mr. Waring has well said, this
expense is the price which is paid for immunity from disease.
But in many of our modern houses there are no fireplaces. The
fire in the stove causes something of a draught, and the fresh
air comes in around the windows and doors to supply its place.
But this is far from sufficient. The best method in such a case
seems to be to have a ventilating flue built close to the chimney,
so that the heat of the fire will warm the air in the flue and
cause a draught, with an opening near the floor for the escape
of foul air, and a pipe with one end in the external air and the
other immediately over, or almost against, the stove. Or, the
fresh air may be admitted at the top of the room if there is an
opening at the top on the opposite side for the escape of the
impure air. It was once supposed that the impure air would be
found at the top of a room and the purer air near the floor, but
it has been found that, except when unusually heated by gas, or
lamps, much of the foul air will descend, as the carbonic acid is
heavy, and will be found near the bottom of the room. Even
in houses which are old and have many cracks around the win-
dows and doors, there should' be a systematic effort to secure
ventilation, because when air comes through so many crevices
the inmates of the room will be very likely to take cold, while,
if an opening is made which is larger than the sum of all these
cracks, and the air is conducted to the stove, the danger from
this source is avoided and there is a greater certainty that an
abundance of fresh air will be secured. Certainly, in some way,
even though the cost of fuel should be increased, plenty of pure
air should be supplied to every room of each and every farm-
house in the country.

08 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

Various Interior Arrangements. — We have already called
attention to the importance of having the rooms so arranged,
that as little useless travelling as possible will be required. If
the rooms were properly arranged, the work of some house-
keepers would be greatly diminished. In new houses the rooms
can be adjusted easily enough, but in one already built some
changes may be necessary to secure the greatest efificiency and
economy of labor. In some cases a change of the parlor to the
uses of the kitchen, and the kitchen for the parlor, will give
great relief. The kitchen and sitting.-room ought to be the
pleasantest located rooms in the whole house. In " Homes,
AND How TO Make Them," Mr. Gardner well says that as the
kitchen is the chief workshop of the house, it should be close-
to the dining-room, and " fitted up and furnished precisely as an
intelligent manufacturer would fit up his factory. Every possible
convenience for doing what must be done, a machine for doing
each kind of work and a place for everj^ machine. Provision
for the removal and utilizing of all waste, for economizing to
the utmost all labor and material, should be made." Not only
as a matter of convenience for the farmer's wife, but also to
promote the comfort and health of the whole family, a dining-
room should always have a place in the farm-house. There
should be a "back-room" in which the washing can be done in
hot weather, and which can be used for many purposes to which
no other room is well adapted. A large arch kettle ^ould be
located in this room. This can be used for cooking vegetables
for stock, and will be very "handy" many times. A play-room
for the children, which, when they arrive at a suitable age, can
be converted into a work-room for the boys, ought also to be
provided. A room in the attic will be found very convenient as
a place for drjnng clothes in bad weather. There should be a
window at each end in order to secure a circulation of air. The
sleeping-rooms need not be excessively large, but should be of
sufficient size to admit of the easy performance of the work

FARM BUILDINGS. 99

which it is necessary to do in them. Many persons have an
idea that all sleeping-rooms should be very high and large ; but
Dr. Leeds has shown that if they are well-ventilated, rooms of
moderate size will do very well, while no possible amount of
size and space can render them safe for sleeping apartments if
ventilation is neglected. The various rooms of the house should
be well supplied with closets and cupboards, as these will add
greatly to the convenience of doing the necessary work for
the family. In order to render the house-cleaning as easy as
possible, the wood-work in the rooms should be varnished. The
difference between cleaning wood-work which has been merely
painted and that which has been painted and varnished is
greater than would naturally be supposed. It costs but little to
do the varnishing, the paint will wear much longer, and the
room will look much nicer for its application.

Very near the kitchen there should be a room for the storage
of fuel. This may be the wood-shed, devoted wholly to the
purpose of keeping the wood from injury by exposure to the
elements, or, if this is at a little distance from the house, merely
a small room in which a supply of dry wood and kindlings can
be constantly stored. Something of the kind ought always to
be provided, and plenty of good fuel should be constantly at
hand.

The Cellar. — It was once the fashion to build a very large

house, set it nearly on a level with the ground, and have a deep

cellar under the whole. Fortunately this style has been greatly

modified. Houses are smaller, are set up higher from the soil,

and there are cellars under only about half the surface covered

by the buildings. Very large cellars are almost sure to become

a place of storage for a great deal of waste material, which

slowly decays and gives off poisonous gases, which seriously

injure the health of those who occupy the rooms above. It is

considerable work to properly care for a large cellar, and it is

not needed on a farm.
7

loo FARMING FOR PROFIT.

Sometimes the house-cellar is made a place for storing large
quantities of roots for cattle, but this should never be done.
The cellar should be thoroughly drained. Even very dry land
is almost sure to be wet, or damp, after heavy rains. Conse-
quently a drain is needed in the dryest of cellars. Where the
land is wet, Mr. Waring recommends the laying of drain-tile
a foot below the bottom of the cellar, and the same distance
inside the walls. These tiles to go around the cellar, and be
carried into a tile-drain which shall take the water a suitable
distance from the house. The bottom of the cellar then to
be covered with stones, and cemented. This is a good and not
very expensive method for accomplishing a very desirable
result. Where stones cannot be used for the bottom and walls,
bricks may take their place. The cellar should be the same
size as the house one way, in order to secure easy and perfect
ventilation. The turf under the remainder of the house should
be taken .off, gravel thrown in, and covered with cement in
order to prevent the gases, which will otherwise come from the
soil, making their way into the rooms. If this is not done the
underpinning should not be close, but large spaces should be
left each side so as to allow a free circulation of air. Some
provision for ventilation should also be made when the ground
is cemented. Otherwise the timbers and floors of the house
will soon be affected with dry-rot. The cellar-walls should be
thick, and carefully cemented all around. Overhead the room
should be covered with lath and plaster as neatly as a kitchen,
and both the walls and the top should be occasionally white-
washed. Several windows should be provided, and they should
be so arranged that they can be easily opened and closed.
These windows should serve the double purpose of furnishing
light and a means of ventilation. There should be stairs from
the kitchen, or a point close by, and another set of large and
wide ones leading out of doors. If it is impossible to have the
bottom cemented in the manner noted, an ample drain should be

FARM BUILDINGS. 101

provided. Both light and ventilation should always be secured.
Dark, damp cellars are not only a cause of much ill-health, but
they are also very bad places for the storage of family supplies.
The Barn. — To a foreigner it must seem very strange that
the New England farmer who has but fifty or a hundred acres
of land, much of which is not very productive, should build a
large, nice barn, while the Western farmer, who owns a large
tract of richer land, has either a very small barn or else none
at all. While at the West and South barns seem to be
regarded as luxuries, the farmers at the East consider them
absolute necessities, and expend large sums of money in erecting
them. In this respect we think the New England custom
much the best, and we are glad to see indications that the value
of barns and granaries is becoming better understood in the
other sections. Probably the expense of construction has had
much to do with the general neglect to furnish barns in some
quarters, but we must think that their benefits have also been
underrated. For if the energetic men who have carried on
extensive farms, and been successful in their business, had
realized the great value of barns, their own farms would not
have been so long without them. Within a few years many
barns have been erected, and the owners have rejoiced that they
were led to build. The best farmers are not only building
barns for themselves, but are advising others to follow their
example. An editorial article upon this subject, in a late
number of Colman's Rural World, said that "One of the
first indications of an enterprising farmer is a good barn," and
declared that good farming cannot be carried on without it. To
show that there is no necessity for the farmer to do without a
barn, the writer said : " If farmers would undertake the building
of barns themselves, and not depend upon some number one
carpenter to do it, we should have more of them. We built a
very commodious barn, sixty feet square, a couple of years ago,
with men hired at fifteen dollars per month. The timber was

102 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

got out of the woods. The clapboards for shingles were rived
in the woods. All the lumber bought was the planks to enclose
it. The cost of the whole barn was trifling in comparison to its
value, and the amount saved by it any year would build another
like it." We have made the above extract in order to show
that large and influential farmers find that a barn is a very valu-
able building, and may be made the means of saving a great deal
of money. There is no need of arguing that hay and grain
which is promptly stored in a good barn is in a much better
condition than it could possibly be in the stack, and that storage
in a barn will prevent a great deal of waste in quantity as well
as damage in quality. Probably no farmer who has ever had a
good barn would willingly be without one for many times its
cost. The extract we have made also shows that farmers who
have woodland can put up barns at \&xy small expense. Not
every one could build as cheaply as the writer of that article,
for it is not every farmer who understands the use of tools well
enough to enable him to build without more skilful help. But
when a good carpenter is hired to frame the building, the
expense of construction need hot be heavy if the farmer will
attend to the work himself, and hire other help to good advan-
tage. Not that a workman should be ground down in his
wages. Better do without a barn than to build one with miser-
ably paid labor. But in almost every town there are farmers
who were once carpenters, or who can use tools with skill
enough for all common work, who do not value their services
very highly, or who would rather work on a barn than on the
land, and who would be glad to work for a trifle more than farm-
laborers receive. When such help can be employed the cost of
a barn will be very low. But when circumstances are not as
favorable, we are confident that, in the end, it will pay the
farmer well to have one. Fig. 5 represents a cheap barn with
a baling-press conveniently located. The plan was furnished
by P. K. Dederick, Esq., of Albany, N. Y.

FARM BUILDINGS. 103

The size of a barn must be governed by the size and pro-
ductiveness of the farm, and the method of finishing should
depend upon the financial ability of the owner. We are strongly
in favor of baling hay, and thus saving barn-room to a great
extent. A press for this purpose is somewhat expensive, but
will be much cheaper than a large addition to the barn. A
medium-sized hand-press might be obtained for a moderate sum,
or several neighbors might buy a power-press in company and
use it together, thus reducing the individual cost to a very low
figure. With a good press and horse-power four men and two
boys will bale, weigh, and store from six to ten tons of hay

FIG. 5. — CHEAP HAY-BARN.

per day. The cost of baling, including ties, will be only about
a dollar and a quarter a ton. Straw can also be baled, and thus
put into a fraction of the space which it would otherwise
occupy. If either hay or straw are to be sold, baling will
greatly facilitate the handling of the materials, and will also
admit of their being shipped on the cars. Not only is much
room saved by baling hay, but the hay is much less liable to
injur>^ by contact with the air, and to loss by scattering around
the premises. In some places men who own presses go out baling
hay and straw for a certain price per ton. When there is a good
press in the neighborhood which can be hired, it may not pay
the farmer to buy one, but a great many farmers can afford to

104

FARMING FOR PROFIT.

buy, either singly or in company with others, much better than
they can afford to do without. Figure 6 represents the " Inger-
soll " hand-press, manufactured by James N. Balston, Green
Point, L. I. ; and Figure 7, Dederick's " Perpetual " power-press,
made by P. K. Dederick & Co., Albany, N. Y.

In several respects what was said concerning the house will
apply with but slight modification to the construction of the

FIG. 6. — INGERSPLL PRESS.

bam. In most parts of the country warmth is one of the great
benefits to be obtained. This should be secured by close and
carefully lined boarding, tight floors, and well-fitting doors and
windows. In New England there are a great many barns
which are so loosely boarded that the air comes in through a
multitude of large cracks; the floors are laid so loosely that
there are many strong currents of air rising in the stables when-
ever the wind blows, and the roofs are so open, and the doors

FARM BUILDINGS. 105

and windows fit so poorly, that in a cold or stormy day they
very forcibly remind one of a house built of boughs in the
woods. Such barns are not only very uncomfortable for animals
which are kept in them, but are also very expensive structures
for their owners. Cattle which are constantly cold will be
terribly hungry, and it will cost much more to keep them than
it would if they were warm. Much of the food which they eat
in cold weather will be used to keep up the animal heat. If
more than sufficient for this purpose is furnished, the waste of
the system will be supplied ; but if not, the animal will grow
poor. If there remains any nutriment after these ends have been

FIG. 7. — " PERPETUAL " PRESS.

secured, the surplus will be used to fatten the animal, or answer
other productive purposes. Before a cow can give milk she
must have food enough to keep her animal heat up to a certain
point, and also supply the waste which is constantly going on.
These things have the first claim in the animal economy. If a
cow gives milk without havmg sufficient food to answer these
requirements, she will do it at the direct expense of her system,
and will inevitably grow poor. Men who have made a business
of feeding cattle have found that a certain quantity of food will
produce a much larger proportion of meat if the animals to which
it is fed are kept warm, than it will if they are exposed to
storms and severe cold. Farmers are well aware that whern

IQQ FARMING FOR PROFIT.

they are out in the woods in winter they need more food than
they do wlicn they remain by the fire. The greater the exposure
to cold the greater will be the waste of animal heat, and the
larger the quantity of food which will be needed to produce
heat enough to keep the system at its normal temperature.
The same principle applies to animals. This makes it plain
that to quite an extent warm stables will take the place of food.
Cattle must in some way be kept warm enough so that they will
not freeze. Shelter can do much toward keeping up the animal
heat, and food is able to do the rest. If shelter is denied, a
double burden is thrown upon the food, and a much larger
quantity will be required than will be necessary if sufficient
shelter is provided. The man who has a warm barn can keep
more cattle, and keep them in better flesh, than another who
feeds the same amount of hay in a cold barn. Merely in order
to prevent the suffering which severe cold brings to all domestic
animals in our Northern States, the barns should be made warm,
and the claims of the owner's pocket will strongly seconci those
of pure humanity.

Some of the means of promoting warmth have been noted.
In case it is desired to fill under the stables with muck in order
to save the liquid manure, the floors should be laid with a little
space between the planks, but all upward currents of air should
be prevented by having the walls under the sills perfectly tight
and by keeping a suitable quantity of muck in the vault. But,
while warmth is greatly to be desired, ventilation must not be
neglected. Better have a cold barn in which there is plenty of
pure air than a tight, warm one in which the animals are obliged
to constantly breathe a badly tainted atmosphere. The air in
some close stables is terribly offensive, and no animal can remain
healthy if obliged to breathe it for any length of time. Upon
the top of every well-covered barn there should be a good ven-
tilator, and there should be an opening near the floor for the
entrance of pure air.

FA}<J\it BUILDINGS. 107

Thd doors which lead to the main floor should be wide and
high, and should be nicely hung on rollers or hinges. There
should be a way for safely locking all the doors in the barn, and
also for fastening them open when this is desired. The stable
doors should be of ample size and nicely put up. Windows
should be furnished in abundance. Nearly all barns are too
dark for the comfort and health of the cattle and for the conve-
nience of the men who take care of them. Both horses and
cattle are injured by spending their days in dark stalls.

Instead of the ladders which most farmers delight to use in
their barns, there should oe good stairs leading to the scaffolds
and beams. For transient use, a portable step-ladder is much
superior to the old-fashioned styles. Floors should be laid in
all the " bays ; " they should be tight, and elevated at least two
feet from the ground. The wall beneath the barn should be
tight nearly all the way, but a place should be left upon two
opposite sides for ventilation. Between the underground part
of the barn and the stables there should be a tight wall. The
main flgor should be smooth and nicely laid, the stable floors
very strong, and both planks and sleepers should be renewed
before they are seriously weakened by use or age. The floors
upon the scaffolds should be tight and lined in order to prevent
the penetration of dust and dirt into the stables, while upon the
" great beams " small spaces may be left between the boards in
order to facilitate the drying of the grain which is stored upon
them.

The roof of the barn should be kept in good repair in order
to prevent injury to the framework of the structure, damage to
the crops stored within, discomfort to the animals, and loss to
the owner. Eave-troughs should always be provided in order
to keep the large quantity of water which falls upon the roof
from running into the yard. We also consider a lightning-rod
almost indispensable.

The Stables. — Even at the South, where the cold does not

108 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

compel stock-owners to house their animals, it is advisable to
have plenty of well-arranged stables. It is better for the animals
to be made tame by coming to the stables, and they will not
waste half the food if kept in them that they will if fed on the
ground. In cold climates stables are great necessities. They
should be an integral part of the barn itself, and kept as warm,
light, and well ventilated as any part of the building. The
animals which are kept in them should not be crowded. Room
is essential to their thrift and comfort as well as to the conve-
nience of the man who takes care of them. Very few stables
which we have seen were high enough. All stables should be
built so that a tall man, with a tall hat on his head, can go
through them without stooping. In every barn in which stock
is kept there should be a few box-stalls, each one so arranged
that a single animal can be turned in loose if desired. These
stalls are very convenient for sick animals, for cows when they
calve, and at many other times they are much better than ordi-
nary stables. We do not favor vciy many stalls in one room.
Between every half-dozen stalls there should be a partition with
a door which can be securely fastened.

The principal methods of fastening cattle are the stanchion,
the chain around the neck, the bow around the neck and pass-
ing through a ring which slides upon a round post, and the rope
around the horns. Of these the former is considered the surest
fastening and is much the most convenient for the man who
cares for the stock, but it is not as easy for the cattle as either
of the other methods. The chain is an easy and pretty safe fas-
tening. A good bow will usually hold and is not troublesome
to the animal, though inconvenient for the man who uses it. The
rope is inconvenient, soon wears out, and is liable to be broken,
but if cattle are quiet it is not a very uncomfortable fastening.
All mangers should be built up from the floor high enough for
the cattle to eat from them with but a very slight lowering of
the head, should be perfectly tight, and as smooth as possible

FARM BUILDINGS. 109

inside. They should be so nicely fitted that dry meal can be
fed in them without a particle of waste.

• The Barn-Cellar. — We are not strongly in favor of a barn-
cellar — not nearly as strongly as we were a few years ago.
These cellars have many manifest advantages, but are also open
to grave objections. The cellar can be made a splendid place
for the manufacture of manure; but unless a great deal of care xi
taken, the air which the cattle must breathe will be contaminated,
and a source of ill-health both for animals and for the inmates
of the neighboring houses will be provided. Decomposition of
manure directly under a barn will be almost sure to prove
injurious to the animals which are kept in it, and will also
injure the quality of the hay and grain which are stored in the
building. Any ordinary system of ventilation will prove only a
partial and a very inefficient remedy. If means are taken to
prevent the decomposition, they will probably be only partially
successful, so that the evil will be modified instead of removed.
But by taking such a course the farmer cuts himself off from
the principal advantages which are claimed for the barn-cellar.
It is a significant fact that many intelligent farmers who once
' considered the manure-cellar a very valuable adjunct to a barn
have given up using it for the purpose for which it was
originally designed. The opinion Seems to be gaining ground
that while a barn-cellar is a splendid place for the manufacture
of manure, it is subject to serious drawbacks which mxore than
equal the good which can result from its use. In all cases, if a
cellar is used, a great deal of care should be taken to keep a
constant and an abundant supply of dry earth, or some powerful
deodorizer, on hand, and by its use prevent, as far as possible,
the evil effects which result from the presence of fermenting and
decaying material directly under the cattle, and in the vicinity
of hay and grain.

On farms upon which large quantities of roots are grown,
a cellar under the barn may be the best place for their storage

110 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

which can be obtained. The bins should be under the main
bam and never directly under the stables. When the barn is
built upon a side-hill, a basement-room can sometimes be easily
secured. This will provide a place for roots upon one side and
stables upon the other. The stables should be upon the ground-
level, and the whole length of the basement should be exposed
to the light and be well ventilated. Dark, damp, and badly
ventilated stables are terribly unhealthy. When the stables are
over a cellar the floors should be made very strong, frequently
examined, and constantly kept in good repair. Many cases are
on record in which animals have been killed by the giving away
of the floors upon which they stood. When cattle are loept in
the basement, it is also important that the floors overhead should
be laid upon strong timbers and be kept in good repair.

The Granary. — We have already alluded to the great im-
portance of having a granary. A room finished off in the barn,
or over the wagon-shed, though often made to answer the pur-
pose, is not a satisfactory substitute for a building devoted to
this special purpose. The granary may be a very simple structure,
but it should be an independent building. The size and the
details of construction w ill vary greatly with the requirements of
different farms, but there are a few general principles which should
be universally regarded. The building should be set upon stone
posts, or a smooth brick-wall, which should rise at least three
feet above the level of the ground. This is one of the most
effectual methods for keeping rats away from the grain. If
walls are used, sp:ices should be left to allow a circulation of air
under the building. Two sides of the granar}' should be covered
with slats two and a half or three inches wide, and placed half
an inch apart. The other sides should be boarded perfectly
tight. The eaves should project considerably and the roof be
kept constantly in repair. The floor should be made of planks
closely fitted and smoothly laid. There should be at least two
windows to admit the light, and a ventilator should also be pro-

FARM BUILDINGS. \\\

vided. Against the sides covered with slats, bins for holding ears
of corn may be built. These should not be more than three feet
wide, but in height may extend nearly to the roof. Against the
sides covered with boards bins for wheat, oats, and shelled-corn,
may be constructed. These should be perfectly tight, with well-
fitting covers and provided with locks and keys. Bins for this
purpose should not be more than three or four feet wide and
four feet high. They should be divided off by partitions into
several compartments, each holding from ten to forty bushels of
grain. We do not like the idea of a second tier of bins above
the one on the floor. We should much prefer to put up extra
bins, from the floor, in front of the others, with an alley three
feet in width between. Over these bins, and high enough to
allow the covers to be raised w'thout obstruction, a scaffold
may be built which will be found v^ery convenient for various
purposes.

Access to this scaffold may be had by means of stairs. A
step-ladder should also be provided for use in the granary, and
provision ought to be made for temporary stagings to be put up
in husking time and removed when the corn-bins are filled.
The outside door should be made to close perfectly tight and
should be provided with a strong lock.

The Hog-House. — Concerning this building little need be
said. It should be warm, with plenty of windows to admit the
light, and ample means of ventilation. The roof should be high
enough above the floor to allow a tall man to stand upright in
the pens. The building should be divided into two or more
apartments connected with each other by a door, and each pen
connected with the yard in the same way. In front of the pens
there should be a wide alley which should always be kept clean
instead of being, as is too often the case, made a storing-place
for tools, old barrels, odd pieces of boards, and all manner of
rubbish. The boarding between the alley and the pen should
be high enough to prevent all attempts on the part of the pigs

112 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

to jump over. There should also be one or two boards laid
across the front of the pen, directly over the trough, to keep the
pigs from jumping up and putting their forward feet near the
top of the boarding, thus throwing mud in the face of the man
who feeds them. Without some preventive, pigs will soon
learn to jump up when any one comes to feed them, and will
make the operation of feeding them one of the most vexatious
tasks which the farmer has to perform. The lower boards of
the partition between the pen and the alley should be so
arranged as to be swung inside the pen, leaving the trough in
the alley, while the food is being put in. This will allow the
troughs to be properly cleaned as well as add to the convenience
of feeding the pigs. The floor of the pen should be made of
planks, well fitted, and nailed down. Otherwise the pigs will
be likely to tear it up. In order to keep it dry the floor should
slope a little toward the yard. In one corner should be a room,
divided from the main pen by a partition six inches or a foot in
height, for the pigs to use as a sleeping apartment. Plenty of
straw should be kept in this corner. When the bed becomes
foul it should be thrown out and fresh straw supplied.

If the raising of pigs is one of the industries to which the far-
mer devotes his attention, larger pens will be needed than will
be required for simply fattening hogs. The building must not
only be larger but finished in better style, and in the Northern
States supplied with a stove and other conveniences. It is well
to give pigs plenty of room in which to eat and sleep, as well as
a good-sized yard. For ordinary purposes a house need cost
but a small sum, and even where the raising of pigs is to be
a prominent business the expense need not be very great.

The Hen-House. — This may be a small and inexpensive
building, but something for the purpose should be found upon
every farm. For, in spite of all the mischief which they do, hens
and chickens can be made to pay well for all the expense and
trouble of growing and keeping them. But, like all other

FARM BUILDINGS. 113

animals, they need food, and care, and protection from cold and
storms. They ought not to be compelled to roost in trees, or
on fences, or in wagon-sheds, but should have a house of their
own just as much as the hogs or the sheep. This house should
be set high enough above the ground to avoid dampness and
be closely underpinned, with spaces for ventilation as described
for the preceding buildings. The size must depend upon the
number of fowls to be kept. A house ten by sixteen feet is large
enough for thirty or thirty-five fowls. Whatever the number
which is to be kept, the farmer should remember that it is not
safe to house more than fifty fowls in any one apartment, even
though it be a very large one. If more than this number are to
be kept, more than one room should be provided. The roof
should be high enough to allow a man to stand upright in any
part of the building. In order to save expense the roof can be
made upon one side, having the other side of the building per-
pendicular from the ground to the top of the roof Or, if only
a small room is wanted, the upper'end of the rafters may be laid
against one end of the wagon-shed, or some other building.
The floor should be made of matched boards, cement, or clay.
The room should be closely boarded on three-inch studs and
lined with matched boards, or else with lath and plaster. The
inside of the roof should be covered in the same way, and the
outside covered with the best shingles or with slate.

The south side should be largely of glass, and there may be
windows in other parts of the building if desired. A good ven-
tilator is one of the necessities, and must not be omitted. One
or more good-sized doors should be provided, and should be
furnished with good locks. The interior arrangements may be
quite simple. There should be a few boxes for nests, and a
sufficient number of perches to accommodate all the fowls. Also
a box to contain dust, and another for gravel. A large iron
dish, or something which will answer the purpose, should be
furnished to contain water for drinking purposes. The whole

114 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

interior of the building should be whitewashed three or four
times a year.

The Wagon-Shed. — This may be a plain building, but
should be closely boarded and lined, and always kept well
shingled. The size will depend upon the number of wagons
and carts which are used on the farm. On very small farms it
is sometimes well to make the lower floor of the waeon-shed
also answer the purposes of a tool-house. It may also, upon
such farms, do for a horse-barn besides. The loft overhead
will furnish a place for the storage of plenty of hay, and room
for a stable can easily be secured on the lower floor.

On large farms this arrangement should not be made. The
ground-floor should be reasonably tight, and the floor over the
w^agons should be lined so as to prevent the entrance of dust
into the lower room. Many sheds are left open in front, but we
think it better to have doors. Certainly the sheds in which the
nice wagons, carriages, and robes are kept (which should always
be separated by a close partition from the rest of the building)
should have doors which can be locked, and in which things
can be safely kept. This building should be raised but little
above the surface of the ground, as it would be hard work to
draw in the wagons if it were much higher than the land around
it. There is a strong tendency to make wagon-sheds too small,
and thus convert them into perfect nuisances.

For a small farm a building thirty-six feet long, and twenty-
eight feet wide, with a partition running through it lengthwise
two feet one side of the centre, will answer ver>- well. This will
give one room thirty-six by sixteen feet, which will afford space
for five wagons or carriages, with room to pass between them in
getting in and out, and another room thirty-six by twelve feet,
which can be used for the storage of the mowing-machine, hay_
tedder, horse-rake, plows, harrows, shovels, and other tools. It
is best to have a partition dividing each of these rooms. In one
corner a room fourteen feet wide, inside of the posts, may be

FARM BUILDINGS. 115

done off for the best wagon and the top-carriage. This should
be at least eight and a half feet high, so that it will take in a
hicrh carriage without letting down the top. If it is desired to
save all possible expense, the other rooms, in which tools and
wagons are kept, may be left open in front, but it is much better
that the whole building should be enclosed. The height of
these rooms need not exceed seven feet, and should not fall
much below that figure. If such a building contains more
room than is desired for the purposes named, the remainder may
be utilized for a horse-stall as already suggested. If preferrec|,
a stable for a few sheep may be furnished instead of the horse-
stall. The loft will give plenty of room for the storage of
rowen upon which to feed them during the winter.

The posts for this building should be thirteen feet long.
This because the ground size proposed needs this height, in,
order to make a well-proportioned building, and also because
the cost will be but a trifle more than it would if short posts
were used, while the loft, which will be found very useful,
cannot be secured of suitable size without posts of about this
length.

The Wood-House. — This may be a very simple building, but
should always be provided on farms where wood is used for fuel
It should be very near the kitchen, unless a special wood-room
is done off in the house, and access to it should be had without
going out of doors. In any case it should not be far from the
dwelling. The size will vary with the size of the family, number
of fires kept, and quantity of wood which is used. It should
be large enough to hold rather more wood than is needed in any
ordinary year. This, too, without building the piles much higher
than a man can reach comfortably when standing on the floor.
There should be a tight floor over the wood-room. This maybe
reached by stairs, and will furnish a good place for the storage
of many things which are often needed on the farm, and for
which there seems to be. no other convenient. location. The.

116 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

buildings should be closely boarded and the roof kept in good
repair. The wood ought never to be laid upon the ground ; but
a good floor should be provided for the whole building. The
front should be made of doors which can be opened when
desired, and there should be one or more windows to admit the
light.

Closets avd Vaults. — Not one farmer in a hundred is so
situated that he can have the water-closet which is in common
use in cities, but this is no reason why the great majority should
furnish only small, leaky, inconvenient buildings, located so far
from the house, or in such badly exposed situations, that the
women and children will never go to them when it is possible
to prevent it, or will be obliged to run the risk of catching a
severe cold ever}'' time they venture there. No small amount of
ill-health is caused in this way every year. But there are two
other, and great, sources of danger connected with the ordinary
closet as found on the. farm — sources from which thousands of
deaths result every year, and by which the seeds of disease are
sown in the systems of thousands who do not at once succumb
to the evil, but baffle it for a while, yet only in a multitude of cases
to be defeated in the not distant future. These are the fouling
of the air and the poisoning of the water. Many of the clos-
ets have no means of deodorization, and no effort is made to
prevent the liquid portion of their contents from passing freely
into the ground. In the former manner the great majority of
these closets work an immense amount of mischief, but an
amount which they would greatly exceed in the other respect,
were it not for the fact that they are located so far from the
houses and wells. But many of them are near enough to wells
to taint them and work deadly mischief The earth possesses
the power to filter poisonous liquids to some extent, but this
power is gradually lost, and in time the soil becomes filled with
poison and then cannot purify the water passing through it.
Thus it happens that there is seldom trouble with the well at a

FARM BUILDINGS. 117

new liouse. Even though the closet may be dangerously near,
the soil, for a while, wards off the evil. But the time comes when
all the earth between the closet and the well is foul, and the day
of reckoning is then at hand. The inmates of the house
mysteriously (to them) lose their health. Headaches, neuralgia,
liver troubles, blood-poisons, and typhoid fevers, become
frequent and dangerous visitors. The doctors are called and
medicines are poured down. As the ihvalids drink but little
cold water a temporary relief is obtained. Those who drink
water only after it has beerj boiled partially escape. But ill-health
is the rule, and un':imely deaths will b^ almost sure to occur.
. That terrible scourge, diphtheria, is often caused by foul wells and
a poisoned soil. Probably not one farmer in a thousand realizes
the tremendous danger attending these old-fashioned closets.
If far from the house, they are, in bad weather, practically in-
accessible to the women and younger children ; they foul the
air, and if located above the level of the house and the soil is
porous, a communication is soon established with the well. If
near by, the air is poisoned and the water is soon spoiled.
This is a terrible evil. Physicians realize it, but there are few
men who have not made a special study of the matter v/ho have
any adequate idea of the amount of the evil which has already
been accomplished, or the danger which is lurking in the
present and the future. But all this evil can be avoided in new
places and remedied in old localities. But little expense need
be involved. Care and skill are the main requisites. The closet
should be placed in some spot which is sheltered from the
storms and hidden from the road. It should be reached without
going out of doors. If this is impossible, thick rows of ever--
greens, or a high, tight fence may serve as a wind-break, and '
also shield the passer from observation. The vault should be
cemented upon the bottom and all its sides. Dry muck, road
dust, or coal-ashes, should be used every day as a deodorizer
and absorbent.

118 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

The closet should be large enough to hold two or three
barrels of this material. From two to four quarts of either of
these substances thrown down every day, half in the morning
and the remainder at night, will keep the air pure and prevent
all danger of injury to the well, if the latter is not too near by.
If at any time an odor should arise, more dust must be thrown
down. No soap-suds, or slops of any kind, should ever
be turned into the vault. The closet should be set upon
a cemented wall a little above the surface of the land ; the back
walls should slope a little, projecting farther at the bottom than
the top, and the vault be closed by a plank-door coated with
gas-tar on the inside, and painted on the outside. This door
should be hung on hinges so that it can be readily opened, and
a hook should be provided to keep it up when necessary to
clean the vault. The door must also be so hung as to fit the
projecting walls, hold down by its own weight, and shut per-
fectly tight. With such simple and inexpensive arrangements
as these, the terrible evils which have been pointed out, and
from which thousands of farmers' families are reaping a harx'est
of disease and death, may be avoided. But there must be no
neglect. The deodorizer must be used every day. In addition
to keeping the air and water pure, this plan also obviates all
difficulty in clearing out the vaults, as the contents will be
perfectly inoffensive.

The Tool-House. — Upon large farms there certainly ought
to be a building devoted expressly to the storage of tools and
machines. The spare room in the wagon-shed, which has been
indicated for this purpose on small farms, will be wholly in-
adequate on large ones. That wagons ought to be fully
protected from the weather the majority of good farmers
understand. But many of the tools and machines in common
use upon large farms are as valuable as ordinary wagons, while
some of them are much more expensive. It is utterly ruin-
ous to allow reapers, mowers, hay-tedders, grain-drills, plows.

FARM BUILDINGS. 119

harrows, and similar implements, to remain exposed to the
destructive influences of the weather. A plain, cheap build-
ing should therefore be erected for their preservation. This
should be located near the barn, so that no time and travel shall
be lost in getting the teams to where the tools are kept. The
size of the structure should depend upon the number of im-
plements in use upon the farm. The building should be tightly
covered, provided with windows, and have plenty of doors
which can be securely fastened. A good floor should be made
a little above the ground. This can be made of a low grade of
planks so that its expense will be light. It is not well to have
machines stand upon the ground, as there will inevitably be a
dampness arising from it which will rust the iron wheels and
gears and Swell the wood-work. About seven feet above this
ground-floor should be a scaffold, upon which rakes, forks,
baskets, and many of the lighter implements in use upon the
farm, may be stored. This floor should be perfectly tight, and
be reached by stairs on the inside of the building. Pegs, nails,
and shelf-room should be provided in abundance, and there
should be plenty of room for the storage of all implements for
which no more suitable place has been supplied.

The Repair-Shop. — This is also a great convenience, almost
a necessity, on a large farm. Tools are constantly getting worn,
or broken, or loosened, or need cleaning, or painting, or some
simple repairs. If he had a good place in which to do it many
a farmer might repair a large part of his tools, and if this work
were done as soon as needed, a vast amount of money would be
saved. It is now too often the case that machines are run as
long as possible and then sent off for repairs. In this way the
tools are badly injured and great expense is incurred. A farmer
who is handy with carpenters' and blacksmiths' tools could
attend to these matters at once and thus save both the wear and
the expense. There will be many jobs which he cannot do, but
he will find many more which he can perform, and by doing

120 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

them he can save much time and money. This shop may be a
plain, closely boarded, well-lighted, one-story building, with a
loft for storing boards and light pieces of timber. There should
be a doorway wide enough to take in a farm-wagon or hay-
tedder. There ought to be a good floor, a work-bench on one
side with racks and shelves to hold the tools, two or three good
horses upon which planks or farm-tools can be laid, while a
forge, and a good lathe, will add greatly to the completeness of
the structure. In this room mowing machines may be cleaned
and oiled, wagon-bodies painted, wheels and axles repaired, rake
teeth put in, and a large number of small but necessary jobs
performed. In order to make the room comfortable in winter,
when much of the repairing should be done, a small, tight stove
should be put up, and the pipe, as also the pipe to the forge, if
one is used, should go into a substantial chimney. This build-
ing should be located near the house, but in such a position that
there will be no danger to the other structures from the sparks
which may escape from the chimney.

The Store-House. — This is also a great convenience upon
large farms. It should be located near the house, and may be
very plain, but should be closely boarded, well lighted, with a
wide door and a strong lock. In this room bins should be
made, clean barrels stored, and shelves placed against the walls.
The floor should be about two feet above the ground, so as to
guard against dampness, and very closely laid. The size and
shape of this building must be modified by the wants of the
owner. On small farms this structure will not be a necessity,
though it would often prove a great convenience. It would fur-
nish a place for the ripening and curing of fruit, the drying of
nuts, and the storage of roots during the fall, as well as answer
a multitude of other purposes.

We have treated the subject of farm buildings at considerable
length because we believe it to be one of great importance to
the farmer. Without suitable buildings his health, the health

THE CAPACITY OF A FARM. 12]

of his family, and the thrift of his stock, will be sacrificed ; his
crops will be damaged by exposure to the elements, and his
whole business will be carried on at a great, and constantly
increasing, disadvantage. The buildings need not be costly.
Mere ornament is not required. If it is necessary to practice a
close economy, let that economy be exhibited in other directions,
but not in the form of neglect to provide suitable buildings for
the protection of the fruits of the farmer's toil. Plain, substan-
tial buildings are a great necessity, and no farm can be profitably
managed without them. The attempt to do without them shows
a want of appreciation of their benefits, and is usually an indica-
tion that a " penny wise pound foolish " policy is being pursued

THIS CiiFil.€ITT^ 0'F B. l"il.HM»

HE actual rate of production is not, in all cases, an accu-
rate standard by which to measure the productive
capacity of a farm. There are a great many farms
which are not now producing anything like the quan-
tity of hay and grain which might be grown upon them. Prob-
ably the great majority fall far below their possibilities for pro-
duction. On the other hand, a few have been made, by high
cultivation and the use of excessive quantities of stimulating
manures, to exceed their natural capacity. Consequently, a
stranger can form but a very imperfect idea of the real value of
a farm by its appearance. Some men have boasted that if they
could see the crops growing they could tell pretty nearly what.
the farm would do. But this alone will do nothing towards
determining the qirestion. We have seen splendid land, which
was capable of producing large crops, which was almost barren,
while, within a short distance, there was a very poor farm which
was growing extremely large crops. A stranger who should
judge merely by the appearance of the crops would be almost

122 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

sure to be deceived. The manure which is applied and the cul-
tivation which the land receives does far more toward determin-
ing the quantity of the crops than the mere capacity of land.
The best of land may be so badly cultivated as to appear almost
worthless, while land which was naturally poor has been made
excessively rich. A stranger seeing the crops on these two
fields would be almost certain to call the good poor and the
poor good. It would not be safe for him to reason that because
the poor land had been brought up to a high rate of production
therefore it must now be good. Just as well say that because a
man is very strong while" wild with a fever he will be strong as
long as he lives. His unusual strength is caused by his disease.
As soon as that leaves him he will be as weak as a child. So it
is with land which has been forced to an unnaturally high rate
of production. There is no more productive power in the land
than there was before large crops were obtained. These crops
were the result of high manuring and extra cultivation. Just as
soon as these cease the large crops will become things of the
past. Consequently, in buying a farm the mere condition of the
crops should not be allowed to have too great influence. The
quantity and quality of the fertilizers which have been applied,
the character of the crops which have been grown, and the
degree of cultivation which has been given, should be taken into
the account.

This subject is of interest not only to men who are about buy-
ing land, but to every one who is both owner and manager of a
farm. There are a great many farmers who have no accurate
idea of the productive powers of their own farms. This does
not, in all cases, indicate any special want of care or lack of
obser\'ation. It takes a long time, and many experiments, to
accurately determine the capacity of a farm. A field may do
nicely when in grass, and the owner may consider it a splendid
piece of land ; but when he comes to plant corn, or sow oats, or
barley, or wheat, he may find that for one, or all, of these crops

THE CAPACITY OF A FARM. 123

it is not at all adapted. A man may have a piece of land which
he considers of no special value, but which may be well adapted
to some crop which he has never grown. There are farms
which have resources of which their owners have hardly
dreamed. We do not refer to those upon which coal, or oil, or
metals may be found, but shall confine our attention to the
strictly agricultural products.

Whatever he may have done or neglected to do in the past,
it will certainly pay the farmer well to carefully determine the
productive capacity of his farm. He ought to know what crops
he can grow to advantage and the quantity of each which he can
produce. Even in New England, where the land has long been
under cultivation, there are many farms which now produce but
little, yet which are capable of becoming very productive. There
is land which has been in grass so long that it produces but
little, and the owner, having never seen anything else growing
upon it, does not know whether a fair crop of grain can be
obtained. Such fields should be plowed and tested. Cases
have occurred where land which had been kept long in grass
produced only very light crops, although repeatedly top-dressed,
but which proved, when plowed and planted, to be some of the
best land of the whole farm. If this process had been com-
menced sooner, the land would have produced at least twice as
much grass, with no additional expense for fertilizers. It is
sometimes the case that land will produce good crops of some
kind of grain which the owner is confident will not grow thereon.
In our native place there was a large tract of flat, and rather
cold, land which from time immemorial had been used solely
for pasture. It was owned by a large number of men whose
farms ran directly across it. One farmer determined to plow
a small piece and see if he could not obtain a crop of corn.
His neighbors were confident that corn would not succeed in
that location. But he plowed the land, applied a moderate
quantity of manure, and put in the seed. The result was a great

124 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

success. The next year the experiment was repeated, and a
good crop was secured. Other farmers tried the same plan and
were successful. The land which was supposed to be very poor
has now been growing corn, oats, and grass for thirty years, and
is considered more valuable than some of the fields which were
formerly thought to be far superior. The experiment of this
farmer in planting land which was thought to be unsuited to
cultivation, not only proved a great benefit to himself, but also
opened a large tract of really good land for culture and gave
many other farmers an opportunity to largely increase the profits
of their business and add to the value of their farms. It is not
to be expected that every experiment will result as favorably as
this, but there are a great many farmers who might largely
increase their crops if they would test the capacity of their land.
Too many farmers work after the manner of their fathers,
and have an idea that because certain crops never were grown
on their land, therefore the land is not at all suited to their pro-
duction. But it is not at all certain that this will be the case.
Because no wheat has ever been grown on a certain field, it does
not necessarily follow that no wheat ever can be produced there.
Neither does the fact that the farmers of former generations
thought certain tracts of lands would not grow certain crops,
prove anything upon the subject. Even if they had tried these
crops and been unsuccessful, this would not be absolute proof
that efforts now made in the same direction would result in
failure. There have been certain climatic changes since their
day which may exert a favorable influence. These changes
have been, apparently, very slight, but they have been sufficient
in some sections to considerably modify the results of culti-
vating certain crops. This modification may make it still more
difficult to grow the doubtful crops, but there is an equal chance
that it will prove beneficial. Again, the methods of cultivation
now in use are much more perfect than those with which our
predecessors were acquainted, and this difference alone may

THE CAPACITY OF A FARM. 125

make all the variation which will be necessary to turn uttei
failure into brilliant success. Another respect in which the
farmers of the present day have an immense advantage over
those of the past is to be found in the great improvement of
varieties which has been secured. It is now easy to obtain
much hardier and more productive varieties of wheat than any
which our fathers ever saw. These varieties will grow, and
ripen, and be very productive on land where the old kinds
would not succeed. The same principle applies to corn and
oats with equal force. Except in the case of crops which are
wholly out of their sphere, and which from the very nature of
the case cannot be grown, the only way in which to determine
whether any particular crop will be successful in a certain field
is to put the matter to a practical test. Actual trial is the only
way in which there can be anything like a correct settlement of
the question. This trial need not be made on a large scale. It
is not necessary to plow the whole of a twenty-acre field in
order to prove that the land can be plowed. And in testing the
adaptation of any special crop to the soil, it is not best to do
too much at once. A small area will determine the question as
well as a large one. If the experiment is a success, the crop
can be grown the next season on a larger scale. If it fails,
a repetition should be made, as the failure may be wholly owing
to local and unusual circumstances. But in no case should the
first experiment with an untested and an uncertain crop be made
on a large scale.

There are many farms which are specially adapted to the
production of certain crops, but which are not valuable for
ordinary farm purposes. The farmer who owns such land, and
understands its capacities, is sometimes enabled to obtain very
large returns. The cranberry lands of New Jersey and Massa-
chusetts were once considered almost worthless. But when
the owners came to understand the capacity of these "bogs"
and " flats," they found that they had some of the most pro-

126 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

ductive land in the country. There are other crops which are
not adapted to general cultivation, but which will thrive in
some peculiar soils and which can be made very profitable for
the farmers who engage in their production. Not only should
those who seem to have special privileges in this direction make
careful experiments in order to determine the capacity of their
farms, but those who have only the common soils, and grow
only the ordinary crops, should not be contented with the
present yield of their products unless they have proved that the
limit of profitable production has already been reached. Many
a man is cutting only a ton, or a ton and a half of hay per acre
each year from land which might just as well produce two tons.
Others are buying the breadstuffs for family use, while they have
plenty of land on which they might grow good crops of wheat.
Some who have followed the old system of farming have very
little idea of the increase of crops which they might secure if
they would, by the application of fertilizers, and by thorough
cultivation, test the productive capacity of their land. We
think that there is such a thing as crowding up the rate of
production too high, but not one farmer in a thou.sand ever errs
in this direction. The great majority are too well satisfied with
a low yield. If they obtain a ton and a half of hay from an acre,
they do not think of asking whether the same land might not
be made, without much extra cost, to produce tv.o tons. If
they get fifty bushels of corn per acre, they do not ask whether
the land is capable of yielding sevent\--five bushels. Neither
are they as careful as they should be to determine whether
their land is best adapted to corn, or wheat, or some other crop.
In short, they have not thoroughly tested their farms, and do
not know the oroductive capacity of their land in regard to the
quantity of the crops which they grow, and have not determined
the important question from which of the crops they do or can
produce they can obtain the largest percentage of profit. On
this account many farmers are working at a great disadvantage.

ANAL YSJS OF SOILS. 127

They are very much in the dark concerning their business.
They know that if a merchant made no effort to sell those
classes of goods which pay a fair profit he could not succeed.
They ought to see that it is just as important that they should
obtain a profit on the crops which they produce. If they know
juot what crops will pay them the best, and then grow those
crops to the best advantage, they will be very sure to obtain large
returns ; while if they are ignorant of the capacity of their
farms, or neglect to obtain from their land all that they might
and ought to secure, their business will not be profitable, and
they will soon be complaining that " farming don't pay."

MMl^l^^BtB OF BQtlM.

ITT ' WENT Y-FIVE years ago it was thought, by men who
I had made scientific agriculture a close study, that by
(op^^, means of an analysis the degree of fertility of any^soil
^G could be accurately determined. It was supposed that
by this method the chemist could tell the farmer which crops
would yield him the largest quantity per acre, which were best
adapted to each particular field, and what kind and quantity of
fertilizers would be needed to keep his land constantly pro-
ductive. But when brought to the great test of practical
application, there were found to be two objections to the plan.
In the first place it was very expensive. Unless there were a
reasonable degree of certainty that a great deal of practical and
useful information could be obtained, the farmer could not
afford to invest the amount of money which is required to
make anything like a complete analysis of the soil in the
different fields of his farm. But the second objection was still
stronger than the first. Not only was it costly, but it was also
just about useless. It did show the farmer the constituents of
the soil, but it did not show him", what it was fully as important
for him to know, what elements were in a condition in which

128 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

they could be assimilated by the crops. It had been supposed
tiiat if a soil contained large quantities of the elements of which
the crops to be grown were composed, it would certainly be
very productive. But in practice it was found that because a
certain field contained large quantities of potash, or phosphoric
acid, or lime, it did not follow that it would produce large crops.
The chemist, with his powerful agents, can obtain from certain
soils the elements of fertility in great abundance, while a large
proportion of these elements exist in such a condition that the
plants can make no possible use of them. For all present prac-
tical purposes these soils are barren, but if they were to be
judged by the results of a chemical analysis, they would be
considered extremely valuable. In order to be productive
the soil must not only contain the materials of which plants are
composed, but must have them well distributed throughout the
surface of the land, and they must be in a condition in which
they can readily be used by the crops. The mechanical con-
dition of the soil has ver>' much to do with its productiveness.
Of this fact the chemical analysis makes no account. But in a
practical point of view it is one of the determining forces which
regulate the yield of the crops. If a soil is extremely hard, it
is easy to see that the weak roots of plants cannot easily pene-
trate it. No matter how much plant-food it may contain, a very
large proportion of it is locked up in the soil beyond the reach
of the crops, and is. therefore, practically useless.

On the other hand, a soil may be quite deficient in the
elements which plants require, and yet be so loose and open
that the roots can reach every part of it and obtain all the food
which there is. According to the chemist such a soil would be
nearly worthless, but for practical purposes it would be more
valuable than the other. Again, it has been often proved that
a mixture of different soils, such as clay and sand, has produced
much larger crops than either kind had grown before the change
was made. Although the chemist would have said that the

ANALYSIS OF SOILS. 129

clay was by far the most fertile, and it would naturally follow
that an intermingling of a poorer kind of soil would instantl5
deteriorate its quality, yet the invariable effect of such an
operation is a large and immediate increase of its productive
power. From this it will be seen that, as far as a thorough
analysis of the soil is concerned, the farmer has but very little
to hope from the aid of the chemist. It must not be inferred,
however, that the farmer is not indebted to the chemist, and
that the great science of chemistry can throw no light upon the
course which the farmer should pursue. Far from it. Chemistry
cannot do everything, it is true. In some respects it has failed
to do all which it was hoped would be accomplished by its aid.
But in many respects it has proved an immense advantage to the
farmer, and it is every day aiding him in his work. Even
though the direct analysis proves imperfect, chemistry teaches
the farmer how to test his soils so as to determine the character
of the fertilizers which they require. It shows him the com-
position of the various plants which he cultivates, and the quan-
tities of each of the fertilizing elements which an average crop
abstracts from the soil. In many other ways it also proves a
great help in the work of the farm.

That every farmer ought to know what elements of fertility
his land contains in excess, and in what ones it is deficient, is so
plain a truth that it needs only to be stated in order to be
generally accepted. And because chemical analysis fails to give
all the knowledge which is desired upon this subject, it by no
means follows that this knowledge cannot be obtained. Not only
is it not beyond the reach of the careful and intelligent farmer,
but the results of chemical analyses make its attainment com-
paratively easy. Chemistry teaches us that plants take a large
part of their constituents directly, or indirectly, from the air,
and the remainder from the soil. Though there is a great
difference in the quantity of materials, both classes are abso
lutely necessary for the growth and perfection of the plant

130 FARMIXG I OR PROFIT.

Even if there were an unlimited amount of the atmospheric and
organic elements within reach of the plants, they would not
thrive if the supply of a single one of the mineral ingredients
were deficient. There might be more nitrogen in the soil than ten
crops could require, and all in a condition to be used, together
with a arge over-supply of most of the mineral elements, yet
if there were a deficiency in any one of the constituents of the
plant the growth would be imperfect, and large crops could not
be produced. It is also impossible for an excess of one mineral
to counterbalance the deficiency of another. Potash and
phosphoric acid are both required in certain well-defined quan-
tities, but one cannot take the place of the other, and too much
of one will not in the least help a short supply of the other.
Consequently, if any one of the principal elements of plant
nutrition becomes exhausted, or so nearly exhausted that it
cannot furnish an adequate supply, the crops will be small until
this element is restored to the soil. The element to be supplied
in any given case is not to be determined by an analysis, as was
formerly supposed, but by careful experiment. Only a very
few of the elements are at all likely to become exhausted. Of
these the principal mineral ingredients are phosphoric acid and
potash, while nitrogen is the only organic element which the
farmer needs to supply. It is, therefore, very easy to test the
requirements of a field. By applying nitrogen upon one plot,
phosphoric acid upon another, and potash upon a third, and
carefully noting the effect, the owner can very soon tell which of
these materials the soil needs the most, and can form a very
good estimate of the proportions in which they should be applied.
In some cases the application of one of these elements will be
sufficient, while in others all three may be required. This point
can be readily settled by intelligent observation. The expense
involved in making these experiments is very small. The pub-
lishers of the American Agriculturist, Professor Atwater, of
Connecticut, and the " Mapes Formula and Peruvian Guano

' ANAL YSIS OF SOILS. 131

Co.," have made an arrangement whereby this question of
the needs of the soil may be very easily answered.

The various fertilizers for supplying the different elements of
plants are put up in small quantities, sufficient for one acre of
land, which is to be divided into ten equal parts, and sold at
cost. Full instructions for use accompany each sample which
is sent out. To the farmer who has soils which are partially
exhausted, this is one of the greatest aids which has ever been
offered, and it can also be made very useful to those whose land
is in good condition, and who wish to keep it constantly pro-
ductive at as low cost as possible. Of course, the farmer can, if
he prefers, select his own materials and try his experiments with-
out either instruction or aid from others. He can obtain and use
a supply of potash in the form of wood-ashes, he can obtain
a quantity of fish-guano and thus supply his land with nitrogen,
and he can buy a lot of bones and obtain phosphoric acid. But
in the latter method there is much uncertainty, and though the
application of any, or all, of these materials will be almost sure
to be highly beneficial some time, it will not enable the farmer
to determine either readily or accurately just what are the present
requirements of his land. It is not an economical manner in
which to conduct his experiments. Though very much better
than nothing, it is very far from being the best method which
he can pursue. He needs to know not merely what will make
plants grow, but what particular elements of plant-food his soil
needs at the present time. The results of general experiments
will not prove sufficiently accurate to be a safe guide in. future
and more extensive operations.

132 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

HEN wc approach the subject of plant life and growth, we
come into the presence of a great mystery. We cast a
small seed into the earth. For months, perhaps for
years, that seed has been lying dormant. As far as
mere appearance is concerned it seems as devoid of life as the
stones in the field. But its dull and lifeless covering contains
a germ which under certain favorable circumstances will be
developed into a complete organism. The moisture of the earth
causes the seed to swell, and, in a short time, a tiny stalk pushes
itself toward the light and air, while a little root starts down-
ward into the earth. The dormant seed has become a living
thing, and, if no untoward event befalls it, will produce a plant
which will ripen many seeds, each after its own kind, and each
possessing the mysterious powers of life and reproduction. The
development of the little seed into the larger plant, its growth,
its ripening, and its provision for an unbroken succession of the
plants of its kind, are, in themselves, simple operations, but they
indicate the existence of a Cre.\tor, an Infinite One, whose
wisdom is utterly beyond our comprehension, and who is pos-
sessed of almighty power. We can see the various processes
of grov/th, and we can facilitate or retard them if we choose.
Man can stimulate the growth of the seed and can make the
plant far more productive than it was in its natural state. By
care in saving and storing them he can preserve the life of many
kinds of seeds for a long period ; but when, from any cause, the
seed has lost its vitality, he can no more supply the life-giving
principle than he can create a world. We know that under cer-
tain circumstances seeds which have not been injured will grow,
and we also know that certain conditions, many of which we can
control, are highly favorable to the rapid development of plants.
Of the knowledge at our command we should make all the prac-
tical use which we possibly can, for, upon our attention to, or

PLANT LIFE AND GROWTH.

133

neglect of, this, the question of success or faikire in practical
farm-life will very greatly depend. Leaving, then, with reverent
awe the great mystery of life which is wrapped up, in some man-
ner to us utterly incomprehensible, in every well-developed seed,
let us consider our subject in its purely practical bearings.

The vast majority of the plants with which the farmer has to"
do are grown from the seed. As already shown, after the seed
has been deposited in the earth and has absorbed sufficient
moisture, the growth of the plant begins in opposite directions.
Figure 8 represents the germination of a kernel of Indian Corn.
Figure 9 shows the same plant after the first leaves
have appeared. Within the seed there is stored a
quantity of food to supply the wants of the plant
until its roots are sufficiently developed to secure
nourishment from the soil and its leaves are larsre
enough to perform their respiratory and absorbent
functions. From these facts the great importance of
a suitable condition of the soil, and of placing the
seed at the proper depth can be readily inferred. If
the land in which the seed is planted is full of water,
germination will be greatly retarded if not altogether
prevented. For, while a certain degree of moisture
is absolutely necessary to the growth of plants, too
much v/ater will be utterly ruinous, as it will cause the seed to
decay. The young plant possesses but little strength, and it is
important that the soil in which it is to grow should be very fine,
but not extremely compact. If the land is full of clods, and
there is little or no fine earth, the roots cannot obtain a sufficient
supply of nourishment to hasten the growth of the plants. Even
though the. soil may be very rich in plant-food, if its mechanical
condition is such that the feeble roots cannot avail themselves
of it, they are no better . off than they would be in an utterly
barren field. Many a farmer does not obtain anything like the
crops which he might secure if he would only fit his land for the

FIO. S.

134

FARMING FOR PROFIT.

reception of the seed in such a manner that, during the early
part of their lives, the plants could easily obtain all the food
which is necessary for their rapid growth.

Not only should the soil be pulverized, but it should be left
loose and open enough to admit of the ready and easy passage
of the roots of the plants. Otherwise, though the soil may be
very rich, the plants cannot grow rapidly because the food which

is so near them is almost as unavailable
as it would be if it were in a distant
field. Roots cannot penetrate a stone,
and they can make but little better
progress in their efforts to enter sOme
kinds of soil which have not been well
worked. In many hard soils the roots
of plants will attain considerable length
if they can once get started, but will
utterly fail if the surface soil is not
made fine and mellow.

The depth to which the seed is
planted often determines the question
of its life and full development or its
early destruction. If the seed is not
covered sufficiently it will not obtain
enough moisture to insure its growth.
It may start, but if the moisture proves
insuflFicient, its growth will be checked
If only covered deep enough to enable
it to barely live, it is evident that the seed and plant must be
placed at certain disadvantages, and be much more liable to
injury by drought or accident than they would if it had been
properly covered. Too deep covering is also ruinous because
the supply of food stored in the seed will not be sufficient to
carry the stem and leaves to the light and air, without which
they must perish. This explains why large seeds require much

FIG. 9.

and the plant will die

PLANT LIFE AND GROWTH. 135

deeper covering than smaller ones, why very small seeds should
be but slightly covered, and also proves a partial answer to the
question why so many seeds which are planted fail to grow.
With some seeds, like the sorgo, which germinate very slowly,
and which, on this account, are liable to fail in unfavorable sea-
sons, it pays the farmer to do what he can to hasten the process
of germination. By soaking the seeds for a while, from twelve
hours to three or four days according to the character of the
seeds and the degree of difficulty with which they germinate, in
tepid water, they will be more certain to grow, and the plants
will come through the ground very much sooner than they
otherwise would. When it is necessary to plant corn very late
in the season, it is a good plan to soak the seed until the kernels
are considerably swelled. It should then be rolled in plaster
and may be planted with a machine if desired. When seeds
have been kept so long that their vitality has become somewhat
impaired, soaking in a weak solution of oxalic acid will cause
them to germinate. In this way, if they have been well pro-
tected from moisture, very old seeds of some kinds of plants
can be made to gro\y. But unless there is some special reason
for making the attempt, it does not pay to even test these old
seeds.

With but very few exceptions, new seeds furnish the best
crops. When the seed is good, we do not think it often pays
to soak it in order to hasten its germination. The only excep-
tions which we make in our practice are, when planting sorgo,
planting over corn very late in the season, and, once in a great
while, when in a hurry to get a few plants started in the garden
or the flower-bed. Whenever we have reason to think that the
seed which \ye have obtained for planting is not fresh and good,
instead of soaking it we throw it away and buy a new lot.
Time is too valuable, and labor too expensive, to make it
profitable to run any risk on the quality of seeds. Good plants,
if grown at all, will be grown from good seed. It is not

136 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

sufficient that the seed is not so old that it will not grow. It
must not be so old as to have lost a particle of its vigor. There
is a great deal of seed which will barely grow, but which will
not produce vigorous plants. Such seeds should never be used.
After the plants have appeared above the ground, both roots
and tops should grow with great rapidity. This rapid growth
is essential. If it is not secured, the cultivator will not obtain a
valuable crop. Whether the plants will grow in this manner or
not, depends, in a great measure, upon the treatment which
they receive. The manner in which they grow makes it certain
that culture will be useful to plants of ever)'- description, and
may be made a great aid in the production of farm-crops. The
roots increase in length and throw out branches in all direc-
tions. While they are new and fresh, nearly all their surface is
engaged in absorbing from the soil the moisture in which the
plant-food is dissolved. By making the soil loose and open,
the farmer can enable the roots to make a very rapid growth.
The loosening of the soil also acts beneficially in time of
drought, as it tends to condense the moisture of the air in the
form of dew. When rain falls, the water can be used to much
better advantage if the soil is light and open, than it can in a
field in which the surface-soil is very compact. This loosening
can be secured b}- the use of a cultiv^ator, plow or horse-hoe.
The same end can also be secured by following the method, in
use in some parts of the South, of growing the crops on ridges
of three or four furrows each, which are plowed just before
planting time. As the roots increase in length, another furrow
is occasionally plowed each side of the ridge. Thus, the roots
are constantly supplied with fresh soil, which furnishes them
with the food which it contains. If the end of a root is cut
off, it does not continue growing in that direction, but sends
out branches with many fibrous roots, which in a rich soil
obtain large quantities of food, and thus hasten the grov^th and
development of* the plant. On this account root-pruning may

PLANT LIFE AND GROWTLL 137

prove very useful, if performed when the plants are properly
developed.

The stems form a connection between the tops and roots of
plants, and thus furnish a mechanical support to the flowers and
seeds. They also convey the nutriment, which the roots have
secured from the soil and the leaves have obtained from the air, to
all parts of the plant, thus providing for its symmetrical develop-
ment. The leaves of plants are also vital organs. Through their
leaves the plants secure the immeasurable benefits of the sunlight
and air. They are the lungs of the plants, and their removal, when
fully developed, will prove as destructive as the cutting away of
the tops or roots. They inhale carbonic acid gas, and exhale
water and oxygen. To quite an extent, nutritive gases are also
absorbed by the leaves, and the vast quantities oi surplus water,
which are taken up by the roots, are evaporated by their aid.
The number of pores in a single leaf is very large. On the
under side of the apple tree leaf, there are twenty-four thousand
of these pores for every square inch of surface. Through these
pores respiration is constantly going on, and in the leaves the
nutritive matter which the plant has secured is elaborated and
fitted for the growth and development of the whole structure.

Plants are liable to certain diseases, and to be injured or
destroyed by insects which prey upon them. As far as the dis-
ease of any one plant is in itself concerned, it is of but little
consequence, and it would be time and money lost to attempt
to eftect a cure. One stalk of wheat, or one ear of corn, would
not be missed from the smallest field ; consequently, it is use-
less to attempt any cure of the individual plant. But when we
reflect that a disease of one stalk may endanger every other
stalk in the field, and that one insect will be almost sure to be
very soon reinforced by thousands like itself, it becomes evident
that the outbreak of a disease, or the appearance of insects, even
on a small scale, or in limited numbers, is a very serious matter.
The fungoid diseases, like rust and smut, with which wheat,

138 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

oats and other grains are so often attacked, and which prove so
destructive to the crops, spread with great rapidity. The first
appearance of either of these diseases may be in itself con-
sidered of little moment, but its results upon the crops for the
next few years will be ruinous, if it is allowed to go on devel-
oping and multiplying itself. Here, as in a multitude of other
cases, prevention is worth a great deal more than cure. The
only reasonable hope of checking either of these diseases is
by preventing their appearance in the next crop. When any
particular crop is attacked, that crop cannot be cured. If
the owner succeeds in stopping the trouble there, he will be
very fortunate. But he must take stringent measures, or his
crop for the next year will suffer much worse. If smut is the
enemy, great care must be taken, not only that no badly affected
grains are used for seed, but all the spores, which are the
minute organs by which this disease is propagated, must be
destroyed. In selecting seed-wheat from an affected field, it
will not be enough to reject all the heads or kernels which are
discolored. Every kernel which is to be sown should be
immersed in very strong brine. Many of the lighter grains,
and they are the ones which are most liable to be diseased, will
rise to the top, and should be thrown away.

While in the brine, the grain should be stirred in order to
separate all the poor grains which can be made to float. After
remaining for about five minutes, it should be removed from the
water and well covered with water-slaked lime. This lime
should be thoroughly mixed with the grain in order to keep the
kernels from sticking together, and also that the grain may
gather as large a quantity of it as can be made to adhere.
When rust is the disease with which the farmer is obliged to
contend, the same care should be exercised in the selection of
seed, and the soil should be supplied with the elements which
will insure vigorous plant-growth. On some soils ashes will
produce this result. Others need phosphoric acid, while on

PLANT LIFE AND GROWTH. 139

some fields salt would prove a great help. It should always be
remembered that weakness in a plant invdtes an attack from
these fungoid diseases, and that the weaker the plant the greater
the injury which an attack will produce.

The same principle applies to the injuries by insect depreda-
tions. If the land is poor, or is not suited to the crop, if the
plants are feeble and make very slow growth, insects will be
almost certain to make an attack, and, principally because the
plants are so weak, do a great deal of damage. Although it
reduces the crop from what it would be if no enemy appeared,
yet even the Hessian fly will not prevent a good yield of wheat
on land which is fitted for the crop, and which is abundantly
supplied with all the elements of nutrition which the plants
require. If the very best seed is selected, so that strong and
rapidly growing plants will be produced, and these plants are
constantly supplied with all the food they can use, and that
food is in a condition in which they can use it as rapidly as
wanted, the vigor of the plant will overcome the depressing
influence of the insect foes. These insects will absorb the
juices of the plant to quite an extent, but there will be enough
left to mature a fine crop of grain.

Insect enemies are not the only ones with which plants are
obliged to contend. There are plenty of supplanters in the form
of weeds. These weeds are subject to the same laws of growth
and development as cultivated plants. The main difference
between them is to be found in the fact that our cultivated plants
are useful to man, while the plants which are denominated weeds
are useless. Being of the same nature, and subject to the same
laws of growth, these are very formidable enemies. They can
be destroyed, it is true, but a great deal of work is involved in
the operation, and no wholesale methods can be adopted, because
any plan of this description which would destroy the weeds
would also ruin the crops. Therefore a careful selection must
be made, and the weeds separated from the plants which are to

140 FARMING I' OK PROFIT.

produce the crops. Not only docs the similarity of their natures
and methods of growth increase the difficulty of destroying the
weeds when they appear among the crops, but it also renders
their presence much more injurious than it otherwise would be.
If they used an altogether different class of elements with which
to perfect their growth, the weeds and the corn plants might
grow side by side without greatly interfering with each other.
But we find in practice that the weed takes the food which the
corn ought to use, and that the farmer who thoroughly manures
a good field can choose whether he will grow thirty bushels of
corn and a heavy crop of weeds on an acre, or fifty bushels of
corn without any weeds. There will not be plant-food enough
to mature fifty bushels of corn and the weeds. It will be a
rule to which the practical fanner will find no exceptions, that
the more weeds he grows the less the quantity of the crops
which he will obtain.

It is a peculiarity of plant-growth that without heavy and
frequent manuring no class of plants can long be successfully
grown upon, and removed from, the same piece of land. And as
a general rule, to which there are a few exceptions, unless the
fertilizers which are used are specially adapted to meet the wants
of the particular crop, even high manuring will not insure
perfect success in its long-continued cultivation upon the same
field. Something in the line of a crop can be grown b}' plant-
ing corn on the same land for many years in succession, but
unless the fertilizers are specially fitted to supply the demands
of the corn crop, the yield will steadily decrease, and will soon
fall below the limit of profitable cultivation. But if corn is
followed by wheat, and the wheat by grass, and in a few years
corn is planted again, there will be no such falling off in the
yield. The explanation of this is to be found in the fact that
while our cultivated plants are composed of very nearly the
same substances, these substances are used in very different pro-
portions by different crops. Some plants require large quan>

PLANT LIFE AND GROWTH. 141

titles of potash and but little nitrogen for their perfect develop-
ment, while others need a great deal of nitrogen and but little
potash. On this account a' change of crops not only, insures a
much larger yield than could otherwise be obtained, but it also
prevents the rapid exhaustion of the soil.

All good soils contain the elements of plant-food in vast
quantities. Chemistry has shown that the average American
soil contains potash enough to supply the wants of a fair crop
of cotton for more than twenty-five hundred successive years.
But in practice the cotton-grower finds that he must regularly
supply his soil with manures containing potash, or else be
content to produce this crop only once in a term of years. If
he attempts to grow cotton every year, without fertilizers con-
taining quite a proportion of this element, he will miserably
fail. But if he alternates cotton with corn, oats, and grass, so
that this particular crop is grown only once in six or eight
years, he will have much better success. This is explained by
the fact that of the immense amount of potash in the soil, but
a very small proportion is ever available at a time. A little can
be taken this year, and if the land has rest, or crops which use
but a small quantity of this element are grown, more can be
taken in the future. By the action of the sun, and rain, and
air, chemical and mechanical changes are constantly being made
in the soil. Day by day the disintegrating process goes on.
The land is absorbing nitrogen from the air, potash and phos-
phoric acid are being set free in the soil, and thus a supply
of plant-food is constantly being provided by nature. A
frequent change of crops draws more equally upon the supplies,
which are thus made ready for the plants, prevents the rapid
deterioration of the land which must otherwise result, and also
secures a larger percentage of profit from their production than
could be obtained if no change were effected.

While plants very closely follow the law that like produces
like, it is still true that man is able to exert a very strong modi-

142 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

fying influence upon them. By careful selection and skilful
culture, plants can be bred as truly and as exactly as animals.
Their time of reaching maturity can be hastened or delayed,
their size can be largely increased or diminished, the form of
their flowers can be changed, and they can be made much more
prolific than they are in their natural state. The gardener and
the florist make constant use of their powers in these directions,
and the practical farmer often finds it beneficial to avail himself
of the results of their efforts, and to supplement these with his
own labors in the same field. The principal changes in the
character of plants which farmers desire are those affecting
their size, time of maturing, and their yield of valuable products.
These changes are secured in various ways. When single
specimens are wanted, as a dwarf maple or walnut, the Japanese
method of severe root-pruning and frequent transplanting may
be adopted. The union of different trees by grafting will some-
times accomplish this result. The dwarfing of the pear by
grafting it upon the quince is a very common practice, and
furnishes a good illustration of the principle under consider-
ation. Garden plants may be dwarfed by frequently cutting the
roots, or by occasional transplantings. By following this plan
for several years, and carefully saving the seed of these plants,
the dwarf habit will probably become fixed. But for practical
purposes it is usually found better to increase rather than check
the ordinar}'- development of plants. By selecting the largest
specimens which can be found for seed, planting them on rich
land, using the very largest specimens which result from this
planting for seed for the next crop, and continuing this course
year after year, the size of almost any variety of grain can be
largely increased. Rich land, high culture, and careful selection
of seed, will be very certain to accomplish the desired result.

A change in the time in which any kind of grain will mature
its seed can be effected in a somewhat similar manner. For,
although plants are specially adapted to certain conditions, they

PLANT LIFE AND GROWTH. 143

have considerable flexibility in adapting themselves to the cir-
cumstances in which they may be placed. A variety of corn,
which in Canada will ripen in ninety days from the time of
planting, if taken to the Middle States, will gradually grow
larger and ripen later. Finding that it has much more time in
which to mature, it will grow with reference to a longer season
than the ones to which it had been accustomed. So rapid is
this change that farmers in Southern Massachusetts, who want
a variety of corn which will ripen early, frequently send to
Canada, or to Northern Vermont for seed. The first year
after planting, the corn ripens very early, sometimes as soon as
the middle of August, but the second year it is later, and in a
few seasons it becomes so thoroughly acclimated as to require
as much time in which to mature as the ordinary varieties need.
On the other hand, if corn is taken from a warm to a colder
climate, if the change is not so great as to wholly prevent the
ripening of the seed, a directly opposite change will take place.
The corn will ripen earlier than it did in its Southern home, and
thus adapt itself to surrounding circumstances. This is on the
supposition that natural laws are allowed to have their full
influence, and man makes no effort to check or change their
workings. But by skilful management the tendency which has
been noted can be fully controlled. If desirable, some progress
can be made toward the other extreme. By selecting the ears
of corn or heads of wheat, which ripen first, using them for seed,
and from their crops obtaining the earliest specimens, and fol-
lowing this course several successive years, all tendency to ripen
later in the season can be overcome, and a very early ripening
variety be secured. By the opposite course in selecting seed
the grain can be made to ripen much later than its natural
time.

Other things being equal, those specimens of grain are the
most valuable which are the most prolific. Consequently the
skilful farmer makes an effort to increase the yield of his crops,

144 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

not merely by increasing the fertility of his land, or by sowing
an excessive amount of seed in order to secure a very large
number of plants, but by selecting the most prolific plants
which he can find. These other methods have often been tried,
but they are defective both in theory and in practical appli-
cation. It is necessary to have the land in good condition, and
to use a suitable quantity of seed in order to secure a good
crop. But after reaching a limit which is not far beyond the
general practice of the better class of farmers, an increase in the
former direction does no good, while an increase in the latter
works positive evil. The main hope of the farmer who is to
improve the quality and increase the yield of his grain lies in
the line of a careful and intelligent selection of the seed from
which his crops arc to be produced. The quality of yielding
large crops can be made a permanent characteristic just as truly
as that of early ripening. The seed from a very prolific plant
w^ill be likely to produce other prolific plants. The farmer who
will take advantage of this characteristic of plant-growth will be
able to do much toward making his business very successful.

In their natural state, and when left to follow out their own
inclinations, the smaller plants seem to live and grow for the one
end of reproduction. When they have matured their seed, and
thus provided for a succession of their kind, they seem to have
fulfilled their mission. Soon after this end has been secured,
the plants perish and are succeeded by others. The larger
class of plants, including trees, which require many years in
which to mature, generally produce seed annually for many
successive years. But the plants in which the farmer has the
deepest interest arc comparatively small in size and short-lived.
Their reproductive functions are exercised the first or second year
of their growth. They are divided into three classes : annuals,
biennials and perennials. The former, of which corn, oats and
beans are examples, grow from seed, produce flowers, and ripen
their seed in a single season. There is no way by which they

PLANT LIFE AND GROWTH. • 145

can be kept alive more than one year. Biennials live only two
years: beets, carrots and onions, are familiar examples of this
class. In severely cold climates many biennials need protection
during the winter, or they will be destroyed by the frost.
During the first season these plants store up a large amount of
nutritive matter in bulbs or roots, with the design that this
marerial shall be used the next year to supply the wants of the
plant during its exhausting efforts to mature its seed. The
second season, if the plant reaches it unharmed, one or more
seed-stalks are thrown up, flowers are produced, the seed forms
and is ripened, and when the pod which contains it falls off, or
by splitting open allows the seed to reach the soil, the plant
dies. The bulb which grew the first year does not grow
during the second season ; and the stores of food which had
been obtained and stored within it are exhausted in the pro-
cesses of flowering and seeding. Theoretically, perennial plants
are " ever living." But many of the plants which the farmer
cultivates become weakened by age, so that it is found
profitable to ignore, to some extent at least, their perennial
nature. Some of our best grasses are perennial, but the hay
crop can be largely increased by re-seeding the land every four
or five years. The same is true of some other plants. Climate
also has some effect upon this character of plants. This is
illustrated by the cotton plant, which is an annual in this
country, but a perennial in hot climates. Whatever the length
of time which a plant has to live, it will follow a fixed order of
growth and development. When it has attained a certain age,
it will, if the. surroundings are favorable, blossom, and from the
flowers then put forth produce its seed. In some cases, as the
apple," there is a fruit with the seed enclosed. In others, like
the pea and bean, there is only the seed. The flowers of some
plants are perfect, and provide for their own fertilization and
the perfection of their seed. The apple-blossom furnishes a
good illustration. Other plants produce different flowers which

14b . ' FARMING FOR PROFIT.

are imperiect alone, but, if both are allowed to develop, are
perfect together. The common corn is a fine specimen of this
class of plants. The "tassel" is one flower; the "silk" the
other. One fertilizes the other, and secures the production of
seed. But neither one alone would be useful. If all the tassels
were removed from a field of corn as soon as they were fairly
out of their leaves, and there was no other corn in the vicinity,
there might be a fine growth of stalks and plenty of cobs, but
not a single kernel of corn would be produced in the whole
field. The preservation of the "tassels" and removal of the
" silk " would also secure the utter barrenness of the plants.
Some varieties of the strawberry have imperfect flowers, and,
though the plants may be very strong and look nicely, when
planted by themselves they will produce but very little fruit.
By setting a vigorous perfect variety in every third or fourth
row, all the plants may be made fruitful. It will be seen that
the flowers are very important organs, and are essential to the
reproduction of the plant. If the blossoms are removed or
destroyed, neither fruit nor seed can be obtaiited. If they are
weak, or imperfect in any respect, the fruit and seeds both suffer
in consequence. The essential organs to plant-reproduction are
the stamens and pistils. Plants which are perfect have both,
either in one flower, like the fertile varieties of the strawberry,
or in two, like the corn plant. The stamens secrete a fine dust
called pollen, which is received and absorbed by the pistils,
which are fecundated thereby. The pollen is scattered upon
the pistils by the winds and by insects, which in great numbers
spend much of their time in going from flower to flower. The
experiment of artificial fertilization has often been tried, but
has seldom proved beneficial. Nature seems to have made
ample provision for the preservation of the different varieties
of plants.

In order to change the character of varieties, horticulturists
sometimes resort to a process called hybridization. This is a

PLANT LIFE AND GROfVTH. I47

" crossing " of tw'o varieties which belong to species which are
very closely allied. These are the only kinds with which it can
be effected. The method which is adopted is to remove all the
stamens from the flower of one kind which is to be " crossed "
before they have deposited their pollen, and dust the pistils with
pollen from the other variety. This is done in the hope of
combining the fine qualities of both kinds in a single plant.
With fruits the qualities of hardiness and earliness possessed by
one kind can sometimes be united with the fine flavor which
distinguishes another, and thus a variety greatly superior to
either of the parents can be established. It is a difficult matter
to obtain any great degree of success in these efforts, but they
are sometimes very well rewarded. Rogers' Hybrid grapes,
some of which are veiy fine indeed, are examples of the
successful result attending some experiments in this direction.

Lest some of our practical readers should feel that we have
devoted too much space to describing how plants grow, and
imagine that we have lost sight of our expressed intention to
\xy to show how farming can be made not only a pleasant busi-
ness, but also how it can be made to pay, we will briefly allude
to some of the points which have been brought out, and show
that they have as thoroughly practical a bearing as an}'- one can
desire. Still, we think if this were omitted, and even if the
processes of plant-growth had no particular bearings of a
practical nature upon a farmer's work, the space devoted to a
consideration of this subject would be far from wr.sted. Knowl-
edge is valuable, and its possession makes a man happier than
he could be if he remained in ignorance. It gives him some-
thing about which to think. There are men so ignorant that
they work very much like their horses and oxen. Such
men are not usually successful in any sense of the term. The
farmer spends a large part of his waking hours in the great
laboratory of nature. He knows that plants grov/, for he sees

the operation going on all around him. But this should not be
10

148 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

enough. He ought to inquire how they grow, and by what
means their progress can be. increased. Especially should the
boys who work on the land be made acquainted with the prin-
ciples of plant life and growth. A little knowledge upon this
subject would make their work seem lighter, and give them a
taste for agricultural pursuits.

We have seen that the well-developed seed, which has not
been injured, is pos.sessed, in some mysterious manner, of the
undeveloped powers of life and growth. Though man cannot
impart vitality to a seed which has lost its power of germination,
he can do much to insure the prompt germination of good seeds,
and hasten the growth of the plants produced therefrom. The
fact that in the first stages of development plants are very weak,
should lead the farmer to carefully prepare his land for the
reception of the seed. For if the land is not in good condition,
the plants Avill not be able to obtain nourishment enough to give
them a vigorous start, and on account of this deficiency in the
early and critical stage of their growth, they will always be
weak, and will be comparatively unproductive.

As the plant is sustained upon the nourishment which is
stored up in the seed until its roots are sufficiently developed to
obtain food from the soil, and its leaves reach the light and air,
it is a matter of great importance that the seed shall not be
planted too deeply; while the fact that a certain degree of
moisture is necessary to insure the rapid germination of the
seeds, and hasten the growth of the plants, makes it evident
that covering to a proper depth is essential As an excess of
moisture utterly destroys the seed, the benefit of draining land
that is excessively wet is apparent. Because seeds must have
moisture before they can grow, it does not follow that they
should be planted in the water or in a water-soaked soil. The
knowledge that germination can be hastened places within
reach of the farmer the power to insure the growth of certain
•crops, which if planted after the ordinary manner are very likely

PLANT LIFE AND GROWTH. 149

to fail. It also enables him, when obliged to plant late in the
season, to obviate some of the difficulties in which he would
otherwise be involved.

A knowledge of the way in which plants grow shows the
farmer the great benefits which result from a frequent and
thorough cultivation of the land. By loosening the soil around
the plants he enables the air to penetrate it to a greater depth,
thus insuring its rapid absorption of the fertilizing gases of the
atmosphere. He also aids and hastens the disintegrating pro-
cess which nature is constantly carrying on, and by means of
which the elements of fertility which are locked up in the soil
are made available. Frequent stirring of the soil makes its
particles fine, allows them to be easily dissolved by rains and
dews, and thus sets free the plant-food which they contain. And
if the ground is kept loose and open, the roots of the crops
can readily penetrate it in search of food, and thus a rapid
growth of the plants can be secured.

By knowing something of the methods of plant-growth, the
farmer is able to labor intelligently to destroy the insects and
prevent the diseases which prey upon his crops. Ignorant
effort would avail but little. But the farmer who knows that it
is possible to feed his plants so well that there will be sufficient
food for plants and insects botJi, can easily avoid most of the
evil effects of their, depredations. The farmer who is wise-
enough to soak the seed of his grain crops in something which
will destroy the germs of disease, will thus prevent a great loss,
and be far more successful than one who thinks but little and
reads less. The farmer who knows that the weeds which grow
in cultivated crops are sustained by plant-food which the crops
ought to have will labor more intelligently, and with greater
perseverance to destroy them than one who regards them merely
as obstacles to the easy harvesting of his crops.

The man who knows that corn and potatoes take the various
elements of plant-food from the soil in very different proportions

150 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

will not commit the mistake of growing either crop on the same
land year after year, but will alternate these and other crops, and
will thus prevent the exhaustion of any of the elements from
the soil. In his change of crops he will labor intelligently, and
if he is a careful reader, he can very accurately adapt his crops
to the condition of his land and the quality of the fertilizers
which he is able to apply. His knowledge of the methods of
plant-growth will take his work out of the realm of chance.
He will not be obliged to "guess," but can be able to know
what crops to raise and how to grow them profitably.

The fact that knowledge concerning this department of his
business will enable the farmer to modify the size of his plants,
vary their time of ripening, and make them more prolific, is
abundant proof that the information given about the methods
of plant-growth is not merely theoretical, but is thoroughly
practical. While it may confer pleasure and satisfy curiosity,
it also yields great practical benefits,

A knowledge of the method in which the reproductive process
. of plants is carried on places within reach of the farmer, who
has time and patience for the work, the means of greatly
increasing the value and productiveness of his crops. It is this
knowledge worked out into practical experience which has given
the farmers of this country their best varieties of grain, their
finest fruits, and the improved potatoes which are now so com-
monly grown. It enables th^ farmer who does not feel able to
obtain new varieties to select seed in the best possible manner
from those which he already has, and to rapidly improve both
their yield and quality.

Instead of being merely theoretical, and calculated only to
gratify curiosity, knowledge upon the subject of plant life and
gro\vth is of immense advantage to the practical man who will
use it aright, and it ought to be secured by every one who tills
the soil.

FERTILIZERS, 151

E have endeavored to show that plant-growth is not a
creation, but a gradual formation, by certain well-
defined processes, of plants out of substances which are
contained in the soil and air. While man is utterly-
powerless to give life to a seed which has lost its vitality, or to
restore to vigorous growth a plant that is dead, it is possible for
him to do much to promote the growth and increase the yield
of plants which are alive. Some of the methods by which he
can accomplish this result have been already alluded to, but
their importance demands a much more careful consideration.
It is not enough to know that plants obtain food from the soil,
though this knowledge is valuable and may be made the base
for effective action. Neither is it enough to be acquainted with
the methods of plant-growth. We must go farther, and make
our knowledge available for practical use. Several of the pecu-
liarities of plants are of sufficient importance to warrant a
careful consideration by themselves. Of these, the kinds of
food which are required, and the method of obtaining it, are
among the most prominent. It is a matter in which every
farmer is deeply interested in a pecuniary point of view, and of
which he ought also to obtain all the knowledge in his power.
Let us examine this subject in connection with the fertilization
of the soil.

Plants need food just as truly as animals, and will just as
surely perish if no food is supplied. This food is obtained from
two sources : the soil and the atmosphere. Although not taken
in equal proportions, the elements from each source are, as far
as the plant is concerned, of equal value. No excess in the
amount of food from one source can atone for a deficiency from
the other. The organic and inorganic are both absolute neces-
sities. Of the former, about ninety-five parts in every one
hundred are required. Of the latter, only the remaining five

152 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

one-hundredths. The organic elements can be destroyed by fire,
and under the influence of a high degree of heat will disappear
in the form of invisible gases. The inorganic elements were
improperly named, for they are as essential to the organization
of the plant as the organic. When a plant is burned, these
inorganic elements remain in the form of ash. Though only a
very small part of the plant, this is all the substance which it
derived directly from the land. It has been estimated, however,
that on account of the existence of all the atmospheric elements
in the soil, plants really derive about one-half of their material
from the earth. The organic elements of which plants make
use are four in number: oxygen, hydrogen, carbon and nitro-
gen. Of these all except nitrogen are furnished in sufficient
quantities by nature, and this is also supplied to some extent.
As we shall have occasion to refer to this element many times,
it may be well to say that it is always obliged to undergo a
chemical change before it can be used as food for plants.
Uniting with oxygen it forms nitric acid, while in union with
hydrogen it forms ammonia. Both of these are powerful
fertilizers, but it is in the latter form that nearly all of the
nitrogen which plants use is made available. Consequently,
nitrogen and ammonia are often used as interchangeable terms.
When ammonia is spoken of, it always indicates nitrogen in a
condition immediately available for plant-food ; but nitrogen
may be what its name implies, and yet be in such a form that it
cannot be used for a long time. Some authorities consider the
nitrogen in organic matter worth only three-fifths as much as
actual ammonia. This point should always be kept in mind
when the relative value of fertilizers is under consideration.
Otherwise serious mistakes will be made.

The inorganic elements, though forming such a small propor-
tion of the substance of the plant, are eight or ten in number.
But with several of these the farmer has but little to do, as there
is a great abundance in all soils, and he never needs to suppl)-

FER TIL IZEIiS. 1 53

them. As far as plant-food in itself is considered, there is not
often a necessity for applying soda, or sulphuric acid, and
except in occasional instances, or for special crops, there is no
call for the use of magnesia. In large sections of the country
there is no need of applying lime for the purpose designated.
The elements which are in almost universal requisition, which
are needed almost everywhere and almost always, and the only
ones for which there is anything like a general demand, are
phosphoric acid and potash. With this knowledge of the
materials of which they are composed, it seems as if it would
be very easy to insure the rapid growth and perfect develop-
ment of plants. It is reasonable to suppose that if man will
supply an abundance of the raw materials, nature will elaborate
them and convert them into living structures. Practical experi-
ments continued through many successive years prove that
this is as true in practice as it is evident in theory. If man
furnishes the proper materials in sufficient quantity and in a
suitable condition for use, and will take good care of his plants,
he will be amply rewarded by a bountiful crop.

It is now in order to consider the Sources of Supply of
these elements of which plants are composed. These are
several in number, and diverse in character. Of some of these
materials the Atmosphere furnishes an inexhaustible supply.
These are distributed everywhere. Man can neither increase
nor diminish the supply, and there is not the slightest need of
his making the attempt. It is wonderfully compounded, and is
perfect in its action and its effects. Whether the soil is rich or
poor, whether the plants are well supplied with mineral ele-
ments, or are starved for want of them, there will be no
scarcity of the atmospheric materials which are required, for
their growth. Still, it is possible for man to cut himself off from
the benefits so liberally bestowed. If he grows his plants in
such dense masses that the air cannot obtain access to them,
they will not thrive as they ought. The sunlight and air are

154 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

absolutely necessary to the securing of rapid and healthful plant-
growth. It is utterly useless to attempt to grow plants without
them. For, though there are materials enough in the air to
supply all the elements in rich abundance which ever come from
that source, there must, of necessity, be room for the circulation
of the air, the admission of the sunshine, and space enough
between the plants to allow the rapid evaporation of water
which may fall in heavy showers or long-continued storms. If
he will simply give room enough to allow the fulfillment of these
conditions, the farmer may rest assured that all the oxygen,
hydrogen, and carbon, which his plants, require, will be fur-
nished free of cost. Of the remaining organic element,
nitrogen, the atmosphere also furnishes a considerable quantity,
but not enough to supply the needs of plants. Some of these
elements are used in the form of water, others are inhrJed by
the leaves, while the remainder pass from the air to the soil
before being used by plants. Water may also be considered as
one of the sources of supply of food for plants.. As plants
receive their food from the soil in a liqui4, soluble form, and
cannot make use of it in any other way, it is evident that water
plays an important part in plant life and growth. It is composed
of oxygen and hydrogen, and furnishes both of these elements
to the plant. It brings down, when falling as rain, nitrogen
from the air, and also absorbs it during dry weather. Many
plants are very largely composed of water, and could not flourish
without large quantities were constantly supplied. The cabbage
plant is nearly nine-tenths water, and potato-tubers owe three-
quarters of their weight to the same material. Other plants
use much smaller proportions, but cannot grow without some
water is supplied. As water serves the triple purpose of
supplying plant-food in its own constituents, absorbing it from
the air, and acting as a vehicle for carrying to the plant the food
already contained in the soil, it can be readily seen that the
success of the farmer will be largely influenced by the water-

FER TIL IZERS. 155

supply of his plants. The regulation of this supply is also a
matter of great importance, and will be considered in due time.

The sources from which plant-food are obtained which have
been already considered are subject to the control of man in
only a small degree, and many of the elements which are thus
provided, are furnished in such abundance as to need no effort
on the part of the farmer to increase the quantity which nature
bestows. It now remains for us to consider the Soil as not
only an important, but, as far as man is concerned, by far the
most important of any of the sources from which food for plants
can be obtained. A large part of his labor is devoted to its
cultivation, and to the soil he adds the fertilizing elements
which he uses to increase the growth of his crops. In itself
the soil is a great storehouse of plant-food, and it is constantly
absorbing valuable elements from the air, and securing them
from the decomposition of vegetable and animal substances in
and upon the land. The supply of plant-food is not uniform in all
soils, but in those which have not been injured by the removal
of successive crops without an adequate return of fertilizing
materials, or which, on account of some peculiar local causes,
are barren, there is a large quantity of materials which are
capable of being converted into plant-food. If we consider their
formation, we shall find that soils have within themselves a
wonderful recuperative power, and that those which have been
exhausted can again be made fertile by means of the changes
which are wrought by time. It will also be evident that all soils
now in good condition can be easily kept up to their present
state of fertility.

It is supposed, and this theory does not conflict with a
reverent acceptance of the Bible, that the land which is now
capable of being cultivated was once solid rock, and that ages
ago, long before man was created upon the earth, this rock was
ground, and scratched, and scoured, by vast fields of ice which
m the form of glaciers flowed over the continents ; that by the

156 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

means of terrific storms, by the alternations of cold and heat,
and the various chemical and mechanical changes which were
thus effected, the rock was fitted for the production of certain
plants of a low order. These sprung up, matured, and decayed.
Others succeeded them in the same course. When sufficient
organic matter had been formed, a higher class of plants ap-
peared. These in turn absorbed from the air vast quantities of
those elements of plant-food which it is its office to supply,
drew from the earth the mineral elements necessary for their
perfection, and in due time perished, leaving all their rich
accumulations of plant-food in and upon the soil. Meanwhile
climatic changes had been going on, and the earth was being
fitted for man. During these ages the soil was not only fitted
to produce the plants which are useful to men, and which now
cover the earth, but vast quantities of carbon were taken from
the air by the dense vegetation which at some periods covered
the world, and were stored up for the iise of men and plants in
the future. The great beds of coal which are found in various
parts of the world are stores of carbon which were gathered by
plants in the olden time. This coal not only proves of immense
value for fuel, but when it is burned it sets free a large quantity
of carbonic acid which goes into the atmosphere and furnishes
food for the support of plant-life. Thus even the coal, which
the farmer would naturally suppose could be of no benefit to
him except to keep him warm, becomes an active agent for
supplying his plants with one of the elements of their food
which they need in large quantities. The rocks which had been
pulverized furnished mineral food for plants, the decay of vast
masses of vegetation supplied carbon and ammonia, and the air
and water furnished oxygen and hydrogen in great abundance.
In this way the world was slowly adapted to become the abode
of man, and to produce those plants and fruits which are
necessary to promote his comfort and happiness.

Soils \2iry greatly in color and in some of their other

FERTILIZERS. 157

characteristics. This difference is caused by the different nature
of the rocks of which they were composed. The sandstone,
granite, and Hmestone rocks have been converted into different
colored soil, but this color, while showing the origin of the soil,
does not furnish an index to its fertility. In addition to the
soils which were formed from the underlying rocks there are,
in many localities, tracts of land the surfaces of which have been
formed wholly by deposit. These are usually very productive.
Where they are still subjected to an annual overflow of rivers and
deposit of the impurities of the water, they produce good crops
without manure and retain their fertility. But ordinary soils
cannot endure this treatment without injury. They will produce
crops which, if allowed to decay where they grow, will make the
land more fertile, as they will return not only all which they
have taken from the soil, but also all the organic materials
which they secured from the atmosphere. But when man
removes a crop, he thereby takes from the soil all the mineral
elements contained in what he secures. If he returns nothing,
his soil grows poorer and poorer with the growth of every crop,
and in time will become unproductive. Some soils become
deficient in one ingredient while having plenty of the other ele-
ments which are needed, while from others a different element is
first exhausted. Therefore it is necessary to know something of
the formation of an exhausted soil, and the cropping which it has
received, before it will be plain what particular fertilizers to apply.
In some measure the soil can be made self-fertilizing. The
rocks of which our soils have been made contained the mineral
elements of plant-food. By the grinding, and pulverizing, and
chemical changes through which they have passed, these rocks
have been fitted for the sustenance of crops. But this has been
done in a very gradual manner, and in this way the process is
still going on. Only a very slight proportion of the soil is yet
fitted for plant-food. The weight of an ordinary soil on one
acre of land, calling it six inches deep, is about six hundred

158 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

tons. The weight of inorganic matter removed from the soil in
a large crop of wheat, say thirty bushels of grain and thirty-six
hundred pounds of straw, is only two hundred and fifty-two
pounds. Yet there are very few soils which have been long
under cultivation which will produce thirty bushels of wheat
per acre without manure. And the failure to produce large
crops of wheat is frequently owing solely to a deficiency of
the inorganic elements in the soil. The quantity of grain and
straw required for a good crop could not be grown, because in
a whole acre of land there was not two hundred and fifty-two
pounds of the inorganic materials, which would have been
needed to produce this yield, in a form in which they could be
appropriated by the crop. There are soils on which wheat does
not yield well, because they are deficient in organic matter. Yet
thirty bushels of wheat and thirty-six hundred pounds of straw
would require, in a soluble form and properly distributed, only
about sixty-two and a quarter pounds of organic material, in
addition to that which is freely supplied by water and the air.
In such a case the failure results from the want of this very
slight quantity of plant-food, in a condition in which it can be
used, in a whole acre of land By means of the decay of plants,
and the death of worms and insects, together with absorption
by the soil, the land is being constantly replenished with organic
materials, while the chemical and mechanical changes constantly
going on slowly, but surely, add to the stock of mineral elements
which plants require. The gradual decomposition of the soil is
a wise provision for preventing its waste by the carelessness of
man, and keeping a constant supply of food ready for each
generation of plants as its needs may require. The soil is really
inexhaustible as far as its mineral elements are concerned. It
may be badly used — so badly that only very small crops can be
grown — but there will still remain vast quantities of plant-food
waiting the proper time for their change. To some extent man
can hasten the process which nature is constantly carrying on.

FERTILIZERS. 159

He cannot do this so rapidly as to involve a great waste of these
elements, but he can secure all that the largest crops which can
be grown will require. The method is simple, and consists in
merely following, on a smaller scale, the processes which natu-j
has so long carried on. Pulverizing the soil will certainly un-
lock stores of plant-food which otherwise had remained un-
available. By taking a peck of soil from a common field which
has been long under cultivation, drying and sifting it, it will be
found that much the larger part will remain in the form of frag-
ments of rocks, gravel, and hard lumps of earth, which will not
pass a fine sieve. It is only the very fine particles which are in
any condition to yield the plant-food which they contain. Con-
sequently, only a small proportion of the soil has its plant-food
in an available form. But the fragments of rocks, the pebbles,
the gravel, and the lumps of earth, all contain some of the
elements which plants require, and will surrender them just as
soon as they are pulverized and rendered soluble. This pulveri-
zation must be largely done by nature, but man can hasten
the work. By using the plow, harrow, clod-crusher, cultiv^ator
and hoe, he can break up the lumps of earth and so open the
soil that the carbonic acid from the air can fix " its corrosive
teeth " in the atoms of granite, and limestone, and other rocks,
and break them in pieces for the use of plants. Mechanical
and chemical changes are constantly going on, but the more the
soil is stirred, and the freer the access which the air can have,
the more rapid will be their progress. So much' can this process
be hastened that some farmers have insisted that frequent
culture was fully equivalent to manure, and that if the land
could have an occasional rest and be thoroughly cultivated, it
would produce good crops without the addition of foreign sub-
stances. We do not favor this extreme view, but there can be
no reasonable doubt of the truth of the supposition that the
chemical changes which are constantly going on in the soil arc
continually setting free some of the elements of plant-food,

J 00 faa'Mjxg for profit.

and that this result may be greatly facilitated and increased by
cultivation.

On many farms the Subsoil is also capable of furnishing a
supply of plant-food. Many farmers have an idea that this is a
wholly inert substance, and good for nothing except to furnish
a foundation upon which the surface soil can rest. They have
very carefully avoided plowing it, as they thought its admixture
would certainly weaken the land which they were in the habit
of cultivating. Others have tried the experiment of throwing
up some of the subsoil, and have not been pleased with the
result. Their crops have not been increased. In some cases
they have been very perceptibly diminished. These men have
no faith in mixing the subsoil with the surface, and do not
believe that it will furnish plant-food if loosened and left where
it is.

Still another class of farmers have tried the plan, and are
pleased with the results which were obtained. Some plowed up
the subsoil, thus exposing it to the influences of the light and
air, while others merely loosened it without changing its relative
position. The different effects which have been obtained as the
result of practical experiment can be traced to various causes.
Prominent among these may be named the fact that the subsoil
in some localities is very different from that of other sections.
While that of one field may be rich in the elements which plants
need, that of another may be very deficient or may contain things
which will be positively injurious. Again, some soils need an
admixture of their subsoils to make them more retentive of
moisture, more compact, or to produce other mechanical changes
in their texture. There are also some fields in which a loosen-
ing of the subsoil proves very advantageous in the removal of
surplus water. On the other hand, there are fields which are in
a much better mechanical condition than they would be if their
subsoils were mixed with their surfaces, and others in which a
compact subsoil is of very great advantage in preventing the

FER TIL IZERS. 1 0 1

leaching of manure beyond the reach of the roots of plants.
Consequently, it is not at all certain that subsoiling will benefit
any and every field which the farmer owns. It may benefit one
and injure another. As far as supplying plant-food is con-
cerned, it seems as if it might be of great benefit. The subsoil,
as a general thing, is composed of the same rocks as the surface
soil, and should be rich in mineral elements. It is almost cer-
tain that the injury which some farmers have thought resulted
from mixing the subsoil with that above it was caused by the
use of too large a quantity at a time. When first plowed up, the
materials of the subsoil are in a crude state. They need to be
warmed by the sun and be chemically acted upon by the light
and air before they are fitted for supplying the wants of plants.
If a large quantity of these crude materials is thrown upon the
soil at once, a thorough mixture is utterly impossible and tem-
porary evil will almost certainly result. In some cases, where
the quantity of subsoil thrown up did not seem excessive, a very
perceptible diminution of the crops has resulted for several suc-
cessive years, while in others a marked improvement in the yield
was noticed the first season and seems to have become perma-
nent. It is certain that the subsoil is one of the sources of sup-
ply of plant-food, but there are difficulties and disadvantages
connected with its use which in some localities, and under some
circumstances, make it practically unavailable. Unless the char-
acter of the soil is such that common sense will readily show
that such an effort will be utterly wasted, practical experiment
must determine whether subsoiling can be made to pay m any
particular field.

These great natural sources for the supply of food for plants
— the atmosphere, water, soil, and subsoil — are sufficient to
cause a luxuriant growth on nearly all the land which is so
situated as to be adapted to cultivation. Under the undisturbed
reign of nature the products of the land would neither decrease
in quantity nor be impaired in quality. There would be no

1(52 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

" running out." The process of disintegration which is con-
stantly going on in the soil would furnish the mineral elements
as fast as they would be required, while the air and the decay of
plants in the soil would supply plenty of the organic materials.
But in his effort to secure large crops, and to grow plants on
soils which are not their natural homes, man destroys this equi-
librium. Instead of allowing the vegetable products of the land
to decay thereon and return to the soil all the mineral elements
which they had abstracted, and increase its stores of organic
matter by the addition of that which in their growth they had
secured from the air, man carries off a large proportion of the
plants which are produced. In this way he removes, with every
crop, both organic and inorganic materials. The disintegrating
processes of nature are not carried on rapidly enough to supply
this waste, and, if he makes no return, the farmer will find his
land steadily growing poorer with each crop which he removes.
Consequently, he must seek other sources of supply than those
which nature provides'if he wishes to grow good crops and keep
his land uninjured.

We have found that all the organic elements except nitrogen
will be supplied by the atmosphere, water, and the soil, and that
many of the mineral elements exist in such abundance in the
land that it is very seldom that the farmer needs to supply them.
But there will usually be a deficiency in the soils which have
long been under cultivation of both phosphoric acid and potash.
These three elements, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, the
farmer who is to manage his business either intelligently or
profitably must supply. For certain crops he may occasionally
need to furnish some of the other elements which plants need,
and he may also find it profitable to use some of them for
another purpose than that of directly furnishing plant-food from
their own substance. Where shall he obtain the materials which
he needs in addition to the quantity furnished by the natural
agencies which have been considered ? This is a very important

FERTILIZERS. ,^,,

ib.J

question to the farmer, and one with which the profits of his
business are intimately connected. It is of no consequence to
the plants where the materials come from or what they cost
If they are only in a condition to be used, the plants will take
them without regard to their original character. It makes no dff-
ference with the plants whether the nitrogen which thev receive
.s furnished by barn-yard manure or by Peruvian guan'o • but it
may make a great difference with the profit of a crop whether
the farmer uses manure which was made on his own farm or is
obliged to pay a high price in money for the food which the
plants require. The only thing with which .the plant is con-
cerned is that the food shall be furnished in an available form
^ith the farmer there is the added consideration of the cost
which will be involved.

There are sources of supply which are altogether too expen-
sive to be drawn upon by the practical farmer. These we have
neither time nor space to notice, but will devote our efforts to a.
consideration of those sources from which either the great
majority of farmers can obtain sufficient food for their plants on
which, at least, -large classes will find useful for this purpose
It must not be forgotten that the circumstances of farmers in
different parts of the country are very diverse, and that, on this
account, materials which the increased crop will well repay
one farmer to purchase may be altogether too expensive for
another. If other things are equal, or nearly so, the farmer
who can obtain a dollar a bushel for his corn can afford to pay
much higher prices for plant-food than one who is oblicxcd
to sell for twenty cents a bushel. The man who has a re^dy
and convenient market, and can sell for high prices all the crops
which he can raise, can use materials which a man in opposite
circumstances can in nowise afford to buy. The man who is
obliged to sell his crops for a low price must grow them at
very small expense for fertilizers, or he will lose money by
the operation. He must not only seciar^ something which will

1Q4 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

make plants grow, but he must also obtain it cheap. Neglect
of this very evident principle has involved many a farmer in
loss. Too many men have taken it for granted that if a certain
fertilizer would make crops grow, it must be a good one for
tbem to obtain. Against this error it will be well to guard.

We shall not be obliged to go very far back in the hi.story of
agriculture to find a time when almost the sole reliance of the
farmer for fertilizers was placed on Animal E.xcrement. The
barn-yard, pig-sty and sheep-fold, were the places where the
plant-food used upon the farms was accumulated. Here it
remained until it was wanted for use, and it was not diluted by
the admixture of any foreign substances. Neither composting
nor the importation of concentrated fertilizers had to any extent
been attempted. These old sources of supply have not gone out
of date, but they have been largely supplemented by the use of
materials which our forefathers either considered worthless, or
else knew nothing about. Men of the present day have learned
how to grow crops without the use of materials which our pre-
decessors called manure, but they have not rendered these
materials worthless, nor shown us how to farm to the best
advantage without them. We need all the fertilizers which can
be made on the farm, and can often profitably avail ourselves of
some outside sources of supply. Everything in the form of
manure should be carefully saved. A waste of m.^.nurc, either in
point of quantity or quality, is fully equivalent to a waste of
money. For the money which the farmer receives is obtained
from his crops, and the quantity, quality and value of the crops
will depend largely upon the liberality with which they arc
manured. If the manure is carefully saved and used, large and
profitable crops may be obtained; while if it is wasted, the crops
must be small and will fail to pay a fair profit.

There are two principal ways in which a great deal of manure
is wasted by those who design to be careful farmers. These are
by undue exposure to the weather, and by uncontrolled fermen-

FERTILIZERS. 165

tation. It is not as common now as it was a few years ago to
see the manure which cows have dropped in the stable thrown
into piles in the open barn-yard, often directly under the eav-es,
where the sunshine evaporates a large part of the nitrogeneous
elements, while by the heavy and frequent rains to which it is
thus exposed the inorganic materials are, to a considerable
extent, leached out and lost. This was the old and almost
universal method of neglecting the stable-manure, but the better
class of farmers at the present day provide cellars under the
stables, or sheds outside of them, in which the manure is fully
protected from both sunshine and storms. Something of this
nature ought always to be provided. Otherwise the best part
of the manure will be lost to the crops, and all the labor of
carting and applying it will be done at a great disadvantage.
It costs the farmer just as much to apply a load of manure from
which the best elements of plant-food have been evaporated and
leached, as it does an equal quantity which has not been
injured. But the results of the labor in one case will be nearly,
sometimes quite, double what they will in the other. Injury by
excessive fermentation sometimes takes place in the compost
heat, but more frequently because nothing of this kind is pro-
vided. The horse-manure is specially liable to injur}'- from this
cause, and often becomes so " burned " as to lose half of its
value. To prevent this great waste, the frequent application of
water to the heap will be useful. A better way is to mix the
horse-manure, which is very heating, with an equal quantity of
cow-manure, which heats very slowly. This should be done
every day when the stables are cleaned, and will prevent undue
fermentation of the mass. If for any reason this process is im-
practicable, or it is desired to keep the horse or the cow-manure
separate, a frequent treading of the pile will convert it into a
solid mass, and almost wholly prevent injury from burning.

Not only are the solid excrements of animals of great value
for supplying food for plants^ but the liquid portion is also very

166 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

useful. The urine of the horse is more valuable than the solid
manure. That of the cow is much inferior to her solid excre-
ments, but is still very beneficial to plants. The urine from
an ordinary cow in one year will weigh about two thousand
pounds, and is considered worth nearly three dollars. This is
quite an item among the various products of the cow, and, like
all other liquid manures, ought to be carefully saved. Yet on a
great many farms, even in New England, where economy is con-
sidered a great virtue, and where the facilities for saving urine
are much greater than they are either at the West or South, this
valuable material is almost wholly wasted. We know of
farms which are managed by very economical men — men who
are too " saving " to take an agricultural paper, or buy an agri-
cultural book — who do not make the slightest effort to utilize
the liquid manure made in their stables and yards. After their
grain has been har\-ested, they carefully rake the fields in order
to obtain the small number of heads which were scattered, and
thus save a trifle which would otherwise be wasted ; but they
allow the most valuable part of the manure of their horses,
and much of the fertilizing material which they might obtain
from their cows, to run to waste without an effort to retain and
make it useful. Even some of the most intelligent farmers,
men who read and study papers and books which treat of
their special business, do but little to save the liquid manure,
which ought to enrich their land, and feed their crops. Their
neglect is not due to ignorance or to carelessness, but is caused
by a failure to .<5ee how the waste can be easily prevented. The
plans, proposed by some writers, of having troughs, and tanks,
and pumps, seem so complicated, and involve so much
labor, that the average farmers think they cannot afford the
expense. While something of this kind may be very desirable
for large stock-farms, we think it possible for a man who only
keeps a few cattle and horses to follow a more economical
method, by which equally good results may be secured. If a

FER TIL IZERS. 167

sufficient quantity of dry earth is used for "bedding," and a
little plaster is added at proper times, nearly all of the manure,
both solid and liquid, can be saved, and can be retained for an
indefinite length of time without injury. In carrying out this
plan, considerable labor is involved, but the results will amply
justify its expenditure. The best material, all things considered,
for this purpose is muck or peat. This should be dug from its
bed, and exposed to the air for several months before being
used. This is necessary, because in its crude state it contains a
large proportion of water, and various acids which render it
unfit for use in stables. The process of decomposition can be
hastened considerably, and the water can also be evaporated
more rapidly, if the pile is shoveled over every {q^ weeks. If
time and labor for this purpose cannot be spared, the muck may
be treated with lime. The lime should be slacked with water,
and three or four bushels (the measure before slacking) evenly
mixed with a cord of muck. The addition of a bushel of salt to
the lime is said to be very beneficial. This should be dissolved
in the water in which the lime is slacked. If lime cannot be
obtained, fifteen or twenty bushels of unleached wood-ashes may
be used in its stead. This preparatory process should never be
neglected, for, until the water with which muck is filled, and the
acids which are always present in vegetable deposits which lie in
their original beds, and which are only partially decomposed, are
disposed of, the material is totally unfit for use. The water
must be evaporated, and the acid condition must be corrected.
The former can be done by exposure to the air, and shelter from
rains, while the latter requires either considerable time, or
the aid of lime or ashes as suggested above. Having pre-
pared the muck, the next thing to be attended to is to store it
in a convenient shed or stable from which it can be taken when
wanted. If the material is thoroughly dry, only a small
quantity per day will be needed to absorb the liquid manure of
each animal.

168 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

In order to utilize what might otherwise be waste products ot
the farm, and also to increase the quantity and value of the fer-
tilizer, broken straw, coarse hay, and corn-butts, should be used
in connection with the muck. These materials should be run
throuf^h a feed-cutter before they are spread on the stable-floor.
This to hasten decomposition, increase their action as absorb-
ents, and make it easier to load and unload the manure. A
small quantity of the muck and a little of the strawy material
should be scattered upon the stable-floors before the cows are
let in at night. Early in the morning the manure and litter
should either be thrown out upon the pile, or else a light
sprinkling of muck should be thrown over it. When the cows
are turned out, the stables should be cleaned, and care should
be taken to mix the muck, manure, and .straw, as thoroughly as
possible. We greatly prefer this to the method which some
farmers have adopted, of cleaning the stables only at long
intervals, and keeping the animals clean by the daily use of
considerable quantities of bedding. But in no case should the
manure be thrown into an open yard where the sun will shine
upon it, and the rain from the eaves, as well as what would
naturally fall upon it, leach out its mo.st valuable inorganic
elements. If there is no cellar in which to store it, a shed for
the protection of the manure will pay for itself in a very short
time.

In addition to the materials already mentioned for common
use, plaster can be advantageously employed. A small quantity
may be sprinkled in the stables every day. It is, in itself, of
some value, as it contains sulphuric acid and lime, both of which
materials are used either as plant-food, or to prepare food for
plants. In the stables it absorbs ammonia (the valuable element
of nitrogen) and retains it, thus proving a great help in pre-
venting the waste which would occur without the use of this or
some other powerful absorbent. It is specially valuable in
horse-stables where the liability of loss is greatest. In most

FER TIL IZERS. j g 9

sections its low price renders this an inexpensive aid in saving
the volatile elements of the manure.

Sheep-manure is also a very valuable fertilizer, and should h^
carefully saved. It is much more efficient in producing crops
than either horse or cow-manure. This is owing more to its
better mechanical condition, than to a superiority of the
materials of which it is composed. Considerable bedding may
be used in the sheep-pens to good advantage. For this pur-
pose either straw or coarse hay, cut into short lengths, will
do very well. Although it will remain uninjured for a long
time if it is let alone, sheep-manure is subject to violent fermen-
tation when it is forked over and exposed to the air. Conse-
quently it should either be composted or else plowed into the
ground as soon as it is removed. It should never be used in
the hill, or near the seed of any plants, before fermentation is
completed.

The pig-pen ought to furnish quite a quantity of good manure.
It is one of the merits of the pig that he is capable of manu-
facturing a large quantity of manure for a comparatively low
price. Give him plenty of muck, straw, and other materials,
and he will patiently mix and work them over. When properly
managed, the manure from the pig-pen will produce heavy crops
of corn, and its good effects can be seen many years after the
crop to which it was originally applied has been removed.
Many farmers take advantage of the industrious habits of the
pig and keep him in a shed into which the manure from the
horse and cow-stables is thrown. This he th'^roughly works
over and greatly improves. Sometimes la'ge quantities of
muck or sand are added, and are thoroughly incorporated into
the mass by the labors of the pigs. This course insures a large
quantity of valuable manure, but it is open to many objections.
W2 very much prefer the plan of having a house and yard
specially for the hogs. In this yard muck and other material
may be thrown and converted into manure. As it is constantly

170 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

worked over, fermentation will proceed very slowly and can do
no harm. The great things Ibr the farmer to attend to are to
keep a proper quantity of material ready for use and to furnish
a sufificient, but not excessive, supply of moisture. The first
of these requirements is easily complied with, but to arrange
the latter in a perfectly satisfactory manner is a matter involving
greater difficulty. If the yard is left open, and there are no eave
troughs to the house, so that all the water which falls on one-
half the roof as well as what naturally belongs there, is poured
into the yard, there will at times be so much moisture as to
make it very muddy. Though pigs like an occasional wallow
in the mire, they do not prefer a muddy place for a permanent
home, and will not thrive as well if kept in a filthy place as
they will if they have clean, dry quarters. The quality of the
manure is also injured by the presence of too much water. But
if the yard is covered with a roof it will soon become too dry,
and will need the addition of water from a well or cistern.
Some farmers roof o\'er part of the yard and leave the rest
uncovered. This furnishes a partial remedy for the evils
caused by too much or too little moisture. In some way the
quantity of .water which enters the yard should be controlled,
and the material therein kept constantly moist, but never
soaking wet.

Poultry-manure is also of considerable value and should be
carefully saved. As farmers usually allow their hens free range
during the day, the quantity which can be secured from this
source is comp.iratively small. A good shed, or house, should
be provided for \heir night quarters, and the droppings should
be removed often enough to keep the room clean. Dry eg,rth
may be occasionally sprinkled over the floor, and be made to
add to the quantity without greatly injuring the quality of the
manure. It should always be mixed with earth before it is
used, and ought to be scattered broadcast and harrowed in
lightly.

FER riL IZEKS. yi^

Human excrement is one of the most powerful fertilizers, and
though only a small quantity can be obtained, it should be
carefully saved and used. The Chinese make great use of this
material, and have proved themselves the niost successful
farm.ers on the globe. Although we do not want to live as the
Chinese do, though our people could not live and carry on their
great industries without better food than the Chinese have, yet
their example in growing vast quantities of useful plants on small
areas, without importing fertilizers, and without diminishing the
productive capacity of the soil, although this process has been
going on for ages, is worthy of our imitation; and their success,
working as thev have without scientific knowledge, is one of the
wonders of the agricultural world. In the use of this fertilizer
in its crude state there is danger of injuring the plants, but if it
is properly composted it will promote a luxuriant growth. There
should be a daily addition of a little dry earth, or charcoal-dust,
to the contents of the privy. If the material is dry, as it always
ought to be, it will answer several important purposes. It will
prevent all offensive odors, will absorb the urine so that it will
not poison the well, it will increase the quantity of the fertilizer,
and the whole mass will be of better quality than any part of it
would have been without the addition of foreign material, it will
make it directly beneficial to the plants, and will also make it as
inoffensive to handle as any yard-manure.

It should be remembered that the value of animal excrement
will depend largely upon the condition of the animal and the
food which it receives. The manure of a fat cow will be much
richer in the elements which plants require than that of one
which gives large quantities of milk, for in the latter case con-
siderable of the nitrogen and phosphates of the food are used
in the production of the milk. A growing animal also requires
these elements to build up the bodily structure, and its manure
will therefore be comparatively deficient in them. Fat animals
which are fed with large quantities of Indian-meal, oil-meal, or

172 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

similar substances, furnish very valuable manure. But all the
manure made on* the farm, from each and every source, should
be carefully saved. It is the capital of the farmer, and if wasted
will greatly reduce the profits of his business.

The following estimate of the quantity and value of the
manure made in one year by some farm animals and man,
was published by Mr. Bruckner, in his valuable book on
"American Manures : "

Amount. Value.

Horse 2,000 lbs $9-94.

Cow 2,000 " S'S-

Pig 200 " 62.

Sheep 50 " 40.

Human..., 100 " 50.

In the last three we think the quantity is too small, and the
value much too low. By judicious composting the value can
certainly be more than doubled. Manure from fat oxen is con-
sidered much more valuable than any noted in the table. Some
farmers in New England who buy oxen in the fall, feed them
heavily during the winter, and sell them in the spring for beef,
consider the manure which they obtain during this period to be
worth ten dollars per ox. We consider this a fair but not at all
leaning toward an excessive valuation.

Composting. — The easiest methods of composting have
already been indicated. The use of plenty of dry earth, or
other absorbents, in the stables, pig-yards, and privies, if attended
to at the proper time, will give good results in saving the urine
and preventing the escape of fertilizing gases. But as different
methods are sometimes preferred, it may be well to note some
of those which seem likely to be the most useful. When no
absorbent but straw is used, much of the urine in the stables
will run through the cracks in the floor into the cellar, or upon
the ground beneath. By throwing a few loads of dry muck
under these floors in the fall an excellent fertilizer can be secured
the next spring. Professor Pendleton^ of Georgia, saves the

FERTILIZERS. 173

liquid manure in a tank, under the stable-floor, in which a quan-
tity of ground phosphate and sulphate of lime (plaster) is
placed. When well saturated the material is removed and a
fresh lot supplied. In this way a valuable ammoniated super'
phosphate is obtained. The solid excrements are then mixed
with bone-dust, or put with it in the land devoted to corn and
cotton. When something more elaborate is desired, a compost
heap may be made. If properly managed this will be very
useful, but on account of the limited means which many farmers
possess, and the rapidity with which the work is performed, it
often happens that the results are not very satisfactory. If he
had enough to do with, the farmer could obtain better results in
composting. Still many farmers are convinced that it will pay
any one who keeps stock to also have a compost heap. In
making such a heap it is a good thing to place boards at the
bottom.. A high and dry spot should be selected for the pur-
pose. The object in view is to rapidly decompose the substances
in the pile, and decomposition cannot go on, to any extent,
under water. The heap should be five or six feet high, in order
that the rains which fall upon it may not leach it and carry off
its valuable properties. A layer of muck, or good loam, a foot
thick, may be placed at the bottom. Upon this an equal layer
of stable-manure. Then leaves, corn-stalks, straw, and similar
substances, may be thrown on and mixed with the manure.
Another layer of muck may then be used, followed by leaves
and similar substances and covered with manure. The muck
may be employed quite freely — two loads of muck to one
of stable-manure being a fair proportion. To each load of
material twenty-five pounds of plaster should be added. Some
farmers mix ashes in the compost heap, but we consider them
more valuable to use alone as a fertilizer for .special crops.
Others throw in old boots and shoes, soap-suds, brine, sawdust,
and all such refuse. From these materials a small quantity of
plant-food may be obtained, and if properly used they xnay be
made to help in the process of decomposition.

174 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

The addition of two hundred pounds of a good supeq^hos-
phate of hme to each cord of the other materials, if well mixed
with the whole mass, will prove of immense benefit. This
material most farmers would be obliged to purchase. Those
who can obtain it without paying excessive rates for transporta-
tion will probably be gainers by using it. Finely ground bone
is also a ver>' good addition to a compost heap, and if the super-
phosphate cannot well be obtained, this may take its place. Of
course, the top of a compost heap should be covered with muck
or loam. In a few days, if the weather is reasonably warm, fer-
mentation will set in. This will gradually increase to a certain
point and then slowly die away. Some farmers attempt to con-
trol this fermentation by the use of water which they apply liber-
ally if they think the pile is getting too hot. Others consider
water an injury and rely upon the plaster to keep the contents
of the heap uninjured. In itself, this fermentation is a great
advantage. The only danger is that it will proceed too rapidly
and cause the loss of some of the most valuable elements. If
this takes place it will be indicated by the escape of vapor
which has a strong, pungent odor, similar to hartshorn. If this
odor is not apparent the heap is suffering no loss. But when it
does appear, ammonia begins to escape, and the value of the
material will be rapidly reduced if the fermentation is not at
once retarded. There are two ways of checking this evil. The
application of water, or, still better, a covering of plaster and a
final light coating of dry earth. Some guard against too rapid
fermentation by making the compost heap in October and rely
upon the cold weather to retard decomposition. When this is
done, the heap should be shovelled over once or twice in the
.spring. When any other system is followed, it is also a good
plan to throw over the heap before it is used. Sometimes freshly
slaked lime is used in compost heaps, but the practice is not
to be commended. It will hasten decomposition and get the
heap in condition to use much sooner than it otherwise could

FER TIL IZERS. j 75

be, but it involves the loss of too much nitrogen to make it
orofitable.

The time required for the proper composting of manures will
vary greatly with the quality of the materials which are used,
the way in which they are handled, and the degree of exposure
^o cold and rain to which they are subjected. The process
should not be hastened by lime, and the material should not be
used until it is thoroughly broken up and separated into its
elements. From six months to two years is usually required,
though Mr. Waring claims that by the proper use of liquid
manure, soap-suds, slops, and similar material (with which a
tank is filled when the heap is begun, and from which it is
pumped over the mass once or twice a week, and through
which it filters back into the tank), a heap can be reduced to fine
condition in a single month. We think a longer process is more
desirable. When the subject of composting first attracted gen-
eral attention, many farmers drew large quantities of dirt to their
barn-yards in the fall, allowed the cows to stand upon it during
the day-time in winter and sleep upon it during the n:ght-time in
summer, and the next fall carted it upon their fields. Some
used to plow their yards once or twice during the summer, and
a few piled up the dirt in heaps. But, incredible as it may seem,
many followed the course first described. Such composting as
this is not worthy of the name it bears, and is not worth the
work which it involves. Simply drawing dirt into a yard and
then drawing it out again amonnts to nothing. And the quan-
tity of manure which animals leave upon dirt thus used is so
small in comparison with the whole mass as to but slightly
improve the quality of the dirt itself. But the methods of com-
posting previously described are quite satisfactory, though we
very much prefer the use of dry earth, and other suitable
materials, in the stables.

Green Manuring. — Very few methods of fertilization have
been so strongly recommended by their advocates or so severely

J 76 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

denounced by their opponents as green manuring. It is a sys-
tem which has both advantages and drawbacks, which cannot
be universally used, which may. be carried too far, yet one from
which the average farmer may obtain a great deal of help in his
efforts to furnish food for his plants. For making fertile the
worn-out lands in some parts of New England, upon which
corn, rye, and buckwheat have been grown until the soil is
so utterly worn that it is practically unproductive, and the
exhausted tobacco, cotton, and cane fields of the Scuth, this
system seems specially adapted. It requires some time and
labor, but does not need much capital. Various crops are used
for the purpose. Almost any crop will do, but some are much
better than others. Corn, millet, clover, r}-e, buckwheat, mus-
tard, and turnips have been recommended. For lands which
are badly exhausted we prefer buckwheat, as it will grow where
corn or rye would utterly fail. After growing two or three
crops of buckwheat, some other grain may be tried. The land
ought then to be rich enough to produce almost anything which
is used for the purpose. Before sowing any crop with a view to
enrich the soil by means of green manures a small quantity' of
well-rotted manure, or two hundred pounds of guano, bone-dust,
or grass fertilizer should be applied to each acre of land in order
to give the plants a start and feed them until they get well
rooted. After getting the land so that it will produce a good
crop of clover, the preceding crop should be turned in and a fair
juantity of clover seed sown. If manure enough is used to give
it a vigorous start, clover may be used as the first crop in the
course of improvement. It ought always to be used before the
course is completed. This will be evident from a brief con-
sideration of the method by which green manures fertilize the
soil. The substances of which they are composed must be prin-'
cipally drawn from some source outside of the soil. Otherwise,
there would be no benefit in growing these crops for manun:
The land would not need them, for it would just as well grow
croDs for the ^af'mcr to use>

FERTILIZERS. 177

We find that clover obtains a great deal of its food from the
atmosphere, and that the mineral elements which it obtains are
largely drawn from the subsoil. The long roots of the clover-
plant penetrate the hard subsoil and obtain food which other
crops, having shorter or weaker roots, cannot secure. The
opponents of this system of fertilization claim that if long
continued the subsoil will become exhausted and thus the effort
to improve the land will fail. But, on the other hand, it is
thought that the decay of the mass of roots in the subsoil
hastens the disintegrating process which is always going on, and
that under this influence it will furnish a full supply of plant-
food as fast and as long as it is wanted. Doubtless there are
extremes either way, but there can be no doubt that on many
worn-out soils, green manuring has worked a complete restora-
tion to fertility. Joseph Harris, who is an acknowledged
authority, calls clover "the grand renovating crop of America."
Although it has long been used for a fertilizer in some sections,
clover does not seem to have come into general use for this
purpose. That it will be more largely grown in the future is
both to be hoped and expected. It is cheaply grown, easily
used, and almost always gives satisfaction. In the few cases
which have been reported where green clover has "soured" the
soil the difficulty can be directly traced to an improper method
of using. And it is a noticeable fact that some who are opposed
to the use of green clover are strongly in favor of growing it
for use as a fertilizer when dry. On light soils there is very
little danger of injurious fermentation taking place. The same
is true in heavy soils if the plowing is shallow. But if deeply
covered in such soils, temporary ill effects may be observed.
For these soils it has been recommended that the first crop of
clover be cut when in full bloom, the second crop allowed to
grow up through it, and that when the second is sufficiently
matured it should be cut and allowed to decay for a while before
the land is devoted to the production of a crop which is to be

178 I-ARMIXG J- OR PROFIT.

removed. By following this plan all the evils will be obviated
and nearly all the benefits will be secured. Or if it is desirable
to plow oftencr, a coating of lime may be sown upon the clover,
and it can be turned in without injury. The principal objection
which can be brought against clover is that it is sometimes
difficult to get it started. The young plants are feeble, and if
the weather is unfavorable many of them die. Some seasons
we have splendid success with it, while in other years the seed
fails. This is a quite common complaint. Dr. Harlan, in his
small but able and comprehensive work on " Farming With
Green Manures," has suggested as a remedy that buckwheat
should be sown with the seed. When the buckwheat is in
blossom it can be cut, will mulch the clover, and be a <xreat aid
in securing a good crop.

Another important consideration is whether clover can be
used constantly and be made to supply the place of barn-yard
manure. If it can, it must be evident to all observers that it is
a great desideratum for farmers who own land at a distance
from their buildings, to which it would be both laborious and
expensive to apply the contents of the barn-yard, and for all
who have an insufficient supply of yard-manure. If used with
care we see no reason why it may not be used continuously.
Hon. George Geddes said, a few years ago, that he had a
field which for seventy-four years had been manured with
nothing except clover grown upon it and plowed in ; that he has
grown wheat, corn, oats, barley, and grass, on this field ; that the
clover has for fifty years been regularly treated with gypsum, and
that the land is increasing in fertility. Other fields have been
treated by less noted writers for shorter periods, but long enough
to prove that a judicious use of clover can be long continued
and steadily produce the best of results. Some farmers mow
the first crop, use it for hay, and pIoAV in the second, while
others, on good land, mow and feed two crops and merely plow
in the roots. Of course, the greater the quantity of materia]

FERTILIZERS. I79

which is left upon, or plowed into the soil, the greater will be
the benefits resulting from the green manuring. Doubtless the
land may be improved by taking off the tops of a good clover
crop and plowing in the roots, but the increase in fertility will,
of necessity, be comparatively slow. To get large crops and
improve the land at the same time and by the same means is a
somewhat difficult operation. Too much in this line should not
be attempted.

We have treated thus at length of clover because we consider
it the representative crop for all purposes of green manuring.
Many farmers favor the use of corn, others of millet, and still
others of the various other crops which we have named in con-
nection with this subject. Under certain circumstances, some
of these crops may be superior to clover. This has already been
suggested in relation to buckwheat. No special directions are
needed for these crops, except the caution that when some of
them are grown, care should be taken to either plow or cut the
first crop before it matures its seed.

Although not produced for the specific purpose of furnishing
food for plants, sod is a very valuable fertilizer for the ordinary
farm crops. We call attention to it here because we think its
value is greatly underrated. We know many farmers who keep
their land in grass as long as they can obtain fair crops — some-
times until it is almost " run out." If they realized the great
value of a heavy turf for plant-food they would plow their grass
lands while they were quite productive. Probably many far-
mers have noticed that some of their best grass fields produced
better corn when planted upon the inverted turf than they did
during the succeeding seasons who have not traced this effect, to
its cause. They have not thought that in the roots and stubble
of the grass vast quantities of food for the corn were contained.
There seems to be little doubt that the weight of this material will
range from fifty tons per acre in light turf to one hundred tons

in a heavy sod. Such a vast quantity of material, containing as
12

130 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

this does, the elements of fertility in a high degree, cannot
decay in the soil without furnishing an immense amount of
plant-food.

The substances which we have thus far considered as the
sources of supply — animal excrement, compost, green manure,
and sod — are all in the line of complete manures. Some are
better than others, but each one is supposed to contain, to a cer-
tain degree, all the elements which it is necessary to supply to
the soil in order to promote the growth of plants. In addition
to these there are several valuable fertilizers each one of which
furnishes only a part, but a very important part, of the elements
required. One will supply the farmer with potash, another
with phosphoric acid, while others will supply other elements
which the plants need.

Wood-Ashes ought to hold an important place among the
manurial resources of the farms in those sections in which wood
is used for fuel. They furnish large quantities of potash in an
easily available condition, act quickly, energetically, and with a
considerable degree of permanence. They ought to be carefully
saved, and should be kept quite dry until they are used. Ashes
from hard woods are much better than those from the soft spe-
cies, though these are very useful. Leached ashes upon some
soils give good results, but for general use they are much
inferior to those which remain in their natural condition. Leach-
ing removes nearly all of the potash, together with a part of the
phosphoric acid and lime, but enough of the latter remain to
make them very useful to crops in which potash in large quan-
tities is not an essential ingredient. Coal-ashes are of but little
value for fertilizing purposes, but are said to be useful in small
quantities around pear trees, and they sometimes improve the
mechanical condition of heavy soils.

Marl, a soil containing clay, lime, and other materials, is also
a source of supply for farmers living in the vicinity of its deposits.
Some beds of marl contain larger quantities of clay than others,

FERTILIZERS. 181

and it is, in other respects, of variable composition. The green-
sand marl of New Jersey, the best which has yet been dis-
covered, contains lime, potash, silicic acid, sulphuric acid, and
phosphoric acid, in quantities sufficient to make it a valuable
fertilizer. Those who live near marl beds should test their value
for fertilizing purposes.

Common Salt supplies plants with soda and chlorine — both
constituents of plants — the former an element which is occasion-
ally needed from outside sources, while the latter is seldom
required in larger quantities than can be furnished by the soil.
Its greatest value consists in its power to> render other plant-food
which the soil may contain more available. Not more than five
or six bushels per acre should be used at a time, and this
application will not need frequent repetition. There are many
soils, too, which contain silicic acid (common sand) in abun-
dance, but in which it does not appear in an available condition.
This is especially true in sections where grain-growing has long
been a prominent industry. It is made apparent by the weak-
ness of the straw and the consequent falling down, or lodging, of
the grain. When this occurs, salt should be applied to the soil
to combine with the sand and make it available for the plants.
There is no need of applying sand to any kind of soil merely for
plant-food. For this purpose there is enough there already.
If it can be made available it will furnish all this kind of food
which is required. Ashes, or potash in other forms, will tend
to make it available, but will usually be found much more
expensive than salt. On stiff, heavy soils the application of
sand in order to improve their mechanical condition is some-
times advisable, but for merely, feeding plants it is far better to
use an alkali to act upon the sand already in the land.

Plaster, or Gypsum, supplies plants with sulphuric acid, and
with very small quantities of sulphur. But its principal value is
as an absorbent of ammonia. It is useful to sprinkle in stables,
privies, and the compost heap. On many soils its application

132 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

produces an immediate effect in increasing the yield of crops,
while on others it seems perfectly useless. Where its effect is
beneficial it needs judicious handling. Within sight of the
window by which wc are writing there are many worn-out fields,
which the older inhabitants say have been ruined by plaster.
It was found that plaster alone would produce good crops upon
this land, and the owners cropped it year after year until plaster
had no effect, and the crops were not worth the cost of gather-
ing them. Here plaster acted as a stimulant. It seemed to
unlock all the treasures of plant-food which the soil contained,
and finally left it utterly barren. If clover had been grown and
plowed in once in two or three years, or if manure had been
occasionally applied, so as to return to the soil the elements
which the crops removed, plaster might have been used with
good results. But alone it proved like the whip to a jaded
horse — making him go until the last possible moment, and
leaving him worthless. It is much better to feed and rest a
tired horse than it is to keep him going by means of the whip.
Precisely the siame principle applies to the use of the land.
Upon soils which show no immediate improvement under the
use of plaster it will not pay to apply it. We have seen it sown
upon a nice field in strips which were liberally coated, but upon
which the succeeding crops showed no increase over the rest of
the field. We should never buy plaster to use on such fields.

Bones furnish large quantities of phosphate of lime, together
with considerable nitrogen. Consequently, they are extremely
valuable for fertilizing purposes, and produce good results upon
nearly all soils, and with nearly all kinds of crops. In their
natural state they act very slowly. Therefore they should be
subjected to some process for making them more immediately
available. The finer they are made the more rapidly and
profitably they will act. There are various methods of reducing
bones to a finer state. Burning accomplishes the purpose, but
it drives off" the nftrogen and thus diminishes the value of the

FERTILIZERS. 183

material. Grinding, in a mill made for the purpose, is very-
much to be preferred. The finer the powder into which they
are made the better. If no mill is at hand, bones can be reduced
by composting with ashes, but considerable time and some care
is required. A water-tight barrel, or hogshead, should be used.
Into this bones enough to fill it three inches in depth should be
placed, upon them an equal quantity of the best wood-ashes,
then more bones, covered as before, until the supply gives out
or the barrel is full. These should be kept always wet. A
little plaster, or weak sulphuric acid, may be occasionally thrown
upon the mass with good results. Bones treated in this way
will not be ready for use in less than a year. When thoroughly
softened they should be taken out, broken into fine pieces, and
applied to the land. The ashes will also prove an excellent
fertilizer. By adding sulphuric acid to the ashes of bones super-
phosphate of lime is obtained. This is a valuable fertilizer — one
of the most valuable which can be obtained. It is very readily
dissolved, and consequently can be easily used by plants. It
supplies phosphoric acid in a form in which it can be taken by
plants in the early stages of their growth, while its action is
lasting enough to carry them through the season. For grain
crops and pastures this fertilizer is of special value. On many
soils the addition of this one element will, for years, produce
good crops, while without it, though manures deficient in this
substance may be applied, the land will yield but very small
returns for cultivation. We do not approve of using one element
alone to any great extent, but call attention to the fact that this
one can be so used in order to show its immense importance to
the practical farmer. In obtaining this substance there are two
difficulties with which the farmer will have to contend. One is
the difficulty of obtaining bones without being obliged to pay
more than they are worth, while the other is found in the danger
of handling sulphuric acid. A very few bones can be saved on
the farm, but the quantity to be secured in this way is quite

184 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

limited. They can be bought in the cities and large towns, but
fertilizer manufacturers are generally ready to pay well for them.
The acid needs handling with the greatest care. We have
spoiled too many clothes, and had our hands made sore too
often to recommend the use of this material without giving a
caution concerning its use. As a general thing wc think it is
better for the farmer to buy his superphosphate ready made.
Men who are engaged in the business on a large scale, and have
facilities for its prosecution, can make as good an article and do
it much cheaper than the farmer. But care must be taken to
secure it of well-known, or fully responsible, manufacturers, for
a great deal of miserably poor material has been palmed off
upon our farmers for genuine superphosphate. Thanks to the
fertilizer laws in many of our States, such swindles are now
much more difficult to perpetrate than they were a few years
ago, and are quite likely to involve the unscrupulous dealer and
maker in a great deal of trouble.

Another source of supply of phosphoric acid is furnished by
the mineral phosphates which are found in various parts of the
world. One of the largest deposits yet discovered is in South
Carolina, near the city of Charleston. These mineral phos-
phates should be treated with sulphuric acid, as they are not
soluble to any extent in water. When properly managed they
are capable of producing the best of effects upon crops, and it is
highly probable that the discovery of this material will have a
very beneficial influence upon the agriculture of the Southern
States.

Lime. — Although the use of lime is considered by many
farmers, and by some agricultural writers, as the very foundation
of successful farm-business, it is by others believed to be useless
if not actually injurious. We do not think it as valuable as it
has many times been called, but believe it may, in many
sections, be very useful. As far as the mere feeding of plants
is concerned, we consider its application useless — certainly so

FERTILIZERS. 185

on all soils of granite or of limestone formation. Only a very
small quantity of lime is used by plants, and enough to supply
their wants can be found in almost any soil. But it often proves
a great aid to the farmer by hastening the decay of vegetable
matter which is already in the land, but in a condition in which
it is unavailable for plant-food. It thus furnishes nitrogen,
and by breaking up and fining the coarser particles of the soil,
liberates the mineral elements which crops require Upon
soils which contain too much acid, and produce sorrel and
other weeds better than they do corn and wheat, lime is espe-
cially useful, as it corrects the acidity, and fits the land for the
production of useful plants. The idea which many have 'that
lime exhausts the soil is not supported either by theory or
practice. When properly applied, lime will work such changes
m the soil as will make the fertilizing elements immediately
available, but will not allow their escape in the air. The crops
will be larger, and large crops to which no real plant-food has
been applied ahvays mean exhaustion to the soil. But in such
cases the exhaustion is caused by the crops, of which the
farmer has the full benefit.

Lime should always be sown upon the surface — nev-er plowed
in. It sinks in the soil, and should be only slightly covered or
not covered at all. We strongly favor using small quantities at
frequent intervals. Ten bushels per acre on ordinary soils is
enough to begin with. If the effect is favorable, the same or a
larger application can be made in two or three years. Upon
soils which are badly worn, and contain but h'ttle organic
rnatter, lime should be used quite sparingly, if at all ; while on
land containing large quantities of organic material it can be
applied more freely. Shell-lime is considered the best, but in
many sections cannot be obtained, except at great cost for trans-
portation. When stone-lime is used, the purest kinds should be
obtained. It should be slacked with salt water before being
applied, except in those cases in which it is used merely to

186 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

decompose organic matter in the soil. For this purpose it may
be applied without slacking.

Guano. — In addition to the supply of nitrogen furnished in
various forms by the atmosphere, and the decay of organic
material in the soil, guano furnishes one of the great sources
from which this important fertilizer is obtained. For, although
some brilliant writers have claimed that there is no necessity for
the farmer to supply nitrogen to the land, the results of a mul-
titude of experiments seem to prove beyond question that the
addition of this material will largely increase the yield of our
principal farm-crops. On some soils its effects are better than
upon* others ; but where the land has been long under culti-
vation, its judicious application can hardly fail to be beneficial.
Land which is greatly deficient in mineral elements will
not be perceptibly benefited by the addition of nitrogen
alone, but nitrogen in connection with the wanting inorganic
elements will usually produce better and more permanent
results than can be secured by the use of only the mineral
matters. We do not favor the using of guano alone, but
consider it a valuable fertilizer when properly applied. The
same should be said of the sulphate of ammonia, which fur-
nishes a great deal of nitrogen to crops. Near the sea-coast
large quantities of fish are used for fertilizing purposes. In
some places the oil is removed, but this does not seriously
injure the material as a fertilizer. The refuse is broken up by
machinery, and sent out in bags and barrels under the name of
" fish guano." It furnishes large quantities of nitrogen in one
of its cheapest forms, and also considerable phosphate of lime.
It should be mi.xed with twice its bulk of dry earth, scattered
broadcast, and immediately harrowed in, or else covered by a
shallow plowing. In no case should it be used in the hill.
The quantity to be used will depend upon its condition. The
less water it contains the less weight will be needed per acre.
We have used the ** half dry " at the rate of about ten hundred

FER TIL IZERS. j g 7

pounds per acre with good results. For us it is cheaper than
Peruvian guano, but, as it is less concentrated, it would not be
as cheap for farmers living far inland, and in some places the
freight would be too expensive to justify its use.

Nitrogen is also obtained from many of the waste products of
the farm. It is present in leather, but, as this decomposes very
slowly, a long time is required to make its fertilizing qualities
available. Old boots, shoes and harnesses may be buried
under fruit trees and prove of some value. The same is true of
woollen rags. When an animal dies, the body may be made to
furnish both nitrogen and phosphate of lime for the use of
crops. It should be cut in pieces, and mixed with a large
quantity of dry muck or loam. But this should 7iot be done
near buildings, and should never be attempted in the case of an
animal dying from a virulent disease. In all such cases the
body should be deeply buried at a distance from any house or
barn, and then be forever let alone.

The Leaves of trees can be made to supply small quantities
of plant-food. Those from the walnut, oak and horse-chestnut
trees are better than leaves from the beech, fir or pine. Leaves
furnish small quantities of phosphoric acid, potash and lime.
They should be gathered when damp with dew or rain in order
to facilitate handling them, but they ought to be dried before
being stored for use in the winter. The best way to use them
seems to be to throw them under the cattle for bedding, though
some prefer to put them into the compost heap. We think
some writers have greatly overestimated the value of leaves as a
fertilizer. They have been misled by confounding the effect of
manure with that of covering the soil, and have ascribed to the
former what was chiefly due to the latter. Both for the sake of
neatness, and also on account of their real value, leaves which
fall or are blown around the buildings should be gathered and
converted into manure, but we do not think it will pay to go
long distances to obtain them.

18g FARMING FOR PROFIT.

We have thus indicated some of the sources from which the
farmer may obtain the necessary materials for promoting plant
growth. In the list we have included several of what are known
as " commercial fertilizers." The latter may be made very use-
ful, or may cause the farmer a heav)- loss. Much will depend
upon his selection of the kinds, and his skill in using them. If
he buys nitrogen when phosphoric acid is what his plants need,
he will not be successful ; while the use of phosphoric acid when
nitrogen is indicated will be just as bad. In any case he
should make the most of his own resources, and use all the
manure from his yards to the best advantage. A farmer who
should buy hay of his neighbor and never cut that which grew
upon his own land, would be called very foolish and soon be
ruined. Yet this p,ractice would closely resemble that of one
who should buy commercial fertilizers, while neglecting to
secure the greatest quantity and best possible quality of manure
from his own farm.

When certain lines of farming are pursued, it is not always
possible to obtain all the manure from home sources which
might profitably be used. Where grain is sold from the farm,
large quantities of phosphoric acid are removed. The same is
true where young cattle are grown and sold, and where the
milk business is made a specialty. In these and similar cases,
the ordinary system of farming, even where considerable care
is taken to save all the manure, will not prevent a gradual
exhaustion of the soil. Consequently, from some outside
sources fertilizing material should be obtained. Until quite
recently the doubt which most farmers felt about what material
to use, the manner of its application, and also the certainty of
the high price of fertilizers, has prevented a general call for any-
thing of the kind. But science and careful experiment have
come to the aid of the farmer, and by providing what are called
"Special Fertilizers" have shown him what to use and how
to make the application. To the farmer who has not a suffi-

FERTILIZERS. 189

cient quantity of manure to feed all his crops these special
fertilizers are an immense benefit. They are made upon the
principle that different crops take the elements of plant-food
from the soil in different proportions, and that if the farmer will
supply to any particular crop just those materials which it
needs, he can invariably obtain large returns. This system not
only supplies just what the plants want, but, what is almost as
important, furnishes their food in the best possible condition.

Here is where special fertilizers have a great advantage over
barn-yard manures. While the latter contain all the needed
elements, they are not in a condition in which they can at once
be used by crops. Before they can be made available various
chemical changes must be passed through. The phosphoric
acid, potash, and other mineral elements, must be rendered
available by means of the carbonic acid which is generated by
fermentation. Now if green stable-manure is applied to the corn
crop in the spring and the weather is very wet and cold, fer-
mentation is checked, and the elements of fertility are no more
available than they would be if they were in another field. The
corn looks yellow and sickly, and does not grow, because, though
there is a liberal supply of manure within reach, that manure is
not in a condition to be used, and the crop has nothing upon
which to feed except what it can obtain from the soil. Thus
when the plant needs manure the most it does not have any.
In a warm season this does not occur, as fermentation goes on
rapidly enough to keep a supply of food constantly ready for
the plants. It is on account of the slowness with which barn-
yard-manure decomposes that its effect is perceptible in the soil
so long after its application, often lasting many years. Special
fertilizers are not designed to last more than one or two years,
and as interest on the money invested increases with great
rapidity, it is best for the farmer that they should not be made
so as to have a permanent effect. As Mr. Waring has said in
his "Elements of Agriculture" farmers are apt to attach "too

1/90 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

much importance to the lasting qualities of a manure. Generally
they are lastijig only in proportion as they are lazy." If money
is to be invested in a fertilizer, it is best that one which will give
a quick return should be obtained. This is the general rule.
There are cases in which it pays to buy material which will be
permanent in its effects. But material which works slowly
should be obtained for a low price.

The objection has sometimes been raised against special
fertilizers that the quantity applied is insufficient. It seems to
the farmer that the large loads of barn-yard-man u re which he is
in the habit of using must contain a great amount of plant-food,
while the small bags of special fertilizers can certainly contain
but little. Even if all the material of these special fertilizers
were pure plant-food, he thinks there would be so little of it that
large crops could not be produced. Here the great mistake of
considering bulk equivalent to quality is made. It is based on
two popular misconceptions : first that the crop takes a large
quantity of material from the soil, and second that barn-yard-
manure is nearly all pure fertilizer. But chemistry shows us
that while a medium crop of corn weighs about six thousand
pounds, only about three hundred pounds of the material of
which it is composed are taken from the soil. This includes the
ammonia — much of which comes indirectly from the air. Thus
it will be seen that the air and water supply nearly all of the
\yeight and bulk of our cultivated crops. If any reader is dis-
posed to doubt this, let him burn ten pounds of corn, or any
other crop, and carefully weigh the ashes. He will find the
quantity very small, but it will represent all the material
which had been taken directly from the land. With many
crops the weight of the elements taken from the soil is much
less than that given for corn. Then the barn-yard-manure
is overrated by not distinguishing between what is valuable and
what is useless. Dr. Nichols has shown that in three thousand
pounds of common barn-yard-manure there are twenty-four

FER TIL IZERS. 191^

hundred and fifty-six pounds of water and one hundred and
thirty-eight pounds of sand — articles which for the farmer to
apply for merely fertilizing purposes are worthless. There then
remain three hundred and thirty-two pounds of carbonaceous
matter which has the same value as muck, and "only seventy-
four pounds of ac'tive fertilizing material which has a money
value." Prof. Stockbridge put the truth indicated in these
figures in a very clear form when he said that he could take a
basket on his arm and carry into the field a quantity of material
which would not weigh more than twenty-six pounds, but in
which should be more plant-food than would be contained in an
ox-cart full of the best barn-yard-manure. Except upon some
soils which need to be made more open and porous, the great
bulk of barn-yard-manure does no good. Upon all other soils
this extra bulk is used at a disadvantage, for it involves the
carting and handling of a great mass of material in order that
a small quantity of really fertilizing matter may be secured.
The farmer who allows his manure-heaps to lie out in the rain
and be exposed to the sunshine, still further increases this
disadvantage. For he will be obliged to handle a great deal
more water, and the manure will contain a much smaller
quantity of really fertilizing matter than would be the case if it
were kept from undue exposure to the weather.

Barn-yard-manure should be saved with the utmost care, and
muck, or similar material, should be used to increase the quan-
tity and improve the quality ; but when the supply is exhausted,
the farmer may be sure that he can obtain fertilizers equally
good, by purchasing those which are compounded by respon-
sible parties for the production of special crops. We much
prefer the use of special fertilizers to the application of single
elements. If properly made, the special manure will certainly
(if no disease or accident, to which all crops are exposed,
destroys it) produce a fair yield, but if the farmer tries single
elements, he will be liable to make great mistakes. He may

J 92 FARMING FOR FRO FIT.

use ammonia or phosphoric acid when his land needs potash, or
he may apply potash and phosphoric acid when his land needs
ammonia, and so on through all the many changes which may
be made with these three elements. If he gets the right one,
his crops will be good, but if not, his expense and labor will be
nearly all in vain. This is strikingly illustrated by an experi-
ment of the celebrated Mr. Lawes, of Rothamsted, England.
Upon land which without manure had produced sixteen bushels
of wheat per acre for more than twenty successive years he
applied phosphoric acid, potash, lime, and other substances,
including all the mineral elements which a large crop would
require, and only raised the yield to twenty-five bushels per
acre. But by adding eighty pounds of nitrogen per acre, the
yield was brought up to thirty-six bushels, and was maintained
at that point for years. Upon part of the same land fourteen
tons of good barn-yard-manure per acre were used, and only
brought the yield to the same figure as the nitrogen. This quan-
tity of manure contained much more nitrogen than was applied
in the form of chemical fertilizers, but it produced no larger
crops because a large part of it was unavailable during the first
season. Its permanent effects were probably much greater than
those of the chemicals. Lest this experiment should mislead, it
should be said that the soil in England is very different from
our own, and that while nitrogen seems to be demanded there,
potash and phosphoric acid seem to be required here in larger
proportion.

It is well enough for the farmer to experiment to some extent
with single elements, with two combined, and with a combination
of different materials, but we think he will more surely secure
just what he wants by buying, when he is obliged to buy any-
thing of the kind, the fertilizers which are made for special
crops. They will cost him less, keep his land in better condition,
and give him larger crops. By using the special manures, and
occasionally applying a liberal coating of barn -yard-manure, or a

FER TIL IZERS. \ ^%

complete commercial fertilizer, the land can be made to pfoduce
large crops, and also be kept in a high state of fertility. The
special fertilizers have been tested for years upon all kinds of
soils, and when made by responsible parties have proved strictly
reliable. To Prof. Stockbridge, of the Massachusetts Agri-
cultural College, a great deal of credit is due for his careful
investigations and experiments which have resulted in the dis-
covery of the fertilizers which bear his name. We believe that
wherever the land has been exhausted by excessive cropping,
and barn-yard-manure cannot be had, these fertilizers may be
made the direct means of bringing the soil back to its original
productiveness. In addition to the Stockbridge fertilizers, and
with them ranking as strictly first-class, may be named the
" Forrester," originated by George B. Forrester, and the
" Mapes," which are made from formulae prepared by Charles
V. Mapes. The " Stockbridge" are manufactured principally
by W. H. Bowker & Co., of Boston, the " Forrester " by
H. J. Baker & Bro., of New York, and the " Mapes " by tne
Mapes Formula and Peruvian Guano Co., of New York.
The latter Company also manufacture fertilizers made after the
formulse of Prof. Ville, the renowned French agricultural
chemist. These are, at this writing, the principal manufacturers
of fertilizers for special crops. They are all worthy of confi-
dence in the highest degree. Each of the formulae named
above make use of the same materials, but in different propor-
tions. Some give potash a higher place than others, while
some rely in a greater degree upon nitrogen and phosphoric acid
than upon potash.

The formulae for the Stockbridge fertilizer are carried out in
pounds. In order to show clearly how much, or rather how
little plant-food is required, when it is all in a form in which it
can be easily taken by plants, we quote the formulae for a few
of the leading crops.

]94 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

INDIAN CORN.— /"^r an Acre.

Nitrogen 64 lbs.

Actual Potash 77 "

Soluble Phosphoric Acid 31 "

The above elements are conlnined in from 700 to I,CXX) pounds
of the crude materials, and are designed to produce fifty bushels
of shelled corn more than the natural yield of the land.

WHEAT.— /b;- an Acre.

Nitrogen 41 lbs.

Actual Potash 24 "

Soluble Phosphoric Acid 20 "

These elements are obtained in from 450 to 600 pounds of
crude materials, and are designed to produce twenty-five bushels
of wheat in excess of the natural yield of the land.

OATS. — For an Acre.

Nitrogen 23 lbs.

Actual Potash 20 "

Soluble Phosphoric Acid 12 "

Contained in from 300 to 400 pounds of crude materials.
Intended to produce an increase of twenty-five bushels.

RYE. — For an Acre.

Nitrogen 25 lbs.

Actual Potash 24 "

Soluble Phosphoric Acid 16 "

Requiring from 300 to 400 pounds of crude materials, and
designed to yield an actual increase of twenty bushels.

POTATOES.— /br an Acre.

Nitrogen 21 lbs.

Actual Potash 34 "

Soluble Phosphoric Acid II "

Obtained in from 400 to 500 pounds of crude materials, and
designed to yield an increase of one hundred bushels.

HAY. — For an Acre.

Nitrogen 26 lbs.

Actual Potash 31 "

Soluble Phosphoric Acid 8 "

Requiring from 250 to 350 lbs. of crude materials, and designed
to produce one ton of hay more than the natural yield of the
land.

The reason why such small quantities of fertilizers produce
such beneficial effects is due to the fact that they present exactly
the food which the plants require, and also to their being made
extremely fine; a condition into which all plant-food must come
before it can be used.

FERTILIZERS. 195

For Sugar-Cane and Cotton, we believe no special fertilizers are
made except by the Mapes Co., though other dealers would prob-
ably furnish them if there were a reasonable demand. Sugar-
Cane requires, according to the Mapes formula, a fertilizer con-
taining from two to three per cent, ammonia, ten to twelve per
cent, phosphoric acid, and six to eight per cent, of potash. This
will prove valuable for either the Southern cane or the Sorgo,
and will largely increase the amount of saccharine matter in the
stalks. For Cotton, Mapes' Nitrogenized Suferphosph.\te is
recommended. This contains from three to three and a half
per cent, of ammonia and ten to fourteen per cent, of available
phosphoric acid. A "Complete manure" is also manufactured.
That sent out by the Mapes Co. contains six or seven per cent,
of ammonia, ten or twelve per cent, of phosphoric acid, and three
or four per cent, of potash. In this connection Dr. Nichols'
formula for imitating barn-yard-m.anure should be given. This
requires one cord of seasoned muck, sixty-five pounds of crude
nitrate of soda, two bushels of wood-ashes, one peck of com-
mon salt, ten pounds of fine bone-meal, two quarts of plaster,
and ten pounds of epsom salts; all carefully composted. This
is said to act rather more slowly than manure, but to be more
lasting and to insure good returns.

Application of Fertilizers. — In the formulae quoted, and
in the preceding remarks, we have endeavored to show the kindi
and quality of food which crops require. As the effect of fer-
tilizers depends in a great degree upon the manner in which they
are used, a little space may well be devoted to a consideration
of the best methods of application. To some extent these will
vary with the quality and kind of the fertilizer and the condition
of the land. The general tendency of manures is to gradually
sink deeper into the soil. This fact would indicate that surface
application is the most desirable. But this is open to the objec-
tion that, when exposed to the air, some of the an^monia which

manure ought to contain is evaporated, and thus the quality of
13

196 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

the fertilizer is injured. Twenty years ago this was considered
an insuperable objection, and almost every farmer was careful to
cover the manure which he used deeply in the soil. In our
earlier farming days it was the common custom to plow in the
manure even on sod-land. When the sod was heavy and deep
plowing was practiced, the manure made but little difference
with the crops the first season, and a large part of its fertilizing
elements got washed down so low that subsequent crops failed
to reach them. Experience demonstrated that this was a very
unsatisfactory way of using manure, while the results of
experiments which a few leading farmers had carried on seemed
to point to surface application as very much to be preferred.
This seems to be the most reasonable way in which to use
manures. In the early stages of life, plants need to have their
food very near them. Their roots are short and can go but a
little distance for nourishment. If there is plenty of good
food in a readily available condition, the plants will grow with
great rapidity and obtain a start which will do much toward
carrying the crop to a successful issue. But if their food is at
the bottom of the furrows, the plants will grow very slowly until
the roots reach that depth. Then the growth will become more
rapid, but it may be too late to .secure the best yield which
might have been obtained.

John Johnston once favored plowing in manure, but ex-
perience taught him that it was not the best way in which it
could be used. After using it only as a top-dressing for twenty-
six years he said that he considered one load used in that way
"worth far more than two plowed under on our stiff land."

That it makes more difference upon heavy than it does upon
light soils probably all advocates of top-dressing will admit.
But the great principle that it, is best to put plant-food within
reach of the roots of plants in the early stages of their growth is
always to be kept in mind. Surface manuring answers this re-
quirement, and as the roots of plants increase in length the rains

FERTILIZERS. 197

wash their food down to them. But if plowed in, the manure
is so far off that the plants can make no use of it for a long
time, and very much of it will be carried beyond their reach.
The theory that the fertilizing elements which are deeply
buried will be brought again to the surface by capillary attrac-
tion does not seem to hold good in practice. There are
certain circumstances under which it is advisable to plow in
manure lightly, but we doubt if deep covering is ever an
economical method.

Where green manure is used, and it is desired that fermenta-
tion should take place in the soil, light covering is beneficial,
but deep plowing would greatly retard, if not entirely defeat,
the purpose for which it was tried. This is true of green crops
which are plowed under for fertilizers, and also of green stable-
manures. Sod should not be plowed very deep, because such a
course would prevent the rapid decay of the roots and stubble
which ought to be converted into plant-food. Lime sinks very
rapidly, and ought always to be used upon the surface. Plaster
and salt, when used by themselv^es, each have their most bene-
ficial effect when sowed broadcast. Ashes, guano, fish refuse,
special fertilizers, and nearly all the agricultural chemicals,
should be harrowed in before the seed is sowed. With guano,
and some of the stronger chemicals, it is best to mix at least an
equal bulk of dry earth before the sowing is attempted.

The waste which has been supposed to be inseparable from
surface applications of manure has been greatly overestimated.
Alternate sunshine and rain will nearly spoil manure which is
exposed in the barn-yard, but most of the loss goes downward.
Except during the process of fermentation there is not a great
loss by means of exposure to the air. Consequently, when
manure is spread upon the surface of the land, this very exposure
enables the rain to carry its fertilizing elements directly to
the roots of the plants. The slight loss by escape of ammonia
in the air is far more than balanced by the increased effect of

198 FARAfING FOR PROFIT.

the remainder. Every farmer has noticed that manure dries
quickly after being spread. Just as soon as it is well dried,
chemical action ceases, and there is no further loss. The dews
and rain will dissolve and carry it into the soil. When green
stable-manure is spread upon grass land, a moderate coating of
plaster should be sowed upon it as soon as the spreading is
done. This will both hasten decomposition by absorbing mois-
ture from the air, and also prevent the escape of ammonia before
the manure is dry. We do not often use green manure in this
way, but have seen splendid results from it upon some soils.

The quantity which should be used will depend upon the
quality of the manure, the condition of the soil, and the require^
ments of the crop which is to be grown. The securing of a
large crop is not the only thing which the farmer should keep
in mind, but, while very important, must be subordinated to
profitable cultivation. There can be no doubt that there is a
limit not only to the yield of farm crops, but also that the
limit of profitable production falls considerably inside that of
the possible yield. By applying a vast quantity of manure we
could probably grow one hundred and twenty-five bushels of
shelled corn upon an acre of land, but it is much better for us,
not only as far as the present corn crop is concerned, but also
when considering the products of the land for the next four or
five years, to put this manure upon two acres and obtain from
sixty to seventy-five bushels per acre. After reaching a certain
limit every additional bushel of corn is grown at a largely in-
creased expense. Until that limit is reached every additional
bushel is secured for a low price, and brings a large percentage
of profit. Thus a field which produces only thirty bushels per
acre may be brought up to fifty bushels for so low a price that
the cost per bushel of the extra twenty bushels will fall far
below the cost per bushel of the original thirty. But after
reaching a yield of fifty, or possibly sixty, bushels, the cost per
bushel will rapidly increase. The same principle applies to all

FERTILIZERS. 199

farm crops. It is not, as a general rule, policy to grow either
small, or excessively large, crops, and fertilizers should always
be used with this fact in view. In the formula for special
fertilizers which we have quoted, a certain quantity was stated
as being required to produce a certain yield. • Many farmers
have applied two or three times the formulae, and secured
largely increased crops. But there is a limit beyond which sun-
shine, air, and water cannot go. Room is also necessary' for the
development of plants, and the cash outlay for extra fertilizers
is so large that the experience of both farmers, and those who
have merely conducted experiments, goes to prove that it is not
best to attempt to obtain too much from a small area of land.
Besides, an excessive use of manure involves an actual waste.
Plants can use only a certain amount of food. When that quan-
tity is furnished, it is useless to ^wo. them more. When a man
has all the food he can eat, he is just as well supplied as he
would be if he had placed before him food enough for an army.
Precisely the same may be said concerning a plant. Now if
twenty-five loads of manure per acre will supply all the food
which corn can use, and furnish it in good condition for the
crop, it is easy to see that the application of thirty loads will
involve a loss. The extra five loads can do no possible good
where they are, but would have manured one-fifth of another
acre of land so that it would have been very productive.

But while it is possible to err in this direction, we think there
are ten farmers who apply too little manure per acre where
there is one who uses too much. Every farmer knows that it is
worse than useless for him to keep more pigs than he. can feed
properly. He can see that it is better for him to have a dozen
nice, thrifty, fat pigs, than it is to have twenty lean, coarse and
starving ones. It should be just as easy to see that it does not
pay to try to grow any more plants than there is manure enough
furnished to feed. It saves time and labor, and is better for
both the farmer and the soil, to obtain fifty bushels of corn

200 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

from one acre of land, than it is to go over two acres for the
same quantity. While it is possible to lose money by using too
much manure, it is also possible to lose not only money, but
time, labor, and even faith in farming, by applying too little.
Both extremes should be carefully avoided.

The Summer Fallow. — Although it is an indirect method for
accomplishing the result, the old English system of summer
fallowing should be mentioned among the resources for increas-
ing the fertility of the soil. Some writers assert that the mere
resting of the land can do no good, but the results of the process
indicate that certain advantages can be obtained from its use.
The theory of this system is, that the soil contains large quan-
tities of plant-food in a condition which prevents their being
at once available for the use of crops. When a crop is removed,
the land has been drained of the elements which were ready
for its food. The disintegrating process which is constantly
going on will unlock and make available more food before time
for another sowing or planting ; but, if the land can remain
uncroppcd during the next summer, the quantity of food which
can then be furnished will be greatly increased, and, conse-
quently, much larger crops can be secured. Liebig considered
this method of restoring fertility " highly important," and said
that the fact of its beneficial influence had " been fully established
by the experience of several thousand years." In this countiy
it has never been extensively followed, although some of our
best farmers have been aware of its benefits. John Johnston
has practiced it upon some of his wheat fields with great success.
But most of our farmers, even those who are anxious to keep
the fertility of the land up to the highest point, and who also
desire to obtain large crops, think the end can be secured wiih
less expense by following a suitable rotation of crops. In this
we think they are correct, though there are many cases in which
the fallow will pay. The following improvement upon the
plan of merely resting the land has been suggested by Dr. Har-

FERTILIZERS. 201

LAN. As the success of the fallow is largely increased by occa-
sionally plowing the land, there is an opportunity to use green
manures at a merely nominal cost. By sowing clover, buck-
wheat, or some other crop, when the land is plowed, the expense
will be but slightly increased and all the advantages of green
manuring will be secured. The plowings should be at least six
weeks apart if nothing is grown. Upon good land this will
give plenty of time to secure the growth of quite a quantity of
material for fertilizing purposes. This seems to be a better plan
than that of leaving the land entirely idle.

Covering the Soil. — This is one of the most effective of all
the indirect methods for restoring old fields or maintaining the
fertility of those whose productive power has not been impaired.
It should not be used alone, but in connection with the applica-
tion of some material containing plant-food. With green ma-
nuring it produces highly beneficial effects. Probably every
farmer has noticed that when a pile of old boards has been
removed, the soil has sent up a large growth of plants. The
land upon which muck has been piled becomes very productive
when the heaps are taken away. Probably much of the benefit
caused by top-dressing is due to the shading of the land which
it involves, and the fact that covering the soil causes it to pro-
duce large crops is a strong argument in favor of surface manur-
ing. It is also an indication that the spreading of straw upon
grain fields is one of the best possible uses which can be made
of this material. The benefits of mulching trees have long been
acknowledged. Perhaps the coming farmer will be as careful
to mulch his wheat as the nurseryman of the present is to mulch
his little trees. In some experiments in England the use of
one and a half tons of straw per acre spread over the land
increased the grass crop to from two to three times its usual
yield. Yet the climate of that country is much more moist than
our own, and it is natural to suppose that the same use of straw
would give our farmers still better returns. We know of no

202 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

large experiments in this line, but small ones have proved that
the mere covering of the soil will largely increase the crops
which it can produce.

The reason' why covering the land is beneficial is two-fold.
When straw or green crops are used, the plant-food which these
materials contain is leached out and washed down to the roots
of the plants. In this case the material not only acts as a cover-
ing for the land, but also furnishes food directly to the plants.
When old boards, or any other things containing none of the
elements which plants require, are used, their beneficial effect is
probably due to their preventing evaporation and thus retaining
the moisture and the ammonia which is in the soil. When the
land is left bare for several days, as the mowing lots are after
the hay crop is removed, during the hottest part of the year,
evaporation goes on with great rapidity, and it is probable that
large quantities of ammonia escape with the vapor which is
almost constantly rising to the clouds.

We believe the subject of fertilizers to be one of the most
important of all those with which the practical fanner is obliged
to deal. Without fertilizers of some kind the farmer can do
nothing. If he has but little manure, he will be almost certain
to have a poor farm, and, if no pains are taken to increase the
supply, the land will probably keep growing poorer and finally
become almost, if not wholly, unproductive. But the man who
labors judiciously to increase the quantity of fertilizing material
for his farm will be almost sure to produce good crops and also
improve his land. He certainly lays a good foundation, and
upon this he can build a splendid success.

TILLAGE. 203

%:p^ T has long been acknowledged by the leading men who
°^ I have given much thought to agricultural subjects that
^Q^ to a certain and considerable extent tillage is equivalent
^ to manure. Some have gone so far as to insist that if
the land were allowed to lie idle every other season, and were
properly tilled, it would never need manure and would never
fail to produce good crops. This we consider an extreme and
unwarranted inference. It demands altogether too much of
tillage — more than it can possibly supply. Even if the plan
suo-o-ested would do all that is claimed for it by its advocates we
do not think it would be the wisest course which could be
pursued. It would involve the use of twice as much land as
could be cropped, and it does not seem best for a farmer to
allow half of his land to remain constantly idle. We think it is
very much better to keep the soil constantly producing some
valuable crop, and supply the drain which such production must
make by the use of suitable fertilizers. When hoed crops are
grown, these fertilizers should be supplemented by careful tillage.
For, while not accepting as truth all that has been claimed for
tillage, we recognize its great benefits and believe that by means
of its use the crops of the average farmer can be largely and
cheaply increased. We have already alluded to the fact that
the soil contains the mineral elements of plant-food in rich
abundance. But these elements are almost wholly locked up in
the soil, and are in a condition in which plants can make no use
of them. The sunshine and storms, together with chemical
processes, are constantly, but very slowly, disintegrating the soil
and setting these elements free. If the action of these forces
were rapid enough, there would be no necessity for man to supply
mineral food for his plants. The soil contains a vast, almost
unlimited quantity,. while the crops remove but a very little.
But when left to themselves these processes go on too slowly to

204 FARMING fOR PROFIT.

furnish food enough for crops. In some way the farmer must
add to, or make available, the stores of the soil. The former he
can do with manure. The latter can be accomplished by tillage.
The former makes a positive addition to the plant-food which
the soil contains. The latter merely changes materials already
in the land from an unavailable form to one in which they can
be readily used. It is not best to wholly rely upon either
of these methods, but both should be combined. In addition
to the release of plant-food which is secured by tillage there are
various good results caused by the loosening of the soil which
is thereby effected. By means of tillage the land is enabled to
retain a greater degree of moisture in time of drought, and the
air is permitted tp penetrate the soil and benefit the plants.

Of late the theory has been advanced that, instead of being
bcncficia!, tillage is absolutely injurious to the soil. This is very
strongly set forth by Col. Joh\ H. MjAfee, of Mississippi, in a
pamphlet, entitled, " How to Till the Soil," which has recently
been published. He claims that plowing the land exposes it to
a more direct action of the sun and air, and that thus its fertiliz-
ing properties are " made to escape." He affirms that plowing
the land wears it out, and the oftener the owner plows it the
more he exhausts the soil. In support of his theor}' he points
to the soils which have been long cultivated and have become
exhausted, and says, that if plowing was good for land, these
fields would be very rich instead of almost barren. According
to his theory the soil contains "just so much fertility," and fre-
quent plowing will inevitably destroy it and leave the land
barren. He lays down the broad proposition that thorough
preparation of the soil before planting greatly deteriorates it,
and thereby not only injures the land but diminishes the crop.
Tt seems to us that this theory is altogether one-sided, and is
not at all supported by facts. That tilling the soil exposes the
land to the action of the sun and atmosphere we admit, but we
do not believe that it necessitates the escape of its fertilizing

TILLAGE. 205

elements. On the contrary, it is because tillage exposes the soil
to the action of the air that we advocate it so strongly. That it
does not involve the loss of fertilizing elements may be inferred
from the fact that the experience of many years has proved
beyond all question that top-dressing is the most economical
method of applying manures to grass. If manures are not
injured by this exposure, the soil certainly cannot be harmed
thereby. Besides, the elements which are set free in ordinary
soils by tillage are principally inorganic. From the .very nature
of the case it is impossible that the sunlight and air should dis-
sipate them. The only organic element in which the soil is
deficient, and which can leave the land poorer by its escape,
is nitrogen. That this may escape from newly plowed fields in
the form of ammonia is possible. But this escape can be only
in a very slight degree, and it has been proved by the researches
of chemists and the experiments of farmers that newly plowed
fields not only give off a little, but that they also absorb a great
deal, of ammonia. Thus the soil is actually improved by cul-
ture. When the field which is to be plowed is covered with
stubble, or weeds, which will decay in the soil, the amount of
organic matter which it contained will be considerably increased.
If the claim that plowing land " wxars it " were correct, the fact
would not be of great consequence, because, as we have shown,
the land is full of the mineral elements of plant-food which are
made ready for use as rapidly as the disintegrating process is
carried on. The supply is inexhaustible, and no fear of its
failure by this means need ever be entertained. Neither are the
mineral elements liable to be washed away from the reach of
plants. The theory that the soil contains just so much fertility
and when that is gone the land is wholly and forever ruined has
already been shown incorrect. Our soils were, doubtless, once
ground out of solid rock by the action of immense glaciers, and
they are therefore full of mineral elements. As each crop only
removes a very slight quantity, there will be an abundance of

20G FARMING I' OR PROFIT.

these elements even if the land is kept under constant cultiva-
tion until the end of time. The more it is worked the more
plant-food is set free. There will be soil as long as the earth
endures, and as long as there is soil there will be plenty of the
mineral elements of plant-food.

But if this is true, how is the great fact, that hundreds of thou-
sands of acres of land in this country — land which has only been
under cultivation a very few hundred years — seem to be com-
pletely worn out, to be accounted for ? The fact that these fields
are exhausted is the one grand argument of the opponents of
tillage, and is the one visible thing to which they refer with an
appearance of being certainly correct. But in this they have
jumped altogether too far and too fast in drawing their conclu-
sions. These worn-out fields are not exhausted in the sense of
containing no plant-food. Instead of having yielded up all their
fertilizing material, they still contain enough to feed yearly crops
for untold ages. They have not been exhausted by plowing or
by any other form of culture. If nothing had been done but
cultivate them, they would still retain all their original fertility.
We have already referred to some worn-out fields which can be
seen from our window. Looking from another window in the
same room, we can get a glimpse of a large tract of land lying
in a town which has been settled more than two hundred years,
and land which has been yearly cropped during this long period,
but which is now one of the most fertile tracts to be found East
of the Mississippi. Now, if cropping and culture were inevitably
destructive, this land would be worthless instead of commanding.
the highest price of any land in all this region.

The reason why this tract of land is so different from the other
is to be found in the fact that a different system of culture has
been pursued. If the facts could be obtained, it would doubtless
be found that every exhausted field which has not been ruined
by some great flood, or by something wholly beyond the power
of man to prevent, has been brought into its present condition

TILLAGE. 207

by a bad system of culture which has been continued for many
successive years. The elements of fertility have not been dis-
sipated by sunshine, or scattered by tillage, but have been
removed in the form of crops. Year after year crops have been
grown upon the same land without manure. These crops have
sought out the elements of plant-food, appropriated them, and
the owner has carried them off. He has done this, too, without
giving the soil the benefit of thorough tillage. Consequently,
the disintegrating process has not gone on rapidly enough.
It has been too slow to meet the demands of the crops. Proper
culture would have hastened it to such an extent that fair crops
could have been produced. Now, the plants have taken all the
food they can get, and the soil must rest long enough to allow
more of the elements to be unlocked from their present com-
binations, or else there must be the liberal use of fertilizers. If
the farmer had returned the mineral elements to the soil in the
form of manure, all this trouble would have been avoided. But
he has been taking from the soil and giving nothing back. Vir-
tually, he has year by year been selling his land. Every crop
he has grown has carried part of it away. The farmers who have
grown crops which they could feed, and who have fed them and
applied the manure which they obtained to the soil, have not
worn out their land. Yet their land has been tilled as long as
the exhausted fields. These facts prove that it is not the tillage
but the removal of crops which has absorbed the elements of
fertility and impoverished the soil.

While we do not in any case favor tillage as a substitute for
manure, we do most emphatically urge its employment as an
auxiliary. That the tillage alone may be made thorough enough
to secure the production of good crops every other year we have
not the slightest doubt. On many soils, which are easily broken
down, tillage may be made to produce fair crops every year.
There is mineral matter enough in the soil, and matter of the
right kind, to promote the growth of crops. There need be no

208 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

fears of failure in these respects. The only question is, Can the
tillage be made thorough enough to supply an abundance of
mineral food as fast as the crop will need it? We take it for
granted that, if this could be done, the organic matter necessary
would be supplied either by the air and soil, or by the owner
of the land. But suppose the question to be answered in the
affirmative. We still think it far better to use manure in con-
nection with tillage, than it is to depend upon either one alone.
A man caii milk a cow with one hand, but he can do it to much
better advantage by using both hands. So a farmer can grow
better and more profitable crops by means of tillage in connec-
tion with manure, than he can with either one alone.

In the employment of tillage, as well as in the use of any and
all means for the improvement of the soil, and the benefit of the
crops, skill and judgment on the part of the cultivator are
neces.sary in order that the highest success may be secured.
We do not apprehend any injury to the land from what may be
styled imperfect and injudicious tillage, but there may be a
certain degree of loss to the owner of the soil. All injudicious
labor, of whatever name or kind, involves a loss. To this rule
tillage is no exception. But this fact is no more of an argument
against tillage than it is against the custom of cutting grass. If
grass is cut in rainy weather, the quality of the hay will be
badly injured. Here the loss is caused by direct damage to the
crop. When land is improperly tilled there is a direct waste,
and consequent loss, of labor. If performed too late it may
not bring the food, which it will be the means of providing for
plants, into an assimilable condition in season to do the intended
good. A farmer may be tilling his land when he ought to be
cutting his hay crop, and this neglect to harvest his hay at the
proper time may involve a much greater loss than he imagines.
By getting over-ripe his hay will be damaged for feeding, its
market price will be reduced, and the loss on this crop will far ex-
ceed the gain upon the one which is tilled. There is always time
enough on a well^managed farm to give all the tillage necessary,

TILLAGE. 209

and the farmer should study not only the best methods, but also
to avail himself of the best opportunities for doing this work.

It should also be remembered that different soils require
different degrees of tillage. A loose, open gravel requires but
little working compared with a stiff clay soil. If fallowing is
practiced, tillage will be a great aid. Still it is not usually given.
The vast majority of farmers do not sufficiently till their crops.
It would be altogether too much of a strain upon faith to expect
such men to till their land while it is lying idle. If they will
not cultivate the soil thoroughly when it is productive, they
certainly will not do much to it while it is resting. Yet some
of our best farmers have found this form of tillage very profit-
able. Upon some of his fine wheat fields John Johnston does
a great deal of work in the line of tillage while the land is
fallow. He plows, harrows, and rolls these fields two or three
times during the season. Joseph Harris declares himself un-
able to " dispense with summer fallowing " on heavy land, and
he often uses the plow and harrow in order to unlock the
treasures which his soil contains. Now if it pays to till the
land while it is resting, it must be a matter of great importance
to give it thorough culture while it is producing a crop.
Oxygen, carbonic acid and water are the great liberators of
plant-food in the soil. The more loose and open the land is
kept the more readily these agents can penetrate it, and the
greater the efficiency with which they will act. Stirring the soil
allows their entrance, and the breaking of the clods, and mixing
of the various portions of the soil which is accomplished by the
use of the cultivator, will also prove of great benefit to the crop.
LiEBiG, noticing the great benefits of culture, remarked that
" the influence of the mechanical operations of agriculture upon
the fertility of a soil, however imperfectly the earthy particles
may be mixed by the process, is remarkable, and often borders
upon the marvellous." This test of practical effect is the one
to which every theory should be subjected.

210 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

The effect of the system upon the land and the crops should
be carefully noted. If the effect is good for a reasonable length
of time, it is proper to conclude that the system is correct, even
though it may not be in accordance with our preconceived views
or our present theories. Examining the subject of tillage in
this light we find the strongest arguments in its favor. The best
farmers, and the farmers who raise the best crops, practice
thorough culture. The fact that they use manure freely in con-
nection with it does not at all detract from the merits of the
system of thorough tillage which we have advocated. It may
be the case that certain fertilizers have been praised for what
tillage has really accomplished. Manufacturers of fertilizers
recommend, as they should do, careful cultivation. Now the
fact cannot be denied that by means of cultivation alone some
farmers have grown large crops. It is, therefore, reasonable to
suppose that certain large yields of grain, which have been
secured with the use of remarkably small quantities of some
commercial fertilizer, have been due more to the extra culture
which the plants received than they were to the manure. We
are now referring only to those cases in which the reported yield
is out of all proportion to the quantity and value of the fertilizer
applied. When the land is highly manured, it is safe to expect
large crops if the plants are well cared for. With little manure
and thorough tillage large yields may sometimes be secured, but
the credit is due far more to the culture than it is to the manure.
The highest permanent results are only to be attained by the
combined use of fertilizers and cultivation.

The best time for tilling the soil and the best methods to be
employed will depend largely upon the particular crop produced,
the climate, and the soil. What is a proper course to pursue
with one crop may be injudicious with another, and what would
be good tillage upon some soils would be so imperfect as to
scarcely deserve the name if applied to others. But there are
some general principles which should be constantly kept in mind.

TILLAGE. 211

The soil must be thoroughly fitted to receive the seed. No

amount of skilful culture afterwards can atone for neglect to

prepare the land before the planting is done. The seeds of farm

crops are comparatively small and weak. When placed in a

poorly prepared soil, which is full of lumps and clods, it takes a

long while for them to get fairly started. Their small, weak

rootlets cannot penetrate the clods, and it is with difficulty that

they find either room or food. In all the early stages of growth

the plants are placed at a great disadvantage, and are obliged to'

contend with difficulties which the farmer ought not to have

allowed to exist. Subsequent culture may break these clods

and give the plants both room and food, but it will certainly

come too late to allow them to do as well as they would if

everything had been favorable from the beginning. If the soil

is fine when the seed is planted, growth will be prompt and

regular. There will be no delay from want of food, and no

time will be lost in trying to find room. The plants which start

in this manner will be strong and vigorous, and will be far less

likely to be attacked by disease than those which start slowly,

and have a hard fight in order to obtain a hold upon life.

It is greatly for the convenience, as well as the pecuniary

interest, of the farmer to have his crops grow as rapidly as

possible ; and for this reason, even if there were no other, good

tillage should be given. If his com comes up promptly and

grows rapidly, the plants will soon be large enough to cultivate.

This culture will cause them to grow still faster, and in an

ordinary season, it may be possible to get the third hoeing out

of the way before the haying season arrives. This is quite an

object for the farmer, and the early culture will prove a great

benefit to the crop. But if the corn comes up slowly, and does

not grow much for two or three weeks after it does appear,

weeds witt endeavor to take possession of the soil, the hoeing

must be put off to give time for the corn to grow, and before it'

has been fairly attended to once the haying needs to be coni^-
14

212 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

menccd. With wheat, oats, and similar crops, the results of a
slow growth during their early stages are still worse than they
are with the corn crop.

The plants being weak, are destroyed in large numbers by
climatic changes and insects, while the weeds, which are more
hardy than the grain, take possession of altogether too much
of the land. Upon most farms these crops are not hoed, and
when they fail to get a good start, the weeds attain a large size,
starve the grain, injure the soil, and ripen their seed. If the
grain had started vigorously, it might have overcome the weeds,
but starting late, and being placed at a great disadvantage, it
must take the second place. It will always pay, even though it
may involve some delay about planting or sowing, to get the
land in the best possible condition to receive the seed. It is
much better to wait a few days until the soil can be finely pul-
verized, than it is to hurry in the seed before the land is properly
prepared. The plants will grow enough faster to more than
make up for the delay, and, being much more vigorous, will
produce larger crops than can be obtained if the land is not in a
suitable condition when the seeding is done. While early
planting is often of great importance, it cannot be more neces-
sary than a thorough preparation of the land.

In order to secure the full measure of benefit which tillage is
able to confer, it is necessary that the culture of the plants
should be adapted to their particular wants. Both corn
and potatoes are greatly benefited by tillage, but it must be
performed in a very different manner for one of these crops than
it is for the other. It is possible to injure plants by bad tillage.
We have seen a corn crop seriously damaged by having too
much dirt thrown upon it at once. But such facts as these are
no reflection upon the benefits of tillage itself Improper food
has killed many a fine horse, but no one thinks it wrong to
feed horses because some have been destroyed by bad feeding.
And if a farmer has cultivated his corn in an improper manner.

TILLAGE. 213

and injured it by so doing, he should not lay the blame upon
the tillage, but charge .it to his own ignorance or carelessness.

The special wants of each particular crop should not only be
studied and supplied, but it should also be remembered that, at
different stages of their growth, some plants need different forms
of culture. Experienced cotton-growers recommend deep
culture when the crop is small, and shallow culture when it
has become large enough to cover the ground. Probably the
majority of corn-growers, who favor deep culture during any
stage of the existence of this plant, believe it is best to cultivate
shallow after the roots have reached far out between the rows.
With some crops the dirt should be turned away at the first
hoeings, and brought toward the plants at later ones. It may
be accepted as a sound
proposition that suitable cul-
ture will not injure any of
our farm crops. If crops
have been injured by culti-
vation, it is a pretty sure
proof that the method em- ^^^ io.-ancient mcthod of tillage.
ployed was defective. In-
stead of giving up all hope from tillage, the unsuccessful farmer
should study the demands of his crops more closely, and tr>^
to adapt his methods to the natural tendencies of the plants.
If the right methods are adopted, tillage will give any and
every farmer a great deal of efficient aid.

Another great essential to success in growing large crops by
the aid of tillage is the possession and use of suitable imple-
ments with which to do the work. In the lack of these
implements may be found the principal reason why so many
farmers do not succeed in making what they call tillage highly
successful. They have no implements which are capable of
doing the required work. What they have called tillage has
not been worthy of the designation. The farmers of to-day

214

FARMING FOR PROFIT.

think with pity of the ancient husbandman, whose only plo.v
was a crooked stick, and rejoice in the advances which have
been made in the conrtruction of agricultural tools and
machines. In this the average farmer does well. But he
should remember that when compared with the possibilities of
cultivation, of which some of the expensive machines for pul-
verizing the soil have given us indications, his own methods are
still very rude, and there is a vast field for improvement in his
own immediate neighborhood. His implements are vastly better

A MODLRN IMIROVEMENT.

than those of his forefathers; but they are not the best in the
world, and, what is much more to the case, he does not always
make the best possible use of them.

The ver)' best implements for pulverizing the soil are driven
by steam and , are too expensive for the average farmer to own,
but there is no reason why he cannot have good ones with
which he can work out a high degree of success. If he will
obtain the best implements within his reach, and use them faith-
fully, he will secure the benefits of tillage in a degree whic^

THE CHOICE OF CROPS. *2l5

^i^ill give him both pleasure and profit. But he must not, for a
moment, suppose that the occasional use of an old and nearly
worn-out cultivator, or horse-hoe, or any other implement which
was never good and is not now half as effective as it was when
new, is tillage, or anything closely resembling it. In order to
till the soil in the way it should be tilled it is absolutely neces-
sary to have good implements and to use them thoroughly.
And until a farmer has faithfully tried it in this way he ought
not to condemn tillage as a method for securing good crops.
If farmers only realized the importance of this subject and would
make the best possible use of the implements which they have,
or which they can readily obtain, we are confident that they
would largely increase the yield of their crops and make their
■business much more profitable than it has ever been in the past.
The accompanying illustrations show the difference between
ancient and modern methods of tillage. Figure lo represents
the plow and team used by the Egyptians in the olden time.
Figure 1 1 exhibits a Western team attached to one of the Furst
& Bradley " Garden City " gang-plows.

'here are few things of a purely intellectual nature
which do so much toward determining whether the far-
mer shall succeed or fail in his business, or which are
so influential in fixing the degree of success or failure,
'as the choice of the crops which he will produce. Though suc-
cess in farming depends upon a great many different things, and
•cannot be secured by the most careful attention to any one of
"two of the items if the others are neglected, yet there are certain
foundation principles which must be observed or failure will be
certain and absolute. Neglect of some points will diminish the
profits of the business, while if others are disregarded no profits
tan be secured. The choice of crops is one of the essentials.

216 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

A mistake here is radical and may be fatal to success. No
amount of diligence in business, and no quantity or degree of
skilful culture can atone for an error in this department of the
work of the farm. The choice of crops is to the farmer what
the selection of goods is to the merchant. Every one knows
that if a merchant is to succeed he must keep a stock of goods
of the kind and quality which his customers want If he lays
in a stock of silk when his customers want calico, or chocolate
when they want coffee, he will not be able to sell his goods,
those who have been his patrons will go to other stores where
their wants can be supplied, and the merchant, having lost his
trade, will be obliged to shut up his store. If a merchant can-
not, or will not, supply the wants of his customer?, he must
expect to lose their trade. If a man wants a certain class of
goods he will not long remain satisfied to take a different kind
simply because the merchant with whom he has traded is out
of what he needs and has a surplus of what he does not want
Now this same principle, which is so clear in its application to
the merchant, is of equal importance to the farmer. Both mer-
chant and farmer depend for their living upon the sale of articles.
The former obtains the goods which he sells, by purchase. The
latter secures his as the result of labor and skill in the cultiva-
tion of the soil. The one must buy what he can sell or he will
not succeed. The other must produce what he can sell or he
will certainly fail. It requires some skill in a merchant to deter-
mine just what goods, and what particular grades his customers
will want The farmer needs an equal degree of skill to enable
him to supply the popular demand for his productions. The
market for the farmer's products fluctuates in its special de-
mands almost as much as that for the products of the manufac-
turer's skill. The fact that a certain kind, or quality, of farm
products is popular just now is not the slightest indication that
the popularity will be permanent. The farmer must not go on
year after year growing something which was in style twenty

THE CHOICE OF CROPS. 217

years ago, and paying no regard to the present demands of cus-
tomers,

A few years ago the local dealers in pork, in this vicinity,
wanted large and heavy hogs. Now they do not want the
weight to exceed two or three hundred pounds. The producers
who have changed their methods of feeding, so as to supply the
demand, can sell readily and obtain the highest market rates.
But the few who have paid no attention to the change in the
wants of customers often have hard work to dispose of their
products, and frequently are obliged to sell for less than the
ruling price, because their hogs are heavier than the buyers
want. When we commenced growing onions for the market, we
produced about equal quantities of the red and yellow varieties.
We had been told that the red ones would sell the best, but that
the yellow ones would ripen soonest. But we soon found that
our customers much preferred the yellow ones — that we could
sell these without difficulty, while very few wanted the red ones.
Consequently we gave up growing red onions and cultivate the
yellow variety exclusively. Whether the yellow ones are better
than the red ones we cannot say. It is a question for our
customers to decide. We care nothing about it either way.
The kind which will sell is the kind which we shall grow, and
as long as our customers demand one particular kind we shall
not trouble our mind with the question whether it is better or
worse than some other sort. This is the principle which must
govern the farmer who is to be successful. He may believe
that the Snowflake potatoes are far superior to the Early Rose,
but if buyers want Early Rose and do not want the Snowflake, it
is useless for him to insist upon growing the best ones simply
because they are better than the others. The consumers are the
ones to judge of the quality, and it is safe for the farmer to rely
upon their choice. The farmer may also believe that it is a
great deal better for people to eat mutton than it is to use pork;
but if the people who do the buying want the pork and will not

218 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

eat the mutton, the producer should waste no time in trying to
force buyers to take the meat which they do not want. If
buyers pay their money, it is but just and right that tliey should
take tlieir choice.

Like all other principles this is liable to abuse. It may be
carried too far. We strongly recommend it so far, but only so
far, as it can be followed in perfect honesty, and without encour-
aging an evil course on the part of buyers. When moral
principles become involved, the rigJit, and not the popular
demand, should be the standard of choice. We would never
convert cider into brandy because a customer preferred the
brandy to vinegar. Neither would we allow our grain to be
converted into whiskey because a buyer preferred the whiskey to
iloiir ior meal. But within certain well-defined and easily de-
scribed limits it is not only wise, but is very important that the
farmer should grow those crops which will supply the popular
demand. No evil habits should be encouraged and no vitiated
ta.'stes should be gratified. But in all questions such as the
particular variety of potatoes, or onions, or apples, the choice of
pork, or beef, or mutton, the growth of corn, or wheat, or oats,
the wants of the consumers should be the court of final resort.
As far as himself and his family are concerned the farmer may
profitably grow the particular crops and varieties which they
consider the best, but for market these preferences should be
waived, and those of his customers be allowed to govern his
choice.

In order to aid him in making a proper selection of crops the
:farmer should keep himself constantly informed concerning the
state of the markets in which he deals. He should note not
only the prices which are paid, but also the tendencies of these
markets. It sometimes happens that a demand for a certain
kind of vegetable, or fruit, will commence on a very small scale
.and gradually increase to large proportions. The farmer who
sees the opportunity at the beginning, and improves it, may thus

THE CHOICE OF CROPS. 219

add a very profitable item to his business. Still, care must be
taken not to over-do the production of any article which is just
becoming popular. There will be a limit to the demand, and no
one can tell how soon it will be reached. The men who start
first in the matter will secure and can retain customers, but
those who begin when the market is full will have great
difficulty in disposing of their products. The pop-corn business
in some of our large cities furnishes a fine illustration of this
principle. The production of fine crab-apples is another line in
which the early and skilful producers are highly successful.
The man who is ready to supply the demand for such articles
as soon as it arises does well, but it often happens that those
who go into the business after the supply equals the demand are
losers thereby. Any business of this kind should be com-
menced on a small scale, and increased only as the state of the
- market demands. There should be no giving up of standard
crops on account of " great expectations " from new ones.

A merely temporary demand, which is caused by some
unusual occurrence, must not be construed as an indication of a
permanent change. If the potato crop is a partial failure, and
prices reach an extreme figure, many families will buy turnips
instead of potatoes. This will cause an unusual call for turnips,
and prices can be obtained which will make them a profitable
crop. But from this fact it will not be safe to expect high
prices for turnips to rule permanently. Just as soon as potatoes
are plenty, the families who substituted turnips because they
were cheaper will give them up, and go to using potatoes.
There are many farm products which Avill always sell to a
limited extent which, in time of the scarcity of some promi-
nent crop, may be used as a substitute therefor, and thus tem-
porarily be in great demand, but which, from the very nature of
the case, can never be extensively used or sold. To force the
production of such crops is worse than useless. It will involve
a loss on the part of farmers with no corresponding gain to

220 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

any one else. The wise farmer will not enter upon their culti-
vation on a large scale until he is satisfied that there will be a
local demand, the supply of which he can in some measure
control, and that the call is not merely temporary, to serve some
incidental purpose, but will be steady and permanent. It is
very much better for a farmer never to vary his round of crops
in the least than it is to be constantly changing from one to
another, and trying every new plant which makes its appear-
ance.

We have alluded to the fact that the farmer and the merchant
are both interested in supplying the popular demand for the
various articles in which they deal. In disposing of their goods
both parties stand on equal terms. But in obtaining them the
farmer finds himself at a great disadvantage. The merchant can
go into the wholesale markets and buy just what he wants. He
can obtain one class of goods just as easily as another. If his
customers want cotton-cloth, he can get it without trouble or
delay. If they prefer the finest silks, he can get them just as
well. But with the farmer the case is different. He finds him-
self under certain limitations. Instead of going to some whole-
sale market, and calling for anything which he wants with the
certainty of obtaining it at once, he must go to the soil, and
determine by a practical trial whether the required crop can be
produced. Many farms have been badly cultivated, and thus
rendered incapable of producing certain crops. There are
many sections in which the land is specially adapted to the
growth of some plants, and entirely unsuited to the production *
of others. Therefore, in making his choice of crops, the wise
farmer will not only take into consideration the wants of his
customers, and the tendencies of the market, but also the char-
acter of his land, and its adaptation to the growth of particular
plants. If his land is not all adapted to the production of
wheat, he will grow some other crop even when wheat is selling
for a high price, and there is a great demand. The farmer

THE CHOICE OF CROPS. 221

whose land is light and warm should chose crops which arc
adapted to that kind of soil, while the one whose land is heavy,
and inclined to be wet, should grow an entirely different class
of plants, or else thoroughly drain his land, and cultivate it in
ridges so as to almost wholly change its nature and condition.
Aside from these natural characteristics of the land, there will
be found a great difference in the quality of the plant-food
which soils contain, and thus their adaptation to special crops
will be greatly modified. If a soil is naturally, or by a bad
system of cultivation has become, deficient in potash, it will not
be adapted to those crops which require a large proportion of
this element. If it has become deficient in silicic acid, it will
not be adapted to the production of wheat or rye. If phos-
phoric acid is deficient, it will produce none of the grain crops
to good advantage. The same principle applies to a deficiency
of all the other elements. The crops should be so chosen that
they shall require only in a very slight degree the elements in
which the soil is deficient. This, for farmers whose land has
long been cultivated, is a severe limitation, and if there were no
way in which it could be safely modified, would permit the
growth of but very few kinds of plants.

Fortunately, by the use of fertilizers, it is possible to supply
deficiencies which may exist in the land, and thus prepare it to
produce crops for which it is not naturally adapted. Where
only barn-yard-manure is used, the special adaptations of the
land will stand out with considerable prominence. This manure,
when it has not been damaged, is a complete fertilizer, and, to
some extent, supplies all the elements which plants need. But
if a soil is deficient in potash, and a crop is grown which needs
a liberal supply of this element, the yield will be measured very
closely by the amount of potash contained in the manure. If
the same crop is grown upon equally good land which also con-
tains an abundance of potash, and is manured the same as the
other field, the yield will be greatly increased. The same is

222 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

true in regard to each of the other elements. When no fertihzer
is used, and when only barn-yard-manure is applied, the yield
•will be greatly influenced by the' degree of the adaptation of the
land for the particular crop under cultivation. Consequently, it
is a matter of great importance for the farmer who relies upon
farm manures to make a wise selection of crops. While it is
necessary that he should choose some crops which he can either
use or sell, it is also necessary that he should select those which
he can grow. No matter how well a crop will sell, if a fair
yield cannot be secured there should be no further efforts to
grow it, but the farmer should turn his attention to something
which he can produce. Farmers need more individuality. As
a rule, in wheat-growing towns all the farmers raise wheat, in
corn-growing sections all produce corn, and whatever other crop
may be the leading one in other places the farmers all grow it,
and do not stop to think whether it would pay better to grow
some other crop. It may happen in a wheat country that there
will be a few farms which, on account of a peculiar formation of
the soil, or by reason of bad management, are not so well
adapted to wheat as they are to some other product. The
owners of such farms ought to recognize this fact, and choose
their crops with reference to it. Independent thought, aided by
careful experiment, would be a great help to a multitude of
farmers who have got into the ruts.

It sometimes happens that the crops which the land is best
fitted to produce are not the ones which will find a ready market,
or which the farmer prefers to grow. In such cases the fertilizers
for special crops may prove of great value, and enable the farmer
to obtain a good yield of the crop which he wants to produce.
We have no doubt that land which is not very well adapted to
onions may be made quite productive by the use of a good
fertilizer made for this special crop. In all cases it is better that
the land should be naturally favorable to the crop to be grown,
but it often pays to use manure which supplies just what the

THE CHOICE OF CROPS. 223

plants want, and thus, practically, fit the land to the crop instead
of choosing the crop with reference to the capacity of the land.
A farmer may be so situated that he could make his business
very profitable if he could grow potatoes, but finds that his land
has been so nearly exhausted that it will not produce a paying
cropL. He may not be able to obtain large quantities of manure,
and by its use improve the soil, or he may not wish to incur
the trouble and expense which such a course would involve.
But if he will use a liberal quantity of a good potato fertilizer
he, can secure paying crops, and not make his land poorer by
their removal. The discovery of special manures removed one
of the greatest restrictions from which farmers had suffered.
Until they came into use there was, in many places, but little
liberty about the choice of crops. Now, with skilful manage-
ment, crops can be grown where they Would not have succeeded
under the old methods of culture.

Another point to be considered in choosing crops is the cost
of production, and its proportion to the value of what is secured.
A neighbor recently said that the potatoes which he grew last
year cost him a dollar a bushel. He could have bought nice
potatoes for less than half what it cost him to grow them.
Many a crop has cost the grower much more than it was worth.
It is one thing to secure a good yield, and quite another thing
to make the crop pay. And this fact must be kept in mind
when an effort is made to grow certain crops on land not
specially adapted to their production. It is not an object for
the farmer to grow large crops, or crops which will sell readily,
if the cost exceeds their value. But with careful management
we think that almost any crop may be grown upon land which
is not decidedly unfitted for it, and be made to pay. We hiow
that by the use of suitable fertilizers, by thorough preparation
of. the land, and careful cultivation of the growing plants, the
natural inadaptation of some soils to certain crops can be over-
conje, and imoneyvcan (be. raadeja their production. An accu-

224 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

rate account should be kept with each and every crop which the
farmer grows, so that he can be sure which crops pay him the
best and which are unprofitable. The cost of fertihzers, expense
of culture, harvesting, and marketing, should all be noted. If the
crop is sold, its value can be easily ascertained, and a balance
can be struck which will show the amount of the profit or
loss. If the crop is to be consumed at home, its value should
be carefully estimated, taking the ruling cash price as a
standard.

The principal crops which are grown upon a farm should be
those which can be used at home if there is no demand for them
in market. Many farmers have been brought into financial
diflficulties by their neglect of this principle. Men who have
made tobacco their standard crop have often been obliged to
make great sacrifices which might have been avoided if, instead
of devoting all their energies to this, to them, useless plant, they
had attempted to grow it only upon a small area and had
obtained hay and grain from the remainder of their land. When
tobacco sold well, these farmers had but little trouble. They
took the money obtained for their tobacco and bought family
supplies, grain for their teams, and hay for their stock. But
when there was no sale for tobacco, and farmers had to keep
what they had grown until it was two or three years old, those
who had no other crop were very badly off. They could not
make the tobacco available. It would neither supply the wants
of their families nor feed their cattle. These farmers had often
said that it did not pay to grow corn, but they found that a few
of their neighbors who had held to the old-fashioned crops
were much better off than themselves. It is always safe to grow
corn, and oats, and grass, for if there is no sale for them the\-
can be largely, and as a general thing profitably, used on the
farm. When wheat is plenty it will sell for something, and for
use as food it is just as necessary to the family as it ever was.
A crop which can be either used or sold is always far preferable

ROTATION OF CROPS. ' 226

to one which cannot be used and which does not at all times
find a ready sale.

If these principles are followed, the farmer can determine
which are the best crops for him to produce. The knowledge
thus obtained will prove of great benefit. It will give him the
advantage of working in the light. It will take him out of the
realm of guess-work and teach him to rely upon facts and
figures. It will enable him to select his crops with reference to
the capacities of his land, or, when it will be more profitable for
him to do so, to adapt his land to the crops which he wishes to
produce. If he makes a wise choice of crops, he thereby takes
a step in the straight road which leads to success. Having
started right, he can, by high manuring and thorough culture,
obtain large yields and secure a large percentage of profit. The
experience of past generations has taught that the choice of
crops is one of the main dividing lines between success and
failure on the farm, and that wisdom requires the farmer to give
this subject his earnest attention.

(^o/jfT is not only necessary that the farmer should make a
wise choice of the crops which he will produce, but it
is also important that he should follow a system of rota-
tion. It is for want of such a system that many fields
are now unproductive. The one crop method has been pursued
until the crops have failed to pay the cost of production. A
suitable system of rotation would have long deferred the time
of exhaustion. In connection with the use of fertilizers it would
have prevented any and all injury to the soil. Nature follows a
course of rotation. When an oak forest dies, or is cut off by
man, other varieties of trees spring up, and mstead of another
oak grove the owner of the land will find pine, and chestnut, or
some other trees which are very much unlike the original oak.

226 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

I'Vom this fact we may draw the inference that an occasional
change of crops is demanded by the soil. Experiments have
proved this inference correct. It was once thought that plants
were in the habit of throwing off their waste substances, and
that these poisoned the soil for all plants of a similar nature, but
left it uninjured for those of a different class. This theory has
been generally abandoned, and there Is but very little evidence
by which it can be sustained. The opinion now held is that
different crops take the elements of plant-food from the soil in
different proportions, and that this fact accounts for the great
benefits resulting from a change of crops.

It is true that some crops require more of some elements and
less of others than certain plants which are differently con-
stituted, but this explanation docs not seem to cover all the
ground. Each of our leading farm crops takes nitrogen, phos-
phoric acid, and potash from the soil. None of them can be
produced without a supply of all three of these elements. It
has been proved that land will produce wheat, corn, and oats in
succession much better than it will three successive crops of
wheat. But the difference in the demands for plant-food can
hardly account for all the difference which is manifested in the
crops. It has something to do with it, but probably is not the
only reason. When a crop which makes a large use of potash
is followed by one which requires but little of this element it is
easy to see why the change should be beneficial. The former
crop used the potash as fast as it could get it, and if planted the
next year would need a larger quantity than the land could
supply. But with the other crop the changes going on in the
soil will set free as much potash as is required. For this crop
there is plenty of potash, and a surplus may be left in the soil
for future crops. But this principle is not of very extensive
application to our leading crops, because they all require con-
siderable quantities of each of the elements of plant-food in
which soils are likely to be deficient.

ROTATION OF CROPS. 227

Probably one of the reasons why a rotation of crops is so use-
ful may be found in the fact that some plants are much more
delicate feeders than others. The wheat plant is not able to
take as large a proportion of the plant-food which the soil con-
tains as rye and oats. Consequently, either rye or oats will
follow wheat to much better advantage, as far as the yield of
the crop is concerned, than two successive crcps of wheat can
be grown. Another reason why a change often proves bene-
ficial is to be found in the fact that some crops demand, and
receive, a great deal of cultivation, which allows the air to pene-
trate the soil and hastens the liberation of plant-food, while
others admit of little or no culture after the seed is sown. Still
another reason may be found in the fact that while some crops,
Kke corn, are almost wholly removed from the land upon which
they have grown, others, like oats, are partially left, in the form;
of stubble, and furnish considerable organic matter to the sfflilL
This does something to prevent the great waste of nitrogen,
which results when both grain and stalks are wholly removed..
A directly opposite reason may sometimes be the one which,
renders a rotation of crops beneficial. Upon very rich clover
fields this crop sometimes fails to do well. This is not at all.
because the land is exhausted of the elements which clover
needs, but because successive crops of clover have left such,
large quantities of vegetable matter in the soil that the land is.
overloaded with this material in all stages of decomposition.
To a certain extent it is of great value, but in order to be useful
it must first be decomposed. When rich lands are kept long in.
clover this organic matter accumulates faster than it can be used,,
and fills the soil with fermenting substances to such an extent
as to make it sour and unproductive. But if the land is plowed,
this organic matter will be rapidly decomposed and will furnish
valuable food for plants. That which on account of its great
abundance was an evil in the land devoted to clov^er will prove

a splendid fertilizer for the corn. crop. After the land has been^
15

228 FARMING FOR FRO FIT.

plowed a few times, and thus exposed to the action of the air, it
can again be made to produce fine crops of clover.

These we consider the principal reasons why a rotation of
crops is so useful to the farmer. Whether they cover the whole
ground or not, we think they account for most of the changes
which take place under such a system. And the fact
remains that a wise rotation proves of great utility. Whether
the methods in which it operates can be explained or not, the
fact that it is a help to the farmer is too evident to be doubted,
and the wise farmer will accept and act upon it without requiring
a perfect description of the manner of its working.

In choosing the crops which he will grow in the successive
seasons occupied by the rotation, the principles stated in our
consideration of the subject of the choice of crops should be
applied. Four of five of the best crops should be selected, and
the land devoted to each in its regular order. Grass should be
one of the leading crops in every system of rotation. This may
be followed by corn. The next year the land may be devoted
to potatoes, or carrots, turnips, or sugar-beets. The next season
green forage crops, principally oats and corn, may be grown,
and winter rye sowed in the fall. The next year this rye may
be cut while green, for fodder, and other forage crops be grown
upon the land which is earliest cleared. In the fall of this
•year wheat should be sown, and the land seeded with timothy
and clover. The next season the grain is harvested and the
grass is allowed to remain. To each of these crops a liberal
quantity of manure is to be applied, and the year after the
seeding is done the land will produce two heavy crops of grass.
This is the rotation, with a very slight modification, which is
followed by Mr. Waring, at Ogden Farm. We pay less
attention, to roots and to green forage crops. In the Northern and
Middle States grass followed by corn, than a green fodder crop,
then wheat, then grass again, would be a good rotation. We
have often grown corn two years in succession, and, when the

ROTATION OF CROPS. 229

turf is very heavy, we consider it a good method, provided a
sufficient quantity of manure is appHed. Instead of the corn,
potatoes, or green fodder, may be grown to good advantage
upon an ordinary sod. Oats or rye may sometimes take the
place of the green crops during the second year. But with the
exception of corn (which will bear successive planting on the
same land better because it is cultivated and hoed), two grain
crops which are allowed to ripen their seed should not be
grown in succession.

There are locations in which a very different system of rotation
will be necessary to make farming successful. Each farmer
must judge for himself. Upon the principles already suggested,
he should make a choice of crops and then arrange to produce
them regularly, but upon different fields, each year. The
rotation should be for the purpose of preventing injury to the
land, but the farmer should not allow this idea to lead him to
grow crops which will not pay. There are crops which will
pay, and with which a rotation can be formed. Their selection
will be more difficult in some places than others, but is not
impossible in any good farming country. At the South, owing
to the difference in its climate and soil, different crops can be
produced from those which do well at the North. It is also
true that what would be a good rotation upon soils of a lime-
stone formation will not be the best for sand or clay. For the
worn soils at the South, Prof. Pendleton recommends cotton
for two years, followed by corn on the most productive portions
and wheat, or oats, on the rolling lands, while during the fourth
year the land should lie fallow. He claims that upon land not
very deficient in vegetable matter the cotton will give better
returns if grown two years in succession than can be obtained
if another crop intervenes. Where the land has not been badly
worn the fallow is not necessary, but it is strongly favored by
the best practical farmers at the South for all exhausted soils.
It is, probably, more necessary there than at the North. In the

o-Q FARMING FOR PROFIT.

latter section the land is covered for some time during the
winter, and the freezing and thawing to which it is subjected
proves very beneficial. Then it is not exposed to such intense
and long-continued heat in summer as the Southern soils.
Besides, where cotton is grown, the elements of fertility are
rapidly removed with the crops. An ordinary crop of cotton,
including seed and stalks, takes from the soil more than three
times as much of each of the leading elements, nitrogen, phos-
phoric acid, and potash, as an average crop of corn grown upon
the same land. As these lands have not always been well ma-
nured, and have been kept closely in cotton, it is easy to see
why they have become exhausted. We think that by the use
of green crops, together with manures, these worn soils can be
so restored that they will produce a suitable rotation of crops
without requiring a year of absolute rest.

We arc confident that grass should be made one of the promi-
nent crops in all systems of rotation. Almost all soils seem to
have a natural, adaptation to this crop, it is a product which can
be used on all farms, and in almost all sections the surplus can
be sold ; it is not an exhausting crop in itself, and it gives a good
start to the crop which follows it. We have already alluded to
t\ie value of sod as a fertilizer. It can often be made an econom-
ical manure, and may be used quite freely in a system of rota-
tion. In many cases it would pay to follow grass with corn,
manuring the land well for this crop, and then apply a special
fertilizer and sow wheat. With the wheat a liberal quantity of
grass and clover seed should be used. The next season the
v.heat should be harvested, but the grass should be allowed to
remain and cover the soil during the winter. The following
season two large crops of grass may be removed, and the next
\-ear the same rotation can be again commenced. With high
manuring we are confident that this plan would give large crops
and p?.y at least twice the profit which the ordinary method of
culture returns.

ROTATION OF CROPS. 231

Upon farms on which the live-stock interest is prominent,
pasturage may profitably form part of a system of rotation.
There are many farms upon which this is now practiced, but on
the great majority nothing of the kind is attempted. The pas-
ture, as a general thing, consists of the poorest land of the farm.
This land is never plowed or manured. Some farmers improve
upon this method by occasionally applying bone-dust or some
other fertilizer. There are a comparatively few others who
sometimes fence a small piece of land from their pastures, plow
it, and by manuring and seeding get it into a much better quality
of grass and also secure a much larger quantity than was before
obtained. Then there are a very few farmers whose pasture
lands and mowing lots are interchangeable. They sometimes
use one field for the pasture for a few years and then plow
and plant it, while they keep their cattle in what has been one
of the tillage fields. This, where it can be pursued, is altogether
the best course. It will tend to keep the land productive with-
out involving very heavy expenses. But there are many pas-
tures with which such a course is not practicable. Before they
can be brought under profitable cultivation the land must be
drained, cleared of stumps or stones, bushes must be cut, and
quite a large amount of work in the way of reclamation must
be done. In many cases it would pay well to do this. In
others, such a course will not be advisable until the financial
condition of the owner is greatly improved. There are other
cases in which it would pay well to add to the pasture a few
acres of what* is now tillage land, which can be occasionally
fenced out and reseeded. There will be plenty of tillage land
left — all that the owner can profitably manage — and the course
proposed will greatly increase the value of the pasture.

There is little danger that the advantages of a system of rota-
tion of crops will be overestimated when the system is properly
followed. It will not do to expect everything of this, or of any
other single method of farm management. If a rotation of crops

232 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

is attempted without manure tlie results will not be as good as
ouf^ht to be secured. Crops cannot be grown without either
bein«- manured or else injuring the land. The effort to grow
them without supplying plant-food is worse than useless. What-
ever measure of success may be secured is obtained at the cost
of direct injury to the land. Rotation with manure is a great
help to the farmer. Without manure it merely puts off the evil
day when the land shall be ruined, but it has no power to pre-
vent the coming of the time when crops will fail and the soil
will be exhausted.

(^ lltll ^^LE '^ '^ important that the farmer should produce as
^1 1 i l^^'gc a proportion as possible of the articles which
c/,^^ are always needed in the family, and which must be
obtained either at home or abroad, it will also be
necessary for him to grow some crop, or manufacture some
article which can readily be converted into cash. For, with the
most skilful management, the farmer will find that there are
many expenses which must be met with money. These expenses
cannot be avoided, and no method of exchange can be made
to meet them. The less the skill which the farmer has, the
larger will be the amount of these expenses. It should be one of
the first studies of the farmer to avoid the payment of money
just as far as possible, and still be honest toward all with whom
he deals. This effort should not be made in the line of crowding
down the prices of goods which he must buy, or of withholding
any payment which has been or may be promised, or by requir-
ing the family to do without things which are necessary to their
comfort and happiness. For whatever he buys, the farmer
should be willing to pay a fair price. He wants to get such a
price for his own products. Consequently he should be willing
to allow it to others when he buys of them. Whatever

MONEY CROPS. 233

he buys he should pay for, and he should be willing to provide
all that he is able to for the comfort of his family. The secret
of success in accomplishing these purposes is not, as many seem
to suppose, comprised in the one idea of a strict economy. It
is true that economy must be practised. There must be no
waste, for waste is always ruinous. But economy is only one
of the incidentals. Some men have practised this virtue to
a grinding extent, and yet not got along well in the world.
Economy is necessary, but with nothing else to help him the
firmer is as badly off as an engine without fire or water.
He must practice economy, produce all that he can at home,
and, as far as possible, exchange his surplus articles for those
which he is obliged to buy. Both of these principles will be
considered in their appropriate places. By closely following
them the farmer will be enabled to keep the cash expenses of
his business down to the lowest possible point. But when this
has been faithfully done, he will find that there are many calls for
money — calls which it is absolutely necessary that he should
promptly meet. Taxes must be paid in money, and every farmer
must pay them. The cost of sustaining Churches and Sunday-
schools should be cheerfully met. Doctors' bills, medicines,
clothes, books, papers, and many other things which are required,
must be partially or wholly paid in cash. To meet these inevit-
able expenses, the farmer should grow some special crop. What
this shall be must depend largely upon the soil, but in a still
greater degree upon the demands of the market in which it is to
be sold. Sometimes in addition to a particular crop the surplus
of other crops may be used for this purpose, or some manu-
factured product, like butter or cheese, may be employed. Some
farmers grow onions for a money crop. Others sell hay.
Others make a specialty of butter. The Southern farmer sells
cotton, while the Western farmer produces beef Many farmers
sell wool and make money, even at the present low prices. Some
rely upon fruit, but this is a somewhat uncertain crop. In

234 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

some localities it fails regularly every other year. Conse-
quently it is not a good crop upon which to rely.

While it is impossible to say which specific crop it will be
best for any farmer to grow, without knowing the demands of
his markets, and the condition of his soil, there are a few
principles which rnay be laid down which it will be safe to
follow.

The crop should be one to which the land is reasonably well
adapted — something which can be grown without a great
outlay for fitting the soil to the wants of the crop.

It must be a crop the culture of which the farmer under-
stands, or can readily learn.

If possible, a crop should be selected which can be produced
in connection with the ordinary farm crops, and which will not
require an outlay for extra help.

A crop should be selected which will not require the
purchase of expensive machines, or the erection of costly
buildings for its culture and curing. The exceptions to this
rule are few, and to be found in the cases of farmers who have
capital which they can invest in this way without embarrassing
their ordinary farm operations.

The crop grown for this purpose should be one which is very
sure to succeed. There are several crops which are so well
suited to the soil and climate, and can so readily adapt them-
selves to any variations which may take place, that when they
are properly managed a failure is almost impossible. Therefore
there is no excuse for the farmer who relies for his money upon
a tender and uncertain crop.

Finally, the crop selected for this purpose must be one for
which there is a ready sale, in convenient markets, for cash.
There are standard products which will always command
money. They may sell low sometimes, but they will sell for
something approaching their real value. These are the articles
for the farmer to produce.

FARM AND FODDER CA OPS. 235

If the farmer follows these principles, secures regular cus-
tomers and deals fairly with them, and produces a good grade
of the articles which he wishes to sell, he can invariably succeed
in obtaining money enough to meet all of his current expenses.

FmBM MM^ F0BBEB ©R,aFSe

•OR the sake of convenience we will divide these crops
into four classes, and consider those of each class in
their • alphabetical order. These classes are crops for
sowing, for planting, for forage, and root crops. Though
somewhat imperfect, it is believed to be the best classification
which can readily be made. The class of sowed crops is quite
large and embraces some of the finest crops in the world. It
includes those which are of special value as food for man. The
second class also includes many extremely useful crops, but
several of the number are useful as luxuries rather than neces-
sities to man, and quite a number are principally used as food
for animals rather than for the human race. The third class is
cultivated for animals exclusively, while the fourth is used as
food for both man and beast.

Barley. — In Europe this is a very important crop, and in
some parts of this country it is coming into common use. It is
a nutritive grain, though considerably inferior to wheat. In
Europe it is largely used for bread. Here it is grown for
animals and also for the manufacture of beer. For the latter
purpose it should never be grown. We are convinced that the
world would be much better off if none were produced than it
is under the abuse to which the grain is subjected by the liquor-
makers. Though subject to several diseases, tliis is, in some
respects, a very hardy plant, and readily adapts itself to all
varieties of climate and to various grades of soil. There are
two leading varieties of barley — the two-rowed and the six-
rowed. There are also several sub-varieties which are the result

236 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

of the modifying influences of soil, climate, and different styles
of cultivation. It is an annual plant, but some of the sub-varie-
ties have been so modified that they are treated as winter grain
If sowed in the spring, the seed should be got in quite early.
More than most grains the seed of barley rapidly deteriorates
under careless cultivation. Consequently, it is necessary to use
special care in saving seed or else to frequently purchase a stock
from a different section of the country. A medium soil, neither
heavy nor light, is best adapted to this crop. Wet land should
be thoroughly dramed before devoting it to barley. It may be
sowed on an inverted sod, or follow a hoed crop, but should not
follow wheat or rye, and two crops of barley should not be
grown in succession on the same land. Two bushels of seed
per acre for poor land and three for rich soils is considered the
best rate of seeding, though some farmers recommend using
only from one and a half to two and a half bushels, according
to the strength of the soil.

The harvesting should be done as soon as the grain is fully
matured. It should be carefully dried in order to prevent heat-
ing in the mow. The grain may be profitably used for fattening
swine. It is deficient in gluten, but contains a large percentage
of starch. The straw is hard and of small value for stock food.
While it does very well in many localities, we think that as a
grain for universal cultivation barley falls far below many other
varieties.

Buckwheat. — This plant has been known for ages and cul-
tivated in a large part of the civilized world. In some respects
it is a very peculiar grain. While nearly all the plants grown
lor food require a thorough preparation of the soil and a mellow
seed bed, this grain seems to have the power to fasten itself
upon the hardest, toughest soils and reduce their surface to a
fine powder. On this account it is often used to subdue wild
land. The sod is turned as well as possible and buckwheat is
sowed. In the autumn, when the grain is removed, the surface

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 237

of the land will be found very mellow. We have seen a tough,
sedgy field thoroughly subdued by one crop of this grain. , Two
crops in succession would probably reduce any ordinary sedge.
The plant will grow on very poor land, and is often used as
green manure on soils which are too poor to give a strong
growth of clover. On rich land clover is to be preferred, but
for poor soils buckwheat is one of the very best fertilizers
known. It is quite valuable for manuring land for rye. For
this purpose it should be sown about the middle of July. It
will then be ready to turn under about the tenth of September.
When the grain is to be saved, the sowing should be performed
in June in the Northern States and July or August in the
South.

There is only one distinct variety in general cultivation.
From one-half bushel to a bushel and a quarter of seed may be
sown per acre. Some growers who make a specialty of the
grain use only one peck of seed per acre. It is usually sown
broadcast and harrowed in. It ripens very unevenly. The
harvesting should be done when the seeds from the first flowers
are fully ripe. If allowed to remain without cutting, the plant
will keep blossoming all the season, but the earliest seed will
shell out and be wasted. It should be cut when the dew is on
in order to prevent shelling. Some farmers do not bind this
grain, but set it up in small stooks, giving the heads a little twist
to keep them together. As soon as dry it should be drawn to
the barn and threshed. It is always best to gather this crop
before a frost. If well cured, the straw is said to be good
fodder for sheep and cattle. When thrown upon the land, or in
the yards, it decays rapidly and is valuable for manure. The
grain makes a fair-looking and nutritious flour, which is in great
demand for making cakes. In some parts of Europe it is mixed
with wheat and made into bread. It is a valuable grain for
poultry, and when mixed with corn is excellent for swine.

Many farmers consider this a very exhausting crop. It is

238 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

almost impossible to grow corn on land which produced buck-
wheat the preceding year, and some farmers claim that grass
land is injured by growing an occasional crop of this grain.
We have seen some very good land apparently injured by a
single crop of buckwheat The analyses of the crop which we
have been able to obtain do not indicate anything very exhausting
in its nature. It requires considerable potash, but not an
excessive amount of either nitrogen or phosphoric acid. Some
growers assert that buckwheat " poisons" the soil. But this does
not seem to be a reasonable conclusion. Although this crop is
considered so damaging to the land, we have seen it growing on
miserably poor sandy plains, which would not produce corn or
wheat, but which gave a fair yield of buckwheat. Not only
this, but on these poor soils buckwheat can be grown year after
year, for many years in succession, without seriously diminishing
the yield. That land which will not grow one crop of corn
without manure will produce several crops of buckwheat seems
very strange, but there is abundant evidence that this is the case.
After tlie soil has long been devoted to buckwheat it will not
readily be made to produce other crops.

As an aid in reclaiming waste land, for growing on sandy
plains, and as an occasional crop on the better kinds of land,
buckwheat may be grown in small quantities, but we do not
believe its production on an extensive scale would be profitable
to the ordinary farmer. Whenever it is grown, the land should
receive an application of well-rotted compost, chemical fertilizers,
or wood-ashes. It should not be grown without the use of
something in the line of plant-food.

Flax. — This plant was known, and in quite common use, in
the early ages of the world. Until cotton largely took its place
it was one of the standard crops with the American farmer.
He used to grow the crop, dress out the fibre, and his wife, or
some woman in the neighborhood, would weave it into cloth.
Under the old system the cultivation of this crop involved a

FARM AiVD FODDER CROPS. 239

great deal of very unpleasant labor. Within the past twenty
years machines have been introduced which now perform some
of the hardest of the work.

The plant succeeds well throughout the country, but needs a
good soil in order to yield large crops. Fresh manure should
not be directly applied, but the land may be made rich during
the year preceding the growth of the flax. Salt and ashes are
both good fertilizers to apply when the seed is sown, and plaster
may be sprinkled over the plants when they have nearly attained
their growth. The land should be deeply plowed, and if
inclined to be wet, thorough drainage should be secured. The
harrowing should be very thorough so as to leave the surface
soil quite fine and level. This should be done early in the
season, and the land allowed to lay a week or two in order lo
give the weed seeds which are in the soil an opportunity to
germinate. At the end of this period another thorough har-
rowing should be given. This will destroy the weeds and lit
the land for the reception of the seed. When the soil is
reasonably dry and warm, as it will be by this time if the
operations were commenced when they should have been, the
seed may be sown and covered with a brush-harrow. Some
farmers use a light-hand implement of this description, and do
not allow a team on the field after the seed has been sown.
The quantity of seed to be used will depend upon the purpose
for which the crop is grown. If wanted for the seed, from half a
bushel to a bushel per acre may be sown ; but if for the fibre, at
least a bushel and a half of seed should be used. When but little
seed is used, the plants send out large branches, which will pro-
duce many seed-bolls, but the fibre will not be first rate. Thick
sowing secures a large number of plants, which grow straight
and tall and furnish a large quantity of the best quality of fibre,
with but comparatively little seed. When the plants are a few
inches high, the weeds which have appeared must be carefully
pulled by hand. The men or boys who do the weeding should
go barefoot in order to prevent injury to the crop.

240 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

The old method of harvesting flax was to pull it by hand.
This was a ver>' laborious operation, and required a great deal
of time for its performance. At present reapers are frequently-
used. Machines for pulling flax have also been devised. When
the growth of the crop is uniform, they work pretty well. Many
farmers use the common grain cradle, some prefer a scythe,
while a few still adhere to the old method and gather the crop
by hand. If cutting is attempted, it should be done as close to-
the ground as possible. If the flax is pulled, the dirt should be
shaken from the roots. The time for gathering this crop is
when the bolls have turned brown, the lower leaves died, and
the stems changed to a light yellow color. If pulled or cradled,
the flax may either be bound at once or dried in the sun. If
bound before being dried, it must stand some weeks in stooks
before it can be safely put into a large stack. If cut with a
scythe, the flax may be treated the same as hay. The curing
should be thoroughly done before the crop is stored. The seed
may be shelled by drawing the heads of the flax through a comb
of sharp iron teeth set quite close together, by whipping them
over a large stone, by threshing with flails, or by running
through a machine. The second method is the best where only
a small quantity is grown, while a good machine will be needed
if the crop is very large.

Various methods of preparing the fibre are in use. The end
to be gained is the separation of the bark from the woody stem.
This is accomplished by a rotting process which dissolves the
mucilaginous substance which holds them together and thus
admits of their easy separation. The flax is either spread upon
the grass, or in the form of bundles is put under standing water
until, by means of various mechanical operations, the fibre can
be separated from the stem. These things were once done
on the farm, but now after the seed is removed the larger part
of the straw is sold to parties engaged in manufacturing. In
this country flax is mainly grown for the seed, and but little

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 241

attention is paid to securing a good article of fibre. From the
seed linseed oil is obtained, and the justly celebrated oil cake
which is so highly valued for feeding purposes. This cake con-
sists of the seeds after the oil has been expressed. Large quan-
tities are sent to England, where it commands a high price. It
is especially valuable for feeding to lambs and calv^es.

Flax is an exhausting crop, and should not be grown upon
the same field more than once in five or six years. In the
vicinity of factories, at which the straw can be sold and the seed
utilized, it may be made a profitable crop to be grown on a small
area and in a judicious system of rotation, but present indica-
tions are not favorable to its extensive cultivation.

Hemp. — Although not one of the most valuable plants, hemp
has been cultivated to quite an extent at the West. Properly
managed it pays a fair profit, but it has never been v^ry popular

ft

and the quantity grown in this country has never equalled the
demand. It is somewhat exhausting to the soil, and this,
together with the fact that the labor of cutting and gathering it
is severe, will prevent its taking a high place among our crops.
It can be grown to better advantage in some of the foreign lands
where labor is very cheap and where some of our better crops
do not thrive.

The method of growing hemp is very simple. The land
should be carefully fitted. A deep, mellow, and fertile soil
gives the best results. Care must be taken to secure fresh seed.
The sowing may be done from the middle of April to the mid-
dle of June, though it is usually better to get in the seed as soon
as convenient after the land gets warm and dry in the spring.
From one bushel to one bushel and a half of seed per acre is
usually scattered broadcast over the field. It is very much
better to drill in from three pecks to one bushel of seed per
acre. If the ground is moist, the seed should be lightly covered.
If dry, the seed should be soaked before the sowing is done
or else it should be put in deeper than seeds are usually cov-

242 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

ered. In all cases the land should be well rolled after the sow-
ing has been done.

Hemp is a ver>' strong growing plant and will readily take
care of itself. Little or no cultivation is required. Unless the
land is ver>' weedy, and much of the seed fails to grow, the hemp
will smother the weeds.

In from three to four months after sowing the crop will be
ready to be cut. This stage will be indicated by the turning
yellow of the blossoms and the falling of many of the leaves.
The common practice used to be to pull the plants by hand, but
cutting is now the usual method. In either way the work Cif
gathering the crop is ver)' hard and slow. If ihe hemp is not
above seven feet in height it can be cut at the rate of an acre a
day, per man, with wide, heavy scythes, but if it is very tall a
Jiemp hook, or brush scythe, must be used. With one of these
implements a man can only cut about half an acre of hemp per
day. It should be considerably dried and then bound and
stacked. When the weather becomes cool it may be spread on
the grass to rot, or the rotting may be done in vats, or pontls,
in which the stalks can be kept constantly under water. When
sufficiently rotted, the fibres will separate from the stalk along
its centre but remain attached at the ends. It is then taken to
the brake, with which the separation is completed. These brakes
were formerly made by the farmer, or some local carpenter, but
a good machine for breaking hemp and flax, and separating the
seed from the latter, is now for sale by dealers in agricultural
implements.

In Engla^:d, hemp which is designed for seed is grown the
same as v.hcn produced for the fibre. The male stalks are
gathered first, while the female plants are allowed to remain
until the seeds are ripe. But in this country the seed is grown
in a field by itself The planting is in hills, which should be
three and a half feet apart each way. Sufficient cultivation
should be given to keep down the weeds. Only three stalks in

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 243

a hill should be allowed to grow. When sufficiently developed
to make plain the difference between the male and female plants,
the former, which may be known by their preparation to
blossom, must nearly all be cut out. The rule is to leave
one blossoming plant in every other hill of every other row.
These will fertilize the female plants, and secure the production
of perfect seed. After the pollen has fallen from the male
stalks, they should be removed in order to leave more room and
food for the productive plants.

The seed is of some value for feeding to stock, but should be
cooked before being used. The fibre is valuable for manufac-
turing purposes, and the waste is sometimes used for making
paper. When only the fibre is produced, this crop is not very
exhausting to the soil ; but when the seed is ripened, it takes
the elements of plant-food in large quantities, and proves very
damaging to the land.

Jute. — Although large quantities of jute are used in this
country, India has been, and still is, the main source of supply.
Many experiments which have been conducted, at the sug-
gestion of the Agricultural Department at Washington, in
the South, have proved beyond all question that this can be
made a valuable addition to our cultivated crops, and that if its
culture were once established, millions of dollars per year would
be kept at home which are now sent abroad for this product.
The soil and climate of the extreme Southern States are well
adapted to the production of this crop. But comparatively
little labor is required, and to quite an extent it would pay
better than cotton or cane.

The seed may be sown in April and the plants cut in July,

or sown in June and cut in September, The plant grows from

ten to fifteen feet in height, and a yield of thirty-five hundred

pounds of fibre per acre can readily be obtained. The seed

may be scattered broadcast at the rate of twenty or thirty

pounds per acre, or drilled in at the rate of ten or fifteert
16

244 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

pounds. The plant is a strong grower, and will pretty much
take care of itself. For the production of fibre the plants must
be cut when in the flower. Plants for seeds should be grown
in a separate field. They should have good land and careful
cultivation. The seeds are ripe in about a month after the
flowers are developed.

The stalks of the main crop are subjected to a rotting process
similar to that which is practiced with flax and hemp. When
well rotted, the fibre is separated from the stalk. The fibre can
be used for all the low-priced manufactures which flax and
hemp have hitherto supplied. Large quantities of paper have
been made from jute, and it can be used for many other pur-
poses. There can be no doubt that in the South this plant will
pay better than cither of its rivals. Instead of sending millions
of dollars out of the country to purchase a supply of this
material, an abundance of it should be grown at home, and
worked up in our own manufactories. Grown in connection
with other crops, jute promises large and sure rewards to the
Southern farmer.

Oats. — The oat plant is a native of cold countries, but readily
adapts itself to temperate localities. It can be grown where the
summers are long and hot ; but in these locations it does not
flourish. There are several varieties, and a large number of sub-
varieties. The latter exhibit merely those changes which are
naturally due to a difference in the surroundings of the plants.
New kinds are frequently introduced, loudly praised, widely
advertised, and sold at extremely high prices to farmers in all
parts of the country. Some of these sorts prove quite valuable.
Others are not adapted to general cultivation. Under the
general system of culture practiced here, the oat rapidly degen-
erates. This is especially true at the South. Oats imported
from Norway, Scotland, or even from Canada, are quite heav>^
Some of these oats will weigh forty pounds per bushel. But if
sown in the Middle or Southern States their product is not as

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 245

heavy, and they soon degenerate to the common local standard.
The same change occurs, but not quite as rapidly, in the
Northern States. We are confident that by careful culture,
and a proper selection of seed, this deterioration can be pre-
vented. If the farmer will grow his oats for seed on good land,
and give them good culture, he can keep them up to their
original standard of excellence. He may even improve their
quality, and increase their productive capacity.

The question, Which is the best variety for general use ? is not
settled. Many farmers consider the white oat superior to the
black, while others are sure that the black kinds are the best.
We have grown both the white and the black oats — several
kinds of the former and one of the latter — and we like the
white ones much the best. Our black oats were strong growers,
and gave a good yield, but they did not sell as well, did not
look as well, and we found no point in which they were at all
superior. Of the white oats, the best kind which we have
grown which laid claim to a name of its own is the Surprise.
We had an unnamed variety, which was brought from a hill-
town, in Massachusetts, which we kept for some years, and
which, all things considered, was fully equal to any which we
have ever grown.

Though it may sometimes be well to " change the seed," we
do not think it either necessary or wise to make such changes
often. When such a course is decided upon, the new seed
should be obtained from some mountainous region. The
Southern growers will do better to get seed-oats from the
mountains in their own vicinity than they can by sending
North. The Northern oats will soon become acclimated.
They will probably yield well, but we think that Southern
grown grain will prove to be better adapted to the Southern
States. By getting a good variety from the mountains, and care-
fully growing a small field specially for the production of seed,
the Southern farmer can grow his own seed-oats and keep the
highest quality of the variety unimpaired.

246 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

Oats will thrive on almost any kind of soil which is not very
wet. Standing water is death to the plant, and it will not do
well if the land is constantly soaked. On good land a much
larger yield can be obtained than can be secured from a pooi
soil, but something of a crop can be obtained from land which
is very far from being fertile. This crop is sometimes grown
on an inverted sod, but this practice is not considered the best.
Oats follow corn or potatoes very well. No green barn-yard-
manure should be applied to the land, but it is a great mistake
to suppose that all fertilizers are injurious to the crop. Well-
rotted compost may be harrowed in, and it will pay well to use
it for this purpose. Special fertilizers for the oat crop may
often be made very profitable. They are especially valuable
on land which has long been cropped. On many soils two or
three bushels of salt per acre may be advantageously used.
When oats are grown on sod, this application of salt should
never be omitted. On land upon which grain is likely to lodge
it will also prove useful.

The oat crop has obtained the reputation of being very
exhausting to the soil. This is a bad name which is wholly
undeserved. An analysis of the plant shows that it requires
quite a quantity of nitrogen, but does not take as much phos-
phoric acid and potash from the soil as several of our other
crops. The amount of nitrogen is not excessive, and the actual
exhaustion of the soil is less than it is in the production of
either wheat or corn. The idea that oats rapidly exhaust the
soil probably comes from the fact that seeding with oats often
proves a failure, and that grass following oats does not give as
large crops as when it follows corn. But an ample reason for
these things can be found without resorting to the theory that
the oats have impoverished the soil. We have little trouble
in seeding with oats, though rye is a better crop for the pur-
pose. The difficulty of seeding with oats results from the fact
that the oat is a strong growing plant, and it shades, and some-

FARM AND FODDER CROPS.

247

times smothers, the weak grass plants. The cause of the land
being in poor condition after the crop is removed is generally
due to the fact that it has received no fertilizers. If corn were
planted, instead of oats, without manure, the land would be
made poorer. In this case the trouble is not with the oats, but
with the method of cultivation. If the land is manured for
oats as well as it is for corn, grass will follow the former crop
fully as well as it will the latter.

The land for oats should be plowed to a medium depth, and
the surface soil made very fine. The sowing should be done
early in the season— just as soon as the land is tolerably dry
and warm in spring. Oats which are sown late are almost
invariably light and poor.
We would prefer to sow
when the land is rather cold
than to wait until late in the
season for it to become
warm. At the South many
oats are sown in the fall.
At the North the severe
cold of winter destroys the
plants. A hardy variety,
called winter oats, is now grown in the mountains of Tennessee.
A good crop was also grown in South Framingham, Massa-
chusetts, by E. F. Bowditch, Esq., in 1878. Whether their
culture will be g^erally successful as far North as this, a more
extensive trial must determine. After the land is thoroughly
prepared, the seed may be sown broadcast at the rate of from
one to four bushels per acre. We have seeded as lightly as one
bushel, but generally use three. The seed should be covered
with a light harrow, and the land, unless it is wet and inclined
to bake, should be well rolled. For sowing oats, and other
kinds of grain which are scattered broadcast, a machine will do
much better work than can be performed by hand, and also do

FIG. 12.

».

248

FARMING FOR PROFIT.

it very rapidly. Fig. 12 represents a hand-machine which will
sow from four to six acres, and Fig. 13 a horsc-machinc sowing
from twelve to fifteen acres per hour. Both machines are made
and sold by Benson, Maule & Co., of Philadelphia.

Oats should be harvested when the lower part of the stalk has
turned yellow and the kernel has fairly passed out of the milk.
If cut at this stage the grain will be plump, and the straw will
be good for fodder. If allowed to stand longer, the quality of
the straw will be impaired, and the grain will be very likely to

^^"-f-'

FIG. 13.

shell in the field. Great losses are often sustained by allowing
this crop to become too ripe before it is cut. When grown on
a small scale the oats may be cradled, allowed to dry a day or
two, and then bound in small bundles, which should either be
set up in small stooks in the field, or stored in a well-ventilated
loft in the barn. It is very important that the oats should be
quite dry before they are packed away. Otherwise they will
heat badly and the grain will be discolored. It is also highly
necessary that they should be got in without much exposure to
rains and heavy dews. The grain is easily discolored by rain,

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 249

and the price which it will command in market is thereby con-
siderably reduced. If rain falls upon the swath, they should be
turned over and carefully dried before being bound. When the
weather is cloudy it is sometimes best to put up the grain in
small stooks, and allow it to stand a week or two. The butts
should be exposed to the sun a few hours before the bundles are
packed away in mows. It is always best to cut this crop in
good weather, dry it well before binding, and when it is bound
haul it at once to the barn or stack. When a reaper is used,
as it should be where large fields of oats are to be cut, the
binding may be done at once and the bundles put up in small
stooks to dry.

The oat is liable to but few diseases. The straw makes
excellent fodder, and the grain is one of the best for feeding to
working animals. When properly prepared, it forms one of the
most healthful and nutritious kinds of food for man. When the
crop is designed for fodder it should be cut early and cured like
hay. In this form it makes a splendid food for cows which are
giving milk; It is also valuable for feeding to other stock,
especially to sheep. Either for grain or fodder the oat is a
valuable plant and is well worthy of the best cultivation.

Peas. — In England, Canada, and some parts of this country
considerable attention is paid to growing peas as a field crop.
Here they have not become a prominent crop, though many
growers speak very highly of their value. They are used for
feeding to hogs, sheep, and hens. They will grow in almost
any soil, but yield much larger crops on rich land than they do
elsewhere. No green manure should be used, but a coating of
well-rotted compost may be plowed in, or worked in with a
cultivator. The land should be plowed to a moderate depth,
and the surface soil well pulverized. The seed is usually sown
broadcast at the rate of from two to three bushels per acre. It
should be covered with a small plow or a cultivator. A harrow
does not cover deeply enough. After the seed is covered the

250 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

land should be rolled. This must not be neglected, as the labor
of gathering will be much increased if the surface of the land is
rough. Some farmers sow peas with oats in order that the latter
may furnish a support and keep the vines from the ground.
But as the two do not ripen together, and as the oats are not
strong enough to fully answer the purpose for which they are
sown, many growers prefer to sow the peas alone.

Peas are often grown in the corn fields. Here they are drilled
in between the rows of corn. This practice obtains more at the
South than it does elsewhere. The best farmers prefer the
month of May for sowing peas in corn fields, but some growers
wait until June. At the NoRXit the planting should be done as
early as the first of June. If wanted for feeding green, the first
planting may be in April, and later ones at intervals of three
weeks. This will give a succession through the fell. The
varieties most in use at the North are the marrowfat, a large
and rather late pea which needs a strong soil, and the small
yellow pea, which is a favorite in Canada and will thrive on
light land. At the South the large cow pea is extensively
grown for stock.

The " Pindar," a leguminous plant resembling both the pea
and the bean, is also a favorite in this section. The vines are
good for fodder, and the seeds, which to the amount of from
twenty-five to fifty bushels per acre ripen beneath the surface of
the land, are excellent for fattening animals. When ripe the
pods are loosened with a fork and then pulled with the vines,
turned out with a light plow, or else the hogs are let into the
field to harvest the crop as they want it for food. This crop is
often grown for market. The method of its cultivation for this
purpose will be considered in the proper place.

The ordinary peas may be fed from the time when they are
half grown until they are fully ripe. If cut and cured while
green, they make good hay for cows and sheep. Some grow-
ers turn their stock into the fields, but this is a wasteful prac-

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. '251

tice. If the peas are wanted, they should remain until nearly
ripe. Then they should be cut with a scythe, cured like hay,
and carried to the barn and threshed. For feeding to hogs
seven bushels of peas are said to be equal to ten of corn. They
may be soaked in milk or water until they are soft and fed
alone, or may be ground into meal and mixed with milk and
other food. The whole peas are often fed dry, but the practice
is not a good one. We have used them to some extent, and
think it better to grind peas and corn together than it is
to use the peas alone. The crop is not very exhausting, and
when sowed late it is of great value for giving the soil a good
covering during the hot weather.

Rice. — The cultivation of rice in this country is necessarily
confined within quite narrow limits. The plant requires for its
perfection a moist soil which can be readily inundated, and a
hot climate. It can be grown to some extent on uplands, but
cannot there be made a very profitable crop. In the swamps
of South Carolina and Mississippi it is very productive, and is
one of the best paying crops. There is this drawback, however:
the locations in which rice flourishes are very unhealthy. The
labor required for the production of a crop is slight. When
grown on upland it should be planted in shallow drills two and
a half or three feet apart. The land should be kept free from
weeds by the use of the cultivator and hand-hoe. But all varie-
ties of rice succeed much better in lowlands than they do in a
comparatively dry soil.

The rice field should be so arranged that it can be inun-
dated at will. About two bushels of the grain per acre is sowed
broadcast upon a thoroughly prepared surface, and covered
lightly with a smoothing harrow, or a similar implement. This
is to be done in March. After sowing, a little water is let on.
This remains two or three days. The grain then begins to
swell and the water is withdrawn. When the plant is three or
four inches high, water is let on until all but the top leaves are

252 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

covered. This remains until about two weeks before harvest-
time, when the water is drawn off in order that the stalks may
harden, and that the process of gathering the crop may be facil-
itated. This is the simplest method of culture w-hich can be
made successful. Some growers do a great deal more work.
They draw off the water, and weed and hoe the plants three or
four times during the season. If the land is full of strong grow-
ing aquatic plants, this course may be necessary. Otherwise it
can hardly be made to pay.

Rye. — This crop is extensively grown in the Eastern and
Middle States, and is frequently produced on those wheat
fields of the West, which, from severe cropping with wheat
alone, have become partially exhausted. It is a hardy plant, and
succeeds in a large variety of soils, and in different climates.
Wet land is not adapted to its production, and should be
drained before this crop is tried. Rye will grow on ver}' poor
land, but fertile soils will produce much larger crops. It is not
very exhausting, but when it is grown upon the same land year
after year, and no manure is applied, the soil at length becomes
extremely poor. It does not require a large proportion of the
principal elements which the other grain crops use. Conse-
quently exhaustion goes on slowly. Some farmers have
claimed that for an indefinite time rye can be grown year after
year without manure, and without either diminishing the yield
of the crop, or impairing the fertility of the soil. The only
thing needed to prevent exhaustion is the turning under of
the stubble as soon as a crop is removed. That this opinion is
erroneous must be evident to tfie man who will give the subject
attention. The course proposed, and it is followed by many
farmers, involves the removal each year of all the grain, and
almost all of the straw, which the land can produce, without
the slightest return of any substance with which to repair this
inevitable waste. The disintegration of the soil, which in
nearly exhausted fields is going on very slowly, is the only

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 253

source from which the mineral elements which the crop
requires can be obtained. If we estimate the crop at only ten
bushels per acre, there will be a removal of five hundred and
sixty pounds of grain, and about ten hundred pounds of straw
for which no equivalent whatever is rendered. Under such
treatment the land must inevitably grow poorer year by year.
Even this small crop would take from the land each season about
fifteen pounds of ammonia, seven pounds of phosphoric acid,
and eleven pounds of potash. It also withdraws several other
elements which are not easily exhausted, but in which, under a
bad system of culture, the soil may become deficient. Such a
course can have only one end, and that is barrenness. We have
cultivated exhausted rye fields, and found them terribly poor.
Rye will continue to grow on land too poor to produce any
other crop than itself and buckwheat. But when the end is
reached, when the soil is so thoroughly exhausted that it will
grow rye no longer, it is, for all present purposes, utterly ruined.
A long rest, or the use of large quantities of fertilizing matter,
can, in time, restore it to fertility. But a great deal of time
must be given, or a heavy expense must be incurred. Rye
seems to be able to take the last available element of plant-food
from the soil. Consequently, though it may pay well for a few
seasons, it is a ruinous crop to be grown on poor land without
manure.

Though rye will grow on a very large variety of soils, it gives
the best quality of grain when sown on a rather dry and sandy
plain. Much larger quantities can be grown upon a rich loam.
The straw is very strong, and will bear a heavily filled head
without lodging. The land may be manured with well-rotted
compost, ashes, or chemical fertilizers. Green manures prove
highly beneficial to this crop. The land should be well plowed
to a moderate depth, and harrowed before the seed is sown. If
the winter rye is to be grown, the sowing should be done
between the middle of August and the first of November,

254 FAR\fING FOR PROFIT.

except on very poor land, where it may be attended to as early
as the first of August. For good land we prefer the middle of
September. We have known the seed to be put in so extremely
late that it did not grow until the next spring. It then came up
well and produced a good crop. But this late sowing is not
advisable. When the plants make only a very slight growth
before winter, there is considerable danger that they will be
destroyed by the cold weather, and the heaving of the ground.
The spring rye, which is a modification of winter rye which
has been caused by very late sowing in the fall for many suc-
cessive years, should be sowed when the ground is in a
suitable condition to receive the seed. In some localities where
spring rye was once largely grown, it has almost entirely
disappeared, and winter rye has taken its place. We much
prefer the winter grain.

In the East, rye frequently follows corn and receives no fer-
tilizer. The seed is sometimes sown before the corn is ripe,
and is covered with a cultivator and hoes. In this way the
corn receives a late hoeing, and the rye obtains an early start.
A much more common method is to cut a few rows of corn,
plow a narrow strip of land, sow it to rye, and then stack upon
the plowed land the corn which has been cut. These strips are
plowed at convenient intervals. Then the remainder of the
corn is cut and stacked upon these strips, and the rest of the
land is plowed and sowed. Some farmers take an opposite
course. They cut their corn and set it up, making as few rows
of stacks as possible, and then plow and sow all the land except
what the rows of stacks occupy. When the corn is cured, the
stacks arc drawn to the barn, and the land upon which they
stood is plowed and sowed. As the corn must be carried quite
a distance in order that it may make but a few rows and occupy
as little land as possible, this course involves some extra work.
The rye will not ripen on these strips at the same time that it
does on the remainder of the land, and the harvesting must be

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 255

performed at different times, or else considerable of the grain
will be wasted. Many farmers consider the advantages gained
by early sowing much greater than the inconvenience which
either of these methods involves. Our own course has been to
remove the corn as soon as possible, sometimes stacking it in
another field, and then sow the rye.

The quantity of seed required depends somewhat upon the
character of the land and the time of sowing. On light land,
if put in very early, three pecks per acre may be sufficient. On
good land sowed in moderate season, a bushel will be better.
If the sowing is very late and the land has not been put in
first-rate order, from one and a half to two bushels may be
needed. But it is much better to fit the land well and sow a
reasonable quantity of seed early in the season, than it is to
wait until almost winter and then try to atone for the delay by
using an excessive amount. If drilled in, only a bushel per
acre will be needed on ordinary land. If grown for fodder,
very thick sowing will be the best. Three bushels of seed per
acre should be used for this purpose.

The principal disease to which rye is subject is the ergot — a
fungoid growth — which causes the heads of the grain to turn
black, and send out long spurs which are quite poisonous. In
Europe several epidemics have been traced to the use of rye
affected by ergot, and in this country many cases of sickness,
both of m'en and animals, have doubtless been caused in the
same way. The mills in which rye is ground are now so much
improved that most of this poison is separated from the grain,
and kept out of the flour ; but still there is risk in using grain
which has been thus affected. In any quantity it is a violent
poison to domestic animals. No cure for this disease is knov/n.
Prevention must be tried. Only the finest kernels should be
used for seed. If possible, the seed should be obtained from a
field in which the disease did not appear. Before sowing, the
seed should be put into strong, hot brine, thoroughly stirred,

256 FARAflNG FOR PROFIT.

then spread, on a floor and dusted with lime. The hght
kernels, which rise to the surface when the grain is put into the
brine, should be skimmed off and thrown away. With this care
in selecting and preparing the seed there should be but little
trouble in obtaining a healthy crop. The color of the grain
and its quality for making flour will be greatly modified by the
soil upon which it is grown. Dry, sandy plains furnish the
nicest-looking rye. The grain is very white, and the flour
made from it looks nearly as well as that from wheat. It is by
some called the white rye, in distinction from the black rye,
which is grown upon heavier soils. But if seed is obtained
from these plains and grown upon the meadows, quite a pro-
portion of the product will be the ordinary black rye. The
second year the change will be more strongly marked, and
in a few seasons all trace of the white rye will be lost. It is
possible that the use of chemical fertilizers in place of barn-yard-
man u re would retard this change.

The cutting may be done with a reaper, or the rye can be
cradled by hand. When the color of the straw changes and
the kernel passes out of the milk, it is time to cut this grain.
If free from weeds, it can be left a day or two to dry, and then
bound and put into the stack or the barn. But if weedy, or
the weather is bad, the rye may be bound and set up in
stooks of ten or twelve bundles each. Some farmers leave it

«

out until they are ready to thresh it, but it is much better to be
placed under cover as soon as it is dry.

Rye straw is very useful for bedding animals, and usually
sells higher than other kinds of straw. It is very tough, and
usually grows quite long. Many farmers use it for binding
corn. For this purpose it is much better if cut before it is ripe.
It will be very strong, but it will not hurt the hands like the
straw of well-ripened grain. In some localities rye straw is in
demand at paper mills. It is valuable for manure, but will often
sell for more than it is worth for this purpose. As a soilmg

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 257

crop and for late pasturing for sheep, green rye is a valuable
crop. Rye is one of the best of all the grain crops with which
to get in grass-seed. The seed should be sown after the rye
has been covered v/ith a harrow, and then either bushed in or
covered with a heavy roller. On light land both the bushing
and rolling would be beneficial.

Whe.\t. — This is one of the leading crops not only of this
country but of the whole civilized world. From the earliest
ao-es wheat has been grown as food for man. It is emphati-
cally a grain for the intelligent races. Rice supports a large
part of the vast population of India and Chin.'^, and corn, oats,
rye and other grains, furnish food for multitudes of the human
race, but the fact that wheat forms one of the principal articles
of diet of the most powerful and the most thoroughly civilized
nations of the earth cannot be denied. It has been, and it will be,
a leading article of the food of the most intelligent races of men.

Wheat can be grown in a large variety of soils, and has the
power of adapting itself to either cold or warm climates. But it
finds its most congenial home in the temperate zones, and in a
rather heavy and fertile soil. There are many different varieties.
Some of these kinds are more hardy than others, and from the
list of cultivated sorts some can be found which are well
adapted to any section of the United States. The kinds
which give the best results at the South arc not hardy enough
for the North and the Northwest, but there are plenty of
good varieties which will do well in these sections. By means
of a gi-adual change in the time of sowing, wheat has been
obtained which need not be sown until spring.

In localities where it succeeds, winter wheat is usually con-
sidered the best. It makes a stronger growth of straw and
gives a larger yield of grain. When treated in the ordinary
manner it also makes nicer flour than the spring varieties.
But by the patent " new process " of grinding, the finest quality
and highest-priced flour is obtained from spring wheat Many

258 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

of the winter varieties are not hardy enough for the extreme
North. In unfavorable seasons they "winter-kill" badly. This
is sometimes owing to imperfect preparation of the land, but
much of it is due to the tenderness of the plant. Where the
winters are long and severe there will be considerable risk in
sowing wheat in the fall. For such localities the spring varieties
are safer and better for the farmer to produce.

Of both winter and spri^ig wheat there are many different
varieties. Among those which have been very popular may be
named the Diehl and White Mediterranean (white), the Golden
Straw (amber), and the Mediterranean Red, a red variety. For
spring wheat the Black Sea and the Rio Grande have proved
quite valuable. Among the later and probably very much
better kinds may be named the Clawson (white) and the Fultz
(red) for winter, and the Champlain and the Defiance for spring
varieties. Although it is doubtful if any variety will ever be
found which will do equally well in all sections, it is probable that
some one of the four kinds last named can be made profitable
in any part of the country. The Defiance is very hardy and
will succeed at the extreme North. We think the Clawson
and Fultz will both succeed at the South.

Although it is a very important item, the securing of a good
variety is only one among several things to Avhich the successful
wheat-grower must give his attention. I\Iore than with almost
any other crop the preparation of the land is one of the
determining influences which govern the yield of grain. When
it gets well started wheat grows rapidly, but it is not a very
vigorous plant, and cannot fight its way as well as many of our
cultivated grains. In order to make success reasonably certain
it is necessary that the land should be very carefully fitted to
receive the seed. If the soil is very rich, it is all the better. If
the land has been partially exhausted, an abundance of plant-
food must be supplied. This food must be in a condition for
immediate use. Coarse manures will do little good. The

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 259

•vheat plant is a delicate feeder, and its food must be carefully
■prepared. A large crop of clover which has received a good
coating of lime and plaster may be plowed in a few weeks
before the wheat is sown, and made to yield a large amount of
good food for the crop. We do not approve of sowing upon a
clover sod until it has got well settled and also had a little time
in which to decay. Wheat may follow corn if the land was
made very rich for the latter crop, and it is removed as soon as
ripe. In this case, however, some chemical fertilizer for wheat
should be used. In any and every case the land should be
made rich, and the plant-food which it contains must be near the
surface. For this crop we have a great deal of faith in special
fertilizers, and also in the complete manures which are sent out
jby the manufacturers of the special grades. This because the
ordinary farm-yard-manure does not usually get fine enough to
give its best results to the crop to which it is directly applied.
Much of it remains in the soil to benefit succeeding crops. Its
efifects are often visible four or five years. When this alone is
used, the wheat crop is not sufificiently nourished. There may be
food enough in the soil, but it is not immediately useful, and the
wheat crop is partially starved. But chemical manures furnish
an abundance of food in a fine condition and all ready for use.
They cost something, it is true, but they often save the crop.
Take a corn field which was not highly manured and sow wheat
without any fertilizer. Thousands of acres are sowed in this
way every year. The result is that in moderately favorable
seasons the crop yields from ten to fifteen, possibly twenty,
bushels per acre. Now take this same land and at the time of
sowing apply four hundred to six hundred pounds of a special
wheat fertilizer, or the same quantity of a complete fertilizer,
costing from eight to fifteen dollars, and the yield will be in-
creased from twenty to thirty bushels per acre. This may seem
almost incredible, but it has been proved true by the experience

of a large number of our best farmers. In the first instance the
17

260

FARMING FOR FRO FIT.

crop had but very little food and the yield was light In the
latter the crop had the same quantitj' of food as the other plan
provided, and, in the form of commercial manures, surplus
food enough, in an immediately available condition, to bring
up the yield to a high figure. The application of ten dollars
worth of available fertilizers often returns twenty or thirty
dollars worth of grain.

It is very important that the surface soil should be made
extremely fine. Wheat should be grown, when possible, upon
land which has been deeply cultivated and underdrained, but
for the wheat the ploughing should be shallow. The work
should be well done, the harrowing should be very thorough,
and plenty of plant-food ought to be furnished near tJic suTface.

FIG. 14.

FIG. 15.

Then the seed may be sowed at the rate of two bushels per acre,
if broadcast, and of from one and a fourth to one and a half, if
drilled. Figs. 14 and 15 were designed to show the relative
appearance of broadcast and drilled wheat. Fig. 16 represents
the Hoosier Grain-Drill, a first-class machine, manufactured L/
the Hoosier Drill Company, Richmond, Ind.

Too much stress can hardly be laid upon a thorough prepara-
tion of the soil. Under the common system of management all
that can be done towards making the crop is finished when the
sowing is performed. But implements for the cultivation of
wheat have been invented, and it is to be hoped that they will
soon come into general use. By their use the average yield
per acre of wheat planted in drills can be largely increased

FARM AND FODDER CROPS.

2G1

The best time for sowing wheat depends upon various circum-
stances. When winter wheat is grown, we think from the first
to the last of September at the North, and from the middle of
October to the middle of November at the South, will give the

best results. With spring wheat it is important to get in the
seed as early as the state of the weather and the condition of
the land will admit. The time for sowing winter wheat is some-
times modified by the appearance of the Hessian fly — late sow-

262 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

ing being adopted in order to avoid the ravages of this small
but destructive enemy.

The diseases of wheat are more serious than those to which
rye is subject. The most destructive are smut and rust. The
former is a fungoid disease, propagated by spores, and utterly
ruins all the wheat plants which it attacks. The microscopic
plants absorb all the nutritive juices of the stalks to which they
are attached, and while preventing the full development of the
grains, convert them into a highly poisonous substance. As it
first attacks the weaker grains, it is important to use only the
largest and nicest kernels for seed. If possible, seed should be
obtained from an unaffected field. Before sowing, soak the seed
in very strong hot brine, stir it several times, letting it settle
between, and skim off all the light and imperfect kernels which
rise to the top. Then roll the seed in slaked lime and sow
at once. The rust which attacks the wheat plant is also a
microscopic fungus and often works an immense amount of evil.
Winter wheat is more likely to suffer from the attacks of this
disease than spring grain, and some varieties are more readily
affected than others. This disease is also more likely to attack
weak plants than those which are strong, and may be partially
prevented by using the best seed from fields which have not
been attacked. The seed should be put into brine as directed
for smut, then rolled in slaked lime and sowed at once. Pkof.
Pendleton recommends the use of a solution of bluestone (one-
fourth of a pound to a bushel of wheat) for both rust and smut.
The brine may be used first, if desired, and the wheat allowed
to remain in the bluestone solution several hours.

The insect enemies of the wheat plant are very formidable.
They are members of the different classes of flies, weevils, cater-
pillars, bugs and worms. The most destructive are the chinch-
bug, and the Hessian fly. The former resembles the bed-bug
in appearance, and attacks both wheat and corn. It begins to
work on these crops about the middle of June. The Hessian

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. ' 263

fly lays its eggs on the leaves of the wheat plants near the stalk,
and provides for two or three broods each year. The first
brood appears in April and May, the second in July and
August, and sometimes a third appears in October. In from
four to ten days after the eggs are deposited upon the leaves
the maggots appear, and work down the leaf between the sheath
and the stem to a joint. Here they attach themselves to the
stalk, and live upon the juices of the plant. Sometimes several
of these maggots attack the same joint, and weaken it so that
the plant breaks down at this place. The maggot increases in
size, passes into the pupa state, and comes out a fly about the
first of _ August. Such a drain upon the plant proves very
injurious, and it often happens that crops are utterly ruined
thereby. The various remedies are late sowing, pasturing the
wheat, mowing, rolling, and burning the stubble. If the sowing
is deferred until the fly has laid its eggs, the wheat escapes the
first brood; but wheat put in very late seldom gets a good
start, and is quite likely to winter-kill. If sheep enough are
turned into the field to eat down the grain in one or two days,
most bf the eggs will be destroyed. Mowing the tops and
feeding them to stock does much to keep the eggs from
hatching. Rolling crushes many of the eggs. Burninfy the
stubble in the summer, as soon as the grain is cut, is a still
more efficient remedy. But all of these methods have their
disadvantages, and none of them furnish absolute protection.
The grower should make the land very rich, and give the grain
every possible advantage in order that it may make a vigorous
growth, and be able not only to support the insects which prey
upon it, but also to become fully developed, and yield a good
crop in spite of their depredations. Prof. Cook, of the Michi-
gan Agricultural College, in a lecture upon this subject, said
that the flies will lay their eggs upon the first suitable plants
which they can find after they are ready to lay. If they can
find none which they think will answer the purpose, they will

2(j4 lAKMING FOR PROFIT.

wait a while. He rccomnioads the sowing of " a narrow strip of
wheat about each field in August or early in September, and to
put off, as long as the season permits, sowing the wheat that is
to be raised. Most of the eggs will then be laid upon this early
wheat, which should be plowed under deeply as soon as the
later wheat is planted. This outer strip may then be sowed
again." This seems the best plan which has yet been proposed
for raving the wheat, and destroying the fly at the same time.
In case the insects appear in the spring, resort must be had to
pasturing with sheep, or mowing and removing the tops.
These precautions, in connection with careful selection of seed,
the choice of the strong growing varieties which stool .largely,
and high manuring, will usually enable the farmer to grow a

^ good crop of wheat in spite
of its insect enemies.

Until quite recently, no
effort has been made in this
country to cultivate wheat
during the period of its
FIG.I7.-TRAVIS' WHEAT-HOE AND SEEDER, growth. But a few ycars

ago Mr. A. B. Travis, of Brandon, Michigan, invented a
machine for doing this work, which seems destined to prove
quite useful where the seod is put in with drills. In Fig. 17,
we present an illustration of this implement combined as a
seeder and hoe. The teeth and arms of the hoe are attached to
the head by means of clips, and can easily be attached to any
make of drill, and adjusted to any width of row. It is claimed
that the use of this machine will prevent lodging of the grain,
and will largely increase the quantity of the crop. Many
practical farmers have tested this hoe, and been highly pleased
with its work. It has also received diplomas at various State
Fairs, and at the Centennial E.\position.

The different varieties of wheat will mix very readily if
planted near each other, and the mixture almost always proves

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 265

injurious to the character of the grain. If two kinds are grown,
they should be in different and distant fields. The variety
which seems the best adapted to the climate, soil, and culti-"
vation which can be given, should be selected, and not only be
kept strictly pure, but an effort should be made to improve it
The wheat for seed should be grown in a plot set aside for the
purpose, and should have the best care and most skilful culture
which the owner can bestow. From the yield of this plot, the
largest and nicest grains should be selected for the seed of the
next season's crop. It is some work to do this, but it will pay
well to give it attention. A difference of several bushels per
acre in the yield is often made by a difference in the seed.
With the best land, the best fertilizers, and the greatest care, a
large crop of wheat cannot be grown from inferior seed. But
give these things, and good seed in addition, and large and
profitable crops will be regularly secured.

Harvesting must be done when the straw near the ground has
turned yellow and the interior of the kernels has passed from
the milk into the dough state. If cut before this time the straw
will be more valuable for fodder, but the grain will shrink and
give small measure and light weight. If it stands later, the straw
will become hard and the grain will shell easily and be wasted
in the field. If only a few acres are grown, the wheat can be cut
by hand, but large fields should be cut with a reaper; Figure
1 8 represents W. A. Wood's Sweep-Rake Reaper. Figure 19
shows his splendid Self-Binding Harvester.

It is better to hire a reaper, if one is not owned, than to
attempt the cutting of a large field by hand. For the hand
v/ork will inevitably be slow, and, while it is going on, much of
the grain will get over-ripe and quite a loss will thus be sus-
tained. When cut, the grain should be bound and either
stacked or, if only a little is grown, drawn to the barn. Some
farmers prefer to put it in small stooks. If the grain is full of
green weeds, or is not well ripened, this is the best way. Other-

FAJiM AND FODDER CROPS. 267

wise it may be stored in larger quantities. Of late the practice
of threshing from the shock and hauling the grain to market has
come into favor with a large class of farmers. In some seasons
this appears to be the best method, but, after ripening in a very
warm and rainy time, the grain should be stacked and go
through what is ordinarily called the " sweat." When wheat is
stacked, the straw and grain will soon become damp and con-
siderable heat will be evolved. During this stage the grain can-
not well be threshed, as it sticks very closely to the straw. After
a few days the " sweat " is over and both grain and straw become
dry. It will then be found that the color of the kernel has
undergone a change, and that it is larger in size than it was when
the grain was stacked. The berry has absorbed nutritive matter
from the stalk and will make better flour, and probably a larger
quantity, than it would if it had not been stacked. And by
brightening the color of the grain the sweating will add from
three to ten cents a bushel to the selling price.

Whether to sell the grain at once or hold for higher prices is
a question which, like the same one concerning other crops, the
farmer must decide for himself. No speculation should be
attempted and no risk should be run in hope of a better market.
Still, wheat is a standard crop, and, with the exception of tem-
porary gluts, will always be in demand. If the owner can hold
it without too great inconvenience it will not be best to sell
extremely low unless there .is good reason to believe that the
depression in price will be permanent. But when a fair price is
offered for the crop it is usually better to sell it than to carry it
along.

The Planted Crops embrace a larger number than the pre-
ceding class. Several of them are of immense value to the
growers and hold a high rank among our national productions.

First, in the alphabetical arrangement, we will consider Beans
as a farm crop. Though not very extensively grown for export,
large quantities of beans are used by our own people. They

268

FARMING I- OR I'KOFIT.

form a very nourisliing article of diet, and are among the cheapest
kinds of food which the farmer can produce. At the same time
they are very easily grown, and can be furnished at a profit for a

price which makes them one of the best kinds of food for the
consumer to obtain. They are the best known substitute for
animal food. The kinds of field beans in general cultivation are
the small white, the kidney, and the marrow. The former is

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 269

very small, ripens early, yields well, and can be kept a long
time. The kidney bean is larger and better, but is not as early
and does not yield as well. The marrow is a large, round, and
very fine-looking bean, of as good quality as any, commands a
high price in market, yields pretty well, but requires considerable
time in which to mature.

This crop grows the best on a light, warm, or sandy soil, but
it can be successfully cultivated on land containing a large
quantity of organic matter. On heavy soils it is inclined to run
to vines. The same is true, if barn-yard-manure is used. We
have applied superphosphate of lime to this crop with excellent
results. Prof. Stockbridge recommends the use of fifty-three
pounds of nitrogen, thirty-three pounds of actual potash, and
twenty pounds of soluble phosphoric acid per acre, and expects
a return of twenty bushels of beans more than the natural yield
of the land.

When planted alone, beans may be either in hills or drills. It
is an open question which is the best. We have tried both and
can grow a good crop in either way. Hills may be one and a
half to two feet apart, and eight plants may be left in a hill.
Rows should be three feet apart. Drills should be the same
distance apart, and the plants must not be too thick. Nearly all
the cultivation should be given with a cultivator or horse-hoe.
This crop should never be cultivated when wet with either dew
or rain. If the vines make an excessive growth, the ends may
be cut with sheep-shears, or a sharp corn-knife. We have cut
the vines twice in one season. This hastens the maturity of the
crop. Beans should not be planted until all danger of frost has
passed in the spring, and should be harvested before the slightest
frost appears in autumm. Better harvest the crop before it is
ripe, than to allow it to be frosted. The plants are usually
pulled by hand. All the dirt should be shaken from the roots.
If the weather is fine, the vines should be spread on the ground
and allowed to dry for two or three days. During this time

270 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

ihey may be turned over, if necessary. If they were nearly
ripe, they will soon be ready to go to the barn. If quite green,
or the weather is foul, they must be put up in small stacks in the
field. These stacks may be made as follows : Set two stakes,
each five feet long, in the ground about two and a half feet apart
Between these stakes lay a block of wood, a large stone, or a
pumpkin, and upon it lay the beans, with the roots in the centre.
When the stakes are three-quarters full, they should be tied with
a cord or wire, to prevent spreading apart. Then they may be
filled to the top with vines. If beans are well put up in this form,
they will dry rapidly. In two weeks thp vines may be spread
out to the sun a few hours, and then drawn to the barn.

As beans heat very easily, and heating proves a great injury,
it is important that they should be very dry when packed away.
It is a good plan to spread them thinly on a scaffold, or over
the great beams. Or, if well dried before they come to the
barn, they may be threshed at once. This should be done with
wooden flails. The beans should then be run through a fannincr-
mill and spread thinly in a dr)- and moderately cool place. If
they have been carefully grown and harvested, they will be very
free from imperfect specimens. Still, a few discolored beans
will be found in almost every lot. These should be picked out.
The work can be done some rainy day, or as odd jobs, when it
will not prove a great expense. It will pay well, for a pint of
discolored beans in a bushel of nice ones will make the whole
lot look badly, and reduce the selling price at least twenty pe)
cent. If the curing will be carefully done, beans may be pulled
when quite green. They will be small, but very white, and the
vines will make good fodder for sheep. If there is no danger
of frost, the crop should be allowed to ripen, but it should never
be sacrificed to a frost because it is not fully grown.

This is very often grown as a "stolen crop." We do not
recommend the practice, but we sometimes plant beans between
the hills of corn. One of our neighbors planted six quarts of

FAUM AND FODDER CROPS. 271

beans in this way last spring, and has harvested about three and
a half bushels. The planting cost nothing, as it was done with
a machine when the corn was covered. A large part of the cul-
tivation was done by horse-power. The harvesting required but
little time, and the actual cost of the beans was very light.

In a few of the central States the castor bean is cultivated to
a limited extent. This is a tropical plant, and does not succeed
well at the North. It should be grown in rich soils and receive
similar cultivation to the corn crop. The plants grow five or six
feet high, and yield twenty-five or thirty bushels of beans per
acre. This crop can only be made to pay where both climate
and soil are favorable, and where there is a mill in the vicinity
at which the beans can be used. We have seen the plants
growing as curiosities in Massachusetts and Michigan, and for
this use they answered very well. For profit they must be
grown farther South.

Broom Corn. — This is a variety of the Sorghum, but having
been grown for a long period with direct reference to the length
and fineness of the seed-bearing stems, and without regard to
the sweetness of the juice, its appearance is very different from
that of the Northern sugar cane. The cultuVe of this crop
was formerly confined almost wholly to New England, but has
now become very extensive at the West. In some localities
this is a valuable crop. Where the seed ripens well and a good
quality of brush can be obtained, the two products are quite
profitable. At the extreme North the season is too short to
admit of the ripening of the seed. Many Western growers,
who make a specialty of the finest brush, do not allow the seed
to get ripe. As there is always a demand for the brush, as no
substitute has been found therefor, and as it can be grown
without great expense, it is a very safe crop for the farmer to
produce.

This crop is not confined to any particular kind of soil, and
has considerable power of adaptation to different climates.

272 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

Any land which is reasonably warm and dry can be made to
yield a fair crop. We have seen it growing on a gravel knoll,
and also in a reclaimed swamp. It succeeds in the sandy loams
of the river bottoms of the older-settled States, and the fertile
prairies of the West.

Unless the land is quite rich, fertilizers must be used. Any
good manure, which is fine and well rotted, will answer.
Plaster often proves a great help. Guano is much better.
Ashes give good returns. The manure may be applied broad-
cast if something is used in the hills to give the plants a strong
and early start. The preparation of the land should be similar
to that which good farmers make for their corn. The rows
maybe from three to four feet apart. If a large variety is grown,
on a rich soil, four feet is near enough. The seed may be
scattered along in drills, or planted in hills three feet apart. As
the seed is very small and weak, a large quantity is usually put
in a hill. Many farmers put in enough to make from seventy-
five to a hundred plants. If good seed is obtained, as it always
should be, twenty seeds in a liill are enough. The planting
should be done when the soil is ^ry and warm, and all danger
of frost has passed. The seed should be put in as soon as the
land is prepared, in order that the moisture of the newly
cultivated soil may hasten its germination. At the West, corn-
planting machines and wheat-drills are used for getting in this
seed, but in New En"gl.\nd the work is generally dene by hand.
Two quarts of good seed is sufficient for an acre. If much of
the seed is imperfect, a larger quantity should be used. As the
young plants are very weak, we consider excessive seeding not
only useless and wasteful, but decidedly injurious. The first
hoeing should be given when the plants are small, as stirring the
soil will tend to promote their growth, and hoeing will also
Iceep down the weeds, which are deadly enemies to this crop
while in its early stages. For use in cultivating this crop v.e
consider Prout's Hoeing Machine (Fig. 20), made by the

FARM AND FODDER CROPS.

273

Belcher & Taylor Agricultural Tool Co., Chicopee Falls,
Massachusetts, decidedly the best of anything ^\'hich we have
seen or of which we have been informed. At the first or second
hoeing the thinning, which is the worst part of the work of
growing this crop, should be done. From four to six stalks
should be left in a hill. If in drills, the stalks should be left
three or four inches apart. The Dwarf variety will bear rather
closer planting than the Early Mohawk, and this can be grown
closer than the Missouri Evergreen, which frequently reaches a
height of fifteen feet. The crop should be kept clean during
the whole season, and will be benefited by an occasional stiiring
of the soil.

The time for harvesting will depend upon the use to be
made of the product. If the brush only is wanted, the cutting
should be done as soon as the blossoms begin to fall. This
will secure brush of a green color. If allowed to stand a few
days longer, the brush will have a reddish cast, and will lose
somewhat in weight. As the green brush sells much higher
than the red, it is an object to secure the crop when it will retain
this color. The Dwarf corn is harvested by pulling the brush
out of the sheath by which it is surrounded. This must be
dor\z with a sharp jerk, and is said to be a very disagreeable
operation. The taller kinds are "tabled." This operation
"consists in breaking down the stalks of two rows towards one

274 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

another, diagonally, so that the stalks of one row will cross
those of the cfther, and thus form a sort of platform or table
with the tops projectinrj about a foot on each side." This is
necessary with the tall varieties, as it would be impossible to cut
the brush without first bringing it nearer the ground than it
grew. The stalks are broken over at a height of about two and
a half feet from the ground. Each two rows are tabled in the
manner above described, thus leaving a space in which the
cutters can work between the tables.

The brush can be cut with a common shoe-knife, and should
be laid in small bunches upon the tables. No leaves should be
left on and only eight inches of the stalk. If exposed to the
sun, the brush will have a tinge of red, even though it may be
quite green when cut. Consequently the curing should be done
under cover. Exposure also injures the quality of the brush and
makes it more liable to break when used. If only a small
quantity is produced, it can be cured in a loft over a shed or on a
scaffold in the barn. If a large area is grown, a drying house
must be built, or some existing structure fitted up for the
purpose. The roof should be tight, but many of the boards
used for covering the sides should be hung on hinges, so that
they can be opened whenever a free circulation of air is desired.
The interior of this building should be fitted with a large
number of racks upon which the brush can be spread to dry.
The floors of these racks should be made of narrow strips of
boards, with spaces between, in order to admit the air freely.
The brush should be spread very thinly. There should be a
space of six or eight inches between these floors. The ven-
tilating doors should be kept open in fine weather, but should
always be closed in a storm.

When large quantities of green brush are produced, the seed
must be removed before the crop is stored in the drying house.
This can be done with a threshing machine by holding the
heads to the cylinder, but not allowing the brush to be drawn

FARM AXD FODDER CROPS. 275

through, or by a machine made for this purpose. The seed
being undeveloped is of but vjry Httle value for anything except
manure. If only a little brush is grown, the seed can be taken
off by drawing the heads through a "scraper" made of three
pieces of flexible iron, about a foot and a half in length, set in a
frame of convenient height, spreading a few inches at the top,
and coming nearly together at the bottom. This we have
found very disagreeable work. As there is something poi-
sonous about the dust and seed, it is extremely bad work for
the eyes, and any one having any tendency to inflammation, or
any soreness of the eyes, should avoid it altogether.

If the grower does not care for very fine brush, but wishes to
obtain a crop of seed, he should not cut the tops until the seed
is fully developed. Unless it is very ripe, which in the
Northern States it is not likely to be, the brush should dry a*,
while before the seed is removed. Some growers do not sepa-
rate it until winter. The quality of the brush upon which
seed has ripened will not be first-rate, and its appearance will be
decidedly inferior, but a good crop of seed is worth consider-
able for feeding to hogs, cattle and sheep. It should always be
mixed with some of the common grains before it is ground..
When mixed with corn, it is said to be as nutritious as an.
equal quantity of oats. As it is liable to heat, it should be
thoroughly dried before being put in bins. After the scraping
is done, the brush can be bound into convenient sized bundles
and stored in a shed, or barn, until wanted for use, or to carry
to market.

The quality and profit of this crop depend very much upon

the character of the seed. The veiy best quality of thoroughly

ripened seed should be obtained for planting. In growing seed

for planting, the highest culture should be given. It should be

started early in order that it may get thoroughly ripe, and it

should not be grown in the vicinity of the Chinese sugar cane,

Doura corn, or near any other variety of the genuine broom.
18

276 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

corn. As this plant mixes very easily with several somewhat
similar productions, it is absolutely necessary for the securing
of pure seed that the plants grown for this purpose should be
strictly kept by themselves.

Coffee. — This is a product of warm climates, and in this
countr)' can be grown successfully only at the extreme South.
It is said to flourish in the peninsula of Florid.\. Probably it
would succeed in Southern Tex.vs and C.\liforni.\. Farmers
in these sections may do well to experiment with this crop.
The plants should be allowed to attain a height of only five or
six feet. By cutting down to this level the production of fruit
will be increased, and it can be easily gathered. Plants should
stand in rows five feet apart each way, and the land should be
kept free from grass and weeds. At three years of age, they
should produce fruit; at five, come into full bearing; and for
twenty years thereafter, yield two and a half pounds of coffee
per plant.

Cotton. — This is one of the most valuable of all of our culti-
vated plants. It was known in the early ages of the world, and
was used to some extent by the ancients. As far back as the
commencement of the Christian era cotton was one of the
articles of commerce.

The cotton plant is a native of warm climates, and will succeed
in no others. Indi.\ was formerly the principal source of supply,
but during the past century the Southern States have taken
the first rank in its production. Early in the history of our
country the plant was found growing wild in the Mississippi
Vallev. Its seed was planted by the early settlers, and it was
long cultivated as a garden plant. In 1748 the first export of
cotton from this country' of which we have either " record or
tradition " was made from Charleston, South Carolin.\.
It was a small beginning — only seven bags being sent out, but
the business rapidly grew in importance until cotton became the
leading crop for export, and brought a hundred and fifty

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 27*7

millions of dollars per year into the Southern States. It is said
that in the early years of its production, a planter once obtained
fifteen small bales of cotton from five acres of land, and declared
that he had done with cotton, for he had already grown
" enough to make stockings for all the people of America."
But his fear of an over-supply proved groundless, and in i860
the United States consumed more than one hundred and
thirty-six millions of dollars worth of cotton goods. It has gen-
erally been supposed that the amount of cotton produced in this
country has greatly diminished since 1859, but recent statistics
prove that, with the exception of a single year, three crops
grown since 1869 were larger than any three which had been
produced before. The culture has been carried on in a different
manner. The crop is grown on smaller areas, and by a larger
number of planters. But the better culture, the use of
manures, the practice of rotating cotton with other crops, and
the greater care in selecting the seed, have caused the produc-
tion of larger crops than the planters themselves supposed
could be obtained. This is a very gratifying result. It shows
the importance of thorough culture, and proves that cotton can
be made not only one of the leading but also one of the most
profitable crops which can be grown at the South.

Although cotton requires a warm climate for its perfection, it
is possible to grow it considerably farther North than has yet
been attempted on a large scale. In favorable seasons, and
when very carefully cultivated in sheltered locations, this crop
has been fairly successful as far North as Missouri at the
West and Delaware at the East. But when grown in these
extreme points it is very liable to failure, and its cultivation will
not generally prove successful. The cost of growing at the
South will certainly be much less than it will farther North,
while in its natural home there is, with anything approaching
good cultivation, no danger of failure. We do not think its cul-
ture is to be recommended farther North than North Caro-

278 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

LiNA and Tennessee. Even if it could, by dint of the most
careful culture, be made to grow fairly a little beyond this line,
there are other crops which are suited to the soil and climate
which it will pay the farmer a great deal better to produce.
Here, as well as in all other things, the man who tries to oppose
nature works at a great disadvantage. If the farmer selects
crops which are adapted to his surroundings, nature will help
him produce them ; but if he takes those which belong
elsewhere, he will not only have all the difficulties with which
the farmer who grows them in their own home has to contend
but also the extra labor of overcoming the natural influences
which are opposed to their development. Prof. Pendleton
thinks that North of the thirty-fourth degree of latitude the
seasons are too short to give uniform success witli the cotton-
plant, while South of the thirty-first degree the seasons are so
wet and insects so abundant that the cost of culture will be
largely increased, while its results must be quite uncertain.

In the tropics cotton is a perennial plant, and, in some places,
it becomes a small tree. But in this country- it is killed by the
frost each winter, and long periods of cultivation have fixed a
tendency to produce seeds and staple rather than wood. Here
it grows only as an herb, but b}' good culture it can be made to
produce a large number of bolls and yield a large quantity of
staple. There are various varieties and sub-varieties of the
cotton plant. But the changes caused by difference in climate
and cultivation are probably the cause of many of the differences
. which have now become fixed, and which have made a great
deal of trouble for the botanists to classify and describe.
Though there is a difference in the color of the seed, and there
are many different names, it is probable that whatever superiority
one kind of upland cotton may have over another is principally
due to more careful culture and greater pains in selecting seed.
The Sea Island cotton is, of course, confined to low, moist land,
and is not adapted to general cultivation.

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 279

But though the natural difference in upland cotton may not
be as great as has been supposed, it is a matter of importance
for the farmer to obtain the very finest seed which he can secure
of some sort which is adapted to the quality of the land which
he cultivates. It makes a great difference with the yield and
value of the crop whether common seed is used or that from a
very prolific kind. We can readily understand why so many
farmers have but little faith in improved cotton seed. There
have been so many varieties of seed sold for extremely high

' prices which proved far inferior to the claim made for them, that
it is not strange that the advertisement of any new kind of seed
is quite generally regarded as a speculation. But we cannot
believe that the conclusion to which many growers have arrived
that " one kind of seed is as good as another " is correct. On
the contrary we assert, both on general principles and also as
the lesson of many careful experiments, that the use of the best
seed (not always the seed which sells for extravagant prices)
will largely increase the quantity and value of the crop. With
this, as with all other crops grown from seed, the finest seed,
of the best varieties adapted to the circumstances in which they
are to be grown, will certainly produce the best paying crop.

If properly managed, the cotton plant will thrive on quite a
variety of soils. The best kinds for upland cotton are said to be
clay loam and silicious soil on a clay subsoil. On sandy soils,
underlaid by sandstone or limestone rocks, and also on rich
bottom land, the cotton plant can be made quite productive.
Other soils can be made to grow cotton if they are properly
treated ; but land containing large quantities of vegetable

• matter which is not thoroughly decomposed, and in which the
mineral elements are deficient, is not at all adapted to the crop,
and should not be selected for its production.

Cotton has a long tap-root which penetrates the subsoil, if it
is not too hard, and draws part of its food therefrom. On this
account, deep plowing is one of the essential operations in a

280 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

suitable preparation of the soil for this crop. In addition to this,
soils lying upon stiff clay also need underdraining. The cotton
plant needs moisture, but standing water around its roots proves
very destructive. As underdraining will carry off the surplus
water, and yet allow the soil to be kept quite moist by the
retention of the heavy dews which fall in the South, it proves
of immense advantage to the crop both in wet and dry seasons.
When this cannot be given, open drains will prove highly bene-
ficial. In case nothing in the line of draining can be done, the
land should be cultivated in ridges, and a water furrow left
between each two rows. Though not nearly as valuable as
underdraining, this will give some of its advantages, and in a
wet season may save the crop from utter destruction.

For uplands which wash badly under heavy rains, and from
which much of the manure which is applied is carried off, as
well as the most valuable parts of the soil itself, what is called
circle-ditching and circle-ploughing has been strongly recom-
mended by the best cotton-growers who have had experience
in such locations. It is claimed that by these means lands
which have not been spoiled can be kept from injury by wash-
ing, while the exhausted soils can be reclaimed. The circle-
ditch is made on the principle of a mountain road, which
enables the height to be gained by a long and gradual incline.
In employing this system of drainage, the lowest point for an
outlet must be found. From this a ditch, with a bank of earth
firmly laid- upon the lower side, and rolled down, should be
made which shall gradually wind around the hill in such a
manner as to furnish a slight and uniform descent for the water.
The ditch may be made by ploughing two or three furrows
which should lap over each other, and cleaning out the last one
with a hoe. The ridge thus formed should never be disturbed,
and in plowing the field the furrows should always follow the
curves of the ditch. The rows of cotton should also follow the
same direction. In this way the land can be kept from injury

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 281

by heavy rains, as the water will have only a slight fall, and the
fertilizers which are applied can be used for the benefit of the
crop, instead of being washed away.

A great deal of the cotton-land in this country has become
very poor under the combined action of repeated croppings and
the washing away of the fertilizing elements by the heavy and
frequent rains. On this account fertilizers are absolutely nec-
essary to the production of profitable crops on old land, and
should be used in the newer fields to prevent the exhaustion
which will otherwise be inevitable. For this purpose various
articles are used. The quantity to be applied will depend upon
the use which is made of the crop. If the stalks, leaves and
burrs are left on the land and plowed in, and the seeds are also
returned to the soil, so that only the lint is really taken away,
the quantity of fertilizer needed will be much less than will be
required if the cattle run over the fields in winter and thg seed
is sold off the farm. But the removal of the lint alone makes it
necessary for the farmer to return something in the shape of a
fertilizer, or else he will certainly diminish the fertility of his
land. As the seed often is removed, the average cotton-grower
needs to manure his fields well, in order to keep up his land,
and also obtain good crops. The mere removal of the lint
exhausts the soil slowly but certainly. When the seed is
removed, the exhaustion is about twenty-five times as rapid, and
is fully equal to that caused by the growth of corn or wheat.
Manure from grain-fed cattle is a first-rate fertilizer for this crop,
but a large supply cannot be obtained. Ordinary stable-manure
contains all the elements of fertility, and gives good returns.
A good compost is also a quite effective fertilizer. Commercial
fertilizers are often used with profit. The principal mineral
element removed by cotton and which must be supplied by the
grower is phosphoric acid. Potash and lime are also removed
in small quantities. Organic matter must also be supplied, in
the form of nitrogen, to all soils which are badly worn. Prof.

282 FARMING J-OK PROFIT.

Pendleton has found, by means of numerous experiments, that
nitrogen in connection with soluble phosphate of lime will not
only make the worn-out soils productive, but also bring them
up, as far as the growth of cotton is concerned, to their original
state of fertility. He recommends the use of an ammoniated
superphosphate of lime for this crop. Gypsum, bone-dust, and
guano are sometimes used with benefit to the crop. But barn-
yard-manure, or some fertilizer containing ammonia, phosphoric
acid, potash and lime, is probably the best.

The quantity to be applied will depend upon the condition of
the land, and whether the seed is removed or not. While it is
possible to use more manure than is profitable, the great
majorit}- of farmers err in the other direction, and apply too
little. The fertilizers should be applied in March, and plowed
in deeply if barn-yard-manure is used, and lightly if commer-
cial fertilizers are employed. In the latter case the fertilize;
should be covered by a second plowing, as the first one should
be quite deep. Or, if preferred, it may be used in the drills
instead of being spread over all the land. If this is done, care
should be taken to cover it well before the planting is done, or
it will destroy the vitality of the seed.

Planting should not be attempted until the land is quite
warm. With this, as w^ell as with other crops, there are
growers who advocate very early planting, others who plant
very late, while many choose an intermediate time. But there
seems to be no possible use in planting extremely early. The
land must be warm before seeds will grow, and if the soil is too
cold and wet, the seed will rot in the ground. On poor land
earlier planting is needed than is required on richer soils, or
those which are well manured. When the land is rich the
planting can be deferred until the middle or twentieth of May,
while the poorer soils should be planted a month earlier. The
advantage of the late planting consists in a great saving of labor,
and a more thorough utilization of the fertilizers. If rich lands

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 283

are planted early, they send up large quantities of grass which
feed upon the manure*, injure the cotton, and require a great
deal of work for their removal. Consequently it is better to
plant rich soils rather late in the season. But this course must
not be attempted with poor land which is not manured, as here
the plant grows slowly, and if the seed was planted late, the
crop would foil to mature.

The rows should be from two and a half feet apart in poor
soils to three feet and a half in rich land. Some growers place
the rows still farther apart — from four to six feet in rich bottom
soils. The land should be plowed in ridges, so that each row of
cotton will stand upon a narrow elevation, with a furrow for the
water between each row and its neighbor. These ridges should
be thrown up some weeks before the time for planting, in order
that the ground may become well settled before the seed is
deposited. When the time for planting arrives, the tops of these
ridges should be pulverized with a fine harrow, after which they
should be opened with a light plow, or some implement
which will make a small but clean drill. The seeds should be
planted in this drill. If soaked a day or two before planting,
and then rolled in gypsum, they will germinate sooner than
they will if planted dry.

The distance apart of the hills varies from eight inches to
three feet. When the longer distances are chosen, several seeds
should be planted in each hill. The seed will be injured by
deep covering, but it is of great importance that this and all of
the operations of planting should be well done. A machine
which would work as perfectly with cotton as some of the
corn-planters operate would be of immense advantage to the
cotton-grower. Machines which do pretty fair work have been
invented, but many growers prefer the certain methods of hand
planting. It is very desirable that the rows should be quite
straight, and a uniform distance apart, as this will greatly
facilitate the after culture of the crop.

284 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

The cultivation of the cotton plant has a powerful influence
upon its development. About fifteen days after planting, a light
plow should be run close to the line of plants. This will tear
up grass and weeds. The plow should run only to a moderate *
depth, and men should follow with hoes, smoothing the earth
and cutting between the plants in the rows. If seed is used in
the drill as a fertilizer, many of the plants must be cut out.
Two weeks later a careful hoeing and thinning should be given.
The finest plants should be saved, and all the surplus ones
removed. Fresh earth should be drawn around the roots, and
all weeds and grass should be removed from the ridges. After
this much of the work can be done with plows which should be
used frequently, and should always be run shallow. Hand-hoes
must be used occasionally, and on no account should weeds or
grass be permitted to grow. Good culture is one of the great
essentials of success in cotton-growing, and the crop must be
hoed often enough to keep it clean. Plowing is sometim'""
beneficial wiicn there are no weeds, as it promotes the growth,
and hastens the development of the plants. Care should be
taken not to cut or bruise the plants, as they are very tender,
and if injured will not be productive.

The enemies of the cotton plant are of several kinds and often
prove very destructive. In the early stages of the growth of
the plant the cut worm nips off many of the specimens. A top
dressing of ashes mixed with the earth around the roots will
sometimes check his depredations.

The cotton louse attacks the plant in its growing state and
sucks the juices from the leaves, which turn yellow and drop
off These lice are very small and have many enemies, but
being very prolific, they often do a great amount of damage.
Planters have sometimes attempted to drive them off by sprink-
ling poisonous powders upon the leaves, but the labor and
expense of treating a whole field in this way is so great as to
make it unavailable. Ihe best way to get rid of them is to

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 285

encourage the presence of the birds, and of the other insects
which prey upon them.

The cotton caterpillar is one of the most destructive of all the
enemies of the crop. It is peculiar to this plant and lives only
where cotton is produced. It is said that in a single fortnight
in 1873 this caterpillar damaged the cotton crop to the amount
of twenty millions of dollars. The most effective agent for the
destruction of this foe is the Paris green, which is so largely
used at the North for killing the Colorado beetle which injures
the Irish potato. The green is a violent poison and should be
very carefully handled. It should not be allowed to come in
contact with the skin, and the dust should never be inhaled.
Care should also be taken to keep cattle out of the fields in
which it has been used, and the pails and dishes in which it has
been placed should never be used for any other purpose. The
poison is usually applied dry. It should be mixed with thirty
times its weight of flour, or gypsum, and shaken upon the plants
from a tin box with small holes punched through the bottom, or
from a sieve made for the purpose. The sieve should be fastened
to a stick several f6et long, so that there shall be no danger that
the operator will breathe the dust. It can be shaken over the
plant, or a light blow from a short stick held in the right hand
will cause enough of the mixture to fall out. A good hand will
go over quite a field in a day, and as only a very light dusting is
required for each plant, the quantity of poison needed will not
be very large. A single pound of the green will be sufficient
for several acres. Although this is a cheap and efficient remedy,
it is open to the disadvantage of being equally injurious to the
friends of the planter as it is to his enemies. Many birds may
be destroyed by eating the poisoned worms, and numbers of
insects which destroy the caterpillar will also be killed. It may,
in bad seasons, be the best method which can be followed, but
it is to be hoped that a better one will some time be devised.

The boll worm is an insect foe of the cotton plant which

286 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

works upon the small bolls, or buds, causing them to fall off
and thus seriously diminishing the rate of production. Various
remedies are employed. The easiest, and it is said to be quite
effective, is the planting of occasional rows of corn through the
field late in the season. The miller which produces the worm
prefers corn and will attack it in preference to cotton. Fires are
sometimes built at the edges of the field, and in them ma-ny
millers are destroyed. Sometimes the hands pass through the
fields early in the morning and toward night, and with paddles
knock the millers off the plants, or catch them in small nets and
kill them. Another method of preventing their injuries is to
clip off the ends to the branches. As the eggs are generally
laid in this position, a great many may be destroyed in this
manner. The pruning is said to be beneficial to the plant.

.There are several other insect ^nemies of the cotton plant, but
the injuries which they inflict are slight when compared with
those which have been named. Thorough culture, liberal ma-
nuring, and the multiplication of birds, would be great aids in
the work of ridding the cotton plant of all its insect foes.

The diseases which attack the cotton plant are few in number,
though often working considerable evil. There is a rust which
attacks the plant in the Southern States, which is similar in its
cause and effects to the same disease which proves so destruc-
tive to the wheat plant at the North. The parasitical plants
fasten themselves upon the stalk, absorb its juices and weaken
its vitality. They thus diminish the productiveness of the plants
which the owner desires to have grow, and use the food which
belongs to them for their own advantage. The remedy for this
disease is to be found in the selection of strong-growing sorts,
careful culture and liberal manuring. There are several other
forms of disease, all coming under the general head of rust,
which prove injurious, and sometimes ruinous, to the crops
which are affected. They can all be traced to one common
cause — the want of suitable plant-food in a condition in which

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 287

it can be immediately used. Even the true parasitic affection is
due to this cause — the foreign growth absorbs the juices of the
plant to such a degree that its health and vigor are sacrificed.
The common rust, which appears in the Northern cotton
regions, does not appear until some critical time in the life of the
plant. As long as there is plenty of food for it in the soil, and
rains are frequent but not unusually heavy, all goes along well.
But let the fertilizer, or one of its leading elements, become
exhausted, or let there be a drought which cuts off the supply
of food (which must be in solution in order to be efficient, and
which cannot be dissolved in time of drought because there is
not sufficient moisture in the soil), or let the quantity of water
be excessive, so that the food which the plants need is dissolved
in three or four times the quantity which they can use — under
any of these circumstances the plant is imperfectly nourished
and the rust makes its appearance. The obvious remedies are
the application of a liberal quantity of plant-food, thorough
drainage of the land, and clean cultivation of the crop. On
many of the soils at the South, which have long been under
cultivation, the organic elements are first exhausted. The ap-
plication of fertilizers rich in nitrogen, the rotation of crops,
allowing the land an occasional rest, or the plowing in of green
crops for manure, are among the best means which can be em-
ployed to prevent the exhaustion of the organic elements in the
soil, and thereby prevent the forms of exhaustion or disease of
the plants which are known to the growers by the general name
of rust.

Not only is it important to devote a great deal of time and
labor to the planting and culture of cotton, but there must also
be; efficient management in securing the crop. As soon as it is
ready, the gathering should be commenced. The best hands,
and plenty of them, should be engaged in season. It involves a
great waste to gather the cotton crop with insufficient, or inex-
perienced, help. The laborers should be encouraged to gather

288

FAKMIXG FOR PROFIT.

the cotton as rapidly as possible, but should always be kindly
treated 'and well paid for their work. In the early part of the
season, when the weather is fine, the work should be pushed as
rapidly as possible. The cotton picked when wet with rain or
dew should be dried before being packed away, but ought not
to be exposed to the sun longer than is necessary.

Preparing the crop for market is also an important part of the
cotton-grower's work. If he consults his own interests, the

FIG. 21.

planter will see that all the details of this work receive careful
attention. Vast sums of money have been lost by Southern
planters by sending off their cotton in poor condition for the
market. This seems to be one of the great difficulties with a
large class of farmers all over the cotton-growing region, and
only loss and evil can result. If a cotton gin is owned, the
planter should see that it is put, and kept, in perfect order.
Very much depends upon this. Then the cotton must be
properly prepared for the ginning process. Ginning cotton

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 289

when it is damp, and feeding in large, tangled masses, are pro-
lific sources of heavy loss. In all cases speed should be secon-
dary to good work. While it is possible to run through eight
bales a day, it is better to attempt to clean only from two to
four. The cotton should never be fed in faster than it can be
nicely cleaned. A good press is one of the necessities of the
thrifty planter. He can bale his cotton just as well as the com-
mission merchants, and do it for one-quarter the price which
they charge. A press suitable for this purpose will not be very
expensive, and will be very useful for many other operations.

We think very highly of the plan recommended by the late
Joseph B. Lyman, of Louisiana, of building " neighborhood gin-
houses in well-chosen locations so as to be central to large
farming communities." Here the most perfect gins and presses
could be employed, all needed power could be furnished, and
the work could be done in the most perfect manner. All the
planters in the neighborhood could bring in their cotton and
prepare it for the market in the best possible manner and at a
much less cost than they could furnish machines them.selves.
Such a plan would enable many men who have not the means
for building expensive gin-houses to grow cotton profitably,
would draw in many settlers from the North, and would power-
fully tend to develop the material resources of the South. In
Figure 21 we give an illustration of the L^niversal Cotton Gin,
manufactured by R. H. Allen & Co., of New York. Figure 22
represents Dederick's Patent Cotton Press, made by P. K. Dede-
rick & Co., of Albany, N. Y.

When the cotton is ready for the market the grower must
decide whether to sell at once or hold it for higher prices.
Here his own judgment, enlightened by all the knowledge
which he can obtain concerning the state of the market at home
and abroad, and the prospects for the future, should be his guide.
Still, much will depend upon his financial condition. If he is
able to hold his crop, and is confident that prices will go nc

290

FARMING FOR PROFIT.

lower, while hope-
ful that they will
advance, it may
not be best to sell
at once. But if he
needs money, and
must borrow and
pay interest until
he can sell his cot-
ton, it may be bet-
ter for him to sell
'd,^ at rather low rates
- than to wait in
g hope of a slight
8 advance. As a
^ general rule, to
G which there are
I many exceptions,
" when a crop can
E be sold for a fair
price — a price
which will 'pay all
expenses and give
a reasonable per-
centage of profit
— it does not pay
to hold on for an
advance. In no
case should the
grower be led to
engage in any
speculations with his crop. He must not take great risks in
the hope of securing great gains. Such a course will not lead
to success, but it very often precedes financial ruin.

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 291

In addition to the fibre the cotton-grower will have a
quantity of seed of which he must make some disposition.
This seed has been used for various purposes. The oil has
been extracted and sold, the seed has been fed to stock on the
farm, large quantities have been ground into meal and sent
North for feeding to stock, and many farmers have used it for
manure. The circumstances of each grower must have an
influence in his decision of the question what to do with the
seed. But when we consider the great worth of this material
for a general fertilizer, its immense value to return to the fields
upon which it was grown, the worn condition of much of the
Southern cotton land and the scarcity of other materials
from which to obtain fertilizing elements for the growth of
crops, as well as the high price of commercial manures, it seems
plain that the best possible use to which many planters can put
their cotton-seed is to apply it to the land. We have already
shown that the removal of only the fibre exhausts the soil but
very little, while the seed carries off the elements of plant-food
in considerable quantities. The return of the seed seems to be
the best and easiest way in which the land can be made
productive, and still remain almost uninjured by the removal of
the crops. With cotton, as with all other farm products, the
better the condition in which the land is kept the more
profitable its cultivation will become. And good culture not
only secures large present returns, but also keeps the land from
becoming exhausted and provides for the growth of profitable
crops in the future.

Corn. — This is considered the most valuable of all of our

agricultural productions. The plant belongs to the order of

grasses, is a native of America, mms cultivated by the Indians,

and on this account received the common name of Indian Corn.

It will grow in any part of the cultivated portions of the

United States, but finds its most congenial home between the

thirty-fifth and forty-second degrees of latitude. It readily
19

292 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

adapts itself to changes of climate and soil. Consequently
it is an universal favorite. The value of the corn crop
produced in this country in a single year exceeds five hundred
and eighty millions of dollars. Large quantities are exported,
it is the leading article for fattening pork and beef, and it is used
to quite an extent for human food.

Although the corn grown in different parts of the country
presents very different appearances, but little care has been taken
to keep varieties pure. The consequence is that we have but
very little really pure-bred corn. In many of the corn-growing
districts the only difference recognized is in the color of the
grain, and white corn or yellow corn is called for without regard
to any other name. And as it readily mixes with different kinds
grown in the vicinit}^ and also adapts itself to the soil and
climate in which it is produced, it is somewhat difficult to keep
a variety pure and unchanged when removed from its original
home. There are varieties which are very small and ripen very
early. In ninety days from the time of planting the seed, the crop
may be dry enough to be shelled and ground. If grown in
Maine, or in any of the extreme Northern States, these
characteristics will be permanent. But plant this variet)'- of corn
a few years at the South and it will lose its present distinguishing
features, will grow quite large, and ripen ver>' late. We have
often seen these changes going on. Year by year the corn
would grow larger and ripen later, until it had perfectly adapted
itself to the climate to which itjiad been taken.

As a general rule the small "flint" corn, with from eight to
twelve rows per ear, and ripening very early, is grown only in
New England, northern New York, Michigan, Wisconsin,
and Minnesota. Farther South the "dent," or gourd-seed, is
almost exclusively grown. There are several pretty well-
marked varieties of the flint corn which are really valuable, and
many others which are more or less distinct, but which cannot
be .classed as superior. The best of these kinds which we have

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 293

seen are the early "Yellow Canada," a small eight-rowed
variety, tl?e Holden, possessing the same characteristics, but
more productive, and Kingsbury's Excelsior, an early, yellow,
twelve-rowed kind, which makes a larger growth of both stalks
and grain than the preceding varieties. The two latter kinds
have been long kept very pure, and are fine sorts for the extreme
North. Of the large Southern and Western corn there are
many kinds. The Early Galena is one of the best for late
planting. The White Gourd-Seed, Southern Big Yellow,
Long John, and Illinois Yellow, are all largely grown. The
Evans, Proctor Bread, and Chester County Mammoth are
extremely large, and, on rich soil, very productive varieties.

There are, also, many intermediate kinds, which have merely
local designations, and which are specially valuable in the belt
of country just north of where the large kinds easily ripen, and
south of the line above which it is necessary to grow the early
ripening kinds. The Connecticut Valley Corn and its many
variations belong to this class. This is largely grown in Con-
necticut and Massachusetts. It is much larger than the
early varieties, but smaller than the large gourd-seed sorts. It
ripens in about four months from the time of planting, yields a
large crop of nice, yellow grain, and a large quantity of stalks
which are valuable for fodder. This variety has been tested in
the northern part of Illinois, and proved quite valuable. We
believe it would pay the farmers of some of the Northern corn-
growing States to cultivate the large, yellow corn of Massachu-
setts and New York, instead of the gourd-seed varieties. The
quality of this corn is far superior, and the stalks are worth
considerable for fodder. Dr. Nichols claims that a careful
analysis shows that a bushel of Northern corn on the cob is
equal, for fattening stock, to a bushel of Western corn that is
shelled.

The average yield of corn in this country is very far below
what it ought to be, and what it might easily be made. Ohio

294 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

with all its advantages has only averaged a fraction over thirty-
four bushels per acre for the past twenty years, while the esti-
mated average for the country is less than thirty bushels. In
some of the States, in which good crops might be grown, the
average rate of production runs down to ten bushels. It would
be a very easy matter to largely increase this average, and the
interests of the farmers would be greatly promoted by such a
change. Under favorable circumstances, and with skilful culti-
vation, immense crops have often been produced. And though
practical farmers look with distrust upon reports of excessive
yields, and while the truth of many of these reports has not
been as fully certified as it should have been if they were strictly
true, yet there can be no doubt that more than a hundred and
twenty bushels of sound, shelled corn per acre has many times
been produced. We have never been able to reach this yield,
but we do not live in the best section for the production of I'^o
corn crop. We have no doubt that from sixty to eighty bushels
of yellow flint corn per acre have been grown by many different
farmers, and we have full confidence in tlic statement of Mk.
Sturtevant, of Massachusetts, that from his thoroug!i bred
seed of this variety he has obtained one hundred and twenty-
three bushels of sound, shelled corn per acre. There are, also,
duly attested reports from Bucks County, Pa., of a corn crop
yielding one hundred and thirty-six bushels, and of another of
one hundred and eight bushels per acre. In these instances the
large gourd-seed variety was planted. The assertion has been
made that two hundred bushels of shelled corn per acre have
been grown, but it is the general opinion that this is a highly
exaggerated statement. The great majority of first-class farmers
find it difficult to obtain one hundred bushels. But the pro-
duction of the latter quantity should be the aim of every farmer
who is favorably situated for growing this crop. The use of
first-class seed will do much toward securing this yield, while
good land, liberal manuring, and skilful cultivation, will be very

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 295

efficient and necessary aids. The best methods of growing seed
will be considered in a separate chapter. If good seed is not
grown upon the farm, the owner should purchase some of other
parties. He cannot afford to use poor or even second-rate seed.

Corn will grow in almost any kind of soil, but will give the
best results in one which is warm and rather dry. We have
grown it in gravel, and in muck, and in the various intermediate
kinds of land. Though it does better in land which is well suited
to its wants, no farmer need despair of growing corn on account
of the character of his soil. If he can grow any cultivated
crop, he can easily fit his land so that it will produce good crops
of corn. If extremely wet it should be drained, and if very
cold it should be cultivated in ridges. The variety to be grown
should be selected with reference to the quality of the land. If
the soil is cold, an early ripening kind of corn should be planted.
It is one of the great advantages of this crop that by means of
careful fitting of the soil, and a skilful .selection of the variety,
corn can be grown over a vast extent of country, on almost all
kinds of land, and under a great diversity of climates and tem-
peratures. It is, when properly grown, less affected by varia-
tions of the seasons than almost any other crop. An excess of
water is injurious, but seldom proves destructive, while an
ordinary drought is borne with comparatively little injury.

The corn plant is a strong feeder, and will make use of almost
any kind of plant-food. Decomposed barn-yard-manure, hog-
manure, and sheep-dung are especially valuable. On some soils
plaster proves very beneficial. Ashes are excellent for this
crop. Chemical fertilizers, either the special formulae for corn
or the complete manure, are almost sure to give good results.
The quantity of manure to be applied per acre depends upon
many circumstances. With a little manure some corn can be
obtained from almost any soil. But the crop can utilize a large
amount of food, and the more liberal the application of manure,
up to a point which but few farmers reach, the larger will be the

296 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

crop. Here the farmer who uses only barn-yard-manure is very
liable to make a mistake. He finds that a moderate application
of manure not only secures the growth of a fair crop of corn, but
also that the effect of the manure is visible for three or four of
the succeeding years. The crops which follow the corn are con-
siderably larger than they would have been if the land had not
been plowed. Consequently, the farmer concludes that he has
applied more manure than the corn required, and that it is this
excess which stimulates and feeds the succeeding crops. But
this is an error. The corn would have used more food if it
could have obtained it in a suitable form, but much of the
manure did not get into an available condition until long after
the crop was removed. It should always be remembered in
deciding the quantity of manure to be used on corn land that
the ordinary grades of this fertilizer contain much plant-food
which will not be in a condition to use the first season, and that,
on this account, an extra quantity should be applied, or else
some commercial fertilizer should be used in connection with
the manure from the yard. Many farmers use only twelve two-
horse loads of compost per acre, while some of their more suc-
cessful neighbors apply from twenty to forty such loads of a
much better quality of manure.

The method of its application will have some influence in
determining the quantity of fertilizer to be used. When the
New England method of putting the manure in the hill is fol-
lowed, a less quantity will do than will be needed if applied
broadcast. Except for very poor land it is much better to
spread the manure over the whole surface of the ground. Corn
roots go a long distance in search of food, and it is not wise to
put all the manure directly under the plant. When a liberal
quantity of manure is spread on the surface and worked in to a
depth of a few inches, and a small quantity of manure, or com-
mercial fertilizer, is used in the hill in addition, the best results
will be obtained. But, on account of the great amount of labor

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 297

involved, this is generally considered impracticable. When the
planting is done by hand it is best to, at least, throw a handful
of plaster and ashes in each hill. This will give the corn a
strong and early start, and keep it growing until the roots reach
the manure which has been plowed or harrowed in. When fer-
tilizers are used in the hills they should be slightly covered
before the seed is dropped. Some corn-planting machines have
an arrangement for dropping plaster, or other fertilizer, near the
seed.

It is, in some sections, a very common method to spread the
manure upon the land before it is plowed. On dry, light land,
which is only plowed four or five inches deep, this will give
good crops if a fertilizer is used in the hills. But if nothing else
is done, the plowing in of a broadcast application is not a good
way in which to feed the crop. If spread upon a heavy sod,
and we have often seen this done, and the plow run quite deep,
the corn will obtain but very little, if any, benefit from the
manure. Succeeding crops may be benefited, but for imme-
diate use the manure is not available. Even when the plowing
is quite shallow, we do not believe it pays to put the manure in
the bottoms of the furrows and cover it with sods. We consider
it much the best way to spread manure upon the surface after
the land has been plowed and work it in with a harrow. If the
manure is fine, it can easily be got in with a common square
harrow. If it is coarse and strawy, a wheel-harrow will answer
the double purpose of fining the manure and pulverizing the
soil. If chemical manures are used, they are to be sowed broad-
cast and harrowed in, except the fertilizers which are made
specially for use in hills or drills.

The following is a good method for manuring corn. If sod
land is to be planted, a liberal application of stable manure
should be made after the land has been plowed. This should
be thoroughly harrowed in. A light application of some special
fertilizer for corn should then be made and covered with a har-

298 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

row. In the hills or drills a small quantity of ashes and plaster,
or some other quickly acting fertilizer, should also be used. If
stubble laiKi is to be planted, a liberal quantity of manure may
be plowed in, not more than five or six inches deep, and the
commercial fertilizer used as recommended above. But if only
a small quantity of manure can be had, and the farmer does not
choose to buy commercial fertilizers, the land should be plowed
and harrowed, the row.s marked with a small plow, and the
manure placed in hills or scattered along in the drills. If put
in drills, the manure can be covered by turning back the furrow
which was laid out, and the corn may then be planted with a
one-horse machine. But when manure is used in this manner
the planting is usually done by hand.

The seed should never come in contact with the manure.
When thoroughly decomposed material is used, this rule is
often disregarded. But it is better that the fertilizer should be
covered with a little fresh earth. This in order that the nat-
ural moisture of the land may hasten the growth of the seed,
and also to prevent all possibility of injur\- to the germ by heat-
ing of the manure. It is not safe to plant directly in unfer-
mented material, while a bed of well-rotted manure is not a good
place in which to start the corn plants. When corn is planted
on very wet land which is imperfectly drained, the manure
should be put in hills, or drills, in order to elevate part of the
roots of the plants above the ordinary level of the soil. But it
is much better to drain the land, or even to plow it in ridges,
than it is to build up the hills.

The time for planting varies with the location and with the
character of the season. In an ordinary year the planting of
this crop in the South is best done in March ; in the Middle
States, and those in the same latitude, from the first to the
middle of May; in Massachusetts, and the States with a sim-
ilar climate, from the tenth to the last of May ; while at the
extreme North, the corn is not planted until June. In some

lAJ^AI AND FODDER CHOPS.

299

FIG. 23. — NEW YORK CORN AND SEED-PLANTER. MANUFACTURED BY N. Y. PLOW
CO., NEW YORK CITY.

FIG. 23. — DOUBLE ROW CORN-PLANTER. MANUFACTURED BY A. B. FARQUHAR,

YORK, PA.

300 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

seasons the seed can be safely planted a week or ten days
earlier than the usual time, while in other years, which are cold
and wet, the work must be delayed until the weather and tem-
perature are favorable. There is not the slightest use in putting
in corn long before the ground is dry and warm. The seed
cannot grow until the ground is warm ; and if planted sooner it
is liable to decay. But it is well to do this work promptly
when a suitable time arrives. Early planting, if not too early,
will usually give better crops than late planting. There is the
additional advantage of having the corn large enough to culti-
vate before the time for haying arrives. At the North, early
ripening is desirable in order that both grain and fodder may
escape injury by frost ; and this must be secured, if at all, by
early planting, or else by the use of a ver)' early variety. W^e
have known farmers to put in their corn so late that the plants
did not get large enough to hoe until time for their grass to be
cut. Then they were under the necessity of either neglecting
their hoeing or their haying. The result has usually been that
their corn became very weedy and their grass got over-ripe.
A light crop of corn and a damaged crop of hay can often be
traced to late planting of the corn. Figures 23 and 24 repre-
sent some excellent planting machines.

Whether the planting should be done in hills, or in drills, is a
question upon which there is a difference of opinion. A great
many practical farmers favor the old method of putting the seed
in hills, while others consider the newer method of drilling an
improvement. When it is done in squares, hill-planting allows
the corn to be cultivated both ways. This is certainly an
advantage. But when the corn js grown in drills, the plants
are more evenly distributed over the ground, all crowding is
avoided, and the sun and the air have free access to them. The
advocates of drill-culture claim that these benefits more than
offset the gain secured by running the cultivator both ways
when the planting is done in hills. Figures 25 and 26 show

FARM AND FODDER CROPS.

301

FIG. 26. — CORN IN HILLS.

302 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

the relative appearance of corn grown by these methods.
Many of the best planting machines can be adjusted to drop the
seed either in hills or in drills.

In order to be highly successful with the corn crop, the
farmer must give it frequent and thorough cultivation. Whether
it should receive level culture or be hilled will depend upon the
character of the land and of the fertilizers which were used.
On dry land we believe in keeping the surface as nearly level as
possible. On wet land it is almost always best to make the
hills a little higher than the surrounding level, and when coarse
manure is used in the hills, it is necessary to make them of
considerable size. With these exceptions we much prefer level
culture.

The first cultivation of the crop should be given when the

plants are quite small. This
for the double purpose of
checking the growth of the
weeds which have started and
promoting the growth of the
^^^J^^ig^v- crop. We do not favor the
^'*^- ^7- old-fashioned method of hand-

hoeing, which is still largely practiced in New England.
It does not pay. With a good cultivator more real benefit is
conferred upon the crop, and the cost of the work is much
less than that of hand-hoeing. Prout's Hoeing Machine has
already been noticed as an excellent implement. In Figure
27 we give an illustration of Allen's Planet Jr. Horse-Hoe.
This simple, cheap, yet effective implement is made by S. L.
Allen & Co., of Philadelphia. Figure 28 represents the Garden
City Riding or Walking Cultivator, made by the Furst & Bradley
Manufacturing Co., of Chicago. iMgure 29 illustrates the
Improved Corn Harrow, manufactured by the Warrior Mower
Co., of Little Falls. N. Y. Either of these implements can be
made to do almost all the work which it is necessary to perform.

FARM A AD FODDER CROPS.

303

A hand-hoe would be a little nicer, but hand-work is too costly.
After the first hoeing, the corn may be cultivated with profit
once a week until the tassels are out. The latter part of the
time the cultivator should not run ver)' close to the hills.
Neither should the culture be very deep. By way of ex-
periment it may be well, on a small part of the field, to disregard
the last suggestion and try the effect of root-pruning. By
plowing out a small lot of corn when it is in the silk, letting the
plow run deeply, the crop may be greatly increased. It will
pay to give this plan a trial.

FIG. 28.

Harvesting. — Various methods are employed. The New
England method requires considerable time, but it enables the
farmer to secure his crop in the best condition. When the
kernels are thoroughly glazed (if there is danger of frost it is
done sooner) the corn is cut at the roots, bound in bundles
containing the stalks of from twelve to sixteen hills, and from
six to ten bundles are set up in a stack. The tops of the stacks
are firmly tied and the corn left in the field a few weeks to cure.
Some farmers tie the tops of a couple of hills together, cut and
set up a dozen hills around them and tie the whole at the top.

304

FARMING FOR PROFIT.

After these stacks have dried a while, the centre hills are cut and
the whole stacks taken to the barn, or else husked in the field.
By following either of these plans the fodder is all saved, and
the grain is secured in the best possible condition.

The old method of topping the corn has been pretty generally
abandoned. It has been found that after the tops and leaves
are removed there can be no farther elaboration of plant-food,
and that the grain does not improve. But if the plants are cut at

FIG. 29.

the roots before the grain is ripe, the sap in the stalks will carry
on the ripening process to some exteht.

Many farmers at the West are now making an effort to save
their corn-fodder. The Ohio Farmer has done good service in
calling the attention of its readers to the fact that this fodder is
quite valuable and ought to be saved. Other papers have taken
the same position, and many of the best farmers have found that
they cannot afford to waste this excellent material for stock-food.
The method, so long practiced at the West, of merely gathering

FARM AND FODDER CROPS.

305

the ears of corn, and leaving the stalks to be trampled down
by the cattle, to be burned, or plowed in, will not much longer
be very generally followed. At least part of the fodder should
be saved on every farm. When the stalks are not gathered they
should not be burned, but cut and plowed into the land.
They will be worth something as plant-food for the succeeding
crop. Figure 30 represents a machine, with a roller attachment,
for cutting stalks and getting them out of the way of the plow.
It is made by the Eureka Manufacturing Co., of Rock Falls, 111.
When the stalks are to be fed, the harvesting of the crops
should be done as soon as the corn is fully ripe. The grain
will be just as good, and the
fodder much better than it
will be if the plants stand too
long.

When the stalks are well
dried, the corn should be
husked, the ears stored in
suitable bins, or cribs, and
the fodder stacked near the
* yards, or packed away in a
barn or a spare shed. The

corn should not be shelled and measured for at least three
months after it is ripe. Careful experiments have proved that
corn shrinks, both in weight and measure, for several months
after it is husked. In one instance in which corn was weighed
and measured in November and again the succeeding August,
the last trial indicated a loss of eighteen and six-tenths per cent,
in bulk, and twenty-two and six-tenths per cent, in weight.
Corn is usually considered merchantable the first of January,
and is often sold earlier in the season ; but it continues to lose
both weight and bulk until April or May. The farmer who
sells his corn early saves quite a loss in this respect.

This crop is subject to the attacks of worms of various kinda

FIG. 30. — EUREKA DOUBLE-ROW STALK-
CUTTER.

306 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

The cut-worm works when the plants are only a few inches
high. He cuts the stalks off near the surface of the ground.
We have found this worm more destructive on sod-land than
on stubble. When but little corn is grown, these worms can
be dug out of the hills in which there are indications that they
are at work. When large crops are produced, it has been sug-
gested that a pair of old wheels be fitted with projections on the
rims, which will make holes four inches deep when the wheels
are run upon the land. The worms will attempt to follow the
smooth tracks made by the rims of the wheels, fall into the
holes, and be destroyed by the hot sun. It is a wise course to
build bonfires near the corn fields in the evenings of summer in
order to destroy the insects which produce these worms.

Wire-worms are often quite destructive. They usually do
the most harm when the plants are small, but they sometimes
keep working until the crop is fully matured. Various prepa-
rations have been recommended for use in the hills, but we
know of nothing effectual which can be used on a large scale.
Where only a very little corn is grown, a piece of potato ma}' be
put in each hill, examined .daily, and the worms which have
entered be destroyed. This is a method in use to some extent
in England. It is said that if a piece of cob is placed in each
hill the worms will enter the pith and can be killed. A mix-
ture of equal parts of plaster and ashes, the whole to be .satu-
rated with night-soil, and half a pint placed in the bottom of
each hill, has been highly recommended. This would make it
necessary to plant the corn by hand, and Avould not, on this
account, be applicable to large fields. We have but little faith
in anything of this kind. As far as our experience goes, it is
of but little use to try to fight the worms in this way. They
are hardy creatures, and not easily disgusted with their sur-
roundings. Anything which will kill them will also kill the
corn, and they are not readily frightened away. As they work
most where the land is wet and cold, the best method of

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 307

defeating them seems to be by thorough draining of the soil,
making the land as light and warm as possible, and in using
fertilizers which will give the plants a quick start and a rapid
growth. Plowing in the fall also proves useful in the Northern
and Middle States by subjecting a great many worms to a
degree of cold which will destroy them.

The diseases of corn are not numerous, and are not usually
very destructive. The yellows is a sort of disease caused by
an excess of water in the soil. The corn cannot grow be-
cause there is so much water around the roots. The plants
turn a yellow, sickly color, and will not thrive until the land
becomes drier. This disease can be wholly prevented by
draining the land, or partially by cultivating it in ridges.

The smut is a fungoid disease which in some seasons, espe-
cially those which are very warm and wet, destroys many of the
ears of corn. It has been suggested that sowing salt upon the
soil before planting would be the means of partially preventing
this disease. As the loss from this source is not very great,,
but little effort has been made to find either a cause or remedy
for the disease. Good culture, high manuring, and a judicious
rotation, so that corn shall not be planted on the same land,
more than two successive years, will be almost sure to secure a-
large crop in spite of any and all attacks of this disease.

In some sections the birds cause considerable injury to the
corn crop. The crows and blackbirds will sometimes pull the
plants when they are only a few inches high, in order to obtain
the kernels. The latter also occasionally attack a field when,
the corn is in the milk and work a great injury. When the
grain is ripe, and from that time until it is taken from the field,
these and other classes of birds often do a great deal of harm.
The blackbird destroys the eggs and young of many better
birds, and should be kept in check, if possible. But the crow is
a very useful bird, and should be frightened rather than killed.
Coating the seed-corn with coal-tar will usually: prevent birds
20

308 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

from pulling the plants. If the work is done early, the corn
can be planted with a machine. We put from four to six quarts
of corn in a leaky pail, turn on some warm water, and stir the corn
thoroughly. When all of the kernels are wet we drain off the
surplus water, dip a stick into a dish of tar and with it stir the
corn again. Only a very little tar is needed to cover the corn
well. A quart of tar will cover several bushels of com. After
it is coated with the tar, the corn is spread in the sun.
When it is nearly dry, it is spread under cover and left until
wanted for use. Corn treated in this way can be planted in a
machine just as well as it could if it had not been tarred. Corn
which is to be planted at once may be covered with tar and then
rolled in plaster. If planted with a machine, the slides must be
open farther than usual, as it will not drop freely.

In order to prevent depredations later in the season, and some
growers take this course to prevent the pulling of the corn,
'■'scarecrows" are often erected in the fields. Images of various
kinds frequently prove effective with crows, but the blackbirds
are not as easily frightened. Small pieces of polished tin, sus-
pended from a pole by a string, are very good. Pieces of look-
ing-glass, hung in the same way, are still more efficient and will
be likely to keep all birds from the corn.

On small farms the husking is done by hand. It should be
attended to early in the season. This, because the work can be
much more easily and rapidly performed in warm weather than
it can in cold days, and also in order that the corn and fodder
may not be too long exposed to the sunshine *and storms.
Where large quantities are grown, a machine for husking, or
one for shelling cars which have not been husked, will be found
a great convenience, and will save much time and a great deal
of hard work.

Before feeding, corn should be shelled and ground. This is a
much more economical way than it is to feed it on the ear.
-Many farmers are in the habit of having both corn and cobs

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 309

ground. This saves shelling, and many feeders say that it
greatly improves the quality of the meal. Other men, of equal
intelligence, consider the cob worthless, and sometimes injurious,
for food. We have never found it profitable, though we ha\e
sometimes tried the experiment, to feed cob-meal. We believe
that the cob contains but little nutritive matter, that it is almost
impossible to grind corn and cobs together as finely as they
should be, that for young stock the cobs are liable to cause irri-
tation of the digestive organs, and that for a fattening animal so
large a quantity of the mixture is needed that the stomach will
be unduly distended and overloaded. In order to fatten an
animal rapidly, very rich food is required. If it is desired to
carry on the fattening process slowly, a small quantity of meal
should be given It is quite expensive hiring the cobs ground.
We consider them worth more to put in the hog-yards for
manure than they are to grind into meal. They are also good
for fuel, though it is said they are injurious to the stoves in
which they are burned. As they contain considerable potash
they are quite valuable for manure, and ought, in some form, to
be saved and returned to the land.

The stalk crop is of such importance that it should be
considered in this connection. We are strongly in favor of
growing corn for feeding both in a green and a dry state. For
green food in the summer, corn is one of the best crops which
can be grown. For drying for use in cold weather, it is almost
equally valuable. We prefer the sweet corn for this purpose.
It is not as large as some kinds, but, if properly grown, the cattle
will eat quite a proportion of the stalks. There is not half the
waste to this fodder that there is to the gourd-seed varieties.
We plant in drills, with a machine, three feet apart. Not
more than ten or twelve kernels per foot should be dropped.
Thicker planting will make more fodder, but the quality will be
much poorer. As soon as the plants are two or three inches,
high, a cultivator should be run close to the rows. During the

310 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

season the crop should be cultivated several times. When two
feet hio"h it will do to feed green. That which is to be dried
should be allowed to stand until the kernels on the ears are well
formed. It should always be cut before a frost. It should dry
a day or two, and then be bound in small bundles and set up in
small stacks. These should remain until well dried. Then the
bundles should be set out in the sun a few hours, after which
they may be drawn to the barn or stacked near the yards. If
the land is good, and a fair quantity of manure has been used, a
large amount of very good fodder will be secured. Broadcast
sowing will give double the quantity, but the quality will not be as
good. Almost every farmer who keeps stock can make it pay
to grow this crop every year. The Ensilage of corn fodder, by
means of which the stalks can be kept fresh and green for an
indefinite time, will be considered in a separate chapter.

Hops. — The hop is a perennial plant which sends up a long,
twining stem, and bears its fruit in clusters. The stem is killed
by frost, but another grows the succeeding year. The fruit is
useful in medicine as a tonic, and it probably possesses a nar-
cotic property. Hops wet in warm water are among the most
efficient remedies for that terrible disease, neuralgia. We have
used them for this purpose with great success. Nervous,
wakeful people often derive great benefit from sleeping on a
pillow made of hops. But the great use of hops is for making
beer. On account of this perversion they prove an injury to the
human race. But they are so extremely valuable for use in
cases of neuralgia, for making yeast, and other household
purposes, we have concluded to give brief directions for growing
them on a small scale and for home use.

Any good corn soil will grow good hops. If very wet, the
land should be underdrained. If not, rich well-rotted compost
should be applied. Lime is often a valuable fertilizer for this
crop. If the land is very stony, it should be cleared of these
obstructions before a plantation is started. A ^pcation sheltered

FARM AND FODDER dROPS. 3lJ.

from strong and cold winds should be chosen. The plowing
should be done in the fall, and should be qu.te deep. In spring
manure should be applied and harrowed in. The surface should
be made very mellow, marked out in squares with the rows per-
fectly straight, and at a distance of eight feet apart. Between
these rows corn or potatoes may be grown the first season.
The underground runners from old vines are used for planting.
About two bushels of good trimmed sets will be needed for an
acre. The runners should be cut into slips, each containing two
or three buds, and kept moist until wanted for planting. The
runners from the male and female plants should be kept
separate. Only eight or ten of the former will be needed on ant
acre. Four slips may be put in a hill. They should be
covered from two to three inches deep with fine soil. Many
growers put a shovelful of compost manure in each hill before
planting, while others make the land rich enough by spreading
fertilizers on the surface. If the land is dry, the latter course \%
preferable. If rather wet land is used, manuring in the hills
will be a benefit.

During the first year some growers cultivate sufficiently to
keep down the weeds, but they do not set the poles, and they
make no effort to obtain a crop until the second season. Others
put up the stakes, and secure a partial crop the first year.
When the latter plan is followed, poles eight feet long should be
used. They should be set one foot in the ground. All the
vines in a hill should run upon one pole. Good cultivation
should be given. Poles for permanent use may be from,
eighteen to thirty feet long. Various kinds of wood are used'.
Cedar are the most durable, but are quite costly. Poles are apt
to be blown down or broken off by the wind, and thus injure the
crop. On this account horizontal yards are preferred by many
growers. One stake is set at each hill. These stakes are
sawed an inch and a quarter square, nine feet long, and covered
with coal tar. A row of stakes should be set ei^ht feet outside

312 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

of the hills all around the field. The tops of all the stakes are
connected with strong, tarred twine. At the male hills pole.s
eighteen or twenty feet long should be used, so that the wind
can blow the pollen over the whole plantation. The horizontal
method is much cheaper than the use of long poles : the hops
grow better, and the crop is gathered with loss work.

When the vines get two or three feet long, they must be tied
to the poles or stakes. Frequent cultivation should be given,
and no weeds should be allowed in or near the hills. As the
vines grow they will need tying occasionally to the stakes, and,
if the horizontal method is employed, when they get a little above
the top they must be laid on and wound around the strings. If
small poles are used, two may be set in each hill, but about
fifteen inches apart. In the fall a shovelful of well-rotted
manure is to be thrown upon each hill. In the spring this is
carefully hoed away, the root-stocks are cut off, and saved for
use or sale, and the old vines should be trimmed off above the
sprouts with a sharp knife. If any grubs are in the hills, they
should be got out and destroyed. After cultivation should be
sufficient to keep the field clean. It is not well to hoe this crop
when in blossom, but no injury will result from hoeing after the
hops are set.

As soon as the seed becomes hard and its color changes to
purple the hops are ripe, and picking may be commenced at
once. When the horizontal plan is pursued, the hops can be
picked directly from the vines. If grown by the other system
the vines are cut with a sharp knife, the poles taken up and laid
over a box at which two or four pickers work. The hops
should be picked off clean and no leaves, or pieces of the vines,
should go with them into the box. Some growers cut the vines
from three to five feet lioni the ground. Others cut them closer.
When the boxes are full the hops are shovelled into sacks and
carried to the kiln. If only a small quantity of hops are grown,
the drying can be done in a store-room, or any convenient place.

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 3l3

But when this crop is grown on a large scale a kiln will be
required. The hops should not be packed until they are
thoroughly dried, and if dried in a kiln they must also be
allowed to cool. When thoroughly dry and cool they may be
put into sacks, pressed, and stored or sold.

Onions. — Although at the South onions cannot be grown
from the seed in one season, but must have two years- in which
to mature, the great value of the crop at tjie North and West
gives it a strong claim upon our consideration and an honorable
position among the products of the farm. Though largely
grovv^n by market gardeners, there are many farmers who make
this crop a specialty, and many more who choose it as one of
their principal money crops. At the South it is a quite com-
mon custom to grow this crop from sets. The hot summer
prematurely checks the growth of the plant started from Southern
seed, and the stalk dies down long before the plant has attained
its normal size. The bulbs which are thus formed are very small
and of no value for the table, but if set out the next spring they
will grow into onions of a fair size and passable quality. They
ripen earlier than onions grown directly from the seed, and on
this account the first year's growth, or sets, are in demand at
the North for use instead of seed by growers who desire to
supply the market very early in the season. The onions grown
in this way are not as good keepers as those which are secured
from seed, and this method is not recommended except for those
who want a very early crop. Southern grown sets are much
better than those which are produced at the North. It has
recently been proved that seed grown far North will, under
favorable conditions, mature a crop at the South the first season,
but this result cannot be attained with native seed.

To grow good sets the land should be plowed, lightly ma-
nured, the surface made very fine and smooth, and the seed
sowed early in the spring in drills ten inches apart. These drills
should be broad and shallow, and seed should be used at the

314 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

rate of thirty pounds per acre. When the crop is mature, the
onions must be pulled, cured, and then stored in a cool and
well-ventilated loft. The next spring these sets are put out, in
rich land, in rows ten. or twelve inches apart and two or three
inches apart in the row. They should be lightly covered, and,
during the season, should receive sufficient cultivation to keep
down all the weeds. The farmer who lives near a large city
may be able to work off some onions of this class, but in small
villages they do not sell in any except very small quantities and
we do not consider it an object for those who mustdepcnd upon
such markets to attempt their cultivation.

The Rareripe is another form of the onion, though often mis-
taken for the set. This is still less desirable than the set, and
its production is not to be generally commended. It is merely
a mature onion \Wiich has been kept through one winter and is
ready to devote its energies to the production of seed. If kept
from seeding, the bulb will increase in size. Many farmers keep
their very small onions for use in this way. Large onions which
have become badly sprouted also answer the same purpose.
The small ones grow to a much larger size, and, in common
with the large ones, send up seed stalks. These should be cut
off as soon as the swelled growth is exhibited and just below
where the stalk begins to enlarge. The plants should be kept
free from weeds, and, with the exception of requiring a little
more room when large specimens are used, arc to be treated in
the same manner as a crop grown from sets. These onions will
mature early, but are not very good.

The Potato onion is a variety which multiplies in the soil.
This kind is easily grown, but is too poor to become a general
favorite.

The Shallot is similar to the Potato onion, but better in quality
and an extra keeper. The bulb which is planted divides into
several irregular-shaped onions which never attain a large size.

Top onions arc large, coarse, and decidedly poor. They arc

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 315

very poor keepers, but as they are early, have a very mild flavor,
and are easily grown, they are more common than their actual
merits would lead one to expect. They are propagated by little
bulbs, which, sometimes to the number of a dozen, grow on top
of a seed stalk. They grow in the same place and way as the
ordinary seeds, but are miniature onions instead of black seeds.
These bulbs are to be gathered when ripe and spread in a cool
place. Early in the spring they may be put out in rows from
ten to fourteen inches apart and cultivated enough to keep them
free from weeds.

We now come to a consideration of the genuine onion in its
best form. This is grown from the black seed which is pro-
duced in a sort of head on top of a tall stalk which is thrown
up during the second year of the life of the bulb. The quality
of the seed which is used will have a very strong influence upon
the yield and quality of the crop which will be obtained. Many
growers of onion seed use for this purpose an inferior lot of
bulbs. Often those which are badly formed, or are too small to
sell, are used for seed stock. A few growers select the finest
bulbs and grow seed therefrom. Seed from the best stock is
the only kind which should ever be used. A difference of hun-
dreds of bushels per acre is often made in the yield of a crop
simply by the quality of the seed. It is not only necessary to
secure seed from good stock, but it is of great importance that
it should be fresh. Seed three years old is good for nothing,
and at two years of age but a very small proportion of ordinary
seed will germinate. If very carefully kept, perhaps one-half of
a lot of strictly first-class seed will grow when two years old.
but even then there is a great deal of risk. Consequently, it is
much better to obtain new seed than to place the slightest
dependence upon that which is old. It is a great damage to be
obliged to plant over, and the grower can better afford to pay
double price for good seed than to go through this operation,
even though the seed for his first sowinjj costs him nothing;.

316 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

Early sowing is one of the essentials of success with this
crop. The onion land should be plowed and got in condition
for sowing as early in the season as possible. The best soil for
onions is neither very hea\y nor very light ; is not too dry, and
is far from being wet. A sandy or gravelly loam will gener-
ally give good crops, but many other kinds of land will yield
pretty well. Unlike most crops, onions do better, and it is
much less work to grow them, when planted on the same land
year after year. It is a good plan to grow carrots on the pro-
posed onion-bed as a sort of preparatory crop. When onions
are to be grown, a liberal application of first-rate manure should
be made. Well-rotted stable-manure, hog-manure, or night-
soil, will give good results if freely used. As a general thing
farmers do not make their land rich enough to give the best
results with this crop. It is a strong feeder, and must be well
fed in order to be made profitable. The manure should be
extremely fine, and should be plowed in to a depth of four or
five inches. Not less than eight cords of strictly first-class
manure should be used on an acre. After the land has been
plowed, it must be rolled if it is inclined to be lumpy, and then
harrowed. If the soil is reasonably fine, the rolling may be
omitted. Wood-ashes at the rate of from one to two hundred
bushels per acre, or a liberal quantity of some special onion
fertilizer, should be sown and harrowed in. If there are any
stones on the surface, they must removed. After the har-
rowing, the land must be carefully raked with a fine-toothed
hand-rake. This in order to get out small stones, and crush or
remove any lumps of earth which may remain. It is consider-
able work to fit an onion-bed to receive the seed, but it is very
important that this work should be faithfully performed. The
yield of the crop largely depends upon the manner in which
this preparation is made, and the labor attending its after cultiva-
tion will be modified thereby in a still greater degree. An extra
day's work on one-eighth of an acre of land before sowing may

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 31 7

save several days' time afterwards, and will certainly save a
great deal of very hard labor. Until the surface soil is light
and fine as ashes, do not be tempted to think that it will " do
well enough." It will not be well enough until the land is
perfectly fitted.

When this stage is reached, the seed should be sown. The
quantity required will be from three to four pounds per acre, if
the seed is perfect ; and from four to five pounds if it is almost,
but not, quite, first-class. If the rows are only twelve inches
apart, of course more seed will be needed than will be required
if the spaces are eighteen inches wide. We think sixteen
inches is far enough apart, and do not believe that it is well to
put the rows nearer together. For sowing, a machine of some
kind should always be used. It takes a great while to sow
onion seed by hand, and in the effort to sow in this way quite a
proportion of it is wasted. There are machines made for this
special purpose, which cost only a few dollars and do the work
perfectly. But it is better to obtain a combined drill and hoe.
With this machine not only the sowing but also a large part of
the cultivation of the crop can be done. If but a small quantity
of .onions are grown, a {^v^ neighbors can buy one of these drills
in company, and thus make the individual expense very light.
After the seed is sown a light hand-roller may be run over the
land. Most seed-drills have a roller which passes over the row,
and when they are used this operation is unnecessary. Figure
31 represents the celebrated Planet Jr. Garden-Drill, Wheel-
Hoe, Wheel-Cultivator and Wheel-Plow combined. If is made
by S. L. Allen & Co., of Philadelphia. We have used one of
these implements several years, and found it first-rate for each
of the various kinds of work which it is intended to perform.

It is never well to grow this crop on weedy soil. If the pro-
posed onion bed is weedy, it is better to grow carrots, or even
corn, upon it until the weeds are rooted out. But whatever
the character of the land in this respect there will be weeds

318

FARMING FOR PROFIT.

enough, and they will make their appearance very soon after
the land is worked. Just as soon as the rows can be plainly
seen, a wheel-hoe should be run between them. This will bene-
fit the crop, and destroy a multitude of weeds.

If only a small business in this line is attempted, the com-
bined machine, shown in Figure 31, will answer every purpose.
But where onions are extensively grown, the Planet Jr. Double
Wheel-Hoe, Wheel-Plow and Cultivator, made by the same
Company, will be found better. This machine is illustrated in
Figure 32. It will not do to delay cultivation until the weeds
get well started. Such a course will involve an immense

FIG. 31. — PLVNET JR. COMBINED DRILL
AND HOE.

FIG. 32. — PLANET JR. WHEEL-HOE,

amount of needless labor. We have sometimes raked the rows
lengthwise with an iron tooth-rake, and in this way destroyed
many of the feeble weeds without injuring the onions. As soon as
they arc large enough the onions must be weeded. Whoever
docs this work must get upon his hands and knees and expect
to have a tiresome job. The work should not be slighted. One
good weeding is worth two imperfect ones. During the season
this process will need repeating two or three times. No weeds
should be allowed to grow at any time upon land devoted to
this crop.

When the crop is nearly ripe, the tops of the onions will
begin to fall upon the ground. For a little while after this the

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 3I9

bulbs will grow very fast. Then they will ripen, and the tops
will die. Sometimes a crop matures unevenly. Some of the
tops fall over, while many remain upright. When this occurs
it is best to roll an empty flour-barrel over the rows in order to
bend down the tops, and thus hasten the ripening process on
the part of those plants which would otherwise remain green
too long. When most of the tops are dry where they join the
bulbs, the onions should be pulled. If allowed to remain
longer, they may begin to grow again and very soon be spoiled.

The onions may be pulled by hand, or, if very ripe, raked out
with a common hand-hay-rake. They may be put in windrows,
five or six rows in each, and allowed to dry. If the tops are
green they should not be stirred for several days, but if quite
ripe they may be raked over, carefully, with a hay-rake, evejy
fair day. In a short time the tops will die down and the bulbs
will feel hard and be quite solid. W'hen this stage is reached
the crop is well cured. Unless they are to be sold at once, care
must be taken that the tops become dry dose to the bulbs. The
end of the tops almost to the onion will often seem quite dry
when the necks are green. It will not do to cut the tops in this
state, as the onions will " bleed " and very soon decay. The
drying must go on until the top is dead throughout its entire
length. When this stage is reached, the tops may be cut, close
to the bulbs, with a sharp knife, or, what we like much better, a
pair of old sheep-shears. The onions can then be carried to
market or stored for winter. The small ones should be sepa-
rated from the large ones. They are good to eat, but on
account of the extra work of fitting them for the table they will
sell for only half or two-thirds as much as the large ones. The
very small ones — those not larger than a hazel-nut — will some-
times sell at full rates to parties who want them for pickling.

We have made it an invariable rule to push off this crop as
soon as possible after it is ripe. Other growers, who are dif-
ferently situated, often find it for their interest to hold on until

320 FARMIXG I- OR PROFIT.

the middle of October, and some keep their crops until the next
spring. The latter course is sometimes the best. We have
known onions to bring extremely high rates in the spring. But
there is a great risk in keeping them. They sometimes decay,
and when they do not they are often plenty and prices are very
low. We have known growers to almost give away large quan-
tities of onions late in the spring. No one would pay much
for them, they were beginning to sprout, and many showed
unmistakable signs of decay.

If it is thought best to put the crop into winter quarters, the
onions should be spread, in an exposed building, about a foot
and a half deep, upon the floor. A space of two feet should be
left all around the pile between the onions and the boards.
When the onions are frozen hard, the pile should be covered
with sheets, or cloth of some kind, in order to keep the bulbs
clean, and then hay should be packed between the pile and the
sides of the building. The top of the pile should also be cov-
ered to a depth of two or three feet. A lattice-work bin a little
inside of the outer wall would be a still better place for storage.
In the bin the onions should be covered, as before directed, and
hay must be placed around the outside of the slats in order to
fill the space between the bin and the wall. In some sections
the large growers have fitted up buildings for the special purpose
of keeping this crop frozen through the winter. After the
onions are frozen they should be let alone until they thaw in
the spring. Then they should be spread and dried as rapidly as
possible and sent to market without delay. If it is only desired
to store a few onions for winter use, they may be put in barrels
which have had several pieces chipped out of their sides with a
hatchet, and allowed to stand in a cool room until nearly time
for heavy frosts. Then they should be removed to a cool and
well-ventilated cellar. The tops of the barrels should be covered
to keep out the light.

As soon as the crop is got oflT, the bed should be cleared of

FARM AND FODDER CROPS, 321

all weeds, decayed onions, and tops, and harrowed thoroughly.
If any weed seeds have ripened, this working of the soil will
cause them to germinate at once. In a few weeks the land
should receive another harrowing. This will destroy the weeds,
and these two harrowings will save an immense amount of work
the next year. Late in the autumn it is a good plan to plow the
ground in order that the frost may make it fine and mellow. It
may need plowing again in the spring, but the fall plowing will
prove highly advantageous. If the land is quite mellow, the
spring preparation may be made with a cultiv^ator. If this is
designed, a liberal quantity of manure should be applied before
the fall plowing is performed. In this case, we might say in
any case, ashes should be used in the spring with an unsparing
hand. In plowing land for onions the cultivation should always
be shallow. Neva' plow deeper than five inches, and, on many
soils, four is still better. If the land is light, always roll it in
the spring after plowing and before it is harrowed.

In all the operations with this crop a great deal of care is
needed. If the bulbs are cut, with a hoe or knife, they are
spoiled. Careless handling when the crop is grown is very
wasteful, as it will cause many of the onions to decay. All dis-
eased bulbs should be removed from the land as soon as the
trouble is discovered. If the maggot appears, a little guano may
be sprinkled along the rows, or unleached ashes may be applied
in the same manner. Some years this pest proves very destruc-
tive, while other seasons it does but little harm.

We usually buy our seed of the man whom we consider the
best -grower in the country. Occasionally we grow a small
quantity. There is no trouble in obtaining seed enough. Any
one can do this. But it is not every one who can grow first-
class onion seed. To do this, a careful selection of bulbs, of the
exact form which it is desired to produce, must be made, and
they must be set very early in the season in good land and care-
fully tended. During the various hoeings, the earth should be

322 JAKMIXC FOR PROFIT.

heaped around the stalks to a height of eight or ten inches, or
else a framework of slats, or some stakes and strings, i^hould be
put up to support the heavy seed tops and keep the stalks from
breaking over. W'licn the seed-stalks turn }ellow near the
ground and the seed-cells begin to crack open, the tops, with
about six inches of the stalks, should be cut, spread in a warm
chamber to a depth of only a few inches, and frequently stirred.
When thoroughly dry the seed may be shelled and stored in a
dry place. The cleaning may be done with a fine sieve, and the
imperfect seeds may be removed by" putting the whole into
water and skimming off all those which come to the top. The
seed should be stirred while in the water, and, tlyjugh a few of
them might grow, it will be best to throw away all seeds which
do not sink. After this is done the seed must be thoroughly
dried. This is very important, as a great deal of seed is spoiled
by being put av.ay too damp. The drying may be done in a
warm room, but not very near a fire. Some growers prefer, what
is certainl}' a safer (and they claim almost as effective) way, to
winnow their onion seed in the wind. This will take out most
of the defective seeds, and there will be no danger from an
excess of moisture.

There are several varieties of the onion which are grown from
the black seed. The Early Red Globe is a very good and pro-
ductive early onion, and the Early Cracker is a fine, light col-
ored, but not a remarkably prolific sort. Of the late kinds the
Earge Red Wethersfield is very large and productive. It is a
flat variety, requires a long season, looks nicely, and is a favorite
in the New York market. The Early Round Danvers Yellow
is an early globular bulb, ripens in a short season, is very hand-
some, and extremely prolific. It is the favorite in Boston, and
dealers say that in point of quality, appearance and yield, it
easily stands at the head of all the kinds grown at the North.
There are several other sorts, some of them great favorites in
certain localities, which are not well adapted to general cultiva-

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 323

tion. A few European varieties are grown by market garden-
ers, but they are not to be recommended for cultivation on the
farm.

The Peanut. — This is a Southern plant, and needs a warm
climate in which to grow to the best advantage. But by means
of skilful culture it can be grown much farther North than was
once supposed, and it will succeed well in the Southwestern
States. Though formerly grown largely at the South for feed-
ing to hogs, and even now (as mentioned under the head of
Peas) used to some extent for this purpose,, the- peanut has
become an article of great market value. Almost wholly un-
known at the North twenty years ago, it is now for sale in
nearly every village, and town, and city, in the land. Where-
the climate is favorable, the cultivation of this crop is not diffi-
cult. A soil that is rich and reasonably dry should be chosen,,
and \{ the crop is designed for the market, a light-colored soil
will prove the best. This because a dark soil colors the pods,,
and, though they are just as good for all practical purposes, the
dark pods will not sell as readily as the light-colored ones.
Lime seems to be a specific manure for this plant, though it
should not be used alone, but in connection with a good quality
of compost. The plowing should be done early in the spring
and should be only four or five inches deep. The surface- must
be made very mellow by means of a harrow or cultivator. Then
rows may be marked out, three feet apart, by plowing a light
furrow. Into this trench the manure should be thrown and a fur-
Tow turned over it upon each side. This will cover the manure
and make a ridge upon which the peas should be planted, two
in a hill, in hills three feet apart. The planting should not be
done until the ground is quite warm. The soil should be
kept mellow and free from weeds, but after the vines begin to
spread they must not be disturbed. The earth may be carefully
drawn up to the hills, but care must be taken not to cover the

vines at any time. If there are vacant places in the rows. thev.
21 ''

324 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

may be filled by transplanting from a row in which an extra
quantity of seed was planted, in order to supply such a demand
When the vines have been killed by frost, the harvesting may
be done. The earth can be loosened with a fork, and the vines,
with most of the pods adhering to them, be pulled by hand, or
the earth may be loosened by driving between the rows with a
plow having a sharp knife coulter which should be run near the
hills. When they are pulled, the vines must be spread upon the
ground. They should remain there for several days. When
fairly cured, they may be carted to the barn and spread upon
any convenient loft, or the nuts may be picked off at once.
When the ground has been cleared, the hogs should be turned
on and allowed to gather the nuts which remain in the soil.
Some growers prefer flat culture, but we consider the ridges a
very great improvement upon this method.

This crop cannot be recommended for market much farther
North than Virginia, but for home use it can be grown in
almost any State in the Union. It has been grown in Massa-
chusetts with considerable success. When grown at the North,
ridge culture should always be employed and very warm loca-
tions selected. The plants may be started in a cold frame, or in
boxes in the house, and put out when all danger from frost is
past and the ground has become quite warm.

PoT.vroES. — Although it was with great difficulty that the
civilized races were persuaded that the potato was good for food,
and the time when large farmers raised only a bushel or two per
year has not yet passed from the memory of aged people, it has
gradually won its way into the popular favor and become one
of the leading crops in this country and also in foreign lands.
Until the appearance of the "potato rot," this was a very pro-
ductive crop and was grown at very small expense. Since that
time the yield has greatly decreased and the cost of production
has rapidly advanced. But it is a crop for which there is always
a demand in market, and which is needed in every family. Con-

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 325

sequently it finds a place on almost every farm. In that part of
the country where it succeeds, the Irish potato is generally
grown. Farther South the Sweet potato is extensively culti-
vated. The method of growing this crop is very simple, and the
amount of labor required is not excessive. As these different
kinds need different treatment, we will consider them separately.
The Irish potato will grow in a great variety of soils, but
thrives best in warm and fairly dry land. If land which is
naturally wet is to be planted with potatoes, it should be thor-
oughly drained. Quite a quantity of potatoes may be grown in
a wet field, if other things are favorable, but their quality will
be poor and they will present an inferior appearance. The land
for this crop should be plowed in the spring. Well-rotted yard-
manure, or compost, may be spread on in liberal quantities and
plowed in, or the manure may be scattered directly under the
seed. If a machine is used for planting, it will be best fo spread
the manure. When the planting is done by hand, we prefer to
put at least a part of the manure in the hills. By spreading
about twenty loads of good yard-manure and using about eight
hundred pounds of a good chemical fertilizer in the hills, the
very best results, both as regards quantity and quality, may be
secured. We consider this altogether the best way in which to
grow this crop, and, while it involves some expense, think it pays
better than any other plan with which we are acquainted. It is
a well-known fact that, on new land, potatoes yield largely
and are very free from disease. Some growers have thought
that this was owing to the fact that the new soil contains large
quantities of potash — an element which the potato requires, and
which is very likely to be deficient in land which has long been
under cultivation. The chemical fertilizers which are made for
this crop contain quite a proportion of potash, and they almost
invariably prove highly beneficial. Wood ashes, too, contain
potash, and have proved a valuable manure for the potato.
If home resources are entirely relied upon, let the land be well

32G PAR MING FOR PROFIT.

coated with yard-manure and a large handful of ashes be put in
each hill. On many soils a mixture of plaster and ashes, in
about equal quantities, proves very useful. But we much prefer
to use a special "potato fertilizer" in addition to the yard-
manure. We consider old land better than sod, but this crop
can be'grown on the latter, if desired.

Deep plowing is not necessary, but it is very important that
the soil to a depth of four or five inches should be very fine and
mellow. A wheel-harrow is a good implement for fitting sod
for this crop. Trues Potato-Planter, manufactured by Nash &

FIG. 33. — TRUE'S potato-planter.

Bro., of New York city, is shown in Figure 33. This imple-
ment marks the rows, cuts, drops, and covers the seed at one
operation. If the planting is to be done by hand, the rows
should be marked with a plow which will make a small furrow,
two or three inches deep. If the planting is to be in drills, no
further marking is needed, but if hill culture is required, rows
should be marked across the field, so that the planting can be
done in squares. For the smaller kinds of potatoes the rows
and hills need not be more than two and a half feet apart, but
fb;" the larger sorts three, or three and a half, feet will be better.

FARM AN-D FODDER CROPS. 327

If planted in drills, the rows may be the same distance apart as
when grown in hills, but the pieces of seed potatoes may be
placed only ten or twelve inches apart. We have tried bo'Ji
methods and find that with equal chances the yield varies but
little. On the whole we prefer growing the crop in hills. After
the marking is done the fertilizer is distributed and covered.
This covering may be done with a plow, and if strong manures
are used, should not be neglected. Contact with concentrated,
fertilizers will injure if not wholly destroy the seed.

For planting, the very best potatoes should be used. Those
of medium size, which are perfect in form and condition, should
be selected and cut in pieces of from two to four eyes. One or
two pieces should be placed, the cut side down, in each hill.
We can remember when it was the custom to put one large, or
two small, potatoes in each hill for seed, but we are glad to say
that a more reasonable method is now in voeue. But we think
there has been a tendency to go to the other extreme and not
use seed enough. Cutting to single eyes and using but one or
two pieces to a hill, seems too light seeding for a field crop.
Too much seed is ruinous, as it will give an immense number
of very small and almost worthless tubers, while too light seed-
ing cannot possibly produce a full crop. After the seed has
been dropped, it can be covered with a light plow or with-
hand-hoes.

As a general rule it is best to plant early in the season. When
we first began to work on a farm, it was the usual practice to
plant the potatoes after the corn had all been put in. Now it is
the general custom to plant the potatoes first. It requires con-
siderable time for the potato to get through the ground, and it
seems to come along almost as rapidly if planted in May as it
does in June. As soon as the ground is warm, and danger
from frost has passed, the seed for the main crop may be safely
planted. For an early crop the seed must be got in as soon as
it will possibly do, and if there is danger of frost, the young

328 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

plants may be lightly covered with earth. This can be done
with a one-horse plow, and will not be injurious.

As soon as the crop is well up a cultivator should be run
between the rows, and also between the hills if the planting was
done in squares, and the potatoes hoed by hand if necessar>'.
It is a good plan to throw a handful of ashes and plaster, with
which a little salt has been mixed, upon each hill. In ten days
or a fortnight run a plow between the rows near the hills,
turning the earth away from them. The furrows thus made
should be four or five inches in depth, so as to leave the hills

FIG. 34. — DOUBLE-MOULD BOARD-PLOW.

mere "squares of earth" upon which the sun can shine, and
which the air can readily penetrate. When the vines are six or
seven inches high another plowing should be given. This time
a double-mould board-plow should be used, and the dirt thrown
towards the hills. Figure 34 represents one of these plows
made by the New York Plow Co., 55 Beekman street. New York
city. Cultivation should never be given after the blossoms
appear, as it will cause the setting of a new lot of tubers and thus
prove very injurious.

Another method requires the use of guano alone as a fertilizer.
After the land is plowed, one-half of the quantity which is to be

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. • 320

applied is sowed broadcast and harrowed in. Drills are then
made with a large plow, and in the bottom and on the sides of
the furrows thus formed one-half of the remainder of the guano
is sowed. The pieces of seed-potatoes are dropped and covered
two inches deep, but the drills are left open except where the
seed is placed. When the shoots begin to crack the tops of the
hills, the remainder of the guano is sowed along the drill and
all covered over evenly with the ground. This plan was
devised by Mr. William Hunt, of Connecticut, who has
followed it with great success.

A few years ago the directions which have been given would
have been sufficient for the cultivation of this crop, and its care
until the time for harvesting. But the Colorado Beetle,
or, as more commonly designated, the potato-bug, has made his
appearance in nearly all the places in this country in which
potatoes are produced, and made it necessary for the farmer to
take vigorous methods for protecting the growing crop. This
pest often attacks the plants when they are quite small. The
female potato-bug lays some seven hundred eggs. These are
usually deposited upon the under side of potato leaves. In a
few days these eggs hatch into larvs, which feed upon the plant
and prove terribly destructive. If no preventive measures
are taken, these pests will in a short time eat all of the
leaves, and thus utterly destroy the crop. There are three
broods each year, and as the eggs are laid at intervals the bugs
can be found in all stages of development at almost any time
during the warm weather.

Various methods have been devised for destroying this enemy
of the farmer. Some potato-growers pick off and burn the
leaves upon which the eggs are deposited, and gather and
destroy, either by crushing, burning, or scalding, the larvae and
the full-grown bugs. This requires a great deal of time and
needs frequent repetition. Consequently it proves too expensive.
Another plan is for a man to take an old pail, or pan, hold it

330 • FARMING FOR PROFIT.

one side of a hill and strike the vines on the other side with a
short stick or an old broom. In this way most of the bugs
are sh;ikon into the vessel, and they may be easily destroyed in
either of the ways noted above. A machine for gathering the
bugs and which can be used with horse-power has also been
invented, and when the vines have attained a sufficient size
proves quite effective. But it is necessary to do something in
the line of protection while the plants are very small, and this
method is not applicable at that time. The only plan which has
yet been devised which is at once cheap and fully reliable is to
apply some poisonous substance to the vines. There are some
noa-poisonous mixtures sold for this purpose. Our own ex-
perience, and also our reading, inclines us to believe that these
cannot be fully trusted. We were very reluctant to apply
poison, and followed hand-picking for a long time. We also
applied various substances, which were supposed to be safe for
men, and which proved to be just as safe for the bugs, in hope
that we could grow potatoes without resort to this dangerous
expedient. But the force of circumstances was altogether too
strong and we finally commenced using the poison. It is to be
hoped, and expected, that some non-poisonous compound will
be. made which will be efficient. Just as soon as such an article
is introduced it should be used in preference to poison. At
the present writing, so far as we have been able to learn, Paris
green is the best thing for the purpose which has yet been
discovered. Although it is a deadly poison it can be used with
safety to the farmer, and with a certainty of destroying the bugs
without injuring the plants. It has been in use many years at
the West, and is recommended b\' the leading growers of the
potato crop, and by the highest scientific authorities.

There are several grades of this poison. The pure article is
more expensive by the pound, but it is a great deal more effi-
cient than the cheaper kinds. It may be applied in the form of
a powder, or may be mixed with water. When used diy, it

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 331

should be carefully and thoroughly mixed with thirty times its
weight of flour. Great care must be exercised in this mixing,
as the poison is a very dusty material, and it is extremely
dangerous to breathe the dust which will be almost sure to arise
when the mixing is performed. If a low grade of Paris green
is used, a less quantity of flour must be ' added to it. From
fifteen to twenty times the weight of the low qualities of the
poison will be sufficient. This material is to be sprinkled upon
the vines when they are wet with dew or rain. The flour will
cause the poison to adhere to the leaves, and in the course of
their depredations the insects will take it into their systems and
be destroyed. Quite a number of " dusters " with which this
poison can be safely applied are now in the market. Some
farmers fasten a tin box, in the bottom of which they have made
several smalT holes, to the end of a long stick, and use it for
dusting the vines. It is not well to apply the poison in this
way when the wind blows, as the operator will then be liable
to inhale the dust.

Another and we think a safer way is to dilute the poison with
water. A tablespoonful of the poison to a gallon and a half of
water will be sufficient when the green is pure. When the
plants are small, only a little of this mixture should be applied,
and an excessive quantity should never be used. This form of
the poison can be applied by means of a common watering-pot
with a sprinkler attachment. The poison will tend to settle at
the bottom. Consequently the mixture must be frequently
stirred. Several sprinklers have been invented which are much
easier to manage, and which use the material more economically.
The poison will remain on the vines for some time, unless washed
off by rains. Only a few applications will be needed during the
season. When the plants are small, it is a good plan to gather
the bugs by hand. As soon as the eggs begin to hatch in large
numbers, poison may be applied. The war with this enemy
should be kept up until the close of the season. Some growers

332 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

have kept off the bugs until the tubers were nearly grown, and
then let them take their course. But the destruction of the
leaves at this stage is a serious injury, and will certainly prevent
the ripening of the crop.

Paris green should always be handled with the greatest care.
No dish in which it is placed should ever be used for any other
purpose ; no package of the poison should be left within reach of
children or domestic animals, and care should be taken not to
scatter any of the mixture for use on the potatoes, on grass or
vegetables. As soon as the crop is dug in the fall, the land
should be plowed, and the potato vines turned into the bottoms
of the furrows.

FIG. 35. — POTATO- DIGGER.

Harvesting the potato crop by hand is quite hard and slow
work. The tubers may be dug with a hoe, a potato-hook, or a
six-tined fork. The work can be done much faster with the fork
than with the other implements. Some farmers run a plow
close to the hills. This turns out many of the tubers, but as
it covers some and injures others, the method is not very gener-
ally followed. A good machine for digging potatoes is almost
a necessity where this crop is largely grown. In Figure 35 we
present an illustration of an excellent implement for this pur-
pose. It is made by A. Speer & Sons, Pittsburgh, Pa.

Potatoes should be dug soon after they are ripe. If allowed
to remain a long time in the ground after they are matured, the

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 333

quality will be injured, and many of the tubers will decay. Be-
sides, as the days become short and cold, the difficulty of har-
vesting the crop will be increased.

It is very desirable that the ground should be dry when the
digging is performed. The potatoes should be picked up and
put in heaps in which they can go through the sweat. The
practice, which is common in some sections, of leaving the
tubers exposed for a few hours to the light, and to the burning
rays of the sun, is very injurious to the quality of the potatoes.
The heaps in which they are placed to sweat should be kept
constantly covered with straw. When the sweat is over, the
potatoes may be carried to the cellar and piled on the ground,
if it is perfectly dry, or in bins if the ground is wet. They
should be covered with earth or a light cloth. During all the
operations of harvesting, great care should be taken not to
bruise or injure the tubers.

If large quantities are to be kept over, they may be buried in
the ground. For this purpose a dry side hill should be chosen,
and several pits holding from ten to twenty bushels each should
be excavated. Or a long, shallow trench may be dug. This
should be cut up and down the hill so that there, shall be no
trouble about drainage. As it is not well to have too many
potatoes together, it is best to put in fifteen or twenty bushels
at the lower end, filling the trench as full as is desirable, then
. at the end of the pile thus formed put in a few bundles of straw
and a little dirt, then more potatoes with straw and dirt as
before. The trench will thus be filled in sections. This will
insure the better keeping of the tubers, and also make it safe to
open the trench in winter if only a few bushels are wanted. A
{zyf furrows may be plowed at each side of the trench. They
will carry off the surplus water, and furnish the dirt used to
cover the potatoes. There is some risk in covering potatoes in
the soil, for if covered too closely they will decay, while if not
covered enough they will be spoiled by freezing Mr. Compton,

334 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

of Pennsylvania, one of the most successful growers of this
crop, recommends covering the potatoes in the pits with clean
straw to the depth of six inches, and upon this tlirowing five or
six inches of earth, except over a small space which should
furnish an opening at the top which will be needed in order to
give sufficient ventilation. Upon this opening a flat stone or a
board, elevated at one side, should bo laid in order to take off
the rain which falls upon it. When the weather becomes cold
a wisp of straw should be placed in this opening, and the pit
covered with more earth or with coarse manure.

On a large farm it would pay to have a pit constructed, near
the house, which should be walled like a cellar, covered at the
top with planks and earth, with a large door at one side. In
this room vegetables and fruit could be stored. They would
keep much better here than in pits in the field, while the danger
of storing large quantities of these articles under the house
would be wholly avoided.

The varieties of the potato are almost numberless, and those
which arc in popular favor are constantly changing. The kinds
which stood at the head of the list twenty years ago have been
almost entirely superseded. Those which are now popular will
probably soon go by and new ones will take their places. We
are confident that, with proper care in the selection of seed, varie-
ties can be kept up to their original standard of excellence for
an indefinite time. Still, as many of the new sorts are said to
be great improvements upon the old, there is not the motive
for retaining the old kinds which there otherwise would be.
The late Ri:v. C. E. Goodrich, of Utica, N. Y., spent fifteen
years in developing and perfecting new varieties of the potato,
and to him the people of this country owe an immense debt of
gratitude. Other cultivators have taken up the work and accom-
plished a great deal. To them, also, great praise is due. From
the Garnet Chili, one of Mr. Goodrich's seedlings, Mr. Albert
Bresee, of Vermont, grew the Early Rose, which for many

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. ' 335

years has stood at the very highest place among the varieties
of the potato. Although it seems to be now rather going by, it
has been one of the most popular potatoes ever grown, and it
well deserved its popularity. Mr. Pringle, whose new varieties
of wheat are very popular at the North, has also originated many
new, and some valuable, varieties of the potato. The Alpha,
which is probably the earliest potato in the world, is one of his
seedlings. A large number of other growers have introduced
valuable varieties and done much for the benefit of all who grow
this crop.

Sweet Potatoes.— Until quite recently the cultivation of this
crop has been confined to the Southern and Middle States,
but within a few years it has been grown at the North with a
very fair degree of success. This crop has proved quite reliable in
Massachusetts. Northern growers are obliged to take better
care of it than Southern growers, but they can secure a fair
crop every year. The following method of growing can be fol-
lowed with success in almost any part of the country. At the
South the precautions against frost will not be required. Other-
wise, the cultivation may be the same.

Unlike the Irish potato, the sweet potato is grown from
sprouts, or plants. These may be bought of dealers or be
grown at home. In order to grow them a hot-bed, or a cold-
frame, will be required. Consequently, if but {^.^sf plants are
wanted it is better for the farmer to buy them than to attempt
to grow them. If they are to be grown in a cold-frame the soil
should be covered to a depth of two inches with sand, the seed
potatoes cut lengthwise and placed, cut side down, quite near
each other on the sand. These pieces should be covered with
from two to four inches of sand which should be kept moist and
well aired. When the plants are four or five inches high they
may be separated from the potatoes. .This must be done with
the thumb and forefinger, carefully, so as not to move the pota-
toes. When these sprouts are removed the same pieces will

336 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

send up another lot of plants. The bed should be started from
the first to the last of April, according to the locality. In
favorable seasons plants can be grown in a frame which is left
open days and covered with boards at night, but it is much safer
and better to have sashes with which to cover the bed. It is a
good plan for those who want to grow plants to save some of
the ripest and finest specimens for seed. They should be dug
in a fine day, dried a few hours in the sun, then spread in a
warm loft for several days, after which they should be very care-
fully packed in boxes or barrels, with dry sand, and. put in a
warm, dry place for the winter. Only perfect specimens should
be saved for seed, as the slightest bruise or defect will cause
them to decay. It is utterly useless to attempt to save seed
potatoes by merely putting them in a bin in the cellar. Even
with all the care which we have indicated, potatoes grown at
the North cannot always be kept sound until spring.

Sweet potatoes can be grown upon quite a variety of soils, but
one which is dr}% warm, and sandy yj'xW give much the finest
qualitj'. The land should be plowed to a depth of six or seven
inches about the first of May, harrowed thoroughly, and marked
out with a large plow in rows four feet apart. In the furrows
thus made, a liberal quantity of well-rotted stable-manure should
be scattered. This is to be covered by plowing a furrow each
side toward the row and turning the dirt upon the manure.
Then with a hand-hoe the ridges thus made should be smoothed
and their tops spatted down. These ridges should be at least
a foot high.

It is not well to set the plants at the North until the last
week in May or the first week in June, but the ridges should be
made two or three weeks earlier in order that they may have
time to settle before the plants are put out. When the ground
is quite warm, and there is no danger of frosts, the plants may
be set, upon the tops of the ridges, from fifteen to eighteen
inches apart. If good plants are obtained and are carefully set

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 337

almost every one will grow. During the summer the land
must be kept free from weeds, but the ridges must not be hoed
down. If any weeds appear near the plants they should be
pulled. Cutting with a hoe will be likely to destroy the earliest
and finest tubers. These start very near the surface and are
easily injured. Between the rows a common cultivator may be
used to keep the land open and destroy weeds. When the vines
attain a length of two or three feet they will root down at many
of the joints. At the North these must be pulled up or the
crop will be ruined. Wherever these roots start a large number
of potatoes will set. They will not come to any size themselves
and will take nearly all the productive power from the hills.
The vines may be loosened with the hands or with a wide fork.
This work should be done several times during the growing
season.

When the potatoes are sufficiently matured, or after the
leaves have been killed by frosts, the crop should be harvested.
If allowed to remain in the ground during cold, wet weather,
the quality of the tubers will be seriously impaired. If possible,
a dry time should be chosen in which to harvest them. The
vines may be cut with a sharp corn-knife near the hills, and
thrown to one side of the piece. A plow may then be run each
side of the ridge, but not near enough to interfere with the
tubers. This v/ill lighten the labor of digging, but it is not
absolutely necessary that it should be done. The best im-
plement which we have found for throwing out the potatoes is a
six-tined fork. They can be dug with a hoe or a pointed
shovel. Care should be taken not to bruise or cut the tubers,
as the slightest injury will cause speedy decay.

After lying in the sun a short time, the potatoes should be
spread in a warm room to dry. After remaining here a week or
two, they may be packed in sand as directed for seed-potatoes.
The tubers are very easily chilled, and when chilled are utterly
spoiled. It is rather difficult to keep those grown at the North

338 FARM/.VG I'OK PROFIT.

later than the first of December, but there is no reason why for
three months previous to that time almost every farmer should
not have an abundance for family use. We have set plants in
Massachusetts the first day of June, and had our first potatoes
the seventh day of September. If we had grown an early
variety, we could have h&d them at least ten days sooner.

There arc but few varieties of the sweet potato. Of these
the Nanscmond is the most extensively grown. The Early
Peabody is a better kind for Northern growers. It is large,
productive, and of good quality. We once obtained a good
crop from plants set the twenty-fifth of June.

The great essentials to success in growing this crop at the
North are liberal manuring, ridge culture, and frequent loosen-
ing of the vines.

Sugar. — As the cane, the roots and the trees, from which
sugar is obtained, all are, or may profitably be, planted, it is
proper that this important product should receive attention in
this connection. While sugar may be made from a large num-
ber of very different substances, the principal sources of supply
are the sugar-cane, the sorgo-plant, the beet-root, and the
maple tree. These we will consider in the order in which they
are named.

The genuine tropical plant known as the Ribbon-Cane {^Sac-
chariun officiiianivi) is the best of all the sources from which
sugar is secured. It is a perennial, but is easily killed by frost
and does not thrive in cool climates. The Northern limit of
profitable production is said to be the thirty-second degree of
latitude. Even here the plant dies down each year if not cut
before frost. It does not flower as far North as Louisiana,
and the seed does not ripen well in the West Indies. Propa-
gation is carried on by cuttings, and by importations of seed
from Otaheite. The cuttings are taken from the main stalks,
planted in trenches cither in the spring or fall, and send up
shoots which in from eight to fourteen months are large enough'

FARM AND FODDER CROPS.

)O0

to be cut for the sugar which they contain. There are several
varieties of the ribbon-cane. All of them " rattoon," or send up
a growth from the roots when the stalks are cut. In Louisiana
the plantations need renewing every two or three years, but in
the West Indies they last from five to ten years. It is very
important that the propagation should be from first-class
qualities of cane. Neglect of this very simple and reasonable

FIG. 36. — VICTOR CANE MILL.

requirement has entailed an immense loss upon the sugai^-
planters both in this country and the West Indies. Much of
the cane has also been deteriorated by want of proper cultiva.
tion and sufficient manure. The growers have not been in a
condition to reach tlie best results with this crop. But there
are indications that a better system will soon be adopted.

The land should be well drained, and deeply plowed. Cut-

(340)

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 341

tings from the sweetest and best cane should be secured and set
in rows from six to eight feet apart. For this plant chemical
manures are the best. They should be liberally applied to the
surface of the land, and worked in with a harrow or cultivator.
If yard-manure is used, it can be spread in large quantities and
plowed in. The stalks should stand quite near each other in
the row, and should receive frequent cultivation in order to pro-
mote their growth and keep down the weeds. The last hoeing
of the season should be given early in June. At this time, the
cane may be hilled up about four inches and then left until it is
ripe. When the cane is ripe, which will be clearly indicatej^y
its appearance, the tops musi be cut as far down as the leaves
are diy, the leaves pulled off, and the stalks cut close to the
ground and carted to the mill. If it cannot be ground at once,
the cane may be cut close to the ground, three rows placed in a
single line, or windrow, the tops of one hill being thrown over
the butts of the preceding one, and thus piled up to a height
of three or four feet. When this plan is pursued, the tops
should not be cut until the stalks can be ground. In this way
the cane may be kept three or four weeks, and will not be
injured by an ordinary frost.

In order to express all of the juice very powerful machinery
is required. A lack of suitable mills has been one of the great
■ drawbacks to profitable sugar production. Careful men estimate
that forty per cent, of the sugar which was contained in the cane
which has been grown during the past few years has been
wasted for want of strong mills for crushing the stalks. Some
very perfect mills are now in the market. They are, necessarily,
quite expensive, but will in a short time enable the owner to
obtain enough more sugar to pay the difference between their
price and that of poor ones.

Figure 36 represents the Victor Cane Mill, made by the
Blymyer Manufacturing Co., of Cincinnati, Ohio. This is
designed to be driven by animal power, and is an efficient mill

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 343

for grinding either the Sorgo or the Ribbon cane. Figure 37
shows a first-class Evaporator made by the same company.
Figure 38 repiesents their powerful Double-Geared Plantation
Cane Mill.

We strongly favor the purchase of a set of first-class machinery
by a company of small planters. This neighborhood system
has been recommended by able writers at the South, and we
are confident that it will give good results. It would easily
enable the farmer to grow the cane in connection with other
crops — a much better method than the production of this alone.
During quite a proportion of the year labor to any great extent
is not required in the sugar grounds. The hands might then be
at work on the cotton crop. If four-fifths of the cultivated
area is devoted to the cotton crop and the remaining fifth to the
sugar cane, the work can be done to good advantage, and the
profits of the business will almost certainly be larger than will
be the case if only one of the crops is grown.

The fact that the people of this country are now paying one
hundred and seventy-five millions of dollars per year for
imported sugar and molasses, which might just as well be
produced at home — even in the one State of Louisiana — ought
to induce farmers who are now engaged in producing these
articles to give a greater degree of attention to this department
of their labor. Many other farmers who are suitably located
might also find it for their interest to grow the sugar cane, and
thus do something toward supplying the home market with
articles produced on our own soil. There is always a ready
market for sugar, and the intelligent producer may be very sure
of obtaining fairly remunerative prices.

The Sorgo (also called the Chinese sugar cane, and the
Northern cane) can be grown in nearly all parts of the country.
From small beginnings it has already become a very popular
crop, and is destined to take a high rank among our national
productions. In addition to the sorgo there are several varieties

344 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

of the African cane. These are properly called Imphees, but
are often confounded with the sorgo. Although resembling the
genuine sorgo they are not as hardy, and therefore not as
well adapted to cultivation at the North. In growing sorgo it
is highly important that good seed should be secured. This
necessity is emphasized by the fact that the seed of this plant
readily mixes with broom corn, millet, and similar plants.
Every stain of mixture deteriorates the cane for the production
of sugar. It has been found that seed grown in a cold climate
will not produce as valuable cane as that which is produced
farther South.

This crop can be produced on any good wheat or corn land.
The best results are obtained upon sandy uplands which were
well fertilized in the fall with yard-manure, or upon which
chemical fertilizers, lime, or wood-ashes, are used in the spring.
Deep plowing will be beneficial, and if the land is wet, ridge
culture should be adopted. As' soon as the soil is warm in
the spring, the seed should be planted in rows four feet apart,
with the hills from three to four feet apart in the row. The seed
should be soaked in warm water for a day or two before it is
planted. Twenty or thirty seeds should be put in each hill and
they should be only slightly covered. When the stalks are a few
inches high they may be thinned. From seven to ten should
be left in each hill. The young plants are very weak and
should receive careful attention. No weeds should be allowed
to grow.

The cultivation is about the same as that recommended for
corn, except that it should all be given early in the season.
After the phnts are three feet high, the cultivator should not be
used at all or should be run very lightly between the rows.

At the South two cuttings can be obtained from the plants
each year, but at the North it requires some skill to get a
single crop well ripened. With some of the early varieties
there is no great difficulty in an ordinary season. Kenney's

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 345

Early Amber cane has proved highly satisfactory in Min-
nesota, where it yields a large quantity of syrup and ripens
its seed. It has also given good results in Massachu-
setts.

When the seed of the sorgo is in the dough state, and that of
the imphees is in the milk, the time for cutting has arrived. It
is the best way to grind the cane as soon as it is cut,_ but if this
is impracticable, the tops may be cut off, removing one or two
joints, and the canes then cut and stacked like corn, or stored
in a well-ventilated shed or barn. The leaves had better remain
upon the stalks until the grinding can be performed, though
some growers remove them before the stalks are cut. If cut
before frost, and cured with the leaves on, cane can be kept
several weeks without injury. The tops should be dried, and
the seed shelled and fed to stock. When well ripened the
seed is considered worth more per bushel than oats. Sheep
will eat it on the head, but for other animals it should be shelled
and ground. On good land from twenty to twenty-five bushels
of seed per acre can be secured.

By far the largest part of the sorgo grown in this country is
converted into syrup, though sugar is also made to some extent,
A good quality of both these articles can be secured from this
plant. For their manufacture, good mills and evaporators are
required. We think that where farmers grow this crop for
their own use, several should club together, obtain all the
necessary machinerj', and use it in common. Or they might
induce some one who had power and conveniences to buy a mill,
and manufacture the syrup and sugar for a specified price.

We are strongly in favor of the cultivation of the sorgo. We
are confident that it places within the reach of farmers in the
Northern and Middle sections of the country the means for
producing on their own farms a large proportion of the sugar
and molasses which they need. We do not advise growing the
sorgo on a large scale, as a commercial enterprise, but simply

346 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

in sufficient quantities for home use, and in order to prevent the
necessity of paying out money at the store. This plan would
not interfere with the one suggested in regard to the increase of
the area devoted to the cultivation of the SoutheKxX cane.
There is ample room for both these plants. The population of
the country is increasing, and with it the demand for sugar will
inevitably be augmented. Besides, if we should produce more
than is needed at home, we could readily find a foreign market
for all the surplus.

The Beet-Root. — In Europe large quantities of sugar are
annually produced from the beet-root, and an effort is now
being made to induce farmers in this country to grow beets for
the same purpose. Many experiments have been made which,
as far as producing good sugar is concerned, have been fully
successful, but in too many instances the cost of production has
exceeded the value of the product. But recent improvements
in the machinery and methods employed have greatly reduced
the expense, and it is now thought that sugar can be produced
from this source with profit to the grower and the manufacturer.
The sugar-beet will thrive in all the Northern States. It will
also grow well enough at the South, but in warm climates it
becomes deficiertt in saccharine matter. For the South, the
ribbon-cane seems to be pre-eminently the sugar-producing
plant. Farther North the sorgo flourishes, while at the
extreme North the beet-root and the maple tree seem to be the
best adapted for this purpose.

There are many varieties of the beet from which sugar can
be made, but those which have smooth, long, and tapering roots,
which do not grow above the surface, which are smooth, white,
and hard, and which do not grow extremely large, are decidedly
the best. The White Silesian seems to answer these purposes as
well as any, in some respects is superior to others, and is quite
generally preferred by manufacturers. But as the owner of the
mill at which the sugar is made will probably either furnish

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 347

se3d, or recommend his favorite kind, the farmer need have but
Httle difficulty in determining what variety to produce.

Land which is free from stones, which does not contain
mineral salts in large proportion, and which is neither wet nor
clayey, should be chosen for this crop. Light, sandy, but rich
soils are the best. A loose sub-soil is desirable, and a dark
surface, if not colored by metallic elements, is to be preferred.
Beets should not be grown upon sod, but on land which has had
clean cultivation. In the fall a heavy covering of manure
should be given and the land plowed to a depth of six or seven
inches. A iQ.\^ weeks later another plowing, with a large plow
and a heavy team, should be given. This time the depth should
be from twelve to fifteen inches. This deep plowing is neces-
sary in order that the beet may develop wholly beneath the soil.
If the plowing is shallow, part of thd root will grow above the
surface. This is worse than useless for making sugar, as it con-
tains no sugar in itself, but furnishes acids which will lessen the
quantity which can be extracted from the remainder of the root.
The part which grows above the ground is always cut off and
fed to stock or else thrown away. After plov/ing, the land is
harrowed and left until spring. As soon as the soil is dry and
warm it must be plowed again. This time the depth should be
about eight inches. If the furrows can go across those turned
in the fall it will be better than to turn them the same way. If
the land is wet it should be drained, thrown up in ridges, or else
devoted to some other crop. After plowing, the surface soil
must be made v&xy fine with a harrow. Then the land must be
rolled, or, what some consider preferable, the harrow must be
turned over and used with the teeth the upper side.

When the land is in a suitable state, which at the North is
usually in the last part of April, the seed should be sown. The
seeds should be rubbed over a screen so as to separate those
which stick together and reduce them to a uniform size. They
should then be steeped five or six hours in a mixture of sul-

548 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

phate of potash (nine ounces) and sulphate of lime (nine ounces)
dissolved in four or five quarts of warm water, to which five or
six gallons of cold water should be added after the materials
are dissolved. Enough of this mixture should be used to cover
the seeds. After they have been steeped the water should be
turned off and the seeds dried by mixing them thoroughly with
plaster or slaked lime and then spreading in a warm room.
When dry enough so that they will not stick together the seeds
may be sown. There arc several hand-machines, and some
drills which are drawn by horses, which will sow beet seeds
well. The rows should be from fourteen to twenty inches apart,
the seeds covered about two inches deep, and ten or twelve
pounds of seed per acre should be used. The land should be
rolled as soon as the sowing is finished.

As soon as the plants "are up, if any weeds appear, as they
probably will, cultivation should be commenced. For a small
field, a wheel-hoe will be an excellent implement for this pur-
pose. For large operations, a machine drawn by a horse will
be required. If the ground close to the roots is hard it should
be loosened with a light hoe, and the beets must be thinned
to twelve or fourteen inches apart in the rows. If there are
vacant places, transplanting can be successfully performed.
The thinning may be done either at the first or second hoeing.
If there are weeds in the rows, they must be carefully removed.
Weeding must be done whenever needed — generally from
three to six times — during the season, and by frequent hoe-
ings, either by machines or by hand, the earth must be kept
loose around the roots. If any roots begin to grow above the
surface ihey may be hilled up in July. When the leaves are
large enough to shade the soil no further cultivation will be
required, except the pulling of any stray weeds which may
appear, and the cutting of the flower-stalks of the few plants
which may seem inclined to produce seed. If any plants throw
up seed-stalks when small they may as well be pulled, but

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 349

when the roots are large they may be saved by removing the
stalk.

The harvesting should be done before hard frosts, and, if pos-
sible, during fair weather. When ripe, the leaves wither and
fall off! If the land is dry and the weather good the quality
of the roots is improved by leaving them in the ground for
a while, but if wet weather comes on it proves highly injurious.
The roots may be dug with a pointed shovel, a strong fork, or
may be turned out with a plow. If thi dirt adheres, the beets
must be struck together in order to get it off The roots should
be thrown into windrows and the tops cut off with a sharp spade
or a knife. If the root grew beneath the surface the leaves
should be cut close to the crown, but if any part of it grew
above the ground that portion must be cut off with the leaves.
When this is done the roots may be drawn in wagons, or carts,
directly to the factory. They should be handled carefully, as
wounds and bruises induce fermentation which lessens the
quantity of sugar which can be obtained and also causes the
roots to decay.

Beets may be preserved in pits, similar to those describv,d u r
storing potatoes, or in piles on the surface of the ground. Or
they may be frozen if they are kept steadily in this condition
until wanted. When kept in piles a dry spot should be chosen,
a shallow ditch dug around it for drainage, the beets piled to a
height of five or six feet and covered with earth. The beets
which form the walls of the pile should be carefully laid with
the crowns outside, but the interior may be filled by throwing
in the roots. If piled at all, the work should be done as soon
as the beets are dug. When the crop can be disposed of at
once it will usually be better for the farmer to draw his beets
directly to the factory than it will to attempt to preserve them.

The Sugar Maple has become an important source from
which sugar is obtained. It is a beautiful tree and deseives to
be more extensively planted both for its sugar, its beauty, and its

350 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

shade. It is a hardy tree and can be easily grown in nearly all parts
of the count^)^ At the South, however, it will not yield as much
sugar as at the North on account of the absence of a sufficient
degree of frost. The sugar is made from the sap of the tree in
the latter part of the winter and early in the spring. When the
weather becomes warm enough for the sap to run, the trees are
" tapped," usually with a bit or small auger, and wooden spouts
are inserted in the holes thus made. These spouts conduct the
sap into buckets which are placed upon the ground or hung
upon the trees. Once or twice a day the sap is gathered in
barrels and drawn upon a sled to the sugar-house, a little build-
ing fitted up for the purpose of sugar-making, or the arch kettle
at the house. Some makers use an evaporator in preference to
a kettle and find it much easier to manage.

The sap should be boiled over a steady fire, and as it evapo-
rates, a fresh supply should be added. After boiling from eight
to twelve hours, stirring often and filling up as required, the con-
tents of the kettle should be converted into syrup as thick as can
be conveniently strained. All the dirt and scum which rises dur-
ing the boiling process should be removed with a skimmer as
fast as it appears. When the syrup is thick enough, it should be
strained into a clean tub and allowed to settle. When well set-
tled, it should be turned into a clean kettle and subjected to
further boiling. During this stage care must be taken to prevent
boiling over. A piece of butter the size of a walnut is some-
times used as a preventive. Some makers dip in a piece of fat
pork. If these methods are not tried, or prove inefficient, the
fire must be kept so low that while the syrup will boil steadily,
it will not run over. To determine when the boiling should
cease, a little of the material is put upon some snow. If it cools
in the form of wax on top of the snow, it is in good condition
to be put into tubs, but if to be made into cakes, it should be
boiled until it will break like ice when cooled in this manner.
If no snow can be obtained, a little of the material must be

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 351

rapidly stirred in a dish. When it granulates with a moderate
amount of stirring, it will do to put into tubs, and when, by
holding a little on a stick and blowing through it, ribbons or
feathers are formed, it will do to put into cakes. If to be made
into cakes, the moulds which are used should be dampened with
water, so that the sugar will readily come out.

During all the operations the greatest attention must be paid
to cleanliness, and all the tubs, pails, and dishes in use must be
kept perfectly sweet. Constant care is also needed in order to
prevent burning or running over on the one hand, and to keep
the boiling process going on as rapidly as possible on the other.

If the work of making maple sugar was required during the
busy season, it would not be very profitable. But it can be done
at a time when the farmer can do little or nothing else, and as
but little expense except the labor is involved, he converts his
time into money and makes the sugar season one of the most
profitable ones in the whole year. In taste and appearance
maple sugar is very different from cane sugar, and though for
some purposes of cooking it is inferior, for others it is very much
finer. Almost every one likes it to eat, and all that is of fair
quality can be readily sold.

Although the product from the different sources we have
named presents a great diversity in taste and appearance; each
one furnishes genuine cane sugar. It is composed of very sim-
ple substances, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen — merely charcoal
and water — but so delicately and mysteriously combined, that
the art of man cannot produce anything which approaches it in
value. The chemist can change cane sugar to grape sugar,
which is of much less value, but he cannot convert grape sugar
into cane sugar. Sugar is not a manufactured article. Man
cannot make it. He can extract it from certain substances in
which it is contained, but it is a strictly natural production, and
the chemist is as powerless to compound it as he is to make a
world. But with the aid of nature it can be obtained in unlim-
ited quantities.

352 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

Although often regarded as a luxury, sugar is a valuable
article of diet. Children crave it riot only for its sweet taste, but
also, as good physiologists assert, because it supplies a natural
want of the system. It furnishes, in a concentrated and an
easily assimilable form, the same elements as are supplied by fat
meat, butter, and by the starch in potatoes and bread. It is a
curious fact that the demand for sugar keeps pace with the
progress of civilization and the increase of intelligence. One of
the first calls of a people emerging from barbarism is for sugar.
To all intelligent nations sugar has become one of the great
necessities. And the beneficence of God is manifested in the
manner in which the means for supplying this great want
have been provided. The different plants which produce sugar
in abundance are adapted to the different parts of the world, and
at least one of them will grow in one or more of the thickly set-
tled portions of the globe. Each part of the world has a sugar-
producing plant which is adapted to its climate. Thus the
means of supply have been made as extensive as the demand.
The prosperity of the country requires a largely increased rate
of sugar production, and it is to be hoped that this important
industry will soon receive the attention which it deserves.

Tea. — A large number of experiments which have been made
during the past twenty years, and especially those which have
been quite recently carried on, seem to have proved that tea can
be successfully and economically produced in the Southern
half of the United States. We do not recommend this plant
for cultivation on a large scale. Probably the majority of our
standard crops pay much better than tea can be made to do, if
grown for the market. But we are confident that on a small
scale the farmer and gardener can produce good tea at a less
cost than the imported article involves. Merely for home use
we think it will pay the Southern farmers to cultivate tea, and
we will give a few simple directions for its growth on a small
scale.

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 353

In its wild state the tea plant grows in the form of a tree.
Sometimes it reaches a height of thirty feet, and its trunk meas-
ures ten inches in diameter. But in this country it grows merely
as a shrub. In order to make it more productive, and to facili-
tate the gathering of the leaves, the plant is often pruned. The
first year it should be headed in by cutting off the top of
the plant. This will insure a stronger growth and cause
a lateral development. The after-pruning which is needed
must be in the line of removing straggling branches which may
appear, and so clipping the ends of the branches as to give the
shrub a conical form. After reaching an age of nine or ten
years the plants are cut down, in order that the young shoots,
which will soon spring up, may give a greater supply of leaves.

The tea plant will do well in quite a variety of soils. Too
much water is very injurious. Excessively rich land is not
required, but the soil should be in fair condition, and should be
kept under cultivation. The plant is grown from seeds, similar
in appearance to hazel-nuts, which come up readily when left
under the bushes from which they have dropped. The plants
may be started in this way, by planting the seeds in a nursery,
or where the shrubs are to grow. It requires some time for the
seeds to germinate, and if planted they should be put in a cool,
moist, and shaded place. When from six months to one year
old, the shrubs can be readily transplanted if care is taken not
to break the long tap-root. The young plants are often
destroyed by the heat of the. sun. Consequently it is best to
shade them during the first year. Probably heavy mulching
would prove highly beneficial. When two or three feet high,
the plants will produce flowers and seed as well as leaves.
They are evergreen and quite ornamental. They will success-
fully resist the winter where the mercury does not go more than
five or ten degrees below zero, and they are not injured by an
ordinary drought in summer.

The leaves should not be taken from cultivated plants until

354 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

they are three years old. They are gathered three times each
year. The yield will vary with the size of the plant and the
care which it receives. Half a dozen good plants should fur-
nish all the tea required in an ordinary family. The shrubs
should stand about four feet apart each way.

The greatest difficulty with this crop is in curing it properly.
The methods in use in tea-growing countries require so much-
time and labor that they cannot be adopted here. Some of the
parties who have been growing the tea plant merely heat the
leaves in an oven, and then spread in a spare-room to dry, while
others followa much more elaborate method. Mrs. Screven, of
Georgia, proceeds very nearly as follows : Spread the leaves on
tables as soon as they are gathered. The next day the leaves,
which have become somewhat wilted, are rubbed in the hands
until they become soft. They are then left in heaps for an
•hour or two, when they are put into a Dutch oven and roasted
over a moderate fire. While in the oven, the leaves are con-
stantly stirred to prevent burning. After roasting for five
minutes they are again rubbed and rolled on the table. Then
they are spread in the sun and frequently stirred. After dr>'ing
a short time, they are roasted and rolled again as before. They
are then placed about an inch thick upon a sieve, and held
over some hot coals. During this process they must be con-
stantly stirred. They are then taken out and rolled again.
This work must be continued until the leaves assume a dark
color. They are then put in a basket, hung over some coals,
and stirred until the leaves are black and dry. They should
then be packed in tight boxes made of tin or wood. This
method involves a great deal of work, and requires considerable
skill and close attention. But by its means a very fine quality
of tea may be secured — much finer, it is said, than any which is
brought here from abroad. The thorough working and rolling,
which is recommended, seems to be absolutely necessary to the
securing of a fine flavor.

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 355

Parties who grow their own tea cannot only save the money
which would be needed to purchase it, but they also have the
great advantage of obtaining a pure article. It is also stated
that the capsules of the tea-nuts possess a bitter property which
is equal to the famous, expensive, but indispensable, cinchona.
This, if the claim proves to be well founded, will add greatly to
the value of the plant. While we do not advise the cultivation
of the tea plant on a large scale until further trial has been
made, we do believe that it is for the interest of the average
Southern farmer to grow a few plants, and make an effort to
produce all the tea required for home consumption.

Tobacco. — This has, we are sorry to say, become one of the
leading crops in many localities, and is grown on a larger o.v
smaller scale in nearly all sections of the country. The
varieties which are most in demand are the Connecticut seed-
leaf, the Virginia, the Havana, and a large number of sub-
varieties caused by differences in soil, climate and cultivation.
For the North, the genuine Connecticut seed-leaf is undoubt-
edly the best kind. This variety also does well in the Middle
States. At the South, the Havana tobacco is often preferred,
though other kinds are largely grown.

This crop needs a warm and extremely rich soil, and a warm
climate is desirable. The seed should be sown in a carefully
prepared bed in a sheltered position, about the middle of
March. This bed must be rich, and the surface soil must be
made extremely fine. As the seed is very small, it is best to mix
it with' fine earth, or sand, before sowing. Otherwise the plants
will be likely to come up very unevenly. It is a good plan to
burn a pile of brush upon the bed before it is sowed. The fire
will kill the weed-seeds, while the ashes will prove useful as a
fertilizer. But little seed is required. One tablespoonful of
nice seed will furnish plants enough for five acres of land. But
as some of the seeds may not grow, and many of the plants
may be destroyed, it is best to use a larger quantity than i.«

356 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

usually thought necessary. After sowing the seed, the bed
should be rolled with a hand-roller, and covered with brush.
If the surface becomes dry, it must be occasionally watered.
The seed grows slowly, and the plants will not appear until
about three weeks after the sowing is performed. The weeds
must be carefully removed. In order to make this work easier,
the bed should be made on land which is not very weedy (as
many of the seeds may escape the fire when the brush is
burned), manure which is free from seeds should be used, and
the bed should be long and narrow. Several weedings may be
required, but under favorable circumstances one or two will be
effectual. This work must not be slighted, but should be
attended to promptly and as often as necessary.

The tobacco plant grows very rapidly. Consequently it needs
its food in a condition in which it can be readily appropriated.
Any well-rotted manure will do, but the better the quality of
the manure the heavier and better will be the crop. Special
fertilizers for tobacco are prepared by several manufacturers.
These can be profitably used in connection with yard-manure.
Heavy manuring is one of the great essentials of success with
this crop, and there is no danger of getting the land too rich.
Green manure (made from decaying plants) often proves highly
beneficial.

It is not well to grow this crop on sod land. It ought to
follow a crop which was well manured and which received clean
cultivation The land should be plowed early in the spring, and
receive a second plowing just before the plants are ready to be
put out. Some growers only plow once. Before the last plowing
a large quantity of the best manure should be spread upon the
land. This should be turned in by a plow running six or
seven inches deep. The surface should be made very fine with
a harrow, or a roller should be used if necessary to secure this
result. When level culture is pursued, the land should be
marked both ways with a small plow. The rows should be

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 357

three feet apart and the marks for the hills two feet. If very-
large varieties are grown, the hills must be three feet apart. If
the land is not very rich some tobacco fertilizer, guano, or wood-
ashes, may be scattered in these drills. Where the furrows
cross each other, small hills should be made with a hoe and the
tops spatted down. When ridge culture is chosen, a tobacco
ridger should be used to make the ridges and mark the places for
the plants. This work should be done but a short time before
the plants are ready to be set.

The setting may be done any time from the first to the last of
June. For the latitude of New York the middle of the month
will usually do very well. It is a great help to hav^e the ground
wet with showers or to have'a rainy day precede the setting of
the plants. But it is not best to wait too long for rain. The
extra work had better be done than to have the setting come too
late in the season. In taking the plants from the bed it is best
to loosen the earth with a trowel, and then pick up the plants
separately. They should be taken to the field in baskets, and
one dropped at the side of each hill. In setting, the plant
should be taken in the left hand and a hole made in the centre
of the hill with a stick held in the right hand. The hole
should be just deep enough to take in the root, without bending,
to the same level at which it stood in the seed-bed. The earth
should be packed closely around the root by pressing upon it
with the forefinger and thumb. Considerable pressure should
be given in order that the hole may be closed at the bottom as
well as the top. It pays to do this work well. If the ground
IS wet, and the plants carefully put out, most of them will live.
It is a good plan to shade them with leaves, or pieces of paper,
for a day or two, though this is not absolutely necessary.

If the ground is very dry the labor will be greatly increased.
The seed-bed must be watered before the plants are taken out,
and water must be turned upon the hills before the setting is
done. Shading will then be necessary. The plants should be

358 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

watered at night, and may require watering once a day for three
or four days. The watering before the plants are put out
should be quite liberal. A light watering at this time is no
advantage. Some growers never use water until the plants
are set, but it is better to put them into wet soil.

During the early stages of its growth this crop requires
considerable cultivation. Prout's Hoeing Machine, Figure 20,
is a good implement for the purpose. A good cultivator also
answers \&ry well. Hand-hoeing will be required three or four
times during the season. When the leaves are large they
break easily. Cultivation must then be abandoned. But until
then the ground should be kept very fine and mellow, and all
weeds which appear should be eradicated. Tillage not only keeps
the land clean, but proves a great benefit to the growing crop.

The principal enemies of this plant are the cut-worm, which
eats off" the stalk soon after the tobacco is set out, and the large
green worm which comes later and feeds voraciously upon the
leaves. In order to guard against the cut-worm it is necessary
to keep a close watch of the field for several days after putting
out the plants. By going among the plants early in the morning
the worms can be found. Small heaps of fresh dirt and small
round holes near the hills indicate the presence of the enemy.
If part or all of the leaves of a plant are cut off", there is, in
this fact, abundant evidence that a cut-worm is near. Whenever
and wherever one of these worms can be found in a tobacco
field, it should be destroyed. It pays, where there are many of
these pests, to go around and dig them out of the hills. When
a plant has been destroyed, a new one* should be put in its
place. But before setting a new one, diligent search should be
made for the destroyer of the other. If let alone, he will continue
to cut off" the plants as fast as they are provided. The worm
which feeds upon the leaves is hatched from an (t^^ deposited
by a moth, and at first is so small as to escajje ordinary obser-
vation. But it grows very rapidly and proves terribly destructive.

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 359

It begins to eat the leaf, on the under side, when it is no larger
than a small needle. A small hole through the leaf is the first
sign of its operations. The leaf must be turned over and the
worm removed and destroyed. If left for a few days, the worm
will rapidly increase in size and will utterly spoil the leaf. When
full-grown one of these worms is as long and almost as large as
a man's finger, and will eat nearly the whole of a large leaf in a
day. There are two sets of these worms each season. The
first lot appear when the plants are nearly half grown, and the
others when the tobacco is almost ripe. During the season for
these pests the plants must be looked over almost every day,
and all the worms and eggs which can be found must be de-
stroyed. The worms are quite formidable-looking creatures, but
are perfectly harmless to man and beast. They are usually
crushed between the thumb and fore-finger of the man who
finds them.

In order to increase the size and value of the lower leaves,
prevent the plant from seeding, and hasten its maturity, the
tobacco needs to be topped. This should be done as soon as
tlie blossom-bud on top of the stalk is formed. It consists in
breaking off the top of the stalk. The length to be removed
will depend upon the condition of the plant, but it is a safe rule
to take off all the leaves which are less than six inches in length.
If it is very late in the season, it may be necessary to break the
top still lower and take off a few larger leaves. •

After the topping is done, suckers will begin to grow from the
stalk at the upper side of each leaf As soon as the top suckers
are three or four inches long, the field should be gone over and
all on the upper half of the stalks should be broken oK. Those
near the ground are then so small that they can be safely left
until the next suckering. In a week or ten days the plants will
be ready to cut. All the suckers should be broken off and all
the worms removed just before the tobacco is ripe.

It is somewhat difficult for a bef^inner to tell when to-

360 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

bacco is just ripe enough to cut. When the plant is mature
the leaves assume a spotted appearance, seem to be considerably
thicker than they were a few days before, and if doubled and
pressed, the leaf will break off short. Some growers judge
entirely by the color. Others insist that the plant should
stand until the leaves can be folded without breaking. While
it is very desirable that the plant should fully mature, it very
rapidly deteriorates by getting over-ripe. It is also necessary
that the harvesting should be done before cold weather,
as even a slight frost proves ruinous to every leaf which is
touched. Better cut before it is ripe than run much risk of
having the plants frosted. A tobacco hatchet is the best imple-
ment with which to cut this crop. If this is not at hand, a sharp
butcher-knife, or a corn-cutter, may be used. Some growers in
this section use a common hand-saw. The plant should be bent
over with the left hand, and a quick stroke of the hatchet, or a
drawing cut with the knife, should be given. The plant must
be cut close to the ground, and left for a while to wilt. The
tobacco should not be cut when wet with dew or rain, or in the
middle of a very hot day, and must not lie long enough in the
field to be sunburned. As soon as it is sufificiently wilted so
that it will not break easily when handled, it should be drawn to
the shed or barn and hung up to cure. Some growers merely
load tobacco on a wagon as they do corn, handling carefully
so 'as not to tear the leaves, and take it to the barn to put upon
sticks, while others get it on the sticks in the field. The latter
way is much the best.

The plants should be hung upon lath. They are put on by
means of a large steel needle, with a socket at one end, which
fits on the end of the stick. The lath is laid upon a convenient
"^ horse," or one end is placed on a block lying on the ground,
and the needle slipped on. The plant is then taken in both
hands and forced upon the lath. From six to ten plants may be
put upon a common lath. When one stick is filled, it is laid aside

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 3g2

and plants are strung upon another. These sticks are carted to
the barn on a wagon with side boards arranged for the purpose,
and there laid upon rails or cross-beams previously arrano-ed for
their reception. This method is a vast improvement over the
old way of tying each plant to a rail with twine and the some-
what newer plan, which many growers still follow, of drivin<y a
peg into each stalk and hanging it upon a pole.

If only a little tobacco is grown, it can be hung in a shed or
over the barn floor. But when grown on a large scale, a tobacco
barn will be required. The interior of this building is composed
of beams and joists, in several tiers, arranged to receive the lath
or poles, to which the plants are secured. Of the outside cov-
ering from one-third to one -half of the boards should be hun^r
on hinges, so that they can be opened for the admission of the
light and air. The laths upon which tobacco has been huno-
should not be placed nearer together than eight inches in a well-
ventilated building. If hung in a common barn, considerable
more room must be given. After the plants are hung, the doors
should be kept open during fine weather until they are cured.
In rainy weather the building should be closed, and when the
curing is completed the doors should remain closed all of the
time.

When warm, wet weather comes on late in the fall, or in the
winter, the tobacco should be taken down and stripped. In
order to keep them moist the plants are taken from the sticks,
and put in small piles on the floor. The leaves are pulled from
the stalks, and tied up with one of the leaves, in little bundles
of three or four ounces each. One leaf should be taken ofl" at
a time, and each one should be kept straight. The leaves
should be assorted according to their quality. The bunches of
bottom leaves, and all which are torn, worm-eaten, or otherwise
injured, should be kept by themselves. The bright and nice
leaves should be bunched together, and those which present a
dull, dead color should also be kept separate. As the manner

3(32 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

of sorting differs considerably in different sections, it will pay
the beginner to take a few lessons of some experienced grower
in his vicinity. The bunches of leaves should be laid in piles
on the floor. The butts must be.put outside, and the tips should
lap about one-third of their length. The pile should be neatly
laid and pressed down by treading, or by laying on heavy
weights. It must be kept covered with blankets in order to
prevent undue drj'ing. In this condition it can be sold to
buyers who will put it in cases, or it may be cased by the
grower.

The boxes can be made by the farmer, but it is much better
for him to buy them of the manufacturers. The ordinary
boxes are three feet and a half long, two feet and a half wide,
and two ieet and a half deep. The tobacco should be packed
by a man in the box, who should crowd it down with his knees.
When full, the tobacco should be placed under a press, or
crowded down by means of a long lever which presses upon a
block, laid on a follower which will just go inside of the box.
More tobacco can then be put in. It may be laid about six
inches higher than the edges of the box, and pressed down even
with them. The top should then be firmly nailed. A box of
this size, filled in the way described, will hold about three
hundred pounds. In the South, and some parts of the West,
hogsheads which will hold, when pressed, from fifteen to
eighteen hundred pounds of tobacco are used for this purpose.

Growers who raise their own seed usually leave from one to
half a dozen of the best plants without topping. Four plants
ought to yield half a pint of seed — enough to stock several
acres. From the seed-plants the worms should be kept off the
whole season. The suckers should also be removed, and at
cutting time most of the leaves should be taken off When the
pods have turned black, the heads should be cut off and hung
in a dr}' place to cure. When thoroughly drj', the seed may be
shelled, cleaned in a fine sieve, put into a bo.x, and laid away
until it is needed for use.

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 363

The tobacco crop needs constant care, and is liable to various
injuries. Many fine crops which were almost ready to harvest
have been utterly spoiled by a hail-storm of a few minutes
duration. From the time the plants are put out until the
tobacco is sold there is a great deal of risk. Worms, or hail,
or winds, may injure or destroy it, there is danger of burning
while wilting in the field, and spoiling while curing in the barn,
and even after it was packed it has been known to heat and
spoil. Much of the work connected with the growth of the
crop is dirty and disagreeable. It is also unhealthy. Tobacco
is a very exhausting crop for the land. If grown often upon
the same fields without heavy applications of manure, they will
soon be ruined. The exhausted tobacco lands of Virginia
show what its constant cultivation will accomplish. In New
England many of the finest farms have been injured by its
grov/th. Almost all of the manure made on the farms has been
put on the small tobacco fields in order to get them rich enough
to produce this crop. As a consequence a small part of the
land is in good condition, wdiile most of it has been exhausted
by repeatedly cropping it without manure. The small field has
been made rich at the expense of all the rest of the farm.
The ordinary farmer does not have manure enough to grow
tobacco in connection with other farm crops. If he attempts to
do it, he must either slight and starve the other crops, or else
grow poor tobacco. If he buys manure in order to carry out
both the farm crops and the tobacco, he will incur a great
expense, and run the risk of heavy loss. If he buys manure
and makes tobacco-growing a specialty, he takes a still greater
risk. His expenses for fertilizers and labor must be met from
the income of the farm. If the tobacco is good, and finds a
ready market, there will be no great difficulty in these respects ;
but if the crop is poor, or cannot be sold, the farmer will sustain
a very heavy loss. On the whole, viewed merely in a business
light, tobacco-growing carries too much risk for the ordinary

364 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

farmer to safely incur. We have seen many good farms impover-
ished, and their owners financially ruined by a train of circum-
stances in which tobacco-growing was the leading influence.
When to the risk which the farmer is obliged to take in its pro-
duction is added the moral evil, which identifies itself with the
use of tobacco, we certainly have sufficient reasons why the culti-
vation of this crop should not be continued. There are a large
number of crops which the farmer can produce with profit to
himself and benefit to the world. Such crops should be largely
grown, while those which are pernicious, as tobacco is (even by
those who use it) almost universally acknowledged to be, should
be let entirely alone.

The Yam. — This is an esculent tuber which is extensively
grown in the East and West Indies and other tropical coun-
tries. There are several varieties, some of which are more
hardy than others. Those which are grown in the warmest
countries form a staple article of food for the inhabitants. A
variety growing in China and Japan has been introduced into
this country. It goes by the common name of Chinese Yam,
and, at intervals, for many years efforts have been made by par-
ties acquainted with its merits to secure its general cultivation.
But it has never become a popular plant in the United States,
and we hardly think that it will ever be grown here to any great
extent.

The Chinese yam is similar in appearance, though smaller in
size, to the yams produced in the Indies, and can be used in
the same manner. It is a climbing plant, sending up a slender,
twining, vine with heart-shaped leaves. The vine forms a very
good covering for screens. During the summer it puts out clus-
ters of very small white flowers. It is propagated by bulblets
which grow upon the vines, or by planting small roots. From
the roots a crop can be obtained the first season, but when the
bulblets are planted two seasons will be needed to secure roots
of suitable size for cooking purposes. The land in which yams

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 365

are to be grown should be moderately rich and plowed as
deeply as possible. The bulblets may be planted eight inches
apart. If roots are used, more room should be given. Weeds
should be kept down, and an occasional hoeing will be bene-
ficial. The vines may be made to climb some long poles, like
beans, or allowed to creep over the ground. The roots are not
destroyed by frost, but will live, unprotected, through a New
England winter and grow vigorously the next spring. A plan-
tation once started can be kept along with very little trouble.
By digging the large roots and leaving the small ones, a supply
for family use can be secured from a small plot of ground and
the stock kept constantly good.

The great difficulty with this crop is to get the roots. They
grow two or three feet in length and the large end is always
down. Consequently, a great deal of digging is required to
loosen them. They might be plowed out, with a large plow and
a strong team, but this would destroy the permanence of the
plantation and make it necessary to put out a new stock each
spring.

Concerning the quality of these tubers there is a great differ-
ence of opinion. Some people consider them very fine, while
others do not like them. The flesh is extremely white, and,
when boiled, or roasted, tastes very much like rice. In the
Indies these tubers are ground into flour and made into bread
and puddings, as well as used in simpler forms. There is no
doubt that for those who like it the yam is a healthful and nutri-
tious food. We have never grown it largely, and, while we
recognize its merits, we have no desire to increase the area
which we at first assigned to it in our garden.

The crops grown especially for Forage are but few in num-
ber, though of great importance to the farmer and absolutely
necessary to the maintenance of his live-stock. Grass is the
leading crop in this class and is one of the most valuable of all
the plants grown upon the farm. There are a large number of

366 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

different varieties, possessing different characteristics, and it is
easy to find several sorts which are adapted to each of the
various kinds of soil. With the exception of those which are
utterly barren, grass is a natural product of all fields and will
grow upon them of its own accord. While other plants must
be got into the land by the agency of man, and need cultivation
in order to make them profitable, grass will take possession of
the soil without even an invitation and grow freely if it is let
entirely alone. Consequently, it is one of the easiest of all crops
for the farmer to produce. By means of a careful selection of
varieties, and judicious cultivation, he can improve the quality
and increase the quantity of grass which will grow on a given
area of land. Nature will do much to help him, and he ought,
with so many favoring circumstances and so muchf help from
natural influences, to make this crop the source of a generous
profit.

The cultivation of the grass crop has long been regarded at
the North as the basis of all successful farming, and this idea
is now being quite generally embraced by the leading farmers
of the South. In the latter section, on account of the extreme
heat of the summer months, it is more difficult to grow this crop
in perfection than it is at the North. But even at the extreme
South grass, of excellent varieties, can be produced, and we arc
confident that its general introduction as a standard crop would
ver}' greatly increase the profits of the Southern farmer. One-
quarter of the care and skill which the Northern farmer gives
to the corn crop, and the Southern farmer gives to his cotton,
would insure a high degree of success.

One of the important conditions of the successful culture of
the grass crop is a proper selection of varieties. There are
thousands of kinds known to botanists, and two hundred va-
rieties are cultivated in Engl.\nd, but only about thirty sorts
are recognized as valuable for extensive dissemination in this
countr\-. Of these we will mention and describe 'Only a few of

FARM AND FODDER CROFS. 3(}7

the leading sorts, as we consider a statement of the principles of
cultivation much more valuable and useful for the farmer than
a catalogue of the names of all the varieties grown in the
country.

Timothy. — This we consider the very best grass for hay which
can be produced. It flourishes throughout the North and on
the drained lowlands of the South. It is very productive and
highly nutritious. In the Southern city markets hay made
from this grass commands the very highest price, while in other
sections it is always a standard. It is a perennial plant, but land
which produces it usually needs reseeding in from three to six
years. It does not do its best in a wet soil, or on very dry and
sandy land. Still, fair crops are often grown on very moist land,
and also on gravel knolls. It ripens rather late, and on this
account does not yield much aftermath. As a pasture grass it
is very good. At the North it is often grown with clover for
hay, but as the two plants do not ripen at the same time one of
them must be used at a disadvantage. It makes splendid hay
when grown alone, and can be profitably cultivated in this way.
Red Top is sometimes grown with it. We consider this mixture
a decided disadvantage as far as the hay is concerned, but it makes
a more permanent crop for moist land than the Timothy alone.
The Timothy should be cut when in blossom. It will increase
in weight if it is allowed to ripen, and horses will eat it well in
this state, but when mature it is rather too hard and woody for
cows. If used alone, from twelve to twenty-four quarts of seed
per acre should be sown.

Red Top. — This is a tall, hardy, luxuriant, perennial grass,
which flourishes in moist soils and grows in dry ones. Some
writers consider it very valuable, while others assert that the
hay is of poor quality. Mr. Howard, in his work on Forage
Plants at the .bouTH, ranks it next to Timothy and recom-
mends sowing the two together. When grown by itself, from
twelve to sixteen quarts of seed per acre should be used. We

368 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

like it vcr>' much for permanent pastures, especially for those
which are moist, but, on account of the difficulty with whjch it
can be subdued, we do not like to sow it in cultivated fields.
This grass is known in the Middle and Southern States by the
name of Herds Grass — a title which in the New England States
is often given to Timothy.

Orchard Grass. — This grass flourishes throughout the whole
country. It grows readily in the shade, and endures drought
remarkably well. It ripens at the same time as clover. For hay
it should be cut before the seed is formed, and is better for an
admixture of meadow oat-grass and clover. It springs up
quickly after being cut, and yields a good crop of rowen. It is
also valuable for pasture and may be quite closely fed. The
seed is extremely light and chaffy. From one to two bushels
are used when this grass is grown separately, but as it grows in
tufts some other kind should be mixed with it in order to cover
the whole of the land.

Oat Grass. — This is a large-growing variety which starts
early in the spring and is very good for either hay or pasture.
It is quite permanent. The seed is light and two buohels per
acre should be used. The seed ripens while the stalk is yet
green, and a crop of seed can be secured in connection with a
very good quality of hay. This grass grows in bunches and
needs thick sowing in order to, as far as possible, counteract this
tendency. It is well adapted to rich land, and will give two
good crops per year. For furnishing winter pastures at the
South, this is one of the very best of plants.

Blue Grass. — This grass flourishes on rich uplands, and,
where soil and climate are favorable, gives excellent hay and
permanent pastures. By some writers the June grass of New
England and the Middle States is said to be the same as blue
grass, but others deny its identity. If the same, it does not
reach that degree of perfection in other localities whigh \\
attains in the limestone soils of Kentucky. It is liable to be

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 369

aflfected by severe drought, but otherwfse endures vicissitudes
of climate as well as other grasses. It should not be grown
upon land which is often plowed. It starts very slowly and
needs four years in which to become fully developed. The first
year after seeding but little of it will appear, and that will be
very small and fine. The next season there will be a little more,
the third year a great deal more, while during the fourth season
it will make a luxuriant growth. On account of this slow
development orchard grass seed and clover, or oat grass, should
be sowed with the blue grass. The other grasses will keep
down the weeds and give abundant shade. The blue grass
will, in time, overpower the other varieties and take full pos-
session of the soil. Only four quarts of seed is required for
an acre. Before sowing, the land should be made very rich
and the surface should be finely pulverized. This grass is
one of the very best for pastures and ought to be more gener-
ally used.

Meadow Fescue. — This is an early grass which thrives on
wet land, and. gives a good quality of hay as well as excellent
pasturage. Mr. Flint highly recommends it.

Fowl Meadow. — This is a valuable grass for moist soils. It
is very early, but, unlike almost all other varieties, it remains
good for several weeks. If grown on rich land, two crops per
year can be obtained. The quality of the hay is very fine.

Sweet Scented Vernal Gr.\ss contains an immense amount
of water and is not desirable for mowing-lots. It is very sweet,
starts early in the spring, and makes a steady growth. On
these accounts it is well liked in pastures. A little of the seed
may be mixed with that of other kinds when pastures are laid
down, but it will not pay to sow it too liberally, as most of the
room which it would require can be used to much better
advantage.

Bermuda Grass. — Concerning this grass there is a great
difference of opinion. It was introduced from the West Indies

370 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

and has become thoroughly acclimated throughout the South.
To the cotton-planter it has made an immense amount of
trouble, and until quite recently it has been pretty generally
condemned. But at the present time many writers, among
whom is Mr. Howard, consider it a valuable plant. It is pre-
eminently a pcrmanetit plant. Once in the soil it resists all
ordinary efforts for its eradication. Cattle like it, and will
thrive when kept upon it. It is said to make a fair quality of
hay. It produces a very heavy sod, which is valuable to turn
in as a fertilizer for other crops. In connection with clover
and blue grass, which are fresh when the Bermuda dies down^ it
makes an excellent pasture, which will keep fresh at the South
during the whole year. Notwithstanding that many writers in
the papers seem to fear its introduction, and wish that it could
be utterly destroyed, we think that it will pay the farmers of the
South to experiment with it, on a small scale at first, and fully
test its character. It may prove one of the most useful plants
which can be obtained.

In addition to the kinds which have been named there are
many others which arc of different degrees of value. There are
marsh grasses which grow only in very wet soils, prairie grasses
which grow wild at the West, and several native grasses which
appear at the South. As a general rule the native grasses are
of inferior quality, and should be superseded by the finer culti-
vated varieties. It never pays to grow a poor kind of grass
where a much better one can easily be produced.

We will now consider some of the general principles upon
which the culture of the grass crop should be conducted. The
Preparation of the Soil is a very important matter — one
which lies at the very foundation of the whole system. Prob-
ably the great majority of farmers throughout the country sow
nearly all of their grass seed in connection with grain. They fit
their land for the grain crop, and, with the exception of
covering it, do nothing more to the land than they would if the

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 37X

grass seed had not been put in. That it is not as well to seed
land with a crop of rye, or oats, or corn, as it would be to sow
grass seed alone, no argument is required to prove. Common -
sense, science and experience all go to show that it is better
when grass is to be grown to give it a fair start, than it is to put
with it a stronger crop to choke it and keep it down. The
grass suffers a double injur}^ The grain crop takes possession
of the land, and appropriates the elements of fertility which arc
within easy reach, and which the little grass plants ought to
secure. Then the plants are injured by the trampling to which
they are subjected when the grain is cut and carted off, and,
having been shaded so long, they are badly injured by the
burning rays of the sun after the grain which furnished the
shade has been removed. Nearly all farmers admit that sowing
grass with grain is an evil, but most who follow this method
consider it a sort of necessity and can see no better way in
which to proceed. If they had plenty of manure, they would
follow a different course. But they want to get all they can
* from the land with the least possible outlay of labor, and the
smallest possible quantity of manure. Therefore, the present
system of seeding with grain will probably continue in common
use. When it is followed, the land should be made quite fertile,
and the surface should be well prepared to receive the seed.

When grass seed is used alone, it may be sowed either in
the spring or late in the summer. As far as the grass is con-
cerned, the former may be considered the best time, as it gives
the plants a longer period in which to develop before they are
cut and enables them to obtain a stronger hold upon life. But
this requires the use of the land two seasons in order to obtain
the crop which should be produced in one. Consequently,
later seeding, which permits the removal of a crop the first year,
is usually preferred. The best time for this work is during the
month of August at the North and September farther South.
Sod land is often turned over for reseeding. The land should
24

372 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

be plowed to a medium depth, a fair coating of manure should
be spread upon the plowed surface, or guano or gr^s's fertilizer
should be sowed broadcast upon it, and a wheel-harrow, or
some 9ther very efficient pulverizer, should be used until the
surface soil is extremely fine. The seed may then be sowed,
covered with a bush-harrow, and the land thoroughly rolled.
As a general rule, to which the culture of Timothy is the promi-
nent exception, it is much better to mix several kinds of grass
seed than it is to sow any one of them alone.

The quantity of seed required will depend upon the varieties
to be grown, and the purposes for which the grass is designed.
Light seeding makes large, coarse stalks, and invites a growth
of weeds. Heavy seeding makes finer stalks, and nicer hay for
cows or sheep. There are extremes in both directions, and
both should be avoided. For pastures, we favor sowing several
different kinds and using seed with a liberal hand. This is
much more important with pastures than with grass which is
grown for hay. The pasture remains long in grass, and it is
desirable that it should produce as large a quantity as possible.
This is aided by the use of several varieties of seed. One kind
alone will not furnish as many plants or make as vigorous
•growth as a mixture of different sorts. Besides, some kinds ripen
•earlier than others, and by sowing several a succession may be
secured, and the pastures be kept green much longer than they
otherwise could. Add to these reasons the fact that cattle like
a variety of food better than any single kind, and thrive better
when furnished with many sorts than they do on one alone, and
no further evidence will be needed that it is not wise to seed
pasture-land with only one kind of grass. In mowing-lots a
larger quantity of hay can be secured and the fields will remain
longer in grass, if several kinds of seed are used. But in using
these different kinds, a wise selection should be made in order
to secure a good qua;lity as well as a large quantity of hay.
The varieties which are sowed should ripen at the same time,

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 373

and be grown in suitable proportions. For feeding to horses,
for at least half of the time, we like Timothy which is grown
without admixture of any kind, but for cows and sheep a variety
is to be preferred. The following mixtures, with slight changes,
are highly recommended by various agricultural authorities.
Each mixture is designed for one acre of land.

For Mowing-Lots.

Orchard Grass 6 lbs. Timothy 61bs.

Red Clover 10 «« Red Top 4 "

Rye Grass 5 lbs.

For Permaneitt Pastures.

Meadow Foxtail 2 lbs. Rye Grass 4 lbs.

Orchard Grass 6 " Timothy 4 «

White Clover 5 " Blue Grass 4 "

Red Clover 4 « Meadow Fescue 4 ««

Rough Stalked Meadow Grass 4 " Red Top 4 «

Hay and Pasture Combined.

Timothy 6 lbs. Wood Meadow Grass 4 lbs.

June Grass 4 « White Clover 4 «

Orchard Grass 4 " Perennial Clover 2 "

Rye Grass 4 " Rough Stalked Meadow Grass 2 "

Sweet Scented Vernal Grass 2 lbs.

For the South Mr. Howard recommends the following :
For Rotation and Improving the Soil.

Red Clover 4 qts. Orchard Grass I bu.

Meadow Oat Grass i bu.

For Meadow Land.

Timothy i pk. Herds Grass 4 qts.

White Clover 4 qts.

Add 4 quarts of Red Clover, if immediate results are desired.

For Summer Pastures.

Bermuda Grass. Crab Grass. Red Clover.

Herds Grass. Natural Grasses.

For Winter Pastures.

Meadow Oat Grass i bu. Blue Grass 4 qts.

Orchard Grass I « Red Clover 4 "

Wild Rye Grass I « White Clover 4"

Not to be grazed later than June or earlier than Christmas.

For mowings at the North we favor a much more liberal use
of Timothy than any of the tables given above require. In

374 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

connection with Red Top and Meadow Fescue for moist land,
and with Orchard Grass and Clover for early cutting on dry soils,
we consider it almost invaluable. It has been asserted that this
grass will not thrive on dry uplands, but our experience with it
upon these soils has been quite satisfactory. It has a bulbous
root, and, on this account, is more liable than some grasses to
be injured by extremely dry weather if it comes immediately
after the hay crop is removed. We do not favor cutting this
grass as close to the ground as is sometimes done. Neither
should it be allowed to ripen its seed unless the land is soon to
be plowed. When cut in the blossom and properly cured it
makes splendid hay, and we have no hesitation in recommending
it for extensive cultivation.

The care of permanent grass fields, or fields which for several
years are to be kept in grass, is very simple. It is one of the
great merits of the grass crop that it can be grown with but very
slight expense for labor, and with only a moderate quantity of
manure. The main things to be done are to give suitable
protection, avoid too close cutting, and provide a reasonable
quantity of plant-food. Mowing-lots ought never to be grazed.
To neglect of this rule a large part of the partial failures with
the grass crop are due. In New England it is a very common
practice to mow the grass as soon as ripe; a few weeks later, if
there is enough to make it an object to do so, the rowen is cut
very close to the ground, and early in the fall the cattle are
turned into the fields and allowed to gnaw the grass to the
roots until the ground is either frozen or else covered with snow.
Thus the grass roots must endure the rigors of a Northern
winter without other protection than the snow. This frequently
does not fall until after the ground has been severely frozen and
the roots seriously injured. No other crop could endure a tenth
of the exposure, neglect, and abuse which the grass receives,
and maintain its hold upon life. Yet farmers expect their
gjrass to not only live, but also to yield them a large profit. It

FARM AND. FODDER CROPS. 37^

ought not to be a matter for surprise that when treated in this
manner grass lots do not long yield good crops. It is a wonder
that they prove so permanent when subjected to such adverse
influences. Then, too, the average farmer robs his grass land to
feed his hoed crops. The hay is fed out on the farm in order
that it may furnish a supply of manure. But when the manure
is obtained it is not returned to the grass fields from whence it
came, but almost all of it is used on the hoed crops. Year
after year the drain goes on. It is true that after the hoed crops
are removed grass is grown on the land to which the manure
Was applied, but the hoed crops have taken nearly all of it, some-
times every particle of it, from the soil. In some cases the grass
obtains a degree of benefit from the manure, while in others the
land is not in as good condition for the production of this crop
.as it would have been if no manure had been used and no other
crops grown. It sometimes happens that a little manure is left
after the other crops are provided for. When this is the case
the surplus is spread upon the grass. Frequently the poorest
manure is used for this purpose, and only a very slight coating
is applied. Such is the too common custom of farmers at the
North. There are many in all, but few comparatively, who
pursue a much more liberal policy.

It is very true that grass obtains much of its material from
the air. But this is also true of corn and other hoed crops.
All good farmers know that it is not wise to grow corn without
manure. For the same reasons which apply to the production
of corn, the grass crop should not be grown without the use
of fertilizers. Both mowing-lots and pastures should be
occasionally manured. If the latter can be plowed and
occasionally seeded, it will be a great benefit except in cases of
the fields, which are occasionally seen, in which the best qualities
of grass are productive and permanent, and which would be
injured instead of improved by reseeding. On all pastures which
it is not desirable to plow, manure of some kind (generally com-

376 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

mercial fertilizers, such as the special manures made for this crop,
guano, plaster, and ashes) should be occasionally used. If these
are applied when the cattle are in the fields, care must be taken
to use those which will not prove injurious if eaten. In England
some very-- fine cattle have been poisoned by fertilizers used in
the pastures. If there is any doubt about this matter it will be
wise to sow the fertilizers in the fall, after the cattle have been

FIG. 39. — BUCKEYE MOWER.

taken out for the winter, or to use only small quantities at a
time and apply just before a heavy' rain, keeping the cattle off
until the rain has dissolved, and carried down the fertilizers to
the roots of the plants.

Upon mowing-lots the manure can be applied late in the fall
or early in the spring. We consider the former decidedly the
best time for using yard-manure. The frost will crumble the
lumps, if there are any, and the manure will prove a protection

FARM AND FODDER CROPS.

Til

to the roots. The dissolving snow will carry it down to the
roots very early in the season — just when it is needed to make
a quick and vigorous growth. If the manuring is delayed until
spring, the land is usually soft and is badly tracked by the teams
and cut by the wheels. There is danger that it will not be
attended to early enough to give the best results, and the press-
ure of work is so great that the manure will be more likely to
be left in lumps than it will if the less hurrying time of autumn
is chosen. With commercial fertilizers we think it makes less
difference, but prefer using them late in the fall upon all lands
not liable to be washed. It is better to use manure in moderate
quantities quite often than it is to make larger applications at
long intervals. If the
grass fails to return
large crops when it is
well manured the land
should be plowed at
once and reseeded.
Grubs may be . eating
off the roots, or it
may have become

turf-bound. In either fig. 40.— eureka mower.

case a fresh seeding is desirable.

Extremely close cutting of the grass crop should be avoided.
On dry land, and particularly in a dry season, Timothy should
be cut rather high. The rowen crop is often shaved close to
the ground. Such close cutting late in the season, when the
plant has been struggling for life since the first crop was taken
off, is very injurious. It need not be cut extremely high, but it
ought never to be cut very close to the ground.

Pasturing, mowings in the fall is a ruinous practice. A little
grass is obtained and the cattle are kept along upon it for a few
weeks when they would, but for this, have to be fed at the barn.
But by this means the roots of the grass are left unprotected

378 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

through the winter and many of the plants arc destroyed.
Others arc enfeebled so that they can produce only a small
quantity of grass the succeeding year. The late growth ought
to be allowed to remain, fall down, and cover the roots. It is
a protection which nature designed and which ought always to
be given. It is much better for the farmer to grow an extra
quantity of fodder crops, to be used both green and dry, and
keep his cattle out of the mowings, than it is to turn his grass
land into pasture in the fall. That this can be done easily and
orofitably some of our best farmers have proved by many prac-
tical tests. Mr. Cheever, of the New England Farmer, has
not allowed cattle in his meadows for twenty years. Many
other farmers, in different sections, have tried the plan for less
time but with uniformly good results.

A few words concerning the cutting and curing of the hay
crop should find a place in this' connection. Except when
grown specially for seed, grass should be cut before the seed
has matured. As a general rule, grass is at its best when in the
blossom. If cut much sooner it is very watery and innutritions.
If allowed to stand much longer it becomes woody and much
of it is indigestible. Ripening the seed is also a severe drain
upon the energies of the plant, and proves fully as exhausting
as all of its previous growth. For this reason land upon which
grass stands very late often fails to produce good crops for sev-
eral successive seasons. The only hope of securing permanence
on fields which are treated in this way is to keep them very
rich and allow considerable of the seed which is formed to shell
upon the ground. At the North there has been a great change
in the time of cutting the hay crop. Twenty years ago but ver>'
little grass was cut until after the fourth of July. Now large
quantities are cut in June, and some farmers get in nearly their
whole crop in this month.

Fine weather is one of the great essentials of success in curing
the hay crop. Too many farmers work in cloudy weather the

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 379

same as when it is fair. It is much better to work in the corn
fields or attend to some other crop. In cloudy weather hay-
dries very slowly and is likely to be got in without sufficient
curing. There is also liability of rain, which is always injurious
to grass which is partially dry. As a help in deciding upon the
weather, the farmer should have a barometer and thermometer,
and should be a careful observer of the sky and clouds. It is
to be hoped that the Government will also establish signal

FIG. 41. — THE BULLARD HAY-TEDDER.

Stations in the great agricultural districts (similar to those for
navigators on the great lakes and the ocean), which, during the
harvest seasons, may furnish the farmers with the results of
scientific observation.

. It is not well to attempt too much at a time. Cut only what
can be properly managed. Upon Saturday attempt less than
upon other days, so that the work may all be finished in good
season. For cutting the grass use a good mowing-machine.

380 FARMING FOR rROIlT.

Figure 39 represents the Buckeye Mower manufactured by
Ariance, Piatt & Co., of New York city. This machine is
simple, safe, strong, and very durable. It draws easily and does
perfect work. Figure 40 shows the Eureka Mower, made by
the Eureka Mower Co., Towanda, Pa. This is a " direct draft "
machine, the cutting apparatus as well as the gears being directly
behind the team. It cuts a wide swath, docs good work, and
is very highly commended by those who have given it a prac-
tical test.

Grass dries much more rapidly if cut after the dew is off than
it will if it is wet when the mowing is done. During the first
part of the season two days will be needed for properly curing
heavy grass. Later, when the grass is nearly ripe, it can be
cured in one.

In order to obtain the best quality of hay, rapid drying will
be an absolute necessity. In order to secure this a good
Tedder will be found indispensable. Figure 41 represents the
Bullard Hay-Tedder, made by the Belcher & Taylor Agricul-
tural Tool Co., of Chicopee Falls, Mass. We have used this
machine many years, and found it a splendid implement. It
fully deserves the many medals which have been awarded at
State and other trials.

After the hay is dry, a horse-rake will be needed for gathering
the hay. Figure 42 represents one of the best of the whcel-
rakes. It has the best of wire-teeth, can be operated by hand
or foot, is simple and strong, and can be managed by any boy
who can drive a horse. It is made by B. C. Taylor, Dayton,
Ohio. Figure 43 represents a cheaper form of rake. It :s
harder to operate than the wheel-rakes, but will do good work
on land that is reasonably smooth. It is made by the Sterling
Manufacturing Co., Sterling, Illinois.

On large farms a hay-loader will be very serviceable. Figure
44 represents a machine of this description, which is made
by Stratton & Cullum, Meadville, Pa. With this implement,

(381)

382

FARMING FOR PROFIT.

which is attached to the rear of the wagon, a ton of hay can
be pitched from the windrow in from three to five minutes.
By it? use a great saving of hard labor is effected, and in
showery weather the farmer is often enabled to secure hay
which under the old system of gathering by hand would be
damaged by rain. A horse-fork for unloading hay at the barn
or stack will also prove a very useful implement

The degree of drying which it receives will greatly modify
the quality of the hay. We can remember when hay was
dried nearly twice as much as it is now. We think the change
which has been made is a great improvement. But we do not
believe in getting in hay, or rather grass, without any drying.
Too little drying is worse than an excess, as it will cause the

FIG. 43. — STERLING REVOLVING-RAKE.

hay to " smoke," and it may heat so much as to be utterly
ruined. It is best to dry just enough so that the hay will keep
well, and come out bright" and nice in the spring. All the
drying which is given after this pcJint has been reached is a
decided injury.

We think barns should always be provided in which to store
the hay, though a good workman can stack it so that it will
receive but little injury from the weather. For stacking employ
a skilful workman, and put up quite a quantity at a time.
Instead of drawing from the lot each day, the hay, when nearly
dry, may be put into the cock, and allowed to remain until
quite a quantity is ready. Then, during a fine day, turn over
the cocks so that the dampness in the hay which was near the
ground will dry out, and draw to the place where the stack is

FARM AND FODDER CROPS

383

to be located. When finished, the top of the stack must be well
covered with straw, which should be very carefully put on.
Although hay will keep well if properly stacked, we should
much prefer, if we could not afford to put up a large one, to
build a small barn, and by the use of a hay-press get the whole
crop under rover.

Growing grass for seed is a very simple operation. Many
farmers who raise their own grass seed do nothing more to the
land or crop than the extra work of harvesting. But it is much

FIG. 44.^FOUST'b HAY- LOADER.

better to take special pains to keep the land free from other
grasses than the kind of which seed is wanted, and also to keep
it liberally manured.

When the seed is ripe, which may be easily known by the
changed appearance of the plant, and especially of the heads,
the grass should be cut. The cutting may be done Avith a grain-
cradle or a reaper. It should be done in the morning while the
dew is on, in order to prevent a waste of the seed by shelling
in the field. After moderate drying, it may be put up in small

384 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

stocks, and allowed to remain until perfectly cured. Or it can
remain unbound until the curing process is complete. In all
the operations with this crop, care should be used in order
to prevent shelling of the seed. It can be threshed with flails,
or shelled with a thresher, and the seed cleaned in a common
fanning-miil with a fine screen. The seed is sometimes spoiled
by stacking the .grass while the stalks are too green. The mass
heats enough to destroy the vitality of the seed, though it does
not always seriously injure its appearance or prevent its sale.
The stalks which have yielded a crop of seed are often fed
to horses. As they are tough and woody, they should not
be used alone, but fed in connection with better hay and grain.
When the tops are cut with a cradle, the stubble may be cut
with a mower, and used the same as the tops of the stalks.

Bromus. — Every little while somebody recommends some
member of the bromus family as a forage plant, and sells the
seed for high prices. There are several varieties, but none of
them are worthy of cultivation, while some of them are to be
opposed with as much vigor as the worst weeds with which the
farmer is obliged to contend. Of the latter, the common chess,
or " cheat," as it is usually called, is one of the principal sorts.
It is a "cheat" in the full sense of the term. Many farmers
think that wheat sometimes turns to cheat. This we think is
a mistake. It is true that tinder certain unfavorable conditions
the fields which the farmer has sowed with wheat produce noth-
ing but cheat. But it by no means follows that the cheat was
grown from the seed which he sowed. He did not sow the
seeds of other weeds which appeared in his grain fields, and he
is confident that they did not come from the wheat which he
used for seed. He might safely have the same confidence con-
cerning the cheat. A standing offer of quite a sum of money
has been made for many years to any one who would produce a
quantity of cheat with proof that it was grown from wheat, but
the prize has never been awarded for want of evidence that such

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 385

a change has occurred. Men have been able to produce cheat
upon land sowed with wheat, but they have not been able to
prove that it was produced from the seed of the wheat. When
an oak forest is removed, a vigorous growth of pine trees often
appears. No one sows the seed of the pine, and no pine tree
has grown upon the land for generations. Probably the seed
had been lying dormant in the soil for a long period, merely
waiting for a favorable opportunity to grow. In some such way
cheat is doubtless produced. That it can be grown from wheat
we consider an impossibility. If the farmer will drain his land.,
feed his crops, give good culture, and always sow good seed, we
think he will never reap a crop of cheat.

As a forage crop the bromus will make quite passable green
fodder, considerable hay, and a fair pasture. But once on the
farm it will be almost sure to mix with the wheat and spoil it,
and will greatly interfere with other crops. It should never be
allowed a place upon a cultivated field, and we should not want
it in a pasture. There are plenty of other plants which are
better for all purposes, and v/hich are free from the objections
which lie against this one. Consequently, whether it is recom-
mended under the head of chess, or cheat, or rescue grass, or
any other grass or weed, it: will be well to let each and every
form of this plant entirely alone. The seed has often been sold
for high prices and will, probably, be kept in the • market by
interested parties. Doubtless there are also many farmers who
have recommended this plant, in the honest belief that it was a
valuable addition to the list of our forage crops. Longer ac-
quaintance will dispel the illusion. Mr. Flint, whose work on
grass is a standard, declares that " Not one of the brome grasses
is worthy of a moment's attention as a cultivated agricultural
grass, and the cleaner the farmer keeps his fields of them, the
better." All members of this family should be ranked as
weeds to be destroyed, and never treated as plants whose growth
is to be encouraged.

386 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

Clover. — This is one of our most valuable agricultural plants.
It is usually called grass, but is a leguminous plant, unlike grass
in its appearance and its manner of growth. There are a large
number of varieties, of which the Red, White, and Alsike are
of the greatest value to the farmers of this country. The red
clover is the most extensively grown and is regarded as the
standard. Although grown from a small seed, and at first quite
tender, it soon becomes a hardy, vigorous plant which sends its
long roots down into the subsoil, and spreads its still longer
braches above the surface of the land. The seed can be sowed
upon the snow in the spring and be allowed to work its w.iy
into the soil — with grain in the spring or the fall — or alone,
or with other grass in August. It is important that there should
be considerable moisture in the surface soil at the time of sow-
ing, and that some protection should be afforded from the heat
of the summer sun when the plants are small. It often happens
that clover sowed in the spring with grain succeeds better than
that which is sowed alone. The grain grows quickly and shades
the tender plants from the sun. Dr. Harlan recommends sow-
ing buckwheat with clover when it is desired to grow only the
latter. The buckwheat will afford shade while the clover is
feeble, and if cut when in the blossom and allowed to remain on
the land, will also mulch the clover and prove of great advantage
to the crop.

The quantity of seed to be used depends upon the soil and
the purpose for which the crop is to be grown. From eight to
sixteen pounds may be considered as the extremes. The more
seed the finer the stalks, and the better the quality of the hay
which can be made from them.

The preparation of the land must be as fine as was recom-
mended for grass seed. Upon this being thoroughly done, suc-
cess will in a great measure depend.

For fertilizing this crop, both lime and plaster seem to be
specifics and to have a wonderful effect Lime should be

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 387

applied to the land as for other crops. The plaster should be
sowed upon the plants in the spring when they are a few inches
high.

Clover is a biennial, and although, by means of seeds which
shell upon the land, it often attains a more permanent character,
it is best to plow land which is wholly devoted to this crop
once every two years. The soil is then well filled with roots
and is in a good condition to be used for the production of grain.

Clover is better suited to dry land than to that which is wet.
Its long roots enable it to resist the influence of drought to a
high degree. On land which heaves badly in the spring clover
cannot well be grown, as the roots will be either thrown out of
the soil or else injured so that they will not produce a good crop.
Draining will prove an efficient remedy for this difficulty.

Clover should not be pastured when very young. The cut-
ting of a crop for hay should be done when the heads begin to
turn brown, but while most of them are green. After the hay
is removed, plaster may be sowed upon the land and thus a
heavy second growth may be induced. This crop will bear
much closer cutting than Timothy. Curing for hay is better
accomplished in the cock than by spreading in the sun. If dried
in the ordinary way for other crops, many of the leaves will fall
off and its value will be greatly reduced. After the mowing has
been done the clover should lie long enough to get well wilted,
be turned once, in order to wilt the lower side of the swaths,
and then put into small cocks which can stand several days.
The curing will thus be effected gradually and a valuable quality
of fodder will be secured. The day upon which the clover is to be
drawn to the barn the cocks should be turned over, so that the
dampness may dry from that which was close to the ground.
After remaining in the sun a few hours in this inverted position,
the clover can be safely put into the barn. In order to prevent
injury to this crop by untimely rains, the farmer should provide

a quantity of hay caps with which to protect the clover during
25

388

FARMING FOR PROFIT.

bad weather which may occur while it is standing in the cock.
These caps will also prove useful in protecting the hay crop.

When clover seed is to be grown, the first crop should be cut
quite early, and no plaster should be used upon the land after its
removal. When two-thirds of the heads of the second growth
are brown the crop should be harvested. This can be effected
with a machine for the purpose which simply removes the heads,
or the cutting can be done the same as it is with the grass crop.
It should be cured as soon as possible, without much stirring,
and then taken to the barn. The threshing can be done with
flails, but a threshing-machine — especially a clover hullcr and

FIO. 45.

separator — is very much better. Figure 45 represents a standard
machine for this purpose. It is made by the Birdsell Manufac-
turing Co., South Bend, Indiana.

Of the value of this crop for a fertilizer we have already
spoken. But comparatively few farmers yet realize its immense
importance for this purpose or have even a faint conception of
the ease with which they might by its aid enrich their land.
That it is destined to become extremely popular we have not
the slightest doubt. Farmers who have neglected it thus far
should lose no more time in testing its efficacy and proving its
value.

The white clover is quite useful at the South for cutting and

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 389

curing. Either alone or mixed with various kinds of grass it
will yield quite a quantity of excellent hay. At the North it
is chiefly valuable as a pasture plant, though in connection with
grass it is often used for hay. The quality of grass and hay
afforded by it is superior to that of red clover. The white
clover pastures are among the most valuable which can be
found. Upon dairj' farms they are especially prized, while for
sheep and lambs they have no superior.

The Alsike clover is a perennial plant which was introduced
from Sweden into this countrj^ and from which much was
hoped. But the expectations of its friends do not seem to have
been realized. Although it succeeds well in some localities, it
has not become generally popular, and probably will always
hold an inferior position. It seems to be an intermediate variety
between the red and the white clover, and was supposed io be
very hardy and also to be well adapted to wet soils. We have
tried it only on a small scale and have not been successful in its
cultivation upon cither dry or wet land. It will be well to try
it as an experiment, but we do not recommend any one to
attempt its cultivation on a large scale without first testing it on
a small one. If it does well in a small field it can then be
sowed in a large one. If it does not thrive, the small field will
be large enough. Still, it may be best to try it more than one
season, as it may, on account of some peculiarity of the weather,
fail sometimes in localities where it will usually prove very
successful.

Grain Crops. — Several of the crops which are usually grown
for their grain are often sowed for the fodder which they will
produce. The value of corn as a fodder crop we have already
considered. Rye and oats are extensively grown for this pur-
pose. Rye is usually fed green and furnishes an excellent .sub-
stitute for grass. It should be used before the ht.-ad- appear.
A constant supply through the growing season may be obtained
by sowing in the fall for early spring feeding, and in the spring,

390 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

at various times, for summer use. Oats make excellent fodder
if cut when in blossom and cured like hay. Peas are also good
for feeding green or curing for winter fodder. The preparation
of the land for these crops should be the same as when grown
for their seeds. As a general rule, a larger quantity of seed
should be sowed, and the crop must always be harvested earlier
in the season. The great objection to these crops for feeding
purposes is to be found in the fact that the plants are annuals,
and, consequently, the seeds must be sown every year, while
considerable preparation of the land must be made before the
sowing can be done.

Lucerne. — This is a perennial plant which flourishes in warm
climates and rich, deep soils. The roots grow long and large,
and when once started in a favorable location the plants will
produce an immense amount of fodder for many successive
years. Under the various names of Lucerne, French Clover,
Brazilian Clover, and Alfalfa, this plant has been introduced into
this country from foreign lands. In California and the South
it gives splendid results.- Mr. Howard considers it " veiy far
superior to all others " as a forage plant in the Southern States.
At the North, Lucerne docs not always succeed. The climate
is not adapted to its culture. Still, it has been grown in Maine,
and with sufficient care it can, probably, be produced in nearly
all the States. But the disadvantages under which it labors at
the North arc too great to justify an effort for its extensive
cultivation. At the South it should be largely grown.

Lucerne may be fed either green or in the form of hay.
When used green it ought always to be cut a day or two before
it is wanted in order that it may ha\'e time to wilt. It is very
nutritious. Horses, cattle, and even hogs thrive when fed upon
it in its green state, and all animals that eat hay not only like it
but do well when fed upon it after it has been dried.

For this crop the land should be well prepared. It is best
during the year preceding the sowing of Lucerne to grow some

FARM AND FODDEK CROPS. 391

crop which requires clean culture. This in order that the
weeds and grass already in the land may be eradicated. The
soil should be reasonably dry and the ground deeply plowed.
If sub-soiled it will be all the better. A heavy coating of well-
rotted yard-manure, or a liberal application of bone-dust, gyp-
sum, or ashes should be harrowed in and the surface soil should
be made very fine. Rich land and thorough preparation are
essential to success.

The seed should be sowed in Februarj'- at the South, and as
late as May if an attempt is made to cultivate this crop at the
North. It may be scattered broadcast or sowed in drills. As
it is a feeble plant when small it is better, unless the land is very
free from weeds and grass, to put it in drills about a foot apart.
If in drills it can receive cultivation whenever needed. If sown in
this way, from eight to ten pounds of seed should be used. If
sown broadcast, from twelve to sixteen pounds will be required.
It should be lightly covered with a roller or a bush-harrow. If
put in with a good seed-sower, or drill, the machine will cover
it sufficiently. If weeds or grass appear they should be removed,
and it will pay to stir the soil, occasionally, between the drills.
Manure should be applied every third year. It can be worked
in with a small plow if the plant is grown in drills. If the land
remains mellow the fertilizer may be left on top of the soil where
the sowing was broadcast, but if the surface becomes hard a har-
row should be used for covering the manure.

The cutting should always be done as soon as the plant
blossoms. If longer delayed, the quantity of fodder will be
increased, but the quality will be badly impaired. If at any time
the tops turn yellow, the cutting should be done at once. The
curing of Lucerne for hay is to be done as directed for clover.
Long exposure to the sunlight is injurious to its quality, and
will cause the loss of a large proportion of the leaves.

This plant requires three years in which to attain its full
development, but yields exceedingly large crops the first season.

392 FAR MING FOR PROFIT.

When well established, on rich land and with good culture, its
yield is enormous. It should never be pastured, as cattle and
horses will destroy the plants, but should be kept to furnish
either green fodder, or hay, to be used at the barn or the feeding
yards.

Millet. — Of this plant there are several varieties. Of these
the one commonly called Hungarian Grass has been the most
extenaively grown in this country. It is a rapid and rank-
growing annual, producing large quantities of green food, hay,
or seed. We have only grown it for hay. The Golden millet is
recommended as greatly superior, while the newer introduction
under the names of Egyptian, East Indian, or Pearl, millet
promises to be still better. It may be sowed in drills, or broad-
cast. The land should be rich, well fertilized, and the surface
should be made very fine and mellow. The sowing should not
be done until the nights are warm. At the North the last of
June is generally a favorable time. If sowed broadcast from a
bushel to a bushel and a half of seed should be used. This will
give a better quality of fodder than can be obtained from thin
seeding. The Egyptian millet, however, is said to tiller
extensively. This should be sowed in drills. Only two or
three quarts of seed will be required per acre. The common
millet will be ready for cutting in from four to six weeks after
the seed is sowed. It can be cut with a mowing-machine and
dried the same as common hay. Horses like the hay made
from this plant, and will fatten rapidly when kept upon it. But it
is very rich food, and growers generally prefer to mi.x it with
common hay. This is especially true after it has gone to seed.
Tlien it should be fed in only small quantities, as a large amount
will be as injurious as so much unthreshed wheat. It should be
cut before the seed is ripe, but not until the heads are well
formed. For green food it can be cut during its various stages
of growth. While the sowing should not be done until the
weather is quite warm (both during the day and at night) it

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 393

must not be so long delayed as to expose the crop to the
influence of the early autumn frosts. As it produces a heavy
yield this crop should be harvested while the days are warm
and long. We not only esteem this plant for its value as forage,
both for horses and cattle, but also on account of the time of
the year at which it may be sown. If for any reason the hay
crop comes in light, the farmer can turn over a few acres of sod,
make the surface mellow, apply fertilizers, and by means of
sowing this crop he can fill his barns to overflowing with an
excellent quality of dry fodder. By this method he can always
grow fodder enough to keep his stock through the winter.
While nearly all other crops must be put in early, with this one
the farmer can wait until he knows the amount of his hay crop,
and he can then sow much or little according as the yield of
the ordinary grass shall be light Or heavy.

The principal objections to this plant are, that, being an annual,
the ground must be prepared, and the seed must be sowed each
year, and the danger attending the feeding of large quantities
after the seeds are ripe. But these objections will weigh very
lightly with a farmer who has once grown this crop. Its great
value will far more than repay all the labor required, and
the danger may all be avoided by cutting before the seeds are
ripe, or by feeding but small quantities at a time. For
Northern farmers we recommend this plant as worthy of
extensive cultivation.

Prickly Comfrey. — Of this claimant of popular favor as a
forage plant we have but little to say. Our own efforts to grow
it resulted in complete failure, as the cuttings appear to have
lost their vitality before they were planted. This variety of the
comfrey i's "a hardy perennial of gigantic growth," and was
introduced into England, from Caucasus, as an ornamental
plant. After a while it engaged the attention of agricultural
writers,- and was grown to some extent for the purposes of forage.
It was introduced into this country, and for the past four years

S94 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

has been extensively advertised. That it will produce an ini-
mense amount of fodder per acre, take full possession of the
land, survive extremes of heat and cold, drought and mois-
ture, and resist the encroachments of all other plants, there
is no doubt. It comes early in the season and remains very
late. It is propagated from the roots, which can be cut in small
pieces and planted like corn, at any time except during cold
weather. It should be grown in rows, three feet and a half
apart, with the plants about three feet apart in the row. About
four thousand plants per acre will thus be furnished, and will
produce, on good land, from eighty to one hundred and twenty
tons of green fodder per year. Parties interested in its sale
assert that the leaves are very valuable for feeding purposes, both
for increasing the milk of cows and fattening stock. Some who
have tried its merits speak favorably of it, but many have
complained that their cows would not eat the leaves as long as
they could find anything else to eat, and that when eaten the
plants seemed to do no good. Probably after the leaves get very
large they are not as palatable as they arc when they are small.
There are certain objections to this plant. Once in the land
it remains like so much dock. It costs considerable to start a
field, and it is only with great difficulty that it can be eradicated
if the land is ever needed for any other purpose. But it will
afford several cuttings each season, and in dry years it will
prove of special value for furnishing an abundance of green food.
If the cattle will not eat it, there will of course be no benefit
from growing the crop. We think that most cattle will soon
learn to eat it, but there may be instances in which the dislike is
too strong to be overcome. Whether it will pay the farmer
to grow this crop will depend upon the character of his land,
and also upon the other resources for green fodder which he
can command. If cattle will eat the leaves, there are sections
in which this plant will prove of great value. In all cases, if
tried at all, it should be tried upon a small scale. If the first

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 305

experiment proves successful, a larger area of land can soon be
devoted to the crop. But if the cattle do not like the plants,
there will be little inducement for extending its cultivation.

Root Crops. — These are among the " main stays " of the
English farmers, and are gradually winning their way into the
confidence of farmers in our own land. For farmers, wherever
located, who are largely interested in stock-growing, these crops
are of special value. It is not safe to argue that because the
English find root crops indispensable, therefore they must be
grown by American farmers who desire to be successful. Our
climate and soil are so different from theirs, that what will be
the best crops for English farmers may not be the best for
formers here. The argument for the production of root crops
must be based upon different grounds than the fact that they
are very successfully grown in other countries. But there are
plenty of reasons why our farmers should devote more attention
to these crops than they have done in past years. For use as
an exclusive, or even as a principal, article of diet for animals,
roots are not recommended. But our long winters make it
highly important that a certain proportion of green food shoulcj
be given. For fattening animals roots are not as good as corn,
and it is very probable that the English farmers would not
devote as much attention to the growth of roots as they now do
if they were able to grow corn. In this country hogs have been
fed too exclusively on corn, and cows and steers have been lim-
ited too closely to hay and meal. Experiments have proved,
what the physiologists have long asserted, that the fattening
effects of farinaceous food are much greater when it is used in
connection with a liberal proportion of succulent material
than they are when this food is used alone. Dairymen have
found that they can make more and better butter in winter
when they feed roots to their cows than they can when only
hay, meal and bran are used. The color of the butter is also
greatly improved by the addition of roots to the diet of the
cows.

396 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

Roots take the place of grass to a great extent, and by their
use cows can be kept very productive during the cold weather.
The constipation which so often attends the long-continued use
of dry hay is wholly avoided by the addition of roots to the
diet. The health of animals is promoted by the use of roots in
connection with hay, and for this reason alone, if there were no
other, stock-owners would find it for their interest to grow
them. This, in connection with the facts that immense
quantities can be grown on small areas of land, and that roots
contain a fair proportion of fat and flesh formers, furnishes an
unanswerable argument in favor of the production of these
crops upon each and every farm. The amount of land which
should be given to root crops will depend upon the amount of
stock which is kept, the character of the land, and the circum-
stances of the farmer ; but there are very few men who culti-
vate the soil who cannot profitably devote part of their time and
land to the growth of roots. These crops can be grown so as
to improve the cattle to which they are fed, increase the value
of the land upon which they are grown, and also promote the
financial interests of the farmer. The crops belonging to this
class which can be successfully grown in this country are not
many in number, though they are of great importance. The
leading ones we will briefly consider.

Artichoke. — This crop is u.sed both for its roots, or tubers,
and also for its stalks, though it is for the former that it is
principally grown. The quality of the roots is somewhat lower
than that of some of the other crops of this class, but the
immense yield of the artichoke makes it a very profitable one
to produce. Still the analysis of this root shows that it con-
tains considerable nutritive matter. And the fact that all kinds
of stock do well when they are furnished with a reasonable
quantity of artichokes fully sustains the conclusion which
has been drawn from the analysis. An immense amount of
food may be grown upon an acre of land. And with this crop

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 397

there is one advantage which most others do not possess : it can
be harvested by the hogs, and thus considerable labor may be
saved.

For this crop the land should be deeply plowed and well
harrowed. It should be marked with a small plow, in rows
four feet apart. The hills may be from two to four feet apart.
Manure may be spread broadcast and harrowed in before .the
marking is done, or it may be put in the hills. Still the arti-
choke will thrive, and is very often grown, without the use of
fertilizers of any kind. Only a small quantity of seed will be
required. Three bushels per acre will be sufficient. The roots
should be cut into small pieces, and not more than two of these
should be put in a hill. The covering may be done with a
light plow, or with a hand-hoe, and need not be very deep.
The planting should be done early — as soon as the ground is
warm. When the plants are a few inches high, they should be
either plowed or cultivated, and hoed. During the season three
or four more plowings should be given. In August the plants
blossom, and very soon afterwards the tubers begin to form.
The growth is very rapid, and continues until frost kills the
stalks or they are cut down.

The stalks are sometimes cured and used for fodder, but are
generally cut and burned. The harvesting of the roots is done
easiest with a plow, which should run deeply and turn all of the
land. By covering with earth they can be kept during the
winter in a common cellar, or in trenches. When grown
specially for hogs they should be in a lot which is enclosed, into
which the hogs can be turned and allowed to do their own har-
vesting. Those which are not used in the fall will be good in
the spring.

It is the best way to plant every year, though many growers
start a plantation and allow the hogs to gather what they choose.
In the spring a large number of plants will appear. These are'
sometimes allowed to grow as they spring up. Some growers

398 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

plow through the fields so as to leave the plants standing in
rows. This is much better than it is to leave them all over
the land.

There are several varieties. Of these the Jerusalem is largely
grown, though it is an inferior sort. The best kinds are the
Red Brazilian and the Improved White French. In color
and general appearance the former closely resembles the
Jerusalem, but is much better in quality and a great deal
more productive. The yield varies greatly, but on good
land which is well cultivated is always large. Eight hundred
bushels per acre are often grown, twelve hundred are occa-
sionally reported, and as high as two thousand bushels have
been claimed.

When fed freely with artichokes, hogs will both grow and
fatten. One experiment which has been reported claims a gain
of nearly two pounds per day for each hog. Milch cows and
sheep do well when fed upon the roots and stalks. The health
of all animals which are fed upon artichokes seems to be pro-
moted by their use.

It is sometimes objected to this crop that it is very difficult to
eradicate. But this need not prove a serious matter. If the
habits of the plant are understood, it can be easily destroyed.
By mowing them during the last week in August, most of the
plants will be killed. Or they can be destroyed by plowing the
land when they are about a foot high.

Beet. — Of this vegetable there are many varieties which are
excellent for the table, and a few which are of special value for
feeding to stock. Some growers prefer the former to the latter
kinds, even for feeding purposes. The fine varieties can be
grown, it is said, as cheaply as potatoes, and the same area of
land will produce four times as many bushels. For these varie-
ties, when grown for cattle, the land should be plowed in the
fall, in order that the surface may be made fine by the frost. In
the spring some fine manure should be spread, in liberal quan^

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 399

tides, upon the surface and harrowed in. If yard-manure is not
to be had, bone dust, superphosphate, or guano, may be used in
its stead. The surface soil must be made extremely fine. About
the middle of May the seed should be sown in rows about fif-
teen inches apart. The seed ought to be covered to a depth of
one and a half or two inches. Four pounds per acre will be a
sufficient quantity. As soon as the plants come up, the wheel-
hoe should be run between the rows, and weeds close to the
plants must be removed by hand. Early weeding is important,
and when they are small the plants are benefited by stirring the
ground. When a few inches high they should be thinned to
from four to six inches apart. Care must be taken not to cut
the roots or injure the leaves.

When growing in large quantities the preparation of the land
should be the same as above described, unless the long kinds
are produced. In this case the manure may be covered, at the
second plowing, to a depth of four or five inches, and the rows
may be from eighteen to thirty inches apart. At the latter dis-
tance horse-power can be used in the cultivation of the crop.
As soon as the beets are well up, the cultivator should be run
between the rows and a light steel hoe should be used to loosen
the dirt close to the plants. When they are a few inches high,
the thinning should be performed and vacant places should
be filled by transplanting. The plants should be left only ten or
twelve inches apart. This will allow the production of only
moderate-sized specimens, but the quality will be far superior to
that of very large roots. Some growers recommend the sowing
of from five to ten bushels of salt per acre, or a mixture of salt
and plaster, when the fourth leaf appears. Most of the thinning
can be done with a hoe. Until the leaves get quite large, fre-
quent cultivation should be given. When ripe, or there is
danger of frost, the crop should be harvested. The leaves fur-
nish good food for cows.

Mangold Wurtzel is a variety of the beet which is largely

400 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

grown fcr stock. The roots grow to a large size and are
" coarse in structure," but are formed of the same materials as
ordinary beets. Whether they will furnish more nutritive matter
per acre than some of the finer varieties of the beet is a ques-
tion which is in dispute.

When harvested, the beets, or mangolds, may be put into a
cool cellar, in piles two or three feet in depth, and lightly cov-
ered with earth, or they may be stored in pits or trenches, as
already described for potatoes and sugar beets.

It is not well to feed mangolds until the middle of winter, as
a ripening process goes on until "about that time, and the starch
which they contain is converted into sugar. They should be
fed after the turnips (if any are grown) are used, and at first only
small quantities should be given at a time.

CiiUFA. — This plant belongs to the sedge family and has its
home near the Mediterranean Sea. It is cultivated for its
"nut-like, sweet-tasted" tubers, or roots, which are called chufa.
There are many varieties. Some of them are considered per-
nicious weeds, as they multiply rapidly by means of the tubers.
These plants are hard to eradicate, especially from the sandy
soil of the South. The "coco grass," which is there common,
and also detested, belongs to this class of plants. The best
variety (we think that only one sort is extensively grown in this
country) is very prolific, is easily grown, and furnishes a good
quality of food for hogs or poultry.

The land should be well plowed and harrowed. The tubers
may be planted in rows two feet apart, and one foot apart in the
row. One tuber should be placed in each hill, and covered two
inches deep. The planting should be done at the same time as
it is for corn. When small the weeds must be kept down, and
during the season the cultivator should be run between the
rows several times. This crop thrives best at the South, and
is not at all to be recommended for Northern cultivation.
Carrot. — This is one of the best of the roots which are

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 4Q1

grown for feeding to stock. When young the plants are quite
feeble, but they are liable to but few diseases, and can be grown
without great difficulty. The roots are much superior to the
common turnips, and better than the ruta baga. If the land is
well manured, this crop can be grown upon the same field for
many successive years. Carrots are of great value for feeding
to horses. The effect of these roots upon the digestive organs
is excellent, and they give a sleek appearance to the coat.
They promote the health of all animals to which they are fed.
Their laxative properties are beneficial, and tend to counteract
the constipating tendencies of exclusive feeding with dr>^ hay.
When fed to cows carrots improve the quality of the milk, and
increase its quantity. The color of the butter which is produced
is much richer than that v/hich is made from cows which are
fed with dry hay, and, when other things are favorable, its
quality is very fine.

Carrots should be grown upon good land which is free from
stones, and which is neither Avet nor x-ery dry. It must be
made quite rich, but most of the manure should be applied in
the fall. The plowing should be very deep, but the manure
ought to be used upon the surface. Both the manure and the
surface soil should be made extremely fine. Bone-flour, super-
phosphate, or guano, may be applied in the spring in addition
to the yard-manure which is used in the fall, or may be used in
case of a deficiency in the quantity of that material. The land
should be plowed early in the spring, and plowed again just
before time for sowing the seed. This in order to kill the weeds
and pulverize the soil.

The sowing may be done from the tenth of May until the
tenth of June. On some accounts early sowing is to be pre-
ferred, while on others it is better to sow rather late. The
plants are weak when they first come up, and if the ground is
dry and the sun extremely hot they are liable to be destroyed.
But if the seed of the early sorts is put in early in the season,

402 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

the carrots are likely to ripen too soon, and to decay during the
winter. The rows may be only twelve inches apart for the
small kinds, and fifteen for the large varieties. One and a half
pounds of seed, if it is fresh and good, is sufficient for an acre.
But much of the carrot seed which is sold is poor, and four
pounds per acre are used by some growers of this crop.

As soon as the plants come up, the wheel-hoe should be run
as close to the rows as possible, and all necessary weeding must
be given. During the season frequent hoeings .and weedings
should be given as they are required. When the plants are
small they should be thinned to three or four inches apart. No
weeds should be allowed to get a start, and if any of the carrots
show a disposition to go to seed, the stalks should either be cut
off, or else the roots must be pulled and thrown away.

There are several varieties possessing very different qualities,
and ripening at different periods. Of these we think the
following are the best for cultivation on the farm. The Early
Short Scarlet Horn is very early, and of quite good quality.
The roots are short, but on good land quite a yield can be
secured. The Short Horn is a similar variety, but a little
longer and later. The Long Orange is' one of the most popular
varieties which has been introduced. It has long been a
standard sort. Both the quality and color are very good. The
greatest trouble is with the length of the roots. Being very
long the labor of digging is much greater than that of harvesting
the short kinds. The Danvers carrot is an intermediate
variety which has been established by the large growers in
Damvf.rs, Mass. It is longer than the Short Horns, but shorter
than the Long Orange. The roots are smooth and handsome,
and of a rich orange color. From twenty to forty tons per acre
can be grown. This is destined to be a very popular variety.
The Large White Belgian is a large variety which is grown
exclusively for stock. It yields largely, but the quality is poor,
r.nd we think it will pay much better to grow some of the other
varieties which have been named.

FARM AXD FODDER CROPS. 403

The harvesting should be done as soon as the tops indicate
that the plants are matured. If the weather is cold and there
is danger that the ground will freeze, this work may be done
before the roots attain their full growth. The tops should be
cut with a light, sharp hoe. If a little of the crown is removed,
the roots will keep just as well and not be quite as likely to
sprout in the winter. They may be dug with a fork, or a plow
may be run close to each row and the roots pulled by hand.
We have sometimes pulled the Short Horn carrots without
either digging or plowing.

Carrots should be stored in a cellar which is cool and dry, in
piles not more than two and a half feet deep. They should not
be placed upon the damp ground, but should always be laid in.
b'ns or upon a floor. Probably they can be kept in trenches
in the ground if they are stored in only small quantities and arc
fully protected from the damp and frost.

When seed is to be grown, the best roots should be selected
— those which are of good form and color — and set out by the
middle of April if danger from freezing is past. The land should
be deeply plowed, and, if the roots are long, holes may be made
for them with an iron bar. The rows should be three and a
half feet apart, and the roots placed a foot and a half apart in the
row. The roots should be set deep enough to bring the crowns
even with the surface of the ground. During the season they
should be hoed occasionally and all weeds should be kept down.
The seed ripens unevenly and will need cutting at different
times. When the branches become dry, and the seeds turn
brown, the heads should be cut with shears and stored in a cool,
dry room.

Carrots should be run through a root-cutter before they are

fed, and should always be put in the mangers. Cattle will eat

them if they are cut and spread upon the grass. But it is much

better to put cattle into the stable before giving them roots of

any kind. If the roots are put in the mangers, cattle will eat
26

404 FARMING J'OR PROFIT.

them quietly and will not be as likely to get choked as they will
if fed in the field.

Parsnip. — This crop is not as extensively grown as it should
be by those who make a business of growing roots. It is excel-
lent for feeding to stock, and is one of the best of all roots to
keep late in the spring. The parsnip should be grown on good
land which is heavily manured, deeply plowed, and thoroughly
pulverized. The seed may be sown either early or late in the
season, but is likely to fail if the weather is very hot and the
ground very dry. As a general rule, moderately early sowing
will give the best results. The seeds are rather weak, and, on
this account, should be thickly sown. The cultivation should
be the same as has been recommended for carrots. The har-
vesting should be done late in the fall, though all the roots
which are to be used in the spring may remain in the ground
until that time.

For seed-growing the same process should be pursued as
is taken with carrots. Like the carrot, parsnip seed ripens
unevenly, and several cuttings will be needed. Two seeds grow
together. When they separate they arc ripe, and the heads
should be cut and spread in a cool loft to dry. With this crop,
irich Jand and care in the early stages of the growth of the
plants will be required in order to obtain a good yield.

Turnip. — This is the most extensively grown of all the root
crops, and is very popular in Europe as well as in the root-
growing sections of this country. Both the common turnip and
the ruta baga are great favorites with nearly all those farmers
who grow root crops. While they may be advantageou^^y
grown, we do not think that they should be produced to the
exclusion of all the other roots which have been named. They
are of special value for feeding to sheep. For cows and horses
carrots are much better.

It is best to plow the land to a medium depth about the time
of plowing <br corn, to harrow it occasionally in order to destroy

FARM AND FODDER CROPS. 4Q5

all the weeds, and then plow it again when it is time to put in
the seed. Many growers omit the first plowing, but it ought
to be given. The surface should be made very fine and the
seed sowed from the first of July to the first of August. It is
important that the crop should be grown quite rapidly. Also
that no green stable-manure should be used. This manure will
spoil the quality of the roots for table purposes and injure the.m
for feeding to stock. Besides, they will be more likely to be
eaten by worms than they will if fertilizers which are better
adapted to their wants are used. Well-rotted manure will give
good results if it is made very fine, but bone-flour, or super-
phosphate, will give a better quality of roots.

The sowing may be broadcast or in drills. We like the latter
method much the best. From one to one and a half pounds of
seed per acre should be used if put in drills, and from one to
two pounds if it is scattered broadcast. If all the seeds should
grbw, and the plants do well, not more than from two to four
ounces would be needed. But the seed costs but little and
many plants are liable to be destroyed by the turnip fly or the
scorching of the sun. GDnsequently, it is best to use a liberal
quantity of seed. The fly attacks the plants when they are very
small. By sprinkling lime-dust upon them early in the morn-
ing, while the dew is on, the fly may be kept off. The applica-
tion will be needed only a few times.

If the seed is sowed broadcast, no cultivation can be given.
If in drills, a hand-cultivator should be run between the rows,
and a sharp hoe should be used to cut the weeds which are close
to the plants, and also to loosen the soil. When the second
leaf puts out, they should be thinned with a small hoe. The
plants which are left should remain in clumps four or five inches
apart. When they get straightened up after this operation, the
surplus plants must be pulled by hand. Cultivation should be
given at several times during the season, and should be finished
before the leaves get very large.

40G FARMIXG FOR PROFIT.

The tops should be cut with a sharp hoe before the roots are
pulled. If a little of the crown is clipped off, it will be no dis-
aJvantage. The roots may be pulled by hand or with a chain-
harrow. The tops are worth something for feeding to stock.

Turnips may be preser\'ed in trenches sixteen inches wide,
two feet deep, and as long as the quantity to be stored requires.
They should be placed only a foot deep in these trenches and
then covered with the earth which was thrown out. If the
weather becomes extremely cold, a quantity of stable-manure
may be thrown upon the top. If only, a small- quantity of tur-
nips is grown, the storing can be done in a cool, dark cellar.
They can be put in bins or laid upon the ground. Only a few
bushels should be put in a place, and a thin covering of earth
will be beneficial.

For growing seed the best turnips should be selected in the
fall and placed by themselves. The tops must not be cut very
close. Early in the spring the roots should be put out, in good
land, which has been plowed and harrowed. They should be
set in rows three feet apart, and should be from fifteen to eigh-
teen inches apart in the rows. A place should be made for the
tap root, and the bulb should be covered with earth, but the
sprouts must be left above the surface of the ground. The
plants should be frequently hoed, and when the blossoms appear
a small plow may be run between the rows, and the earth ridged
up around the stalks in order to give them needed support.
When many of the pods become dry, the heads should be cut
and laid m some safe and convenient place. It is best to do
the cutting when the dew is on. The pods will break open if
liandled when they are dr>', and thus much of the seed will be
wasted. The different varieties, and the turnips and ruta bagas,
should be grown quite a distance apart. Otherwise the seed
will be quite likely to mix and be spoiled.

The Ruta Baga, or "Swedish Turnip," as it is often called, is
generally classed in this country as a turnip, and may be grown

FAJiAf AND FODDER CROPS. 407

in nearly the same manner as the common sorts. The plants
should be left from six to eight inches apart, if grown in drills
and cultivated with a horse, or from twelve to fifteen inches, if
grown in hills and hoed in the same way as corn. The latter
way will give much the largest specimens, but they will not be
of as good quality as the smaller ones which are grown by the
other method. Some growers sow the seeds in a bed and put
out the plants m h n they are of a suitable size. This makes
more work than sowing in drills, but admits of more thorough
cultivation. The ruta baga is larger and harder than the ordi-
nary turnip, and will keep much later in the season. For early
feeding it is not as good as the flat turnip, but it is greatly su-
perior for use in the spring. Before being fed, the turnips, of
any and all varieties, should be run through a root-cutter. They
should be put in the mangers, in warm stables, and cattle should
always be tied while eating them.

There are many varieties of the turnip. For feeding purposes
the Early Flat Dutch is. good, if wanted in the fall and early
winter. The Amber Globe keeps during the winter and is first-
rate. The Long White Cowhorn and the Pomeranean White
Globe are both good for winter use. For feeding late in the
winter and during the spring, and also for table use, the " Blooms-
dale Ruta Baga" (obtained by a careful selection of the seed of
the purple top ruta baga, and an improvement upon that variety)
is decidedly the best which we have ever seen. This variety
was introduced by the well-known Phil.\delphia seedsmen, D.
Landretii & Son, who have done more than any and all other
parties to make turnip-growing popular in this country. The
roots of this variety are well shaped, of good color, smooth
skin, and have but very few leaves. The American ruta baga is
also a popular sort Of this there are two sub-varieties, the
purple top and the green top. The former looks the best and is
generally preferred.

408 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

^QrHIS consists in the removal of surplus water from the
^^Ijl land. Various plans are adopted to secure tiic desired
i^^ result. Each method has its advocates and each is open
^^3 to some objection, either in respect to its efficiency, dura-
bility, or expense. The cheap methods are not first-rate, and
the best ones are somewhat expensive.

Probably the majority of farmers who attempt to drain their
land merely cut some ditches for carrying off the water. These
answer a good purpose for a few years, but are liable to become
filled with the mud which is washed from the soil, by the caving
of the banks, and by the trampling of cattle through and ovef
them. They are also objectionable in that they require a great deal
of land. As a team cannot safely be driven close to them, quite
a strip must be left upon each side of every one of these ditches
without plowing. It is also necessary to provide bridges upon
which they can be crossed when the teams are driven from one
part of the field to another. In this way considerable expense
is incurred, or else the owner will be put to a great deal of
inconvenience by having but a few places where he can cross
the ditches. For making these channels considerable time and
labor are required. Yet, while they involve considerable direct
expense and prevent the cultivation of part of the land, these
ditches prove ver)' useful in wet fields. The land which can be
cultivated after they are made is rendered much more produc-
tive, and the labor of growing and securing crops is greatly de-
creased. In some fields the soil which is removed from these
drains is valuable for mixing with manure and for use as bed-
ding in the stables and hog pens. In such cases the value of
the material will do much toward paying for the labor of secur-
ing it. But where the material which is thrown out cannot be
utilized, this method of draining wet land will almost invariably
pay well for all the time and labor required. Still, in many

* DRAINING. ^QQ

cases it will not be the best way which can be devised for secur-
ing the benefits of draining.

A simpler method is to dig large, open ditches merely for the
purpose of holding the water. This plan accomplishes some
good as far as the draining of the land is concerned, but is
open to the objections of keeping considerable quantities of
stagnant water exposed to the air, of generating certain forms
of disease, and of making the places in which they are located
quite unhealthy.

The cultivat.on of land in ridges is another method by which
a moderate degree of draining is practically effected. By plow-
ing into narrow lands with wide, open furrows between, or by
turning two furrows together from opposite directions and
leavmg a large, open space or water-furrow between each two
ridges, and planting directly upon the top of each ridge, some
of the advantages of draining can be secured. But in such cases
they must be obtained at the expense of extra work in preparing
the soil and cultivating the crop. They also require the use of
a larger area of land than would otherwise be needed. It is not
a very efficient method, and should only be used when land
is very cheap or more thorough systems cannot be employed.

Parties in the East who are interested in the " driven well "
(a well formed by driving down an iron pipe until it strikes a
spring or reaches a wet strata in the soil) have proposed to
drain wet fields by means of this invention. But the owners of
the land are doubtful concerning the workings of the plan, and
the managers of the patent do not seem inclined to warrant
their work to be effectual. Consequently, no practical test, that
^e know of, has yet been made.

Anothei, and by far the best, method for removing the water
from land is by underdraining. The drains are covered so that
all the land can be cultivated, and teams can pass over them at
any point When properly laid, there is no caving of the
banks and no filling of the channel with mud. They can be

410

FARMING FOR PROFIT.

laid so that they will last for generations, and the expense of
putting them down will not be much greater than that of the
makeshifts which are too frequently constructed. For this pur-
pose various materials are employed. Some farmers fill the
trench with brush. This should seldom be used. When an
underdrain is made it should be made m a permanent manner.
Turf is sometimes used for a covering of the top of drains. The
sides of the trench are made very slanting, and a piece of turf is
cut of such size and shape that it will go to within a few inches
of the bottom, and there wedge against the sides strongly
enough to allow the trench above to be filled without settling
into the channel. This form is not at all to be commended.

FIG. 46.

STONE DRAINS.

FIG. 47.

Boards or planks are often used. If well laid, they will prove
effective drains, and will last many years ; but the material is of
too perishable a nature, and should not be generally employed.

The two leading materials in use are stones and tiles. Of
these, the former are often ver\' abundant on farms which need
draining, while the latter must be either bought or else manu-
factured on the place. Stone drains can be made so that they
will be very durable, and answer all the requirements of first-
class structures. But, in order to be good, they must be very
carefully made. There are several different forms in use. The
particular one to be laid in any special instance must depend
upon the shape of the stones of which the drain is composed.

DRAINING. 411

It is very desirable to have flat stones to lay upon the top and
form the roof of the drain. These answer the double purpose
of keeping out dirt and preventing the entrance of vermin. For
the same reasons flat stones at the sides are of great value.
Stone drains are very liable to become choked with sand and
fine earth. The water passes through these drains very slowly,
and there is not strength of current enough to wash obstruc-
tions along. Frost is more likely to interfere with stone than
with tile drains, and there are various other reasons why tiles
are very much the best. Men who have had practical experi-
ence with both kinds almost invariably prefer the tiles. Mr.
Waring declares that tiles are vmcJi cJicapcr than stones, and
likely to be much more durable. He has shown, and many
others have done the same, that when there is an abundance of
stones on the farm, the owner will almost always find it for his
interest to use tiles. The amount of time and labor required to
get the stones together and select them for use is very great.
The cost of digging the trench for stone drains is greatly in
excess of that of making one for tiles. This because it must
be very much larger, and it is also much slower filling with
stones than it is to lay the tiles. But if the reverse were true,
and it could be proved that the first cost of tile drains would be
considerable more than that of those made of stones, we should
strongly favor tiles on the ground of their permanence. Still, a
farmer may be so situated as to make it necessary for him to
have stone drains if he has any. In these cases the stones
should be used as the best material which is available. But as
a general rule tiles will be both cheaper and better.

Figure 46 represents a common form of stone drain. A
much better one is shown in Figure 47. Figures 48 and 49
show the best form of tiles for ordinary drains. They are
made of many different sizes. Figure 50 represents the "* Y "
form of the sole tile. This is to be used when two drains come
together at an angle, and is a great improvement on the ordinary

412

FARMING FOR PROFIT.

style which must be fitted as it is used. The common tiles can
be fitted, but with the tools which the farmer usually has the
operation is a somewhat difficult one to perform. The " Y" and
every other desirable form is made by the Moorhead Clay
Works, of Philadelphia. This Company received the Centen-
nial award for tiles and all other articles made of clay or its
compounds.

Upon the principle of expediency merely, there are some
farmers who can make use of the Mole-Plow for underdraining^
with manifest advantage. This implement is not at all adapted to
general use, as it will only do good work in strong clay soils,
and in some of these it is not very successful. Por a man who

FIG. 48. — ROLNU TILK AND COLLAR.

FIG. 49.

FIG. 50. — SOLE '* Y " TILES.

can do no better this plow will be a useful implement, but it
should not be used with a view of obtaining permanent results.
Where it works well, the drains keep open a few years and
remove the surplus water from the land. But they are very
liable to cave in from the top and sides, and thus become
useless. In some parts of Ohio these drains have been quite
successful, and they have been used with varying results in
England and in different clay soils in this country. For a poor
man to use as a makeshift until he can obtain something of
greater permanence they may be recommended, but they should
never be used when tiles can be afforded.

There is a great deal more land in this country which needs
draining than many people suppose. Not only the extremely

DRAINING. 413

wet, swampy fields, but many tracts which are only occasionally
too wet would be greatly improved by a thorough system of
drainage. Fields containing many springs, sandy or other
porous soils with clay, or other hard and impervious sub-soil,
and all clay soils may be said to need thorough draining. That
swamps, and land full of springs, need draining is too evident to
require an argument to support the assertion. Soils which are
only occasionally too wet need draining in order to insure the
regular production of good crops. In dry seasons they may do
well, but in wet years the yield is usually very light and the
quality is inferior. It often happens that the heaviest rain-fall
comes at a time when the farmer is in a hurry «to work the land,
and that great loss is occasioned by the delay which is thus
necessitated. Planting is often delayed ten days, or longer, by
this cause, and the crop much diminished in consequence.
Sometimes the rain comes just as the farmer wants to cultivate
his crop. Then the work must be put off, haying soon comes
on, and the crop suffers greatly from neglect. These heavy
rains also keep the soil very cold — a condition highly unfavor-
able to the growth of plants.

The average rain-fall in the United States is about three
inches per month. In some States (and some which have a very
compact and retentive soil) it averages about three and one-
third inches. A large proportion of this immense amount of
water must leave the soil either by drainage or evaporation.
In order to be in a good condition for crops, the land must be
moist but not wet. Therefore there is a great deal of water to
dispose of If the soil is retentive and the land is level, almost
all of this water must be evaporated. If the soil is porous, but
the sub-soil is impervious, a large part of the work of removal
must be done in the same manner. Let us consider for a moment
what the removal of this water by evapor-.tion involves.

Evaporation consists in the conversion of water into vapor.
From undrained land the water must be removed, in this way,

414 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

by the heat of the sun. To convert water into vapor requires
about four times as much heat as is needed to bring it to the
boiUng point from a temperature only just above the freezing
point. An inch of rain, equal to three hundred and sixty
hogsheads of water, frequently falls upon an acre of land in
a single shower. If this land is not drainecf, there must be heat
enough from the sun to bring nearly fifteen hundred hogsheads
of water from a freezing to a boiling point, in order to remove
the surplus water furnished by this one shower. Take the
average autumn and spring rains at ten inches e^ch, and the
winter rains and snows at eight inches, and consider the immense
amount of heat »equired to fit an undrained soil for planting.
But a small proportion of the autumn rains can be evaporated
when they fall, because the weather is so cold. The same is true
of the rains and snows of winter. Therefore in the spring this
vast accumulation of moisture must be removed. Instead of
warming the land, as it would if the soil were reasonably dry,
the heat of the sun must be used for evaporating the water, and
the undrained fields will be cold and wet long after those which
are drained are warm and dry.

Thus draining the land enables the farmer to do his planting
early in the season, and cultivate his crops at the proper time.
It also makes the land so much warmer that the autumn frosts
will be delayed, and more time will be given for the corn to
ripen, the rowen to grow, and other crops to mature. Draining
also acts as a powerful agent in preventing injury to crops in
time of drought. A well-drained soil is not only drier in a wet
time, but contains more moisture than an undrained one
when the rain-fall is insuflficient. The draining loosens and
deepens the soil, and allows it to condense and absorb a much
larger quantity of moisture from the air and dews than an
undrained soil. The roots of plants are also able to penetrate
to a much greater depth, go nearer the point of constant mois-
ture, and present a much larger surface to the action of the

DRAINING. 415

earth and air. It has often been noticed that land which has
been deeply plowed withstands the drought much better than
the same kind of soil which has been cultivated shallow. What
deep plowing does in this respect can be accomplished by
thorough underdraining. When they go together the very best
results are obtained, and by their aid injury from any ordinary
drought may be wholly prevented. During a severe drought in
New Jersey, in 1855, the fences on the land of Prof. Mapes
were found to be the boundaries of its influence. The land all
around this farm was parched, and the crops were being spoiled,
while the land inside the fences was unaffected, and the crops
were in splendid condition. This was not caused by any
difference in the natural character of the soils, but by the
thorough drainage and deep culture of the farm belonging to
Prof. Mapes.

Draining makes a damp location much more healthful for
men and animals, as well as for crops. It prevents the accumu-
lation of surface water, which soon stagnates and becomes a
prolific source of disease. Drainage of wet districts in cities
has greatly reduced the annual death-rate, and decreased the
amount of sickness which is not fatal. In the country attacks
of malarial diseases are much more frequent and severe in wet
locations than they are in dry ones. Veterinarians have called
the attention of farmers to the fact that many diseases of sheep
and cattle are either directly caused or greatly aggravated by
wet pastures. This fact furnishes a strong argument in favor of
draining pastures, although the increase in quantity, and
improvement in quality of the grass which it will produce,
would seem to be a sufficient inducement for the owners of the
stock to undertake the work. We have already alluded to the
fact that our cultivated plants will not make a healthy growth
in standing water. If much water stands upon the surface of
the land the plants will die. If there are a few inches of
stagnant water under the surface, resting upon an impervious

416 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

subsoil, the roots will go to this water-line and stop. The
plants will present a yellow and sickly appearance, and will
yield either a light harvest or none at all. But if the land is
drained, the plants will make a strong and vigorous growth, the
soil will be so open that the rains will carry down the soluble
elements of plant-food to the roots, leaving the land moist
without flooding it, and the crops will be comparativc'y free
from the diseases which are likely to attack plants which grow
in wet localities.

Draining also prevents the winter-killing which often proves
so injurious to wheat and rye. When the subsoil is impervious,
the autumn rains make the surface soil very wet. In the winter
the water in this soil freezes and thaws, causing the land to
" heave," and breaking and uncovering the roots of the grain.
If this process is often repeated it proves very destructive.
Many a field of wheat which looked finely in the fall has been
utterly ruined by this cause. If the water is not allowed to
accumulate, as it will not be on well-drained land, there will be
but very little trouble from this source. The grain will not only
look nicely in the fall, but will go through the winter without
injury, and be ready to grow rapidly in the spring. Since
draining has become general in England, the average wheat
yield has more than doubled. This increase has not been so
much in the direction of excessively large crops, as it has in the
line of making it more certain that a crop shall be produced.
Failures, which before were quite common, are now very rare,
and almo.st all the land devoted to the production of this crop
adds something to the amount of grain which is actually grown.
If every acre devoted to wheat in this country could be made to
produce merely a medium yield, the total amount grown would
be immensely increased. For there are now thousands of acres
which produce only a very little, which count in the report of
acres, but produce so few bushels of wheat as to make scarcely
an addition to the figures representing the quantity grown

DRAINING. /^Yl

In this way the average production is brought very low.
Thorough draining would make most of these fields productive,
and thus largely increase the yield of grain, and the profits of
growing it.

Another effect of thorough draining is to greatly increase the
eflficacy of the fertilizers which are applied to the land. This
end is accomplished in various ways. The drained soil absorbs
the fertilizing elements which the water contains or which may
have been washed from manures. But in the undrained soil
much of this fertilizing material is lost. Water flows from the
land, and, being so completely saturated, the soil cannot absorb
anything from it. It is supposed that plants receive their food
in a state of solution — dissolved in water. If this is the case it
is easy to see why an excess of moisture is detrimental to crops.
Their food is so diluted that they can obtain but a very little.
A plant can take only a certain quantity. If the food which
should be dissolved in a pint of water is spread through a quart,
twice the time which ought to be sufficient will be required for
the plant to obtain its supply A calf that was obliged to drink
a barrel of water to obtain a pail of milk which had been stirred
therein would grow very slowly. Every one knows better than
to feed a calf in this way. But when the farmer attempts to
grow his crops in a wet, undrained soil, he tries to feed his plants
upon the same principle. It is plain that no great success can
attend such efforts.

In very dry seasons, manures which are used upon undrained
lands are not as efficient as they are upon drained soils of the
same nature. This is due to the fact that the former are very
compact and do not allow the small quantity of rain which falls
to pass freely through them, while the latter are mellow and
porous and allow the rain to wash down the elements of fertility
to the roots of the plants. In a wet season, manures applied to
wet land do not prove of much benefit because the presence of
an excess of water prevents the decomposition without which

418 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

manure cannot be made available for the use of crops. The fact
that there is much less waste of feitilizing elements from a well-
drained soil than from one which is full of water also accounts
for the increased permanence in the effect of manures which has
so often been observed.

The cost of draining will vary greatly with the character of
the soil, the kind of drains, the depth at which they are placed,
the cost of labor, expense of materials, and various other items
which in different sections command different prices. We have
already indicated our preference for tile drains. We consider
them altogether the best, and believe that in those sections
where land is valuable most farmers who can afford to drain
their land at all can afford to use tiles, and that, when per-
manence and efficiency are considered, they will find tiles much
cheaper than either stone or wood. But where land is too
cheap, or the owner cannot afford tiles, let him use the best
material which he can secure. Even brush drains are a great
deal better than none. The same may be said of turf drains
and open ditches. Because a farmer cannot have the best is no
reason why he should do without drains. If he cannot afford
tiles, let him commence draining in an inexpensive manner, and
the profits of his business may soon increase so that he can use
better materials.

The subject is one in which farmers throughout the country
are deeply interested. To those of the South it may be said to
have a special importance. Prof. Pendleton has called atten-
tion to the fact that much of the hilly land in some of the best
farming sections has become impoverished by a bad system of
culture, and by continual washings away of the soil and manure
which have been swept into the valleys which are now too wet to
be serviceable. He says that many valuable bottoms have been
lost to cultivation, and malarial fevers have become much more
prevalent than they formerly were. These lands, if well under-
drained, would become the most profitable of any in the SoUTH.

THE WATER SUPPLY. 419

" The uplands need an annual outlay of money for manures,
more than the ditching would cost." When once done as it
should be, the underdraining will last an age, and the land will
long be productive without requiring an excessive outlay for
fertilizers. Here seems to be an opportunity to make a per-
manent improvement and still save money by the operation. If
part of the money now paid for fertilizers to be used on the
uplands were to be invested in draining the lowlands, which are
already rich, they would immediately become more productive
than the other fields, larger crops would be obtained at a
reduced cost, and the cash value of the farms would be 'greatly
increased.

Unlike some permanent improvements draining makes an im-
mediate return. Upon heavy clay soils the best effects will not
be observed until the second year, but much benefit will be
obtained the first season. When once thoroughly done, if the
land is valuable, draining pays a large percentage upon the cost
of its performance. This work is not done merely for the pres-
ent, but also for the future. It makes returns immediately and
will continue to make them every season for an indefinite time.
In many cases the draining of his wet land -will be one of the
safest and best paying improvements which the owner can make
on his farm.

THE irmTEH SIJFFX.^'F,

OTH the comfort and the health of the farmer and his
family, and the thrift of his domestic animals, will de-
s(5) penc, in no small degree, upon the quantity and quality
^ of the water which is furnished on the farm. To be
without an adequate supply of water, even for a short time, at
any season of the year, causes a great deal of suffering" and
involves losses and injuries of various kinds. When the quan-
tity is abundant but the quality is poor, the evil is greatly
27

420 FARAfING FOR PROFIT.

increased. The danger is constant, and though the results of
exposure are not always at once apparent, they are pretty cer-
tain to become manifested sooner or later and to bring a great
deal of sufiering in their train. For while it is impossible to
live without water, and very unpleasant to be obliged to get
along with an insufficient quantity, it is absolutely dangerous to
use water which is very impure. Too many farmers regard the
water supply as merely a convenience. They are glad if they
have good water, and sorry if they have poor, but they do not
appreciate the one nor realize the danger involved in the use of
the other. Probably nine out of ten farmers who have only a
poor quality of water on their farms regard it as merely an
inconvenience, and think of a supply of good water as they do
of a silver-plated harness — a good thing to have, but one which
the average farmer can get along well enough without. The
idea that it would pay, not merely in convenience and comfort,
but in dollars and cents, to make an effort to obtain good water,
has never entered their minds. They will probably be inclined
to doubt our assertion that it will pay — an assertion which we
do not hesitate to make — until they have given the matter a
little careful thought. Then they will be thoroughly convinced
that it is just as important to invest money, if need be, to
secure good water, as it is to be at great expense to obtain
houses and barns.

The sources of supply of water for the farm are but few in
number, and upon most farms but one or two are in practical
operation. A verj^ few farms are so situated as to have running
water at the house and barn, or at either one of these buildings.
When this water flows from a good spring, through a good con-
ductor, and care is taken to divert the waste from the buildings,
all the advantages of a water supply may be secured and its
dangers can be almost wholly avoided. When the spring is
impure, the water must be bad. When it is taken from a small,
stagnant, dirty frog-pond, the water becomes an element of

THE WATER SUPPLY. 421

danger. Water flowing through a lead pipe, even though the
water at the spring riiay be first-rate, often brings poison into
the house and undermines the health of the inmates. This is
especially true of water which acts strongly upon lead, and of
those cases in which the water runs quite a distance and with
considerable rapidity. Not only are the inmates of the "farm-
house poisoned by water which has become impregnated with
lead by flowing through a pipe of that material, but the cattle
often sustain severe injury from the same cause. Many cases
have been observed in which cattle failed to do well, and the cause
was traced to the use of water passing through lead pipe. That
water flowing through lead pipes is dangerous to the health of
both man and beast there is an abundance of medical and chem-
ical evidence which we have not space to present, but which
ought to be sufficient to prevent the use of this material for con-
veying water which is to be used for drinking purposes. Careful
observation of the health of families and animals using water
which flows in lead pipes should be a means of inducing others
to let such water alone. The slow but certain accumulation
of poison in the system must work the greatest injury to the
health.

We should never favor the use of lead for conducting water
which is to be drank by man or beast. Wood is not as con-
venient or as durable, but is usually cheaper than lead, and has
the immense advantage of being safe. Iron is often used, and
generally gives satisfaction. Other materials are sometimes
employed. But for ordinary farm-use we prefer wooden pipes,
made of good material, and carefully laid.

The advantages of good running water to the house and barn
are much greater than are generally supposed — but water should
never be taken from a poor spring to be used about the buildings.
The farmer who has a never-failing spring of good water
conveniently located has a treasure which is worth far more than
it is usually estimated by owners or their neighbors. Such a

422 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

spring should be utilized, and, if possible, the water should
b'e made to flow to both house and bam. If the spring is
situated higher than the buildings, this can easily be done, for
the water will be ready enough to flow down hill. If the
buildings are on higher land than the spring, the water can
be forced up by a hydraulic ram. This, unless the distance
is great, will not involve a very great expense. The water
may first flow to a tank, or reser\oir, in the house from which
the waste-pipe leads directly to a tank at the barn. If the barn
is on higher land than the house, the water can come part way
from the spring in one pipe ; but at some point higher than the
tank at either building another should be added so that there
will be a separate pipe at each tank. If the supply of water is
small, a reservoir may be needed at this point ; but if there is
plenty of water, this will not be necessary.

Wherever water is taken from a spring, a great deal of care
should be used to keep it as clean and pure as possible. A fine
grate should be placed over the end of the pipe, the water
should flow into a small box or tank close by, from which the
pipes to the building should proceed, and a strong, tight fence
should be built around the spring to keep cattle and other
animals from getting to it The spring should be frequently
examined, and constantly kept in a wholesome condition.
When there is no spring of this description upon the farm, but
there is one near by which can be bought for a reasonable
price, \i ir.ay be wise to make the purchase. It will certainly
pay if the home supply of water is of poor qualit)'' or deficient in
quantity. In buying such property care should be taken to
secure a perfect title, and a good lawyer should be employed to
write the deed. This course may save a vast amount of trouble,
and some bitter quarrels in the future. As the advantages of
having good, pure, running water constantly at the house and
bam are very great^ the man who is buying a spring which will
answer all his requirements should be willing to pay a fair price

THE WATER SUPPLY. ^.y^

for its possession. The farmer who has such a spring on his
own land is very fortunate. He has one of the finest sources of
supply in all the world, and ought to use and be thankful for
the same.

Another source of supply— one upon which but comparatively
iQsv farmers depend— is the rain-water which falls upon'the roofs
of their buildings, and is collected in a cistern for use as it may
be required. When properly filtered this water is pure enough
for all practical purposes, but it is not usually as pleasant for
drinking as good spring water. Being "soft " it is excellent for
washing and for various hous.ehold purposes— very much better
than " hard " water from wells or springs. With this water the
labor of washing is very much reduced, and not nearly as much
soap is required as is needed when " hard " water is used. On
this account, and also because it is much better than it is to
have the water running into the cellar or around the buildings,
it is well for farmers who do not have from other sources good
water for washing, to provide cisterns in which the rain-water
can be preserved until it is wanted for use. Such a cistern may
be made of brick, of any size or shape desired, and should be
cemented on the bottom and sides. The bottom can be
covered with, and the walls made of, small stones, but we
should much prefer to use brick. A circular form seems to us
the most desirable. The size which will be needed will depend
upon the amount of surface of the roof upon which the rain is
to fall, and upon the regularity with which the water is used.
If a cistern is used merely to supply water when the wells have
failed from drought, it must be much larger than will be wanted
for common use. If it is only used to furnish water for washing-
days, it will not be necessary to have as large a one as would be
wanted if it were to hold water for all household purposes and
also a supply tor the cattle.

For each ten inches in depth a circular cistern five and one-
half feet in diameter Will hold a little more than one hundred

424 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

and forty-eight and one-half gallons. Mr. Waring gives the
average amount of rain in the Northern States at about three
feet per year, equal to three inches per month, and says that
" every inch in depth that falls upon a roof yields two barrels
for each ten feet square, and seventy-two barrels a year are
yielded by three feet of rain." With this rain-fall a barn thirty
by forty feet will supply an average of more than two barrels of
water per day during the entire year. Mr. Waring gives the
size of a circular cistern adapted to such a roof as the above as
thirteen feet in diameter and eight and one-third feet deep, pro-
vided it is used to furnish a daily supply of water. This would
hold what water would fall in the two wettest months of any
ordinary year. When the cistern is designed to hold water to
be used in time of drought, it should be made to contain about
three times as much as one of the size given above. It seems
to us that this size is much larger than will be needed by any
ordinary family — certainly larger than will be wanted if the
family use considerable well, or sprmg, water — but the cost of
making one of the above dimensions will not be very much
greater than that of one holding only half as much, and it is
better to have one larger than is needed than it is not to have it
large enough. When the water from the cistern is to be used
for cooking and drinking it should be filtered. It is better for
any purpose to have it purified in this manner. A very simple
and very perfect filter is thus described by Mr. Waring:
" Divide the cistern into two equal compartments by a wall of
brick or stone, open at the bottom to the height of about six
inches, and water-tight thence to the top. Let one compart-
ment be for receiving the water, and the other for containing it
when filtered and ready for use. Put alternate layers, six inches
deep, of gravel, sand, and pounded charcoal at the bottom of
the former, and sand and gravel at the bottom of the latter.
The former will receive the water from the pipe, and it will rise
filtered in the latter." The pipe from the roof should enter one

THE WATER SUPPLY. 425

of these compartments and the pipe from the pump the other.
The cistern should be arched over with brick, and a sohd,
closely-fitting trap-door should be provided at the top large
enough to allow a man to enter when it is necessary to clean
the interior. This door should be kept closed. An uncovered
cistern is an abominable nuisance, dangerous to man and beast,
and a perfect death-trap for children. If something cheaper
than the cistern described above is wanted, a square one can be
dug, walled, and cemented, and a flat plank cover closely fitted
over the top. A really good one need not be very expensive
and will more than pay for its cost every season. If a cheap
one is well made it will prove very useful and give good satis-
faction. We hope these strength and labor-saving conveniences
will become much more common than they have been as yet in
all the " hard " water districts of the country.

Another, and the principal source of supply, is to be found in
the ordinary well. By far the larger part of the farmers in this
country are unable to obtain running water, very many are
unable and many more make no effort to save the rain-water
which falls so abundantly, and so it comes to pass that nearly
all rely upon wells for supplying water. These, if properly
made and fed by living springs, answer the purpose for which
they were designed. But when badly made, or when the springs
are intermittent, they often fail. They fail, too, at just those
times when they are most needed. When there is water enough
everywhere else these wells yield an abundant supply. But let
a dry time come, so that the wells are really needed, and they
will very soon fail. It is a very common fault with wells that
they are not sunk deep enough. It is considerable work to dig
a well, and the farmer does not want to do any more of it than
is necessary. For this he cannot be blamed, but he should
remember that while digging a well is the time in which all the
work should be done. It is not nearly as expensive going to a
great depth then as it is after the well has been tried and found

42G FARMING FOR PROFIT.

too shallow. Wc have known some cases in which wells have
been lowered after haviny; been in use for years. It is better to
sink them deeper if they fail in dry seasons than to try to get
along with them as they arc, but it is far the best way to make
them right at first. A very dry time should be selected in which
to dig a well. When the ground is full of water the labor of
digging is greatly increased, and there is but little hope of secur-
ing a good well. If weak springs are struck they should be dis-
regarded and the well sunk to where a strong and constant flow
of water can be obtained. Another very common fault with
wells is that they are made too small. It is less work to dig a
small well than it is a large one, but it is not nearly as good
after it is dug. A small well is difficult to clean when it needs
such an operation, and it will not hold nearly as much water as
a large one. Very few farmers are aware of the difterence in
the capacity of large and small wells. A well three and a half
feet in diameter will hold fifty-nine and nine hundred and eighty
one-thousandths gallons of water for every ten inches in depth,
while a well six feet in diameter will hold one hundred and
seventy-six and two hundred and fifty-three one-thousandths gal-
lons for the same depth. Most wells fill up considerably in
spring and fall, but by constant use the water is gradually with-
drawn until it gets very low, or is entirely exhausted. If the
wells were larger they would hold enough to furnish a constant
supply. Besides, it is very much easier drawing the water when
it is near the top than it is to get it from a depth of twenty or
thirty feet. Large wells, sunk deep enough to gain one or more
strong and living springs, are very desirable, and should be
found on every farm which is not amply provided with water
from one or both of the other sources which have been con-
sidered. As a general rule, there should be one well for the
house and another for the barn. A well should never be located
in, or close to, a cellar, nor in a low spot of ground which
receives the drainage from the surface of the surrounding land.

THE WATER SUPPLY. 427

No sink drain, or any other drain, should be allowed to pass
near a well, and closets and vaults should be placed at such a
distance as to make it utterly impossible for the wells to be
affected by their drainage. These vaults slioidd be cemented,
but many of them are not, and their contents soak into the sur-
rounding soil. Upon some farms the well at which water for
the house is obtained is situated on much lower land than the
barn-yard. The latter is often very wet, and water runs from it
into the well. Such cases are altogether too common. Some-
times the well and cellar are connected by a system of natural
drainage.

One of our neighbors who had an undrained cellar and a well,
from which the drinking water was obtained, close by, found
that in a wet time the water would flow from the well into the
cellar, and when by constant use the quantity in the well was
diminished so that it reached a lower point than the bottom of
the cellar, there would be a current from the cellar into the well.
There are many, other ways in which the water in farm-wells
becomes contaminated. Organic matter in large quantities is
washed into the wells, and slowly decays. By the presence of
this matter the water is poisoned, and becomes a source of
disease to those who use it. Poisonous matters are carried in
this way a much greater distance than people generally suppose.
And the poison maybe so subtle fhat the water looks and tastes
as well as ever, although it holds in solution elements which are
dangerous to the health of those who drink it. The greatest
care should be taken to keep the water, both for the house and
barn, perfectly pure. The water in wells is sometimes contam-
inated by having a lead pipe constantly in the water, the pump
in the house, and the top of the well closely covered from the
air. In this way there is no method by which the air in the
well can be changed, or the water stirred. We have already
alluded to the bad effects resulting from the use of lead pipes to
conduct water from springs. When the pipe is placed in

428 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

standing water, and is kept constantly full, the danger from
poison must be very great. We would never allow a lead pipe
in a well from which we used the water. Wood or iron is much
to be preferred. When the pump is in the kitchen, as it always
should be, wooden pipes, though not as convenient, can be used
without a great deal of trouble or expense. The old-fashioned
bucket and sweep is a slow and hard method of drawing water.

The common suction-pump is easier and better. The
" chain " pump has the great advantage of stirring the water
and ventilating the well, but it wears out too soon. An
improvement, consisting of the use of rubber instead of metal
buckets on an endless chain, has lately been patented. We
have seen only one of these pumps in operation. It worked
well, and we see no reason why it will not be durable, and
answer all the purposes for which a pump on the farm is desired.
Wells should never be left uncovered unless high and strong
curbs are erected around them. Even when there is no pump it
is better that there should be a curb than to have the well
covered with planks. The latter will decay, and may break
under the weight of a man, or even a child. Animals are also
in danger of falling into these neglected wells. Heavy, flat
stones are better than planks, but a good curb is to be
preferred.

The only remaining source of supply which is in anything
like common use, and the use of which, though not general, is
altogether too common, is found in ponds and brooks which are
located upon, or flow through the farms to which they furnish
water. As an almost invariable rule the former arc among the
most miserable of all sources froTi which water is obtained.
The ordinary pond is full of water in a wet time, and nearly dry
in a time of drought. This water is heavily loaded with
organic matter, and in hot weather, when a large proportion of
what the pond has contained has been evaporated and what is
left is strongly concentrated, it is fit for neither man nor beast

THE WATER SUPPLY. 429

The pond which the poet describes, full of clear water, with
grassy bank, and clean, pebbly bed, is not the kind of pond
which is usually found on the farm. The genuine pond is a
dirty, muddy hole, partly full of stagnant water, which is
chiefly useful in furnishing a breeding-place for mosquitoes and
a home for frogs. The brooks furnish a far better quality of
water than ponds, but they are usually so located as to be
practically unavailable. Besides, as the water is liable to be
contaminated in various ways, this source is not sufficiently
pure to render it safe for family use. It ought to be too far
away to admit of profitable use, even if it were desired, for no
house should be built in the immediate vicinity of a brook.
The habit of turning cattle into the fields in winter to get water
from the brooks has involved loss enough to the farmers who
have practised it for any length of time to have enabled them
to have dug splendid wells, and furnished them with the best
pumps in the market. When cattle are driven out in this way
they will not drink as often as they ought to ; they will drink too
much at a time, and be badly chilled in consequence ; they will
be liable to accidents from slipping on the ice or down the
banks; their health will be injured, they will not thrive, and
there will be a great and inevitable waste of manure. No
farmer, however poor, can afford to follow such a wasteful
practice. He had better dig a well or else give up keeping
stock. A clean and never-failing brook in a summer pasture
will do nicely, but even this is not suitable for family use or for
a winter supply for cattle. And these clean brooks are not very
common. Consequently but comparatively few farmers can
have the advantages of them even in summer. The majority
should rely upon wells. These should be provided in pastures,
as a constant supply of pure water cannot be otherwise
obtained.' Where much stock is kept, a wind-mill, with an
automatic arrangement for regulating the quantity of water to
be pumped at any given time, should be provided.

430 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

In small pastures which are near the house the pumping may
be done by hand. In some localities the " driven well," which
is now being introduced in various parts of the country, may be
used to good advantage. It will furnish a plentiful supply of
water and its cost is very small. But it is not wise to place too
much dependence upon wells of this kind. They often prove
entire failures. Several have been put down in this neighbor-
hood. So far as we know, not one of them is strictly first-class,
while most of them are useless. In some places they do better,
and where they do succeed they furnish water at a low cost.
But in arranging for one of these wells the farmer should
insist upon having a good supply of water, or else having the
well free of expense. In this vicinity the agents are ready to
take the risk. They ought to everywhere. For the farmer can
hire a well dug which will be sure to furnish water. If he is to
pay anything for a driven well he should have the same cer-
tainty. We think these wells are better adapted for use in
pastures during the warm weather than they are for constant
use at a house or barn.

This subject of a water supply on the farm is one of very
great importance. It has a direct bearing upon the health and
happiness of man and beast, and exerts a powerful influence
upon the financial standing of the farmer. If any of our readers
think we have dwelt too much upon the convenience of
having a supply of good water, and have not paid enough
attention to the profit which it will add to the business of the
farmer, let them remember that in the convenience and comfort
of which we have spoken a high degree of financial success is
comprehended. But it may be well to put the matter a little
more strongly in the light of dollars and cents. Take a couple
of illustrations. On one farm there is one good v/ell at a house,
another at the barn, and a clear brook, or else a good well in
the summer pastures. The inmates of the house enjoy good
health, the cattle arc thrifty, and the farming pays. On another

HOME PRODUCTION. 431

farm the sink-drain passes near the well from which water is
taken for household purposes, the barn-yard and the vault are
on higher land and are altogether too near this well, the well at
the barn is an uncertain source of supply, is dry part of the time,
and receives part of the leachings of the yard when it is wet,
while in the pasture the cattle are obliged to get water from a
stagnant pond. The farmer and his family are afflicted with
various forms of disease which obstinately resist medical treat-
ment, though they involve a great expense for doctor's visits and
medicines. The cattle which are kept here do not thrive, the
young stock is poor and grows very slowly, cows lose their
calves, milk taints easily, the butter made from it is poor, much
of the manure is wasted while the cattle are running around
after water, and so the land grows poor, the crops are light, and
the farming does not prove a paying business. Such are some
of the items of difference caused by a good or a poor supply
of water on the farm. In the light of these, and of similar
things which might be mentioned if time and space would
permit, every farmer must see that his financial interests are at
stake, and that it will make a great difference with the results
of his work whether he has plenty of pure water on his farm or
attempts to get along with water which it is neither safe nor
pleasant for men or animals to use. The cost of furnishing good
water on a farm will be very soon saved in cash, and the comfort
which it brings will be free from all expense.

* *is^&^ »

^^1 N home production we have one of the foundation
)\ principles of successful farming. By accepting its
guidance many a man who was not only ignorant of
science in its application to agriculture, but who also
Worked at an immense disadvantage on account of his want of

432 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

skill in managing his aflfairs, has been enabled to win a very fair
degree of success, while many other men, of good education and
superior ability, have neglected this point while attending to
many others and have not been able to succeed.

There are theories which have been very nicely elaborated
and which prove, as far as theories can, that an enlightened and
strictly first-class style of farming demands the cultivation of
only a few kinds of crops by the individual farmer. We have
been very often told that scientific farming requires ^a man to
find what crops his land is the best fitted to produce, and then
devote himself with all possible zeal to the growth of those par-
ticular products, A great many farmers have been carried away
with the idea, and are now growing their " specialties" with very
indifferent success. The theory which looked so plausible on
paper docs not give as good practical results as were both ex-
pected and desired. There are certain places where it works very
well, and if there were a good market for everything at every
man's door there would be no difficulty in its general acceptance.
But such markets do not exist and cannot be made. We are
obliged to take things as they are, without regard to what they
ought to be, or to what they might be under different circum-
stances. Wisdom requires us to deal with facts to a much
greater extent than we do with theories. Of all the facts which
have a direct bearing upon the business of the farmer, few are
more clearly set forth by the experience of the past than that,
as a rule applicable to all sections, home production of articles
needed for home consumption is the surest way in which to win
success. Where one man has succeeded in the cultivation of
special crops, probably ten men have been successful in following
a course of mixed husbandr)^ The latter run much less risk
and average much higher profits than the former. In times of
general business depression the man who produces a large
proportion of his own household necessities has an immense
advantage over his neighbor who grows but a few crops and is

HOME PRODUCTION. 433

obliged to buy nearly everything which is used In his family.
• At such times the difference between the results obtained by
these methods appears greater than it does when all kinds of
business are good, but at all times the man who is obliged to
buy but little, even though he has but little to sell, is the one
who is on the direct road to success.

This principle of home production is the only one upon which
farmers can act with the assurance of becoming really indepen-
dent. We read and hear a great deal about the privations of
the pioneer settlers, and there is no doubt that they are obliged
to give up many things which would make them more comfort-
able and happy. At the same time there is abundant proof that
these settlers, who have to fight their way with nature, who have
but few tools and but little to do with though they have many
obstacles to overcome, are very likely to succeed in securino-
homes and obtaining property. There is no secret \p. the way in
which they secure their desired ends. They work hard, it is
true, but this can also be said of most of the farmers in the
older settled portions of the country. They are economical, and
so are a multitude of. farmers who do not get along in the world.
The main difference between the pioneer and the man who
has always lived in a thickly settled region is to be found in the
fact that the former grows upon his own land almost ever>'.thing
which himself or his family consumes, while the latter is constantly
buying of others things which he needs, and which he ought to,
but does not, grow for himself It is true that the man living in
a community is obliged to incur some expenses which the pio-
neer does not have to meet. He cannot, and he ought not to
try to live just as the pioneer does. With the progress of civil-
ization the expenses of living will, for a while, increase. But
with these extra expenses come many compensations of both a
moral and a pecuniary nature, and every one should rejoice in
the progress which has been made. Viewed in a moral light
it is of immense importance, both to the individual and the

434 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

community, that the benefits of churches, and schools, and post'
offices, should be extended to all the people in our land.

From a pecuniar}'- standpoint we find that though the neces-
sary expenses of livinjr are somewhat increased, the opportunities
for accumulation are also enlarged, and that the same principles
which were followed in the wilderness will lead to, at least, an
equal degree of success on the farm in the vicinity of a village
or town. The farmer who lives in a civilized community needs
money for more purposes than the pioneer, but as he has many
more ways of obtaining it, this can hardly be consjdered a dis-
advantage. He will be obliged to modify the details somewhat,
but the same general principles should be allowed to govern his
course. If it is objected that the difference in circumstances
and surroundings between the pioneer and the farmer in a thickly
settled community is so great that no legitimate comparison can
be instituted, we not only reply that the objection does not seem
to be well founded, but also that plenty of examples can be
found in the older communities which prove, beyond all chance
of cavil or doubt, that home production is the key to success on
the l:\rm.

If he will only look around him, probably every farmer will
find examples of the success which has been secured by adopt-
ing this principle. There are men in almost every hamlet who
have year after year been striving to supply their wants from
their own farms. They are, as a general rule, very quiet men.
They do not attend conventions and their voices are not heard
in public meetings in which the problems of the farm are dis-
cussed. Their silence has been the means of causing their
work to remain almost unnoticed. They do not carry on an
immense business. Other men seem to be doing a great deal
more than they. But when it comes to the profit, which is the
end in view, they are far in advance of their more prominent
neighbors. There are no mortgages upon their farms and they
have no large outstanding bills. They are not obliged to buy

HOME rRODUCTION: 435

largely on the credit of a crop yet to be grown, and they are
never left at the mercy of dealers in a certain kind of grain or
compelled to risk everything upon the success or failure of a
single crop.

We are well aware that those who are opposed to this view
present some very plausible arguments against it, but we also
know how the two theories work in practical experience, and we
are strongly inclined to favor that which gives good results
in practice in preference to a plan which is ably supported by
arguments but which breaks down under a practical test. Dur-
ing the past fifteen years we have seen the workings of the
specialty system on rn extensive scale. We expected a partial
failure, but the results were far more disastrous than we antici-
pated. In one of the finest farming sections of this broad land
the specialty system, in connection with evils which naturally
follow in its course, has brought hundreds of men, who under
the old system of culture were doing well, into circumstances
of financial embarrassment, while many have been sold out of
house and home by the sheriff.

Twenty years ago the farmers in the Connecticut Valley were
doing a small but a reasonably profitable business. They cul-
tivated a variety of crops, produced on their own farms a large
part of their household necessities, and had no debts which they
could not pay.- But in an evil hour some venturesome spirits
found that tobacco would pay a large profit. The price advanced
rapidly, the demand increased, and a multitude of farmers who
had been in the habit of growing corn, potatoes and hay, turned
their attention to the culture of this crop. Like the tulip mania
which in olden time well-nigh ruined the staid old inhabitants of
Holland, this tobacco mania seemed to fairly possess the souls
of men who had been regarded as wise counsellors and worthy
examples. Young men thought they saw the way to fortune
very clearly marked out, and bought land for the culture and

put up buildings for the curiag of tobacco, going into debt for.
28

436 FARMING FOR FRO FIT.

both land and buildings "^ith a recklessness almost sublime.
Land rapidly advanced in price. In some sections land which
was barely worth one hundred dollars was sold for five hundred
dollars per acre. Men seemed to think that by making a spe-
cialty of tobacco they could afford to pay almost any price for
land.

Not only did they buy land at fearfully inflated prices, but
they bought almost everything else. They had but little
money, and soon were deeply in debt ; but by growing tobacco
they expected to make money enough to pay for everything
which they wanted to buy. Those were golden days for
dealers in sewing machines, parlor organs and pianos. Sales
could be easily effected at prices which were highly satisfactory
to the agents and their employers.

The idea also became firmly fixed in a great many minds that
the tobacco-grower could buy all the ordinary farm-products
cheaper than he could grow them. Many a farmer, who in
former times had made money in growing corn for half what
was then its selling price, was convinced that it would not pay
.him to grow corn, for he could buy it for less than the actual
• cost of cultivation. The same reasoning was applied to almost
all of the other old-fashioned crops. As the inevitable result
of such a course, farmers not only had nothing but tobacco to
sell, but, far worse than this, they were constantly obliged to
buy things which they had formerly grown at home. After a
few years, the farms began- to show an unmistakable decline.
The few acres which had been devoted to tobacco, and to which
large quantities of fertilizers had been applied, were in fine con-
dition, but all the rest of the farm had been robbed in order to
make the tobacco fields rich enough to produce a good crop.

Still farmers seemed to have implicit faith in .the future of
tobacco, and though their debts remained unpaid, and their bills
at the village store were daily increasing in amount, they were
not alarmed Once a year they sold their tobacco. For a few

HOME PRODUCTION. 437

days they had considerable money. But when the store bills
were settled, and the interest on their borrowed money was
paid, they were, in a financial point of view, pretty well reduced.
In a short time the old credit system was again adopted. They
bought freely, promising to pay when they sold their tobacco.
Large quantities of fertilizers were bought to be paid for when the
crop to which they were applied was ripe and sold. Sound busi-
ness principles seemed to be forgotten by buyer and seller alike.
All parties who were engaged in the business failed to see that
tobacco-growing not only possessed all the weakness which is
inherent in the one crop system, but certain elements of danger
not necessariljf connected with the growing of a specialty. But
in time their eyes were opened. When it was too late their
mistake became evident.

Tobacco proved to be a very uncertain crop. In good
seasons, when the land was of a suitable nature and was well
prepared, there was no great difficulty in securing a good yield.
But some seasons were not favorable, and the crop did not do
well. One summer an untimely hail-storm utterly destroyed
the whole crop for many farmers who had made it their chief
reliance for the support of their families for a year. Some
seasons drought seriously injured it; at other times the tobacco-
worm was terribly destructive ; and when these evils were
avoided or overcome, others seemed to be ready to carry on the
ruinous work.

Then, too, when the growth of the crop was all that could be
desired, the curing process was not always safely accomplished.
In some cases, after the cost of growing and harvesting had
been sustained, a defect in the curing almost ruined the product.
After a while a time came when the demand for tobacco ceased.
Unlike corn, or wheat, or many other crops which are some-
times grown as specialties, this product could not be consumed
at home. For all practical purposes it was wholly worthless.
Until it would sell it wa« good for nothing. Prices rapidly

438 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

went down, and the dream of the tobacco-grower came to an
end. Many farmers found debts pressing heavily upon them
with no means of payment. "Hard times" came on, and
property depreciated rapidly in value until it came to a point
>vhcre prices were merely nominal. Some of those who had
done the largest business and been considered wealthy men
went through bankruptcy, and paid but a few cents on a dollar.
Others compromised with their creditors, while some sanguine
men attempted to pull through. Like the growth of Jonah's
gourd, the prosperity of this industr)' was sudden and brilliant ;
while like the decay of that vine, whose history will be
immortal, its failure was sudden, unexpected and* complete. It
was a terrible revelation, but it came with all the force of
solemn truth.

Perhaps some reader will be inclined to assert that all this
loss and evil was due to the peculiar times and the extra-
ordinary circumstances by which these men were surrounded
rather than to their devotion to a special line of farming. But
this suggestion is shown to be wholly at fault by the fact that
scattered through the various towns in which this tobacco
mania raged, were many farmers who did not deviate from their
old style of managing business, and who have gone straight
through these troublous times without financial embarrassment,
whose work has paid them well, and who are now regarded as
successful farmers by men who a few years ago thought them
" old fogies," and were sure that they were lacking in enterprise
as well as in judgment. The test has been very severe, and the
lesson is well worth remembering. Let no one think that fancy
has heightened the colors of this sketch of the tobacco interest.
We have lived in the midst of the excitement, and have seen
the results. We know whereof we do affirm, when we assert
that the making of tobacco a specialty was a ruinous experi-
ment. Yet many things were favorable for its cultivation. A
, very, .fine quality of leaf was secured, and when tobacco was in

HOME PRODUCTION. 439

demand this grade sold for a high price. Probably some
tobacco might have been grown without involving pecuniary-
loss. Merely from a financial standpoint it might have paid
well. The trouble was chiefly caused by making its produc-
tion a specialty. And trouble of like nature, though of less
extent, will be liable to come to farmers who engage in any
specialty to the exclusion of all othsr productions.

The idea, advocated by the specialist, that the man who gives
his whole time and attention to the production of a single crop
can grow that crop to better advantage than he could if he gave
it only part of his time and attention, is undoubtedly correct.
The weak place in the argument is to be found in the fact that
when this crop is grown the owner has only one product on
hand while he needs many. For him to obtain these products is
not merely a matter of convenience, it is a case of necessity.
Then, too, the specialists have an idea that certain crops can be
bought cheaper than they can be raised, and they bring this
reasoning to bear upon almost every crop which the farmer can
grow. They seem to think that they can prove by figures that
each and every farm-crop costs more to produce than it sells for
in market. That this is false reasoning is abundantly proved by
the fact that the average farmer supports a family and pays
taxes without running into debt.

If the theory of the specialists were true, the harder they
worked the more money the farmers who grow the ordinary
crops would lose. It is not uncommon to hear farmers in the
older States assert that it costs a dollar a bushel to grow Indian
corn while it can be bought for sixty-five cents, and to reason
from this that a farmer had better not try to grow this crop.
That there is a mistake in their figures is proved by the fact that
our most successful farmers are corn-growers. If any other
crop is taken as an example, men will be found in every farming
community who will assert that its selling price is far below its
real cost. It is generally impossible to convince these men by

440 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

taking a single crop for an example, but even they can see that
the farmer cannot buy everything which he uses. Unless he cul-
tivates some crop which he can either sell or use he will speedily
find his way to the poor-house. As a general rule, the nearer
he can come to supplying his own wants the more successful
tlie farmer will be.

We think there is a very strong tendency in all parts of the
country to abandon all exclusive specialties and adopt a system
of diversified farming, and we are glad to note that many of the
leading agricultural journals 'strongly favor this change. In
some sections it is becoming almost a necessity for the farmer
to increase the number and variety of his crops. The specialties
which have long been almost exclusively grown have nearly
exhausted the soil of the particular elements of which they are
composed, and the crops which are now secured are small and
rapidly becoming unprofitable. A system of rotation of crops
will give a great deal of aid in restoring the fertility of the land
and increasing the quantit>' of its productions.

Not only does home production secure a fair reward for his
labor, but it also insures to the farmer a good degree of inde-
pendence. This is an important clement and must never be
omitted from the account when the profits of various methods
of farming are under consideration. The farmer who is doing a
large business in one direction and attempting nothing else is
not as independent as the one who does much less but grows
many different crops. At first glance it may seem as if this
division of his energies would be a ruinous thing, but closer
inspection will prove it to be very beneficial.

In order that our meaning may be clear we will suppose two
cases. The first is that of a farmer who makes wheat-growing
a specialty. As far as farming is concerned, his whole attention
is devoted to the production of this one crop. He strives* to
grow it as cheaply as possible, and bends all his energies to the
accomplishment of this one aim. He is an intelligent man and

HOME PRODUCTION. .^^j

is reasonably successful in his endeavor. He grows a large
quantity of good wheat and has no difficulty in selling it when
there is a call for this kind of grain. Occasionally, when the
prices are very low, he holds on for an advance. As a general
rule this does not prove a good method, and he usually sells for
the market rates. In order to grow as large a quantity as he
desires he is obliged to keep several horses and a few hired
men. Both the horses and the men must be fed, but neither of
them can subsist on wheat alone. Meal must be bought for the
team and many articles for the men. Even hay is purchased by
some farmers who are engaged in growing specialties.

While the income from the sale of the large lot of wheat
is considerable, it is secured at a great disadvantage. The
soil, as already shown, will either be rapidly exhausted of some
of the most valuable mineral elements of plant-food or else these
elements must be furnished by the owner at a great and con-
stant expense. It makes a great difference with the profit of a
crop whether the manure which is needed for its growth can be
obtained from the farm, without any direct expense, or must be
purchased at high prices and paid for in cash. If a man is
obliged to pay several hundred dollars every year for fertilizers
it will not only reduce the profits of his business, but, in a few
years, this money with the accumulated interest will amount to
a large sum. In order to return this money with interest, and
over and above these items pay for the labor which is performed,
interest and taxes on the land and other capital invested, and
keep this capital unimpaired besides paying the other and inevit-
able costs of production, the wheat crop must return a very
large sum. After deducting these items many wheat-growers
would have but little, if any money left.

But v,h:n this crop is made the only reliance, the farmer and
his family must be supported from its proceeds. It should
return enough not only to pay all the expenses of its production
but also to keep the family in comfort for at least a year. This

442 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

is not all. On a farm managed in this mannef the labor is per-
formed at a great disadvantage. Much of the time both men
and teams arc comparatively idle. There is nothing which can
be done for the wheat, and there is nothing else to do anything
for. But the pay of the men and the expense of keeping the
teams go on without reduction.

When time for work comes the labor is very hard and exact-
ing, but it must receive prompt attention or else great loss will
result. This way of working is not as conducive to health as
the slower and steadier methods of toil which are followed where
many different crops are grown.

Again, in selling the wheat crop and buying family supplies
there is quite a percentage of loss which it is usually impos-
sible to avoid. This will appear when we reflect that the
wheat which the farmer disposes of to the dealer is sold for
the lowest wholesale rates. Every man through whose hands it
passes charges a profit thereon, and by the time it reaches
the consumer the price is much higher than the farmer was able
to obtain.

The same principle governs the sale of all other products.
Consequently, while the farmer sells his wheat at the very lowest
market quotations, when he comes to buy the products of other
farms he becomes a consumer and is obliged to go to the other
end of the scale and pay the high retail rates. Had he pro-
duced these things himself, he could have had them all at whole-
sale prices, but in preferring to grow wheat with which to pay
for them he loses the difference between these two extremes.
This is a matter of no small importance. It costs a great deal to
support a family when the purchases of supplies are all econom-
ically made and the average farmer has no money to waste or
to lose in unprofitable exchanges. With the present styles of
living and dressing there will be a necessity for as much buy-
ing as the farmer ought to do if he produces all that he can at
home.

HOME PRODUCTION. 443

Let us now consider the method adopted by the farmer who
beHeves in home production. He does not devote his whole
attention to the culture of any particular crop, but endeavors to
grow many kinds and grow them well. He desires to obtain a
good grass crop, at a cost not exceeding" its real value. To
secure this he keeps a good stock of cattle to which the hay is
fed. The manure from these cattle is applied to the various
cultivated crops, and much of it remains to enrich the soil and
produce grass after the crops to which it was originally applied
have been removed. Good wheat is succeeded by good grass
which remains productive for several years. As milk and butter
are wanted for family use, a few good cows are kept to furnish a
supply. Corn is grown for the purpose of feeding the hogs and
for fattening the beef which is needed in the family. Oats are
frequently wanted for horses and young stock, and are produced
on the farm. Either wheat or xy&, and in many cases both, find
a place in sufficient quantity to furnish the family with bread.
Roots and vegetables are also grown in abundance, and poultry
is kept to furnish eggs and meat. In short, almost every vege-
table and animal production which the farmer needs and can
grow is given a place on his farm. This adds considerably to
his work, it is true, but it also greatly reduces the household
expenses. The farm, as a whole, is kept in much better con-
dition and at a much less expense than is usually done under
the one crop system, and much of the extra work which is
required is done at those times in which both men and teams
would otherwise be unemployed.

By this system many of the wants of the farmer and his family
are not only supplied, but there is often a surplus of the various
products which can be exchanged for articles which cannot be
produced on the farm. Eggs can be exchanged for tea and
coffee, and butter can be made to pay for many of the little
things which the grocer must furnish. Poultry can be exchanged
for other meat, if desired, and vegetables are often given in pay-

444 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

ment for other classes of goods. Thus, instead of being obliged
to. sell all that he grows and pay cash for all that he buys, the
farmer can exchange many of his products for things that he
needs. Of course, these products cost him something, but they
do not, at least do not need to, cost him as much as he receives
for them. Thus there is a direct profit on the articles which he
exchanges as well as a saving in furnishing these things instead
of money. Take the hens for an illustration. — It costs some-
thing to keep them, but if they are properly rtianaged this cost is
considerably below their selling price. Then, too, the hens pick
up a great deal of material which they can utilize, yet which but
for them would be wholly wasted. The production of sugar on
the farm is another good illustration of the profits of home
growing of all the household necessities that the farm can supply.
If the farmer attempts nothing of this kind he is obliged to pay
quite a sum every year, often several dollars every month, for
sugar and molasses. But if he has a maple orchard, or, where
this is impossible, grows sorgo or the sugar cane, he can obtain
nearly all of these materials which he will need for a very small
outlay in money. Some labor will be required, but it will be
labor which is well rewarded. If either sugar cane or sorgo is
grown and the business of the farmer is not large enough to
warrant the purchase of a mill, there can generally be found
neighbors enough to club together and buy one to be used in
common, or else some one in the vicinity already possessing a
mill will work up the cane for a share of the product. In either
of these ways, one of which will be found feasible in all sections
where either the Sugar (Ribbon) Cane or Sorgo can be grown,
the home production of sugar can be made very profitable,
while the manufacture of sugar and syrup from the sap of the
Maple tree requires so small an investment that any farmer who
has a good sugar orchard can easily obtain the icw and simple
implements which he will need for making it productive.

Other illustrations might be given, but enough has been said

HOME PRODVCTION. 445

to show the far greater degree of independence of the farmer
who attempts to supply his household wants, than can be enjoyed
by the one who makes a specialty of a single crop and gives all
his time and skill to its production. But this chapter ought not
to close without calling attention to the great risk which the
specialist is constantly obliged to run. If his hopes are all cen-
tred upon the wheat crop, and all of his income as well as all
the material for supplying his household necessities must come
from this one product, and for any reason wheat proves a failure
his loss is very heavy. We all know that wheat sometimes fails
to produce a paying crop and that other grains are subject to
similar risks. From this we should infer that farmers would
much rather grow several crops than to stake everything upon
a single one.

If a man grows wheat, and corn, and oats, and potatoes, there
is no probability that the season will be so unfavorable as to.
destroy all of these crops. The wheat may be injured, and the
other crojis saved. Or one or two of the other crops may
suffer, and the remaining ones still do well. This matter of
comparative safety is a very important one to all farmers of
limited means. A wealthy farmer does not like to lose all the
crops of a whole season, but he will not be wholly ruined by
such a loss. The poor man, however, who has all that he can
well do to keep along when things go reasonably well, cannot
afford to take any extra risks. With him safety and certainty
should be the principal conditions and recommendations to be
required in the selection of his crops. The man who follows
this course will not handle as much money as the specialist will
obtain in favorable seasons, but he will have much more comfort
and less anxiety, and will be very likely to find more real profit
when he balances his books for the year, than the man who has
grown only one crop can show. For it is not, by any means, the
amount of money which men receive which makes them rich,
but the amount which they are able to save, and a small

446 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

business which is properly managed, and in conducting which
but i^w expenses are involved, will often pay much better than
a large one in which the expenditures are both large and
constant. The old proverb, " a penny saved is a penny earned,"
has a great deal of truth in a very small compass. If by
growing an acre of wheat the farmer can save the payment of
twenty dollars for flour which his family needs, he has really
secured as much as though he had earned that amount of
money, and then exchanged it for flour. This principle has a
wide range of application, and should always be remembered
by the man who desires to be a successful farmer.

Not only does the general principle of home production
seem to be a safe and desirable one for the farmer to follow,
but the tendencies of the present time, and the condition of
the soil in large sections of the country', both point to its
adoption as far preferable to any other plan of cultivation which
has yet been tested. It is not as easy to obtain money now as
it was a few years ago, but the great necessities of food and
clothing are in just as good demand, and are just as truly
required as they ever were. That they always will be needed is
evident, and it also seems clear that the man who labors to
supply them, as far as possible directly from his own farm, is
taking the wisest course which he can pursue. The worn out
tobacco-lands of Virgini.\, the exhausted cotton-fields of several
of the Southern St.\tes, the rapidly decreasing yield of the
great wheat-fields of the West, and the exhausted rye-fields of
New England, all seem to demand a system of diversified
farming which shall check this ruinous exhaustion of the
soil, and at the same time secure to the husbandman a higher
reward for his labor, and a greater certainty of success in his
business than the present methods enable him to obtain.

O VER- PR on UCTIOIsr. 447

HIS is one of the great evils with which the farmers of the

%ll present day are often obHged to contend. It is an evil

^5j^* which it is somewhat difficult to modify, and still more

■'\£' difficult to remove. Owing to their great numbers, the
want, if not the impossibility, of close organization, the wide
differences in the soil and climate, and the constant fluctuations
in the demands of both the local and the foreign markets,
together with the fact that they are scattered over a vast area,
the farmers are, more than any other class, exposed to losses
from over-production.

In order to modify, and if possible prevent, the evils re-
sulting from over-production, a wise selection of crops should
be made. The farmer must decide for himself which crops shall
be grown, and the quantities in which they shall be produced.
But his judgment should be based upon sound and extensive
knowledge. He should take the papers which give accurate
market reports, and should carefully study the figures which
they present. He ought to be informed concerning the crop
prospects, and in regard to any extensive changes which may
be going on in different sections of the country. But he should
not often change his crops in hope of securing those which sell
for the highest rates.

There are many farmers continually changing crops in order
to obtain high prices. This would be bad, even if the desired
rates were secured. But it generally happens that those who
rush after the spoils are a little too late. They increase the
supply to such a degree that the price goes extremely low.
Meanwhile some other crop, the culture of which has been
abandoned by many farmers for that of the one which was
selling high, becomes scarce, the price rises, and another change
is made. Then there are a few years in which the crop which
the changing ones left sells well, while the one which they have

448 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

selected follows the course of all such crops when the supply
largely exceeds the demand, and the price runs down below a
paying figure. In this way some farmers are constantly going
the rounds, always a little too late to get the highest prices, and
holding on long enough to sell for the very lowest ones. This
is a ruinous course. The farmer has to sell his crops for less
than they are worth. The constant changing prevents the
following of any suitable system of rotation, and the cost of
production is largely increased. Of course, there may be
circumstances in which it will be best to change the ordinary
rotation of crops. But frequent changes which are made to gain
the benefit of high prices are very unprofitable.

How shall the farmer protect himself from the evils which,
often in spite of his individual action, over-production threatens
to bring upon him ? We know of but one method which
promises to be effcclual. That is by furnishing only the best
grade of articles. It is said that when Daniel Webster was a
young man and thinking of studying law, some friend asked
him if the legal profession was not already crowded. He
replied that it was, but added the significant remark, " there is
room enough at the top." He worked his way to the top, and
became a brilliant lawyer. While inferior men, or men who had
made a poorer use of their abilities, had small fees and but little
to do, Mr. Webster was liberally paid and had all the business
to which he could attend. This principle will be just as
powerful an aid on the farm as it was in the law office. The
best farmer will be successful. The man who has the finest
wheat in the country can sell it even though multitudes of
growers who have only a poor grade are obliged to wait long
for a buyer. Even in a time of the greatest plenty farm produc-
tions which are strictly first-class will sell. They may not com-
mand as high prices as the owners desire, but they can be
converted into cash at times when the poorer grades cannot be
sold. It is often the case that first-rate fruit will sell for a hisfh

O VER-PR OD UCTION. 449

figure when a medium grade will go far below its actual worth,
and no buyers can be found for a poor one. The best peaches
are not thrown by the car load into the docks at New York.
All the nicest ones which reach New York, or any other city,
in good condition, are sold. It is the poor, unripe specimens
which are tnrown away. The finest grains and nicest fruits, and
all other first-rate farm products, can be sold. They will not
only sell for higher prices, but also in larger quantities than
poorer grades. A family will consume more good butter than
it will poor, and will be willing to pay a higher price per pound.
The same principle applies to all other farm products. Our
cities and towns are full of people who must have the products
of the farm. Many of these people are poor and must buy the
cheapest grade they can find. But there are multitudes who are
in good circumstances, and who will not buy a poor grade if
they can get a better one. They are not able to pay the
extreme fancy prices which a few wealthy parties give, but they
are both able and willing to pay well for what they buy if it is
really nice.

There has been, is now, and perhaps there always will be, an
over-production of poor butter, poor fruit, poor beef, and a low
grade of almost everything else which is sold from the farm,
but the man who has a nice grade of any standard farm product
need not keep it long on hand. Whatever may become of the
poorer kinds, his own products will sell. Let the farmer who
fears that over-production will be the ruin of the country, take
special pains to secure the finest quality in the goods which he
takes to the market, and he will soon find that there is a demand
for all the products which he can supply.

450 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

T must be evident to every thinking man that there is no

i

one thing which the farmer can do with perfect con-
fidence that it will insure the production of a good crop.
\^ There are many operations which are essential to suc-
cess, and while no one of them alone can meet all the require-
ments of the case, no one of them can safely be left out. It is
absolutely necessary that the land should be well prepared, but if
nothing else were done the best preparation in the world would
not produce a crop. It is also necessary that good seed shoulJ
be used, but even this alone will amount to nothing. There
must be a good soil, a suitable preparation, and proper culture
of the growing plants, in connection with the use of good seed,
if the best results are to be secured.

For some reason which is not plain to be seen, the selection
of the seed as one of the leading elements in the production of
large and profitable crops, has never received the attention
which it has deserved. Other matters seem to have engrossed
the attention of most of the men who have made agriculture a
special study. They have been engaged in trying to discover
new varieties, to learn the best methods of fitting the soil, and
in developing new systems of cultivation. Meanwhile the
practical farmers have gone right along in the old way of
using secJ from their own crops, and without making a careful
effort to select that which was the best fitted for their purpose.
There have been some individual exceptions to this rule, but
the general practice has indicated a great lack of interest in this
very important part of their work. The study and thought
which have been given, and the experiments which have been
made in these other directions, have led to valuable results.
The labors of men who have been engaged therein should be
gratefully recognized, and farmers should cheerfully avail them-
selves of the benefits which have thus been placed within their
reach.

GOOD SEED.

4ol

But m addition to all the light which has been obtained
and all the advantages which have been secured in these direc'
tions, there is need of a clearer realization of the fact that the
seed exerts a controlling influence upon the quantity and
quality of the crop. It is for want of attention ro this fact that
so many efforts to obtain large yields have failed of success
In some of these cases all of the conditions except this one
seem to have been complied with, but the seed which was used
was not the best, and the best results were not obtained. Just
as long as effect follows cause, just so long will it be impossible
to secure first-class crops from second-class seed. We know
that m the animal world the character of the offspring, is deter
mmed by that of its parents. We can have the same assurance
concerning the individuals of the vegetable kingdom The
seed as surely determines the character and appearance of the-
crop which it produces a's parents impress their characteristics
upon their children.

Let us consider some of the powers and qualities which are
or should be, possessed by the seed of our ordinary farm-crops'
In some inexplicable manner there is hidden in every well-
developed seed a mysterious quality called Vitalitv This
quality enables the seed, when placed under certain favorable
conditions, to germinate, and thus commence the series of
changes which will result in the production of other specimens,
of .ts kind. As long as the seed is kept intact this power lies
dormant. When it becomes active, a change in the character
and appearance of the seed is manifest. The interest of the
farmer requires that this change shall take place only in those
specimens which he uses for the production of future crops and
that they shall remain in their natural condition until or 'very
neariy until, the time when they are cast into the soil 'por the
process of growth injures the seed for other purposes, and 'if if
takes place long before the seed is planted, spoils it for repro-
duction. Consequently, it is for the, interest of the farmer to,

«0

452 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

keep his ripened grain as much as possible from all untoward
iniiucnces. If his wheat, which is in the stack, is for several
successive days exposed to warm and wet weather, much of it
will sprout. In other words, the vital principle becomes active,
chemical changes are effected, and growth is the result. In
such circumstances growth inevitably means injury, and this
injury is very closely in proportion to the extent to which the
changes are effected. If the rain is of short duration, and the
kernel merely absorbs a little moisture which is soon evap-
orated, no great harm is done. But if the rain continues, and
the kernel keeps on absorbing moisture, in a short time the
starch which it contained, and which is absolutely necessary to
the production of nice flour, is converted into sugar, which is
considerably diluted with water. As the process continues, the
sugar which has been formed is changed to cellulose, and the
kernel is wholly ruined for flouring purposes. The conversion
of the starch into sugar before the kernel is planted also injures
it for seed, because the plant cannot live for any length of time
away from the soil, and unless the seed is at once put into the
ground all the growth which has been made will be wholly lost
The young shoot will very soon wither and die.

This is not all the injury that has been done as we shall see
at once when we reflect that the starch which was stored in the
kernel was just the kind of food which the plant requires for its
nourishment until its roots become strong enough to obtain food
from the soil and its leaves are developed enough to secure the
materials for growth which are furnished to all plants by tlic
atmosphere. But the process of sprout ng through which the
kernel has passed has changed the materials of the seed and
partially used them as food for the plant which had become
partly developed. When such a seed is planted it will absorb
moisture, but there will be no starch and but little sugar upon
which the plantlet can feed. Some seeds will only sprout once,
and if the process .of germination is checked it cannot be

GOOD SEED.

renewed. Other seeds will endure some interruption, thou^I.
they are greatly injured thereby. From this it will be evide^nt
that the selection of seed is a matter of importance to the farmer
and that m making the selection he should be careful to obtain
only that in which the quality described as vitality is un-
impaired.

Another quality which some seeds possess, and which shonid
always be sought when a selection is made, may be described
as Vigor. This can never be present without vitality, but th^re
can be vitality without vigor. There are men in the world who
are al.ve but who possess but very little vital force. It requires
about all of their strength to n.aintain their feeble hold upon
hfe. The same principle applies in all of its fulness to the case
o plants. In a great many fields of grain plants can be found
wh.ch, while living, are but little better than dead. They «-,r|
grow for a while, and the fields may look a little better for their
presence, but the difference which they will make in the yield
of the crops will be very small. From these extren,ely weak
specmens there are various grades of improvement until we
reach the plants which are full of life and strength. Each and
every stalk of these several grades has power to produce seed
after .ts own kind. If the seed from the strongest plants is
saved to furnish the germs for a future crop, the plants which
W.11 be secured will, if circumstances are favorable for thcr
development, be almost sure to be strong and vigorous. Rut if
seed ,3 saved from the weak stalks, the product of that seed <vm
be very likely to be still weaker than the parent stalks The
grade of plants can be lowered much more easily than it can be
ra,sed. The natural tendencies seem to be downward rather
than toward a higher type. Still, this tendency can be counter-
acted, and the various kinds of plants can be greatly improved
by careful selection combined with good cultivation

The facts that the seed has a strong power of impressing its
own characteristics upon its product, and that this power i.

451 FARMING 1-OR PRO FIT.

somewhat modified by a natural proneness to seek a lower level,
• should induce farmers to make a very careful selection of the
seed which they design to use for planting. They also show
very plainly why some farmers who have good land and give
good culture do not obtain paying crops. These men are not
careful in making a selection of seed, but take about an average
lot for this purpose. In this there is the product of some stalks
of each cf the several grades of vigor. While part of the seed
was produced by the best stalks, much of it came from the
weakest plants. The grains from the best stalks will probably
yield a good crop, but those which came from the lower grades
will be very sure to have all the undesirable qualities of their
parent plants. If we sow seed from weak plants we must
expect to have weak plants for our product, and if our crops are
largely composed of weak plants, they will be both small and
unprofitable.

Another quality which seed should possess is Permanence
OF Characteristics. This is an important quality and one
which a great deal of seed does not possess. It can be secured
by careful selection of the seed which is used in a series of years.
Without it there is a great deal of risk that the crops will be
poor. In their efforts for the improvement of seeds, horticul-
turists often have a great deal of trouble to fix the characteristics
of certain specimens which they wish to preserve, and it often
requires many years to enable them to secure the desired result.
But when permanence has once been established it can be
retained by carefully selecting the seed which is to be sown.
If this selection is neglected the variety will show a strong ten-
dency to run back to its original condition. The common
carrot furnishes an illustration of this. As long as the seed is
carefully saved from good specimens, and proper cultivation is
given, the crops which are obtained will be like the ones which
produced the seed. But if there is carelessness in producing the
^. seed, or culture is neglected, it will be but a short time before

GOOD SEED. 455

the useful carrot is changed into a worse than useless weed.
Many crops retain their distinguishing characteristics much
better than the carrot, but with all plants there seems to be a
strong tendency to revert to some former style of growth and
appearance. It requires a vast amount of patient effort to firmly
" fix " the characteristics of new kinds of grain. In selecting
seed the farmer should keep this fact in mind, and not only
secure seed which is good in itself, but also that which will,
under good cultivation, produce its like. And when this char-
acteristic has been secured it can, and should, be maintained by
means of careful selections of seed for future crops.

Early Maturity is another quality which the seed of farm
crops should possess. In the minds of many farmers this quality
is generally associated with a dwarfish habit of growth and a
light yield of grain. But these things do not always connect
themselves with an early ripening of the seed. Still it is quite
natural that the longer the time v/hich a crop requires in which
to mature, the larger it should grow, and we find that many of
the very large varieties of grain are late about ripening their
seed. Perhaps if plants were left wholly to themselves this
would be a universal rule, but under the present methods of
culture there are many exceptions. With some varieties man
has long been experimenting in order to change the time of
ripening, and his efforts have been very successful. Some me-
dium-sized varieties of corn have been made to ripen some weeks
earlier than their original time, and this has been accomplished
without diminishing the size of either stalks or ears and without
decreasing the yield per acre. For grain which is grown in the
Northern States this is a valuable characteristic. In some un-
favorable seasons the question whether corn could or could not
be ripened has turned wholly upon the possession, or the want,
of this one quality. In New England, and also in several of the
Western States, it sometimes happens that the warm season is
very short. Spring opens late and cold, and frosts come very

456 FAR\fING FOR PROFIT.

early in Autumn. In such seasons the seed cannot be safely
planted until quite late, and unless the variety matures early the
frost will find the grain unripe and cause it serious injury.

Every farmer who has handled the corn crop knows that well-
ripened grain is worth a great deal more than that which is not
fully matured. Even where it is almost ripe the corn is deficient
in some of its most valuable qualities. The fodder, which in
many States is considered valuable for feeding purposes, is also
badly damaged by frost coming upon it before it is cut and
cured. In unfavorable seasons it is almost impossible to obtain
well-ripened crops when the late varieties are planted. It is true
that such seasons occur only occasionally, that they are the
exception and not the rule, but it is also true that they are fre-
quent enough to justify the farmer in an effort to avoid evil
results from their appearance. At such times the earliest and
smallest varieties pay better than the large and late sorts. But
as already intimated, the qualities of size and earliness do not
necessarily conflict, and by taking a little pains to secure the
best seed, farmers can supply themselves with varieties which
will be large enough to satisfy all reasonable demands and early
enough to ripen in a short and unfavorable season. .

PuRiTi'. — This is another quality which the seed of farm crops
ought always to possess. By this term we mean not merely the
quality of producing its kind, which has already been considered,
but perfect uniformity of appearance. In this respect an im-
mense amount of seed which farmers use is deficient. Instead
of taking pains to have their corn all of one variety, or if differ-
ent kinds are cultivated to plant them in fields distant from each
other, too many growers allow several different kinds to mix
and make no effort to secure purity of the seed. In a few cases
this may be due to the impression, which some farmers have,
that corn will "do better" if several sorts are mixed than it will
if only one variety is planted. This idea is wholly without a
reasonable foundation, and the more farmers read and study, the

GOOD SEED. 457

less it will prevail. In most cases the use of mixed seed is due
to a want of thought and care rather than to any behef that it
is superior to that which is pure. Instead of bein<j better the
impure seed is far inferior to that which is unmixed. To
any one who will think carefully upon the subject thjs will be
evident.

Take a case for illustration. Suppose in a certain lot of seed-
corn there are mixed four or five varieties. These sorts do
not hybridize, that is, do not unite to form new and perma-
nent varieties, but merely mix, and the result is that on one
ear many kernels of each of the kinds which are represented in
the field may be found. Now as these kernels are not alike it is
almost a necessity, and it is certainly a fact, that some of them
will be superior to others. If this is the case, it follows that
while part of the mixture is good, part of it is, and must be^
inferior. Consequently, as a whole, the corn obtained is not first-
class. In order to be first-rate, all of it should be equal to the
kind to which the best specimens belong. Thus, as far as quality
goes, it is plain that the best grade cannot be secured from
mixed grain. Part of the lot is superior to the rest, and the
moment the poorer grades are left out and only the best one is
used, the mixture is destroyed.

Another thing to be considered in using mixed seed is the
fact that the various kinds which are represented cannot all
ripen at the san^e period, and that when part of the grains are
ripe enough to harvest, the remainder may be altogether too
green. As it is of great importance to have grain ripen uni-
formly, this objection against mixed seed should carry consider-
able weight.

But the principal reason why strict purity of seed should be
secured and preserved may be found in the fact that this would
enable the grower to obtain quite an increase of the price which
his mixed grain now commands. This is not a mere supposition,
but a solid truth, and one in which farmers who are engaged in

458 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

growing^ grain are deeply interested. It is a fact which dealers
have long recognized and to which they have often called the
attention of farmers. Several years ago the Board of Trade in
one of our Western cities issued a circular to the farmers in the
corn-growing section, in which they complained of the mixing
of different kinds, and stated that the price which the grain
would command in market was at least three cents per bushel
less than it would be if the corn was all of one color and be-
longed to some one variety. In this circular farmers were
advised to be more careful in selecting their corn for seed, and
were urged to attempt to secure a greater degree of uniformity
in the character and appearance of the crop. Some farmers fol-
lowed these recommendations, but that they were too generally
disregarded the present appearance of Western corn places
beyond doubt. The way is still open for improvement and the
need of it is beyond dispute.

If corn-growers could be made to realize that their grain
would command three cents per bushel more than they can now
obtain for it, they would, doubtless, be willing to make an effort
to obtain better seed. The men who buy corn judge of it ver)'
much by its appearance. They do not want to pay high prices
and they make use of every imperfection as an argument in
favor of low rates. If a lot of corn is neither white nor yellow,
and does not belong to any known variety, buyers will not be
willing to pay as well for it as they would if it was pure. On a
single bushel the increase in price which could be secured, if
sufficient care werd taken to grow pure and good varieties, would
be small, but on the quantity which a large corn-grower will
raise in a period of ten years it would amount to quite a sum
and would add considerably to the profits of the farm. An ad-
vance in price of three cents per bushel on the corn crop of one
year would put at least six inillions of dollars into the pockets of
the farmers in the one State of Illinois. The expense involved
in securing this immense amount of money would be very small.

GOOD SEED. 459

There would be no extra cost for planting, cultivation, or har-
vesting. The extra price of seed would be but a tride for the
first year and nothing afterwards. Almost the whole amount
would be clear gain. In several of the other corn-growing
States from one to three millions of dollars per year might be
made by the farmers, if they would give proper attention to the
selection of corn for seed. Here is an opportunity for those
who will give a little time and thought to the selection of seed
to make a larger profit on the corn crop than they have yet been
able to secure.

Productiveness. — This is another quality which shooild be
sought in selecting seed. There can be no doubt that some seed
possesses this quality in a high degree, while other specimens,
which to all appearance are just as good, are very deficient in
this respect.

This point has not received the attention which it deserves,
and many farmers are slow to believe that there is any particular
difference in seed as far as its productive powers are concerned.
They know that certain trees are more fruitful than other
specimens which are as favorably situated, and they cannot
escape the conviction that there is a quality of productiveness
which is inherited by different trees in different degrees of inten-
sity. But when they are told that plants also possess this
quality, and that the yield of a crop will be largely determined
by the degree in which it has been inherited by the seed, they
are incredulous. Variations in the yield of corn they ascribe to
difference in soil, or variety, or fertilizer, or the time of planting,
rather than to any power in the seed itself But sometimes
when in adjoining fields, in which the soil is as nearly alike as
soils can be, the same varieties are planted, and there is no
difference either in the cultivation or the manuring, but a great
difference in the quantity of grain which is harvested, they are
almost compelled to acknowledge that there is a difference in
the productive powers of seed which belongs to the same
variety, but is produced by different specimens of plants.

460 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

Careful experiment has proved to the satisfaction of all
unprejudiced parties who have studied the results that the
quality of productiveness is strongly developed in some plants,
and possessed in only a slight degree by others, and that the
plants communicate these characteristics to the seed which they
produce. In the Scientific Farmer for May, 1877, is the
record of an experiment with different grades of corn which
looked equally well, and which were planted on a field which
had given good and uniform crops. The field was divided into
three plots. One of these received no manure. The remaining
two were well-fertilized. Upon the one without manure and
one of the two upon wliich manure was applied, the same kind
of seed was planted, while upon the remaining manured plot
another kind was used. The result was that the land without
manure, upon which the most productive seed was used, yielded
at the rate of sixty-eight and three-fourths bushels per acre, the
manured plot planted with the same kind of seed produced one
hundred and t.n busliels per acre, while the manured plot on
wliich another kind of seed was used only yielded fifty-five
bushels per acre. Here the evidence is clear and convincing
that the seed made a difference of thirteen and three-fourths
bushels per acre over and above the influence of the manure,
and that the difference in the seed made all the difference
between the yield of the two plots which were manured — a
difference of fifty-five bushels per acre. With the same kind of
soil and culture, and an equal quantity of manure, the best seed
produced just twice the amount of grain which was obtained
from the inferior seed. Yet these two kinds of seed did not
jiresent any evidence in their external characteristics by which
one could be proved better than the other, and it is highly
probable that the poorest seed used in this experiment was in
every respect fully equal to a large proportion of the seed used
in the country. Comparatively few farmers obtain an average
yield of more than fifty-five bushels of corn per acre.

GOOD SEED. 4gj

This experiment also throws some hght upon the question of
economy in buying seed. Only one peck of corn is needed to
plant an acre. Many farmers do not use as much as this. But
if a peck is used, and the common quality of grain is selected
and carefully shelled, it will be worth somewhere from fifteen to
twenty-five cents. If the very best seed is obtained, the cost,
with transportation charges, may be two dollars. The difference
in the cost of seed enough for an acre will be from one dollar
and seventy-five to one dollar and eighty-five cents. The cost
of planting and cultivating will be the same, but the difference
in the yield will be from forty to fifty-five bushels.

We do not believe that a farmer should buy everything that
is offered for sale, but we are confident that if the varieties of
grain which he is growing do not yield well, that if with as high
manuring and as good cultivation as his neighbors give, he
cannot obtain as large crops as they secure, it will be wise' for
him to change the seed with a view to obtaining some which
will be more prolific. We have experimented somewhat with
various kinds of corn, and have found a great difference in the
yield of varieties which looked quite well. And we have found
that some farmers have grown corn year after year which was
very handsome, and which they supposed was a very fine
variety, when it was greatly inferior in productiveness to kinds
which produced just as good grain, and which were grown in
their own neighborhoods.

In order to be sure that his corn is reasonably productive
every farmer should keep an accurate record of the yield per
acre each year. Otherwise he may be deceived, and think he is
domg well when his crops are far below what should be their
average yield. . If he has a prolific variety, he should be careful
m selectmg seed and do all that he can to stimulate and develop
th.s quahty. If he is growing a variety which is not as pro-
ductive as It should be, it will be greatly for his interest to make
a change as soon as possible.

462 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

The same principle applies with equal force to other farm
crops. We used the corn crop merely as an illustration. In
many States other crops are of still greater importance. What-
ever the crop which the farmer wishes to grow, and whatc\er
the facilities which he may have for its production, he may
accept it as a settled and forever unchangeable principle that
good seed is an essential element in its successful cultivation.
Without this he cannot obtain the best results, or anything
approaching them, and it is utterly useless for him to make the
attempt. If at any time he feels that the price of first-class seed
is too high to justify him in purchasing, he should reflect that
whatever good seed may cost it is absolutely certain that he
cannot afford to use inferior seed even though it costs lam
nothing.

TKE SEIkEOrrON' GF SEED,

iIKE all other things of value good seed has its price, and
X only by the payment of its price can it be obtained. It
/y' is not produced by chance, and it does not perpetuate
itself certainly and for an indefinite length of time.
Knowledge, care, and skill on the part of the grower are all
absolutely necessarj' to its production. It is only by a patient,
careful, and wise selection of the plants, or roots, or bulbs, that
the finest seed can be secured. The careless, hap-hazard way
in which many farmers and gardeners save the seed which they
plant, accounts, in a great measure, for the poor quality of the
seed itself and the light yield of the crops which they obtain
therefrom.

Good seed is not produced by ever)' plant, artd if no care is
taken in selecting the plants for seed, the choice of many inferior
ones will be inevitable. The average product of an ordinary
field is very far below what should ±>e taken as a standard by
which to measure plants for seed. The very best plants which

THE SELECTION OF SEED. ' 463

can be obtained are none too good for the production of seed.
The man who saves the poorest part of every crop for seed will
soon have very small crops. When the average product of the
field is saved the yield does no more than hold its own and keep
up the average. It is only when the finer plants are saved for
seed that the yield increases and a manifest improvement of the
quality is secured. Even then, if there has been no careful
guarding of the plants, during the period of their growth, against
the various adverse influences which inevitably surround them
and no thorough culture has been given, the quality of the seed
secured will fall far below the grade which might have been
obtained.

It very often happens that men are careful in saving the
largest and finest ears of corn for seed and yet fail to obtain as
good crops as they think they have a right to expect. The
cause of their v/ant of success is easily explained. The kernels
of the fine ears in which they placed so much confidence were
fertilized by the pollen of inferior stalks. A mongrel calf may
look as well as a thoroughbred, but no one who understands
physiological laws, or who has had much experience with cattle,
would have any confidence ih such a calf as a breeder. How-
ever fine the individual may be, it does not possess, and con-
sequently cannot transmit, any fixed characteristics. It is a
slow process to form a distinct breed of animals. There are so
many sports and reversions that even the experienced and skilful
breeder finds the t)bstacles to success almost insurmountable.
It is fully as difficult a matter to breed plants to a desired form.
But this can be done by the skilful cultivator. It may take a
long time — perhaps a longer period than the life of any one man
may be required in order to bring the plant as near perfection as
possible — but time, and patience, and skill will develop a won-
derful improvement.

The great difference between the potato and the tomato will
serve to illustrate the modifying power of cultivation and breed-

464 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

ing. These plants are alike in their botanical structure. Both,
in their natural state, bear fruit on top of their vines. The
potato balls have- not been used by man. His efforts for the
improvement of the potato have been directed to the tubers.
The balls, which are a similar product to the tomatoes, have
been left to take care of themselves. But with the tomato a very
different course has been pursued. The efforts of a large num-
ber of cultivators have been directed toward the development
and improvement of the fruit of the vines. The result of this
different treatment is indicated by the difference in size, appear-
ance, quality, and productiveness of the vines of the potato and
the tomato. The finer sorts of the tomato when compared with
potato balls show what can be done in the line of improving
the fruit of plants.

As a large part of the profits of the farmers' business come
from the growth of plants and their sale, or the sale of their
products, it is a matter of great importance that they should
secure the very best plants which can be obtained, keep them
up to their present standard, and make a constant effort for their
improvement. In order to be fully successful in this work it is
necessarv^ for the farmer to begin at the beginning. By starting
at an intermediate point some benefit may be secured. But the
results will be far more uncertain, much time will be wasted,
and frequent failures will be inevitable. The first thing to be
done is to get the best seed which can be obtained. Some
variety adapted to the soil, climate, and mod^ of cultivation pur-
sued should be selected. If the farmer has good seed of this
kind he can use it, but if he has only an inferior grade he should
obtain a supply elsewhere. The good seed may not be good
enough to transmit its good qualities in perfection. Like the
mongrel calf, it may be good itself and yet not be able to breed
true to its own characteristics. But there is more hope in breed-
ing from a good calf than there is from a poor one. The good
one is nearer the mark than the other and will be much more

THE SELECTION OF SEED. 4^5

likely to produce good stock. The same is true of plants. In
working from the best which can be had there is less distance
to pass and the road is more direct than will be the case if we
start way back with a poorer specimen. The first thing, then,
to be done when an improvement in the yield, quality, or
appearance of plants is desired, is to either select from home
resources or obtain from abroad the very finest and nicest seed
which can be secured.

In selecting seed from which to develop a better class of
plants, care must be taken to secure that which presents the
desired characteristics in a marked degree. Some plants have
a strong tendency toward beauty of form and appearance, others
are very fragrant, while the leading characteristic of others is
productiveness. Now, if a man wants to develop the element
of beauty, he should start with a plant which is already beau-
tiful. If fragrance is desired, the most fragrant flower should be
taken as a starting point for increased development. If produc-
tiveness is specially desired, the most productive plants in the
field should be selected and their fruit saved for seed with which
to increase and extend the productive power. These varied
qualities might be secured if plants were taken which did not
possess them in an unusual degree, but it would require more
skill and several years longer time to secure the desired result.
The stronger the impress of the wished-for peculiarity which the
plant already bears, the more certain and powerful will be its
manifestation in the productions of that plant in the next gene-
ration. There may be difficulty, and much time may be
required, even when strongly marked specimens are used for
propagation, but the difficulty will be less and the time will be
shorter than will be needed if only ordinary plants are taken.

The double rose is a fine example of what can be accom-
plished in the line of beauty by careful culture and thorough
breeding. The. structure of the rose flower is, naturally, like
that of the common apple-blossom. The form of the original

466 FARMIXG FOR PROFIT.

rose was, and the form of many of the wild, uncultivated roses
is, with the exception of size, the same as the blossom of an
apple tree. No effort has been made to change the form of the
apple blossom, but gardeners have long been at work upon the
rose, and have succeeded in obtaining perfect double blossoms
entirely destitute of stamens and pistils. When this point is
reached, perfection has been secured. The skill of man can go
no farther. But with this perfection, the reproductive power of
the plant is obliterated. There are no seeds from which to pro-
duce new specimens. Many kinds of plants can be brought to
this stage. But the species can be kept, and plants can be
rapidly propagated by layers, cuttings or budding. The same
care which has been bestowed upon the rose would have made
a great difference in the form of any other flower.

But the reader may say that mere form is of no consequence
to the ordinar}' farmer. It is true that it is not as essential to
his success as it is to the gardener's, but it is not a matter of
indifference to the farmer. The form and color of wheat has
considerable influence in fixing its market value. The same is
true of corn, oats, potatoes, fruit, and nearly everything which
the farmer grows. The power to change these features is worth
a great deal. But these are only a part of the qualities which
can be modified by skilful selection. The vigor of the plant
and time of ripening the seed can be varied, and the capacity for
production can be largely increased.

Each and every prominent trait of our cultivated plants may
be greatly changed by careful management. It is to this fact,
and the labors of many horticulturists and farmers, that we are
indebted for our best varieties of grain and fruit. By making a
careful selection of the materials with which he will work,
the farmer may accomplish great results. We know of two
farmers, each one of whom has made a great improvement of the
variety of corn which he has grown for the past ten years.
We know of others who have hardly been able to keep their

THE SELECTION OF SEED. 467

corn up to the original standard. The former made a wise
selection of the varieties which they intended to improve. The
latter were not as fortunate in their choice. Mr. C. G. Pringle,
of Vermont, the originator of the Snowflake, Alpha and Ruby
potatoes, has been very successful in improving old and origi-
nating new varieties of grain and vegetables. He is a skilful
manager, and has a thorough knowledge of the habits of plants;
But his success is very largely due to the wisdom with which
he selected the varieties to be improved. The Champlain
wheat, which he originated in 1870, was the result of a union
of the valuable qualities of two varieties. He saw the need of
the farmers at the extreme North of a variety of wheat which
should be very hardy and also be of a nice quality. There
were varieties which were hardy, but of only second or third
quality; while there were others *vhich were very nice, but
proved too tender for our cold winters. But in the Champlain
wheat, Mr. Pringle has secured a combination of the hardy
qualities of the Black Sea wheat with the fine quality of the
Golden Drop, and has produced a variety which is specially
adapted to meet the wants of Northern wheat-growers. Had
he crossed some weak-growing variety with the Golden Drop,
the new kind would have been a failure at the North. But he
followed the rule which all successful growers must adopt, and
selected as a basis for his experiments varieties which already
possessed the desired characteristics.

Plants which are to be utilized for the production of seed
should be grown by themselves, and cultivalcd for this special
purpose. This is necessary in order to guard them from the
adverse influences to which they would otherwise be exposed.
For if it is sown in the open field, the finest seed may not pro-
duce a good crop, and may fail to perpetuate its characteristics.
In one of his lectures, Hon. P. A. Chadbourne spoke at some
length upon the modification of corn by being accidentally fer-
tilized by imperfect specimens or by different varieties. He Said
30

468 FARAf/J^G FOR PROFIT.

that, "The fact that seeds that look just alike, and were raised
in the same place, give us much different results, is not always
owing to the soil. I have no doubt that those germs are won-
derfully sensitive, far beyond anything we have ever dreamed
of. There are many things in our experiments that lead me to
suppose this. I believe, also, that the action of this pollen is
very much more far-reaching than has generally been sup-
posed." He exhibited some specimens of corn which illus-
trated the liability of variation of the product of plants grown
without special care to shield them from untoward influences.
There were six ears — three white and three red ones — all of
which grew from a white ear. The seed which produced these
very diverse .specimens was planted far from any other corn, so
that all possibility of a mixture should be prevented. The year
before the seed-corn was ^11 white, but about half the ears
which it produced were red. Sometime the white corn had,
doubtless, been fertilized by pollen from a red variety grown in
another field.

Probably every farmer has noticed cases in which the variety
which was planted was strangely modified. Sometimes there
will be an occasional ear of a totally different kind. In other
cases only a few kernels of another variety will be found upon
an ear which is nearly all of the ordinary sort. Sometimes a
few kernels of sweet corn will be found upon an ear of some
common field variety. Corn which is grown in a field
which is near any other variety, will be very liable to become
mixed. It will be utterly impossible to maintain the absolute
purity of any variety, if a different one is planted near by. A
farmer may buy the very nicest seed of the most prolific variety
in the world, but if he plants it in a field which joins one in which
his neighbor plants another sort, he cannot keep the variety
•pure. He will either be obliged to buy seed every year or else
plant a mixed and inferior kind. When seed-corn is selected
from the field, several neighbors should agree to plant one

THE SELECTION OF SEED. 469

variety of corn. In this way the injury from mixture which
now occurs would be considerably reduced.

The habit of planting several different kinds upon one farm is
not at all to be commended. It is injurious to the farmer's own
interest, and makes it still more difficult than it otherwise would
be for his neighbors to grow the kind which they desire to pro-
duce. The distance to which the pollen is carried is not cer-
tainly known, but it is probably greater than farmers generally
suppose. We once found a bright red ear in a field of yellow
corn. There was not another red ear on the farm and but few
red kernels could be found on other ears. And there was
no red corn grown on the adjoining farm. But beyond that was
a farm upon which there was a small field of this colored variety.
The red ear must have been fertilized by pollen from this distant
field. There have been other strongly marked cases, and they
prove that it is unsafe to rely upon the purity of seed-corn
which is grown without being separated from any other kind by
a much longer distance than is usually thought necessary.

In order to secure absolute purity we think a distance of at
least half a mile is required. If the corn for seed is grown in a
valley and other kinds are produced on the surrounding hills,
this distance should be doubled.

But contact with other varieties is not the only way in which
seed corn is deteriorated. If corn is grown in the open field,
the pollen of the inferior stalks, and of the suckers, is just as
likely to fertilize the ears as that produced by the finest speci-
mens. An ear of corn may appear all right and yet its kernels
fail to be reasonably productive, because it was fertilized by the
pollen from a very poor stalk which has impressed its character
upon the seed.

In almost every field, in every one of any size, which was
planted with ordinary seed, there will be many small and imper-
fect ears. No matter how rich the 'land, or how thorough the
cultivation which the crop receives, these specimens will appear.

470 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

They are the legitimate fruit of seed produced on ears which
had been fertilized by pollen from inferior plants. In order to
prevent such a result the farmer must give more attention to
that part of the crop from which the seed is to be taken than is
usually bestowed. The corn for seed should be planted by
itself, in a field quite a distance from any other corn. If this is
impossible, a plot of ground between the two pieces should be
planted with broom-corn, or sugar-cane. It will be well to put
a strip of broom-corn, a few rods wide, close to the field which
is not to be saved, provided the fields arc within eighty rods of
each other. ' The broom-corn will hinder the free passage of the
pollen, and thus diminish the liability of a mixture of different
varieties or fertilization by the pollen of inferior specimens. If
only a small quantity of corn is to be saved for seed, the plot
on which it is planted should be in the form of a square. If a few
long rows are planted, the pollen cannot be so evenly distributed
as it will from several short ones. The land should be rich and
the best cultivation should be given.

Another important item was mentioned by Mr. Ciiadbourne
in the lecture from which we have quoted. He expressed the
opinion, " That in order to raise good prolific seed-corn, it will
be necessary for a man to plant the best seed he can procure ;
and before the corn tassels, before it produces pollen, to go
along the rows and cut out every mean, miserable stalk, so that
every ear shall stand on a proper stalk (that is, have a proper
mother) and shall be fertilized by pollen that has come from a
strong, healthy, corn-producing stalk." Before the tassels form,
all the suckers should be cut, and the inferior stalks removed.
If these things receive attention at the proper time, the seed-
corn will have a vigorous and healthy parentage. If the same
course is followed year after year, a great and permanent im-
provement will be effected. By this means the average yield of
the corn crop in this cduntry might be greatly increased, and
the profits of its production would be greater than have yet
been obtained.

THE SELECTION OF SEED. 471

With the wheat crop equal care is needed in order to secure
the finest seed. The best grain which is available should be
sown on a rich and thoroughly prepared piece of ground. It
should be sown in rows, or drilled in, far enough apart to allow
the hoe to be used between them. All weeds should be kept
down, and before the blossoms appear all the inferior stalks
should be cut out.

With the potato crop there has been more trouble on account
of poor seed than there has with almost any, perhaps we might
say with almost all of the other farm crops. Varieties have
" run out " in a few years wherever they were planted. Chang-
ing the seed has been resorted to by multitudes of farmers, and
has given temporary relief, but no permanent good has been
accomplished. The complaint is general. It has been so often
made, and for so long a time,' that some writers consider the
deterioration as inherent in the potato itself, and recommend
the introduction of new kinds, and the discarding of the older
varieties when they begin to fail. We do 'not think this theory
is correct. We are confident that by a careful selection of seed,
with good culture, the varieties of potatoes may be as per-
manent as those of corn. We have kept the Early Rose up to
its original standard. There is a great deal of complaint that
this variety is deteriorating. Probably the men who find it
" running out " have not been very careful to select the nicest
seed, and supply the best manures. Many farmers plant only
the little, immature specimens which are neither fit to eat nor
to sell. They seldom plant any which are even half grown.
Now if corn for seed were selected in this way, there would
be as much complaint about the deterioration of corn, and the
" running out " of varieties, as there has been about the failure
of the potato to keep up to a uniform standard of excellence.
In order to obtain good potatoes for seed, the finest tubers of
medium size should be planted on dry land which has been
well manured. Chemical fertilizers we consider the best for

472 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

this purpose. The plants should be carefully cultivated, and
when the tubers are ripe they should be dug, and the best
specimens of a medium size should be selected for seed to be
used the next year, and stored in a cool, dry cellar.

The different varieties of the potato should be grov/n in plots
which are quite a distance apart. Mr. William Hunt, of
Conn., read an article on the general subject of potato cul-
ture before the Conn. State Board of Agriculture, in 1877,
in which he claims to have discovered the fact that the
deterioration of varieties often results from their mixing by
means of the flowers. He claims that the pollen is carried a
considerable distance by th&-wind, and that where two or more
kinds are grown near each other the potatoes will mix, and the
product will usually be inferior to that of the parent stock.
The first year the quality is not affected. The second season
changes are manifest in the tubers, and in succeeding years the
deterioration is rapid. This theory accounts for changes which
have often been observed, but which could not be satisfactorily
explained. Mr. Hunt picks all the flower buds before they
open, from the plots on which he grows potatoes for seed — a
practice which may be safely and profitably followed by all who
are engaged in producing this crop.

Such are some of the general principles which should govern
in the selection of seed. We have attempted to illustrate them
by reference to particular crops. With other plants the
methods pursued must be modified by their condition and
character. But with all crops the same careful and patient
effort must be made to get .the best possible grade to start with,
to give it the best possible chance, and then to guard the plants
from all untoward influences. After the seed is grown, there
still remains a work for the cultivator in gathering and storing
it. For the best seeds are just as likely to be wasted or injured
by exposure as the poorest ones, and a little neglect at the time
of ripening may cause the loss of nearly the whole lot. When

THE SELECTION OF SEED. 473

the plants are well-matured, and the seeds are ripe, which any
observant person can easily determine by their general appear-
ance, the harvesting should be performed. Imperfectly ripened
seed will often grow, but it will not produce as hardy,
vigorous plants as that which is thoroughly ripe. If the
cutting of the seed-plants is too long delayed a great waste
is involved by shelling in the field, and some seeds are
damaged by exposure to the weather. With plants which
ripen their seeds unevenly, a middle course is to be pursued.
The onion belongs to this class. The heads should be removed
when about half of the seed-cells have opened. Wheat, corn,
and other grain, should remain until thoroughly ripe, should' be
carefully cured, and ought not to be shelled until it is perfectly
dry. Great care should be taken, both before and after shelling,
to prevent all injury by heating. The curing should be done,
if possible, in bright weather, and the stalks should be stored
in a cool, dry place. When thoroughly cured and dried the
seed may be shelled. If it is necessary to wash it, care should
be taken to dry it perfectly before it is put away.

Seeds, wi'Ji a few exceptions, such as nuts, which should be
kept in sand, should be kept in a cool and dry room. Putting
them in papers or bags when they are damp, is one cause of the
difficulty which some farmers have in getting seeds which they
have raised to grow. Another cause is the keeping of seeds in
a damp place, or a place which is occasionally damp. To be
constantly damp will prove their ruin, while occasional moist-
ening and drying will work equal harm. The seed should
never be kept in large quantities, subjected to extremes of tem-
perature, or allowed to become damp.

The length of time for which it will retain its vitality will vary
with different kinds. Even with the best of care onion-seed is
very doubtful when two years old, and worthless when three ;
while cucumber-seed will grow when, it is from seven to ten
years old. Wheat and corn will grow when they have been

474 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

kept many years. But if the seed is kept where it gets damp,
its vitahty is soon destroyed. It is said that squashes, cucum-
bers, and similar crops, are better when grown from old seed, as
they will run less to vines and be more prolific. This may be
true, but in our experiments in this direction we have found it
difficult to get old seeds to germinate well, and have thought
the plants were more tender than those from newer seed. We
believe it is generally admitted that old seeds are weaker and
produce less vigorous plants than fresh ones. Imperfect flower-
seeds often give the finest flowers, but this is not an argument
for the use of weak seeds of vegetable plants. On the contrary
it is a strong argument against this course. For from the flower
man desires only beauty. Utility is not considered. The
increased beauty of the flower is obtained by changing the
stamens and pistils into leaves. In some roses this change is
complete. We now have a splendid sun-flower in our garden in
which there are but a very few seeds, nearly all of the large
flower being a mass of beautiful petals. Such a change makes
a beautiful flower, but it would not be wise to try its effect upon
vegetables. For when carried to an extreme it is ruinous to the
species. Reproduction by seed becomes impossible, and it is
only by means of layering, budding, or some other resource of
the gardener, that the varieties can be continued. With vege-
* tables we do not need beauty of blossom, but we are in want
of a strong tendency to produce seed. And as old seed tends
to the production of finer flowers at the expense of the
vitality and seed-producing power of the plant, we think its use
will be found unprofitable. The purest and best seeds, which
are fresh and uninjured, should always be obtained for use in
the garden and on the farm.

ECONOMY OF LABOR. 475

-^''x) S a class, farmers have obtained a high reputation for
t. economy in the use of money. This reputation has
" -V V been honestly earned. The average farmer is very
^~^ careful about spending his hard-earned dollars. He
does not lightly allow them to pass out of his possession. He
takes a great deal of pains to obtain them and is anxious to
keep them when they have been secured. But with labor the
case is very different. Of this he is prodigal. He rejoices in
his ability to perform a great deal of work. The average far-
mers in this country are very hard workers. They toil more
hours than almost any other class, more hours than they require
their cattle to work, and they make longer days and more of
them than the men whom they hire. So far they are very
faithful laborers. But they have not succeeded in systematizing
their work so as to manage it to the best advantage. They are
careful about their money, but very careless about their work.
They lose sight of the fact that labor is a standard of value, and
that the price of an article is, in a very great degree, determined
by the amount of work required for its production. There are
various methods in which labor is wasted on the farm. A few
of the principal ones we will endeavor to point out.

The use of poor tools, or tools poorly adapted to the purpose
for which they are designed, is a prolific source of waste of labor
on the farm. The man who insists upon cutting his grain with
the old-fashioned cradle instead of using a reaping machine for
the purpose, wastes, in addition to a large quantity of grain, a
great deal of labor. His horses could do more in one day than
he can in many days, and do it better. He has the horses and
must feed them just the same as he would have to if he had
them cut the grain instead of doing it himself He ought to
have his horses do this, and in the days which they save to him
he can be doing something else. The man who furnishes poor

476 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

shovels, and forks, and other tools for his hired men thereby
wastes a great deal of time and labor for which he is obliged to
pay. With poor tools a man cannot do as good work, or as
much of it, as he can with good ones. Even good tools when .
poorly adapted to the purpose for which they arc used involve
a great loss of labor. The man who makes his team draw a
heavy harrow over a field in which a light one would do just as
well thereby throws away the extra labor of the team. Similar
examples might be given in large numbers.

The use of inefficient teams is another way in which much
labor is wasted on the farm. We have often seen two able-
bodied men plowing with one slow yoke of oxen. The two
men and the team would succeed in plowing one acre of land
per day. One of the men with a pair of horses couJd have
plowed an acre and a half per day while the other man might
have been doing other work. Or, if it seemed desirable to
use oxen instead of horses, the team might have been trained
so that. one man could both hold the plow and drive the cattle
We have plowed alone with oxen a great many days, and any
one can do it who will properly train his teams and be gentle
with them. There are places where a driver may be needed
with ordinary cattle. But on smooth land one man ought to be
able to hold the plow and also drive the team. Sometimes
oxen which are not good to work are used and labor is wasted
because they will only draw from half to three-fourths of a load
at a time. When balky horses, or weak, lame animals are
employed, the work is, and must be, done at a great disadvan-
tage. With such a team economy in this branch of labor can-
not be secured.

The neglect to do work at the proper time is another prolific
source of waste of labor on a farm. If before the rains come,
the farmer digs plenty of ditches to carry off the water, he will
have much less to do to drain his field than he will if he waits
until the land is soaked and then attempts to open drains. The

ECONOMY OF LABOR. 477

man who plows when the land is dry will save a great deal of
labor for himself and his team. In drawing dirt there is often
a loss of from one-third to more than one-half of the whole
amount gf labor performed. When a man draws dirt from
which the water runs in streams through the cracks in his cart,
he has probably got a greater weight of water in his load than
he has of dirt. The water is useless material. Consequently,
more than half of the labor of loading and unloading on the
part of the man, and of the draft on the part of the team, is
absolutely thrown away. In the cultivation of farm crops, labor
is often lost by delay in attempting the work which should be
promptly begun. And with many kinds of farm labor a great
saving can be made by doing the work at the proper time.

Frequent changes of work are also a prominent means of
wasting labor. The man who commences one kind of work in
the morning, soon thinks of something else which ought to be
done and changes off to that, and in the course of the day works
at half a dozen different jobs, no one of which he has completed,
is very wasteful of his work. He may hitch up his team many
times a day to do things which might all have been done with-
out unharnessing. The man who mows a little rowen when the
dew is on, then picks a few apples, digs a few potatoes, and
draws a load or two of muck to his yards, all in one day does
not economize his labor. He keeps a great many things on the
works at once, in all stages of development, but nothing is
finished and he is always at a loss to know what to do. His
constant changes involve him in a great loss of time and travel.
Everything goes slowly because he tries to carry everything
along at once. If he would make up his mind what work
needed doing first, and then give his undivided attention to its
completion, the changeable farmer would be much more econ-
ical of his labor, and, consequently, much more successful in his
business.

Want of skill is one of the great difficulties with many farmers

478 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

in their efforts to economize labor. They work very much by
guess. Some -men are naturally much more skilful than
others, but all may learn to manage farm business well. Many
young farmers exhibit this want of skill. It is to be expected
that they will make mistakes. EJcperience is a great teacher.
More men have become good farmers by means of the lessons
taught by experience than ever have reached success by means
of any natural aptitude for the business. No one should despair
because his past has not been satisfactory. Study and care will
yet lead him to success. By observing how his most successful
neighbors economize labor, reading the best agricultural books
and papers, and studying the lessons of his own experience, he
will be able to manage his buiness better and become, in time, a
skilful farmer. The old saying, "It is half to calculate," is as
applicable to farming as it is to almost anything. A well-planned
effort in any line of business is the most likely to be successful.
It should be one of the aims of the young farmer to learn to
plan his work well. Skill in laying out work and inefficiency
in executing it, sometimes, but very seldom, go together. As
a rule the man who is skilful in planning will be an efficient
worker.

Carelessness is one of the hindrances to economy of labor.
Many farmers mean to save all their time and employ their work
to the best advantage, who are careless and negligent and who
are, on this account, continually incurring losses and meeting
with disappointments. They forget to do things which they
fully intended to perform. Very often a rainy day will come
and the farmer and his hands will be almost wholly idle for want
of work which can be done under cover, but in a few days it
will be found necessary to do a job which might just as vi^ell
have been attended to at that time and thus allowed the men
to be doing other work in clear weather. Sometimes there are
days in winter when certain kinds of outdoor work nu'ght be
easily performed if they were thought of, but which arc /uly

ECONOMY OF LABOR. 479

remembered when the opportunity has passed away. Then, in
the hurrying days of spring, time has to be taken to do what
might just as well have been done when there was nothing else
on hand. Besides, it often happens that by delay the amount of
work required is largely increased.

Failure to economize labor often results from the performance
of unnecessary work or the doing of ordinary work in too
elaborate a manner. One of the kings of Macedon spent many
years of his life in making lanterns. The important interests of
his kingdom were neglected because he was too busy to attend
to them. He was not an idle man, but his work amounted to
nothing because he wasted his labor. Many farmers spend a
great deal of time and labor in doing work which will prove of
no benefit to themselves or to any one else. There are also
many who are very particular about their methods of doing
work. They hoe their potatoes as carefully as a mason builds a
wall. Their corn might be cultivated just as well, as far as the
good of the crop is concerned, by horse power, but they will
have every hill nicely hoed by hand two or three times during
the season. We dislike to see work slighted, and never advise
running over it, but the great fact that labor costs and that the
man who wastes labor thereby wastes money, ought to be kept
constantly in mind and should prevent that extreme nicety in
Ihe performance of farm work which requires much extra time
but yields no corresponding return. »

Another reason why so many farmers fail to economize labor
is to be found in the fact that their buildings are very inconveni-
ent and their farms are poorly laid out. The amount of extra
work required on a farm which is not well arranged and has
inconvenient buildings is very great. One farmer will grow his
green fodder crops near the yard in which he feeds them, while
another will put them far off in the field. All through the
months when this kind of fodder is needed, one of these farmers
will simply cut and throw into the yard what is wanted at once,

480 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

spending only a few minutes about the work, while the other
will he obliged to hitch up a team, drive into the field, and be
gone quite a length of time. One man will have his yards so
arranged that when his team draws a load of manure into the
field, a load of muck can be brought back. Another man has
his yards so laid out that the manure must be carted out before
material for compost can be brought in. Some farmers have
convenient places of storage for all their crops and tools, while
others are constantly cramped for room. On some farms the
buildings are so inconveniently arranged that the work of doing
the chores in winter is just about doubled. On other farms
everything is convenient and work can be rapidly performed.
It will pay well to study convenience in the arrangement of
fields and buildings, and even to be to some expense to secure
it. The man who has things "handy" will get along faster,
better, and easier, with his work than the one who is constantly
hampered by inconvenient surroundings.

There are many other ways in which economy of labor can
be secured, but as we must limit our attention to general prin-
ciples, with illustrations thereof, we will not pursue the subject
further. We will only remark that as the excessive spending of
money for needless purposes is ruinous, so the waste of labor
which is so common in all parts of the country is proving a great
and constant burden. The honest farmer must work hard.
From this necessity there is no exemption. When he obtains a
suitable reward he can labor with a cheerful spirit, but to work
hard arid be constantly unsuccessful is very disheartening. By
carefully economizing his work the average farmer can secure a
very gratifying degree of success. Without this careful saving
of labor and time, he will be almost certain to fall far below his
hopes and expectations.

FARM TEAMS. 481

TEAM, of some kind, every farmer must have. He
^ cannot do his work without one, and neither borrowing

P^ nor hiring can be depended upon to furnish one just

e) when its services are required.

The principal animals used in this country for teams are the
horse, mule, and ox. For many places and purposes the horse
is much the best. The mule is hardy, long-lived, and can be
easily kept, but for various reasons he has not become as
popular as the horse. There are places where neither horses nor
mules can work to good advantage, but in which oxen can
be profitably employed. But on the road oxen are very
slow, and cannot successfully compete with either horses or
mules.

Which of these animals it will be best for the farmer to keep
for a team must depend upon his circumstances and the
character of his land. On some farms oxen would be wholly
inefficient, while on others they would be the most profitable
animals for a team which the farmer could employ. For most
purposes either the horse or the mule-team is better than an
ox-team. But it does not follow that every farmer ought to
keep horses or mules. A steam-plow is better than a horse-
plow, but not every farmer can have one. It is faster and
pleasanter travelling on the cars than it is on foot, but many
people are obliged to walk because they cannot afford to buy
tickets of the railroad companies. There are farmers who
would like to use horses or mules, but who are under a sort of
necessity to keep oxen because they cannot afford a better
team. Still, there are many who prefer pleasure to profit, and
who keep horses although oxen could do their work at a much
less expense. In New England there has been a great change
in this direction. Twenty years ago oxen were extensively used,
but they have been, to a very great extent, superseded by

482 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

horses. Some farmers have found the change profitable, but
many have lost money by the operation. The horses make a
better team, but many of these farmers could have got along
with oxen, and saved quite a sum both in the first cost of the
teams and in the expense of keeping them. If teaming were the
only kind of work to be done on a farm either horses or mules
would be needed. Oxen would require more time than the
farmer could afford to give. But on many small farms the team
is not constantly employed, and oxen could do the work.

In the great grain-growing sections horses or mules will be
absolutely needed. It is of great importance to get the lam <•
fitted, and seed sown at the proper time, and delay, though only
of a few days, will involve a heavy loss. Oxen are too slow foi'
use in such places, and for work on the road. On farms wheie
grain-growing is not a specialty, the owners may be better
able to furnish the extra time required to work with oxen than
they are to pay the higher price which a better team will com-
mand. There are a few places in which oxen are the best team.
On steep hillsides, and in the mud, they are decidedly superior.
But for most purposes horses or mules are greatly to be
preferred.

On the one hand there is the greater degree of eflficiency of
the horse and mule, while on the other there is the lower price
of the ox. The cost of keeping and shoeing a horse or mule-
team is much in excess of that required for the ox-team. Then,
too, the horse and the mule rapidly decrease in value until old
age renders them worthless, while the ox depreciates but little for
several years, and at any time can be fattened and sold to the
butcher for almost, if not quite, as much as he was ever worth.
If a horse or mule is accidentally injured, a part, and often the
whole, of its value is thereby destroyed, but if an ox gets lame
he can be fattened and but little loss will be sustained.

The expense of fitting out a horse or mule-team is much
8:reater than that required for an ox- team. The harnesses and

FARM TEAMS. 483

wagons required for the former costs a great deal when com-
pared with the yoke, chains, and cart, which are needed for the
oxen. Whether the extra time required in using the oxen is
worth as much to the farmer as the extra cost of a horse or
mule-team, the increased expense of keeping, the higher cost of
wagons and harnesses, depreciation in the value of the horse or
mule-teams, and the interest on the extra amount of capital thus
invested, is a question to be considered by those whose farm-
work oxen are qualified 4:o perform. We do not, except for
purposes already indicated, recommend oxen as a better team
than horses or mules, but merely raise the question whether in
many cases they may not be less expensive.

The farmer must keep one horse, or mule, for use on the
road. He cannot get along without it, although if the farm-
business is small there will.be a great deal of time in which it
will have nothing to do. If by obtaining one more horse, or
mule, he can perform all the farm-work with the pair, it may be
better to keep the extra one than it is to buy a yoke of oxen.

On large farriis several animals must be kept for work.

There should be a sufficient number to do the work promptly

and thoroughly, but the temptation to keep more horses or

mules than are needed should be "resisted. Every idle horse

or mule involves its owner in a great expense. It costs almof,t

as much to keep one idle as it does at work. In one case the

expense is paid by labor, while in the other there is no return.

A good team, fully able to do all the work and do it well,

should be kept on every farm, but it will not pay the owner to

keep a larger number of animals for this purpose than are really

needed for its accomplishment.
31

4g4 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

FiimM FENCES.

'O quite an extent farm fences are necessary. There must
be a fence around the pasture ; there should be a fence
on the boundary line of the farm, except where it joins
■Q) the highway; and if cattle are allowed in the mowings
in the fall, it Svill be useful to have the grass-land divided into
two or more fields. It is also well to have fences so that cattle
can be kept off the grain fields wheif tl:e/ would be .liable to
track the land arfd injure the crop. But it is not necessary, and
it is not desirable, that the whole farm should be cut up into
eight or ten-acre fields, according to the practice of some of the
New England farmers of a former generation. Such a course
involves an immense cost for fencing, and a great waste of land.
The cost of the fences now standing in this coin';ry is far
beyond the estimate which a man not acquainted with the facts
would make. We know of farms which are cut up into small
fields by heavy stone walls. The work of gathering ths stones
and building the walls could not now be hired for the whole
value of the land and crops and buildings. There are thou-
sands of farms in New England which will not sell for enough
to pay fair day's wages for the work which has been done in
fencing them. It has been asserted that the fences in this
country cost more than all of the houses, including those in
cities ; more than all manufactories with their machinery ; and
more than any other single class of property, except real estate.
The annual cost (^f fences, including interest on the investment,
is said to be from one to two hundred millions of dollars.
Whether these estimates are accepted as exact or not the great
fact that a vast amount of money is already invested in fences
remains beyond dispute. It is equally evident that a large
number of these fences are wholly useless.

On account of the great expense and the loss of land involved
in their construction, we do not favor having as many fences as

FARM FF.XCF.S 4<"<5

are usually found on the farm. The fences we have name!
seem to be necessary'. Others would often be convenient, but
would cost more than they would be worth. In many cases a
temporary fence can be employed, which will give the conve-
niences without the disadvantages of a permanent structure. In
some of the States it will also be necessary' to fence next the
highway, or else endure all the losses which may be sustained
by droves of cattle or by stray animals. In Massachusetts
the law does not require roadside fences, and within the past
five years a great many of the old walls and the board fences,
together with some of the more pretentious slat, or picket
fences, have been removed. The appearance of the farms, and
also of the towns, has been greatly improved by this change,
and a great saving is effected by the owners of the land.

The kinds of fence in common use are the rail, the post and
rail, post and board, stone wall, hedge, embankment and wnre
fence. The common rail fence is open to the objections of
requiring a great deal of timber, occupying a great deal of land^
and -of being easily thrown down. There are various modifica-
tions of this style of fence, and where land is plenty, timber
cheap, saw-mills scarce, and money does not abound, some of
these forms may be profitably employed. But as a rule, under
ordinary circumstances, and especially where land is valuable,
some other style will be more desirable.

The post and rail fence is an improvement on the style
already described, though subject to some disadvantages. For
this fence much less timber is needed, and it occupies less than
half the land which the other requires. It is also a more sub-
stantial fence. But the work of digging the post holes, cutting
the holes in the posts to admit the ends of the rails, and of
fitting the rails, renders the labor item quite expensive. On.
land which is inclined to heave, the posts are soon thrown out
unless they are filled around with gravel, or some other precau-
tion is taken to prevent the evil. If a large hole is dug, and a-

486 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

piece of board two feet long is nailed to one side, near the
bottom, and another piece on the opposite side a little higher
up, and the earth firmly packed d iwn, the post will rise and fall
with the soil, and will not be thrown out. Such a fence, if well
built, will last many years without repairs.

The post and board fence looks better than the post and rail.
In some sections it is cheaper, while in others it is more expen-
sive. Posts seven feet apart, with four six-inch boards placed
six inches apart and firmly nailed, make a good fence. This
style requires but little land and very few repairs.

The stone wall is a very common fence in New England, and
is used to some extent in other sections. When well made it is
quite durable, and will turn cattle and horses, but will not keep
sheep without a rail, or something of the kind, placed on top.
It takes considerable land, and makes an almost immovable
fence. No matter how much a farmer may want to change the
size of his fields, if his land is cut up into little lots divided
by heavy stone walls, he must leave them as they are, or else
be content to perform an immense amount of work. On very
stony farms it may pay to make the boundary fences of stones.
This, not because it will be a cheap style, but merely in order to
find a place to put the stones. The inside fences of a farm
should be made of lighter material which can be more easily
removed.

Live fences have attracted much attention, and been exten-
sively introduced at the West, In New England there are
also many hedges. We do not like these fences, but it may
sometimes be well to make a virtue of necessity, and use them
for want of anything better adapted to the circumstances of the
farmer. Our own experience has been with a species of the
willow brought from Ohio, and very highly recommended.
It makes a strong fence, but, being a vigorous grower, requires
much trimming, it looks badly, and takes a great deal of plant-
food from the land. Many farmers have used the buckthorn.

FARM FENCES. 437

arbor-vitae, hemlock, and pine. Each of these will make quite
a fence, but they require manure and cultivation to insure a
strong and uniform growth when young, and much pruning t-^
make them look decently when they have attained considerabU
size. They are also subject to the adverse influences of extreme
drought and severe cold. As they cannot be removed without
being destroyed, they are not well adapted for inside fences,
while if neighbors choose to quarrel they may cut the roots
upon their own sides, and thus injure the boundary-hedges.
In the Middle and Southern States the Osage orange is a
better hedge-plant than those we have named, but it will not
endure Northern winters. The honey locust is one of the
best hedge-plants for all sections.

Embankments are often used in England for fencing between
two farms. A large, open ditch is dug on the line, and the dirt
piled up in a high wall upon one side. Of these fences
Loudon says the earth taken out is " formed into a bank, the
height of which when added to the depth of the ditch forms a
tolerable barrier." But he does not recommend them as highly
as he does the double ditch, in which the earth from an open
ditch on each side is piled upon the line of the fence, and a
hedge is planted on top of this embankment. Where the land
is very wet, and underdraining is impracticable, one of these*
methods may be adopted. We recommend it only for very wet
land, and consider its value as an instrument of drainage to be
far in excess of its merits as a fence.

The wire fence is now quite popular, and seems destined to
come into extensive use in all parts of the country. Some
years ago plain wire was used at the West for fencing pur-
poses. It possessed many merits, but was defective in some
important respects. Various improvements have been effected
and patented. The most important of these have been bought
by the Washburn & Moen Manufacturing Co., of Worcester,
Mass., and united in the Glidden Steel Barb Fence. This

4»8

FARMING lOK PROFIT.

fence possesses many advantages over any other style. The
wire is very strong, being made of two strands, and will sustain
a weight of fourteen hundred pounds to each line. It is easily

seen, and, having many barbs, cattle find it impassable. When
once well put up it remains in place through all extremes of
heat and cold. This wire makes a very cheap fence. Four

FARM FENCES. 489

lines can be put up at a cost for materials of only seventy-five
cents to one dollar per rod, and make a fence through which no
animals, large or small, can pass. The barb wire fence is repre-
sented in Figure 51. Such a fence can be put up very rapidly,
will n^t be destroyed by prairie fires, will not be blown down,
and will neither cause drifts nor be injured by snow. This wire
can be used in connection with old or new wood fences if
desired. We have tried stretching one line on top of an old
Virginia fence which the cattle often used to throw down. It
has worked to perfection, and made the old fence safe at a very
slight expense. This wire is well adapted for use as a temporary
fence for keeping cattle out of grain fields in the fall. For this
purpose posts can be set quite a distance apart, and only two,
or, at most, three lines of wire will be needed.

In making a fence which is designed to remain for any length
of time it is best to use good materials and do the work well.
For a Virginia fence wooden blocks will prove much better
than stones for foundations for the corners. The former will
decay in time and must be replaced. The latter will last, but
will soon sink into the ground and become useless. *Stakes
should be made long enough to be re-sharpened and used again
when the ends in the ground decay. They should also be large
enough to keep the fence in place. From rails, stakes, posts,
and boards, all the bark should be taken before they are put
into the fence. When the bark remains the timber will last but
little, if any, more than half as long as it would if the bark had
been taken off. Sound timber should always be chosen, and
when a post and board fence is made, heavy nails should b&
ased. It does not pay to have too many fences, but it is best
when making one designed to be permanent to use good
materials and put them together in the best possible manner.

490 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

I^ARM ROAl

'ARM ROADS are a great convenience, though not an
absolute necessity. Many farmers have nothing of the

;j,^ kind. They drive all over the fields, wherever they want
t) to go, and make no effort to secure a good road in any
part of the farm. The result is that their mowing lots and grain
fields are cut up with wheef tracks and trodden by the team, the
labor of drawing the loads is increased to such an extent that
the teams are obliged to work extremely hard, while the work
is so severe, especially when the land is softened by rains, that
much smaller loads must be taken than could be drawn if good
roads were provided.

Roads will cost some labor, but in the end will save both labor
and time. The farmer and his help can easily make them.
On every farm there should be one good road which, with
its branches, shall lead from the barn to each field.

On dry land the farm road is easily constructed. Many
farmers rely merely upon a cart path. But such a path soon
becomes rutted. Very little grass will grow between the tracks,
and the land had better be devoted wholly to the purposes of a
road. The ruts cause the loads to draw very much harder than
they would on a good road, while they are also liable to cause
wagon wheels to be unduly wrenched and twisted. A team will
draw a heavier load on a good road than it can in the ordinary
cart path, and wagon and cart wheels will last much 'longer —
advantages which will soon compensate the farmer for the labor
required in making the road.

The farm road should be elevated a little above the level of
the land, and in order to let the water run off it should
be made a little higher in the middle than it is at the sides.
The ground should be plowed, graded, and rolled. If it is nearly
level, an open furrow may be left on each side. Where the land
is wet the labor will be increased. The ground should be thor-

FARM ROADS. 491

oughly underdrained. If stones are plenty, the earth may be
thrown out to a depth of two or three feet and the trench filled
with cobbles, upon which the dirt may be placed. The centre
of the road must be some higher than the edges, and at the sides
an open furrow, or a trench filled with stones, should be made.
If there are no stones to be had, tiles may be laid under the
road. When this course is impracticable, the road should be
considerably elevated and large ditches at the sides should be
made to take off the water.

In some places several farmers could profitably unite in buying
a machine for making roads. The cost to each would be slight,
while all the advantages of single ownership would be secured.
The Champion Road Grader, made by the Eureka Manufac-
turing Company, of Rock Falls, 111., is an excellent implement
for making farm roads.

It may be objected to farm roads that they will be in the way
when the fields are plowed. This has little force, for the roads
can easily be avoided. They will often prove very useful. Many
a load of hay has been shaken off while being drawn over a
rough cart path which would have stayed on, and all the labor
of reloading, with its loss of time, would have been avoided if
there had been a good road where it was drawn. A man and
team carting out manure in the wet weather of spring will
accomplish a great deal more if there is a good road than they
can with only a common path to draw it over. On a good road
the team will draw as much at twice as can be taken at three
times in a cart path on soft land. The use of poor roads thus
involves a loss of the time and labor of one day out of every
three in which the team is used.

Not only this, but the liability of accident is greatly increased
by poor roads, or by driving in the ruts where no roads are pro-
vided. Many a horse has been made lame for life by injuries
received while drawing loads in a muddy cart path. Thus the
horse is obliged to endure a great deal of suffering, while the

492 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

owner must sustain quite a loss. If a good road had been fur-
nished, both of these evils would have been avoided.

The loss of labor is another consideration which should have
considerable influence in inducing the farmer to keep good roads.
We have already shown that labor is equivalent to money. And
it is easy to see that there is not only a great loss of time in-
volved by using poor roads, but also a great deal of labor. The
team may be required to draw only two-thirds as much on a
poor road as it would have to take on a good one, but the labor
is gfreater than it would be with a full load. This increase is not
merely in the aggregate amount of work, in the necessity of
working three days to do two days' labor, but each and every
load, though only two-thirds as large, draws much harder tlian
a full load should.

On dry land it will pay to furnish good roads for the team,
while on wet land a heavy and constant loss will be incurred by
the farmer who uses a cart path, or drives where he happens to,
instead of making a good road over which loads can be easily
drawn.

(f\

TIMBEH CUr^TURE,

/-,C^HE setting of timber trees has often been recommended
' ■ and in "many places can be made quite profitable. The
Western farmer needs wood for fuel, and timber for
building and fencing purposes. His house should have
trees around it to purify the air, and his cattle need shade in
their pastures. In New England there are many firms upon
which trees are needed for these purposes, and many tracts *of
comparatively waste land which can be made useful by their
production. At the South there are many places where trees
would improve the land, make the locations more healthful, and
supply a great want of nice timber.

In all sections of the country there are a multitude of farmers

TIMBER CULTURE. 493

who, by devoting an acre or more of land to the growth of the
finest timber trees which flourish in their locahties, could greatly
increase the value of their farms and do a good thing for the
financial interests of their descendants. Some varieties of trees
grow very rapidly, and with a little cultivation the slow-growing
soi-ts can be hastened in their development. Even on land
which is far from good, timber culture often proves quite profit-
able. Mr. J. S. Fay, of Mass., devoted one hundred and twenty-
five acres of very poor land to timber culture in 1853 and a
few succeeding years. Larch trees transplanted from the nur-
sery in 1853 ^^'ei's forty feet in height, and ten or twelve inches
in diameter a foot above the ground, in 1875. Other varieties
of trees also made a very rapid growth. About three-fourths
of the trees were obtained from seed sown where they were to
stand, some were imported, while others were started in the
nursery. Probably at the West the growth of timber trees
would be much more rapid than it is at the East.

For growing at the West and South the catalpa is a splendid
tree. It grows very rapidly and the wood is one of the most
durable kinds known. Mr. Suel Foster, of Iowa, says there
are two varieties, one of which occasionally winter-kills at the
North, while the other seems to be as hardy as the maple or
oak. We know of a few trees in Mass. which when small were
somewhat affected by severe winters. Probably the hardy sort
would do well in all parts of the country. This tree grows so
rapidly that it soon becomes large enough for bean poles, and
in six or eight years will do for fence stakes and many other
purposes. The trees are healthy and not liable to be attacked
by insects. For railroad ties, bridges, fences, and other pur-
poses for which permanence is required, this timber is of great
value. It also takes a fine polish and is useful for cabinet work
and finishing the interior of buildings.

There are many other varieties of trees which grow rapidly
and succeed in large sections of the country. The white ash.

494 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

walnut, European larch, locust, chestnut, and pine can be easily
and successfully cultivated in most of the States. The white
oak is also a very valuable timber tree and will adapt itself to a
wide range of soil and climate, but is of a slow habit of growth.
A few trees of this sort might well find a place in a timber plan-
tation.

It is better to set several different kinds of trees than to use
only one variety. These trees may be started from seed planted
where they are to grow, from seed in the garden and the trees
transplanted when three or four years old, or they may be
obtained directly from a nursery. We think it is decidedly
better to follow either of the other plans than it is to plant the
seeds where the trees are expected to stand. The distance apart
at which the trees should be placed will depend upon the pur-
poses for which they are to be used and the size which they
are expected to attain.

It has often been asserted that the removal of forests greatly
diminishes the rain-fall, affects the climate unfavorably, and
injures the soil. On the other hand, the claim has been made
that when taken in periods of twenty years the rain-fall is nearly
uniform, that it is not changed to any extent by the presence or
the removal of forests, and that the changes of climate and soil
which have been observed in connection with the clearing off
of vast forests are due to other causes.

It is probably true that the average rain-fall of a country in
periods of twenty years is about the same, but when quite a pro-
portion of the land is well covered with trees the rain is much
more evenly divided than it is when there are no forests. If the
land is bare, a large part of the rain falls in heav}' storms and
runs into the rivers and seas without proving of much use in
watering the land. But when there are plenty of forests the
clouds are frequently intercepted, rain falls often, and, coming
\n small quantities, refreshes the earth and keeps it from becom-
ing parched In this way forests prevent both floods and

TIMBER CULTURE. 495

droughts. Forests must also exert quite a modifying influence
upon the chmate of a country. They break the force of the
cold winds which prevail in winter and cool the hot ones which
blow in summer.

By these modifications of the rain-fall and climate it will be
seen that the clearing off of large forests must unfavorably affect
the soil. The removal of large bodies of timber dries up the
little mountain streams, breaks the uniformity of the rain-fall,
makes the planting seasons late and cold and the summers hot
and dry. The maintaining of a proper balance between the area
in forests and under cultivation seems to be one of the important
conditions upon which the highest success in agriculture depends.
Another important matter connected with this subject is the
influence of the changes v^^rought by the removal of forests
upon the health of the people. The changes of temperature
become more sudden and violent, and invalids find the climate
increasing in severity. Trees are also needed to purify the air.
They should not be so close to buildings as to prevent the
shining of the sun upon them, but they ought not to be very far
removed. There are places in Italy which were once very
pleasant and healthful localities, which after the removal of the
surrounding forests gradually became unhealthy, and at certain
seasons of the year were considered unsafe. In some of these
localities trees have been planted, and the original purity of the
atmosphere has been secured. Doubtless there are many
places in this country which would have been healthful instead
of malarious, if the forests had been preserved.

Timber culture offers to a large class of farmers a field of
profitable labor. By growing timber trees in sections destitute
of wood, or by carefully selecting from the forests which
remain the specimens which have matured and keeping the
young and vigorous ones for future use, the farmer may secure
for himself and for those who come after him a great and per-
manent benefit.

496

FARMING FOR PROFIT.

FO'MniR 0>M THIS FiS.RM.

Y'^^HERE are many purposes for which power is needed on
\! Ill a large farm, and it is often very convenient on a small
i^fJC one. The principal kinds which are adapted to the
^G purpose are horse-power, wind and steam Water-
power is useful where it can be obtained, but on most farms this
is out of the question. For light purposes, such as churning,
dog or sheep-power is often used. As horses are kept on all
large farms, their services are very often employed. Wind is

also used to quite an ex-
tent, and a few of the
largest farmers are making
some use of steam. But
the majority of farmers who
use power must choose
between that of the horse
and the wind. The object
to be attained is the substi-
tution of the cheap power

FIG. ?2. — DOG-POWER. — MADE BY N. Y. PLOW r \ • J r *-!

•^ of horses or wind for the

CO., N. Y. CITY.

more costly labor of men.
Each of these kinds of power has its advantages. Horse-power
is movable, and can be set up and used at home or abroad.
It can be readily attached to the various machines which it is
desired to use. It can be easily regulated, and used whenever
it is wanted. The cost is also within the means of a large class
of our successful farmers. Wind is a variable power — some-
times altogether too strong, while at others it accomplishes
nothing. A wind-engine once erected is stationary, and must
remain where it is placed. As its location is usually on top of
a building, or a high tower, it cannot be so readily attached to
the various machines to which its motion is to be communi-
cated as the horse-power. But while the horse-power has some

POWER ON THE FARM.

407

FIG. 53.— HORSE-POWER. MANUFACTURED BY A, W. GRAY'S SONS, MIDDLETOWN

SPRINGS, VT.

FIG. 54.— WIND-MILL. MANUFACTURED BY ECLIPSE WIND MILL CO., BELOIT, WIS.

498 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

advantages over wind, the latter also has some points in which
it is superior. For pumping water in distant pastures it is the
only available power. The farmer can neither go with, nor
send his horse-power there to pump water, and if he could the
expense would be greater than that of erecting a wind-mill.
By the use of suitable tanks, a supply can be provided for
calms ; and by means of an automatic arrangement, the pump
will cease to operate when these tanks are full, and begin again
when they are empty. Many farmers have used wind-mills
for pumping water in their pastures, and found them very
profitable.

For the other purposes to which power is applied on the
farm, the wind-engine should be near the barn. A good one
may be used for shelling corn, threshing grain, grinding feed,
and sawing wood. A light wind will be sufficient to drive it,
and the inconveniences attending the use of this power can be
offset by the low cost for which it can be supplied. The
mechanical part of the horse-power is not very costly, but the
power itself must be furnished by horses at a considerable
expense to the owner. It is true that horses must be kept on
the farm for other purposes, and that they can often be driving
machinery when they would otherwise be idle. But the more
the labor of the team is increased, the greater will be the cost of
keeping, the liability of accident or disease, and the sooner the
animals will be worn out. Many farmers who have other work
•enough for their horses prefer to use wind as a power rather
than keep a larger team. Others have horses enough to do all
the farm work, including the driving of the machines which
they need to use. Consequently, some will find it profitable to
use wind-mills while others will prefer the horse-power.

A very good stationary steam-engine for farm purposes can
be had for a comparatively low price, and in sections where fuel
is abundant steam may be largely used as a motive power for
driving farm machines. The use of steam will require buildings

POWER ON THE FARM. 499

specially adapted to the purpose, and the employment of careful
help or else the personal attention of the owner. A good wind-
engine, properly arranged, will pretty much take care of itself
Horse-power ought to have a careful manager, but careless
handling does not involve as much danger as it would with
steam. The engines may be made nearly self-regulating so as
to avoid great liability of explosions, but if the manager is care-
less the machine may be ruined and a heavy loss involved.
But, in spite of some drawbacks, steam gives certain advantages
which can" be secured by no other power adapted to the farm.
By a little additional expense the food for the cattle may be
steamed and roots can be cooked, if desired. Probably any
intelligent farmer who once makes a practical trial of steam-
power, if he gets a good engine, will be perfectly satisfied with
its operation. Some of the portable engines also give promise
of still greater usefulness.

A few words may be admissible concerning steam-power
as a means of performing the heavy work which usually
devolves upon teams. It is generally known that in Eng-
land steam-engines are very often used to draw the plow,
but perhaps many farmers are not aware that steam-plowing
has been successfully employed at the South, West and in
the Middle States of our own country. We do not refer to
mere experiments, but to the practical operations of the steam-
plow. The great seedsmen, D. Landreth & Sons, of Phila-
delphia, have used steam-power with gratifying success in the
culture of their large farms. Engines are being simplified and
improved, and it may be confidently expected that before many
years shall pass the great prairies of the West will be thoroughly
tilled to a great depth by steam. The engines for drawing the
gang of plows will also be effective for other farm work. Such
engines will not be used by the smaller farmers on account of
their expense, but there are many large land-holders who will

be able to cultivate their farms at a less cost by the use of steam
32

500

FARMING FOR PROFIT.

than they can with horses. At the South, on account of the
difficulty of securing labor, the steam-engine will probably
become a great reliance of the progressive farmer.

In many places the plan of neighborhood ownership may be
profitably adopted. Several farmers living near together, and
each doing too small an amount of business to justify the

FIG. 55. — PORTABLE ENGINE, MADE BY BLYMYER MFG. CO., CINCINNATI, O.

expense of separate machines, could purchase a horse-power, or
steam-engine, in company, and thus, at a very moderate cost,
secure nearly all of the advantages of individual possession.

There are many different styles of horse-powers, wind, and
steam-engines. The illustrations which we give represent
standard machines.

FARM IMPLEMENTS.

501

\ ITHIN the past thirty years machines have largely taken
the place of hand-labor on the farm. By their aid the
work can be performed much faster, and some kinds
much better, than it can be done by hand. As they
enable a man with a small amount of capital to do a much larger
business than he could carry on without them, and also prevent
a great deal of waste which would otherwise occur, they are
usually considered both cheaper and better than hand-power. To
the small farmer they are a
great convenience, while the
large farmer finds them in-
dispensable.

The machines which the
average farmer needs are
divided into several classes,
those of each class being

FIG. 56. — FIREFLY HAND-HOE.

fitted for the performance of

some special line of work. One class is designed to prepare
the land to receive the seed, another for seeding, one for the
cultivation of crops, another for harvesting, and still another for
preparing the products of the farm for use or for the market.
Other machines are used because by their aid work can be done
more conveniently than it can by hand, while household imple-
ments form a class by themselves. We have already described
and illustrated many of these machines, but some classes deserve
somewhat fuller treatment.

The Plow is one of the most important implements for pre-
paring the land to receive the seed. It is made in many
different forms, and of various kinds of material. To attempt
to say which is the best plow in use would be a foolish effort.
Some plows are better for some kinds of work than others, while
for other work they are inferior. The buyer should obtain a

502

FARMING FOR FROFIT.

FIG. 58. — GALE CHILLED PLOW.

FIG. 59. — ^ADAMANT PLOW,

FIG. 60.— SUP-POINT.

FARM IMPLEMENTS.

503

plow which is suited to the work which he designs to perform.
It is not wise to attempt to do light work with a heavy plow
which was made to run deep, nor to try to turn wide, deep fur-
rows with a small, light plow. The strength of the team ought
also to be taken into con-
sideration.

Whether iron or steel
plows should be used will
depend somewhat upon the
kind of land which is to be
plowed. Iron is generally
preferred in very stony fields
and many farmers like it

FIG. 6l. — ONEONTA CLIPPER.

.^.^.^jMi

--i^-

V??v

FIG. 62. — SULKY PLOW.

better for all work except turning very sticky soils. With
reasonable usage a steel plow will work successfully where
there are many stones. We have used one several years where
the fields were quite stony. Also in very soft, mucky soil.
For the latter the steel plow is incomparably better than iron.
For ordinary land a first-class iron plow will give satisfac-

504 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

tion if it is adapted to the work required of it and is well
used. The same is true of the steel plow with the additional
advantage of lasting longer, and of being able to work in all
kinds of soil which are not extremely rocky, but it has the
disadvantage of a somewhat higfier price. The " chilled "
plows are also very good and durable. Sulky plows are
extensively used at the West, and with sufficient power will do
perfect work with great ease to the operator.

Each farmer ought to have at least three different styles of
plow, and one doing a large business may need several more.
The small farmer should have a sod-plow, a stubble-plow, and a
light one-horse plow for the marking out of land for planting,
for covering potatoes, and the various other purposes for which
such an implement is almost indispensable. It does not pay
to try to get along with two plows when three are absolutely
needed.

• As the yield of the crop will depend in a great measure upon
the thoroughness with which the land is plowed, it follows
that a perfect working plow should always be secured. It is
not an object to buy inferior plows, either of pattern, material,
or construction. If the plow is not of good form it either will
not do good work, or else it will require too much power to
draw it. These are radical defects, and should always be avoided.
If a plow is made of poor material it will very soon wear out,
and though such plows may be cheap to begin with, they are
the most expensive of all in the end. Better pay twenty dollars
for a plow made of good material than buy one made out of
poor stock for fifteen. The former will last a long time. The
latter will be likely to fail very soon, and may give out at the
most hurrying time of the whole year, when each day's delay
while waiting for a new one will prove a great damage. In the
end the cash expense of such plows will far exceed that of the
better and higher-priced ones, while the inconvenience and
delays which will be inevitable will add still more to their cost

FAUM IMPLEMENTS.

506

FIG. 63. — COLLINS STEEL GANG PLOW.

FIG. 64.

£1^

no. 65. -^-CLOGGED- HARROW
TOOTH.

FIG. 66. — THOMAS SMOOTHING HARROW.

506 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

If the plow is poorly made, a defect which is often, but not
always, associated with the use of poor materials, there will be
constant danger of breakage, liability of delays, and heavy
expenses for repairs. It is always best to obtain plows of good
form, which are made of good materials and well put together.
We present illustrations of several standard plows. Figure 56
represents a plow, or hoe, for hand-use in the garden. It is
made by S. L. Allen & Co., of Philadelphia, Pa. Figure 57
shows a large plow for breaking heavy sod. It is made by
the Furst and Bradley Manufacturing Co., Chicago, 111. Fig-
ure 58 shows the Gale Chilled plow with iron beam, made by
the Gale Manufacturing Co., Albion, Mich., and designed for
heavy work. Figure 59 represents the Adamant plows made
by the New York Plow Co., of New York city. These
plows are extremely hard and consequently very durable.
They are also fitted with " slip-points," Figure 60, by means
of which the cost of repairs is greatly reduced, while the plow
can be constantly kept sharp. Figure 61 represents the
Oneonta Clipper, a swivel-plow made by the Belcher & Taylor
Agricultural Tool Co., Chicopee palls, Mass. This plow is
specially designed for use on side hills, but works perfectly on
level land. By a movement of the foot the plow can be turned
without removing the hands. Unlike most reversible plows
this is so arranged that the plowman can easily walk in the
furrow. Figure 62 shows a large sulky plow. Figure 63
represents a steel gang-plow made by Collins & Co., of New
York city.

The Roller is another implement which ever)'- farmer ought
to have, but which many farmers get along without. The best
ones for ordinary use are made of cast iron, in several sections.
For use on clay land which has become baked and very hard, a
heavy iron-roller which has a large number of teeth upon its
outer surface may be needed. For lighter work as a clod-
crusher, a log may be drawn over the ground without rolling.

FARM IMPLEMENTS.

507

Where the lumps of earth are not extremely hard, such an
implement will do very fair work. We have used a square
stick of timber for this purpose with good results. A round
stick is better, as it will not be as likely to clog. Such an
implement can be made for either one or two horses. For the
former a pair of shafts will be needed, while the latter requires a
pole similar to that of a wagon. But the genuine roller is very
much better, and is really needed on many kinds of soil. If
there are no clods to crush, it is often an object to smooth
the land, grass seed can sometimes be best got in with a
roller, and in a great many

cases it will prove a very
useful implement. If the
farmer owns but little land,
and feels unable to purchase
an iron roller, it will cer-
tainly pay him to make a
good wooden one. Some
farmers construct rollers of
plank, and make very good
ones. These rollers should
be made in two sections
for convenience in turnins"

FIG. 67. — SPRING TOOTH HARROW.

around. If this form is considered too expensive, a very
decent roller can be made, at small cost, of a straight log.
The length and size of the log should be adapted to the
strength of the team which is to draw it. Figure 64 represents
one of the best iron rollers.

The Harrow is a very important implement, and one which
has no substitute. It should be found on the very smallest
farm, and on a large farm several harrows, of different forms
and for different purposes, will be required. Many different
forms have been devised. The triangular harrow, made in the
form of a letter A, and having large, long teeth, has always.

508 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

been a favorite for use among stumps, stones, or on very rough
ground. The square harrow has many more teeth, is hghtcr,
does not draw as hard, is better to handle, and on smooth land
will do better work. It should be made in two sections, joined
at the sides by hinges which can readily be separated. Both
these styles are open to the objection of being veiy easily
clogged. Figure 65 shows the too frequent condition of the
teeth. When clogged they accomplish but little, while the labor
of the team is greatly increased. By the use of slanting teeth this
difficulty is wholly avoided, the efficiency of the implement is
very greatly increased, while the draft is considerably reduced.
This form of harrow is represented by Figure 66. It was
invented by J. J. Thomas, Esq., the well-known author of
several valuable agricultural books, and one of the editors of
the " Country Gentleman," and is manufactured by the Thomas
Smoothing-Harrow Co., Geneva, N. Y.

Figure 67 shows a new style of harrow made by G. B. Oliii
& Co., Perry, N. Y. This form readily adapts itself to uneven
land, can be adjusted to work deep or shallow, draws easily,
while the teeth readily pass over obstructions. Figure 68 rep-
resents a combined clod-crusher, pulverizer, and leveler, which
is manufactured by Nash & Brother, of New York city. Th(
leveling bar breaks down the lumps, and levels the surface,
while the curved steel coulters cut the soil, and leave it veiy
loose and fine. This is a valuable implement, especially for use
on inverted sod, and on hard and rough fields. Figure 69
shows the Randall Harrow, made by the Warrior Mower Co.,
Little Falls, N. Y. This convenient and wonderfully efficient
implement is too well known to need description. It can be
used either as a stiff or a jointed harrow, can be set at different
angles, and will pulverize the soil rapidly, and leave it in excel-
lent condition.

Planters, cultivators, and harvesters have already been illus-
trated. For us6 on large farms, a Horse-Fork is almost indis-

FARM IMPLEMENTS.

509

pensable, and it proves a great convenience on small ones. By
means of various attachments this implement can be used for
pitching hay into a window, and for distributing it over quite a

Fia 68. — ACME CLOD-CRUSHER, LEVELER AND PULVERIZER.

FIG. 69. — RANDALL HARROW.

large surface on the mow if desired. These forks save a great
deal of hard labor, and do their work very rapidly. They can
be advantageously used in building hay-stacks, as well as for
unloading at the barn. Figure 70 represents the method of
stacking hay by means of this implement.

510

FARMING FOR PROFIT.

In order to shell and clean the vast quantities of grain now
produced, machines for the purpose are an absolute necessity.
Many different kinds have been invented, and several have come

into extensive use Many farmers who grow a large quantity of
grain prefer to hire their threshing done, rather than buy a
machine and run it themselves. Hence there are, in the grain-
growing regions, many men who make a business of threshing

FARM IMPLEMENTS. 511

for others. In some respects it is better to hire the work done,
while in others this course does not seem advisable. On a large
farm there should be a power of some kind for other purposes,
and the man who has power for doing the work can usually do
it cheaper than he can hire it done. In buying a machine care
should be taken to obtain one which runs easily, which is
durable, and which will do the work well. There are several
excellent machines in the market. Figure 71 represents the
Farquhar Thresher and Cleaner, made by A. B. Farquhar, York,
Pa. This machine received the medal and highest diploma at
the Centennial and at the Paris Exposition.

Figure 72 shows a simple but effective machine for gathering
the heads of the clover-plant. By its use a man and horse can
collect the heads at the rate of an acre per hour.

For cleaning grain, a fanning-mill is needed on every farm.
When the business of the farm is so small that it does not seem
to justify the expense of securing a machine, several neighbors
may unite in the purchase of a good mill, and use it in common.
Figure "ji shows Montgomery's Rockaway Fan, made by
Dorsey, Moore & Co., Baltimore, Md.

A good Corn-Husker is a great necessity in all the large corn-
growing regions, and would be a great help to a multitude of
farmers doing only a small business. At the Pennsylvania State
Fair, in 1879, a machine of this description was exhibited, and
attracted considerable attention. It seems to be perfectly
adapted to the work which it is designed to perform. It is a
simple machine, and not liable to get out of order. It can be
used at the barn or taken into the field. The stalks are thrown
into the machine and carried, butts forward, by an endless apron
to a pair of corrugated and grooved rollers, which draw the
stalks through and push the ears out of the husks. This
machine can be run by hand or power. The rapidity of its
operation depends upon the size of the machine, and the power
applied. The cost of the smaller sizes is fifty dollars. C. D.

512

FARMING FOR PROFIT.

Richardson & Co., of Philadelphia, Pa., arc the owners of the
patent.

The same company also exhibited a Corn-Harvester, which is
a valuable implement for use at the West and South. This
machine is to be used in the field. When the corn is fully ripe,
the machine is drawn through the field — the horses walking
between the rows. It cuts the stalks near the ground, throws
them into the machine where they are drawn between rollers.

FIG. 71. — THRESHER AND CLEANER.

FIG. 72. — CLOVER-SEED GATHERER.

FIG. 73. — ROCKAWAY FAN.

and the ears husked in the same manner as with the Com-
Huskcr. The ears can be dropped into a hopper, carried by an
elevator to chute, and thence to a wagon drawn behind the
machine. The stalks are made into bundles, and dropped upon
the ground. This machine costs about two hundred dollars.
With a good team, eight or ten acres of corn per day can be
harvested.

The Corn-Sheller is a machine which is needed on nearly
all farms where corn is grown. Figure 74 shows an excellent

FARM IMPLEMENTS.

613

hand-machine, made by the Sandwich Manufacturing Co., Sand-
wich, 111. Figure 75 shows the power Shuck-Shelier, manufac-
tured by Kingsland, Ferguson & Co., St. Louis, Mo. This
simple and durable machine proves very valuable in the large
corn-growing sections. It shells corn clean with the husks on
or after it has been husked, and does the work very rapidly.

Farm-Mills, for grinding corn and other kinds of grain, have
long been considered indispensable by large farmers. That it
pays to grind corn before it is fed to stock, seems to have been
abundantly proved by careful experiment and by the long ex-
perience of a multitude of farmers. And, in most cases, when a
farmer has a power by which it can be driven, it will pay to

FIG. 74. — VETKRAN CORN-SHELLER.

FIG. 75. — SHUCK-SHELLER.

obtain a mill of his own. It is quite an expense of time and
money to get the grinding done away from home. On a large
farm, which is principally devoted to grain-growing and live-
stock, a good mill will pay for itself in a single year. Figure 76
represents a valuable farm-mill, manufactured by Wm. L. Boyer
& Bro., Philadelphia, Pa. These mills will grind from four to
six bushels of corn per hour when driven by one-horse, and
twice as much when a two-horse power is used. Corn can be
ground either shelled or in the ear, and other kinds of grain
can be ground fine or coarse, as may be desired. As the grind-
ing surfaces are self-sharpening, and the whole mill very durable,
there will be but little expense for repairs.

A cider or wine mill, if used only as it should be, Avould
prove a valuable implement to quite a large number of farmers.

514

FARMING FOR PROFIT.

FIG. 76. — boyer's portable farm grist-mill.

We consider pure
cider-v i n e g a r a
valuable article,
and wish the sup-
ply could be so
largely increased
as to drive out
the abominable,
health -destroying
acids which have
so largely taken
its place in all city
markets. For this
purpose cider is
required, and a
better quality can
usually be ob-
tained by using a small
mill at home than will be
secured if the apples are
drawn to a large mill,
where good and poor ones
are mixed and no special
care is taken to make a
fine grade. But as far as
cider and wine for drink-
ing purposes are concern-
ed, we are strongly oppos-
ed to their manufacture.

Wherever roots are
grown for stock, a ma-
chine for . cutting them should be provided. A simple, but
very good, machine for this purpose is made by William L.
Boyer & Bro.,. Philadelphia, Pa., and represented by Figure 77.

FIG. 77. — ROOT-CUTTKR.

FARM IMPLEMENTS.

515

Straw-cutters are also needed on almost every farm. By
cutting, steaming, and applying meal, good straw and the
poorer qualities of hay can be made quite palatable to stock,
and the animals will thrive when fed upon them. Coarse hay
for bedding ought to be cut before it is used in cows' stables.
These machines cost but little. Heavier ones, for use with
power, adapted to the cutting of straw or corn-fodder, are used
on many large farms, and soon pay for themselves. If only a
light one is wanted, and the cost is not e.asily to be met, ao
ingenious farmer can buy a
knife and make a machine which
will answer his purpose. The
cost will then be very small, and
the machine will be likely to
answer until the owner be-
comes better able to buy one.

It is well known that the
efficiency of a mower or reaper,
as well as the degree of power
required to operate it, will
largely depend upon the con-
dition of the knives. The best
machine with dull knives will
draw hard and fail to do first-
class work. In order to keep the harvesting machines working
nicely, the knives must be frequently ground. Not only this,
but they must be ground well. They should be held upon the
stone at the right angle, in order that the grinding may be in
the right direction, and also to prevent an undue grinding away
Qf the cutters. As an aid to the farmer in grinding the knives
perfectly true, the implement represented by Figure 78, and
made by Powell, Stevens & Douglas, Waukegan, 111., is very
useful.

In some sections of the country a Stump-Pullek is a great

FIG. 7S. — SICKLE GRINOr.R.

616

FARMING FOR PROFIT.

riG. 80. — box's portable hoisting machine.

FARM IMPLEMENTS.

517

convenience. Figure 79 represents a portable implement of this
description which is made by A. B. Farquhar, York, Pa. It is
simple and very strong. By its aid two men can raise twenty-
five thousand pounds, while four men with a larger size can
raise fifty thousand pounds. For pulling stumps and lifting
rocks this is a valuable implement.

A Portable Hoisting Machine is often needed upon large
farms, and is frequently useful upon small ones. There are
many purposes
for which such a
machine is re-
quired, and its
use would save
many heavy lifts
and much hard
labor. Figure 80
shows a machine
which attracted a
great deal of at-
tention at the
Pennsylvania
State Fair, in
1879, and which
received the first
premium there,
and at the Mis- ^^' ^'" — empire portable forge.

souri State Fair. With this machine one man can lift from two
to ten tons. The load is held by the machine at any point,
but lowers rapidly when started by the operator. This machine
is made by Alfred Box & Co., Philadelphia, Pa. It is very
strong and durable, and is not likely to get out of order.

A good Forge is a good thing on any farm, and may be con-
sidered almost indispensable to the man who owns much land and
uses many tools. He may get along without it, but not without

618

FARMING FOR PROFIT.

FIG. 82. — UGHTNING BUCK-SAW.

FIG. %y.

nC. 86. — PORTABLE PLATFORM-SCALB.

FARM IMPLEMENTS. 519

incurring considerable loss thereby. The ingenious farmer who
has a good forge can often repair his wagon in half the time
which would be required to take it to the blacksmith. He can
also put a new bolt in the reaper in place of a broken one, and
thus save time when each hour is of great value. Many other
repairs can be made which will take but little time, and cost but
little for material, which would otherwise have to be sent to
town at considerable loss of time and quite a pecuniary expense.
With a good forge, and a supply of bolts, screws, nails, and
small iron ware, which every farmer would do well to keep on
hand, a great many jobs could be done at home. There would
not only be the saving of time and expense to which we have
alluded, but the repairs would be more likely to receive prompt
attention than they would if the wagons or machines were to be
sent to a blacksmith. In this way a great deal of useless wear
would be saved. One bolt put in at the very beginning of an
indication that it is needed is worth more than half a dozen
bolts put in after the parts have worn loose and got entirely out
of order. Figure 8i represents a first-class forge for use on the
farm. This, with many other styles, is made by the Empire
Portable Forge Co., Cohoes, N. Y.

In those sections in which wood is used for fuel, saws will be
needed for fitting it for the stove. Figure 82 represents a wood-
saw which is a very great improvement over the old-fashioned
style. We have used one of these saws several years, and
found it a valuable implement. .Figure 83 shows a saw for
cutting off logs. Figure 84 shows a hand-saw for use in
pruning trees and cutting boards. All these saws are made
by E. M. Boynton, New York city.

Scales for weighing the products of the farm are very impor-
tant implements, and no farmer should try to get along without
them. Without scales the farmer is liable to sustain many
losses in different ways, and in the course of a year he will be
fortunate if he does not lose for want of them more than the

620

FARMING FOR PROFIT.

scales would cost On a large farm scales weighing at least
two tons should be placed in the barn-floor, and there should be
small ones at the house for weighing milk, butter, poultry, and

similar articles.
On a small faim
there should be
scales which will
be convenient for
weighing lambs,
calves, and grain,
while some light
ones in the house
should be kept
for weighing the
articles which are
sold from the
dair}', and the
lighter class of
goods from the
farm. Without
a good scale it is
impossible for a
man to thor-
oughly test the
yield of his cows,
. to carry on care-
ful experiments,
and to do many
other things
which the careful
farmer will desire to perform. He cannot tell whether his
grocer deals fairly with him or not, will be obliged to " guess "
the weight of his own products, and he will often be put
to much inconvenience when no great pecuniary loss ia

W^^^^^^^M^

i'AKM IMPLEMENJii.

52 i

involved. Figure 85 represents a good Family Scale, and
Figure 86 shows a Portable Platform-Scale made by Riehle
Brothers, of Philadelphia, Pa. Figure 87 shows the celebrated
Fairbanks' scales in operation on the farm.

Something in the line of a Pump should be found on every
farm, and it is desirable that it should be a really good one.
Many farmers still use the " old oaken bucket," but under the
most favorable circumstances the operation of drawing water
with it will be slow and
laborious, while in cold
weather the poetry connec-
ted with the bucket will
utterly fail to compensate
for its manifest disadvan-
tages. As the wife and i
children are often obliged

to draw water for use in

the house, the farmer should

provide a pump which will

work easily, and also raise

water with a reasonable

degree of speed. It is

quite desirable that the

pump should be suitable

for throwing water upon

the buildings in case of fire. "°-

Figure 88 represents a

double-acting pump which is adapted for both surface and deep

wells, which works easily, throws water rapidly, and has a

strong forcing capacity. This pump is very useful on a farm.

As it is put together with bolts it is easy to get at the

valves in case it should be desirable to change them. This

pump is manufactured by Cooper, Jones & Cadbury, Philadel-

phia, Pa.

5. — EXCELSIOR SUCTION AND KORCB-
PUMP.

522 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

The class of household machines is not very large. Among
the best implements of the kind are niachines for washing,
wringing, and ironing clothes. Of Washing Machines there
is an almost unlimited number, and, if we except the single
implement of the churn, there are more worthless machines of
this description than of all other kinds put together. There are
a very few good patterns. But most of the washers give satisfac-
tion for only a short time, and are soon laid aside. Either in the
cellar or garret of a large number of farm-houses can be found

FIG. 59. — BEEBE WASHING MACHINE.

one or more discarded washing machines which have been tried
and proved defective. Farmers have bought so many poor
ones that they have come to look with a great deal of distrust
upon every new washer which is brought to their attention.
But, while the market is flooded with poor ones, there are
machines which are a real help, and every farmer's wife ought
to have one. Washing is hard work, and, in connection with
the other duties of the house, is too heavy for one woman to do
by main strength. With a good machine the work can be done

FARM IMPLEMENTS.

523

m less time, and with but little very hard work. Figure 89
represents a good machine which is made by A. B. Farquhar
York, Pa.

A Clothes-Wringer is considered by many housekeepers as
far superior to a washing machine. There may be some
excuse for the farmer who does not keep a good washing
machine, but the man who neglects to provide a good clothes-
wringer does a great wrong. Good wringers can be secured for
low prices. They save a great deal of time, and of exceedingly
hard work. They are not merely convenient machines for the
use of the well-to-do classes,
but they are necessities to
all women who are obliged
to wash, and who can pos-
sibly afford the expense.
One of the best, as well as
best known, styles is made
by the Metropolitan Wash-
ing Machine Co., of New
York city, and is represented
by Figure 90.

To those who can afford
to buy one, and a great
many farmers can, a Mangle, or ironing machine, will prove very
useful. A good machine for family use is represented by
Figure 91. It is made by the Standard Laundry Machinery
Co., of Boston, Mass. The use of this machine saves fuel, as it
irons the clothes without heat, saves a great deal of time and
labor, and does not injure the fabrics as hot irons always do.

The Sewing Machine is now so common that we hardly
need to say much in its favor. Yet there are many farmers in
all who have not bought, but who certainly ought to furnish
these machines. The prices have now been reduced to a reason-
able figure, and it would seem as if the last excuse for not

FIG. 90. — CLOTH'eS-WRINGER,

524

FARMING FOR PROFIT.

FIG. 91.

buying a sewing machine had been taken away. With a good
machine the farmer's wife can do hersevving easily and rapidly,
and will be able to occasionally find a few minutes at a time in

which she can sit down
to rest without feeling
that she is neglecting
some pressing duty.

Such a list as we have
attempted must, in the
limits assigned for this
purpose, necessarily be
incomplete, but we have
named some of the lead-
ing implements which are either needed universally, or else in
large sections of the country.

Many of the farm machines have been incorrectly termed
" labor-saving " implements. They do not .f^rv labor. All the
work must be performed with them that would be needed if
they were not used. But the labor is transferred from man to be
performed by animals, wind, and steam. But these machines do
save time, and crops, and health. By their aid the farmer can
do a great deal more than would be possible w'ithout them, and
can secure crops which under the old system would inevitably
suffer a great waste. Then, too, the saving of health is one of
the greatest of the various economies secured by the use of
machines. The labor can be performed with less physical
exhaustion, and more time for rest can be secured. This is a
matter of great importance both to the farmer and his family.
It is not only infinitely pleasanter, but it is a great deal cheaper
to buy machines for doing the work than it is to employ
doctors and purchase medicines in order to regain health which
has been lost by excessive labor.

LIVE-STOCK.

(525)

CONTENTS ©F Pil.BT H.

LIVE-STOCK ON THE FARM.
THE HORSE.

THE MULE.
CATTLE.

THE DAIRY;
SOILING CATTLE.
ENSILAGE.
SHEEP.

SWINE.

THE INFERIOR ANIMALS

(526)

LIVE-STOCK ON I'HE FARM. 527

Oir&ST0€IC OH THE FmUM •

HAT the live-stock interest is one of immense importance
to the people of this country is evident from the fact
that they have more than one and a half billions of

'(3' dollars invested in domestic animals. This estimate is
based upon the actual selling value, and shows the importance
of the live-stock business from a financial point of view. If the
vast sum of money which is represented by these animals
returns a fair rate of interest, they will give a large income to
their owners. If they do not make such a return, the money is
unwisely invested.

The facts that so large a sum is represented by domestic ani-
mals, and that from them the interest, if any is secured, upon
this great amount of capital must come, should prove a strong
inducement for the owners to give their live-stock the best of
care and the closest attention. It is in this way only that the
largest possible profit is to be secured. For want of this care
and oversight many of the animals kept on our farms prove of
no benefit to their owners. Instead of paying six per cent, in-
terest upon the capital which they represent, they hardly pay the
expenses of their keeping. Certainly this rate of interest ought
to be secured, and the man who fails to receive it should care-
fully examine his methods of keeping and treatment and find
wherein they can be improved. In succeeding chapters we shall
endeavor to point out the best and most profitable systems of
management.

There are two special and several incidental purposes for
which animals are useful to the farmer. They are valuable for the
labor which they perform, and for the food which they supply.
Some, like the horse, are principally usefjil as laborers. Some,
like the pig, are only good for food ; while others, like the ox,
are valuable for both labor and food. It is also true that ani-
mals are beneficial to the farmer in that they convert the bulky

628 FARMING FOR PROrrT.

products of his land, such as hay and grain, into valuable
material which occupies a much smaller space, and thereby
saves a great expense for transportation. The Western farmer
can send his beef to the Eastern market and get well paid, but
he could not profitably send all of his hay so far from home.
The freight on a hundred pounds of hay would be as high as it
would on a hundred pounds of beef, but the amount of money
received for the latter would be five or six times as great as it
would for the former. Animals also convert various products
of the soil which man cannot eat into some of the finest quali-
ties of food for his support. Man cannot cat the hay with
which he fills his barns, or the grass which clothes his pastures,
but he can use the beef and mutton which are produced from
them. A large part of the fertilizers upon which the farmers
crops are fed are produced by animals. " No cattle, no dung : no
dung, no corn," long ago became a proverb among the best
farmers in the world. And though chemical fertilizers have
been discovered which promise, and which are also able to
perform, great things in the line of agricultural advancement, it
is still true that merely for the production of manure domestic
animals are of great value to the farmer.

It may be accepted as a settled principle that upon every
farm one or more animals should be kept, for at least part of
the time, for the labor which they are able to perform. In
thickly settled countries like China, where each man owns but a
very small area of land, it is possible to do by hand the work
which the farmers of this country need animals to perform. It
is all very true that a thoroughly spaded garden is, by means of
the spading, got into a fine condition to receive the seed. If
corn fields and wheat fields could be treated in like manner,
very large crops might be secured. But our farmers cannot
afford to use the spade for loosening and fining the soil. To
attempt to prepare a good-sized field in this manner would
expose a farmer to the ridicule and contempt of his neighbors.

LIVE-STOCK ON THE FARM. 529

and involve him in a heavy financial loss. The work might be
done very nicely, but its cost would be altogether above the
highest price which the owner of the land could afford to pay.
In this country operations of this kind must be performed a
great deal cheaper than they can possibly be done by hand. It
is very necessary that they should be done, and also be done
in a thorough manner. Before a crop can be obtained, the land
must be fitted for the reception of the seed. But as a means for
accomplishing this purpose, hand-power is altogether out of the
question. To the ordinary farmer* steam-power aiso is wholly
unavailable. It is to the animals which God, in infinite wisdom
and goodness, has given to man for his aid and service that we
must look for the -means of fitting our land for the seed, and for
gathering the harvest when it is ripe. Laying aside all thought
of their other uses, and of the convenience of having such strong
and willing servants, we can, in this one item of labor, see that
without these animals the farmer would be utterly helpless.
With the spade he could prepare but little land, and with the
sickle, or the cradle, he could gather but little grain. Without
the aid of the animals our fields would be untilled, the great
prairies of the West unbroken, and business of every kind
would come to a speedy end. In calling attention to the great
necessity of help from the animal creation, and to the weakness
of man without this aid, we hope to impress upon the minds of
our readers not only the fact of indebtedness to the creatures
which patiently labor for the advancement of the material
interests of their owners, but also to awaken a sense of duty to
treat these animals with the kindness and consideration which
they deserve.

Of the animals which are kept on the farm for the main pur-
pose of being fitted for food, the cattle, sheep, and pig are of
the greatest value. In certain sections of the country it pays
well to grow and fatten these animals for the market. In other
places the winters are so long and severe, and the soil so poorly

530 FARMING FOR FRO FIT.

adapted for pasturage in the summer that the expense of keeping
animals is very great, and it does not pay to attempt to conduct
the live-stock business with special reference to supplying the
market with animal food. At the West, where the land is
cheap, corn sells for an extremely low price, and grass and
hay can be had in abundance, meat can be furnished very
much cheaper than it can in New England. In Texas, with its
vast territor)'-, its luxuriant pastures, and its mild climate, beef
can be produced for a much lower price than it can even in the
most favored parts of the West.

It is not wise for the New England farmer to attempt, on a
large scale, to compete, in this line of business, with the cattle
owners of Texas and the West. Twenty years ago it paid
Eastern farmers well to fatten oxen for the New England
market. But since the West and South have gone extensively
into the work of growing live-stock and sending it all over the
countr)', the prices of various kinds of meat have declined and
the demand has been more than supplied. The Eastern farmer
can still furnish the meat needed in his own family and sell to
some extent in the home market, but he will hardly be able to
compete in the large city markets with stock-owners who are
much better situated for its production. It is possible, however,
that the trade in meat with Gre.\t Britain, which is assuming
large proportions and now seems to be firmly established, will
divert the surplus products of the W^est and South to such an
extent as to open the Eastern city markets again for supplies
from their own section. If this prt^ves to be the case. Eastern
stock-owners should accept the opportunity and strive to buila
up a profitable business. The same principle which governs in
the production of beef, which as a matter of convenience has
been specially considered, also applies to the other kinds or
animal food.

The live-stock business offers to almost every farmer an
opportunity for financial gains. But these gains are to be

THE HORSE. ,53 j

secured by keeping the best animals and giving them the best
of care. A poor class of stock may nearly, or if not too
poor may quite, pay its way. A great deal of the stock kept
on the farm is of this description. But it should not be consid-
ered sufficient that the keeping -of the animals involves no direct
loss. By careful attention to the principles of breeding the
average farmer can obtain a better grade of stock. If he will
sell his inferior animals and fill their places with better ones, he
can effect a gradual improvement without incurring a very heavy
expense. By keeping the best of his animals for breeding pur-
poses instead of selling them to the butcher, and taking good
care of them, the farmer can soon obtain a class of stock which.
will be sure to yield him a fair percentage of profit.

THE HOBS^.

N able writer has said, and there are few if any who ques-
tion the truth of his assertion, that "There is no better
beast in the world than a horse, nor any one which,
though often most cruelly misused by man, so well de-
serves, and so amply, by his services, repays the best usage."
Unlike m.ost of the animals which promote the comfort and in-
crease the happiness of mankind, the horse is found in all the
habitable parts of the globe. In all climates and temperatures
where grass can grow or man abide, the horse may be found his
willing and efficient servant. A necessity to the savage and the
half-civilized races, he is also indispensable to the people who'
have obtained the highest culture and the greatest degree of
control over the forces of nature. The barbarous nations which
know nothing of steam or electricity and who have no means
of utilizing the power so freely furnished by wind and V\'ater, are
dependent upon the horse for the aid which they need in the

work which they attempt to perform. But the civilized races,..
34

532 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

although they can control these great powers of which the bar-
barian knows nothing, are also dependent, in a very great de-
gree, upon the horse for their comfort and prosperity. All classes
and conditions of men need the help of this useful animal. The
work of the world could not gc on without his aid. This fact
should cause the people to whom he is so invaluable to treat
him kindly, and supply, with a liberal hand, the food and protec-
tion which he requires.

In this country we have horses of nearly all descriptions and
adapted to almost ever)'' conceivable purpose. But as this
work is designed especially for farmers, we shall confine our
remarks to the growing and management of horses which are
serviceable on the farm. By this we do not design to intimate
that we shall treat only of a low grade of horses. Though there
are many very poor horses kept on our farms they ought not to
hold the positions which they now occupy. A poor horse is not
suitable for the farm. While great speed is not required, it is
still true that the finest horses are none too good for the farmer's
use. On a farm, as truly as on the road, the best horses give the
best satisfaction and are the most profitable to their owners.
Our farmers have been too long contented with a low class of
horses, andhave suffered great and constant losses by their quiet
acceptance of an inferior grade of these most useful and valuable
animals. While the poor horses which so many farmers have
kept, and with which they have been so well satisfied, have been
of incalculable value and have made possible the accomplishment
of an immense amount of work for the performance of which
no other class of animals could have been secured, it is still
true that if a better grade of horses had been owned, a still
greater degree of success would have been obtained. It is not
wise for the farmer to buy very expensive horses, but he ought
to have those which are really good and useful. If he can afford
to keep a horse of any kind, he can afford to keep a good one.
If a good one cannot be made to pay the expenses of his keep-

THE HORSE. 533

ing, a poor one will be almost sure to involve his owner in an
actual loss.

The qualities which are required in a good horse for the farm
are a good disposition, strength, endurance, and activity. It is also
quite desirable that the farm horse should be nicely formed,
beautifully colored, be a good traveller, and carry himself
elegantly when in motion. These qualities are desirable, but
they are not essential. Some of the best of farm horses are
deficient in one or all of them. But in order to perform the
best service for his master the farm horse must possess each and
all of the qualities which are named in the list of requisites
which has been given.

A Good Disposition is of the greatest importance. Without
the other qualities which we have marked as essentials, the
horse becomes worthless to the farmer, but without a good dis-
position he becomes not merely unserviceable but positively
dangerous. Although a good horse is one of the best patterns
of kindness and fidelity in the whole animal world, a vicious
horse is one of the most violent, revengeful, and unrelenting
creatures with which man attempts to cope. Until subdued by
the wonderful skill of Rarey, the celebrated English stallion
Crusier was a far more dangerous animal than a lion. And
instances in this country in which vicious stallions kill their
grooms and ugly horses disable or destroy their owners are not
very infrequently reported in our newspapers. Such occurrences
are altogether too common. They can be avoided by following .
one simple rule — that of never using or keeping a vicious horse.
There is no other safe way. The man who handles a vicious
horse is in constant danger. All may go well for years and yet
in some unexpected moment the animal may exercise all bis
destructive power. If the owner is extremely careful he may
not be injured, but the risk is very great and ought never to be
taken. Less difficult to get along with than these violent crea-
tures, but still unsafe to handle in the manner in which farm

531 FARMING J'OK rKOf/r.

horses are usually managed, are the sullen and sour-tempered
horses which are so often seen and which frequently cause no
small amount of mischief. These horses are not often very
violent, but are liable to bite or kick when displeased with their
treatment or surroundings. In many cases they will not attack
the master, but will wreak their vengeance upon children or
strangers who happen to be near when things do not suit them.
Such horses should never be kept on the farm. They are
decidedly unsafe to have around under the treatment which
farm horses receive. If used anywhere they should be put upon
stage lines, or horse-car routes, where they can have steady
and tolerably severe work, and where their* evil propensities can
be more easily restrained than they can be on a farm. When
the danger to all who use them, and especially to the aged,
women, and children, is considered, it seems strange that any
one will keep a horse which has any trace of viciousness in its
disposition.

That the farm horse will require a great deal of Strength is
clearly evident when the nature of the work for the performance
of which he is required is considered. The fleet carriage horse
v.hich moves so gracefully along the road would prove of but
little value when hitched to a plow which is to be drawn through
a heavy sod. Not only for plowing but also for a large part of
the other work required on the farm a high degree of strength
is absolutely necessary. Even the harrowing of the land after
, it has been plowed involves a heavy draft. The cultivation of
the crops, cutting, and drawing them to the stack or the barn
are operations which require a strong team for their rapid and
profitable performance. While it is possible to accomplish
something with a weak team, no one who has had the slightest
experience in the premises will doubt that all the work which
ii thus carried on will be done at a great disadvantage. We
have known farmers to plow their land shallow because they dijd
not have a team with strength enough to plow it to a suitable

THE HORSE. gor

depth. The team was also too weak to do all the harrowing
which ought to have been given. In all the preparatory opera-
tions the team was inefficient, but when harvest came it was
found abundantly able to draw all the crops which with this
defective system of culture had been obtained. The work which
can be profitably done on a farm cannot be performed without
the exercise of a great deal of strength. A weak team will, from
the very nature of the case, prepare the land for the production
of small and unprofitable crops.

It is not only important that a sufficient degree of strength
should be provided but also that it should be furnished by a
small number of animals. A great and constant waste is
involved in keeping three horses to do the work which two
ought to be fully ablo to perform. Every one can see that
such a course involves the waste of considerable hay and
grain, quite an expense for shoeing and harnesses, the loss
of interest on quite a little sum of money, and the withdrawal
of an amount of capital equal to the selling value of the animal
from employment in profitable departments of the business of
the farm. Keeping more horses than are needed inevitably
involves the owner in loss. We do not here refer to horses
which are kept for pleasure-driving, or to the extra horses which
some farmers think that they can profitably keep for use during
the busiest part of the .season. But, while the same principle
applies pretty generally to them all, we now have in mind the
horses which are kept as extras in order to atone for the deficien-
cies of those which should form the farm team. Instead of
keeping these animals it is much better for the farmer who has a
small and weak team to sell it and then buy a stronger one. It
will be a great deal cheaper to keep two strong horses than it
will to support three weak ones, and the greater convenience of
using the pair will be another, and should be a sufficient reason
for making the exchange.

In selecting horses for farm work the buyer must be careful

536 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

to distinguish between size and strength. It is a common
opinion that large horses are very strong and small horses com-
paratively weak. While it is true that when other things are
equal a large horse is stronger than a small one, it is not always
safe to assume that because a horse is large he must be very
strong, or that because another is much smaller he is a great
deal weaker. The greater weight of the large horse is much
in his favor when drawing heavy loads, especially over rising
ground, but strength does not wholly depend either upon v/eight
or size, and a small horse may be stronger than a large one.
Farmers who judge of horses merely by their size are often
very badly deceived and frequently overload their teams. The
strength of a horse depends far more upon his form and the per-
fection of his muscular development than it does upon his actual
size. We do not wish to be understood as saying that small
horses are usually stronger than large ones. They are some-
times stronger, but not always. In proportion to their weight
when in the same general condition we believe the medium-sized
horses will prove stronger than those which are excessively
large, and in some cases a small horse will prove much stronger
than one which is of considerably larger size. In selecting a
horse, size must be considered, but it is not the only standard
by which to test either his strength or his value.

Endurance is one of the leading qualities of a first-rate farm
horse. Many horses are kind and strong which cannot endure,
without discomfort and injury, the hard labor which at some
seasons of the year the farmer requires his team to perform.
We think that the work of a farm is much more trying to the
endurance of a horse than that of many kinds of business which
are usually considered much more severe. The horse-car com-
panies require severe and protracted labor of the animals which
they keep in use, but they feed in the best possible manner,
while the hours of labor are regular and the work nearly uniform
in its demands upon the strength. But on the farm there are

THE HORSE.

6a7

many days in which no work at all is required, and periods of
considerable length in which but comparatively little labor is
performed by the horses in the team. But in the busy seasons
of seeding and harvest there is a very severe and long-continued
strain upon their powers of endurance. During these seasons
many horses are injured which would have performed a great
deal of hard labor if it had been more evenly distributed
throughout the year. To work extremely hard for two weeks
after a period of idleness and then be kept in the barn for a few
weeks until another busy time comes is a severer strain upon a
horse than regular labor six days in the week. The aggregate
amount of work performed in the latter case may greatly exceed
that under the former method, and yet the horse keep in better
condition and be less likely to be sick or injured than he will
under the former system of less, but irregular, labor. This is
readily accounted for by the fact that one system is in accord-
ance with, while the other is in violation of physiological laws.

Then, too, the feeding of the horse on the farm is not always
managed to the best advantage, and the powers of endurance
of the horses employed are severely taxed by its irregularity or
its inappropriateness. While the car horse has regular hours
of feeding, and a certain quantity and quality of food, the farm
horse is often fed at irregular intervals, and is given the kind of
food which it is the most convenient for his owner to supply.
The horses on the farm are sometimes started out very early in
the morning, while on other days they have but little to do
until after noon. Sometimes they are put in the stables in good'
season, while at others they are kept at work until late in
the evening. This irregularity of labor necessarily involves an
equal irregularity of feeding, and the two combined bring a
hard strain upon the powers of endurance of the team.

Activity is one of the qualities which the farm horse should
possess. It is not necessary, perhaps it is not desirable, that he
should be fleet on the road. A good traveller may be one of

538 FARMING FOR PROSIT.

the poorest of all horses for farm work. This is not necessarily
the case, but it often happens. The first-class travellers are often
too restive and nervous to cheerfully submit to the slc.v and
toilsome processes by which much of the work of the farm
must be performed. But there are a great many horses which
are quiet and tractable and still very active. When required for
drawing loads they do not go by fits and starts, like too many
fast horses, but take a quiet yet rapid gait and hold it until the
work is done. Some horses, which work steadily, go too fast
It is hard for a man to follow them with a plow, and they are
almost sure to work beyond their strength.

We know of a pair of horses, which, with an ordinary plow,
can plow two and a half acres of land in a day. These horses
walk steadily but very fast. They do too much. They are
neither very large nor very strong, and ought never to plow
more than two acres in a day. But this is a very unusual failing
among horses which are kept for work. But very ^q\\ farm
horses which work steadily work too fast. The great majority
are altogether too slow. Too many of the farm teams not
only " draw like oxen " in point of steadiness, but also resemble
them in respect to the time required for the performance of a
given piece of work. While a slow and quiet team is much
better than one which is nervous and unsteady, there is a mean
between these two extremes which is greatly to be preferred to
either of them. There are many kinds of work on the farm
which require activity rather than great strength for their
profitable performance. In harrowing stubble land, bushing in
grass seed, and many of the lighter kinds of the work of the
farm, a team which will work rapidly, yet quietly, will accom-
plish a great deal more than one of equal strength which is
slow. In the course of a year it makes a great deal of difference
with the progress of the work and the amount performed,
whether the horses are slow or active. In buying a horse for
farm use this point should be duly considered.

FIG. 92.
1. Carriage Horse 2. English Rncehor-

.Ameiir.in Tnnter.

THE HORSE. 54 j

In the training of colts care should be taken to teach them
to step quickly. Many horses are naturally slow, and cannot,
except by abuse, be made very active. It is of no use to
attempt to teach such horses to be spry. They may be some-
what improved, but natural tendencies will show themselves, and
prove difficult to control. Instead of whipping such horses to
make them go faster, some different kind of work which they
can perform at their own gait should be selected for them,
and animals which are naturally more active chosen for the
farm. But many slow horses were m.ade so by defective
training when they were young. If they had been carefully
trained they would have been far more active. It is too late to
attempt to improve them now, but care should be taken in
training the colts which are to supply the farm teams in the
future. If they exhibit unmistakable signs of dulness they
should be trained for slow work. Otherwise they may be
educated for the farm or the road.

In order to work at any advantage in the improvement of
farm horses, and secure a supply of these which will possess the
desirable qualities which they ought to have without the defects
which characterize so many of the animals now in use, it will
be necessary to commence at the very beginning. As long as
the spring remains unclean it is wholly useless to attempt to
purify the water at the fountain. And as long as the system of
breeding which in many sections has been adopted, and is now
prevalent, is pursued, there will be neither the hope nor the
possibility of any marked improvement in the character of our
farm horses. If we are to have good horses we must take pains
in breeding them. There must be more care and a greater
degree of skill. More capital must be invested in the business.
When we consider the quality of the animals which have been
used as breeding stock, we lose every particle of surprise at the
poor grade of horses which are found on our farms. The great
wonder, to one who has studied the subject, is that there are so

542 FARMING I' OR PROFIT.

many horses which are good, and so few which are wholly
useless. A great many farmers have used for breeding purposes
the very poorest stock they had on hand. Cases are numerous
in which a farmer has kept a mare until she was old and par-
tially disabled, and then, when she had the heaves, and stumbled,
when the sense of sight was failing, and all the powers of life
were rapidly on the decline, used her for breeding. It is a
common remark among farmers when speaking of an old,
unsound, and worthless mare, that she " will do to raise colts."
Such mares often are used for this purpose, and here we find an
ample reason for the low grade of the ordinary farm horse. And
what increases the difficulty, and makes a matter already bad
many times worse, is the fact that these mares are taken to
stallions which are very much like themselves. If the colt
could have strong constitution and vigorous blood on one side
of its parentage, there would be some hope that he might be
worth something. But the farmer thinks that to take such an
old mare to a really excellent stallion will be too expensive.
So he casts away all the best chances of success, and obtains a
colt from a well-mated, but miserably poor, pair of animals.
There are cases in which all this is done ignorantly. Mk.
Murray has said that there is more than one man who hopes to
obtain " a Dexter or a Goldsmith Maid " who breeds a mare
worth less than fifty dollars to " a horse that is not worth fifty
cents." It is not surprising that there are poor colts in the
world, but it is astonishing that men will go on breeding horses
in such direct violation of all physiological laws, and all the
teachings of common sense and experience.

We have alluded to the fact that a great many farmers do not
use mares for breeding purposes until they are old and,
at least partially, disabled. Now old age alone ought to be a
disqualification for breeding purposes. We have shown that the
farm horse needs strength, endurance, and activity. Is the colt
likely to inherit these vigorous qualities from a dam which is in

THE HORSE. 643

the declining years of life ? Common sense answers with an
emphatic no. It is useless to say that the mare has been smart,
and fleet, and strong. It is not what the mare has been, but
what she is while carrying her colt which is to determine his
constitutional powers. In the human line we find that the
children of aged parents are deficient in vital power. It often
happens that in the period of youth the children of such
parents begin to show the marks of old age. Their teeth
decay, their hair falls out, their eyes grow dim, and all the sen-
sibilities are dulled. The same principles which govern in
human life also apply to the brute creation. The ordinary
life of the horse cannot be said to exceed twenty-five years,
while man lives to be seventy. The children of parents
fifty or sixty years of age will inevitably bear the marks of
weakness and premature decline. These often appear in infancy.
Sometimes they are delayed but they are not prevented. The
offspring of aged parents bear the stamp of old age when they
should be in the vigor of active life, and their vital powers show
signs of failure when they ought to be in their fullest strength.

Now at the age of fifteen the ordinary horse is, comparatively,
as old, and the vital powers are as greatly diminished, as a man
at fifty. In a multitude of cases the horse is older at fifteen
than man at sixty. Yet there are many fai"mers who do not
begin to use their horses for breeding until they are fifteen years
of age. This we hold is a great mistake. It is an error which
entails a loss of hundreds of thousands of dollars upon our
farmers. If the serviceable life of the average horse could be
prolonged five years, it would be an immense benefit to all
owners of this animal. Such an increase, we firmly believe,
might be secured by the use of young instead of old mares for
breeding.

Unsoundness 'is a very great obstacle to the breeding of really
good horses. There are many sound mares which are used for
breeders, but the great majority of them are altogether too val-

544 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

uable to be owned upon the farm. But few of the mares which
bring the colts into the world which are to furnish farm horses
are young and sound. Old age is joined with other dis-
qualifications very often. And when a farmer is found using a
young mare for breeding purposes, there is considerable reason
to suspect that there is something wrong about the beast and
that on account of this difficulty she has been withdrawn from
active farm labor. There are exceptions to this rule, but they
are very few. Farmers have not yet been brought to realize
the immense importance of a sound parentage. All around
them are the eviflences of the transmission of disease. The
consumptive mother brings forth consumptive children, and the
scrofulous father taints the blood of those whom he begets.
Many forms of disease have been handed down from father to
son for generations. And this tendency to transmit disease
is not only as strong in animals as in man, but, owing to
the alleviating and counteracting circumstances which the intel-
ligence of men can bring to bear upon their own condition, is
still more likely to be permanent. If a mare has the heaves, her
colts, if she has any, will almost surely be weak in their organs
of respiration. If she is lame, even though the lameness may
have had a purely accidental origin, it is quite probable that the
colts will in early life also become lame. If the lameness is
caused by disease or weakness, it will almost surely be passed
down to the colts. Blindness is very sure to be handed down to
succeeding generations. And any infirmity, disease or defect is
quite likely to place its mark upon the colts produced by the
unsound parent.

An animal having a bad temper and a vicious disposition
should never be used for breeding. These defects are not only
perpetuated, but are very likely to be aggravated in the offspring.
It has been well said by Mr. Murray that "It is a crime to
breed an ugly dam either to an ugly horse or a good-natured
horse." If either parent is cross or ugly the colt will be almo.st

THE HORSE. 545

certain to inherit this evil quality, while if both parents are bad-
tempered an ugly colt may be looked for with a great deal of
certainty. As a good disposition is one of the essential requisites
of a good farm horse, it is not too much to assert that it is one
of the important qualities to be required in those animals which
are to determine the character of the horses which are to be
produced in the future.

The particular breed of horses which the farmer should keep
will depend upon various circumstances. Figure 93 represents
a White Percheron-Norman stallion which was imported from
France in 1868, and belongs to M. W. Dunham, Wayne, Du

FIG. 93. — "SUCCESS." 452.

Page Co., 111. The Percheron horses have long been noted for
their power and endurance, and their ability to move rapidly
with heavy loads. This breed is very desirable for farm and
driving purposes.

The Cleveland Bay is an excellent English breed suitable for
the farm and road. There are a few other breeds which possess
many good qualities and prove quite satisfactory for the general
uses of the farm.

On account of the cost, and also the trouble and expense of
keeping a stallion, most farmers will feel obliged to take their
mares to one owned by some dealer, or large breeder of horses.
There may not be just the breed of horses which he would

546 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

prefer near enough to his place to warrant his securing the
desired blood. In such a case he must take the best which can
be found or else buy a stallion of the breed which he prefers.
Most farmers will choose the former course. Although there is
a great deal more difficulty in obtaining, in country towns, a
thorough-bred stallion than there is in finding a male represen-
tative of any particular breed of cattle which may be wanted, it
is not unusual to find one which is well bred, which possesses a
good, though not always perfect, pedigree, and which has the
reputation of getting good colts. Then there are many more
stallions without either pedigrees or any specially valuable

FIG. 94 — " ELDORADO." 657.

Black Percheron-Norman Stallion. Imported from France, July, 1878

by M. W. Dunham, Wayne, Du Page Co., 111.

traits. The cost of taking a mare to one of the latter class is
much less than that of securing the services of the better ones.
And as the mares which a large class of farmers use for this
purpose are very poor, it is only natural that the services of the
poorer class of stallions should be the most in demand. This
breeding of worthless dams to miserable sires is a cheap way
of obtaining colts, but the colts are still cheaper than the method
which is employed to secure them.

While it is very important to have a good and sound mare, it is
of equal, if not greater, moment to have an excellent sire. It is
not necessary that the sire should be a thorough-bred, though if

THE HORSE. 547

he belongs to a race of horses suitable for the farm it is very
desirable, but it /^important that he should be well bred, and be
able to transmit the excellencies which he has inherited. He
should be sound and kind, of good size and appearance, and
should possess the qualities which the farmer most desires his
horses to have. It is a general, and probably a correct, impres-
sion that the strength and endurance of a colt, as well as his
temper and disposition, are much more strongly impressed by
the sire than they are by the dam. This fact should not lead
the farmer to be less particular than he otherwise would be
about the character of the mares from which he raises colts, but
it should impress upon his mind the fact that it is never allow-
able to use a poor sire. If it is impossible to secure the services
of a really good stallion, the farmer had better give up all idea of
obtaining colts from his own mares. It is better to buy a good
stallion than to hire a poor one. If he cannot afford to buy, and
is shut up to the choice of hiring a poor one or none at all,
he had better give up the horse business and raise some other
kind of stock. Poor colts are a great deal worse than none, and
the wise farmer will have as little to do with them as possible.

The mare usually goes with young from forty-seven to fifty
weeks — sometimes not more than forty-four weeks, and occa-
sionally as long as fifty-six weeks. It is very desirable, both for
the benefit of the mare and the sake of the colt, that the foaling
should occur when the weather is mild and there is an abun-
dance of green grass in the pastures. The first half of the month
of June is the best time for this purpose. During all the period
in which she is with foal, the mare should be well fed and treated
with extreme kindness. Blows, or even angr)' words, may cause
her to slink the foal, and thereby sustain a great and permanent
injury. She should have roots in the winter in connection with
the best of hay. In the summer, she should have grass or
green corn for part of her diet. During the period of gestation,
light and regular labor will not only not be injurious but will

548 FARMIXG FOR PROFIT.

prove a positive benefit. Excessive labor should, of course, be
avoided, and when at \vork the quantity of food which she
receives should be increased. During the whole period she will
need more and better food than she would under other circum-
stances, as she is obliged not only to sustain her own life but
also that of the foetus. During the last few weeks of pregnancy,
the marc should be worked only enough for exercise, and
toward the last part of the time this should be very gentle.
Many owners allow the mare to run in the pasture, and some
allow the colt to be dropped there. While it is well to let the
mare have some liberty, we do not think it best to leave hei to
bring forth her young in the field. When the time for labor,
which when all goes well is short but very severe, approaches,
she should be put into a large box-stall which is light and com-
fortable and the floor of which is deeply covered with straw.
She should be treated with kindness, and no one except the
owner should be in sight. Everything around should be
kept as quiet as possible. In case of a wTong presentation, or
'any other difficulty, the services of an educated veterinary
physician should be obtained as soon as possible. In nearly all
cases, if the mare has been properly treated during the period
of gestation, she will get along well at this critical period.
Very young or very old mares, those which have been kept
poor and over-worked, and those which have been united with
males whicli, from their excessive size or some other inadapta-
tion were altogether unsuitable, are the ones with which
trouble is to be feared. It is of great importance that the best
of care should be given, as it may save the life and health of
both the mare and her colt.

Care of the Colt. — If the colt is strong, as he will be likely
to be if the directions given for the treatment of the dam have
been followed, he will not require a great deal of special atten-
tion. It may be well to help him to get on his feet, and get a
little used to standing up, but this is not absolutely necessary,

Illliillill

'^ili

FIG. 95.— CLEVELAND BAY STALLION, BAY SPLENDOR. Weight 1,390 lbs., height 16^ hands.
Imported by George E. Brown & Co., Aurora, 111.

THE HORSE. 551

and if the dam is restive, is not desirable. If the foal is weak.

and can neither get up himself nor stand up when he is set upon

his legs, he must be attended to at once. If let alone, he may

in time get up, but he will be about as likely to die. If weak, he

should be held up and his legs rubbed with a woollen cloth,

which has been dipped in pretty warm water. After a little

time they should be rubbed with a dry cloth and then with Uie

hand. This in order to get the blood circulating well through

the whole system, and especially to attract it to the extremities.

The friction will also give strength to the muscles, and enable

the colt, unless it is extremely weak, to soon stand alone.

While this rubbing is going on, or at intervals during which it

is ceased, the colt should be held up to the dam and allowed to

obtain some milk. In a little while he will gain strength enough

to stand alone. For a few days the mare and colt should be

kept quiet. After this the dam may be put, gradually, to light

labor. The colt may go with her if desired, though it is better

to keep him in the stable or the pasture. It will be easier for

the colt than it will to be chasing after the team, and he can be

weaned with much less trouble than will be involved if he is

allowed to go everywhere with the dam. He should be weaned

when six or seven months old, but should first be taught to eat

fine hay and oats and to drink water. It is best to remove him

from sight and hearing of the dam, and if another colt can be

put with him he will do much better than he will alone.

Now comes the critical time in the life of the colt, and it is

for the owner to decide whether he shall grow into i. strong,

robust, and energetic horse, or into a weak and undeveloped

beast. Good care and food are absolutely rtetessary if a good

horse is to be grown from the colt now in hand. ." It will not do

to leave him exposed to all the cold and snows of winter, or to

the burning heat of the summer sun. In cold weather a warm

shed should be provided in the daytime, into which he can go

when he desires to do so, and a comfortable stable at night
35

552 FA RISING FOR PROFIT.

His food should consist of fine hay, a few oats daily, some roots
which have been cut fine, and occasionally a little oat or rj'C
meal. Pure water should be furnished in abundance. At this
time it is possible to over-feed the colt, but the great majority
of farmers err in the other direction. It is not well to stimulate
the production of a large quantity of fat, but it is best to keep
the animal growing, and feed him so that he will constantly
be in good condition.

In the summer the colt should be turned into a pasture, in
which there is plenty of good food and water and a shed which
will give protection from the burning sun. It is not well to turn
a colt into a pasture with cows or young cattle. Sometimes colts
are hooked and spoiled by the cows, while at others the case is '
reversed and the cows are kicked and spoiled by the colts.
Neither is it best to put a colt into a pasture alone. Two or
more colts do much better in a pasture together than they do
when kept separate or put into pastures with cattle.

During all the period of the grozvtJi of the colt he should have
good food, good water, and the best of care. It will not do to
take good care of him until he is two years old, and then make
him shift for himself From the hour of his birth until he is
completely developed the formative stage extends, and any
neglect, or any error in feeding, during any part of this time
will certainly detract from the value of the animal when he
is matured. If at any time the colt is badly kept he will
surely be injured thereby, and he will carry the marks of that
injury until his dying day. Once stunted the colt will be
damaged for life. This may seem a sweeping statement, but it
represents a truth which the vast majority of horsemen accept.
Evidences of this fact may be seen everywhere. Sometimes a colt
which has been poorly fed comes up into a pretty good horse.
"Such a thing is possible. But even here the rule holds good.
The horse is better than might have been expected, but he is
very far from being as good as he would have been if he had

THE HORSE. 553

received the care and attention which he deserved. If a man
wants to bring a colt into a powerful and hardy horse, he must
take care of him during all the time he is growing. The idea
that subjecting an animal to hardship will " toughen" it is one
of the most preposterous which ever entered the head of a man
who was not insane. Does a general fortify a city by pulling
down all of its walls ? No. He goes to work and makes those
walls as strong as the labor of his most energetic workmen
directed by the skill of his ablest civil engineers renders possible.
And the breeder who wants to make his animals strong and
hardy must build up their constitutional vigor instead of tearing
it down. He will find destructive forces enough with which to
contend if he devotes all his energies towards strengthening
the vital powers. The argument for exposure which many
derive from the habit of the Indians of requiring their children
to go barefooted in the snows, and depriving them of clothing
even in the coldest weather of our Northern v/inter, has no
weight at all. This comparison of the hardy savage with the
refined and educated white man is not at all to the point. The
physical and mental constitution of the savage is altogether
different from that of the civilized man. We might just as well
talk of a frog as being "tougher" than a lamb. The argument
also fails from the fact that the plan is not a success even with
the Indians. The terrible mortality among their children does
not offer much encouragement for other races to try the methods
which yield such fearful results. Besides, as the Indian rises in
the scale of manhood, he throws off these methods of slow
torture and protects his children from, instead of exposing them
to, the cold. There is no possibility of making a child or an
animal better by unduly exposing him to extremes of tempera-
ture, or by keeping him on a short allowance of food. All the
effects and tendencies of such a course are evil, only evil, and
that continually.

Castration. — In this country and in England it has been

554 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

customary to castrate male colts when they were from sijc
months to two years of age. Those designed for farm work
are generally castrated at an earlier age than the colts which
are to be used for carriage horses. Just now Mr. Eergii, the
world-rcnowncd humanitarian, is attracting a great deal of
attention by his efforts to induce horse-owners to omit this
operation. He claims that the horse is not only no better, but
is not nearly as good for being castrated, and that it is an abuse
of power for man to perform the operation upon a helpless
animal. He cites the fact that in Orient.vl lands it is not per-
formed, and asserts that there are no better or more tractable
horses in the world than there. He is also confident that there
is no necessity for castrating horses in this country. Much as
we respect the gentleman who has advanced these views, and
sincerely as we wish him success \r\. his efforts to correct the
abuses to which so many horses are subjected, we must dissent
from his conclusion upon this part of the subject. In our
younger days we had an idea that it was worse than useless to
castrate a colt. But after being obliged to use a stallion a
while for farm work we concluded that we had made a mistake.
Stallions are utterly unfit for farm work, and should never he
driven as ordinarj' carriage horses in cities and towns. They
are neither safe nor desirable animals to use in these ways, and
we consider it a wholly impracticable plan to allow all the
male colts to grow up entire.

It is best that the operation should be performed at a rather
early age, as it reduces the strength of the subject less, he does
not struggle as violently, and is therefore safer and easier to
handle, and the suffering is less than is the case with an older
colt. While some farmers practice, and a few writers recom-
mend the owner of the colt to perform, this operation, we cannot
approve of such a course. On the contrary, we fully believe
with that able writer on the horse, W. H. Herbert (" Frank
Forrester "), that the operation of castration is " a very delicate

THE HORSE. 555

one, and should never be attempted on a living subject, except
by a person of experience and skill." We consider it a great
deal better, and in the end more economical, to employ an
educated veterinarian than it is for the farmer to attempt the
operation himself, or call in the help of a " horse-doctor " who
has neither learning nor skill. The use of the old-fashioned
hot-iron for searing the cords should be forever abandoned.
It is terribly painful, and the improved methods now employed
have rendered it altogether useless. Chloroform is sometimes
administered, and by its means pain during the operation is
entirely prevented. It is to be hoped that its use will become
much more common.

Against one temptation we ought here to warn the farmer.
When he has a promising male colt on his hands he is very
likely to imagine, and his neighbors, if they are friendly, are
quite apt to assert, that so fine an animal as this particular
specimen ought to be saved for breeding purposes. In many
cases this judgment is correct, but in the great majority of
instances it is merely a question whether the owner will have an
excellent horse or an inferior stallion. We have already alluded
to the great importance of breeding only from male stock of
established superiority. The question is not simply whether a
particular stallion has desirable qualities, but, combined with
this, is the still more important query whether he has received
these good points from a long line of ancestors, and has them so
firmly established that he can transmit them with a great decree
of certainty. If this can be answered in the affirmative, the stall-
ion which is unusually promising sliruld be kept, and his powers
of transmission tested. But if the stallion was got by an inferior
horse, and brought forth by a mare of no recognized virtues,
beware of keeping him for a breeder. His good points are
merely accidental, and there can be no more certainty, and but
little more probability, that he will transmit them than there
would be that he would get splendid colts if he were as much

556 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

below the average as he now is above the common standard. The
best thorough-bred horse, of a breed and form fitted for farm
purposes, is the best one in the whole world for the farmer to
use with his mares. If the services of a thorough-bred cannot
be secured, then a stallion whose breeding has been very good
should be obtained. The nearer he is to being " full-blooded "
the better. We have no leanings toward the race-horse as such.
We do not approve of racing. And we consider the breeding
of horses for the track one of the most uncertain and unprofit-
able, pursuits in which a man can engage. But for years we
have made this subject of breeding a study, and we have been
forcibly impressed by the fact that excellencies are to be trans-
mitted, if at all, by animals which have received them from a
long line of ancestors, and which have them so strongly devel-
oped that they will impress them upon their offspring. Those
farmers who consider thorough-bred horses as good for nothing
except for " fancy " and trotting, should heed the suggestion of
Mr. Herbert that " not only is it not true that speed alone is
the only good thing derivable from blood, but something very
nearly the reverse is true. It is very nearly the least good
thing. That which the blood-horse does possess is a degree of
strength in his bones, sinews, and frame at large, utterly out of
proportion to the size or apparent strength of that frame. The
texture, the form, and the symmetry of the bones — all, in the
same bulk and volume, possess double, or nearer four-fold, the
elements of resistance and endurance in the blood-horse that
they do in the cold-blooded cart-horse."

The same author, than whom there is no better authority,
asserts that in point of muscular development, the construction
of his respiratory organs, and the formation of his nervous sys-
tem, the blood-horse has a still greater degree of superiority.
In proportion to his size and weight the thorough-bred horse
possesses greater vital power, strength, and endurance than any
other animal. Not only is he superior in himself, but he has

THE HORSE. 557

the power, when united with a sound and well-formed female,
of imparting these excellencies to his colts. The man who
takes a good mare to a good thorough-bred horse has a reason-
able degree of certainty that he will secure a colt of great excel-
lence. But if he takes the same mare to a stallion in whom
these good qualities are lacking, or are only accidentally present,
he will be almost sure to obtain a colt of no special value.
Therefore, we are strongly in favor of using only the very best
of males for perpetuating the race of horses. And it is on this
account that we advise the farmer not to keep for breeders the
colts which, though accidentally good themselves, came from a
low and inferior parentage.

Nicking and Docking were formerly practiced almost uni-
versally. The former process is now unfashionable, and it is to
be hoped will always remain so. It is a barbarous operation,
causes a vast amount of inconvenience to the animal and much
severe pain, and does no possible good. It disfigures a horse,
and ought to be prohibited by law. Docking is still followed
to some extent, but is going out of date. We shall not describe
the method, as we consider it a useless, cruel, and unjustifiable
operation.

Breaking and Training. — Much of the difficulty which is so
often experienced in breaking a colt is the result of neglect and
careless usage. It is true that some cotts are naturally vicious
and cannot be easily managed. Such animals should not be
kept upon the farm, but ought either to be killed outright or
else put upon the stage or horse-car routes, where the labor will
be constant and severe, and the animal will be kept in proper
subjection. There are, also, some men who can train a colt
much more successfully than others. They have a high degree
of skill, much of which is usually inherited, and possess a pecu-
liar aptitude for this work. Some men acquire quite a degree
of skill who have no natural talents in that direction. But it is
not every man who is fitte'd to break a colt, and the one who is

558 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

unqualified had better let him alone. His attempts will be
pretty sure to make the colt worse and may prevent his ever
becoming a good and well-trained horse. In order to manage
the colt aright a man needs an unfailing stock of patience and
must be uniformly kind. One harsh word may frigl.ten the colt
and cause an injury which can never be repaired. The farmer
may, and should, give the first lessons, but we think it wise to
employ some kind, experienced, and skilful .horseman to give
the finishing touches to the educating process. This may seem
a needless expense, but it will be the means of greatly improving
the character and appearance of the animal, will add very much
to the comfort and safety of those who use him, and will largely
increase his selling price. A great many farm horses which are
kind animals and good to work are so awkward and ungainly
that it is a trial to drive them on the road. The)- have never
been half-trained, and their habits are now formed so that they
never will be. But the colt can be trained well, and it is im-
portant that he should be, at least, fairly educated.

The educational process should commence early in the life
of the colt. Familiarity with man is one of the first lessons to
be learned. There should never be any harsh language used to
or around him. He should be frequently fed from his owner's
hand, and often petted and caressed. When only a few months
old he should be taught to lead and to be tied up. Nothing
should be done which will awaken the emotion of fear. A
frightened colt is a seriously injured animal. It is necessary
that the colt should realize that man is his master, but he must
also understand that he is to be ruled by kindness and not by
violence. lie must learn that man is his superior, but this les-
son must not be enforced by blows or any other severe method.
The colt should not only be led around and tied with a halter,
but should have his feet taken up and be taught to lead by the
forelock. He should learn to carry something on his back. A
strap with a thick pad may be buckle'd aroimd him at first, and

THE HORSE. 559

larger things put on after he has got well used to this. Care
should be used to put on something which the colt cannot pos-
sibly get off by his own exertions. It should be put on so
gently that it will not scare nim, but so firmly that it will stay
there until the trainer sees fit to remove it. Many colts have
become confirmed in a very bad habit by being allowed to shake
off something which was laid upon the back. A few lessons
will make a colt quite expert at this business and may get him
so that he will never be safe for a man to ride.

In all the processes of breaking and training the colt should
never be allowed to obtain the slightest advantage. Uniform
kindness and uniform mastery should never be separated. The
man must never, for a single moment, allow the colt to imagine
that he is stronger than his trainer. If care is taken never to
frighten him, and never to get angry with him, there will not be
much difficulty in this respect. But it should always be remem-
bered that anger is a sure sign of weakness, and that the colt
will be very likely to profit by any exhibition of it which his
teacher may make. Harnessing should not be attempted all at
once, but should be effected by degrees. A few straps should
be put on at a time and the colt allowed to get accustomed to
them. Then a few more may be added until the whole harness
is used. When not more than one or two years old the colt
may be harnessed by the side of a horse and gently driven
around. As he grows older and gets used to going in the har-
ness the pair may be attached to a light wagon. When this
lesson has been well learned the colt may be hitched into a
single wagon and taught to drive alone.

One thing which a colt should always be taught is to back.
This is often neglected. In order that he may learn this lesson
easily the colt should be taught when very young to step back-
by the word of command and a slight pull upon the halter.
When he has learned to go in the harness, this lesson should
be repeated, using as a signal a light pull on the reins. After

560 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

being well taught to draw liglit loads he should be attached to
a wagon and taken to some natural incline where the wagon
will of itself tend to run down hill. Here he can easily be made
to understand the lesson which is then in hand. When he will
back readily down an inclined plane he may be tried on level
ground, and, in time, a light weight may be laid upon the
wagon. The weight should be gradually increased as the colt
learns to back.

A very common error in the training of colts is the drawing
of their heads too high. The effort is made to induce the
animal to hold up his head and yield to the pressure of the bit
in his mouth. Some horses are so formed that they cannot
carry their heads high, and the effort to force them to do so is
as unmerciful as would be an attempt to compel a child to walk
upon its heels or in any other unnatural position. No bitting
harness should be put on until the colt is well used to the bit,
and then the check-rein should allow him to carry his head in
the natural position. If the head is carried too low, a gradual
shortening of the check will, in a year or two, make a marked
improvement. But this shortening must be only a very little at
a time, and should never be carried to an extreme. If it is not
natural for the horse to carry his head up let him hold it down.
A tight check is an injury and an abuse. The mouth soon
becomes toughened by the strong and constant pressure of the
bit, so that the horse cannot be easily reined, and he is made to
suffer an immense amount of pain by means of this unnatural
and inhuman method of treatment. Instead of the old style
bitting harness, some good trainers place the colt between two
pillars in the stable and have straps from the rings of the bit
attached to rings in these standards. Only a ver}' light strain
is put on at first, and it is increased only as the progress which
the colt is making seems to require. This is a much safer
method and much easier for the colt than the use of the bitting
harness.

THE HORSE. 561

The Age For Working a colt will vary somewhat with his
strength, size, and disposition. There is no doubt that the
majority of farm horses are put at work too young. Frequently
at four years of age the labor of a full-grown horse is required.
We are well aware that it is pretty expensive keeping a four-
year-old in comparative idleness, but we believe that it will pay
a great deal better than it will to put him to hard work. At .
this age he has not attained his full size. His bones are still
growing, and his muscular development is not complete. Rela-
tively, he is in a condition similar to a large boy. If size were
the only criterion we should say of many a boy of fifteen years
of age that he could do the full work of a man. But every one
knows that for a boy to do a man's work for any length of time
is utterly ruinous. The same principle applies fully to the case
of the colt. Light work will be beneficial, but hard labor can
only result in permanent injury. If a colt is worked hard he
will become an old horse when he should be in his prime. The
ordinary horse is not capable of doing full work without being
injured until he is about six years old. If farmers were willing
to wait a little longer before securing the reward for their labor
and pains they would receive a great deal more in the end.
Their horses would be much better and would last several
years longer than they do when hard work is required of them
in early life.

Feeding Horses. — There are not many ways in which farm'
horses are so often and so seriously injured as they are by im-
proper feeding. And this injury is almost always inflicted
unintentionally and ignorantly. Nevertheless its effects both
upon the health of the horse and the financial condition of the
owner are anything but satisfactory. A great many unsound
farm horses are said to have worked too hard, and this is the
reason which is usually given when inquiry is made concerning
the cause of the disease. In a few cases, and only a few, this is
the true and only cause. In the vast majority of cases hard

562 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

work in connection with improper feeding has done the mischief.
If the horses had been carefully fed, they would have done all
the work which has been required of them, and still have
remained sound. We have already alluded to the fact that the
hours of labor of the farm horse are very irregular, and that, on
this account, he is fed at irregular intervals. This unsystematic
feeding is the prolific source of great evils. It leads directly to
indigestion with all its attendant disorders. Its indirect results
are also bad in themselves, and pave the way for those which
are still worse. Now at all times, and especially when he is at .
hard labor, the horse should be fed with the utmost regularity.
He should have food three times a day, and these times should
be the same one day that they are another. If he is working
hard he should receive a better quality of food, but should not
have it more frequently than he does when he is idle. This is
the general rule, to which there may be a few but only a few
exceptions. But it is a rule which the majority of the owners
of farm horses never attempt to apply. Too many farmers feed
their horses when and as they happen to find it convenient.
When they first go to the barn in the morning they throw a lot
of hay into the mangers, and perhaps give a few quarts of meal
to each horse. When they go to turn out the cattle, if the
horses are in their stables, another lot "of dry hay is given them.
At noon the manger is filled up again. When the cattle
are put up at night, at milking time,- and when the owner
feeds the cattle in the evening, the same process is repeated.
If the horse happens to be in the barn, he is kept eating hay a
good share of the time from morning until late in the evening.
He is fed just as though he were a cow, with the exception that
he receives a larger quantity of food. But some days he is
required for work. Then he is not fed nearly as often and
receives much less food. It would naturally be supposed that
the days when at work the horse would need more nourishment
than he does when doing nothing. But the quality of his food

THE HORSE. 563

is not changed, and he really obtains only about half as
much of it when at work as he would if standing still in his
stable.

Not only does irregular feeding prove very injurious in that
the horse is not fed at all according to its needs, but the bulky
food which is given also works a great deal of mischief. A
horse which is fed in the manner above described is never in a
condition to work either easily or safely. When stuffed full of
dry hay, often smoky hay at that, a horse is no more fit to
work than is a gluttonous man at the close of a three days' feast.
While in this condition he cannot safely draw a heavy load or
travel much faster than a walk. His lungs have not room in
which to expand, his whole digestive system is overloaded
and clogged, while all the nervous energies are weakened and
depressed. In this conditi'^n multitudes of farm horses are taken
from their stables for drives and also for hard work. And it is
because they are used when in this condition that so many farm
horses have the " heaves " and various other diseases. A good
authority has asserted that at least one-half of the diseases to
which the horse is liable are directly caused " by bad food, or
good food badly administered."

In order to feed a farm horse so that he can work safely and
comfortably, it will be necessary to give less hay and more grain
than most farmers furnish. The hay should be cut and
moistened with warm water. If meal is fed, it should be
sprinkled upon and mixed with the cut hay. If oats are used
instead of meal, they may be given wnth the hay or after it has
been eaten. The feeding should be regular and no dry hay
should be furnished between meals. When the horse is hard at
work, the quantity of meal or oats should be increased, but
no more hay should be given than usual. A few roots will be
a good addition to the diet. Carrots are specially beneficial.
After extreme hard work, a warm mash may be given with
benefit. Still, it is not best to drive or work horses up to the

564 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

point of exhaustion. It will certainly injure and may spoil
them. Pure water, in a clean pail, should be given in moderate
quantities at least three times a day. The horse is very sensitive
about the quality of the water which he drinks, and it is an
abuse to make him take it from a dirty pail. The pail used for
watering the horses should be kept just as clean as the one
used in the house for holding the water which the inmates
drink. The horse should not be put to hard work for an hour
after he has finished eating, and should always have at least an
hour in which to rest at noon. He should never be fed, nor
freely watered, when either hot or exhausted.

New hay, new oats, and especially new corn, should never be
fed to a hor.ie except in very small quantities if anything better
can be obtained. The habit of some farmers of feeding soft
corn to horses is extremely bad, and this practice has caused
the death of many valuable animals. Old corn is very much
safer, and is better in every respect. For most horses oats are
better food than corn. They are not as heating, and are easily
digested.

When a farm horse is required to go a journey, he should be
allowed to take his own time for its accomplishment. He
ought not to be hurried. Travelling is very different from the
work to which he is accustomed,' and it will be likely to prove
very wearisome. The majority of farm horses are not natural
travellers, and their habits and education, as well as their tastes
and inclinations, absolutely unfit them for fast or long con-
tinued driving. If it is necessary to go a long distance in a
day, it is best to feed two hours before the horse is wanted, take
an early start, and drive moderately until ten or eleven o'clock.
. Then stop for two hours. Let the horse be unharnessed,
curried, rubbed well with a stiff brush or a woollen cloth, and
then allowed to stand half an hour and rest. He may then be
fed with a liberal quantity of clean oats. At the expiration of
the two hours from the time of stopping, he may be started on

THE HORSE. 565

the road, but for the first hour or two should be driven slowly.
If the point of destination is not reached early in the evening,
the horse should be again put in a stable and treated as
before. After a good rest he may be driven a few miles
farther. Upon reaching the end of the journey, the horse
should be thoroughly cleaned and rubbed, put in a comfortable
stable, and allowed to rest for an hour. Then he may be sup-
plied with food and water and left for the night. While on the
road it is well to give the horse water, in small quantities, several
times during the day. It is not well to drive the farm horse
after he has had his supper, and it should only be done in a case
of importance. If he has travelled all day, he has done enough,
and should be given the evening and the night for rest.

When at work on the farm, horses need more care and atten-
tion than they usually receive. Not only should their feeding
and watering be carefully arranged, but they should be kept
clean and comfortable while in the stable. After working in
the mud their legs should be washed clean, wiped, and rubbed
until dry. We are not much in favor of blanketing farm
horses. If the stable is comfortable, it is not necessar\'; while
if it is cold, the blanket does not give the desired protection.
The difficulty with a horse that is cold is to maintain a uniform
circulation of the blood. If this could be effected, the trouble
would wholly cease. But the blood does not go freely to the
extremities. Put a blanket on the body and the blood is still
more strongly thrown to the chest. The extremities needed
the blood. There was already too much in the body and the
internal organs. Blanketing under such circumstances is liable
to cause congestion, and may lead to very serious results.
Again, the horse that has a blanket in the stable is sure to
feel the cold more severely when he is out of doors. He is
often required to stand around in the cold after having been
worked or driven. Then he needs a blanket, and it should
always be put on. But a blanket is not needed in a suitable

566 FARMING FOR PROFI':.

Stable — except for a while after the horse is put in, tired and ex-
hausted— any more than a man needs to wear an overcoat while
sittinjT in the house. Of course, if a horse has beconje accus-
tomcd to being blanketed in the stable, he will need to have the
practice continued. But in the case of a colt, we think it better
that he should be kept comfortable by being in a warm stable
rather than by wearing clothing. It is a common opinion that
blanketing will make the hair lie smoother and give a finer
appearance to the "coat" of the horse. But experience has
proved that in order to make much improvement in this direc-
tion the clothing must be extremely warm. This will often
prove injurious. But the same end can be secured, not only
without injury but with positive benefit, by rubbing the horse
thoroughly every day, and being careful to keep him perfectly
clean. Blanketing for the mere sake of appearances should not
be performed.

The Stable. — The character, value and eflficiency of a horse
will very greatly depend upon the condition of the stable in
which he is kept. We are sorry that it is so, but it is a fact
that three-quarters of the stables in which farm horses have
their homes are utterly unfit for the purpose, while many of
them arc not good enough to be inhabited by hogs. The horse
has very delicate sensibilities, and is easily injured in many
ways. Nearly all stables are too low, and the doors leading to
them are both low and narrow. When a horse is startled by
any unusual noise, he is almost sure to throw up his head. If
he strikes it against the beams, or the floor above, he will
receive a direct and very likely a severe ihjur}'. This will
frighten him still more, and the more he is hurt and the more
frequently he throws up his head, the worse he becomes.
Many good horses have been ruined by this habit, and the
injuries thus received. No hor.se-stable should be less than nine
feet between the floors, and some writers recommend twelve
feet

THE HORSE. --^

567

^ The doors should be so wide and high that the horse can go
m and out with a harness on, and not touch the sides. We
have used a horse which was gentle in other respects, but which
would plunge like a tiger out of his den when he was led out
of the stable door. He had at some time been frightened by
bemg led through a narrow door, and had got so that it was
difficult to get him through a wide one without injury to him-
self and the man who was leading him. We tried for years to
conquer the habit, but did not succeed.

The ground outside of the stable should be nearly level with
the floor on the inside. There are stables in. which the floe,
.3 from one to two feet higher than the ground. Such stables
are very mconvenient to all horses, and positively dangerous to
mares which are with foal. Many cases of sprains and iamr-
ness can be traced directly to these high steps, and many horses
wh,ch go in and out of the door as if they were afraid of some
severe mjury, were brought into this habit by the same cause

The horse-stable should be both light and warm. Too many
horses are kept in dark stables. This is very unpleasant, and
also mjunous. The sense of vision is soon injured, and in
«.me cases .s destroyed. Much sufi-ering is also caused to the
horses by taking them from dark stables into the full glare of
he strong sunlight. The cost of windows which will lighten.
«^e stable will be slight, and ought to be cheerfully incurred
Warmth should be secured by boarding the frame of the stable
outs,de and .nside, and filling the space between the boards with
tan-bark or dry sawdust. Warm stables are not only more
comfortable but also more healthful than cold ones, sfanding
■n a draught of cold air when warm and tired often induce!
ser,ous d.sease. The cost of keeping will also be much less- in,
warm stables than it will in cold ones. The whole bar. should
be well ventdated, and plenty of pure air furnished for the
horses.

Another requirement is that the slabIes,sHall be kept clean..

568 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

In many stables there is a strong ammoniacal odor. This may
be prevented by cleanliness, and the use of plaster each day
sprinkled over ths floor. Whenever this odor can be detected,
there is abundant evidence that the stable is in an unhealthy con-
dition. Allowing the horse to stand upon large piles of wet
litter and fermenting manure is a prolific source of disease.
The horse is naturally a clean animal, and will neither be com-
fortable nor remain long in health if kept in a filthy stall.
Twice every day the stable should be cleaned and dr>' litter
supplied.

Shoeing the Horse we consider a sort of ncccssar}' evil.
When badly performed, by ignorant and brutal smiths, it causes
various diseases of the feet, and sometimes spoils the horse.
There are writers who advocate the disuse of shoes, but such a
course seems hardly practicable. In the North, during the
winter, sharp shoes are necessary. Without them the animal is
in danger of frequent accidents. In warm weather shoes are
almost as necessary in all places where the land is stony and
rough. There may be a few horses which can go in the
summer without shoes, but the great majority have too tender
feet, and will need to be shod. As to the method of shoeing
we shall have little to say. Each smith has his own ideas upon
the subject, and if he has learned his trade thoroughly, he is
supposed to know more about it than the farmer. It does not
seem to be just right for the farmer to give instruction to the
man who has studied a subject of which he has no practical
knowledge. Still there are many ignorant smiths — men who
know less about the structure and needs of the feet of a horse
than they do about physiology, of which they know nothing at
all. Such men should never be allowed to shoe a horse. But
there are many good shoers, men who are kind, and work intel-
ligently. They are the ones who should be employed. To
shoe a horse well a man needs knowledge and experience.
Any one can shoe a horse badly, but there is danger that the

THE HORSE. 5^9

bungling work of an ignorant shoer will ruin the horse. As to
exact methods scientific workmen are not fully agreed. There-
fore it must not be taken for granted that a man does not shoe
well because he does not follow the plan of some other shoer
who was known to be good. But when a smith does not use
common sense, when he is harsh and brutal, and when horses
are lame or go badly after he has shod them, there is sufificient
evidence that some other workman should be employed.

Diseases of the Horse. — To treat fully of the diseases of
the horse would require a whole volume, and should be the
work of an experienced veterinarian. Some work upon this
subject should be in the hands of every man who owns a horse.
Dadd's Modern Horse Doctor, Law's Farmer's Veterinary
Adviser (treating also of diseases of cattle, sheep, and swine)
are both excellent books. There are, also, many others which
possess a great deal of merit.

To treat a sick animal safely and successfully requires not
only a knowledge of the name of the disease with which it is
affected but also a clear understanding of the whole animal
structure, of physiological laws, and of the uses and various
action of remedies. When a horse is merely out of health, he
should be carefully fed and allowed to rest. When he is
attacked by an acute disease, a veterinary physician should
be sent for at once. Delay will be dangerous, and the
administration of powerful rernedies by the farmer or by some
ignorant " horse-doctor " will be likely to make a cure utterly
impossible. For farmers who are far removed from a good
veterinarian we recommend the purchase of the sets of remedies,
which are put up by Homceopathic physicians of acknowledged
ability and skill, for the various diseases to which the horse is
subject. With each set there are full directions. The quan-
tities required are small and the sets are not expensive. They
can probably be obtained of wholesale druggists in any of our
large cities.

570 FARMIA'G FOR PROFIT.

There are a few diseases for which a description of the reme-
dies which are commonly employed by those who keep no stock
of medicines on hand should be given.

Of these, Colic is one of the most violent and dangerous.
It comes on suddenly, the pain is very severe, there are intervals
of rest, and the horse remains strong and is usually very violent
in his movements. It is important that remedies should be
given immediately. If attended to at once the following treat-
ment proves beneficial : One tablespoonful of chloroform mixed
with a gill of whiskey and a pint of warm water is to be given.
Then inject a pint of warm soap-suds. If the chloroform cannt t
be had, use a pint of very warm water in which as much salt ;is
possible has been dissolved. In case the treatment has been
long delayed, bleeding must be resorted to before the above
remedies are given. The medicine can be given by means of a
long-necked bottle, though a drenching-horn is better. For
bleeding, a fleam should be used, unless the one who attempts
it is a practiced surgeon, in which case a lancet may be better.
The horse must be blindfolded on the side from which the
blood is to be taken. Then at a point on the neck, about two
inches from the angle of the jaw, the jugular vein should be
found, the hair moistened and smoothed and a gentle pressure
applied with the fingers of the left hand in which the instrument
should be held. The vein will enlarge at once. The edge of
the fleam is to be placed in a direct line with the course of the
vein and over its centre. It may be struck with a stick, or the
fist, but the blow must not be so hard as to cut the opposite side
cf the vein. A good-sized blade should be used, as a small
quantity of blood drawn quickly is more beneficial than a larger
one which flows slowly. When a sufficient amount of blood
has been taken, the edges of the wound should be brought
exactly together, a small, sharp pin passed through to keep
them in place, and a few hairs from the mane of the horse
wound around the ends so as to completely cover the wound.

THE HORSE. 571

The horse must then be fastened so that he cannot rub the
wound. In twenty-four hours the pin may be carefully with-
drawn. Such -are, substantially, the directions given by the
celebrated Youatt for bleeding the horse. There are times
when bleeding is necessary, but in the great majority of cases it
is injurious. The blood is equivalent to the life, and its with-
drawal must have a very depressing effect upon the vital forces.

Very similar in many of its symptoms to colic, and sometimes
mistaken for that disease, is Inflammation of the Bowels.
There is this difference, however, which will enable any careful
observer to distinguish between them. In an attack of colic the
legs and ears are of the natural temperature, relief is obtained
by rubbing the belly, and from motion, there are intervals of
ease, and the horse retains his strength. But in a case of
inflammation of the bowels the legs and ears are cold, the belly
tender and painful to the touch, there is constant pain which is
increased by motion, and the strength is greatly diminished.
For inflammation of the bowels bleeding must be resorted lo at
once. Six or seven quarts of blood may be taken at first, and,
if relief is not soon obtained, two or three quarts more should be
drawn. Injections of thin gruel in which half a pound of epsom
salts, or half an ounce of Barbadoes aloes, has been dissolved
should be given. Warm gruel should be given for drink, and
once in six hours warm water with a drachm or two of aloes.
The belly should be blistered with tincture of cantharides, and
the legs kept warm by rubbing and bandaging. For a few days
the horse should be kept on gruel and bran-mashes. As he
gets better he may be very slowly returned to his oats and hay.
This is a very violent and dangerous disease, and we do not
recommend the farmer to treat it when a competent physician
can be obtained. But there must be no delay, and the owner
may very properly bleed the animal and give injections while
his hired man is gone for the doctor.

CosTiVENESS is not immediately dangerous, but it leads to

572 FARMING J- OR PROFIT.

many diseases which sometimes have a fatal endmg. Mild
cases can be readily subdued by feeding roots and giving bran-
niashes. Obstinate constipation will require more powerful
action. Aloes is the best — indeed, Herbert declares it to be
the only safe purgative for a horse. It should be new, as it
loses its strength by age. Its administration should be pre-
ceded by the use of bran-mashes for two or three days — these
being the only food which the horse is to receive. After this
preparation, a light dose, four or five drachms, of aloes will be
very effective. Aloes may be mixed with olive oil and molasses
into the form of a ball, which the horse can be made to swallow
as follows : Tie the horse in the stall with his head well up, draw
the tongue out gently with the left hand, and hold it there by
pressing the fingers against the side of the lower jaw. " The
ball is then taken between the tips of the fingers of the right
hand, the arm being bared and passed rapidly up the mouth, as
near the palate as possible, until it reaches the root of the
tongue, when it is delivered with a slight jerk, the hand is with-
drawn, and the tongue being released, the ball is forced down
into the oesophagus." If it does not pass immediately down the
throat, which can be readily seen by watching the left side, a
light tap under the chin will cause the horse to swallow it at
once. It is not well to give either castor or linseed oil alone to
a horse. Olive oil is very inefficient. Salts frequently prove of
little power, except in doses which render the medicine almost
as dangerous as the disease.

Worms often prove a source of irritation to a horse, and in
large numbers are quite injurious. To remove them, give a
ball containing two drachms of tartar emetic, one scruple of
ginger, and molasses and linseed oil enough to get the
materials into good shape for administration. One of these
balls should be given every other morning half an hour before
the horse is fed. Only a few doses will be required. We have
known saleratus to be used with success even in bad cases. A

THE HORSE. gy^

teaspoonful given with the cut feed each morning will be likely
to effect a cure in from one to three weeks. Simpler than either
of the above remedies, and much to be preferred if it will prove
efficient, is the plan of keeping the horse for three or four days
upon corn-fodder. If the ears are not all taken off, it will be all
the better. No other kind of food should be given, and the
horse should not be worked or driven hard while kept in this
manner. We had no faith in this remedy, but, after witnessing
Its good result in a case which had obstinately resisted the
ordinary remedies, we must say that it is worthy of a fair trial.
To remove the small worms which irritate the large intestine,
an injection of an ounce of aloes dissolved in a pint of warm
water will be useful.

Stoppage of the water can usually be remedied by giving
sweet spirits of nitre in one-half ounce doses. In mild cases
only one dose will be needed. If this proves ineffectual, repeat
in a few hours. Should this fail to give relief, and the animal is
in considerable pain, a competent veterinarian should be called
at once.

We do not think it necessary to describe all the diseases to
which the horse is liable, or give a list of all the remedies which
are used therefor. Except in the manner already indicated, the
farmer is in no condition to doctor a horse that is sick. He
can give the Homceopathic remedies to which we have referred,
or pursue the treatment specially indicated for the particular
diseases we have named. But unless he has read much upon
the subject, he is not qualified to treat acute diseases, and his
experiments will usually make a bad matter worse. The horse-
owner needs to have, and to study, some book devoted specially
to the diseases of the class of animals in which he is interested
And we feel the more strongly disposed to pass this point
hghtly from the fact that if the directions which we have given
for taking care of, and feeding, working and driving, are fol-
lowed, but very few horses will get out of health. "\ve fully

574 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

believe, with a writer already quoted, that, " if a horse be of
good, sound constitution, and be judiciously fed, regularly
worked, warmly yet not too warmly clothed and stabled, in a
building properly ventilated and aerated ; and, above all, if he
be kept scrupulously and religiously clean, there will for him be
but little need of medicine of any kind." In the vast majority
of cases, the loss occasioned by the sickness of a horse is a
direct tax upon the owner for his want of care and skill in
using and feeding. Accidents excepted, a good horse can
almost invariably 'be kept well and strong if he is properly man-
aged and cared for.

We ought not to close this chapter without a few words upcn
the treatment of old and disabled horses. It is a custom alto-
gether too well established for the farmer to keep a good horse
until he gets well along in years and then sell the faithful crea-
ture to a jockey, who will trade him to some one of that large
class of men who are too poor to own a good horse, but who
always keep some half-starved animal which they both abuse and
n(.'glect. Many a noble horse after a long life of patient toil,
which has fairly earned for him the right to an honorable dis-
charge, has been traded around by jockeys and idlers, and been
compelled to drag out a miserable and painful existence. It is
absolutely cruel and unjust for a farmer to treat the animals
which God has given for his service in such a manner. The few
dollars which are obtained in such a case are the price of cruelty,
ingratitude and neglect. This course has often been pursued
thoughtlessly, but even this fact cannot be considered a valid
excuse. We hope the custom will not long be tolerated. Let
the jockeys understand that when a horse has faithfully ser\'ed
his master through a long and useful life he is not to be put
into their hands. Let the horse perform labor adapted to his
strength as long as it pays to keep him. Then get some good
marksman to lead him into a field, and with a well-directed
rifle-ball end his days in a quiet^ decent and painless manner.

THE MULE. 575

Give, the body a decent burial, and consider the approval of
conscience worth infinitely more than the few dollars which
some brute of a man would have paid for the noble horse.

.9^

•«

THE STOEiE*

)6^N this country the mule has not yet become a very
popular animal. Though there are, in all, a great
many mule teams, they are very few when compared
with the horse teams. There is a strong prejudice
against the mule, but he is winning his way in the South and
West, is frequently found in the Middle States, and occasion-
ally in New England. Although he has some peculiarities
which sometimes make him unpleasant to handle, he also has
some positive merits — enough to justify a brief consideration of
the animal in this work.

It is not every man, even though he may be pretty intelligent,
who can tell just exactly what a mule is, and whence he sprung.
The parentage of the mule and the hinny is, to many people,
riither obscure. The niule is the offspring of the male ass,
usually called a jack, and the female horse or mare. The hinny
is the offsprmg of the male horse or stallion, and the female ass.
The mule resembles the ass in form, temper and voice, though
often larger than either parent. The hinny resembles the horse
in all these respects much more closely than the ass. The
hinny has certain merits, but they are not equal to those of
either the horse or the mule, and it is not a profitable animal to
breed in this country. Neither does it pay to keep the ass for
any purpose except to cross with mares. Not, by any means,
because the ass is a worthless animal, but because there are
other kinds which will be more profitable.

The mule is a hybrid, and cannot breed either with its own
or with other classes of animals. This is the almost invariable
rule. Consequently it is necessary either to breed or import the

576 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

ass in order to keep good the stock of mules. It has been a
common custom to use anything in the shape of an ass, no
matter how inferior, for breeding purposes. This has proved
very injurious to the quality of the offspring, and is a practice
which ought to be speedily reformed. Some breeders have
made a move in this direction, and have been well rewarded.
Probably it will be better to grow breeding stock here than it
will to import it from foreign lands. It has been thought by
competent judges that by selecting the best from the stock now
on hand, or by importing a few fine animals, and using care and
skill in their mating, and the development of their offspring,
" a superior jack to any now existing for American breeding
purposes " might be secured.

In all cases the best jack which can be obtained should be
used. The quality of the jack seems to have a great deal more
to do with the character of the mule than that of the mare. A
fine jack and a decent mare will almost invariably produce a
better mule than a merely passable jack and the finest mare
which can be found. Consequently it pays well to obtain a
first-class jack, but it is a great loss to use fine-blooded mares
for the production of mules. A mare possessing superior blood
should be used for breeding horses, if anything. If coupled
with a jack she will bring forth a mule which will never be
worth half as much as a colt from a good stallion, and the con-
nection with the jack will be very likely to prevent her ever
giving birth to a pure colt. If bred to a stallion after having
produced a mule, the mare will be almost sure to have a colt
marked, to quite a degree, like the ass. This fact alone should
be sufficient to deter owners of superior mares, from which they
hope some time to obtain colts, from breeding them with the
jack.

A good, medium-sized mare, that has done service on the
farm, and proved a good worker, should be chosen. Extra size
is not desirable, and a bad temper, or any tendency toward a

THE MULE. 577

vicious disposition, is a full disqualification. The best blood to
be sought in a mare is the Norman. A half-blood mare of
this stock, or even a good Canadian, if used with a first-rate
jack, will be very likely to bring excellent mules. But the
absence of this, or. any other particular, blood need not be con-
sidered as excluding a mare from this use. If she is really good
in temper and for work, sound, and of suitable size and form,
she may be made available for this purpose.

We have treated of this point more at length than we should
have done if the common practice had been more nearly
correct. Breeding lies at the very foundation of the busines,';.
A mistake here will be permanent in its effects. If any kind (»f
a mare, no matter how poor, is bred to any sort of a jack, there
will be no reasonable ground for expecting anything very goad
from their offspring. But if men want mules at all they want
good ones. They can raise good horses, and had much better
do it than to spend their time and invest their capital in the
effort to secutse a poor class of mules.

When fully matured the mule is a remarkably hardy animal,
but in his earliest years he does not seem to possess this excel-
lent quality. While young he needs as good care as the
common colt. The custom of keeping the mule colt half-
starved is to be strongly condemned. He does not need corn
and oats as much as the horse colt, but he should have good
hay in abundance, plenty of pure water, shelter from storms, and
protection from great extremes of temperature. While pam-
pering would prove injurious, good feeding will be well repaid.
If castration is to be performed, it should be attended to early.
This is ver}' important — much more so than in the case of the
horse. It should be done before the mule is six months old,
' and it will generally be better to attend to it as soon as the
subject reaches the age of four months. The operation should
be performed with the same degree of care and skill which has
been advised for the colt. A good mule colt, from good stock.

57g FARMING FOR PROFIT.

should be fully as valuable as a horse colt, and the same degree
of care ought to be taken to keep him from injur)', and make
him useful.

Breaking and Training. — As the mule is not, ordinarily,
used for travelling on the road, he does not require as complete
a course of training as the horse. But as far as it goes the
education should be as thorough as possible. The mule need
not be taught as much as the horse, but what he is taught ought
to be perfectly done. Here is where the great trouble with the
mule is usually found, and it is on account of the neglect of this
principle that he has obtained a bad name. Let the same treat-
ment be given the horse for ten generations which has been
given to the mule during the same period, and at the end of the
course the horse will be as ugly as the mule is at the present
time.

Not merely for generations but for ages the ass has been
abused and neglected by those whom he has faithfully served.
II. is not strange that this treatment has had a bad effect upon
his character, and made him obstinate, with a strong inclination
to be vicious. But he is not as bad as might have been
expected, and will almost invariably yield to kind treatment if it
is given early and uniformly. Except when the parents are
vicious the mule colt will be pleasant, and if treated as kindly
a^ has been advised for the horse colt will never show an ugly
disposition. Handle him early and often. Begin before he is
an hour old and accustom him from that time to be handled and
talked to. Teach him to lead, to be tied up. to have things put
upon his back, and to feed from the hand of the owner. Never
get out of temper and never yell at him. Show him that you
are friendly and have no desire to hurt him. Be careful not to
frighten him, and never give him any occasion to distrust his
trainer.

In this way the mule can be taught almost as readily as
the horse. But the men who use only a club or a whip will

CATTLE. 579

find considerable opposition. They ought to. When a man
becomes a brute and attempts to cope with animals on their own
ground he places himself at a great disadvantage. He not only
demeans himself but the violence of his methods makes it
impossible that he shall be successful. The mule colt which is
always kindly treated will grow into a kind animal, but the one
which is always abused will be obstinate and may become
dangerous.

The points of superiority of. the mule over the horse are
greater physical strength and the ability to perform an immense
amount of labor. The mule is a longer-lived animal than th<^
horse, and will endure hard labor twice as many years. He can
endure greater extremes of heat and cold, it costs less to keep
him shod, and, while he ought to be well fed, the expense cif
keeping is very much below that of the horse. On thesiii*
accounts he is, if properly treated, a valuable animal for use on
the farm.

'O mankind in a civilized state cattle are absolute neces-
sities. They utilize a great amount of material which
would otherwise be wasted, perform a great deal of
l^bor, and furnish an immense amount of food. They
supply many pressing wants of the individual, and add largely
to the national wealth. The income now obtained from cattle
in this country is very large, and by judicious management can
be greatly increased.

By means of careful selection carried on for a long series of
years a great improvement in the character and appearance of
cattle has been effected. In this way several distinct and
valuable breeds have been formed, and their representatives
have been sent to all countries in which the live-stock interest is
largely developed. The principal improved breeds which are

580 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

kept in this country are the Short-Horn, Ayrshire, Jersey
and Devon. There are also niany animals belonging to the
Hereford, Dutch, Holstein, Alderney, and Guernsey, and a
few of the Swiss. Brittany and other less common races.
Each breed has certain characteristics which are strongly
marked, and which separate it clearly from any and all
other races. Each one has, for a long time, been bred with
reference to the permanent establishment of certain qualities
which their owners have desired to perpetuate.

To discuss the question which is the best breed would be an
utter waste of time and space. Probably there is no really best
breed, i. e., a breed that everywhere and under all circumstances
will prove better than any other with which it comes in
competition. One breed is best for certain places and purposes,
while for opposite conditions another v/ill prove much better.
The most zealous advocate of the Jersey cattle would not think
of favorably comparing them with the Short-Horns for beef.
And it is no discredit to the Jersey stock that it is inferior in
this respect. The race has been bred carefully and skilfully for
its milking qualities, and the desired end has been secured.
The man who wants beef should not buy Jerseys, but if he wants
rich milk and nice butter, he will be pretty sure to obtain them
from cows of this breed.

As it is impossible to get the heavy farm horse and* the fleet
carriage horse in one animal, so it is useless to attempt to get
extraordinary excellence in the two diverse departments of flesh
and milk in any one breed of cattle. The two qualities are, in a
measure, antagonistic and cannot be combined, in perfection, in
any one race of animals. Therefore, instead of attempting to
decide which is the best breed of cattle, we will describe the
various characteristics of the breeds now common in this
country, and endeavor to point out both their excellencies and
their defects so that the individual farmer will be able to chose
intelligently the one which will be the best for him to keep.

CATTLE. 581

We shall not give the historical matter which generally accom-
panies such descriptions. What the practical farmer wants to
know is not who bred a cow of a certain name to a particular
bull one hundred years ago, but what are the merits and demerits
of the breeds of the present day. In order to obtain the prac-
tical advantages resulting from the wonderful improvement of
live-stock which has been effected during the past century, it is
not necessary to trace all the steps which were taken to secure
it. To the general principles which should govern the breeder
we shall allude at the proper time, but with the exception of
illustrating and enforcing these principles we shall deal with the
present in preference to the past and show what the different
breeds are rather than how they were formed, and what they
have been in the progress of their development.

The Short Horn. — This breed has many excellent qualities.
It is an old and well-established race, and for a hundred years
has probably been mor6 popular with the people at large than
any other breed. It is a large breed, but matures reasonably
early, and, with" good feeding and care, proves very profitable.
Good pastures in summer and liberal feeding in winter are essen-
tial to success in developing the best qualities of this breed.
Perhaps the same might be said of every other valuable race of
cattle. Still, we think that there are breeds which will be much
more productive and profitable when poorly kept than the Short
Horn. In the splendid blue grass region of Kentucky this
breed finds everything adapted to its perfect development, and
the animals grown here are unsurpassed in excellence. In Ohio
and Illinois many fine herds of Short Horns are kept, and
there are some fine representatives of this breed in nearly all the
Western and Middle States and New England. While they
thrive when well cared for, they will not endure neglect and
short feed combined. Either one will soon tell disastrously upon
them. We have seen some splendid animals of this breed in Mas-
sachusetts and Vermont, and on the best farms in New England

582 FAKM/XG FOR PROFIT.

they do very well. But there are many intelligent farmers
who claim that a more hardy breed, which is smaller and which
can subsist on less food, is better adapted to the North. We
have no doubt that in those sections in which nature has been
profuse with her bounties, the Short Horn is justly entitled to
stand at the head of all races of cattle. But in those localities
where the pastures are poor and the hay crop small, some other
breed may give better returns.

When properly kept and cared for, the Short Horn cattle are
excellent for all the purposes which this class of animals is
designed to serve. For beef this breed has no superior. This w;U
probably be admitted by all. No better beef, either in point oi
quality or in perfection of form, can be found than is produced
by a weil-bred Short Horn steer. The animals belonging to
this breed can be grown to a large size. A fat ox of this race
will weigh several hundred pounds more than one equally fat
from a herd of Avrsiiires. It probably costs considerable more
to fatten the Short Horn than it does the Ayrshire, but the
difference in cost is much more than compensated by the
increase in value.

Many breeders of this race of cattle have sadly neglected the
milking qualities of the stock, and it has by this means come to
pass that some of the finest cows in the world for beef and the
production of beef cattle are very inferior milkers. Other
breeders h.i\ _ not pushed their efforts for success in fattening so
far as this, but have kept sight of the milking qualities while
also striving to develop the fattening tendencies. Still another
class have bred particularly for the development of the milking
powers and have succeeded in obtaining very good results. Thus
it has come to pass that there are three classes of Short Horns:
those which have been bred particularly for beef production,
those in which an attempt has been made to combine both the
fattening and the milking qualities, and those in which the
capacity for the secretion of milk has been fully developed.

CATTLE. 585

The first class are among the finest animals in the world for
beef, the second are excellent for beef and very good for milk,
while the third are very fine milkers and quite good for beef
All these classes, however, need a good quality of food and
plenty of it. This breed possesses a great advantage over some
others in the fact that if the cows prove to be poor milkers they
are worth considerable for beef. Also in the fact that their
calves are worth more to the butcher than those of the smaller
breeds which are kept distinctively as milking stock.

In some sections of the country oxen are used for farm work,
and it is important to have a breed of cattle from which good
workers can be obtained. For this purpose the thorough-bred
Short Horn is not v^ry desirable. He grows very fast, and, if
kept as he should be, will soon become too heavy to work on soft
land. He is naturally slow and cannot easily walk fast. In tbe
deep snow with which a Northern winter covers the land he is
unwieldy, and in the summer he does not endure the heat very
well. Still, there are many splendid ox-teams of Short Horn
blood. In many respects the oxen are good, but they are not
as good, as far as work is concerned, as those of some other,
breeds.

The Ayrshire. — The breeders of this race of cattle claim that'
it is excellent for the double purpose of furnishing milk and
beef. But it has been bred almost exclusively for milk, and this
is its strong point The Ayrshire cattle will thrive on shorter
pastures than the Short Horns. They are a smaller breed, are
pretty hardy, and seem to adapt themselves to the climate and
conditions of this country very readily. They are inclined to ■
be irritable, and this fact not only makes it important to handle
the cows, and especially heifers, with care and treat them with
uniform kindness, but is also an objection to the oxen as
workers. The great excellence of this breed lies in its capacity
for milk production. Give a representative cow of this breed a
good pasture, and feed her well in the wtnter, and she will yield 1
37

586 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

a quantity of milk which a -u.v from no other breed will be
likely to surpass, and which cows from only one or two breeds
will very nearly approach. Feed her on poor hay in the winter,
and keep her in a miserable pasture in the summer, and the
quantity of milk which she will give will not be excessive, but
it will far exceed that of the cows from the other breeds which
attain an equal size.

The Jersey. — No breed of cattle has had more opposition in
this country than the Jersey, and no breed has grown more
rapidly in popular favor. It is pre-eminently a breed for milk.
The animals of this race are too small for beef, and, on account
of their diminutive size and consequent want of strength, wholly
unfit for working. Oxen are seldom kept, and there is no
inducement for any one to experiment with them. In this breed
it is the cow, and the cow alone, which possesses special value.
Whether she is tender or hardy is a question which receives a
great deal of discussion in New England, where the climate is
so severe and many of the pastures so inferior that it is very
desirable for the farmers to secure cows which will be at least
moderately hardy. Many breeders assert that the Jersey cow
is as hardy as need be, but the popular impression is that she is
rather tender. She is quite small in size and may seem more
;frail than she really is. There is no doubt that if properly cared
for — treated as well as the Short Horn, Ayrshire, or even an
extra native should be — the Jersey will get along without any
special inconvenience on account of her want of vigor.

The Jersey cow is very small, and, therefore, will not require
as much hay as a Short Horn. But, in order to do her best,
■she must have all the food she wants and the food must be of
good quality. It would be absurd to keep a Jersey cow on
swamp hay and expect her to give as much and as rich milk as
the pet cows of the breeders produce. The better the food the
better the product — a rule which will apply to other breeds as
\well as to the one now under consideration.

CA TTLE. 537

The quantity of milk given by the ordinary Jersey is not
large. In this respect she is surpassed by the other improved
breeds, and even by the better class of natives. But, thou<yh
small in quantity, the milk of the Jersey cow is exceedino-ly
rich and more than makes up in the superiority of its quality
the deficiency in amount. The great use of the milk of these
cows is for the manufacture of " gilt-edged " butter. The best
butter sold in the country is made from the milk of Jerseys, and
the price obtained is very much higher than can be secured for
a fine quality which is made from other cows. The finest
Jersey butter not only presents a beautiful appearance, but it
also possesses a nutty flavor which makes it superior to other
kinds.

The value of the Jersey cow as a butter producer has been
widely recognized, and even the Short Horn dairymen of
Great Britain, who consider their favorite breed almost per-
fection, often keep one or two Jerseys in their herds for the
acknowledged purpose of giving the butter a better flavor and a
finer appearance than it would otherwise possess. In this
country the superior quality of the Jerseys for butter produc-
tion is readily acknowledged. They easily stand at the head
of all breeds in this respect, and certainly ought to be found
upon a large number of our dairy farms.

The Devon. — This is one of the most clearly defined and
purely bred races of cattle in the world. It has long held a
high place in the estimation of intelligent breeders of live-stock,
and it possesses sufficient merit to assure its permanence. Of
medium size, beautiful form, and good temper, the cows are well
fitted for the dairy and the oxen for the yoke or for beef The
Devon will thrive on shorter pastures than some of the larger
breeds, and seems particularly adapted to the mountainous
regions.

For all purposes for which cattle are wanted on the farm they
have no superior. They are valuable for beef, as they gain

583 FARMIXG FOR PROFIT:

rapidly and mature at an early age. It has been claimed by
competent writers that " more meat can be made from them,
with a given amount of food, than from any other breed." The
quality of the beef is also superior, and well-fed Devon steers
generally command the highest market price.

For work on the farm the Devon oxen are the best which can
be found. They are hardy, very strong, remarkably active when
at work, and also good tempered, quiet and docile. In the sec-
tions where oxen are largely used as workers this breed ought
to be kept for the purpose of supplying this need. The Devon
oxen are so much quicker in their movements than the native,
or even the Short Horn, that they will do a great deal more
work in a given time. They do this extra work without fretting,
and if well fed will perform considerable labor and gain flesh at
the same time.

For milk the Devon cow holds only a medium rank. This is
not so much due to the want of capacity for a high rate of milk
secretion as it is to the fact that the efforts of breeders have
been mainly devoted to an altogether different purpose. The
Devon has been bred for beef and work. As a natural and in-
evitable result the milking properties have been kept in the
background. But the quality of the rnilk obtained is very
good and there are families which, having been bred more care-
fully for this purpose, are noted for the quantity which they pro-
duce. On short feed they will probably do better than cows
from larger breeds or from races which are more noted for their
milking qualities.

The Hereford is an excellent breed for beef It has no
specia;! excellencies as milking stock, and therefore is not fitted
for the dairy districts. As the oxen arc very large and heavy
they cannot compare favorably with the Devons for working
purposes. Their strong point, and their chief point of superi-
ority is in their fattening qualities. They take on flesh rapidly
and make a good quality of beef They need good keeping

ft ^

CATTLE. 59 J

and are not well adapted to the short pastures or the mountain-
ous regions of New England. In Ohio, Illinois, and Ken-
tucky they grow into splendid animals. It is claimed by the
breeders of Hereford stock that this animal is more hardy
than the Short Horn and superior to all other breeds for cross-
ing with native stock for the production of beef. The grade
Herefords of Colorado sell higher than any other cattle from
that section, and it is thought that in the Rocky Mountain
country on the east and the States and Territories west of
this great range the Hereford will fully meet the requirements
of cattle-owners.

The Dutch. — These cattle are very large, and their colors,
which are black and white, set off their massive proportions to
good advantage. In their own country the cows are great
milkers, and many animals have been imported in the hope of
securing a breed which would present the same characteristic
here. These cattle have been bred particularly for milk produc-
tion, and the country in which they have lived is one of the very
finest for dairy purposes of any in the world. As a natural
consequence the change from the mild climate and luxuriant
pastures of Holland to the variable climate and still more
variable pastures of large sections of our own country does not
prove favorable, but exerts a depressing influence. Still, it is
claimed by their owners here that the Dutch cows yield an im-
mense amount of milk from which a large quantity of butter
can be made. These cows are also said to be especially adapted
to the cheese-producing districts.

For beef the Dutch cattle are quite good, but not better than
several other breeds, while inferior to some. The same may be
said concerning working oxen. The animals reach an excessive
size, but as they mature rather slowly they are not likely to
prove as popular as some other breeds.

The Holstein cattle are similar to the Dutch, and the two
names are often used to represent the same cattle. The distinc-

592 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

tion between the Dutch and the Holstein is that the former
name stands for the common breed of cattle in Holland, while
the latter represents the breed kept in the Northern part of the
country which is called Holstein. The Holstein cattle are so
nearly like the Dutch, they need no separate description.
Their breeders call them far superior, but this claim is rejected
by the owners of the Dutch.

The Alderney. — This breed is so similar to the Jersey as to
require no separate notice. Many Jersey cows are, improperly,
called Alderney. In reality there are but very few genuine
Alderney cows brought to this country.

The Guernsey. — This breed also resembles the Jersey, with
the exception of being considerably larger. It is an excellent
breed for milk, though not as popular as the Jersey. These
three breeds, Jersey, Alderney, and Guernsey, are obtained
from the British Channel Islands, bearing these names,
lying off the coast of France. The Jersey is the best known,
and for use in this country is much more promising than the
others.

The Swiss cows in their native land are very good milkers
and prove quite profitable to their owners. There have been
only a few importations into this country. The owners of these
cattle claim that they have positive merits which entitle them to
a fair and extensive trial. But they do not become popular and
are not likely to supplant the breeds which are now well estab-
lished. While there is no doubt that the Swiss are good cattle,
it is a question whether it is best to continue the multiplication
of breeds to a great extent. It may pay better to take care of
the kinds of cattle already secured than it will to seek for others
whose merits are likely to be inferior to those of some races
which are already acclimated.

The same principle applies to the Bkittany cattle as well as
the Swiss, with this exception, however, in favor of the former.
For the Brittany there is a place which no other breed exactly

CATTLE. 595

fills. Being very small these cattle are neither useful for work
nor for beef, but in short pastures, and hilly districts, the
cows may be made to supply their owners with milk. They
are so very small that it is useless to think of making them pay
in good daily regions. The only animals we have ever seen of
this and of the Swiss breed were kept for a while at the Massa-
chusetts Agricultural College. After a fair trial with other
breeds they were both discarded. The milk of the Brittany
was rich, and its quantity much greater than the diminutive size
of the cow would lead a stranger to expect. Still, when com-
pared with other breeds, the Brittany was not profitable.

Native Cattle. — All the breeds which we have described
had their origin in Europe, and most of them have been in the
process of formation and development for at least a hundred
years. In our own country, the efforts which have been made
for the improvement of cattle have been by means of an infusion
of this foreign blood. All " thorough-bred " cattle, so called,
must trace to importations on both sides of their families. But
there are, in all parts of the country, a great many cattle which
belong to no particular breed, and which are usually denomi-
nated " natives." The better class of the common cattle are
called grades — a term which indicates that on one side of the
family there has been a thorough-bred ancestor. But with the
possible exception of Texas and vicinity, we have no genuine
native cattle in the United States.

The original " cattle " of this country were the Buffaloes,
which under a wasteful and wicked system of management have
been nearly exterminated. But the so-called native cattle of the
older settled States are descended from cattle imported by the
colonists and their immediate successors. The men who
settled the States came from nearly all parts of Europe and
brought cattle from their own homes. Many cattle were also
imported from the West Indies. At that time the principles of
breeding were less understood than they are at the present day,

596 FARMING FOR PROFIT

and the colonists in their efforts to subdue the wilderness, clear
the forest, and protect themselves from the Indians, had little
time and but few opportunities to improve their stock. In the
course of time it very naturally came to pass that the leading
distinctions which the various breeds had possessed were lost,
and the cattle which were produced by so much intermixing of
different bloods came to bear no resemblance to their pro-
genitors, and to present but little similarity among themselves.
Although very far below the " thorough-bred," many of our
native cattle have good blood in their veins, and are capable of
great and rapid improvement.

The Texan cattle have been long in the country, and are
nearer alike than the so-called natives of any other section.
Their greater resemblance to each other may be accounted for
on the supposition that while the cattle of the other sections are
descended from several distinct breeds, which were brought
from many different countries, the Texans had their origin in a
single race of Spanish cattle, many representatives of which
were brought into Mexico (to which Texas then belonged)
some three hundred and fifty years ago.

The native cattle of the Southwest are now sent in large
numbers to our Northern and Western markets. They are
very coarse, and greatly inferior to all other races of cattle
known in the country. They ought to be superseded by some
of the improved breeds. Perhaps it would be possible to
improve them, but it would require a great deal of time to bring
up these ungainly animals to a respectable position. Half-way
measures might help some, but it would take a great while to
secure anything like satisfactory results.

Such are some of the characteristics of the different breeds of
cattle which are the best known in this country. From the
description given, it is easy to see that no one breed will be
profitable in all places, and that no one breed is the best for all
purposes. The breed which will pay the Kentucky farmer the

CATTLE. 597

best may be one of the very poorest of all for the farmer in
Maine. Again, the bieid which will be the most profitable for
the farmer who njakes a specialty of beef will be likely to prove
unprofitable to the one who is engaged in making butter or
selling milk. The choice of breeds must be made with reference
to the character and condition of the pastures in which the
animals are to be kept in summer, and the quality of the food
which they can have during the cold weather, together with the
particular purpose which they are designed t3 serve. A large
and hearty breed should not be selected for short pastures, and
an extra breed for beef should not be chosen for the dairy. It
is not well to have many breeds represented in one herd.
When this is.done, som^ of the classes must be much better,
either intrinsically or by adaptation, than others ; the poorer
ones will not pay as well as their companions, and thus the
average profit from the herd will be reduced. Besides, there is
some difficulty in keeping several breeds together, and it occa-
sionally happens that in a dairy the difference in the quality of
the milk of different breeds of cows proves a positive disadvan-
tage. This is not always the case, but it does sometimes occur.
The question, "Are thorough-breds required ? " is often asked
by dairymen, and by farmers who are anxious to obtain as large
a percentage of profit from their live-stock as can be secured.
It is a question in which every man who keeps cattle of any
description is interested, and which he certainly ought to con-
5»ider. There is a great deal of prejudice in many places against
thorough-bred stock, but it is almost wholly founded upon a
misapprehension. The idea which some farmers have that the
blooded stock is superior only in the possession of a pedigree is
erroneous. Thorough-bred stock is valuable in and of itself,
while the pedigree is useful only as a certificate of careful
breeding. The thorough-bred has inherited many good quali-
ties from his progenitors. Good animals were chosen at first,
and for many generations no poor ones have been permitted to

598 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

come into the family. The good points are strengthened and
intensified in each generation, and in time they become firmly
fixed. They are then transmitted with a great deal of certainty.
It is true that there are a few exceptions. There are exceptions
to every rule. There have been some thorough-bred cows,
even in breeds which excel in their milking qualities, which
were very poor milkers. These cows never should have been
used for breeding purposes. They ought to have been fattened
just as soon as possible after the discover)' was made that they
were not good milkers. Many breeders follow this course.

But some men insist that a thorough-bred is a thorough-bred,
and that though an occasional individual may be poor, yet the
defective one may transmit the good qualities of its progenitors
instead of its own deficiencies. This is not a safe course to
pursue, and the fact that it is followed to some extent has
brought blooded stock into discredit with many farmers who
would have been glad to obtain it if it had been properly bred.
In a massive stone tower it is not enough that the great
majority of the granite blocks are large and perfect. Every one
must be right or the safety of the whole structure is endangered.
One poor block may ruin the whole. So with blooded
stock. The glory of this stock is that it will breed true. If a
man has a native cow, he may obtain good calves from her or
he may secure poor ones. The calf from a good native cow
may inherit the good qualities of the dam, but is fully as likely
to possess the evil ones. But in the case of properly managed
thorough-breds tl.erc is but very little risk. Tlie calf of a good
blooded cow is almost sure to be good, and to have the good
qualities of the parents so strongly impressed that it can trans-
mit them with a great degree of certainty. There can be no
possible doubt that for breeding purposes thorough-breds are
greatly superior to either natives or grades.

Admitting that they are better, the farmer is still brought face
to face with a great difficulty in obtaining thorough-bred cattle.

CATTLE. 601

The expense of filling his yard with this kind of stock puts it
wholly out of the question. Besides there are not animals
enough of this kind in the country to supply one farmer in a
hundred if he should attempt to keep them exclusively. The
plan of stocking our farm-yards with thorough-bred cattle is
wholly impracticable. But a large proportion of the benefits to
be secured from this kind of stock are still within reach of the
ordinary farmer.

We have shown that the great superiority of thorough-breds
lies in the fact that they breed almost absolutely true to the
good qualities which they possess. Now let the farmer select
from his own herd, or buy of his neighbors, the best native cows,
and commence the process of improvement. If he wants to
raise beef cattle, he should select cows which have a strong ten-
dency to fatten. If he wants to sell milk, the cows which give the
greatest quantity of milk should be taken for this purpose. If he
desires nice butter, let him select the cows which now furnish
the richest cream. Then let him obtain a thorough-bred bull,
of a breed noted for the particular purpose which he has in view
(an Ayrshire, if he wants to sell milk, and a Jersey, if he wants
nice butter), and mate him with the cows he has selected. The
first cost of a two years old bull will not be very great, and he
can, for a f^w years, breed quite closely without bad results.
Then he can exchange with some other farmer who is going
through the same course. The blooded bull usually imparts
his own character'stics in a great degree to his calves by native
cows, and it is to be expected that the stock thus obtained will
be nmch superior to the dams. The bulls should not be kept
for breeding, but the heifers, even though they do not look very
promising, should be carefully tested. If they prove to be
without special merit they should be fattened, but if they are
good, as most of thp-n will be, they should be kept until some-
thing still better can be secured. Their calves will be likely to
show a still gi^ater improvement, and if the process is repeated

602 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

with successive generations, the time will come when the stock
will be almost pure in blood, and, except for breeding, will be
just as good as that which is purely bred. The number of poor
animals in a herd will rapidly decrease with each generation
until the proportion will be but little greater than it is in those
which are strictly pure.

Although' it was once thought that " in and in " breeding
would prove ruinous to the herds in which it was practiced, it
has, in intelligent hands, proved the means of securing the
finest animals. All the celebrated breeds have been formed in
this way, and by this means the careful farmer may greatly
improve his stock. But it should be carried to extremes only
by the most skilful breeders. The farmer may safely use the
same bull for two, or possibly for three generations, but it will
usually be better to exchange with another farmer or breeder
than to carry it any farther.

If the farmer keeps but few cows and does not feel able to
either buy or keep a bull, he may be able to get some of his
neighbors to unite with him in the purchase, and to help pay
the expenses of keeping. In this way the cost to the individual
may be brought very low, and yet nearly all the benefits of sole
ownership may be obtained. In all cases when a bull is bought
for the purpose of improving native stock a good one should be
obtained. Not merely a good-looking one but one from a good
family, and one which is clearly marked with the peculiar points
which distinguish the breed to which he belongs. A poor bull
should not be tak^n as a gift. On the other hand it is not
necessary to obtain members of the fashionable families.
Animals from herds which are just as good for milk or beef,
and which will breed with an equal degree of certainty, can be
had for moderate prices, and will prove just as good for the
purpose of improving the cattle with which they are used. A
thoroughly good, but not fancy, bull should be obtained from
an honest and intelligent breeder. Then the wayVill be opened

CATTLE. 603

for a rapid and permanent improvement of the cattle kept on
the farm.

Probably no one will question the fact that thorough-bred
cows are much better for milk and butter than the average
natives, but there may be some who doubt whether it would
pay to get blooded stock merely for the purpose of producing
beef If they would read the reports of the sales of beef at any
of the principal markets in the country, and trace the difference
in the blood of the steers there sold, their doubts would vanish.
They would find that grade steers not only average much
heavier in weight than natives, but also that they frequently sell
considerably higher per pound. The beef cattle which have
been sent to England have shown the same variation in price.
Those which were well bred have sold for from one-half to two-
thirds more per pound than those of poorer quality. Thus
there is a double gain in using high grade steers for beef
They fatten much more readily than the natives and sell for a
higher rate per pound.

In order to obtain really good animals it is necessary to give
them care and attention from their earliest hours. Good blood
is an immense advantage, but it cannot atone for want of food
and care. Many of the native cattle are far inferior to what
they would have been if they had been suitably attended to
while they were young. It pays to care for stock during all
stages of its existence, but care seems a greater necessity in the
dependent period of early life than it does after that time of
weakness has passed.

Feeding with reference to the perfect development of the
animal should commence even before its birth. During preg-
nancy the cow should be fed with a more liberal hand than at
any other period. Not only is the waste of her own system to
be sustained, and her usual quantity of milk to be furnished for
several months, but the calf must be nourished, and its growth
be made from food supplied to the cow. It is not well to feed

$04 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

the COW so that at the time of parturition she will be very fat,
yet it is still worse to keep her on such short rations that she
will be very poor. Good food in abundance, but not in excess,
should be supplied.

The length of time which she should go dry will depend upon
the milking qualities of the cow herself Some cows dry off
three months before calving. These animals are generally un-
profitable. Others give quite a quantity of milk until within
about two months of the time to calve. There are a few cows
which continue to give milk until the very time of calving. It
seems to be best for both the cow and her calf, as well as most
for the interest of the owner, that there should be a period of
from six to eight weeks during which the cow should go dry.
Most cows will gradually diminish the quantity of milk which
they give and the flow will finally cease of itself But there are
some cows in which^the milking qualities are so fully developed
that a special effort must be made to induce a cessation of the
flow of milk. The best method for accomplishing this result is
to draw the milk at irregular intervals. This is very much
better than the common practice of taking only part of the milk
at a time. When the latter course is followed, the milk which
remains becomes thick and putrid and frequently leads to inflam-
mation and other serious evils. The period between the milk-
ings may be gradually lengthened, and should not be at all
regular, but, when the milking is done, it should be as thor-
oughly performed as at any other time. For some weeks after
the cow is thought to be dry the udder should be frequently
examined, as milk is often secreted in small quantities after the
owner supposes the process to have ceased.

If the cow has been properly fed and cared for she will be
pretty sure to go through the time of calving without great
diflficulty. Still, there are some cases of wrong presentation of
the foetus and of certain other diflficulties. In these cases a
veterinarian should be employed. He may be able to save

CATTLE. 605

the life of both cow and calf No ignorant, brutal help should
be accepted. It is not well to allow the cow to calve in the
pasture. She should be turned into a box-stall in which
there is a large quantity of bedding, or .else under a comfortable
shed.

Whether the cow should be allowed to eat the " after-birth "
is a question upon which intelligent owners are disagreed.
Some strongly advocate its removal, while others just as strongly
insist that the cow should be allowed to follow her natural in-
stinct. We have often tried each plan and have never known
either to be attended by bad results. Immediately after drop-
ping the calf the cow should have a warm bran-mash. This
will tend to produce an easy separation of the after-birth. If it
proves ineffectual, tie a weight of one or two pounds to the pro-
truding part. If no progress has been made after a lapse of ten
hours, a dose of salts, four ounces, and ginger, two ounces, may
be given. In case this does not secure the removal of the after-
birth within twenty-four hours after calving it must be taken
away by force. The right hand (the hand and arm being well
smeared with oil, or fresh lard) should be introduced into the
womb and the membrane separated with the thumb and fingers
from its various connections. A great deal of care must be used
in performing this operation, and considerable time may be
required. All violent pulling endangers the life of the cow, and
many fine animals have been killed by ignorant or brutal opera-
tors. For a few days after this operation the cow should be fed
on warm mashes and fine hay, have warm water to drink, and
be carefully protected from cold and storms.

No cold water should be given to a cow for several days after
she has calved, even though she may have got along well. She
should have water frequently, in small quantities, but it should
be warmed sufficiently to take off the chill. Neglect of this is
very likely to cause an attack of milk fever, and by this means
many nice cows have been lost

606 FARMIXG FOR PROFIT.

Care of the Calf. — The calf will usually be able to stand,
and to secure tlic milk which it needs without aid, but, in case
of weakness, it should be held to the cow until it gets iis food.
In any case the calf should be allowed to stay with the cow for
three or four days and take as much milk as he wants. The
remainder of the milk should be drawn by hand at least twice
a day.

If the calf is designed for veal, he may, at the end of the time
stated, be tied with a strap around the neck. At morning and
night he should have access to the cow. If she does not give
all the milk the calf wants he may be taught to eat a little meal.
If Indian meal is given it should be cooked. Oat meal may be
fed either cooked or raw. Some live-stock owners prefer oil
meal. Only a small quantity should be given at first, and the
increase in amount should be very gradual.

If the calf is to be raised, it should be taken from the cow .it
the end of the third or fourth day and tied in a stall which is
well out of her sight. It should be taught to drink, and, for
several weeks, should have new and warm milk. Then, as most
farmers consider this food altogether too expensive for perma-
nent use, the new milk may be gradually diminished and the
quantity kept good by the addition of milk that has been
skimmed. After a while skimmed milk, which should always
be warm when fed, with the addition of a little oat meal, may
be used to the exclusion of new milk. If the weather is warm
the calf should have a nice yard out of doors where it can stay
during the daytime, and in which it can learn to eat grass and
drink water. At night, and during hard storms, the calf should
be tied in a clean stall in the barn. The milk and meal should
be continued until the first of winter, and in the case of late
calves still longer.

If the weather is cold, so that the calf cannot be kept out of
doors without discomfort, it should be tied in a warm stall in
the barn, and, in addition to the milk and meal, should be sup-

CATTLE. 607

plied with rowen hay. During the first year or two of its life,
the calf should not be yarded with cows and large cattle. It is
the best way to keep two or more calves together, and allow
them a small yard of their own. In summer, after they are two
years old, they can run in the same pasture with the cows, if a
shelter is provided to protect them from storms and from
extreme heat. Many farmers send their young stock to an
" outland " pasture. This is often many miles from home, and
the young cattle do not receive the attention which they need.
If the season is favorable they may get food enough, but if
there is a severe drought the grass will be of poor quality if not
insufficient in quantity, and there is danger, in many pastures,.
of suffering for want of water. It is also the custom to turn
into the pasture a " scrub " bull, and by him the heifers are got
with calf From an ordinary specimen of this stock no one
has the right to expect a decent calf. There is a direct loss on
the first calf, and the heifer is injured for the production of good'
stock by the service of the scrub.

Not only are small and coarsely made bulls put into these
pastures, but sometimes those with still worse defects are
employed. We knew one case in which a badly deformed bull
was used. It ought to be a principle with the farmer never to
allow a poor bull to serve one of his cows or heifers. If he
does allow it, he throws away the chance of obtaining a good,
calf, and allows the cow to be permanently injured.

Castration. — Male calves, which are not desirable to keep for

breeders, should be castrated when two or three months old —

always before they reach the age of six months. Good weather

should be selected for the operation. The directions given by

Mr. Allen in his work on American Cattle are excellent.

We quote them, as follows : " Grasp the scrotum in the left

hand, and bring the testicles down to the foot of the bag;, then, '

with the other hand, and a sharp, small knife — a sharp-pointed

jack-knife is as good as any — cut a perpendicular slit in the:
38

gO^ FARMING FOR PROFIT.

back or rear side of each testicle, close to the bottom, and long
enough for the released testicle to pass through ; then cut
through the skin, and the inner case enclosing it ; push out the
testicle, and gently draw the cord attached to it out one or two
inches, and cut, or scrape, it off, and the work is done. Serve
the other in the same way. Then put in a little salted, soft
greese, and push it upwards towards the belly with the finger.
If the weather be hot, a few drops of spirits of turpentine mixed
with water may be washed just within and around the outside
cut of the scrotum to keep off flies, and the calf may be set at
liberty." If the scrotum becomes swollen and badly inflamed,
the calf should be caught and the incisions opened sufficiently
to allow the matter which has formed to be discharged. Care
should be taken to protect calves which have been castrated
from storms, and they should have plenty of good food.

Steers, which are designed for wurk, should be handled and
trained at an early age. They should never be allowed to get
wild, or to fear in the slightest degree the presence of man.
While they are calves they should be accustomed to being led
•with a halter, and should be tied in the barn at night. If this is
done, the "breaking" process will be short and easy. Quiet
and submissive oxen will also be secured. But if all handling
and training is neglected until the steers are three years old, it
will be a very difficult matter to " break " them, and they will
be likely to be violent and intractable in all their after lives. A
small yoke should be obtained, and the steers brought under it
as soon as th_'y are a year old. Some good trainers begin at a
still earlier age. If care is used not to scare them, and a rope is
'put around their horns so that the driver can guide them a
little, the steers will soon learn the lesson required. When
they are well taught to walk around where the driver wishes,
they may be put in front of some large cattle which are
attached to a cart and given a few lessons. Then they may be
fastened to a very light wagon and driven alone. They should

CATTLE. 609

be taught to back, as it is often a very great advantage tc
have oxen which will go backwards as well as forwards. The
method of teaching is precisely the same as that which has
been recommended for horses.

Steers should never be hitched to a heavy load until they
have been thoroughly taught to draw and have become large
and strong. Most of the cattle that are not good to work have
been made inferior by neglect of training, bad training, or by
having been overloaded when they were young. For quite a
while after the steers have been taught to draw a cart but little
weight should be added. When they are well used to this, part
of a load may be put in the cart, and this may be gradually
increased, as the steers gain strength and skill, until a full load
is readily drawn. The training should be so thorough that one
man can readily use the oxen for plowing. One of the greatest
wastes of labor which we have seen in New England, where
things are usually viewed from an economical stand-point, is
the use of a yoke of oxen which required the time and labor of
a man to drive. Plowing in this manner — one man driving a
single yoke of oxen, and another holding the plow — is a very
expensive operation. There is no necessity for using such
inefficient cattle. If well taught when they are steers, and
decently used afterwards, cattle can be driven by the man who
holds the plow. Not only this, but they can be driven as easily
and as well as an ordinary horse team. There are many such
oxen, and we are sure that many of those which are now
awkward and unmanageable would have been good workers, if
they had only been properly trained and used.

The Bull should be well fed and cared for, but should not be
forced either to grow or fatten. While it is very bad to keep
such a calf half starved, it is also bad to keep him stuffed and
crowded with stimulating food. He ought to grow up naturally,
and be developed at the time and in the manner which nature
indicates. If this plan is followed, he will not look as well as

glQ FARMIN-G FOR PROFIT.

.one of the same degree of merit which has been forced to make
an excessive growth, and whose defects are well covered with
fat, but at two years of age, and from that time through life, he
will be a more vigorous and serviceable animal.

The bull should be used but very little for breeding until he is
two years old. Earlier service would prove injurious to him, and
his calves would not be as strong and fine as they ought to be.
At two years of age he may safely serve from fifty to eighty
cows during the season. After that, until he is ten or twelve
years old, and his powers begin to fail, he may serve one
hundred cows per season. If kept in a stable, he should be
led around the yard for a while each day for exercise. It is
better to keep him in a stable and small yard, and allow hifn to go
from one to the other at will. He should not be turned into the
common pasture with the cows. He ought to be well fed, but
not kept very fat. During the 'first year of his age, a copper
ring should be put in his nose. A light, strong stick, seven or
eight feet long, w^ith two links of chain and a snap at the end,
should be used for leading him. A rope tied into the rin^ is
not safe, as the leader has nothing to prevent the bull from
rushing upon him.

Sometimes a bull that has always been kind will have a
sudden turn of frenzy, and, if he is unprepared for an attack, the
keeper will be seriously injured or even killed. Such cases are
not very rare. Therefore, no matter how pleasant the bull may
be, 7icvcr try to lead him without a stick fastened to a ring, or
some good substitute, in his nose. We have seen a "bull-leader"
which could be instantly put in position or removed, and which
does not require a hole to be made in the cartilage of the nose,
or a ring to be inserted. It is very convenient, and if the keeper
will remember and use it when the bull is pleasant as well as
when he appears to be vicious, it may be an improvement on
the common ring.

Some, though not all, bulls which are cross are made so by

CATTLE. 611

violent treatment. At all times, from the first day of his exist-
ence, the bull should be treated kindly. Still he must be
managed with a firm hand. The keeper must not let the bull
think that he is afraid. Nevertheless he should be constantly
on the watch lest the treacherous animal make an attack when
least expected. If a bull becomes decidedly vicious, he should
be sent to the butcher. No one will be safe in caring for him,
and his calves will be liable to inherit his bad disposition.

If he is a good animal, a sure stock-getter, and is not cross,
the bull may be kept until he begins to fail from age. This will
usually be at from ten to twelve years. Most farmers, and
many breeders, fatten their bulls when four or five years old.
But the best age for the bull as a breeder is when he is from
five to ten years old. Then he is fully matured, and his powers
are well developed. He will get stronger and better calves than
one which is very young. In order that he may retain his
powers, the bull should never be overworked. The practice of
turning a bull and cow into a yard and leaving them together
during the day is to be strongly condemned. One perfect ser-
vice is not only just as good, but is a great deal better than half
a dozen. When regularly serving many cows the food of the
bull should be increased, and he should be well fed at all times.

Winter Management. — In a large part of the country it is
necessary to give special care to cattle during the cold season.
And we think that in that belt of country lying between the
cold region on the North, and the warm one on the South,
where there is but little snow, and cattle can be kept out-of-
doors nearly all of the time, it would pay well to give more
attention to the cattle during the winter months. Although
cattle can live outside of the barns (and the barns even are
wanting in many places), yet they would thrive a great deal
better, and give much larger returns, if they were protected from
the storms, and could be properly fed when the grass in the
pastures fails. At the extreme South the farmer can furnish

gl2 FARMING I- OR PROFIT.

excellent pasturage during the winter. The kinds of grass
suited for this climate and purpose have already been indicated.
The expense of supplying this pasturage is very small when
compared with that of wintering cattle at the North, and it
should be cheerfully borne.

The Stable. — It is a matter of great importance from an
economical as well as a humanitarian point of view, that the
stables for cattle should be light and warm, and that they
should be kept clean. We have already shown that animals
which have warm stables are much more productive, with the
same amount of food, than those which are placed in cold
quarters. The advantage of a light stable over a dark one is
evident. Cleanliness is necessaiy in order to make the cattle
healthy and keep them in comfort. The floors should be strong
and frequently examined. When cattle break through a weak-
floor, the owner usually has to sustain quite a loss. We like a
double floor under the cattle. Plank the floor in the usual way,
and then lay short planks (four and a half or five feet long) the
other way. These will be just long enough for the cattle to
stand on, the manure will fall behind the short planks upon the
long ones, and this arrangement will tend to keep the cattle
clean. The floor overhead should be high enough so that a
tall man need not stoop in the stable even when he has on a
tall hat.

The mangers should be well made, so that there will be no
waste of the meal fed in them. Between their tops and the
floor above a strong, smooth stick should be placed in order to
keep the cattle from climbing into them. The fastenings should
be strong and safe, but also as comfortable for the cattle as
possible. Bows around the neck do well for young cattle, while
stanchions, or chains around the neck, are preferable for larger
animals. We like these methods better than tying with a rope
around the horns.

Plenty of bedding should be used on the floors. If the floor

, CATTLE. GX3

descends a little from the mangers towards the back of the stable
it will prove a help in keeping the cattle clean. In all respects
while they are in the stables the cattle should be made just as
comfortable as possible.

An easy way of getting into and out of the stables should
always be provided. There are many cases in which this is
wholly neglected, and the cows have to climb steep steps every
time they go into the stable. In some cases they are obliged to
wade through mud and manure from one to two feet in depth,
and then take a long step to get to the stable floor. We have
seen cows hesitate long before they would take a step which re-
quired so much exertion. This method of getting into the stable
is very injurious to all animals. It is especially dangerous for
cows which are with calf, and is quite likely to cause abortion
with all of its attendant evils. There should be good steps
whenever the surface of the yard — and by surface we mean
something which will give a good foundation — is more than ten
inches lower than the stable floor. It ought to be just as easy
for the cattle to go into the stable as it is to walk on the floor
after they are in there. The entrance to many stables, in mud
time, and when there is ice on the ground and steps, is positively
dangerous, and many animals which receive no more serious
injury are made lame by trying to pass from the yard to the
stable.

Although the Northern winters are very long, it pays well
to commence feeding cattle quite early in the season. If the
animals are kept out in the fields until snov/ comes, there will
be quite a time during which they are very poorly fed. The
grass becomes spoiled by the hard frosts, and long before the
quantity of food begins to fail its quality is seriously impaired.
Some farmers seek to mitigate the evil by throwing corn-stalks,
or coarse hay, into the fields or the yards. This is well as far
as it goes, but it is very far from removing the difficulty. It is
much better to put the cattle in the barn and feed them once a

gl4 FARMIXG FOR PROFIT.

day when the grass begins to fail. As it grows poorer, feed
them twice a day, and when the frost has killed it, feed the cattle
entirely in the barn. This course requires more hay than the
one commonly pursued, but it keeps the cattle in so much
better condition that it proves more profitable. Cows which
are kept short for a few weeks decrease the quantity of milk
which they secrete, and it. is difficult to bring them back to the
original yield. Young cattle which come to the barn thin
in flesh are likely to go out in the spring in poor condition.
Here as elsewhere a good start is a great help to a successful
ending.

The quantity of food given to domestic animals must depend
upon their age, condition, and several other considerations.
Some animals will need more in proportion to their size than
others. The quality of the food will also greatly n-odify the
quantity which is to be given. But all neat cattle should have
food enough. None should be kept hungry. This because it
is both wrong and unprofitable to keep animals without giving
them sufficient food. It is much better, in every sense of the
term, to keep a smaller number of creatures and give them all
they want to eat, than it is to keep a large herd on short
rations.

Cattle should be fed several times a day, and, while they
should have all they will eat, care must be taken not to give too
much at a time. If the mangers are filled too full the cattle will
eat what they want at that time and will breathe upon and work
over the remainder in such a manner as to render it unfit to eat.
In this way careless feeding causes quite a waste of fodder.
The feeding should be done at regular hours. If cattle get in
the habit of eating at certain times of the day they will be ready
to eat when those times come, but. if they are fed irregularly,
they will not know when to expect food and will not gain as
much from its use as they would from the same amount if it was
given at stated times. We usually feed cattle twice in the morn-

CATTLE. 615

ing and twice at night in the barn, and once a day in the yard.
The latter feeding is with corn-stalks, which are given when the
cattle are turned out in the morning. When the weather is bad
we feed more hay in the barn and do not put out the stalks.
Many farmers feed their cattle in the evening. We believe it is
an excellent plan to go to the barn just before bcdcime and see
that everything is right, but we are not sure that it is well to
feed thi cattle at this time. The animals will be lying down
quietly for their night's rest and it hardly seems best to disturb
them. The owner can see that they are all right without start-
ing them up. If he does not feed them they will, certainly after
they get used to his coming, remain wholly undisturbed. We
believe it is better to leave them quiet than it is to get them up
and feed them.

The quality of food which animals should receive will depend
upon many and varying circumstances. When an ox is at work
he should have a liberal allowance of meal in addition to a suffi-
cient quantity of hay. If he is to be fattened he should have
more meal and less hay than he does while at worlc. If he is
kept idle he should have plenty of hay and a few roots daily.
Cows giving milk need a better quality of food than those which
have no such drain upon their productive powers. Young
cattle need a good quality of hay and a few roots. A little oat-
meal may also be given with good results.

The idea that anything which will distend the stomach is good
enough for young cattle is wholly erroneous, and has involved
the large class of farmers who have held it in a heavy loss. If
there is ever a time when good feeding pays, if is when the
animal is growing. At this time the ordinary wastes of the
system must be met, and the whole body ought to be rapidly
increased in size. The meat and bones which should be formed
must be made from the food if they are made at all. If that is
of poor quality the animal can gain but little, if any, because
nearly all the food is needed to supply the waste. We do not

(516 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

think it well to force animals at this stage of their growth. The
use of large quantities of meal for their food is not wise. But
good food and plenty of it is necessary to keep young cattle
growing, as well as to keep them in good health and condition.

Pure water ought to be furnished in abundance and at» a place
where all the cattle can easily have access to it. We have
already treated of the importance of a full supply of water oh
the farm, but a few words upon this subject with special refer-
ence to the live-stock interest will not be out of place. In every
yard in which cattle are kept there should be a tub, or trough,
for holding the drinking water of the stock. This tub should
always be kept clean and well filled. It should be placed in a
sheltered position, and so arranged that the stronger cattle can-
not keep the weaker ones from the water. In some yards both
of these points arc disregarded. The tub is placed where the
wind sweeps with the greatest power, and where the strongest
animal can, and often does, stand guard and keep the others
away. In this manner the weaker ones suffer from thirst, and,
after they have had access to the tub, they feel still worse on
account of having drank to excess. Where the tub is located
so that one or two of the animals keep the others away it will
pay to move it to a place in which there will be a fairer chance
for all. If this cannot be done, the animals which make the
trouble should be kept in the yard only long enough to drink.
As soon as they have drank in the morning they should be put
in the stable and kept there until the others are put in for the
night. Then they may be allowed to drink again. This will
prove somewhat injurious to the ones which are kept shut up,
but it is better that they should suffer a little than that they
should compel all the rest of the herd to suffer a great deal
worse.

At all times cattle should have a plentiful supply of salt
Some writers assert that this is unnecessary, but the best physi-
ologists consider it indispensable to the health and comfort of

CATTLE. 617

animals. It is well known that, in their wild state, animals
make long journeys for the sole purpose of obtaining salt, and
that under domestication they do not lose the craving for this
inexpensive article. From many trials which we have made, as
well as from reports of other trials, we are fully convinced that
salt is not merely a luxury to cattle, but is absolutely necessary
to their thrift and comfort. The fact that when used in excess
it gives bad results is not proof that it is injurious. Too much
green clover induces an attack of hoven and may kill the
strongest animal. It has destroyed a great many very fine
cattle. But no one claims that green clover must not be fed to
cattle. All sensible people know that if it is not used in exces-
sive quantities it is highly beneficial. The same principle
exactly applies to the use of salt.

If cattle have not had a supply for a long time they should
be gradually accustomed to its use. A small quantity should
be given each day until they exhibit no special desire for it.
Then put a few quarts in a box under a shed to which they can
have access daily and they will eat it as they feel the need of
its peculiar properties. In this box a supply of salt should be
kept constantly. The cattle will enjoy it and it will do them
good.

Lice. — These little parasites cause an immense amount of
suffering to the animals upon whom they prey, and a heavy loss
to the owners of the cattle which are infested with them. Some
farmers estimate the actual damage caused to the owner of the
cattle by these pests to be not less than five dollars per year for
each animal that is covered with them. This we do not con-
sider an excessive estimate. The cow that is obliged to support
an army of lice must give less milk and keep in poorer order
than she would if free from her tormentors. With a calf the
case is still worse, as he has less strength with which to combat
the evil.

It has often been asserted that lice were caused by neglect

618 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

and poor keeping of the animals on which they appear. While
they are more frequently found in neglected herds than in those
which are well cared for, and upon animals which are weak and
thin in flesh than upon those which are strong and fat, it is still
true that they frequently make their appearance upon thrifty
animals and in well-kept herds. These pssts are readily trans-
ferred from one animal to another, and are often introduced into
a fine herd by one or more affjcted animals which the owner
has purchased.

As there is a constant liability that cattle will be troubled
with lice, they should be frequently examined. Calves and
young cattle need still more careful oversight than cows or
oxen.

The remedies which have been employed are various, and
some of them, while very effective, have proved more dangerous
to the cattle than the lice which they destroyed. Many cattle
have been killed, and many others injured, by lapping off the
poisonous ointments which have been applied to themselves or
to some animal in the same herd. The use of these remedies
is dangerous. If they are so applied that cattle cannot lap them
off from themselves, some other cattle may do it for them and
be poisoned. Even if it remains with the animal to which it
was applied, it may be absorbed and cause serious injur\'.
There is no necessity for using such preparations, as safer
remedies will be equally effectual.

A mixture of Scotch snuff and lard rubbed along the back,
on top of the head, around the flanks, and between the hind legs,
will answer the purpose without injuring the animal. Tobacco
smoke is also effectual, but requires the use of a fumigator to
render it pleasant or safe. Even with this instrument the work
should be done in the open air. in order to prevent sickening
the operator, and also to avoid all danger of firing the buildings.
When this method is pursued, the animal must be blanketed for
a while after the operation, and the process must be repeated in

CATTLE. gl0

a week or ten days, in order to destroy the lice which hatch out
after the first one is performed. In mild weather, a wash com-
posed of one part carbolic acid and three parts of water proves
both harmless to the animal and effectual for killing lice. It
should be freely rubbed along the back, between the horns,
and around the tail.

Diseases. — Cattle are subject to various diseases, but nearly
all of them are caused by some error in feeding or manage-
ment. The animals which are kept poor and half-starved, and
those which are highly pampered, are much more subject to
sickness of various kinds than those which are well fed and
cared for, but are not too rapidly pushed. Several of these
diseases are to be successfully treated only by an educated
veterinarian or physician. Of these we shall make no mention,
except to say that they can almost universally be prevented,
and that the great hope of the farmer is in the use of preventive
measures. Curing severe disease in animals is very doubtful,
and the attempt to cure will be very much more expensive than
the measures which would have prevented an attack. A few
common diseases and accidents should be briefly mentioned in
this connection.

Abortion. — In some sections this disease is very prevalent,
and causes an immense loss to farmers and dairymen every
year. In this disease, the cow calves before her full time. The
calf is lost, and the sickness of the cow renders her nearly
useless for several months. In many cases, the cows die at
once. As a rule, when a cow loses her calf she will never be a
safe breeder afterwards, but will be very likely to have the same
trouble with every calf The disease is not always confined to
the cow first attacked, but frequently spreads through the
whole herd. It is not contagious, but is almost as likely to
spread as any disease with which cows are affected. Conse-
.quently, upon its appearance the greatest care should be used
to prevent its increase. The affected cow should be secluded

620 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

from all the others as soon as there is evidence that she is about
losing her calf. The calf itself, and the after-birth, should be
deeply buried, and the cows should not be allowed to get sight
of them at any time. In the stable in which the sick cow is
confined disinfectants should be freely used. This is verv
important, as it is largely by reason of the foul smell and the
consequent excitement of the cows that the disease is spread.
There are cases, however,. in whicK the disease spreads because
it is due to some general cause to which all the herd are
expcfsed. In such instances, while care should be taken of the
individual cows, the cause of the difficulty must be removed
before the trouble will cease.

After a cow has lost her calf, she should be fed well and care-
fully protected from extremes of temperature. She ought not
to be allowed to have a calf for a long time, and if not an extra
cow had better be fattened at once. When a cow once gets
into the habit of losing her calf, she will not be profitable in
herself and her presence will endanger the whole herd.

The principal causes of abortion are injuries or frights — often
caused by the brutal men or boys who milk and drive the cows,
the use of impure water from stagnant ponds, the presence in
the pastures, or near the yards, of putrefying animal substances,
and the use of hay which is mouldy or which contains
poisonous weeds. Sometimes one of these things, or something
similar, and sometimes two or more of them combined, bring
on an attack. The owners of cows should be careful to avoid
all exciting causes, and do all that they can to prevent the
introduction of this disease.

Choking. — This is an accident to which cattle are liable and
which often causes death in a short time. It is usually caused
by an attempt on the part of the animal to eat roots, fruit, or
vegetables, too fast. When apples are plenty in the pasture the
strong animals frequently drive the weak ones from under the
trees. As they are leaving they seize one or more apples and

CATTLE. 621

run. In their haste they attempt to swallow these apples without
chewing and get choked in their efforts. When roots are fed to
cattle in the yards, or without being cut, there is the .same danger.
All such things should be fed in the mangers, when the cattle
are tied in the stables, and should be cut before being given.

When an animal is choked the very best way with which we
are acquainted is to turn down a pint of sweet oil. The old
fashioned "whale oil," or even lard oil, effects the purpose just
as well, but is not very palatable to the animals. This treatment
will prove effectual in nearly all cases and is the safest, as well
as be.st, of the common remedies. Those stock-owners who
relieve a choked animal by holding up its head and pushing the
obstruction down the throat with a broom-handle ought to be
choked themselves and "relieved" in the same way. W^ith a
good probang the careful operatcy can successfully accomplish
the desired result. If the oil fails and no probang is at hand a
very smooth, flexible stick may be used. But to use a straight
and large stick is barbarous. Some farmers fire a gun under
the animal and say that the fright will cause a sudden spring
and the removal of the offending substance. Others tie up one
fore-foot and make the creature hop around on three feet. There
are various other methods, but the ones described we think will
answer every purpose. Here the old proverb about prevention
being better than cure has a very direct application. Most cases
of choking might have been prevented and the suffering of the
animals and the trouble and loss of their owners all been saved.

Garget. — This is a disease to which cows are subject and
which, as far as milking purposes are concerned, spoils a great
many good animals every year. In moderate cases it is a local
inflammation affecting one or more quarters of the udder. In
severe cases the whole system becomes involved. It is caused
in various ways. Neglect when a cow is drying off is very
likely to produce it. Neglect just before, and for a few days
after, calving is still more certain to induce an attack. When

622 I'ARMJXG FOR PROFIT.

the udder is very much distended, and is hot and feverish, the
cow should be milked even though slie has not dropped her
calf. The udder should be washed, often and thoroughly, with
warm water in which a small quantity of Indian meal has been
stirred. Rubbing is very efficacious. If there are hard bunches
in the udder, and the rubbing and the u.se of the water and the
meal do not reduce them, a liniment composed of equal parts
of tincture of iodine and ammonia may be used in connection
with them. This may be well rubbed in two or three times a
day. Only a little should be used at a time, as a large quantity
would cause a great deal of soreness. This is an excellent
remedy and is also valuable for sprains and rheumatism. If the
colorless tincture of iodine is used, the mixture is excellent for
rheumatism and neuralgia in human subjects. We kno\v of no
other external application wljich, in all respects, is its equal for
these purposes. In addition to the treatment already indicated
the calf should be allowed to run with the cow. Draw part of the
milk so as to keep the calf quite hungry and thus induce him to
suck and "bunt" as much as possible. This is rather hard treat-
ment of the calf, but it need be practiced only a few days and
will do the cow an immense amount of good.

If the inflammation becomes general, a high fever sets in and
shivering fits come on, give five or six ounces of gin, or whiskey,
in three or four quarts of warm water and cover the whole body
with a quilt wrung out of hot water. Over this cover some dr)'-
blankets, which should be tied so as to keep in place, and give
injections of warm water. This ought to induce a profuse per-
spiration. After the cow has sweat for half an hour the
blanket should be removed, the skin rubbed dry, and the animal
then covered with a dry blanket. In order to relieve the local
inflammation a rubber sack, made for the purpose, which will fit
the udder, 3hould be filled with moderately warm water and
fastened with a strap over the back of the cow so that the
udder can be kept constantly wet. When the water becomes

CATTLE. 623

very warm it should be changed. Instead of the water some
writers recommend the use of a poultice, with holes for the
teats, fastened in the same way. Upon the poultice a little bel-
ladonna should be sprinkled in order to relieve the pain. With
this treatment injections of warm water must be used. Some-
times matter forms in the swollen places. This should not be
left to be absorbed into the system and injure, perhaps destroy,
the cow. The sores should be opened with a sharp knife. This
will give relief to the cow and may save her life.

We think that after an attack of this disease, the cow is ever
after predisposed to it whenever she calves. Some old cows
which have had it lightly several times are almost sure to be
attacked at every time they calve, and they are likely to grow
worse each time. It is not best to keep a cow that is subject to
this disease, and a great deal of care should be taken of heifers.
when they are about to calve in order to prevent an attack..
The idea that a cow will give as much milk from three teats as.
she does from four is wholly erroneous, and the men who are:
keeping cows which have lost one-quarter of their udders from
attacks of garget, are suffering a constant loss. The nearer-
perfect a cow is the better, and no owner should allow his cows
to suffer from garget when he can prevent it. Even a slight-
attack involves a direct loss, and a severe one is quite likely to
destroy the usefulness of the cow for milking purposes.

HovEN. — This disease is caused by eating too large a quantity
of green food, especially of clover, at a time. The stomach is
overloaded, indigestion results, rummation is prevented, and' the
food rapidly decomposes. By this change a large quantity of
gas is generated, and in a severe case, if relief is not quickly-
obtained, the animal will die in a short time. With this disease
medicines are useless, unless given in the very first stages. If
attended to at once, the administration of four di-achms of
chloride of lime in a little water may give relief. Or two ounces

of ammonia in a quart of soft water given. every fifteen , minutes .
39

g24 I.IRM/XG rOR rROFIT.

may be tried. Injections of warm water arc also in order, and
cloths wrung out in hot water and applied to the skin may aid
in giving relief. But in case there is no change for the better in
a short time, an opening must be made into the stomach, and
the gas allowed to escape. Veterinarians use an instrument
called a trocar, which consists of a sharp-pointed stilet, and a
sheath. This is the best thing to use, but if one cannot be
obtained soon (for there is not much time to lose in a severe
case of this disease), a sharp-pointed knive will answer the
purpose. The opening must be made on the left side. Mr.
\\'iLL.\RD gives the position as follows: "The place of punc-
ture is in the flank, about three inches below the spinal column,
and mid-way between the last rib and the hip." At this point a
small opening should be made. Into this opening a quill should
be placed, and through this the dangerous gas will soon escape.
.After the gas has been removed, the edges of the wound in the
jskin ought to be fastened together with a stitch of strong silk.

The prevention of this disease is easy and simple. It consists
in never giving animals an opportunity, to gorge themselves
.with succulent food. They should never have a sudden change
of food, but should be gradually brought from hay to grass.
When turned into the " fall feed " (a bad practice, as has been
.indicated, but still a very common one) they should be allowed
to stay only a short time. After feeding for a while they should
.either be turned into the pasture or else shut up in a yard. By
allowing them in the rank grass only an hour in the morning
and the same length of time at night, for the first two or three
days, and gradually extending the time as they become accus-
tomed to the fresh food, the dan-ger of an attack of hoven may be
entirely avoided. It is much better for the cattle, aside from con-
siderations respecting this particular disease, that all changes in
the quality of the food given to them should be gradual, and
particularly that the changes from dry fodder to green grass,
and from short pastures to luxuriant meadows, should be slowly

CA TTLE. 625

effected. Neglect of this precaution has caused the loss of a
multitude of valuable animals, and the serious injury of many
more.

Horn Ail. — ;This is an imaginary disease about which we
used to hear a great deal, and which is still the " standby " of
the ignorant cattle " doctor " when he is called to a case
which he does not at all understand. This name has done
service among these " doctors " for a great while. It has
answered for all complicated forms of disease, as well as for
some simple maladies, and for the results of neglect and poor
keeping. That cattle which have been doctored for " horn ail "
have been sick we do not question, but the idea that the horns
were the seat of disease is wholly without foundation. The
fact that the horns are either cold or hot when an animal is
sick, is not proof that the disease is of a local nature. When a
man has a high fever his feet will be hot, but the doctor who
should say that the feet were diseased, and that in order to
effect a cure they must receive special attention, and that all
remedies which are given should be selected with reference to
their action upon the feet, would be justly considered a quack
or a fool. The whole system is diseased, and if remedies are to
do any good they must affect the whole body. All merely
local efforts to control the disease will be of no benefit, and may
make the matter worse. Now when a horned creature is sick,
and the horns appear to be of an unnatural temperature, it
will be worse than useless to bore holes in them, and stuff in the
remedies which are often recommended. Let the horns alone
and doctor the animal for fever. If the nose is dry, the legs
cold, the breathing short, and the bowels constipated, the horns
will be pretty sure to be hot. The use of wet blankets and
warm water injections as described for garget will usually give
relief, if tried soon enough. If the bowels do not move freely, a
dose of salts (four to six ounces) with a little molasses may be
given. If this does not relieve the patient, send for a competent

626 FARMhXG FOR PROFIT.

veterinarian. There are plenty of other things which the
farmer can do, but he had better not experiment farther.

In typhoid fever there is usually a diarrhoea and great
soreness of the bowels. These cases should be treated by a
veterinarian. But if the farmer wants to experiment he can try
the water treatment above recommended, and give one-fourth
ounce each of Cayenne pepper and ginger in a little oat meal
gruel.

Milk Fever. — This disease carries off many fine cows ever^
year. Many others are seriously injured. We have never
known a cow to do well for a year after an attack, and in many
cases the animal is spoiled for a milker. As a rulo this disease
can be easily prevented. A little care at the right time will be
very sure to keep it off. If it appears it should be treated at
once. Violent cases must be helped very soon or not at al).
Mild cases, if neglected, often become unmanageable in tvvo or
three days.

The causes of this disease are various. Cows which are very
fleshy, or which have been kept high for a few weeks before
calving, are more likely to be attacked than those which are
thin in flesh and which have not recently been fed with meal or
allowed to run in luxuriant pastures. A cow that is suffering
from costiveness is also liable to have an attack. But we think
that nine cases out of ten which occur in farm-yards are the
result of undue exposure. As a rule farmers do not realize the
great disturbance to the system of the cow caused by calving,
and have no idea that for a {^.w days afterwards she is in a
condition which makes her peculiarly susceptible to attacks of
disease. Our own knowledge upon this subject was gained at
considerable expense, and we came ver\' near losing a valuable
cow by carelessness when we thought all danger was passed.

Many farmers allow their cows to calve in the barn-yard in
which there is an abundance of water. In the winter this w^ater
is ice-cold. The cow is always feverish at this time, and, of

CA TTLE. 627

course, quite thirsty. There is nothing to keep her from drinking
all the water she wants. She does drink, and thereby renders
herself very liable to a violent attack of milk fever. Many cows
are turned into wet yards. When the weather is cold this is a
great exposure. Even in warm weather it involves considerable
risk. Sometimes the cow is cared for a day or two and is then
turned into the yard, in all sorts of weather, to fare the same as
the rest of the herd. Exposure to a storm at such a time may
prove fatal. It is true that many cows treated in this way
escape the fever, and that many have it lightly. But a great
many die very soon, and those which recover are injured for one
season certainly and perhaps for life. The disease is dangerous
and should be prevented whenever prevention is possible.

Prof. Law gives the symptoms of this disease as follows :
" Dulnsss, languor, uneasy movements of the hind limbs, a full,
bounding pulse red eyes, hot head and horns ; soon the cow
becomes weak on its hmbs, unable to rise, lays the head back
on the flank or dashes it on the ground, breaking the horns if
the surface is hard, and struggles convulsively with its limbs."
These are the indication of the disease in its first stage. There
is another form in which " the heat of the head, delirium, and
violence may be almost entirely wanting, the prominent symp-
toms being the fever, accelerated pulse and breathing, elevated
temperature, loss of power over the limbs, paralysis of sensation,
inappetence, torpor of bowels and bladder. Both forms of this
disease are exceeding fatal, almost all attacked within two days
after calving perishing, and a large proportion of those taken ill
during the first week."

The treatment of this disease is to be commenced as soon as
possible. When the verj' first symptoms appear, if violent, send
at once for a good veterinarian. If the attack is mild, give the
cow eight ounces of salts with half an ounce of Cayenne pepper,
give warm water injections, and use wet blankets. If no
veterinarian or physician can be had, and it is absolutely neces-
sary for the farmer to treat a bad case, and he has none of the

g28 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

Ho.MCEOPATHic remedies put up ready for use, he may try the
following course recommended for such cases by Prof. Law :
" If the animal is seen before it goes down, bleed four or six
quarts from the jugular, but never after the pulse has lost its
fulness and hardness ; apply ice-cold water, bags of ice or a
solution of an ounce each of nitre and sal-ammonia in a quart
of water to the head round the base of the horns, give a power-
ful purgative (two pounds Epsom salts, one-half ounce car-
bonate of ammonia, one-half drachm nux vomica) ; apply friction
to the limbs, draw the milk off at frequent intervals, and repeat
the ammonia and nux vomica every four hours. The nux
vomica may be replaced by strychnia, one grain with two or
three drops of vinegar in a teaspoonful of water and injected
under the skin twice with four hours interval, or ergot of rye
may be used instead. The fever may often be materially
reduced by enveloping the whole body in a sheet wrung out of
cold water, and covering up with one or several dry ones
according to the season. In the second or torpid form of the
disorder there is often no call for cold applications to the head,
while purgatives and nux vomica are especially demanded."

In leaving this subject we cannot do better than to again urge
the importance of preventive measures for keeping off disease,
and of good care for keeping domestic animals thrifty and
making them profitable. The farmer who is careless with his
animals thereby takes away all opportunity for making them
profitable, and runs the risk of frequent and heavy losses by
means of disease. Cattle that are strong and vigorous can resist
depressing influences which would completely prostrate those
which are poor and weak. Young cattle should be fed in such
a manner as to keep them constantly growing, and those which

f

are mature should be kept well and strong. There is no
branch of farm business in which care and skill are better in-
vested than in the live-stock department. Neither is there one
in which neglect and ignorance are more severely punished.

THE DAIRY. 632

THE ©iilHir,

lURING the past twenty years the dairy business has been
rapidly increasing in extent. Year by year its propor-
^ tions have been enlarged until it has become an interest
of great national importance. Not only is it a business
in which the country has an interest, but it is also one in which
the individual farmer holds a share. Almost every farmer, even
the one who finds " five acres too much " land for him to cul-
tivate, keeps a cow, and herds of considerable size are very com-
mon in all sections of the country except the extreme South.
This is a line of business which can be managed profitably on
either a large or a small scale. The man who keeps only one
cow can make her pay him well for all the care and cost of her
keeping, while the one who has twenty cows can secure a large
profit from the sale of dairy products. The business can be
gradually enlarged or contracted without the great expense or
the heavy loss which usually follows such changes in other
lines of work. It is a very safe business, and one in which care
and skill will be likely to find a prompt and liberal reward.
The products of the dairy are standard articles throughout the
civilized world and will always be in demand.

Just now prices are depressed, and many farmers and dairy-
men are feeling somewhat discouraged, and are inclined to give
up, in a measure at least, this branch of their business. New
England dairymen, too, have found strong and unexpected
competition in an unlooked-for quarter. The West, which used
to send a great deal of " grease " to the New York market, has
been rapidly improving the quality of its dairy products, and the
East now finds that its competitor is making some of the finest
butter in the world. At the South, too, there is an increased
interest in the business of keeping cows, nice butter is being
made, and more dairy products will come from this section than
ever before. These facts tend to discourage many farmers who

632 FARMING FOR FRO FIT.

make butter and cheese for the market. But they should not
be alarmed. The fact that prices fluctuate is evident, but fluc-
tuation is to be expected in this, and every other, line of busi-
ness. When business is dull, and almost all kinds of ijoods sell
for low prices, it is perfectly natural that dairy products shall, to
some extent, share in the prevailing depression.

But there is no danger that these standard articles of food will
long be sold for prices which will not pay the producer. We
have a large foreign trade already, and it can be made a great
deal larger. And, if a good article of butter can be made for a
low price, the rate of home consumption will be doubled in a
very few years, while the demand for an extra quality will
probably increase in a still larger proportion. This demand,
too, will be for butter at prices for which it can be profitably
made and sold. By following the best methods the farmer can
manufacture good butter and sell it for a lower price than he
has thought possible. That fair grades of butter will find a
ready market in very much larger quantities than they have yet
been offered may be considered as beyond all question. The
farmer or dairyman who can make good butter for a moderate
price can sell, in his nearest city market, for cash. From statis-
tics published in the Cincinnati Commercial it appears that
there are a multitude of people in that city who do not use
butter at all because, and only because, they cannot afford it.
The writer of the article in which the figures were given went
so far as to say that " ver>' nearly, then, one in three of our citi-
zens never tastes butter, an article of food generally regarded as
a necessity of life, and one from which few. if any, would abstain
except on account of pecuniary considerations." This will be
generally considered an extreme view, but, after making all due
allowances, the fact will remain that even in such a prosperous
city as Cincinn.\ti there are many thousands of people who
cannot afford butter at present prices. In other cities the same
state of things exists. Make the butter a little cheaper and

THE DAIRY. 633

many who do not buy now will be able to purchase. Or, make
the butter a little better and sell it for the same price, and many
Avho do not now buy because they cannot pay the prices for
fancy butter and will do without rather than eat the poor grades
will become buyers. There is no doubt that good butter
can be sold, both in this country and abroad, in immense quan-
tities. And we are confident that it can be sold at paying
prices. The methods to be pursued in order to secure this very
desirable result will be duly considered. Butter has been speci-
fied, but the same principles apply to the production and sale
of the other dairy products, milk and cheese. Furnish pure
milk at a moderate price and an immense quantity can be sold
in all our city markets, and a largely increased demand will
come from villages and large towns. Supply a good quality of
cheese at a reasonably low price, and the great foreign demand,
the calls of our cities, and wants of village and town consumers
will require a largely increased rate of production.

Let no one say that prices are already so low that there is no
profit in any of these lines of business. The improved methods
of the present day make it possible for farmers to furnish these
articles much cheaper than they could in the old times. Yet,
even then, when prices were far below the present average and
the cost of production much in excess of that of these days, far-
mers obtained a fair profit from this department of their work.
Besides, low prices arc not greatly to be feared. Political econ-
omists assert, and the history of the civilized world proves them
correct, that moderately low prices mark the periods of steady
and uniform prosperity, while inflated prices mean a temporary
good to be quickly followed by a long period of depression.

In order to furnish the products of the dair\' at prices which
will insure their ready sale and still leave a margin for profit it
will be necessary to commence at the very beginning. Here is
where the great majority of farmers, and a large number of
dairymen, have failed. They have been building on a poor

634 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

foundation, and all their efforts in the line of improvement have
been directed to the superstructure. Consequently, these efforts
have not been as successful as they should have been, and many
parties have become discouraged. But here, as elsewhere, and
everywhere, it is unprofitable to build upon an unstable founda-
tion. A man must reap according to his sowing. He can have
wheat or weeds just as he chooses. But if he wants wheat he
must sow the seed and take care of the plants. If he docs not
furnish any wheat for sowing he cannot reasonably expect any
wheat at harvest time. If he sows only half enough wheat, and
allows half the land to grow up to weeds, he cannot look for a
large and valuable crop of grain.

Now apply the same principle to the dairy business and we
have a " good and sufficient " reason why there is so much com-
plaint that dairying is unprofitable. The farmers and dairymen
are keeping too many poor cows. Take an average farmer for
illustration. If he has ten cows he will probably say that there
are two or three in the herd which are very much better than
any of the others. .Also that there are two or three which fall
considerably below the average, and that the medium ones are
pretty fair cows. Now look at this statement in a business point
of view. Out of a herd of ten cows there are two or three which
pay a large profit, two or three involve an actual loss, and from
four to six which pay their way but are not very profitable. The
gain on the two or three extra ones is used to \x^\ the loss on
the two or three poor ones, and the middle class yield only a
very .small profit. It is not surprising that the dairy business
docs not yield very large returns when such a foundation is laid.
Ten cows like the best ones would yield a large profit. It is
from the best ones in a herd that the profits, if any are received,
invariably come. But too often these profits must be used to
make up the deficiency of the poorer cows. In such herds,
and there are multitudes of them, the first thing to be done
to put the dairy business on a good basis is to obtain some

THE DAIRY. 535

better cows to take the places now occupied by the poor and
medium ones.

Here the farmer will say that it is very difficult to buy good
cows, and that if he could find plenty of them he could not afford
to pay the prices at which they are held. It is true that first-
class cows are not very plenty, but they are not so extremely
scarce as many people imagine. In regard to the ability of the
farmer to buy a good cow rather than a poor one there seems
to be a great deal of erroneous judgment. The average farmer
has no hesitation when the same principles are involved in buy-
ing land. He can see clearly enough then. If one field which
will barely produce crops of sufficient value to pay the taxes,
interest, and labor, which expenses must be met, is offered for
twenty dollars an acre, and another capable of yielding large
crops which will a great deal more than pay these expenses is
offered for forty dollars an acre, he thinks it is the part of wis-
dom to purchase the best field. In this case he not only con-
siders the relative cost of the land, but also its relative rate of
production. The same principle should govern in the purchase
of a cow. A twenty-dollar cow may just pay her way, while a
fifty-dollar cow may yield a large profit. This is not always the
case, it is true, and it must not be taken for granted that A high-
priced cow is certainly a good one and will pay a large percent-
age of profit. But it is a settled principle that a good cow at a
certain price is more profitable than a poor one which can be
obtained for half the money.

But we do not advocate extensive and costly changes, all to
be brought about at once, but a gradual improvement of the
productive qualities of the herd. The poorer cows had better
be fattened and sold for beef Even though the owner does not
feel able to buy any better ones he had better sell these. This
may not leave him as many cows as he wants to keep, but he
had better keep less than he wants than to have some which do
not pay their way. Take out the three poorest cows from a

636 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

herd often, and the seven which arc left will tiot make as much
butter as they all did, but they will yield a much larger profit.
The farmer cannot afford to keep animals which do no more
than barely pay the cost of their keeping. He had better .sell
his hay and grain and buy commercial or other fertilizers than
to do this. It is still better that he should sell his unprofitable
cows, and, if he cannot afford to buy good ones, fill his stables
or pastures with steers to be converted into beef. A great many
herds which are owned by good dairj'men need this same pro-
cess of weeding out the poor stock.

Before any changes are made the owner should carefully test
each and every one of his cows in order to determine accurately
which ones pay him the best. Too many farmers wholly
neglect this common-sense requirement, and form their judg-
ment of the actual and relative merits of their cows wholly by
"guess." They are, in this way, very likely to make mistakes,
and they often sell cows which they afterwards wish they had
kept. We have known a man to sell the best cow from his
herd when he thought, and told the buyer, that he was
disposing of one of the second-class.

Some cows which give a great deal of milk are supposed to
be verv profitable, while others which give less milk are thought
to be much inferior. But the milk of the one giving a large
quantity is watery and poor, while that of the other cow is rich.
In such cases, unless the owner sells milk, the cow giving the
smallest quantity is really the best. There are some cows which
give but little milk, and, because they give so little, their owners
assume that the quality is so fine that the cows arc valuable,
when a careful test would prove that the milk was poor instead
of rich, and that the cows cannot pay for their keeping. There
is no way of " guessing " with any degree of accuracy about
the value of cows, and a " guess," even by the shrewdest
observer, is often very far from the truth.

At one time a great deal of confidence was placed in an

THE DAIRY. ^37

• instrument called a lactometer, but of late this has been proved
unreliable. The only sure way of determining either the absolute
or the relative value of the cows in the dairy is to keep the milk
of each one by itself for a certain length of time, churn the
cream separately, and compare the products. Even then allow-
ance must be made for those which have been longest in milk
since calving, but this seems to be the nearest to a perfect test
of any which can be devised.

But though extremely valuable, the test of productive
capacity cannot He called complete, and cannot alone fully
settle the question which is the best paying cow in a given herd.
The cost of keeping must also be considered. This is often
overlooked. The farmer says that he feeds his cows alike, and,
therefore, it must cost about the same to keep one that it does
to keep another. But the manner of feeding on the average
farm is not very accurate, and one cow may eat a third more
hay than the one standing next to her, and yet the owner think
that he feeds them pretty nearly the same amount. If a cow is
very "hearty," the owner usually puts more hay into her
manger than he does into the manger of one which does not
have so good an appetite. He does it as a matter of course, and
thinks but little about it. The one which eats the most hay
may give the most milk, and yet not pay as well as the other
because she may not give as much milk in proportion to the
food consumed.

Prof. Arnold has done a good thing in calling the attention
of farmers and dairymen to this fact. This argument is mainly
directed to the proof that small cows are more profitable than
large ones, and he conclusively shows that it is very expen-
sive keeping large cows for milk when small ones will answer
the same purpoee. The difference in the cost of keeping two
cows, one of which weighs twelve hundred and the other eight
hundred pounds, he places at ten dollars and twent>'-two cents
per year. This is probably below rather than above the average

638 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

cost. Whether the large cow will give enough milk in excess -
of what the small one will produce to make up for this extra
cost of keeping is one of the points upon which the question
whether the large or the small cow is the most profitable must
turn. If both cows give milk of equally good quality it is the
point which must govern the decision. Prof. Arnold has
given some illustrations of this principle in a description of three
herds of cows which he has examined. In one herd of large
cows, estimated to weigh twelve hundred pounds each, the
annual yield of butter per cow was three huadred and fourteen
and a half pounds. Another herd of native cows, estimated
weight ten hundred and fifty pounds each, gave an annual yield
of three hundred and two pounds of butter for each cow.
Another herd of twenty-five small cows, Jerseys and their
grades, the live-weight estimated at seven hundred and eighty
pounds each, gave an average product of two hundred and
thirty-four and a half pounds of butter in a year. The herd last
named produced but a small quantity of butter when com-
pared with the others, and most farmers would say, and very
naturally, that the yield was too small to be profitable. But
Prof. Arnold shows that it was the best paying herd of the
three. The small cows produced three-tenths of their weight
in butter, while the others fell considerably below this standard.
As "the consumption of food is in proportion to live-weight,"
it is plain that the smallest cows were more profit:\ble than the
larger ones, and that the owners of the large ones were obliged
to support much more live-weight than was either necessary or
desirable.

The test of cows, and their selection when bought, should be
governed strictly by considerations affecting their dairy quali-
ties, and without regard to their use for beef after age has
impaired their productive powers. A good cow ought to be
milked ten or twelve years, and it is not wise to make a great
deal of calculation on extra value for beef at the expiration of

THE DAIRY. ggg

that length of time. The extra value of a large cow over a
small one for beef would not pay the extra cost of keeping
three years, and it is plain that in the long term which the dairy
cow ought to serve, the cost of keeping would be very much in
excess of the value of the extra quantity of beef obtained.

While it is an object for farmers to keep small cows in order
to reduce to the lov/est figure the expenses of maintaining them,
it is very important that the cows should be healthy and
vigorous, and possess strong digestive powers. The object in
view is not to obtain animals which will live on the smallest
possible quantity of food, but to secure those which will make
the most profitable use of the food consumed. Dainty animals,
which eat but little, and want that to be of the best possible
quality, are not to be recommended. No animal can be pro-
ductive without using considerable food. The good cow will
usually eat heartily. The more she can eat, thoroughly digest,
and economically use, the better. Good digestive powers are
among the principal requisites of a really profitable dairy cow.
Any animal that does not digest its food well cannot use that
food to good advantage. It makes little difference whether
the quantity is large or small, much of the food will be wasted,
and the animal will be unprofitable.

As has already been intimated, it is one thing to decide what
style of cows are wanted on the farm, and quite another and a
much more difficult one to obtain a sufficient number of those
which will prove satisfactory. That the average cow is very far
below the proper standard of excellence no one will deny. That
better cows should be secured, if possible, is equally evident. To
fully effect the desired improvement will take some time, but it
can and should be accomplished. The best method has already
been partially indicated. Beginning with the best cows which
he has, or is able to obtain, let the farmer raise his own calves
and grow them into cows. Ju.t as long as he depends upon the
drovers for his cows, just so long will he have an inferior herd.

g40 J-ARMIXG FOR PROFIT.

If he is selling milk, let him obtain, either alone or in company
with his neighbors, a good Ayrshire or Holstein bull. If he
is making gilt-edge butter, a good Jersey bull should be
secured. By careful breeding, in the manner already described,
good cows, adapted to the special purpose for which they are
wanted, can be obtained. Heifer calves should be raised which
come from the best milking stock, but none from inferior cows,
even though of good parentage on the other side, should be kept
unless with the design of converting them into beef, if they do
not seem especially promising after having the first calf A cow
from really good milking stock which does not do remarkably
well the first season, should have a longer trial, as there is, in
many cases, a great improvement during the second and third
years. After a fair trial, any cow which is found wanting in
good dairy qualities should be fitted for and sold to the butcher.
Feeding Cows. — While there can be no success with poor
cows, there is an equal impossibility in making the dairy
business profitable, when the cows are poorly fed. Careful
feeding will not make a poor cow equal to a good one which has
an equal chance, but it will cover many deficiencies, and will
give a degree of success with cows of moderate merit which
cannot be obtained with extra ones when this is neglected. If
the cows are good, the rate of production will depend very
closely upon the quantity and quality of food which they
receive. The best cow in the world cannot extract a great
amount of richness from bushes or from swale hay. She may
have plenty of food of either of these descriptions, or a mixture
of both, but she cannot give a large quantity of milk, and the
quality of what she does produce will be similar to that of the
food from which it was made. While some cows will convert
the same kind of food into milk from which much nicer butter
can be obtained than can be made from that of other cows, it is
still true that the quality of the milk will be very greatly affected
by the quality of the food and water which the cow receives.

TJiE DAIRY. 641

At all times the food of the dairy cow should be sweet and
clean. It should be rich in quality, and liberal in quantity.
When the grass is fresh and abundant in the pastures, it will
hardly pay to feed grain of any kind. It is true that the use of
grain will largely increase the flow of milk and the quantity of
butter, but we do not believe it is best to force production to
so great an extreme. Many dairymen feed meal during the
summer, and it may pay in those cases in which the pastures
are very poor. In other cases we think it must prove injurious
to the cows. The present gain of such a course will be more
than offset by a loss in the future. Cows which are crowded too
hard give out much sooner than those of which too much is
not required. With the highest feed, and crowded to the
utmost limit, a cow will begin to fail at a time when she ought
to be in her prime. When a cow reaches the age of nine or ten
years, she will endure high feeding much better than she could
have done earlier in life. But all crowding and forcing in early
life must be very injurious. That it may pay, under certain cir-
cumstances, to crowd cows hard, and then fatten them when
they are seven or eight years old, we do not deny. We know
a man who keeps his cows only two or three years. He buys
those which are matured, but which have never been fed very
well, crowds them up to the highest possible rate of production,
uses them up for milk in a short time, then sells them and buys
a new lot. He thinks it pays him to follow this method. In
some cases it may pay, but for the average farmer we consider
it a poor policy. The cows must be well kept, but they need
not be spoiled by over-feeding.

In connection with this matter of feeding, the importance of

good health of the cows is very evident. The milk of the cow

is made either from her food or her flesh. The latter is not

admissible as a source of supply, as the cow would grow poor

very rapidly and decrease in value. From the food and water

alone the milk should be made. If the cow has strong diges-
40

642 FARMING FOR PRO FIT.

tive powers, she will obtain much more material for milk from a
certain quality and quantity of food than she can if her health is
poor and her powers of digestion are weak. But even here is
where many farmers incur a loss. They have strong, heart)'
cows which eat whatever is placed before them, and no effort is
made to lighten the work of digestion. Cows fed in this
manner cannot do their best. All the vital force expended in
the work of digestion is a direct loss to the work of production.
The man who prepares the food of his cows so that it can be
easily digested thereby secures from them a larger quantity of
milk than could be obtained from the same amount of food if
offered in its unprepared state.

Many farmers keep their cows wholly upon hay, and they
think that if the hay is good they are feeding very well.
Others mix some straw with the hay, and think that such food
is plenty good enough. But a cow cannot digest hay very
readily. She certainly cannot digest enough to make a large
quantity of milk. As for straw, Prof. Arnold has well said, if
rows " give milk when eating straw, they draw much upon their
own resources and little on the straw." Grass is much more
easily digested than hay, and in this fact we have a partial expla-
.nation why cows do so much better in summer than they do
when kept on nothing but hay in the winter. In the summer
they have plenty of food and digest it all, while in the winter there
may be food enough in quantity, but much of it is indigestible.
The difference in temperature also exerts quite an influence, but
.in warm stables it does not account for all the falling off in
production, which is noticed when only hay is fed. We do not
think that either farmers or dairymen can afford to feed their
.cows with dry hay alone.

No domestic animal does its best with any one kind of food.
The more indigestible matter the food contains the greater will
be the evil of giving only a single kind. We believe in feeding
cows well, in giving them a variety of easily digested food, and

THE DAIRY. 643

in protecting them from cold and storms. Wc have already
explained why it costs more to keep animals which are unduly
exposed to the weather than it does those which are* protected.
In the case of cows giving milk there is a still farther loss, as
" the secretions are always disturbed by ir.fluences that cause
pain or uneasiness, and every shiver of a half-frozen cow will
make itself visible in the milk-pail." The cold not only com-
pels the cow to eat a larger quantity of food, or, if this is not
supplied, to use an undue proportion of what she does receive
for keeping up the animal heat, but it also directly reduces the
quantity of milk which under more favorable circumstances
might be formed.

Not only is the theory advanced very plausible, but it is
proved by a multitude of facts to be correct. Wherever a cow
is found which yields large returns, it may be confidently
asserted that good food and careful attention are regularly
given. Such care and feeding /«r, and when farmers are careful
to give them, they will find their dairy business much more
profitable than it has been in the past.

In the early part of summer a little bright hay may be given
in connection with good pasturage, and a little meal may be
added if the pastures are poor. When the freshness of the
grass has been impaired, and the quantity diminished, the free
use of fodder-corn, millet, or some similar substance, should not
be omitted. As soon as the quality of the grass has been
injured by the early autumn frosts, hay should be given at the
barn. For winter food, good hay, corn-stalks, Indian meal,
shorts, cotton-seed meal in small quantities (two or three
pounds per day), and roots, will answer every purpose. There
should be no sudden changes in the quality of the food, but
cows like a variety of articles, and will give more milk if fed in
this way than they will if only one or two things are supplied.

Cooking Food. — Whether it pays to cook food for cows is a
question upon which there is a great difference of opinion.

644 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

Prof. E. W. Stewart is a strong advocate of the plan. Ho is
an authority upon dairy matters, and his extensive and careful
experiments in this particular department of the business entitle
Ills opinions to a high degree of respect. He believes that
" half hay and half straw, mixed and steamed, more than equals
hay unsteamed. When cows are kept in milk through the
winter, cooking their food will greatly increase the yield of
milk." He estimates the saving of food per cow for the season
to be eight dollars. This is a very favorable showing, and many
other parties who have followed the same course have been
highly pleased with the results. The theory is that the food
which has been steamed is more easily digested than it other-
wise could have been, and also that much of the food which in
its natural state would not have been digested at all is, by this
process, made available.

But, on the other hand, many intelligent farmers have tried
the plan of cooking food for cattle and found it, as they thought,
unprofitable. In the Scientific Farmer for December, 1877,
an article appeared upon this subject and a comment by the
editor. The writer oi the article said : " One after another of
the advocates, or at least those who make trials of steaming
food for cattle, give it up. I doubt not that one can now find
more apparatus out of use and rubbish than can be found in use.
. . . Among those who have abando^jed cooking, I observe
from an article in the Country Gentleman, is Mr. I. W. Webb,
near New Haven. He formerly cut and steamed fodder corn
in mixture with maize meal, but now serves the uncut fodder by
itself, and finds that his cows relish it well and eat it as clean as
they would hay. The meal is given separately, but regularly.
I oould name a dozen persons who have accepted in theory, then
in practice, this cooking notion, and who have now rejected it in
practice." To this, the editor. Dr. Sturtevant, whose labors
in the interest of profitable farming have been of immense value
to the country, appends the following note: "On Waushakum

THE DAIRY. g^g

Farm steaming of food has been on trial; and many tons of hay
and of corn stover have been cut, at times into quarter, or one-half

inches, or two inch lengths ; this sprinkled with various meals

sometimes one, sometimes another — and the whole steamed.
The cows relished the food well. Little or no food was wasted ;
but in recent years we have been feeding our cows after the
manner described by Mr. Webb ; and we think the cows like it
as well ; certainly we do."

As far as theory goes it is strongly in favor of cooking food
for cows, but, as already indicated, the practice of able and care-
ful men, and their deductions from that practice, differ widely.
We have endeavored fairly to set forth the opinions held by each
class. For ourselves we think cooking food must be advan-
tageous. It will involve considerable expense, but on large
farms the apparatus would be valuable for other purposes, and
thus greatly reduce the cost of preparing the food.

For small farms we do not think elaborate methods would be
found profitable. The fodder would be improved in quality, and
less would be wasted than with the ordinary system, but the
cost would be too high. For such farms a partial adoption of
the system is to be recommended for trial. Cut the hay and
then throw on boiling water, sprinkle upon it a quantity of meal,
mix well together, and feed as soon as it is cool. We have tried
this method and like it very much. It is to be especially recom-
mended when a low quality of hay is used and when straw must
be fed. By using a half hogshead with a close fitting cover and
allowing the hay to remain covered for a few minutes after the
water is applied, some of the advantages of steaming may be
obtained. The hay will be softened, it will be more easily
digested, and cattle will like it better than they will if fed in the
ordinary manner. This plan involves some work, but we be-
lieve that farmers who keep only a few cows can make it pay
them well.

Pure Water is almost as essential to the health and comfort

g46 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

of COWS and the success of their owner in the dairy business as
good food. A cow that is obliged to drink impure water, or is
kept on a short supply of that which is good, cannot give as
ir.uch, or as good, milk as she could if she was properly watered.
It has been proved that impure water injures the milk, often
imparting to it poisonous qualities, and renders cows liable to
various diseases. An insufficient quantity of water makes the
production of a large quantity of milk impossible. Experiment
has proved that cows which are well fed but which have but
little water to drink give only a little milk. In one instance,
cows which were kept well with the exception of having only
a small quantity of water gave from nine to twelve quarts of
milk per day, but immediately increased the quantity to from
twelve to fourteen quarts per day when their food was thor-
oughly moistened and they had all the water they could drink.
The quality of the milk produced after the water was given was
found, by analysis, to be yery good, and a fine quality of butter
was made from the cream.

In many farm-yards the cows have water enough at some
times and suffer severely for want of it at others. When the
weather is fine they are out during the day and can drink as
often as they choose. But in stormy days in winter they have
only one opportunity to drink. They are then put in the stable
"and kept there until the next day. They become very thirsty,
and, when they get to the tub, they drink a large quantity of
water. This water is very cold, and not only chills the cow, but
its excessive quantity injures the digestive organs and lays the
foundation for, if it does not at once produce, serious disease.
While plenty of water ought always to be supplied, it should be
given so often that it can produce no injurious effect.

During the summer most of the cows are well supplied with
water as far as quantity is concerned, but tiie quality is often
poor. Drinking from stagnant ponds is very injurious to the
cows, injures the quality of their milk, and often carries disease

THE DAIRY. 647

and death to the people who use it. This is especially true
when there is a drought. Then the water is partly evaporated,
and the air is tainted by the poisons contained in the mud with
which the edges of the pond are lined. A clear spring, or a
good well, should be found in every pasture.

Kind Treatment. — While all animals ought to be kindly
treated, there are but few which repay kindness better than the
cow. While kindness tends to increase the rate of production
of milk, bad treatment as strongly tends to reduce it. The man
who ill treats his cows not only does wrong, but he thereby
involves himself in a direct and unnecessary loss. At all times
cows should be treated kindly and gently. No whipping or
pounding should be allowed in the yard or elsewhere. Dogs
should never be allowed to chase or worry the cows, and if the
boys try to run them to and from the pasture they should be
convinced that, for themselves at least, such a course is neither
wise nor profitable. The milking should be done quietly and
gently. If the cow is bad-tempered she should be put into the
stable at milking, time and one forward foot strapped up or else
both hind legs fastened together. Most cows will be quiet if
they are always well treated. Some are very "high-strung"
and resent an injury at once, but if treated well they will seldom
make any trouble. A few cows are really ugly and ought not
to be kept either for breeding purposes or for milk. But there
are very few cows which are troublesome which have not been
made so by bad treatment at some time in their lives. A heifer
that is frightened, whipped, and abused, will be very likely to
become a troublesome cow. But kind treatment in her early
days might make her gentle just as easily as bad treatment
makes her vicious.

Many cows are made ill-tempered by being badly treated
when they have sore teats. It is not at all natural for a cow to
stand still and allow a man to hurt her severely. If a man tries
to milk her and in the effort causes her much pain, she will try

648 FARMIXG i'OR PKOriT.

to get away from liim. For this she should not be blamed
Instead of following her around the yard two or three times,
talking loudly and pounding her with the stool, the milker
should be gentle and cause her as little trouble as possible.
After milking, some ointment, made of one ounoe each of sper-
maceti and almond oil melted together, should be applied to
the sores. Pkof. Law recommends this for mild cases. For
severer ones add five grains of balsam of Tolu. "Or, a solution
of five grains of sugar of lead, or chloral-hydrate, and one-half
ounce each of glycerine and water. But no plan will succeed
without gentle milking, with ^xy teats, especially in winter or
in bad cases without the use of a milking tube." Something of
this kind should be used at once, as neglected sores, even though
very slight at first, sometimes prove a permanent and very
serious injury to the health of the cow.

The Milk should be drawn regularly, quietly and rapidly.
Cows which are milked at certain hours each day yield a larger
quantity than they could if there was no particular time for
doing the work. No loud talking should be indulged in while
milking, and the work should be done as rapidly as possible.
A slow milker will get a cow into bad habits about being milked
and will tend strongly to dry her off It is very important that
the work should be done thoroughly. The milk which is ob-
tained last is much the richest and best which the cow can give.
Besides, if milk is left in the udder it tends to reduce the quan-
tity secreted, and, being absorbed. into the system, proves injuri-
ous to the health of the cow.

During the operation of milking the greatest care .should be
used to secure perfect cleanliness. This is one of the great
essentials. If neglected, pure milk cannot, by any possibility, be
secured, and from the milk which is obtained a nice quality of
butter or cheese cannot be made. As an aid in keeping the
milk pure the pail illustrated by Figure loi is of great value.
This pail is made by the D.mkv Suppi.v Co., of New York cit>',

THE DAIRY. (349

rnd is a stool, pail and strainer combined. By the use of this
pail the milk is strained as it is drawn, all dirt is excluded, and
the milk is "quickly and perfectly placed beyond the reach of
the foul odor of the stable."

As soon as the milk is drawn it should be taken to the house.
A pail of milk left standing in a stable will, in a {<t\\ minutes, be
tainted by the impurities which it wih absorb from the air and
can never be made perfectly sweet again. The stables should be
clean and well ventilated. If these essentials are neglected the
milk may be injured before the pails are filled. But the cleanest
stable is no place for keeping the milk after it has been drawn.

Within a few years there has been a great deal written about
the "animal odor" of milk, and various methods for getting rid
of it have been proposed. As
Mr, Hardin, of Kentucky, has
v/ell said, these v.'riters "start
out with the idea that milk is
naturally full of vileness that
must in some manner be gotten
rid of" Now it seems plain that
such an idea must be wrong. ftg. 101.— the perfect mtlk-pah,.
Milk from a healthy cow is a pure article and is one of the most
perfect kinds of food, both for children and adults, in the world.
That it will in time decay is true. But this proves nothing con-
cerning its original condition. All other animal substances,
when separated from the body which gave them vitality, soon
perish.

We think the milk is well enough when first drawn, and that
if kept in its original purity it will remain good for a consider-
able length of time. This, however, is on the supposition that
the cow is well and that the milk has not been tainted before
being drawn. It is possible for the milk to be spoiled by impure
water which the cow has drank, and by bad odors in the pas>
ture in which she feeds. The latter may, to some of our

650 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

readers, seem almost incredible, but it has been proved many
times and beyond all possible doubt. The putrefying remains
of an unburied calf have caused an odor which has spoiled the
milk of the cows kept in the vicinity. On this account, and also
in order to prevent disease among men and animals, all dead
bodies should be deeply buried.

The cause of the rapid change which milk undergoes in hot
weather should be briefly considered. It is the generally re-
ceived opinion that all decay is caused by the development and
growth of living organisms. These fungi belong to the vegeta-
ble kingdom and are so minute that they can only be discovered
by the aid of the microscope. Prof. Caldwell, in giving the
opinion held by scientific men upon this subject, says that "the
dust of the atmospliere, as well as all fermenting or putrefying
matter, contains cither the germs of the microscopic fungi, or
the fungi themselves in one stage of development or another ;
that these germs fall on all substances exposed to the air, and that
if the substance so exposed is one that can nourish their further
development, they will vegetate and increase, and in so doing
cause the substance itself to decompose — that these fungi, like
all others, and like all plants, require moisture and a moderately
elevated temperature for their growth, as well as food for their
sustenance — are killed by exposure to a temperature of two
hundred and twelve degrees, Fahrenheit, and that they live at
the expense of a portion of the substance in which they grow,
while the rest is decomposed, that is, fermented or putrefied,
with the final result of the breaking down of the whole struc-
ture." If we consider the milk as it comes from the cow to be
perfectly pure, and subject to the same conditions as all other
organic substances which have no life in themselves, we shall
see why, even with the greatest care, the best of milk goes
through various changes, becomes sour, and is finally spoiled.
If we also keep in mind the facts presented concerning the pres-
ence of the germs of microscopic fungi in the air and the rapid-

THE DAIRY. g51

ity of their growth and development when they have "moisture
and a moderately elevated temperature," and remember that
milk has very strong absorbent powers, we shall readily under-
stand why milk that has been exposed to the air, and especially
to the impure air and foul odors of an unventilated stable, goes
so quickly through the changes incident to decay and also why
milk keeps sweet so much longer in cold weather than it does
in summer.

Various expedients have been devised for keeping milk sweet
and pure. The first thing to be done is to see that the pastures
and yards are kept free from all bad odors ; the second to use
the utmost care while milking, to keep all dust and dirt from
entering the pails ; the third to remove the milk from the
stables as soon as it is drawn ; and fourth to take care of it
after it is carried to the house. These are all very simple
things, but if any one of them is neglected, the milk will cer-
tainly be injured, and may be spoiled.

If the milk is to be carried off and sold, it should be cooled
before being transported. This will prevent the rapid separa-
tion of the cream and milk, and also prevent the destruction of
the globules by the agitation which it receives. The same
process is to be recommended in case the milk is to be taken to
a factory. The cooling is to be effected by placing the milk in
a can, and the can in a larger vessel containing cold water or
ice. Whether the can containing the milk should be open or
closed during this operation is a question upon which there is
much controvL ,y. If the milk has received no bad taint, we
think closed vessels should be used. If the milk is already
tainted, and the air is reasonably pure, open cans may be the
best. But if the air is impure, and the milk is exposed to its
action, this exposure will add to, rather than subtract from, the
existing evil. Which plan will be the best will therefore depend
upon the actual and relative condition of the milk and the
atmosphere.

^53

FARMIl^G FOR PRO/IT.

Farmers and dairj'^men who deliver milk at cheese or butter
factories will find a good scale a great convenience. It will
prove very useful in enabling the owner to determine the rate of
production; as far as quantity is concerned, of each cow giving
milk. By its use he can also find the quantity of milk which is
given each week, and the aggregate during the entire season.
For these purposes, Fairbanks & Co.'s dairyman's scale, Figure
I02, is unsurpassed.

Cheese-Making. — If this important branch of the dairy
business is to be conducted on a larc^e '^'-■i \ the farmer should,

FIG. I02. — dairyman's SCALE.

by all means, patronize a cheese factory. If there is none in
his immediate vicinity, let him talk the matter over with his
neighbors, and induce them to unite with him in establishing
one. This for various reasons. More cheese can be made at
the factory from a certain quantity of milk than can be obtained
at home. The cheese will be of a more uniform flavor, and
the product will sell better in market. Last, but far from being
least, the labor of cheese-making on a lar»;c scale is altogether
too severe for the women of the household to perform.

Many farmers do not like to buy cheese, yet they and their
families want it occasionally upon the table. Such parties

THE DAIRY. 653

can make a small quantity during the hot weather in summer
without a great deal of labor or expense. Mr. Willard has
suggested that when three or four neighbors are situated in
this manner, they had better work in partnership, and deliver
" a certain quantity of milk daily at some central neighbor's
house, where the cheese is to be made. There will be no very
great trouble in this, and by assisting each other all may be
supplied. As the labor in manufacture will be no more for ten
pails of milk than for four, and as the cheese can then be made
up at once, it will be advisable to associate together whenever
practicable." This we consider excellent advice.

In the handling of milk designed to be made into cheese, a
great deal of care must be taken to prevent its becoming tainted.
A slight taint of the milk injures the quality of the product, and
a strong taint may utterly spoil it, making the cheese both unfit
and dangerous for use as food. Care and cleanliness must be
observed in all the various processes of manufacture. Boiling
water — not warm water nor hot water, but water which boils —
must be used freely for cleansing the vessels which are
employed. Then, after the cheese is made, there will be
need of watchful oversight to keep it from injury.
. The various kinds of cheese produced on the farm are made
from the entire milk, from a mixture one-half of which is new
while the other half has stood ten or twelve hours, and from
which the cream rising in that time has been removed, and from
milk which has parted with nearly all of its cream. Of these
three kinds, when the making has been properly attended to and
the materials were good, the first is rich, of good flavor, and an
excellent article of diet. The second is devoid of the rich-
ness which characterizes the first, but is reasonably healthful,
and has a fair flavor. The third is an abomination. Those who
like it, whose teeth are sharp and jaws are strong, and whose
digestive powers no substance can weaken, are at perfect liberty
to eat this kind of " food," but all other parties had better let it

654 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

alone. It may be well for strong, active laborers who work
hard in the open air ten or twelve hours a day, and whose food
does not " stay by " them well to eat this kind of cheese, but it
is wholly unfit for children, and for all persons of sedentary
habits and occupations.

The following plan for the manufacture of cheese on a small
scale we partly learned from experience and observation, and
partly from Mr. Willard's excellent work on *" Practical
Dairy Husbandry."

For this work there will be needed a round cheese-hoop, ten
inches in diameter and twelve inches high, with a follower; a
new wash-tuh, or something which will answer the same pur-
pose, and a press. None of these need be very costly. The
farmer who understands the use of tools can easily make a
press. The following directions are given by Mr. Willard :
"A very good press may be made in a few hours from a twelve-
foot plank, and a few pieces of scantling. About a foot from
either end of the plank set up two short pieces of scantling
four and a half inches apart. Fasten them firmly to the plank
with bolts or pins. The lever may be a joist, four by four, or
four by si.x, and fourteen feet long. One end is secured by a
pin passing through the uprights at one end of the plank, and it
is to move freely up and down between the uprights at the
other end. A weight hung at one end of the lever, and you
have a press that will do good service. The weights at the end
of the long lever are a stone or two from the field. There may
be another lever arranged for raising the long lever or press-
beam, without removing the weights, which are stationary."
The cheese is pressed by placing the hoop, containing the curd,
near the end of the press-beam which is fast, placing blocks
upon the follower, and letting down the beam. A large bread-
knife, or a long, thin wooden one, may be used for cutting the
curd.

Having brought the milk to the house in a perfectly sweet

THE DAIRY. g^^

and pure condition, free from all dust and foul odors, it should
be strained in the usual manner, and then carefully strained
through a cloth into the cheese-tub. A gallon (wine measure)
of milk should make nearly a pound of cheese. The exact
quantity used at a time should be known. Part of the milk
should be dipped into pans, which should be placed in kettles, or
larger pans, containing a little water. This in order that the
temperature of the milk may be increased without scorching it.
Enough milk must be warmed to bring the heat of the whole,
when it is all in the tub, up to eighty-five degrees. For coagu-
lating the milk, rennet should be used. This should have been
soaked for a while in water. Enough should be added to insure
coagulation in forty or fifty minutes.

The quantity of rennet required must be determined" by
experiment. Rennets differ greatly in strength, and a given
weight which would be sufficient if the quality was good would
be wholly inadequate if the rennet was weak and poor. The
richness of the milk also exerts an influence. The poorer the
milk the larger the quantity of rennet which will be required.
Too much rennet injures the quality of the cheese and prevents
its keeping well. Too little retards the progress of the work,
• and makes the cheese hard and sour. It is important that
rennets should be taken only from healthy calves. If good
rennets of uniform quality are used, the person in charge will
soon be able to determine the quantity with a sufficient degree
of exactness to secure a pretty good and even grade in the
product.

When the milk has coagulated, the finger may be put into
the curd and slowly raised. If the curd readily breaks, it
should be cut into blocks two inches square and allowed to
remain for ten or fifteen minutes. During this time the whey
will form. Then the curd should be gently broken with the
hands, and allowed to remain another quarter of an hour. At
the expiration of this time, part of the whey should be dipped.

656 FARMIXG I OR PROFIT.

off and heated in the same manner as has been described for
warming the milk. The curd should be gently lifted and
broken until the pieces are quite small. Warm whey should
be added until the whole mass reaches a temperature of ninety-
eight degrees. The curd should be broken and stirred while
the warm whey is being added. Then the mass may remain for
half an hour, when it should be stirred again. This must be
continued until the curd is firm, and does not hold together
well.

When it readily falls in pieces after being pressed in the
hand, the draining process may be commenced. A cloth-
strainer should be laid over the tub, and the whey dipjjed off
down to the curd. Then put the strainer on a basket, or a
hopper, the bottom of which is made of slats, and dip the curd
into it to drain. It should be broken up with the hands, and,
when nearly dr)', salt may be added at the rate of four or four
and a half ounces to ten pounds of curd ; the whole mixed
thoroughly, and then put into the press. After remaining here
from two to four hours, it should be turned and again put into
the press. The next morning the cheese may be taken out,
rubbed with a little melted butter which should be fresh and
used while warm. The cheese should be turned and rubbed
ever)' day until it is cured. If the rind becomes dry, a little
butter should be applied as before. When a cheese of large
size is made, a tight cloth bandage should be put around the
edge, but there is no necessit}' for doing this with small ones.

When but little milk can be had and a good-sized chee.se
cannot be made in a day, the milk obtained during two or three
days may be used. That obtained each day is to be used as
though there were enough for the purpose until "the curd is ready
for the hoop, with the exception that but little salt should be used.
The curd made each day should be set in a cool place in the
cellar. When enough has been secured, the curds which have
^been previously made may be treated with warm whey, broken

THE DAIRY. g57

up, drained, mixed with the one just made, and all of them
salted and pressed. In this way good cheese can be made by
farmers who keep only one or two cows.

After cheese has been made it must be taken care of or it will
soon be spoiled. It should be kept in a cool, light room, upon
clean shelves, and should often be carefully examined. If any
cracks appear they should be filled up with cheese which has
been crushed so that it will spread like butter. After this is
done a piece of thin but strong paper, which has been well
oiled, should be laid over the place. The shelves should be
occasionally washed with hot whey and the room kept perfectly
clean. The turning which has been recommended must not be
omitted for a single day until the cheese is cured. The whole
surface of each cheese should be thoroughly rubbed when the
turning is done. This is necessary to prevent injury, by the fly
which deposits its eggs upon the surface, and especially in any
unfilled cracks which may be found. These eggs soon hatch
out into maggots or " skippers " which ruin the cheese. If the
cheese is rubbed, thoroughly and the cracks are promptly filled,
the fly will not do much harm. When the mischief has been
done, the maggots should be cut out with a knife and destroyed..
It is said that, if taken soon after the maggots appear, a thick
oiled paper plastered over the part of the cheese which they
inhabit will shut off their supply of air, and thus drive them to
the surface. When this method is adopted the paper should be
used two or three times in order to make clean work in destroy-
ing the intruders.

Good cheese will be fit for the table, if it has been properly

managed, in from four to six weeks after it was pressed,, but

will improve in quality for several months. It is claimed by

some writers that cheese is a very valuable article of diet, that

it is almost as nourishing as meat, and that in proportion to the

amount of food contained it is cheaper than beef While it is

hardly probable that it will, to any great extent, supersede beefl
41

658 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

it is good food for those whose digestive organs do not resent
its use, and it is certainly a luxur}- in the best meaning of the
term.

Butter-Making. — The butter which is made in this countrj-
comprises all grades, from the poorest which it is possible to
produce to the very finest quality which can be found in the
world. The quantity produced is immense. Not only is a vast
amount consumed at home, but during 1878 the quantit}'-
exported was worth fourteen millions of dollars. Not only is
the aggregate quantity extremely large, but in a very large
section of the country the business of its production is carried
on at almost every farm-house or in some adjoining factor}', and
almost every farmer is pecuniarily interested in this branch of
the dairy business.

As a general rule butter is made in private dairies. The
•factory system which works so well in the manufacture of
cheese has not been very extensively introduced. There are,
in all, many factories, and they are quite successful. But there
is no such pressing call for their establishment as has been
-made for cheese factories, and, though they will become much
-more common than they are now, we doubt if they ever
■monopolize the business. Butter can be made at home, in small
or large quantities, with less trouble than cheese, and the labor
^which devolves upon the women of the household, though often
very severe, may, by means of the improved methods now being
introduced, be made light and pleasant. Under the old system it
was necessary to work hard and use a great deal of care. With
the best systems now in use the work is ver}' much less, and the
constant watchfulness formerly needed is not required. More
than this. With the old methods there was a great deal of
uncertainty in regard to the product. Sometimes the butter
would be very fine, but at others, when so far as the work was
concerned an equal degree of care had been given, the quality
•would be very poor.

THE DAIRY. 659

The lack of uniformity in the quality of dairy products has
been a great drawback to their profitable manufacture. The
men who have been able to make good butter every week in the
year have been able to sell for high prices. But the men who
have carried good butter to the market one week and poor
butter the next have not found a ready sale at prices which were
wholly satisfactory. And it may be regarded as settled that
the one great thing for which the butter-maker should strive is
uniform excellence of the product. When this uniformity can be
secured, and not till then, will the demand be steady, sales
quick, and prices high enough to yield a large profit.

Methods of Obtaining Cream. — There are many different
ways of obtaining the cream for making butter. We have
neither time nor space to consider them all, and it would be of
no benefit to our readers if we had. The most common methods
are the following. The use of shallow pans for holding the
milk, the use of deep cans for the same purpose, the use of very
large open pans so arranged that the milk can be either warmed
or cooled, and the use of closed cans submerged and cooled in
ice water, or cooled partly by means of water and partly by
cold air.

The first method is in common use. The others are innova-
tions. They have found their way to quite an extent into dairy
districts, and are in use upon many farms. The old method is
open to many objections. One of these, and one which deprives
it of all claim to excellence, is to be found in the fact that uni-
formity of quality cannot be secured. The butter will some-
times be good, and often be of second or third quality. The
weather does, and must, exercise a great influence upon the
quality of the butter which is made from cream which is raised
in shallow pans. In hot, muggy weather the cream will not be
as nice as it is when the weather is cool and fine. Changes in
the temperature, and particularly in the electrical conditions of
the air, also modify the quality and influence the quantity of the

ggO FARMING FOR PROFIT.

cream obtained. In this method of setting a large proportion
of the milk is exposed to the air.

We have already shown that taints from foul air are readily
absorbed by milk. They are still more rapidly taken by the
cream. It has often been asserted that thorough ventilation of
the milk room was an absolute necessity. If the air were
always pure this ventilation might be useful, but when the ven-
tilation brings air from the stable, the pig-sty, and the cess-pool,
it does not add to the quality of the butter which is made from
cream exposed to the odors which emanate from these sources.
It may be said that the farmer should keep his premises sweet
and clean. This will be admitted, but the fact that " the wind
bloweth where it listeth " should not be forgotten. A man may
keep his own premises all right, and yet, when this system of
shallow setting in open pans is followed, have his butter dam-
aged by foul air which comes from the neglected yards and
stables of his neighbors.

But even if the air could be kept reasonably pure there is no
method which is not extremely expensive for controlling the
temperature, and no means for preventing the spores with which
the air is always supplied from coming in contact with the milk
and hastening its decay. These germs of the microscopic fungi
cause a great deal of trouble where their presence is not even
suspected. It is true that by heating the milk to a temperature
of two hundred and twelve degrees the germs in the milk at the
time of heating are killed. But this, in a farm dairy, involves a
great deal of hard work and requires a great deal of time.

In addition to exposing the milk to the injurious action of
the air, shallow setting makes an immense amount of work.
All the vessels used in the business must be kept constantly
sweet and clean. To effect this where a large number of pans
are used requires much time and hard labor. Where many cows
are kept, and no help is employed in the house, it makes the
life of the farmer's wife a ceaseless round of drudgery and toil.

THE DAIRY. ggl

For these and various other reasons shallow setting of milk
is not to be commended. There is too little certainty about the
quality of the butter, and altogether too much labor is involved.
If an effort is made to control the temperature quite an expense
must be incurred. If nothing of the kind is tried, the butter in
cold weather will be very poor and there will be but little of it,
while in hot weather a similar difficulty will also be encountered.

Here we may be met by the inquiry, what shall be done by
those parties who have, and must use, only the shallow pans ?
To this we reply, have a room devoted to this special purpose.
If the milk is kept in a room in which food is placed, or in which
work is done, the butter cannot be uniformly good. If but few
cows are kept, and the cost of heating a milk room in the winter
is too great, a tight closet may be done off in the kitchen and
in this the milk can be kept. We do not recommend this plan,
but we have seen it tried with fair results and it is decidedly
better than some methods which are ernployed. Be sure that
the milk comes to the house perfectly pure, and then see that it
is not injured afterwards. All the vessels in which the milk and'
cream are kept must be very clean. They need frequent scald-
ing with boiling water. Never let the milk get very cold, and
also protect it from extreme heat. Churn often, work the butter
well, and do it up in attractive shape. In winter it may be
necessary to add some coloring matter, carrots, or some prepara-
tion which is known to be both harmless to people and effectual
for coloring, though if the cows are good and are well fed with
good hay, meal, and roots, this may not be required.

Concerning the plan of deep setting but very little need be said.
It was once thought that a certain quantity of milk set in
shallow pans would yield considerable more cream than it would
if put into deep vessels. But it has been found that this is a
great mistake, and that if the proper temperature is observed, as
much, if not more, cream can be obtained by the use of deep cans
as can be secured under the old system. The advantages of this

662 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

plan are to be found in a saving of expense in buying pans, a
great saving of labor in cleaning them, and in the possibility of
obtaining a larger quantity of cream. Set in this manner, less
of the milk is exposed to the action of the air, and there seems
to be less danger of atmospheric taint than there is with milk in
shallow pans. When, in addition to these benefits, there are
the conveniences of cool spring water in which to set the cans
in summer, and good arrangements for hcai , the milk in
winter, the improvement over the old method is still more
marked. There has been considerable opposition to the dcep«
setting plan, but it has steadily gained in favor, and would,
doubtless, have become popular upon its own merits if it had
not been adopted in connection with other great improvements,
and thus brought to the attention of people more quickly than
it could have been alone.

The use of large, open pans has been strongly recommended
for large dairies where there were conveniences for heating and
cooling the milk. These pans are made large enough to hold
the milk of any number of cows which may be kept (not
exceeding one hundred and fifty). Underneath, or by the sides
and ends, there is a channel through which warm water flows
in winter and cold water in summer, and by means of which it
is easy to keep the temperature at the desired point. The use
of these pans saves a great deal of hard labor, and we have seen
excellent butter that had been made where they were used, but
they are open to the great objection that quite a proportion of
the milk is exposed to the action of the air. Still they are a
great improvement upon the shallow pan system, both in
respect to the labor required, and the quality of the butter
which is secured.

The last method to be considered is that in which the milk is
kept in closed cans, which are usually deep, and are kept sur-
rounded with ice or cold water in summer. The cans arc kept
in boxes similar in shape and outward appearance to the

THE DAIRY. 663

ordinary refrigerator. This method, with various modifications,
has been patented by several different parties. Some submerge
the milk in water, and claim that in this way only can the best
results be secured ; while others, who use less water, claim that
-SO large a quantity is not required. The object in view is to
g .-t as large a quantity of cream as possible from the milk
a hile it is yet sweet, and to obtain it in a short time. The two
])rincipal methods of this description which are now before the
public are known as the " Cooley System," invented by Mr.
William Cooley, of Vermont, and the " Hardin Method,"
invented by Mr. L. S. Hardin, of Kentucky. We understand
that another invention is approaching completion, and that it
promises excellent results. But as it is not yet perfected, we
can say nothing further of its merits. Neither do we wish to
pass an opinion upon the relative merits of the two systems
which we have named. Both are good, and an intelligent man
can make first-rate butter, if he has good milk, with either one.
Both have been thoroughly tested by competent parties, and
been very highly recommended. That it will pay the farmer to
obtain one of them, even though he may keep but few cows, we
have no doubt. Before purchasing, the claims of each should
be considered. There are some other systems somewhat .
similar to these, but, so far as we know, they have not been
brought to the degree of perfection which these have attained,
and some of the best of these rival methods are said to be
infringements upon patents already secured by the parties
named.

Both the Hardin and the Cooley methods require the use of
a box and deep cans. The box resembles a refrigerator in
looks, and produces a similar effect. In each the milk is cooled
in order to prevent the growth of the fungi which cause souring
and decay, and also to facilitate tht rising of the cream. In fall,
winter and early spring, they can be used without ice or fire.
In the summer, ice should be employed, though cold water has

664

FARMING FOR PROFIT.

been used to some extent and proved satisfactory. That butter
of much better quality can be made by this process than with
any in which the milk is allowed to stand in open pans cannot
be disputed, and the most perfect uniformity is obtained. With
this plan, good butter can be made in August with just as much
certainty as it can in June. As it is kept pure, and not allowed
to ferment, the milk after it has been skimmed is much more

FIG. 103.

valuable for feeding to calves or pigs than it would be if treated
in the usual manner.

Figure 103 shows the Cooley Creamery with the cans, and a
thermometer to mark the temperature so that it can be seen
without opening the box. Figure 104 gives a sectional view of
the can and creamery. The implements used in this system
are manufactured by the Vermont Farm Machine Co., Bel-
lows Falls, Vt.

The first cost of one of these portable creameries varies from

THE DAIRY. 665

twenty-five to seventy-five dollars. This is much less than the
cost of a suitable room, and the expense of ice in summer is
more than made up by the saving of wood in winter. The
whole apparatus occupies only a little room — a few square feet
— and can be kept in an apartment which is principally devoted
to some other purpose. Then the extra quality of the butter
will add from five to twenty cents per pound to the selling
price. Besides, it has been proved that a larger quantity of
butter from a certain quantity of milk can be secured than is
possible with the other methods of obtaining the cream.

The difference in the amount of
labor and skill required with the
open pans or the closed cans is
very great. Every one who has
had experience knows the trouble
attending the use of pans. With
one of the methods named, " the
labor consists in getting ice once a
day, lifting the cans of milk in the
box and out again. The skimmer
sits on a chair and uses a dipper."
In the washing of utensils there is
an immense saving, as only about fig. 104.— sectional view of

COOLEY CAN AND CREAMERY.

one-quarter as much surface 15 to

be gone over, and that not nearly as often as with open pans.
When the small pans are used, the skimming must be done at
just such a time, or the quality of the butter will be injured.
But with these deep, submerged cans the milk will keep sweet,
and the skimming can be safely delayed many hours after the
usual time.

Concerning the skill required Mr. Hardin well says : "Where
milk is set shallow, and subjected to all' the variations of the
atmosphere, in order to get the largest possible yield of butter
from the milk, it requires excellent judgment to tell just when

F ^ -mm

L 1

CREAM

1

1 MILK

1

1 ~

|l

666 FA i: MI AG FOR PKOFIT.

to skim, and I have had persons who were proud of their butter
yield tell me they often in hot weather got up at one or two
o'clock at night to skim the milk, fearing it would be too sour
by morning. With my method the atmosphere in which the
milk is set is so pure and cold the skimming can be done
whenever it is convenient, between thirty-six and seventy-six
hours, A negro boy has exclusive charge of the milk of my
dairy; he makes about three thousand pounds of butter a year;
there is a wonderful uniformity in the butter he makes, receiving
top prices, and the customers have never yet made a complaint,
and yet I do not believe this boy could make a pound of good
butter with the milk set shallow in the open air of sunmier."
Certainly for inexperienced parties, for those who have nc
convenient place for keeping milk, dnd also for those who have
all the work aside from butter-making which they are well able
to perform, such a labor-saving method as that of Mr. Hardin's,
or Mr. Coolev's, must commend itself as extremely valuable.

In the CooLEV method the cans containing the milk are
entirely covered with water, and the cream can be raised very
quickly. It is claimed that all the butter from the milk can be
obtained in piir hours if the proper conditions are obser\-ed.
The capacity of the apparatus need not exceed that required
for a single milking, as the cream can all be raised, taken off,
and the cans got ready for use again between the usual hours
for drawing the milk. In from ten to fifteen minutes the cans
" can be removed from the water, set upon the bench, the milk
run off, the cream emptied out, and the cans set back into the
cooler, ready to receive another milking."

Churning. — After the cream has been secured in good con-
dition the work of butter-making, though well begun, is far from
being finished, and it is possible, by a little carelessness or an
error in judgment, ta neutralize all the benefit which has up to
this point been gained. If the cream is allowed to freeze, or to
become unduly heated, or the churn is not perfectly clean, oi

THE DAIRY.

667

FIG. 105. — DAVIS SWING-CHURN.

constant care is not exercised to perform the remaining portion
of the work in a neat and skilful manner, all the care which
has been bestowed will be in vain. As already stated, boiling
water should be used for washing the churn and all the other
implements for butter-
making, and they nmst
all be kept perfectly
sweet and clean.

The particular kind
of churn which is used
is not a matter of such
great importance as
some agents for pat-
ented styles would
have the people be-
lieve. How it has
been possible for inven-
tors to obtain so many
patents upon churns is altogether
beyond our knowledge. Many of
these churns are good — nearly
as good as the old-fashioned dash-
churn of half a century ago.
Some of them are not good. A
few are really excellent. We
have used the Blanchard churn
several years. It is simple and
effective, cheap and durable. The

butter can be thoroughly worked and salted in the churn it
desired. We like this much better than the upright dash-
churn.

The "Davis Swing Churn," Figure 105, which is made by
the Vermont Farm Machine Co., is also a first-class implement.
This cluuii took the finst premium at the International Dairy

FIG. 106. — MOTION OF CREAM IN
DAVIS CHURN.

ggg FARMING FOR PROFIT.

Fair in 1878 in competition with the leading chums in the
world. It is quite simple, containing no floats or inside gear,
and is very easily kept clean. Figure 106 represents the motion
of the cream in this chum when in operation.

There are a {^w other excellent churns, but the larger num-
ber of the patents issued are either of no benefit or else
positively injurious. It is a significant fact that the Orange
County, New York, dairymen, whose butter has long been
regarded as strictly first-class, have tried many patented styles
only to lay them aside, and go back to the use of the old barrel
dash-churn. This does not prove that there are no better
churns than the old-fashioned kind, but it does indicate that
there are marty poorer ones.

There are some churns which will make a larger quantity of
butter from a given quantity'' of milk than can be obtained from
it by others, and the butter will be of equally good quality. It
is unnecessary to say that the one which will make the most
butter is to be preferred. Still, we have known a man to say, in
reply to an invitation to buy a new churn, which it was claimed
would produce considerable more butter from the milk than the
one which he was using, that it did not make much difference
with his folks. Everything was saved, and if the butter did not
all separate from the milk it was no loss, as the buttermilk %uas
fed to the hogs. He seemed to think, because the butter which
was left in the milk was not thrown away, it was all saved. But
if he had considered the fact that he could buy a pound of new
milk, from which no butter had been taken, for three cents,
while a pound of butter was worth twenty cents, he would have
seen that the saving in feeding his half-churned milk to the
hogs was not as great as he imagined. But it is not safe to trj-
every churn which the agent claims " will make more butter
than any other." If this plan were followed, the farmer would
soon have more churns than he would know what to do with
or where to find room in which to store.

THE DAIRY. ggg

A great many churns have been condemned, because they
would not uniformly convert cream into butter without regard
to the temperature or to any other conditions. The best churn
in the world will not give perfect satisfaction, if no care is
taken to have the cream in good condition. If the cream is
either too cold or too hot, the butter will be long in coming, and
if the variation from the proper temperature is excessive, the
quality will be impaired. The temperature of the cream should
range from fifty-five degrees in warm weather to sixty-four
degrees in winter. In summer the churning should be done
early in the morning. A thermometer ought to be used in
every milk room. One made specially for the dairy is the
cheapest, and for this purpose it is the best. If the cream is too
warm, it may be cooled by placing it in a refrigerator, or putting
the jar containing it into a larger vessel which is partly filled
with cold water. Either way is better than putting ice directly
into the cream. In winter the cream may be warmed by
standing in a warm room (in a closely covered vessel), or by the
addition of a small quantity of warm water.

The churning should be steady, and no effort should be made
to obtain the butter in less than from twenty minutes to half an
hour ^ in the summer, and from forty minutes to an hour in
winter. Violent agitation will convert the cream into butter in
a much shorter time, but the quality will be seriously impaired.
The appearances which indicate that a larger quantity of butter
is obtained in this manner are deceptive. If the cream is a few
degrees warmer than the standard we have given, the butter can
be made in less time, but the quality will be seriously injured.
We have given the extreme limits of temperature at which it is
safe to churn the cream when good butter is required. Mr.
Hardin recommends fifty-eight degrees in warm weather, and
sixty-three degrees in winter, and his success is an indication
that he has regulated the temperature of the cream in the best
possible manner.

G70

r.lR.U/XG FOR PKOriT.

Working Butter. — Unless freed from the milk which
remains mingled with it, the finest butter would soon be
spoiled. For accomplishing the desired separation, various
methods are employed. The very worst, yet very common, one
is to work out the milk by squeezing the butter in the hands.
The cleanest hands in the world are not fit to put into butter.
There will be a perspiration, either sensible or insensible to the
operator, which will certainly injure the quality of the butter,

FIO. 107. — EUREKA BUTTER-WORKER.

and also prevent its keeping well. The best way where no
machine is employed is to use a ladle made for the purpose,
and a wooden bowl or tray. There are many implements in
the market for working butter. Some of these are excellent,
but a few of them arc constructed upon WTong principles, and
areMiable to injure the quality of the butter. All machines
which operate with fluted rolls are, to some extent, open to this
objection. Lever-workers, if care is taken to give an equal
pressure the whole length of the machine, do very well ; but the

THE DAIRY. 671

implements with smooth rolls are probably the most perfect
which have been devised. Of the machines made in this style
we think the Eureka, which is made by the manufacturers of
the Cooley Creamery, is the best in the market. It is repre-
sented by Figure 107.

While it is important that the milk should be removed, it is
possible to almost spoil the finest butter by simply working it
too much. .There should be an even pressure upon the butter,
and all drawing and sliding motions are to be avoided. Some
dairymen use brine in order to facilitate the separation of the
milk from the butter, but this is not absolutely necessary.
Much of the milk can be washed out if pure water is at hand.
The following directions are from Mr. Willard's " Practical
Dairy Husbandry." Gather the butter " with a wooden butter
ladle in the tray or butter bowl, turn off the buttermilk and wash
with fresh spring water. Gash it around the whole circumfer-
ence, making channels lowest at either end, so that the butter-
milk can readily run off. Do not grind it down against the
tray, after the manner of tempering mortar, for in this way you
will be likely to injure the grain. It is not well to attempt to
work out all the buttermilk at once. But very little manipula-
tion is required in washing out the buttermilk ; then salt with
pure, fine salt and set aside in a cool place for twelve hours,
during which time the action of the salt will liberate more of the
buttermilk. Then work a second time, either with the ladle or
butter-worker, using precautions not to overwork or grind the
butter by rubbing it down against the tray, and then the work
is done and the butter is ready for packing."

Salting Butter is usually considered necessary in order to
improve the keeping qualities as well as to suit the taste of con-
sumers. A nice grade of butter, properly managed in all the
various processes of manufacture, can be kept a long time with-
out salt. Still, most people prefer salted butter, and a few
words in relation to the method of saltine will not come amiss.

672 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

The very best grade of salt should be used. A great deal of
good butter has been damaged by the use of an inferior quality
of salt. As only a small quantity is required, the difference in
cost between the finest and the ordinary grades of salt is not to
be considered by the man who wants to make a really good
article of butter. The salt should be intimately mixed with the
butter so that the whole mass will be uniformly salted. The
quantity used at the butter factories in the New York dairy
districts is eighteen ounces of salt for twenty-two pounds of
butter.

Packing Butter. — If butter is to be kept for a long time, or
is to be carried a long distance, it must be packed in jars or
tubs. The stone jars are best if the butter is to be used at
home, but they cannot be safely transported. If tubs are used
they should be filled with boiling water and allowed to soak for
twenty-four hours. They should then be filled with strong
brine which should stand in them two or three days. Then it
should be turned out, the tubs rinsed with cold water, and the
sides rubbed with fine salt. After filling the tubs nearly full of
butter, lay a clean muslin cloth on top, put in the heads, and
pour strong brine through the plug-hole in order to fill all the
spaces and perfectly exclude the air. Then put in the plug and
keep the tub in a clean and well-ventilated cellar. Even butter
which has been packed in tubs must not be kept in the vicinity
of decaying vegetables, soap, and many other things which are
found in too many house cellars. If the butter is to be kept
long in very hot weather the brine should be changed once in
two months.

A still more perfect way of keeping butter was described,
some time since, in the National Live-Stock Journal as fol-
lows : " Make a muslin bag, a little smaller than the tub, so that
when filled there will be a space of one inch all round, above
and below. Pack the butter, when ready, into this muslin bag,
and place the bag in the tub, when the head should be put in.

THE DAIRY. gyg

if there is one, with an inch and a half hole in it. Fill the space
around the bag containing the butter with strong brine, and
. then put in a plug reaching one inch below, so as to prevent the
sack of butter from coming to the top. The sack of butter will
now float in the brine and be absolutely excluded from the air.
An ordinary cover may be used instead of the head."

Securing Ice. — As we have highly recommended those pro-
cesses of butter-making which require the use of ice for their
most perfect working, perhaps a few words upon the best
method of keeping ice may be useful. A {&\v years ago it was
generally supposed to be quite difficult to keep ice through the
summer, even at the extreme North, and an ice-house was con-
sidered too expensive for the average farmer. But of late the
idea that ice can be kept only in costly and elaborate structures
has been proved incorrect, and the number of ice-houses has-
increased a hundred-fold. One ought to be found on each and
every farm, or else a good substitute should be provided.

Some writers recommend ice-houses wholly above ground,,
while others consider it best to have a room partly underground!
Practically, either plan works well. If only a small quantity of
ice is needed, a room may be done off in a wagon-shed, a corn-
barn, or in a clean basement room in either of these buildings;
A great many farmers have practiced these methods success-
fully. A bin, with double walls and the spaces between them
filled with saw-dust, or tan-bark, can be made to do good ser-
vice. It should be nearly square, and the cakes of ice should
be packed as closely as possible. Around the sides, and in the
spaces between the cakes, saw-dust should be used, and the top
of the pile should be covered a foot in depth. Mr. Hardin,
though living far South of the line above which the principal
part of the dairying in this country is done, uses an ice-house
" which is about twelve feet cube, a mere hole in the ground
with shed over it, and it has supplied an abundance of ice for
the milk of fifteen to twenty cows." Farther North there would.

42

674 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

be less waste of ice by excessive heat. Ice costs but little,
it is but little work to get it and keep it, and it is a real luxury-
as well as a very useful article. Therefore an abundant supply
should be obtained. It will be useful for many other purposes
than the special one for which it is provided.

The quantity required for keeping the milk at the proper tem-
perature will vary in different localities and with the degree of
protection from heat which is given in other ways. Mr. Har-
din uses about "one pound of ice an hour to the one hundred
pounds of milk." Farther North less than this quantity would
suffice. The Coolev system, using water in part, is said to be
still more economical of ice, though this is doubted by some
who have experimented in this direction. It is not a matter of
much consequence which method requires the largest quantity,
for any farmer can obtain ice enough without incurring much
expense.

For the benefit of farmers who are far from rivers or ponds
which will furnish a supply of ice, and to whom the labor and
expense of transportation would be obstacles which they would
not overcome, we quote Mr. Waring's description of a house
which *' is so simple, and invplves so trifling an expense that no
man need have an excuse" for being without a liberal quantity
of first-rate ice. " Select a place on the north side of some
building; lay a floor twelve feet square on scantlings, one foot
from the ground. Set firmly in the ground, near each corner,
two post.s, from four to six inches square, and about eight or ten
feet long. When the weather becomes cold, place on the floor
saw-dust, tan-bark, or r}e-straw, to the depth of eight or ten
inches. On the top place another floor of the same size, putting
a curb iiisidc the posts to keep the filling between the floors in
its place. Next make a curb ten feet square and six inches
deep, and fasten "die corners with common gate-hooks. On a
cold day place the curb on the centre of the floor, put in two
inches of tan-bafk, and dash water over the bottom until it forms

THE DAIRY. 675

a coat of ice that will not leak. Fill the curb with water and
let it stand until frozen solid. With boiling water thaw the
curb loose, raise it to the top of the frozen mass, fill and freeze
as before. Continue so doing until the mass is of the desired
height. Place boards on the inside of the posts, and fill the
space with tan-bark or rye-straw ; nail boards on the outside of
the posts and fill the space with rye-straw ; cover the top with
tan-bark to the depth of ten inches. Over the whole put a roof,
to shield from the sun and rain. Cut and take the ice from the
top. Ice can be thus kept the entire season. If a stream of
running water can be turned into the curb, the labor of filling
will be much lessened."

We believe that by following the methods which have been
indicated it will be possible for the farmers and dairymen of the
country to greatly improve the character and the productive
capacity of their stock, and to obtain a great deal more milk
than they now secure. The cost of this improvement and extra
production will be so slight as to leave a large profit to the
owner of the cows. The purity of the milk will be secured and
its richness increased. With only a slight outlay, whiJi in a
short time will be all repaid by the saving which it will secure
in other directions, the quality of the butter which is made can
be improved to such an extent that all trouble in making quick
sales will be avoided and the price will be considerably in-
creased. By such a change both producers and consumers will
be greatly benefited.

If he will bring care and skill to his aid the farmer can fur-
nish good milk and nice butter for prices which consumers will
be willing to pay and which will yield him a liberal profit. The
dairy business is not overdone, and as long as our population
increases as rapidly as it has for a few years past, and the foreign
demand continues, it will not be unduly crowded. If the quality
of our goods is improved without advancing prices to an extreme
limit, the foreign demand will not only be continued but will be

(J7G FARMING FOR PROFIT.

rapidly increased. All the butter and cheese we can make, and
make well, can be sold at a profit to the producer and all who
handle the goods. And the farmer who is wise will seek in the
direction of improvement of the quality of his products for the
increased price which he desires. It is useless to look for it
elsewhere, but here it may be easily found.

c?i

SOX&XNG CATTtE.

'U\P LTHOUGH not applicable in all parts of the country,
V i3> or to all cases in any part of it, the system of soiling
cattle has certain advantages which commend it to the

Q)- attention of the owners of live-stock who find the
common method of management inconvenient or unprofitable-
Where land is very fertile or verj' cheap, the soiling system ma/
not prove advantageous. Many farmers are so situated that
they would incur a loss by accepting its conditions. There are
many others whose profits would be largely increased by iis
adoption. In the vicinity of villages and towns it will often
pay. When the farmer desires to keep a large stock of cattle
on a small area of land, no better method than soiling can be
devised. And where manure is in great demand in order to
improve the productive qualities of the land, the want can be
at least partially supplied by means of the soiling system.

The plan has been extensively tried in Europe, and been
tested by many farmers here. The majority of those who give
the system a fair trial report a great improvement over the
ordinary methods. It is a very simple method, and yet it
requires constant' care and a high degree of skill to manage the
soiling process to the best advantage. Upon this point the
Hon. Josiah Quincv, who did more than any other man in
his day to make the plan popular, said: "The soiling process,
beyond all others, requires vigilance and foresight." The man
who adopts it for the sake of making his labor light will be

SOILING CATTLE. 677

sadly disappointed. He may make his labor a great deal more
profitable, but he will not make a saving in the amount to be
performed.

The advantages of the system, as stated by its most earnest
advocates, are " comfort, convenience and protection for stock
and fodder." There is a saving of land and fencing, food is
economized, the cattle are kept more comfortable than they
usually are in a common pasture, an increased production of
milk is secured, and the saving of manure is effected.

The objections to the system are that it requires very close
attention and skilful management, that neglect of cleanliness
during hot weather will be likely to cause sickness not only
among the cattle, but also in the families of their owners, and
that it increases the difficulty of keeping the milk pure and
sweet. If proper care is given, health can be preserved, and
pure milk can be secured. But during the hot weather farmers
are extremely busy, and are apt to neglect what they consider
the little matters pertaining to their business. In many parts of
the country the adoption of the soiling system would render
much of the land entirely useless. Most farmers now have
under cultivation all the land they can properly manage, and if
they were to keep their cattle up during the summer, the
land which they now use for pasture would be wholly unpro-
ductive.

In order to help those who may desire to try this plan, and
give them a correct idea of the kind and quantity of crops to
be grown for the purpose, we will quote Mr. Waking's state-
ment relative to this part of the system. " Early in the autumn,
sow three acres of winter rye, to be cut from May fifteenth to
June fifteenth. Early in April three acres oats, to be cut from
June fifteenth to July first. Late in April, two acres oats or
barley, to be cut from July first to July fifteenth, Early in May,
two acres oats or barley, to be" cut from July fifteenth to August
tenth. Middle of May, two acres corn, to be cut from August

(578 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

tenth to September first. Middle of June, the three acres from
which rye has been cut to be sown with corn, to be cut from
September first until September twentieth. Early in July, the
first three acres sown with oats to be resown with barley, to be
cut from September twentieth until the harvest of roots and
cabbages furnishes a stock of green refuse, which will suffice
until winter-feeding commences."

The above plan allows twelve acres for keeping twelve cows,
and requires the growth of root crops outside of the regular
operations of soiling. The roots which are grown are not to be
fed until winter, but the tops are needed late in the fall. The
reason for devoting so much land to the production of soiling
crops is to be found in the fact that the soil was not in a high
state of fertility. In ordinary seasons there will be a large
quantity in excess of the amount required. This surplus pro-
duct of the land can be cured and used for winter-feeding
without involving much loss, while the larg^ area sown provides
for severe droughts and other untoward events which may
greatly reduce the quantity of food which will ordinarily be
produced.

In SeptdVnber three acres of the four which were sown in
May to oats, or barley, and corn should be sown to winter rye
in order to provide for the early crop of the next .year. Aside
from this the same order may be pursued in succeeding years.
Mr. W.aring is confident that if all the manure made during
the soiling season is used on these twelve acres year after year,
they can be made, in time, so rich that they will support thirty
cows during the usual pasturing season. Many farmers who
own considerable land will prefer to make a larger part of it
good rather than keep a few acres exceedingly rich. This they
can easily do by taking a new place every two or three years
for the production of their soiling crops. In this way they can
surely a.id rapidly increase the capacity of their land for pro-
duction.

ENSILAGE. 679

Whether it will pay them to adopt this practice is a question
to be decided after a careful consideration of both the advan-
tages and the difficulties of the course proposed. Some men
can make the soiling system extremely profitable, while others
cannot. In many cases it will pay to feed green crops in the
barn, and in others it will be best to plow them into the land
without being to the expense of cutting and hauling. In many
other instances the ordinary system of pasturing in connection
with the tillage of half or two-thirds of the land, will be the
best which can be followed. The circumstances and surroundings
of each farmer should be taken into the account. No radical
changes should be made without previous caref' 1 deliberation,
and all such changes as the one under consideration should be
gradually effected.

HIS comparatively new method of preserving green
fodder crops is now attracting a great deal of attention
in France, and being introduced to some extent in this
country. To M. Auguste Goffart, of France, belongs
the honor of the discovery of this system, and by his persevering
and skilful efforts it has been brought almost to perfection.
For more than a quarter of a century he has been studying the
problem which at length he has solved. In translating his
writings, and bringing together many facts in relation to the
subject of Ensilage abroad and at home, J. B. Brown, Esq.,
President of the N. Y. Plow Co., New York city, has done the
farmers of this country a valuable service.

Ensilage is a French word meaning " the act of compressing
into pits, trenches, or compartments called silos." It is also
applied to the green crops so preserved. " Silo " denotes a
*' compartment used for storing green fodder in an air-tight
manner." It may be an excavation in the ground, or a building
wholly above the surface.

680 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

The object to be secured is the preservation in a green state
of the fodder which is cut for the use of cattle during the cold
weather. It is well known that by the process of drying, con-
siderable of the nutritive value of the fodder is lost. Grass is
known to be superior to hay, and green corn-fodder is univer-
sally recognized as superior to the dried stalks. That grass not
only loses water but also passes through other changes is evident
from the fact that it exhales agreeable odors while the process of
drying is going on. The fact is also sufficiently proved by the
difference in the effects of grass and hay when fed to cows which
are giving milk. The diminution in the quantity of the milk,
and the deterioration of the quality of the butter made therefrom,
are abundant evidences that hay is much inferior to grass.

Not only is the quality of the grass, or other fodder, injured
by the process of drying, but there is a great deal of risk of
damage by exposure to storms. Then, too, even when it is
secured in the best possible order, the dry fodder is compara-
tively indigestible. Cattle cannot masticate it as easily or as
well as they do green food, and are not able to digest it as
thoroughly, or assimilate it to as good advantage.

Ensilage as a method of preservation can be applied to all
kinds of crops which are used green. In this country it will
probably be of the greatest value in its application to fodder-
corn and* grass. It is with the former crop that the largest
number of experiments have thus far been made.

In order to be fully successful in the preservation of green
fodder, all fermentation must be prevented. This must be done
by excluding the air. The fodder is to be cut into short
lengths, placed in a pit, or in a tight room, and the top closely
covered. When the silo is filled, the material must be closely
pressed down. In his earlier efforts M. Goffart followed this
course. The tops were covered with earth, and fissures which
afterwards appeared were immediately closed. But there was
always found, when the silo v/as opened, a vacuum between the

ENSILAGE. 681

fodder and the covering. As a result of this vacuum, which
was caused by the settling of the fodder, the process of fermen-
tation speedily set in, and the material could be preserved but a
short time.

After many experiments, M. Goffart found that by greatly
diminishing the quantity of dry straw which he had mixed with
the green corn-fodder, or leaving it out, by cutting the material
into very short lengths, and by arranging so that it should
receive a strong and continuous pressure, perfect success could
invariably be secured.

Pressure must be strong and constant. This, because the
material in the silo contains a large quantity of air which, if not
expelled, will cause fermentation and decay. When first put in,
this material is so elastic that merely treading it down will be
of but little value. But in time this elasticity diminishes, the
material settles, and, if pressure is not applied, the destructive
processes at once begin their action. Therefore, there should
be a heavily weighted plank covering for the top of each silo.
A little space should be left between the joints of these planks
for the escape of the air in the silo, and the covering should
move so freely that it will follow the material as it settles, and
thus maintain a uniform pressure.

When preserved by this process, no drying is required.
Exposure to the action of the sun and air, even for a brief
period, will be injurious. As soon as cut, the material should
be brought from the field. It should then be run through a
feed-cutter, which will make it very fine. The New York
Plow Co. make a machine for this purpose, which can be
adjusted to cut into pieces from one-fourth inch to one or two
inches long. Forty-two one-hundredths of an inch is con-
sidered the best length. As soon as a sufficient quantity is cut,
the material should be packed into the silos, and covered an
inch or two in depth with short straw. Then the plank cov-
ering should be put on, and heavily weighted in order to pro-

532 FARAtlNG FOR PROFIT.

tect from the external air, and maintain a strong and constant
pressure.

When the material is to be used the silo should be opened
at one end, or side, and cut down vertically. The quantity-
removed at a time should be sufficient for the stock for only
one day. The material should be taken from the silo from
fifteen to twenty hours before it is to be given to the cattle.
This in order that fermentation, which will make it more palat-
able, may commence.

That the system of ensilage will be fully successful in this
country there can be no possible doubt. Mk. FRiVNCis Morris
tried it with good results in 1876. The next season he secured
a sufficient quantity to keep " nearly a thousand head of stock
for over two months," while, in 1878, he more than doubled the
quantity then obtained. Experiments by other parties, though
on a smaller scale, have been equally successful.

We believe that this discovery will have a powerful effect in
advancing the interests of the farmers and live-stock owners in
the colder sections of the countr>'. As it will enable them to
supply their cattle with green fodder during the winter it will
prove of great advantage. By freely feeding this material they
can keep their young cattle growing rapidly and their cows
productive, while a high degree of health will be secured to the
whole herd. Then, by enabling the farmer to substitute green
corn for grass, the capacity of his land will practically be very
much increased. Land which now yields from one to two tons
of grass may be made to produce many tons of fodder of a still
better quality. Much larger herds of cattle can then be kept on
a given area of land. As there will be more cattle there will
also be a largely increased quantity of manure with which the
grain and clover fields can be made extremely rich and produc-
tive. In the various departments of the farm there will be a
great gain, and the profits of the business will be correspond-
ingly increased.

SHEEP. 683

'ROM the earliest ages sheep have been regarded as indis-
pensable to the comfort and welfare of the human race.
As civilization has progressed their importance has been

"^ more fully recognized and their numbers have been cor-
respondingly increased. Long ago the English people realized
the value of these animals, and gave a great deal of attention to
their improvement. . By growing the wool at home, making it
into goods of which the whole civilized world was in need, and
sending the manufactured product abroad to be sold for high
prices, the English secured a very profitable trade with other
nations, and, at the same time, rapidly advanced their agricul-
tural interests.

Stringent laws were passed with the design of protecting the
trade in manufactured goods. In the reign of Queen Elizabeth
" the exporter of sheep was, for the first offence, to forfeit his
goods forever, to suffer a year's imprisonment, and then have
his left hand cut off in a market town on market day, there to
be nailed up to the pillory. For the second offence he should
be adjudged a felon, and suffer death." In the reign of Charles
Second, " it was enacted that no person within fifteen miles of
the sea should buy wool without the permission of the king ;
nor could it be loaded in any vehicle, or carried, except between
sunrising and sunsetting, within five miles of the sea, on pain
of forfeiture." These arbitrary and outrageous laws were long
ago repealed, but the English have never lost their interest in
the business of sheep-growing. At the present time sheep hus-
bandry is said to be "the sheet-anchor of English agriculture,"
and the term does not over-state the importance of this depart-
ment of the farm business in that country.

In our own land sheep yield a large income to their owners,
and add an immense amount to our national wealth. But here
the business is hardly begun. What is now obtained from this

$84 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

source is but a fraction of what might be easily secured
Importations of wool and woollen goods now amount to many
millions of dollars per year. This money ought to remain at
home. Our people can grow all the wool they need, and their
mills can turn out the manufactured goods for a lower price
than they can be brought from abroad. There is now an opening
for an immense and a profitable business. At the South and
West sheep can be raised in immense numbers for low prices,
and still yield a profit to their owners. Some of the leading
men at the South see in this business a splendid opportunity to
place upon a sure foundation the material resources of this
section. At the West the business has already assumed large
proportions, and proved a source of profit. In the East it must
necessarily be conducted on a small scale, but sheep-raising is,
and long has been, practiced by many of the leading farmers.
In this business but a small amount of capital is required, and,
if it is reasonably managed, the returns will be both quick and
sure.

There are three special purposes for which sheep may be
kept. These are for their wool, for their flesh, and for improving
the soil. In some places it pays to keep them for the wool
alone, in others for their flesh and that of their lambs, and there
are some instances in which the improvement of the land which
they effect pays well for all the cost of their keeping, and is the
prime motive for which they are kept. But in most sections at
least two of these purposes can be served, and in some localities
all three may be combined. Where both the wool and flesh are
in demand, the profit is large. When in addition to these the
land upon which they are kept can be improved there is a still
greater gain.

Although the price which wool commands in the market is
quite variable, yet there is always a certainty that it can be sold
for something near its true value. Wool is a standard article
of commerce, and has a certain intrinsic value. It is not merely

SHEEP. 685

a useful but it is also a necessary article. Besides, better than
almost any other product of the farm, wool can be transported
to all parts of this or to other countries. A car-load of wool
represents a very much larger sum of money than a car-load of
hay. Consequently the cost of transportation in proportion to
its value is very much less with wool than it is with hay and
other bulky material. The same comparison may be made with
almost every farm product. At a time when the freight of
wheat from Chicago to the seaboard cost eighty per cent, of its
value, pork thirty per cent., and beef twenty-one percent., only
four per cent. Was required for the transportation of wool.
Besides, as the people throughout the country are in constant
need of woollen goods in large quantities, manufactories of these
materials spring up in all sections. Even now in the distant
State of Oregon woollen mills are turning out some of the finest
kinds of cloth, and supplying them at prices which are remark-
ably low. Probably the time will come, and it is very desirable
that it should come, when the wool-grower in any particular part
of the country can sell his wool to be worked up in mills located
near his own home. Then a large part of the present low cost
of transportation will be saved, and the great benefits which
manufactures always confer upon agriculture when the two are
closely united will be secured by our people in all sections.

The flesh of the sheep is rapidly coming into general use. It
is easy to digest, and is more healthful than most kinds of meat.
There is a saying to the effect that as the standard of civilization
of a country is raised the use of mutton for food will gradually
increase. This rule seems to have been closely followed in this
country, and there is a strong indication that in the future it
will prove strictly true. In our large cities the demand for
mutton has increased fully as fast as the wealth and numbers of
the people could lead one to expect. The call for lambs in city
markets increases year by year, and in some of the older-settled
States it has become quite a business to supply this want

g36 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

There can be no doubt that the flesh of sheep and lambs will
continue in demand, and that this demand will not only be
permanent but will admit, and require, a steady growth in the
line of production.

There are certain reasons why this line of business, viewed
merely from this one point, holds out special inducement for
farmers who are in the vicinity of thickly settled towns and
cities. The returns are both sure and quick. A lamb dropped
in Januar}-- or February can be got in good condition for the
market the following June or July. A sheep can be sheared in
the summer and fattened on grass and roots so as to be sold in
December, or it may be fed with grain during the winter and
sent off in March or April. With cattle the case is very dif-
ferent. The calf must be kept from two to four years before it
can be sold for a full price as beef. The cost of keeping all this
time is considerable, and there is quite a risk of accident and
disease. If sold while a calf the price per pound is below that
of a lamb, and the cost of keeping him the five or six weeks
which are required to convert him into good veal will be greater
than that of keeping the lamb until he can be sold.

Again, sheep use the material which the farm s.upplies to
much better advantage than cattle. It has been demonstrated
that seventy-five pounds of food of any suitable kind, hay, pota-
toes, turnips, or meal, will make as many pounds of mutton as
one hundred pounds of the same food will make of beef Then,
too, for supplying meat for the fanner's own table, sheep are
very valuable and ought to be more extensively used. That
mutton is a more healthful kind of meat to use in hot weather
than pork there can be no doubt. Properly cooked, it is also
very palatable. The farmer can furnish an abundant supply at
a small cost. He can thus have some of the finest qualities of
meat at a cheaper rate than he can buy the poorer grades from
the butcher. There are many farmers who would find it profit-
able to keep sheep for this purpose.

SHEEP. 637

There are many States in which sheep might well be kept in
order to improve the land. There is an old Spanish proverb
which asserts that " the hoof of the sheep is golden," and many-
others, of various nations, which convey much the same mean-
ing. Many of these common sayings exceed the truth. Sheep
cannot, alone, convert a desert into a garden. They cannot live
and thrive without food. In order to do their best they must
have an abundance of food, and it must be of good quality.
The idea that sheep can be turned upon a barren field, which by
bad cropping has been utterly exhausted, and from this field not
only obtain their living, but also get material from which to
grow heavy fleeces and produce fine lambs, and by their presence
convert the land into a luxuriant pasture, is wholly erroneous.
If they have sufficient food from other sources, and are kept
part of the time each day upon a run-down field, they will pick
off the weeds and scatter their manure, thus tending to make
the land better. By feeding sheep well in the winter, spreading
their manure upon the exhausted field, getting clover started,
and then keeping the sheep upon it, the land may be rapidly
improved. That land of moderate fertility may be made much
richer by pasturing sheep upon it we do not doubt. If there is
anything to do with, sheep will utilize it to the best possible
advantage. If there is nothing with which to make a beginning,
neither sheep, nor any other animals, can bring it into a high
state of fertility until man has done something in the way of
improvement.

The farmer who keeps sheep in connection with grain and
grass growing, and with other stock, can, as a general rule,
obtain a large profit from them. Some of the largest crops, and
succeeding these a marked improvement in the land, have been
secured by the use of the manure made by sheep. Hdn. George
Geddes, whose opinion upon other subjects we have quoted, and
who is universally recognized as an authority, in speaking of
his own experience in keeping sheep in connection with grain-

688 FARM/XG J'OR PROFIT.

growing, has said : " With about one sheep to the acre of cul-
tivated land, pasture and meadow, we raise more bushels of
grain on the average than we did when we had no sheep to
manufacture our coarse forage into manure, and to enrich ouf
pastures to orcpare them for grain crops. While producing
more crops on less acres, and at less cost than we did before
we kept sheep, and, at the same time, constantly improving our
land, we have the wool and mutton from our sheep in addition."
In connection with the growth of clover, sheep can be made to
bring land which is moderately fertile into good condition for
producing wheat, and then keep it yielding large crops every
few years and constantly increasing in value and productive
capacity.

The man who is willing to feed and care for his sheep can
receive from them a great deal of help in securing good crops
and making his land rich. But it is not safe for any one to
engage in the business unless he is willing to take care of the
flock and furnish an abundance of good food. And lest any
reader should infer from the remark of Mr. Geddes, that the
sheep manufactured his coarse forage into manure, that he kept
them exclusively upon that kind of food, we will say that neither
he nor any other man who has made money from sheep ever
kept them wholly on refuse food. Good hay, bright straw, and a
liberal supply of meal, have been the standard food. The coarse
material has either been used as bedding or else cut and sprinkled
over with meal. Sheep can profitably use a large quantity of
bedding, and, by using it in this manner, coarse swale hay may
be made of considerable value. The manure which the sheep
make in the winter is very beneficial to crops, and that made in
the summer is so much more evenly spread over the ground as
to enrich the pastures to a much greater degree than that which
is dropped by cattle. It is owing to this difference that, while
pastures upon which cows are kept gradually become impov-
erished, those which are devoted exclusively to sheep which are

SHEEP. 691

properly managed and cared for constantly grow better. In
England this one item of improvement of the land is thought a
sufficient reason for keeping sheep. Some of the ablest writers
in that country have asserted that there is no profit in the pro-
duction of either wool or mutton, but that, in spite of this fact,
sheep husbandry is an " indispensable necessity as the sole
means of keeping up the land." There are many farms, both at
the South and the East, upon which sheep might be made
profitable for this one purpose and also yield a large income as
producers of meat and wool.

Breeds of Sheep. — There are many different breeds of
sheep, and these breeds are divided into classes which are
formed by means of the difference in the length of the wool.
Thus we have a fine-wooled class, the distinguishing feature of
which is very fine, short wool ; the British short-wooled class,
comprising sheep whose wool is of only moderate length and
fineness ; and the long-wooled sheep, whose fleeces are very
long, and the fibre rather coarse. Then there are all manner
of grades and natives. Among these may be found -some
excellent and very profitable flocks. Also many which are not
at all useful, and are very far from being ornamental.

Of the fine-wooled sheep in this country the Merino is the
" standard," and is altogether the best. It is hardy, prolific, and
yields a large quantity of wool in proportion to its size and
weight. The quality of the wool for many manufacturing pur-
poses has no superior. When a Merino ram is used with a
common ewe, the lamb usually has a fairly fine fleece, which is
a great improvement on that of its dam. If with the lambs thus
obtained a pure-bred Merino ram is used, the wool will be still
better. In a few generations, the wool will be nearly, if not
quite, as good as that of purely bred sheep. The finer the wool
of the sheep which are crossed in this way the sooner the
desired result will be accomplished.

We do not advocate this plan, except in those cases in which
43

(592 FARAfLVG FOR PROFIT.

pure blood cannot be obtained. The method indicated improves
the common sheep, but it docs not make the lambs equal to
Mkrinos. Even though the desired fineness of fleece may be
secured, the other useful qualities of the old-established breed
may be wanting. The man who has purely bred Merinos had
better keep them so. All infusion of " native " blood will be a
deterioration, and crossing with other improved breeds is not to
be recommended. This principle also applies with equal force
to the other breeds of sheep. In a flock of thorough-breds the
introduction of native blood will prove an evil. Natives are
only to be used when an existing flock is to be improved. We
should not recommend them for the formation of new flocks.
Thorough-bred sheep are now sold for prices which place them
within the reach of the average farmer, and they multiply so
rapidh' that a flock of moderate size can soon be secured from a
single pair.

Of the British short-wooled sheep the Oxford Down and
the South Down are, for this country at least, much to be pre-
ferred. Though the wool is not as fine as the Merino, the.
quality of the mutton is very much superior. The lambs are
larger and mature early. The sheep are fine in appearance
and are quite hardy. They fatten readily, and where both wool
and mutton are desired we consider them the best sheep which
can be obtained. For the farmer who keeps only a small flock,
they will answer all requirements. They also do as well as
others in large flocks. We consider these breeds excellent for
the shepherd, and as near perfection for the farmer as anything
which can be devised.

Of the long-woolcd breeds the Cotswold and the Leicester
are the best. They are large sheep, with very long and rather
coarse wool. These breeds are so near alike in external appear-
ance that " their distinction is difficult to the unpracticed eye."
The Cotswold, however, usually has considerable wool upon
the forehead, while the Leicester is nearly bare-faced.

SHEEP. 693

Each of these breeds is claimed by its admirers to be the best.
The CoTSWOLD has been much more extensively introduced into
this country than its competitor, and it has been more widely
advertised. It is claimed that the Cotswold is more hardy
than the Leicester, and the quality of the mutton is said to be
slightly superior. On the other hand, the Leicester matures
early and fattens easily. There is also a lustre to the wool
which is wanting in other breeds, and which, for some kinds of
goods, makes it very desirable for manufactures. The Cots
WOLD ewes are more prolific than the Leicester, and give
more milk.

We think that, of the two, the Cotswold is to be preferred
by the farmer who makes the sheep interest only an incidental
and gives most of his attention to other departments. But
neither of these breeds can be successfully kept under all the
conditions to which the other classes can be safely subjected.
They are kept to some extent in Canada, but it seems to be
admitted that they are not suited to the climate. They are
excellent sheep for mutton in that they furnish a large quantity
of meat for the food which they consume, and where mutton is
a great object they may be made profitable in places where
their other qualities would not justify their introduction. But
the conclusion reached by John L. Hayes, Esq., Secretary of
the National Association of Wool Manufactures, that the
climate at the North " is too severe for the Leicesters," is
probably correct, and it will pay the farmers in that section to
obtain a hardier breed. The place for these sheep seems to be
"where the lands are rich, not subject to drought, fitted for root
culture, and where good city markets are easily accessible."
Nearly the same statement might be made concerning the
CoTSWOLDS. Where the surroundings are favorable these breeds
can be made very profitable. Where the climate is too severe,
or the soil too poor, other races should be kept.

Of the Native breeds of sheep but little need be said. As a

694 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

rule they are far behind the breeds which have been named, and
should be crossed with, or, much better, superseded by, them.
The best natives may be used as the foundation for an improved
flock, but the poorer ones should be sold and their places filled
with a better and more profitable class of animals.

Breeding. — In all efforts for improvement a thorough-bred
ram should be used. We have indicated the superiority of
thorough-bred cattle to grades for breeding purposes. The
same principle holds, to the same extent, in breeding sheep.
The use of a grade male will give uncertain results, but they
will generally be unprofitable. The thorough-bred male will be
very sure to impress his own good qualities upon his offspring.
The cost of a blooded ram is so low that the farmer has no
excuse on the ground of expense for using a grade. He can
buy a lamb, keep him a year or two, and then sell him for as
much, if not more, than he paid. But if he keeps only a small
flock and counts the cost carefully, he can unite with two or
three neighbors in purchasing, or hiring, a thorough-bred. One
ram can serve several flocks of a dozen sheep each without
injury. Even a good strong yearling can serve half a dozen
ewes. It is better to use older ones, however, when practicable.

During the breeding season the ram should be kept in a
pasture, or a pen and yard, with some wethers if there are any
in the flock, and should have some oats or oil meal each day.
The ewes should be served only once each, and when served
should be marked with paint. Two rams should never be put
in a pasture together, as they are almost sure to prove quarrel-
some. It is well to handle them when young and teach them
to be led by a halter and to be tied in a stable. But all
"fooling" with them, either by boys or men, should be carefully
avoided. It is a very easy matter to get a pleasant ram so that
he will attack any one who comes into the enclosure in which
he. is k<^pt. When a ram once gets this habit, he is very danger-
ous and ought to be blindfolded to such an extent that he cannot

SHEEP. G95

see in front of him without holding his head high in the aii:.
VVe have been knocked around a good deal by this class of
animals, and feel justified in cautioning our readers to be careful
to avoid either a pitched battle or an unsuspected attack.

When in a field or yard with one of these animals, always
keep watch of him. If he attempts to strike, either spring sud-
denly to one side, or, if he is seen soon enough, swing your hat
and "alrate him with a terrible voyce ; and beat him }-ourscll
with a good sticke upon the head between the ears," in the
manner directed by the old tamer in Queen Elizabeth's time
for subduing a vicious horse. The motion of the hat and sound
of the voice will sometimes confuse a ram so that he will give
up an intended assault. If a battle is once begun, it should not
be ended until the ram is thoroughly defeated. If he once
obtains a victory, he will never forget it, but will become very
cross and dangerous. No fear should be shown at any time, as-
this would induce an attack which might not be made if the
man were self-possessed. At the same time it is necessary to
keep a close and constant watch. A ram may be kept until he
is seven or eight years old, provided that he is a good stock-
getter and is not vicious. If his lambs are not well formed, if
he is not sure, or if he becomes cross, he had better be made
into mutton as soon as possible.

Although it is not so essential that the ewes should be
thorough-bred as it is that the rams should be of pure blood, it
is better that they should belong to an improved breed. In any
case, whether natives or blooded ewes are kept, only the very
best ones should be used for breeding. The first lamb should
not be brought until the ewe is two years of age. If the ram is
allowed to run with the flock during the year, the ewes will
bring forth their young at an earlier age, but the lamb is not
likely to be first-rate and the dam is seriously injured, both in
development and in constitutional vigor, by this early use of the
reproductive powers. Very old ewes are also to be avoided for

696 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

breeding purposes. After eight years of age nearly every ewe
is unfit for further service in this direction. She may look as
bright and seem as strong as ever, but the vigor and elasticity
of youth are gone and cannot be restored. With generous
keeping and kind treatment many, in all, will breed until ten
years of age. But there is a greatly increased risk both to the
ewe and the lamb, and both are often lost. The man who
breeds sheep to the best advantage \Cill keep no ewes after they
are eight years old and will obtain the great majority of his
lambs from those which are considerably younger.

As far as this point is concerned, the method which has been
pursued by the Carletons, of West Newfield, Me., is one
of the best which can be named. From a letter received from
Mr. J. L. Carleton, we will give a few facts concerning a small,
but, in some respects, a very remarkable, flock of sheep. In
1804 a Mr. Carleton purchased the farm which has since been
owned by his descendants. Of the man who had owned the
farm he also bought six sheep. From these six animals those
of the present flock are descended. The sheep now on hand
are large frame, hardy, have nice wool, and weigh from one
hundred and twenty-five to one hundred and fifty pounds each.
The original sheep were supposed to belong to an "old English"
breed. For seventy-three years no ram has been kept with this
flock, but each year one has been secured for a few weeks. In
this way many different breeds have been represented, and
many kinds of " blood " have found their way into the present
flock. For a long term of years fourteen sheep were kept.
Every year the two oldest sheep were sold and two lambs were
raised to take their places. Of late only eight sheep have been
kept, but fourteen lambs have been obtained in a single year.

While we do not approve of so much mi.xing of different
breeds we do most heartily commend the practice of sell.ng a
ceftain number of the old sheep, and raising an equal number of
lambs each year. This is the very best way for keeping a flock

SHEEP. 697

always thrifty and vigorous. The man who sells all his lambs
each year because they will bring more money than the sheep
will soon have a worthless flock.

Every ewe should be marked, and in a pass-book, kept foi
a sheep register, its age, weight of its fleeces, and number and
weight of its lambs, should be recorded. Every year the oldest
ones should be kept from the ram, fed with corn and roots
during the fdl, and sold for mutton early in the winter. The
lambs which are kept should be the finest ones in the flock.
The butcher will give more for these than he will for the poorer
ones, but the use of inferior breeding stock is the direct road to
ruin in the sheep business. Besides, the extra price which the
finest lamb will command is soon made up to the farmer who
keeps her. Each and every lamb which she has will sell for
from one to three dollars more than could have been obtained
for the lambs brought by the inferior ewes. As the sheep
should have five or six lambs in the course of her life, the
aggregate difference will be greatly in favor of the farmer if he
keeps the best. Not only this, but if inferior ewe lambs are
kept, their lambs will be still smaller and poorer, theirs, in turn,
will degenerate, and soon the flock will "run out."

The lambs which are to be kept should be petted, and all the
sheep should be kept quite tame. This is easily done if they
are always treated kindly. A wild flock of sheep cannot be as
profitable as one, otherwise in the same condition, which is
tame, and the labor of caring for the wild flock will be much
greater and more troublesome than that of looking after the
other. Begin with the lambs when they are quite small, handle
them often, and never scare them. Feed them well, and take
good care of them. If these things are done, the Iambs and
sheep will be tame and quiet.

As the tirrie for lambing approaches, the ewes which are the
most forward should be separated from the flock, and put into a
comfortable stable. From three to six may be put together.

C98 FARMIXG J- OK PRO J- IT.

If they have been well kept and properly mated, there will be
but little liability of trouble at this time. Still careful attention
should always be given, and help rendered if necessary. The
long-wooled sheep are said to have much more difficulty at this
time than the Merinos. Mechanical assistance should not
be rendered until it becomes evident that the labor of the ewe
will be in vain. In many instances in which nature is fully
successful several hours are required. The labor pains in these
cases come at inter\als, and between them the ewe is up, and
seems to suffer no great amount of inconvenience. But if her
strength fails and her efforts diminish, help should be given at
once.

The natural presentation of the lamb is with the nose between
the fore feet. If the feet protrude, the assistant should pull
gently when the ewe makes an effort to expel the lamb. If the
hind feet come first, there will usually be but little difficulty.
When the head is turned back, or there is some other unnatural
presentation, the lamb must be pushed back, and turned so that
a better position can be secured. Only in a case of great emer-
gency should an effort be made to obtain the lamb when the
ewe is quiet. Aid must be given gently, but firmly, if required,
Avhen the ewe has her labor pains. If she is far gone when
her case is discovered, and her pains have ceased, it may be
best to attempt to secure the lamb without them. Such an
effort may prove successful, and the ewe recover her strength,
but it is not at all certain that this will be the case. In all
cases when aid is to be given, the operator should oil his hand,
and work quietly and gently. Old ewes are more likely to have
trouble at this time than those which are younger, and the
weakly ones than those which are strong and well. Conse-
quently if there are any old or weakly ewes in the flock, they
should receive extra food and care for a few -weeks before the
time for dropping their lambs.

Care of the Lambs. — If he eets into the world without

SHEEP. 701

accident, or an unusual degree of hardship, and the ewe owns
him, as she generally will, the lamb will pretty much take care
of himself. The ewe will lap him dry, and he will very soon
attempt to suck. It is a good plan to start the milk for him, and
put him up to the teat. If he is weakly, this ought never to be
neglected. If he does not incline to suck, rubbing with the
fingers upon his back, and around the roots of the tail, will
generally induce him to begin. A lamb is ore of the most
obstinate animals which man ever attempted to help. But quiet,
persevering effort will in time succeed, and the worst lamb can
be got sucking if he is rightly managed. In cold weather the
lambs should be attended to as soon as they are able to be up.
If they do not get some milk very soon they will become chilled
and go beyond the reach of help.

If the ewe does not own the lamb he must be wiped dry, and
the dam must be held while he obtains his food. They should
then be placed together in a pen by themselves. If the pen is
dark, it will be better than a light one. The ewe must be held,
and the lamb allowed to suck at least six times every twenty-
four hours. In many cases the ewe will in a day or two own
the lamb. In others a longer time will be required. When a ewe
disowns her lamb, the fact should be noted in the register, and
if she does it two years in succession she should be fattened.
After a lamb has been dropped, it should be car d for and made
comfortable, but it does not pay to keep a ewe year after year
which puts the owner to so much trouble.

If the lamb is chilled when found, he should be taken to the
house, wiped dry, and put into a pretty warm oven or in water
as hot as can be comfortably borne by the hand. If water is
used, the lamb should remain in it only a few minutes, and when
removed be rubbed quite dry with a woollen cloth. If he seems
bright he may be taken to his dam and allowed to suck, but if
he does not fully revive he should have a small quantity of milk
from a cow which has recently calved, and in the milk from

702 FARMIXG I OR PROFIT.

cne-half tcaspoonful to a teaspoonful of whiskey, brandy, or
gin. When fully restored he should be placed with his dam.
If a lamb of a few days, or weeks, age is found chilly and
drooping, a dose similar to that recommended above may save
him without the trouble of removing him from the pen. One
of the finest sheep we ever saw was so chilled when found in
the morning after his birth that he could not stand. The treat-
ment advised may not always be successful, but it is well worth
trying, and will be sure to save many lambs.

Raising by hand lambs which are disowned, or which have
lost their darns, involves a great deal more of work and trouble
than the inexperienced reader would imagine. It can be done,
and splendid sheep can be secured by the means, but it is very
desirable that the ewes should 'look after their own lambs when
possible. Some men put a disowned lamb with a ewe which has
lost her own, or which has only one, and require her to look
after it. When a sheep has just lost her lamb this does very well.
The plan recommended when sheep disown their lambs is tried
in order to make the ewe take to the stranger. Sometimes the
skin of the lamb which belonged to her is laid upon the back
of the new one, and the ewe is deceived into believing it to be
her own. When a ewe already has a lamb it is not, as a rule, a
good plan to make her support another. If the attempt is made
she should receive an extra quantity of food, and this should be
of the best quality.

If the lamb must be reared by hand, it should be either fed
with a spoon for a while, or from a bottle having an India-rubber
nipple, but should be taught to drink when only a few weeks
old. The milk should be obtained from one particular cow, and
one which has only recently calved. Farrow cows' milk is not
suitable, and lambs are almost sure to die when fed with it. If
it must be used, a little molasses and water should be added.
Milk should be warm when fed, but ought never to be scalded.
Mr, Randall recommends feedintj a new-born lamb six times

SHEEP. 703

per day " at equal intervals between sunrise and ten o'clock at
night." After a few days five times will be sufficient. Some
farmers hold the lamb up by a cow and milk into its mouth.
This is a dangerous practice, and often kills lambs of consid-
erable size. In order to be at all successful in raising lambs
by hand the owner must be very regular about feeding, and
extremely careful in adapting the food to the wants and con-
dition of the particular individual w4iich he has in hand. A
comfortable .pen should be provided in some building near the
house, and a reasonable amount of exercise should be allowed.
The whole process looks simple enough, but the difficulties
are much greater than they appear. Still, it is not best to allow
a good healthy lamb to die without making an effort to save it.
Many fine sheep have been raised in this way, and have paid
well for all the time and trouble which were taken in caring for
them.

Docking, though often wholly neglected, ought to be
performed when the lamb is only a few weeks old. When
lambs are designed for the butcher there is not the necessity for
this" course that there is when they are to be kept upon the farm.
But even then the long tails often prove troublesome. As it
often happens that a lamb is kept which the owner designed to
sell, it is best to perform the operation. A sheep with a long
tail becomes a filthy animal, and its life may be lost solely on
account of the neglect of its owner to remove it.

Docking should be performed in cool, dry weather, and in the
morning, before the lambs have had a chance to get their blood
warm by running. A sharp knife is the usual instrument, but a
broad, thin chisel is much better. If a knife is used, the edge
should be placed the under side of the tail, and the cutting be
upward instead of the very common method of cutting from
the top downward. The tails should be left only two or three
inches in length. It is much the best way to have one person
hold the lamb, and another do the cutting. When a chisel is

704 FARMIXG FOR J'ROFIT

used the tail should be laid upon a smooth block, the skin
crowded toward the body, and the cuttin|j be done by a single
blow. When this plan is followed the skin slips back and
partially covers and protects the cut surface. If the opera-
tion is performed in hot weather an ointment made of tar,
butter, and turpentine should be applied in order to keep away
the fly.

Castration. — This operation shoifld be performed in the
morning, and in cool, fair weather, if possible. Jt should be
done when the lambs are only a few weeks old, as it causes
much less pain, and less trouble afterwards, than it does when
they are older. Mr. Randall describes the method to be pur-
sued as follows : "An attendant holds the lamb (with a fore and
hind leg grasped in each hand) in an upright position, with its
back placed against his own body. He draws the hind logs up
and apart, and presses against the lamb's body with sufficient
force to cause the lower part of the belly to protrude between
the thighs and the scrotum to be well exposed. The operator
then cuts off about one-third of the scrotum ; takes each testicle
in turn between the thumb and forefinger, and, after sliding
down the loose enveloping membrane to the spermatic cord,
pulls out the testicle with a moderately quick, but not violently,
jerking motion." We think it much better to cut the cord with
a sharp knife. The cord should not be left long enough to pro-'
trude from the scrotum, nor cut so short as to be drawn within
the abdomen. We believe, with Mr. Allen, that the jerking
process " is a severe and cruel way, and not so safe as the other."
We have sometimes followed one plan and sometimes the other,
and have never lost a lamb by either method, but the pulling
out of the cord seems both unscientific and barbarous. It is
very true that the breaking of the cord prevents bleeding, and
that clamps and the hot iron are inconvenient, but, when properly
performed, cutting does not cause severe bleeding, and we have
never found use for either clamps or irons. If the weather is

warm, the mixture of tar, butter, and turpentine, recommended
for use when docking is performed, should be applied.

Feeding lambs must be, to some extent, dependent upon the
purpose for which they are designed. Those which are to be
kept upon the farm, to take the places of the older members of
the flock, should run with their dams, have plenty of rowen hay,
and fresh water. Those which are to be fattened for the butchef
should, in addition to the above, be fed with meal. Indian meal
answers very well, but oil meal is a great deal better. Not only
is the latter a more efficient agent for accomplishing the purpose
desired, but the lambs 'learn to eat it more readily than they do
the Indian meal. If neither of these can be conveniently fur-
nished, oats will be found quite useful. A small pen should be
made in one corner of' the sheep-yard, and so arranged that,
while the lambs can enter freely, the sheep cannot get in. A
trough should be placed in this pen and the lambs taught to go
in. At first only a little meal should be .sprinkled in the trouo-h
but as the lambs learn to eat it, and also increase in size, the
quantity may be. gradually increased until, when they are three
months old, they receive nearly a quart of meal each per day.
Feeding with meal should be commenced when the lambs are
three weeks old and continued until they are sold to the
butcher.

When the lambs which are to be kept are about four months
old they should be weaned. This is wholly neglected by many
owners, but this neglect invariably causes bad results. The
ewes are injured by being obliged to furnish milk for the large
lambs, and the lambs are injured by depending upon the milk
for food to the neglect of the grass which they ought to eat.
At this time the dams should be put in their pen and the lambs
into a stable, or other enclosure, as far as possible from the
sheep. The dams should be fed with dry hay, in order to check
the secretion of milk, and the Iambs should have rowen and
a small allowance of oats. Both sheep and lambs should be

706 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

watered twice a day. It is a good plan to keep one or two old
and tame sheep with the lambs.

After two or three days the sheep may be turned into a short
pasture, but they should be brought to the barn ever\' night for
a week and milked. After this they should be driven up once
in two or three days for the same purpose. This should be
done until the secretion of milk has ceased. Many farmers
utterly neglect this precaution. They get up their sheep when
they sell, or wean, the lambs, separate them, and then turn the
sheep into the pasture without milking them at all. To this
neglect a large part of the difficulty with sheep which do not
have milk enough for their lambs, or which have inflamed
udders, may be directly traced. As soon as they are dried off
they should be put into a better pasture and well kept until they
are brought into winter quarters.

When the lambs have been kept up two or three days they
may, with the old sheep which are to be their companions, be
turned into a nice pasture in which the feed is very fine and
short. If no such pasture can be providecj, as good one as pos-
sible should be secured, and from one-half gill to one gill of oats
per day should be given to each lamb. Early in the autumn,
when the pastures begin to fail, oats should be given each day
until the lambs are put into winter quarters. It is very im-
portant that the lambs should not be allowed to grow poor from
the time when they are weaned until the last day of their lives.
The way to make money with sheep and lambs is to always
keep them well, a'nd never allow them to lose flesh. If they are
thin in flesh when winter sets in they will be very liable to die
either from disease or weakness before warm weather comes
again.

The Summer Management of sheep is ver}' simple, and in
addition to what has already been suggested there is but little
to say upon the subject. A good pasture, in which there is an
abundance of good food and plenty of pure water, should be

SHEEP. .^^

furnished. A shed, open at one side, should be provided for
shelter from the noonday sun and from storms. In this shed a
trough should be placed in which a supply of salt should be
constantly kept. We have long practiced keeping sheep in the
same pasture with cows, but the plan is not to be commended.
If the cows are gentle, they will not often hurt the sheep; but
the best of cows seem to hook sometimes, and there is constant
danger that the sheep will be injured.

A ram should not be allowed to run with the ewes, but should
be kept in a separate pasture, or, if unruly, at the barn. If al-
lowed to go with the ewes, the owner will never know when to
expect the lambs, and they will come stringing along from late
in the winter, or early in the spring, until the sheep are turned
out to grass. This makes bad work in many respects.
The lambs are not ready to be sold together, but must go
in many small lots, the trouble of feeding is increased, as is
also the difficulty of weaning the lambs and drying off the
ewes.

Washing. — It used^to be the almost universal custom to wash
sheep in a brook or pond, from ten days to three weeks before
they were to be sheared. Lately this practice has been growing
unpopular, and we hope it will soon be entirely abandoned.
When washing is practiced at the North, the shearing must be
put off too late, as the water in the brooks is not warm enough
for the purpose as soon as the air is warm enough to admit of
shearing. To drive sheep a long distance in hot weather, and.
while they are heated by the exercise, plunge them into a cold
stream, must be a great injury to the animals. A large quantity
of water remains in the wool and reduces tlie temperature of the
body to a very low point.

Not only is washing an injury to the health, but there is great
danger that contagious diseases will be spread by its means.
Many a sound flock of sheep has become affected with the foot-
rot, and many more with the scab, b)- being driven over the

703 FAA-.U/.V(J FOR PKOFIT.

same road and sluit into the washing pen which has been occu-
pied by sheep which were diseased.

Again, the men who do the washing often contract lung
diseases as the result of their exposure while working in the
water. Rheumatic troubles are also either engendered or
aggravated by tlie exposure, and various other difficulties have
been known to spring therefrom.

While it involves many difficulties and some dangers, washing
does not accomplish the purpose for which it was designed. It
does not secure anything approaching uniformity in the con-
dition of the wool of various flocks. Some sheep, when un-
washed, have cleaner wool than some others which have been
through tiie ceremonial. Men are not always honest in doing
this work, and some have seemed to try to get as little dirt as
possible from the fleece, and yet sell washed wool. Others have
washed carefully and sold, at the same price per pound, wool
which had been well cleaned. This is manifestly unfair. Again,
Merino sheep will have a very large proportion of dirt and
grease in their wool, even after being wasj;ied in a brook, while
from the South Down fleece nearly all of the foreign matter is
removed. And as the manufacturer is obliged to clean the wool
before he can use it, we see no reason why he should not be
willing to take it, at a fair price, without being washed. We
think such a course would be much the best for all parties, and
are glad that it seems to be gaining ground so rapidly and
meeting so much favor where it has been tried.

In this connection we should say that it is important to
keep the sheep as clean as possible. They should not be al-
lowed to get burs, or twigs, or other foreign matter, into their
fleeces, and if any locks of wool become coated with manure,
they should be clipped off, before the ewes have lambs, and

ft

thrown away. The owner should take an interest in keeping
his sheep clean, and have some pride in their presenting a fine
appearance.

SHEF.r.

709

Shearing. — When performed by hand, this is hard work for
the man and still harder for the sheep. We know of no way in
which it can be made very easy for either, but care on the part
of the operator would greatly reduce the suffering which the
sheep usually have to endure. When a machine is used, both
man and sheep are much relieved. Figure iio represents an
excellent machine for this purpose. By its use a man can easily
shear ten sheep per hour, and as it cuts the fleece evenly and
closely, without clipping it a second time, manufacturers con-
sider the wool worth a cent a pound more when cut with the
machine than it is when common shears are used. This
machine is manufactured by C. M. Moseman & Bro., of New
York city.

FIG. IIO. — SHEEP-SHEARING MACHINE.

When performed by hand, the shearing should be done with'
care and skill. The men who are in a constant hurry, who cut
and slash both wool and skin, ought never to be employed. A
sheep that is badly cut when sheared will not recover from the
effects of the injury thus inflicted during the summer, and may
lose its life in consequence. It pays to handle the sheep care-
fully and to avoid cutting them. The work should be done on
a smooth and clean floor, or on a platform made for the purpose.
The latter we have never tried. It is highly recommended by
some shearers. The sheep should be kept in the pen but a
short time, as the shearing can be more easily performed, and
with less trouble to the sheep, when they are well filled with

grass than it can when their stomachs are empty. Before they
44

710 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

arc taken to the floor all the dirt and straw should be got off
from their feet, and any locks of wool which are covered with
manure should be cut off The sheep should be set on its
rump, and the wool sheared from its neck and fore-shoulders,
then laid upon one side and the upper side sheared, then turned
over and the wool taken from the other side. The wool should
be cut reasonably close, but care must be taken neither to cut
the skin nor the teats. The shearer should be quiet and gentle,
and keep the sheep in an uncomfortable position as short a time
as possible. Good shears are necessary to the easy and rapid
performance of this work.

While we do not favor extremely early shearing we think it
very important that this work should not be delayed too long.
In hot weather sheep which are covered with long wool are
extremely uncomfortable, and the thick covering- is very
injurious. When the sheep are out in heavy rains the wool
takes in a large quantity of water, and the e\'aporation of this
moisture removes a great deal of heat from the system, thus
inviting a severe attack of disease. Besides, when sheared late
in the summer the wool does not get a good start before the
next autumn, and the sheep is unduly exposed to the cold
weather when it comes.

For some days after being .sheared the sheep should be
protected from storms. Many sheep have been killed outright,
and a multitude more. have incurred di.sease which finally, after
much suffering, resulted in death, by exposure to a heavy rain
soon after being sheared. The skin of the sheep is very loose
and open, and after the wool is removed rain easily penetrates
it. A heavy rain also removes much of the natural heat from the
system, and causes congestion of the vital organs. The fleece
is a great protection, and after its sudden removal the sheep
should be well cared for until the system has power to adapt
itself to the change. The newly sheared sheep should not be
'le't out at night, during a rainy day, or a thunder-storm, but

SHEEP. 711

should be shut into their barns during these times. This makes
some extra work, but it pays well to take care of sheep at this
critical period.

Ticks. — These parasites attack all neglected sheep, and many
which are well cared for. We once bought a lamb, of a
prominent breeder of sheep, which was covered with them and
which distributed them to the whole flock. The ticks not only
cause a vast amount of suffering, but they keep the sheep thin
in flesh and lighten the fleece. After the sheep are sheared the
ticks leave them and get upon the lambs. If let alone they
will worry the lambs so much that they will not grow fast,
and will come into winter quarters in very poor condition. As
these parasites can be easily destroyed, there is no excuse for
allowing them to remain upon the lambs.

Various methods are in use for exterminating the ticks. The
old standard remedy for lambs infested with ticks was a
decoction of tobacco. This was put into a tub, or narrow box,
and the lamb immersed in the liquid. For this work two men
are needed. One should hold the lamb by the fore legs with
one hand while his other hand covers the mouth and nose so as
to prevent the fluid entering them, while the other man holds
the lamb by the hind legs. The lamb should be held in the
fluid only a moment. Then it should be taken out, and all the
liquid which it is possible to remove squeezed from the wool.
During this process the lamb should stand in an empty tub in
order to save the liquid which drips from the wool. If made
too strong, or the lamb is kept in the liquid too long, the
tobacco will sicken the animal, and may even cause its death.
The rule is to chop into fine pieces from five to seven pounds
of plug tobacco for one hundred sheep. This should be boiled
in water until its strength is extracted. The liquid can be used
either warm or cold.

The smoke of tobacco is also an effectual agent for destroying
ticks, and if a fumigator is at hand may be used in preference to

712 FARMIiVG FOR PROFIT.

the decoction described above. The same precautions should
be observed in its use as were recommended %vhcn used for
destroying Hce upon cattle.

Still better than either of the above is the Cresvlic Sheep
Dip, a kind of soap with which both cresylic and carbolic acids
are compounded. This is used in much the same manner as
the decoction of tobacco, but is not poisonous, and will not
injure the animals or those who apply the liquid.

In two or three weeks after the sheep have been sheared
nearly all of the ticks which were upon them will have gone to
the lambs to feed upon their more tender flesh, and hide in their
longer wool. Then the lambs should be subjected to some
method of treatment which will remove the intruders, and give
the lambs an opportunity to thrive, and a chance to be com-
fortable.

Winter Max.vgement. — At the South sheep should be pro-
vided with comfortable sheds, and, in those portions where
light snows fall, or the freshness of the food is destroyed by
frost, hay and roots should be furnished as required. At the
North much more elaborate preparation must be made.
Shelter and food must be provided constantly for several
months, and the flock must be cared for not only daily but
several times a day.

The sheep should be brought to the pens early in the season.
Nothing is gained, but much will be lost, by keeping them out
too long. When the grass has been frosted, the sheep should
be got up to the yard, and fed once or twice a day, but should
be allowed to run in an adjoining field most of the time when
the weather is good, until it becomes quite cold, or the ground
is covered with snow. At the very first of the feeding season
the oldest and poorest of the flock should be separated from the
others, and put upon higher keeping. They should have grain
in abundance, and be made ready for the butcher as soon as
possible. If any of the sheep are too poor to justify this course.

SHEEP. 723

they should be killed and skinned without delay. This is much
better than it is to keep them till spring, and then have them
die of their own accord.

Too many sheep must not be kept in a single pen. The
Merino bears herding much better than the long-wooled sheep,
but even this may be kept in too large flocks. It was formerly
supposed that the long-wooled sheep could only be kept in
flocks of from fifty to one hundred, but some Canadian
breeders keep three hundred Cotswolds together without bad
results. Mr. Coleman, of Kentucky, a prominent sheep-
breeder, says : " I have handled in flocks of one hundred and
over. They will do well ; but, like cattle, will do better in
smaller lots. This is also true of other breeds of sheep."
Probably, if they have plenty of room, good care, and abundant
food, large flocks of sheep can be kept without trouble. But if
the pens are small, or the food is poor, large flocks will soon
become diseased, and the owner will sustain a heavy loss.

A good shed, which is comfortably warm and thoroughly
ventilated, should be provided. Sheep will endure cold much
better than they can impure air. Still they should not be
exposed to the action of wind or rain, and the temperature of
the pen should not run extremely low. Small pens, which are
quite warm, should be provided for the use of sheep at lambino-
time, and for sheep which do not own their lambs. The feedino-
should always be under cover. A convenient rack, at which all
the sheep can stand at once without crowding, should be placed
in the middle of the shed. This rack should be arranged not
only to hold hay but so that it can be easily cleaned, and so
that roots or meal can be fed in it without waste.

The bottom of the shed should be kept constantly dry.
Quite a quantity of straw, or swale hay, can be profitably used
for bedding. If nothing of this kind is at hand, or can be
spared, the pen should be cleaned every day. It is not safe to
allow the ground upon which the sheep and lambs are kept to

714 FARMING J-OR PROFIT.

become either wet or filthy. Better use the finest hay for
bedding than to allow the sheep to stand on moist ground-
Either course would be extravagant, but one would only waste
the hay while the other would spoil the sheep. On most
farms plenty of coarse hay or straw can be supplied.

Feeding should be done with great regularity. Many owners
feed only twice a day — once in the morning and again towards
night. Some feed again at noon. Sheep do not eat well in the
dark. Consequently they should have their afternoon meal
soon enough to finish it by daylight. Water should also be
regularly supplied. Some writers assert that sheep do not need
water in the summer, and others say that they do not require it
in winter. We are convinced that they need it at all times of the
year. There are sheep — we have seen a few — which eat snow in
preference to drinking water, but nearly all those which we ever
took care of drank water as regularly as horses and cows.
Sheep seem to prefer to drink " little and often." Consequently
they should either have constant access to a trough of pure
water, or else should be allowed to run for an hour or two at
morning and night in a yard where plenty of water can be
obtained. Shallow troughs are better than tubs. When the
water is low the sheep can get it better from troughs, and there is
less danger that lambs will fall in and be drowned when they
are full.

The quantity of food will depend upon its quality. Nothing
can be gained by short keeping. We always designed to give
our sheep all the rowen hay they would eat, and when the ewes
had lambs add some roots or a little meal to their rations.
Some owners give good hay and straw, and one pound of
turnips per day for each sheep. Others give one quart of oats
with hay and straw, or, in place of the oats, a pound of corn or
meal. An occasional feed of bright corn-stalks will be relished
by sheep and do them good. It is not well to keep breeding
ewes very fat, and it is absolutely ruinous to allow them to get

SHEEP. 7i^

very thin in flesh. While a variety of food will be relished, and
will give better results than any one kind which is continuously
given, care must be taken not to overfeed at one time or under-
feed at another. Such a course would injure the health and
would damage the quality of the wool. Sheep which are uni-
formly well fed produce wool of uniform strength and size of
fibre, but those which ar^ sometimes starved and sometimes
stuffed will have fleeces of very uneven fibre, and wool-buyers
will be likely either to reject such fleeces altogether or else
make quite a discount from the ordinary price.

Sheep which are to be fattened need more grain and less hay
than those v/hich are kept for breeding. They should be put
into the winter-quarters e^rly and fed with rowen, clover hay, or
bright straw, and some kind of grain. The grain should be
given in small quantities at first, and gradually increased to one
pound of oil meal, or Indian corn, per day for each sheep.
Buckwheat is sometimes used instead of meal or corn. The
same weight should be given. We much prefer the oil meal to
any other food for fattening sheep, and consider good rowen
and bright clover very much superior to straw or to most other
kinds of hay.

Salt should be kept in a box to which sheep can have access
at any time. It seems to be necessary to their comfort, and we
believe that it tends to keep them in good health. The cost is
slight, and if it could be proved that no special benefit except
the gratification of a natural appetite resulted from its use, it
would still be best for the owner of the sheep to furnish all they
cared to eat. But we think there is plenty of evidence that salt
is a useful article of diet, and that it should be freely supplied to
all domestic animals.

Exercise. — This is a very important matter and one which
has not received the attention which it deserves. .During the
summer the sheep roam in pastures and travel around each day
in quest of tood. But in winter they are too often shut into

716 FARMIXG FOR PROFIT.

close pens, or stables, and for several months have nothing
deserving the name of exercise. This period of unnatural con-
finement comes at, a time when, of all others, the breeding ewes
most need the benefits of regular exercise. The results of this
neglect must be injurious to both the sheep and their lambs.
In order to counteract this tendency to close confinement, some
writers recommend placing the feedir\g racks at quite a distance
from the pens. This would do well in fair weather and good
travelling, but would be open to serious objections in stormy-
weather, when the snow is deep and when the ground is
covered with ice. We have been in the habit of allowing the
sheep to run in the cattle yards an hour or two each night..
A larger yard and more time spent therein would probably be
still better.

The Dise.\ses of Sheep which are properly bred and cared
for are few in number, but neglected or ill-bred flocks are liable
to a great number of maladies. Here, as has already been
insisted upon in the case of cattle, prevention is worth infinitely
more than cure. We are fully satisfied, not only from observa-
tion but from an experience of many years, that there need be
but little sickness in well-kept flocks of sheep. Having given
directions for taking care of sheep so as to keep them well, we
shall only consider a very few of the diseases to which neglected
flocks are exposed. .And even these diseases are sometimes
better exterminated by destroying the sheep infected by them.
Probably the majority of sheep-owners would do well to follow
the course long since marked out by Mr. Peters, of Darien,
N. Y. He says, in a letter to Mr. Randall: "After years of
experience I discarded all medicines except those to cure hoof-
rot and scab; and I finally cured those diseases cheapest by
selling the sheep. An ounce of prevention is worth a pound
of cure. If sheep are well kept summer and winter, not over-
crowded in pastures, and kept under dry and well-ventilated
covers in winter, and housed wh'^n the cold fall rains come on,

SHEEP. 717

there will be no necessity for remedies of any kind. If not so
handled, all the remedies in the world won't help them, and the
sooner a careless, shiftless man loses his sheep the better.
They are out of their misery and are not spreading contagious
diseases among the neighboring flocks." Unless the animals
are particularly valuable, it will pay better to check the progress
of disease which assumes an aggravated form by killing the
sheep than it will to attempt a cure.

Catarrh. — This disease is more likely to affect the long-
wooled breeds of sheep than it is any others. It is usually
caused by some undue exposure to storms — by getting chilled
after running, or by lying on wet ground. It is not often im-
mediately fatal, but sometimes weakens the vital forces so that
the sheep cannot go through the winter. Prevention is easy.
Cure, except by good nursing, constant care, and extra food, is
very difficult, and even these means are not always successful.

Colic is a very painful and violent disease. It is" brought on
by improper feeding, drinking cold water when heated, and
similar causes. Confinement to dry food for a long time causes
constipation which frequently results in an attack of colic. Un-
less relief is soon obtained this disease is likely to prove fatal.

When a sheep is attacked with this disease it has, at intervals,
paroxysms of severe pain, stretches itself, twists its head around,
and gets up and lies down quite often. Give, as soon as pos-
sible, one ounce epsom salts dissolved in warm water, with a
drachm of ginger and a teaspoonful of the essence of pepper-
mint. Half of this quantity is sufficient for a lamb. In mild
cases, warm thoroughwort tea, made very strong, may prov^c
effectual.

DiARRHCEA. — This disease is frequently caused by a sudden
change of food from dry hay to grass. Sometimes it is brought
on by a general disarrangement of the digestive functions. With
sheep, the best remedy is a change of food. Lambs need more
thorough treatment, and the disease often proves fatal even when

718 FARMING FOR FROF/T.

remedial measures are taken. It is usually caused, in lambs, by
taking cold or by acidity of the stomach which leads to indiges-
tion. Mr. Randall recommends giving one-fourth of an ounce
of prepared chalk in half a pint of tepid milk, once a day for two
or three days, or until the disease has abated. In very sdvere
cases, when mucus is voided with the dung, the first treatment
should be the administration of a half-drachm of rhubarb, or a
half-ounce of epsom salts. This should be followed by the
chalk as directed above.

Garget. — This disease is not as common among sheep as it
is with cows, but sometimes proves very injurious. As soon as
the udder presents an inOamed and swollen appearance, or seems
to be sore, hot water in which a little opium, or laudanum, has
been steeped should be applied. This wash should be repeated
many times a day until a cure is effected. Treatment of this
disease should be prompt, not only in order to cure the sheep,
but also to save the lamb, which, unless fed by hand or put upon
another ewe, may not be able to obtain milk enough to keep it
alive. If this treatment, closely followed for two or three days,
gives no relief, a liniment of iodine and ammonia in equal parts
should be tried. But, if taken in season, the hot water and
opium will almost always effect a cure.

Grub in the Head. — This name is made to do duty for
various diseases the causes and action of which are unknown.
Still there are some genuine cases, and they sometimes prove
fatal. A fly lays its eggs in the nostrils of the sheep, and the
eggs hatch into grubs which take up their abode in the head.
In order to prevent their attacks it is well to plow a few furrows,
in several different places, in the pasture about the first of July.
The sheep will put their noses into the fresh earth and thu# keep
the fly away. Some owners cover the noses of the sheep with
tar. Others put tar in the salt box, sprinkle on a little salt, and
let the sheep make their own application.

It is said that the grubs can be destroyed by blowing tobacco

SHEEP. 719

smoke up the nostrils of the affected sheep. The bowl of the
pipe is covered with a cloth and the smoke forced throu<jh the
stem

Hoof-Rot. — This is the worst of all the diseases with which
sheep are affected. It is very contagious, and a single sheep
suffering from this disease is capable of ruining the whole flock
to which it belongs. The disease is not incurable, but prompt
and stringent measures alone will suffice for its extermination.
If a cure is attempted all the sheep which show any signs of the
disease should be wholly separated from the others and medical
treatment commenced at once. But, if the sheep are not spe-
cially valuable, we should prefer to sell the whole flock to the
butcher for what they would bring, the sick ones being of no
value except for. their pelts, thoroughly disinfect the pens and
yards, and, after the lapse of six months or a year, obtain a new
stock.

If a cure is attempted, the sheep should be driven to the pens
immediately after a rain, if possible, as the hoofs will then be
softer than they will in dry weather. The feet must be cleaned
and the operator, with sharp knives, must cut away the horn
which covers the diseased portions of the foot. No more cutting
than is necessary should be done, but what is needed must be
thoroughly performed, as the success of the effort to cure depends
entirely upon the exposure o{ all of the affected parts. For this
work a careful, skilful, and if possible an experienced, operator
should be secured. The best remedies will be useless if the foot
is not properly prepared. When this has been effected the
application of suitable caustics will effect a cure. Mr. Randall
cured many cases by paring the feet and applying a solution of
blue vitriol. He obtained about twelve pounds of the vitriol for
one hundred sheep. This was dissolved in a quantity of hot
water and placed in a washing tub large enough to hold two
sheep. The liquid was as hot as could be endured for a mo-
ment by the hand, and was kept at this heat by frequent addi-

720 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

tions of the hot solution. "As soon as a sheep's feet were
pared it was placed in the tub and held there by the neck by
an assistant. A second one was prepared and placed beside it.
When the third one was ready, the first was taken out, and so
on. Two sheep were thus constantly in the tub, and each
remained in it about ten minutes. The cure was perfect."
Doubtless this is a much more efficient, and, on the whole, a
more merciful method than the frequent application of caustic
to the feet, but it seems cruel to make a sheep whose feet are
terribl}^ diseased, and have been pared down to the quick, stand
for ten minutes in a strong, hot solution of blue vitriol. Still,
the common method of washing the feet with some caustic solu-
tion is slow in its effects and often proves unavailing. The
caustic does not touch all of the diseased, parts, and, by contact
with the ground, is almost immediately removed from the spots
to which it is applied. This necessitates frequent painful appli-
cations and involves great uncertainty as to the results. On the
whole, if the sheep are to be saved, Mr. Randall's method is
the best one which has yet been presented.

This terrible disease is much more prevalent among Merino
sheep than it is with long-wooled breeds, and is also much more
difficult to cure. This is due, in part at least, to a difference in
the formation of the foot. Whenever the disease appears it
should be eradicated at once, and a great deal of care should be
taken not to expose neighboring flocks. Feeding in the same
pasture, or driving over the same road with or soon after an
infected flock has passed, is almost sure to fasten the disease
upon a large part of the animals thus exposed. Consequently
in purchasing sheep care should be taken to obtain those which
have no trace of this disease, and no exposure to it, howevei
slight, should be permitted whenever it can possibly be avoided.

Poison. — Sheep and lambs are sometimes poisoned by eating
laurel, both the narrow-leaved or " low laurel," and the broad-
leaved or " spoonwood." St. John's Wort is also said to poison

SHEEP. 721

sheep severely. Soot which has been applied to grass or grain
as a fertilizer is sometimes eaten in sufficient quantities to
destroy the life of the sheep. Laurel is the most common
poison which sheep are inclined to eat. Mr. Morrell, in his
work on Sheep, says : "After eating it the animal appears to
be dull and stupid, swells a little, and is constantly gulping a
greenish fluid which it swallows down ; a part of it will trickle
out of its mouth and discolor its lips." He says that if in the
early stages the greenish fluid is suffered to escape the
sheep will probably recover. To effect the escape of the fluid
he recommends the use of a gag made of a stick '' the size of
your wrist, and six inches long — place it in the animal's mouth
— tie a string to one end of it, pass it over the head and down
to the other end, and there make it fast. The fluid will then
run from the mouth as fast as thrown up from the stomach.
In addition to this, give roasted onions and sweetened milk
freely." We have never tried this method, but have relied upon
the use of cathartics. The great difficulty with these is that
they act so slowly that the poison gets distributed throughout
the system. It is said that a strong decoction of white ash,
made by boiling the bruised twigs in water for an hour, and
given in quantities of from one-half gill to one gill, and repeated
if necessary, will cure poisoning by laurel if administered within
a day of the time the laurel was eaten. Sweet oil in six ounce
doses, or one-half pint of linseed oil, will sometimes effect a cure.
The immediate use of a stomach pump by means of which the
poison can be diluted with water, and much of it removed, will
be altogether the best method in all cases in Avhich it is
available. When this cannot be employed one of the remedies
named above should be tried.

Scab. — This is a disease of the skin, similar to the itch in
men, which causes an immense amount of pain, and, if allowed
to run its course, kills the sheep. It is caused by a minute
insect which burrows under the skin, hatches its young, and the

722 FARI^IING FOR PROFIT.

new generations come out only to burrow in fresh places to
bring forth their families. The affected sheep rubs against posts
and doors, bites itself, and tears out its wool. Small red spots
appear on the skin. These soon become sores and are covered
with scabs. All infected sheep should be separated from the
others, and the posts and all other places against which they
have rubbed should be washed with strong tobacco water.

If the wool is short the scabs should be rubbed from the
infected sheep with a stiff shoe-brush, and the animals then
dipped in tobacco water as directed for killing ticks, or what is a
great deal better, the Cresylic Sheep Dip should be used. If
the wool is very long it should be parted, and the latter remedy
applied to all the sores. Short-wooled sheep are not as likely
to be attacked by this disease as the long-wooled breeds, and
healthy sheep are much freer from it than those which are
weak and poor.

Sore Eves should be washed quite often with warm water.
If this does not give relief, a very little sulphate of zinc and a
small quantity of laudanum should be added to the water. All
irritating remedies should be carefully avoided.

Sore Lips. — The lips of sheep sometimes become so sore and
swollen in the winter that they are very painful, and render the
eating of dry hay difficult if not impossible. In such cases an
ointment composed of tar, made thin by the addition of butter,
and a small quantity of sulphur, should be applied twice a day
until a marked improvement takes place. It should then be
used occasionally until the cure is complete.

Dogs. — Among the worst enemies of the sheep-owner are
the miserable, worthless curs which abound in almost ever>'
community. In Massachusetts, and we think in a few other
States, there is a " dog law " which imposes a tax upon all dogs,
and from the fund thus collected the owners of sheep which
have been killed by dogs are paid for the animals which have
been destroyed. Such a law ought to be in force in ever>'

SHEEP. rjcyr^

State, and it should be much more stringent than it is in Massa-
chusetts. The money received never pays for the injury
sustained. When slieep are chased by dogs the whole flock
is demoralized, and those which are not killed or wounded are
injured for life. Owners of sheep should insist upon having a
law which will protect their interests. It is right that such a
law should be passed and enforced.

Until the owners of dogs are obliged to keep them from
destroying their neighbors' flocks, sheep-owners must protect
themselves as well as possible. We have been in the habit of
driving the sheep to the barn every night during the summer.
This injures the sheep and makes considerable extra work, but
it seems to be a necessity. Some owners say that a good-sized
bell fastened around the neck of one sheep in every ten of the
flock will keep dogs from chasing them. Others say that it
is not a sure preventive. If nothing better is at hand, this
method should be tried by all who cannot yard their sheep every
night.

Sheep on the Prairies often prove a source of very large
profits. The cost of keeping is small, and good food is easily
obtained. During the summer the sheep feed on the rich
and abundant prairie grass. Turnips, which yield immensely
on the rich soil, furnish green food in the autumn at a merely
nominal cost, and Indian corn almost wholly takes the place of
hay for winter use.

Of course the business is done at a great disadvantage, and
the losses of sheep and lambs are very heavy. The sheds
which are put up for winter do not furnish adequate protection,
a large variety of food cannot well be provided, and the lambs
cannot have the care which is usually bestowed where small
flocks are kept. But the expenses of keeping are so light that,
in spite of all the drawbacks, sheep husbandry on the prairies is
a recognized source of wealth.

That sheep should be more generally kept throughout the

724 FARMIXG FOR PROFIT.

country, and especially at the South, we firmly believe. Kept
in small numbers, in connection with grain-growing and other
lines of farm business, they can be made to yield very large
returns. The labor of caring for them is much less than that
required where cows are kept. This is an item for the farmer
to consider, not only on his own account, but also for the sake of
his wife. The difference in the work of the women where cows
and sheep are kept is very great. We do not assert, as an old
English writer once did, that " sheep is the most profitablest
cattle that a man can have," but we do believe that keeping
sheep in small flocks, which are carefully managed, will make
larger returns for the amount of capital and labor than almost
any other department of farm business.

SWINE.

WINE are among the most valuable of our domestic
animals. They fill a place which no other animal can
^X;^ occupy, and supply a positive demand of our domestic
w economy. They utilize a great deal of what otherwise
would be waste material, they furnish a vast amount of food,
and. by concentrating its value, they enable the farmer who is so
far from the cities and towns that he cannot afford to pay the
transportation charges of bulky material to get his grass and
grain to a profitable market. They can be kept on large or
small farms, in droves or singly, as the sole representatives of
live-stock on the farm, with the exception of animals kept for
their labor, or in connection with cows and sheep. They save
so much material which but for them would be lost, and furnish
so large quantities of valuable manure, that it is diflFicult to see
how any farmer, even the one who does the smallest business,
can afford to be without one or more of these animals.

That there exists a prejudice against swine is very true, and
many people will neither keep nor eat the flesh of one of these

SWINE. • 725

creatures. But the facts that the number of these animals in
this country is about twenty-six milHons, with a total value of
one hundred and seventy-five millions of dollars, and that both
number and value are constantly and rapidly increasing, indicate
that the antagonistic feeling is neither very general nor very
powerful. It is too late in the day to assert that pork is " not
nt to eat." Nearly all civilized races make a large use of the
flesh and products of the hog, and have done so for a long
period. Invalids and persons engaged in sedentary employ-
ments may not be able to eat large quantities of pork without
"injury, but, when properly cooked, the flesh of a well-fattened
pig may be used with beneficial effects by the great majority of
pjople who are in a fair state of health. Too much fried salt
pork in hot weather is not well for any one to use, but this is no
reason why pork should be wholly condemned.

Neither do we regard the fact that the Mosaic legislation
excluded pork from the diet of the ancient Jews as an indication
that the improved pigs of the present day are unfit for food.
There were various reasons which influenced that legislation
which do not apply to our people and our conditions of life and
society. The Jews were to be "a peculiar people," and to be
kept separate from the surrounding nations. Much of the legis-
lation of the early period of their national history had for its end
and aim the strict keepmg of this separation. 'It has also .been
suggested that the swine in ancient Egypt and vicinity were
badly diseased, and that the use of their flesh caused, or aggra-
vated, the leprosy from which the people severely suffered..
Whatever the reason, we think that it long since passed away
and that all Christian people are at perfect liberty to eat pork
if they desire to do so. And it is a noticeable fact that many
who insist that the Mosaic prohibition was a sure indication
that the flesh of swine is unwholesome, do not have the same
regard for the other prohibitions of that legislation, but utterly

ignore many of its most stringent provisions.
45

726 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

Breeds of Swine. — Quite a number of different breeds are
now very popular in various parts of the country, and there are
several which have a general instead of a local reputation.
Among those which, on account of their wide dissemination as
well as their valuable qualities, have become generally known,
the Chester White, Suffolk, and Yorkshire, among the
white pigs, the Magie, or Poland-China, white and black, and
the Essex, and Berkshire, which are black, are the most promi-
nent. There are breeds which may, when more widely known,
rank higher than some of those named above. Each of the
breeds we have named has excellent points. Some are bet-
ter fitted to endure the exposure to which pigs kept in large
droves are frequently subjected than others, which, when care-
fully tended, arc equally good. There are multitudes of good
hogs which do not belong to either of the well-known breeds, '
but are called "natives." Probably a still larger number of the
native pigs are extremely poor and are unprofitable animals to
keep. In order to obtain a fair profit, good pigs, of some kind,
must be secured. The farmer who kept the same hog seven
years because he was able to "eat all the sv.ill made on the
farm," had a very imperfect idea of the end for which this class
(.{ animals should be kept. What is wanted is a pig which will
make the largest possible returns for the food which theowner
is able to supply. The man who has rich clover fields and
thousands of bushels of "ten-cent" corn, and who ships his pigs
to the city market, wants a verj' different style of an animal
from the mechanic in a country village who only keeps one pig
to utilize the waste of the household and furnish part of the
meat for family use. Thus it will be readily seen that all good
breeds, however different their characteristics, have their uses,
and may be made not only available but also profitable. The
only caution necessary is that the right men get the right breed
of pigs.

Without giving a lengthy description of each breed, we will

Fin. lit.

1. CHESTFR WHITF.S PICS. " King of Chester County," and " Model of Perfection.' Dr.iwn from life.
Ouoed by Benson, .M-iule & Co., Philadelphi.i, Pa. 2. ESSEX PIC;.

SWINE. 729

briefly mention a few of the leading characteristics of the ones
which have been named. The Chester White is a " made-
up " breed which originated in Chester County, Pa., and of
which there are many different strains. The better class of pigs
known by this name are entitled to a very high rank, but the
popularity of the breed has been greatly clouded by the action
of unprincipled parties who have sent out large numbers of the
common pigs of that section (which were no better than the
same class of pigs in other localities) as the genuine Chester
White, and taken high prices for them. The better classes of
the genuine breed have been well established and will breed
true, but many of the pigs sold under this netme have not the
slightest claim to a place with this, or any other specified,
family. The real Chester is white, has a short head, thin ears,
short and thick neck, long and deep body with a broad back,
hams full and deep, coating thin, no bristles, and a small tail.
The hogs can be made to attain a great weight. Mr. Harris,
in his work on the Pig, says that this is " a large, rather
coarse, hardy breed, of good constitution, and well adapted to
the system of management ordinarily adopted by the majority
of our farmers."

The Suffolk, is a small but valuable breed. Its hand-
some appearance commends it to those who care for the looks
of a pig, while the ease with which it can be fattened and the
shortness of the time required to get it into condition make it a
favorite with villagers and with farmers who keep but a few pigs
and who are not particular about large size. It is a ver^^ old
and firmly established breed. Consequently the boars are ex-
cellent for using with good native sows.

When fed high, the pigs fatten at a very early age, and can be
got into condition to kill at any time after they are six weeks
old. If kept on short rations during the first few months
they grow to considerable size, and can be made to weigh four
hundred pounds. If given enough to eat they will stay at home,

730 FARMING FOR PROIIT.

and do nothing but eat and rest. They do well when kept on
grass, and require less grain than mcst other breeds. As they
are very quiet, they are not as useful for working over manure
piles as some other pigs, but for making a large quantity of
pork which contains but little waste from the smallest possible
quantity of food they have no superior. Some advocates of
this breed claim that the Suffolk pig contains as much meat
that is eatable " as most hogs of double his weight, and which
consume four times his food." This is, probably, an overstate-
ment of the case, but from our limited experience with these
pigs we judge that they utilize their food to the best advantage,
while it must bfe clear to every observer that the proportion
of offal is extremely small.

It is said that the Suffolk pigs, on account of their thin hair
and tender skin, do not endure the exposure to which Western
pigs are usually subjected as well as some other breeds. Also,
that, on account of their strong tendency to fatten, the sows are
not as prolific as it is desirable they should be. Still this breed
is rapidly growing in favor throughout the country, and it
possesses merit enough to enable it to hold a high position
among the very best breeds in the world.

Yorkshire. — There are a multitude of pigs scattered through-
out the country which are said to belong to this breed. They
vary as much in everything except color, which is always
white, as they do from other white breeds. There are " large,"
and " middle," and " small " Yorkshires, and it is even claimed
" that all the be.st white pigs of modern times " are indebted to
Yorkshire blood for their excellencies. Several breeds which
have a local reputation claim descent from the Yorkshire, and
some declare the Suffolk to be only a modification of this
breed. That many excellent pigs are called by this name there
can be no doubt, but a title^which covers large hogs and small
pigs of various forms and different habits must be pretty elastic,
and the application of the same name to animals which differ so

swjNE. 733

widely makes it very easy for those who are so disposed to
sell white pigs of unknown origin as genuine Yorkshires.

Magie, or Poland-China. — Although this is a comparatively
new breed of pigs, the originators claim that they have got it so
well established that the animals breed perfectly true, and that
this breed " is unsurpassed." There has been a great deal of
dispute concerning the origin of this breed, and who should have
credit therefor. But it seems to have been proved beyond a doubt
that its perfection, if not its origin, is due to the careful and
persevering labors of D. W. Magie, and several other breeders in
Ohio. After hearing the claims of various parties, the National
Convention of swine-breeders decided that the name of this
breed ought to be Poland-China, and that the dozen or fifteen
other names which had been used should be dropped.

The pigs of this breed are spotted black and white, are quite-
hardy, good feeders, fatten well, and under favorable circum-
stances attain a large size. They are not as fine, and do not
mature as quickly as some other breeds, but seem to be well
adapted to supply the wants of Western farmers. The sows of
this breed when bred to Berkshire boars bring forth finer pigs,
which are said to mature early and fatten easily.

Essex. — This is a small breed of pure black swine. It has
not been extensively introduced into the great pork-growing
sections, but has won considerable favor in the Eastern and
Middle States. With the exception of color and less troubL
with skin diseases, this breed closely resembles the Suffolk.
The pigs mature early, and fatten very easily either on grass or
grain. The sows are not as prolific, and the pigs, when small,
are not as hardy as those of larger and coarser breeds. They
are generally considered too small to be profitably grown for
packing, but they answer very well for farmers who keep but
few hogs, and villagers who grow pork only for their own use.
The boars are extremely valuable for crossing on sows of larger
and coarser breeds.

734 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

Berkshire. — Probably this is much th*: most popular breed
of swine in this country, and there can be no doubt that it is
one of the most profitable. It is an old English breed, and,
having been carefully managed for a long period, its character-
istics are firmly established. These pigs arc black, with white
markings on the face and legs. They are very healthy and
vigorous, fatten easily, and attain a medium size. The sows are
prolific and are good milkers, in these respects being much
superior to several of the other breeds, and the boars transmit
their own good qualities when crossed with natives or with
other breeds. The flesh of the Berkshire pigs is said to be
superior, and, on this account, this breed would seem to be well
adapted to the wants of those who grow pork for home use.

While the breeds which we have named possess many excel-
lencies, and there are several others which are of considerable
value, there are many pigs which have no recognized name
which can be made profitable on tlie farm. It is not desirable
that all the men who keep pigs should keep thorough-breds
exclusively. Raising thorough-breds for the butcher would
hardly pay, because these pigs need more care and better food
than the average farmer gives. Also, in the case of the small
and refined breeds, and, to some extent, the larger ones, because
a cross of a thorough-bred boar with a good, large, and thrifty
sow will be likely to give stronger pigs, which will possess the
good qualities of the boar strengthened with the vigor of the
sow, than would be obtained by the use of a purely bred sow.
If the best of care could, and would, be given, thorough-bred
pigs would be the best. But, as Mr. Harris has well remarked,
" The aim of a good breeder of pigs is to get a breed that will
grow rapidly and mature early. And the better the breed the
more rapidly they will grow. But the best stove in the world
cannot give out heat without a supply of fuel ; neither can the
best bred pig in the world grow rapidly without food ; and the
more thoroughly the power to grow rapidly has become est^ib-

j^ll^-V

%i^'"' .

'^pf**

I'

SWINE. 'J2>1

lished by long and careful breeding the less capable does the
pig become to stand starvation."

It is only natural that the offspring of pigs brought up under
adverse circumstances should be more hardy than that of pigs
which have been very carefully bred. Besides, it is not neces-
sary, in order that the desired end may be attained, to use thor-
ough-bred sows. The writer just quoted says of the highly
r. fined English breeds : " Their real value consists in their per-
fection of form, smallness of bone and offal, and the great de-
velopment of the ham, shoulder, cheeks, and other valuable
parts ; and added to this is their ability to transmit these quali-
ties to their offspring. This ability is in proportion to the.'f
purity, and hence the value of pedigree. When one of theue
pure-bred boars is put to a good grade or comrhon sow we g<;t
precisely what we want — pigs having the form, the refinement,
the early maturity, smallness of offal, and tendency to fatten of
the thorough-bred, combined with the vigor, constitution, appe-
tite, and great digestive powers of the larger and coarser sow.
In other words, as far as the production of pork is concerned,
we get a perfect pig — and there the improvement ends. We
have attained our object, and all that we have to do is to repeat
the process." Here the case is plainly stated and a great deal
of truth condensed into a few sentences. Get g-ood srade or
common sows and use only thorough-bred boars. This is a safe
rule for farmers, and all who feed pigs for the butcher, to follow
so far as this kind of stock is concerned. Of course, if this plan
is to be followed, some one must raise thorough-bred pigs in
order to obtain the boars which will be needed. The farmer
who keeps a large stock of hogs can profitably do this himself.
He can keep a few thorough-breds for this special purpose.
Those who keep but few pigs can buy boars of breeders as they
are needed.

As already indicated, this course is of much more importance
when the small breeds are kept than it is with the larger ones.

738 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

But even with the Chester White, Poland-China, and Berk-
shire, grades obtained in tlic manner described will often be
found superior, as far as the mere production of .pork is con-
cerned, to the thorough-breds. But it is ail important to the
success of this plan that the sows slionld be good anitiials and
well adapted to the purpose designed. The " razor-back " and
" race-horse " styles must be let alone, and the best specimens
of good animals should be selected.

Whatever the sow may be, by all means use a thorough-bred
boar. A grade hog may look just as well, perhaps even better,
but he is wholly unfit for breeding purposes. The qualities of
the thorough-bred have been fixed by a long course of careful
breeding, and he has power to impress them upon his offspring,
but thd*good qualities of the grade have no element of perma-
nence, and nothing but disappointment to the owner and degen-
eracy to the stock can come of his use as a breeder.

Not only should the boar be purely bred, but he should be a
good representative of the breed to which he belongs. There is
a great difference in thorough-breds, and only the finest should
be used for breeding. Some men who sell pigs weed out their
stock and send the specimens which are not up to a fair standard
of excellence directly to the butcher. This course should be
pursued by all who deal in breeding stock.

Not only should good stock, both male and female, be selected
for breeding, but the individuals should be allowed to attain a
suitable age before they are used for this purpose. Here is
where the majority of farmers make a great mistake. They do
not wait until the pigs are fully developed, but allow them to
breed before they are gro\\n. Too many farmers allow a boar
pig only a few months old to serve a sow of the same litter, oi
one still younger, then castrate the boar and fatten him, and,
wlicn the pigs are weaned, fatten the sow. By so doing they
cannot secure the best class of pigs. From half-grown parents
only .a second or third class of animals can be secured. Even

SWINE. 739

under the most favorable circumstances, and when everything
turns out as well as the owner expects, there is always an indi-
rect loss. Pigs from stronger and older parents would, with the
same care and food, have produced a larger quantity of pork
than those from parents of undeveloped powers. But it often
happens that the sow does not prove a good mother, that the
pigs are feeble, and from these and various other causes the
effort to secure a good litter of pigs proves a failure. If the boar
had been kept until he was a year old before being put to ser-
vice at all, and allowed to serve but few sows until he was a
year and a half old, his pigs would have been much more vigor-
ous and would have taken on flesh with much greater rapidity.
If, in addition to this, the sow had been kept until a year and a
half old before bringing her first litter there would have been a
still greater gain in the vigor and feeding qualities of the off-
spring. Of the two it seems more important that the sow
should be well developed than the boar.

While growing, it is all that the sow ought to do to perfect
herself If, in addition to this, she is obliged to give much of
her strength and vital power to the production of the young, her
growth will be checked, her maturity retarded, and she will be
unable to impart to her offspring good constitutions, or a strong
tendency to make a rapid growth. Weakness is always
a/.tendant upon immaturity, and weakness on the part of the
parents is sure to involve a still greater degree of weakness on
the part of their offspring.

A boar may be kept for breeding until he is five or six years
old, if he is not cross and he gets good stock. If his pigs from
good sows do not thrive, if he is not a sure getter, if he does
not get pigs uniformly like himself, or if he becomes cross,
he should be castrated. But a good boar which is properly
kept will get much stronger and better pigs after he is two years
old than he will before, and, as a general rule, an old boar will
get better pigs than one that is young.

740 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

Where farmers keep only from two to a dozen hogs, the cost
of keeping a boar on each farm is quite an item. Here the
principle of neighborhood ownership, which has already been
explained and advocated, should be applied. Mr. Coburn, in
his excellent work on " Swine Husbandry," advocates this
plan, and says : "Among the benefits resulting from this method
would be the use of a good boar, matured and fitted for good
service ; an improved class of pigs, and a generous rivalry,
encouraging each of his owners to keep a better grade of sows,
under improved and more profitable conditions." When sev-
eral farmers own a boar in company, they can afford to keep
him until he is too old to be serviceable. The cost to each on'j
will be very slight, yet each one will have the advantage of
taking his sows to a first-class and fully matured boar, and will
find the extra value of the pigs in a single season more than pa/
the whole expense in which he is involved.

The sows which prove good mothers should be kept for
several years. This is a much better way than the course often
followed of fattening a sow as soon as possible after the
pigs are weaned, and then choosing younger ones for breeders.
The old sows will bear stronger and better pigs than young
ones, will take better care of them, furnish them a larger quan-
tity of milk, and be less liable to injure them. In every respect
matured animals are better for breeding than those which are
young.

The degree of success which will be attained by the farmer
who attempts to raise pigs will, to a great extent, depend upon
the care which his breeding stock receives. If the animals are
neglected and half-starved, the pigs will be very sure to be of
inferior quality. If well cared for, there will be much more
certainty that their offspring will be good. The boar and sows
should not be allowed to run together, but should have separate
pens and yards. The boar should be kept in a thrifty condition,
but should not be allowed to get very fat. He ought to have a

SWINE. 74 J

good pen and a dry yard. In summer he should also be allowed
to run at will in a small pasture. Both yard and pasture must
be strongly fenced.

The sow should neither be fat nor thin in flesh. Either
'extreme is highly injurious, and will exert a bad influence upon
the pigs. Both before and after being bred the sow which is to
have pigs should be kept separate from the fattening stock,
and instead of the heavy feeding with corn which they receive
she should be fed upon slops in which shorts and a moderate
quantity of meal have been mixed. In warm weather, running
in a clover pasture will prove highly beneficial.

Young sows go with young from one hundred to one
hundred and six days. Old ones carry their pigs from a week
to ten days longer. The best time for spring pigs to come is 'u\
April. Fall pigs should come in September. If the sow is to
raise two litters during the season, she should be taken to the
boar about the first of December, and again a few days after her
first litter has been weaned. But if only one litter is desired,
the pigs should not come until the days are warm, and danger
of cold storms has passed.

The sow will come in heat every three weeks. She should be
served by the boar only once. This is not only just as effective,
but is a great deal better than it is to leave the two together
over night, or, as some do, for a day or two.

While carrying her pigs the sow should be kindly treated, and
regularly supplied with food and water. As the time for
farrowing approaches, she should be put into a pen at night,
and, while permitted to run in her yard and pasture during the
day, she should be fed in the pen in order that she may become
accustomed to it and regard it as her home. A few days before
time for the pigs to make their appearance, a small quantity of
straw should be put into the pen. Care must be taken not to
use too much straw, as this will be likely to cause the sow to
lie on the pigs. The pen should be closely boarded so that

742 FAA'MIXG lOR PKOFJT.

Straw will not be needed for warmth. If the pigs come in the
winter, a coal stove should be set up in the building, and the
temperature kept from going too low. In order to keep the sow
from crushing her pigs between herself and the wall, a rail
should be placed around the inside of the pen about six inches"
from the floor, and eight or ten inches from the walls. W hen
this is provided, and only a little straw is used, there will be but
little danger that the sow will lie on the pigs. But if either of
these precautions is neglected the risk is very great.

If the sow has been made very tame by previous scratching
and handling it will be well for the owner to watch her when
the time for pigging arrives, and render assistance if it is
needed. But if she is wild or cross, it will be best to let her
alone. If she has been well fed and kindly treated she will be
almost certain to get along well.

For a few days before and after the pigs arrive the sow should
have light and sloppy food. The quantity should be abundant,
but the quality must not be rich. She should have plenty of
fresh water in addition to the wet food. While carrying her
pigs she should be occasionally furnished with charcoal and
y.shes, and, if kept in a pen, with green grass or with sods.

If the sow shows a disposition to eat her pigs they should be
gently rubbed with kerosene, which may be applied best with a
ivoollen cloth or a soft brush. Only a little will be required, and
too much will make them sore. When the diet of the sow has
been properly managed, and she has had sufficient exercise, she
will not be inclined to eat her pigs unless she has previously
formed the habit when badly kept. Any sow which does this
the second time should be rejected for a breeder.

Care of Pigs. — If strong and well, as most pigs which have
suitable parentage and whose mothers have been properly cared
for will be, they will look out for themselves. Most of the weak
pigs are weak because either the boar or sow was top j'oung
to breed, or di.jeased, or not properly mated, or else because the

SWINE. 743

sow has been badly fed or kept in an unsuitable place. When
weakness is apparent, the pigs must be got to sucking if possible.
But if the sow is not gentle, or has no milk, they must be fed
by hand until the mother is able to care for them. If she is fed
with slops she will be likely to have milk for the pigs in from
owz to three days. Meanwhile the pigs must be fed several
times a day with new milk from a cow. To this milk it may be
necessary to add a little molasses.

When pigs are two or three weeks old they will begin to eat
if suflable food is provided for them. The sow should be well
fed with scalded bran, meal, and roots, in order that she may
give a large quantity of milk, but it will be much better for her
and for the pigs that they should have a little trough of their
own, to which the sow cannot have access, in which they may
be taught to eat. At first a little sweet milk should be given.
Then add a few oats. As the pigs increase in size the quantity
of food must be increased. They should always have all they
will eat, but no more. They will soon be ready to eat soaked
corn, and, after a while, scalded meal and bran.

The boars should be castrated when about six weeks old. If
they are to be weaned early, the operation may be performed
two weeks sooner. The method to be pursued is the same as
described for castrating calves, except that cne man should hold
the pig from the ground by his hind legs while the operator is
at work. For castrating an old boar Mr. Coburn gives the
following excellent directions : "After drawing up one hind leg,
and fastening it securely to a post or stake, fasten another rope
around the upper jaw, back to the tusks, draw it tightly, and
fasten it to another stake ; in this position the animal can offer
no serious resistance. The cut should be low down, and as
small as possible ; the low cut will afford a ready means of
escape for all extraneous matter, and allow the wound to keep
itself clean, there being no sac, or pocket, left to hold the pus
formed during the healing process. It is not best to perform

744 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

this Operation when the boar is very fat, or the weather too
warm, as the risk is much greater."

When a large number of hogs are kept and the services of
some one who is competent to perform the operation can be
secured, it pays to have the sows spayed when about three
months old. Mr. Coburn strongly advocates this, but says that
" unless it can be done by a person understanding it, it is risky
business," and expresses the opinion that there are " a thousand
men who can do a tolerable job at castrating a boar, to one that
is competent to properly spay a sow." On account o§ the
difficulty, and, if not perfectly done, the danger of the operation,
it will hardly pay the man who keeps only a few hogs to have
it performed. The owner of a large drove can afford to hire
some one who understands the best method, and it will pay him
well to do so. Before undertaking this operation the beginner
should, if possible, see it perfo.rmed by some competent
veterinarian. For the benefit of those who desire the infor-
mation, but are not able to visit a surgeon, we will give the
directions for spaying small animals which Prof. Law has
furnished in his veterinary work. " The animal is stretched on
its left side, the fore limbs and head being firmly secured, and
the hind limbs extended backwards. The hair is shaved from
the flank a little below the angle of the hip-bone, and an incision
made from above down, extending to an inch in the pig or
bitch, or sufficient to introduce the hand in the heifer. Then
with the finger or hand, as the case may be, the womb is sought,
backward at the entrance of the pelvis in the interval between
the bladder and the straight gut. Being found, one horn or
division is drawn up through the wound until its end is exposed
with the round mass of the ovary adjacent. The latter is seized-
and cut or twisted off according to the size of the animal. Then
the next horn and ovary are brought out and treated in the
same way. The womb is now returned into the abdomen, and
the skin accurately sewed up." There are other methods of

SWINE. 745

performing the operation, but we consider this the best. After
a sow has been spayed she must be protected from cold and
storms. Turpentine or buttermilk should be applied to the
wound if the weather is warm. If there is no danger from flies
apply a little lard.

Fattening Pigs. — In order to do this to the best advantage it
is necessary to commence, and well to finish, the operation while
the animals are young. It has been generally believed that old
hogs would fatten more easily than pigs, but this is a great mis-
take. Prof. Sanborn, of New Hampshire, who has given this
subject considerable attention, advises the farmer to fatten his
pigs by the time they are six months old, and believes that the
man " who keeps a pig more than eight months loses twenty per
cent." There can be no doubt that early maturity is advan-
tageous, and that it is best to fatten pigs rapidly. Many farmers
feed their pigs lightly in the spring and summer, just enough to
keep them growing slowly, and do not really begin to feed well
until fall. This is an unprofitable method. From the day when
the pig leaves the sow until it is killed, it ought to be fed so
that it will make a steady growth and take on flesh as fast as it
increases in size.

If the pigs have been fed while with the sow, as we have ad-
vised, they will suffer but little when weaned. Having been
taught to eat while with her, they will eat readily when taken from
her. At first they should be fed several times a day, early in the
morning and in the evening, as well as in daylight. Milk, with
a small quantity of corn meal which has been scalded, is the
best food. If this cannot be supplied, slops and meal, or bran,
should be given. There should be a clean and comfortable pen
provided, and plenty of fresh water should be supplied. In
warm weather, access to a good clover pasture should be given.
With the age of the pig the quantity and quality of its food
should be steadily increased.

It often happens that two or three of the pigs in a litter will

746 FAKMIXG FOR PROFIT.

be much smaller at weaning-time than the others. Sometimes
these pigs do not grow well, but we have known them to make
the best hogs of the lot. They should have extra care and food
It is best to let them remain a week or two longer with the sow.
This will be a great benefit to her as well as to them, as it will
cause the flow of milk to cease gradually. Many of the best
breeders never take off all the pigs at once, but leave two or
three after the others have been removed, and then take these
off one at a time. This is a wise method for all growers to
follow.

A great deal has been said and written, and many experi-
ments have been tried, in order to determine which is the best
food for pigs which are being fattened. No great good ever
has, or will, come out of these efforts. This because the pig, in
common with all other animals, needs a variety of food, and no
one article, however good, can in itself answer all the require-
ments of his system. Many farmers, especially at the East,
wholly overlook the fact that the -pig is a grass-eating animal
and likes fresh clover as well as the cow. At the West there has
been a too exclusive use of Indian corn, and terrible visitations
of disease have been among the results. Undoubtedly, when
fed as it should be, corn is the best article for fattening pigs
which wc have, but it is altogether too heating and concentrated
to use alone. Fed with grass and roots, of which artichokes are
highly prized at the West, and plenty of slops, it gives the best
results in proportion to its cost of anything which the farmer
can use. When the fattening process is to go on slowly, and
the owner prefers to have the pigs attain a larger size before
taking on much flesh, the use of boiled potatoes and milk will
prove an efficient means for attaining the desired end. We
use small potatoes in this manner and think they are more
profitable than when fed to cows. A diet of grass and water,
with a little meal, will also be good in warm weather. When
the fattening process is to be hastened, the quantity of meal

SWINE. 747

should be increased or ears of corn should be fed. In order to
provide for the summer drought, which usually ripens off the
grass in pastures, some peas may be sown broadcast in the
spring. These will not only furnish green food when it is most
needed, but the peas will be found very beneficial. In Canada,
peas are extensively used for fattening pigs, and they will, in
time, be more generally grown in this country.

It is not well to keep too many pigs in a single yard. Like
all other animals, and to a greater extent than some, pigs need
room. They want to exercise and they want to be clean.
Though they like an occasional mud-bath, they do not like to
be in mud all th^ time. When they have the opportunity they
will keep as clean as any domestic animals. If large numbers
are kept in filthy yards, or small pastures, disease is very likely
to carry off a large proportion of them. Not only in order that
the pigs m.ay be comfortable, but also for the profit of the owner,,
they should always have plenty of room.

When taken from grass and shut into the feeding-yards, where
meat is to be made' with the greatest possible rapidity, the change
of food should be gradual. Bran slop with boiled potatoes
and a little meal should be given at first. Gradually increase
the meal, or corn, and leave out the bran and potatoes. In a
short time the hogs can be brought to full rations of corn without
injury. The fattening should be done before cold weather. We
do not believe the average farmer makes it pay to feed pigs dur-
ing the winter for pork. If he has pigs, as he should, he must
feed them, of course, but the aim should be to keep them thrifty
and growing but not to fatten rapidly.

Salt should be given occasionally, and ashes should be placed

within reach of the pigs. In all respects the animals should be

made as comfortable as possible. They should always have

food enough — all that they will eat clean — but should not be

allowed to leave any. The food should never be thrown intO)

the mud, but ought always to be given in a clean place.
46

748 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

Upon this point the National Live-Stock Journal well
says: " No hog will thrive when compelled to eat and sleep in
i:he mud. Dry dust is almost as injurious as mud. Conse-
quently, when hogs are confined to a small lot or pen, it is
always the best economy to provide a good feeding-floor of solid
boards for them. There is no more wasteful practice in feeding
than that often seen on our Western prairie farms, of hogs con-
fined in an open pen, with the black prairie soil converted into a
deep mud. in which they must both eat and sleep. Although
all the grain may be sought out and eaten, no one ever saw
hogs thrive under such treatment. The grain is simply wasted.
It will pay to spend the price of a few bushels of corn in pre-
paring good quarters at the beginning of the fattening season,
and, when once prepared, the shelter and feeding-floor will last
for several years. Content and comfort are absolutely essential
to a rapid accumulation of fat." Even when the enclosure is
large enough to give ample room, it is best to have a feeding-
floor. If this is neglected, there will be many stormy days in
which the ground will be soft, and the pigs must pick their food
out of the mud. Besides, in cold rains and snow storms, they
need the shelter which a well-constructed shed supplies. The
hours of feeding should be regular, and ought to be very closely
observed. Pigs which are always fed " on time " will gain flesh
much faster than those which have the same quantity and
quality of food, but which receive it at irregular intervals.

Whether it pays to cook meal for hogs which are being fat-
tened, is a question upon which " the doctors disagree " as freely
as they do upon the same question concerning the food for
cows. That it is best to cook meal for youtig pigs we have no
doubt, and there are many earnest advocates of cooking meal
for pigs -which are being rapidly fattened. Among the advo-
'Cates are many very successful men who have had an immense
amount of experience in the business of making pork. But
many carefully conducted experiments go to prove that cook-

SWINE. 749

ing the meal does not pay. At the Iowa College farm the
result of a careful trial was strongly adverse to cooking the
food. Messrs. J. M. Billingsly, of Spring Valley, Indiana,
and R. L. Bingham, of Bloomington, Wis., each tried the
experiment on quite a large scale and in a very careful manner
with the same result. Mr. H. P. Beattie, of Davenport,
Iowa, whose hog-pen cost nearly one thousand dollars, and who
has a " steam-engine, corn-stone, corn-sheller, vats, and every
convenience that money could purchase," and keeps a large
number of hogs, tried cooking their food for three or four years,
ground all his grain, and has " come to the conclusion that
there is no advantage in cooking food for hogs." At the
Maine Agricultural College, a six years' trial proved that
there the '* raw corn meal for feeding swine is more economical
than meal that is cooked." In commenting upon the results of
this last experiment, the editor of the New England Farmer
says : " This accords with our own experience, although con-
trary to common opinion." Upon this point Mr. Coburn says :
" The surrounding conditions and circumstances have much to
do in deciding the question of economy ; and while one farmer,
under certain circumstances, could feed a considerable portion of
cooked grain and secure satisfactory returns therefor, another,
differently situated, though perhaps in the same neighborhood,
and raising the same class of swine, might be unable to do so
without actual loss." This we believe to be strictly true. The
circumstances of each farmer must be a controlling influence.
No one rule will apply to all cases, and a practice which will
pay one man may involve his neighbor in a heavy loss.

Diseases. — Nearly all of the diseases of pigs are brought on,
and all of them are aggravated, by improper feeding, exposure to
the weather or to contagion, or the use of unhealthy and badly
mated breeding-stock. Here, as with other animals, the great
reliance of the farmer must be placed upon prevention. Many
diseases may be prevented which cannot be cured, and those:

750 • FARMING FOR PROFIT.

which arc curable involve a great loss to the owner of the stock
which inexpensive preventive measures would save. Besides
a hog is one of the worst of all animals to doctor. Medicines
are best given in his food. If so far gone that he will not eat,
he may be turned out of his pen and left to his own devices,
or, if desired, medicines may be poured down his throat. The
former method we have tried successfully, the latter we have
never tested.

In summer when a pig refuses to eat, turn him into a field in
which he can have water and shade. He will be quite likely to
burrow a deep hole in the earth, get into it, and lie there from
ten to twenty-four hours. Then he may come out of his trouble
and remain perfectly well. In winter the sick pig must have a
warm nest, plenty of fresh water, and gruel if he wants it.

Among specific diseases the so-called " hog cholera," which
sweeps off millions of dollars worth of animals every year, is
the most dreaded and the least understood. That it is extremely
contagious, and may be carried on the shoes or in the clothes of
men visiting an infected herd, there can be no doubt. That
aside from the contagious influence the disease might be
prevented in any given herd seems to be admitted by the best
authorities. The men who feed properly, give plenty of room,
and fresh water, would not be likely to lose hogs from this
disease if they were not exposed in some way to the contagion.
The two things to be done are to be careful about the feeding
and surroundings, and to avoid all possible sources of con-
tagion.

Many remedies have been advertised for this disease, but a
genuine specific does not seem to have been found. The editors
of the National I.ivfi-STOCK Journal have refused to advertise
these remedies because they " honestly believe them to be
practically worthless as cures for the disease. It may be that
some of them possess value as tonics ; but the man who buys
any of the so-called cholera cures, believing that he has some-

SWINE. 751

thing that will prevent hog cholera, or cure it after It has attacked
his herd, is destined to disappointment." That some affected
herds have been treated with a certain degree of success is true,
but we think the cleansing of the premises, the change of
diet, and the increased attention that was given had much to
do in securing the good results which have been attained.
Medicine alone, without regard to diet and surroundings, will be
of no avail. When this, or any other, disease appears, the sick
animals should" be immediately separated from those which are
well. A good veterinarian should be employed when the
" cholera " first appears, and the pens and yards should be put
in the best possible condition. Some of our most eminent
veterinary physicians have been closely studying in order to find
the causes, and, if possible, a remedy for this disease. Part of
them are still at work, and it is to be hoped that their investi-
gations will lead to the discovery of means for preventing the
fearful loss which for a {^\\ years past the farmers of the West
have been obliged to sustain.

DiARRHCEA carries off many little pigs, and injures many which
survive its attack. Improper feeding of the sow if the pigs are
sucking, and of the pigs themselves if they have been weaned,
is the most frequent cause. Still many attacks are brought "on
by breathing impure air, drinking dirty water, and taking cold.
When sucking pigs are attacked, the sow should be kept on dry
food for a few days. Pigs which have been weaned can usually
be cured by giving dry food, but if this fails give a teaspoonful
to a tablespoonful of prepared chalk twice a day. Keep the
pen clean' using dry earth in summer and chloride of lime in
winter as a deodorizer, and secure thorough ventilation.

Constipation, though not immediately fatal, may, if neglected,
lead to serious results. A change of diet will usually be
sufficient to effect a cure. In summer give plenty of clover and
roots. In cold weather warm bran mashes with the addition of
flaxseed tea or slippery-elm water will be safe and reasonably

752 FARMIXG FOR PROFIT.

sure. If these fail, an injection of warm soap-suds in which an
ounce of Epsom salts has been dissolved should be given.

Worms of various kinds give a great deal of trouble to pigs.
The simplest treatment for an ordinary case is to give some
soap-suds and wood-ashes in the swill. Measles, similar to th^
tape-worm in man, is regarded as an incurable disease, but can
be prevented without great difficulty. No human excrement
should be spread upon swine pastures, or used for growing roots
which are to be fed raw, and pigs should not be allowed access
to it at any time. Contact with an infected herd had better
be avoided, though it might not communicate the disease.

Mange is a troublesome disease similar to the itch in man.
It is very contagious, and, like the scab in sheep, may be spread
by contact with a rubbing-post which has been used by a
diseased animal. The affected animal should either be covered
with soft soap, washed off three or four hours after its application,
or else washed in tobacco water, or water in which caustic pot-
ash has been dissolved in the proportion of one part potash to
fifty parts of water. Two days after the first treatment wash the
animal thoroughly in strong soap-suds. The pen and fence
should be washed with a strong solution of caustic potash.

Lice may be removed by the use of tobacco water or a light
application of kerosene oil. Carbolic acid with three times the
quantity of water may be used instead of the above. The liquid
should be rubbed upon the back, behind the fore legs, the flanks,
and between the hind legs.

Rheumatism. — This is almost invariably caused by exposure
to dampness, sleeping on the cold ground, or lying in filthy
pens. The preventive measures are cleanliness, warmth, and
protection from storms. In the line of treatment, Mr. Coburn
recommends a tablespoonful of cod-liver oil once or twice a day.
This should be mixed with the food. For large pigs give twice
the quantity. Keep the pigs warm and give soft food.

Curing Pork. — There are only two methods by which the

sH-m^. J53

average farn,er can keep pork in a good condition for any length
of tnne. One of these, vvliieh is by keeping it at a low tem-
perature, can be used only in the winter. The other which
involves the use of some preservative substance, can be made
successful during the larger part of the year. In the winter
fresh pork can be kept at the North for some weeks by packin<^
m snow and placing where it will be kept frozen. After it has
tliawed the meat will keep but a short time.

Salt and smoke, the two preservative substances in common
use, can be applied at all times exiept when the weather is very
hot But ,f used in the summer a great deal more care and skill
will be needed than is required in the winter.

Before being either frozen or salted, the meat must be thor-
oughly cooled. It is to the difficulty of effecting this that the
mam trouble with salting pork in hot weather is due. After the
hog ,s dressed he should hang until well cooled off, but must
not be allowed to freeze. It is sometimes best to split the ear-
-se down the back in order to facilitate the cooling process.
When well cooled, the pork may be cut and the parts left in a
cool place for a while so that all the animal heat may escape
The outs,des of the thick pieces will cool n.uch sooner than
the,r centres, and meat often fails to Jeep well because, though
well enough on the exterior, it was not cooled at the middle and
around the bones.

The fat pieces are best preserved with salt. They may be cut
m any desired shape and packed closely into a barrel. Unlike
some kmds of meat, pork will absorb no more salt than it rieeds.

quantity. Eight or ten pounds of salt for one hundred pounds
of pork will be sufficient. The easiest way to salt pork is to cut
.t mto pieces of convenient size, cover the bottom of the barrel
m which ,t ,s to be kept with a layer of salt half an inch thick
upon this place a layer of pork, then another laver of salt fol!
lowed by another of meat, and so on until all is' packed The

754 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

pieces should wedge into the barrel in such a manner as to
cover nearly all of the surface. If this is neglected, a large
quantity of salt will be needed to fill the openings. The top
layer of meat should be covered with salt, and a close-fitting
cover placed upon the barrel.

Many farmers prefer to use brine instead of relying upon dry
salt. The pork is to be packed as directed above, and pure
water poured into the barrel until all of the spaces are filled and .
the meat is well covered. A board which will just go inside the
barrel, like a follower to a clieese hoop, should be fitted, with
several holes bored through it, placed upon the meat and a
weight put on to keep it in place. This is needed in order to
keep the meat from floating in the brine.

A method which we consider much better than either of the
above is to use a prepared brine. The following recipe for
making brine for one hundred pounds of pork is as good as any
with which we are familiar: Dissolve in pure water, using just
enough to fully dissolve the materials, four ounces of saltpetre,
two pounds of good brown sugar, and seven pounds of salt.
When thoroughly dissoK^ed, the mixture should be boiled and
all the impurities, which will rise to the surface, skimmed off.
When this is cold it is to be poured over the meat and the
board and weight put on as already recommended.

The hams and shoulders can be put into a brine (made as
directed for the salt meat) or be covered with a mixture of fine
salt, molasses, and saltpetre, using, for one hundred and fifty
pounds of meat, twelve pounds salt, two quarts molasses, and
one-half pound saltpetre. Mix these articles well and rub the
meat thoroughly, then lay away in a cool and dry place. Rub
the meat again at the end of a week and once more a week later.
The smoking process may then be commenced. This should
be done slowly but thoroughly. About ten days' time will be
required for pieces of ordinary size. Many people pickle the
meat well in brine and use it without further curing.

SWINE. 755

Except in cool weather, a great deal of care must be taken,
both before and af:er the curing is performed, to protect the
meat from flies. The smoked meat can be covered with canvas,
packed in tight barrels, or well buried in a bin of shelled corn.

It has been often said that meat cannot be salted successfully
during "dog-days." That this is not a good time to salt meat
must be evident to any one, and, under ordinary circumstances,
the work should be delayed until a, more favorable season. But,
as some of our readers may find it convenient to put down meat
at this time, we will give a method which was reported, by a
lady, in the American Cultivator. We have never tested the
plan, but it was recommended by a worthy minister, and tried
by the lady who sent the report, and is said to be safe and sure.
The method is described as follows : " Put in plenty of salt and
it will be apt to keep. But if it should begin to hurt, take it out
of the barrel, meat, brine and all. Then get a quantity of smart-
weed and pack the pork with the weed back into the barrel ;
lay plenty of it all around each piece, or you can pack it in
layers of the weed. Let it remain four or five days, then take
it all out, throw away the smart-weed, and pack the pork in the
barrel. Then pour on the brine, having previously scalded,
skimmed, and cooled it. Never put warm brine on meat.
Your meat will then be all right." This plan is very simple and
well worthy of a trial by those who salt pork in extremely hot
and sultry weather. But it is much easier to prevent mischief
than it is to cure it, and, except under peculiar circumstances,
it will not be wise to attempt to salt pork in the mid-summer
months.

756 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

THE rN"FEBioH ai^x^^a^s,

HERE are a few classes of animals which can be profita-
bly kept upon many farms, but which, owing to their
small size, or the limited range of their usefulness, do
not receive that degree of attention which is bestowed
upon the classes which we have thus far considered. To these
animals a brief space should be devoted.

Hens are kept upon almost every farm, and may be made to
pay well. But in order to be profitable, they should receive
some degree of attention. If exposed to cold and storms, and
kept half-starved, they can neither take on flesh nor produce
eggs. A good house should be provided for their accommo-
dation. This should be kept very clean. In it feeding-troughs
and drinking-pans should be placed. These should be so
arranged that while the fowls can eat and drink freely, they
cannot get into the vessels. Roosting-places should be pro-
vided, and instead of putting up the perches in tiers, the front
one being the lowest, the next one a foot or two higher, and so
on until the last and highest one is reached, they should all b(»
placed on a level, and only three feet from the floor. This is
very much better than the old method. When the perches are
of different heights, too many hens will try to get upon the
highest one, the weaker ones will fall or be crowded off, and
falling so far may be seriously injured. The perches should be
made of small poles of sassafras-wood or wild cherry when they
can be obtained.

Connected with the house should be a good-sized yafd in
which the hens can stay in pleasant weather. They like to get
on the ground, and will be much more healthy if allowed to do
so. If the garden is not close by, it will be well to let the hens
out for an hour each day. Between four and five o'clock in the
afternoon is the best time. When the orchard is pastured, it
is well to give the hens a chance to run among the trees, as they

FTG. 114.
I. P.ROWX T.FGHORXS. 2. WHITE HOT.T.AXD TURKEYS.

THE INFERIOR ANIMALS. 759

will destroy a multitude of worms, but if the grass is to be
made into hay they will tread it down, and do more hurt than
good.

Too many fowls must not be kept together. A larger number
can be kept in a large house and commodious yard than can be
safely put into close quarters, but there is a limit to the number
which can be profitably kept in a single enclosure.

Which Breed to keep is a question over which many
farmers have a great deal of needless perplexity. Any good
breed is better than hens belonging to no breed, but any one
of half a dozen breeds will do well enough if they receive good
care. If the farmer wants to raise chickens for the market, or
his own table, the Brahma, Cochin, Plymouth Rock, or
Dorking, will answer his requirement. If he does not care
particularly for chickens, but wants eggs, the Leghorn, Houdan,
or the Hamburg will give satisfaction. There are also several
other excellent breeds which we have not room to notice.

By purchasing a few eggs it is easy to obtain fowls of any
desired breed for a low price. These should be bought as near
home as possible, as transportation often destroys the vitality of
eggs which were good when they were sent, and causes the
seller to be unjustly blamed, as well as involves a loss to the
buyer. It is not necessary that the ■ farmer should keep the
breed perfectly pure. Many prefer to cross a pure-blood male
with their finest native hens. Of course the chickens obtained
in this way must not be sold for pure-blooded ones, but they
may be just as good to fatten, or to produce eggs as the
thorough-breds.

Raising Chickens. — When a hen desires to sit and chickens
are wanted, some fresh eggs should be obtained, and either put
into the nest which she occupies, or else a nest should be made
for her in a suitable place, t*he eggs put into it, and the hen put
over them in the evening. It is a good plan to put some tansy
into the bottom of the nest. Do not put in too many eggs.

/go FARMING FOR PROFIT.

A small hen should have only nine, and a large one not more
than thirteen. Plenty of food and fresh water should be placed
near the nest, so that the hen need not be off long at a time. In
three weeks the eggs should hatch.

The chickens should not be hurried from the nest, and they
do not need food for twenty-four hours after they are hatched.
Then give them a boiled &^^, cut into in the middle so that
they can pick out the meat. After this feed with soaked bread
and oat meal pudding for a few days. Begin to feed cracked
corn gradually with the oat meal. Also give Indian meal
pudding part of the time. Chopped meat is good for them, and
green food, grass, lettuce, or cabbage leaves will be relished and
prove beneficial. For a few weeks they must be protected from
cold and storms. Gix^e them plenty of ashes to roll in, and all
the pounded oyster-shells and ground bone they want to eat.
Feed well with a variety of food, giving grain, vegetables, and
animal food in abundance. Furnish plenty of fresh water, and
give them room in which to exercise. Feed regularly and keep
them growing every day.

When it is time to fatten them, if the chickens have been
treated as above advised, the work will be already well begun,
and may be very soon completed. The fowls should be shut
into a house, or coop, two or three weeks before they are to be
killed, dnd fed with Indian meal pudding given warm, and
warm baked potatoes. The addition of barley meal to the
pu.lding is beneficial. Fresh water should be supplied, and all
the food the chickens will cat should be given. Fowls which
have not been well fed should be shut up a much longer time.

Hens for laying must be well fed or they cannot furnish a
large number of eggs. They should have room, clean quarters,
comfortable surroundings, fresh water, and a variety of food.
Ashes, ground bones, pounded oyst&r-shells, and gravel should
also be supplied. Food should be clean, of best quality, and a
large variety of grain, vegetables and meat should be furnished

THE INFERIOR ANIMALS. 761

Oats fried in lard are excellent for part of the winter diet.
Corn should be given sparingly, as it tends to fatten the hens
rather than make them lay eggs.

Some breeds are better layers than others, but no breed will,
or can, lay all of the time. Hens must have rest as truly as
other animals. There are some breeds highly recommended as
winter layers. These, generally, do not furnish many eggs in
summer. The hens which lay well in the summer will not lay
all winter. In order to have eggs at all seasons hens of dif-
ferent ages must be kept, and it is well to have some of two
different breeds, one of which is noted for winter and the other
for summer laying. The latter is not indispensable, but the
former is an absolute necessity. If the hens are all of the same
age, they will all lay at about the same time and stop laying
together. But if hens of several different ages are kept, some of
them will lay while the others do not, and when one brood
ceases another will be ready to begin.

It does not pay to keep old hens. During the first year of
life the hen lays more eggs than she does during the second,
and the number produced gradually decreases as she grows
older. The eggs of old hens do not give as strong chickens as
those of younger ones, and, except for sitting, the old hen is
poor property.

When chickens are to be raised, one male bird should be
kept for each ten or twelve hens. He should be thorough-bred,
and always well cared for. It is not well to keep him after he
is two years old, but during the second year he will be better
than he was before. If only eggs are wanted, no male need be
kept.

If properly kept, fowls will seldom be sick; but if badly fed,
kept in dirty quarters, furnished only with impure water and
foul air, they will be very liable to disease. The wise ov/ner ^
will prevent attacks of disease, as far as he can, by keeping the
hens and their surroundings in as good condition as possible.

762 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

If sickness comes, when the cause is evident that cause should
be at once removed. If there is no apparent cause, if the
feeding and surroundings are right, take the invalid to a block
and cut off her head. It does not pay to doctor a sick hen.
The chances are that she will die and also scatter disease and
death among the whole flock. Some breeders feed chopped
onions occasionally, in order to promote the health of their
fowls. Others give half an ounce of sulphur in the food of
twelve fowls two or three times a month. Either of these plans
will prove beneficial.

Lice are very likely to find a home on hens, and do a great
deal of mischief They may be kept away by dampening the
bottoms of the nests and washing the perches occasionally with
kerosene oil. If the house is shut up tight and some brimstone
burned in an iron vessel placed upon the floor, then ventilated
after two hours, and the inside of the building washed in a
strong solution of potash, and then painted with kerosene oil,
the old hay taken from the nests and new hay moistened
slightly with the oil put in, the work of extermination will be
complete.

Eggs maybe kept for a long time, and be just as good as new,
by packing in a stone jar, and covering them with a liquid made
of four gallons of boiling water, one pint of lime, and one pint
of salt. The lime and salt should be dissolved in the water,
and the liquid used when cold. This plan is highly recom-
mended by Mr. Burniiam, of Massachusetts, the author of
several valuable works on Poultry.

TuRKKYS can often be profitably kept by farmers who live in
thinly settled sections. The eggs should be put under a large
hen. About four and a half weeks are required for hatching.

Young turkeys are extremely tender, and must be carefulh'
handled. A few hours after they break the shell, they should,
with the hen, be put into a coop which stands in a warm and
dry place. For at least a month they must be kept from the

THE INFERIOR ANIMALS. 76J

hot sun, must be shut into the coop in rainy weather, and must
be kept in every morning until the dew is off the grass. The
coop must not be placed on grass land, and should not be close
to the mowing-lots. The food should be carefully prepared
and regularly given. Commence feeding the chicks, when six
or eight hours old, with boiled eggs and crumbs of bread
broken into fine pieces. After a few days, boiled sour milk with
cooked Indian meal may be given. Uncooked meal should not
be given to young chicks. A little meat chopped fine may be
given occasionally, and oat meal dough will be good for a
change of diet. Feed often and provide plenty of fresh water.
The latter should be so arranged that they can drink when they
choose, but still be unable to get into the dish containing it.

Until they are three months old, the young turkeys must be
kept dry and very carefully fed. After this time they must be
fed well, but will be able to look out for themselves to quite an
extent. They may be profitably fattened at any time after they
are five months old. When it is desired to fatten them quickly
they should be shut into a comfortable pen, and fed on cooked
meal, boiled potatoes and oats. It is said that mixing a small
quantity of charcoal, finely pulverized, with their food proves a
great advantage. Plenty of pure water should be given, and
clean gravel should also be supplied.

Ducks require either a suitable localit}'' or else very careful
management in order to enable them to pay the expenses of
their keeping. The former but very few farmers have, and the
latter but very few are willing to give. In order to raise them
to the best advantage the farmer should have a pond on his
premises or else live near a river, marsh, or large brook. The
ducks will naturally take to water, and will wander away in
search of it if it is not close by. When no pond or brook is
convenient, large tubs of water should be put out for the ducks
to swim in.

The eggs may be placed under a duck or a common hen.

754 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

When hatched, the chicks should be put into a coop, and kept
therein for a while unless the weather is very fine. Large but
shallow pans of water should be placed close to the coops.
These pans should often be emptied and filled again with fresh
water. For food they should at first be supplied with bread-
crumbs soaked in milk, and hard-boiled eggs chopped fine. In
a short time they will eat boiled Indian meal and milk, boiled
potatoes, and green stuff from the garden. By the time they
are three months old they will eat almost anything which any
fowl can swallow, and will need - an immense amount of food.
They may be allowed to run in the garden, where they will get
many worms, but should be kept out of the grass which is to be
cut for hay.

Geese need water and green food, but if plenty of the latter
is given they can be kept where there is neither a pond nor
stream. Still, they do much better when they can sail on a
pond at will. Whether they can be made to pay on the farm is
a question which most farmers will probably answer in the
negative. A few, who live near large cities in which the flesh
can be readily sold, and who have water on their farms, may
make some money by keeping geese.

An old breeder has said that the principal requisites for
success with geese are "good housing and feeding!' Though
they like to swim in the water, dampness about their houses
proves wy- injurious. Geese should have a house by them-
selves, as they are quite apt to quarrel with other fowls. A
gander should be kept for fiv^e or six geese. Not more than six
or eight of these birds should be kept in one house, and plenty
of dry straw should be furnished.

When a goose is about to commence laying, which will be
evident by her gathering straw, she should be shut up. As she
will be likely to continue laying wherever she drops her first
^^Z, it is quite an object to induce her to begin in her appropriate
quarters. If the eggs are allowed to remain in the nest, the

FIG. 115.
«. PEKIN DUCKS, 2. PLYMOUTH ROCK FOWLS. Owned by Benson. Maule & Co., of Philadelphia, Pa.

THE INFERIOR ANIMALS. 767

goose will lay only from ten to twenty, but if regularly taken
out she will lay many more. When she wants to set, put
fifteen eggs in the nest. She should have food and water near
the nest, so that she will not be obliged to be off long at a time.
The eggs hatch in about four weeks. The goslings should be
taken out of the nest as fast as they are hatched, put into a
basket of wool and covered with a cloth. When the hatching
is completed, the little ones should be put back. Twelve hours
afterwards they should be fed with bread-crumbs soaked in
milk, bran pudding and boiled potatoes. The food should be
given quite warm. They must be protected from storms, and
should not go into water until two or three days old.

Geese eat a great deal of grass, and like green food from the
garden extremely well. In addition to what they can pick up
for themselves they should be regularly fed morning and night.
When they are to be fattened, grain should be given, and plenty
of warm boiled potatoes, oat meal and milk, or else meal mixed
with water. They should also have green food in abundance.

Honey Bees. — Farmers who have time, and a good location
for keeping bees, may make it profitable to try the business on a
small scale. But where it must be pursued at a disadvantage,
and the care of the bees is irksome, there is little use in making
the attempt.

If any one chooses to make a trial of the business of bee-
keeping, a few things must be borne in mind. The very first
thing to be done is to get a comprehensive work on bee-culture,
which is up to the times (King's Bee-Keepers' Text-Book is
an excellent one, and is very cheap), and study it. This must
be done in order that the work may be commenced intelligently,
and that mistakes involving heavy losses may be avoided.

Then some good hives must be obtained. It is not necessary

to get the newest style of expensive hives, but it is wasteful and

foolish to use the old boxes which were common thirty years

ago. Good bees must also be secured. There is as much
47

768

FARMING FOR PROFIT.

difference in bees as there is in the different breeds of cattle.
When buying an effort should be made to get those which are
the best adapted to the conditions under which they are to be
kept. They may cost a little more than poor ones, but they
will be three times as profitable. Provide a good place for them
in the summer, and a dark, but dry and well-ventilated, cellar in
which to keep them in the winter. Get a honey-extractor,
knife, some rubber-gloves, a veil made for the purpose, and all
other necessary implements and fixtures. Then take good care
of the bees, study their habits, and supply their wants. Furnish
them plenty of buckwheat and clover pasturage in summer, and
do all that can be done to aid them in their work.

FIG. ii6.— JERSEY BULL, LE BROCQ'S PRIZE 3350,
Imported August, 1878, by Chukchman & Jackson,
Indianapolis, Ind.

FIG. X17.— BERKSHIRE PIGS. Owned by T. S. Coopiii,
CoopersbuiK, Pa>

FRUIT-GRO\VING AND GARDENING.

(769)

CONTENTS OF F^HT III.

FRUIT Oli THE FARM.

TRANSPLANTING TREES-

CULTIVATION AND PRUNING.
THINNING FRUIT.

GATHERING FRUIT.
DRYING FRUIT.

DISEASES AND ENEMIES.
PROPAGATION.

THE LARGER FRUITS.
SMALL FRUITS.

THE FARM GARDEN.

(770)

FRUIT ON THE FARM. 77I

FHXJIT ©M THE FmBM .

HAT there should be a liberal supply of fruit grown on every farm is a fact
which no extended argument is needed to enforce. Fruit is almost as
much of a family necessity as bread. Its free use tends strongly to pre-
vent disease. It furnishes nutriment to the system, and as an article of
food is of great value. It also gratifies a natural appetite, and is a source
of a great deal of enjoyment.

Fruit should also be grown on a farm for the sake of the profit which its culture
insures. It is very fashionable just now to say that fruit-growing does not pay.
Farmers, who own large apple-orchards, assert that they are of no benefit. They
say that the trees only bear every other year, and that the market is always so
crowded with fruit when they have some for sale, that it hardly pays the expense of
gathering and marketing. But this argument of crowded markets and low prices
has been advanced against almost every crop ever grown on the farm, and yet the
owners grow these same crops, and make money enough to support their families,
and pay their taxes. There are times, it is true, when fruit sells for very low prices.
But all this is true of all other crops. It is also true that there is a partial remedy
for this difficulty. Better care and more skilful treatment can make the difference
between the bearing and unfruitful years less marked, can improve the quality of the
fruit, and increase the price for which it can be sold. There is, also, a strong prob-
ability that there will be a permanent market for AMERICAN fruits, in very large
quantities, in foreign lands.

Even in the worst seasons, fruit will be very sure to pay all the cost of its pro-
duction, and will enable the farmer to turn his time and labor into money. In times
of scarcity, it will pay still better; while in average seasons, it will be a source of
considerable profit.

Another reason why fruit should be grown upon every farm may be found in the
fact that it will increase the selling-price of the land. This fact is not fully realized
by the majority of farmers. But it is a -fact that a good orchard will do more
towards selling a farm for a high price than many other things which are a great
deal more expensive. When a man puts out a lot of nice fruit trees, h^ tVien and
thereby makes a permanent improvement of great value. If he thinks a fa^m with-
out fruit trees will sell just as well as one with them, he has only to try the experi-
ment to be undeceived. A farm which is well stocked with fruit trees is worth
much more money, and can be sold much more readily, than it could, if there had
been no trees put out.

Farming and fruit-growing naturally go together. A farm without fruit is defi-
cient in one of the finest products of the soil. Of course, fruit can be grown in such
a manner that it will not pay. The same is true of corn and of all other crops. It
would not be wise to cover the best half of the farm wiih trees. But between the
two extremes of growing no fruit at all and producing a large over-supply, there is
a middle course which will give the farmer and his family a great deal of comfort,
and add quite a sum to the actual profits of his business.

772 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

TitaKSFEtaNTING TREES,

T is very important that the land devoted to an orchard should he thoroughly
prepared, and that the work of transplanting the trees should be carefully
performed. If the soil is wet, it should be well drained before the trees
are put out.

The soil should be made very fine and mellow. If this is neglected,
and the earth which is thrown upon the roots of the trees is in coarse lumps, there
will be many spaces into which the air and water will penetrate, and the ground
will freeze much harder in winter than it would if the dirt was fine. The soil
should also be very fine in order that the little fibres of the roots, which are the
feeders of the tree, may obtain the nourishment which they need. Until a tree gets
well started, it needs all the food which it can obtain. Removal from a nursery
will be very likely to check its growth considerably, if it has the best of treatment
which the buyer can give. If carelessly put out, the tree will grow but little for
many years. The question whether at the end of ten years the orchard shall be
productive and profitable, or the trees shall be small and stunted, with hardly fruit
enough upon them to prove whether or not they are true to name, is, in a very great
measure, decided at the time the trees are put out.

It is very true that trees need care and food after they are set, and that no amount
of skill or labor at any one period can atone for neglect at all other times; but it
usually follows that a man who has put out trees in a finely prepared soil and done
the work with the highest degree of skill of which he was capable does not stop there,
but gives all needed care to his growing trees. On the other hand, the man who
puts the trees out in a careless manner is very likely to neglect them ever after.
They do not start very well, he thinks it is doubtful if they ever " come to much,"
and so he lets them go to their natural doom. Thus it happens that the time of
setting is a critical one in the life of the tree, and an important one in the relation
which it bears to the financial interests of the owner.

It is not best to use large quantities of' stimulating manures in the vicinity of the
trees. It is much better to make the land very rich before the trees are put out, and
then fertilize moderately each year. But in some manner the land must be made
fertile if it is not already rich, or the orchard will not pay.

Fruit trees may be grown on the farm and 'grafted when quite small, or, what is
usually a better way, purchased of some reliable nurseryman who has a reputation to
sustain, and who thoroughly understands his business. Huying of unknown ped-
dlers has involved m.iny farmers in a heavy loss. There is no excuse for purchasing
trees of irresponsible parties. There are plenty of reliable nurserymen, and trees
can be packed so that they can safely be transported to all parts of the country.

If trees cannot be set as soon as they are received, they should be taken to the
garden, their roots placed in a trench and covered with earth. If they are to remain
in this position several days, the tops should be shaded from the sun. In this
manner they can be kept alive for some time, but it is better to set them as soon as
possible.

The method of setting trees is simple, but the work should be carefully performed.
All the broken or mutilated roots should be trimmed with a sharp knife, and three-
quarters of the previous season's growth of the branches should also be removed.
Tiiis is vegr important, as a large part of the root-surface has been removed, and the

TRANSPLANTING TREES. 773

natural balance between the roots and the branches has been destroyed. A large,
but not deep, hole should be dug, and the roots of the tree dipped into a bed of thin
mud. The tree should then be put in the place which it is to occupy. It should
not be set deeper than it originally stood.

If the trees are large, a strong stake should be driven down for a support. This
should be done before the roots are covered. Then fill the hole with finely pulver-
ized earth. Care should be taken to straighten out the fibres, and to pack the earth
very closely under and around all the roots. It is well to carefully tread the dirt
two or three times, and if the ground is dry the use of water for settling and com-
pacting the soil is to be highly commended.

When the hole is filled tie the tree to the stake. A piece of woollen cloth, or
some straw, should be placed between the stake and the tree in order to prevent
chafing of the bark. Then mulch well with straw or coarse hay. Write the name
and location of each tree, with the date of its setting, in a book which will be pre-
served for reference. Then take care of the tree, manure it well when it needs to
be fertilized, and it will soon become fruitful.

Whether the spring or the fall is the best time for setting trees is an undecided
question. Each season has many and strong advocates. As far as theory goes, we
think those who favor setting in the fall have the advantage ; but in practice, we
have much the best results from spring planting. In other locations the reverse may
prove true. At the South an intermediate time should be chosen. Far South
mid-winter is considered the best time. In other sections it will be well to try both
spring and fall setting, and choose that which experience proves to be the best for
the particular location. Still, seasons differ greatly, and an unfavorable spring suc-
ceeded by a favorable fall may point to the latter time as the best when a longer
trial would reverse the decision. On this account the test should be made several
times.

In starting an orchard the great majority of men who have not been taught better
by practical lessons derived from their own personal experience crowd the trees too
near together. Trees need a great deal of room, and, if they are to do their best,
they must have this requirement fully supplied. The roots of a good-sized fruit
tree occupy a large area of land, and the branches spread to quite a distance from
the trunks. If the trees are crowded, the roots will not have room for their proper
development, and will not be able to obtain sufficient food to promote the rapid
growth of the trees and make them productive. The branches will also interlock
and interfere with each other. This will keep out the sunlight which is needed for
ripening and coloring the fruit, and for drying off the ground after rains. It will
also make it difficult to get around among the trees, and increase the labor of pick-
ing the fruit.

When trees are small they require so little room, that, if set as far apart as they
ought to stand when grown, there will seem to be a great waste of land. On this
account it is well to set dwarf trees between the standards. During the life of the
dwarfs there will be room" for all, and, when the dwarfs are gone, the others will
rapidly occupy the land. This, where a nice orchard is desired as soon as possible.
When there is no haste, and appearances are not specially cared for, the dwarfs
may be omitted. Place the large, strong-growing sorts of apple trees forty feet
apart. The smaller kinds may stand from thirty-three to thirty-five feet from each
other. If dwarfs are to be grown, place them, in the rows, just half way between
the standards. Pear trees should be grown twenty-five feet apart. Dwarfs fifteen

774 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

feel from each olher. Peach ti'ees should stand twenty feet from each other, tinlesi
a vigorous course of pruning is to be pursued. In this case, fifteen feet will give
sufficient room. Standard cherry trees should be twenty feet apart. Dwarfs, from
ten to twelve feet. Dukes and Morellos need only fifteen feet for standards and
eight to ten for dwarfs. Plum trees should be fifteen feet apart, and quince bushes
from six to eight feet.

On an ordinary farm a few trees should be set each year. When this is done,
time enough can be spared to do the work well, and the trees will be more likely
to receive needed care than they will if a large number are put out at once. Then,
too, there will be trees in all stages of growth and productiveness in the orchard.
As soon as an old tree begins to fail it can be removed, for there will be plenty of
younger ones which will come into bearing as fast as the older ones fail. There
will also be a greater probability of securing fruit every year if trees are regularly
put out. Some of the trees will be likely to come into bearing during the odd
years when most of the large trees are unfruitful. Experience has fully proved the
superiority of this method over the " once for all " practice of setting an orchard,
and we have no hesitation in recommending the putting out of a few trees each
year. The cost is small, the labor insignificant; but the returns, though gradual,
will be abundant in quantity and satisfactory in quality.

o y| F a fine tree is well set out, and then allowed to care entirely for itself, it
J I will not be very productive, and the quality of the fruit which it does pro-
'oll duce will be decidedly inferior. Therefore, we think it will pay the far-
"^ mer well to cultivate the land devoted to trees for a few years after ihey
are put out. Old trees can be heavily mulched and well manured, and
thus be able to get along belter without cultivation than small ones. The
land in a young orchard need not remain idle. A crop can be produced without
injury to the trees if the right kind of one is selected. It is not well to plant corn
in a young orchard, as the stalks grow so large and high as to shade the trees too
much. Either grass or grain will prove highly injurious. But potatoes, beans, or
root crops, may be grown to good advantage.

In plowing the land, care must be taken not to bark the trees or break off their
roots. There should be a good team, and a skilful man should hold the
plow. Weeds ought to be kept down, and the surface soil should be kept fine and
mellow. Manure ought to be spread upon the land every year and harrowed in.
It is not well to put all the manure close to the body of the tree. The roots of a
tree which is six inches in diameter often extend twenty feet from the trunk, and
the great majority of the fibres which obtain the food are at least eight feet from the
body. Consequently, spreading fertilizers close around the trunk can do hut very
little good. While the trees are small we pile a quantity of compost manure around
the trunk of each tree late in the autumn. This keeps away the mice which would
be glad to eat the bark. In the spring the manure is spread under the tree. In
addition to this the crop which is grown upon the land should be liberally fertilized.
If the owner feels unable to continue the cultivation of trees after they become
productive, the land can be seeded down to grass. When this is done, manure

CULTIVATION AND PRUNING. 775

shottld be applied as often as every other year, and the land should be plowed once
in four or five years. But small trees ought not to be allowed to stand in grass ol
weeds. Many trees now bear poor and scabby specimens of fruit, and only a
Small quantity, which would yield a large and nice quality, and an abundant quan-
tity, if the soil around their roots was properly stirred. No variety of fruit should
be condemned as small or of inferior quality, while the tree producing the speci-
mens which are tested stands in an unbroken sod. Some of the varieties which
are of the highest excellence when the land is cultivated are absolutely worthless
when this is neglected.

Pruning fruit trees is very simple and easy work, if it is taken in season, and prop-
erly performed ; but if neglected too long, it becomes quite difficult, and its results
are not always satisfactory.

If a tree is old, and its pruning has been neglected for many years, it will be neces-
sary to cut away considerable of its top, in order to get it into a good form; but the
indiscriminate cutting of young trees, which some men practice under the name of
pruning, is very injurious, and often proves utterly ruinous to the trees upon which
the operation is performed. When properly managed, no large branches need be
taken from a tree.

The pruning should begin when the tree is set, and every spring the sprouts
which are not wanted should be removed. For some years a sharp jack-knife will
be large enough to do all the cutting that will be desirable. When the tree attains
a larger size, pruning-shears and a fine saw will l)e needed. But there must be a
constant watchfulness and an effort to keep down all shoots which are not wanted
permanently on the tree. Many buds, which start out in places which ought to
be vacant, can be rubbed off during the summer. Any one can see that the cutting
off of a limb two or three inches in diameter involves a great waste of the vital
forces of the tree. It often causes a wound which does not readily heal, and leads
to premature decay. But if this evil is avoided, there is a waste of all the growth
of the limb which is removed. If this growth had been wisely directed, it would
have added to the size, strength and productiveness of the tree. When the bud
first started, it could have been easily rubbed off. At the end of the first season of
its growth, the shoot could have been clipped off with a knife. But after a few years
it must be cut with a saw; all its growth is wasted; while its removal mutilates the
tree and makes an ugly wound. It does not pay to grow trees in this manner.
The formation of wood, which must be thrown away, should be prevented, and the
growth of the tree directed to the securing of the desired shape and the utilization
of all the vital forces.

If he commences when it is small, the owner of a tree can do a great deal toward
determining its form when it is fully matured. He can decide whether the tree
shall branch very low or very high, and whether the top shall be large or small.
Many people think that the trunk of a tree increases in length as rapidly as it does
in circumference. Acting upon this principle, they allow twigs, which in time will
become the lower tier of branches, to start out only two or three feet from the
ground. But the tree does not grow as they expected, and when the full size is
reached, the branches are no farther from the ground than they were when the tree
came from the nursery.

Whether it is desirable to have the trees branch high or low is a question which
will be determined by the circumstances of each particular case. In localities
where strong winds prevail, and where the weather is extremely cold, there are

776 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

certain advantages in having trees short and low. When the land is to be cnlti.
vated, the work can be more easilj' done if the trees branch some distance from the
ground. It is inconvenient to get under a very low tree and still more difficult to
prune, or pick the apples from, a very high one.

In pruning a tree, all the sprouts which incline to grow crooked, and those which
interfere with limbs which are already established, should be cut out. The top
should neither be very dense nor very open. If the branches are so thick that the
sunlight cannot enter freely, the fruit will not ripen perfectly, and will not be as
finely colored as it should be. If the top is too open, the branches are not protected
as they should be from the severity of the winter winds, which dry the bark, and the
burning of the summer sun, which scalds it. The common method of cutting all
the twigs from large limbs almost their whole length, and " leaving a little brush on
the end of the limb like a cow's tail " is extremely pernicious. By this means the
limbs are exposed to the action of the elements, and there are not enough leaves
left to fully elaborate the sap and keep the tree healthy and productive. Neither
should the branches be wholly covered with twigs, as this would keep out the light
and spoil the appearance of the tree.

If the pruning is attended to promptly, year by year, there will be but little diffi-
culty in keeping the trees in good shape. If neglected, the owner must suffer the
penalty which neglect always imposes. A little work at the right time will prevent
the necessity of doing a great deal at some other time, and the results will be much
more satisfaciury.

THINNINa FRUIT,

"^ UT few farmers are in the habit of thinning their fruit, and to this fact may
be traced the imperfection of a great deal of the fruit and the irregularity
with which the trees are fruitful. Too often the trees are heavily loaded
one year and produce but very little fruit the next summer. During the
bearing season, the vital forces of the trees are strained to their utmost in
growing and ripening an excessive quantity of fruit. Nature does her
best, but is not always able to carry out all that has been begun. Much of the fruit
drops from the tree before it is fully formed, and a large part of what remains is
only imperfectly developed and ripened.

But the partial failure to perfect the fruit is not the greatest evil which is involved
in this over-production. The tree is so exhausted by its overload that it cannot
recover at once. The wood which it has formed during the season cannot be thor-
oughly ripened and is frozen during the winter. The next spring but few blossoms
are put forth and little or no fruit is formed during the summer. This is the natu-
ral result of over-bearing. If the trees are left to themselves the trouble becomes
permanent. One year there is a great excess of fruit, while the next year there is
an equally great scarcity.

The best, perhaps the only, remedy is to be found in thinning the fruit early in
the season. It does no good to apply stimulating manures. This would be like
pouring oil on a fire. The natural method of checking the evil is to commence as
soon as the fruit is fairly set and pick off a large proportion of the specimens. It
will not do to wait until the fruit is half grown, as the energies of the tree would
then be seriously impaired. Some good would be done, but the remedy would b«

THINNING FRUIT.

777

applied too late to insure the best results. A few growers have tried the plan of
whipping off the blossoms, but this is liable to permanently injure the bearing twigs.
Others clip off the blossoms, or the small fruit, with pruning shears.

The only objection raised against thinning fruit is that it involves considerable
work. But this really amounts to but little. The plan proposed merely changes
the time of doing part of the labor, but tends to diminish rather than increase
the amount. It is no more work to pick half the apples on a tree in June than it
is in October. If picked early, and merely dropped upon the ground, the work
can be done much faster than it can when all the specimens are to be saved.
It is true that the farmer is usually more busy in the summer than he is in the fall,
but, when they are overloaded, he can spend time enough to thin the fruit on his
best trees, and he can hardly use the time to better advantage.

Mr. Joseph Harris, whose opinions upon other subjects we have had occasion
to quote, has given the farmers of this country a fine illustration of the advantages
of thinning fruit. He has an orchard of Northern Spy trees, occupying four acres
of land, from which he has sold more than twelve hundred dollars worth of apples
in a single year. The trees were young and were expected to produce a much larger
quantity when full grown. The apples were extremely large. One hundred and
eighty-six specimens filled one barrel, and one hundred and ninety another. Many
of the trees, though young and small, produced five barrels each. The large size
was obtained by good cultivation of the trees reinforced by thorough thinning of the
fruit. Early in the summer, one-half of the apples were picked from the trees.
This gave the remainder an opportunity to grow, and the half which was left prob-
ably filled as many barrels as they all would have done if they had been allowed to
remain. If the fruit had not been thinned, a large part of the specimens would have
been small and many of them imperfect. The fruit which remained was probably
worth twice as much as the whole would have been. Then, too, the benefit to the
trees was very great. They were obliged to perfect only half as many seeds, and,
consequently, required but comparatively little food from the soil. The growth of
the seed does far more to exhaust both the tree and the land than the formation of
all the other parts of the fruit. The large apple gets much of its food from the
atmosphere, but the small one takes a much larger proportion from the soil.

As a barrel of large and finely-formed apples is worth, in almost any market,
twice as much as an equal quantity of small and imperfect ones, the draft upon the
vital forces of the tree and the elements of fertility in the soil is only half as great,
and the labor of picking the fruit is less if part of it is taken off early in the season'
there seems to be a fine opportunity for farmers to advance their interests and
mcrease the profits of their orchards by thinning the fruit when the trees show an
inclination to over-bear.

This applies not only to the production of apples, but, to a still greater extent, also
to pears and peaches. Every year large quantities of peaches are thrown away after
they have been transported to city markets, and still larger quantities are wasted at
home.^ This mvolves a heavy loss, and is mainly caused by imperfect growth and.
ripening. If the fruit had been properly thinned, a large proportion of this loss
would have been prevented. Pears often look pretty well, while their flavor is
extremely poor. Sometimes they are badly formed and partially covered with scabs.
These, and similar evils, are often due to a neglect to thin the fruit. In some cases,
want of cultivation and care of the tree help make up the result, but, when trees are
well cared for, neglect to thin the fruit is the principal cause of its imperfection.

778 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

CS^aTKERING FRUIT,

'ARE in gathering the crop is one of the essentials of success in fruiU
growing. Many farmers obtain good fruit in the autumn who do not suc-
ceed in keeping it through the winter. Tlie most perfect method of growing
fruit will give only temporary benefit if the gathering is carelessly done.
If the fruit is not picked at the right time, or if it is bruised or imper-
fectly sorted, it will not keep well, and will not command the highest
market price. A great deal of fine fruit is injured every season by bad handling,
and by storage in improper places, and with imperfect specimens.

The time for picking fruit depends very much upon the variety and the purpose
for which it is to be used. Fruit which is designed for long keeping should be
picked earlier than that which is to be used at once. A great deal of the summer
and autumn fruit which is sold in the city markets is not well ripened on the trees,
but is picked while green in order that it may be enabled to bear transportation.
By this means the desired end is secured, but the flavor of the fruit is seriously
impaired. An apple which is picked while hard enough to be safely transported to
market, has a very different flavor from one, which was originally no better, which
is allowed to remain on the tree until it is mellow.

Fruit which is to be sold, and winter fruit for long keeping, should be pickpd
when quite hard. For family use apples of the early varieties should hang upon
the trees until they change color perceptibly, and begin to grow mellow. With the
exception of a very few varieties pears are better to be picked from the trees before
they are fully ripe. When careful raising of the fruit causes the free separation of
the stem from the twig upon which it grew, the best time for gathering has arrived.
A few varieties will bear still earlier picking, but nearly all kinds will be better to
remain until this time, and some will utterly spoil if gathered earlier. It is not
always safe to allow pears to remain on the trees as advised for early apples, as
many varieties will rot at the core if left to fully ripen on the trees.

All kinds of fruit should be gathered before very hard frosts. Winter pears will
safely endure a greater degree of cold than apples, but they should not be too much
exposed.

When the winter fruit is sufficiently matured, the gathering should be performed
as rapidly as possible. The work should only be done in good weather, or, if the fruit
is gathered when wet, it should be carefully dried before being put into winter-
quarters. The picking should be done by hand, and the greatest care ought to be
taken not to bruise the fruit even in the slightest degree. A sack hung over the
shoulder, and its mouth kept open by means of a hoop or a stick, is very much
better than a basket. Each specimen must be carefully laid into the sack or basket,
and not dropped even for the shortest distance. Some apples bruise very easily,
and when dropped two or three inches upon other specimens, will surely be injured.
Sometimes the bruises are so slight as to escape notice at the time, but after the
apples have been picked a few days, and fermentation has set in, they become
plainly visible. These little bruises cause the premature decay of a large quantity
of hand-picked fruit.

If apples are picked into a basket they must not be turned out but carefully
removed by hand. If a sack is used they can, if sufficient care is taken, be turned
into a barrel or upon a pile. It is a good plan to spread the apples on the floor of

GATHERING FRUIT. '^fQ

t
a store-room or the barn, and allow them to " sweat " for a few days or weeks before

they are put away for the winter. This adds greatly to the keeping quality of the

fruit, and, what is still more important, furnishes an opportunity for a more careful

selection and grading thaa would otherwise be secured.

When apples are put into barrels as soon as they are picked from the trees, some
imperfect specimens are almost sure to find their way into the company of the best
fruit. These defective apples soon decay, and cause the early destruction of the
better ones with which they have been in contact. The loss of the imperfect fruit
is small when compared with the injury done to that which was good when the
barrels were filled. Some growers prefer to pile the fruit on the ground instead of
under cover. If the room is well ventilated, and the door kept open during the
day, there can be no harm in having the apples on the floor, and in case of storms
they will be better protected than they can be if left out of doors.

Before the weather becomes cold enough to injure them the apples should be car-
ried into the cellar or fruit-room in which they are to be kept. Whatever the con-
dition in which they were when gathered from the trees they must be perfectly dry
when put into the barrels. The presence of dew or rain will be fatal to theii
keeping qualities. It is also important to carefully assort the fruit. The riper
specimens, which may be easily detected by the change in their color and by indi-
cations of early mellowing, should be placed in different barrels from those which
are hard and not fully mature. Large and small ones should be put into separate
packages. The presence of a small proportion of small apples in a barrel of large
ones will add but very little to the measure, but will take considerable from the
price. Eight barrels of large apples will bring more money than ten barrels of large
and small ones, although in the whole lot there may not be more than a single barrel
of inferior specimens. When the fruit is placed in barrels, care must be taken not to
bruise it. Slight bruises which do not break the skin cause speedy decay, while
the larger ones start the process of fermentation still sooner.

If the fruit is to be sold, the barrels should be gently shaken occasionally while
being filled. The head should be pressed in by a lever and securely fastened. It
is not safe to omit this pressure, as the fruit will then shake in the barrels, and be
badly bruised while being transported. If properly pressed, the fruit cannot move
and will go safely any required distance.

If the fruit is to be used at home, it should be gathered and assorted with as much
care as though it were to be shipped, but the barrels need not be headed. If this
plan were followed, the complaints which farmers so often make, that their apples
do not keep well, would not be so commonly heard, and the frequent " picking
over" of the apples to get out those which are partially decayed could be aban-
doned. If proper care is used in gathering and packing, and the cellar is fairly
good, the best apples will keep a long time without showing signs of decay. But if
large and small, ripe and unripe, perfect and imperfect, specimens are mixed
together there will very soon be decayed apples in the barrels, and all the fruit must
be sorted over in order to remove those which are spoiled, and are doing all they
can to spoil those with which they are in contact.

780

FARMING FOR PROFIT.

©HYING FRUIT.

'^^T has long been a common custom in all the fruit-growing sections to dry

part of the fruit produced on the farm. Windfall apples, and those which

showed signs of early decay, peaches, and other fruits have been dried in

order to prevent loss to the owner, and preserve, as far as possible, the

good qualities of the fruit. Berries have also been dried in immense

quantities, and thus kept for an indefinite period.

But the old-fashioned process of drying did not prove wholly satisfactory. It

required considerable time, and involved a great amount of labor; and it did not fully

answer the purpose for which it was designed. It secured the preservation of the

fruit, but did not keep its quality unimpaired. In too many cases the drying was
about as injurious as the decay which it prevented would have been. The quality
of much of the dried fruit found in farm-houses and in market is extremely poor.

In order to prevent the deterioration in the quality of fruit, which seemed insep-
arable from the common method of drying, many farmers and fruit-growers have
tried the plan of canning fruit which they wished to preserve. This is a great
improvement, but it involves a great deal of labor and considerable expense. Besides,
. the results are not always good. Many cans leak, many glass jars do not seal tightly,
and the contents are spoiled. The addition of quite a quantity of sugar is also
required, and it is necessary to at least partially cook the fruit.

What has long been needed is a process which should fully preserve the fruit in its
natural state (i. e., without cooking), and without the addition of foreign material.
This need seems now to be fully supplied. Several machines for evaporating fruit

DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 73 j

have been brought before the public. One of the very best of these is represented

by Figure 118.

In this machine the moisture of the fruit is quickly removed by currents of dry,

hot air. The cell structure of the fruit is preserved unbroken, and there is no cooking!

over-heating, or partial decomposition, as there always is when fruit is dried in\'

common oven or in the sunlight. The fine flavor of the fruit is fully retained.

Nothing but water is removed, and the addition of water restores the fruit to its

original condition in size and appearance, makes it as tender as fresh fruit, and seems

to increase its sweetness.

After being dried in one of these evaporators, the weight of a bushel of apples is

only six and one-half pounds, and one hundred quarts of blackberries weigh only
forty pounds. Fruits, which have been cured in this manner, can be preserved as
long as desired, and their quality will remain unimpaired. There is no cost for
sugar, cans or jars, but the fruit can be packed in boxes, or paper bags, and kept
until wanted for use.

The introduction of this method of preservation will give a great impetus to the
business of fruit production. Not only are several stock companies now doing a
large business, representing several millions of dollars per year, in drying fruits, but
the way is now open for farmers to profitably dispose of all the fruit which they can
produce. If there seems to be an over-production in the fall, and fruit in its natural
state will not find a ready sale, the surplus can be quickly and cheaply evaporated,
and thus put into a condition in which it will be wanted in market, and will com-
mand prices which will be satisfactory.

iiKE all other things of value, fruit trees have their enemies, and are subject

(^ to various evils. In some localities they are more exposed to injuries than

^m ^^^^ ^"^ '" °'^^'''' ^"^ ^°'"e varieties, which are perfectly hardy in some

(Jr^ sections, are tender and exposed to disease in other parts of the country

V^ There are plenty of fruits which are adapted to the various degrees of

temperature, and where one variety fails, another can be substituted, and

made to thr.ve. But there should be no wholesale change until all reasonable

efforts have been made to check the disease, or drive off the insects, and get the trees

already m the field into a healthy condition

Good cultivation, which tends to promote a vigorous growth and development of
the trees, does very much to ward off disease, and enable the vital forces to resist the

: nt Ij'kTb ' °''^^^'" '"^^"'' P^^^^ ^-^ '^-'-^^'-- Some diseafe
Tay ^^"'^ '"''"'"*' ^"' ^"'"^ ^'^^-^ °f '--'^ -n ^^e driven

of BLIGHT This attacks the pear, apple and quince, but proves the most destruc-
tive w.th the former. The effect of this disease is to wither and blacken the leaves
enti tl m -Pf y-g-wing branches. Sometimes this spreads over Z
entire tree, and all the leaves fall off in mid-summer. In many cases the evil

tht ffeTt Tfl T' '"' ^'^ '""^'^^ "P°" -^-^ "^^y ^— The ends of

the affected limbs perish, and the fatal affection rapidly extends toward the trunk

782 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

If left to itself, the whole tree is very soon destroyed. The remedy is simple, but
must be applied quickly, and with x\\ unsparing hand. Delay, even for a few days,
endangers the life of the tree. All the .dTctied branches should be cut off two or
three feei below the point at which there is on external manifestation of the disease.
These limbs should be immediately burned. If the branches are not cut quite a
distance below the point which seems to be the limit of the disease, the poison will
not all be removed and the evil will not be eradicated. The disease may spread when
prompt measures are taken for its suppression, but it can usu.illy be checked. If,
after the removal of diseased portions, other branches are affected, they must also be
removed, and the pruning must be kept up until the disease is checked, or the whole
tree is destroyed. If the attack is sudden and malignant, and appears to involve
the whole tree, the axe had better be laid at the roots, and the whole commiued to
the flames. Delay, or half- way measures, will cause the rapid spread of the disease,
and the loss of many, if not all, of the trees in the immediate vicinity.

There is another disease, known as Leaf Blight, which attacks pear trees, and for
which no certain remedy is known. The leaves turn black, and fall from the tree,
and all growth is checked. It i> more liable to attack small trees than large ones,
though both the leaves and fruit of full-grown trees are sometimes affected.

By keeping the soil rich, and giving good cullivation, the grower should endeavor
lo prevent the appearance of this disease.

In its attacks upon the apple and quince, the blight does not prove as destructive
as it does with the pear, but in some portions of the West, apple trees are often
severely injured from this cause. The disease affects the growth of the season
in which it appears, and causes the falling of the leaves and death of the diseased
wood.

The Black Knot is a disease which attacks plum and cherry trees, and occa-
sionally the peach. An irregular swelling appears on the affected twig and limb.
It commences early in the summer, and grows until the end of July. Year by year
it becomes larger and more poisonous until the life of the tree is destroyed. The
disease also spreads to surrounding trees. The remedy consists in promptly cutting
away all diseased limbs a few inches below the point reached by the disease. If
the excrescences appear on the trunk or large limbs, ihey should be cut out, and the
wound washed with a solution of chloride of lime. Every particle of the diseased
wood must be removed, or the labor will be in vain.

The Yellows is a disease which attacks the peach and often proves very destruc-
tive. It causes a premature ripening of the fruit, with discoloration of the flesh,
and a yellow appearance of the leaves. The diseased trees seem to be filled with
poison, and the knife used in pruning them will carry it to those which are healthy.
The disease also spreads without actual contact, and sometimes destroys whole
orchards. No cure is known. The diseased trees should be cut and burned as soon
as they appear to be affected. No trees should be set in the places recently occu-
pied by the diseased ones, as the poison would rapidly spread from the roots.

Mildew is a disease which attacks both the grape and the goosebeir)-, and, to a
limited extent, the peach. It attacks the foreign varieties of the grnpe when the
vines are grown in the open air, and several of our native varieties are affected in
unfavorable seasons. As soon as the disease a-ppears, the vines should be dusted with
sulphur, and this treatment repeated every fortnight as long as it is needed. When
hardy varieties are planted far enough apart, the branches properly thinned, and
good culture is given, there will be little trouble from this source.

DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 7^3

This disease affects the goosebeny still more seriously than it does the grape. It
is due, ill a great measure, to climatic influences, but may be moditied by pruning
and good cultivation. Mulching heavily in the spring with salt hay is said to be an
efficient remedy.

When peach trees are attacked by mildew, soap-suds should be thrown over them
with a fountain-pump. The addition of lime-water to the soap suds, and the subse-
quent dusting of the trees with sulphur, is also highly recommended by growers who
have had considerable expeiieTice with the disease.

There are other diseases which result from neglect, and some which are subject to
climatic changes. These, and the ones we have named, can be much more readily
prevented than cured. If no diseased tree is allowed in the vicinity, no grafts or
buds from affected trees are used, and all contagion by means of the pruning-knife is
avoided, it is almost always possible by giving good cultivation, constant care, and
suitable, pruning, to keep the trees healthy and vigorous. In buying trees, care
should be taken to obtain the most healthy and hardy varieties, and to get'tre.'s
which have not been exposed to the contagious influence of any form of disease.

The trees and fruit are both exposed to the attacks of several enemit?
which, if allowed to remain unmolested, would soon destroy them. Among thesft
enemies the various insect tribes prove the most formidable. They not only do an
immense amount of mischief, but they are very difficult to dislodge or destroy.

The Curculio is a small but very destructive insect which attacks the plum,
apricot, cherry, apple, and some other fruits. When the fruit is very small, the insfct
makes a crescent-shaped puncture and deposits an egg. The egg soon hatches, and
the larvae work their way to the centre of the fruit. After a few weeks, the injured
specimens fall to the ground, the insect passes into the earth, and is changed to the
perfect beetle which lays eggs and thus provides for a continuance of its race. This
insect makes its appearance nearly every year, and, unless measures are taken to
prevent its depredations, it will destroy almost the entire crop of plums and quite a
proportion of the cherries. Sometimes it takes every plum from a fruitful tree
There are a ^^yi very thick-skinned varieties which partially resist its attacks, but the
finest K.nds fall an easy prey to its destructive efforts.

Although very rapacious if let alone, the curculio can be more easily destroyed
than some other enemies with which the fruit-grower is obliged to contend. Two
methods are in common use. One aims at the destruction, the other at the driving
away of the insects. The former gives the best results. The best way is to shake
the insects down upon sheets spread under the trees, and then destroy all that fall
In the morning these insects are very sluggish, and can be easily captured The
tree should be jarred suddenly. This will bring down twice as many insects as an
ordinary shaking. Saw off a limb an inch or two from the trunk, and upon the pro-
jection thus formed strike with a hammer. For large trees a sledge may be
required. The work should be commenced as soon as the fruit sets,Vrformed
every morning, and continued until the time for ripening. If any specimens of fruit
fall to the ground, they should be removed at once and fed to the pigs or otherwise
destroyed.

The other class of remedies has for its object the driving away of the insects For
this purpose, fine coal-ashes have been highly recommended, and liave often been
effective. The trees should be dusted two or three times a week from the time the
blossoms fall until the fruit is ripe.

The Caterpillar, of which there are several species, is one of the most destruc-
48

784 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

live enemies of the apple tree. It feeds upon the leaves, and often makes large
trees wholly unfruitful. As the leaves are " the lungs of the tree," if naturally
follows that ihe removal of any considerable portion ol them must be very injurious.
It will check the growth of the tree, and cause the fruit to wither, nnd fall prema-
turely to the ground.

The common Tent-Caterpillar is hatched at the time the leaf buds open in
spring, and gradu.iHv increases in size until it is two inches long. Aftor reaching its
full size, meanwhile voraciously eating the leaves,' it " spins a cocoon and passes
into the pupa slate. In the latter part of summer it comes out a yellowish brown
miller," lays a large number of eggs, in rings around, and near the ends of the
smaller branches, and then dies. These eggs hatch out the next spring, and each
collection makes a nest of caterpillars which is capable of destroying the leaves and
injuring the fruit of a large branch. The best way to fight these enemies is lo clip
off the branches upon which their eggs are deposited, and burn them. This can be
done during the winter, or when the eggs are hatching in spring, but should not be
delayed until the insects are grown and commence their work. If any are over-
looked, tlie cater])illars should be brushed off and destroyed.

The Fall Web Worm is another destructive caterpillar which attacks many
different kinds of trees. The eggs are " deposited on the under side of a leaf, near
the end of a twig. These soon hatch, and the larvre commence feeding on the
upper surface, spinning their threads from side to side, and then, attaching two
or three leaves together, they soon make a web. They continue feeding and spin-
ning along the twig as they consume the tender portion of the leaf, leaving the
:mere skeleton." These caterpillars are small, pale yellow, with a broad, dark-
colored stripe on the back, and another beneath, thickly covered with white hair,
and have bh.ck heads and feet. They appear in OHIO at the end of May, and con-
tinue until OcTOHER. They not only attack fruit, but also forest trees. The
.methods of de-;truction are the same as recommended for the tent-caterpillars.

The Canker Worm attacks both fruit and leaves, and often proves very deslruc-
'tive. The female is nearly destitute of wings, and fruit-growers take advantage of
this fact to keep her from the trees. A cloth band coated with tar, printing ink, or
a mixture of tar and oil, is fastened around the trunk of the tree. The mixture
-needs to be applied frequently, as it gets dry in a few days or weeks. It should
not be applied directly to the tree, as it will prove injurious. The insects cannot
ipass the belt, but stick to its moist surface, and will soon perish or can be easily
destroyed. "Tree Ink," manufactured by George H. Morrill & Co., of
Boston, Mass., has been extensively and successfully used for a dozen years as a
" canker-worm exterminator," and is, probably, the best thing for the purpose which
has yet been devised. In using this a band of tarred paper six inches wide should
be securely fastened around the trunk of the tree about four feet above the ground.
This is saturated thoroughly with the Exterminator. The application can be
made with a paint brush, and should be repeated before the band gets dry. Only
a few apjilications will be required during the season. Tin bands with the outer
edges turned downwards are sometimes used, and shallow vessels filled with oil
have been successfully tried. The moth attempts to ascend the tree, for the purpose
of laying her eggs, in the mild days of winter r^nd oarly in the spring. Son-.etimes
the moths commence in the autumn. Consequently preventive measures must be
taken promptly and kept up for a long time. It is very much easier and belter to
keep the moths from ascending the trees than it is to fight the canker worms after

DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 785

they have taken possession. Still if the worms make their appearance they should
be dislodged as soon as possible.

The Cherry Slug often injures cherry and pear trees, and prevents the ripening
of their fiuit. This creature is " about half an inch long, and of a dark, greenish
brown when filled with food. Its smooth, shining, and jelly-like skin, and snail-
like appearance have given it the name " of slug. It can be driven away by dusting
the trees with dry ashes daily, while the leaves are wet with dew.

The Apple Worm (the insect parents known as the " codling moth") often
proves very destructive to this variety of fruit. It enters at the blossom, and feeds
at the core of the fruit, causing much of it to fall prematurely, and seriously injuring
much that remains upon the tree. Mr. Thomas says "the best preventive is to
allow swine or sheep to pick up the wormy fvuit as it falls, thus destroying the
enclosed insect, and preventing its spread." By rubbing the trunks with a piece of
liver, the sheep can be kept from gnawing the bark of the trees.

The Rose Bug often eats the flowers and leaves of the apple and grape, as well
as the rose. When this pest comes in large numbers, as it does in some seasons, it
does a great deal of damage. When rose bugs attack the grape flowers they should
be picked off and destroyed. The work should be done early in the morning, and
must not be given up until the enemy disappears. When small apple trees are
attacked, the insects may be caught by placing basins or pails containing water undei'-
neath, and then jarring the limbs. When the work of destroying them is com-
menced early, and performed with care and vigor, these pests will be disposed of in
a short time. But it will not do to allow them to take their own course, and then
expect to obtain a fair crop of grapes or a large yield of apples. If the fruit is
wanted, the enemies must be destroyed.

The Currant Worm eats the leaves of the currant and gooseberry, sometimes
entirely stripping the bushes in a few days' time. The removal of the leaves pre-
vents the ripening'of the fruit, and also injures the bushes. Powdered white helle-
bore is a certain remedy. As soon as the worms appear this should be applied. If
used dry a small quantity should be dusted upon the leaves, from a dredging-box
with fine openings, when they are wet with dew. A better way, as there is less
danger that the operator will inhale the dust, is to dissolve a tablespoonful of the
poison in a pailful of water, and sprinkle the hushes with the mixture. The bushes
must be closely watched, as these pests often come in great numbers, and sometimes
devour all the leaves before their presence is suspected. After the first brood has
been destroyed another may appear. If it comes the same course must be ]iursued.

Aphides, or plant-lice, of various kinds, often take up their abode upon the leaves
of fruit trees and cause severe injury. We have seen a cherry tree which was large
enough to produce a bushel of fine fruit kept from bearing for several years by these
minute enemies. Soon after the blossoms appeared the leaves began to curl, the
growth of the tree was retarded, and the formation of the fruit was checked. Upon
the under side of the leaves multitudes of black lice were located, and, by sucking
the juices, they caused the leaves to curl and the fruit to perish. Throwing a solu-
tion of whale-oil soap over the tree will prove an eflicient remedy. For this pur-
pose a fountain-pump, or large syringe, is needed. The liquid must not be too
slron^f, as then it would injure the leaves as well as kill the lice. A test should be
made upon a single branch in order to determine the quantity required. The appli-
cation should he made in the evening, and repeated as often as necessary.

The Apple- Bark Louse attacks the smooth bark of apple trees, and, in connection

7SG FARMING FOR PROFIT.

with other evils, often proves fatal. Of thus 'nsect, Dr. Kitch say> : " It makes its
appeal ance xs a litlle lirow" ?-c.iIe, one-eighlh of an inch long, the ?hape of an oysicr-
shell. fixed to the smooth burk, resembling a litlle blister. This scele is the dried
remains of the body of the female, covering and protecting her cgg<-, fron\ a dozen
to a hundred of which lie in the cavity under each scale. These eggs hatch the
latter pan of May, and the young lice diffuse themselves over the barli, appearing as
minute white atoms, almost invisible to the eye. They puncture the b.Trk, and suck
the sap from it." For treatment, a mixture of equal parts of tar and linseed oil
appli-jd to the bark' warm, but not hot, early in the spring, has proved very useful.
Mr. Thomas says: "Scraping and scrubbing, in summer, with a stilT brush, in
.soap-suds are useful. Thriftiness from good culture is the best preventive, and trees
badly affected should be cut up and burned."

1 HE Borer is a dangerous enemy of the apple, quince, and some other trees. It
enters the tree near the ground, cuts its way through the wood in various directions,
and seriously, often fatally, injures it. The eggs are laid under the loose scales cf
the bark, and the insects which are hatched from them eat through the bark whi»n
quite small. They remain under the bark, and feed upon it, for several months.
When they are about half grown they work their way into the wood. Their pres-
ence, even in the early stages of their attack, may be detected by the powder which
comes out of the bnrk where they are at work. If taken in season, the insect may
be cut out with a sharp-pointed knife, but, after it has passed into the wood, a sharp,
flexible wire should be pushed into the hole which it has ni.ide and the intruder
crushed, if possible. This effort is not always successful, as the channels ure often
very crooked. The trees should be examined frequently, from early in the spring
uniil autumn, and, when there are any indications observable of the presence of
borers, they should receive immediate attention. It is better to cut the tree to
quite an extent, if the borei-s cannot otherwise be destroyed, than it is to alloir
them to continue their work. But, if taken in season, only a little cutting will be
required.

There is also a worm, or grub, which attacks the peach tree. It enters the bark
just below the surface of the ground, but does not go far into the wood. It can
easily be found 1 y means of the dust and gum which issue from the cavity which it
makes. The dirt should be scraped away, and the intruder destroyed with a sharp
knife. Every tree should be examined early in the spring and in the summer. If
a little heap of ashes, air-slaked lime, or earth, is formed around the trunk early in
the season, or the trunk is encased with pasteboard or some similar substance, the
enemv will be kept entirely away.

.Mice often prove terribly destructive to voutk? free":, and many apple orchards
have been almost wholly destroyed in a single season. Their method of operation
is to gnaw the bark from the trunk of the tree, often completely girdling it and caus-
ing its death. They frequently work under the snow, but sometimes go from tree
to tree on the crust formed by the freezing of rain on top of the snow. When trees
stand in the turf, and long grass is left around them in the fall, the mice oftenlake
refuge in and make their nests out of it. The best way of protecting trees, one
which we have tested many years with unvar)'ing success, is to make a mound of
compost manure, a foot or more in height, around the trunks late in the autumn.
This is packed closely around the stems.'and, when the mice travel on the ground,
proves an effectual barrier. No str.-iwy material should be used, as this would not
pack closely enough, and the mice would use it for their nests. Soon after the

DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 7S7

snow is gone in the spring we spread the manure under the trees, and thus make it
perform an additional service in promoting the grovvlli and fruitfulness of the trees
which it has protected during the winter.

Many farmers go among their trees after each snow-storm and tramp down the
snow as closely as pos^^ible around the trunks. If this is faithfully performed it
answers the purpose very well, but it requires considerable time and is liable to be
forgotten.

Rabbits prove very dangerous enemies to trees in some localities, working in the
same manner, but much mure extensively than mice. We have known tame riihbits
to seriously injure a fine orchard before thfeir owner Iiad any idea that they were in
mischief. But the greatest injury is caused by those which have not been domesti-
cated, A fruit-grower in a section in which these animals abound, says, that if one
is killed, and his flesh and blood rubbed over the trunks of the trees, the others will
let them entirely alone. This treatment should be repeated every few wetks, and
the trees careluUy watched to see ihat it proves efficient. When this method does
not seem practicable, the trunks of the trees should be rubbed with a piece of fresh
liver. This should be done once in every two or three weeks. Encasing the trunks
with tin — old tm pans can be made to furnish part of the material — or with stiff
paste-board, is a still more certain protection.

Sheep and lambs often gnaw the bark of apple and pear trees when they find
access to them. Rubbing the trunks with liver, as recommended for kee]>ing rab-
bits away, is a very good i)reventive. A board box amund the trunk, to be kept on
only as long as the sheep are in the orchard, would be a still belter method of pro-
tection. Fencing around each tree would also prove beneficial, and is the method
which we have followed for many years. But this method cuts off, in a great meas-
ur;, the main advantage which is to be secured from the pasturing of sheep in
orchards of small trees. The great benefit of keeping sheep among fruit trees
ccmes from their eating the immature specimens which fall to the ground, and thus
dtstroying the insects which spoiled the fruit. But, if fences are built around the
trunks so as to keep sheep from the bark, they must either be very closely boarded
oi else must he quite a little distance from the trees, and allow considerable fruit to
fi.'.l between the fences and trees where the sheep cannot get it.

Cattle often prove very destructive when allowed to feed in an orchard. They
bite off the ends of the limbs of young trees, and use the trunks for rubbing-posts so
effectively as to loosen the roots and break the stems or the lower branches. Con-
sequently they should never be allowed to run in an orchard.

Concerning both diseases and enemies, the wise fruit-grower will always act upon
the princin'e thnt prevention is a grent deal belter than cure. Many of the diseases
and accidents to which trees are linble can be easily prevented, but can never be
cured. Others, which are not necessarily fatal, retard the t^rowth of the tree, or pre-
vent the ripening of the fruit, and thus make it impossible for the owner to obtain a
fair compen'^ation for his time and labor. If properly managed, fruit may be made
one of the best paying crops which the fanner can produce; but if the trees are
neglected, they will soon fall a prey to the evils to which they are exposed, and the
owner will often come to his orchard " seeking fruit, but finding none."

788 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

9©

FROFiiGiLTION'.

'j LTHOUGH there are several different forms, there are hut two mcJically
^ different methods of propngaling trees and plants. These nicinuus aic by
seeds, which is a natural process, and by buds, which, in the case of most
trees and many plants, is an artificial method. Fruit trees are often
started from the seed, but afterwards modified by buds from other trees.
A bud is more fully developed than a seed, and is more certain to possess
the characteristics of the parent. An apple seed will not often produce fruil like the
specimen from which it is taken, but a bud from any given tree vill yield fruit
closely resembling that of the parent. Consequently, for all farm purposes, the
propagation of varieties of trees and small fruit plants should be mainly by .ucans of
buds in preference to the use of seeds.

The various processes of budding and gmfting trees, and the methods of propa-
gating plants and vines, can be easily described, but as Mr. Elliott, in his tiAND-
BooK FOR Fruitgrowers, has said, it is best for the " beginner to visit a leading
nursery-man or amateur fruit-grower in his immediate neighborhood, where he can
learn more in half a day of observation than all of what is printed."

The principal methods which are to be used on the farm for the propagation of
small fruits and vines are by the use of CUTTINGS, l.AYnRS and Runners. For the
propagation of specific varieties of the larger fruits, BUDUING and GRAFTING. All
these methods require the use of buds.

Cuttings, for out-door use, are to be made, in the autumn, of the growth of the
previous season. A little of the older wood is often left upon the lower end of the
cutting. This method is used in propagating the gra|)e and many other plants and
vines. The cuttings should be made by severing the cane immediately IipIow the
lower bud, and from one-fourth to one and one- fourth inches above the upper bud.
These pieces are often left, a foot and a half long, but those having only three buds
are much better. Some prefer only two buds, and when vines are pecially ' ilua-
ble, single bud-cuttings are often used. They should be made from well-ripened
wood. If not secured in the fall, they can be taken from the ine at any time,
except in freezing weather, before the buds swell in the spring. But it is ihe l>est
way to cut them between the falling of the leaf and the coming of winter, and pack
them in moist sawdust, or moss, in a cellar, or else bury them in the ground. If
ke|.t in a cellar, they shouM be secured from the attacks of mice, and if buried in
the ground, they should h'> put in a dry place.

Tne following directions, by a well-known horticultural writer, for setting cuttings
are a-, good a can be given : " T..ke a s]>ade, and open a place anywhere in your
garden as deep as the cuttings are long, leaning the side against which 'he cuttings
are to be set on a slight slant or angle. You then set them with ihe upper ^^ud of
each even with the surface of the };round when smoothed off, or as nearly even as
you can, it making no very great difference if some of the buds are above the level
of the ground. When you have thus set the cuttings along the slanting side of the
exc.ivation, and about six inches apart, then fill in th ; soil around the lower buds
half way to the top of the cuttings, and then with your foot, stamp the earth against
the bottom buds as compactly as you can ; then fill up and stnnijj again, not perpen-
dicularly, but against the cuttings as they stand on an angle. Thty miy be set at
any lime in April or May, but always soon alter being received. I'lobably ten out

PROPAGATION.

789

of twelve will grow, and make good vines by fall. They do not generally take root,
and grow freely till the last of June, in the latitude of New Jersey. I generally
protect the buds from the heat of the sun, which sometimes kills ihem before the
roots start, by placing a board on the sunny side on its edge, slanting a little over the
cuttings, so that they will have shelter from eleven A. M. to four v. M. Water them
in a drought once or twice a week, thoroughly, and you will be suie to meet with
>uccess."

Some plants are more easily propagated by means of cuttings from the roots
than they are from buds growing on liie wood. The kinds which throw up sprouts
from the roots belong to this class. The Blackberry and Red Raspberry are
examples. The Plum, Pear, and Cherry trees can be grown in the same way,
but the fruit of the new plants may not be like that of the parents. The method of
obtaining these cuttings is very simple. Take up the roots and cut them in pieces
from two to four inches in length. Plant these
pieces 'in drills, covering them from one-half
inch to one inch in depth. Buds will soon be
developed, and nearly every piece of root will
form a plant.

Layers furnish an easy and very successful
method of propagating the plants to which it is
adapted. The Grape, Quince, and Red Rasp-
berry are common examples of this class.
This is a more certain method than propagation
by cuttings, and if not carried to excess does not
injure the parent plant. It is best to put down
only one or two canes of a strong grape vine,
and but part of the shoots of other plants, and
allow the remainder to grow in
the natural manner. When the
buds begin to start in the spring,
grape vines should be put down.
If only one new plant is wanted,

all that will be necessary with '^'^^^^^^-^^^'^s-^.'
most varieties is to bend down
a strong shoot into a hole in the
ground, fasten it with a peg, and cover it to the depth of a few inches with fine soiL
Figure 1 19 represents this method of propagation. The end of the shoot may be cut
back to one strong bud, which should be left out of the ground to form the stalk of
the new plant.

A few varieties do not form roots readily. In these cases " tonguein£r " is resorted
to. " This is simply cutting into the caue or branch where it is bent down into the
ground, and making a slit forward through the centre for an inch or two. The cut
is usually commenced just below a bud, and may be above, below, or at the side."
When this is done, fasten down the vine and cover with earth. Sometimes slightly
twisting the branch where it is bent in the ground will answer every purpose. When
several plants are wanted choose a strong cane which starts near the ground, dig a
narrow trench six inches deep, lay in the cane, and fasten it with wooden pegs.
When the buds have grown a 'iti^' inches fill the trench with fine earth. This will
cause a plant to grow from each bud on the cane, as shown in Figure 120. Some

FIG. 119. — layer.

FIG. 120. — SPROUTS FROM LAYERED CANE.

790

FARMING FOR PROFIT.

growers do not wait for the buds to start, but fill the trench at once. When Rasp-
berry and similar plants are to be propagated by layering, the work is not com-
menced until the tips of the plants grow nearly free from leaves and are of a dark
purple color. This will be in August or September. Then cover the top of the
canes in trenches, three or four inches deep, dug at an angle of furty-five degrees.
In a few weeks there will be plenty of roots, and the plants can be taken up. The
canes should be cut off about six inches alxjve the new roots.

With some plants, like the strawberry, propagation by RUNNERS is a natural pro-
cess which the grower often has occasion to check rather than encourage. When
plants are to be obtained in this manner, the ground between the rows should be
kept mellow. If the new plants are wanted to occupy certain positions, so as lo
form other rows, the end of the runner should be placed where the plant is to stand
and covered with a little dirt. In six or eight weeks the plant will be well rooted,
and the runner should be cut off.

FIG. 121. — CUTTING A BUD.

FIG. 122. — IRE.
PARED STOCK
AND BUD.

Budding is the method which is in the most common use for propagating par-
ticular varieties of the larger fruits. It can be done easily and rapidly, the nevr
shoots are very likely to grow, and by its means the rapid multiplication of trees of
any special variety can be effected. Budding can be done when the trees are only a
year or two old, or small branches of full-grown trees can be subjected to this oper-
ation. Nurserymen do this work when the trees are quite small. The best time .'or
budding is in midsummer. The stock in which the bud is placed should l>e grow-
ing in order that the bark may slip, and the new growth which is lo l)e used for
propagation must be sufficiently advanced to hnve plump and well-matured buds.
The method is described as follows by Mr. Jenkins, a well-known nurser)man of
Winona, Ohio, in his valuable work on the "Art of Propagation : " "A transverse
cut is made at a smooth spot on the stock, and a perpendicular slit downward from
this for a distance of one or two inches. The corners of the bark being slightly
elwated with the point of the knife. The opt-rator tiien takes the stick of buds, and
entering the knife above brings it out one-half an inch below the bud or eye. A

PROPAGATION'.

79-1

little wedge of wood is thus cut out with the bud and bark, the removal of which is

advised by some nurserymen, but as it does not seem to interfere at all with the

uuitino- of the tissues, and the removal is tedious and fraught with some danger to

the eye of the bud, it is usually omitted. Into the cut previously made in the stock

the bud is now inserted and pressed' downward under the bark, then

tied by passing strings of bass matting or cotton yarn around the

stock, thus pressing the bark closely over the bud; care must be used

not to allow the ligature to rest on the eye of the inserted bud." In

ten days the ties should be cut at the back of the slock. If the bud

is not fully united to the stock, it must be tied as before and left until

the union is complete. The next spring the stock should be cut off (if

the tree is small ; or the branch, if the tree is large) an inch or two

above the point of insertion. All the sprouts which start upon the

stock must be rul)bed off so that the growth may all be utilized by the

bud. Figure 121 shows the method of cutting a bud. Figure 122

shows both the stock and bud after they are prepared.

A little practice will enable any one of ordinary dexterity to perform
the operation of budding rapidly and successfully. The beginner
should remember that the incision in the bark of the stock is to be
formed nearly like the letter T, that only perfectly formed and fairly
matured buds should be used, and that the buds must neither be wet
with water, nor exposed to the drying wind or sunlight. As soon as
they are cut from the tree all leaves should be removed from twigs
from which buds are to be taken.

Ring Budding consists in taking off a ring of bark, quarter of an
ii(ch wide, from the stock, and in the place which it occupied inserting
a similar ring containing the bud which it is desired to have grow.
For ordinary use it is not better than the method above described, but
is said to be more successful in the budding of hard wood trees, and

of the grape vine.

Grafting is a method of propagation largely
used by nurserymen, and is applicalile to trees
of all sizes as well as to the fools of small trees.
There are several different ways of per-
forming the operation. The best ones for use
on the farm are whip-grafling for small trees
and cleft-grafting for those of larger growth.
In the former method the stock and scion,
which should be of the same size, are shaved
to a like angle, fitted, as shown in Figure 123,
so that they will lock together, and then
bound or tied as directed for budding. Cleft-
grafting is practised when the stock is much
larger than the scion, and is used when trees of
considerable size are to be grafted. The stock should be cut off with a fine saw,
square across, split in the middle; and two scion-;, tht- lower ends of which have
been shaved in the form of a wedge, are inserted in the crack. Figure 124 shows
the method of preparing the stock, and how to set the scions. Some operators set
the scions nearly straight, while others slant them considerably. The former is the

FIG. 123.

whip-
grafting.

FIG. 124. — CLEFT-GRAFTING.

792 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

best way if skilfully done, but the latter is surer when carelessly performed. The
point to be gained is to have the inner bark of the scion exactly meet the inner bark
of the stock. It the scions are set nearly straight the bark upon the two pieces may
be made to join for quite a little distance, but if care is not used they may not meet
at all. But if the scions are set at an angle, there will be a spot w here the inner
bark of each will come m contact. After the scions are set, the end of the limb,
and the sides as far as it was split, should be well covered with grafting wax.
This may be made of equal parts of rosin, bees-wax, and tallow. These articles are
to be melted together, and thoroughly mixed. Working it with the hands when it
is nearly cold improves the quality of itie wax.

Scions should not be cut in very cold weather, but with this exception they may
be taken from the trees at any time between the falling of the leaves in autumn
and tiie swelling of the buds in spring. Tl\fty should always be taken from healthy
and vigorous trees. If cut in the fall, they should be protected as advised for
cuttings. Or the following method, described in the Rural World, may be
adopted. " Bury them in a dry place out-of-doors, in an inverted open box. Fill
the box partly full with them, nail two or three strips across to hold them in place,
and then place the box in a hole dug for the purpose, with the open side down, and
bury them half a foot or so in deptii. They do not come in contact with the earth,
and remain perfectly clean ; and the moisture of the earth keeps them plump and
fresh without any danger of their becoming water-soaked."

Wood of the previous season's growth is usually taken for scions, though some
fruit-growers assert that there are certain advantages in using wood that is two
years old. Each scion should have al least two buds. Near the base of the lower
bud the cutting which forms the bottom into the shape of a wedge should be com-
menced, and the top of the scion should be cut oflf a little above the upper bud.
The work of grafting is to be performed in the spring after the circulation of the
sap has become well established.

THE ^mHQER FHlLriTS.

'N all lists of fruit for this country the apple is entitled to stand at the head.
It is more extensively grown than any other kind of fruit, and succeeds
better than most sorts in adapting itself to its surroundings. There are
varieties of apples which can be easily grown in MAINE and MINNESOTA,
and other sorts which succeed in Georp.ia and the surrounding States.
The quality of any particular kind will be varied by differences in soil
or climate, and it is, therefore, very important that the grower should strive to
obtain those sorts which are best adapted to his crrcumstances and surroundings.
.The farther South an apple tree is taken the earlier it will ri]ien its fruit. Some of
the finest winter sorts in New England become autumn apples when grown at the
SouTFt, and a few kinds which succeed far North become almost worthless in the
Middle States.

For the extreme North, the most hnrdy vnrieties of the apple should be selected.
Dr. T. H. Hoskins, of Newport, Vermont, has made a specialty of fruit trees
for the cold North, and has done a great service to the people of that section by
giving them some excellent varieties in place of the old-fashioned crabs which they
had supposed were the only sorts suited to their locality. For summer, he recom-

THE LARGER ERUITS. 793

mends the Tetofsky, a large, yellow, sub-acid apple which ripens in August ; the
Red Astrachan, a large, red, acid apple which ripens the last of August; and the
Summer Harvey, which resembles in color and flavor the Rhode Island Green-
ing, and ripens the last of August. Each of these trees are hardy and productive,
the former being " perfectly iron-clad in hardiness." Among the autumn apples,
the Duchess of Oldenburgh, Pringle Sweet, and St. Lawrence are highly
recommen<led. For winter use, the Fameuse, Ben Davis, Magog Red Streak,
and Scott's Winter, are hardy, productive, and of excellent quality. For the
severest localities, the Siberian crabs. Transcendent, and Lady Elgin are
excellent; and the Meader's Winter is a fruit of equal quality with the best
varieties of large apples.

For the localities between the extreme North and the Southern States a large
number of kinds are well adapted. The Tetofsky, Early Harvest, Red As-
trachan, Porter, Gravenstein, Hubbardston Nonesuch, King of Tompkins
Co., Bell Flower, Canada Red, Rhode Island Greening, Westfield Seek-
no-further, Tallman Sweet, Baldwin, Roxbury Russet, and Northern
Spy, have all been thoroughly tested and prove excellent and productive. We con-
sider the Porter, King of Tompkins Co., Esopus Spitzenburgh, Canada Red,
Westfield Seek no-further, Baldwin, and Roxbury Russet, extremely valu-
able. The trees are reasonably hardy, and, with the exception of the RoXBURY
Russet (which is one of the best keeping apples known, and, consequently, entitled
to a place in every orchard), very productive, while the fruit is of excellent quality.
The Porter, Westfield Seek-no further, and Canada Red are splendid apples
for eating, and the first and third are excellent for cooking purposes.

For the South and Southwest, the following varieties have been recommended
by competent authorities: Early Harvest, Red Astrachan, Gravenstein,
Fall Pippin, Bell Flower, Newtown Pippin, Smith's Cider, American
Golden Russet, Shockley, Rawle's Janet, and Stevenson's Winter.

In the above lists we have only mentioned a few of the very best kinds which
are adapted to the localities named. As there are nearly three thousand named
varieties of apples, it would be both useless and impossible to give a complete list
in this work.

While the farmer should have several varieties of apples, in order to furnish a
succession in time of ripening, it is not wise for him to attempt to grow many kinds
for the market. For family use the earliest and latest ripening varieties, with sev-
eral sorts ripening at various times between these two extremes, should be chosen.
But even here there should be a limit to the multiplication of varif .ies, and only the
very best ones should be grown. The farmer who has fifty trees representing thirty
different varieties of apples has made a great mistake in his selection. Of this fact
he will 1)6 fully convinced when picking-time arrives, and he tries to keep each sort
by itself. But, in growing ajiples for the market, it is much more important not to
have too mnny varieties. For, if the farmer has a great many different kinds, he
will have but a few barrels of any one sort, and the buyers will be likely to want
only the ones which are the best known. If the apples were all of some standard
variety the whole crop could be readily sold, but where there are many kinds, and
but few of a kind, it is much more difficult to make sales.

In point of quality. Pears are among our finest fruits; i)ut there is a very gen-
eral, though unfounded, imjiression that the trees are tender, and thnt it is very diffi-
cult to obtain a good quality of fruit. The tree is hardy, and is longer-lived than

794 FARMING FOR FN 01-7 T.

the apjile tree. While skilful cultivation and handling add largely to the profits of
the business, yet, if he will give modt;rale culture and properly ihin the fruit, every
faimer who has a good soil and location can grow fine pears without great expense.
The fruil does not keep as long as the apple, but, by a proper selection of varieties,
and care in storing them, pears can be had from August until the next spring.

Pear trees need a rich and deep soil, but one which is either not very wet or else
has been well drained. They send their roots quite deep, and, on thin soils, are
likely to suffer from drought. Mulching is highly beneficial, and, if salt hay is
used, it will give better results than almost anything else. Many varieties of the
pear succeed well as dwarfs, and a few do even better in this way than when grown
as standards. But there are many other sorts which do not thrive as dwarfs, and
which the farmer should never attempt to grow in this manner. The pear is usually
dwarfed by grafting on the quince. The principal object, in most cases, is to obtain
trees which will bear at a very early age. The trees are often very fruitful, but do
not attain a large size, and are not very long-lived.

In many instances growers would have better success with their dwarf pear trees,
if they would set them deeper in the earth. When set so that the junction of the
pear and quince is about four inches below the surface of the soil, and the earth is
packed very closely around the trunks, roots are often sent out by the pear, and the
tree becomes part dwarf and part standard. It has been claimed that roots enough
would be thrown out in this manner to keep the trees growing and productive after
the quince roots were dead, thus virtually converting it into a standard. When this
plan is tried, a large hole should be dug, and some rich soil obtained for filling it.
If the quince roots are placed in the cold sub-soil, the tree will make but little
growth. The farmer who has no penrs will find it profitable to set two or three
d\rarfs, merely ti> furnish a supply of fruit until the standards, which are set at the
same time, and which should be his main reliance, come into bearing. To this rule
wi should make an exception of the Beurre D'Anjou, Duchess D'Angoui.eme,
Flemish Beauty, and Vicar of Winkkield. Of each of these sorts, we would
recommend one or more dwarfs and an equal number of standards.

Pears should be dry and warm when picked, and should be handled with a great
d(.al of care. If wanted for home use, they should be put into a dark closet, or
in the drawers of a bureau. Lay them on a woollen cloth, and spread another
cloth of the same material over them. By putting some in an attic, others in a
cooler chamber, and others in a cellar, we have ri]iened pears from one tree so as
to furnish a succession for several weeks. When pears are ripened in this way,
they should be clv)sely watched, and used before they become too mellow.

Varieties are very numerous, but it is not an object for the farmer to grow a
large number. The following is a brief list, but it embraces some of the finest sorts;
and most of the kinds will succeed in a large part of the country. The farmer who
grows any three of these kinds well, and ripens them carefully, will have some
splendid fruit. In localities where these sorts fail (though they will not oil ia.\\ in
any section), the local nurserymen will be likely to have varieties which will suc-
ceed— Bi.ooiKioon. Bartlett, Bfairre D'Anjou, Duchess D'Angouleme, Flem-
ish Beauty, Howell, Lawrence, Seckel, Vicar ok Winkkield, Winter
Nelis.

With the exception of the extreme North, Peaches can be gtMwn in nearly
all parts of the United States. They were formerly grown in Maine, but the
removal of forests and consequent increased exposure of the trees to the severity of

THE LARGER FRUITS. 797

the climate renders it difficult to grow them now in the upper portions of the State.
In central NEW ENGLAND the trees do not thrive as they did twenty years ago,
but the fruit can be grown by farmers who are willing to give the trees a moderate
degree of care and attention. A writer in the Fruit Recorder has said that if
peach trees are pruned every year by cutting off from the ends of the limbs, in
Seprember, more than one-half the season's growth, and thinning out the branches
after the leaves have fallen, this fruit can be successfully grown in the Northern
States. He also recommends setting the trees (when grown in the North) with
Northern and Western exposures, so that the buds will not start in the winter,
nor too early in the spring. Treated in this way, he thinks the peach tree may be
made to last and be productive for from fifteen to twenty years. We do not think
that ordinary trees will live as long as this, but have no doubt that peaches can be
grown, if properly managed. If they would set two or three trees each year, so as to
have those of different ages constantly in the orchard, and thus provide a succession
of young and vigorous trees to take the places of the older ones as they decay ( v
become unfruitful, farmers in almost all parts of the country might have plenty ci
peaches for home use.

Only a few varieties should be grown. Of the many kinds in cultivation the fol
lowing are among the best for the farm. For the North, Waterloo, EARVn
Beatrice, Early York, Red Rareripe, Old Mixon Free, Crawford's Lat/i.
For the MIDDLE States, Alexander, George the Fourth, Old Mixon Frf.j;,
Surpasse, Susquehanna. For the South, all the above varieties, and Chinesij
Cling, La Grange, Governor, Thurber, Tuskuna.

Plums are excelletit fruit, and if the curculio is kept away they can be easier
grown. The tree is hardy and vigorous, and very productive. The trees should biJ
near the house, in order that the curculio may be the more easily destroyed,
and, for the same reason, as well as on account of the general objections to having
trees in turf, no grass should be allowed to grow beneath their branches. Pruning
should be done in spring, when one-half the previous season's growth should be
removed. Vigorous sprouts may also be pinched back during the summer. The
best varieties for the farmer are the following: Green Gage, Imperial Gage,
Lombard, Purple Favorite, Smith's Orleans. These sorts succeed over a wide
range of country, and, if the enemies and diseases which have been described in a
previous chapter are kept at bay, will furnish an abundance of very fine fruit. There
are many other good varieties, and in some locations there may be an advantage in
putting out some of them in preference to part of those which we have named, but
for general cultivation those in the list are first-class.

The Apricot belongs to the plum tribe and is an excellent fruit, but cannot be
easily grown at the North. It requires a deep, dry and rich soil, and very careful
pruning. The trees should stand on the north side of a building or tight fence.
The ends of the shoots should be pinched in during the summer, and all feeble
buds rubbed off. There are but izw varieties at all adapted to farm cultivation.
The Breda is one of the hardiest trees, and the fruit, though very small, is rich and
high flavored. The Hemskirke is " one of the largest and best" varieties of this
kind of fruit.

The Cherry succeeds well in all parts of the country except the extreme North
and South, and there are a few sorts which can be grown in those sections. The
trees are hardy and vigorous. They do the best in a rather dry and light soil, and
require less fertilizing and pruning than the trees of most other varieties of fruit.

798 FARMLVG FOR PROFIT.

They produce fruit when quite young, and live to be very old. The following arc
valuable kinds for the farm : Beli.e D'Orleans, Black Tartarian, Coe's
Transparent, English Morello, Governor Wood, May Duke.

The Quince grows in the form of a ijush rather than a tree, and produces a large,
rich fruit which is excellent for use and profitable for the market. Tiie fruit can be
kept and transported better than many kinds, and the jjushes are very easily grown.
A deep loamy soil is best for the quince, but if manure and salt are freely used it
will grow almost anywhere. Mulching is very beneficial. The pruning of the
quince is a very simple operation, and consists in cutting off the "suckers" which
start out near the roots, shortening in the branches which grow the fastest, and thin-
ning out the top enough to freely admit the light and air. There are but few varie-
ties. The Orange, though rather tender, is an excellent fruit, and is worthy of a
place on every farm. A few bushes of the .\ngers, which is a hardy and productive
variety, should also be put out, and a trial, on a small scale, may be made of Rea's
Mammoth. The farmer who will take a little pains to destroy the borer, and to
mulch and fertilize the bushes, can have an abundance of excellent quinces, and
from them his wife can make the very finest of preserves and jellies.

The Grape is one of the most delicious of all our fruits, and is very easily grown.
There are varieties which succeed in the extreme NoRTH, others in the middle sec-
tion of the country, others at the South, and a few which can be relied upon almost
everywhere. When buying vines select those which are only one or two years old.
The land should be in good condition, but need not be extremely rich, and no
manure should come in contact with the roots. Spade, or plow, the soil to the
depth of a foot, set the vines from six to nine inches deep, where they are to remain,
and from ten to twelve feet apart. If room is scarce, the vines can be placed only
eight feet apart, trained up to a stake, and closely pruned, but it is better to give a
greater distance.

A one-year old vine should be allowed to grow only one cane the first year.
Save the most vigorous one, and rub off the other buds. Vines two years old may
grow two canes. They should be tied to a slake or run on a trellis. The first
year's growth should be cut back, in the fall after the leaves have dropped, to three
or four buds. The next spring two canes should be allowed to grow from this stem,
and the other buds ought to be rubbed off. With the exception of pinching off the
weakest shoots, no summer pruning should be given this season. In the autumn
cut the two canes back to three or four buds each, and leave a bud upon the main
stalk to grow another cane the next year. The third summer the two strong canes
may be allowed to bear a few, and only a few, clusters of fruit. Many vines are
ruined, and others are weakened, by being allowed to overbear when small. If any
iruit sets before the third summer cut it off, and thin the third year's product to a
very small quantity. Do this thinning, the cutting out of the small stems, and the
gathering of the fruit, with sharp scissors. They are much more convenient than a
Jcnife, and the work can be d(me in a better manner.

After reaching the third year the vine can be trained in any desired style. A
wire trellis should be provided the second season. This will be more dur.able than
wood, and the vines will attach themselves to the wires, thus saving the grower
much time and labor which would be needed for tying up the branches if a wood
trellis were used. A plain trellis will do as far as practical matters go, but -a pretty
one will be not only useful, but also ornamental. For a plain trellis set strong
posts in the ground, in a straight line, about eighteen feet apart. If a long line is

THE LARGER FRUITS. 799

bo be stretched, the end posts may need bracing. Draw ihe wires tight, and fasten
them with staples to each post. The posts should be six feet in length above the
ground. Place the lower wire eighteen inches from the ground, one near the top
of the posts, and two more at equal distances between those already located.

In pruning bearing vines cut away old wood and leave the new, for the fruit buds
are on the new growth. A few strong branches should be left every year to provide
a succession of canes for the next season. All the small stems of fruit should be
picked off as soon as the fruit is well set, and some summer pruning may be given
if the vine is loo thick to admit the light freely. Care should be taken, however,
not to remove leaves from bearing canes, or from canes which are to bear fruit the
next year. To this rule the exceptions of pinching off the bearing shoots "three
leaves beyond the last stem of grapes," and the shortening in of the future bearing
canes when they are as long as it is desirable that they should grow, may be safely
made.

In order to obtain the best quality of fruit from the vine, the grapes must remain
thereon until they are fully ripe. They are good some time before this period, and,
en account of early frosts, or because they are wanted for immediate use, they are
ofien gathered when well-colored, but still only partially ripened. If a vine is
trained to the south side of a building, and the fruit remains quite late, it will be
much sweeter and better than specimens of the same variety grown in the ordinary
manner, and picked at the usual time. If they are to be kept for fall or winter use
th^ grapes should not hang on the vines as long as they should if to be used at once.
For keeping they should be gathered as soon as ripe, all imperfect berries cut off
with scissors, and the bunches packed in fine, dry saw-dust. The boxes should be
kept in a cool place where they will not be exposed to frost, and should not be
opened until the fruit is wanted for use.

Winter Protection should be given in the North. Wherever the mercury
falls in the coldest weather to ten degrees below zero, the vines should be taken from
the trellis, before severe cold comes on, laid upon the ground, fastened with wooden
pegs, and covered with two or three inches of soil. Farther South, but not where the
winters are mild, it is better to merely cover with straw (over which a very little
earth is thrown to keep out the mice), as the ground is liable to be loo wet. Merely
laying the vines upon the ground is much better than to allow them to remain upon
the trellis.

Of Varieties there are already an immense number, and they are rapidly
increasing. One of the very best of the older kinds is the Concord. The vine is
hardy and fruitful. It succeeds in almost all parts of the country, and is undoubt-
edly "the most hardy and popular native grape that exists." It is said to be
better AVest and South than it is in New England. If this is correct everv
farmer should have a Concord grape vine. The Clinton succeeds best on a light
soil. It is a hardy and productive vine, bearing quite acid but very long-keephirx
fruit. With reasonable care it can be kept through the winter. The Delaware
IS a small but exceedingly rich grape. The vine is not as productive as the Con-
cord, and it does not prove as hardy at the North, but the excellence of the fruit
entitles it to general cultivation. The Diana is a good keeper, and bv many is con-
sidered a fine grape. We do not like its peculiar flavor. The vine is rather tender,
and needs protection much more than the kinds previously named. The Elstng-
BURG IS a small hut rich grape. Mr. Knox, a well-known nurseryman, used to
recommend this .as the best table grape. The Hartford Prolific is a good and

800 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

quite early grape. Vines are hardy and quite productive. The loNA in many
localities proves early, hardy, productive, and the Iruii keeps well. Ihe Martha
is one of the leading wluic grapes. The SCLPPERNONG js an excellent grape for
the South. It reaches its highest degree of perfection in Georgia, but succeeds
well throughout that section. Cunningham and Wilmington are also good grapes
where the temperature is not too low.

In addition to the varieties named there are a multitude of others which are good
in certain localities but not adapted to so wide a range of country. There are alsc
many hybrid varieties of grapes, produced liy crossing a native and a foreign sort,
which do well in some sections, but which are not so hardy as the native kinds.
Some of these are very valuable in sections where they succeed. Mr. Rogers,
Nos. 4 (Wilder), 9 (Lixdley), 15 (.\gawam), 19 (Merrimac), and 53 (Salem)
have been thoroughly tested and proved very tine. The Brighton, a new hybrid
originated by Jacob Moore, Esq., of Brighton, New York, is a vigorous vine
and produces a large quantity of excellent fruit which rifHrns early. Oiher groweii
have introduced new hybrid varieties which promise well. Many seedling variet;"<4;
which possess great merit have also lieen sent out by their originators. The
Rochester, criminated by Ellwanger and Barry, has been tested twelve years and
proved early, hardy, and productive. Worden's Seedling, and Moore's Eari.'I,
both seedlings of the Co.ncord, the former ripening ten days and the latter two
weeks earlier than the parent fruit, are hardy and productive vines and the graphs
are of fine quality. Of the seedling class of new grapes, T. B. Miner, ElSQ., of
Linden, New Jersey, who supplied about one hundred thousand families with the
Concord and other grape vines while publishing The Rural .A.merican, has sei't
out the following varieties : Belinda, a white grape which ripens before the Con-
CORD, vines hardy and productive, and the fruit very fine; ANTOINETTE, white,
similar to the Belinda with the exception of rii>ening a week or ten days later;
and the Linden, a black grape ripening a week earlier than the Concord and of
better quality, vine extremely productive and holding the fruit until frost comes.
These were selected from fifteen hundred new varieties originated by Mr. Miner,
from the seed of the Concord, and we are confident that they will prove valuable
acquisitions. They are more hardy than hybrids, and will, doubtless, succeed
throughout the country.

S a general rule we do not think the production of small fruits for market
can be made profitable by the average farmer. But we are confident that
it will pay him to grow a supply for home use. These fruits are not
merely luxuries but are valuable preservers of health. Physicians assert
that the free use of ripe fruits tends strongly to ward oflT various forms of
disease, and is especially valuable in counteracting the influence of
malaria upon the human system. Even dysentery, a disease which many people
suppose is brought on by the use of fruit, is much less prevalent among families w ho
use ripe fruit in abundance than it is in those which are deprived of fruit. The
fruit contains an acid which the sj-stem needs, and it is a great deal cheaper and
better to obtain it in the form of fruit than it is to purchase it of doctors or druggists.
The requisite quantity of the small fruits for an ordinary family can be very easily

SMALL FRUITS. 803

and cheaply grown, and, as children, as well as grown people, almost universally
are fond of them, the farmer should consider it both a duty and a privilege to devote
a small area of land to their production.

Of the various, kinds of the small fruits which should find a place in the far-
mer's garden, the Strawberry is usually considered of the greatest importance.
This fruit is easily grown if it is well cared for. If the plants are neglected the
fruit is not easily secured. There are several different methods of cultivation.
That which is best adapted to the farm is setting the plants in straight rows, two
feet and a half apart and twelve or fourteen inches apart in the rows. When it is
desired to increase the number of plants of a particular variety they may be set far-
ther apart in the rows, but, when fruit is wanted, it is better to have the plants but a
short distance from each other. The land should be very thoroughly prepared, and
also made quite rich. Well-rotted barnyard-manure is an excellent fertilizer for this
crop. The holes in which the plants are to be placed should be large enough to
allow the roots to be spread out. Before setting, the roots should be dipped in soft
mud, and all but three leaves should be cut off.

The time for setting may be either in the spring or early autumn. Some
growers prefer the former season, and others the latter. Good plants set in the
autumn and well cared for often produce part of a crop of fruit the next summer.
Those which are put out in the spring will not bear many berries, and ought not to
be allowed to if they show an inclination to produce fruit, but will develop into strong
and vigorous plants which will be less likely to winter-kill than those set in the fall.
When there is no special haste about obtaining the fruit, we think the spring is the
best time for setting plants.

The cultivation which strawberry plants require consists in frequent hoeings
and in keeping the land free from weeds. By using a hand-cultivator between the
rows the work can be made much easier than it otherwise would be. The runners
may be allowed to grow between the hills, but not between the rows. Some prefer
to keep the plants in hills, and do not allow them to spread, while others let them
run as they choose and cover the whole surface of the bed. When the latter course
is pursued the bed is very likely to become overrun with weeds, and new plants
must be put out every year or two. If kept in hills, most of the work of cultivation
can be done with a cultivator or hoe, while if the runners are allowed to grow
between the rows, there will be more hand-weeding required. But there will also
be more plants and a larger quantity of fruit.

At the South, strawberry plants soon decrease in fruitfulness, and some growers
recommend the putting out of a new bed each year in order to have a lot of fresh-
bearing plants every season. At the North it pays to start a new bed every three
or four years. Plants which are well manured, thoroughly cultivated, and from
which the dead leaves and runners are removed after the fruit has been gathered,
will remain vigorous much longer than those which are neglected.

Winter Protection is useful in nearly all parts of the country. In the North-
ern States it is absolutely necessary if the full productiveness of the vines is to be
secured. The embryo fruit buds are formed in the autumn, and severe winters
must injure them if they are unprotected. Where deep snows come early and stay
several months there is less need of an artificial covering than there is farther South
where the ground freezes and cold rains often fall during the winter. The plants
should be covered, an inch or two deep, late in the fall with cut straw, hay, or some
similar substance. This to prevent the alternate freezing and thawing of the surface
49

304 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

of the ground, and also to protect the plants from the light. As soon as the weather
is warm in spring the material should be loosened from the ground and the tops of
the plants uncovered, but it need not be removed, as it will tend to keep down weeds
and also keep the fruit clean.

Of Varieties there is an immense number, and many new ones are put upon the
market every year. There are many kinds which are excellent for the market, and
some of still better quality which can be grown for home use, but will not well bear
transportation. There are others which are good but not prolific, while other sorts
are productive but not very good. Some kinds which are excellent in some localities
do not prove valuable in other sections, while some kinds thrive in all sections and
upon almost all kinds of soil. The Wilson is a very hardy and productive plant,
and is probably more largely grown than any other variety. The fruit is very acid,
and is not of first-rate quality. The fact that it can be very easily grown makes it a
general favorite. JucuNDA succeeds in rich heavy soils. The fruit is of good
quality, ripens early, and holds out late. Charles Downing is an excellent and
productive sort. President Wilder is of a first-rate quality where it succeeds.
Downer's Prolific succeeds well at the South. Monarch of the West is
very popular. KENTUCKY is a good variety, and produces fruit after most kinds
have finished bearing. Of the newer kinds the Great American, Crescent
Seedling, Sharpless Seedling, and Miner's Great Prolific, are destined to
prove extremely popular.

There are a multitude of other varieties new and old, many of them valuable,
which we have not room to name. In the farm-garden only a few sorts should be
grown, and those should be both good and productive.

Raspberry. — This fruit is much esteemed by the majority of people, and as the
plants grow wild in nearly all parts of the world the inhabitants of all lands can be
well supplied. When cultivated the plants are very productive and the fruit is
larger than that which grows wild. The red varieties are more tender than the
black caps. At the North they sometimes winter-kill, while at the South the
leaves are burned by the summer sun. The black varieties are, therefore, better
adapted than the red to general cultivation. They will grow in almost any kind of
soil, but do the best in one which is light apd dry. The red kinds thrive the best in
a rich, deep, and quite moist soil.

The plants should be put out in rows and hills. The red varieties may stand four
feet apart each way, but the black kinds should be six feet apart one way and four
or five feet the other. The plants can be put out either in the spring or fall. The
canes should be cut off even with the ground after the setting is done, and the plants
must not bear fruit until the next year. In order to prevent this, and to insure a vig-
orous growth, severe pruning must he given. In July the canes should be cut off
within a foot of the ground and the side shoots shortened in. The second year the
top of the new growth is to be pinched off when it gets two feet high, and the side
shoots must not be allowed to grow more than two feet in length. This makes
strong roots and stocky stems. Mr. Purdy, the well-known editor of the Fruit
Recorder, advises this vigorous cutting of the new growth, and says that it will
usually make the stems strong enough to hold up large crops of fruit without being
staked. Each year a sufficient number ol shoots should be allowed to grow to
provide bearing canes for the next season and all others should be removed. The
stalk grows one year, bears fruit the next, and then dies. After the fruit has been
picked, the canes which produced it should be cut off at the surface of the ground.

SMALL FRUITS. gQ5

During the whole season the ground should be kept free from weeds. The use
of a horse- cultivator between the rows, and a liberal mulch of old hay close to
the hills, will prove a great help in this respect, and also promote the growth
and productiveness of the plants. If well cared for, the roots will last for many
years.

Winter Protection is needed by most of the best varieties. This is best given
by a light covering of earth. The canes should be bent down upon the ground, a
shovelful of earth thrown upon the tops to keep them in place, and then a furrow
plowed each side the row will furnish sufficient covering. In the spring ihe canes
can be loosened with a fork.

Of Varieties the Clarke, Naomi, and Philadelphia are among the best of
the fully established kinds of the red berries ; Brinkle's Orange is a fine yellow
variety ; and the Mammoth Cluster, Doolittle, and Davison's Thornless, are
among the standard black caps. Of the above the three former are propagated by
suckers, and must have winter protection at the North. Brinkle's Orange
is also tender, and is propagated in the same manner. The three latter are hardy,
and are increased from the tips of the new wood.

Blackberry is a common fruit, growing wild in nearly all countries and also
extensively grown for home use and for market. The plants are very strong
growers and require more room than the raspberry. Otherwise the cultivation is
nearly the same as already described for that fruit. The surface of the ground must
be stirred often, but not too deeply. If the roots are broken, a large number of new
plants will grow, and the whole bed will soon be filled with them. Mulching is
very useful. Severe pruning must also be given. If the canes are allowed to grow
more than three feet high, with side branches two feet long, a stake must be set in
each hill and the canes tied to it. But if severely pruned, slaking will not be
necessary. Three or four stalks are enough for a hill.

The following varieties are among the best for farm purposes : Wilson's
Early and Kittating are reasonably hardy, though needing winter protection in
some localities, and produce large quantities of excellent fruit; Missouri Mam^
moth, and Sable Queen are newer sorts of great promise, and the Wachusett
Thornless, which is now being introduced, seems destined to be very popular.

Currants are among the most common of the small fruits. They are easily
grown and very productive. Although often neglected and allowed to stand in the
sod, these bushes ought to be cultivated and hoed. If properly cared for they will
produce much larger and finer fruit than can be obtained from neglected bushes.
At the South, mulching is necessary, and, at the North, it is highly beneficial.

Pruning should not be neglected. The old wood should be cut out each spring
and the fastest-growing branches should be pinched in during the summer. The
fruit grows on wood which is two, or more, years old, but very old stems are not as
fruitful as newer ones. Onlythree or four stalks should grow from a single root,
and new plants should be put out every few years. The plants should be four feet
apart, and fertilizers should be freely applied to the soil. Keep off the currant-
worm, as directed in a previous chapter, and plenty of fruit can be obtained at a
very small cost.

Of Varieties the Red Dutch, Cherry, and La Versailles are the standard
red sorts. The White Grape is the best white, and the Black Naples the best
black variety. Of the white and black currants, Mr. A. S. Fuller, in his valuable
work on small fruit culture, says the former is less acid and is richer than the red.

806 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

while the black is less acid than either but has a musky flavor. The black currant
is a stronger grower than the other sort? and produces considerable fruit on the new
wood. Consequently, it needs more room and less pruning than the other kinds.
The fruit of the black variety is considered valuable for jellies. New plants, of any
variety, can be obtained from cuttings or by layers.

Gooseberries are excellent for jellies, are used for making pies, and for various
other household purposes. The plants are much like the currant but require more
care. They should be set in a rich soil and be heavily mulched. A Southern
exposure should be avoided. Pruning should be done in the fall after the leaves
have dropped. There should be plenty of room for the light and air among the tops.
Mildew often destroys both the fruit and the plants. As a remedy for this disease,
Mr. Fuller recommends the use of flour of sulphur dusted over the bushes while
the berries are growing. He also recommends the putting out of new plants each
year so as to have a constant supply of those which are young and vigorous. For-
eign varieties are much more subject to this disease than the native sorts. Hough-
ton's Seedling, the Downing, American Seedling, and Smith's Improved are
among the best kinds for the farm.

Cranberries are a very healthful and delicious kind of fruit. They are extremely
useful in the treatment of many diseases, and are a valuable article of diet for people
who are well. The plants are semi-aquatic, though there are varieties which do
passably well on uplands. In order to secure the best returns from them, cranberries
should be grown where water can be freely used. The water is needed to promote
the growth of the plants, to protect them from the severe cold of winter and the late
spring frosts, and to destroy the worms which sometimes infest them. In many
places cranberries grow wild. One of our friends has a large lot of plants in his
mowing, and, though he does nothing in the way of cultivation, he obtains several
bushels of good fruit every other year. In favorable locations the cranberrj' can be
grown in this manner ver>' easily. Small pieces of vines may be set in the turf, or
berries, or pieces of vines, may be sown upon the land. If the land is fitted for
them, and good plants are set out, the result will be much better than can be secured
from any such superficial methods, and, where the fruit is to be grown for the mar-
ket, this ought always to be done. The cranberry, like all other fruits, is improved
by cultivation. But, if the farmer is to grow only a small quantity for family use, he
cannot afford, and does not need, to incur much expense in fitting the land.

If the plants are to be set on low land the surface-water should be got oflf by
drains. Large plants should be secured from some productive bed (some vines
being nearly barren) and set in rows two feet apart each way. If small plants, or
pieces of vines, are used, they should be set ne.irer together. If the weeds and
grass are kept down for two or three years the vines will occupy all the land. This
can be faciHtated by spreading sand upon the surface, to the depth of two inches,
before the plants are put out.

Farmers who have no low land which is convenient, or is suitable for this pur-
pose, can put a few plants of the upland variety in their gardens with a reasonable
certainty of obtaining fruit. If a liberal application of muck can be made to the
soil it will be an advantage, and the plants should be thoroughly mulched. For
this purpose the Mansfield Creeper is one of the best kinds. This is a new
variety described by Mr. J. J. H. Gregory, the well-known Massachusetts
seedsman, as of diff'erent growth and habit from other kinds. The cuttings root
. fireely, thrive on moderately dry soils, and are quite productive. For low land the

THE FARM-GARDEN. gQy

Eaton Black Bell is a very early variety, and some of the common " Bell " and
"Cherry" lends are still quite popular. Plants should be put out in the sprin<.
though they vviil be likely to grow if set in early summer or in the fall

m^ order to secure the best returns from the farm-garden, some changes from

• Ji" the common form of management will be required. A larger area of

land must be devoted to the garden, a larger variety of vegetables and

fruits must be grown, and the growing crops must be more thoroughly

cultivated.

Cold Frames.— Several varieties of the plants which should be grown
m the farm-garden are much more fruitful when transplanted than they are if
allowed to grow where the seed is sown. There are others which the grower in
the Northern and Middle States desires to obtain earlier than he can get them
by planting in the open land. For these reasons many farmers start their tomato-
seeds, and several other kinds, in boxes or pans of dirt which they keep in the
house. This method is quite inconvenient, and the results are not altogether satis-
factory. It is much better to make what is known as a " cold frame,"\nd in this
start the plants which are wanted earlier in the season than they can be obtained by
sowing seed in the open ground. This is a plank box covered with glass. A shel-
tered location with a southern exposure should be selected. The land should be
dry and level. Set four posts in the ground at the corners of the frame and fasten
the planks to them. The back side of the frame should be about a foot hi^h and
the front about eight inches. For ordinary farm" use, a frame seven feet long and
three or four feet wide will be large enough. , The end pieces should be made nar-
row in front and wider at the back side in order that when the top is on there shall
be no cracks through which the wind can enter or the warm air escape. The top
should be principally made of glass. Old windows answer every purpose.

The soil within the frame should be deeply spaded, finely pulverized, and a liberal
quantity of stable-manure should be worked in. The surface soil must be made
very fine, and the front slightly raised. The soil should be worked just before the
seeds are sown, as the natural moisture of the land will facilitate their germination
But if the seeds are to be put in during very cold weather, or while the ground is
still quite cold and damp, the sashes should be kept on for a few days previous to
the sowing in order that the soil may become partially warmed. The bed should be
watered every morning. During warm days the sashes should be raised a little by
means of wedges or sticks placed under them. Late in the season it may be neces-
sary to cover every other pane of glass with whitewash, or else cover the whole with
a blanket during the middle of the day, in addition to the raising of the sashes. A
little experience will enable any one to determine when the heat is too intense If
the plants grow very fast and « spindling," the bed is too warm, and more air
should be admitted. As the days grow longer and the season becomes warmer, the
sashes may be taken half-way off during the day. When a " cold snap " comes, the
iashes should be covered during the night with an old blanket. In all cases the
plants should be somewhat exposed to the air, by opening the sashes a few hours
each day, bafore they are removed to the open ground.

808

FARMING FOR PROFIT.

Transplanting is an operation which often needs to be performed. While it is
ini[X)rtant that this work should be done in the best possible manner, it is frequently
rendered wholly useless, and the plants which are taken are spoiled, because those
who put them out do not understand the best methods, or are careless in following
thtm. If properly performed, at a suitable lime, but very few plants will be lost.
Even in an unfavorable time most of the plants can be made to grow if they are
skilfully Jianaged. But as far as possible a good time should be chosen. Tbe
ground should be fitted only a short time before the transplanting is done, and if a
rainy day can be used, the plants will start sooner, and grow faster than they will if
the sun shines brightly, and the ground is dry. Most plants should be set rather
deeply — down as far as the first leaves — and the earth should be packed firmly
around the roots. The best way to set plants which have a single straight root is to
make a hole with a smooth slick, considerably larger than the root, but not much
deeper than will be needed, put the root into the hole thus formed, and then make

another hole close to the root, and as
deep as the one in which it was placed.
This will pack the soil closely around the
root throughout its entire length, and will
do a great deal towards making the oper-
ation a success. Plants with many roots,
like the strawberry and tomato, need
different management. A hole of suffi-
cient size to allow the roots and fibres
of the plant to be spread in their natural
position should be made, and the earth
packed closely upon and around them.
It is also well to dip the roots into thin
mud before setting the pKants.

For use when the plants are to be reset
near where they grew, the implement
shown in Figure 127 will be very useful.
Quite a quantity of earth can be taken,
the roots will not be seriously injured,
and the growth of the plant will hardly
be checked.
For transplanting in dry weather, the Germantown Telegraph recommends the
following plan : " Make a lot of holes with a dibble, deep down in the earth where
the plants are to grow, and fill these holes with water. It will soon soak away,
leaving the ground in a half-dry, half-wet condition. The plants to be set out are
taken from the seed-bed and put into a bucket or basin of water. That is, the roots
are, but the tops are kept out in the dry. They are one by one taken out, put in the
holes, pressed firm, and the job is done. They need no more water than this, do
not wilt much, and grow right away much better than when treated to a shower-bath
in the regular old-fashioned sort of way. But suppose the weather continues dry,
are they never watered ? They are ; but even here progress has found a better plan
than that of the olden time. The earth is removed with a hoe, just a little about
the plant so as to form a sort of basin about the stem ; the water is poured into the
basin, and in an hour or so after the water has all soaked away, the earth is drawn
in, and the whole surface is as before. This is a once-forall operation,^ and let the

FIG. 127. — transplanter.

FIG. 129. — HOME ADORNMENT — SHRUBS, EVERGREENS, AND FLOWERS.

THE FARM-GARDEN. gl]

weather be ever so dry it is seldom that a plant requires more than one or two watei
doses of this character during the dry spell."

Various Garden Crops. — Many crops are grown in both the garden and the
field. To several of these we have already alluded in treating of farm crops,
and the directions there given for cultivation can be very easily modified to suit the
garden. Nearly all the g-irden plants need a rich soil and thorough culture. Sev-
eral of the common plants are found in every garden, and their cultivation is already
understood. Therefore we shall occupy but little space in treating of them.

Asparagus is not as generally found in farm gardens as most other standard
plants for garden cultivation. If the land is made rich and thorough culture is
given there will be no trouble in obtaining a good crop. The land should be deeply
plowed in the fall, a heavy application of well-rotted stable-manure should be made,
and another plowing given. The soil should be finely pulverized, and furrows
eight inches deep should be plowed for the rov/s. These furrows should be five
feet apart, and the roots placed in them, covering the crowns about an inch. When
the stalks appear, hoe the dirt around them, thus gradually filling the furrow and
levelling off the surface of the ground. In the fall spread on manure, and plow a
shallow furrow toward each side of the rows. In the spring harrow the surface
level, and keep the ground loosened, and the weeds down during the whole season.
The next fall plow a furrow each side away from the rows, throw in manure, and
then plow the earth back over the rows. The next spring harrow the earth away.
A few of the strongest shoots can be cut, but no general cutting should be allowed
until the next year. Cultivate thoroughly every year, and continue to give the same
treatment in the .spring and fall as has been recommended. After the third year
coarse salt may be freely applied. The stalks should be removed before the seeds
are ripe. If land enough for this method cannot be spared, the rows can be placed
two feet apart, but this will make it necessary to do the work of cultivation by hand.
The soil must be kept loose with a fork, and liberal quantities of manure must be
worked in. The cutting for table use should be done before the heads burst, when
the plants are about six inches above the surface, and they may be cut four inches
below the ground.

Beans. — Both the bush and the running beans should be grown in the garden.
Planting must be deferred until the weather and the ground are warm. They
should be kept free from weeds, but it is not well to hoe them when wet with
either dew or rain. The running beans should be provided with sticks upon which
to climb. There are many varieties. The Lima is quite different from, and much
superior to, the ordinary kinds. The seeds are very large and white, and the vine
is a vigorous grower and prolific bearer. The seeds must be planted with the eyes
downward, and long poles must be provided for the vines. Planting must not be
done until the ground is warm. As the frost proves destructive this variety does
not ripen at the extreme North.

Beets are easily grown, and the early kinds are useful for the leaves as well as
the roots. Sow in long rows, with a seed-sowei;, eighteen inches apart. Cover the
seeds an inch deep. If sown by hand soak the seeds in warm water for a day or
two. For early use sow as soon as the ground can be worked in spring; for autumn
sow in May, and for winter use in June. Thin the plants to from six to ten inches
apart. The leaves of the young plants are good for " greens." During the season
weeds should be kept down, and the ground ought to be often stirred.

The Cabbage needs a deep, rich soil and thorough culture. The seed should be

812 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

sown in beds, and when they are of a suitable size the plants should be set out Vk
hills. At the South the plants may be set in the fall, but at the North the seed
should be sown in a cold frame in March for the early varieties, and in open land a
month later for the late kinds. The plants must not crowd each other in the seed-
bed. The hills should be two feet and a-half apart each way, and only one f)lant
should stand in a hill. The ground should be hoed often, and when the plants are
half-grown it should be worked deeply and hilled up around the stalks. The dis-
ease known as " clump-root," or " club-foot," often proves quite destructive. When
affected with thu; disease, the plants " head under ground " instead of above it and
are rendered worthless. To prevent it, plant cabbages on a different piece of land
each year, and use well-rotted stable manure, bone-dust, or guano, for fertilizers.
Planting year after year on the same land, or the use of hog-manure, will be likely
to induce an attack and cause the destruction of the crop.

The Carrot is a palatable and useful article of food, and should be more gener-
ally found upon the tables of the farmers. We have already recommended its cul-
tivation for stock and given directions therefor. The garden culture should be
nearly the same as that recommended for the field. For early use, sow seeds of an
early variety as soon as the ground is warm in spring. For winter use, sow about
the first of June. If sown by hand, the seed should be soaked twenty-four hours
and then rolled in plaster. Prepare the ground just before sowing the seed. The
land should be rich from previous manuring, but no fresh stable-manure should be
applied. If any fertilizer is needed, use bone-dust, guano, or ashes. It is not well
to cultivate deeply, but all weeds should be kept down, and the plants thinned to
eight inches apart.

Celery is not as easily grown as most garden plants, but it furnishes a " delicate
and most delicious salad," and physicians strongly recommend its use. The seed
should be started in a cold frame, or in some sheltered place in the open land. As
soon as the plants are six or eight inches high, they may be set in rows fire feet
apart and six inches apart in the row. Some set them upon the surface, but it is
better to dig trenches a foot and a-half deep and a foot wide, throw in well-rotted
manure until the bottom is covered six inches deep, cover this with two or three inches
of soil which should be mixed with the manure and trodden down a little, and then
throw on an inch or two of fine soil in which to set the plants. Set the plants care-
fully after removing all the suckers. During the summer keep the soil loose around
the plants, water with liquid manure, and as they grow pull the earth up around
them as directed for asparagus. The earthing should be done when the plants are
dry, and care must be used not to gel any dirt into the centre of the top. About a
month before they are wanted for use, and while the weather is quite warm, they
should be wholly covered with a few inches of earth, and the top of the ridge thus
made should be slanted oflT so as to protect from rain. Good cultivation and the
occasional application of a small quantity of salt will improve the quality. For
winter protection B. K. Bliss & Sons, the New York seedsmen, recommend the
following : Take up the plants " before severe weather sets in, and lay them in
as closely as can be done without crowding the leaves, on a ridge of soil, with their
tops sloping downwards, and three or four layers deep on each side of the ridge.
Cover with four inches of soil, over which place straw or leaves about one foot
thick ; on this a roof of boards to throw off the water. When wanted for use open
at one end."

Corn of the sweet varieties should be grown for boiling and roasting. Make the

THE FARM-GARDEN. 813

fand rich and cultivate often. The planting should be done at intervals of two
weeks in order to furnish a succession during the season. For early use, plant the
earliest varieties as soon as safe from frost, and for later use, the kinds which ripen
late in the season.

Cucumbers are not remarkably healthful, but they find a place in almost all gar-
dens. The seed should not be planted until the ground has become dry and warm.
Make large hills, four feet apart, put into each a shovelful of rotten manure, or a lib-
eral quantity of ashes, which should be mixed with the soil and slightly covered.
Plant ten or a dozen seeds in each hill and cover half an inch deep. When the
striped bug comes, as he will be likely to before the plants are very large, a con-
stant watch must be kept or they will be destroyed. It is best to begin defensive
operations before he makes an attack. We dust our plants with plaster. This must
be applied when the leaves are wet and repeated every day or two until the enemy
has disappeared. Some growers recommend watering with a weak solution of
tobacco and soft-soap, and then putting on bone-flour. A still better way, because
it CH.n be done once for all, is to tack some pieces of board together in the shape of
a box, cover with mosquito netting, and set over the hill. When the plants begin
to run they should be thinned to three or four in the hill. They should be hoed
often, and all weeds should be kept out of the hills. For pickles, plant the later
varieties during the first half of the month of June. •

The Dandelion is entitled to a place in the farm-garden. The tops make excel-
lent " greens," and the roots furnish a good substitute for coffee. Sow the seed in
drill.-, a foot apart, and thin the plants to three inches in the rows. Cultivate well,
and, the next spring, both tops and roots will be large enough to use.

Herbs. — A few herbs should be found in every country garden. Of those which
are both common and useful, the following will be found the best.

HoARHOUND is Valuable for medicinal purposes, and bee-keepers can profitably
grow it as a honey-producing plant. Sow the seed in a warm, light soil, in rows a
foot and a half apart. Thin the plants to nine inches apart in the row. Keep
free from weeds. Cut just before Ihe plants come into full blossom. Like all other
herbs, these plants should be cut in dry weather and stored in a dry, cool room.

Sage is entitled to the first rank among the garden herbs. It is used for " season-
ing" various articles of food, and also as a medicine in some diseases; The seed
should be sown in rows fifteen inches apart and covered nearly an inch deep. The
soil should be made very fine, and the seed sown when the ground is quite warm.
When the plants are a {t\! inches high they should be set in hills a foot and a half
apart. During the season they ought to be hoed several times. They are quite
hardy, and, if grown on dry ground, will usually live through the winter. Each
spring the plants should be taken up, the roots, several of which will be found in
each hill, parted and reset. We often give away half or two-thirds of our sage roots
when we transplant and still keep the stock good. The stems should be cut just
before blossoming and spread in the shade to dry. If seed is wanted, some of the
finest stalks should be left for the purpose. The seed will be black when ripe, and,
as soon as it is well colored, the stems upon which it is produced should be cut
and dried.

Sweet Marjoram. — The seed should be sown, in a rich and finely pulverized
soil, when the ground is warm, in rows fifteen inches apart. Cover but slightly,
and press the dirt firmly over the rows. When large enough, set out the plants in
rows a foot apart, and give the same distance between them in the row. Cut when

814 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

in blossom. Seed must be sown every year as the plants will winter-kill. Save
the finest stems for seed, and, when the leaves and tops begin to dry, cut and store
in a dry place.

Summer Savory. -The seed should be sown early in the season, and only
slightly covered. Rows should be fifteen inches apart, and the plants should not
be taken up. If too thick, remove the surplus ones. Cut when in blossom.

Thy-ME. — The seed should be got in early, in a finely-prepared soil, and only
slightly covered. Transplant into hills a foot apart each way. The plants will
live through the winter. The roots should be taken up in the spring, parted, and
reset as directed for sage. The cutting should be done when the plants are in
blossom.

Horse-Radish should be grown in a rich soil which has been deeply plowed.
It is propagated from pieces of the root. Plant in the spring, eighteen inches apart,
in holes deep enough to allow the top of the root to be covered three or four inches.
Pack the soil closely around the roots. Hoe often enough to keep down the weeds.
The roots will be large enough for use in the fall.

Lettuce. — Sow in a light, warm, and rich soil. Cover slightly. If the head
varieties are grown, transplant in hills a foot apart each way. Or, the plants can
be set between the cucumber and melon hills. Most of them will get out of the
way before the vines need the land. The richer the soil and better the culture
which this plant receives the better will be the quality of its leaves.

Melons should have a warm, light soil and plenty of manure. Some of the
finest melons we ever saw were grown in a sandy and almost exhausted soil. Use
rotten manure or a good compost. Work the fertilizer into the soil in and around
the hills. Plant when the ground is warm. Use ten or twelve seeds in each hill,
and, when the plants begin to run, thin to three or four. Make the hills for musk-
melons six feet apart each way, for citrons and watermelons nine or ten feet apart.
Keep free from weeds. Citrons and watermelons mix very badly, and, if seed is
to be grown, the plants must be a long distance apart. If grown in the same gar-
den the fruit will be good but the seeds will be worthless.

Onion culture has already been described in the pages devoted to farm crops.
For garden culture much the same course should be pursued as is there recommended.

Parsnip. — When grown for the table, the parsnip should have a rich and deep
soil which was heavily manured the previous season. Sow the seed, very thick,
early in the season, in drills fifteen inches apart and half an inch deep. Cultivate
well. In the fall take up enough roots for winter use and store in the cellar.
Leave the remainder in the ground until spring, but before freezing weather cover
the tops with a little earth.

Peas are among the essentials in every garden. For early use sow as soon as
the ground can be worked in the spring. The soil should be moderately rich.
Weeds should l>e kept down, a small quantity of dirt should be drawn around the
stems of the plants when they are a few inches high, and bushes should be .set for
them to climb. If the land is dry, cover quite deeply. Otherwise, cover two or
three inches. We sometimes sow peas in the bottoms of the furrows when we
plow. In dry weather they do better in this way than when more lightly cov-
ered. For a succession sow at intervals of two or three weeks. Also sow the later
varieties.

Potatoes. — A few early, and some sweet, potatoes should be grown in every
farm-garden in those sections where they succeed. Plant in rows and care for as

THE FARM-GARDEN. 815

already directed for field culture. These and the different kinds of vines should be
grown upon one side of the garden so that they can be cultivated by horse power.

Radish is highly esteemed by many people and is easily grown. Sow the seed
in drills a foot apart and cover lightly. Thin to three inches apart in the rows.
Sow in the spring for early use and in August for winter. The soil should be rich,
but no fresh manure should be used if ihe best quality of roots is desired.

Rhubarb can be grown from the seed or from pieces of the roots. The latter pro
cess saves two years' time. If seed is used, sow in the spring, in drills a foot apart,
and thin the plants to three inches. Transplant the next spring, into rows three feet
apart each way, into a rich soil, and give good cultivation. If roots are used, set
them in hills, in rich land. Cut all the seed stalks as soon as they appear. If more
plants are wanted, divide the roots in the spring.

The Squash is easily grown in some sections, while in others its insect enemies
make its production a matter of great difficulty. The land should be very rich and
the hills should be eight or ten feet apart. Manure and room are great essentials.
Plant when the ground is warm, using plenty of seed, and thin to two or three plants
in a hill when the vines commence running. Use plaster on the leaves as recom-
mended for cucumbers. This will tend to keep away the
bugs. Where the maggot proves destructive, the vines must
be closely watched. The eggs from which these enemies
are hatched are laid on the stem near the root and at the
point of union of the leaf stalks and vine. The maggot
bores into the vine, and if seen soon enough ijiay be de-
stroyed with a sharp wire, but if given his liberty for a few
days he will destroy a large vine.

Tomato. — Sow the seeds in a cold frame, or in a box
of earth in the house, if very early plants are desired. ^■'*^' ^^^'

If not, sow in open land as soon as the ground is tomato frame.
warm. Cover lightly. When the plants are three inches high they should be taken
up and put in a sheltered place. Transplant again when they have become well
rooted. This will give stronger plants than can be secured if they are set out only
once. For early fruit set the plants in a dry and gravelly soil. If a large and rather
late crop is wanted, set in a rich and moist soil. Hoe often, give plenty of room,
and tie each plant to a stake, or set a frame around it like that shown in Figure 130.
After the fruit sets pinch off the ends of the vines. Tomatoes are said to contain
considerable oxalic acid and are considered very healthful.

Turnips, in small quantities, may be grown in the garden. The cultivation both
of flat turnips and ruta Iiagas will be much the same as directed for the field. To
obtain a succession sow some of the early varieties as soon as the ground is warm,
and the later sorts when the season is further advanced. For winter use the seed
of flat turnips needs sowing about the first of August, and the ruta bagas about the
middle of June. The former should be sown in drills and cultivated, the latter
should be transplanted, and hoed quite often.

The great essentials to success in farm gardening are heavy manuring, plenty of
room, and thorough cultivation. These any and every farmer can give, and by
giving them he can make his garden the most profitable part of his farm.

On the following page we present illustrations of choice varieties of Garden
Vegetables. For several of these cuts we are indebted to the well-known seeds-
«san, H. A. Dreer, of Philadelphia, Pa.

no. 131. — EASnAN'S HALF-LONG BLOOD BBKT.
PIG. 132. — EARLV HALF-LONG SCARLET CARROT.
FIG. 133. — EARLY JEKSEV WAKETIELD CAnBAGE.
riG. 134. — GREEN CITRON NETTED MlI<^K-MELON.
riC 135. — EGYPTIAN BLOOD Tl'RNIP BEET,
no. 136. — IMPROVED LARGE PURPLE EGG-PLANT.

(SI6)

FIG. 142.

FIG. 137. — BASTIAN'S EXTRA EARLY RED BEET.

FIG. 138. — SMALL GHERKIN, OR BUKR-CICIMBBK.

FIG. 139. — EARLY WHITE SCALLOP BUSH-SQUASH.

FIG. 140. — DWARF CELERY.

FIG. 141. — MARTYNIA.

FIG. 142. — DREEK'S selected TROPHY TOMATO.

BUSINESS PRINCIPLES.

(817)

CONTENTS OF FiLBT lY.

BOOK-KEEPING.

FALSE ECONOMY.

A GOOD REPUTATION.
INSURANCE.

USEFUL TABLES

(818)

BOOK-KEEPING. gj^

HEN properly managed, farming is safer than almost any other kind of
business, and pays a larger percentage of profit in proportion to the time
spent in learning its requirements and the amount of money invested in
its prosecution. Although in many kinds of business an apprenticeship
of several years must be served, farming is open to the new beginner and
he is perfectly free to introduce himself and go to work. The doctor and lawyer
spend several years in study before they attempt to enter their chosen fields of labor,
and the merchant and mechanic spend considerable time in learning the methods
of managing the business which they design to follow. A few farmers take the
same initiatory steps, but there are not many who incur any expense in order to
master the details of the business before they start for themselves. Yet, in spite of
this great disadvantage, there is a much larger proportion of farmers who succeed
in business than there is of men engaged in other occupations. This does not fol-
low because study and training are of no benefit in preparing a man to farm success-
fully, but because the business of farming is much safer and will bear more bad
management than almost any other kind of work in which he can engage.

But in order to secure the highest degree of success the farmer must manage his
business by business principles. Although he may get a living for himself and his
family if he allows things to take their course, he cannot make as large a profit as
he could easily secure if he managed his business instead of allowing his business
to manage him.

One of the first things which the farmer needs to acquire in order to fit him for
this department of his work is a knowledge of book-keeping. It is not necessary
that he should master the whole science, but he ought to know the fundamental
principles and be able to apply them. These principles are few and simple. It is
strange that in our public schools this branch of education has been so sadly neg-
lected. Many a young man has been to school many terms, and obtained a great
deal of knowledge of various forms and information concerning a multitude of sub-
jects, and yet been left profoundly ignorant of the methods of keeping books in
business transactions. He has not been obliged to do business many years before
he has found that a thorough knowledge of the leading principles of this stience
would have been worth a great deal more to him than the acquaintance with the
dead languages which he studied so hard to obtain. Many a man would have been
saved from financial ruin if he had been educated in book-keeping instead of the
Latin and Greek languages. These languages are excellent subjects for study if
a boy has time to master them, but when he comes to the hard work of life he will
find that the ability to read them will not enable him to manage a farm successfully
or aid him to any great extent in getting a living at any kind of manual labor. In
every public school which children fourteen years of age attend the elementary
principles of book-keeping should be taught. No young man is fitted for the busi-
ness of life and no young woman is competent to manage the affairs of a household
until some knowledge of this science has been secured.

There are various reasons why a farmer should keep a regular account of his
ousiness transactions. A "good and suflficient" one may be found in the fact that
it is the only way in which he can have, at all times, an exact knowledge of
the condition of his business. If he keeps no accounts he cannot tell whether

g20 FARM/XG FOR PROFIT.

he is making or losing money, and will never be able to know how much he
is worth.

Another reason why he should keep a careful record of his business is to be found
in the fact that if he neglects to do this he will sustain many losses which he might
have prevented. He will forget dates and prices, and for many thiiigs which he
sells lie will receive no return. In every community there are men who take advan-
tage of the easy-going farmer who neglects to charge what he sells, who buy of him
" little and often," and who never design to pay for what they obtain. Such losses
in the aggregate make quite a drain upon the farmer's resources.

Still another reason for keeping accounts is to be found in the habits of prompt-
ness which such a course tends to form and confirm. It is not the man who keeps
his books carefully who is always behind time in every business enterprise. He is
likely to attend to things promptly. The man who thinks it of no consequence
whether he ever makes a written statement of his business or not, is almost sure to
fall into other easy habits which will strongly tend to his own disadvantage.

But one of the strongest reasons for the course advised is the fact that it tends to
keep a man out of debt. The farmer who keeps no accounts is generally ready to
pay eight or ten per cent, interest for money when he wants to borrow, but the one
whose books are properly kept knows that he cannot afford to pay as much, and will
try to secure what capital he needs at a lower rate. The man who keeps strict
accounts knows what money is worth, and how much labor a dollar represents, far
better than his neighbor who has no account books. The one will be very cautious
about getting into debt, and very anxious to get out if a debt is incurred, while the
other will be ready to borrow money, but slow to repay what he has borrowed.
There are exceptions to this rule, as there are to nearly all others, but the tendency
of the habit of keeping accounts with care and precision is to keep a man from debt
and from careless speculation, and to greatly advance his pecuniary interests.

The cost of the necessary books is very small, and but little time will be needed
in which to make the records. Business transactions should be noted immediately.
It will not do to trust to memory, as that often proves very treacherous. Every
evening the books should be brought up to date. A record should be made of the
work which has been performed, as well as of the financial transactions of the day
The latter items, however, should not be left until evening if they are of more than
ordinary importance, but should be noted as soon as there is an opportunity to record
them.

The books which will be needed are a Diary, Day-Book, and Ledger. If an
account is kept with each crop, and with separate fields, another book will be a con-
venience, though not an absolute necessity. For a Diary many farmers use a cheap
pocket form, but one about eight by six inches, with three days for each page, would
be better. In this book a record of the work and weather should be made. It
should be a history of the work of the farm, and the life of the farmer, if the
farmer or any of his family go away from home, or receive visits from friends, or
any special business is transacted, the facts should be briefly but clearly noted. Such
a record often proves of great financial value, and it is always convenient and useful
for reference. For a Day-Book a blank-book about ten and a half by seven and a
half inches, with two hundred and fifty pages, ruled on the left for the number of the
page of the Ledger to which the account is transferred, and with two double
columns on the right for dollars and cents, will do very well. All purchases and
sales with the dates and prices, whether paid for, or bought, or sold on credit,

BOOK-KEEPING. 821

should be noted in this book. The debtor account can be kept on one page and
the creditor account on the opposite one if desired.

The main difficulty which most people have in book-keeping is to determine
just what to charge, and for what to give credit. But the necessary forms for
keeping farm-accounts will be clear to any one who will give the suiiject a little
careful thought. Mr. Waring has given the following rule : " When you let your
neighbor, or he with whom you deal, have anything from you, it is a charge against
him, and you must charge him with it on the debit side of the account ; but when-
ever you receive anything from him, it is a credit, and you must credit him with it
on the credit side of the account." If you sell your neighbor a load of hriy which
he does not pay for when it is delivered, he becomes your Dr. (debtor) for the value
of the hay. If you buy a cow, without paying cash, of another neighbor, that neigh-
bor becomes your Cr. (creditor) for the price of the cow. Accounts can be kept
with crops, or fields, or animals, in the same manner. A crop is Dr. to the use of
the land and expense of preparing it, the value of the seed and cost of planting
or sowing, to the expenses of cultivation, harvesting, preparing for market, and de-
livering at the place agreed upon ; and Cr. by the amount of money received for
what is sold, and the value of the portion used at home. A cow is Dr. to her firsir
cost, interest on money invested and the expenses of keeping; and Cr. by the value
of her calves and milk. The same principle applies to all business transactions.

The work can be done in less time and with less labor if a book prepared ex-
pressly for farm book-keeping is obtained. The publishers of the Ohio FarmeV:
have strongly recommended their readers to keep accurate business accounts, and,,
in order to aid them in this work, have prepared a two hundred page " Farmer's
Account- Book," which contains a system of keeping accounts which is specially
adapted to the wants of farmers and stock-owners. This book has printed head-
ings for the various departments of the farm business, including Plan of Farm, Pur-
chasing Accounts, Sales Accounts, Individual Accounts, Consignments and Ac-
counts Sales, Laborers' Accounts, Cash Received and Cash Paid Out Accounts,,
together with many useful rules and calculations. The book is large enough to-
last an average farmer three years and costs only one dollar. With the pape/, pub-
lished at Cleveland, Ohio, the price is still less. We piost cordially commend,
this book for the use of farmers.

Whatever form is used for a Day- Book, a Ledger should also be kept. This is-
not an absolute necessity, but it is a very great convenience — so great as to be almost
indispensable. Concerning this book, HoN. H. M. Spalding, in " How to be
your own Lawyer," says : " For each person who becomes indebted to us, or to
whom we become indebted, an account is opened in this book, and the date and^
amount of such indebtedness therein recorded, so that however numerous the trans-
actions that we have with an individual may be, or however widely separated as to
time, they are all brought together within a very small space under his account in
the Ledger, where the amounts can be readily seen, and whether we owe him, or he
owes us, and how much, easily determined.

" By thus bringing compactly together all the transactions which we may have withi
an individual, spread over, it may be, many months, and arranging upon one side
of his account all items for which he becomes indebted to us (that is, for which he-
owes us), and upon the other side all items for which we become indebted to him
(that is, for which he trusts us), we make it an easy matter to quickly determine ati
any time the difference, or balance as it is termed, and whether, it he in our favor or.
50

g22 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

against us. The balance is in our favor when the Dr. side exceeds the Cr., that is,
when he owes us more than he trusts us ; and against us when the Cr. exceeds the
Dr., that is, when he trusts us more than he owes us."

The Ledger should be ruled so that the Dr. and Cr. accounts with an individual
can be kept on a single page. The Dr. items should occupy the left-hand side, and
the Cr. items should appear on the right.

Once in six or twelve months all the accounts in the Ledger should be balanced.
This is donel)y adding both the Dr. and the Cr. columns, subtracting the smaller
from the greater, and using the remainder as the bcginnitig of a new account.

No scratching or erasing of any kind is allowable in the account-books. If a
mistake is made a statement of the fact, with an explanation of the same, should be
interlined. Blotting or scratching out an account, or a single entry in an account,
will injure, and perhaps utterly destroy, the value of the books as evidence in court.
If the entries in the Day-Book are made promptly and the Ledger is kept well up
to date there will be little danger of making mistakes.

Professional book-keepers, and merchants doing a large business, keep more books
than we have named. A Journal and Cash Book are usually kept, but we do not
think them necessary for the farmer. It is important to have the whole system as
simple as possible. If the farmer wishes a more minute description of his business
he can add the desired departments in the books already mentioned. But these, if
properly kept, will enable him to determine just what he sells, and the amount of
money received from his farm each year, and show him just where the money
which he has paid out has gone, and for what it has been given. Such knowledge
must be of incalculable advantage.

In order to obtain the full benefit of the course advised the farmer should take an
inventory of his property once each year. This may be done at any time, but the
firat of January or the first of April will be the best. On one side of this inventory
account should be placed the Resources and on the other the Liabilities of the fanner.
The former include all his property — land, buildings, live-stock, hay, grain, tools,
all dues on unsettled accounts, cash on hand, and any and every sfvle of property
which he may own. These different kinds of goods should be specified, and their
cash value given. The^Liabilities include all borrowed capital, such proportion of
his interest, taxes, and insurance, as is due when the inventory is taken, all dues
lo others on accounts, and all debts of any and every kind. If the Resources
exceed the Liabilities the difference will be the sum which the farmer is worth. If
'he balance is on the other side of the account, the figures will show how much
he is in debt in excess of his means of payment. A comparison of these papers
year by year will show him w.hetheK he is making or losing money, and how fast.
This inventory should never be neglected, as it is the only means by which the
farmer can accurately tell whether he is making or losing money. He may have a
great deal more cash on hand one year than he had at the same period of another
•year, and yet be much poorer than he was then. At one time he has money, while
at the other he had a greater value in hay, grain, and live-stock. The inventory
alone can determine this very important point.

Against one mistake which farmers are very likely to make we wish to caution
our readers. If after paying their bills and balancing their accounts for the year
they have nothing left, they say that they " have not made a cent." Evidently they
.have a very imperfect idea of what profit really is. They have placed on one side
of the account all the receipts from the farm, and on the other all the expenses not

FALSE ECONOMY. 823

only of the farm but also of the family. The former expenses are legitimate.
They should be compared with the receipts, and from this comparison a balance
should be struck. But the expenses of the family are no more to be charged to the
farm than is the cost of the improvements which the Government has been making
in the mouth of the MISSISSIPPI river. The fact that the expenses of the farm
have been paid, and the family supported, is proof that the farm has paid qu-'te a
profit. The family has been supported wholly from the profits of the farm. The
merchant who keeps even with the world and pays all his bills may not lay up
money, but he would not think of saying that he was making nothing. If he were
not making money he could not support his family without increasing his debts.
The same principle fully applies to the farm. There must be a profit over and
above the legitimate expenses or else the farmer cannot meet his bills.

We hope the day will soon come when the simple principles of book-keeping
will be taught in the public schools, and when every farmer will keep careful
accounts with all individuals with whom he does a credit business, with his crops,
his fields, and his stock, and an accurate record of all the money received and paid.
The amount of time and labor required is much smaller than those who have never
tried the plan suppose, while the resultant benefits are abundant and permanent.

CONOMY is a virtue which brings its own reward. It is at the foundation
of all permanent success in the various productive industries. The man
who depends upon his labor for his support and for maintaining his
family must practice it or fall far short of his desires. But while this virtue
is one of the indispensable requisites to success, it is, like all other good
things, often counterfeited, and by reason of the miserable quality of the
imitations the genuine virtue has often fallen into discredit. The farmer should
avoid the spurious economy as carefully as he should practice the genuine. True
economy consists in using things to the best advantage, and avoiding waste of every
kind. False economy takes unto itself many forms. A few of the principal ones
will be briefly noticed.

The farmer who " cannot afford " to buy books, and take papers which are
specially designed to help him in his work, is practicing a faise economy. The
captain who should start on an ocean voyage without a compa;:s bccaure he did not
feel able to purchase one would be considered a lunatic. The lawyer who should
try to get along without a library because books cost money which he did not want
to spare would never succeed. The doctor who used no books and read no papers
devoted to his profession would ruin himself and the few patients who might employ
him. In all kinds of business knowledge is one of the great essentials to success
The farmer who has books and papers devoted to his work has an immense
advantage over his neighbor who has neither of these aids. One man plods on
alone while the other has the recorded experience of manv <:iicr<":<;fiil fnrmfr^, and
the results of an immense amount of hard study and close observation to help him.
Instead of saying that he cannot afford to purchase these aids the farmer should feel
that he cannot afford to do without them.

The farmer who does not feel able to obtain good stock is making a great mistake
in his desire to be economical. By this we do not mean that he ought to buy

g24 ' FARMING FOR /'kOFIT.

thorough-bred animals, hut that he should keep the very best of his calves and
lambs, and try to steadily iinpiovc ihe quality of his slock. The man who sells his
best slock lo ihe butcher ami keeps the poorest for breeding is on the direct road to
financial ruin. If all the dep.iitint;nts of his business were managed on the same
principles he would soon l>e ol>ligcd lo give up his farm.

Letting things run at loose ends for want of lime in which to attend to them is
another way in which many fainicrs falsely economize their lime. They do not
keep accounts with their crops because it is " loo much work," and for the same
reason they often neglect to make a note of ihcir business transactions with their
nei<'hburs. In each case they are losers by their effort to save lime and labor.
Tney do not hoe their corn as early as they should, and the ground is filled
with weeds. In the fall they are busy, and their wheat is not sown until late.
When they find time lo do the work the sCvison is so far advanced ihat ihe seed is
hurried into land which is poorly prepared, and a poor crop for the next year is
fully insured. These men are always busy, yet they do not truly economize their
time because they are always a little behind in iheir work. Promptness is always
necessary to the practice of economy, and to the attainment of success.

Buying the necessaries of life in very small quantities is another manner in which
many people try to be economical but are really extravagant. Things which are ill
constant use in a family, and which cannot be produced at home, can be bought
much cheaper in large than they can in small quantities. Better pay a dollar and
twenty cents for a dozen papers of starch at one time than to keep running to iht
store every little while for a single paper, and paying twelve cents for it. Unlets
made at home, soap should be bought by the box. Buy ten gallons of oil at a time,
and purchase thread by the dozen spools. Many such things can be bought much
cheaper in this way than they can in the usual manner, and there will be a great
saving of lime now spent in running to the store, as well as the avoiding of a great
deal of inconvenience caused by being out of things which are needed for imme-
diate use.

Buying goods on credit is another way in which many farmers lose in attempting
to save their money. It is often a convenience to obtain a little time on purchases,
but it should be sought only as an accommodation, and not made a common practice.
It is better for the farmer to borrow money to meet his running expenses during
those seasons in which he has but little income, than it is to run up a long bill at the
store. He will have to pay interest on the account if he gets trusted, and the rate
per cent, will not be less than the money-lenders charge, while the price of the
giods will be considerably higher than he would have to pay if he bought for cash.

The purchase and use of poor tools I)ecause ihey are cheap, is one of the falsely
ei.o:iomical methods which are often pursued. Better pay a hundred dollars for a
good wagon than seventy-five dollars for an inferior one. The good one will last as
long as two of the poor ones, and not involve half as much expense for repairs. A
good cultivator, or harrow, or plow, which is well made and which will do thorough
work, is worth more than three times as much as an inferior one which is pporly
built, and with which it is impossible to do good work. The diflTerence in the
yield of a single crop on two or three acres of land would often more than pay the
4ifference in price between a good and a poor pulverizer. The man who chops with
a poor axe, digs with a poor ^hivel, pitches hay with a poor fork, or uses poor tools
for any other purpose, works at a ^rcat disadvantage, aud is practicing a thoroughly
false economy.

FALSE ECONOMY.

825

Another mistake in the same direction is made hy farmeis who grow bulky crops
for which there is no home mnrket, and upon which heavy transportation charges
must be paid. The farmer who sends his hay a long distance to market could
almost always do a great deal better to feed it to catile and sheep, as he could send
the animal products to market in a much smaller space than the hay would occupy.
The larmer should not be satisfied with an economy u liich merely allows no direct
waste. He should look farther ihan this, and see that evcryiliing is used to the best
possible advantage. It should not Ije enough that cattle ami hogs eat ;J1 of his hay
and grain, but the hay and grain should be fed to that class of animals whi.h wUl
yield the highest percentage of profit. It is not enough that he keeps all of his
land under cultivation. This is well as far as it g<^s, but in addition to this he
should grow those crops which will pay him the be.i fur his time and labor. The
same principle should govern in all departments of his business.

Buying things which might easily and profitably be grown at home is an expen-
sive error mto which many farmers are led by a false economy. This subject ha.
already been treated, but it deserves mention in this connection. Many a farmer
has thought that he could not afford to grow corn at the prices then ruling in market,
and has grown something else and bought corn. Finding the crop which he selected
was not paying him well he has changed to another, and has kept changing, with
injury to his business every time, until he has lost f ith in almost all special crops if
not in the whole business of farming. The idea that the farmer must grow onlv
two or three articles, sell them, and with the money thus obtained buy everything
which his family consumes, is a pernicious one, and many men have been financially
ruined by putting it into practice. As the National Live-Stock Journal has
well said : " The tendency gf this practice is to make eveiy farmer a trader, who
sells everything he produces, and .buys everything he consumes, by which he be-
comes dependent upon the whims and fluctuations of the markets at both end? of
his business." What he sells must go at wholesale rates, but for all that he
buys he must pay retail prices. If he would produce all the articles possible
instead of buying them, he could obtain them at cost, and thus make a great saving
of expense.

Doing without scales and measures and "guessing" at the weight of articles
bought and sold, and of crops produced, is one of the ways in which a false economy
is practiced. Every farmer ought to have some accurate scales with which he can
weigh his farm products and test the yield of his cows. Many a man is deceived
in regard to the value of his cows because he has notliing with which to weigh their
milk and the butter which is made therefrom. Fur weighing pigs, calves, and
laml)s, determining the actual and relative gain of different animals, ascertaining
the quantity of wool produced by each sheep, and many other pnrposes, scales nre
not only useful, but are almost invaluable to the farmer. A good set of measure-
is also required. These measures are not only convenient, but they are often abso-
lutely necessary to anything like an accurate knowledge of the yield of crops and
the relative production of diffeien* fields.

The last error of this class which we shall name is the habit of depending upon
others for doing what couid just as well be done at home. Many a job goes to the
harness-maker which the farmer could do if he would try. With a few tools, and
»t a merely nominal expense for materials, a farmer of common ingenuity can do
many little jobs in the way of repairing tools which are now sent away to be per-
formed, and which, in the aggregate, cost quite a sum of money. In this way there

g26 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

would be a direct saving of expense and of much valuable time. It will pay well
to keep a few tools and a small stock of suitable materials for repairs constantly on
hand. The boys should be encouraged to try their skill at the work, and thus lonn
a good habit and obtain experience which will be very useful to them in after life.

&. GOOD REPUraTIOH.

1

(*^\ order to obtain the highest degree of success the farmer must obtain a
good reputation. This should be built upon the solid basis of a thor-
oughly good character, and should be sought because it is a duty to secure
v/. . . and retain such a character. The financial advantages which come with
S^^ a good name are to be considered as incidentals. They are legitimate
and valuable, and ought to be prized and used. The farmer shi>uld do
right because it is right, and riot for the hope of reward ; but when he has done
right he is fairly entitled to the benefits which such a course confers. Yet many
farmers, through carelessness or neglect, make no eflbrt to secure a good reputation.
Some who deserve such an honor do not receive it because they do not value it and
take no pains to secure its advantages. Many others strive to obtain the benefits
without complying with the conditions. But in the long run all shams will fail.
Trickery and deceit may not be discovered at once, but the time will come when
they will be exposed. The only right course, and the only one which will be per-
manently successful, is to be strictly honest in all business transactions.

Many illustrations of the value of a good reputation might be given, but it is
probable that every reader can find one, or more, in the circle of his own acquaint-
ances. We will only allude to two cases, both of which are widely known. Mr.
W.A.RING, of Ogden Farm, h.as long been engaged in manufacturing JiiRSEY butter
and breeding Jersey cattle. The butter has been of uniform quality and of the
ver\' highest grade. Customers who bought it were confident that it would be first-
class. The fact that it came from Ogden Far.m was all the recommendation they
required to induce them to pay a dollar a pound. The live-stock always proved as
represented, and customers knew that they should be fairly dealt with. A large
business has been established, and, at a recent valuation of the farm and other pro{>-
erty, the " good-will " was estimated at ten thousand dollars. The other illustration
is furnished by Mr. Robert L. Pell, the " prince of apple-growers." He has aa
orchard of over twenty thousand trees of the Newtown Pippi.n variety. This
orchard has been managed with a great deal of skill and produces a splendid
quality of fruit. The apples are carefully picked, passed through the sweating pro-
cess, assorted, and the perfect specimens placed in boxes containing one hundred
apples each. These are shipped to Liverpool and sold at auction. For forty
yean? this plan has been pursued, and the fruit is so well known,' and the reputation
of Mr. Pell is so firmly established, that sales*are readily eflfecled at extremely
h:^h prices. Buyers know that Mr. Pell never sends an inferior apple.

It is not expected that the avenge farmer can achieve as great a degree of success
as. the above examples show, but it is certain that he can obtain a reputation which
will prove a great help in his business. Only two things are necessary to secure
this. These are strict and careful honesty, and the u<;e of his name. The man who
never mixes small potatoes with the large ones, who sends just as good apples in the

INSURANCE. gO-T

middle of the barrels as he does at each end, who never puts a stick of inferior
wood into a load which he sells for fi-st-class, whose loads of good hay are good in
the centre as well as at the top and bottom, whose measurements of arain and
vegetables are always accurate, and whose packages of butter are always full weight
—in short, a man who 7iever deviates from the strict letter and spirit of Christian
honesty— such a man can easily obtain a reputation which will make a demand for
ad the farm products which he can supply. His customers will be fully and always
satisfied, and will be willing to pay an extra price for his goods. If he puts his
name upon every package of goods, customers will seek him, and he will lose no
time in making sales. Every man ought to furnish such goods (or when selling the
unver grades plainly mark them as inferior, and reduce the price) because it is ri<rht
Those who are not particular about the principle of the transaction will find i[
l^rofitable to adopt this method. " Honesty is the best policy " for all men, though
men ought to be honest from a higher motive than prudence. There are in all a
great many farmers who do not mean to be actually dishonest, but who are careless
and thoughtless, and whose products are not always first-class. They would find it
greatly for their own interest, and their customers would be highly pleased with th^
new arrangement, to make a radical change in their methods and grade their
products with a greater degree of care.

The farmer should have a stencil-plate, and a butter-stamp, with which he can
mark his name upon every package of goods which he sells. He should also have
a plate and stamp with which the grade of the goods can be plainly indicated
Every barrel of his best apples should bear his name, and the words First-Grale
should be printed in a conspicuous place. The barrels containing slightly inferior
specimens should have his name and be marked Second-Grade. The balls
or tubs, of butler which he carries to market should also be plainly marked with his
name and their appropriate quality. All other products which are sold in packages
should bear his name and their proper grade.

The cost of building up a good reputation is small. The advantages are great
Ihe truly honest man who is guided by Christian principle will have no difficulty
in complying with the conditions upon which success depends, and in securing the
advantages which it insures, while the man who has been governed by no higher
motive than policy can find in this principle an efficient aid in overcoming the
obstacles with which he is obliged to contend.

ri iff "'''" " ^ " '"'"^'"''^ "'^ circumstances," and liable to many ills which

6) I he cannot foresee and from which he cannot escape, eveiy one who has had

AU, ^-^Penence in the things of this world will readily acknowledge. Revela-

^ tion, reason, and common-sense, enforced by the experience of mankind

,(^ m all the past ages, all unite to teach that trouble of various kinds will
surely come to all the children of men. And the evil is much more for-
midable than it would be if we knew the time and manner in which the ills would
come. That they wi// come we may rest assured, but the time of their approach
no one can determine.

While there are niany evils to which the race is of necessity subjected there are
others which cause a great deal of suffering, but which are easily preventable.

g28 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

I'morance and carelessness are the parents of a multitude of ills which afflict malt
kind. In these instances the suffering is merely the penally of a violated law. Th«
fact that llie law is not understood makes no difference with the results of trans-
gression. The man who throws a heap of greasy woollen rags on his barn-floor may
never have heard of spontaneous combustion, but his buildings will be just as likely
to be burned as they would if he knew that he was practically setting them on rtre.
The man who thoughtlessly steps in front of a moving train of cars will be injured
just as severely as he would if the deed had been premeditated. The smoker who
throws a lighted match upon a barn floor may not design to do the slightest harm,
but if the barn is burned "by his carelessness the loss of the owner is just as severe
as it would have been if an incendiary had deliberately applied the torch. And in
these ways of ignorance and carelessness a vast amount of property and many
valuable lives are annually lost. The remedies for this class of evils is plain.
Education and thoughtful care would do them almost wholly away.

There is another class of ills which come upon mankind without direct reference
to the deeds of the sufferers. Certain kinds of accidents from which men suffer
are wholly beyond their individual control. The passenger in a fated railroad
train has no power to avert disaster, but he must suffer the natural consequences of
the accident. Houses and barns may be burned without any fault of the owner.
Death is sure to come to each and every one. When and how no one knows, but
sooner or later he will appear to each individual of the race and remove him from his
earthly place and work. Although the individual cannot prevent the coming of
death, or accident, or the destruction of property by fire, he does have, to some extent,
the powerof self-protection against many of the evil results of these events. Death
will take him from his family, accidents which he cannot prevent may disable hina,
and his buildings maybe burned. When these things come upon him he must
endure them, but if he has been wise in season he can avail himself of certain com-
pensations which will make these troubles much easier to be borne. Jiy using the
proper means a partial remedy for these ills may be secured, and the severity of the
trials of life may be greatly mitigated.

Under certain forms INSURANCE has existed, as a remedy for the ills we have
mentioned, for a long period. During the past fifty years the system has been
greatly improved and a large increase in the amount of business has been effected.
Numerous companies have been formed. A few of these have proved unworthy of
confidence and involved their patrons in loss and disappointment. But this fact is
not an argument against insurance. The good is always counterfeited. Therefore,
it is not strange that miserable insurance companies should have been formed. The
stringent times which have prevailed for a few years have sifted out these weak and
worthless claimants for popular favor, and the Legisi.aturks of most of the States
in which insurance companies are located have jwssed such stringent laws, and put
the managers under such close and careful watch, that there is now but little chance
for them to do any mischief if they desire, while most of the leading companies are
managed by honest and honorable men, who have both reputation and money at
stake, and who are constantly seeking the best gopd of their policy-holders. These
companies have gone steadily on, paying all losses promiilly, and fulfilling all their
contracts. They are now on as firm a basis as any business or any institution in
the world.

To the majority of men who have fnmilies depending upon thfm for suiijiort I,1I-"R
iNSURANcrc is a safe and easy way in which to provide for an event which will cer

INSURANCE. 829

tainly occur some time, and which may take place any hour. This form of insur-
ance covers a great risk. The managers of a company know that a lew of their
policy holders will die each year, but they do not know which ones. Every policy
holder knows that some of the number insured will soon die, but he cannot tell
whether he will be called or not. If he lives he nn make the requisite i>ayment
without much difficulty, and ii will help pay the families of those who do not sur-
vive. If he is called away his family will receive the benefits which life insurance
confers. The companies carry the same risk for each and every man whom they
insure. If he lives they receive the premiums, if he dies they pay the policy. If a
man dies after paying only one premium his family receive a large sum from a very
small investment. If he lives many years, and pays a great deal for his insurance,
the money is safely invested, and, when he dies, the family will find that it has been
truly saved for their benefit.

J'lRE Insurance. — This form of insurance covers the risk of the destruction of
buildings by fire. It has been quite extensively employed, and its principles com-
mend it strongly to every owner of this tind of property. While it is true that the
fires by which a great many buildings are destroyed are caused by the neglect or
carelessness of some one on the premises, it is also true that in many of these
instaiu- s, ill which the owner was not to blame, the companies pay the policies in
full. It is expected that many buildings will be burned, and the rate of insurance,
is fixed with this fact in view. Of course, the companies will not hold out an
inducement for a man to be careless. They will not make good all the damage
caused by fire if his buildings are consumed. But they will insure the buildings ati
from one-half to three-fourths of their value and pay all honest claims under such a
contract.

While the greatest care should be taken to prevent the burning of buildings, the
risk that they will be destroyed by fire, even under the most careful management, is
so great that none except wealthy farmers should carry that risk themselves. The
sum required for keeping an ordinaiy set of farm buildings insured for one-half
their value is quite small and ought to be cheerfully paid. If a farmer is poor, and
has to work hard to support his family, he ought to keep his buildings constantly
insured. In his case insurance is a duty. He is badly enough off now. But if he
were to lose his buildings without insurance he would be financially ruined. If a
rich man prefers to run the risk of fire rather than pay for keeping his buildings
insured he has a right to do so. If his buildings are burned he can erect new ones
without distressing his family, his neighbors, or himself. But with a poor man the
case is different. Only by the help of neighbors and friends will it be possible for
him to rebuild, and he may even lose possession of his mortgaged farm. He will
be dependent upon charity when he ought to have a valid claim upon a good insui-
ance company. In many cases neighbors have given money enough to build a new
house, but this is a heavy tax upon neiijhborly kindness. These neighbors have
been paying out money year after year to keep their own buildings protected, and
they think it hard to have to build new ones for a man who refused to incur the
slight expense which would have been involved in keeping his old ones insured.
The poor man has no moral right to allow his buildings to remain without insur-
ince and then call on his neighbors to make good his losses when they are burned.
Every farmer is able, and he ought to be willing, to keep his buildings insured.
As farm buildings are frequently quite a distance from a village there is little hope
of saving them if a fire is started. There is no fire company near, but little water

830 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

is at hand, and but few people to use it. Too often both the buildings and most
of their contents are destroyed. Consequently, the greatest care should be used to
prevent an outbreak, and an insurance policy should constantly be kept in force.

Accident Insurance. — The principle upon which this business is conducted
is similar to that of life insurance. Carefully selected statistics have proved that for
each thousand men engaged in any particular calling a certain number of accidents,
averaging a certain degree of severity, will occur. The expense of insurance is pro-
portioned to the risk to which each class is* exposed. It costs a farmer only ten
dollars a year to obtain an accident policy which will secure to him a weekly
indemnity of five dollars during the j)eriod of total disability from accident, if the
time does not exceed six months, or to his family one thousand dollars in case of
fatal injury. Such a policy covers the risk of injury from a multitude of causes to
some of wiiich the farmer is almost constantly exposed. The risk is so great, the
cost of insurance so small, and the help which such a policy gives is so timely, that
it seems to be wise for every farmer to keep insured, so that in case of accident the
enforced idleness will not prove a total loss.

We are well aware that to keep up the various forms of insurance which have
been named requires frequent payments and involves considerable expense. Bat
we believe that the man who desires to secure a competence, and leave his family
beyond the reach of want, will be unwise, perhaps criminally so, if he neglects liy
means of insurance to provide I'or contingencies which may occur at any time, and
which, occurring in the early part of his married life without such a safeguard, will
involve him in financial ruin or his family in life-long distress. Insurance is based
upon the principle that about a certain rate of mortality, and a certain number of
casualties will occur under certain given circumstances, and that the many belong-
ing to the classes which are thus exposed should combine for self- protect ion. By a
small payment on the part of each of the insured, the few who are the losers may
be indemnified, or their families may receive the help which they need. Insurance
finds its strongest advocates among men of Christian principle, and is one of the
most effectual means which GoD has given to intelligent men by which they can
guard against disasters and provide for families which otherwise might be left with-
out adequate means of support.

VSEFtrt TaBtES.

? ffiilil ^ Ji^ve carefully collected the following tables from various sources, includ-
ing Waring's Farmers' and Mechanics' Manual, Moore's Univer-
sal Assistant, Maswell's Civil Engineers' Pocket Companion, and
the leading papers. It is often very desirable to know the relative value
of different kinds of food for animals, the quantity of seed required to
stock a given area of land, the number of trees on an acre at given dis-
tances apart, the capacity of boxes, the number of nails in a |X)und, the weights of
different kinds of soils, the method of finding the weight of hay in a mow or stack,
the-nuiv-ber of bushels of grain in a bin, and many other things which are clearly
shown in the following tables. The advantages of the information therein conveyed
will be appreciated by all who are dissatisfied with the uncertain results of the
"guessing," which is too often the only guide in making the estimates required in
the practical business of the farm.

USEFUL TABLES.

831

Quantity of Hay, or its Equivalent, Required Per Day by Each ioo
Pounds of Live Weight of Various Animals.

Working Horses 3.8

Working Oxen 2.41

Fattening Oxen .5.

Milch Cows 2.25 to 2.40

Dry Cows 2.42

lbs.

Young. Cattle ■.. 3.8 lbs.

Steers . . • 2.84 "

Pigs 3.

Sheep 3. "

Relative Value of Foods vor Cattle.

100 lbs. of Good Hay is supposed to
be equal to

400 lbs Green Clover.

275 " Green Corn.

374 " Wheat Straw.

442 " Rye Straw.

195 " On Straw.

400 " Dry Corn Stalks.

276 lbs Carrots.

54 " Rye.

45 " Wheat.

54 " Barley..

57 " Oats

59 " , CorN

69 " Linsteed Cake.

105 " Wl.^at B«-an.

The age, health, and condition of animals, and the care which li><;y receive, will
greatly modify the effect of any kind of food. Cattle also need 4 variety of food,
and cannot be profitably kept upon any one sort for a long period of time.

Age for Reproduction, and Period of Gestation o- ^i/AIEstic Animals.

Mean Period

of Gestation.

347 '^ays.

Duration of Powe*
Stallion Age 5 years 12 to 15 years

Mare

r>~ 3

" 4

Bull

« -.

Cow

•' -J

Ram

" 2

Ewe

" 2

Boar

'< T

Sow " I

Dog

« 2

Bitch

" 2

He-Cnt

" I

She-Cat

" I

10

10

12
10
14

.... 7
.... 6
.... 6
....6

8 to 9
8" 9

9 " 10
5" 6

.283
.154

• lis
. 60

• 50

Growth and Life of Animals.

Man Grows for 20 years, and lives 70 to loa

Horse "

Ox «

Dog «

Cat "

Swine "

Sheep "

25 '

' 40

15 '

• 20

12 '

' 14

9 '

10

20

Quantity of Seed Per Acre.

Wheat x^i

Barley \%

Oats 2

Rye I

Buckwheat ^

Millet,
Corn . .
Beans.
Peas. .
Hemp.
Flax..

.1

• %
■ %
•2X2
. I

I 2 bu'
2^ '

4 '
2 "

iK '
^% '
1 '

3K '

iK '
2

hels

Rice 2

Broom Corn -^g

Potatoes 5

Timoihy 12

Mustard 8

Herds Grass 12

Flat Turnip 2

Red Clover 10

White Clover 3

Blue Grass 10

Orchard Grass 20

to

2}4h\x.

X"
10 "

24 quarts

ID "
16 «

3 11«.
16 «

4 "

15 "
10 ««

832

FARMING FOR PROFIT.

Quantity of Seed Per Acre in Rows.
Indian C»m ]^ lo i bush. Onions 4 to 5 'bs.

Broom Corn iV '° % "

Beans y^ to i^ "

Peas • I ^ to 2 "

Carrots 2 to 2^

Parsnips 4 *o 5

Beets 4 to 6

Standard Weights of Grain Per Bushel.
Wheat 60 lbs. Oais

Rye.
Corn

56
•56

Barley.

.32 lbs
.48 "

Quantities of Garden Seeds Required to Plant a Given Space.

Asparagus i oz. produces 1000 plants and requires a bed

12 feet square.
" Roots . . . 1000 plant a bed 4 feet wide and 225 feet long.
Beans, large pole.. . I quart plants 100 hills.
" small "... I " plants 300 hills.

Beets I oz. plants 1 50 leet of row.

Cabbage I oz. produces 2500 plants.

Carrot I oz. plants 1 50 feet of row.

Celery I oz. produces 700 plants.

Cucumber I oz. for 150 hills.

Lettuce I oz. produces 7000 plants.

Melon, Musk I oz. for 120 hills.

Onion I oz. for 200 feet of row.

Parsnip .... I oz. for 250 feet of row.

Peas I quart for 1 20 feet of row.

Radish I oz. for 100 leet of row.

Squash I oz. for 75 hills.

Tomato I oz. produces 2500 plants.

Turnip I oz. for 2000 feet of row.

Watermelon I oz. for 50 hills.

Legal Weight of Grain, Seeds, and Vegetables ijj Different States.

Wheat

Rye

Corn

Oats ,

Barley

Buckwheat

Clover Seed

Timothy Seed. .

Flax Seed

Hemp Seed

Blue Grass Seed.
Diied Apples. . . .
Dried Peaches. . ,

Potatoes

Peas

Beans

Castor Beans. . . .

Onions

Corn Meal

>< o

56

6060'

5656
5656

32 3^

47 48

48 50'
60

45
56
44
'4

60

60 '60
5656
5656
32 35
48 4S
42 52
60 1 60

45
56
44
14
28 24

2833
60

56'6o
5656
5656
2832
46

45

60

46

50

60

60 60

5656
56:56

11 30
4848

60

60 6o'6o

5656
5652
32 m
46 m
46|m

60

56
56
34
48

48
60
48
56

The letter "m" indicates that the article is sold by measure instead of weight.
In many of the States there is no law regulating the weight of farm products.

USEFUL TABLES. 833.

Number of Seeds in a Bushel, and Number Per Square Foot if Used on
AN Acre of Land.

No. of Seeds. No. Per Foot.

Timothy, 41,823,360 960.

Clover. ..16,400,960 376.

Rye 888,390 20.4.

Wheat. .. 556,290 12.8.

Number of Loads of Manure Per Acre, and of Heaps Per Load, Required
WITH THE Heaps at Given Distances Apart.

Distance Apart of
Heaps — in Yards.

No. of Heaps Per Load.
3456

179
101

75^

108

60 >^

89^

soy.

Distance Apart of
Heaps — in Yards.

No. of Heaps Per Load.
3 4 56

64K
144^/

48K
33>^

38|^|32X
27 '22;^

In the above table the distances apart of the rows and the heaps in the rows are
given in the left hand column. The number of heaps to be made of each load ;s
placed at the top of the columns, and the number in the square where the two meet
will give the number of loads per acre which will be required. Thus, if the hea^s
are placed four yards apart, and five heaps are made of each load, it will take sij \j
and a half loads for an acre.

Number of Trees, Plants, or Hills on an Acre.

Ft. Apart.

No. of
Plants, etc.

Vt. Apart.
28x28

No. of 1
P'ants,etc.

Ft. Apart.

No. of
Plants, etc.

Ft. Apart.
4x4

No. of
Plants, et*.

40x40

27

55

16x16

171

2722

39x39

28

27x27

59

15x15

194

3x3

4840

38x38

30

26x26

64

14x14

223

3X2>^

5808

37x37

31

25x25

70

13x13

258

3x2

7260

36x36

33

24x24

75

12X12

302

3x1,5^

9680

35x35

35

23x23

82

IIXII

360

3x1

14530

34x34

37

22X22

90

10x10

436

2X2

I0S9O

33x33

40

21X2!

99

9x9

538

2X1^

14496

32x32

42

20x20

109

8x8

680

2X1

21780

31x31

45

19x19

121

7x7

889

2^Yz

43560

30x30

48

18x18

135

6x6

I2IO

IXI

43560

29x29

51

17x17

151

5x5

1742

ixK

87120

Area of Land which a team, movir^ two miles per hour, will plow in a day ten
hours in length.

Width of Furrow.

5

6

7

Acres.
. . . I

. ..1.2
...1.4

...1.6
...1.8

Width of Furrow.

10

II

12

14

16

Acres.
. .. 2
.. .2.2
...2.4
...2.8
...3.2

Rule for Finding the Number of Tons of Hay in a Mow.

Multiply the length in yards by the height in yards, and that by the width la
yards, and divide the product by fifteen.
The quotient will be the number of tons.

834

FARMING FOR FRO FIT.

Kui.F. FOR Finding the Number of Bushels of Grain in a Bin.
Multiply the length in inche« by the breadth in inches, and that by the depth in
inches, and divide the product by 2150 (the number of cubic inches in a bushel),
and for heaped bushels by 2748, and the quotient will give the number of bushels.

Rules for Measuring Corn in the Ear in Cribs.
Multiply the length in inches by the breadth in inches, and that by the height in
inches, and divide the product by 2748 (the number of cubic inches in a heaped
bushel), and the quotient will be the number of heaped bushels of ears. Take two-
thirds of the quotient for the number of bushels of shelled corn. Unless the corn
is very good only one-half should be taken.

Another Rule.
Multiply length by height, and then by width, add two ciphers to the result, and
divide by 124. This gives the number of bushels of ears (level measure). Divide
by two to find the number of bushels of shelled corn.

Another Rule.
Multiply the length, breadth, and height together in feet to obtain the cubic feet.
Multiply this product by 4, and strike off the right hand figure, and the result will
give very nearly the number of bushels of shelled corn.

Capacity of Boxes.

Length. Width. Depth. Cap.icity.

24 inches 16 inches 28 inches 5 l)ushels.

24
16
16
8
8
7
4

.16
,16

8.4

8.4

8

4

4

.14

5.4"

.2%
I

4.2 " I gallon.

4.8

Vz

4-2 " I quart.

To Reduce Cubic Feet to Bushels, struck measure, divide the number of cubic
feet by 56 and multiply by 45.

196 lbs. .
200 " . .

280

60

14

46
60
56

Miscellaneous Weights and Measures.
barrel of flour.
" " beef, pork, or fish.
.. ., fsalt at N. Y.
\ salt works.

bushel of beans.

" " blue grass seed.
" " castor beans.
" " clover seed.
" " flax seed.

44 lbs I barrel of hemp seed.

12 units or things I dozen.

1 2 dozen i gross.

20 things I score.

56 pounds I firkin of butter.

24 sheets of paper I quire.

20 quires of p.iper I ream.

4 feet wide, 4 feet high, "1 . . 1 cord of
and 8 feet long, j wood.

Commercial Weights.

16 drams I ounce. I 4 quarters i hundred weight.

16 ounces I pound. 20 hundred weight I ton.

25 pomnds i quarter.]

A Convenient Land Measure.
To aid farmers in arriving at accuracy in estimating the amount of land ig
different fields under cultivation, the following table is given.

USEFUL TABLES.

835

Five yards wide by 968 long contains one acre; ten yards wide by 484 long con-
tains one acre; twenty yards wide by 242 long contains one acre; forty yards wide
by 121 long contains one acre; seventy yards wide by 69^^ lona contains one acre-
eighty yards wide by 60^ long contains one acre; sixty feet wide by 706 long
contains one acre; one hundred and ten feet wide by 397 long contains one acre •
one hundred and thirty feet wide by 363 long contains one acre; two hundred and
twenty feet wide by 181;^ long contains one acre; four hundred and forty feet wide
by 99 long contains one acre.

Land Measure.

'^Q Su'efeet" •/ ^^q^-e foot. 40 square rods , square rood.

9 square leet. i square yard. 4 square roods i square acre

30X square yards i square rod. 640 square acres i square ^.\^.

Long Measure.

12 inches i fnr.f 1 - ^-i / • v

, f^„f * '°° • 3 miles (measuring at sea) . . i league.

\u \ ;;;V ^ ^^y^.\ 6 feet (depih of water) i fathom

3i'foI:t',"6o?JS,'r " "--I ' -"-- C— su4, , hand!

or 5,280 feet / '

.1 mile.

Liquid Measure.

4 giUs .
2 pints.

I pint.

I qu.nrt.

4 quarts I gallon.

3i>^ gallons j barrel.

63 gallons I hogshead.

5 penny.

4 "

5 "

6 "

Length of Cut Nails and Number in a Pound,

Length. Number.

. \% inches 420

270

220

,2

100

10
12
20

30
40

Length. Number.
3 inches 65

■3X"

•4

•4X

52
28

24
20

Nails from different factories vary a little in length and weight.

Weight Per Cubic Foot of Different Kinds of Earth.

I lose earth or sand gr ]bs.

Common soil 124 "

Strong soil 127 "

Chalk ' [- . «

Clay \2,S "

make one Ion.

23 cubic feet of snnd,
18 " " " earth,

17 " " " clay, J

18 cubic feet of gravel or earth before

^, , ^ uj digging m"'ke 27 cubic feet when dug.

Clay and stones 160 <« ^

The weight of an acre of ordinary soil is estimated to be 100 tons for every inch
in depth.

Weights of Different Kinds of Wood.

Kind of Wood. Lbs. Per Cord

Shellbark Hickory 4469

Redheart Hickory '.701;

White Oak ■..■■;382i

Virginia Pine 2689

Southern Pine '?17';

Hard Maple 2878

New Jersey Pine 2137

Yellow Pine [[ I904

Kind of Wood. Lbs. Per Cord.

White Pine 1868

White Beech 3236

Apple Tree 3' '5

Black Birch 3115

White Elm 2592

Spanish Oak 2449

Buttonwood 2391

The above figures indicate the weight of seasoned wood. When green, from

836

FARMING J' OR PRO J- IT.

thirty-five lo fifty [wr cent, must be added. A cord of green hickory weighs alK>at
six thousand pounds, and a cord of green oak contains more than lourleen hundred
pounds of water.

Table showing the Amount of one dollar for any number of years from five to
twenty years at Compound Interest.

Years. Kate, 5 Per Cent. Rate, 6 Per Cent. Years. Rate, 5 Per Cent. Rate, 6 Per Ceat

5 ;?i.2762S $1.33822

6 1. 3.1.009 1. 4 1 85 1

7 1. 40710 1-50363

8 1-47745 '-59384

9 '•55'32 1.6S947

10 1.62889 1.79084

II i-7«o33 1.89829

12 1-79585 2.01219

13 $1.88564 $2.13292

14 1-97993 2.26090

15 2.07892 ■. . 2.39655

16 2.18287 2.5403s

17 2.29201 2.69277

18 2.40661 2.85433

19 2.52695 3-02559

20 2.65329 320713

Amount of different sums of money at 7 per cent. Compound Interest.

2 cents per day in 10 years will amount to $ 100.85

" " " " " " " '• 252.14

« « i. M « «« << « 1,260.71

" " " " " " " " 2.521.42

« « .. .< <i « .. « 5,042.84

5

25

50

1. 00

2.00

10,085.68

Time in which a sum of money will double at Interest.
Rate Per Cent. Simple Interest. Compound Interest.

4 25 years. 17 years and 246 days.

9-
10.

.20
.16
-14

. II
.10

IS

75
327

89
2

16
100

and 8 months I4 "

" 104 days 10 "

9 "

" 40 " 8 "

7 "

The above table should be carefully studied by all who contemplate borrowing
money.

Many people think that the interest of money at six per cent, is just twice what it
is at three per cent., l)ut figures show that the increase at 6 per cent, for one hun-
dred years is about eighteen times as rapid as it is at three per cent. As the growth
of National Wealth is only about 3^ per cent, per annum, the farmer positive^
cannot ajjford to pay very high rates of interest.

HOME LIFE.

51

(837)

CGNTEHTS OF Fil.BT IT.

PLEASANT SURROUNDINGS.

LABOR, RECREATION AND REST,
HEALTH AND DISEASE.
BOYS ON THE FARM.

ITEMS FOR THE HOUSE AND FARM.
RED LETTER DAYS.

(838)

PLEASANT SURROUNDINGS. 839

S far as possible every man should make his surroundings pleasant. This
partly for his own happiness, and for that of bis family, and partly because
these surroundings will enable them to do better work than they could
otherwise perform. Men often lose sight of the fact that they ought to be
happy as well as useful in this world. GoD has made the earth beautiful
in order that man may enjoy his brief stay upon it. And He has given
man the power to still further beautify and adorn that portion of the world on which
he finds his home. It is true that nothing external can fully supply a lack of affec-
tion among the members of a household, and that no degree of beauty in the land-
scape can alone make people happy. But if other things are right, pleasant sur-
roundings prove a never-failing source of joy, while in those cases in which the
home life is unsatisfactory they are still more imperatively required.

The condition of their surroundings will have a powerful influence upon the
farmer and his family. This influence will" be felt at various points. Character,
reputation, and appearance will be modified thereby. Unless he has fallen into bad
habits it is safe to say that a young man who is slouchy about his dress, and careless
about his appearance and language, has grown up under unfavorable conditions, and
among unpleasant surroundings. He has not seen things kept neat and beautiful at
home, and those who have had charge of his home-life are to be blamed for what-
ever damage his reputation may sustain thereby. The extent of the injury thus
inflicted is very great, and a parent has no moral right, to send a child from his
home with the stamp of such surroundings not only upon his appearance but also
upon his mental and moral nature. If he cares nothing for beautiful things himself,
the farmer has no right to destroy the sense of beauty which his child possesses as a
direct gift from his Maker. An elegant mansion and costly paintings ace njt
needed, but neat yards, a house in good repair, a tasty garden, and plenty of trees
and flowers are things, not merely of taste, but also of utility. They involve but
little expense, but they have a powerful educating and refining effect. No one can
do the best work of which he is capable in unpleasant surroundings, and the con-
stant unhappiness which they involve make them destructive to both health and
usefulness. It is therefore the duty of every man who has a home to make the
surroundings of that home as pleasant as the means at his command will allow.

In order to make the surroundings pleasant, perfect neatness is one of the essen-
tial requisites. A plain yard which is neatly kept looks much better than one which
has been elaborately laid out and then neglected. There should be a gravel walk,
or a walk made ot slats, from the road to each of the outside doors of the house.
If there is a front fence it should be kept in repair, and often whitewashed or
painted. Rose bushes and flowers should find a place in the yard, and be kept free
from weeds. A few rustic ornaments will cost but little, and yet will add much to
the appearance of the place. Three or four evergreen trees are also desirable in the
yards. Climbing vines and flowering plants are cheap and pretty. Many other
things, trifles in themselves but aduing greatly to the general effect, can be
obtained. A nice yard costs but little, except the work of keeping it clean, but it
does much to make the home pleasant, and will add considerably to the cash value
of the farm.

340 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

The cfTorl to make things pleasant should not be wholly spent out-of-doors. The
interior of the house should also be neat and pleasant. Boys, and girls too, dislike
to spend all their spare hours in a dingy kitchen, and the wife and mother must find
such a living-room unpleasant. There is no necessity for any one to be shut up in
such a room during all ihe working hours of life. Yet many larmers' wives not only
have to work, but also rest, when they are fortunate enough to obtain an oppor-
tunity to leave their work, in a kitchen which is colored with smoke, and furnished
with only the plainest chairs. Every kitchen should be often whitewashed, and
should contain an easy-chair in which the housewife can rest when she can spare a
few moments from her work. In the afternoon and evening the sitting-room should
be open and the children should be allowed to spend their time therein when not at
work. Here plenty of books and papers, some expressly for the children, should be
found, and musical instruments, if the tastes of the family lead in that direction, and
their financial condition will warrant the expense. It is better to buy an Organ or
Piano for the children, and thus give them a taste for quiet home pleasures than
it is to lay up money for them in the bank, and allow them to run in the streets, or
to the neighbors for pleasure which they cannot find at home. The idea which
many people have that the best room should only be opened for the use of company,
is one of the theories which have worked an immense amount of mischief. A father
and mother ought to care as mucli for their children as they do for any one in the
world, but parents often refuse their children the use of the best rooms, which are
freely opened for company even though that company may be distant, and not very
highly prized, relatives. This is a wrong to the children. They are entitled to the
first place in the affections and to the kindest treatment from their parents.

Let no one shrink from the duty of making the suiToundings of his children as
pleasant as possible. The cost is not very great, and not very much time will be
required to keep the house and yards in order and make them present a neat and
attractive appearance. Thus, the duty is made very light, and, as part of his reward,
the parent is allowed to share the pleasure which is secured by its performance.
But it is a duty which cannot be safely neglected. God has ordained that the home
shall be the training-school of children, and that the children shall soon go out into
the world as men and women bearing in unmistakable character the impress of
the home surroundings. They go into life on their own responsibility, and become
accountable for their own actions, but there is a bias for good or evil which was
given them at home, and which will go far toward determining their destiny.

^iLBOB, HECHEiiTiaKr, iLKTB BEST.

S a rule, to which there are comparatively few exceptions, farmers work too
hard. They make too long days and take too few and too short vaca-
tions. It is very true that many of them do not find their labor rewarded
as well as they hoped it would be, and are inclined to work still harder
to secure the money for which they toil. Such a course is a great mistake.
A higher degree of success is to be secured not hy working -more hours,
but by a more skilful direction of the labor which is performed. More study is
needed and belter plans are required. A liigher degree of skill is wanted. The
horse-power and steam-power must be more freely used. The corn field which pro-

LABOR, RECREATION, AND REST.

duces only thirly bushels of corn per acre must be made to yield sixty bushels with-
out materially increasing the expense of cultivating the field. Grass and grain crops
must be made to largely increase their present yield. This can be done by skilful
management, but not by simply increasing the amount of labor performed.

That labor is a duty as well as a necessity, and a blessing as well as a positive
requirement, there can be no possible doubt. The father who allows his children
to grow up in idleness thereby inflicts upon them a great wrong, and the youth who
wishes that he could live without work could have few wishes granted which would
be more destructive to his happiness. Industry is not only the fountain of all
wealth, but also the source of happiness and the preserver of health and virtue.
The idle man is a useless member of society, is unhappy, and often miserable. He
is exposed to many temptations which his industrious neighbor escapes, and is often
led into ruinous evils of which he would have been wholly ignorant if his time had
been filled with some useful labor. It is the duty, and is generally understood to
be for the interest, of the farmer to work himself and teach his boys to work. But
he should never make a slave of himself or of any of his children. The work of the
boys should be proportioned to their strength, and they should not be discouraged
by being crowded too hard. The farmer should lay out no more work than he
has help to perform. The plan which is too often followed is to attempt to cul-
tivate a great deal larger area of land than there is help to manage. Then all
through the season there is a constant hurry and drive, every man and boy is
crowded to his utmost, and, after all their exertions, the crops are not well cared for
and are not remunerative. Better cultivate ten acres of corn well than to run over
twenty acres.

The financial evils which result from an attempt to do too much are not the only
ones which will come. The boys will become discontented and long for a life in
the city or village where they imagine that the pay is large and the work is light.
The effect upon their bodily health will also be pernicious. Many a boy never
grows into a strong and healthy man because he was overworked while young. By
spending too much time at work and performing labor beyond his strength to safely
endure, he becomes weakened for life and falls an easy prey to disease. The mid-
dle-aged man sometimes so overworks as to weaken his vital powers and bring on
premature old age. When a man works so hard that he can take no comfort in
reading or social conversation, he is going beyond his strength and fast becoming a
mere animal. There are men who have so slaved themselves, and injured their
bodies and minds by toil, that they fall asleep as soon as they attempt to read or to
converse on any subject which does not pertain to the labor in which they are
engaged. Their joints are grown out of shape and they suffer greatly in body while
broken down in mind. What benefit such a man can receive from the money which
his labor brings we do not know. He may amass wealth, but he cannot enjoy it.
He may escape being a pauper, but by going to the other extreme he becomes a
slave. Every man should work regularly but not excessively. While labor is a
duty, overwork is a sin. Idleness destroys a man one way, but excessive overwork
will just as surely ruin him in another. No man has a right to live upon society
while doing nothing for its welfare, and no one is justified in working so hard as to
destroy his mental and physical powers.

While the farmer should require his children to work, he should not make this
work the only education which they receive. On the contrary he should send them
to the best schools which he can afford, and to college if possible. An education

842 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

is a great possession, and is as valuable for a farmer's boy as it is for the merchant's
son. The girls should also receive the best education which their parents can
supply. This should include a thorough acquaintance with all household duties.
Not only should the farmer educate his children, but he should give them time foi
reading and study when out of school. The custom, once prevalent but now going,
we hope, out of date, of requiring boys to work morning and evening while
attendint^ school, is to be severely condemned. Under this method the scholar was
unable to do justice to himself at school, and the double strain proved a severe and
unjustifiable draft upon his strength. Many a boy has ruined his health by trying to
perform the double duties thus imposed.

The farmer should keep himself and his family supplied with reading of the best
quality, and plenty of time in which to use it should be taken. Like the men in all
other callings the farmer needs books and papers which are devoted to his special
pursuit. The attempt to get along without them is ruinous. In these days of close
competition the man who is to succeed must be well informed. Ignorance cannot
successfully compete with knowledge. The boys, too, need these books and papers
in order to give them an intelligeirt comprehension of the methods which should be
pursued, and to lead them to take an active interest in the farm work. But they
should not be restricted to this class of reading. The best papers for the young
should be furnished, and the newspapers should also be supplied so that they and
their sisters may know what is going on in the world. The wife and mother should
not be forgotten, but some good home magazine should be taken for her especial
benefit. She needs something of this kind still more th.in the other members of the
family. She is tied more closely to the home, her duties are very exacting, and her
health is often poor. The monotonous drudgery of isolated farm life has a terribly
destructive effect if it is not counteracted by the rest and recreation which is always
needed but seldom taken. When the ceaseless round has been too long followed the
health of body or mind, or both, will give way. The Asylums for the Insane
contain a very large proportion of farmers' wives brought there by the combined
effects of overwork and a monotonous life. The magazine and newsp.nper lead the
thoughts into new channels, occupy the mind with subjects outside of its ordinary
routine, and thus refresh the body while preserving the health of the mind.

The farmer and his family all need periods of rest and recreation. An occasional
day spent in visiting friends will be positively beneficial to the health, and will give
an increased efficiency to the labor which is performed as well as properly develop
the social feelings. The Grange has proved an immense aid to farmers and their
families in these as well as in other directions. There was a great need of something
which should lead them out of themselves, and break up the isolation and routine
in which their lives were involved. Lectures and occasional concerts should also
be attended, but all low shows, and even the ordinary grade of the circus, should
be carefully avoided. A good managerie is an excellent thing for children and
grown people to see, but many of the shows which travel around the country are of
little value, and in some respects are extremely harmful. It is a good plan to give
the last half of each Saturday afternoon to the boys and girls for their own enjoy-
ment. Instead of trying, as too many do, to crowd about a third more work into
Saturday than they perform any other day of the week, the farmers should make its
labor lighter, and finish it early.

The evenings should never be devoted to work, but used for rest and mental
enjoyment. We have known farmei"s who have done a large part of their husking

HEAL TH AND DISEASE. 843

eyenings, and who often performed other kinds of work nfter, dark, but ve
never knew one who seemed to be a gainer thereby. The man wlio keeps his
children at work from the time they get up until bed-time, inflicts upon them a great
wrong, while the one who follows this course himself will, sooner or later, be obliged
to bear the penalty of the violation of the laws of health. The man who is indus-
trious during the day, and who works regularly, will accomplish a great deal during
a year, and will perform all the labor which should be required of him. The
evenings should be spent in a cheerful and well-lighted sitting-room, and th?
.children should be encouraged to stay there instead of roaming the streets, or going
to saloons or stores. If home is made pleasant and cheerful, most boys will think
it the nicest place in the world, and will choose to spend their evenings in it rather
than abroad. Books, papers, music, and harmless games (not including cards),
togeth»r with kind treatment and cheerful conversation, will be powerful induce-
ments for the average boy to keep out of bad company, and avoid all low and evil
associates.

The Sabbath furnishes a stated time for rest, and should be carefully observed.
Some things must receive attention on this day, and the fact is often made an excuse
for the performance of a great deal of work for which there is no justification. We
have no sympathy with the strict literalism of the few who make the Sabbath a
day of gloom, or with the extreme liberality of the many who make this a weekly
holiday.

The Sabbath should be a happy day, but the pleasure secured should be of a
different nature from that which is sought on other days. Works of strict necessity
?nd mercy may be performed, but no labor should be done for the profit which may
accrue or in order to save something which might otherwise run to waste. Attend-
ance upon church and Sunday-school should be regular, and the Bible should be
studied and its truths ^impressed upon the minds of the little ones. The best relig-
ious books and papers should be read, plenty of interesting religious and moral
reading for the children ought to be supplied, and the day should be kept in a
manner which will bring rest and refreshment to the body and peace to the mind
and soul.

'EALTH is one of the greatest temporal blessings which man receives. It
is seldom prized until it is lost, and, consequently, but little effort is put
forth for its preservation. The birthright is often sold for a mess of pot-
tage. But when it is lost the poor unfortunate finds that he has parted
with a great possession. Good health is better than money. It is a large
part of the capital of the laboring classes, and the source of much of the
enjoyment of the rich. When it is lost the poor cannot work and the rich cannot
be happy. When it is possessed it can usually be retained, even in spite of heredi-
tary taints, but, when lost, its restoration is difficult and often impossible.

We shall not give a long list of prescriptions for the various diseases which afflict
mankind. We think that every family should have a standard medical work and
be familiar with its contents. The wife and mother should understand the best
methods of nursing. In a multitude of cases of sickness more depends upon skilful
care than upon the use of drugs, though there are many diseases in which medicines

814 FARMING /OK i-ROFlT.

must be used promptly and efficiently or the patient will not recover. All cases of
sickness need good care. By this means, and the use of the common remedies with
which the housewife should be familiar, niiUi attacks may be cured. Viulent attacks,
or the ordinary forms of certain severe ami contagious diseases, call for prompt and
sldJful medical treatment. Never let a patient go on day after day without improve-
ment before consulting a doctor. The system may get so enfeebled during the in-
terval that it cannot rally when medical treatment is given. In a multitude of cases,
doctors have been called too late. This is especially true of infants and aged people.
These classes have but little vitality and but little power of endurance. Disease
makes rapid progress, and, before danger is suspected, recovery. becomes impossible.
In many cases of disease if the doctor is called early he can check its progress,
while, if he is not sent for until it has obtained a firm hold upon the system, it must
run its course, and a long and expensive sickness is inevitable. Delay is u. flgerous,
and much of the " home doctoring," and use of patent medicines, is almost equally
hazardous. A standard medical work will give many useful hints, and a few of the
best remedies for simple diseases should be kept constantly in the house, but the
fai-mer should not attempt to doctor himself or his family in any serious f< rn\ of
sickness. He would not think of trying to repair his watch. He knows that he
has not sufficient skill and knowledge to enable him to adjust such a fine and com-
plicated piece of mechanifm. Much more should he hesitate to ignorantly tamper
with the wonderful human machine into which GoD himself has breathed the
breath of life.

We believe that a large part of the sickness which afflicts mankind might be easily
prevented by attention to the laws of health. Therefore, instead of giving a descrip
tion of many "cure-alls," we shall simply call attention to a few of these laws and
urge oliedience thereto. God has made the human frame subject to these laws.
Obedience will secure health and strength. Disease will be the penalty of trans-
gression. To some of the great necessities of the human system we will briefly
allude.

Pure Air. — This is one of the gieat essentials to health, and one which, with a
little care, can be secured in abundance. It has been generally supi^osed that the
farmer and his family had plenty of air in almost absolute purity, but we doubt if
the air in the average farm-house is as pure as that in the average city mansion.
The air in the farm-house ought to be verj' pure, but there is such a lack of attention
to ventilation, and so many <lecaying vegetables are allowed to remain in the cellar,
while the drainage of the yards is so bad, and the stench from neglected closets
and vaults is so strong, that the whole atmosphere in the vicinit/is polluted, and the
dweller in the country obliges himself and his family to breathe air that is wholly
unfit for the purposes of respiration. The remedy is apparent. Remove all decay-
ing substances, drain the land, use disinfectants freely, and ventilate thoroughly.

Good Food. — Without an abundance of good food no man can be well. The
food supplies the waste of muscular tissue and of the brain. There is a constant
process of waste and repair going on in the body. If the food is insufficient in
quantity, or imperfect in quality, the waste is not fully supplied, the action of the
organs is enfeebled, disease sets in, and in time death ensues. Farmers have food
enough, but (he quality is not always as good as it should be. To this fact much of
the disease of farmers' wives and children may be traced. Nervous oflections are
often caused directly in this manner. This is proved by the fact that a speedy and
radical cure can often be efi'ecled by a change in this one particular. Dr. V. W.

HEALTH AND DISEASE. 845

Blanchard, of New York city, has originated a Food Cure system of restoring-
health. This system has now been in operation many years, and all kinds of disease
have been treated with a very high degree of success. The only remedy employed
is pure food, concentrated, and, for some diseases, subjected to a process of artificial
digestion.

The art of cooking is not as well understood by farmers' wives as it should be,
and in many cases they are overworked doing what is now required of them. If a
change could be made which would insure the use of more beef and less pork, a
largely increased consumption of vegetables and fruits, the substitution of simple
dishes for some of those which require much time and labor in their preparation,
and which would give a much greater variety of food with less work in fitting it for
the table, there would be a great gain to each and every member of the household.
The best food cooked in the best manner should find its way to the farmer's table.
The best food can be obtained by the farmer as easily as by any one. The compli-
cated and mysterious compounds which cause the tables, and also the stomachs, of
the rich to groan do not come under this head. Good food is simple, nutritious, and
simply prepared. It costs less than the dyspepsia-producing dishes which are often
furnished, and not half the work is required to prepare it. Wheat, milk, beef, eggs,
vegetables, and fruits, will gratify the taste, and furnish nutriment for the system.
Oatmeal is a valuable article of food, especially for children. Properly cooked it
can be made palatable, and with the addition of milk and sugar it becomes a popular
dish. The farmer cannot afford the luxuries of the rich, l)ut he can have food
which will gratify the taste, and which will impart health and strength.

Pure Water. — This is another of the great necessities of the system. A large
proportion of the body is formed of water, and quite a quantity is required each day
to supply the waste. If the water taken into the system is pure it refreshes and
invigorates, but if it is not pure, and a great deal of the water in use on the farm is
not, it becomes a source of danger, and soon brings on disease which often termi-
nates fatally. Probably the use of impure water has led to more cases of typhoid
fever than all other causes combined. Multitudes of cases of " fever and ague " are
caused in this way, while many slow diseases which present a low type of fever,
which undermine the constitution, and for which no definite cause can be assigned
by the patient, are brought on in the same manner. The true cause of many attacks
of disease is not suspected by the patients, their friends, or, until too late, by the
physician. We have already dwelt upon this subject at some length, and need only
say here that the greatest care should be exercised to keep the water which is
used for cooking and drinking perfectly pure.

Proper Clothing is required in order to maintain perfect heahh. Unfortu-
nately its value is not duly appreciated, and multitudes of people on the farms in
this country are not suitably clad. The majority have a sufficient quantity of clothings
but it either is not of the right kind, or else is not worn as it should be. The
climate is very changeable and quite trying, not only to invalids but also to well
people. In winter the farm house is very imperfectly warmed, and the members of
the household are subjected to considerable exposure in passing from the warm to
the cold rooms, and in sleeping in cold, close, and poorly ventilated apartments.
J'armers' wives are often exposed to severe cold in hanging out clothes after working
over the hot water used in washing, and all the members of the family frequently
get the feet wet, and take cold as a natural consequence. Farmers are often
severely exposed to attacks of disease by getting chilled after working hard and

846 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

getting unduly heated. Rheumatism and neuralgia, both fearful diseases, &s we
can certify from our own abundant experience, are often brought on in this way. The
neglect to put on a coat when a bard day's work was done has cost many a man
an immense amount of pain.

It is bad enough to sit down in a cool room when merely warm without putting
on extra clothing, but when to the heated condition of the systen* exhaustion is
added, the danger of a sudden chill, and the degree of danger from a chill, is greatly
increased. A^erer sit in a draft of air to " cool off" after working, or at any other
time. Always when tired and sweaty put on a coat as soon as the work in hand
is fmished. It is not safe to wait even for a few minutes. A coat should be carried
to the field in warm weather, and worn to the house when the work is done.
Waiting until he could get to the house has caused many a man to take a cold
which resulted in serious sickness. Always wear woollen next to the skin. Thin
woollen clothes in the summer, and thick ones in the winter should be worn. Not
only the grown people but the children should also be dressed in this manner. The
best medical authorities in this country and in EUROI'E have strongly advised the
use of woollen clothing at all seasons of the year.

As already suggested, more clothing is needed at night, when the system is
exhausted by the labors of the day, than is lequired when at work. At all times
sufficient clothing should be worn to keep the person comfortable, and in winter it
should be of the best quality (ns far as warmth is concerned), in order that it may
afford sufficient protection without being Inirdensome. The same rule applies to
;lhe bed-clothes which are used. Newspapers folded between the quilts will give
imuch warmth with little weight. Never sleep coM, but use clothes enough to keep
■warm. Keep the feet dry, if possible, during the day, and before retiring at night
dry and warm them thoroughly. See that the children do not neglect this. Attacks
-of croup, and severe lung diseases, are often induced by going to bed with cold,
damp feet.

Avoid exposure to storms. If caught out in one, change the clothing as soon as
possible, and rub the skin vigorously until it is all aglow. Keep the children in-
doors during rain and snow storms. No possible good can come of their being out
and it may lead to severe illness.

Cleanliness. — Much of the work on a farm seems directly opposed to clean-
liness, yet there is no impossibility, even for the farmer, to obey this plain and impor-
tant law of health. The two millions of little pores in the skin are the outlets by which
an immense amount of waste matter is removed from the body. If these outlets
become closed, by reason of a cold, or of an accumulation of dirt upon the surface,
this matter is thrown upon the internal organs, thus greatly increasing their labor,
and also poisoning the whole system. Frequent bathing is absolutely necessary to
secure cleanliness, and, sooner or later, every one will find that cleanliness is
indispensable to health. The feet need frequent washings. Many people are
troubled with cold feet who would not be if they washed them more frequently.
Putting the feet into hot water and keeping them in it ten minutes, adding more
warm water as that in the pail grows cool, will often quiet a severe headache so
that the patient can sleep. Sleeplessness, unattended by pain, can sometimes be
cured by dipping the feet in cold water and rubbing smartly with a coarse towel just
before going to bed. When there is a disagreeable odor, wash the feet with water
in which permanganate of potash — ten grains to a pint of water — has been dissolved.
Or they may be occasionally washed with vinegar. ,

HEALTH AND DISEASE. 847

Wash the head, frequently and thoroughly, with water and the best toilet soap.
Never use " bears' grease," or any other grease, and avoid all dyes for the hair and
beard.

The teeth should be brushed after every meal, and particles of food lodged
between them should be removed with a sharpened quill. Prepared chalk is a good
tooth powder. So is a nice grade of soap. A little salt will make the teeth very
white. This should not be used often, and the mouth should be thoroughly rinsed
with water after it has been applied. If the stomach is disordered, the teeth will
often be injured by an acid reaction. To prevent this, rinse the mouth quite often
with a solution of common baking soda, using a teaspoonful to a glass of water.
Also take proper remedies to correct the action of the slcmach.

Have the teeth examined once in three months by a competent dentist, and
when there are indications of decay have ihe cavities promptly filled. The loss of
the teeth will cause a great deal of pain, and lie very likely to lead to indigestion
and serious illness. Children should be taught to take care of their teeth, and a
dentist should be employed to fill any cavities which may appear. If attended to
soon enough, all the teeth can be preserved until old age. But the majority of
young people do not commence the work of preservation early enough. They
wait until the teeth are loo badiy decayed to be filled and then have to lose them.
It pays to have a dentist examine the teeth often. He can detect the beginnings of
evil, and save teeth which would be lost if the owner relied upon his own powers
of observation.

We have elsewhere alluded to the great importance of keeping the cellars and all
the surroundings clean, and need not dwell upon it hear. Dr. Bowditch has said,
and the experience of the past has proved him correct, that " all filth is absolute
poison" to the human system. Either in the air we breathe, the food we eat, the
water we drink, or through the pores of the skin, this poison may enter the body
and carry on its ruinous work.

Sufficient Sleep is one of the most important requisites to secure health and
vigor of body and mind. During sleep the repairing of the waste of the body and
the brain is going on and rest is secured. If the period allotted to sleep is too short,
the work is imperfectly performed, and weariness during the day is the result. The
candle of life is being burned at both ends. If the habit of taking too little sleep
becomes fixed, sickness, perhaps ins.inity, will result. Many a man has died in
youth or middle age who would have lived many years longer if he had taken more
time for sleep, and many a farmer's wife has gone to the Insane Asylum, or aa
early grave, because the ceaseless round of duties which she tried to perform left too
little time for sleep. Multitudes of children are being injured in body and mind by
a lack of sufficient sleep. Their parents teach them that it is a sign of laziness to
lie long in bed. No greater delusion was ever accepted by mankind. Shorten the
hours of sleep and you thereby sap the very fountains of vital power. Unless pre-
ceded by early retiring, early rising is a slow, but sure, form of suicide. Better do
without food than without sleep, if both cannot be secured. The greatest workers
in the world are often great sleepers. We know of a brilliant clergyman, who per-
forms an immense amount of labor, who sleeps twelve hours out of the twenty-four.
The most vigorous men take an abundance of sleep. Some people need more sleep
than others. Probably the majority require eight hours. Many need ten hours, and
some even twelve hours, sleep out of each twenty-four. E.ach individual must be a
law to himself. If he needs but eight hours sleep he should take only that amount.

g48 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

but if he needs more let him take it. No matter if neighbors borrow trouble about
it. It is not their business. But it is the business of every person to get sleep
enough. If a small supply of sleep is taken there will be a dull, heavy feeling all
day long, and not as much work can be done as can be performed in a much shorter
day if the hours devoted to sleep are increased. The man who sleeps wtll can do
more work in eight hours than one who sleeps too little can do in a longer time, and
can do it with far greater ease. Many nervous diseases are brought on by shorten-
ing the hours of sleep, and other evil results will surely follow in due time. Parents
should see that their children have plenty of lime for sleep, and should allow their
servants the privilege of securing abundant rest.

Obedience to Moral Laws. — This is the last of the essentials to the preserva-
tion of health to which we shall call attention. The Author of these laws is also
the AuTnf>R »)f the laws of health. "He knoweth our frame,'' and II is laws have
been made with reference to our necessities and our powers. A pure and moral
life tends to promote the health of the body and the mind. A vicious life tends to
the direct ruin of both. Indulgence of the appetites and passions deranges the ner-
vous system and lowers the vital power. Many diseases are induced thereby, and
the body is so weakened by indulgence that it falls an easy prey to attacks of sick-
ness which otherwise might have been easily resisted. The use of tobacco, or of
intoxicants, lets down the tone of the system and often leads to ruined health. Any
and every bad habit, whether it be of a physical or a moral nature, tends to impair
the health and break down the constitution, while a thoroughly CHRISTIAN course
of conduct not only makes a man happy, respected, and useful, but also has a
powerful influence to ward off disease and strengthen the mental and physical
powers.

BG'TS GH THE Fil^HM,

'OW to keep the boys on the farm and induce them cheerfully to choose
farming as their occupation for life is a question of deep interest to many
parents. The stampede of young men from the country to cities and
'/ CT^f large towns is not an evil which finds its limit in the domestic circles
e) ^S^ which they leave, but is one which extends through society and makes its
depressing influence felt everywhere. How to check this evil is a ques-
tion of great importance and is well worthy of consideration.

In order to induce the boys to stay on the farm they must be informed of the true
relation which exisis between the city and the country. They must be shown that
the expenses of living are so high that the city clerk, whom they envy because of his
large salary, can hardly keep out of debt. And the fact that the man in the city is
tied to his business a great deal more closely than the farmer is to his work should
be set before them. Many of the boys who have left the farm have done so because
they were allowed so few pleasures and so little time at home. Their fathers were
not wise in their choice of methods of government and labor. Still, there will be
many boys who, under any system of treatment, will choose other professions rather
than work on the farm. It is best that this should be so. Boys who have a strong
inclination to follow any honest calling will usually do better in that department of
labor than they can in any other. But this inclination can often be guided, or even
formed, by wise counsel and suitable influences. The father who greatly desires to

BOYS ON THE FARM. 849

see his boys become farmers can, by means of wise and careful training, usually
carry his wish into effect.

Boys should be taught that farming is an honorable occupaiioti. It is very true
that the calling does not make the man, and that a man should not be respected
because he follows one honest occupation or despised because he follows another.
Character is what a man is, and cannot always be determined by reference to the
kind of work which he performs. The farmer may be a gentleman or he can be a
boor, he may build up a noble character or he may be a villain. He makes his
own choice in these respects. Merely being a farmer will make him neither a good
man nor a bad one. Still, farming is a business which does not open to its fol-
lowers so many evil influences, and expose them to as many temptations, as some
lines of business. It is the kind of labor which God directly marked out for man,
and upon the cultivation of the soil the civilization and happiness of mankind
must, in a great measure, depend. As far as occupation is concerned, the farmer
has no occasion to "look up to" the merchant, manufacturer, or professional man.
Clergymen and teachers are doing a work the value of which is beyond all price,
and many boys wrill be called from the farm to fill the ranks of these professions.
The ones whom God calls into these fields should not hesitate for a moment to
obey. But before a boy leaves the farm to become a merchant, or to go to a city
as a laborer, or to engage in business of any kind, he should very carefully consider
the question whether there is any good prospect that he can do better than the thou-
sands of those who have preceded him, and who have soon been led to repent
that they ever left the farm.

The boys who are designed by their parents for farmers should be led to take an
interest in their work. The skilful teacher leads his scholars along both rapidly and
pleasantly when he gets them fully interested in their studies, but until he can do
this their progress will be very slow. The boy who " don't care " about farming
may be led to take an interest in it and choose it for his life-work. If the farmer
would explain to him the way in which plants grow, and tell him why certain
operations are performed at the particular times which he observes, and also furnish
him with books and papers treating of these and of kindred subjects, he would soon
find that the indifference had given way to earnest inquiry and deep interest.

Life on the farm must be made pleasant to the boys who are designed to follow
the calling of their fathers. The young have a firm belief that life ought to yield a
great deal of pleasure, and if things are unpleasant at home they will go elsewhere
in hope of bettering their condition. This hope is often disappointed, yet the boys
press on as though it were sure to be realized. The parent ought to strive to make
his children so happy at home that they will prefer it to all other places. We do not
mean that the child should always have his own way. Far from it. Parental
authority ought to be firmly maintained. But the rule should be very gentle and
the natural waywardness of youth should not cause the father to lose all patience with
his boys. The average boy who is well treated is not as exacting as many people
seem to imagine. He can be made contented with reasonable care and attention.
We have already alluded to the necessity of furnishing him books and papers, and
a pleasant room in which to spend his evenings. He should also be well clothed
and furnished with what spending money he really needs. Coarse clothes can, and
should, be worn while at work, but every farmer's boy should have good clothes in
which he can go into company without being ridiculed or feeling that he is
unsuitably dressed. He should be taught to respect himself and his occupation.

850 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

He ought never to be obliged to overwork, and his home-life and surroundings
should be made as pleasant as possible.

The girls must be taught To respect farming as an occupation, and be required to
help their mothers in the work of the house and the dairy. When farmers educate
their girls in a manner which will fit them to become farmers' wives, and teach them
that farming is one of the most honorable of all occupations, and that the girl who
marries a farmer does fully as well as one who marries a merchant or a i.iwyer, they
will thereby do a great deal towards keeping their boys on the farm. The idea that
because a young lady has married a farmer she has " thrown herA-lf away " is one of
the most preposterous ones which ever found expression in civilized society. The
girl who will reject a man simply because he is a farmer shows that she has a very
shallow or else a sadly uncultivated mind and a heart which is incapable of deep
affection. And the farmer who will advise his daughters to reject honest and
intelligent farmers in the hope of securing clerks, business or professional men,
thereby shows his own lack of good judgment as well as proves that he has no
genuine respect for the calling by means of which he obtains his bread. The
mother who advises her daughters to " louk higher" than the yo'ung men who are
farmers is thereby doing a great wrong. There may be reasons why certain farmers'
bo^s are not suitable companions for certain farmers' girls, but the mere fact that the
men are farmers should weigh in their favor rather than against them.

We are well aware that many farmers' wives have been terribly overworked, and
we can sympathize wiih the mother who desires an easier lot for her child. But we
know that this excessive labor is not an absolute necessity, and that wilh ihe aid of the
labor-saving implements of the present day a farmer's wife can live as easily as the
wives of men engaged in many other pursuits. There is a very general misconception
upon this point, but those who seek the truth soon find that the w ife of the farmer
does not need to overwork, and that she can have many comforts which other men's
wives must purchase at high piices or else do without. The wife of the farmer ought
to be willing to work in order to help him, and if the man is what he should be he
will see to it that she does not go beyond her strength. And any and every girl may
rest fully assured of the fact that a man who would make her his slave if he were
a farmer would also require her to work extremely hard if he engaged in another
occupation.

One of the ways in which the boys can be strongly influenced to choose farming
as an occupation is by giving them the use of a small piece of land each season.
Let each boy who is old enough take a i)lot of land each spring, and plant it wiih
such seeds as he chooses. Give him time to cultivate the crop, and allow him to
use the team when he needs it. The money obtained from the sale of the products
of this piece of ground should be his own to use as he desires. Such a course will
prove beneficial in several ways. It will lead the boy to take a deep interest in
thorough farming, and induce him to study the best methods of cultivation in order
that he may obtain as large a sum of money as possible. It will show him the
real worth of a dollar, and lead him to spend his money wisely.

Many a boy has soon " run out " a fine property left him by his father, because he
had no clear comprehension of the difficulty of obtaining money. The father who
gives his boy spending money does a great deal better than the one who never
allows him to have any, bnt it is by far the best plan to have the boy earn the
money which he spends. The boy who earns a dollar by growing fruit or grain,
understands that the dollar represents a certain amount of labor. He appreciates

ITEMS FOR THE HOUSE AND FARM. g5J

the money, and knows its actual worth far better than the boywhose father gives him
some outright. Such a plan will enable the boy to buy books, or take papers, with
his own money. It will lend to make him industrious and frugal, and may be made
the means of great good to the boy, and, indirectly, prove an almost equal benefit
to the father. If it is not convenient to allow the use of land, the farmer may give
his boys the entire care of the poultry, requiring them to pay for the food which is
consumed, and allowing them to retain the money received from the sale of chickens
and eggs. Or two or three sheep may be given to a boy to care for, he paying the
cost of keeping, and having the money obtained from lambs and wool for his own.
In some such way the boy may be inspired with a love for the farm, and induced to
lay a good foundation for a successful business career thereon.

The farmer who desires his boys to become farmers should take them into his
confidence, and consult with them in regard to the work. Upon this point Prof.
Beal, of the Michigan Agricultural College, has well said : " If you want to
make your son like his business, place him in responsible places, trust him, consult
him about the work he is to do. Let him do part of the thinking. Give him nearly
the sole care or responsibility of something on the farm, the fowls, the pigs, some of
the stock, some of the crops, or the garden, or a part of it. Suppose he does not do
everything just as you would ; advise him. It is much better that he should fail while
he is yet young and has time to learn under your training, than not to try or fail until
he gets into business for himself. By treating childjen in this way they will take
more interest in their work, and be much more likely to succeed when they start for
themselves." It would be much better, both for children and their parents, if the
boys were consulted oftener, and trusted more than they usually are on the farm. As
some writer has said : " The sooner a boy can be made to wait on himself, to think
for himself, and to act for himself, the sooner will the germs of true manhood begin to
develop within him."' The farmer's boys should be made to bear some business re-
sponsibility, and the girls should, in their own department, be trained in like manner.

If the suggestions made in this chapter are heeded, the great majority of the boys
will have no difficulty in making up their minds to stay on the farm. If their
parents understand them, and treat them well during their minority, and give them,
if possible, a moderate degree of help when they become of age, the boys of the
present and of future generations will not flock to the cities and towns, but will
become intelligent and successful farmers.

ITEMS F@B TME M0US1S ^m'B WMMM.

i^y HE following items, collected from various sources, may often prove useful
to the housekeeper and the farmer.

Newspapers and wrapping papers can be put into many valuable uses in
the household. Few housekeepers can find time to black their cooking
stoves, every day, and even if they wash them every day in clean water they
will soon become quite shabby ; but if they are rubbed over with a. newspaper
every morning, after the dishes are washed, they will keep black a long time. If a
spot of grease or stain of some kind adhere, moisten the paper a little and rub it off.
Newspapers or wrapping paper will keep the outside of the tea and coffee pot, and
tU tin utensils about the stove, brighter than the old way of washing them in soap-suds.

852 FARMING FOR PROFIT.

Flour and meal of all kinds should be kept in a dry, cool place. Orangei
and lemuns keep best when wrapped close in soft paper, and laid in a drawer.
Keep coffee by itself in tin canisters, if possible; its odor affects other articles.
Keep tea in a close canister, to preserve ils aroma.

Clear, boiling water will remove lea stains. Pour the water through the stain,
and thus prevent it spreading over the fabric.

Linen may be glazed by adding a teaspoonful of salt, and one of finely scraped
soap to a pint of starch.

Kerosene will make tin tea-kettles as bright as new. Saturate a woollen rag
and rub wiili i(. It will also remove stains from clean, varnished furniture.

A SIMPLE and excellent furniture-polish may be made as follows : Take one
pennyworth of beeswax, and shave it wilh a knife into a gallipot. Pour on it three
pennyworth of turpentine. Place it in the oven, and when the beeswax is melted
take it out, and let it stand till cool. Apply it briskly to the furniture with a piece
of flannel, rub with a soft duster, and finally polish wilh an old silk handkerchief.
Oil-cloth may with advantage be similarly cleaned.

To Remove Paint from Windows. — A simple method is to dissolve soda in
very hot water, and apply to the windows wilh a piece of soft flannel. It will
entirely remove the paint.

To remove old putty, rub it with a hot iron. This will soften it so that it can be
easily taken off with a knife. ^

Before Whitew ashing the walls of a room wash them with a solution of cop-
peras. This will disinfect mouldy places, and destroy the eggs of vermin.

Disinfectant Fluid. — Ten pounds sulphate of iron (copperas) dissolved in six
gallons of water. Add one half pint crude carbolic acid.

- Whitewash for Outside Exposure. — Lime, ^ bushel slacked in a barrel
Add I pound common salt, ^2 pound sulphate of zinc, I gallon sweet milk.

To Make Paper Stick to Whitewashed Wali^. — Make a sizing, of common
glue and water, ©f the consistency of .linseed oil, and apply it with the whitewash or
other brush to the wall, taking care to go over every part, and especially the top and
bottom. Apply the paper in the ordinary way.

Always remove the old jiaper from walls before applying new.

To Mend Ruhulr-Shoes. — Get a piece of rubber — an old shoe — vulcanized
rubber will not do; cut it into small bits. Put it into a bottle, and cover to twice
ils depth with spirits of turpentine or refined coal-tar naphtha — not petroleum naph-
tha. Stiip the bottle and set to one side, shaking it frequently. The rubber will
soon dissolve. Then take the shoe and press the rip or cut close together, and put
on the rubber solution with a camel's-hair brush. Continue to apply as fast as it
dries, until a thorough coating is formed. Spirits of turpentine dissolves the rubber
slowest, i)ut forms the most elastic cement.

Leather Cement. — Dissolve gutta-percha in a sufficient quantity of chloroform to
make it of honey-like consistency — it will lake a few days— cork tight — shake occa-
sionally. Patches can be put on with it, so they defy detection. Directions for
use : Have both parts cle.an and rough. Apply the cement twice to both parts and
dry ten minutes. After it becomes dry, warm both parts gently, until the cement
is thoroughly melted. Apply immediately — hammer lightly — ready for use in ten
minutes. Shake well before using.

Kerosene will soften hools and shoes that have been hardened by water, and will
render them pliable as new.

ITEMS FOR THE ItOUSE AND FARM. 853

Wet Boots. Fill wet boots wiJi dry oats and let them stand overnight; the

oats will absorb the moisture and leave the boots soft and dry.

To Prevent Metals from Rusting. — Apply a thin coating of a mixture made
of three parts of lard and one of rosin. This vi'ill prevent Ru?sia-iron stoves,
grates, brass, copper, and steel from rusting in summer, even in damp weather.
. To Clean the Hands thoroughly, prevent cracking, and make them white and
soft, rub them well with soft-soap and sand, and then wash in warm water.

Oil may be removed from the hands by rubbing them well with dry mustard,
and then washing them with cold water.

Remedy for Felons. — The London Lancet recommends the following as the
best remedy yet discovered : As soon as the disease is felt, put directly over the
spot a fly-blister about the size of your thumb nail, and let it remain for six hours, at
the expiration of which time, directly under the surface of the blister, may be seen
the felon, which can instantly be taken out with the point of a needle or a lancet.

Remedies for Bee-Stings.— Extract the sting, if possible,* and press upon the
spot with a hollow instrument (a watch-key will do), in order to remove the poison.
Thet) wet the affected part and cover with common baking soda.
If this is not convenient, cover with mud.

An onion cut open and one-half laid upon the spot is said to be a good remedy.
Whatever is \KtA, fi-omplness is indispensable to its successful application.
Mustard Plaster. — In making a mustard plaster, use no water whatever, but
mix the mustard with the white of rn egg, and the result will be a plaster that will
draw perfectly, but will not produce a blister, even upon the skin of an infant, no
matter how long it is allowed to remain on the part.

Antidotes for Poisoning.

Arsenic. If any one be poisoned with arsenic, administer mustard-water until

vomiting is produced.' The mixture is made by stirring two tablespoonfuls of ground
mustard in a quart of lukewarm water. After vomiting has taken place, give a
teaspoonful of sulphur or a wine-glass of soap and water. If with sugar of lead or
white lead, use the mustard-water made as above, to produce vomiting, and after, a
teaspoonful of Epsom salts dissolved' in water, every forty-five minutes.

Corrosive Sublimate.— GWq to a person poisoned by corrosive sublimate, white
and red precipitate or calomel, white of eggs, milk, or oil in as great quantities as
the person can take, during ten minutes, then give mustard-water as stated above.

Nitrate of Silver. — Give to a person poisoned by nitrate of silver or lunar caustic,
table salt, two teaspoonfuls in a pint of water, then castor oil.

Strychnine.— G'we to a person poisoned by either strychnine, nux vomica, opium,
laudanum, paregoric, morphine, belladonna, or croton oil. an emetic of mustard and
warm water, followed by a drink n-:ade of vinegar and sweet oil. In all cases of
poisoning send for a physician as soon as possible.

A Tablespoonful of turpentine, boiled with white clothes, will greatly aid the
whitening process.

Beeswax and salt will make rusty flat-irons as clean and smooth as glass. Tie a
lump of wax in a rag and keep it for that purpose. When the irons are hot, rub
them first with the wax rag, then scour with a paper or cloth sprinkled with salt.

A Transparent Mucilage of great tenacity may be made by mixing rice flour
with cold water and letting it gently simmer over the fire.

To Clean Kid Gloves.— Take benzine and dip the gloves into h, wring them
52

854 FARMING FOR PROFIT,

out, one at a time, and spread upon a board which has been covered with flannel,
rub every part gently with a clean piece of flannel till dry; smooth out and hang in
the open air till the odor has vanished.

To KKEP the hands from chapping, dry them thoroughly immediately aAer wash-
ing them and before going into the cold.

Cleaning the Tekth. — Before cleaning the teeth dip the brush in water, rub
it over genuine white Castile soap, then dip it in prepared chalk.

To keep ants away from food, set it on a table, and place each leg of the table in a
dish containing water.

To RID a house of insects : If two or three bottles of ammonia are left unstop-
pered, in prominent places in a room, they will soon leave. No insects can tolerate it.

Every pantry should be furnished with a good step-ladder, so that the house-
keeper can easily get to the upper shelves.

To REMOVE a glass stopper that has become firmly fastened in the neck of the
bottle, put a drop or two of glycerine or sweet oil in the crevice about the stopper,
and in an hour or two it will be loose.

To CLEANSE a drain pipe, pour down a strong solution of copperas. The same
material may be used for disinfecting cellars.

To GET rid of mould in the cellar, put some roll-brimstone into a pan, and set fire
to it ; close the doors, making the cellar as nearly air-tight as possible for two or
three hours, when the fungi will be destroyed, and the mould will be dried up.
Repeat this simple and inexpensive operation every two or three months, and you
will have your cellar free from all parasitical growth.

Rats and Mice can be driven away by placing caustic potash or unslacked lime,
powdered, in their holes or runways.

Warnings to be Learned by Heart about Kerosene. — Always fill lamps
by daylight, and never while lighted. If obliged to fill them at night, have the light
a few feet distant.

Lamps should be filled daily, and never lighted when partly empty.

Select lamps which have the burner considerably elevated above the body of th«
lamp.

Trim the wick square across to get the best light.

A lamp with the wick turned far down is more likely to explode.

If burning oil gets upon the floor, smother it with a rug or blanket.

If your clothes take fire, do the same, and lie down.

Never pour oil on a fire from a can — never. The observance of these rules may
save many a life.

Enamel for Shirt Bosoms. — Melt together with a gentle heat, one ounce of
white wax, and two ounces of spermaceti; prepare in the usual way a suflicient
quantity of starch for a dozen bosoms, put into it a piece of this enamel the size of
a hazel nut, and in proportion for a larger number. This will give clothes a beau-
tiful polish.

A Strong Cement. — A colorless, transparent cement, with which to mend glass,
can easily be made by dissolving isinglass in spirits of wine ; add a small quantity of
water, and mix gently over a moderate fire.

An Adhesive Paste. — The American Cultivator gives this recipe for such
paste as is used on the backs of postage stamps : Dextrine, two ounces ; acetic acid,
four drachms ; water, two and a half ounces. Mix the dextrine, acetic acid, and
water, stirring until thoroughly mixed ; And add alcohol. For attaching labels to

RED-LETTER DAYS.

855

tin, rub the surface with a mixture of muriatic acid and alcohol ; apply the label with
a very thin coating of the paste, and it will adhere almost as well as on glass.

Painting, or charring, green timber will hasten its decay.
• A GALVANIZED wire clothes-line will outlast a dozen cotton or hemp lines, and
as it can be left out-of-doors without injury, will save a great deal of time and
trouble now expended in putting out and taking in the common ones. The wire
lines are much cheaper in the end than the others, and it will pay the farmer to set
some strong posts and buy a suitable line. As the clothes will not freeze to the wire,
and there is no danger of its breaking and letting the clothes upon the ground, his
wife will be greatly pleased with the change.

A LARGE block cut so as to form two steps, and located at the front gate, will
prove a great convenience to the ladies in getting into or out of a wagon.

Watering Trees. — A correspondent of the New York Tribune recommends
the following method. When trees dry up in summer, never water the top of the
ground and thus hasten death, but make a hole with a crowbar, near the trunk, and
reaching to the bottom of the tree, pour in water until the whole space under the
surface is thoroughly soaked. Then fill the hole with dry earth, and cover the top
of the ground with manure or boards to keep it from drying. One such watering
will last for a long time.

Ammonia for Housewives' use.— In a farm-house the pantry-shelves will get
grimy, and there are very apt to be finger-marks around the door-latches and knobs.
It is hard work to scour all the time, and it wears off the paint too. Now if the
housewife has a bottle of spirits of ammonia to use, she can take a basin of water ana
a clean cloth, put on a few drops of the fluid, and easily wipe off all the dirt. This
is worth more than half a day's labor, and does not injure the paint. By putting a
few drops in the dish-water, the dfshes can be easily cleaned. By rubbing the win-
dows with a sponge moistened with ammonia, they can be made to shine like
crystal. Ammonia will take the stains off the teaspoons, and a teaspoonful in the
mop-pail will do more in washing the kitchen-floor than a large amount of hard
labor performed in the ordinary manner.

f N the old calendars the saints' days were marked with red letters. These
days were considered peculiarly fortunate and auspicious, and were often
kept as holidays by the people. Had they not been marred by an undue
veneration of men the principle and practice would both have been worthy
of commendation. The custom is worthy of re-establishment upon a
better basis.

In the bustle and haste of modern life there are too few holidays, and these are
too often allowed to pass by unobserved. If other generations have paid too much
attention to times and seasons, and unduly magnified the days which they have
observed, the present generation has certainly gone to the other extreme. We
need more holidays — not for popular observance, but for the family circle. We need
them to prevent the excessive wear of constant toil, and also to strengthen domestic
ties. Each family should have iu own days, and a few of the public festivals should
be observed.

Birthdays are entitled to a prominent place in the list of the red-letter days.

306 FARMING FOR PROFrf.

For the children these days should be made happy by gifts and by a pleasant party,
or by a pleasure-ride to some place which they specially desire to vi&it. Old^r
people should take these days for thought, rest, and recreation. It is fitting that
these points of time should be observed, and that, as the years pass by, and ^e
gradually but surely mcreases, the individual should recognize the fact that life is
passing, and the time which he is to spend upon the earth is rapidly diminishing.
They need not be sad days, but they should be remembered and suitably oljserved.

Parents should leach their children to remember these days. The custom which
some writers advocated long ago, of planting a tree to commemorate the birth of
each child, is to be strongly commended. As soon after a child is l>om as the proper
season for transplanting arrives let a fine tree, oak, elm, m;iple, evergreen, or ope
of similar nature, be planted in one of the yards near the house. This tree shoifld
be the special care of the child in whose honor it was put out, and as they grow in
size and age the child will take a deep interest in the tree, and will soon come to
regard it with feelings of affection.

Marri.\ge Anniversaries should also be observed by the married members of
the family. They may well be celebrated by social unions of the family circles to
which the married pair originally belonged. When tliis is impracticable, a visit to
some near relatives, a tea-party, or a pleasure-trip, will furnish the means for the
appropriate observance of the day.

The Religious and National Festivals which have received the sanction of
the Church and State should also be observed. The patriot should teach hk.
children the reasons why the Fourth of July is kept as a holiday by the citizens
of the country, and should lead them to observe it aright. The use of powder is
not the only way, and is very far from being the best way, in which to have a
"celebration." The storj* of the Revolution should be familiar to every child,
and a true patriotism should be made one of the prominent points of a go«d
character.

Thanksgiving Day should be observed by every family in the land. When
possible the parents and children should all " go up to the house of the L0RI>"
to express in a public manner their recot^niiion of the numberless blessings which
they have received. The Giver of all good ought to be offered the tribute of
grateful hearts.

Christmas should be kept as a religious and a joyful festival. Gifts should be
presented to the children, and they should be told the wonderful stor}' of the coming
of Christ into the world. The fact should also be clearly presented that all our
civilization and liberty come to us as the direct result of the life and work of Christ
on earth, while all our hopes for the future must depend upon Him as the only
Redeemer of the world.

New Year's Day is fast becoming a festival, and if properly observed may be
made instrumental of good. During the week preceding this day the poor should
be remembered, and many kindly, but unobtrusive, acts of charily performed.

There are other festivals, like Eastep.. which are worthy of general remembrance,
and each family will have special d.iys which should be kept by its members as
annivers.iries. Let these red-letter days not be overiooked or disregarded.
Properiy kept they will confer great blessings upon all who come under their influ-
ence and share their joys.

INDEX.

A.

Accident Insurance 830

Adhesive Paste 854

Agriculture and National Prosperity 21

Alsike Clover 389

Ammonia ." 152

Animal Excrement 164

Animals for Labor 483, 528

Animals for Food 529

Apples for the North 792

Apples for the South 793

Apricot 797

Artichoke 396

Ashes 180

Asparagus 81 1

Atmosphere 1 53

B.

Barley 235

Barn loi-i 10

Cellar 109

Fastening Cattle in 108

Barns for West and South loi

Beans 267, 81 1

Bee-Stings 853

Beet 398, 811

Bermuda Grass 369

Blue Grass 368

Blackberry 805

Bones 1S2

Bones Treated with Acid 183

Book-Keeping 819-S23

Books and Papers 823, 840, 842

Boys on the Farm 84S-85 1

Bromus 384

Broom-Corn 27 1

Breeding from Grades 555

Buckwheat 236

Budding * 790

Buildings — Adaptation of 62-64

Color of 74

Cost of 64-70

For Farm 44-121

Height of 60-62

Location ATS-

Relative Position 52-57

Repairing of 70

Size of 57-6o

BUTTER-Making 658-672

Churning 666

Packing 672

Sailing 671

Temperature of Cream 669

Working 670

Cabbage 811

Capital 4.2

Unproductive 69

Care of Sick 843

Carrot 400, 812

Castor Bean 27 1

Castration • • ■•SS3> 6o7i 704> 743

Catalpa 493

Cattle 579-628

Ayrshire 585

Breeding 597-603

Breeds of. 580

Choking 620

Devon 587

Diseases of 619-628

Dutch 591

Feeding 6x4

Hereford 588

Holstein 591

Improvement of 597-603

Jersey 586

Native 595

Short-Horn 581

Water for 429, 645

Celery 812

Cheese- Making 654-658

Chemical Changes 157

Chemistry 129

Cherry ^ 797

Chufa 400

Cisterns 423

Cleanliness 846

Closets and Vaults 116

Clothing 846

Clover 177, 3S6

Coffee 276

Cooking Food for Stock 643, 748

Cold Frame 807

Colorado Beetle 329

Colts 548

Age for working 561

Training of. 54I, 557-560

Compensations — Law of 26

Complete Manures 180, 195

Composting 172-175

Cooley System 663

Co operation 42, 289

Corn 291-310

Tarring Seed 308

Corn-Harvester 512

Cotton 276-291

Seed. 279, 291

(857)

858

INDEX.

Cows — Abortion in 619

Drying off 604

Inferior 634

Feeding 640

Improvement of 639, 640

Large or Small 637

Sor'e Teats 647

Testing 636

Cranberries 806

Credit System 437, 824

Crops — Change of 140, 447

Cost of. 223

Experiments with 124

Rotation of. 225-232

Selection of. 215,224, 234

Cucumbers 813

Currants 805

Cuttings 788

Cut-Worm 306, 358

D.

Dairy — Cleanliness in 661

Deodorizer 1 1 8

Disinfectant Fluid 852

Diversified Farming 446

Draining 408-419

Driven Well 430

Ducks 763

E.

Education 841

Ensilage 679-6S2

Ergol 255

Evaporation 413

Evenings 842

F.

False Economy 823-826

Farm — Capacity of 121- 127

Implements 501-524

Farming — Profit of 823

Farms, Small or Large. . . 38-42

Felons 853

Fences 484-489

Live 486

Wire 487

Fertilizers 151-202

Application of 195, 297

Formulas for 194

Special 188, 222, 259

Flax 23S

Fire Insurance 829

Floors 87, no

Forests and Climate 494

Forests and Health 495

P'RUIT-Growing 771-807

Assorting of. 779

Diseases 781-783

Drying 7S0

Enemies of. 783-787

FRUIT-Gathering 778

Storing 779

Thinning 776

Garden S07-816

(target 621, 718

Geese 764

Gooseberries 806

Grafting 791

Grain — Drilled or Broadcast 260

Winter-Killing of 416

Granaiy no

Grape-Growing 798-Soo

Grass 365-384

Fertilizers for 375

Top-Dressing 196

Green Manuring 175

Guano 186

H.

Hardin Method 663

Harrow 507

Hay-Press 103

Hen-House 112

Hens 756

Hemp 241

Herbs 813

Hog-House Ill

Holidays 855

Home Production 431-446

Honey-Bees 767

Hops 310

" Horn Ail " 625

Horse 531-575

Breeding 541-548

Diseases 569-574

Feeding 561-565

Qualities for Farm 533-54'

Shoeing 568

Teams 482

Thorough-bred 556

House 76-101

Cellar 99

Household Machines 522

Hoven 623

Hybridization 146, 467

I.

Ice- House. 673

Obtaining 674

Impure Water 1 17, 420, 431

Inorganic Matter in Crops 158

Insect Enemies 139, 262, 284, 285

Insurance 827-830

Items for House and Farm 851-S55

Jute.

243

Labor a Standard of Value 475

INDEX.

859

r,ABOR — Waste of 476, 479

Lambs — Best should be Kept 697

Care of b9^>

Castration 704

Disowned 701

Docking 703

Feeding 705

Raising by Hand 702

Weaning 7°5

Layers 7^9

Lead Pipe 421. 427

Leaves I37. '87

Lettuce 814

Lice 617

Life Insurance 828

Lightning- Rods 93

Lime 1 84

Location — Change of 29-34

Lucerne 390

M.

Mangold-Wurtzel 399

Manure — Quantity of. 198

Saving 1 06, 1 66, 1 68, 169

Vnlue 171, 172

Waste 165

Maple Sugar 350

Markets — Demands of 217

Marking Farm Products 827

Marl 180

Melons 814

Milk — Cause of Decay 650

Cooling 651

Deep Setting! 661

In Closed Cans 662

Milk Fever 626

Milking 648

Millet 392

Mixed Paints 72

Mole Plow 412

Money Crops 232-235

Moral Laws 848

Mucilage 853

Mule 575-579

Mule Teams 482

Mutton 685

N.
Nitrogen 187

Oats , 244

Winter 247

Onion-Growing 3^3-323

Orchard Grass 368

Overwork 841

Ox Teams 481

Painting 7^-73

Paris Green 285, 330

Parsnip 404, 814

Peanut Culture 3:^3-^2 1.

Pears 793

Peas 249, 814

Pigs — Care of 742

Castration 743

Fattening 745

Thorough-bred 734

Weaning 745

Plants — Dwarfing 142

Elements of 152

Enemies 306

Flowers of. 1 46

For Seed 46-

Food of 141,151, 155, 16

Growth of 1 48

Growth of Roots 136

Increasing Size of. 142

Modification of I42, 464, 468

Productiveness of. 144

Reproduction of 144, 465

Plaster 168, 181

Plow 501

Plums 797

Poisoning, Antidotes to 853

Pork— Curing of 752

Salting in Summer 755

Portable Creamery 664

Potato-Growing 324-338

Power on the Farm 496-500

Prickly Comfrey 393

Propagation of Trees and Plants,. .. 788

Q.

Quince-Growing 798

R.

Radish 815

Rain-Fall 413

Raspberry 804

Recreation 842

Repair Shop 119

Rhubarb 815

Ribbon Cane 338

Rice 251

Ridge Cultivation 409

Roads on Farm 490-492

Roller 506

Roofing Material 90

Rooms — Arrangement of. . ..80, 81, 98

Pleasant 84, 840

Warm 82

Root Pruning 136

Root Crops 395-407

Root Cuttings 7S9

Runners 790

Ruta Baga 406

Rye 252

S.

Salt. 181, 616, 715, 747

880

INDEX.

Seed — Buying of 461

Changing 471

Covering 134

Fertilization of. 463

Germination of 133, 452

Good Quality Required.. ..450 462

Influence of 45 1-460

Mixed 468

New and Old I36

Ripening I43

Selection of Plants for 462

Storing 473

Sheep 683-724

Breeding 694-697

Breeds 691-694

Cotswold 692

Diseases 7'^-722

Dogs 722

Ewes for Breeding 695

Lambing 697

Leicester 6^2

Merino 6qi

Native 6^3

Old 696

On Prairies 723

Oxford Down 692

Poisoned 720

Profit from 684-691, 724

Ram, Care of. 694

Shearing 709

South Down 692

Summer Management 706

Washing 707

Winter Management 712

Sleep 847

Small Farms 38

Sod as a Fertilizer 179

Soil— Analysis of 127-I31

Covering 201

Deficiencies of 22 1

Exhaustion by Crops 207

Formation of. 155

Loosening 134

Preparation 1 33

Testing 130

Soiling Cattle 676

Crops for 677

Sorgo 343

Specially System 435

Springs 422

Squash 815

Stables 107, 566, 61 2

Steers, Training of. 608

Stone Drains 410

Stone Walls 486

Store- Hnuse ; 1 20

Storing Crops 320, 333, 349

Strawberry Culture 803

Subsoil 1 60

Su7ar 338-352

Sugar Beet 346

Summer Fallow 20c

Surroundings, Influence of 839

Sweet Potato 355

iiwiNE 724-755

Age for Breeding 738-740

Berkshire , 734

Breeds 726-734

Chester White 729

Diseases of 749 752

Essex 733

Feeding 746

Magie 733

Sows for Breeding 737

Spaying Sows 744

Suffolk 729

Thorough breds 734, 738

Yorkshire 730

T.

Tea Culture 352-355

Ticks 711

Tile Drains 41 1

Tilla-e 159, 203-215, 227

Tobacco-Growing 355-3^4

Tool-House 118

Tomato 815

Transplanting 772, ^08

Trees, Cultivation of 774

Distance Apart 773

For Timber 492-494

I''u»ing 775

Setting 773

Watering 555

Turkeys 702

Turnip-Growing 404-407, 815

U.

Underdraining 409

Useful Tables 830-836

Ventilation 94-97

W.

Wngon-House 1 14

Water 154, 419-43'. 845

Weeds 139, 140

Weights and Measures 832, 834, 835

Wells 425

WnEAT-Growing 257-267

Cultivation 264

White Clover 388

Windows 83, 107, 113

Wire Worms 306

Wood- House 115

Wool 6S4

Y.

Yam.

364

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