Google
This is a digital copy of a book that was preserved for generations on library shelves before it was carefully scanned by Google as part of a project
to make the world's books discoverable online.
It has survived long enough for the copyright to expire and the book to enter the public domain. A public domain book is one that was never subject
to copyright or whose legal copyright term has expired. Whether a book is in the public domain may vary country to country. Public domain books
are our gateways to the past, representing a wealth of history, culture and knowledge that's often difficult to discover.
Marks, notations and other maiginalia present in the original volume will appear in this file - a reminder of this book's long journey from the
publisher to a library and finally to you.
Usage guidelines
Google is proud to partner with libraries to digitize public domain materials and make them widely accessible. Public domain books belong to the
public and we are merely their custodians. Nevertheless, this work is expensive, so in order to keep providing tliis resource, we liave taken steps to
prevent abuse by commercial parties, including placing technical restrictions on automated querying.
We also ask that you:
+ Make non-commercial use of the files We designed Google Book Search for use by individuals, and we request that you use these files for
personal, non-commercial purposes.
+ Refrain fivm automated querying Do not send automated queries of any sort to Google's system: If you are conducting research on machine
translation, optical character recognition or other areas where access to a large amount of text is helpful, please contact us. We encourage the
use of public domain materials for these purposes and may be able to help.
+ Maintain attributionTht GoogXt "watermark" you see on each file is essential for in forming people about this project and helping them find
additional materials through Google Book Search. Please do not remove it.
+ Keep it legal Whatever your use, remember that you are responsible for ensuring that what you are doing is legal. Do not assume that just
because we believe a book is in the public domain for users in the United States, that the work is also in the public domain for users in other
countries. Whether a book is still in copyright varies from country to country, and we can't offer guidance on whether any specific use of
any specific book is allowed. Please do not assume that a book's appearance in Google Book Search means it can be used in any manner
anywhere in the world. Copyright infringement liabili^ can be quite severe.
About Google Book Search
Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers
discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web
at |http: //books .google .com/I
1
II
1
/
»
I
I
i
, I
I
• I
^ !
• I
< I
FARM STRUCTURES
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
HBW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS
ATLANTA • SAN PKANaSCO
MACMILLAN & CO., Limitbd
LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA
MBLBOURNB
THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd.
TOBONtO
/
FARM STRUCTURES
i^
f^
K/j^Ti^'EKBLAW, M.S.
ASSOCIATE IN AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY
OF ILLINOIS; ASSOCIATE MEMBER OF AMERICAN
SOCIETY OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERS
Netu gork
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1920
Ail rigtUs reserved
COPYKIGHT, Z914,
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY.
Set up and electrotyped. Published February, X9X4.
J. S. Oushing Co. — Berwick A Smith Oo.
Norwood, Mass., U.BJL.
PREFACE
In the preparation of this book it has been purposed to
provide a treatise concerning farm structures which will
appeal not only to the teacher who desires to present the
subject to his students in a straightforward and practical
way, but to the progressive farmer who recpgnizes the
advantages of good farm buildings. The popular litera-
ture on this subject consists mainly of compilations of
plans accompanied by criticisms of more or less value, or
of discussions of farmsteads too expensive or impractical
to be applied to present ordinary conditions. The elimi-
nation of these faults has been among the objects of the
author in the writing of this text.
The development of the subject is manifestly the most
logical, beginning with a description of building materials,
followed by a discussion of the basic methods employed
^ in simple building construction, then presenting typical
^ plans of various farm buildings in which the principles
7 of construction and arrangement have been applied. De-
:J scriptions of the more essential requirements in the way
tS of equipment and farm-life conveniences are appended.
The illustrations have been prepared with the object of
making them truly illustrative and of aid in the under-
standing of the subject matter which they accompany.
Comparatively few building plans are included, since most
building problems possess So many local requirements
that a general solution is impossible ; however, the plans
presented are typical, and are so suggestive in presenting
fundamental principles that a study of them will aid in
the solution of any particular individual problem.
V
335332
vi PREFACE
It is not intended that the study of this text will pro-
duce an architect ; but it is hoped that it will provide the
student with a sufficient knowledge of building operations
to enable him, with some knowledge of carpentry, to erect
his own minor structures and to differentiate between
good and bad construction in larger ones.
Acknowledgment is made of the receipt of valuable
suggestions and advice from Dr. N. Clifford Ricker, Pro-
fessor of Architecture in the University of Illinois. In
certain parts of the work use has been made of the
bulletins published by the United States Department of
Agriculture and the various State Experiment Stations,
particularly those of Illinois, Iowa, Maine, Maryland, New
York, and Wisconsin. Suggestions were also received
from numerous commercial firms, especial acknowledg-
ment being due to the following :
Universal Portland Cement Company, Chicago.
James Manufacturing Company, Fort Atkinson, Wis-
consin.
Fairbanks, Morse and Company, Chicago.
American Radiator Company, New York.
United States Radiator Corporation, Detroit.
Beatty Brothers, Brandon, Manitoba.
Cosgrove-Cosgrove Cbmpany, Philadelphia.
Leader Iron Works, Decatur.
Though care has been taken to prevent the occurrence
of mistakes, they will undoubtedly appear, and corrections
and suggestions for improvement will be gladly received.
K. J. T. EKBLAW.
University of Illinois,
Urban A.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTBR PAGB
I. Building Materials 1
1. Wood 1
2. Steel 15
3. Stone 16
4. Brick 23
5. Roofing 29
6. Concrete 31
7. Paint 55
8. Glass 61
9. Nails • ... 63
II. Location of Farm Buildings . • 67
III. Building Construction 79
1. Foundations 79
2. Framing 84
3. Walls 92
4. Windows 94
5. Doors 95
6. Floors . 96
7. Roofs 99
8. Stairs 102
9. Interior Finish 106
IV. Estimating 112
V. Design and Construction of Farm Buildings . 118
1. Granaries 118
2. Machine Sheds 123
3. Ice Houses 132
4. Silos 136
5. Poultry Houses 186
6. Swine Houses ........ 202
7. Sheep Bams 212
8. Large Storage Barns 218
9. Dairy Barns . .235
10. Horse Barns 252
11. General Purpose Barn 256
12. Farm Residence 257
vu
'••
viii TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTBR PAGB
VI. Ventilation 273
VII. Lighting Farm Buildings 285
1. Candles 285
2. Kerosene Lamps 286
3. Air-gas Lamps 287
4. Acetylene . .288
5. Electricity • . . .291
VIII. Heating Farm Houses 296
1. The Open Fire 297
2. Fireplaces 298
3. Stoves 300
4. Hot Air 300
5. Steam . . • . ^ . . . • . . 302
6. Hot- Water 307
7. Vacuum 311
8. Design of Various Systems 311
IX. Farm Water Supply 314
1. Pressure Systems 321
2. Hot Water Supply . . . . . . .326
X. Plumbing and Sewage Disposal 330
FARM STRUCTURES
FARM STRUCTURES
CHAPTER I
BUILDING MATERIALS
Wood
Though the use of wood is becoming a more and more
expensive proposition as the scarcity and consequently the
cost of Imnber increases, it will still continue to be one of
the great forms of building material. Steel and concrete
in many instances are displacing wood as building materials ;
the substitution is just, logical, and economical, for the new
discoveries and developments relating to steel and concrete
which have come with recent years prove their superior
value for many purposes. However, when we consider
that there are yet standing billions of feet of lumber which
can be conserved under proper methods of foresting, we
can easily see that wood will always have a definite com-
mercial value.
Strticture
Woods suitable for structural purposes are usually
called timber. Almost the entire amount of timber used
in the industries is obtained from that kind of trees known
as exogenouSy or those in which the growth occurs by the
formation each year of layers of new wood on the exterior
beneath the bark. Endogenous trees, or those trees whose
increase in diameter is accomphshed by the addition of
B I
2 FARM STRUCTURES
woody matter in the interior, supply only a very small
percentage of merchantable -woods; some examples of the
latter class are the bamboos arid palms.
When an exogenous stem is cut across, Figure 3, three
distinct parts are visible :
First, the bark, a scaly material having a thickness of
from J to i^ inches or more, which envelops and protects
the wood inside. It has no great commercial value except
in certain species ; for instance, as in making binding strips,
or in dyeing or tanning; some barks have a medicinal
value.
Second, the sapwood, adjacent to the bark, and from ^
to 4 inches thick ; it is generally characterized by a lighter
color than the surrounding parts, is softer, and less compact
than the inner wood.
Third, the heartwoody the central portion, generally dis-
tinctly separated from the sapwood. The heartwood is
that part of an exogenous stem which possesses strength
and durability, and which only should be used where these
qualities are requisite.
The development of these parts is accomplished by the
absorption, in the spring, of juices from the soil with which
the roots come in contact. At first these juices, which
are converted into sap, serve to form leaves and new stems.
From the upper surface of the leaves moisture is given ofif
by the sap, and carbon is absorbed from the air. After
the leaves are full grown, vegetation is suspended until
autumn, when the sap in its altered state descends chiefly
between the wood and bark where it deposits a new layer
of wood. This constitutes the annual ring, and covers all
parts of the stem and branches.
As the tree grows plder, the inner layers become con-
gested with the secretions peculiar to the tree, and cease
BXJILDING MATERIALS 3
acting as sap carriers. Their primaty function is now a
mechanical one, that of keeping the tree from falling of
its own weight or from the force of the wind.
The layers of wood that are formed each year appear
as rings on the cross section of the stem, and the age of
the tree or a portion of it can be ascertained by counting
the number of rings. The width of these rings varies
greatly with different trees, being influenced by climaric
and by soil conditions. In good white pine the thickness
of the ling will be perhaps '^^ of an inch, while in the slow-
growing long-leaf pine it
will be only one half as
much. Theoretically,
these rings should be uni-
formly circular in shape,
but the shape may be so
influenced by internal
condirions and by ex-
ternal injuries as to result
in great irregularity. Fio, i. — Annual rings in irfne.
This regularity or irregu-
larity in shape of the annual rings has considerable to do
with the technical qualities of the timber.
Close examination of the annual rings will show two
distinct parts, as in Figure i, one of which is soft and light
colored, designated "spring wood," and another firmer
and darker in color, known as "summer wood," from the
part of the season in which each was formed. The latter
is much the firmer and heavier ; consequently, the greater
the proportion of it, the greater will be the weight and
strength of the timber.
As a whole, wood is made up of bundles of long tubes,
cells, or fibers, with their long axis generally paraltel to
4 FARM STRUCTURES
the stem. Cross fibers, known as pith fibers or medullary
rays, extend in all directions radially from the pith to the
bark, between the linear fibers; the medullary rays act
as a binder for the longitudinal fibers. Aside from
the linear and cross fibers of woody
material, there are resin ducts in
pines and spruces, and hollow ducts
in the broad-leafed trees. The
finished appearance of the wood,
and its physical and mechanical
quaUties, depend greatly upon its
structure.
Color
The color of wood often serves as
a means of identifying the species.
Many woods have a distinctive
color, which adds to the beauty of their appearance, and
increases their value. Among these may be mentioned
the black walnut, whose heartwood is a beautiful dark
brown; ebony, black; cherry, reddish; gum, reddish
brown ; osage, orange yellow ; mahogany, red brown ;
poplar, light yellow.
Exposure to air or hght darkens wood, as is well shown
in the case of osage orange, which when freshly cut is a
bright yellow; after a little exposure, it becomes a Ught
brown. Color is sometimes an excellent indication of the
a)ndition of the wood ; the color should be uniform through-
out the heartwood in sound timber, the presence of blotches
or streaks indicating disease. Decay, dry rot, or fungi
cause wood to lose its characteristic translucency, and
it is known then as "dead," in distmction to "Uve" or
"bright."
BUILDING MATERIALS 5
Occasionally woods may be differentiated by their odor.
Oaks, pines, cypress, cedar, and apple all have distinctive
odors, more or less agreeable. Decomposition is often
accompanied by pronounced odors ; poplar in decay emits
a disagreeable odor, while the red oak becomes fragrant,
its smell resembling that of heliotrope.
Defects
Wood is subject to a number of diseases and affections
which sometimes materially decrease its value, or even
destroy it entirely. Some trees seem to have an age limit,
beyond which they gradually deteriorate; others, as the
sequoia, or giant redwood of California, continue to grow
for centuries without the least apparent deterioration.
Felling, handling, and seasoning are important in deter-
mining the life of timber, and the methods employed are
being so developed as to constitute a science in themselves.
Timber felled in winter is more durable than that felled
in simMner; hewed wood is more resistant to decay than
sawed, since the pores are closed and compacted by the
blows of the ax, while the saw tears them open.
Dry rot is one of the worst sources of decay to which
wood is liable. It is the result of fermentation caused by
the spawn of a fungus, upon the introduction of moisture.
The wood fibers decay, and the wood crumbles beneath the
touch. Wherever there is moderate warmth, dampness,
and lack of air, dry rot will occur, and the only means oi
preventing it is to dry the wood, and apply some substance,
either upon the exterior or into the exterior layers, which
will prevent the entrance of the fungus.
Wet rot is caused by the presence of moisture, resulting
in decomposition of the wood tissues.
Worms cause incalculable damage to wood, especially
6 FARM STRUCTURES
to that submerged in water. They are known as teredos,
or "ship worms," and termites. The teredos are really
bivalve mollusks, which bore
into submerged timbers to
such an extent that heavy
timbers are destroyed in four
or five years. The termites
operate on land, attacking
wood after felling, destroying
foundation timbers, furniture,
etc. Other insects, such as
the elm-bark beetle, the oak-
Fio. 3.— windorcup^iake. borer, etc, also do great
damage.
Commercial defects, or defects which aid in the grading
of lumber, comprise the following :
Wind-shakes. — Circular cracks separating the annual
rings from each other. Figure 3.
Star-shakes. — Cracks along the medullary rays, and
■widening outwards. Figure 4.
Heart-shakes. — Clefts in the center of the log. Figure 5.
BUILDING MATERIALS 7
Brash. — Timber from trees deteriorating from old age.
Belted. — Timber killed before it is felled.
Knotty, — Timber containing many knots.
Twisted. — Timber in which the grain winds spirally.
Rind-gaU. — Swelling caused by formation of layers
over a wound.
Upset. — Fibers injured by crushing.
Seasoning .
The purpose of seasoning timber is to expel as much of
the moisture as possible, thus increasing the resistance to
decay, and making it more susceptible to conversion. It
is rendered imperative by the changes in volume and shape
that all woods undergo under the influence of changes in
atmosphere, temperature, and moisture. This is especially
important in cabinet and wheelwright work, where stock
is usually blocked out and given an extra term of seasoning
before using.
The strength of wood is almost always greatly increased
by seasoning, consequently it is not economical to use green
wood ; for it is then not only weaker, but liable to continual
changes in volume and shape.
The time of seasoning varies greatly, not only with dif-
ferent kinds of lumber, but with different trees of the same
kind, and in different parts in the cross section ; there may
be twice as much moisture in the sapwood as in the heart-
wood. Framing lumber is usually stacked in the yards
for seasoning, in layers perhaps six feet wide, with inch
strips between each layer, so as to permit of the free passage
of air. This lumber is rarely seasoned for more than six
months before put into use ; as a result of this, the shrinkage
due to final seasoning causes most of the cracks in the
interior of buildings having wooden floors and partitions.
8 FARM STRUCTURES
KUn drying is a process of artificial seasoning, in which
the wood is put into a tight chamber called a dry kiln, and
subjected to a heat of from 150 to 180 degrees F. The time
of kiln drying varies from four to five days for soft woods
fresh from the saw, to ten days for hard woods which have
been air-dried from
three to six months
previously. Too
rapid drying results
in "case-hardening,"
or a formation of a
shell on the exterior
before the interior has
a chance to harden,
the later drying caus-
Fic. 6. — Effects of shrinkage. ing checks along the
medullary rays.
Effect of Shrinkage. — All woods shrink more tangentially,
or along the annual rings, than in a radial direction, because
the pith rays resist the radial shrinkage. The effect of
seasoning upon a log in different stages of conversion is
shown in Figure 6. A log, squared or halved, usually
cracks radially, especially near the ends ; if cut into boards,
the latter take a bent form.
Conversion of Timber
Modem machinery and methods enable the conversion
of timber to be accomplished very expeditiously. Gang
or circular saws are used to cut the log up into planks or
boards, the edges being trimmed off afterward. Edgings are
converted into lath or molding, or used for kindling. The
United States Forest Service is doing excellent work in
saving waste lumber, by investigating the purposes for
BUILDING MATERIALS 9
whicli scraps ordinarily wasted can be utilized, and bring-
ing the producer and consumer into communication with
each other, to their mutual benefit. Even sawdust, huge
quantities of which accumulate
at lumber mills, is used in the
manufacture of wood pulp.
When a whole log is cut up
into slices by cuts parallel to
each other, the end section of
the boards will have the ap-
pearance shown in Figure 7 ;
this is known as bastard sawing.
Except for a few boards cut
from the center of the log, the
end section will show the annual rings in a more or less
complete circle. Those cut from near the center will have
the annual rings cutting across more perpendicularly to
the width of the board, while the medullary rays will
extend more nearly parallel to
the flat face. Such boards are
called quarter-sawed from the
fact that they are more com-
monly obtained by first quar-
tering the log and then saw-
ing into boards by cuts at 45
degrees to the flat surface, as
shown in Figure 8. When the
_ . „ ^ exposed ends of the annual
Fig. 8. — Quarter samng. "^
rings on the flat surface of
the sawed board appear perfectly straight, it is known as
comb-grained; this is especially attractive and valuable
in flooring, which receives much wear.
Real quarter-sawed lumber, obtained in the manner
lo FARM STRUCTURES
described above, is more expensive than the bastard-sawed,
on account of the greater difficulty involved in conversion.
However, there is a strong and recognized demand for it,
especially in hardwoods, as in oaks, where the saw cuts
occasionally split the medullary rays, exposing a handsome,
flaky grain. Quarter-sawed lumber wears better, warps
and shrinks less, and in most of the hardwoods presents
a much handsomer appearance than the bastard-sawed.
In a lumber yard, names are arbitrarily given to various
sizes of lumber. Anything thicker than four inches is
usually designated as a timber, or framing timber. Lumber
from two to four inches in thickness is called plank, whether
four or fourteen inches wide. Boards include all lumber
less than two inches thick, of any width, except very thin
stufif, which is used for veneer. A veneer is a very thin strip
cut from a log by a veneer machine, there being thirty
strips of veneer in an inch thickness of stock.
All large lumber is sold by board measure, a board one
foot square and one inch thick constituting one board foot.
Stock less than an inch thick is sold by the square foot,
the price varying according to the thickness. Veneers are
always sold by the square foot, and moldings, panel strips,
etc., are sold by the lineal foot. Lath and shingles, and
sometimes weather boarding, are sold by the thousand.
Li most instances, lumber is sold in even lengths, as lo,
12, 14 feet, etc., the price generally increasing with the
length.
Selection of Wood
The user must of course ascertain what kind of wood is
most suitable for the work in hand, and then see that the
wood he obtains is of the best grade that is consistent with
the construction. Even in the same species the lumber
BUILDING MATERIALS ii
will vary in grade considerably, and careful grading is
necessary. Winter-felled timber is superior to summer-
felled, and the more mature the tree the better will be the
timber. Where lightness is desirable, coniferous woods
are advantageously used; where jarring loads are to be
sustained, denser, tougher woods must be employed.
The following list will aid in the selection of wood for
various purposes :
Light framing — white pine, spruce, hemlock.
Heavy framing — yellow pine, oak.
Exterior finish — white pine, poplar, cypress.
Interior finish — redwood, cypress, any hardwood.
Floors — quarter-sawed oak, maple, or hard pine.
Doors and sash — white pine, cypress.
Posts — white cedar, osage orange, cypress, black locust.
Linen closets — southern red cedar.
Testing
The almost .universal substitution of iron and steel for
the framing of large engineering structures renders exact
information relating to the strength of timber less important
than formerly. In smaller structures, long experience has
so developed the use of proper sizes of timber that one need
not worry about safety. A single quality or combination
of several may govern the kind of wood used ; for example,
in a joist, lightness and stiffness are prime requisites ; con-
sequently, compressive and shearing strength is subsidiary
to transverse or breaking strength ; on the contrary, trans-
verse strength may be ignored entirely when wood is being '
chosen for paving blocks. Where calculations are necessary
to ascertain the most economical size or kind of wood to
be used, a factor of safety varjdng from 4 to 6 is employed.
12
FARM STRUCTURES
REFERENCE TABLES FOR WOOD
CRUSHING STSENGTH
Material
Cypress ....
Hemlock . . . .
Oak, white . . .
Pine, Georgia yellow
Pine, Oregon . . .
Pine, Norway . . .
Pine, white . .
Redwood . . . .
Spruce
Poplar
Crushing Weight
Lbs./Sq. In.
3375
3000
4000
5000
4500
3800
3500
3000
4000
3000
SHEARING STRENGTH
Material
Cedar . .
Chestnut .
Hemlock
Oak, white .
Pine, Georgia
Pine, Oregon
Pine, Norway
Spruce . .
Redwood
Poplar . .
Resistance, Lbs./Sq. In.
With Grain
Across Grain
•
60
400
"5
80
400
600
150
1000
125
1200
125
900
90
750
90
750
70
60
500
450
TENSILE STRENGTH
(Factor of Safety, 6)
Material
Ash, white .
Chestnut
Hemlock
Oak, white .
Pine, Georgia
Pine, Oregon
Pine, Norway
Pine, white .
Redwood
Spruce . .
^Poplar . .
Tensile Strength
Lbs./Sq. In.
2000
1500
1500
2000
2000
1800
1600
1400
800
1600
1200
BUILDING MATERIALS
13
WEIGHT
Material
Cypress
Elm . .
Hemlock
Hickory
Mahogany
Oak, white
Pine, white
Pine, Georgia yellow
Poplar . ,
Spruce
Wahiut
Weight in Lbs./Cu. Ft.
34
35
25
52
53
48
25
45
29
25
38
Common Varieties of Timber
Ash, white — color, brown ; sapwood, lighter, often white ;
wood, heavy, hard, strong, coarse grained ; use, interior
work, cabinet work, implements.
Cedar, white — color, light brown ; thin sapwood, nearly
white ; wood, light, soft, rather coarse grained ; use,
posts, ties, shingles.
Cedar, red — color, reddish brown; wood, light, soft,
brittle ; use, interior finish, shingles, storage chests.
Cypress — color, bright, light yellow; wood, light, hard,
brittle ; close grained ; use, interior finish, posts, sills,
cabinet work.
Elm, white — color, clear brown ; wood, heavy, hard, tough ;
use, posts, bridge timbers, sills, ties.
Gum — color, bright reddish brown; wood, heavy, hard,
tough, close grained, inclined to shrink and warp ; use,
interior and exterior finish.
Hickory — color, brown ; more valuable sapwood, white ;
wood, heavy, very hard and strong, close grained ; use,
implements, vehicles.
14 FARM STRUCTURES
Hemlock — color, bright brown to white ; sapwood, darker ;
wood, Kght, soft, weak ; use, rough framing.
Locust — color, brown; sapwood, yellow; wood, heavy,
hard, strong ; use, posts, turnery.
Maple, hard — color, light reddish brown; wood, heavy,
hard, strong, tough, close grained ; use, flooring, in-
terior finish.
Maple, white — color, white ; wood, hard, strong, brittle ;
use, flooring, interior finish.
Oak, white — color, brown; wood, heavy, hard, strong,
close grained; use, interior finish, furniture.
Oak, red and black — color, Ught brown or red; wood,
heavy, hard, coarse grained; use, interior finish and
furniture.
Pine, white — color, Ught brown, often tinged with red ;
wood, Kght, soft, very close, straight grained; use,
interior finish, windows, doors, etc.
Pine, Norway — color, light red ; wood, light, hard, coarse
grained ; use, in aU construction work.
Pine, yellow (long-leaf) — color, light red or orange ; wood,
heavy, hard, strong, coarse grained ; use, in all con-
struction work; the inferior short-leaved yellow pine
is often substituted for it.
Pine, Oregon (Douglas Fir) — color, light red ; wood, hard,
strong ; use, in construction work.
Poplar (white-wood) — color, light yellow ; wood, soft,
brittle, very close, straight-grained; use, interior and
exterior finish.
Redwood — color, clear, light red ; wood, light, soft, brittle,
coarse grained ; use, building material.
Walnut, black — color, rich dark brown ; sapwood, much
Hghter ; wood, heavy, hard, strong ; use, interior finish,
furniture.
BUILDING MATERIALS 15
Steel
The chemical composition of steel is intermediate between
cast iron and wrought iron. It is a mixture of ordinary iron
with small varying quantities of carbon, and is produced
either by partly eliminating carbon from pig iron, or by
addmg carbon to wrought iron. Steel, by virtue of its
carbon content, possesses the property of tempering ; how-
ever, in very soft steels, in which the carbon is low, temper-
ing is not apparent.
Classification
Commercially, steel is designated as ^^mild^^ or ^'softy^'
^' medium, ^^ and ^^hard.^^ Though there is no definite line
of demarcation, generally it is taken that soft steels con-
tain less than 0.15 per cent carbon, that hard steels contain
above 0.30 per cent, while the intermediate grades con-
stitute medium steel. The tensile strength of steel varies
with the percentage of carbon, from an ultimate strength
of S4,ooo pounds per square inch for a carbon content of
0.08 per cent, to 87,000 poimds per square inch for a carbon
percentage of 0.40.
Method of Manufacture
Almost the entire output of steel used for structural
purposes is made either by the Bessemer process or by the
open-hearth process. Small quantities of higher grade
steel are made by special methods.
Bessenier Process, — This process involves the melting
of pig iron, containing a large percentage of carbon, in a
cupola, or running it direct from a blast furnace into a
converter, a pear-shaped vessel lined with fire brick. While
the metal is in the converter a strong blast of air is forced
1 6 FARM STRUCTURES •
through it until all the carbon is removed. Then a small
quantity of spiegeleisen, a metal containing a known per-
centage of carbon, is added, in order to control the carbon
content of the steel, and when the two metals are thoroughly
incorporated, the steel is emptied into molds.
Open-hearth Process. — In this process pig iron and ore
are melted together on the open hearth of a regenerative
gas furnace. The pig iron is first melted and raised to
a temperature which will melt steel; then rich, pure ore
and limestone are added. The chemical reactions result
in the formation of a fusible slag composed of the Ume and
siKcic acid formed from the siUcon, and the carbon passes
off as carbonic acid, leaving the steel clear. In general,
the open-hearth process results in a better quality of steel,
though more expensive, since it takes more than ten times
as long to manufacture as by the Bessemer process.
Properties
Steel is slightly heavier than wrought iron, weighing
about 490 pounds per cubic foot. Its melting point varies
from 2372 degrees to 2687 degrees F., according to the
percentage of carbon. The strength of steel varies con-
siderably with its chemical constituents, carbon, manganese,
silicon, phosphorus, and sulphur being the main elements
affecting it.
Tensile Strength 0.25% C. . . . 68^200 lbs. / sq. in.
Shearing Strength io,cx)o lbs. / sq. in.
Crushing Strength 48,000 lbs. / sq. in.
Stone
Classification
Three classifications are necessary to give a fairly com-
plete comparison of the rocks from which stones used as
BUILDING MATERIALS 17
Structural material are selected ; namely, geological, physical,
and chemical.
Geological Classification, — Nothing very definite can be
determined as to its relation to the properties of stone as
a building material from this classification, except that gen-
erally the older the rock formation, the stronger and more
resistant to the action of the elements and to the effect of
deterioration is the stone; but this is not true in many
cases. Various things make exceptions to this ; for example,
a seismic disturbance may so loosen the structure of the
rock as to totally destroy its crushing strength. Classify-
ing rocks according to their origin, we have three classes :
Metamorphic, constituting the class including granite,
slate, marbles, etc.
Igneous, of which basalt, lava, and trap are examples;
and
Sedimentary, comprising sandstones, limestones, and clay.
Clay may not be strictly considered a stone, but since it
enters into the manufacture of artificial stone, it may be
properly included in the classification.
Physical Classification, — In considering the structure
of rocks as they exist in natural masses, two great divisions
may be observed, stratified and unstratified.
Stratified rocks, in which the structural material is com-
posed of sheets or layers of varying thicknesses, superimposed
upon each other, originally horizontally, which arrange-
ment may at later times have been changed by disturbing
forces to a vertical, inclined, or curved position. These
layers have evidentally originated from depositions from
water, from the fact that the rock can be more easily split
at the planes of division between adjacent layers than at
any other place. The structure of stratified rocks governs
to a great degree the method of placing, for besides at the
i8 FARM STRUCTURES
principal planes they may be more or less easily split at
intermediate planes, which may lie parallel, oblique, or
perpendicular to the principal planes, and which divide the
rock into laminae. Laminated stones should be placed
in buildings so their lamincd or beds are perpendicular to
the direction of greatest pressure, and with the edges of
the laminae as nearly as possible perpendicular to the
exposed surface of the stone; their crushing strength is
greatest parallel to their laminae, and their durability is
greatest with only the edges of the laminae exposed to the
weather.
Unstratified rocks include those composed of crystalline
materials held together by some more or less firm cementi-
tious material, which under the influence of decay or heavy
shock loosens and leaves the crystals separate. There
seems, to exist in large masses of unstratified rock an
occasional weak streak, these streaks having apparently
the same direction. This fact enables quarrying and cutting
to be accomplished more readily if advantage is taken of
the "rifts'' or "lines of cleavage."
Chemical Classification. — By determining the predomi-
nant mineral in the chemical composition of rocks, three
classes are differentiated :
Siliceous, stones whose base is silica, of which granite
and trap rock are examples.
ArgUlaceouSy comprising clay, shale, slate.
Calcareous, represented by limestones and marbles.
Varieties of Stone Masonry
Ashlar Masonry. — This type of stone masonry consists
of blocks of stone cut to regular figures, generally rec-
tangular, and built in courses of a imiform height or rise,
which is seldom less than a foot. The softer stones should
BUILDING MATERIALS 19
have a length greater than three times the height or rise,
while in harder ones the length may be four or five times
the depth. In laying ashlar masonry, no side joint in any
course should be directly above a side joint in the course
below, but. the stones should overlap or break joints to an
extent of from one to one and one half times the depth of
the course. In this way two stones support the weight
of the one below, the pressure is more equally distributed,
and the structure is bonded together.
Broken Ashlar, — This consists of cut stones of unequal
depths, laid in the wall without any attempt at maintain-
ing courses of equal rise, or stones in the same course of
equal depth. As in ashlar masonry, one fourth of the face
of the wall should consist of headers.
Squared Stone Masonry. — This differs from the regular
ashlar in the character of the dressing and the closeness
of the joints. The stones are only roughly squared and
roughly dressed on beds and joints, so that the width of
the joint is half an inch or more, instead of one fourth of
an inch, as in ashlar.
Rubble Masonry. — Masonry composed of unsquared
stones is called rubble. It comprises two classes : (i) un-
coursed rubble, in which irregular stones are laid without
any attempt at coursing ; (2) coursed rubble, in which the
blocks of unsquared stone are leveled at specific heights
to an approximately horizontal surface. These courses
may not be of the same depth, in which case they are known
as random courses. In building rubble masonry, weak
angles should be knocked off the block, each stone should
be cleansed from dust, dirt,' etc., and each one must be
firmly embedded in mortar, resting as far as possible on its
largest side.
20 FARM STRUCTURES
Measurement of Stone
There is not an established rule for the measurement
of masonry, it being governed largely by local custom.
Stone may be bought under two classifications, rubble and
dimension stone. The former comprises the rough, irregular
blocks of stone which cannot be laid in courses or with
square joints without further trimming. The latter in.
eludes the stones cut to size, usually with a rectangular
face, or in a shape in accordance with the architect's
specifications. The price of the dimension stone is, of
course, considerably higher than rubble, on account of
the work in cutting.
In general practice, rubble is sold by the carlot or by the
ton, while dimension stone is sold by the cubic foot. When
it is cut to some particular thickness and is to be used for
some specific purpose, as for footings, facing, or flagging,
it may be sold by the square foot.
In stone masonry, rubble work is almost universally
measured by the perch of i6| cubic feet, though a legal
perch is 50 per cent larger. In large structures, such as
massive foundations and bridge piers, the cubic yard is
the unit of 'measurement. Sometimes, in architectural
details, the unit of measurement is the superficial square
foot.
Methods of cutting Stone
Cut stone includes all squared stones, with smooth
beds and joints. There are a great many ways in which
the face may be finished, but the following are the chief
ones (shown in Figure 9) :
a. Rough pointed, with projections varying from \ inch
to I inch, made by heavy picking.
BUILDING MATERIALS
21
b. Fine pointed, sl smoother finish
obtained by following rough pointing
with a lighter, finer tool.
c. Crandalled, a variation of fine
pointing, using a tool with a toothed
edge.
d. Axed, the face appearing covered
with parallel chisel marks.,
e. Bush hammered, a fine-pointed
finish, smoothed with a bush hammer.
/. Riibbed, a finish obtained by rub-
bing with grit or sandstone.
g. Diamond panel, a very flat pyramid
cut inside the margins, with its apex at
the center of the block.
^ou^ Pointed.
IR)
wmi^
^/ne Po/nfetf.
Crond9f/e€f.
Qjred^
3i^jA Hammered.
Requisites j or Good Building Stone
Four essentials are present in all good
building stone; namely, durability,
strength, cheapness, and beauty. These
may vary in degree of importance for
different structures, and for different
parts of the same structure. For ex-
ample, limestone may be employed both
in the foundation and in the superstruc-
ture of a building ; for the former, those
stones whose appearance is in any way
marred by flaws in texture, shape, or finish should be used,
leaving the better ones for the superstructure, where a
handsome appearance is a prime consideration.
Durability. — This quality of building stone is one about
which only suppositions can be made. Though the rock
may have existed in a natural state for centuries, yet when
Piamond Penef.
Fig. q. — Methods of
cutting stone.
22 FARM STRUCTURES ,
i
quarried and put in a building, exposed to the action of
the elements and to the action of the acids which are known
to exist in the air, deterioration or even decomposition may
occur with remarkable rapidity.
Strength, — This is an indispensable quality, and one
which governs the selection of stone for foundations, piers,
etc. The resistance to crushing, in poimds per square
inch, varies from 5000 for some Maryland granites, to
43,000 for Potsdam (N.Y.) red sandstone. As a rule,
however, granites are stronger than sandstones and hme-
stones. The crushing strength of any stone should be
thoroughly investigated before it is used in structural work.
Cheapness. — The cost of stone is governed by various
factors, chief among which are suitability for structural
purposes, accessibility to market, and the ease with which
it may be quarried and dressed. The quaUty of the stone,
which may vary greatly in the same quarry, also affects
the price.
Beauty. — This quality is mainly considered where
architectural details are involved, and where the stone is
employed in sculpture.
Varieties of Building Stone
Trap is the strongest of all building stones, though be-
cause of its toughness and difficulty of conversion it is
little used. For macadam and raihoad ballast it is imex-
celled.
Marble, in common practice, is any limestone that will
take a good pohsh. In reaUty, marbles are only those
limestones which have imdergone metamorphic action in
which their texture has become more crystalline, and their
color modified. Marble is the most beautiful of building
stone.
BUILDING MATERIALS 23
Granite is the strongest and most durable of building
stones in common use. It is readily quarried and con-
verted, and can be used for almost any purpose. Granites
vary in color from gray to black, and from pink to red.
Limestones. — The chief constituent of limestones is
carbonate of lime, though the varieties are exceedingly
numerous. They are quite durable and strong, and be-
cause of the pleasing colors they are esteemed for building
purposes.
Sandstones are more easily worked imder the chisel than
limestones, and for this reason and because of their abun-
dance are more generally used. They are composed chiefly
of sand, more or less cemented and consolidated, and their
texture varies with the coarseness of the sand. Sandstone
becomes harder and more durable with age, on accoimt of
the precipitation of soluble silica. In color, sandstone
shows the .widest variation, almost every shade existing
from white to black, including dark red, .and even purple.
Brick
Brick is an artificial stone made by subjecting an inti-
mate mixture of clay or shale and water, molded into shape,
to a heat intense enough to cause partial vitrification.
Different kinds of clays and different methods of prepara-
tion result in different qualities of brick. Various chemical
constituents in the clay affect the finished product to a con-
siderable extent. Iron gives hardness and strength to
brick, and gives it a characteristic red color. Silicate of
lime makes clay soft and too fusible. AlkaUes are found
in small quantities in the best of clays, and are more or less
detrimental. Sand is sometimes included in the mixture
to prevent excessive shrinking in burning. The manu-
facture of brick includes the excavation of the clay or shale,
24 FARM STRUCTURES
the preparation of the clay by tempering and molding, the
drying of the molded mixtxire to drive off superfluous
moisture, and the burning of the molded mixture in kilns.
ClassificcUion
There are three bases for classification of bricks : i. The
method of molding. 2. Position in kiln when being
burned. 3. Their shape or use.
The first classification gives the following :
Soft-mtid brick, molded from a soft mixture of clay and
water.
Stiff-mud bricky molded from a stiff mixture.
Pressed brick, made from dry or semi-dry clay xmder
heavy pressure.
Repressed brick, a soft-mud brick, subjected to enormous
pressure when partially dry to give it a better form and
texture.
The second classification includes :
Arch or clinker bricks, those which form the tops and
sides of the arches of brick around the fires. They are
vitrified, hard, and usually weak from overbuming.
Body or hard bricks, those taken from the interior of the
pile, and best in quality.
Salmon or softhnoks, forming the exterior of the pile,
and too soft from underbuming to be of great value.
The shape or use of brick gives rise to the following
classification :
Compass brick, those having one edge shorter than the
other, used in shafts, cisterns, etc.
Feather edge or voussoir, those having one edge thinner
than the other, used in arches.
Front or face brick, those made especially for facing the
walls of buildings.
BUILDING MATERIALS 25
Sewer brick, ordinary hard, smooth, regular brick.
Kiln-run brick, brick made from fire clay, sufficiently
free from alkali silicates, iron, and lime to resist vitrifica-
tion at high temperatures ; used in furnaces, cupolas, fire-
places, ovens, etc.
Measurement of Brick
The methods of measuring brickwork are even more
arbitrary and farther from being standardized than are
those of stone masonry. The perch is sometimes used,
though it varies in diflFerent localities from i6| to 25 cubic
feet. In some lines of work the unit is the superficial
square foot, allowing a certain number of brick for various
thicknesses of wall. The cubic foot or the cubic yard is
unsatisfactory as a imit because of the variation in the size
of brick. The most satisfactory method is to specify that
the masonry will be paid for by the cubic foot or cubic yard,
according to the arrangement between architect and con-
tractor.
SizCy Weight, and Strength
The size of brick is a matter of such indefiniteness that
brick of almost every conceivable size can be found. There
is no legal standard. Eastern bricks average about
7f X 3f X 2J inches. Western bricks average about
22 X 4I X 2I inches. The size of all common bricks varies
even in the same lot, according to the degree of burning,
the hard bricks being | to ^ of an inch smaller than the
salmon brick.
Pressed and faced bricks are generally more uniform in
size, being made in more uniform molds, and on account
of their density being less affected by burning.
The weight of bricks is controlled by the quality of the
26 FARM STRUCTURES
clay from which they are made, by their size, and by the
density resulting from pressing. Ordinary bricks weigh
about 4I pounds, while pressed bricks weigh from 5 to sJ
pounds each.
The strength of brick is also a matter of great variation ;
ordinary brick have a crushing strength of about 6000
pounds per square inch, while pressed brick reach 13,000
pounds per square inch.
Joints
Much of the strength and appearance of brick masonry
depends upon the care exercised in laying the brick. The
thickness of the mortar joints should
not be over f of an inch, J inch being
the commonest thickness. When
good brick are used, the mortar is
the weak part of the wall; conse-
quently the less used of it, the better.
Fig. 10. — Facing a moitar Mortar should be spread as thinly as
'vrnu weatlKri^. ^'^ ^^ consistent with a imiform bearing
and rapid work in spreading the
mortar. Especially is this true with exterior walls, where
the mortar is subjected to disintegration by the elements.
What in common practice is called a " shove- joint "
results in well-laid brick. The brick is first laid so as to
project over the one below, then pressed into the mortar
and shoved back into its final position. In order to prevent
disintegration of mortar in exterior work, extra lime is
added to mortar for face brick; the mortar may contain
some cement, or the joint may be pointed with neat cement
mortar. If the joint is faced as shown in Figure 10,
moisture will not penetrate to such an extent as in a square
face.
BUILDING MATERIALS
27
Bond
The arrangement of the bricks in the surface of a given
wall according to a system is known as the bond of the
brickwork. In order to make brick masonry have suflBi-
cient strength, it is necessary to have the bricks overlapping
both across the wall and along the length of it, and in
devising arrangements
IICZICIDCIICIIC
3
I
][
T — I I I II — ^ 1 — ^r
1
I
II II B II I J-
I
Fig. II. — English bond,
method.
The common
t — II — II — ^ ir
]|ZII[
1 — 11 II ir
A.
m.
35
bBE
[
I
H
E
Produces
to meet this condition, -^' " " "-
several varieties of bond
have been originated.
Sometimes, instead of
laying bricks crosswise
in a wall, the adjacent
vertical layers are held
together by a bond made
of a piece of wire or
strap iron bent up
slightly at the ends, and
embedded in the mortar
between the bricks.
The most widely used
bonds of the self-con-
tained type are the
English and the Flemish
bonds. The former con-
sists of entire courses of
headers and stretchers;
a header being a brick
laid with its end exposed in the face of the wall, a stretcher
having its edge exposed. Sometimes the courses of
headers and stretchers alternate, but more usually the
proportion of courses of headers to courses of stretchers
is one to from four to six, as shown in Figure 11. A variety
Fig. 12. — English Cross bond.
Maltese cross effect.
J[
tJC
ICZil
LIU
1
I
Fig. 13. — Flemish bond. A ample but
attractive method.
28 FARM STRUCTURES
of this, known as the English Cross bond, has alternate
courses of headers and stretchers, the stretchers of the
successive stretching courses breaking joints, as in Figure 12.
This makes an attractive bond.
Flemish bond, shown in Figure 13, consists of alternate
headers and stretchers in every course, every header being
immediately over the center of the stretcher in the course
below.
When brick walls are constructed with an air space, the
inside and outside parts of the wall must be bonded to-
gether by means of some sort of a metal tie which crosses
the air space and is firmly embedded in mortar at both
of its ends.
Hollow WaUs
Considerable objection has arisen to solid brick walls
on accoimt of the fact that brick absorbs moisture, and
readily conducts heat and cold. As a result of these un-
desirable qualities, interiors of houses built of brick are
damp and cold, and a maximum of fuel is required to heat
the building. To overcome these objections, hollow walls
have been extensively employed, and seem to be entirely
satisfactory. To obtain the full benefit of the air space,
no brick bonding should be used between the inner and
outer walls, since it permits the passage of moisture through
the wall wherever it is bonded. At the bottom of the air
space some means should be provided to drain oflF the
moisture which permeates the outer wall and drops to the
bottom.
Efflorescence
The face of brickwork is sometimes discolored to a greater
or less degree by a white efflorescence which appears after
the bricks have been laid, and which may reappear years
BUILDING MATERIALS 29
afterward following a driving rainstorm or damp snow.
It is caused by one or more of several things : the action
of the lime in the mortar upon the silicate of soda in the
bricks, or the union of the magnesia in the lime mortar
with the sulphuric acid formed by burning clay containing
pyrites. The efflorescence is never due to any constituent
of the mortar or the bricks alone, and methods are now
being perfected to prevent it. Any preparation which,
when appUed to the surface of the brick, will make them
impermeable to moisture will prevent the efflorescence
from appearing.
Roofing
Shingles as roof covering are used far more than any
other type for residences, farm buildings, sheds, etc. The
best shingles are made from cypress, redwood, or cedar, in
the order given. Cypress shingles are usually 18 inches
long and are supposed to be ^ of an inch thick at the butt,
while other kinds are but 16 inches long and about -^ of
an inch thick at the butt. The width of shingles varies
from 2 J to 14 and even 16 inches. They are sold in bundles,
usually four to a thousand, a "thousand" meaning the
equivalent of 1000 shingles 4 inches wide. When shingles
are to be used for special designs, they are sawed to a uni-
form width, either 4, 5, or 6 inches, and are known as
dimension shingles.
Slate shingles are used where fireproofing and permanency
are of importance. A good slate should be hard, tough,
and uniform in quality and color. The color of slates
varies from blue-black, dark blue, and purple to gray and
green, and in some quarries, red. The size of slates is also
subject to variation, from 6X 12 inches to 14 X 24 inches.
They are sold by the "square," which means a sufficient
30 FARM STRUCTURES
number of slates to cover ^ loo square feet of roof with
a 3-inch lap over the course below.
Roofing tile is a term applied to exterior roof covering,
made from clay, with overlapping edges. Their compara-
tively high cost has prevented the wide use of tile in America,
though in better classes of residences their use is common
because of their adaptability in lending themselves to fancy
treatment in architectural details. They compare favor-
ably with slates in cost. Tile manufactured from sheet
metal heavily tinned or galvanized, or painted, are coming
into quite common use.
Tin roofing is made with the use of sheets of steel coated
with tin or a mixture of lead and tin, called term. Where
—^ the roof pitch is less than one third,
P I the plates are united with flat seams,
T
and are fastened by means of one-inch
tinned and barbed roofing nails over
Fig. 14. —standing joint jff\^Q\^ the seams are well hammered
on a tin roof. When
pressed together this down, and then soldered. For steep
n^Jces a vciy tight j-^j^fg^ standing seams should be used
composed of two "upstands'' with a
cleat holding them in place, as shown in Figure 14. Nails
should be driven into the cleats only. A tin roof properly
made and kept well painted should last thirty or forty
years.
Gravel roofing is used on very low-pitched roofs. It is
formed ordinarily by covering the surface of the roof with
dry felt paper, and over this laying three, four, or five
layers of tarred or asphalted felt, the layers overlapping
each other, so that only from 6 to 10 inches of the 30-inch
width of paper is exposed. This is then covered with a
uniform coat of pitch into which, while hot, gravel or slag
is imbedded. A responsible roofer will usually guarantee
BUILDING MATERIALS 31
his work for five years, although a good roof of this kind
should last from fifteen to twenty years.
^^ Ready roofing,^ ^ made by cementing together two or
more layers of saturated felt or felt and burlap, and then
coated with either a hard solution of the same cementing
material, or with hot pitch or asphalt in which is imbedded
sand or fine gravel, is quite widely used. It is usually
sold in rolls 36 inches wide. When made by a reliable
manufacturer, it provides an economical and durable
roof, and for some buildings it is to be preferred to any other
form of roofing.
Concrete
Concrete is a mixture of water, hydraulic cement, and an
aggregate composed of sand, gravel, or broken stone, in
certain definite proportions, which, when allowed to harden,
form an artificial stone.
The use of concrete is as old as history itself. The huge
temples of Babylonia and Assyria, with their enormous
columns and arches, were built of concrete; so were the
Aztec and Toltec temples of Mexico and South America;
the Romans used concrete extensively in their large public
building; even the Pyramids of Egypt, the construction
of which is a source of marvel to engineers, are now claimed
to have been built of large concrete blocks, probably cast
in place.
Cement, though so widely used by the ancients, seemed
to fall into disrepute during the Middle Ages, and lime and
silt mortars were used instead. Many of the famous
cathedrals of Europe were begun at this time, and the
inefficacy of this form of construction is seen in the fact
that these structures have been constantly repaired since
their building began, the mortar joints disintegrating and
requiring refilUng and repointing.
32 FARM STRUCTURES
About the beginning of the eighteenth century, however,
the use of true hydraulic cement began, and Portland
cement, so named by its originator from the resemblance
it bore to the stone from the Portland quarries in England,
became a great factor in all kinds of construction. In
1912, nearly 80,000,000 barrels of it were manufactured in
the United States alone.
Concrete Materials
Cement. — For large structures, where the amount of
cement used may run into hundreds or thousands of barrels,
the selection and testing of the cement are of vital impor-
tance. Standard specifications have been evolved by the
American Society for Testing Materials, and the cement
must fulfill these rigid requirements before it is accepted.
For small structures, and especially for the small pieces
of concrete work on the farm, cement need not be tested.
If it is of a standard brand, and if it is bought of a reliable
dealer, its worth should be sufficiently assured to warrant
its use. lA storage it should be kept dry, for the presence
of even a small amount of moisture will cause it to harden,
and then it cannot be used again.
Sand, — Ordinarily concrete is mixed in certain pro-
portions of cement, sand, and gravel. Since the proportions
depend a great deal upon the sizes of the aggregate, the
selection of it is important. The sand should be clean,
and consist of particles of varying sizes, in order that voids
may be eliminated as completely as possible; the larger
the voids, the more cement must be used. This is illus-
trated in Figure 15; where the aggregate is composed of
particles of all sizes, the total voids are less than a third
of what they are in an aggregate of uniform size. Clay
or loam in sand is an undesirable constituent; some au-
BUILDING MATERIALS
33
thorities claim that a small percentage is not injurious,
while others claim it is; at any rate, it can do no harm to
have the sand clean.
Gravel. — The same precautions to be observed in the
selection of sand apply equally well for gravel. The
maximum size of the gravel particles depends upon the
purpose for which the concrete is to be used ; fence posts,
for instance, requiring the coarse aggregate to consist of
particles not larger, than the end of one's finger, while for
Fig. 15. — Varying and uniform aggregate. Showing
economy of the former.
mass work, as foundations, large bowlders, well embedded,
may be used to advantage without weakening the concrete.
Broken stone, — This is used for the coarser aggregate
in many instances where gravel is not available. The
comparative value of gravel and broken stone as aggregates
for concrete has ever been a bone of contention, but for
small structures such as are made on the farm, it need not
be taken into consideration. Broken stone is usually
crushed limestone, which has been graded according to
size, from screenings up to pieces which will just pass
through a 2^ -inch ring. This uniformity in size is imdesir-
able, because it detracts from the void-filling properties
of a correctly constituted aggregate. To obtain the best
results, where stone must be used, it should be obtained
34 FARM STRUCTURES
in different sizes, in such proportions that when thoroughly
mixed a mimimum of voids will exist. Screenings, or
stone dust, is a valuable material for making the finish
coat on sidewalks, or in any sort of concrete work where
the details must be brought out so carefully as to preclude
the use of coarse aggregates.
Water. — The only precaution to observe in using water
to temper concrete is to be sure that the water is clean,
and not alkaline. Sometimes, in the construction of re-
taining walls, abutments, etc., water taken out- of the
stream is used, and enough silt may be stirred into the water
to seriously impair the strength of the concrete. In some
sections of the country where alkali soils are common, the
alkalinity of the water may be great enough to cause
ultimate disintegration of the concrete. This is especially
the case with drain tile which have been laid in alkali soils,
and the resulting disintegration within a few years has done
much to discourage the use of concrete drain tile, even in
soils where no alkalinity exists.
Mixing Concrete
The materials for making concrete may be mixed either
by hand or by machine, the latter method being used uni-
versally for large jobs. Hand mixing is done less generally
than formerly even in small jobs because users of cement
are recognizing the value of the time lost in hand mixing,
and because small batch or continuous mixers can be
purchased at a low cost ; even simple ones can be made at
a small expense.
When hand mixing is employed, the cement and sand
should first be mixed dry until the two materials are thor-
oughly incorporated; then the dry mixture should be
tempered with water until it is of the proper consistency,
BUILDING MATERIALS 35
the coarser aggregate of screened gravel or broken stone
being added as the mixmg proceeds. The various degrees
of consistency may be arbitrarily classed as dry, medium^
and wet. A dry mixture is one whose degree of dampness
is about the same as that of damp soil ; only heavy, con-
tinued tamping will expose water. A medium mixture
is so wet that it will barely hold its shape when heaped up.
A wet, or sloppy, mixture is one similar in consistency
to mortar for plastering.
Proportioning
Concrete materials are mixed in some stated proportions
when only a small amount is required ; for example, one
part of cement, two parts of sand, four parts of gravel;
these parts are always measured by volume, and such a
proportion is known as a 1:2:4 mixture. Taylor and
Thompson, in *'A Treatise on Concrete,'' arbitrarily make
four proportions which differ in relative quantities of cement
and which serve as a guide to the selection of amounts of
materials for various classes of work. These proportions
are as follows :
1. Rich — I : i^ : 3 ; for columns and structural parts
subjected to heavy stresses.
2. Standard — 1:2:4; for floors, beams, and columns
requiring reenforcing, for tanks, sewers, etc.
3. Medium — i : 2J : 5 ; for walls, piers, sidewalks, etc.
4. Lean — 1:3:6; for heavy mass work which is only
in compression.
These proportions, however, are not theoretically correct.
The determination of the exact percentage of voids is
a very technical process, and usually is not done, except
in large structures, where the aggregate used is fairly con-
stant is size. The ideal proportioning is accomplished
36 FARM STRUCTURES
when the percentage of voids is reduced to a minimum,
the finer aggregate just filling the voids between the particles
of the coarser aggregate, and just enough cement being
used to coat thoroughly every partide of the whole aggre-
gate and to fill the minute remaining voids.
For determining the amount of materials in a cubic yard
of concrete, the following formulas, known as Fuller's
Rule, give fairly acciurate results :
Let c — number of parts of cement
s » number of ports of sand
I » number of parts of gravd or broken stone
Then
II
c^-s-V g
number of barrds of cement required for ome cu. yd. concrete.
PXiX^ = S = nvaoheroicu.yd. sand required for one cu. yd. oonciete.
P X gX ^^ or 5 X- = G = number of cu. yd. gravel or bndLcn stone re-
quired for one cu. yd. concrete.
When making mortar, it is generally assumed that the
following table holds :
Parts Cement + Parts Sand = Parts Mortar
II 1.4
I 2 2.2
I 3 2.8
Special Properties of Concrete
As a building material, concrete has been subjected to
some extremely difficult tests which have proved its worth.
Sea water, however, seems to have a destructive action upon
it, the dissolved sulphates forming acids which decompose
the cement. By controlling the composition of the cement
and keeping the lime and alumina content as low as possible,
this decomposition may be more or less preventable ; the
BUILDING MATERIALS 37
imperviousness which results from the use of a rich mixture
will also preserve the structure.
Efect of Temperature. — Freezing and thawing have
practically no effect on concrete. Freshly laid concrete,
however, is sometimes seriously injured if it freezes before
it sets, and the laying of concrete in freezing weather should
be avoided. When it is necessary to do it, both the water
and the aggregate should be well heated before mixing, and
the concrete should be laid rapidly. If practicable, it
should be protected by canvas, clean straw, or some such
material. There seems to be a certain amoimt of heat
generated in the setting of cement, which, when retained,
will keep the concrete sufficiently warm to enable it to set
properly.
Fire and Rust Protection. — Experiments and observa-
tions have conclusively proved that concrete is an ad-
mirable protection of steel from both fire and rust. A
coating of dense concrete, ij or 2 inches thick, made in
ordinary proportions with gravel or cinders, will resist the
most severe fire likely to occur in any building, and will
prevent the corrosion of steel even under extraordinary
condition.
Water-tightness. — Though concrete when mixed in
lean proportions is more or less porous and readily absorbs
moisture, it may easily be made water-tight. This is
accomplished in several ways :
1. By ideal'proportioning of the cement and aggregates.
2. By special surface treatment.
3. By intimately mixing with the concrete some foreign
substance which prevents the absorption or passage of
water.
4. By applying asphalt and felt, or other waterproof
material.
38 FARM STRUCTURES
The consistency of the mixture, too, has an effect on the
waterproof qualities of concrete, it being found that the
wetter the mixture up to a certain degree, the more im-
pervious will be the concrete.
The two methods first listed above are not especially
efficient; the fourth method has been much used in the
past and is decidedly effective, though very expensive.
Modem practice in waterproofing concrete tends to the
use of the third method, the market being flooded with
waterproofing mixtures of more or less merit. They are
comparatively cheap, and for certain classes of concrete
work are very effective and valuable.
Forms
A very important consideration in concrete construction
is the form. Cbncrete is a plastic substance, and reproduces
with fidelity every detail of the cavity into which it is put.
Consequently, the preparation of the forms cannot be
slighted. Various materials are used in form construction,
heavy foundations below ground having no other form than
an earth wall, but the greatest number of forms are made
of iron or wood. Iron has its advantages, since it can be
easily cleaned and can be used an indefinite number of
times for the same work ; but its use is limited, on account
of the difficulty in working it. Wood forms are used very
extensively, because wood is easily convertible, and can
almost always be obtained in sufficient quantities.
Green spruce or fir is a suitable wood for forms, for it will
not warp, and does not absorb moisture to any great degree.
If wood is to be used over and over again, it is economical
to use the best-grade matched stuff, free from loose knots,
and to have it built up in as large sections as it is practicable
to handle. The cement will gradually fill up the pores of
BUILDING MATERIALS 39
the wood, and thus preserve it as well as would a coat of
paint.
Before filling the concrete into the forms, paint them with
some greasy mixture, oil or soap. This is to prevent the
forms from sticking to the cement. Should any particles
of cement adhere to the forms when they are removed,
they should be immediately and completely removed.
Surface Finish
Unless exceedingly great care is taken in the preparation
of forms, the surface of the concrete will present an un-
attractive appearance. To remedy this, various methods
of surface treatment are resorted to. A cement wash,
composed of a neat mixture of cement and water, may be
spread over the surface, and will leave a clear, smooth ex-
terior imless the surface is exceedingly rough. In this
event, the concrete is gone over with a solution of dilute
hydrochloric acid, and scrubbed with a wire brush, to
remove the surface cement. Then a coat of cement plaster
is appUed, either smooth, cast, or rubbed, this hiding the
comparatively lifeless surface of the bare concrete.
Ornamental surfaces may be obtained on concrete by
brushing, rubbing, tooling, or by using an aggregate of
some attractive color.
Where the finish is to be obtained by brushing, the forms
must be removed as soon as possible and the brushing
accomplished rapidly while the cement is still green. Care
must be taken that it is not done too soon, as Uttle particles
of the aggregate wiU be loosened, resulting in a pitted and
unsightly surface. A brush with stiff, springy bristles,
either fiber or wire, will serve the purpose if the cement
does not get too hard, and a Kberal use of water will
materially assist in the work.
40
FARM STRUCTURES
A rubbed concrete finish is obtained by removing the
forms when the concrete is a day or two old, and rubbing
the surface with some abrasive material, such as emery,
sandstone, etc. To get the best results from this treat-
ment, the aggregate used in the concrete should be rather
fine, or if there is any coarse stujff, it should be spaded
back from the face of the work. To assist in getting a
smooth surface, a grout of cement should be worked into
any little existing crevices. This surface treatment erases
form marks, and is superior to painting with cement wash,
since there is nothing to scale ofif.
Tooling may be done on concrete just as effectively as
on stone, provided the surface of the concrete has no large
aggregate in it. To obtain the best results, the concrete
should be thoroughly hardened before any work is attempted
on it.
Almost any color and texture can be obtained by choos-
ing for an aggregate for the concrete crushed stone of the
proper size and color. This can be finished in any way,
and the surface thus prepared is permanent, will not fade,
deteriorate, scale, nor require renewing. K the desired
•
Cost or
Dry Material
USED
Weight of Dry Colorino Matter to ioo
Lbs. Cement
Coloring
Matter,
1
i PER LB.
lib.
lib.
2 lb.
4 lb.
Lampblack
Light slate
Light gray
Blue-gray
Dark slate
15
Prussian blue .
Light green
Light blue
Blue slate
Bright blue
50
slate
slate
slate
Yellow ocher .
Light green
Light buff
3
Burnt umber .
Light
Pinkish
Lavender
Chocolate
10
pinkish
slate
pink
slate
Red iron ore .
Pinkish
Dull pink
Terra
Light brick
2.S
slate
cotta
red
BUILDING MATERIALS 41
color cannot be acquired by the use of colored aggregates
alone, the cement itself can be given almost any color by
mixing it with certain coloring matters. In " Cement and
Concrete," by L. C. Sabin, the above color table is
given.
The results obtained from coloring are as yet not def-
inite. Some colors seem to fade when exposed to the
weather, especially lampblack and Prussian blue. The
iron ore seems to be the most permanent in color, but even
it gets Ughter with exposure.
Stl4CC0
Stucco has been in use to a greater or less extent for ages.
The Greeks and Romans were experts in its application,
and some of the finest examples of fresco and inlaid tile
work are to-day preserved in stuccoed surfaces. In Euro-
pean countries stucco or plastered houses are more common
than frame, probably because lumber is comparatively
scarce, and because the appreciation of the beauty of these
surfaces is greater than here.
Stucco has been employed more extensively for build-
ing purposes in warm, dry climates than elsewhere, because
in the past only mud or lime plasters hav^ been used. This
could not endure in a damp climate, nor could it withstand
the sudden and wide changes in temperature of colder
cUmates. The use of cement, however, has changed all
this, and the architectural beauty which can be developed
in the use of stucco can be enjoyed anywhere.
Stucco to-day is being employed for two purposes —
to form the exterior wall of a building, or to renovate an
existing structure by giving it a more pleasing appearance.
Many old buildings h^ve been made presentable and at-
tractive by putting a coat of stucco over the stone, brick,
42 FARM STRUCTURES
or wood of which they have been built, forming a permanent
finish.
Constituents. — The mixture commonly used in stucco
work consists of cement and sand, with the addition of
about one part of hydrated Ume to ten parts of cement.
The cement and lime should be thoroughly dry mixed first,
then double the quantity of clean sand added, and the
whole mass mixed until it shows a uniform color. Water
should then be added until the mixture has a consistency
of a stifif plaster.
Method of Application. — As in all concrete work, care-
ful workmanship is an essential of success. When cement
plaster is appUed to a surface which absorbs moisture,
proper adhesion cannot take place ; or if a freshly plastered
surface is exposed to the heat of the sun, evaporation will
take the water from the cement and prevent its proper
hardening. To avoid this latter contingency, the surface
must be protected with canvas, or frequently sprayed.
Stucco should never be applied when the temperature is
below freezing, for the water will of course turn to ice and
the cement wiU not harden. Another precaution is to
never disturb the stucco after the cement has begun to set.
On Frame Buildings. — Some distinct advantages of a
stucco exterior over shingle or clapboard work are respon-
sible for a great and growing popularity of the former.
Stucco, when properly applied, is permanently enduring,
improves in appearance with age, and has no maintenance
charge for painting or renovating. It is claimed that stucco
makes a frame house warmer in winter and cooler in sum-
mer, and it naturally adds to the fireproof quality of the
structure.
Figure i6 shows the usual type of construction employed
in stucco work. The framework, consisting of the studs
BUILDING MATERIALS
43
and sheathing, must be made as stiff as possible, for any
swaying of the structure will necessarily crack the stucco.
The sheathing is well nailed to the outside of the studs;
then follows a layer of good, heavy building paper, held in
place by f " X i" furring strips, placed vertically 9 inches
apart. On these strips is fastened either the metal or
wood lath, to which the stucco is applied.
To use metal or wood lath is a [mooted question. Some
reputable architects deplore the use of either, and will not
specify the application of stucco to anything but a hollow
m////////////////m///////////////m/m^^^
y"
2x6''^fu<^s
^<Sheofh}no
s««?»i'xy«?>y>ni'*a««t
Jnfenhr Thate n
Fig. 16. —r- Stucco on frame structure. Modem method of application.
tile with a specially shaped side. Other authorities ad-
vocate the use of a narrow wood lath, claiming the ex-
pansion and contraction to be so slight that no cracks in
the stucco result. Metal lath are recommended because
there is no absorption of any moisture required by the
mortar, the fire risk is decreased, and there can be no cracks
to harbor vermin. One essential is that no water get
behind the stucco. To prevent this, all roof guttering and
downspouting should be put up before the plastering is
done. Wood window and door sills should project well
from the face of the plaster, and should have a good drip,
either by a downward slant, or by a groove rebated in the
imder side of the sill near enough to its edge that it will
not be covered by plaster.
If metal lath is used, it should be properly protected from
44 FARM STRUCTURES
corrosion. This can be accomplished in several ways.
An expensive but effectual method is to plaster the lath
on both sides ; but if this is impracticable, the lath may be
dipped in a paint made of equal parts of neat cement and
water. Immediately after the dipping, the lath should
be attached to the furring strips, and the stucco should
be applied as soon as the cement has hardened on the metal.
A bitumen paint, to which cement will adhere, can be used,
but two dippings will be necessary, and the paint should
dry for twenty-four hours.
After the lath is in place, the first coat should be applied.
It is aimed for the first and second coats to be a cement
mortar with only a small percentage of lime, the com-
position to be as follows :
1 part cement
2 parts clean sand
^ part pulverized hydrated lime
All materials are to be measured by volume. They
should be thoroughly mixed dry, and then water is added
until the mortar is of the proper consistency for plastering.
For the first coat, add one pound of hair to each bag of
cement.
In doing the work, the plastering should be started at
the top, and carried downward continuously without allow-
ing the plastering to dry at the raw lower edge. If the wall
is so wide as to make it impossible to work the full width
at one time, make the break at some natural division, such
as a door or window. The plaster must be forced through
the meshes so as to form a good key ; a small-sized mesh,
not larger than f " by f ", is preferable, since it will prevent
the waste caused by dropping cement through the larger
meshes. The thickness of the first coat should be about
half an inch; while this coat is still wet, it should be
BUILDING MATERIALS 45
scratched deeply over the entire surface, and then as soon
as it can support the second coat, the latter is applied,
from i" to f " thick. This should also be scratched to
provide a rough surface for the finish coat. The finish
coat should contain no lime nor hair, but should have some
reliable commercial waterproofing mixed with it according
to the directions given by the manufacturer.
When half-timbering is used, the boards should be re-
bated as shown in Figure 16, in order that moisture be
kept out as much as possible.
Surface Finishing. — Stucco admits of wide variation in
surface finish, and almost any effect may be obtained. A
few methods are listed herewith.
Smooth, — This finish can be secured by troweling the
final coat to an even surface.
Roughcast, — By using plasterer's trowels covered with
carpet or burlap a rough-coat finish may be obtained.
The irregularity of the surface may- be varied by using
coarse-grained sand.
Slapdash, — It requires an expert to do this finish well ;
the method is to throw on the final coat with a paddle.
Pebble Dash, — Apply the final coat rather wet, then
throw clean pebbles about J inch in diameter into it.
Start the work at the top, and throw the pebbles on with
a sweeping motion, using enough force to imbed them
securely. Care must be taken not to disturb the cement
after it has started to set, and in order to avoid this the
surface must be covered with the pebbles immediately after
the fresh plaster is applied. It is well to have a separate
workman handle the pebbles if the surface is of any size ;
but if it is cut up into smaller separate portions, one of these
may be plastered with the final coat and covered with
pebbles immediately afterward by the same workman.
46 FARM Sl'RUCTURES
In addition to the various finishes that can be given to
stucco, it can be colored ahnost any shade desired. Very
beautiful effects can be obtained by properly arranging
the various colors at different places in the structure.
Concrete Blocks
The manufacture of concrete blocks has assumed great
importance as an industry of recent years, on account of
the simplicity of structures built of concrete blocks, and
the ease of handling them, the use of forms being obviated.
Manufacturers of concrete blocks claim that they excel
stone in texture, color, appearance, and durability, when
properly made, and are considerably lower in cost.
Any discussion of all block machines is futile, from the
fact that there are hundreds of machines upon the market,
all differing, some widely, some only in details. The im-
mense variety is an excellent witness both to the inventive
genius displayed by concrete men, and to the widespread,
sincere interest in block manufacture. There are at least
a dozen types of machines — molding face-down, face-up,
or side-face blocks ; with horizontal or vertical cores ; with
single, double, or staggered air spaces ; using dry, medium,
or wet mixtures ; and so on, almost indefinitely.
Size. — The best size to construct a block is a question
which is best settled by a consideration of the work in hand.
A fair average would be, perhaps,*one 1 6 to 24 inches long,
and 8 inches high, with a depth varying from 8 to 12 inches.
An 8-inch block is amply strong for small residences, but
the building ordinances of some cities require a 12-inch
block.
Types. — Two general types of blocks are made, faced
and unit in construction. A faced block consists practically
of two layers, the heavier body of the block being com-
BUILDING MATERIALS 47
posed possibly of a i : 4 mixture of cement and gravel,
while the face is made of a i : 2 mixture of cement and sand.
A successful block must have a perfect bond between these
two layers, otherwise the face will probably check or crack
off, presenting a very bad appearance. The facing mixture
ordinarily contains a small percentage of hydrated lime, in
order to secure an attractive texture and finish for the
surface. Waterproofing may also be included in the facing
mixture; in fact, it is desirable. Coloring matter, too,
may be incorporated, and blocks of any color may be
produced.
In making the unit block, the same mixture is used
throughout. Contrary to the usual idea, a comparatively
coarse aggregate may still present a pleasing exterior, and
the unit block is consequently gaining favor and prominence.
The block may be waterproofed throughout, though if a rich
enough mixture is used, the block should be sufficiently
impervious without waterproofing.
Design of Block Faces, — The selection of a design for
the face of a block is so much a matter of personal taste
that it may seem useless to attempt to lay down any rules
on this subject. The favorite block seems to be one with
a flat face, either flat or beveled comers, and with suffi-
cient diversity in size of face to do away with monotony.
Curing. — Irrespective of type, design, color, or face, the
block must be properly cured. Every possible precaution
must be taken to prevent the drying out of the block
during the initial set and early hardening. They must
be protected from wind, sim, dry heat, and freezing imtil
they have fully solidified. Two weeks is not too long a
time to accomplish this. Even with this, blocks should
not be used, except imder special conditions, imtil they are
at least six weeks old. A 24-inch block will shrink about
48 FARM STRUCTURES
^ of an inch in that length of time, and if green blocks
are placed in a wall the shrinkage will be perceptible.
Laying Blocks. — The best mortar to use in laying con-
crete blocks is one composed of :
I part cement
3 parts hydrated lime, and enough sand to make a rich mortar
The blocks should be wetted thoroughly before laying
to prevent the absorption of moisture from the mortar.
The mortar joint should be rather thin, from J to | inch in
thickness.
Special Shapes. — Special shapes and sizes of blocks
are necessary for the construction of silos, porches, cornices,
sills, and other architectural details. The equipment of
a good machine includes suflScient forms to make almost
any shape of block desired.
Remforced Concrete
Reenforced concrete is ordinary concrete in which iron
or steel rods or wire is imbedded. Reenforcement is re-
quired when the concrete is liable to be pulled or bent,
as in floors, beams, posts, walls, or tanks, because, while
concrete is as strong as stone masonry, neither of these
materials has nearly so much strength in tension as in com-
pression. Moreover, concrete alone, like any natural
stone, is brittle, but by imbedding in it steel rods or other
reenforcements, the cement adheres, and the metal binds
the particles together, and the reenforced concrete is then
better able to withstand jar and impact.
The idea of reenforcing concrete may be gathered from
the following, using Figure 17 for illustration :
Suppose a rectangular, concrete beam be supported at
B and at C, with a load appUed at A. The beam will be
BUILDING MATERIALS 49
divided into two parts by a horizontal plane, shown in the
figure by the dotted line. That part of the beam at A
below the dotted line will be in tension ; that is, the action
of the force A will tend to tear the particles apart. Above
the dotted line, that part of the beam 1
at A will be in compression, or will be r — -— — t
•_!.• A I A 1 Vi ^. \\
resisting a tendency toward crushing at ^zri Sc
that place. At the dotted line itself, Fig. 17.— Principle of
,, M, u ^ • .1 '1 reenforcing concrete.
there will be no stram, consequently it
is known as the neutral axis. Now concrete is from
six to ten times as strong in compression as it is in
tension, and unless the lower part of the beam is treated
in some way so as to bring the resistance to the tension
in the lower part as high as the resistance in compression
in the upper part, the full efficiency of the beam is not
attained. By imbedding steel rods, a material very high
in tensile strength, in the lower part of the beam, the
concrete materials are more firmly bound together, and
this, added to the strength of the steel itself, greatly aug-
ments the resistance to a tensile strain in this part of the
beam. The beam is properly reenforced when there is
enough steel in the lower part to increase the tensile
strength sufficiently to equalize the compressive strength
in the upper part.
Since concrete is a brittle material, and steel a com-
paratively ductile one, it might be imagined that the stretch-
ing of the tension part of the beam would result in the
formation of cracks on this surface, leaving the steel to
resist all the pull. This has been proved to be true to
a certain extent, and it might be supposed that these cracks
would admit moisture, resulting in corrosion of the steel.
However, while these cracks do reduce the strength of the
concrete, they are so minute, and so imiformly distributed,
E
50 FARM STRUCTURES
that the reenfordng metal is protected even up to its elastic
limit.
Not only must the steel be correctly located, but it is
essential to have the proper quantity of metal in the beam.
The nearer the steel is placed to the neutral axis, the less
will be its reenfordng effect; consequently, it should be
placed near the surface in the tension section, but not so
near as to cause any cracking off of exterior layers. If the
amoimt of metal is too small, weakness will- show itself as
soon as the metal reaches its yield point ; while if the cross
section of the metal is too large in comparison with the
area of concrete in compression, the beam, in case of failure,
will give way by compression in the concrete. The area
of the reenfordng metal in rectangular beams and slabs
varies according to conditions from about ^ per cent to
i| per cent of the area of the cross section of the reenforced
beam above the steel.
The actual design of a concrete beam or slab to obtain
the highest effidency of both the concrete and the steel
is a very technical problem, and will not be taken up here.
It should be intrusted to a competent engineer, who is
familiar with the character of the member, and the strength
and elastidty of the concrete and the steel.
Various shapes and sizes of steel bars are used for reen-
fordng; most of them are manufactured so as to make
the surface of the rod as irregular as possible, to overcome
any tendency of the steel to slip through the concrete, and
to give a better gripping surface.
The reenfordng of silos will be considered more in detail
in a subsequent chapter devoted exclusively to silos and
the methods employed in their construction.
BUILDING MATERIALS 51
The Strength of Concrete
Concrete possesses its chief value as a building material
as a result of its great compression strength; With reen-
forcing it becomes an ideal material for coliunns, beams,
and floors. Tests of concrete are made to determine either
the tensile, compressive, or transverse strength, and from
the results of these tests deductions are made as to the com-
parative strength with other materials.
Plain concrete, that is, concrete without any reenforcing,
varies in strength according to :
1. The quality of the cement.
2. Texture of the aggregate.
3. Quantity of cement in a unit volume of concrete.
4. Tensity of the concrete.
The actual strength of concrete in compression, because
of the limited capacity of testing machines, can be deter-
mined only by experiments upon conparatively small
specimens. The actual strength of a good concrete, care-
fully made and laid, is in all probability somewhat higher
than the results of experiments indicate, because specimen
blocks cannot contain such a homogeneous mixture as
would exist in actual practice. Taylor and Thompson
have evolved a simple formula for the determination of
the strength of plain concrete, which gives sufficient
accuracy for comparing the compressive strength of mixtures
of the same materials in different proportions. The formula
follows :
Let
P = unit of compressive strength of concrete.
C = absolute volume of cetaent in a unit volume of concrete.
S = absolute volume of sand in a unit voliune of concrete.
g = absolute volume of stone in a unit volume of concrete.
M = a, coefficient, varying only with the age of the concrete.
52 FARM STRUCTURES
Average values of M are as follows :
Age Value or M
7 days 9,500
I month 12,500
3 months 15,600
6 months 16,900
I year 18,000
Then
Table of Compressive Strength of Concrete
Proportions
Age Six Months. 40 %
Voids. Lbs./Sq. In.
i:ii:3
1:2:4
i:2i:5
1:3 '^
1:4 :8
2720
2410
2130
1910
1530
Transverse Strength of Concrete. — The strength of a plain
concrete beam is limited by the tensile strength of concrete
at the place of greatest strain, which with vertical loading
is at the lower surface.
Table for Transverse Strength of Plain Concrete
Proportions
1:2:4
1:3:6
1:4:8
Strength in Lbs./Sq. In.
440
226
157
Mortar
Mortar is composed of lime or cement and clean sand,
with just enough water to make a plastic mass. The pro-
portion of sand depends upon the character of the Ume or
cement.
BUILDING MATERIALS 53
Cement Mortar. — In mixing cement mortar the cement
and sand are first mixed thoroughly dry, the water then
added and the whole worked to a uniformly plastic con-
dition. The quaUty of the mortar is governed largely by
the thoroughness of the mixing, the object to be attained
being so completely mixing the materials that no two ad-
jacent grains shall be without an intervening film of cement.
The chief faults in mixing mortar are not mixing the ma-
terials thoroughly when dry, and adding an excess of water
in order to facilitate the labor of mixing. An overdose of
water is better than an insufficiency, however, for cement
is very absorptive.
In mixing by hand a platform or box is essential ; the
sand should be spread in an even layer, then covered with
the proper amount of cement, after which both should be
turned and mixed with shovels until a thorough incor-
poration is effected. The dry mixture should then be
piled in a heap, with a crater at the top, and all the water
required poured into it. The material on the outside of
the crater should be thrown in until the water is taken up,
and then worked in a plastic condition.
In order to secure good mixing, it is customary to specify
the mixture to be turned a specified number of times with
shovels, both dry and wet. The mixing with the shovels
should be performed quickly and energetically.
The proportion of cement to sand varies with the nature
of the work and the necessity for strength or impervious-
ness of the mortar. The sand for mortar must be clean,
that is, free from loam, mud, or organic matter, sharp
and fairly coarse, and not too uniform in size. The water
should be fresh and clean, free from mud and vegetable
matter. The quantity of water can be determined only
by experience, since the nature of the sand and the cement,
54
FARM STRUCTURES
and the proportions of each, govern it so largely. Fine
sand requires more water than coarse to give the same
consistency. Dry sand will absorb more water than moist,
and a sand composed of porous materials will require more
than one composed of hard material.
The purpose for which the mortar is to be used also
affects the amount of water used. The consistency of
mortar for masonry is such that it will stand in a pile, and
not be fluid enough to flow. Mortar for plastering is more
plastic.
Cement and Sand required for One Cubic Yard of Mortar
Parts of Pement: Sand
Cehent, Bbls.
Sand, Cu. Yd.
; I
4.00
0.60
. 2
2.75
0.80
:3
2.00
0.8s
4
150
0.90
'S
I.2S
0.93
i:6
1. 00
0.9s
As to the amount of water, it has been found by nimaerous
experiments that, as a general rule, one part of water to
three parts of cement by measure, or three and one half
parts of cement by volume, is the best, both in regard to
convenience in mixing and in the ultimate strength and
durability of the mortar.
Amount op Mortar required for a Cubic Yard of Masonry
Kind op Masonry
Ashlar, 18" courses, i" joints
Ashlar, 12" courses, i" joints
Brick, standard size, J" joints
Brick, standard size, |" joints
Rubble, small rough stones .
Rubble, large, hammer dressed
Mortar,
Cu. Yd.
0.035
0.07s
o.io -
-0.150
0.25 -
• 0.350
0.33 "
-0.400
0.200-
•0.300
BUILDING MATERIALS 55
Paint
A paint is a liquid coating applied to wood, steel, iron, or
other material for the purpose of ornamentation or pro-
tection, or both. It consists of a base (usually a metallic
oxide), a vehicle, and a solvent. The vehicle is the liquid
part of the paint ; in most paints it is either raw or boiled
linseed oil, sometimes with the addition of a little turpen-
tine. In enamel paints the vehicle is varnish ; in calcimine
and other cold-water paints it is a solution of glue, casein,
albumen, or some other cementing material, which is some-
times called a binder.
Bases. — The base for most common paints is either
white lead or zinc oxide ; these, unchanged, form the base
of most white paints, while for colored paints various
pigments are mixed with them. White lead is a hydrated
carbonate of lead, obtained by pouring carbonic acid gas
over a mixture of oxide of lead (litharge) and water with
about I per cent of acetate of lead. It is insoluble in
water, but easily soluble in nitric acid, and dissolves when
heated, first turning yellow in color. Its chief adulterants
are gypsum, whiting or chalk, zinc oxide, and sulphates
of baryta and lead. Oxide of zinc is produced by distilling
metallic zinc in retorts under a current of air ; it will dis-
solve in hydrochloric acid.
From oxide of lead is produced the red oxide, or red lead,
much used as a base for bright red paints. It is manu-
factured by raising oxide of lead to a very high temperature,
just short of fusion, during which it absorbs oxygen from
the air, and is converted into the red oxide. By using
carbonate of lead and properly regulating the temperature,
an orange base, called orange lead, is obtained. Red lead
is adulterated with various metallic oxides, with red oxides
of iron, and with brick dust.
56 FARM STRUCTURES
Iron oxide is produced from the brown hematite iron ores
by roasting, separating the impurities, and then grinding.
Shades varjdng from yellowish brown to black may be ob-
tained by altering the temperatures under which it is roasted.
Sulphide of antimony, or antimony vermilion, is a dull
orange-red base produced from antimony ore.
The base for most yellow paints is chromate of lead, or
chrome-yellow; green is chrome green, a mixture of
chrome yellow and Prussian blue. Ultramarine or Prussian
blue is the base for common blue paints. Coal tar gives
bases of brilliant red, violet, and purple. Most black
paints have for a base carbon, either in the form of lamp-
black, boneblack, or graphite.
Vehicles, — Linseed oil is the most widely used of vehicles.
It is produced by compressing flaxseed. The oil is allowed
to settle until it can be drawn oflF clear. Good raw linseed
oil should be pale in color, transparent, and almost free
from odor. It improves with age ; its drying quality and
color may be improved by adding a pound of white lead
to each gallon of oil and letting it settle for a week, when the
oil is drawn off. The white lead remaining can be used as
a base for coarse paiQt.
Boiled linseed oil is prepared by heating raw oil; it is
thicker and darker in color than raw oil, and is not as suit-
able for delicate work. However, it dries in about one
fourth the time required for raw oil, and is valuable on
account of this property.
Linseed oil is subject to various adulterations, as by the
addition of hemp, fish, cottonseed or mineral oils, which
are difficult to detect. Various substitutes for linseed oil,
such as fish oil or cottonseed oil treated with benzine,
are on the market, as well as numerous patented prepara-
tions, imder which class comes Japan oil.
BUILDING MATERIALS 57
Solvent. — About the only solvent used in paint manu-
facture is spirits of turpentine, a volatile oil obtained by the
distillation of turpentine from the yellow pine trees of the
southern states. The residuum left after distillation is
called rosin, to distinguish it from the finer resins used in
varnish manufacture. Grood turpentine is colorless and
has a pleasant pimgent odor. It is often adulterated with
mineral oils, and benzine, naphtha, etc., are often em-
ployed as a substitute for it.
Driers, — These are compounds of lead and manganese,
dissolved in oil, and thinned with turpentine or benzine.
They act as carriers of oxygen between the air and the
oil, and their addition makes the paint dry more rapidly.
Not more than 10 per cent by volume of drier should
be added, since any excess will lower the durability of the
paint.
Pigments. — These are added to regular paints of a basic
color to obtain other colors. The principal ones are as
follows :
Blacks — lampblack, vegetable black, ivory black, boneblack.
Blues — Prussian blue, blue lead, cobalt blue.
Browns — raw umber, burnt umber, burnt sienna.
Reds — red lead, vermilion, Indiana, Chinese, and Venetian red.
Greens — arsenites of copp)er, cobalt, ferrous oxide of iron, mixtures of
blue and yellow pigments.
Yellows — chrome yellow, Naples yellow, yellow ocher, raw sienna.
General Composition
The composition of paint varies with the purpose for
which it is to be used and the surface it is intended to cover.
If the paint is to be subsequently varnished, it must con-
tain a minimum of oil. If it is to be exposed to the sun,
turpentine must be added to prevent blistering ; it is also
58 FARM STRUCTURES
necessary to make paint adhere to old painted surfaces.
On new work, the first coat is called the primer, and is
chiefly oil, made by adding a gallon of raw linseed oil to each
gallon of ordinary paint. Knots and resinous places
should be covered with a shellac varnish before oil paint
is applied as a priming coat.
Exterior Painting. — For new exterior work, at least
three coats are necessary for a satisfactory paint surface.
The first, or priming, coat is largely absorbed by the wood.
Residences are usually painted with a white lead base,
which is sold as a paste containing lo per cent of oil. White
zinc is also an important base. Each has its defects, the
white lead having a tendency to powder, and the white
zinc becoming hard and scaly ; by mixing the two together
in the proportions of ^ white zinc to f white lead, a product
is formed superior to each of its components.
Painting may be facilitated if the trim is painted first,
leaving the body color to be laid on neatly against it.
The paint should be brushed on with the grain, and each
coat should be allowed a week in which to harden before
the succeeding coats are applied. The priming coat will
require about a gallon of paint for each 300 square feet of
surface, the second and third coats being much thinner, a
gallon of paint covering about 500 or 600 square feet. The
paint for roofs should contain a large proportion of oil,
and Uttle or no drier.
The treatment of shingles may result in especially beau-
tifid effects if properly done. Special shingle stains of
almost every conceivable color and tints and shades of
color are made, which consist of a pigment suspended in
creosote or some similar liquid, the creosote having a definite
preserving effect. Objection is sometimes made to the
odor of the creosote, but this soon passes away; should
BUILDING MATERIALS 59
the rain water collected from the roofs be used for house-
hold purposes, it is better that it be diverted from the
cistern for a time, until two or three good rains have washed
the roof. Creosote is not poisonous, but it is more or less
disagreeable m odor.
Interior Painting, — Doors and window frames are
given a priming coat before they leave the mill, the prim-
ing being omitted on those surfaces which will later be
varnished or stained. As mentioned before, all resinous
knots should be shellacked before any paint is appUed.
Following the priming coat should come the puttying,
which is done more satisfactorily with a wooden spatula
than with a steel putty knife, which cannot be used with-
out marring the surface. The paint for the second coat
should have a vehicle which is half turpentine so that it
will dry with a dull, or '^flaf surface, to which the next
coat will adhere readily. The third coat is usually the
final one, and may be an ordinary paint, drying with a
gloss that may be removed by a Ught rubbing with pumice
stone and water.
Enamel paint, a harder and more expensive paint than
oil paint, is made with varnish as a vehicle. It is com-
monly apphed over oil paint which has been sUghtly
roughened with sandpaper when quite dry. When the
first enamel coat has hardened, it should be sandpapered
or cut with curled hair, and then covered with the final
coat, which may be left glossy or rubbed flat as desired.
Varnish, — Varnishes are of two kinds, spirit varnishes,
made by dissolving a resin in a volatile oil, of which type
shellac is a famihar example, and oil varnishes, in which
the resin is mixed with linseed oil and this compound dis-
solved in turpentine or benzine.
The gums principally used in making oil varnishes are
6o FARM STRUCTURES
amber, anime and copal, the last of which is used the
most extensively. It is not as durable as amber, and not
so expensive. Coach varnish is made from the paler kinds
of this gum. Of the softer gums, mastic, gammar, and resin
are dissolved in the best grade of turpentine, and make a
light, quick-drying varnish, which, however, is not very
tough nor durable. The softest gums, lac, sandarac, etc.,
are dissolved in alcohol to make a quick-drying varnish
harder and more glossy than the turpentine varnishes, but
not nearly so durable nor so resistant to exposure.
Applying Varnish. — The wood to be varnished first re-
ceives a coat of paste filler, which is strongly rubbed
in along the grain with a stifif brush, and which, after a
half hour's drying, is rubbed off with burlap or excelsior
across the grain. Following this, any necessary puttying
is done, and in two days the first coat of varnish is ap-
plied ; after five days it is cut with curled hair or sand-
paper to remove the gloss, so the next coat will adhere
well ; then two or three coats of varnish five days apart,
each coat well rubbed except the last, which may be left
glossy, or given a flat tone by rubbing with pumice stone
and water.
Floors that are to be varnished should receive the treat-
ment above described, using a shellac varnish, which dries
rapidly and does not discolor the wood to any great degree.
If the floors are to be waxed, a regular floor wax should be
obtained, and after one or two coats of shellac varnish
have been applied, then five or six coats of wax should be
put on at intervals of a week, each coat being well polished
with a weighted floor brush used for the purpose. While
waxed floors are undoubtedly handsome in appearance,
the difficulty and expense of maintaining them in a first-
class condition makes the use of varnish more practicable.
BUILDING MATERIALS 6i
Linoleum, a floor covering which is much used in kitchens
and bathrooms, may be kept permanently bright and
clean by giving it a couple of coats of shellac varnish each
year.
Refinishing Old Work. — Exterior work, if properly exe-
cuted by good workmen with good materials, should last
from five to ten years; it may lose its luster, without
deterioration in the body of the paint, in which case the
surface need only be cleaned and given a coat of oil, to
supply the deficiency caused by evaporation. Repainting
may be done over an old surface, if it is still smooth, but
if it is rough and scaly, it will have to be scrubbed off with
a stiff wire brush, or in extreme cases the old paint may
have to be removed with the flaring blast of the painter's
torch, which so softens the paint that it may be scraped
off while hot.
Literior varnished surfaces may be cleaned with a
varnish remover, an expensive and highly inflammable
compoxmd of solvent liquids, which penetrate old paint
and varnish and soften it so that it may be removed with
scrapers or brushes. If the interior has been given origi-
nally a covering of first-class varnish, all that may be
necessary is a thorough washing with soapsuds, followed
when dry by a single coat of varnish. To remove old
floor wax, which may have dried and would prevent a
uniform appearance upon the application of a fresh coat,
a ten per cent solution of sal soda in hot water is used.
Glass
The ordinary glass used as panes for small windows is
called sheet or cylinder glass, from the method of its
manufacture ; it is first blown into the form of a cylinder,
cut axially, and then flattened on a stone or steel plate.
62 FARM STRUCTURES
The defects of glass are very noticeable, especially the
waviness of sheet glass, which cannot be wholly eliminated.
Ordinary window glass is sold by the box whatever may be
the size of the panes, the aggregate in square feet of glass
being fifty, as nearly as the size of the panes will allow.
Sheet Glass, — Sheet glass, without regard to its quality,
is graded according to the thickness, as single strength
(SS) or double strength (DS). The latter is supposedly
of a uniform thickness of ^ of an inch, while the former
may be as thin as ^^ mch, though there is a wide varia-
tion in thickness in the same piece of either kind of glass.
With regard to quality, glass is designated as AA for the
best, A for the second, and B for the third grade. The AA
glass is supposed to be the best glass that can be made
by the cyUnder process, but as even this may have flaws
in it, it requires very careful observation to distinguish
the grade in separate panes of good glass. The B grade is
used only in cellar or hot-bed sash, greenhouses, etc.
Regular stock sizes in sheet glass vary by inches from 6
to 1 6 inches, and above that by even inches up to 20 inches
in width and 70 inches in length for double strength, and
34 X 50 inches for single strength. The cost of this glass
per square foot increases very rapidly as the size of pane
increases.
Plate Glass. — This glass differs from the sheet glass in
that it is not blown, but poured out in a molten mass on a
flat table, rolled to a fairly even surface, and then ground
and poUshed, so that the thickness of any one piece should
be almost exactly uniform. Jt varies in thickness from
IS to -^ of an inch, and is made in various sizes, even as
large as 12 by 16 feet. The coat is determined by the size
of the glass. Plate glass weighs about 3^ pounds to the
square foot.
BUILDING MATERIALS 63
Special Kinds of Glass. — Crown glass is a superior sheet
glass, with a finer surface. Special surfaces are given to
plate glass used in doors, transoms, or any place an obscure
glass is desired. Ground glass in the past was much used
for this purpose, but the diflBiculty of keeping a groimd
surface clean caused it to be supplanted by the figured
surface glass. Prismatic glass, made with specially de-
signed corrugated surfaces for diffusing light, is now manu-
factured by several companies. Rolled-wire glass, made by
embedding rather small mesh netting in the middle of the
glass, and furnished with ahnost any kind of surface and
in almost any size up to 4 by 10 feet, is being widely used
in skyUght and factory window construction.
Nails
Nails may be classified according to manufacture as
follows :
Wrought nails, forged either by hand or machine ; make
an excellent clinch without breaking. They are seldom
used in connection with woodwork.
CtU nails, cut from a strip of rolled steel of the thickness
the nail is to be and a Uttle wider than the nail, to admit
of the shapmg of a head.
Wire nails, made from a stiff steel wire of the same size
as the shank of the nail is to be.
Special nails, such as copper, brass, and composition
nails, are made to be used in connection with marine and
refrigerator work, and in physical laboratories, to avoid
the magnetic effects of iron or steel.
Nails are made in almost any conceivable size and
shape to suit every class of work; the principal varieties
are Usted in the table below. Galvanized nails may be
procured, and for fastening shingles, slates, and all kinds
64
FARM STRUCTURES
»»»%<■%
t
D0 0f»
/Oc/ Comniorj
Qcf. Cofnmo/i
IX
8</ f^/oor/n^ jbrad
tt
^ Cas/ng
\
ddf F/n/'shm^
^znsc
6d ^hfnf/eNoi/
of roofing where the durability of the nail sometimes
governs the worth of the material which it holds, gal-
vanized nails should be used.
From tests it has been determined that cut nails have a
holding power about twice that of wire nails, varying from
123 to 286 poimds for four-penny wire and cut nails, respec-
tively, to 703 and 1593 poimds for twenty-penny nails, in
pine wood. The rel-
^ ative holding power
of various woods is
aboid as f oUows :
white pine i, yellow
pine 1.5, oak 3, elm
2, beech 3.2.
The length of nails
is designated by
pennies^ which for-
merly indicated the
pennyweights of
metal in the nail.
This designation no
longer holds good,
but the terms are still retained, and the use of them has
become so firmly established that it will probably never be
changed. The weights run from two to sixty penny, with
the corresponding lengths of from one inch to six inches.
Common nails have a broad, flat head ; casing nails are
slightly finer than common nails, and have a head shaped
like a truncated cone; finishing nails are still finer, and
have a short cylindrical head but slightly larger than the
shank of the nail. Spikes are made with diamond or
chisel points, and with convex or flat heads.
A good carpenter always uses nails sufficiently large to
\sss.
1>
K«^K«^:?
:5<f3Jbf/ff^ Nat/
Zfc/ 3orted JPbo/thy Uoi/,
.1 *f*cA9* A
JL
Fig. 18. — Various kinds of nails, illustrating
length and special characteristics.
BUILDING MATERIALS 65
securely hold the work, but since a considerable saving
can be made by using nails of a size or two smaller, some
unscrupulous builders have to be carefully watched. It
is well to have the size of nails specified for important
work.
For framing, 2od., 4od., or 6od. nails or spikes should be
used, according to the size of the timbers. For sheathing,
roof boarding, underfloor, and cross bridging, use lod.
common nails. For upper floors of matched flooring, pd.
or lod. casing nails should be used. Ceiling and partition
stuff, when f inch thick, is nailed with 8d. casing nails, and
with 6d. when of thinner stuff. Inside finish is nailed with
finish nails or brads from 8d. down to 2d. in size, according
to the thickness of the material. Weather boarding is
generally! put on with 6d. casing or finish nails ; laths should
be fastened with 3d. and shingles with 4d. shingle nails,
the latter preferably galvanized.
QUANTITY OF NAILS REQUIRED FOR DIFFERENT KINDS
OF WORK
1000 shingles — 5 lb. 4d. or 3J lb. 3d.
iocx> lath — 7 lb. 3d.
100 sq. yd. lath — 10 lb. 3d.
1000 sq. ft. weatherboarding — 18 lb. 6d.
1000 sq. ft. sheathing — 20 lb. 8d. or 25 lb. lod.
1000 sq. ft. flooring — 30 lb. 8d. or 40 lb. lod.
zooo sq. ft. studding — 15 lb. lod. or 5 lb. 2od.
66
FARM STRUCTURES
WIRE NAIL TABLES
CoifHON Nails & Brads
Size
2d
3d
4d
Sd
6d
7d
8d
9d
lod
i2d
i6d
2od
3od
4od
sod
6od
Length in.
I
li
li
li
2
2l
2i
2i
3
3J
3i
4
4i
5
5*
6
Gauge
15
14
12^
I2I
Hi
iii
loi
loi
9
9
8
6
5
4
3
2
No. to X lb.
876
568
316
271
181
161
106
96
69
63
49
31
24
18
14
II
Spikes
Size
lod
1 2d
i6d
2od
3od
4od
5od
6od
Length in.
3
3i
3i
4
4i
5
Si
6
7
8
9
10
12
Gauge
6
6
S
4
3
2
I
I
o
00
00
i
i
No. to X lb.
41
38
30
23
17
13
10
8
7
6
5
4
3
Shingle Nails
Fun Naus
3d
!§
13
429
2d
I
i6i
1350
4d
li
12
274
3d
li
15
778
Sd
if
12
235
4d
li
14
473
6d
2
12
204
7d
2
II
139
8d
2i
II
125
9d
2i
II
114
lod
3
10
83
CHAPTER n
LOCATION OF FARM BUILDINGS
In discussing the location of farm buildings, there are
two standpoints that have to be assumed, viz., with refer-
ence to the topography of the farm, and with reference to
the relation of the buildings to each other. The two are
equally important, and the problem of location becomes
rather difficult when the subsidiary factors, as convenience,
size of farm, prevaiKng winds, type and use of buildings,
etc., are taken into consideration. It is safe to say that
in 99 per cent of farms the location of the buildings has
been made upon a single secondary consideration, or per-
haps two, rather than upon a truly basis one ; the site of
the building was originally chosen because of its proximity
to a spring which may have since been destroyed, or be-
cause of a slight eminence which lifted the house out of
the miasmic dampness of marshy, low ground, which in the
days of modem drainage has become as dry and healthful
as any surrounding hill. A square of ground around the
dwelling was then fenced off, the bam located just outside
of one comer, the com crib or granary at the opposite,
and the smaller buildings, if any, were planted in any place
where there was no fence built, or where they would not
likely.be in the way. There has been no forethought taken
in the placing of the buildings whatever.
This state of affairs might be excusable in the case of
pioneers to whom these secondary considerations were'
sometimes of prime importance. It is to be deplored that
the same condition exists on farms whose development has
67
68 FARM STRUCTURES
been modem, when there was no justification in letting
comparatively imimportant things control the whole plan
of arrangement. It is evident that no thought has been
given to the arrangement of the buildings with relation to
each other, or to surroimding conditions: the house has
been built with a total disregard of the fine outlook that
might have been had from the windows of the rooms most
frequented. The bam has been placed with no attempt to
screen its undesirable features from the house or the high-
way; the prevaiKng winds blow the stable odors directly
into the house, and the drainage from the manure flows
directly past the gate of the lawn. Many errors are evi-
dent in the proper way to approach the house from the
highway, and ofttimes there is an absolute disregard of
any ornamentation in the way of tree planting — nothing
presents itself to view except sharp angles and bare walls
of buildings exposed to wind and storm and heat, or there
may be a mass of evergreens directly between the house
and the highway, obscuring any desirable features the
house itself may possess.
This condition is wrong, from any standpoint from which
it may be considered. K the owner realized the economic
value of the attractive set of buildings on his farm, he
would rapidly bring about a rearrangement and remodeling
of them to result in the greatest efficiency. The aesthetic
value, too, is important ; the pleasure to be derived from
an attractive and convenient farmstead works subtly and
indirectly to increase the actual value of a farm; the
farmer's family will certainly be happier and will work
more contentedly imder conditions inspiring happiness and
contentment. Any one can distinguish between an attrac-
tive farm, one on which it woidd be a pleasure to live,
and one which is bare and uninviting.
LOCATION OF FARM BUILDINGS 69
Almost no industry admits of such a wonderful com-
bination of opportunities for the development of health,
wealth, and enjoyment of life as does agriculture. While
perhaps the economic operation of the farm is of supreme
importance in the mind of the farmer, the development of
some of the natural beauty peculiar to a farm need not
detract a particle from this economic operation, but if
properly done, adds many fold thereto.
General Principles of Building Location
To begin with, the home site should be selected so that
any part of the farm can be reached without any difficulty
or great inconvenience. Many times, in order to avoid
small inconveniences, the buildings are located so that
part of the fields are more or less inaccessible, or so far
away that much time is wasted in going to and from the
fields at busy times of the year.
When an approximate location has been decided upon,
place the house in the best place available. Try to obtain
the most attractive view possible, and build the house so
that the view may be advantageously used. The house is
by far the most important of farm buildings, though to
observe many farms, one would think the exact opposite
to be true. At least half of his life the farmer spends in
his house, and his wife spends much the greater part of her
time there. The farmer's wife is entitled to have a well-
built and well-located workshop, in which she manages
and contrives to make and keep a happy home, so essential
to true success.
If the drainage of the home site is not perfect, this must
be attended to, so that good sanitation may be obtained.
Plenty of good air and quick drainage of soil are essential.
70 FARM STRUCTURES
This can be secured by a location on a fairly dry soil,
slightly elevated. Of course, any protection against cold
north winds should be taken advantage of, but it is a ques-
tion whether a windbreak on the west is desirable ; cool
and refreshing winds should not be deflected during the
heated season.
The house should not be located too near the highway,
nor is it necessary to have the front of the house toward
the highway. Unless because of some special condition
the distance between highway and house should not be
less than 200 feet, and if the most desirable location for
the house be twice or thrice that distance, perhaps so much
the better. A park-like entrance drive, the road end of
which should be in plain view from the house, should be
laid out up to the house-yard gate in a graceful curve ; it
should be bordered by trees, which should be so arranged
as not to interfere with the view. The bam should be
located so the prevailing winds will not carry the stable
odors toward the house, and the general slope of the land
should be from the house toward the bam, rather than the
opposite. The bam and any adjacent pens should not be
placed in near proximity to the drive, but should prefer-
ably be reached by a branch of the main drive. If it is
necessary and can be so arranged, another drive should be
provided which will not pass near the house, to be used for
haiding, etc. The exact position and arrangement of other
buildings will be govemed by their use ; for economy and
convenience they should be few and rather compact,
though not so close as to increase fire risk. Pens, sheds,
and stacks should occupy inconspicuous positions.
LOCATION OF FARM BUILDINGS 71
V
Good and Bad Arrangement
In Figure 19 is shown the plan of a farmstead which
actually exists. The site is a fairly good one, on moder-
ately level land, with a small eminence to the north on the
west side of the highway, and a lower one just south of
the farmstead, as shown by the contour lines, which are
drawn at intervals of one foot. The house is situated on
the slope of the hill, and has a west front, hidden by thick
hemlocks ; the house is less than fifty feet from the high-
way, is not close to the pump and milk house nor to the
coal shed. The poultry yard is isolated, and the garden
is inclosed by a high wood picket fence. There is an
entire absence of any sort of an approach to the house, the
entrance to the barnyard being at the south end of it, and
to reach the house, one must pass the crib, the bam, the
machine shed, and go along the feed lot for a distance of
almost two himdred feet This bam lot is partly covered
with grass, but near the buildings the grass is worn out by
constant driving and tramping. The feed lot, accommo-
dating both hogs and cattle, is adjacent to the house yard.
Let us point out the more prominent bad features of
this arrangement. In the first place, the house is much
too close to the highway, and is hidden by dense trees;
any attractive features it may possess are not taken ad-
vantage of ; it is too far from the pump and the wood-
shed and appears entirely isolated from the rest of the
buildings. Secondly, the location of the bams and other
buildings is particularly imfortunate. They obtrude on
the view from the road, are too close to it, and are the
most prominent object to be seen along the drive to the
house. Finally, absolutely no attempt has been made at
any arrangement to improve the natural beauties of the
Fig. 19. — The arrangement of an actual fannstead.
LOCATION OF FARM BUILDINGS 73
site, nor to take advantage of them, resulting in a bareness
which is all the more evident in the actual conditions as
they exist.
We may assume the main buildings to be in need of
replacement, and the relocation of them to use the site
most advantageously to be our problem. Beginning with
the house, which should properly be the keynote of the
arrangement, we place it a little farther down on the s;lope
of the hill, and more than twice as far from the highway
as it originally was situated. The windmill, weU, and
concrete milk house are considered permanent, and this
fact precludes putting the house farther from the highway.
The hemlocks are removed from the front lawn, as is the
fence along the south and east sides of the lawn. A gravel
or cinder drive, with its entrance a hundred and fifty feet
south of the house, is constructed with a graceful, sweep-
ing, double curve, up to the south front of the house. The
other farm buildings are relocated at a greater distance
from the highway than before, and with more considera-
tion for economy in time and labor, and with a more
definite idea to present a miified whole than was shown
originaUy. A service drive to the bam and crib is put in
as a branch of the main drive, and this,, as well as the
space around the crib, bam, and machine shed, which is
likely to be tramped a great deal, is paved with gravel.
The poultry yard has been removed to a location between
the garden and the feed lot. A hedge of arbor vitae or
osage orange is planted along the farther edge of the
service drive from beyond the entrance to the crib, with a
gate immediately in front of the bam. A judicious ar-
rangement of tree groups, and a liberal planting of shrub
in the right places, completes the arrangement.
What improvements have now been accomplished ? To
74 FARM STRUCTURES
begin with, the house is more properly located with refer-
ence to the highway and appears framed in by the groups
of trees at the west side. A broad, unbroken expanse of
lawn stretches out to the road. A park-like entrance has
been effected, and the drive is carried up to the house in a
curve varied enough to prevent monotony. A small
porte-cochfere may be constructed at the end of the walk
leading to the house, and, covered with vines, would add
much to the beauty of the arrangement. The bams and
other buildings have lost their bold prominence, and have
been partially hidden from direct and open view, both
from the house and from the highway. Advantage has
been taken of some excellent lines of view, especiaUy to the
east from the drive immediately in front of the house.
The poultry and feed lots have been relegated to positions
of relative obscurity though of greater convenience than
before. The whole farmstead has become a thing of
beauty, comfortable, convenient, and tasteful in arrange-
ment, with a truly homelike atmosphere and appearance.
The added value that just this feature gives to the entire
farm cannot be estimated.
The particular case which has just been imder considera-
tion is but one of the thousands of similar ones which exist
everywhere. A little forethought, a little careful planning
with the fundamental principles of landscape gardening
and of building location weU in mind, and a little extra
labor, which with its rich returns in the way of aesthetic
and material satisfaction should be a labor of love, will
transform any barren farm bxiilding site into a truly
beautiful farmstead.
Fig. m. — Modified anangemenl of same fannatead shown in Figure 19, (75)
76 FARM STRUCTURES
Economic Advantages of Good Building Location
The question of the time and labor wasted as the result
of improper location of farm buildings with relation to
each other has occurred perhaps to a very small percent-
age indeed of practical farmers. In the great majority of
instances absolutely no attention is given to the economy
which may result from proper location, though no doubt
the eyes of many farmers would be opened were an investi-
gation of their farms made with regard to this point.
Take, for instance, the farmstead illustrated in Figures
19 and 20, and let a few glaring instances be noted. All
the grain fed to the swine must be carried from the crib
to the feed lot, a distance of at least 260 feet, and several
trips must be made at each feeding, night and morning,
throughout the year. The same applies to the feed given
to the cows in the barn. When the farmer prepares to go
to the field, he takes his horses from the bam to the water-
ing tank at the rear, thence around the bam again to the
machine shed on the opposite side. With the new arrange-
ment, the feed lots are adjacent to the crib, the watering
tank is between the bam and the machine shed, and a
minimum amount of time is used for what were before
comparatively laborious trips.
A detailed accoimt of the actual time consumed and
wasted in some operations as the result of poor location of
buildings may serve to emphasize the importance of good
location. The farm is a grain farm of 160 acres, of which
80 acres may be in com, 50 acres in small grain, 15 acres
in pasture, 7 acres in meadow, and the remainder in the
farmstead. The farmer keeps eight cows, ten horses, and
an average of fifty swine the year roimd. For purposes
of estimation we may assiune a man-hour to be the amoimt
LOCATION OF FARM BUILDINGS
77
of work done by one man in one hour, and a horse-hour to
be the amount of work done by one horse in one hour.
The cost of a man hour is estimated at 20 cents, and of a
horse-hour at 15 cents.
Amount of grain fed to cows 220 bu.
Amount of grain fed to swine 1000 bu.
Total 1220 bu.
Distance carried 520 feet
Number of tripe made 1220
Total distance traversed 120 miles
.Distance traversed by a man in i hour 2 miles
Total hours consumed 60
Number of man-hours work done 60
Cost of labor in i year $12
Cost of labor in 25 years $300
Thus we see what an astonishingly large amoimt of time
is consumed in just one small detail. Take another one
which is just as bad, and let us see what results.
One com field of 15 acres is situated in the northwest
comer of the eighty on which the farmstead is located.
On account of a small stream which is not bridged any-
where along its course through the farm, all trips to and
from the field must be made by way of the road, a distance '
of over 150 rods, or 2500 feet, which could be lessened by
1500 feet were the road made directly to the field through
the pasture and across the stream. The farming opera-
tions required for managing this field are listed below :
OPERAnON
Plowing . .
Disking (2) .
Harrowing .
Planting . .
Rolling . .
Cultivating (3)
Husking . .
TnfF.
Days
Men
H0KSB8
No. Trips
3
4
6
2
T
4
4
i
4
I
I
2
2
I
2
2
5
2
10
7
2
14
7
20
39
78 FARM STRUCTURES
This includes only a fair estimate of essential operations,
and extra ones, such as hauling fertilizer, cutting stalks,
etc., are omitted. Then there is the equivalent of one
man making 273 trips and of one horse making 780 trips
back and forth from the field over an unnecessary distance
of 1500 feet.
Total extra distance man travels = 409,500 feet = 76 miles
Hours consumed at 2 miles per hour = 38 hours
Man-hours of work consinned = 38 hours
Cost of lextra man-hours at 20 cents »= $7.60
Total distance horse travels = 1,170,000 feet = 212 miles
Horse-hours of work consumed = 106
Cost of extra horse-hours at 15 cents » $15.90
Total cost of extra work = $23.50
This is just for one year; assuming a three-year crop
rotation, the total loss in thirty years' farming, coimting
the loss in years in which com is grown m the field, is $235.
These two examples, chosen at random from the many
bad features in the arrangement of the farmstead, show
the immense importance of a very careful study of the cir-
cumstances and conditions controlling the arrangement of
buildings, both with relation to each other and with rela-
tion to the farm itself.
In the rearranged plan shown in Figure 20, the economy
of the arrangement is shown at a glance. The crib and
feeding lots are adjacent; the bam, watering tank, and
machine shed are in natural sequence; and should the
occasion arise whereby an extra building becomes neces-
sary, it can well be placed east of either the bam or the
crib. In fact, a series of buildings could be constructed
along a sort of a midway^ the beginning of which is shown
between the crib and the bam, and the economy of the
arrangement be still maintained. This midway is the
natural direction of expansion should enlargement of the
farmstead ever be found necessary.
CHAPTER III
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
A THOROUGH knowledge of the details of ordinary build-
ing construction is absolutely essential to any one who
presumes to plan or superintend any building operations.
The prospective architect or superintendent, the latter
being often the owner, should be familiar, not only with
the kinds, qualities, and grades of lumber in his locality,
but with the cost and comparative value of all kinds of
building material employed from the foimdation up. He
should know the names of the various pieces of timber
which go into a building, the names of foundation materials
and parts, and of the hardware with which the building is
equipped.
With the idea in view, then, of enabling the reader to
acquire this knowledge in a systematic manner, we shall
take an ordinary dwelling house, and follow its construc-
tion from the laying of the foundation to the fitting of the
interior woodwork.
Foundations
The first operation to be employed is the staking out of
the foimdation. This should be very carefully done, the
principal corners being located by a small nail driven into
a stake to show the exact intersection of the lines. Six or
eight feet from the comer three large strong stakes, 2X4,
are driven firmly into the ground as shown at ^4, B, and C,
in Figure 21, and braced as shown in Figure 22. The
79
8o
FARM STRUCTURES
building lines are then marked at D and E upon these
boards, which should be four or six feet long. In this way
the building lines are of easy reference until the first story
is begun, when the
5 n. q C. q p n stakes and boards may
be removed, since they
are ho longer neces-
sary. The accuracy of
the work may be de-
termined by measur-
ing the diagonals FG
and HK, which should
►c be of the same length.
After the staking out
has been completed,
i^ excavators are set
to work to remove the
earth to the required
depth, this being controlled by the height of the first-floor
level above the grade line, which may vary from two to five
or six feet in ordinary cases, and by the height of the base-
ment story. The latter should never be less than seven feet
from the basement floor to the
bottom of the first-floor joists ;
seven and a half or eight feet
is much better, and the extra
cost is slight. Consideration
shoxild be made of the fact that
the basement floor itself is at
least four inches thick.
The earth removed in excavating should be taken care
of for subsequent use in grading the ground immediately
surrounding the house. The black earth should be piled
Fig. 21. — Staking out foundation.
Fig. 22. — Stakes and bracing.
BUILDING CONStRtrcTlON
8i
separately, and applied on top of the clay when the grading
is being done, since a much better lawn can be made on
good soil.
No part of a building is more important than the founda-
tion, and most of the cracks and failures in buildings will
be foimd to be the direct result of careless work in building
the foundations. In the first place, the foundation should
be placed deep enough to afford a firm footing upon com-
paratively solid earth; secondly, the footing or base of
the foundation should be wide enough to adequately sup-
port the foundation and superstructure above it.
For ordinary buildings probably the controlling factors
in the depth of foundations will be the depth of the base-
ment or the frost line. Even in localities where there is
no frost, or in houses where modem heating systems are
installed with a furnace in the basement which supplies
enough heat to prevent freezing, the foundations should be
carried down to a depth
of three feet below the
surface of the ground, so
as to avoid the annoy-
ance of the action of
surface water.
Foundations for dwell-
ing houses may be of
any one of the following
materials : coursed stone,
rubble, brick, concrete
blocks, or of monolithic
concrete. Coursed stone f^<^- 23.— Brick wall footing, with numerous
header courses.
makes an attractive
foundation when laid in a darker-colored cement mortar ;
the same may be said of rubble. Perhaps the most widely
— ^n-^
r^
1 I
1
1 1 1
'1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
82 FARM STRUCTURES
used foundation material, however, is brick laid in ordinary
lime mortar. The construction of common brick founda-
tions is shown in Figure 23. The wall is made about 12J
inches thick, or i| times the length of the brick, and is
firmly held together by laying numerous courses of headers,
as shown, heading in both directions. The footing may be
made of almost any
width, spreading out
the width of a brick
at a time until the
desired width is
reached. Concrete
block foundations
are built in a similar
maimer.
The use of mono-
hthic concrete foun-
dations, with single
or double walls, is
becoming more and
more prevalent, as
the advantage of this type is being perceived. The cost is
slightly higher than brick, because generally forms are
required, which adds to the expense of construction. Figure
24 shows the method of putting up the forms, as well as
the method of obtaining a footing. The forms for the
footing may be omitted, simply letting the concrete run
out at the sides at the bottom, thus forming a foimdation
the shape of a trapezoid in cross section. Double-wall
construction is rather expensive, since a double set of
forms is required, but the air space acts as an excellent
insulator, and the sweating of walls is almost absolutely
obviated. In any case, where concrete foimdations are
— Concrete wall and forms for mating it.
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 83
used, waterproofing should be mixed with the concrete, in
order to prevent surface water from finding its way into
the basement. The ease with which water oozes through
brick masonry sometimes precludes the use of brick foun-
dations, though they may be protected by an exterior
coating of tar, asphaltum, or other water-excluding material.
. An extension of the concrete (oaling.
A modificarion of the ordinary straight foundation wall
is shown in Figure 25. The foundation wall itself is not
carried down so deep as ordinary, and the inner part of the
footing is widened so as to form a very convenient shelf.
The bank extending to the floor is covered with a 4-inch
thickness of concrete, with a slope of 4 inches from the
vertical. The advantage of this modification is very evi-
dent, inasmuch as a considerable saving is effected in the
amount of material used in the foundation itself, and as the
shelf will be a very convenient place to put boxes, jars, etc.,
when cleaning and scrubbing the basement floor.
84
FARM STRUCTURES
Fig. 26. — Half lap joint at the
comer of the sill.
Framing
The sills which are placed directly on the foundation and
which should be firmly bedded in mortar may be of various
forms. The simplest sill is made of a 4 X 6, halved to-
gether at the comers as shown
in Figure 26. The same sort
of sill may be built up of 2 X 6
lumber, lapped at the comers
as in Figure 27, and securely
spiked together. Sills are not
usually held to the founda-
tions by anything but the
weight of the superstmcture and the adhesion to the
mortar in which they are embedded, but in regions where
high winds are prevalent,
bolts are built in the
masonry, and the sills
are laid with these bolts
extending through them,
and held in place by nuts
screwed on the bolts.
In long buildings, a
single length of timber
may not be suflScient to form a whole sill, consequently
one or more pieces must be joined together, preferably by
a beveled half lap, shown
in Figure 28. The lasting
qualities of sills may be
greatly augmented by the
application of a protect-
ing coat of good paint, both to the surface of the sill and
to its ends and joints.
Fig. 27. — Plank sill.
Fig. 28. — Beveled lap in a sill.
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
8S
Fig. 29. — One fonn of a box siU.
A box sill is constructed as shown in Figure 29. It is a
rather good form of construction, if given a coat of paint,
since it affords a better base to
which to fasten the studs than
does the plain sill.
Particular care must be exer-
cised to get the sills absolutely
at right angles to each other
wherever such should be the
case, since the appearance of
the building depends upon it.
This may be done by the 3-4-5
method, laying off a distance of
3 feet in one direction from the
comer, and 4 feet in the other direction, and then seeing
that the distance between these points is exactly 5 feet.
Joists are those pieces of timber which are laid horizon-
tally on edge upon the sills and which directly support the
floor. There are various ways of fastening them; they
may be placed imjnediately
upon the top of the sill and
securely spiked in place, but
unless they are all of the
same depth, they will not
form level support for the
floor. If the imder edge of
the joist is notched slightly, as in Figure 30, this inac-
curacy can be obviated, but the notch should not be cut
so deep as to weaken the joist.
Since the joists are set on edge, they will have a tendency
to tip toward one side, especially if there is any warp or
twist in them. To reduce this tendency and to strengthen
the joists themselves, pieces of 2 X 3 or 2 X 4 are inserted
Fig. 30. — Sized joist.
86
FARM STRUCTURES
Fig. 31. — Cross bridging, to stifFen
joists.
diagonally in the spaces between the joists, as shown in
Figure 31. The little truss which a joist and the adjacent
bridging forms is shown in Figure 32, illustrating the dis-
tribution of concentrated
loads. The bridging should
be put in at intervals of not
more than 8 feet in span.
For ordinary small houses
the size of joists is 2 X 10
for the first floor, 2X8 for
the second floor, and 2X6
or even 2X4 for the attic
floor joists, all set 16 inches on center.
The studding, or upright supports for the wall, may be
fixed in several ways, the simplest being where the studding
rests upon the sill and is nailed to the joist. Other methods
are shown in Figure 29. Studs for small houses usually
consist of 2 X 4 stock, set 16 inches on center ; the reason for
this is that standard wood lath, which are nailed to the stud
to hold the plaster,
are 4 feet long, and
will thus touch four
studs. Comer studs
are either 4 X 4 or 2
X 4 double.
If the framing of the house is to be of the balloon type, the
studs will extend from the sill up to the plate which sup-
ports the rafters, and the second-floor joists will be secured
by supporting them onaiX4oriX6 girt set into the out-
side edge of the studs, and nailing them to the studs with
2od. nails. In a second type of framing also much used in
good construction, the studs will extend only to the second
floor to a large horizontal timber, which in turn is mortised
Fig. 32. — Bridging truss. This distributes
concentrated loads.
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
87
into heavy comer posts, a second tier of studs being used
for the second floor. This t3^e of framing is called the
braced frame, from the fact that all sills, posts, girts, and
plates are composed of heavy timbers, are all mortised and
pinned together, and are braced by 4 X 4 or 4 X 6 braces be-
tween each adjacent and vertical and horizontal timber,
the braces being mortised and pinned to the timbers they
connect. This framing is very strong and substantial when
properly done, but is much more expensive than the balloon
type described above.
Studding is always doubled aroimd windows and doors,
and where the opening is more than 4 feet, the header,
or cross timber above the opening, is trussed, as shown in
Figure 33. In
providing open-
ings for windows
and doors of a
specified size,
the finished di-
mensions are
meant, and m
setting the
studs, allowance
must be made for the width of jambs and frames. Open-
ings for doors should be about 4 inches wider than the
door, and since windows are generally designated by certain
glass dimension, an allowance of 10 inches above the width
of the glass will admit the sash frame and sash-weight
pockets. For casement windows only a 6-inch allowance
need be made.
To give additional strength to the balloon frame, diagonal
braces are set flush into the studs at each comer of the
building, these braces being of i X 6 stuff.
Fig. 33. — Truss over opening prevents sagging of
door frame.
88
FARM STRUCTURES
V
Fig. 34. — Single stud bridging.
from buckling.
Prevents studs
The interior walls, or partition walls, of a house are built
of studs, usually 2X4, placed 16 inches on center, leaving
such openings as may be necessary for doors, etc., which
are trussed and framed similarly to exterior openings.
The support for
the studs usually
consists of a
shoe, a 2X4
piece to which
the bottoms of
the stud are
nailed ; at the
top of the studs
is placed an-
other 2X4 which serves as a support for the studs of the
second story, should the partitions be directly over each
other, or in the case of second-story partitions, as an ad-
ditional support for
the attic joists. To
resist the tendency
of the studs to
bend or buckle,
single bridging is
set in diagonally
between them, as
shown in Figure
34.
The shrinkage of
timber must be
given careful consideration in wall franung. Ordinary
Imnber will shrink from J to i inch per foot in width when
thoroughly dried, but does not shrink to any appreciable
extent in its length. In designing the frame of a house it
//eocfer-
/^"^/mmcr
y^y 75// beams
\r-
1
■
Fig. 35. — Framing floor (^jcning.
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
m mk
Fio. 36. — Joiat hangers.
is of great imj>ortance that the members be arranged to
permit of equal shrinkage in all parts of the house, other-
wise serious difficulty will result. For instance, if the studs
and joists be both resting on the siU, one on end, the other
on edge, with the
baseboard nailed to
the stud and the
floor to the joist the
latter in drying will
draw the floor away
from the Ci
mold perhaps a half
inch. Unless the
designing has been
properly and care-
fully done, similar discrepancies will result at other places.
In cutting holes through the floor, for fireplaces, stair
walls, etc., where ends of
joists project without any
support from above or below,
the framing is effected as
shown in Figure 35. The
tail beams may be fastened
to the header by a mortise
and tenon joint, the header
in turn being mortised into
the trimmers, or they may
be supported by joist hangers
or stirrup irons, shown in
Figure 36. The trimmers
have to be of extra strength, since they have to support
the additional weight incurred by the attachment of the
headers. The distance from the inside of any flue to the
go
FARM STRUCTURES
nto/K face of the joist
or header should
fiever be less
than 8 inches,
nor less than 4
inches from a
chimney; if this
precaution were
alwaysobserved,
much fire loss
would be elimi-
nated.
Roof framing
is comparatively
simple, but it
is often improp-
erly done. The
main supports
of the roof are
called rafters ; they usually consist of pieces of 2X4, or
2 X 6 in larger houses with broader roofs, supported at
the lower end by a
plate, two pieces of
2X4 nailed firmly
to the top of the
studs, and held at
the upper end either
by the opposite
rafter or by a hip
rafter. The ar-
rangement of the
timbers in a typical
roof is shown in Fig. jg. — Gable roof.
— Typical roof framing.
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
91
Figures 37 and 38. The framing of a roof is sometimes a
. rather complex problem, especially when the house is not
square or rectangular in shape, but has projecting ells of
various widths, and with bays and dormers. Figure 38
shows the complete framing plan of the rod of a rather
irregular house, with all the component parts of the roof
framing indicated.
Houses are usually built with the gable roof, Figure 39,
or with the hip roof. Figure 40. The former is simpler in
framing, for there are
no hip rafters, and
valley rafters occur
only when dormer
windows are put in;
however, practically
the same amount of
roof sheathing and
shingles is used in one
type as in the other, so
the extra cost of lima-
ber in the gable is a dis-
advantage. The hip
roof, too, provides a
means of apparently reducing the height of the building,
which is sometimes a consideration.
The degree of slope of a roof is indicated by a term
known as the pitch. The pitch is a fraction in which the
rise of the roof, or the vertical distance from the plate to
the ridge, is the numerator, and the span, or the width of
the building, is the denominator. Pitch is usually expressed
by some simple fraction, as |, |, ^, }, etc. To illustrate :
for a building 24 feet wide to have a roof of | pitch, the
rise must be 9 feet.
Fig. 40. — Hip rod.
g^ FARM STRUCTURES
Thus far there has been discussed only the general
framing of the house ; this must be clearly understood and
kept in mind in order that the details of construction may
not prove confusing.
Walls
After the studs have been erected and firmly secured and
braced, an exterior covering of i-inch boards, called sheath-
ing, is put on. This usually consists of ship lap, 6, 8, or
lo inches in width, and is put on either horizontally or
diagonally, the latter method being preferred by many
builders, with the claim that a much stronger structure will
result. Theoretically, this is true, since the resulting frame
is this composed of many triangles which are rigid; but
experience has shown that horizontal sheathing actually
gives an equally strong construction, a common example
of this being the ordinary dry goods box, which is indeed
solidly built.
Upon the sheathing is placed a layer of building paper
which serves very efficiently in keeping out cold ; then over
the building paper is laid the final exterior covering of the
wall. This may be weatherboarding, shingles, or stucco,
as the fancy of the builder' desires. Weatherboarding is
made in widths of 3 or 6 inches, and tapers from a thick-
ness of f inch at one edge to | or | inch at the other ; it
is laid horizontally in shingle style, each successive board
overlapping the one below it by i inch. This form of wall
exterior is very widely used ; it requires frequent painting
to preserve the wood and to retain an attractive appearance.
Shingles are used quite extensively in some parts of the
country, and because of their beauty and durability are
coming into vogue everywhere. They are economical
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 93
also, since a poorer grade of shingles can be used on a wall
than on a roof, and since the exposure to the weather can
be greater on the wall than on the roof, a thousand shingles
covering about 150 square feet of wall surface. Shingles
are usually stained, instead of painted, with a stain contain-
ing creosote, a good wood preservative. Some delightfully
attractive effects can be obtained with shingles by using
proper treatment, for shingle stains can be obtained in
almost every conceivable shade. The use of stucco as
an exterior wall surface is common in Europe and Mexico,
but has not been generally accepted in the United States
imtil comparatively recently. The difficulty has been ex-
perienced that the stucco was not permanent ; small cracks,
would appear which permitted the ingress of moisture,
the moisture causmg the stucco to expand and further ex-
tend the cracks, imtil finally the stucco fell off. Modem
methods have to a great extent obviated this difficulty,
and many fine and expensive houses are being constructed
with stucco exteriors. Stucco appeals to many people on
accoimt of its soft and pleasing tones, and both when used
alone and in connection with half timbering (strips of wood
dividing the wall surface
into panels), presents a
very attractive exterior.
The interior of a wall is
generally covered with lath,
to which the plaster is ap- ^^- ^""f/Zj^Vork; ""^ '°
plied. Sometimes a pat-
ented form of lath, known as Byrkit lath, illustrated in
Figure 41, is used; since it is practically a solid piece of
wood, it serves the purpose of both sheathing and lath,
and adds much to the strength and rigidity of the walls.
Indeed, it is sometimes used instead of sheathing, the ex-
94 FAItM STRUCTURES
tenor wall covering consisting solely of weatherboarding ;
this, however, is a cheap and unsatisfactory form of con-
struction, and its use is not advised.
The addition of comer boards, strips of wood i inch thick
and varying with diflferent houses from 4 to 8 inches in
width, sometimes adds to the attractiveness of a house, by
adding a border which can be painted the same color as the
window and door frames, thus attractively defining the wall
contour. Often a "belt " is nailed
about the entire house at the top
of the first-story or the bottom
of the second-story window frame ;
this may serve to separate one
variety of wall covering from
another, as shingles from stucco,
etc. A baseboard is usually ap-
plied at the base of the wall, just
above the foundation.
All belts, baseboards, and win-
dow frames should be protected
by a water table, or cap, as in
Figure 45, to prevent the ingress
of moisture, which would in time
cause rot.
Windows
The framing of windows is
one of the most important details
Bo. 41— Window fnming. jjj j^oyge construction. The com-
For an ordinaiy {rajne house. , .
mon method of constructmg wm-
dow frames in wooden buildings is shown in elevation and
cross section in Figure 42, Essentially, the frame consists
of the pulley stile A, to which are attached the parting
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 95
strips EE and the stop head S, the outside casing B, the
sill L, and the headpiece, not shown in the figure, but cor-
responding at the top to the sill below. The inside casing
D, the stool or inside sill M, and the apron P, are consid-
ered as parts of the interior trim, and not part of the frame.
WW are the sash we^hts which are used to balance the
sash and hold it in any desired position. Sash weights
are usually of cast iron, but for heavy sash, and for wide
and low sash, lead weights are used. In hanging sashes
the weights for the upper sash
should be about 5 pound heavier
than the weight of the sash,
and for the lower ones, about
^ pound lighter.
Doors
One thing in building con-
struction that deserves more
attention than it usually gets is
the matter of setting door
frames. The occurrence of a
door that does not hang straight,
that requires a slam perhaps to
latch it, is altogether too com-
mon, and while the carpenter
may insist that the fault Ues p-o' 4s. -ExWrior door framing.
entirely with the door, in the
fact that it is warped or twisted, in many cases it is due to
inaccuracy of the frame itself.
In Figure 43 is illustrated the common method of framing
for an exterior door. The frames for all outside doors
should be made of plank not less than ij inches thick, with
the outer edge rebated for a screen or storm door, if desired.
96 FARM STRUCTURES
In place of the fashioned sill shown in the figure, a plain
plank is sometimes used with a narrow threshold placed
under the door. This is sometimes
a desirable feature, especially in doors
where continued wear on the sill
would soon destroy its usefulness,
whereas a threshold can easily be
replaced when worn.
Interior doors are framed as shown
in Figure 44. The studding should
be set with a clearance of at least a
half -inch to allow of plumbing the
frame; wedges are then driven in
back of the studs and the frame nailed to the studs. The
width of the frame should be exactly the distance between
the exterior faces of the grounds, which
should be set perfectly plumb.
Floors
In ordinary construction of good type,
double floors are the rule, though often a
single floor is laid. As far as warmth is
concerned, there may not be any necessity
for double floors in warm coimtries, but ubie,
there are other questions to be considered wMer.'"***^
besides the one of heat and cold. During
the construction of the building, the rough under floor is a
great convenience, almost indispensable. The finish floor
is usually of fine wood which would be badly marred if sub-
jected to the rough usage which the subfloor gets during
house construction. If anything hke good construction is
desired, it is false economy to dispense with the subfloor,
no matter what the climate ; aside from the reasons given
Fig. 4s- — Water
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 97
above, it adds largely to the strength not only of the floor,
but of the whole building as well.
The subfloor, composed of inch, stuff, usually ship lap
6 or 8 inches wide, is laid diagonally upon the joists which
have been properly sized so as to present a uniformly level
upper surface, and is nailed with ordinary 8d. or lod. nails.
The cheapest grade of lumber may be used so long as it is
soimd and of imiform thickness, in order that there be no
inequalities in the upper flooring. The subflooring should
be extended to the exterior wall covering between the studs
to form a base for a fire stop, which may be of cinder con-
crete packed to a depth of 6 or 8 inches in each rectangular
inclosure formed by a pair of studs and the exterior and
interior walls.
The upper or finish floor is laid upon the rough flooring,
with or without a layer of building paper or similar sub-
stance between the two. Finish floor is made in two
thicknesses ordinarily, f and \i inch, and in a mmiber of
widths, from i inch to 6 inches. For floors that are to be
left uncarpeted the width should not exceed 4 inches;
indeed, the 2|-inch width seems to be the most popular.
Floors that are to be covered with carpet or linoleum may
be of softer wood and may be 6 inches in width, if it is well
seasoned, otherwise less, to prevent the formation of ridges
which might result from the warping of a rather wide board.
The woods most used in finish floors are oak, plain or
quarter-sawed, birch, maple, and hard pine, plain or
comb-grain. The hard pine is the cheapest, and is used
in kitchens and in buildings where the cost must be kept
down. If used where the floor is exposed, only comb-
grain stock, corresponding to quarter-sawed in oak, should
be employed. Maple flooring is in great favor for floors
which are subjected to much heavy wear. For parlor
98
FARM STRUCTURES
and hall work, and for entire floors in the better class of
residences, oak is generally used; quarter-sawed oak is
the more attractive, but its cost is much greater.
Finish floor should never be put on imtil all the plastering
has been done in the house and is thoroughly dry ; in fact,
for the best results, it should be applied the very last thing
in the finishing of a house. Most finish flooring is matched,
though with a subfloor it is not really essential, and the
better qualities are grooved on the underside so as to admit
of easier conformation to slight inaccuracies in the sub-
floor, and to prevent warping.
Upp^*' fAfor"
dutft
Umfcry^^f
Fig. 46. — Floor deafening. Inexpensive and efficient.
It is quite desirable and almost essential that in dwelling
houses the conduction of sound through walls and floors be
prevented as much as possible. Usually this is attempted
by lining the walls and floors with some sort of material
that is expected to absorb the soimds, but this method is
not altogether satisfactory, since the lining is not alto-
gether efficacious and there is more or less solid connection
between the floor and ceiling in the way of nails or joists.
In Figure 46 is illustrated a method of floor deafening which
is recommended by Kidder as a most effective procedure in
wooden buildings. The efficacy results from the fact that
there is no solid connection between the subfloor and finish
floor^ the cleats for the finish floor being placed directly
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 99
upon the lining of felt or quilt with no nailing or other
fastening. However, this construction is not practicable
where only f-inch flooring is used, since to adequately
support the floor the cleats would have to be so closely
set as to make in effect only a second subfloor, which com-
presses the lining to such an extent as to partially destroy
its deafening value.
The usual materials for deafening are in the nature of
paper felts, such as quilt, building paper, asbestos, etc.
Mineral wool is also used to some extent, and its fireproof
qualities and the nonelastic texture formed by its minute
pliant fibers render it quite valuable. A depth of 2 or
3 inches of the wool, upon sheathing lath to which the
plaster is applied, will greatly increase the comfort of the
room below. Cinder concrete, a weak mixture of cement
and cinders, can be applied in the same way, and is cheap
and effective.
Roofs
»
Upon the rafters, which constitute the main support of
the roof, is nailed the roof sheathing, inch stuff which varies
in character with the type of roof covering. For shingles,
sheathing may be of almost any width, though usually
1X4 strips are used, placed not more than 2 inches apart,
and securely- nailed to the rafters. The shingles are then
fastened to the sheathing by means of shingle nails, the
nails being driven so that they will be covered by the next
succeeding tier of shingles above ; the shingles themselves
are laid with from 4 to 5 inches of their butts, or thick
ends, exposed to the weather. The first or lowest .tier of
shingles is always made double, and at the ridge they are
protected by ridge boards, which in turn are protected by
a roll of metal which prevents moisture from entering.
» - '
lOO FARM STRUCTURES
Angular places in a roof, such as valleys, aroimd chimneys,
etc., are made water-tight by means of metal strips, or
flashing, which is arranged so as to conduct all the water
on to the roof.
Shingles are perhaps the least durable of the wood
material which enters into building construction. They
are made of the best woods, and in several grades. Red
cedar and cypress are the woods most used for shingles
manufacture, the cypress seemingly being the better.
Shingles are sold in bunches containing the equivalent of
250 shingles 4 'inches in width, though the actual width
of the shinglds may vary from 2 to. 16 inches. Cypress
shingles are usually 18 inches long and measure "5 to 2"
in thickness, this indicating that the butt thickness of
5 shingles is 2 inches. Cedar shingles are usually 16 in
length and butts *' 6 to 3 " in thickness.
If any kind of roof covering is used other than shingles,
the roof sheathing is laid close, with no intervening cracks,
to provide a better nailing surface. The method of ap-
pKcation of other types of roofing has been described in
a previous chapter.
The construction of the cornice, or that part of the roof
projecting beyond the plate, is a matter which admits
of the widest variation in the treatment. A booced cornice
is one in which the projecting ends of the rafters are com-
pletely inclosed, this term being used in distinction to the
open cornice, in which the rafters are left exposed. The
details of the construction of some simple though effective
boxed cornices are shown in Figure 47. On the middle one
are indicated the members of the cornice ; a is called the
fascia, b the plancher, and c the frieze.
The gutters, for collecting the roof water, may be con-
structed as shown in the first construction, Figure 47, the
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION lOi
trough proper consisting of some sort of metal, either tin,
galvanized iron, or copper. It is important that the gutters
have the proper slope toward the downspouts, and that
the connection between gutters and downspouts is properly
protected by a wire screen to keep out leaves, twigs, and
the miscellaneous Utter that always collects on roofs. The
sort of gutter illustrated in the figure has the disadvantage
Fio. 47. — Bond cmnices.
of projecting up from the slope of the roof, catching and
holding snow and any material which would otherwise
slide oflf ; the correctly built gutter is below the edge of the
roof, the line of the slope passing above it. The cheapest
form of gutter consists of a trough hung from the lower
edge of the roof, but this type is extremely liable to be
blown down or so damaged by wind as to render it useless.
The term dormer is applied interchangeably either to
a vertical window in a roof, or to small houselike structures
in which it is placed. A dormer may be built entirely in
I02 FARM STRUCTURES
the roof or its face may be the continuation upward of the
wall. The construction of them is widely variant, but
there are two general types, the flat-roof ed, in which case
the roof of the dormer is a continuation of the house roof
at a lower pitch, and the gable-roofed, the roof of this t3Tpe
being a small gable. In the former, the intersection of the
two differently pitched roofs is not flashed, one being
simply an extension of the other. The valley between the
roof of the gable-roofed dormer and the main roof is,
however, much sharper than in the other t3^es, consequently
the valley must either be flashed, or the courses of shingles
must be continued from the main roof on to the dormer
without a break, the valley being in this case fitted with
a fillet to give a less abrupt turn.
Stairs
Stair building was at one time considered an art in itself ;
indeed, it required a very skilled artisan to accomplish
the framing and fitting of the elaborate and wonderful
curves and twists which in the past were included in the
plans of even small buildings whose chief charm should have
been the simpUcity of their interior lines. At present the
• simple staircase is much in vogue, probably because house-
builders are more appreciative of them, and the change in
style has worked to the advantage of the ordinary car-
penter, who finds that he can build a simple staircase as
firmly and as well as he can build any other part of the house.
Mills producing the interior trim for residences commonly
keep a stair builder employed, for the reason that he can
be kept busy at this one job continually.
A glossary of some of the terms used in stair building will
enable us to discuss the details of construction more readily.
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 103
Staircase is the term applied to the whole set of stairs, or
series of stairs, including landings.
Flighty that portion of the stairs between landings,
between floors, or between a floor and a landing.
The rise of a stair is the height from the top of one step
to the top of the next.
The run is the horizontal distance between the face of
one riser to the face of the next.
A riser is the vertical board beneath the tread.
A tread is a horizontal board forming a step.
A nosing is that part of the tread projecting beyond the
riser and includes the small molding below.
Carriages are the rough timbers supporting the treads
and risers ; they are sometimes called strings, or stringers,
A newel is the heavy post supporting the balusters where
the stairs begm.
Angle posts are the posts supporting the balusters where
their direction is changed.
Winders are steps which come in the angle of the stairs
when turning a comer.
A landing is a section of floor between successive flights.
Open stairs are stairs built between walls.
Aside from simplicity, the requisites of good stairs are
safety and comfort, with a proper consideration for the
harmony with the other interior fittings. For safety,
there should be a landing every ten or twelve steps, but
often in small residences, where the stairs include sixteen
or seventeen risers altogether, this idea is disregarded,
and the stairs are made in one straight flight. The length
of the landing should be at least equal to its width. No
flights of less than three stairs should be permitted in any
building, since they are dangerous. Winders should be
avoided as much as possible, for the variation in the width
I04 FARM STRUCTURES
of each individual riser from the inside of the turn to the
outer end of step is so great as to make the stairs incon-
venient, if not dangerous. The considerations for com-
fort require that the rise of the step be not more than 7^
inches, and not less than 6| inches, while the width of the
tread should be 9 or 10 inches. The width of the stairs
should not be less than 3^ feet, though in small houses
where space is essential, and in kitchen stairs, this may be
decreased to 3 feet.
In designing a house, the number of the risers only should
be given, leaving their exact height to be determined by
the carpenter; for this height will vary somewhat from
the height figured in the plans. The approximate location
of each individual step should be given, however, with
great care to the arrangement, so as to provide sufficient
room for the total number of steps required, and for suffi-
cient headroom. The minimum distance from the imder-
side of the floor opening should never be less than 6^ feet,
and 7 or even 8 feet is much better. A good method of
determining the amoimt of headroom is to use tiie front
edge of the trimmer of the stair well as a center, and with
a radius of 6 feet, strike an arc, from which the front
edge of the tread should be kept clear.
Construction
There are two general methods adopted in stair con-
struction, the one depending entirely upon careful fitting
to produce a tight joint at the ends of the treads, and the
other having the stringer recessed for each pair of treads
and risers. The first method is known as the American
or Boston method, and the details of the construction are
as follows : upon the inside of the stringers is nailed a strip
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
lOS
Fig. 48. — Boston stair construction. No
cutting of stringer is necessary.
called a "horse/' which has triangular pieces cut out along
one edge so as to form recesses for the steps, as shown in
^ Figure 48. Upon these horses the risers are first firmly
nailed, then the treads are
put on, both being cut
very carefully and fitted
with exactness so no crack
between step and stringer
is perceptible. The sec-
ond method results in
what is called the housed
or English stairs; here
each stringer is cut out to
a depth of | inch, the re-
cess being the exact shape
of the stairs, with enough
additional cut out to permit of the insertion of a wedge
back of the riser and another one below the tread. The
construction is
shown in Figure
49. One of the
basic principles of
stair building be-
ing that their con-
struction should
be left until all
plastering is done,
it is evident that
the housed stairs
cannot be built without leaving any plastering to be done
beneath the stairs until the stairs are finished. The wedges
holding the treads and risers are inserted first, then the
lath and plaster is applied, the dampness accompanying
Fig. 49. — Housed stairs. Note position of wedges.
io6 FARM STRUCTURES
having a deleterious effect upon the finish lumber incor-
porated in the staircase.
On open stairs there is a wide variety of methods of
finishing. The face of the stair may have either afi open
string or a closed or curb string, the former admitting of
mortising the balusters directly into the tread, while in
the latter the balusters are fitted into a shoe on top of the
string. The height of the balusters should be about 2^
feet, measured at the riser.
Intemor Finish
Much of the attractiveness of a residence is the result
of proper selection of the interior finish, and good workman-
ship in putting it up. The woods usually adopted for in-
terior work are oak, birch, pine, red gum, chestnut, fir,
and cypress ; they are chosen principally because of their
beauty, durability being secondary except in floors.
Doors
In the ordinary small residence, most of the doors are of
the type known as "stock" doors, in which the stiles, cross
rails, and panels are all of a single thickness, the thickness
of the stiles and cross rails, usually if inches or if inches,
giving the thickness of the doors. For protected exterior
doors in such houses, and for all doors in fine construction,
the veneered type is used, in which the whole structure is
composed of well-selected wood, glued together, and covered
on the exterior with a thin layer of a more expensive wood.
The latter types have the advantage of not being likely to
warp, this being prevented by the construction ; however,
in an exposed place, especially exterior doors subjected
to the action of the weather, veneered doors are not desir-
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 107
able, inasmuch as dampness will ultimately cause the veneer
to peel off, and the strips of softer wood imdemeath will
swell and throw the door badly out of shape.
Interior doors are commonly 6 feet 8 inches in height,
and 2 feet 8 or 10 inches in width, though closet doors may
be of any size. Exterior doors are generally larger than
interior doors, a common size being 3 feet by 7 feet. The
thickness varies somewhat with the width, interior doors
in ordinary house construction being if inches thick, while
exterior doors are almost always if inches thick.
The vertical pieces of heavier lumber in a door are called
the '* stiles," the corresponding horizontal pieces, the
"rails." These pieces frame the ''panels" which may be
from f inch to f inch thick, and their panel edges may be
either ogee in shape, or as in the craftsman design, square.
The finish around a door opening, and window openings
as well, is called trim, casings, or architraves, the second
term being probably the more common. The various
methods of arranging the casings are so numerous that
they cannot be taken up here except to say that the simplest
arrangement and design will probably prove the best,-m
appearaQce, neatness, and ease m caring for. When the
casing is somewhat thin, it may not fit well with the base-
board; in this case a block, slightly wider and thicker
than both the casing and baseboard, and about a foot long,
is fitted in next to the floor, as a continuation of the casing.
This block is designated as the plinth, or plinth block.
Windows
Windows for residences are almost always of the vertical,
sliding variety or else of the casement style. The former
are usually made in two parts, the upper half sliding back
loS
FARM STRUCTURES
of the lower part. At the middle of the window, or where
the upper and lower sash meet, two constructions are used,
one the plain rail, Figure 50, in cheap windows, and the
other, or check rail, Figure 51, in the better class of work.
Casement windows are made in one piece, and instead of
sliding vertically in the frame, swing out, similar to an
exterior door. Casement windows are much used in closets,
PlO. so. — plain tail window.
— Check imI window.
high windows in dining rooms, etc. ; their construction
precludes the possibility of having exterior screens, so in-
terior screens swimg on hinges are employed, the wood used
in the screens being identical with the interior finish.
French windows are sometimes used where the windows
open out upon a veranda; they are made like a pair of
swinging doors, but on account of the necessarily weak
framing, do not hold their shape well.
The finish of windows is very similar to that of doors, with
the additional finish necessitated by the fact that windows
do not reach to the floor. A flat horizontal piece extending
at least 3J inches from the sash, and acting as an inside stop
for the sash, is called the stool ; and beneath it, flush with
the casing at the side, is fitted a strip called the apron.
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 109
Other Finish
Around the bottom of the walls is fitted a strip of 8-inch
stuff known as the baseboard, which should be very simple
in design, since any extra beading, molding, etc., along the
upper edge increases the difficulty of keeping it clean.
In the comer formed by the floor and the baseboard is set
a quarter-roimd mold, to prevent dirt getting into the
comer. It is advisable to wait a year before setting this
mold, since the joists may shrink somewhat and drop
the floor without dropping the mold, leaving an unsightly
crack. If this is remedied by lowering the mold subse-
quent to the apphcation of stain or vamish on the base,
a sort of line is exposed which is very difficult to eliminate
by further treatment.
Sometimes the lower part of the wall is finished with
a wainscoting varying in height from 3 to 5 feet. This
may be either plain or paneled, the latter method being
commonly used in dining rooms, in which case it is usually
5 feet high and capped with a corrugated plate rail, instead
of a roimded nosing and cover which usually caps a low
wainscoting. The panel strips should not be more than
3 inches in width ; the panels themselves may be filled with
wood or plastered, or covered with burlap or stamped
leather for very rich effects. If a dining room is not
paneled, it is well to put a chair rail around the walls, at
a height which will prevent the backs of chairs knocking
against the plaster and disfiguring it.
The old-fashioned method of supporting pictures, mirrors,
etc., on nails driven into the walls, has been superseded
by the addition to the interior finish of a picture mold, a
small mold with a depressed edge next the wall. The
picture mold is usually from a foot to a foot and a half
FARM STRUCTURES
below the ceiling, though it may be placed so far up as to
practically constitute a comer mold, with just enough
clearance above to admit the
picture hook.
Beamed ceilings are some-
times put in living rooms,
dining rooms, etc., to secure
certain effects, such as in
Dutch or Mission interiors.
The beams seen on the ceil-
ings of dwellings are not usu-
ally solid, as they appear,
but are a mere shell of thin stuff tongued and grooved to-
gether, one form of simple construction being shown in
Figure 52. A half beam is usually placed around the
Fio. 53. — Moldings.
room, and the principal beams are fitted into this, the
smaller beams being in turn framed into the larger ones.
Moldings are made in a great variety of sizes and shapes,
and illustrations of some of these are shown in Figure 53.
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION iii
Cupboards, bookcases, china closets, buffets, window seats,
etc., are sometimes included in interior finish and can be
installed at the time the house is built, of the same material
and with the same finish as the rest of the interior wood-
work. This can be done at comparatively moderate
cost at the time, and adds much to the comfort and con-
venience of a home, to say nothing of the increased at-
tractiveness, and the need for less movable furniture.
CHAPTER IV
ESTIMATING
To ascertain the probable cost of any extensive project,
it is necessary that every detail of aU the various divisions
of the work be considered separately in regard to the cost
of the. production of the material, its conversion, and
the labor required to prepare it and put it into the
structure.
Other details, such as the material, its accessibility, cost
of transportation, etc., are more local than general. For
smaller structures, estimating is more easily done than for
large ones, and with greater accuracy, since the total
amoimt of construction of residences, etc., is so large that
comparative costs can be justly estimated, even on the
basis of imit construction.
The first requisite for a correct estimate is a complete
set of plans and specifications. The specifications should
be quite copious, giving in detail the grade and quahty
of all material used in the various parts of the structure,
so that the estimator or contractor will be given no op-
portunity for "scamping^' the work.
Let us suppose that the cost of an ordinary residence is
to be ascertained. Beginning with the excavation, we
shall take up the estimating in the same order as the
materials will be put into the house. We should consider
the site, so as to know the disposition of the earth that is
to be removed, whether it is to be retained for subsequent
grading, or hauled away. The time required for digging
112
ESTIMATING 113
and loading into a wagon or wheelbarrow 12 cubic yards
of earth, is 9 hours. From this the cost can easily be
figured, when the amount to be excavated and the ex-
cavator's wages are known.
Foundations are next considered. The total cubic con-
tent of the foimdation wall is found, and if the wall is of
stone, the number of cords, a cord being 128 cubic feet.
A mason and his helper, using 2^ bushels of Ume and 5
bushels of sand, will lay about one cord of stone per day.
Brickwork is figured by the cubic foot of 22 bricks, a work-
man and a laborer laying from 600 bricks in fireplaces
and flues, to 800 bricks in walls, using about ij bushels
of lime and 5 times as much sand. As a rule, single-flue
chimneys will cost about 40 cents per running foot, and
double-flue chimneys about 70 cents.
The framing is next to be considered. Ascertain the
linear measurement of the sills, and from their size and
length calculate the number of feet, board measure. The
same is done with the joists, for all floors, and with the
studs and plates. A fair workman will fit in one day
about 700 linear feet of sill or joint stuff, 800 linear feet of
studding, and 500 hnear feet of plate. In figuring stud-
ding, no deduction should be made for openings, as any
overrun will be used in making diagonal braces, struts,
etc. The number of rafters should be obtained, also
their entire length, including cornice. Two carpenters
will put in place about 700 linear feet of rafters on a
plain roof, or 500 linear feet on one cut up by gables and
dormers.
The amount of siding necessary is determined by finding
the total exterior wall surface in square feet, including
gables, and adding to this area J for lapping. Two men will
put up about 500 feet of siding in a day, this quantity being
114 FARM STRUCTURES
quadrupled in the case of plain vertical siding, such as
barn siding.
When shingles are laid 4^ inches to the weather, 1000
shingles will cover approximately a square, or 100 square
feet. A good workman will carry up to the roof and lay
about 1500 shingles per day, and will use from S to 7
pounds of nails, according to the size used. If building
paper is used imder siding or shingles, this must be added,
a roll of paper covering about 500 square feet, and requiring
about one hour to lay and nail. Tin roofs are a little more
expensive than shingle roofs, costing perhaps $1 more per
square. Flashings in valleys, aroimd chimneys, etc., are
laid at the rate of about 30 linear feet per day, guttering
at the rate of 60 to 75 feet. Cornices are built at about
30 feet per day.
In estimating the amount of material in floors, ascertain
the number of square feet in the floor ; then add f for waste
and matching ; this will vary somewhat with the width of
the floor; measure openings, such as stair wells, hearths,
etc., as if they were not there. The subfloor can be laid
at the rate of about 800 square feet per day, the finish
floor, requiring more care and time, being laid at the rate
of 250 to 400 square feet per day, var)dng with the width
of material, and whether or not it is tongued and grooved
at both sides and ends. Plain baseboards, chair rail, etc.,
can be put in place at the rate of 1 50 feet per day, doubling
this for sweeping and picture molds, etc.
Exterior doors require about i day to frame and hang,
and a good workman will hang 3 or 4, even as many as 8,
interior doors in one day, though 6 is an average man's
capacity. One man will hang a sliding door in about i|
days. Windows will cost about $3 or $4 apiece above the
cost of the sash.
ESTIMATING 115
Plastering of good quality is done at the rate of about
25 yards a day, with a. plasterer and laborer at work. In
calculating the amount of plastering to be done, no deduc-
tion should be made for any openings at all.* Exterior
plastering, or stucco, will vary a great deal, but a good man
and helper will put on 15 yards a day. Lath is sold by
the thousand in bunches of 100, 1500 lath being required
for 100 square yards of wall ; a good lather will cover 50
yards of inside wall in one day.
A first-class staircase will approximate $4^ per step,
including all material and labor. Cellar and back stairs
will cost from $1 to $2 per step, according to width and
finish.
The cost of painting and finishing is very hard to esti-
mate, because there are so many governing factors. A
gallon of priming coat will cover about 300 square feet,
and subsequent coats will cover about 600 square feet. A
good workman will paint 100 square yards in one day.
The cost of heating and plumbing is usually figured by
the job; the cost of heating with hot air, steam, or hot
water will in an ordinary residence run about $25, $40, and
$45 per room, respectively. Plumbing will cost from $30
to $40 per room, depending upon the quality and elaborate-
ness of fixtures. Electric wiring usually costs $1 per open-
ing, every switch and Hght fixture being considered an
opening.
The interior hardware, consisting of locks, latches,
catches, handles, etc., must be figured piece by piece, though
an allowance of $35 or $40 is sufficient to provide excellent
design and workmanship, in a small house.
Cisterns, one of which is an essential part of every
home, may be figured with reasonable accuracy by calcu-
lating the cost to be $1 per barrel capacity. Concrete can
ii6 FARM STRUCTURES
usually be figured at about 35 cents per cubic foot; this
applies to sidewalks also, a 4-inch sidewalk with a i-inch
finish coat costing about 12 cents per square foot, a 3-inch
one costing about 9 cents a square foot.
It is sometimes desirable and advantageous to be able
to estimate the cost of structures quickly, or before the
plans and specifications have been developed sufficiently
to make an accurate detailed estimate. Two buildings
built in the same locality should cost about the same per
cubic foot, even though there be some difference in the
size; it follows, therefore, that if we know the cost per
cubic foot of different classes of buildings, in different
localities, we can approximate quite closely the cost of
any proposed building by multiplying its contents in cubic
feet by the known cost per cubic foot of a similar building
in the same locality.
The accompanying table for estimating small frame
buildings is partially adapted from Kidder's Pocketbook:
FARM AND COUNTRY PROPERTY
Kind of BuUding Cost per Cubic Foot
Dwelling, frame, no cornice 4c.
Dwelling, frame, small cornice 5 to 6c.
Dwelling, brick, cheap 8c.
Dwelling, good construction, frame 8c.
Dwelling, brick, good loc.
Dwelling, hollow tile, good 9c.
Dwelling, modem frame 12c. *
(In all of the above, basements are included)
Bams, frame, plain 1} to 2}c.
Bams, frame, well built 2) to 3c.
Even a more rapid estimate can be made by the unit
method, though it is a mere approximation and should
never be held binding. The following table lists a few
unit costs :
ESTIMATING 117
Per room in residences $400 to $500
Per stall in horse bams 80 to 120
Per stall in cow stables 60 to 80
Per heacf in swine houses
First-class construction 10
Cheap construction 5
Per head in sheep bams
WeU-built . . . 8
In cheap sheds 3
Per fowl in poultry houses .50 to 1.50
Per bushel in well-built cribs .20
CHAPTER V
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS
In this chapter will be taken up a consideration of each
of the various buildings found on the ordinary farms. The
consideration will be made with regard to design and con-
struction in general only, since no hard and fast rules can
be laid down, each problem requiring a knowledge of local
conditions for the most satisfactory and the most efficient
solution.
Granaries .
The chief fault of cribs and granaries as they are built
in the majority of instances is that they are constructed
with too Uttle regard for strength and durability. A false
economy is practiced when such a building is erected with
just a few single stones or an occasional pier as a foimda-
tion, and with light, unsound timbers for sills and framing.
One does not realize the tremendous strain to which the
crib is subjected, especially at the floor and near the
bottom of the walls. Assuming that the principles of
hydrostatics hold, with certain restrictions and modifica-
tions, in the case of grain, an approximation of the amount
of lateral pressure can be determined. This is equal to the
area of a unit section of the wall (a section i foot in width
and in height equal to the wall) multiplied by ^ the height,
and that product by the height of a cubic foot of the in-
closed grain. Of course, friction would reduce the amount
of lateral pressure, as would the relatively lower fluidity
ii8
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 119
of grain compared with water, to perhaps f the theoretical
pressure. On this basis the total lateral pressure on the
wall of an oats bin 12 feet high and 16 feet long would be
about 20,000 pounds, which is indeed considerable. It is
evident that construction stronger and more secure than
that in ordinary buildings erected simply for shelter is
necessary in the case of granaries, which perhaps more
than any other buildings on a farm are subjected to hard
usage.
Every farmer has experienced the annoyance occasioned
by wooden floors. Almost always inch boards are used;
these will shrink in the summer when the bin may be
empty, and when the new grain is poured into the bin, it
promptly nms through the half -inch cracks; or the rats
may have piled -up such heaps of earth beneath the floor
that it is continually damp, causing the boards to rot and
the grain to mold. Occasionally a floor joist breaks, letting
a section of the floor drop, with the result that a large
quantity of grain is lost. All these unfortunate circ\un-
stances can be eliminated by the use of concrete floors, to
which there still exist, in the mind of many farmers,
serious objections, the principal one being that "the con-
crete draws dampness and makes the grain mold." All
objections to concrete floors can be overcome by one pre-
caution — make the floor right. Concrete, when properly
made to suit existing conditions, is absolutely impervious
to moisture, and can be kept as dry as any wood floor ever
built. In addition to this, it is practically permanent, it
makes an excellent base for the crib, and it always provides
a smooth, sloping surface.
Concrete floors for cribs should be made an integral
part of the foundation; that is, under each line of stud-
ding there should be a foundation wall perhaps 3 feet in
I20 FARM STRUCTURES
depth, and 8 or lo inches in thickness; between these
walls, and as a continuation of them, there should be a
6-inch floor with a good subfoundation of well-tamped
cinders or gravel. The floor should consist of a bottom
layer of ordinary coarse concrete, with some accepted
type of waterproofing mixed with it, and of a top layer
composed of a rather rich mixture of cement and sand,
also waterproofed. Such a floor as this is absolutely im-
pervious, and if it is given a little slope to permit the
drainage of any storm water that might be beaten into the
crib, no better or more satisfactory floor can be devised.
To facilitate the emptying of grain from the cribs, slop-
ing of floors is coming into great favor. A slope of 2^
feet in 8 is sufficient to permit all the grain in a bin to slide
out into drag belts or conveyors which carry the grain to
the sheller or to wagons, as the case may be, without any
hand labor being required, beyond that of keeping the con-
veyor from being blocked by too much grain. In the
handling of ear com this is an especially great advantage,
effecting the saving of the labor of two or three men when
the com is shelled.
The labor of handling grain has become almost entirely
mechanical. Formerly, the height of cribs was limited by
the height to which a man could scoop grain, and on
account of the labor and difficulty involved, cribs were
seldom built more than 12 feet high. The advent of the
modem small dump or elevator, sold at a price which made
it a necessity to every farmer, and manufactured in such
a multitude of variations for both inside and outside in-
stallations, makes it possible to have bins 20 or even 30
feet in height, and still permit the filling of the bins to
be accomplished with a minimum of manual labor. The
modem farmer builds cribs for permanence and conven-
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 121
ience ; he installs a vertical interior elevator which elevates
his grain to the conveyors above, the conveyors distribut-
ing it to any comer of the crib desired ; - when the time
comes for the removal of the grain, a few small doors are
IT of granary, showing several modera construction featuies.
opened, the grain runs into other conveyors, and is carried
to the shelter or to the waiting wagons, the whole proce-
dure being carried on without the farmer raising his hand
except to start machinery in motion. An added advantage
of a complete elevator and conveyor installation is the
122 FARM STRUCTURES
facility with which damp grain may be transferred from
one bin to another, thus aerating and drying it, and prob-
ably bettering its quaUty to such an extent that the higher
price received for it when it is sold will soon pay for the
cost of the installations.
The general arrangement of the crib is shown in Figure
54. It is economy to employ the double construction,
since it enables the entire crib, driveway and all, to be
completely roofed over, and since a minimum length of
conveyors is necessary. The crib may be made as long as
desired; the width should be about 28 feet, allowing 10
feet for the driveway and 9 feet for the cribs, a width which
at least in the West has been found as great as will allow
the proper drying of ear com. The depth of the bins may
be as great as 30 feet, but perhaps 20 feet is the maximum
of most cribs. Above the driveway are located bins for
small grain, the floors being made sloping to one side, as
shown in the illustration, to admit of rapid emptying
through swivel chutes; this floor should be high enough
from the floor of the driveway to permit the easy passage
of a wagon and driver.
The framing of a modem granary is simple and strong.
The lateral pressure is resisted by studding, which is usually
of 2 X 6 yellow pine or oak, and
which should not be placed more
than 2 feet apart in high bins.
Opposite pairs of studs are tied
with 2X6' ties securely spiked,
two ties being necessary for a
Fig. sS. — Goetz hanger to hold 20-foot Stud. The Studs are
^^^^' fastened at the bottom either to
sill plates bolted to the concrete or by a special Goetz
hanger, shown in Figure 55. There have recently been
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 123
placed upon the market stud sockets made especially to
be used in granary construction ; these are made of cast
iron, and are inserted into the concrete while it is still
wet and pressed down level with the surface, making
an admirable fastening. The latter form is simpler and
does not interfere with the flow of grain. The two inner
rows of studs are doubled below the floor of the upper
bins, for the heavy weight of the grain above, coupled with
the lateral pressure of the side bins, is likely to cause buck-
ling of the studs unless they are quite strong.
The siding for comcribs is usually 1X6 rough fencing,
put on with a i-inch space between adjacent boards, so as
to allow free passage of air. Small grain bins must be
sided up closely, and for this purpose either ship lap or
drop siding is used, the latter being preferable.
Some attempts have been made to construct an all-steel
comcrib, using channel beams for sills and woven wire for
siding, but with no appreciable degree of success. The
difficulty in this construction lies in the fact that the
woven wire rusts and deteriorates so rapidly that it cannot
long withstand the lateral pressure.
Machine Sheds
One great source of loss to the farmer is that resulting
from lack of care of his farm machinery. Exposure to the
weather results in the rapid deterioration of a machine,
with an accompanying loss of efficiency, so that only a half
or perhaps only a third of the value of the machine is
finally realized. The average life of a grain binder, a
complex machine requiring a rather heavy investment, is
actually less than five years; experience has shown that
its life may be easily prolonged to at least fifteen years
with proper care. In the state of IlUnois there was in
124 FARM STRUCTURES
1 910, $75,000,000 worth of farm machinery; on the basis
noted above, $15,000,000 worth must be renewed every
year. To properly house the machinery on the 200,000
farms of 50 acres or more, would require about $40,000,000,
which would be saved in four years by extending the life
of machines to fifteen years. Since with a little care a
machine shed should at least last twenty years, the total
saving in that term of years would be $160,000,000, a tidy
sum to be distributed among the farmers of the state.
On the ordinary farm, the machine shed should be as
simple as possible — a plain stucture with sufficiently wide
doors to permit of the removal and return of implements
with the minimum amount of time and labor. The in-
terior should be clear of any vertical posts — this wiU
require that the building be narrow or that a trussed roof
be used, and should preferably have a concrete floor,
though this will increase the cost of the structure by a
considerable percentage, the concrete floor costing about
one fourth of the whole building. If desired, a small shop
may be included at one end of the shed, and will prove a
wonderful convenience.
If a concrete floor is not used, rough 2-inch plank should
form the floor, since the heavy machinery would soon de-
stroy anything lighter. This should be supported on 4 X 6
sills, laid on a concrete foundation or on frequent brick
piers. Horizontal siding will require that studs be used
in the walls and 2X4 studs, doubled at the comers and at
openings, and placed at 2-foot intervals, will be sufficient
to make a firm wall and to support the roof. Should
vertical siding be employed, a system of framing should
be designed, using 4X6 posts and 2 X 4 or 2 X 6 nailing
girts. It is advisable to cover the vertical cracks which
appear between the boards with 2|-inch battens.
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 125
The width of the building governs to a large extent the
method of roof framing. Machine sheds adapt themselves
readily to certain widths, 18 feet and 26 feet being per-
haps the widths that can be
most economically utilized.
The floor plans following
illustrate possible arrange- //jl jg
ments of machines within // II §•
the buildings. If only an // 11 %
18-foot width is used for the // 11 g
structure, the rafters them- // 11 ^
selves, with perhaps a collar // I I -g
beam or cross tie, are suffi- /7\\ // 5p
dent to support the roof. /^ \\// 1
If a greater width is em- // W/ I
to
ployed, a simple truss, like
the one in Figure 56, must
X. X MM \ \ *^
be built up, and placed at >y/ \\ g
intervals of 9 or 10 feet. vv \\ ^
Ofttimes the collar beams ^\ ^ |
and cross ties are used to
support poles, lumber, and
odds and ends that accumu- \v\\ "^
WW o
late, and the weight of these \\\ ^
things will give the roof a
tendency to rack or sag. If
the intention is to use the
collar beams and ties for this purpose, the framing should
be made extra strong to resist the additional strain.
The floor of the shed should not be very high, and the
approaches to the doors should be quite gradual, for other-
wise it will be very difficult to run some of the heavier
machines into the shed. Some builders advocate the use
126 FARM STRUCTURES
of two-story structures, but this is impracticable for the
ordinary farm, and the added expense for the necessary hoist
and the trouble of operating it would make it undesirable.
However, this idea may be well worked out if the shed is
built on the slope of a steep hill, so that natural approaches
may be had on two sides, and a hoist will be unnecessary.
In preparing the design of a machine shed, the first con-
sideration is the number of machines to be housed, and
whether or not a farm shop is to be included in the build-
ing. Then comes the arranging of the machines with the
view of getting them into such locations as to enable the
user to get them out and in with the least amoimt of trouble.
For instance, a binder, being used just once a year, may well
occupy a farther comer, leaving the space near the door for
the mower and the plow, implements which are used of tener
and for longer periods than the binder. The wagons,
buggies, and manure spreaders are used so much through-
out the year that they should be especially accessible.
Figure 57 illustrates the floor arrangement of an 18-foot
machine shed, with no interior posts to interfere with the
removal or replacing of machines. It shelters easily and
conveniently the usual farmer's equipment in the way of
machinery, a list of which follows :
I Grain Binder i Spike-tooth Harrow i Wagon
I Mower 2 Single-row Cultivators i Spreader
I Gang Plow i Com Planter i Single Buggy
I Walking Plow i lo-foot Drill i Double Buggy
I Disk Harrow i Self-dump Rake
This shed has in addition an 8-foot shop across one end.
The section devoted to buggies has a single sliding door of
its own, because of the large amount of usage the buggies
receive ; this door arrangement permits the easy removal
of the plow. The spreader and wagon may be located in
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS
127
a
E
QO
128
FARM STRUCTURES
the space immediately in front of the 14-foot double sliding
doors, perhaps with some turning of the poles. The
smaller tools are slipped
into corners, the spike-
tooth harrow being hung
on the wall.
If so desired, the shed
may be made only 40
feet long, changing the
location of the spreader
and wagon to a lean-to
built on at the rear of
the shed, wide enough to
drive the spreader clear
through. It is not necessary to wall up this lean-to, unless
it is located on the north or west side of the shed. An
end view of this plan is shown in Figure 58. Under
Fig. 57 b.
t'Vjf.jmi -v»aiVS9vrj»ieanma>ia!/wxa WAttf/stts^^^ 3.<junj;:
Fig. 58. — Machine shed with lean-to.
I
almost any condition of arrangement, it is necessary to
have two doors, one 7 or 8 feet wide, and the other 12 or
14 feet wide; though with the lean-to scheme described
above, the buggies might well occupy the central space
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS
129
before the wide doors, thus obviating the necessity of
other ones. Since the wide doorway must be kept clear,
the eaves above must be supported by a stiff truss, which
I
I
L
^
i
^
I
I
^1
I
^
§
r
4
0)
.?
1^
JL
I
a
NO
,a-,Q
<r
■:,8-8-
9-Q
H
will also carry the sliding door track ; if the opening is not
trussed, the roof will sag, and the doors will not nm
horizontally, but will drag and catch on the ground.
An arrangement for the same implements in a machine
I30 FARM STRUCTURES
shed 26 feet wide is shown in Figure 59. A shop, 8 X 16, is
included in the arrangement ; a larger one could be provided
by simply extending the building to the length desired. The
wider building is a little more expensive than the narrow one
with a lean-to, but presents a better exterior appearance,
and gives a little more freedom in interior arrangement.
The use of other buildings for the storage of farm imple-
ments is not an especially desirable procedure, except in
certain instances such as keeping wagons in the driveways
of cribs, leaving the spreader imder cover at the end of
an alle)rway of the bam for convenience in loading, etc.
As a general rule, other buildings are much more expensive
than a machine shed, and those portions of them devoted
to the storage of farm implements could in most cases be
more profitably used, when the very small imit floor-space
cost of a machine shed is taken into consideration.
The Farm Shop
On some farms, the amount of construction and repair
work done justifies the erection of a separate building to
house the various machines used in this work. The size
of the shop will vary, of course, with the extent of the
work done, from a small one with a forge, a work bench, and
a grindstone, to one much more pretentious, one which is
in reaUty a power plant, with a complete blacksmith and
woodworking shop, with a gas engine supplying power to
com sheller, grinder, emery wheel, water supply system,
electric Ughting plant, and other machines. One section
may be used for a laimdry, with a power-driven washing
machine, wringer, and mangle; another may shelter the
cream separator and chum. If the shop is small, the con-
struction of it should be quite simple, similar to the machine
shed, with the exception that the walls should be made
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 131
tight, for the shop will be used to some extent during cold
weather, and the walls should be made close enough to
retain heat. If the building is to be made larger, the
framing must be rather heavy, since it will have to support
overhead shafting and pulleys, with the attendant vibra-
tion and strain upon them. The building should have
plenty of windows to give an abundance of light ; the walls
should be covered on the exterior with building paper and
drop siding, and on the interior with Number i ship lap.
For the progressive farmer, a power plant is fast becoming
a necessity. The equipment of the repair shop should
include a good concrete forge with a hand blower, an anvil,
a work bench with a heavy vise, a grindstone, an emery
wheel, and a drill press. The forge should be placed along
an outside wall, to get plenty of Hght, and should be set
away from comers, to give plenty of room for manipulat-
ing long stock. A woodworking bench is a great con-
venience, and if installed should be located far enough
away from the forge to obviate any danger from sparks
and to keep out of range of soot.
The sheller and grinder may well be in a separate room,
as they are always productive of more or less dust and dirt.
Small bins, for the storage of grain, may be included in
this part also.
In order that the engine may be kept in the best condi-
tion, it, too, should be located in a separate room, one that
may be easily accessible from any part of the rest of the
shop. The dust from the workshop, and from the feed
room, would be injurious to the engine, and especially to a
generator, should there be one. Since a rather large engine
is used to drive some of the heavier machines, it may be
economy to have a smaller engine to operate the laundry
and creamery machines, and it may even be advisable to
132 FARM STRUCTURES
have them in a separate building more closely adjacent
to the residence. Then the main power plant could be
located as a part of the group of the other farm buildings,
and be central to them.
Ice Houses
The great variety of uses to which ice is now put in the
economies of living is sufficient reason for taking up a
discussion of the principles of ice storage and preservation
and the construction of ice houses. Before the manufac-
ture of artificial ice became a commercial possibility the
storage and distribution of natural ice were the only means
of relief for residents of cities from the summer heat, and
in the country, imless natural ice was at hand, the diffi-
culty was equally great. An ample supply of ice is of greater
economic importance in the coimtry than in the city resi-
dence, for city people can purchase perishable supplies as
needed, but the remoteness of country homes from markets
often renders it necessary to use canned, corned, or smoked
meat products during the season of the year when the
table should be supplied with fresh meats. Not only is
ice valuable and appreciated because of its use in preserv-
ing fresh meats, butter, and other table supplies, but the
production of high-grade domestic dairy products is almost
impossible without it. Many markets to which milk is
now shipped demand that it be cooled before shipment to
a degree not attainable without the use of ice.
The source of ice supply will vary with local conditions.
Nature often supplies an abundance of ice from lakes,
rivers, or large streams without any special plan on the
part of man. Sometimes the water of a small stream or
spring can be dammed up sufficiently to afford a water
surface large enough to provide the desired amoimt of ice.
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 133
The stream or pond from which the ice is taken should be
supplied from a source which is free from pollution or
contamination, and from vegetation which, freezing in the
ice, would be deposited as the ice melted in the refrigerator,
rendering it unnecessarily filthy and dangerous to health.
It is impossible to have pure ice unless the pond or stream
is clean and the water free from contamination.
Principles of Ice Storage
The following principles, physical and mechanical, must
be considered in the construction of a building in which
to store ice : (i) to prevent ice from melting, it must have
a minimum of surface exposed to the air or packing material ;
this is best accomplished by cutting the ice in as large
cubes as can be conveniently handled; (2) the ice must
be thoroughly insulated, to protect it from external in-
fluences, such as heat and air; (3) drainage is important
because the lack of it interferes with insulation ; (4) pack-
ing of the ice must be done carefully so as to prevent as
far as possible the circulation of air around it.
Types of Ice Houses
Any such advantages as are offered by shade and exposure
should be taken advantage of in the location of an ice
house, since at best ice is a highly perishable product re-
quiring special equipment for its preservation. A shady
location, with a northern exposure, is decidedly better than
any other.
With reference to general design, ice houses are of three
types: (i) those built entirely above ground; (2) those
partly above and partly below; and (3) those entirely
below ground. As a rule, the first type can be more easily
and economically built than any other, because no excava-
134 FARM STRUCTURES
tions, which are expensive to make and difficult to insulate
and drain properly, are necessary. It might at first be
considered advisable to take advantage of the compara-
tively even temperature of the earth and its apparent cool-
ness, but when we realize that the temperature of the
earth at a depth of 5 or 6 feet is about 55 degrees F. the
year around, it becomes evident that the stored ice must
be protected from earth heat as well as air heat. It is
easier, of course, to fill a partly subterranean house with
ice, but this advantage is more than coimterbalanced by
the difficulty in removing it as it is used.
The Constriiction of Ice Houses
Two important considerations in the construction of any
ice house are the character of the insulation and the cost
of construction. The climatic conditions must also be
considered, and the probable amount of ice that will be
necessary. A ton of ice occupies approximately 35 cubic
feet. Four or five tons are usually all that a single family
will use during a season, so if the ice is to be for private
use only, it is desirable that several families unite in put-
ting up their ice supply together, if this can be accom-
plished without inconvenience.
An inexpensive ice house which will serve quite satis-
factorily in the region whose climate is similar to that of
Chicago or New York can be constructed as follows :
choose a site that is thoroughly well drained ; if the area
is not drained naturally, grade the surface so that no water
can ever flow into or through the building, and so that
water from the melting ice can be quickly disposed of.
Having provided for the disposal of the water, both from
within and from without, set a series of 2 X 4 posts around
the four sides of a square of the dimensions desired; a
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 135
building 10 feet square will allow of a storage capacity 7
feet square. Board up the inside with ship lap, and the
outside with ship lap or drop-siding. The space between
— Cmciete ice house.
the inner and outer walls should be filled with some per-
fectly dry material, like sawdust or packed shavings. The
roof may be a simple gable or hip roof, with common
136 FARM STRUCTURES
shingles nailed on, and with a little ventilator cupola pro-
vided in the peak. A continuous door, similar to a silo door,
should be built in one side, in order that the house may be
filled and the ice removed without any xmnecessary labor.
In filling the house, a bed of sawdust at least 15 inches
thick must be provided upon which to build the ice pier ;
and a layer of sawdust of the same thickness must be
maintained between the ice and the wall of the house.
Any intervening spaces between ice blocks should be filled
with crushed ice, which will freeze, uniting the entire
amount of ice into one large block, with a minimum of
surface exposed to melting.
Instead of the cheap temporary construction just de-
scribed, ice houses of a permanent nature can be built
from brick, stone, or concrete, the latter being especially
adaptable. Either the single- or double-wall t)^e of con-
struction may be used in concrete houses, and both of them
will require some additional interior insulation. For the
single- wall construction, Figure 61 illustrates the arrange-
ment of exterior concrete wall, with the inner double wood
one, and all the packing. With the double-wall construc-
tion, the air space acts as an excellent nonconductor, and
serves to cut down the extra packing or insulation needed
by a half. For roofs in concrete houses, cinder concrete
laid in double thickness with a 2-inch air space between
them, and well reenforced with strong netting or woyen-
wire fence, will serve admirably. The floor may also be
of double thickness, of sand and gravel at least 6 inches
thick, and properly arranged for good drainage.
The Silo
A silo is an air-tight, water-tight tank, in which green,
succulent herbage may be placed and preserved, very much
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 137
as fruits are preserved in glass jars. Just as the housewife
finds that it is in those jars which were not air-tight that
the fruit does not keep well, so does the farmer find that
the admission of any air to well-packed silage will result
in mold and decay. The silo may be and often is wholly
above ground, but very frequently has a large part of
its total capacity below ground; its original form was
that of a large pit, being entirely below ground. From
this there developed the square silo built above ground,
but this was a failure, for several reasons ; it could not be
built economically, nor strong enough to resist the internal
pressure, nor did the silage keep well in it. The settling
of the silage was uneven, due to the greater amount of
friction in the comers of the walls in proportion to the
weight of silage than in the middle of the structure. Fol-
lowing the square silo came the octagonal one, but this
possessed many of the inherent defects of its predecessor.
Finally, there was evolved the round silo, which has been
universally accepted as the one shaped most perfectly,
both from the theoretical and the practical viewpoint.
Some of the essentials of a good silo are as follows :
(i) A location which is at once sheltered from cold
winds and easily accessible, both for filling and for emptying.
As to whether an inside or outside location is the better,
depends more than anything else on the type of the bam.
A circular barn can very well have the silo located in the
center, where it will act as a splendid support for the fram-
ing of the barn itself. Under almost any other circum-
stance, it is better to have the silo outside of the bam, on
account of the strong, pungent odor of the silage, which is
often disagreeable, and because of the fact that it occupies
a great deal of floor space which might otherwise be more
profitably used.
138 FARM STRUCTURES
(2) A foundation which is thoroughly solid and sub-
stantial, extending at least 4 or 5 feet below the groimd,
so that the bottom of the silo is below the frost line. It
is quite necessary that this be well drained, in order to
obviate as far as possible any settling, which is likely to
occur with the heavy structure above.
(3) Walls which are smooth, strong, straight, and solid.
The lateral pressure on silo walls is something enormous,
and the walls must be sufficiently rigid to resist this pres-
sure as well as to resist storms. Since air causes silage to
spoil, there must be no pockets or depressions in the wall
in which air can be imprisoned, and which will prevent the
even settling of the silage.
(4) Some protection for the top of the silo, so that silage
may not decay at the top. Some authorities claim that a
roof is an unnecessary expense, and that silage will spoil
to just as great a depth at the top with a roof as without
one. This claim is hardly substantiated, but some owners
of silos simply sow some oats or rye on top of the silage,
and claim that the thick sod resulting protects the silage
adequately.
Size of the Silo
The capacity of a silo is determined by the niunber of
cattle to be fed and by the length of the feeding period for
silage. This period usually lasts about 200 days, though
some stock raisers find silage a profitable and satisfactory
feed for the entire year.
Silage, to be used advantageously, must be fed oflf the
top of the silo; any opening in the bottom would admit
air and cause the silage to spoil. Even when feeding from
the top, unless it is begun just as soon as the silo is filled,
there will be some loss, as a thin layer at the top exposed
to the air will decay and must be discarded. The silage.
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS
139
after feeding has begun, must be removed at the rate of at
least 2 inches per day to prevent the formation of mold,
and the diameter of the silo should be so gauged as to insure
that this amount will be consumed. Unless the silo is
constructed so as to be particularly impervious to cold,
there will occur some freezing of the silage around the
walls ; the frozen silage, if fed just as soon as it is thawed,
will not have any particularly different effect upon cattle
than silage which has not frozen, beyond a mere laxative
action. In some sections of the country, it is the practice
to make the surface of the silage cone-shaped, this prevent-
ing to some extent the freezing that sometimes occurs
around the edges near the top.
The accompanying table gives the capacities of silos
required to supply silage to herds of different sizes, fed
either for 180 or 240 days ; the corresponding correct diam-
eter is also included. Though diameters of 22 feet are
given, 20 feet should be the maximum, since any greater
diameter means an excess of labor in removing the silage.
nxtmber of
Dairy Cows
Feed tor i8o Days
Feed for 240 Days
Diameter of Silo
8
29 tons
40 tons
8 ft.
10
36 tons
48 tons
10 ft.
15
54 tons
72 tons
10 ft.
20
72 tons
96 tons
12 ft.
25
90 tons
120 tons
14 ft.
30
108 tons
144 tons
16 ft.
35
126 tons
168 tons
16 ft.
40
144 tons
192 tons
18 ft.
45
162 tons
216 tons
18 ft.
SO
180 tons
240 tons
20 ft.
60
216 tons
288 tons
22 ft.
70
252 tons
336 tons
22 ft.
80
288 tons
384 tons
22 ft.
90
324 tons
432 tons
22 ft.
100
360 tons
480 tons
22 ft.
I40 FARM STRUCTURES
The height of silos should be as great as can be obtained
with the most economical construction, bearing in mind,
however, that for silos from 8 to lo feet in diameter, the
height be not more than 40 feet, that for silos from 12 to 15
feet in diameter, the height be not more than 45 feet, and
that the height of any larger silo be not more than 60 feet.
Silos of a greater height than this are more or less inacces-
sible, and the filUng of them is accomplished with more or
less diflS-Culty. For this reason two silos of less diameter
and height are often preferable to one large one.
In estimating the capacities of silos, consideration should
be given the fact that the silage at the bottom of a silo is
so much more compactly compressed than at the top that
its unit weight is much greater than that of the silage at
the top. For instance, at the bottom of a silo 36 feet deep,
the weight of a cubic foot of silage is approximately 60
pounds, while the same amount of top silage weighs but
18 or 20 pounds. From this it is seen that the capacity
increases in greater proportion than does the depth.
In a bulletin issued by the Wisconsin experiment station,
a table reproduced on page 141 indicates the weight
of silage at different distances below the surface, and
the mean weight of the silage for silos of different
depths.
The lateral pressure tending to burst a silo is consider-
able, and all silos require some sort of reenforcement to
resist this strain. Professor King of Wisconsin has found
that the pressure on the walls of the silo due to the weight
of the silage is 11 pounds per square foot of wall area
per foot of length. That is, at a depth of 10 feet, the
lateral pressure per square foot is no pounds; at a
depth of 20 feet, it is 220 pounds; at 30 feet, it is
330 pounds.
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS
141
Weight of
Mean
Weight of
Mean
Depth of
Silage at
Weight of
Depth of
Silage at
Weight of
Silage
Different
Silage per
Silage
Different
Silage pes
Depths
Cubic Foot
Depths .
Cubic Foot
Feet
Lbs.
Lbs.
Feet
Lbs.
Lbs.
I
18.7
18.7
19
45-0
32.6
2
20.4
19.6
20
46.2
33.3
3
22.1
20.6
21
47.4
33-9
4
23-7
21.2
22 .
48.S
34.6
5
25.4
22.1
23
49.6
35.3
6
27.0
22.9
24
50.6
35-9
7 ■
28.5
23.8
25
51.7
36.5
8
30.1
24.5
26
52.7
37.2
9
31.6
25.3
27
53.6
37.8
10
33.1
26.1
28
54.6
38.4
II
34-5
26.8
29
55-5
39.0
12
35.9
27.6
30
56.4
39.0
13
37.3
28.3
31
57.2
40.1
14
38.7
29.1
32
58.0
40.7
IS
40.0
29.8
33
58.8
41.2
16
41.3
30.5
34
59-6
41.8
17
42.6
31.2
35
60.3
42.3
18
43.8
31.9
93
61.0
42.8
Types of Silos
Almost every sort of material that can be used in con-
struction has been incorporated at various times into silos.
Wood, brick, hollow tile, stone, steel, concrete, all have
been used with more or less success, but a gradual elimina-
tion has resulted in leaving three materials from which in
the present time the great majority of silos are built ;
these are wood, hollow tile, and concrete ; steel is used for
reinforcement and support in all of the silos built from these
materials.
Variation in the method of using the building materials
gives rise to a broader classification, and it is this classifi-
cation that we shall follow in discussing the construction
advantages, and disadvantages, of different kinds of silos.
Thus we have the stave silos, all practically the same,
142 FARM STRUCTURES
differing only in minor details ; the Gurler silo, originally
of wood and plaster^ now also manufactured entirely of
steel and plaster; the hollow tile silo, with minor varia-
tions as to shape of * block, etc. ; and the concrete silo,
which may be made of soUd or hollow blocks, or of single-
or double-wall monolithic construction.
The Stave Silo
The stave silo is made of long staves usually 2X6 inches,
held together in a barrel-like form by hoops of steel. The
popularity of this form of silo is evidenced by the thousands
of them in successful use throughout the United States.
Its main advantages are its comparative cheapness, es-
pecially where only a temporary silo is desired, and its
portability, the construction being such that it may be
dismantled and removed to another location with the loss
only of the foundation.
There was a time when common 2 X 4's or 2 X 6's were
used as staves, setting them up on end and drawing them
together with iron bands or hoops. There was so much
leakage through the cracks between the staves that in
a great many cases silage spoiled, and as a result the use
of the silo was condemned. In modern practice, however,
this possibility of leakage is to a great degree eliminated,
because the staves are matched so carefully, both side and
end; that the outlet of silage juices and the admission of
air is practically prevented. In the cheaper forms of stave
silos, the matching is accomplished by merely beveling the
edges, and trusting to the closeness with which the staves
are drawn together to keep the structure comparatively
water-and air-tight.
The construction of a stave silo calls first for a good
substantial foimdation. If the silo is to be entirely above
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 143
ground, a circular foundation of concrete or brick masonry,
varying from 10 to 18 inches in thickness according to the
size of the silo, and the sort of groimd upon which the silo
is located, must be built by digging a trench of the re-
quired width and deep enough to reach firm ground below
the frost line ; if the foundation is to be of concrete, cir-
cular forms should be erected above the trench so as to
bring the concrete at least i foot above the ground.
With a brick foimdation, forms are of course imnecessary.
Usually it is an advantage to have part of the silo below
ground, and when this is desired, a pit of the required
diameter and depth is dug, lining the sides of the pit with
brick masonry or concrete. In any Jdnd of silo construc-
tion, the floor should not be built integral with the walls
or the foundation ; for should such be the case, the weight
of the silage would probably break up the floor badly, and
possibly result in the failure of the silo. Some sort of a
drain, extending outside of the walls, should be installed,
to take care of any seepage beneath the silo.
With the foundation and floor in place, the erection of the
staves is next in order. The wood from which staves are
made may be any one of the following, their comparative
value being in the order in which they are given : cypress,
CaUfomia redwood, white pine, cedar, fir, yellow pine.
It is important that the wood be straight and free from any
loose knots, sapwood, or any other serious defect; the
material should be as uniform as possible, the staves being
of the same width and thickness. The silo may be made
of one-piece staves, but this is rather expensive, especially
as the height increases, and just as satisfactory a silo may
be made with built-up staves. When the stave is made of
two pieces of different lengths, the joint should be made
accurately, and splined together by making, in the ends to
144
FARM STRUCTURES
be joined, a saw cut i inch deep and parallel to the sides
of the stave, and inserting a sheet-iron spline, preferably
galvanized, as shown in Figure 62.
The ends of the stave should be painted
with white lead to further protect the
joint. To fasten the adjacent staves
together, half-inch holes are bored in
the edges about 5 feet apart ; these
holes are made on one side only of
each stave and must be staggered on
adjoining staves ; they should be about
an inch deep in 4-inch staves, and
3 inches deep in 6-inch staves. The
purpose of these holes is to allow spik-
ing the staves together when set up,
the spike being driven into the bottom
of the hole, and passing through the
rest of that stave and into the next one, as shown in
Figure 63.
Before the staves are put up, the number of doors must
be decided upon, and their distance apart. The doors are
usually from 2 to 2§
feet high, 2 feet wide,
and may be from 2^ to
3 feet apart. The loca-
tion of the doors is laid
out upon a stave, and saw cuts are made halfway through
it at an angle of 45 degrees, as shown in Figure 64. This
stave is put up at one side of the place where the doors are
to be cut, and after the staves are all up a saw is inserted
in the saw cut already begun and a cut of the desired width
of door is made. The purpose of the slanting cut is to make
a door that can be removed only from the inside, so that
Fig. 62. — Splined joint.
Fig. 63. — Method of fastening staves.
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 145
when the silo is filled, the lateral pressure will hold it in
place. The portions of the staves forming the doors can
be cleated together after being sawed out, the cleats being
placed on the outside of the door so as not to
interfere with the settling of the silage.
Sometimes a continuous door is desired ;
this adds to the convenience of the silo, and
is somewhat more difficult to construct. In
putting in a continuous door in a stave silo
a door frame should be provided of 4 X 6
pieces, held 20 inches apart by pipes, and
kept from spreading by f-inch bolts placed at
intervals of 2 feet, running through the pipe,
as shown in Figure 65. Iron washers should
be placed between the ends of the pipe and
the door frame, and under the heads and nuts
of the bolts. The inside corner of each
timber should be chamfered as shown in the
illustration, to provide a shoulder against
which the doors can rest. The doors them-
selves are made of double thickness of
tongued and grooved flooring, with a thick-
ness of tarred paper between, the inside
. r „ ■ ■ ... ,1 FiC. 64. — Door
layer of floonng runnmg vertically and the location for a
outside horizontally. ^'^ "'"■
The first stave is placed with its inner face on the line,
5 inches from the inner edge of the foundation. It must
be plumbed in both directions and securely fastened at the
top and bottom by braces nailed to stakes firmly driven
into the ground, or to some adjacent building. A movable
stepladder may be used instead of scaffolding, and this
may be moved along and kept in the right place from which
to work. The next stave is then set up and nailed to the
146
FARM STRUCTURES
J23-
H2
d
■P'gg
first with 3od. or 4od.
spikes, which are started in
the holes previously bored
(Figure 63) and driven
home with a drift punch.
Other staves are then
erected until the place is
reached where the doors
are to be ; the door stave,
previously prepared, is
then nailed in position
and the remaining staves
erected. In setting up
splined staves, *the long
and short pieces should
Fig. 6s.-Continuous door for a stave sUo. alternate in adjacent
staves, so the joints may be staggered.
The hoops are next in order. These are made of J-, f-,
and f-inch rods, in sections from 10 to 14 feet in length,
the ends being threaded to admit of being joined to turn-
buckles or lugs. The ^-inch rods
are used in the upper third of the
height, and f-inch rods for the
remainder. Should the silo be
above 30 feet in height, the lower
third should be of f-inch, the middle
third of f-inch, and the upper third
of J-inch rods. Two hoops should
be placed below the fijst door, and
two between adjacent doors all the
way up, putting two hoops above
the top door if this space is more
than 2 feet ; if less than 2 feet, one fig. 66. — Completed door.
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 147
hoop will be sufficient. When the hoops are in place, they
should be tightened up and staples driven 2 or 3 feet apart
over each hoop to hold it in place, should it become-loose.
After all the hoops have been placed in position, the doors
should be cut out, using the stave previously cut as a guide.
By cutting through 4
or 5 staves, a sufficient
width is obtained for
the doors, A com-
pleted door is shown
in Figure 66.
Figure 67 shows the
silo with all the staves
erected ahd the hoops
in position. One door
has been cut out com-
pletely, and another
one partially so, show-
ing the method of
doing this part of the
work. The figure also
shows some other de-
tails of construction,
such as the staggering
of the joints in the
staves, the method of
anchoring the silo to
the foundation, the
location of the guide ^"^ *^' " ^''°» ""* *■" '^'^
stave for the doors, and the lugs on the hoops.
If a roof is put on the silo, it may be easily constructed
with eight or ten sides, using 2X6 stufif for rafters, and
employing shingles or prepared roofing for a covering.
148 FARM STRUCTURES
For filling the silo, a door must be put in at the top ; this
door may be either a trap door in the slope of the roof, or
a vertical door inserted in the face of a gable. Since the
silo must be emptied from above, a ladder must be con-
structed along the course of the doors, and a chute built
so as to inclose both the
ladder and the doors.
This is shown in the illus-
tration of the finished
silo, Figure 68. In order
to properly preserve the
wood of which the silo is
constructed, the interior
face of the staves should
be given a coat of carbo-
lineum or of some other
preservative. The at-
tractiveness of the exte-
rior will be enhanced if
the silo is kept well
painted.
The foregoing descrip-
tion is that of just one of
the dozens of different
kinds of stave silos built
to-day. In all those on
the market, the variation
_ „ in construction is almost
Fig. 58. — The completed alo. , . , .,
always m some detail, as
a special door, or hoop, or anchoring, or regnforcement,
or material used, the method of erection, etc., this detail
being controlled generally by a patent. Stave silos will
always be built to some extent, but the pronoimced ad-
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 149
vantages of the better and more permanent types of silos
are gradually limiting their use.
The Gurler Silo
The Gurler silo is the invention of Mr. H. B. Gurler,
who built his first silo in 1897. Long and successful use
of this type of silo has shown the practicabiUty of this form
of construction, the details of which follow.
The preparation of the foundation for the Gurler silo
is exactly similar to that of an ordinary stave silo. Upon
this foundation are set studs of 2 X 4 stuff, 16 inches
on center, held in place vertically by an occasional girt,
the studs resting on a 2 X 4 sill. Since it is usually difficult
to obtain studs equal in length to the height of the silo,
each stud may be made of two pieces, lapping them 2
feet. On the inner face of the studs is nailed the lining,
which consists of § X 6 stock made by splitting common
fencing with a saw. On top of the studs is nailed a 2 X 4
plate.
Provision for doors is made by doubling the studding on
each side of the row of doors and binding these together
either by f -inch rods between the doors or by doubUng the
lining on the inside across the space between the doors
and extending it six or eight feet on each side.
The silo is then lathed on the inside with a special form
of lath, known as Gurler lath, which consists of the ordinary
lath with the edges beveled. The lath is applied with its
narrower face nailed directly to the lining, and spaced so
that a dovetail joint is formed for the mortar. Sometimes
the Byrkit lath, shown in Figure 41, is used to fill the place
of both lining and lath.
The silo is then plastered on the inside with a cement
plaster made in the proportions of i part of cement to 2 parts
ISO FARM STRUCTURES
of sand. This should be applied in two coats, the first
coat being roughened and left to dry thoroughly before the
second coat is ^plied.
The exterior of the silo may be covered in any one of
several ways. The covering may be of ordinary weather-
boarding, bent aroimd the silo and securely
nailed, especially at the ends ; however,
this is not entirely satisfactory, for there
is a continual tendency in the siding to
straighten, and at the ends this tendency
is strong enough to cause the joint to
open when the nails become somewhat
rusty and the wood a Utile rotten. The
most satisfactory method of covering the
exterior of tKe silo is to set horizontal
girts into the studding at vertical inter-
vals of about 3 feet, and to these nail
vertical boards 6 or 8 inches wide, either
plain boards with the cracks covered with
battens or ship lap.
The doors for the Gurler silo may be
either individual or continuous, similar
in construction to those of the stave silo.
If a continuous door is used, the method
herein described of binding the sides of
the door frame together by means of
Flo. 60. — Gnrier aia double thickness of lining cannot be used ;
constmction, of the ojjy ^}^^ jj^n ^ods are practicable. The
wood and plaster ■' ^
type. roof construction is similar to that of the
stave silo.
In Figure 69 is shown a cross section of the walls of the
Gurler silo, with all the details illustrated.
There has been evolved a special form of the Gurler
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 151
silo which apparently possesses all the good qualities of
the original form in addition to that of permanence. In
this form the framework consists of steel channels in place
of studs, boimd together internally and externally by hoops
of strap iron, to which is fastened metal lath. The silo
is plastered inside and out with cement plaster, the exterior
being given any of the numerous stucco finishes. The roof
is of concrete, making the whole silo a fireproof, permanent
structure.
The Vitrified TUe Silo
The vitrified tile silo is a tj^e of silo construction that
will endure. This silo is built of blocks made of potter's
clay, burned to a vitreous body, presenting a hard, smooth
surface, impervious to moisture, and resistant to the action
of the acid in the silage juices on the interior, and of the
weather on the exterior.
The Agricultural Experiment Station of Iowa has done
much valuable work along the line of investigating the
value of the vitrified tile silo, and has evolved a type in
which the hollow air space is retained, therein differing
from the Grout silo, which has the hollow walls filled with
concrete. It is claimed that the hollow wall of the Iowa
silo tends to make it frost-resistant.
When properly constructed, the vitrified tile silo is un-
doubtedly an excellent one ; the main advantages of it are
the comparative ease with which it is built, the low main-
tenance cost, and its permanence.
In the construction of this type of silo, the foundation
is fiirst prepared so as to bring the bottom of the silo about
4 feet below the ground ; this is for the sake of economy,
as it is easier to work when near the ground than when
30, 40, or 50 feet above the ground, and less scaflFold-
ing is necessary. The foundation may be of a solid con-
152
FARM STRUCTURES
Crete wall lo inches thick widening to i6 inches at the
bottom ; or it may be built of brick with proper footing ;
or it may be built of the vitrified tile itself, the bottom
course being two 8-inch blocks laid flatwise side by side,
then a course of blocks laid flat crosswise, completing the
footing, the next course being the first wall course Some-
times a combination concrete and block foundation is used,
in which concrete is used for the footing. The cement
mortar in which the foundation blocks are laid should
contain waterproofing, and should be used abundantly
and carefully, to prevent the ingress of surface water, which
might result, in the case of a hollow wall, very seriously
should freezing occur.
The floor of the silo should be constructed similar to
the way in which concrete sidewalks are built, or it may be
made of the blocks themselves covered with a thin coat of
plaster. While a floor is not absolutely necessary, it is
desirable, since the portion of the
silo below groimd can be made
more nearly water-tight, the floor
can be kept clean, and no earth or
dust becomes mixed with the silage.
The foimdation having been
laid, the next consideration is the
wall. The blocks from which the
walls of the Grout silo are laid up
are shaped as shown in Figure 70,
with curved faces, and part of the partitions cut out to form
a groove in which to lay the reenforcement. Blocks with
either a straight or curved face have been used in the con-
struction of the Iowa silo, but the former have not proved
satisfactory, since the straight-faced block when laid up
in a circular wall makes a very irregular surface, especially
Fig. 70. — Vitrified silo block,
used in Grout silo.
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 153
when a rather long block is used. It has been found that
a block 12 inches long, 8 inches wide, and 4 to 6 inches
thick is the most desirable size, since they are not difficult
to handle and are laid up rapidly and require a minimum
of mortar. In the Iowa silo no special provision is made for
placing the reinforcing, as the largest reinforcement used
is a No. 3 wire, which in diameter is less than the thickness
of the mortar joint; therefore, it does not interfere with
the laying of the blocks, and the mortar protects it from
rust.
The mortar in which the blocks are laid up is composed
of cement, lime, and sand. The lime is a necessary in-
gredient, as a mortar made of cement and sand alone is
not plastic enough to adhere to the blocks. The amount
of lime to be used should not be more than is necessary to
make the mortar easily workable ; a mixture of i part of
cement, a little less than i part of lime, and 4 parts of good
sand, medium fine, will make a mortar that any workman
should be able to handle well.
It is in the method of laying the tile in the walls of the
silo that the main diflference lies between the Grout and
the Iowa silos. In the former, the tile are placed on edge,
with the hollow spaces extending vertically through the
tile and through the silo; this permits of the placing of
vertical reenforcing within the tile. When the silo is com-
pleted, the wall is filled with a slush concrete, which results
in making the structure a solid, unified mass, absolutely
impervious to air or moisture. The tile in the Iowa silo
are laid on edge or flatwise, with the hollow space extending
horizontally, no vertical reenforcing being used except near
the opening for a continuous door.
The reenforcement of both the Grout and the Iowa silos
consists of wire of various sizes according to the amount
154
FARM STRUCTURES
of bursting pressure to which the wall is likely to be sub-
jected at various heights. The vertical spacing is, of course,
controlled by the height of the blocks, since no space can
be less than the height of a single block; near the top of
the silo, where the lateral pressure is very small, reenforce-
ment may not be inserted at every course.
In the accompanying table is given the amount of hori-
zontal reenforcement necessary in a silo of this t)^)©, assum-
ing the reenforcement to be placed between each course
of 8-inch blocks. For each diameter from 12 to 20 feet,
a double column is given, the figures in the first indicating
the number of No. 9 wires to be used, and in the second,
the number of No. 3 wires. Thus, at a depth of 20 feet,
in a 16-foot silo, the reenforcement should consist either of
three No. 9 wires or of one No. 3 wire. It is well to have
the topmost regnforcement doubled, to resist the additional
pressure due to the thrust of the roof.
Depth
9 s
14
9 S
16
9 S
18
9 S
90
9 S
0-4
I
I
I
I
I
. 4-8
I
I
I
I
I
8-12
I
I
I
2
2
12-16
I
2
2
2
2 I
16-20
2
2
2 I
3 I
3 I
20-24
2
2 I
3 I
3 I
3 I
24-28
2 I
3 I
3 I
3 I
2
28-32
3 I
3 I
3 2
2
2
32-36
3 I
3 I
2
2
2
36-40
3 I
2
2
2
2
40-44
3 2
2
2
2
3
44-48
2
2
2
3
3
48-50
2
2
2
3
3
The Iowa Experiment Station advises the use of hard-
or high-carbon wire for reenforcement, since it is as cheap
as any, is stronger, and does not kink so badly in handling.
Since the wire is wound in comparatively small coils, it must
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 155
be straightened sufficiently to lie on the wall with approx-
imately the same curvature as that of the silo wall itself.
The method which the above-mentioned station has found
to be the most convenient may be described as follows:
secure or build a reel from which a coil of the wire may be
conveniently unwound. Mount this reel upon a plank
where it can turn easily, then secure a short piece of gas
pipe close to the reel as shown in Figure 71. Through this
pipe draw thewire
as it uncoils from
the reel, the pipe
being so placed
that its curvature
is opposite that
of the wire in the
coil. The curva-
ture of the pipe
may be adjusted until exactly the right curvature in the
wire is obtained ; the wire then may be cut into lengths
convenient for handling. The regnforcing wire should be
placed on the outer half of the blocks, in order that there
be enough mortar inside to bear against the wire and to hold
the blocks. The wires should be long enough to lap past
each other and admit of the ends being bent back to form a
hook, so they may be held together in the form of a hoop.
The roof of this silo may be built of wood, according to
the description given heretofore of wood roofs ; but since
the silo itself is permanent it would seem advisable to
make the roof the same, especially so since the cost of a per-
manent roof is not very much greater than that of a wood
roof. The construction of a permanent roof for a silo
of this type is similar to that of a hollow-block concrete
silo, which is given subsequently in this volume.
156 FARM STRUCTURES
The doors for this silo may be either separate or con-
tinuous, the latter having been found to be the more con-
venient. In making provision for an individual door,
special forms are provided for which are set in place and
surrounded with concrete, the inner part of the resulting
opening having a beveled edge against which the door is
held. The door is made similar to the one shown in Figure
65, but with a bevel extending all around that just fits
into the door opening. For. continuous doors the pro-
cedure is similar, the opening in this case extending from
the foundation to the top, the inner edge of the sides of the
>Si^!i?mi^^55555^55i^5Sj5S^!J^^S^^
Fig. 72. — Continuous door frame of concrete in a tile silo.
opening having a rabbet an inch square, as shown in Figure
72, against which the door is held ; the reenforcement in
this case is made of f -inch stock and is inserted at every
third course only, being omitted at the intervening ones,
and must be firmly anchored on each side.
The chute for this silo may be built of wood, or preferably
of blocks, the blocks being laid up in a single wall not
necessarily more than 4 inches thick, and supported at
the bottom by some sort of a structure which may serve
the additional purpose of housing the silage cart.
Concrete Silos
Concrete silos are made in two ways, either of block
or of monolithic construction, in the latter case the whole
structure being of one solid mass. The block type of con-
struction has proven popular in colder climates on accoxmt
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 157
of the ease with which a hollow-wall silo can be built,
no forms being necessary. Block silos can be built with
home labor and of home-made blocks, but where there is
a reliable block contractor in the vicinity, it is usually ad-
visable to have the work done by him, on account of not
only the saving in time but of numerous other things as well.
The use of concrete as a material for the construction
of silos has become almost universal. Enough concrete
silos have been built and have been in use a sufficiently
long time to prove their unquestionable value. The old
idea that the juices of the silage permeated the concrete
walls with a deleterious eflfect upon the latter has been
entirely disproved ; silos which have been filled with silage
for years give no evidence of disintegration or even of dis-
coloration of the interior walls. The fireproof qualities
of concrete must also be considered in comparing silos, and
instances in which silos have successfully imdergone the
action of fire which destroyed adjacent or surrounding
buildings has shown conclusively that concrete silos are
absolutely fire-resistant. The question of permanence is
also very satisfactorily settled by the concrete silo, for such
a silo properly built and reenforced will stand indefinitely,
increasing in strength with age.
There have been cases of the failure of concrete silos,
but in almost every case the failure was the result either of
poor design or of poor workmanship. In early days the
strength of concrete was not very well known, and the
reenfordng was insufficient. In some rare instances poor
materials were the direct cause of the failure. However,
there is no reason why the concrete silo should fail, if the
materials are properly selected, if the reenforcement is
sufficient and correctly put in, and if the work is done in
an approved way.
iS8
FARM STRUCTURES
The cost of a concrete silo compares very favorably with
that of other types. The cost will vary greatly in different
localities, since local conditions govern the cost to such a
great extent. The determining factors are the prices of
material and the cost of labor, and where these are at all
reasonable, a good concrete silo can be built at a cost no
greater than that of a good wood, brick, or tile silo.
The following table gives some excellent data on the cost
of no concrete silos. In the compilation of the data,
material, labor, superintendence, and all miscellaneous
expenses incident to putting the structure in shape to be
filled, were included.
State
Cost per Ton of CAPAcrry
Monolithic
Block
Illinois .
$2.83
2.31
2.10
2.26
2.89
2.38
2.18
2.30
$2.44
3.21
3-36
3.34
3.52
2.88
3"
Michigan
Wisconsin
Minnesota
Average cost of all silos, capacity
loo tons or less
Average cost of all silos, capacity
loo tons to 200 tons . . .
Average cost of all silos, capacity
200 tons or over
Average cost of all silos . . .
Each of the two methods of concrete construction avail-
able for silo work, the monolithic and the concrete block,
has certain advantages and disadvantages, but the matter
of personal choice generally influences the decision to build
either with monolithic walls or with block. The mono-
lithic silo is generally the easier of the two for inexperienced
persons to build, and is usually a little cheaper than the
block, as it does not require the service of good masons or
the use of a block machine ; the block silo, however, makes
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 159
the use of forms unnecessary, produces a wall with con-
tinuous vertical air spaces, and slightly reduces the amount
of materials used.
The decision to build either of monolithic or of block
construction very often depends upon the availability of
materials. In localities where materials for monolithic
work are abimdant and of good quality, it is hardly practical
to haul blocks farther than eight or ten miles ; on the other
hand, if there is no good sand or gravel near by, block work
may be preferred to the monolithic. In such cases, it may
be found economical to haul blocks from a greater distance,
or make them on the site, if need be.
Foundaiions
Laying out the Work. — The site of the silo having been
selected and its size determined, the excavation should
be laid out. This may be done conveniently with a sweep
similar to the one shown in Figure 73. A heavy stake is
driven in the center of
the spot selected for the
silo ahd allowed to pro-
ject above the surface
about I foot. The arm of
the sweep may be made
of a 2 X 4 at least 2 feet
longer than half the in- F^^- 73- -a simple sweep for Uying out
*=* ^ ^ excavation of a silo.
side diameter of the silo.
The arm swings about the stake as a center, being held to
the latter by a large spike. A chisel-shaped board or
template is swung around the stake, and should describe
a circle with a diameter 2^ feet greater than the inside
diameter of the completed silo. This will give the outUne
of the excavation and also of the foundatioii.
i6o FARM STRUCTURES
Excavating, — The excavation should be carried to a
depth not to exceed 6 feet below the floor of the bam where
the silage is to be fed. The objection to going deeper is
that it adds to the labor in removing the silage. In all
cases, however, the foundation should be established below
frost. All of the earth within the line described by the
sweep should be removed down to a point i foot from
the bottom, and below this the excavation should be made
the shape and size of the foundation, 2 feet wide by i foot
in depth, so placed that the outer edge will come directly
up to the edge of the excavation, assuming that the sides
of the latter are perpendicular.
If the silo is to be equipped with a concrete chute, the
foundation for the chute should be put in at the same time
as that for the silo. As the chute is rectangular in shape,
no difficulty should be encountered in excavating for the
foundation, which will be at the same depth as the silo
foundation, and 2 feet in width by i foot in depth.
Placing the Concrete. — The concrete for the foundations
should be made in the proportion of i sack of Portland
cement to 3 cubic feet of coarse sand, to 5 cubic feet of
screened gravel or crushed stone. The sand should be
free from clay or organic matter, and the gravel or stone
should contain no particle smaller in size than J inch.
The materials must be thoroughly mixed and enough water
added to give a quaky consistency. The concrete may
usually be placed in the excavation without any forms
whatever, but in some kinds of soil Ught boards, held in
position by stakes, may be necessary. The top of the
foundation must be leveled off with a straight-edged board
and spirit level. After 24 hours, the foundations have
generally hardened sufficiently so that the wall may be
built upon them. Where soft ground or quicksand is
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS
i6i
encountered, the foundation may be made 3 or 4 feet in
width, to provide plenty of footing.
Imbedding Reenforcing Rods. — If a monolithic silo is to
be built, the vertical reenforcing for the walls, consisting
of ^-inch round rods spaced 3 feet apart, should be imbedded
in the foundation a distance of 8 or 9 inches. If a block
silo is to be built, no vertical reenforcing need be placed.
The Floor. — After the foundation is completed, the
earth within should be dug out for a depth of about 8 inches,
and a concrete floor built as shown in Figure 74. The floor
i
Pakm Fuoow
VZjjt A CoNcneYc
-I
Fig. 74. — Silo foundation.
should be given a slight pitch in all directions toward the
center, and if necessary, an outlet to a line of drain tile
should be put in. Outlets are not usually provided in silo
floors, but in a few instances silos have failed because of the
pressure of a large quantity of water accumulated under
unusual conditions, with no provision for escape. In such
cases the stress on the walls may reach two or three times
that usually imposed by the silage. Although the majority
of silos are not provided with a drain, it is imdoubtedly
a desirable feature. The top of the drain should be pro-
tected from accumulations on the silo floor, by a small
wire mat. A 4-inch or 6-inch drain tile will be sufficient.
M
1 62
FARM STRUCTURES
The floor should be made of i : 2| 15 concrete. A smooth
finish is not considered necessary.
Monolithic Concrete Silo Walls
Forms, — There are a number of commercial forms on
the market for the construction of the walls of monolithic
concrete silos. However, homemade forms are perfectly
satisfactory when properly made, and a number of excellent
silos have been built from such forms.
The homemade forms have the inner part made of seg-
ments or ribs made of 2-inch by 12-inch plank, on the
fbced with
aqlv^nizcd irom
Fig. 7$. — Inner wall foim.
circumference of which are nailed a number of i-inch
matched floor boards, 3 feet long; this is covered with
lightweight galvanized iron. The sections thus made are
usually eight in number, all together making a complete
circle, and are fastened together when erecting the forms
by cleats of 2 X 6 stuff. The outer forms are made of
heavy galvanized sheet steel of the same width as the inner
forms. Figures 75 and 76 illustrate the details of the con-
struction of these forms. In handling the inner forms
great care must be observed in keeping the inside surface
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS
163
of the silo perfectly smooth. Horizontal " steps'' in the
wall are particularly objectionable. Projections, *' steps, "
and other irregularities cause imeven settling of the silage,
thus forming air pockets. The pressure of an air pocket
frequently causes silage within a foot of the pocket on all
Jcfnt //7 Out^fde rorm
1 ' ^ gaagj
D
-
■-I. I..I -J
U„iULJ
Fig. 76. — Outer wall form.
sides to spoil. The inner surfaces of the forms should be
painted, before using, with crude oil or whitewash, which
will prevent the concrete from sticking.
Constructing the Walls. — As soon as the foimdation has
hardened suflSciently to allow the work to proceed, the
wall forms may be placed in position. Much care should
be taken to locate them centrally and in such a manner
that the sides are perpendicular. The 4 X 4-inch uprights
should be carefully put in position at this time, being
supported on wooden blocks or flat stones. After the inner
form is placed, but before the outer form is in position, the
horizontal reenforcing rods for the first 3 feet of wall
should be wired to the vertical rods which were placed
in foundation as previously mentioned. The outer forms
should then be placed in position and tightened. Before
placing the concrete, it will be necessary to clean off the
surface of the foundation and moisten it thoroughly. The
wall forms, having been previously painted with crude oil
or whitewash to prevent sticking, may then be filled with
slushy concrete made in the proportion of i sack of
i64 FARM STRUCTURES
Portland cement to 2 J cubic feet of screened gravel or
crushed stone, all of the latter being between i inch and
ij inches in size.
During the summer 24 hours is usually enough for con-
crete to harden before raising the forms, but in cool weather
a longer time will be required. If the work be undertaken
while there is danger of freezing, the usual cold weather
precautions must be observed. In such cases the materials
should be heated, or at least be free from frost, and mixed
with hot water. The work in the forms must be pro-
tected for several days with manure, straw, or a canvas
jacket under which live steam is run.
When the first filling has hardened sufficiently to admit
of raising the forms, the forms are raised in position for
the next course. Immediately before the concrete is
placed for each succeeding course, the surface of that
previously laid should be thoroughly cleaned oflF and
moistened, and coated with a cement and water grout
of about the consistency of cream. This precaution is
necessary to secure a good bond between the courses. It
should be observed in all cases, as the pressure of the
silage is apt to force moisture through any seams which
might occur because of imperfect bond. Concreting should
not be discontinued with a course partially completed,
but if this is imavoidable, the concrete surface should be
left as nearly vertical as possible.
Although the forms are made 3 feet in height, the height
of the wall built at each filling (after the first) will be 2 feet
6 inches, allowing the forms to cover 6 inches of finished
wall when in position to be filled again. Experiment has
shown that this is about the best height to fill at one time,
as it makes about one-half day's work for the average
farm crew when the mixing is done by hand. In reason-
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 165
ably good weather it should be possible for home labor to
raise the form each morning, refill in the forenoon, and have
the remainder of the day free for various farm duties.
SpACiNa OF HouzoNTAL Rebnfobciho Rods in Monoliteic Silos
Diameth of Silo
MFm
tefl.
ntl. 1 14 ft
16 It.
Top IK Fun
DuuETER o» Rods
NiKcra
»
1
)
i
i
i
i
i
1
i
i
From to
Inc
hes
0-4
8-1 »
Q
13-16
7(
16-30
<J
7
30-J4
34-38
38-3»
6
s
IS
Q
14
4
16
S
36-40
4
4
7
17
.1
40-44
13
7
s
7
IS
,1
48-so ■
-_
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
~
DiPTBraou To»
DlABETER
or Rods
INlNCro.
I
1
i
I
1
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
J
From to
0-4
4-8
8-13
13-16
i4-»8
38-33
33-36
36-40
40-44
48-50
'7
15
'3
18
14
8
7
—
i3i
lo
8
I
6
S
5
4
8
6
S
s
4
3
3
3
16
IS
17
IS
14
18
16
'3
8
7
7
16
7
6
S
5
5
4
9
li
S
4
3
3
3
16
13
'4
16
16
IS
1
6
'S
'i
7
6
S
s
4
4
3
5
1
3
3
i66
FARM STRUCTURES
Reinforcing. — Steel rods are preferable to other kinds
of regnforcing because they come in standard sizes, the
strength of which is defi-
nitely known. For all
silos, regardless of diam-
. -^ " eter or height, the vertical
v"^ regnforcing should be
§-inch round or twisted
rods placed in the middle
of the wall at intervals of
about 3 feet. The size
and spacing of the hori-
zontal reenforcing de-
pend upon the diameter
of the_ silo and the dis-
tance from the top. The
first horizontal rods should
be placed 2 inches above
the foundation. Wher-
ever rods are spliced, they
, must be lapped for a dis-
tance equal to 64 times
the diameter, which is 16
Eia 77-— A hdating derrick for concrete inches for J-inch rods, 24
inches for |-inch rods, and
32 inches for 5-inch rods. Immediately before the outer
form is raised to position, the horizontal rods should be wired
in place for a distance equal to the height of the forms.
Where a concrete cornice is put on, an extra regnforcing band
is put around the top for the purpose of strengthening it.
The work of constructing the silo will be made much
easier if a convenient method of hoisting materials is
adopted at the start. The old scheme of raising the con-
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 167
Crete by hand with a rope and bucket wastes time and
materials, besides incurring unnecessary and disagreeable
labor. Materials may best be raised with a rope and pulley,
the latter attached to a derrick frame, the construction of
one such frame designed by the Iowa Experiment Station
being illustrated in Figure 77 ; this has been tested and found
safe for loads not exceeding 400 pounds.
A few monolithic concrete silos have been constructed
with hollow walls, and have proved to be eminently satis-
factory, though somewhat high in cost. Their chief ad-
vantage Ues in the presence of a continuous air chamber
surroimding the silo, which acts as an insulator, so the
trouble from freezing is reduced to a minimum.
Concrete Block Silos
When the work is done by a contractor, the owner should
take the precaution of examining the blocks which go into
his silo, rejecting those that are damaged or of inferior
quality. A crack of any size, or broken or crumbly edges,
indicate a weakness in the block and make it unsuited for
use. Blocks may be tested for their water-resisting
qualities by placing a small amoimt of water on the sur-
face and observing whether this remains or is absorbed.
A block which readily absorbs moisture is obviously xm-
suited for silo work, which dampness must not penetrate.
Warped and distorted blocks should be discarded because
of their unsightly appearance.
Laying the Blocks. — The foundation already described
will give as good satisfaction for the block silo as for the
monolithic. The top of the footing must be made per-
fectly level, being tested frequently with a level board.
As soon as the footing has sufficiently hardened, the top
should then be cleaned off and moistened and a coat of
i68 FARM STRUCTURES
slushy mortar J inch thick put on. The first band of reen-
forcing should then be put in, and the first row of blocks
laid on this mortar, beginning the blocks at the two ends of
the wall next to the doorway and continuing aroimd. The
blocks may be more conveniently set in a true circle if a
sweep similar to the one used in laying out the foundation
is used here. Should the blocks fail to meet exactly, the
circle should be enlarged or made a little smaller, which-
ever happens to be the more convenient. A guide board
with a convex edge, cut on a circle of the same diameter
as the inside of the silo, should then be made and used in
place of, or in conjunction with, the sweep in laying up
the remaining courses.
The Mortar. — The mortar should consist of i sack
of Portland cement to 2 cubic feet of coarse sand, with
the possible addition of a small quantity of lime (not over
10 per cent), if need be, to make it easier to work. Before
laying up the blocks see that they are thoroughly sprinkled,
which wiU prevent them from drawing moisture from the
mortar. No more mortar should be mixed at one time
than can be used up within 30 minutes after the first
moistening. If lime is used, it must be thoroughly slaked.
Rei^nforcing. — The only failures reported on block
silos have been due to a lack of sufl&cient reenforcing, caused
in most cases by the overconfidence of the builder in the
strength of the blocks, or failure to realize the enormous
outward pressure of the silage. Horizontal reenforcing
is of the utmost importance and must not be overlooked.
Vertical reenforcing in block silos is not considered necessary.
The accompanying table shows the size of rod which should
be placed between each row of blocks or in the groove in
each row of blocks, if such a groove is provided. Reenforc-
ing rods in block silos are not lapped in the ordinary fashion,
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS
169
but are anchored around a block, or the ends are hooked
together. •
Horizontal Reenforcement for Block Silos
Showing size Wire and Rods to be used between each course of blocks 8
inches high
Feet from Top of
Diameter of Silo
Silo
8 ft.
xoft.
12 ft.
14 ft.
16 ft.
18 ft.
Mft.
32 ft.
0-4
No. 6
No. 6
No. 6
No. 6
No. 6
If/
4
i"
4-8
No. 6
No. 6
No. 6
No. 6
No. 6
•
4
1"
8-12
No. 6
No. 6
Iff
i"
i"
, //
1//-
f"
12-16
No. 6
i"
Iff
1
i"
i"
, //
a//
16-20
No. 6
i"
//
*"
i"
•"
«"
a//
20-24
No. 6
*"
//
f"
i"
i"
i"
24-28
i"
a//
1"
i"
i"
i"
1"
4"
28-32
i"
a//
1"
i"
1"
i"
i"
i"
S2-$6
i"
i"
i"
1"
1"
i"
i"
1"
36-40
' 1
a//
1"
J"
i"
i"
1"
i"
40-44
a//
i"
i"
i"
J"
i "
1"
44-48
//
i"
J"
,."
i"
i"
: "
4"
48-50
1"
1"
i"
i"
i"
1"
1"
\tf
For illustration, let it be assumed that the proper
method of reenforcing a silo 32 feet in height and 16
feet in diameter is desired, blocks 8 inches' in height being
used. Referring to the table, we run down the vertical
column at the left until the figures indicating the greatest
depth of the silo are reached. In this case these figures are
28-32 feet. Running directly across horizontally to the
16-foot diameter column, we find that the proper reen^
forcing 28-32 feet from the top of the silo is one f-inch rod
between each course of blocks ; following up directly the
16-foot diameter column^ we find that |-inch rods must
be used between each course until a point 16 feet from the
top is reached. From here up |-inch rods are used until
8 feet from the top when No. 6 rods are substituted.
The reenforcing is commonly laid in the mortar between
170
FARM STRUCTURES
the courses of blocks, the strength of the mortar and the
downward pressure of the blocks above being depended
upon to keep the rods in place under loaded conditions.
In the best practice, however, blocks are used which
have a recess in the top face deep enough to accommodate
the reenforcing rod. Recesses are generally put about
2 inches from the outside of the block.
Doorways
Continuous and noncontinuous doorways are used about
equally in monolithic silo construction, and the question of
which to use is generally settled by personal choice. The
continuous doorway has the advantage of providing a
¥iG. 78. — Continuous doorway for monolithic silo.
larger space through which to throw the silage, and for this
reason is preferred by many. The noncontinuous door-
ways, as used by some of the b^st contractors, have no
disadvantage except that they provide a smaller space
through which to remove the silage.
Continuous Doorways for Monolithic Silos, — A satisfac-
tory continuous doorway can be made by forming concrete
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS
171
jambs on both sides of the opening. This is easily
accomplished by inserting between the forms, at proper
distances apart, vertical wooden forms to mold the
face of the jamb and the recesses into which the doors
will fit. Where the concrete chute is built simultane-
ously with the silo walls, the vertical jamb forms will
extend from the inner wall to the inner chute form. If
" 'T*''
i
&»-<■:.. r^
%
1-
1
*'..*' OmaU
■ • a'' 4' TWarf • "1
1
I
n
Fig. 79. — One method of m&king a door for a continuoua doonray.
the silo walls are constructed without the chute, the jamb
forms must be placed between the inner and the outer
wall forms.
The forms for casting the face of the jambs may consist
of 2-inch planks of a width equal to the distance between
the wall forms. Strips of 2 X 2-inch material should be
nailed to the face of the planks so as to form 2 X 2-inch
vertical recesses on the inside of the opening. Horizontal
slots, to accommodate the ladder rounds, will have to be
made in the planks at intervals of 18 inches. All surfaces
172 FARM STRUCTURES
of wood which will come iato contact with the concrete
should be planed and oiled, which will insure a smooth
surface and prevent the wood from adhering to the
concrete.
The distance between face of the jambs should be 30
inches and the jamb forms rigidly maintained in a vertical
position and at proper distance apart. Spacers consisting
of 2 X 4's, at intervals of two feet, will hold the jamb
forms apart rigidly and prevent them from bulging from
the pressure of the concrete. The vertical jamb forms
may be made in sections of any convenient length, pref-
erably from six to twelve feet.
As soon as the silo wall has been brought up to the level
of the bam floor the vertical wooden frames are placed in
position, great care being taken to have them absolutely
vertical. Figure 78 shows a section of the completed
doorway, with the doors, illustrated more in detail in
Figure 79, in place. It will be noticed that steel bars
serve both as reinforcement and as ladder bars at intervals
of 2 feet 6 inches, the intervening steps being made by nail-
ing 2 X 4-inch pieces on the door cleats. Figure 78 also
shows two methods of reenforcing which are used to
strengthen the walls of monolithic silos. At the left is
shown the ordinary method of employing vertical and hori-
zontal bars firmly fastened together at the intersections.
At the right is shown a somewhat simpler, and for
smaller silos, quite as satisfactory a method, in which
the bulk of the reenforcing consists of a rather heavy
closely woven wire cloth, supported at intervals by ver-
tical rods.
Continiious Doorways for Concrete Block Silos, — Con-
crete jambs for the continuous doorways of concrete block
may be made as shown in Figure 80, and faces of the jambs
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS
173
should be the same as those on the continuous door jambs
of monolithic silos, described previously. The jambs may
be easily constructed by the use of simple box molds,
recesses being formed on the inside of the jambs by the
use of 2 X 2-inch cleats. As the reenforcing rods are
Openings A and 3 to be fi/Zccf with
concrelt the entire hetght of s/h
i" Go^-pipe over JSf rod
F^tpe ^//pped ot^r
re a forcing rods fbfomi
/odder bars
Fig. 80. — Continuous doorway for block silo.
laid upon successive courses of blocks, they are cut off
so that the ends will extend out far enough to be firmly
fastened to the |-inch vertical rods to which the hori-
zontal ladder rods are attached. These vertical rods
should be located near the center of the jamb. The
doors for the continuous doorways of either monolithic
174 FARM STRUCTURES
or concrete block silos are made either as shown by dia-
gram in Figure 79, or as described on page 175 and
illustrated in Figure 82.
Nancontinuous doors. — Noncontinuous doors are per-
haps easier to build than continuous doorways, and if the
owners are satisfied that they provide sufficient room for
r
i
r
i.
Fio. 81. — Single dootw^ fonn.
getting the silage out conveniently, there is no objection
to their use, although, on the other hand, they possess no
great advantage over doors of the continuous type. The
ai^uments often heard that the non continuous-door silo
is a stronger type than the other, and vice versa, carry
little weight, as either type may be made sufficiently
• strong.
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 175
Noncontinuous doors are often put in with a distance
of about 25 feet between them, but the spacing may vary
to suit the individual owner. In all cases the arches be-
tween the doors must contain an amount of reenforcing
equivalent to the full amount of horizontal reinforcing put
around the silo. Thus, if the doors are 3 feet in height,
with a distance of 2^ feet between them, the horizontal
reenforcing in the space between the doors should be equiva-
lent in amount to that placed in 5J feet of the wall where
there are no doors.
Doorway Form and Frame. — Figure 81 shows a form .for
a noncontinuous door-opening in a monolithic silo. The
bottom and top pieces are made ^
of 2 X 6-inch plank cut to the
arc of a circle with diameter the
same as the outer diameter of the
silo wall. The two sides are
made of 2 X 4's. A frame of
lighter materials is placed around ,
the outside of the form tor the
purpose of making a recess 3
inches deep around the opening
on the inner side of the wall, in-
, . , , , .11 ^ mi - Fig. 83. — Individual door.
to which the door will fit. This
frame is tapered to permit removal from the wall as soon
as the concrete has hardened. It may then be used again
for the next doorway above.
If desired, a door frame of small angle iron (as shown)
may be used to protect the comers of the concrete. The
frame should be slipped on over the form, and both frame
and form then placed in position. The angle iron should
be cut a few inches longer than the dimension of the open-
ing and the ends imbedded in the concrete. The frame
176 FARM STRUCTURES
should also be anchored to the concrete by large spikes.
Holes to receive the spikes should be drilled in the angles,
12 inches apart. The spikes should be bent at right angles
to secure a better hold in the wall.
Doors, — The doors may best be made of two thicknesses
of I X 6-inch matched flooring with a layer of tar paper
between. The i X 6-inch boards are held together by two
I X 4-inch cleats across the top and bottom and one 2X4-
inch cleat across the center. The middle cleat is made
larger than the others in order to take care of the strain
caused by the large bolt in the center. A 2 X 4, 4 inches
long, or a similar piece of material, is placed on the bolt,
making a large "button," by which the door is held in the
wall. The door is clearly shown in Figure 82.
The Concrete Roof
The fimctions of a roof on a silo are (i) to prevent the
cold from reaching the silage, and (2) to make it more
convenient to work in the silo during stormy weather.
Many farmers and contractors do not consider a roof
necessary and in moderate climates this is probably so;
all will agree, however, that in sections of the country
where the temperature goes below zero a roof is a positive
necessity, as well as a great convenience imder any cir-
cumstances.
The logical way to finish up a permanent silo is with a
permanent roof. The tendency at the present time is
toward the permanent silo, from foundation to pinnacle.
If the directions given in the following paragraphs are
closely followed, little difficulty will be found in putting
on a permanent roof, one that will last indefinitely without
need of being shingled or otherwise repaired, and which
will be in no danger of blowing off.
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS
177
The Cornice. — A cornice is only necessary where a root
is to be put on, its chief uses being to prevent water from
the roof from running down the walls, and to improve
the appearance of the silo. -^ --^
Figure 83 illustrates how the
forms are made for the
cornice on a monohthic silo.
The brackets for the forms
are made of j X 2 inch strap
iron bent as shown, and
drilled to receive stove bolts.
These brackets should be
placed on the outer form at
intervals of about 6 feet,
holes being drilled at the
proper points to receive the ^"^^ '" f^^^ f'"'
stove bolts. The bottom of ^^P section and Cornice ^
the cornice mold box is made
of 2 X 6 inch planks in short
lengths sawed to the arc of
a circle with diameter i foot
larger than that of the inside
of the silo. The side of the
mold is made of i X 6 inch
planks spiked to the bottom boards. The mold is held
in place by screws through the bracket, as shown. An
extra band of horizontal reenforcing is put in the cornice,
as may be seen in the figure. The vertical rods in the silo
walls and the radial rods of the roof are all brought around
the horizontal reenforcing in the cornice, thus holding it
in place and strengthening the cornice.
For the top section of the wall (last filling of the forms)
the inner and outer forms are brought up to the line of the
£5ax. /br Cornice
Fig. £3. — Coroice mold \xsi.
178 FARM STRUCTURES
•
top of the completed wall. The forms are then filled to
withm one foot of the top, the outer form removed, and
brackets attached. (If the stove bolts are already in place,
the form need not be removed to attach the brackets.)
The mold box will then be put in place. The cornice will
be concreted at the same time as the roof, as will be ex-
plained later.
Roof Framing. — The roof framing may consist of 2 X 4's
or similar material; resting on the top of the inner wall
form, as shown in the sectional view, and the lower left-
hand quadrant of the plan view, Figure 84. In case of a
silo with a water tank on top, the forms must be removed
before the roof framing is put up, and the latter supported
on a light framework erected within the tank.
The roof frame may be boarded up as shown in the plan
view, with boards running either radiaUy or otherwise,
as desired. These boards should be placed close together
to prevent the concrete from coming through when
placed upon them. The table given on page 181 shows
the vertical rise to be given to roofs for silos of various
diameters.
A hole about 2^ feet square must of course be left for
filling the silo, or if the roof covers the tank, the hole will
afford access to the latter. Before placing the reSnfordng
or the concrete, the top of the framing should be covered
with old newspaper, building paper, or similar material,
which will prevent the concrete from sticking to the forms.
This will greatly facilitate their removal.
Placing the Reenforcing, — The lower right-hand quadrant
of the plan and the sectional view shows the spacing of the
radial and hoop reenforcing. The former is placed so that
the distance between the three bottom hoops is 6 inches,
between the next three hoops 9 inches, and between all
CONSTRUCTION OF FABM BUILDINGS
remaining hoops 12 inches. Extra rods should be put in
around the window opening if the regular rods do not
■t
3"~^,i
■iW\ ]
^ --
-
Fig. 84. — Reeoiorced concrete roof — strong, serviceable, and
follow the outline of the window closely enough to reen-
force it. All intersections must be wired together, and the
i8o FARM STRUCTURES
outer ends of the radial wires brought down and bent
around the horizontal reenfordng in the cornice, as shown.
The reenfordng should be supported i inch above the
roof frame, so that when the concrete is put on, the rods
will rest on a i-inch bed and be covered by a 3 -inch
bed,, the total thickness of the roof being 4 inches.
For amounts of reenfordng necessary for roofs of various
diameters, see the table.
Concreting. — Concrete for the roof should be made in
the proportion of one sack of cement to two cubic feet of
coarse, clean sand, to three parts of screened gravel. The
concrete should be mixed as wet as it can be put on with-
out danger of running to the edges of the roof due to pitch.
The top should be troweled off smooth, in the same man-
ner as a sidewalk. Concreting should begin at the cornice,
working around the roof, so as to keep the concrete on all
sides at an even height. As the work progresses toward
the center, a broad board, on which to stand, may be laid
on the concrete already laid. It will also add greatly to
the safety of the men working on the roof if a rope attached
to the pinnacle is tied about the waist of each. In place
of this, it is often desirable, for the sake of greater safety
to the workmen, to put up a scaffolding on the outside of
the silo. Special care must be taken to protect the roof
from sun, strong wind, and freezing imtil thoroughly
hardened. For this purpose a covering of straw, manure,
or canvas is generally effective ; if either straw or manure
is used, it may be necessary to weight it down. The effect
of Sim and wind is to dry the concrete out too rapidly,
causing checking and cracking; frost affects the strength
of the concrete and is otherwise objectionable.
Monolithic Roofs jor Hollow Block Silos, — Where it is
desired to put a monolithic concrete roof on a hollow block
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS
i8i
silo, the wall should be laid up in the usual manner until
the third course of block from the top is reached. The
blocks used in this course should be solid, that is, made
without cores, or if with the cores, these should be filled
up with mortar. The last two courses of hollow block
should then be laid, the cores being left open.
Dimensions and Materials for Roofs
For Silos with Diameters 8 Feet to 22 Feet
I " Reenforong Rods
Diam-
Vertical
Rise.
Volume of
concrete
Cement
Sand
Stone
No. of
Stock
No. of
eter of
required
^is.
required
required
rods
length
pounds
Silo.
in cu.
yds.
cu. yds.
cu. yds.
req'rd
of rods
of rods
8 ft.
2 ft.
0.63
1.09
0.33
0.49
26
10 ft.
42
10 ft.
2ift.
1. 01
1-75
0.52
0.78
31
12 ft.
62
12 ft.
sit.
1.49
2.59
0.77
I.15
33
16 ft.
88
14 ft.
si it.
2.05
3.56
1.07
1.58
45
16 ft.
120
16 ft.
4 it.
2.71
4.72
1. 41
2.08
87
10 ft.
146
18 ft.
4 ft.
3-34
5.80
1.74
2.57
93
12 ft.
187
20 ft.
4 ft.
4.11
7.1S
2.13
3.17
107
12 ft.
226
22 ft.
4 ft.
4.93
8.55
2.56
3.80
113
14 ft.
265
Concrete for roofs is made of i sack of Portland cement to 2 cubic feet
of coarse sand to 3 cubic feet of stone. Each cubic yard of concrete re-
quires li barrels of cement, i cubic yard of sand, and J cubic yard of
stone, approximately. The ^-inch reinforcing rods weigh 16.7 pounds per
ICO feet.
Spedal cornice blocks should be cast to make the cornice
projection. The block should be 14 inches in width and of
the same length on the inside of the wall as the wall blocks.
The portion of the cornice blocks directly above the wall
blocks should be 6 inches thick, so as to give a i-inch drop.
The roof framing is then put up in the same manner as
described before, but in this case it must be supported by
the scaffolding instead of on the inner form mentioned
i82 FARM STRUCTURES
there. The reenforcing is placed in the same manner as
described before, excepting that the outer ends of the radial
rods are made to extend down through the holes in the
block for a distance of a foot or more. Since the holes in
the third course of block from the top were either omitted
or filled up before these blocks were laid, holes in the upper
courses can be filled up with wet concrete as soon as the
reenforcing rods are in position. The roof is concreted as
described previously. Before the concrete is placed on
the cornice blocks the latter must be moistened and painted
with a cement and water grout.
Concrete Chuks
A permanent chute of concrete is a valuable adjimct to
any concrete or masonry silo. The same arguments pre-
sented for the concrete silo stand for the chute. The con-
crete chute is substantial and permanent, fireproof and
coldproof, and it greatly improves the appearance of the
silo.
Size of Chute, — Chutes in use in various parts of the
country vary in size from 2 feet square to about 5 feet
square (inside dimensions), but the former size is much
too small and the latter larger than need be. For the
average monolithic silo a chute 3 feet by 4 feet in inside
dimensions is recommended. The outer dimensions will
then be 4 feet by 4I feet, the walls being 6 inches thick,
A monolithic chute of this size will require J of a barrel
of cement, | cubic yard of sand, and f cubic yard of gravel,
per foot of height. For the block silo, the size should
be such as will be accomn;iodated by whole and half
blocks. The outer dimensions of a hollow-block chute
(using 8 X 8 X is-inch blocks) should be 4 feet 8 inches
square, making the inside dimensions 3 feet 4 inches
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 183
by 4 feet. This size will require 9J blocks for each
course.
Foundations. — The foundation for the chute should be
2 feet wide and i foot high, the same as that for the silo,
using concrete of the same proportions. If a monolithic
chute is to be built, f-inch vertical reenforcing rods must
be imbedded in the foundation iS inches apart. Mono-
hthic chute walls may be built up simultaneously with the
silo walls, but it is much more convenient to build them
after the completion of the latter ; chute walls of concrete
block must be built at the same time, being built m and
kept at the same level as the silo walls.
Monolithic chutes. — The accompanying illustration,
Figure 85, shows forms in position for building a mono-
lithic chute. Two-inch
planed lumber should be
used for the face of the
forms, and 2 X 4's for the
vertical braces. The steel
rods used to hold the forms
together should be24inches
long, threaded for 4 inches
at each end. Each section
of the form should be
about 2 feet high. To raise
the forms the lower rods
are withdrawn and the
holes made by them
cemented up. The wooden F.c. 85.-- Concrete chute forms.
braces are then raised,
and the lower panels of planks placed above the others.
The method of joining the chute to the silo is shown in
the figure. Two i X 6-inch boards, with edges slightly
1 84 FARM STRUCTURES
beveled to permit of easy removal, are placed in a vertical
position on the inside of the outer silo form, 3 inches to
each side of the line of the doors. In this manner recesses
a are produced. Three-eighths-inch rods 30 inches long,
spaced at intervals of 18 inches, and bent as shown by the
dotted lines in the figure, are used to hold the chute securely
to the silo. The most convenient way to put in these
rods is to have them slightly stapled to the boards occupy-
ing recesses a. This will hold the rods in position until
the concrete is placed. The forms and vertical boards may
be removed as soon as the walls have hardened sufficiently^
and the ends of the rods bent up into a horizontal position.
Where windows are desired in the chute, the openings may
be made with a form similar to that used for making non-
continuous door openings, shown in Figure 80.
The horizontal reenforcing of the chute should consist
of f -inch round reenforcing rods so spaced as to correspond
with the rods binding the chute to the silo, so that they
may lap with the latter. The lap should be 24 inches long.
Two horizontal rods should be placed over all windows.
Short oblique rods, 24 inches long, should be put in about
the comers of all windows, at an angle of 45 degrees, as a
protection against diagonal cracks running from the
comers of the windows.
Block Chutes, — If the block silo and chute are put up
simultaneously, the walls of the two will be held together
by the blocks, and no reenforcing will be necessary. Win-
dow openings in the chute may be made by using concrete
sills and lintels, which are easily obtainable from block
dealers. A length of heavy strap iron may be substituted
for the lintel, if desired, and the sill cast in place by means
of a simple box mold.
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 185
The Pit SUo
Two very important considerations, economy and dura-
bility, are combined in a type of silo known as the "pit
silo," which may be wholly midergroimd, or partly above
ground. This type of silo is a return to the original form,
that of a hole in the groimd, and is being used in certain
localities with some degree of success.
The simplest method of construction is as follows: ex-
cavation is begun by digging a trench a foot wide and a
foot deep around the top, with the inner diameter the same
as that of the pit ; this trench is filled with concrete, and
when the concrete is hardened, the earth within is removed
to a depth of five or six feet. The earth wall is then
covered with a cement plaster, several coats being applied
to make a total thickness of an inch. When this portion
of the wall is completed, another five or six feet of earth is
removed, and the walls covered with plaster. This process
is repeated, until the required depth is reached, when a
floor may be put in, if desired. If part of the silo is
built above ground, the concrete ring at the top should
be made heavier, in order that it may serve as a founda-
tion. Should the soil be loose and show a tendency to
cave in, it may be not only desirable, but necessary, to
construct a four-inch wall of concrete or of brick laid in
cement.
The chief advantage of the pit silo lies in its cheapness
and simplicity of construction. It has serious disadvan-
tages, however, inasmuch as a perfectly drained site is neces-
sary for its successful construction, and as some special
contrivance must be designed for hoisting the silage out of
the pit; this is likely to prove difficult and expensive.
The acciunulation of carbon dioxide in the bottom must
i86 FARM STRUCTURES
also be looked out for, for this gas is given off by silage
and may collect in sufficient density to asphyxiate a person
working in the silo.
POULTRY HOUSES
, There is no subject connected with poultry production
as important as the housing; not only the comfort, but
the health and the productiveness of the fowls depend
largely upon proper housing. The house that fulfills all
ideal conditions has not yet been constructed; the best
of them have their defects. The open front, in the con-
tinuous or long house, and the open-front colony type are
rapidly making headway, and by most progressive poultry-
men are considered the best type. The open-front house,
with certain modifications, is used successfully even in
Canada, in regions where the temperature falls to 40
degrees below zero.
The widespread interest in the l\pusing of poultry has
resulted in a marked improvement in poultry-house con-
struction, though, as mentioned before, the best type of
house is yet to be built. The essential requirements of a
good poultry house are: good location, dryness, ventila-
tion, sunlight, convenience, ease of disinfection, economy
in construction, and, for certain conditions, portability.
Much has been said along these lines, but the lack of definite,
economic information is felt; it certainly is not a good
commercial proposition to invest $5 per fowl in houses
alone, if $1 will accomplish the purpose as advantageously.
The poultry house should be located on a site in which
the drainage is especially good, if possible, on light, porous,
sandy soil sloping gently to the south. Should such a
location not be available, the best site possible should be
selected, and artificial drainage beneath the floor of the
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 187
house and for the surrounding soil must be provided.
Good air drainage is essential, and for this reason the house
should be located at the top of the slope.
The location of the house with reference to the rest of
the buildings of the farm is not a small consideration.
Placing the house in close proximity to the other buildings
has been objected to because the hens are inclined to over-
run and inhabit them, thus becoming a nuisance. How-
ever, this can be obviated by fencing in the poultry yard.
On the farm the women usually care for the poultry, and
their work should not be increased by a trip of several
hundred yards to the poultry house several times a day.
Foundations, — A stationary poultry house should have
a good foundation, one that is substantial and vermin-
proof. Concrete satisfies these requirements most effi-
ciently. The concrete foundation wall need not be es-
pecially heavy, a wall 6 inches in thickness with a footing
10 inches in width, the whole extending below the frost
line, being amply sufficient. The wall should extend at
least 8 inches above the ground line to protect the lower
part of the superstructure from rot. Bolts must be in-
serted into the concrete to which to fasten the sills, for a
light structure such as a poultry house is likely to be blown
over if not well anchored.
Floors, — Three t3rpes of floors have been used in poultry-
house construction; namely, earth, wood, and concrete.
The first is of course the cheapest, and by some authorities
is claimed to be the best, since a dust bath is always avail-
able. However, it is easily contaminated by diseases, is
hard to keep clean and fresh, and unless exceptionally well
drained, is always damp. If the earth floor must be used,
4 or 6 inches of the earth at the surface should be removed
each year and replaced with fresh earth. This should be
1 88 FARM STRUCTURES
occasionally spaded up and sprinkled with lime as a dis-
infectant.
The board floor should be used only in colony houses
where the required portabiUty would preclude the use of
any other type. These are rather expensive, not per-
manent, and furnish excellent quarters for harboring vermin.
Concrete floors are increasing rapidly in use and popu-
larity. Since they are not subjected to any severe use,
they can be built rather thin, 3 inches in thickness making
a floor amply strong. The first cost of concrete floors is
greater than that of other types, but the labor they save
will soon pay for this. They are durable, dry, clean, and
in the event of disease can be easily and completely dis-
infected. In order to insure dryness, the finish coat should
be of an inch thickness of cement and sand, in the propor-
tion of I part of cement to 2 of sand, the whole mixture
well waterproofed. The concrete floors should be given a
coat of hot asphaltum, both as a moisture preventive and
a protection for the claws of the fowls. It often happens
that with the constant scratching on the concrete floor
during the winter months the fowls will wear the toes
down to the quick until they bleed, and this can be avoided
by the use of an asphaltiun coat on the floor.
Ventilation. — For a long time there pervaded the
realm of poultry fanciers the idea that fowls, in order to
thrive, must be tenderly housed in the wintertime, and
kept warm and comfortable in a close house. Years of
experiment with heated houses, then with glass-front or
hothouse construction, seemed to prove that these were
incorrect, not meeting the needs of the fowls, as indicated
by their decreasing vitality, the low egg production, and
the large number of sick and dead during the year. The
next step in poultry-house construction was a radical one.
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 189
the change being made from the closed warm house to the
open or curtain-front type, in which the temperature was
kept nearly as low as that out of doors, and in which an
abundance of fresh air was provided. The better condi-
tion of the fowls which immediately resulted showed the
step to be taken in the right direction. Excellent ventila-
tion is provided by this construction. Part of the front
wall, or the wall on the south side, is left open or covered
with muslin or good stout cheesecloth. The common
custom is to use i square foot of cloth and i square foot of
glass to each 18 or 20 square feet of floor space in a house
10 feet wide. Some poultry men are using cloth altogether
to the exclusion of glass for all the windows, but a com-
bination of cloth and glass is preferable.
In 1907 the Maryland Agricultural Experiment Station
initiated some experiments to determine the economic
value of different types of poultry-house construction.
Three distinct types^ with several minor variations, were
used, the close, tight house, the glass-front house, and the
cloth-front house. Two years of experiment indicate very
strongly that the last type is the best. In the tight house
the air was damp, foul, and lifeless, the plumage of the fowls
become dull and rough, and the general condition was
very poor. The glass-front house gave a little better re-
sults, but in the cloth-front house dampness, gases, and
odors were entirely absent and the fowls were in excellent
condition. The cost of construction per fowl was 34 per
cent higher with the tight house than with the cloth-front.
During the second year, the fowls in the cloth-front house
gave a profit of 23 cents per fowl more than those in the
tight house. The cloth-front house gave better results
also in increased egg production, in better vitality in de-
veloping the embryo, and in producing healthier chickens.
IQO FARM STRUCTURES
In supplying fresh air to the fowls the danger of drafts
must not be overlooked. Fowls are especially susceptible
to drafts, and a little current of air blowing through the
poultry house may cause the whole flock to become sick.
The occurrence of drafts may generally be prevented by
placing all the openings on the south side of the building,
and also by placing the cloth curtains high enough above
the floor so the air will circulate above the birds.
Sunlight. — Too much sunhght can never be provided in
a poultry house, for the more sunlight there is, the better
will be the constitution of the fowls, the more eggs they
will lay, and the greater will be the financial returns. The
provision of sunlight can best be accomplished by the means
noted above, that of having the windows on the south side
of the house. Sunlight is an excellent germicide and dis-
infectant, and plenty of it should keep the house fresh
and sweet.
Convenience, — A number of things can be incorporated
in a poultry house which will make it a convenient one.
The furnishings for the fowls must include roosts and nests,
and should include feed boxes, watering cans, and, for
winter, a covered dust bath.
A great mistake is often made in building roosts, by plac-
ing them one above the other on inclined supports, or
"horses." The domestic fowl has inherited from his wild
ancestor the instinct of self-preservation, and one evidence
of this is the tendency to roost as high as possible. With
inclined roost supports, the fowls will seek the highest
perches, and will crowd each other to such an extent as to
suffocate some of them.
Roosts properly built should be horizontal, each one no
higher than the rest. They should not be very high from
the floor, for heavy hens are sometimes injured by falling
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 191
when attempting to reach too high a perch. The height
of roost should not be over 2 feet for heavy fowls, and not
over 4 feet for the Ught, active breeds. Roosts may well
be placed along the north waU of the house, and arrange-
ment made to raise them up out of the
way when cleaning. The size and shape
of the perches are not unimportant, for a
little care in their construction will add
much to the comfort of the fowls. Two
by four stock sawed in two, and with the ^'°t^"7f^^ '^'
upper comers rounded off, provides a
perch amply large and strong enough and shaped so as to
be most easily grasped by the fowl's claws. Figure 86
gives a cross section of a properly designed perch. The
perches need not be more than 14 inches apart, but should
be supported by 2 X 4 crossbars every 3 feet. The drop-
pings can be caught Just below the roosts on boards which
should be so arranged as to be easily
removable for cleaning purposes.
Feed boxes may be built in below
the windows along the wall of the
house, and can be arranged so as to
permit of filling from the outside, as
shown in the diagram. Figure 87.
Watering cans of a sanitary type can
be purchased at any hardware store ;
these are portable and can be located
Fio. 8,.-Fe.d bo,. anywhere in the house.
A dust bath is an especially desirable
feature in a poultry house, for the presence of it is one of
the best means of disposing of the hce difficulty. To
operate to the best advantage, it should be inclosed, have
a window all its own, and shoidd be accessible by just a
192 FARM STRUCTURES
single small opening; this will eliminate the difficulty
caused by the dust coming from an open bath. Fine road
dust, or fine sifted ashes are very good materials for a dust
bath, and the addition of a little lime, of tobacco dust,
and of good lice powder tends to make it more effective.
General Constri4cHon. — Poultry houses are usually of
light construction, scarcely ever any conditions arising
which might require great strength. It is possible and
entirely practical to construct poultry houses with ^o
lumber heavier than 2 X 4's, and indeed almost all of
them are constructed in such a manner. Sills, studs,
plates, rafters, and necessary braces may all be of 2 X 4,
and amply strong, since the house is low and not subjected
to severe racking by the winds. For wall covering ship-
lap or drop siding is excellent. The roof may be covered
either with shingles or prepared roofing, the latter being
especially desirable on the low-pitch roofs entering so often
into poultry-house construction. For windows ordinary
bam sash can be used, if so desired, though cheap qheck-
rail windows cost but little more and are more convenient.
The width of the house depends entirely upon its use.
Many general-purpose poultry houses are but 10 or 12 feet
wide ; laying houses are generally 14 to 20 feet wide, the
length being governed, of course, by the number of fowls
to be accommodated. The wider the house, the more
economically can it be built per square foot of floor space.
The most suitable style of roof depends somewhat upon
the methods used by the poultry raiser, but to a great
extent upon the type of house. The commonest form is
the shed roof, with only one slope, to the north. This
form of roof has certain advantages, inasmuch as all the
water runs off at the rear and it will not absorb so much
heat from the sun during the summer. The single-pitch
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS
193
I
^
ct-^'
^
<L
50C
Mt^
roof should be used only where the span of the roof is less
than 14 feet ; otherwise sagging will result. Besides, the
front would have to be lumecessarily high in order to give
the roof sufficient pitch in wide spans.
The gable or A-shaped roof is also a common t3^e, and
is especially suitable in case the fowls are to be yarded in
an orchard, the peaked roof admitting the drawing along
of the house with the minimxmi disturbance of the branches
of the fruit trees. ^
It affords a steeper ^.,--"' '^^'IXL I
pitch, which is de-
sirable for shingle
roofs, and can be
used for wider
spans than can the
single-slope roof.
A combination of
the two forms of
roofs noted above has come into vogue, and seems to
prove quite satisfactory. It has the advantage of both
forms in that it can be used on a wide span and affords
a steep pitch with less cost of siding. It is shown in
Figure 88 with heavy lines, and a study of the figure will
show the saving of liunber over both the other types. It
will be seen that this type of roof admits the sun's rays
on December 21 almost to the extreme rear of the house.
Types of Poultry Houses
Three general types of poultry houses are recognized, the
classification being based upon the extent and importance
of the poultry-raising business under varying conditions.
On the average farm, poultry raising is not the chief busi-
ness; it is a sort of side line, mainly maintained as a
o
Fig. 88. — Forms of roofs.
104 ^ARM STRUCTURES
source of food supply. The average farmer, then, will
need a permanent, general-purpose house whose cost is
not excessive. On the other hand, the man conducting
poultry farming as his main business must have a house
large enough to produce poultry in large quantity eco-
nomically ; he will usually have a (:ommercial la3dng house
in which to winter his laying hens, and portable colony
houses for brooding early chicks. Descriptions of each of
these types will be given.
A Poultry House for the Average Farm
The amount of poultry raised on the average farm varies
to a great extent, but in the following description a basis
of 75 hens will be adopted. The amoimt of floor space
per fowl for economic handling varies from 3 to 5 square
feet, but an average of 4 square feet will meet most con-
ditions satisfactorily. Taking a width of 14 feet as one
that will adapt itself well to this type of house, the length
will approximate 24 feet. The height of the building may
be whatever the owner desires, but if a lo-foot 2 X 4 is
used for a stud, it can be cut into two pieces, one 4 feet,
the other 6 feet long, the first being used at the rear, and
the latter at the front. Figure 89 illustrates the framing
of this house, and gives the length of the members; all
framing is of 2 X 4 stock. A modified gable roof is shown,
with a low pitch, in consequence of which prepared roofing
is used as a covering ; a single-pitch or shed roof can be
used to equally good advantage. The front view of the
building shows the arrangement of the windows both for
light and for ventilation. Double sash are used, the upper
half being covered with muslin, the lower haK being of
glass. The ventilation can be admirably controlled by
raising or lowering the muslin frames to suit the weather,
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BXJILDINGS 195
1^ J>Jon
ffl
H H
II I
o
^^ry^fif/hq || '^os/r^
Fig. Sg. — A poultiy house foe the average ta,rm.
Fig. goo. — Portable colony house. (Iowa Agi. Exp. SU.)
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS
197
^/de G/oyotfon of ^.
r'a/rfjfr^
\
•»t4-
'.SwHOvM
■»«'
m
F'toof 7^/aa
► r i — I*' — '
if
-iT
a
2?et7iJ. of //e^f^.
Fio. 90 6. — Portable colony house. (Iowa Agr. Exp. Sta.)
198 FARM STRUCTURES
and since the muslin is so high above the floor, any direct
draft does not strike the birds. The location of the feed
box, watering can, nests, and roosts is shown in the upper
plan. The roosts are located 3 feet 6 inches above the
floor.
Portable Colony House
The house described above may be mounted on 4 X 6
skids and used as a portable colony house. However,
a smaller one is sometimes desirable, and a description of
such a house which has been evolved and used at the Iowa
Agricultural Experiment Station is herewith included.
Figure 90 gives the floor plan and two elevations of the
house, the illustrations being taken from Bulletin 132,
Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station.
The size of the house is 8 by 10 feet, which is large
enough to comfortably accommodate flocks of 200 to 300
chickens, or to winter from 15 to 20 hens. Its construc-
tion is light but substantial, this permitting it to be readily
moved about on the 6X6 skids, which serve as a foimda-
tion. The framing is simple, as is seen from the illustra-
tion, consisting entirely of 2 X 4 stuff, with the exception
of the ridge pole which is 1X6. The floor is of plain
6-inch flooring ; the walls and roof are covered with a good
grade of ship-lap with a smooth surface on the inside.
After the sheathing has been nailed on, it is covered with
prepared roofing, the strips being run over the ridge, the
laps well cemented and nailed with roofing nails driven
through washers or battens.
The rear window is, as shown in the figure, a considerable
distance from the floor, and consists of two cellar sashes
with 9X12 Ughts. The main object of this window is
to provide Ught, and should not be used for ventilation,
because the fowls roost near it and all possible drafts must
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 199
be guarded against. The front windows, of which there
are two,, are located one on each* side of the door and con-
sist of 6-light bam sash protected on the inside by screen,
and fitted with hinges at the top so they may be swung up
and out. The door is provided with a screened opening
at the top with a ventilating curtain fitted with a hinged
frame on the inside.
The construction and location of the roost, nests, and
dropping board are shown in the detail drawing accom-
panying. Both may be so installed as to be removable,
this making cleaning easier.
In moving the building about, care should be taken not
to subject it to any severe or imdue racking. If the two
skids are connected to each other by a chain, and a horse
is hitched to the chain, the strain will tend to twist the whole
structure. To avoid this it is a good plan to hitch a horse
to each skid, or fasten a stiff spreader between the
skids.
The estimated cost of such a house is approximately $40.
A Comm-ercial Laying House
For commercial poultry raising a larger and more elaborate
equipment in the way of buildings is necessary. The
drawings of such a house are shown in Figure 91 ; while
th«se drawings illustrate only a single section 18 feet
square, the house may be made as large as desired
simply by duplicating the sections, and making a long
building.
The roof of this structure is of the modified gable type,
with a pitch steep enough to admit the employment of
shingles as a roof covering. The rear studs are 4 feet
6 inches in height, while those in front are 7 feet 6 inches,
each pair of studs utilizing the whole of a 12-foot 2X4.
200 FARM STRUCTURES
The double 2X4 used as a plate brings the height of the
braces up to 7 feet 10 inches, a good working height. The
walls are covered with a good grade of ship-lap or drop
siding whose edges are painted with white lead and made
close and tight when nailed on. The floor should be made
of cement with an asphalt coating as hereinbefore described,
and a thick layer of straw is appUed upon it to ehminate
Ji.
Framing Plan
— Commeicial poultry boiue.
any tendency toward cold. All furnishings are portable,
and nests and boxes have sloping tops, which precludes the
possibiUty of their being used for roosts and becoming foul
from droppings.
The structure is ventilated by means of the muslin
curtains in the upper sash of the four double-hung windows
in front. The door is made with a long single sash, which
admits an abundance of light into the house in addition
to that coming through the windows.
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 20I
--
IS'
H
H
1
!
'
\
Floor Plan
FlO. 916. — Commercial poultry house.
202 FARM STRUCTURES
SWINE HOUSES
The value of swine in increasing the net return from a
farm is well recognized by most farmers. On a properly
conducted farm, especially in the com belt, swine are
practically clear profit aside from the cost of the labor in
caring for them, since their food can be made to consist
of waste products which otherwise could not be utilized.
Hog raising has probably returned proportionately greater
profits to the corn-belt farmer than any other enterprise.
In view of this it might naturally be expected that the hog
be the best housed animal on the farm ; in the majority of
cases, however, the opposite is true. The old-fashioned
idea that the hog is a tough, filthy animal still persists,
and most farmers believe and act in the belief that anything
is good enough for a hog.
As an actual thing, there is no farm animal that needs
care and protection more than the hog. The horse and
the cow are protected by a heavy coat of hair in the winter
time — even a calf or a colt will grow a good fur coat when
exposed in winter ; chickens have a thick layer of fluffy,
insulating feathers which keep even their small bodies
warm ; but a hog has nothing but a sparse coat of stiff
hair between his skin and the cold. Little pigs, farrowed
in cold, damp weather with no shelter, generally die, and
even if they live, never thrive at all well.
Hog raising as a business is accomplishing an improve-
ment in housing accommodations for hogs. Progressive
farmers and hog raisers realize the financial benefit to be
derived from proper protection for the hogs, and have
evolved shelters which provide the maximum of comfort
and convenience at a minimum of cost. While these
structures are to be found principaUy on farms where
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 203
hog raising is the chief business, they can easily be so
modified or reduced in size as to meet with the approval
of the farmer conducting a general-purpose farm where
hogs are but one source of financial returns.
The essentials of a swine house are comfort for the animals
under all conditions, convenience for the caretaker in
feeding and handling them, and good sanitation. The
house must provide sujficient warmth in cold weather to
keep the swine in good condition, and must provide shade
on the hottest days of the summer. It must be so arranged
as to permit of feeding the hogs easily and expeditiously,
and of handling them quickly and with the least amoimt of
disturbance. Sanitation is especially to be emphasized
in swine-house construction, and some attention paid to
this particular will be amply rewarded later on in healthier
swine and consequently greater financial returns.
Swine houses must be built to include such arrange-
ments as will initiate and maintain a tendency to eUminate
disease instead of fostering or developing it as is so often
the case. Since most of the diseases which seriously
affect swine are germ diseases, it follows that any con-
struction which will prevent the ingress and development
of germs is the most advantageous form to follow. Sim-
light is one of the commonest, most effective, and withal,
the cheapest, germicide known; the swine house, then,
should be built with the provision made for a maximum
amoimt of sunlight at the times when it is the most needed.
Hog raisers usually desire that two litters of pigs be
raised each year, and it has been found that the times of
farrowing of these litters, for the best results, should be
about March i and August i. The pigs farrowed at the
latter time will generally thrive well, weather conditions
being in their favor ; but the spring litter is often seriously
204 FARM STRUCTURES
handicapped by the cold weather which is very likely to
occur at that time. To offset this disadvantage, every bit
of sunUght must be utilized, and the windows should be so
arranged as to height and location that this can be accom-
plished. With an abundance of simUght, and with walls
and floors as nearly vermin proof as possible, sanitation is
taken care of, as far as the building is concerned.
Swine generally require a great deal of care and special
attention. Beginning at farrowing time, the sow must be
isolated ; this requires that individual pens must be pro-
vided for the pregnant sows, and kept for them imtil the
pigs are a week or ten days old. Brood sows with their
litters should be given a small yard of their own in which
they can be kept imtil the pigs have learned to recognize
their mother, when they can be turned out into the general
feeding lot. In order that some degree of cleanliness in
their food be maintained, feeding floors of concrete must
be built. .The breeder of high-grade swine usually desires
to have some place in which he can advantageously exhibit
his stock to a prospective purchaser. A dipping vat is
an essential part of the equipment of a good hog farm.
Hogs require a quantity of good, clean feed, well prepared
and given to them in the most economical form.
All the things enumerated above tend to bring the unit
cost per animal rather high in providing hog-raising equip-
ment, and imless the farmer is careful, the cost may run
so high as to absorb the greater part or even all of the pos-
sible profits. It is very easy to get too much expense into
any farm building and the swine house is no exception;
no one can afford for any purpose a building so expensive
that interest and depreciation will more than coimter-
balance its value as a shelter. The maximum cost should
never be over $40 per pen, and indeed very eflScient swine
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 205
houses can be built for $25 to $30 per pen, at present prices
of building materials.
Most of the construction details of swine houses have
been almost standardized, which is not true of many other
farm buildings. Practically all hog breeders are agreed
that a pen 6X8 feet is amply large for a sow and her litter ;
indeed, 5X8 feet is a common size. The partitions be-
tween pens should be so contrived as to permit of throwing
the whole house or any part of it into a large pen. The
best floor for a swine house is perhaps the earth floor, but
this is very hard to keep in a sanitary condition; wood
and concrete floors have been used, but each has its dis-
advantages, the wood being shortlived, affording a harbor
for disease germs, and the concrete being too cold in the
spring at farrowing time. A solution of the difficulty is
rather hard to find. Where the winters are at all severe,
it is desirable that the walls be made double, either by
putting a. double layer of boards on the exterior of the studs
or by boarding up both inside and out.
Types of Swine Houses
Several types of swine houses have been constructed
and used with varying degrees of success, and all of them
have their advocates. Two general types stand out rather
prominently, however, and seem to meet with the appro-
bation of progressive hog raisers. These types are the
individual houses, and the large houses with individual
pens. Modifications of these typts are numerous, the
modifications resulting from the needs and ideas of in-
dividuals building them.
Individual hog houses, or cots, as they are sometimes
called, are built in many different ways. The commoner
methods of constructing houses are illustrated in Figures
2o6
FARM STRUCTURES
!>::
t
'^r^
i
'<!
«
i 11 m
nr
92 and 93. The first figure illustrates a four-walled variety,
collapsible, so that it
» n I ■ i ■! J may be taken down,
removed, and again
erected with a very
small amoimt of labor.
Figure 93 illustrates
another kind, which
has two sloping sides
reaching from the ridge
to the ground, forming
a sort of tent-shaped
§ structure; these may
be constructed with
the four walls and
floor so arranged as to
be collapsible, or they
may be moimted on
% skids and thus made
I portable, a horse being
Sv required to draw them
J-p ^ about. Some styles
have a window in the
front and above the
door; all should have
a small door in the
rear and near the ridge
for ventilation.
There are a number
of points to be enumer-
ated in favor of the in-
dividual t3rpe of swine
house. Each sow may
u
o
i
I
1
■2
•s
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS
207
ji
1
i
4
Vf^
t
^
I
I
I
be isolated at farrowing time, and for some time afterward ;
the houses may be placed at the end of the lot farthest
away from the feeding
floor so the sows may
be compelled to exer-
cise ; the danger of
spreading disease is re-
duced to a minimum,
and should the location
of any house become
unsanitary, it can easily
be moved to another
location.
Large houses, if prop-
erly built, have some
advantageous features
that commend them to
careful hog raisers.
Excellent sanitation can
be accomplished in a
substantially built
house of this type, es-
pecially where a con-
crete floor is used. The
swine may be handled
very easily and con-
veniently, and the plan
of arranging the pens
may be such that feed-
ing may be done with
the minimum of labor. With portable partitions, the
house may be divided into farrowing pens, or the parti-
tions may be omitted, thus providing for an abundance of
2o8 FARM STRUCTURES
light in a house of this type. Bins for storing feed may
also be included, either on the same floor or in a small
loft over part of the building, though the former is
probably the more convenient.
At the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station there
has been constructed a large swine house planned by Pro-
fessor William Dietrich and erected imder his direction,
which has proved to be very eflScient in point of con-
struction, and which has met with the marked approval
of practical hog raisers. This has been described in
Bulletin 109 issued by the Experiment Station. With the
purpose in mind of making the house as nearly perfect as
possible in sanitation, it was built so as to admit sunlight
to all the pens and exclude cold drafts in winter, to be dry
and free from dust, to be well ventilated and to exclude
the hot sun in the summer.
The construction of this swine house is shown in Figure
94. The house faces toward the south, and both tiers of
windows are so placed as to admit a maximum of sunUght
at the time when it is most valuable, and to exclude it
when it is undesirable. Sunlight not only warms and
dries the building, but destroys disease germs, thus making
the building both warm and sanitary. Ventilation is
accomphshed by means of the upper windows, which are
double hung sash of the kind used in residence construction,
and may be raised or lowered at will as circumstances
demand. The arrangement of the windows necessitates
the use of a flat roof for part of the building, which must
be covered with some material that will shed water at a
slight pitch.
The house is 30 feet wide, and an 8-foot alley running
down the center divides it into two parts of equal width,
each of which is divided into 9 pens, space being left at one
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS
209
E
I ,
a
a
a
a
a
5
^
■"■
'■■■"'"■)■
/ \
/ \;
r
/ \
/ \
1
41
-1-
-
-I
>
I
-6
•c
Q
a
2IO FARM STRUCTURES
end for storage bins for feed. The 8-foot alley is advan-
tageous in that it permits driving through the building with
a team and wagon, to facilitate the removal of manure.
The pens are quite large, lo X ii feet in size. Each pen
has an exterior doorway which leads to a pen outside the
buildings, and an ulterior doorway opening to the aUey ;
the doors for the interior doorway are hung so that when
opened they will turn the pigs toward the end of the house
where they are to be weighed. The troughs are placed
on the side of the pen next to the alley, and have a swinging
panel above them which admits of easy feeding. Fenders
or guard-rails of 2-inch pipe are placed around the walls
in the comer in which the nest is located, at a height of
8 inches above the floor and a distance of 6 inches from the
wall, to prevent the sow from crushing the pigs at farrowing
time. All the gates and partitions in this house are made
of woven wire fence mounted on frames of pipe ; these are
considered better than ones made of wood, because no
opportunity is afforded for the harboring of disease germs
because there is practically no obstruction of light, and
because the hogs are always in plain sight of each other
and the attendant.
Part of the floor of this house is made of vitrified brick,
laid on the side in the pens and on edge in the alley ; the
remainder is of cement. Lumber was not used for floors,
since the house was built for permanence ; it was thought
the brick would be somewhat warmer and less slippery
than the cement, and while this was foimd to be true,
both types of floors proved to be too cold at farrowing time
and temporary wood platforms were built which could be
laid on the brick or cement floors at such a time. The
total cost of this house was a little over $2000, making the
unit cost per pen about $110. This is somewhat high, but
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS
211
^Q9f i^/evofion
the house as built on an ordinary farm would have smaller
pens, and a less expensive construction generally, the cost
being materially re-
duced thereby.
A rather unique
design of a large
swine house is
shown in Figure 95.
Mr. W. H. Smith,
of the Illinois Agri-
cultural Experi-
ment Station, is the
originator of the
design, and he has
used the house suc-
cessfully for a num-
ber of years. It
has a number of
distinct advan-
tages, among which
are the following:
economy in con-
struction, as shown
by an actual case
in which a house
with six 18-foot
sides cost approxi-
mately $400; effi-
ciency in operation,
the handling and
feeding of the hogs
being accompUshed
very easily from the
^on-
Fig. 95. — The "Smith" swine house.
212 FARM STRUCTURES
central space ; an abundance of light, since the sun
comes in from four sides of the cupola, as well as from
the windows in the walls; serviceability, the house being
readily convertible from a farrowing house to a feeding
floor or to an excellent sales bam. The windows of the
cupola are double himg, and can be easily opened for venti-
lation.
Sheep Barns
Though sheep are rather tender animals, they need only
to be kept dry and out of the wind to thrive ; and one of
the commonest mistakes made in sheep raising is the pro-
vision of too expensive shelter. Even in the old world,
where live stock is given a maximum of care, sheep are
given extra care only at lambing time, the shepherds
realizing that carelessness at this time may result in the
loss of enough lambs to eliminate the small margin of profit
upon which much of the land is operated. In America,
the climatic extremes of regions in which sheep-raising is
something of an industry require that a more careful
provision be made for the safety and comfort, and that some
sort of a building be arranged to shelter them from drench-
ing rain and driving wmd.
The essentials of a good shelter for sheep are a tight
roof which will keep the interior of the building dry;
walls which will keep out the wind; and some means of
supplying an abundance of fresh air, for this is one thing
that sheep demand. The ancestors of sheep generally
lived in mountains or high plateaus where the air is fine
and pure, and were accustomed to having their limgs full
of it; their descendants consequently cannot thrive in
close, crowded quarters where the air is impure and bad.
The cost of a sheep shelter can very easily be made
excessive. An average horse bam of good construction
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 213
will cost approximately $50 per horse, or the shelter will
cost about one fourth the value of the horse ; on the same
basis, assimiing the value of a sheep to be about $7.50,
the shelter for one sheep should cost $1.85, and since about
6 square feet of floor space is necessary for a single sheep,
the cost per square foot of floor space for a well-built sheep
shelter should not be more than 30 cents. As a matter
of fact, sheep bams are often built in which the cost per
square foot is twice or even three times 30 cents, but
usually these bams have storage room for large quantities
of feed and require heavier and more expensive constmc-
tion. The question as to whether a simple shed with no
storage capacity is better than a high bam in which pro-
vision is made for extensive storage, must be settled by
surrounding conditions and by personal preference. The
governing factors in the problem are the cost of constmc-
tion of three types of structures, namely : a simple sheep
shed, a simple storage house, and a combined shelter and
storage house, and the cost of labor as influenced by the
accessibiUty of the feed. While it probably will be found
considerably cheaper to construct two separate simple
buildings, one for shelter and the other for storage, the
additional labor of transporting the feed from the storage
shed to the sheep may more than counterbalance the saving
resulting from the cheaper buildings.
In any building constructed for sheltering sheep, there
are a number of features which are more or less essential,
and one of the most distinctive of these is a separate com-
partment in which the pregnant ewes can be isolated at
lambing time. This space is divided up by means of
portable hurdles into small pens four or five feet square,
each pen accommodating one ewe; when the lambing
season is over the hurdles can be removed and the com-
214 FARM STRUCTURES
partment used as a feeding room for the older lambs.
It is advisable to have adjacent to the lambing room an-
other room used as the shepherd's quarters, which is fur-
nished with a stove; in very inclement weather the door
between the lambing room and the shepherd's room can
be opened, and sufficient warmth supplied to the young
lambs to keep them from suflFeriiig from the cold.
Some good sheep bams have been built which were
divided up into permanent pens, but under most con-
ditions it is well to so arrange the plans as to make it possible
to keep the floor clear when need arises, since the main pur-
pose of the bam will be to shelter a large nimiber of sheep
in bad weather and at feeding times. Should it be found
necessary to have some of the sheep kept separate, pens can
easily be constructed by using either portable hurdles or
feed racks as partitions. When the floor is made so as to
be imobstructed as much as possible, it greatly facilitates
feeding and cleaning. Earth floors are entirely practical
in sheep bams, and when kept properly cleaned, are very
satisfactory. It is common to let manure accumulate to
a considerable depth before it is removed ; this accumida-
tion of manure is not usually attended by offensive odors,
since the* constant stirring by the small feet of the sheep
tends to keep it from heating. In fine weather it is of
advantage to have the stock out of doors, and at times such
as this and in sunmier time it is desirable to have an out-
door paved feeding yard.
The ventilation of the sheep bam can best be accom-
plished by means of doors and windows so constructed as
to admit of flexible control, though the King system can
often be used to advantage. In some large and successful
sheep sheds the exterior swinging doors are divided into
two parts, each mounted on separate sets of hinges, and
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS
215
in fine weather, even in rather cold weather, the upper
half of the doors on all sides is left open ; should there be
a cold, damp wind blowing from some direction, the doors
that are on that side may be closed, leaving the ones on the
leeward side open ; while in very inclement weather, which
would last for a comparatively short time, all the doors may
be completely closed. The same efficiency can be obtained
by using windows as ventilators, the windows consisting
of bam sash mounted
on hinges at the bot-
tom; any degree of
ventilation can be
secured by this
means, and it has the
advantage of deflect-
ing the air currents
upward, thus avoid-
ing drafts to a great
extent.
In feed racks, as in
everything else, there
is a right and a wrong
method of construc-
tion. In Figure 96 is illustrated a type of rack perfected
by Professor W. C. Coffey of the Illinois Experiment
Station, which fulfills the requirements of a successful
rack. It is large enough to admit of placing a consider-
able quantity of feed within it, the slats are spaced far
enough apart so the sheep can get its head in and eat
without having to tear the feed out upon the floor, and
it has a close tray below for the fine feed which will catch
any wastes from the rack above. It can be made either
single or double, so stock can feed from one or both sides ;
Fig. 96. — Feed rack for sheep.
2i6 FARM STRUCTURES
the length can be made such that it will exactly fit in
between adjacent interior posts, thus serving as an excel-
lent partition. Ample watering facilities should be
provided the sheep, and troughs should be located at
various convenient points, and kept filled with water
clean enough for hiunan use.
Since the design of a combined sheep shelter and storage
bam embodies several features, such as special framing,
ventilation, etc., in addition to the distinctive ones men-
tioned in the foregoing discussion, plans of such structures
will not be included here ; they can be arranged easily by
combining the principles enimdated in subsequent chapters
upon framing and ventilation with the ideas given in the
following discussion of a structure built for shelter only.
Figure 97 illustrates one type of sheep shed which satisfied
many of the requirements listed above, and which by cer-
tain modifications and additions can be made to fit all of
them. It is square in shape, 60 feet on each side, large
enough to accommodate comfortably a flock of 500 sheep
or more. The roof is nearly flat, having a slope of only
1 foot in 8, and this precludes the use of shingles for a roof
covering, tin or prepared roofing being necessary. The
framing consists of three pieces of 2 X 6 stuff nailed to-
gether to form posts, supported at the bottom by a con-
crete foundation along the exterior walls and by concrete
piers in the interior; the posts are spaced 12 feet apart in
both directions. Across the tops of the posts are laid three
2 X 6's, two of them vertical and one horizontal, upon
which are placed the 2X6 rafters. The walls are made
of horizontal drop siding, this necessitating the use of stud-
ding between the exterior main posts. The building is well
lighted and ventilated by means of the windows on all
sides and in the raised interior bent at th^ top. The
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS
217
portable feed racks are of such a length that they will fit
exactly between the framing posts and thus serve admi-
rably as partitions when there is need of pens. The large
pens formed by the feed racks can be further subdivided
/a' S/f^thg ^aefa
Fio. 07. — 5be^ shed-
2l8
FARM STRUCTURES
into smaller pens by portable hurdles. The exterior doors
are made high enough to admit a team and wagon, and a
clear driveway can be maintained through the entire shed
in both directions. The shepherd's quarters and the warm-
ing room are located in one comer of the building, pref-
erably the southeast, but this location must, of course^
be governed by existing conditions.
Large Storage Barns
In view of the fact that in most instances where a build-
ing of rather large dimensions is constructed for a dairy
^^
^^
7» '. ' .
Fig. 98. — Interior bent — gable roof.
or horse bam or for a general purpose bam, considerable
storage space is provided above the first floor, a discussion
of the general methods employed in such a construction
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS
219
will be taken up. The principles and construction methods
given in this discussion will apply equally well to any of
the above-mentioned bams, while the details which are
applicable to only one specific type of bam will be con-
sidered in subsequent discussions.
Framing. — There are two entirely different systems of
framing employed in the construction of ordinary large
/ \\/ \ \/
5
^. , \'^. k 'J . ■<. ^ ^.^^M.piy .. ^ ..> ^t- ..^ ^K. '1'^ . .i..". %..-. .1,. 4.4^. ^t.' A *. ■ . j v]
CfiJ-
Fig. 99. — End bent — gable roof.
barns, the timber frame and the plank frame. The former
was used almost exclusively in the earlier days when timber
was cheap and could be obtained in almost any desired size
or length ; the latter type has been developed to reduce the
cost of construction, and accomplishes this by using lumber
which is only 2 inches in thickness, and which of course can
be obtained at a much lower cost than that of large timbers.
2220
FARM STRUCTURES
Timber Framing, — Figures 98, 99, 100, and loi illustrate
the details of the timber frame. As is seen, the frame con-
sists of large rectangular timbers of varying sizes, from a
12X12 sill at the bottom, to 4 X 4 braces, and 2 X 4 or
2X6 rafters. The sizes of the timbers will, of course,
vary with the size of the bam and with the load to which
they are to be subjected ; the kind of timber used will also
govern the size to a certain extent, oak, for instance, being
K NK M/ NK N
1/ Ml/ '^
E
[/ \\/ \
a
uzz:
-rrr:
Fig. 100. — Side framing for a timber frame bam.
much stronger than hemlock. All timbers are framed
together by means of a mortise and tenon joint, illustrated
in Figure 102, through which a wcioden dowel pin is driven.
These pins are given a long taper and the holes in the tenon
and those through the mortise are given |-inch *'draw" in
such direction as will tend to pull the shoulder of the timber
on which the tenon is formed close up against the timber
in which the mortise is cut ; that is, the distance from the
joint to the dowel hole is J-inch greater in the mortise than
in the tenon.
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS
221
The large timbers used for crossbeams and ties should
be whole sticks, not spliced, but the sills and plates may
be spliced at every bent. (The term *'bent" is used to
cover one of the imits of framing extending across the
building; it is also sometimes taken to mean the space
included between the framing imits.) Sometimes long
Fig. ioi. — Interior bent — gambrel roof.
timbers are very difficult to obtain, in which case the width
of the bam can be adapted to the length of the timbers
obtainable, making one strong spUce at the center, if
necessary. In each of the angles formed at the inter-
section of two large timbers should be placed a diagonal
brace 3 or 4 feet in length, the ends of which are con-
nected with the main timbers by means of a mortise joint
held with a dowel pin, as shown in Figure 103 ; this figure
222 FARM STRUCTURES
also shows a very efficient method of joining a crosstie and
a post.
One point espedaUy worthy of note for storage bams is
the efiEort to include as much under a given amount of roof
Fio. loi. — Mortise and tenon iaiat.
Two types of roofs have been evolved in
a progressive development toward this end, the gable or
"V" roof, and the gam-
brel, both these roofs
being shown in Figures
104 and 105. The gable
type has been used a
great deal, since the
framing of the bents for
this type of roof is quite
simple; however, in at-
tempting to employ the
principle enunciated
above, it was soon foimd
that the gable roof did
not give greatest amount
of room under a given
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS
223
amount of roof, and in consequence the advantages of
the gambrel roof came into wider recognition. A com-
parison of the two types will make the difference between
them manifest ; the mow is only half filled when filled even
with the plate, and the gambrel roof provides a much
larger space above the plates than does the gable roof,
even though it have a steep pitch. The lower pitch of the
Fig. 104. — Gable roof.
Fig. 105. — Gambrel roof.
gambrel roof is so nearly vertical that it is in effect almost
a wall.
The timber frame makes a very strong and substantial
structure, and when the sills are kept off the ground so that
they do not rot and when the superstructure is properly
protected by the exterior wall covering, such a frame retains
its strength for many years. It is similar to the braced
frame used in residence construction, examples of which
can be found that are more than a century old. The
chief disadvantages of the timber frame lie in the high cost
of large sticks of timber, in the difficulty of handling them,
and in the fact that many of the timbers have their tensile
and shearing strength reduced by 50 per cent or more by
the reduction in cross-section area necessitated in the mak-
2^4
FARM STRUCTURES
ing of a mortise and tenon joint. The controlling strain,
however, is usually a transverse one, rather than one of
tension or shear.
Plank Framing, — The plank frame, since it is a com-
paratively modem development, has perhaps as yet not
reached its most per-
fect and economical
design. In the
method of arrange-
ment of the mem-
bers there is a great
variation, and often
too little or too
much material is
employed, making
the resulting frame
too weak or unneces-
sarily expensive, as
the case may be.
Because of the
special bracing nee*
essary to give the
plank frame suffi-
cient strength, the
gambrel roof adapts
itself peculiarly well
to this type of fram-
ing, and is used almost exclusively. A gambrel roof sup-
ported by plank framing properly designed can be entirely
supported by the exterior wall posts alone, no interior
posts being necessary.
The plank frame usually consists of a series of units,
or bents, not more than 12 feet apart, each unit comprising
Fig. 106. — Plank framing of interior bent.
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 225
a vertical post at each side and the braces, struts, etc.,
necessary to construct a sort of a cantilever truss; these
separate bents are unified and bound together by plates
nailed to the tops of the posts, by purlin plates at the break
in the roof, and by subsidiary members, such as nailing
girts, braces, etc. The end bents are usually framed in an
essentially different manner from that of the interior bents.
The interior bents are so constructed that the space above
the second floor is prac- a p, d
tically imobstructed, a ■ ■ [•---■•— • ■ ■
very desirable and more I
or less necessary fea- |
ture, but this necessity ■ ■ ^ — ■—-J 1 ■
is obviated in the end
bent. Since the end
wall of a bam is a large a • ■ • ■
vertical one without sup-
ports or braces to resist
any lateral pressure such
as that of a high wind, in« ^ t ♦• * ^^
^ ' Fio. X07. — Location of posts.
the sticks used in fram-
ing the end bent must be arranged to give the wall the
greatest possible strength and rigidity.
In Figure 106 is illustrated one arrangement of the mem-
bers of an interior bent of plank framing which has been
found to be especially strong and practical. The de-
scription of such an arrangement for bams varying in
width from 30 to 36 feet follows.
The side wall posts are built up of three 2X8 pieces
spaced two inches apart, and extending from the floor to
the plate ; in the open spaces are placed 2X8 pieces, of
a length equal to the desired clearance between floor and
ceiling, usually 8 feet, and the whole thoroughly fastened
Q
226
FARM STRUCTURES
together with spikes, the free use of which throughout
the framing is desirable. Thus the post is made a sohd
S X 8 for the first 8 feet of its length, thoroughly
substantial.
On the top of the 8-foot pieces are placed the girders,
which support the joists. The girders themselves are sup-
ported at intervals not
exceeding 12 feet by in-
terior posts built up of
three 2 X 8's equal in
height to 8 feet plus the
width of the girder, and
spaced 2 inches apart, so
the members of the girder
may fit in between the
members of the post as
shown in Figure 108; or
the height may be 7 feet
10 inches, in which case a
flat 2-inch block covers
the end of the posts and
the girders are placed on
this. Both the girders
and the joists are designed
by using the following
formula for determining the size of bcEuns subjected to
a transverse strain :
where L = safe load in pounds,
b and d = total breadth and depth respectively in inches,
A = 100 for oak or hard pine, 60 for soft pine,
and S = span or length of beam, in feet.
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 227
To illustrate the use of this formula, the size of the joists
and girders of a certain bam are calculated as follows :
Let Figure 107 represent the location of the posts on the
interior of the first floor. The distance apart of the bents
may vary from 8 to 12 feet, and of the posts in the bent
from 6 to 14 feet. Of course, the depth of the girders as
well as of the joists should be the same in all parts of the
bam, to maintain the level of the mow floor, consequently,
we should make the design for that part supporting the
greatest weight. Supposing the mow to be filled with hay,
the 1 2 -foot girder extending from a to b will support the
weight of all the hay in the rectangle efgh; this weight
may be 6000 pounds, depending upon the compactness of
the hay. The formula will then be, using 2 X 10 hard
pine planks for the girder :
, 2 X b X 100 X 100
6000 =
12
6 = 3.6 inches
or the approximate equivalent of two 2-inch widths of
plank. The girder, then, will be composed of two pieces
of hard pine, 2 X 10 in size.
The lo-foot joists in the rectangle abed will support the
same load, and since they are to be spaced 2 feet apart, it
is evident that there will be six of them in this rectangle
with a total breadth of 12 inches. Substituting the known
values in the formula :
. 2 X12X^^X100
6000 =
10
(P = 25, and
Since a plank 5 inches wide is usually not obtainable,
the next larger standard size plank is used, a 2 X 6. This
228
FARM STRUCTURES
size joist will be used throughout the entire floor, for
though it may be imnecessarily strong over certain spans,
the spacing of the joists must not exceed 2 feet on account
of the liability of the floor boards to break should they be
supported at wider intervals.
The plate is constructed of two pieces of 2 X 8 stock
laid flat on the top of the exterior post, or better, with one
piece laid flat and with the other set in vertically beneath
the flat plank in order
to give the whole plate
greater stiffness. This
arrangement is shown
in the illustration of the
method of joining mem-
bers in the plate.
Referring to Figure
106, the framing of the
roof truss proper is seen
to consist of two prin-
cipal braces, a, the
purlin brace, and ft, the
ridge brace. The purlin
brace, for bams 36 feet
or less in width, is com-
posed of two pieces of
2X8 spaced 2 inches, the lower ends of which are in-
serted into the spaces between the members of the post,
and rest on the girders; the upper ends are notched to
receive the purlin plate, shown in Figure 109, which
consists of two pieces of 2X8, which are laid on edge to
give the greatest possible rigidity, and which may be
spaced two inches to admit of a short diagonal brace
extending down to the ridge brace. The ridge brace
Fig. 109. — Framing at purlin plate.
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BXHLDINGS
229
\
itself consists of a single piece of 2 X 10 for short-span
bams ; it meets the corresponding brace from the other
half of the truss at the ridge, while at its lower end it may
be notched over the plate or brought below the plate.
In the latter event, since it comes between the two members
of the purlin brace, it will strike against the center member
of the exterior post and will have to be bent slightly in order
to enter one of the spaces ; perhaps a better arrangement is
effected if it is cut to fit
closely against the center
member, and a short strip
nailed on each side, pro-
jecting beyond the end of
the ridge brace and ex-
tending into the spaces of
the vertical post. A short
strut or two extending from
the purlin brace to the
ridge brace and to the post
will aid materially in stiffen-
ing the truss. Figure no
shows the method of join-
ing the various members
at the plate.
The two halves of the truss are bound together at the
top by means of a short collar beam of 2 X S nailed to the
two ridge braces. This collar beam should not be too
long, for it must also support the carrier track, and if too
long, will bfing the carrier track so low as to interfere with
the maximum filling of the mow.
It is very important that this type of self-supporting
roof be designed to resist any side strain or racking which
might result from high wind pressure upon the end of the
— Framing at plate.
230
FARM STRUCTURES
bam. This is accomplished to some extent by the rigidity
resulting from the roof sheathing, but additional bracing
must be provided in the form of sway bracing, which
ordinarily consists of long pieces of 2 X 8 fastened on
diagonally beneath the rafters and firmly nailed at every
^ii/' "or?^ — ^^
Flo. III. — Side framing — framed for vertical liding.
joint. This is illustrated in. Figure in, a view of the side
framing of a plank framed bam.
Figure 112 shows one method of arranging the planks in
an end bent, studs being used to hold the horizontal
siding. When, as is usually the case, a hay door is put
in one gable, a vertical post may extend from the plate to
the roof on each side of the door.
The plank frame has a number of advantages which
make it especially desirable. Among these may be enu-
merated the following :
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS
231
A saving is effected in the cost and amount of lumber
used.
Timber can be used that could not otherwise be
utilized.
A saving is effected not only in sawing, cutting, and
hauling, but in time of construction as well.
&id bent — framed for borizoatal siding.
Practically all interior timbers and braces are eUminated.
Full benefit is gotten of the self-supporting roof, com-
bining triangles, long braces, and perpendicular timbers.
The possibility of weakening at the joints is elimi-
nated.
A strong support for the hay carrier, with plenty of
clearance, is provided.
The odds and ends of lumber can be utilized as
braces.
232 FARM STRUCTURES
The Round Barn
Another development in the direction of economic
building construction is the roimd bam, examples of which
in a more or less modified form can be foimd in almost every
locality. The round bam possesses some theoretical ad-
vantages which make its design very attractive, but it is
sometimes rather difficult to adapt these advantages to
existing practical conditions. A number of very successful
attempts have been made, however, and the resulting
bams have proved to be quite efficient.
Some enthusiastic advocates of the round bam make
such extravagant claims for it that it is very difficult
to substantiate them. Some of the actually desirable
features may be enumerated :
1. The round bam, especially when a silo is located at
the center, possesses great strength on account of the mutual
bracing etfect resulting from the concentration of the fram-
ing timbers supporting the roof. The roof of the round
barn is almost invariably of the self-supporting, plank frame
type ; in fact, in the construction of the whole bam, this
type of framing is employed.
2. Theoretically, maximum floor space with the same
perimeter is obtained at a minimum of cost, since with
the same perimeters in variously shaped figures, a circle
gives the greatest area.
3. Increased storage space is provided because of the
height of the roof necessary to give it proper support.
There may be other advantages of more or less degree
of importance, depending upon the purpose for which the
bam is used. It is in the interior arrangement of the floor
devoted to stalls and bins that sometimes considerable
difficulty is encountered. Unless the bam is very care-
fully planned, there is likely to be waste space and loss of
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS
233
efficiency in feeding and cleaning operations. The con-
struction of round bams of large diameters is practically
precluded by the inability to provide sufficient light when
Fig. 113. — Framing of 60-foot round bam.
the interior stalls are located too far from the windows in
the exterior wall.
Figure 113 shows the method of framing employed in a
60-foot round dairy bam. The plate, which is necessarily
circular, is built up of six thicknesses of i X 6 on edge, the
boards being put together so as to keep the joints well
staggered; the purlin plate is constmcted with a thick-
234 FARM STRUCTURES
ness equal to that of four boards. No posts are used, studs
being used to support the walls and plate. Each pair of
rafters are braced as shown in the illustration, and below
FlO. 114. — Plooc jdat amngement.
the break in the roof an additional rafter is put in between
each pair of regularly framed rafters, so that in the lower
section of the roof there are twice as many rafters as in the
upper section. The floor joists extend radially from the
silo, as is shown in Figure 1 14, and have one interior support.
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 235
Dairy Barns
The importance attached to the proper construction and
care of the dairy bam is emphasized in the following state-
ment set forth by P. B. Tustin of the Health Department
of Winnipeg: "The cow stable is the kitchen where the
food for many city babies is prepared, and it is the duty
of every farmer and dairyman to see that the kitchen is
clean." The dairy bam should be kept as clean as a dwell-
ing house, because the milk from the cows housed in the
bam is consumed by humans, usually without any inter-
vening converting or purif)dng processes, on the assump-
tion that the milk as produced and handled is pure. That
this assumption is generally incorrect is testified to by
the fact that the dairy bams and cow stables on the great
majority of farms are reeking with filth. In many cases
the alleviation of this condition would be difficult and ex-
pensive, because the original design and construction was
so very inefficient and unsanitary. A dairy bam can
be constructed in such a way and of such materials as to
permit of its being kept absolutely clean and sanitary at
no great expense of time or labor.
The proper and economical erection of dairy bams in-
volves great care and foresight in the design and arrange-
ment in order to obtain the greatest efficiency. A bam
is a rather expensive stmcture, and once built is not easily
moved or altered in shape. The site is important; con-
sideration must be given to the location as to the points
of the compass, the position of the surrounding buildings,
the proximity to the farm residence, and the appearance
of the bam from the highway. The size should be suited
to the amoxmt of stock to be sheltered and the quantity
of feed to be stored, and the interior should be so arranged
236 FARM STRUCTURES
as to facilitate feeding and caring for the stock. The ap-
pearance of the building when finished is a point to be
given no small amount of attention, for the bam is a large
structure and can easily be made to dominate the ensemble
of the farmstead with a decidedly disagreeable effect.
Some architectural features, such as a cupola, a cornice,
and proper framing of windows and doors cost but little,
yet do wonders in improving the appearance. Perhaps
the most important feature of a dairy bam is cleanliness,
and the use of concrete and steel where possible, and the
installation of an effective system of ventilation will go a
long way toward establishing this feature.
The arrangement of the interior of the dairy bam is a
problem upon the solution of which there is a great dif-
ference of opinion. It seems that almost every dairyman
has a different idea which he claims to be the best; this
perhaps results from the special planning which each in-
dividual has had to do to satisfy the conditions of his own
special case, and whether or not his solution is applicable
to other equally special cases, is only problematical. The
fact remains that in order to arrive at the best and most
economical solution of the problem, the conditions existing
on the farm upon which the bam is to be located and any
special purposes for which the bam is to be employed
must be carefully studied, and only general principles of
arrangements can be considered here.
Broadly speaking, various arrangements of interiors re-
solve themselves into two kinds, namely : those in which
the cows face towards the interior of the bam, and those
in which they face the opposite direction. It is assumed
that there will be two rows of cows in the bam, for long
experience has shown that this gives the most practical
results. The width of the bam will be determined by cer-
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 237
tain measurements of stalls, mangers, gutters, and alley-
ways that have been found by actual experience to be the
most properly suited to the animals and their care.
As far as arrangement is concerned, the two methods
given above differ only in feeding and cleaning facility.
When the cows face in there is only one feedway, and two
clean-out passageways ; when the cows face out, there are
two feedways and only one clean-out passage. Since
generally the work of feeding is greater than that of clean-
ing, the work can be more easily and economically accom-
plished by having only the one feedway incident to the
plan of having the cows stand with heads together. In
fact this is the plan that is generally adopted, for besides
the advantages mentioned heretofore, there are other points
in its favor ; the light falls on the rear of the cows, enabling
the milker to see when the udders are clean and the stable-
men to see better in cleaning out the stalls; there is less
confusion in letting the cows in and out; the supporting
posts can be placed in the line of the head rail, which is at
the narrowest part of the cow, thus saving room ; the ven-
tilating system is usually at the walls of the bam, and the
odor from the manure will not be so great as when the
cows face out; and finally, it is easier to keep the barn
clean when the slope of the floor is from the center to the
outside, the drainage being more effective.
In any arrangement, the measurements of stalls, gutters,
etc., are the same, and the dimensions given below are
practically standard. The width of the manger will vary
according to its construction from 2 feet to 3 feet, a wide,
shallow manger being better thsm a deep, narrow one.
The length of the "cow stand" or stall, from manger to
gutter, should be 5 feet ; this is a length which is suited
to cows of all sizes, adjustment being made at the stanchion
238 FARM STRUCTURES
for short or long cows, so that all manure may be confined
to the gutter and the cows kept clean. The width of the
gutter should be 16 inches, and the depth of its bottom
from the rear edge of the cow stand should be 6 or 7 inches ;
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 239
the cow stand itself should have a slight slope towards the
gutter. The passageway at the rear should not be less
than 4 feet wide, and a width of 5 feet is amply large.
The width of a central feedway need not be more than 6
feet between mangers, and in fact a narrower feedway is
often used. When the cows are arranged heads out, the
central passageway should be 8 feet wide if it is planned
to be used as a driveway, but if a litter carrier is used, a
width of 5 feet is suflScient. The width of stalls varies
somewhat with the breed and size of cows, from 3 feet
2 inches to 4 feet ; as a general average, a width of 3 feet
6 inches seems to be the best. Figures 116 and 117 in
cross section, and Figures 118 and 119 in plan, illustrate
the two arrangements discussed above, and show in detail
what differences exist when the same plan is adapted to
meet either requirement.
To further the effort to provide the most efficient sani-
tation of a dairy bam, the floors must be made of some
material which is Hght and nonabsorbent, and which can
be easily and thoroughly cleaned. Concrete floors seem to
fill these requirements, though there is great objection to
them, in northern regions especially, on account of their
coldness. This can be obviated to a large extent by using
plenty of bedding, or by putting in removable wooden
platforms in the stalls during cold seasons. Concrete
floors in bams are not to be troweled smooth, but finished
with a rather rough surface with a wire brush or broom to
eliminate the danger of the cattle slipping. There is on
the market a floor brick made especially of finely groimd
cork and a special stiff grade of asphaltum, molded under
pressure into brick form ; they can be laid in cement mor-
tar, biit it is better to use asphalt as a binder. Whole
floors made of asphaltum have been used, but they are
FARM STRUCTURES
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 241
242 FARM STRUCTURES
very slipp>ery when wet ; the addition of some fine gravel
to the surface coat might be desirable.
If the bam is of frame construction, it is advisable to
have the walls lined on the interior with dressed and
matched sheathing, for several reasons. One of the fac-
tors which control the successfid operation of a modem
ventilating system is a building that has tight walls, and
these are insured by the interior sheathing. Double
walls are almost a necessity in cold regions, and are of value
even m warm weather, because the air space between the
interior and exterior walls insulates both against heat and
cold. The smooth interior walls resulting from the appli-
cation of dressed lumber also facilitate the sanitation of
the building. It follows, of course, that where the walls
are sheathed on the interior, a tight, close ceiling is pro-
vided, not only for the reasons mentioned above, but in
the case of a loft or mow above to prevent dust and dirt
sifting down to the stable.
In a bam used exclusively for cattle, the height of the
ceiling should not exceed 9 feet; great height of ceiling
calls for more heat to keep the stable comfortable and is
of no special advantage. As a matter of fact, a clearance
of 7 feet 6 inches between floor and bottom of ceiling
joists is sufficient, and a greater height is not necessary
unless wagons are to be driven into the bam.
The matter of equipment for dairy bams is one of prime
importance. Several manufacturers have recognized this,
and are devoting all their efforts to produce equipment
in keeping with modem ideas as to convenience and econ-
omy of arrangement and as to sanitation. Wood for
stall partitions is a thing obsolete ; steel tubing has taken
its place. Stanchions are no longer the awkward, heavy
wood contrivances once almost imiversally found, but are
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BXJILDINGS 243
made of light steel so arranged as to have a lateral swinging
motion that ^ves the cow almost as much freedom as when
outside, yet prevents her
from moving backwards and
forwards. Mangers are
made of concrete or steel,
the latter type being either
fixed or movable. Even in-
terior posts may be of steel,
as shown in Figure 120,
Both feed and htter carriers
are part of the equipment of
the dairy bam, and a proper
arrangement of them permits
of the carrying of ground
feeds, grain, and silage to
every manger in the bam,
and the expeditious removal
of all waste.
The gutters in the rear of
the stalls should lead to a
manure pit outside of the
bam so that all the liquid
manure can be saved and
utilized. This pit may be
constructed of concrete prop-
erly reenforced and water-
proofed ; it usually has to be
put partly or wholly under-
ground, depending on the
floor level of the bam. If
the liquid manure is to be
,. ' . !■ ■ J ( "'=■ l'"' — Steel post used to supplant
applied m hqmd form, a wood coosttuction.
244
FARM STRUCTURES
a
d
I
I
o
M
in
strong, serviceable
pump should be
located in the
lowest part of the
pit to pump it into
tanks for trans-
portation ; other-
wise a quantity of
saWdust, (eaves,
tanbark, or similar
substance can be
put in the tank
which will absorb
the liquid and
which can be
handled with
shovels.
Figure 121 illus-
trates the design
selected by the
State of Wisconsin
as the model type
of dairy bam for
that state. The
design was selected
from numerous
ones submitted in
competition for a
$1000 prize, the
cost of the build-
ing not to exceed
$2000. This was
some years ago,
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 245
however, and in all
probability the bam
will cost much more
at the present time.
It has a number of
good features such
as heading the cows
in; providing stalls
for calves, the bull,
and sufficient horses
to operate a dairy
farm of 25 cows; a
complete ventilat-
ing system; litter
and feed carriers;
excellent feeding
arrangements.
Figure 122 is the
floor plan of a spe-
cially well-designed
large dairy barn
housing more than
sixty cows, eight
horses, several
calves, and a bull.
Noticeable features
of this bam are the
exceedingly small
amount of waste
space, and the easy
accessibility of the
silos.
Where a number
246
FARM STRUCTURES
ai'Sd
xm ynaX-WMk JL111V
WOO) atu
r— 7 . o<ar-
of other cattle are
kept in connection
with the dairy herd
and convenience in
feeding them is de-
sired, a bam such as
is shown in Figure 1 23
may prove to be ver>'
desirable. This bam,
to operate to the best
advantage, should be
located with the open
side to the south ; the
south wall of the first
story is left entirely
open, being separated
from the feed lot only
by a heavy ordinary
fence. In colder cli-
mates, if it is desired
to keep the interior
of the bam warm, a
partition may be
erected just at the
south row of mangers.
Box stalls are pro-
vided in which preg-
nant cows, cows with
calves, or calves may
be kept. Ample
storage space is pro-
vided for feed, and
for convenience in
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS
247
handling an engine-driven dump an elevator may be
installed. The driveway between the box stalls and single
stalls is sufficiently wide to admit of a wagon being driven
the entire length of the bam.
Fig. 124. — Round bam. (Dl. Agr. Ex. Sta.)
Figure 124 shows in detail the somewhat novel arrange-
ment adopted in a round bam at the Illinois Experiment
Station. No stall partitions are used; the cows are
simply fastened in the stanchions at feeding and milking
248
FARM STRUCTURES
time, being allowed the run of all the space outside the
mangers the remainder of the time they are in the bam.
Large box stalls can be formed, if necessary, by swinging
Fig. 125. — nUnob round bam — regular stalls.
aroimd the large gates, as shown in the figure. The
advantage of this particular arrangement lies in the fact
that a large manure spreader can be driven in and around
the entire building without the least difficulty. Figure
s
251
I
would ap-
) properly
ter is 18
-i are
The
the
eliv-
i be
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 251
125 shows the floor plan of this structure as it would ap-
pear were stall partitions introduced ; in order to properly
utilize the space, a larger silo, one whose diameter is iS
feet, must be built.
Fio. 1 29. — A brge round dairy bam.
For a small dairy bam, the one whose floor plans are
shown in Figures 127 and 128 is particularly good. The
location of the grain bins, chopper, and grinder on the
second floor admits of all the prepared grain being deliv-
ered to the first floor feed room, from which it can be
expeditiously distributed.
^52 FARM STRUCTURES
Figure 129 gives the floor plan of a large round dairy
bam. Close observation will show that at several points
space is not utilized to the best advantage. The silo is
24 feet in diameter, and to reach to the roof of a bam of
this size would have to be 50 feet in height. This bam has
the inherent disadvantage of all round bams with great
diameter, — there is not sufficient light in the interior
part of the barn.
Horse Barns
A special bam designed solely for the accommodation
of horses is not generally found on the ordinary farm;
it is on farms devoted wholly to the production of horses
that real horse bams are seen, and here they are usually
quite elaborate and expensive buildings. A bam of this
type has to fill several requirements ; there must be large,
roomy box stalls for brood mares ; isolated stalls must be
provided for stallions; if any driving horses are kept,
standing stalls must be arranged for them ; a carriage room
is usually a necessary adjunct; a harness room is also
desirable, because the ammonia arising from the stables
in which horses are kept is very destructive to leather
and to carriage varnish as well ; since a horse bam is gener-
ally a roomy structure, storage space for hay and grain
should be provided in the loft space; and finally, living
quarters must usually be provided for the grooms and
stablemen.
The character and temperament of horses are essentially
different from that of any other farm animals, and this
consideration must be kept in mind in horse bam constmc-
tion. Horses are vigorous, active, and restless, and a
greater soUdity of structure than is necessary with other
bams must be planned for. In box stalls the partitions
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 253
must be very strong, especially the lower part; thus for
a height of 5 or 6 feet they should be of 2-inch hard pine
or oak, so that it cannot be broken or loosened by kicks ;
above this part should be a grating of ^-inch iron rods or
heavy wire netting such as is used to protect exterior
windows. The purpose of this netting is to keep the
horse from being too closely confined, for otherwise he will
become unusually restless and irritable, since he is a gre-
garious animal and resents deprivation of the company of
his own kind. In some modem bams reinforced concrete
partitions are meeting with favor, since they are sanitary,
permanent, attractive, and offer no opportunity for gnaw-
ing or cribbing, a habit very common to young horses.
Any sharp edges in either wood or concrete partitions should
be carefully rounded off.
If a permanent manger is installed in the box stall, it
should be bound with sheet iron so as to prevent gnawing.
A portable box or manger can be provided, which is put
into the stall only at feeding time, and removed when
not in use ; this, however, is more or less of an inconven-
ience. Some horsemen prefer to throw the hay on the floor
of the stall, but this results in most cases in considerable
waste, especially with long hay.
The size of box stalls varies ; they should never be less
than 8 feet in width, and a comfortable stall is 10 feet by
12 feet in size.
Standing stalls for single horses are usually about 5 feet
wide, with a minimum of 4 feet 8 inches and a maximum
of 5 feet 2 inches. The total length of a standing stall
from front of manger to rear of passageway should be 14
feet, divided as follows : 2 feet for the width of the manger ;
7 feet for the length of the horse stand ; and 5 feet for the
width of the passageway. These dimensions of course
254 FARM STRUCTURES
»
may be varied slightly to suit ^)ecial conditions. The
gutter at the rear of the horse stand for the disposal of
the liquid manure should be at least 4 inches deep, and 16
or 18 inches wide; it can be left uncovered, but may be
covered with heavy perforated cast-iron plates fitted into
rabbets molded in the concrete floor.
The matter of floors for a horse bam is an important
one. The floor is the part of the bam subjected to the
hardest usage, consequently ability to resist severe wear
is a prime requisite. A horse's feet are comparatively
delicate, and the pawing and stamping characteristic of
horses, if done on a hard floor, is likely to be injurious to
them. With many horsemen a packed clay floor is the
favorite, but this is insanitary and requires frequent
repair. A wood floor of heavy plank is commonly put in
bams, but it wears rapidly and there is danger of injury
to the horses, should a plank break. A concrete floor
seems to meet requirements best, but it has the objection
of being very hard, so hard as to cause the feet of a horse
to become tender when he has to stand upon it continually.
A removable platform of 2 X 4 pieces, spaced ^ inch apart
and placed longitudinaUy in the stall, solves this difficulty,
and it can be replaced at no great expense when worn
through. The floor in the passageway should be rough-
ened.
A sufficiency of light and adequate ventilation are two
essentials of a good horse bam. Interior stalls, that is,
stalls so far away from windows that good light does not
reach them, are imdesirable; 3 or 4 rows of stalls are
sometimes placed in a bam, one row along each side wall,
and one or two rows in the center, but it is better to have
just the two rows of stalls along the outside walls and use
the central portion as a place for exercising. Windows
254 FARM STRUCTURES
•
may be varied slightly to suit special conditions. The
gutter at the rear of the horse stand for the disposal of
the liquid manure should be at least 4 inches deep, and 16
or 18 inches wide ; it can be left uncovered, but may be
covered with heavy perforated cast-iron plates fitted into
rabbets molded in the concrete floor.
The matter of floors for a horse bam is an important
one. The floor is the part of the bam subjected to the
hardest usage, consequently ability to resist severe wear
is a prime requisite. A horse's feet are comparatively
delicate, and the pawing and stamping characteristic of
horses, if done on a hard floor, is likely to be injurious to
them. With many horsemen a packed clay floor is the
favorite, but this is insanitary and requires frequent
repair. A wood floor of heavy plank is commonly put in
bams, but it wears rapidly and there is danger of injury
to the horses, should a plank break. A concrete floor
seems to meet requirements best, but it has the objection
of being very hard, so hard as to cause the feet of a horse
to become tender when he has to stand upon it continually.
A removable platform of 2 X 4 pieces, spaced ^ inch apart
and placed longitudinally in the stall, solves this diflSiculty,
and it can be replaced at no great expense when worn
through. The floor in the passageway should be rough-
ened.
A sufficiency of light and adequate ventilation are two
essentials of a good horse bam. Interior stalls, that is,
stalls so far away from windows that good light does not
reach them, are undesirable; 3 or 4 rows of stalls are
sometimes placed in a bam, one row along each side wall,
and one or two rows in the center, but it is better to have
just the two rows of stalls along the outside walls and use
the central portion as a place for exercising. Windows
1^
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS
2SS
should be plentiful and should be so arranged as to be
easily opened; each one should be fitted with a wire
screen to keep flies
out during summer.
In inclement weather
ventilation should be
accomplished by
some such ventilating
system as the King.
Exterior doors to
stalls and passage-
ways should be made
in two parts, the
upper half to be re-
placed in summer
time by a screened
door, protected by
heavy wire netting
or by hardwood bars.
The provision for
watering is imimpor-
tant as long as the
water is puire. Inside
water tanks are de-
sirable, and if such
are installed the plan
of the bam must be
such as will admit of
facilitating the work
of watering. Individ-
ual troughs for each
stall are difficult to
keep clean, and the
r s
O *A-
B
M
d
I
CO
I
•
M
M
O
\0»1-
0-M
2S6
FARM STRUCTURES
Fig. 132. — Small horse barn.
old-fashioned way of carrying water in buckets to the
horses is a waste of time. The main requisites are that the
water be fresh and cool in summer time, and tempered in
wintertime; this
will add much to
the comfort and
thrift of the
horse.
In Figure 131
is shown a well-
arranged large
stallion barn.
The bam is 52
feet wide and
154 feet long,
with a self-supporting roof that gives an abundance of
loft room. The stalls are large and roomy, and have
doors opening to the exterior of the bam as well as to
the large interior exercising floor 24 feet wide. Figure 132
illustrates a convenient small horse bam with room for
18 horses in an emergency. Four box stalls of a good size
are provided and ten single standing stalls.
•
General Purpose Barns
On a great many farms it is not practicable nor eco-
nomical to have separately a dairy barn and a horse bam ;
on farms of this kind the necessity of a general purpose barn
is obvious. It is usually designed to shelter only the
cows and horses, with a provision made for storage of large
quantities of hay or forage and a small amount of grain,
but sometimes sheep or even swine are kept in the same
building. The principles applying to the various types of
bams as heretofore given can be applied to the plan of a
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 257
general purpose bam, and an economical and attractive
structure can be arranged.
The horse stalls and cow stalls should, if possible, be
placed on opposite sides of the building, on account of the
difference in the amount of space required. Three cow
stalls require only as much width of space as two horse
stalls. The grain bins can be placed on the second floor
if necessary, and this arrangement is especially practicable
when a portable grain elevator is available with which to
place the grain in the bins. The purpose of the gram bins
is not so much to provide storage for a large amoimt of
grain, as to make easily available some grain during inclem-
ent weather when it would be an annoyance to have to carry
it in from an exterior separate crib. A harness room should
be located at some point convenient to the horse stalls;
it may be fitted with harness racks or with harness hooks,
and may serve as a repository for medicines, etc., which
have no other special place.
The Farm Residence
The actual work of building, of putting materials to-
gether so as to make a finished structure, is the work of
the contractor or builder; the preparation of the plans
for the contractor to follow, and the decision as to the
kind of materials to be employed so that a durable and
economical structure may result, is the province of the
architect ; but the collection and correlation of ideas and
features relating to houses so that the structure when
finished may be a home to suit his requirements — that
is the privilege and pleasure of the owner.
In a previous chapter structural details have been con-
sidered fully enough to enable the student of them to
become sufficiently well acquainted with building opera-
s
258 FARM STRUCTURES
tions to supervise construction and be able to differentiate
good construction from bad. Rarely does the farmer
attempt the construction of his residence himself imless
he has had some training in carpentry, for this kind of
work requires considerable skill and experience to be
accomplished economically. While a man with little
experience may succeed well with a poultry house, a gran-
ary, or even a simple bam, the construction of a residence
involves so many comparatively difficult operations that
should he attempt it, the result would be an imsatisfactory
piece of work, besides being a very expensive one.
Occasionally, and quite conomonly, in fact, the whole
proposition of building the house is put into the hands of
a contractor. He is told to put up a house with so many
rooms, to cost not more than a certain sum; and with
these bare directions he proceeds, realizing that in all
probability the size of the completed structure will be
the only thing the owner will consider; absolutely no
thought is given to the location of the house with reference
to the most beautiful vistas, to arrangement of the interior
for the convenience and comfort of its inhabitants, nor to
any development of natural resources in the way of attrac-
tive surroundings.
For this reason the employment of an architect is almost
a necessity. True, the work of inexperienced owners some-
times results admirably ; but this is more to be assigned to
the probability of their being real artists, than to any real
skill in house design and construction. As a rule, the
houses bearing the earmarks of an owner's design are
better than those planned by builders. Many house own-
ers, and their wives and daughters, have very clever ideas
about building, and when these ideas are correlated and
Incorporated into a design by some one who is skillfid in
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 259
such a line, a charming house usually results. Many
people are of the opinion that the employment of an ar-
chitect is a useless expenditure of money ; as Helen Bink-
erd Young states in her admirable discussion of the farm-
house: ''Few persons believe that they have no right to
build imtil professional help can be afforded; yet such a
position would be well taken. Houses stand not for a
month nor for a year, but for a generation ; by them the
thrift of a commimity is judged, by them the ideals and taste
of a commimity are formed. He who deliberately builds
an ugly house condemns himself as a poor citizen ; while he
who builds a beautiful house proves himself a good citizen,
for his personal effort contributes to the public welfare."
The planning of any house is a serious imdertaking, and
the special conditions surrounding the problem of farm-
house design and the peculiar requirements to which a
farmhouse is subjected make the planning of the farmhouse
a task worthy of long and careful study. Where consider-
able time can be given to the thought of the design, much
better results will follow ; and in the majority of instances
this is possible, for rarely is it necessary to build a farm-
house in a hurry. From the time the idea of a new house
originates, the owner and his family should be on the
lookout for ideas that can be incorporated in the design.
Other houses should be visited, and arrangements for
convenience, comfort, and attractiveness should be no-
ticed ; do not be afraid to copy good features — the best
architects copy freely. The more good features that can
be included in a design, even if they are not original, the
better the design will be. A file should be kept of all ideas
accumulated, and should be given to the architect when
the actual preparation of plans is begun. This is what
the architect wants ; his desire is to please his patrons, and
26o FARM STRUCTURES
the more ideas of theirs he has that he can incorporate in
the plans, the better he will do it. Leave the development
of the style and the utilization of location, materials, and
ideas to the architect, but be sure to give him the benefit
of what you have learned to be worth while.
The general problem of designing a farmhouse cannot
best be solved unless the whole farmstead and the sur-
roimding topographical features are considered ; the farm-
house is merely a single imit in the general farm scheme
that should xmite into one workable system lands, bams,
and dwelling so that permanent economy may result.
Organized farming and organized housekeeping are two
essentials of successful agriculture, and no element contrib-
utes more to this success than a well-arranged farmstead.
Hit and miss methods of construction, causing a continual
round of tearing down, reconstruction, and makeshift,
result in waste of time, money, and labor, and interfere
seriously with the efficient prosecution of farm operations.
In the beginning of the plan of the farmhouse, cog-
nizance must be taken, then, of the fact that it will be more
difl&cult to plan than either a city or a suburban residence ;
for it must not only be a home, but it must fill the place of
business houses and outside markets which supplement the
city home. To conform to these needs, it must of neces-
sity have a comparatively large floor area, in order that
provision may be made for a business center and for store
space; and the larger the floor area to be utilized, the
greater will be the opportunity for the occurrence of mis-
takes in planning. *
Architectural Styles
It is difficult to discuss the style of architecture employed
in farmhouses, for as a matter of fact the true American
type has as yet not been evolved. Of course, in the design
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 261
of a house it is not necessary to copy any style that has
gone before, for it is entirely possible to make a design that
will conform in certain features to several styles, or it may
conform to none, yet in either case it will have charm.
'^ Style is not a mere external covering, something to be
applied outside. Style is vital — structural — as well as
ornamental." Much depends on individual style, and the
materials that can be obtained at the least expense, for
often the limit of the appropriation is a very strong control-
ling factor.
The Colonial style, either pure or more or less modified,
dominates the houses of eastern United States to a very
great degree, and there. are numerous examples of it scat-
tered over the whole country. It is an interesting style,
brought to America by early colonists from England.
Colonial houses are usually broad, with a hall in the center
and rooms on both sides, the parlor and hving room on one
side, dining room and kitchen on the other, with the bed
chaimbers arranged symmetrically on both sides of the
second-floor hall. Some of the distinguishing external
characteristics of the Colonial style are tall, stately columns,
small porches, roofs either gambrel or high-gabled, narrow
eaves, and symmetrically placed windows. This style
of architecture is sometimes pecuUarly adaptable to the
farmhouse, for it requires considerable room to admit of
its proper development, and building sites are ample in the
country, if nowhere else. However, care must be exer-
cised to maintain the simplicity and stateliness of the
Colonial house, or it quickly loses its charm. Some modem
adaptations of the Colonial style have departed so widely
from the original that but few points of similarity remain.
It is interesting to note how differently the development
of the English country house in the last few centuries differs
262 FARM STRUCTURES
from the American. Both derive their inspiration from
the same source, — the Early Georgian, — but when the
Colonial and the English house are placed side by side,
the difference is very wide indeed. Apparently, our
English cousins have very carefully considered the value
of the site of the house, for in no other land are the houses
in more perfect harmony with their surroundings; they
appear to be indigenous to the soil, as all good houses
should appear, and nestle down in the midst of trees and
flowers as if some master gardener had there planted
them.
Modem English houses are quite solidly built, thanks
to stringent modem EngUsh building laws. The frame-
work of older English houses was of timber, the walls
being filled in with brick masonry instead of being covered
with shingles or clapboards. Since timber became scarce
and more valuable, the builders have evolved an archi-
tecture of brick and stone quite as attractive as the older
houses. In either case the English house is easily recog-
nizable by its charm of design, long-sloping, graceful roof,
usually broken by a few gables, and small projecting wings
or ells which serve as a location for stores. The English
type is entirely practical for American farmhouses, and
with a few modifications fits remarkably well into certain
landscapes, particularly where the country is rolling and
wooded.
Another style occasionally met with on eastern farms
is the modem Dutch; it was originally brought from
Holland by the early Dutch settlers. Houses built in
this style are usually quite sedate and symmetrical, the
quaint irregularity of the English house being absent;
they are placed with a central entrance on a broad side
to the front, with broad porches supported by large, simple
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 263
columns. In these houses the living room is quite large
and is often used as a dining room. Bed chambers are
almost always on the second floor.
A distinct American style of architecture is that, com-
mon in the West, known as "Mission." The influence
of Spain is plainly shown in its development. The Mission
style succeeds best in locations where there is an abundance
of land available, which should be quite decidedly rolling.
In California, where are seen some of the best examples of
Mission architecture, the picturesque mountains and
hills form an excellent setting which seems difficult to
obtain in any other region. The features of the Mission
style are large, plain wall surfaces, which are usually of
stucco, occasional high, severe towers, and close grouping
of windows. To brighten up the dull, dead surface of the
cement walls, red roofing tile and bright color in window
sash and frames are used.
The California bungalow illustrates another style which
is an adaptation of the Mission style to suit modem build-
ing methods, materials, and conditions. The outstanding
features of the bungalow are low construction, broad, over-
hanging eaves, and comparatively low roofs ; a true bimga-
low is of but one story, though there are many houses
called bimgalows which are of one and one half or even
two-story construction. To be the most satisfactory, the
bungalow should be left in its native land; transported
to the plains of the Middle West or to the rugged hills of
the East, it loses some of its charm.
A type of architecture that appears to be particularly
well suited to rural surroundings is that which has had
its origin in the Middle West, and is variously known as
the "Chicago," or "Natural," or "American" style. It
has traces of the influence of several styles that have
264. FARM STRUCTURES
•
preceded it, and has even a touch which gives a "Japanese"
eflfect. The houses built in this style have a peculiar
quiet dignity and an appearance of solidity. Low-pitched
roofs, wide eaves, high windows, and originaUty in interior
planning combine to make a distinct impression of attrac-
tive simplicity which harmonizes well with the coimtry
landscape.
The Interior of the Modern Farmhouse
Convenient and satisfactory interiors to suit all the
conditions of city houses are common, but the arrangement
of farmhouse interiors has been given Kttle attention.
This is unfortunate, because the problem of domestic
help is much more serious on the farm than in the city;
in the majority of instances the country housewife has a
number of other duties besides that of the care of the
house, and every effort should be made to produce as con-
venient an interior as possible. Efficient housekeeping is
just as great an essential of successful agriculture as is
efficient farming, and where the farmer feels that a well-
arranged group of farm buildings is a requisite for efficient
operation, his wife is entitled to have a workshop equally
efficient.
The Kitchen, — To the housewife, the kitchen is the
most important part of the house; much of her time is
spent there, at one task or another, and the kitchen arrange-
ment must be such that it will the most satisfactorily
conserve the housewife's energy.
The tendency among modem farmhouses is to reduce
the size of the kitchen. Houses built in times gone by
were built to serve different purposes and to fit different
circumstances, and often the kitchen had to serve also as
dining room. For a small family this might serve now^
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 265
but evolution in farm life has emphasized the desirability
of a separate dining room ; this allows of a more satisfac-
tory solution of the problem of taking care of an extraor-
dinary number of men on special occasions, such as in
threshing, ensilage cutting, etc. This problem exists to
a greater or less extent in every farming community.
The actual size of the kitchen may, of course, be varied a
little, but the floor dimensions should be such that their
product approximates 150 feet, with no dimension less
than 9 feet. Square kitchens can be more efficiently
arranged than rectangular ones, since any point can be
reached with a minimum amount of travel. The location
of a kitchen should preferably be on any side other than
the south, since sunshine, which should be utilized for the
living room, is for the most part of the year not highly
desirable for kitchens; a morning or evening exposure to
the sun is sufficient. Good lighting and good ventilation,
however, are two kitchen essentials, and can best be
accomplished by locating the windows high enough to ad-
mit of table space below them. Doors should be well
placed and as few in number as possible, since they occupy
wall space, and wall space is valuable for cupboard and
shelving. The question. of a pantry is a debatable one;
some housewives cannot do without one ; others much prefer
cupboards ; however, when a sufficiency of cupboard room
can be provided, it is probably better to eliminate the
pantry, especially when other storage space is supplied.
Regarding the general arrangement, a few principles
must be kept in mind. Cleanliness is the first requisite;
this necessitates simpUcity in arrangement, and accessi-
bility of the various articles of furniture, such as range,
sink, etc. Where the dining room is separate, the kitchen
and the kitchen processes must be hidden from view from
266 FARM STRUCTURES
the dining room as much as possible. Tables, cabinets,
and similar articles must be so placed as to be most con-
venient, and so that no imnecessary energy is spent in
moving about a great deal. The sink should be constructed
so that there is no possibility of any contamination;
most sinks are placed too low, an increase of six inches in
the height from the floor being advantageous.
Dining Room. — In a farmhouse the dining room
often serves the additional purpose of living room. In any
case, cheer and comfort are associated with it, and its
design and arrangement should emphasize these attributes.
The room should be large enough to permit of the placing
of a good-sized table, with sufficient room around the
seating of the table to allow the easy passage about that is
required in service. Since an ordinary table is 4^ feet
wide, and the width taken up by persons seated at the table
will increase the necessary table space to at least 7 feet, it
is evident that 11 feet is the minimum dimension for a
dining room.
Lighting is an exceedingly important detail. The
strongest light should be located so as to shine directly
into the eyes of as few persons as possible. It is better
to have several small windows advantageously placed
than one or two large ones ; it is a good idea to have the
windows placed rather high in the wall, since this arrange-
ment gives a Ught that is less glaring, and the space below
the windows can be used for the placing of the dining room
furniture. The ideal location for a dining room is in an
eastern exposure, so the morning sun may send in its cheer
a^nd brightness for the morning meal; if in a western
exposure, in summer time the rays of the evening sun may
interfere with the comfort of the family when gathered
together at dinner.
S P •
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 267
A butler's, or pass pantry, is a feature of dining room
arrangement, the desirability of which is much to be
doubted. The formality which often accompanies meal
time in urban Hfe is absent in the coimtry, and a single
swinging door for passage to and from the kitchen is better
than a pantry. It is usually possible to provide some
sort of a pass sUde between the kitchen and dining room,
and this, with a movable table moimted on smooth-running
casters, will simplify the serving of meals.
Living Room. — In olden times there was perhaps greater
attention given to the living room than any room in the
house ; that the living room was used for dining purposes
was merely an incidental feature. Later this type of
arrangement was changed, and the "parlor" was added,
in which the more ostentatious element of the social phase
of life was presumed to be taken care of. The parlor
as a room was not a success, except that it supplied a sin-
gle, seldom-needed want — that of an orderly place in
which to entertain the imexpected formal caller. For-
tunately, modem evolution has changed this condition
of affairs, and the old-fashioned cold, cheerless, stiffly
formal and uncomfortable room has been transformed into
the modem living room, a room in which comfort for the
family is the primary consideration.
The best exposure for a living room is one to the south,
so that full benefit of sunshine may be had in winter time.
An abundance of light should be provided ; a living room
is generally rather long, and to adequately light it will
require a number of windows. The interior arrangement
admits of wonderful opportunities for special features.
A fireplace is almost essential. Built-in bookcases and
window seats add marvelously to the comfortable appear-
ance of the room, as do wall paneling and beam ceilings.
as
ocatcr ol the
3e
, .,, arise a ^«
-30X taiiBbet oi
,;\^ provided,
.^J^ot neoessaiy,
"._ f)B£b«ta)om
Jlsait *^^'
.jndfflote
C^'
..^«*^'
.•**«^
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 269
ise cannot be gotten out of them. So often the only
ich the farmhouse possesses is one at the back that is
covered with boxes, washing machines, and what not,
t there is no place for a chair, or a stiff, formal front
h that is always exposed to the hot sun. A wide,
cnient veranda, protected from the sun by shade
V climbing vines, or even awnings, and furnished with
*"()rtable porch furniture, is never a matter of useless
"u^agance; it is a real necessity.
^ bathroom is more of a necessity in a farmhouse than
in a city house. No modern farmhouse is without its
tern of water supply under pressure, and this renders
installation of the bathroom fixtures a comparatively
pie matter. Where possible, two bathrooms should be
V ided, one for the members of the family, and another
employees. This, of course, will mean additional ex-
V , but it may be entirely desirable in some instances.
the accompanying design of a convenient farmhouse,
V 134, an attempt has been made to incorporate as
desirable features as possible. The arrangement has
niade with the idea in mind of fulfilling certain local
Mions, a highway passing the house to the south,
1 the house a south front. Of course, modifications
MS plan, or an entirely new one, would be necessary
tisfy different conditions.
ginning at the front of the house, we have first a large,
veranda, on the west side of the house, so that
.1 may be obtained of any winds that may blow
•J, the summer. Entering the house, we find a small
/ale, with doors leading into the office, and into
ing room ; the business caller may be quickly ushered
le office, or the guest may enter directly into the
room. The office is really but an alcove off the
'•<'
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 267
A butler's, or pass pantry, is a feature of dining room
arrangement, the desirability of which is much to be
doubted. The formality which often accompanies meal
time in urban Ufe is absent in the country, and a single
swinging door for passage to and from the kitchen is better
than a pantry. It is usuaUy possible to provide some
sort of a pass slide between the kitchen and dining room,
and this, with a movable table mounted on smooth-running
casters, will simpUfy the serving of meals.
Living Room. — In olden times there was perhaps greater
attention given to the living room than any room in the
house ; that the living room was used for dining purposes
was merely an incidental feature. Later this type of
arrangement was changed, and the "parlor" was added,
in which the more ostentatious element of the social phase
of life was presumed to be taken care of. The parlor
as a room was not a success, except that it supplied a sin-
gle, seldom-needed want — that of an orderly place in
which to entertain the unexpected formal caller. For-
timately, modem evolution has changed this condition
of affairs, and the old-fashioned cold, cheerless, stiffly
formal and uncomfortable room has been transformed into
the modem living room, a room in which comfort for the
family is the primary consideration.
The best exposure for a living room is one to the south,
so that full benefit of sunshine may be had in winter time.
An abundance of light should be provided ; a living room
is generally rather long, and to adequately light it will
require a number of windows. The interior arrangement
admits of wonderful opportimities for special features.
A fireplace is almost essential. Built-in bookcases and
window seats add marvelously to the comfortable appear-
ance of the room, as do wall paneling and beam ceilings.
. « « r r •
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 267
A butler's, or pass pantry, is a feature of dining room
arrangement, the desirability of which is much to be
doubted. The formality which often accompanies meal
time in urban life is absent in the coimtry, and a single
swinging door for passage to and from the kitchen is better
than a pantry. It is usuaUy possible to provide some
sort of a pass slide between the kitchen and dining room,
and this, with a movable table mounted on smooth-running
casters, will simphfy the serving of meals.
Living Room, — In olden times there was perhaps greater
attention given to the living room than any room in the
house ; that the living room was used for dining purposes
was merely an incidental feature. Later this type of
arrangement was changed, and the "parlor" was added,
in which the more ostentatious element of the social phase
of Ufe was presumed to be taken care of. The parlor
as a room was not a success, except that it supplied a sin-
gle, seldom-needed want — that of an orderly place in
which to entertain the unexpected formal caller. For-
timately, modem evolution has changed this condition
of affairs, and the old-fashioned cold, cheerless, stiffly
formal and uncomfortable room has been transformed into
the modem living room, a room in which comfort for the
family is the primary consideration.
The best exposure for a living room is one to the south,
so that full benefit of sunshine may be had in winter time.
An abundance of light should be provided ; a living room
is generally rather long, and to adequately Ught it will
require a number of windows. The interior arrangement
admits of wonderful opportunities for special features.
A fireplace is almost essential. Built-in bookcases and
window seats add marvelously to the comfortable appear-
ance of the room, as do wall paneling and beam ceilings.
m $ w f >
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 267
A butler's, or pass pantry, is a feature of dining room
arrangement, the desirability of which is much to be
doubted. The formality which often accompanies meal
time in urban life is absent in the coimtry, and a single
swinging door for passage to and from the kitchen is better
than a pantry. It is usually possible to provide some
sort of a pass slide between the kitchen and dining room,
and this, with a movable table mounted on smooth-running
casters, will simplify the serving of meals.
Living Room. — In olden times there was perhaps greater
attention given to the living room than any room in the
house ; that the living room was used for dining purposes
was merely an incidental feature. Later this type of
arrangement was changed, and the "parlor" was added,
in which the more ostentatious element of the social phase
of life was presumed to be taken care of. The parlor
as a room was not a success, except that it supplied a sin-
gle, seldom-needed want — that of an orderly place in
which to entertain the unexpected formal caller. For-
timately, modem evolution has changed this condition
of affairs, and the old-fashioned cold, cheerless, stiffly
formal and uncomfortable room has been transformed into
the modem living room, a room in which comfort for the
family is the primary consideration.
The best exposure for a living room is one to the south,
so that full benefit of simshine may be had in winter time.
An abundance of light should be provided ; a living room
is generally rather long, and to adequately light it will
require a number of windows. The interior arrangement
admits of wonderful opportimities for special features.
A fireplace is almost essential. Built-in bookcases and
window seats add marvelously to the comfortable appear-
ance of the room, as do wall paneling and beam ceilings.
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS 267
A butler's, or pass pantry, is a feature of dining room
arrangement, the desirabiUty of which is much to be
doubted. The formality which often accompanies meal
time in urban life is absent in the country, and a single
swinging door for passage to and from the kitchen is better
than a pantry. It is usually possible to provide some
sort of a pass slide between the kitchen and dining room,
and this, with a movable table moimted on smooth-running
casters, will simphfy the serving of meals.
Living Room. — In olden times there was perhaps greater
attention given to the living room than any room in the
house ; that the living room was used for dining purposes
was merely an incidental feature. Later this type of
arrangement was changed, and the "parlor'' was added,
in which the more ostentatious element of the social phase
of life was presumed to be taken care of. The parlor
as a room was not a success, except that it supplied a sin-
gle, seldom-needed want — that of an orderly place in
which to entertain the unexpected formal caller. For-
tunately, modem evolution has changed this condition
of affairs, and the old-fashioned cold, cheerless, stiffly
formal and imcomfortable room has been transformed into
the modem living room, a room in which comfort for the
family is the primary consideration.
The best exposure for a living room is one to the south,
so that full benefit of simshine may be had in winter time.
An abundance of light should be provided ; a living room
is generally rather long, and to adequately light it will
require a number of windows. The interior arrangement
admits of wonderful opportimities for special features.
A fireplace is almost essential. Built-in bookcases and
window seats add marvelously to the comfortable appear-
ance of the room, as do wall paneling and beam ceilings.
278 FARM STRUCTURES
Many residences heated by steam or hot air are furnished
with a good supply of fresh air by the employment of a
device known as the "indirect radiator." This is simply
a radiator placed in a flue leading from the exterior of the
building to the room
to be heated and ven-
tilated. As the air
within the flue is
heated, it rises to the
opening within the
room, this starting a
current that is continu-
ally bringing a supply
of fresh, warm wr into
the room.
The presence of a
flreplace or an open
grate sometimes serves
to provide a satisfac-
tory method of venti-
lating a room. Special
fireplaces of patented
construction are avail-
able which act in much
the same manner as do
Bo. «s.-ventii.tii«fii«piace. ^*^ ^^irect radiators,
by drawing in a supply
of cold air from the outside, heating it, and passing it out
into the room. Such a contrivance is illustrated in
Figure 135.
Sometimes the question arises of ventilating rural school-
houses and other stove-heated buildings of a similar type
in which gatherings of people occur. In cases of this kind
VENTILATION
279
the adoption of some plan whereby the ventilation can be
accomplished without the production of any noticeable
drafts and any marked decrease in the temperature of the
room is necessary. The smoke flue should be arranged to
rise directly up from the stove, as shown in Figure 136.
Fig. 136. — Ventilating system for stove-heated room.
Surrounding the smoke flue, and reaching within a foot
of the floor, is the outlet flue; its diameter may usually
be 18 or 20 inches, and it should extend to the same height
as the smoke flue, with a cap at the top and a damper at
28o FARM STRUCTURES
m
the bottom with which to control the amount of air ad-
mitted. Some sort of an inlet flue must be provided ; a
good type is shown in the figure. It consists of a verti-
cal flue with its lower outlet protected by a distributing
cap ; the upper end has a revolving cap fitted with a vane
and with a special shape designed to make use of the
driving action of the wind in forcing air down the flue.
The feature is of particular value at times when there is little
or no fire in the stove to induce an automatic circulation.
Ventilation of Farm Buildings
The experiments conducted at several experiment sta-
tions, notably those conducted at Wisconsin, Minnesota,
and the Geneva Station of New York, demonstrate that in
buildings in which the farm animals are housed a good
ventilating system in correct operation has not only great
value as a factor in maintaining the good health and con-
dition of the animals, but has a definite commercial value
as well. When hving under the conditions induced by an
adequate supply of fresh air, hens lay more eggs, cows
produce more milk, and animals being fattened make
greater gains than they would, were all other conditions
the same and the supply of fresh air inadequate.
Until comparatively recently ventilation as applied to
farm buildings was practically unknown. In 1889, Pro-
•fessor F. H. King, of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, promulgated some ideas regarding the
development of a system of ventilation which has become
almost universally known as the '^King'' system. It is,
in reality, a ''natural" system, one in which a few natural
elementary principles are appUed ; but since the applica-
tion of the principles is especially ingenious and shows the
result of much care and thought, it is entirely appropriate
VENTILATION 281
that the system should be given the name of the man who
has done so much toward the development of a really
important feature of farm building construction.
The King ventilating system consists of two sets of
flues, one for the removal of impure air, the other for the
inlet of a supply of fresh air. Air that has been breathed
contains a high percentage of carbon dioxid and is heavier
than pure air; consequently, the outlet flues should begin
near the floor of the building, where the impure air will
collect. When this air is removed, fresh air is drawn in
through the inlet flues which open near the ceiling; the
purpose of this is to afford it an opportunity, when neces-
sary, to become warmed, since greater heat is likely to be
found at this point.
The employment of any artificial means of producing a
positive circulation of air through the ventilating system
is usually impracticable, consequently we must make use
of some or all of the following natural causes :
1. Difference in temperature between the air within
the stable and that without. When air becomes warmed,
as it will in a building occupied by animals, it expands,
decreases in density, and rises, thus making way for
colder, heavier air.
2. Wind pressure on the windward side of a
building tending to force air into it.
3. Suction on leeward side of a building due to aspira-
tory effect of wind.
4. Aspiration at the top of the outlet flue.
The second and third methods are perhaps not of much
moment except when the wind is rather high; the last-
named method is the really important one. The dimin-
ished pressure existing at the top of the outlet flue as the
result of wind blowing across it is a source of positive air
282 FARM STRUCTURES
circulation, the action being similar to that of certain
spray machines or atomizers in which fluids are aspirated
out of receptacles by passing swift currents of air over their
orifices.
To design a ventilating system of this type, all that is
necessary to know is the velocity of air through the flues,
and the amount of air required by the animals housed in
the building for which the ventilating system is being
designed. As a matter of fact, the first quantity is exceed-
ingly variable, sometimes reaching 500 feet per minute,
but if we assume a rate of 300 feet per minute, we can err
only on the safe side. Professor King gives the following
table of approximate air requirements for various farm
animals:
Horses — 70 cubic feet per minute per head.
Cows — 60 cubic feet per minute per head.
Swine — 23 cubic feet per minute per head.
Sheep — 15 cubic feet per minute per head.
Hens — 0.5 cubic feet per minute per head.
Then to ascertain the cross section in square feet of the
flue that will supply sufficient air for any number of ani-
mals, we simply divide the total number of cubic feet of
air required by 300. For example : . required, the size
of outlet flue for a general purpose bam accommodating
12 horses and 4 cows.
12 times 70 = 840
4 times 60 = 240
1080
^fff^ = 3.6 square feet = cross section area of flue.
We should make two outlet flues, perhaps, one i foot by
2 feet, the other i foot by i| feet.
The outlet flues should be constructed so as to be as
tight, as possible, either of double thicknesses of wood,
with building paper between, or of galvanized iron. In
VENTILATION
283
general the latter will be found to be slightly lower in cost.
The location of the outlet flues will of course be governed
somewhat by the shape and arrangement of the bam,
but the chief precautions to observe are that the flue be
constructed sohdly and that it have as few bends as pos-
sible; a few sharp bends ^11 be sufficient to destroy the
air current within the flue.
The inlet flues should be individually quite small, about
6 by 12 inches in cross section, but their total cross-section
Fig. 137. — King ventilating system.
area should be slightly in excess of the total carrying capac-
ity of the outlet flues, tp insure plenty of fresh air. As
with the outlet flues, their location will depend upon the
plan of the bam, but generally they are placed in the exterior
wall of the bam, not more than 12 feet apart. They
should open into the bam near the ceiling, and their exterior
opening should be at least 3 feet below their interior open-
284 FARM STRUCTURES
ing, to prevent them from acting as outlet flues. Their
construction is similar to that of the outlet flues, but often
when a bam is being built the intake flues can be made
self-contained in the wall, of vitrified sewer tile, galvanized
iron, etc. It is well to protect both the interior and exterior
openmgs with coarse screen, to prevent birds from nesting
inside of them.
This system, which is illustrated in Figure 137, will
operate with uniform success, if it is borne in mind that
no system will operate without ^me care and attention.
The stable walls and ceiling should be of very close con-
struction, and kept tight; the flues themselves must be
kept clean, for otherwise they may become filled with
refuse that will seriously impede the air circulation. Spider
webs are especially obnoxious, since they collect dust
sometimes in sufficient quantities to completely clog the
flue. If the screens on the intake flues are not kept clean,
the inlet of fresh air will be prevented by the trash drawn
and held against the wires; this is extremely likely to
occur when the screen is rather fine.
CHAPTER VII
LIGHTING FARM BUILDINGS
For centuries candles constituted the only source of
artificial illumination, and even to-day their convenience
and adaptability make their use (under certain limiting
conditions) highly practical. The discovery of the enor-
mous fields of petroleum in the United States, the distillation
of it to produce kerosene in quantities, and the development
of the wick type of kerosene lamps marked another epoch
in the progress of illumination, and so simple and cheap
in operation are these lamps that probably more than
ninety per cent of the farmhouses of this country are
lighted by them. The development of the isolated gas
and electric lighting plants, however, marks still another
step which is as far in advance of the kerosene lamp as the
kerosene lamp is in advance of candles, or even farther.
The three great questions of importance in considering
lighting systems are as follows : economy, or the question
of cost of equivalent illumination ; sanitation, bearing on
health and efiiciency or illness and inefficiency ; and the
aesthetic consideration, the pleasure, the attractiveness
of fine illumination, that adds cheer and charm to the
evening hours in the home.
Candles
In some homes candles are used to a certain extent
because lamps or other forms of artificial illumination are
disliked on aesthetic, or, in some cases, ostensibly on hy-
gienic grounds. Speaking broadly, illumination by means
28s
286 FARM STRUCTURES
of candles is either very inadequate so far as ordinary
living rooms are concerned, or, if adequate, is quite expen-
sive. Experiments have shown that the degree of illumi-
nation does not increase in nearly the same proportion as
does the size of the candle; that "sixes" are nearly as
efficient, as regards the amount of light, as ''eights" or
''twelves." The amount of light derived from an ordinary
candle is slightly in excess of that emitted by the standard
candle, so that to obtain an equivalent illumination of loo
candle power requires only 85 or 90 ordinary wax or paraf-
fine candles. But, actually, the essential objects in the
room could be as efficiently illuminated by perhaps 30 or
35 candles, properly distributed so as to concentrate the
light where desired, as by 2 or 3 gas burners, or 4 or 5 kero-
sene lamps. With sources such as the latter, the illiunina-
tion is of a much greater intensity near the source than is
necessary. In this respect candles have an advantage
over other forms of lighting, and, when considered on this
basis, compare favorably in cost of equivalent illumination.
Kerosene Lamps
Kerosene lamps are so common that a discussion of them
is almost unnecessary. The essentials of the lamp are a
reservoir for oil, a burner, a wick for carrying the oil from
the reservoir to the burner and constituting a part of the
burner itself, and a shade for the protection of the flame
from drafts. The burner is so constructed that the wick
can be raised or lowered, thus controlling the amount of
wick projecting above the sheath; the end of the wick,
to which the oil is carried by capillary action, holds the
flame, and the greater the portion of wick projecting, the
higher will be the flame. Air to supply the flame is carried
in through perforations in the lower part of the burner.
LIGHTING FARM BUILDINGS 287
In lamps of ordinary size the candle power developed
varies from 5 to 25, depending upon the purity and nature
of the oil, upon the size and shape of the wicks, and upon
the height of the flame. The cost of illumination by this
method approximates that of acetylene lighting, and is
about one third that of candles. In spite of the wide
use of the wick t)^e of the kerosene lamp, it is not an
especially good form of illumination, since its light is yellow
and not restful, and the products of the combustion cause
an odor that is quickly perceptible unless the room is well
ventilated. When a flat wick is used, the intensity of the
light from the lamp is generally unequal in different direc-
tions, less light emanating from the edges of the flame
than from the sides. In a flat acetylene flame this same
difference in intensity exists, but to so small a degree as to
be practically negligible.
Air Gas Lamps
The system of lighting by so-called air gas used for raising
mantles to incandescence in upturned or inverted burners
is a somewhat recent development, though the method of
producing air gas has been known for years. '*Air gas''
is ordinary atmospheric air, more or less completely satu-
rated with the vapor of some volatile oil, which saturation
results from passing the air over the oil ; if the oil is highly
volatile, no heating is necessary to produce the required
saturation, but for a less volatile one, gentle heating is
advisable.
Though air gas has been available for many years, its
use in flat-flame burners was not at all satisfactory, and it
was not until the advent of the incandescent burner that
it could be used advantageously for illuminating purposes.
Various systems using gasoline, alcohol, and even kero-
288 FARM STRUCTURES
sene, are on the market, and operate with varying degrees
of success. Since it is very difficult to control the exact
composition of the gas, there is great likelihood of variability
in the amount of light emitted. The quality of the light
will remain practically constant where incandescent burners
are used, since in this case it is from the glowing particles
of ceria, thoria, or similar metallic oxides that the light is
derived.
Portable, self-contained lamps with incandescent burners
using gasoline, alcohol, or kerosene are sold, and give fair
illumination when once in operation ; but it is sometimes
quite difficult to get the generation of the right quality of
gas started, especially when the oil is of low grade. From
the nature of the construction of the lamp, it is also difficult
to keep the mantle from breaking, so the maintenance cost
is rather high.
Acetylene Lighting
Acetylene is a gas of which the most important applica-
tion at the present time is for illuminating purposes, for
which its properties render it especially well adapted.
The light of a bare acetylene flame resembles sunlight very
closely in composition or '^ color," it being more nearly a
pure white light than any other common light used for il-
luminating purposes. Acetylene lighting presents also
certain important hygienic advantages over other forms of
lighting, in that it exhausts, vitiates, and heats the air of a
room to a less extent, for a given yield of light, than do
either coal gas, oils, or candles.
Acetylene is made by the interaction of water with a
soUd substance called carbide of calcium, or calcium car-
bide ; all that is necessary is to bring the two into contact
within a suitable closed space. A diagrammatic repre-
LIGHTING FARM BUILDINGS
289
sentation of the simplest form of an acetylene generator
is shown in Figure 138. It consists of a closed vessel
containing water in the lower part and an arrangement for
holding carbide in the upper part so that a regulated flow
of the carbide into the water will
occur. Immediately the generation
of the gas will ensue, and the gas
thus produced is led away through
the distributing system of pipes to
the burners.
The method above described,
that of carbide-to-water generation,
is the one most commonly used in
acetylene generators. Water-to-
carbide generators are manufac-
tured, but are not so satisfactory
as the first-named type. For port-
able lamps, both table or stand
lamps and vehicle lamps, the water-to-carbide system of
generation is more desirable, since it can be more easily
and definitely controlled under the rather hard usage to
which portable lamps are subjected.
The burners used in an acetylene Ughting system are of
two general types, the luminous and the incandescent.
An ''incandescent" burner is one in which the fuel burns
with a flame which is in itself atmospheric or non-luminous,
the light being produced by causing that flame to play
upon some extraneous refractory material that has the
property of emitting much light when raised to a sufficiently
high temperature. A ''luminous" burner is one in which
the fuel is permitted to combine with oxygen in such a way
that one or more of the constituents of the gas evolves light
as it undergoes combustion,
u
Fig. 138. — Acetylene generator.
290
FARM STRUCTURES
With the luminous burner some means of cooling it to
prevent ultimate destruction is necessary. For this reason,
luminous burners are constructed upon the principle shown
in Figure 139; the gas rushing out through the central
passage injects a certain amount of air
through the side passages, thus surround-
^^j^ X ing the gas with a thin coating of air, and
Y(V^ — ^ the mixture is burned a short distance
from the top orifice. One tip only of
this description evidently will produce a
long, slender, jetlike flame, in which the
illuminating power of the acetylene flame
Fig. 139.— Luminous is not developed economically, so that in
^™^'' common practice two tips are located at
an angle of 90 degrees, as in Figure 140, yielding a flat flame
at right angles to the triangle. These burners are made of
soapstone, or steatite.
To operate an incandescent burner with success, the gas
must be pure, and be supplied under an even, steady pres-
sure. The burner itself consists of
a mixing tube with adjustable air
inlets some distance back from the
orifice, over which the mantle is
hung, the whole being surrounded
by a glass or mica shield. A gas
mantle consists of a mesh of com-
bustible material, such as cotton or
ramie fiber, which has been im-
pregnated with solutions containing
certain "rare earths,'' such as thoria, ceria, etc. When
used, it is adjusted to the burner, then ignited, and the
combustible mesh is consumed, leaving a skeleton composed
of the substances with which the mesh was impregnated.
Fig. 140. — Double orifice
burner.
LIGHTING FARM BUILDINGS 291
The best globes that can be used for acetylene lights, and
this applies to any other kind of light as well, are those made
from some material which protects the eye from the bright
and direct rays of light, yet disperses and diffuses the light
so that none of it is lost, but all is used for illuminating.
Plain white glass, unless the surface is specially shaped in
prismatic form, is quite unsatisfactory for globes. Colored
or tinted globes should not be used where the highest light
economy is wanted, though this is often sacrificed for effect.
Considerable prejudice exists against acetylene because
of the fatal explosions that have occurred in residences
where lighting systems have been installed. The explo-
sions have been caused by the bringing of a flame into a
chamber in which there had been a leakage of the gas.
By installing the acetylene plant in a chamber separate
from the house, and employing reasonable precautions
against possible danger, an entirely satisfactory degree of
safety can be secured.
Electric Lighting
Electric lighting is an especially attractive method of
illumination, because, with the use of the modem high effi-
ciency lamps, the cost is not great, and it is safe and con-
venient. With properly arranged circuits the light is
instantly at one's command, and no groping m the dark is
necessary to find it. This method of illumination is espe-
cially advantageous to the farmer, in that it permits lighting
not only the residence, but the bam and other buildings of
inflammable character in a safe and efficient manner.
An installation simply to supply illumination may be
made, but, where it can be afforded, a larger system in which
part of the installation can be used for other purposes and
which is of sufficient size to supply considerable power, is
292 . FARM STRUCTURES
advisable. There are a number of small machines, partic-
ularly about the house, that can be so easily, economically,
and conveniently operated by electricity, that the use
of it can hardy be dispensed with. Storage batteries are
conveniently used in connection with the generator, in
order that power may be available whenever the generator
is not running, These are particularly desirable in private
plants for lighting, for sufficient battery capacity can
easily be provided to supply power for fans, sewing ma-
chines, etc., so that these may be run at any time when the
generator is not in use.
In the design of an electric lighting system,' the first
thing to ascertain is the number of lamp hours required.
This is done by finding the total number of hours all the
lamps are to bum. From this we can determine the num-
ber of battery cells to use, since each cell will furnish an aver-
age pressure of a voltage of about 2 volts. Hence, if no
volt lamps are used, 55 cells will be required, — probably
more than this, since a cell when nearly discharged will
give only 1.8 volts. Battery cells, however, are quite
expensive, and by using lamps of lower voltage, say 25
or 30, the number of cells can be reduced to about 15.
One lamp permits one ampere of current to flow, so the
capacity of the battery in ampere hours is equivalent to
the number of lamp hours.
When a battery cell is fully charged, it will give a pressure
of about 2.6 volts, so that the entire battery will give a
pressure of approximately 39 volts. Since in charging a
battery the current must flow into the battery in a direc-
tion opposite to the flow of the current when the battery
is discharging, the entire voltage of the battery is opposed
to that of the generator ; that is, the battery is connected
to the generator so that it tries to drive current through
LIGHTING FARM BUILDINGS 293
the generator while the generator is driving its current at
the same time into the same end of the storage battery.
Thus, to enable the generator to charge the battery, it
should be able to generate a greater current than the
battery ; and in charging the battery 8 or 9 amperes may
be used, though 5 amperes may be the normal rate, so the
current delivered by the generator must be at least this
amount. Generators are rated by the kilowatts of energy
they produce. The number of kilowatts of energy pro-
duced is equal to the product of the voltage and amperage
divided by 1000. In ordinary installation the voltage is
about 45 and the amperage is 9, so the kilowatts produced
is approximately one half.
Most isolated lighting plants are driven by means of
gasoline engines. While theoretically the power of the
generator and engine should be about equal, practical con-
siderations, such as high ratings of the engines and the
fact that their full power is not developed unless they are
properly adjusted, make it advisable to have an engine with
50 per cent greater power than that required to drive the
generator. For a ^-kilowatt generator, a 2 horse power is
not too large.
A switchboard and apparatus with which to control
the generator and storage battery is the next consideration.
The switchboard itself may be either slate or marble, the
latter being much more costly. The switchboard equip-
ment will include the following :
1. Rheostat, to control the voltage of the generator.
2. Ammeter, to measure the amount of current.
3. Voltmeter, to measure the pressure.
4. Circuit breaker, to disconnect the battery and gene-
rator in case of overload or reversal of direction flow of
current.
294.
FARM STRUCTURES
5. End-cell switch, to control the voltage of the battery
so that it may be kept practically constant.
6. Plug switch, to admit of different connections to the
voltmeter so that the voltage may be measured at several
places.
7. Two main switches, to connect the generator, bat-
tery, and lamp circuit in any desired manner.
A diagram of the wiring is shown in Figure 141. It
will be seen that Si is a double throw switch, by which the
lm^wmsm.f
OYtiAMO FItLD
tATTBRy 1 11 I
atfo ceiL
%3nircH
Fig. 141. — Wiring diagram for electric installation.
generator can be connected to the battery for charging,
or it can be thrown over so the lights can be operated di-
rectly from the generator; in the case of the latter, the
generator field rheostat must be adjusted to reduce the
voltage to about 26 or 27 volts, or else the lamps will soon
be burned out by the excess voltage. By leaving this
switch open and closing 52, the generator circuit is opened
and the battery is operating the lights.
LIGHTING FARM BUILDINGS 295
The size of the wire to be used will depend upon the
amperage, and all wires should be large enough to carry the
maximum current with only a small voltage drop. Since
the generator current is the heaviest, about 9 amperes,
a No. 8 gauge wire should be used to carry it. From the
distribution cabinets on each floor leads are run to each
room; but since usually not more than three lamps are
used in any single room, a No. 14 wire is large enough to
carry the 3 amperes of current that will be supplied on the
room circuits.
The arrangements of the wiring and of the lamps should
be made only after careful thought. Lamps should be
located where they will be most convenient and efficient.
Switches should be placed conveniently, usually near the
door through which entrance is made into a room. Three-
way switches should be located in halls so that the lights
can be turned on and off from either floor; this applies
to the basement also.
For years the carbon filament lamp was the only kind of
incandescent electric lamp available. Then the tantalum
filament lamp was invented, and was quickly followed by
the tungsten filament lamp. With the last type of lamp
a given amount of energy will produce about three times
the candle power that would be furnished by an ordinary
carbon filament lamp. A tungsten lamp giving 20 candle-
power and using an ampere of current under 25 volt pres-
sure will use a total of 25 watts of energy, or about ij
watts per candle power; whereas under the same condi-
tions a carbon lamp would consume about 3^ watts. Be-
sides this, the life of tungsten lamps is longer than that of
carbon lamps, and the light they give is clearer and more
nearly white.
CHAPTER VIII
HEATING FARMHOUSES
The first essential to comfort in the mind of the average
American is ample warmth in all rooms; a cold house is
always an uncomfortable house, and, in so far, a cheer-
less home. The importance of heating and its relation to
health has been fully realized only in recent years ; if the
house is not well heated, all the occupants are uncomfort-
able, but the children are the ones who suffer the most.
Their clothing is of lighter materials, does not well cover
the body, and, on account of their activities, more easily
becomes disarranged than that of the adult members of
the family ; they play upon the floor — always the coldest
and most drafty portion of the room.
An even temperature indoors, with proper ventilation,
and the rational use of heavier clothing to meet a lower
temperature without, are the two great essentials of well-
being as far as this phase is concerned ; the most frequent
cause of colds and their attendant ills is uneven temperatures
and severe drafts within the house. It is not low tempera-
ture which causes one to "catch cold"; if it were, every
one who ventured out in zero weather would become ill.
The man who goes outdoors at such a time without ade-
quate protection in the way of clothing is likely to take
cold ; so is the one who, within his house, changes from a
room at 70 degrees to one at 50 degrees, unless at the same
time he changes his clothing to compensate for the change
in temperature. For this reason the rightly ordered home
must be evenly heated.
296
HEATING FARMHOUSES 297
The aboriginal man, living in caves and rudely con-
structed huts, found the attainment of an eveil tempera-
ture within his building an impossibility; to be well
heated, a house must be well built, and his was not. For
the earliest peoples, therefore, the main protection against
cold was always clothing, and this is still the main resource
of many millions of human beings. But, however great
the reliance upon clothing to protect the body against cold,
heat from fire has always been an important additional
resource.
Two main principles have been followed in the methods
of obtaining artificial heat: first, that of maintaining in
each room its own individual fire; second, the establish-
ment of a central source of heat, with means for distributing
that heat to the various rooms of the dwelling.
The Open Fire
The earliest method of heating was, no doubt, a fire built
upon an earthen floor in the middle of the room. An
elaboration of this method came with the use of the cresset
of the Middle Ages, which is essentially an iron basket
designed to confine the fire and raise it above the floor ;
incidentally this furnished a better draft. This method
possessed one advantage which has never been excelled by
a heating system, in that all the heat was transmitted to
the room; but there was a serious disadvantage in con-
fining the products of combustion in the room itself. It
became imperative, therefore, to obtain some relief from
this condition, and a hole in the roof of the tent or hut was
made, but before the smoke could find the exit, it became
more or less distributed within the room. Then a chimney
was built for the purpose of taking the smoke directly
from the fire and discharging it from the room, the fire
298 FARM STRUCTURES
burning in an arched opening at the base of the chimney.
This was the first form of the fireplace, which has been
used in a more effective way ever since in supplying heat
and in furnishing an atmosphere of cheer and warmth in a
home.
The Fireplace
The old-fashioned fireplace was very large ; some were so
large as to hold a backlog so heavy that it must be hauled
by a yoke of oxen. But these large fireplaces were far from
economical, and little by little, especially after the use of
coal became more common, they were restricted in size,
and the basket grate, which first stood in the center of the
wide, deep hearth, was closely arched in, and became the
coal grate of modem days. The fireplace has many
disadvantages, such as uneven heating, need of almost
constant attention, difficulty in handling ashes, danger
from fire, and draf ty rooms ; but the most serious disad-
vantage lies in its inefficiency as a source of heat, since it
constantly forces up the chimney a large amount of heat
which does not raise the temperature of the room, and at
the same time it steadily draws into the room a large
volume of cold air which must be constantly and quickly
heated if the temperature of the room is kept up to a com-
fortable degree.
The construction of an ordinary fireplace is shown in
Figure 142. The roof of the fire chamber should not
ordinarily be more than 26 inches above the floor, unless
it is built especially for burning large logs, when it may
be from 30 to 40 inches high, and as wide as necessary.
A rough rule by which to gauge the size of a flue is to
construct it with the opening one tenth of that of the fire-
place opening. If the flue is contracted at the throat of
HEATING FARMHOUSES 299
the fireplace, it will insure the thorough heating of the air
at this point, and thus greatly improve the draft. By
Fig. 141. — Fireplace, showing proper constmction.
contracting the throat in this way it is very easy to con-
struct a level shelf in the flue above the fireplace opening ;
descending currents of air and smoke strike this shelf,
300 FARM STRUCTURES
rebound, and return up the chimney without puffing out
into the room.
Stoves
Because of the inefficiency of fireplaces, attention was
given to the development of something more efficient
and economical, and the result was the heating stove.
In a way, this was but a short step, for a stove is only a
portable fireplace with an adjustable air supply. It was
a great improvement upon the fireplace, however, in two
particulars, that of producing a more even heat and in
being much more efficient. Moreover, a stove radiates
heat not only from itself, but from the smoke pipe as well.
In spite of these advantages, it retained many of the
disadvantages of the fireplace, and was less picturesque.
As a method of heating, the stove is not a very desirable
installation in a modem home.
Hot-air Heating
Some of the best engineering skill of modem days has
been applied to the problem of the application of the second
great principle of heating — that of supplying heat to a
number of rooms from a centralized plant. The first appli-
cation of this principle was probably the hot-air furnace.
This consists essentially of the furnace itself, which is
inclosed almost entirely in a sheet-iron case, with sheet-
iron ducts leading therefrom to the various rooms to be
heated; to fill the place of the air that is forced through
these pipes by convection currents, cold air is brought
into the case through a large sheet-iron duct, called the
cold-air duct.
Hot-air fumaces are all quite similar, differing only in
the design and arrangement of the parts; they are all
the same in consisting of a steel or cast-iron case, with
HEATING FARMHOUSES 301
firebox, grate, and ashpit. Some are fed through a door
in the side, the fuel being thrown directly into the firebox ;
others have special arrangements so that the fuel, which is
comparatively small in size, is supplied from below ; those
possessing this feature are known as underfeed furnaces.
The fuel used in hot-air furnaces is almost always coal,
either bituminous or anthracite.
Two distinct types of pipes are used for conducting the
heated air to the rooms: first, those which are nearly
horizontal and lead from the top of the furnace casmg —
these are usually round and made of a single thickness of
bright tin wrapped with two or more thicknesses of asbestos
to prevent loss of heat, and are called leaders; they should,
if possible, be erected with an ascending pitch of one inch
to one foot ; second, rectangular vertical pipes or risers,
termed stacks, made in such sizes as will fit in the partitions
of buildings and to which the leaders connect. At the
bottom of the stack is an enlarged section called the boot,
which is provided with a collar for connection to the leader.
At the top of the stack is a rectangular chamber into which
the register box is fitted. To lessen fire risk, these boxes
should be made with double walls. Each leader should
have a damper near the furnace, so that when necessary
or desirable it may be closed ; the nearer the damper is to
the furnace end of the leader, the less will be the danger of
superheating.
Provision should be made for evaporating water in the
air chamber, to moisten the air forced through the house ;
most furnaces are equipped with a pan for this very pur-
pose, which is an important one, since warm air requires
more moisture than cold to maintain a comfortable degree
of saturation. It is a generally accepted but mistaken
belief that heat supplied by a hot-air furnace is necessarily
302 FARM STRUCTURES
a dry heat ; all that is necessary is to pass the heated air
over water.
The hot-air furnace system of heating possesses certain
advantages, principal among which is the readiness with
which the temperature can be raised. In cost it is much
below that of steam or hot-water heating, two systems with
which it is comparable, and it requires no care to prevent
bursting of pipes or boiler from freezing. Unless the
construction is good, and the erection has been carefully
made, combustion gases are likely to be delivered to the
rooms, which is, to say the least, annoying ; but this objec-
tion can be overcome, and cannot be justly considered a
disadvantage. The disadvantages of the hot-air system
lie in the comparative high cost of operation, in the rapidity
with which it loses heat when the fire becomes low, and in
the difficulty of even heating on windy days.
The question of the ventilation provided by a hot-air
furnace is an important one. The system presupposes a
very generous supply of air, which, in properly erected
systems, is fresh when brought to the furnaces, is then
heated and distributed to the rooms. When so constructed
that the air brought to the furnace is taken from the interior
of the house itself, the furnace is a source of danger, for the
air will become so devitalized that it will be absolutely
unfit to breathe. The air that is brought in to the furnace
from out of doors is likely to lose a great deal of its supply
of oxygen, unless care is taken to prevent the furnace from
becoming too hot.
Steam Heating
Heating by means of steam came perhaps first as a
development of a method of heating to overcome the dis-
advantages of hot-air heating. The essentials of the system
HEATING FARMHOUSES 303
consist of the boiler with the furnace beneath, a system of
distributing pipes for the steam, and radiators through
which the heat of the steam is liberated into the rooms.
The theory concerned in the operation is quite simple:
the water in the boiler is heated, and steam is generated
which rises through the pipes to the radiators; since it
loses heat through the radiators, some condensation will
result, and this is either brought back to the boiler or dis-
posed of in some other way.
There are two general systems of heating, in the first of
which, known as the Gravity Circulating System, the
water of condensation from the radiators flows by its
own weight into the boiler at a point below the water
line; in the second, the water of condensation does not
flow directly back to the boiler, but is returned by special
machinery or in some cases wasted. The latter system
is sometimes called the High Pressure System, because
steam of any pressure can be generated in the boiler,
part of which can be used for power purposes, ffigh-
pressure steam, however, is seldom used for heating, but
is reduced to not more than 10 pounds by throttling
from the boiler or by passing through reducing valves;
sometimes the exhaust steam from engines and pumps
is used.
The boiler for house heating with either steam or hot
water should be chosen very carefully. It should be large
enough to contain a sufficient amount of water; the fire-
box should be deep and spacious ; it should be easily acces-
sible for cleaning ; it should have no joints exposed to the
direct action of the fire; a sectional boiler is the better,
since no general explosion can occur, should one section
give out; the construction should be durable and good,
the very best gauges, safety valves, and other fixtures
3^4
FARM STRUCTURES
Fig. 143. — Complete circuit system.
should be used, and
it should be capa-
ble of working to
its full capacity
with the highest
economy.
The systems of
piping ordinarily
employed provide
for either a partial
or a complete circu-
lating system, each
consisting of main
and distributing
pipes and returns.
Three systems of piping are in common use.
I. Complete Circuit System. — This is sometimes called
the "overhead single pipe system," and was first employed
in this country
by J. H. MiUs.
In this system the
main pipe is led
to the highest part
of the building,
usually the attic,
from whence dis-
tributing pipes are
run to the vari-
ous return risers,
which extend to
the basement and
discharge into the
main return. A
■
J
u
Fig. 144. — One-pipe system.
HEATING FARMHOUSES
30s
diagram of this system is shown in Figure 143. The sup-
ply for the radiators is all taken from the return risers,
and in some cases the entire return circulation passes
through the radiators.
2. Ordinary One-pipe System. — As shown in Figure
144, in this system a large steam main, elevated close to
the ceiling of the basement, runs aroimd to a point where
the last radiator
is taken off, and
is then connected
into a return main
to the boiler. All
the water of con-
densation returns
through the same
pipe. This system
requires only one
connection to each
radiator, this being
an advantage over
the Mills system.
3. Two-pipe Sys-
tem, — This system,
shown in Figure 145, consists of steam and return mains
in the basement and two connections to each radiator. It
is used in large buildings more than in residence heating.
It is difficult to make a definite comparison of the dif-
ferent piping systems, since so much depends upon local
conditions. Undoubtedly the complete circuit system gives
the freest circulation, and it is applicable either to hot-
water or steam heating; it is simple in its construction,
and any small error in its installation will not affect its
successful operation to any material extent. The • fact
Fig. 145. — Two-pipe system.
3o6 FARM STRUCTURES
that the distributing pipes must be placed in the top of the
building will in many cases render the system so objec-
tionable that it cannot be used. It would seem that with
steam heating only one connection should be necessary for
successful operation.
No main steam or hot- water pipe should be left unpro-
tected, for the loss of heat by radiation in such a case is
very great. Carpenter estimates the actual loss occa-
sioned by leaving a small pipe uncovered to be about 30
cents per annum per square foot of surface; and an effi-
cient covering, either one of the many commercial types,
or one made by appl)dng three layers of asbestos paper,
then a f-inch layer of hair felt, the whole protected by
canvas, would save at least 75 or 80 per cent of this.
Radiators for both steam and hot- water systems are
made of cast iron or steel in almost any size or variety,
from a simple pipe to the most ornate. They may be so
arranged as to have one or more columns of water in each
section, being designated then as one-column, two-column,
etc. They can be had of such size and shape as to fit
imder windows, in comers, around columns, etc. Steam
and hot-water radiators are quite similar in construction,
except that the latter have a horizontal passage connecting
the sections at the top as well as one at the bottom ; this
construction is rendered necessary in order to draw oflf the
air which gathers at the top of each section. Hot-water
radiators may serve admirably for steam circulation.
Steam-heating plants have been in very successful
operation for a number of years, and afford a very good
solution of the heating problem. Steam or hot-water
plants never cause danger from fire, since no part of the
system can become overheated, either through accident
or carelessness. The pipe connections are inconspicuous.
HEATING FARMHOUSES 307
and sounds and odors cannot be carried through them, as
is the case with air ducts. Radiators are sanitary, sightly,
noiseless, and can be located in the most convenient place
in any room. A steam-heating system is simple and
economical in operation, and requires less care than a hot-
air system. Since there is only a comparatively small
quantity of water in the boiler, it will be only a very short
time from the time the fire is built until steam is being
generated and circulated through the pipes, thus heating
the rooms quickly ; but just as soon as the fire dies down,
the steam circulation ceases, and the temperature of the
rooms falls as rapidly as it had risen. Unless the pipes
are carefully installed, water hammer is likely to occur;
this is caused by water accumulating in low places or
pockets in horizontal pipes to such an extent as to con-
dense some of the steam in the pipe, thus forming a vacuum
which is filled by a very violent rush of steam and water,
causing a severe concussion which sometimes does con-
siderable damage. In the popular mind there is an idea
prevalent that steam and hot-water systems necessarily
afford moist heat, but such is obviously not the case ; in
neither of the two systems can moisture get out of the
pipes, since they are of course water-tight. Sometimes
provision is made for the escape of steam at the valves,
but generally this is such an annoyance that the valves are
kept closed ; so that imless some provision is made for a
supply of moisture, steam or hot-water heat will be found
to be drier than hot-air heating.
Hot-water Heating
Heating by means of hot water is accomplished by means
of circulating hot water in the radiators instead of steam.
The principle involved is illustrated in Figure 146. A
3o8
FARM STRUCTURES
U-tube with the legs connected at the top is filled with
water, and heat is applied at one side ; the heated water is
lighter and will tend to rise, crossing over at the connection
and occupying the space formerly filled by the cooler water
which has now flowed across to fill
the space vacated by the heated water ;
thus a continuous circulation is main-
I I tained. Exactly the same phenomenon
occurs in the hot-water installation;
the entire system, radiators, circulat-
ing pipes, and boiler, are filled with
water; this water is heated in the
boiler. The hot water in the boiler
Fig. 146.— Hot-water dr- is light, and has a constant tendency
c ation. ^^ ^^^^ while the water which has
lost its heat through the radiators is heavy, and has a
corresponding tendency to fall ; consequently, a circulation
occurs and is maintained as long as the temperature within
the boiler is a few degrees higher than that of the house.
Two general systems of hot-water heating are in use;
namely, (i) the open-tank system, and (2) the closed-tankj
or pressure system. In the former an open expansion tank
is connected to the system in such a way as to receive the
increase in volume of water due to expansion by heat, and
is connected with the outside air by a vent pipe, so that
there is no pressure on the tank. In the latter system, a
similar tank is used, but the vent pipe is closed, and a
safety valve is attached, so that by increasing the pressure
on the system, the water may be heated up to the tempera-
ture of low-pressure steam, and hence less radiating surface
and smaller pipes may be used. With the open expansion
tank, about the only chance for an explosion is the stopping
of the expansion pipe by freezing or by the closing of a
L
HEATING FARMHOUSES 309
valve in the pipe ; and to prevent this, no valve should be
placed in the pipe, and it should be well protected from
frost. The expansion tank should be located several feet
above the highest radiator, and should have a capacity
approximately one twentieth of the cubical contents of
boiler, pipes, and radiators.
Almost any boiler that can be used for steam heating
is suitable for hot-water heating, there being but a slight
difference in the interior design to improve the circulation.
In an efficient heater the water is separated into small
portions so that it may heat quickly, and as little resistance
as possible is offered to free circulation. Efficiency in
point of fuel consumption is an important feature, as is
facility and convenience in cleaning fire surfaces ; for a
thin coating of soot will materially decrease the efficiency.
Piping systems for hot water are quite similar to those
for steam heating, and, as in steam heating, there are three
systems in vogue:
(i) The overhead system^ exactly similar to the Mills
system with the exception that two connections are always
made to the radiator, one for the inlet and the other for
the outlet of the water.
(2) The two-pipe system, the one most commonly used,
has separate mains and returns.
(3) The one-pipe system has a single pipe running aroimd
the basement as in the corresponding steam system, except
that the main hot-water pipe rises from the boiler ; the
flow pipes are taken from the' top of the main, and the water
after passing through the radiators is returned by a sep-
arate pipe which is connected with the bottom of the
main.
Hot- water apparatus should be kept full of water during
the summer months, and only enough suppUed during winter
3IO FARM STRUCTURES
to keep it at a safe level. This excludes the air and pre-
vents oxidation or corrosion of the pipes, besides reducing
to a minimum the incrustation, which might become serious
if allowed to accumulate from several fillings.
Hot-water heating plants are highly satisfactory when
properly designed and installed. Hot-water radiators do
not become so hot as steam radiators, consequently they
do not reduce the humidity to so great an extent. The
heat can be kept quite uniform, the system being easily
controlled, and any radiators can be shut oflf without
resulting in the snapping or gurgling noises common with
steam. The first cost is somewhat higher than of a steam
installation, because of the greater radiating surface, larger
piping, and more expensive fittings. Unless care is taken
when the house is vacant, the water in the system is likely
to freeze and seriously damage the plant. On the whole,
however, it would appear that for average residences hot-
water heating is the most satisfactory.
Combination Hot-air and Hot-water Heating
It is sometimes difficult to heat houses of large size with
hot air, especially the rooms distant from the furnace, so
some means must be provided to carry the heat to these
remote and exposed parts. Thus has been evolved a
method of inserting in the combustion chamber of the hot-
air furnace a small hot-water heater which will heat the
water to be carried by pipes to radiators located in the
portions of the house most difficult to heat by warm air.
As a rule, where there is any choice, the portions of the
house which should be heated by the hot water are the
halls, bathroom, and perhaps the rooms on the north or
west side of the house.
r
HEATING FARMHOUSES Jii
Vacuum Circulating System
In recent years there has been in vogue a system of heat-
ing popularly known as 'Vacuum heating." This is simply
a modification of a closed system of steam heating, in which
the air is removed and kept from flowing back, thus permit-
ting a circulation above or below atmospheric pressure as
desired, the pressure and temperature being dependent
upon the amount of fire maintained in the heater. For
instance, could the air be removed to such an extent that
26 inches of vacuum be produced, the boiling temperature
of the water at this pressure would be only 126 degrees F.,
and if just sufficient fire were maintained to produce that
pressure, the temperature would remain at this point;
whereas if more fire were maintained, so as to produce
greater quantities of steam, the pressure would rise with
a corresponding increase in temperature. Such a system
would give all the advantages pertaining to low tempera-
tures and regulation of temperature possessed by hot-
water heating, and all the advantages relating to high tem-
peratures, small radiators, and low cost of installation
pertaining to the steam system.
Design of Heating Systems
Hot-air Systems, — Apparently there is no reliable rule
that can be apphed to the design of a hot-air heating
system, the rules given by manufacturers varying widely,
so to be safe it is best to have the contractor installing
the furnace guarantee that the furnace shall heat the
building to 70 degrees in zero weather without forcing the
furnace. The tables given by different authorities for the
sizes of pipes also vary a great deal, and considerable
judgment should be exercised in using them.
312 FARM STRUCTURES
Carpenter uses a quantity which he designates "equiva-
lent glass surface" in deducing rules for hot-air heating;
by this term is meant the area of the glass in the exterior
windows and doors of the room plus one fourth the area of
the exterior wall surface.
Carpenter's rules are as follows :
1. To find grate area in square inches: Divide equiva-
lent glass surface in square feet by 1*25, or multiply
by 0.8.
2. To find area of flue for any room in square inches:
Divide equivalent glass surface in square feet by 1.2 for
first floor, by 1.5 for second floor, and by 1.8 for third
floor.
3. Make area of cold-air duct 0.8 of total area of hot-
air flues.
4. Make area of smoke flue in square inches one twelfth
of grate area, with one inch added to each dimension.
Steam and Hot-water Heating Systems. — Because of
different conditions surrounding the installation of heating
apparatus, it is impossible to give any set rule that can be
used without modification to satisfy all conditions. It is
generally assumed that a pressure of from 2 to 5 pounds will
be carried, and a temperature of 180 degrees maintained;
when systems are designed for heating with a lower heat
temperature at the boiler, as in vacuum heating, it is
necessary to provide additional radiation. It is general
practice to consider 70 degrees as the standard for inside
temperature and zero for the outside; when there is a
greater difference between the inside and the outside
temperatures, one per cent should be added to the radia-
tion for each degree difference in temperature.
The rule submitted by Carpenter for the proportioning
of radiators is as follows:
HEATING FARMHOUSES 313
To the equivalent glass area add :
-^ of cubic contents for second-floor rooms.
-^ of cubic contents for first-floor rooms.
^ of cubic contents for large halls.
Multiply this result by :
0.25, if for steam.
0.40, if for hot water.
This will give the radiation required in square feet, and
from catalogues in which the radiating surface per section
of various types of radiators is given, can be ascertained
the number of sections necessary.
Pipe sizes can be determined from the accompanying
table :
Square Feet of Radiation
Size of Pipe
Size of Return
Steam
Hot Water
I
i
40
30
ii
I
ICX>
80
li
ij
ISO
100
2
ij
275
200
2i
2
500
32s
3,
2
750
Soo
3i
2j
1000
700
4
2i
1500
1000
Boilers are usually rated for direct cast-iron radiation,
in square feet. Most manufacturers are somewhat close
in their ratings, so it is advisable to add 25 per cent to the
total radiation required in choosing the boiler, so as to
provide for emergencies, and to insure an ample supply of
heat, even in extremely cold weather, without unduly
forcing the boiler.
CHAPTER IX
FARM WATER SUPPLY
Probonent among the money and labor-saving devices
to which the modem and progressive farmer should give
his attention is the individual water system. Strangely
enough, while water is the most necessary of all commod-
ities, is used more frequently, in larger amounts and for a
greater nmnber of purposes, the old method of carrying
water by buckets is so common as to be deplorable, in view
of the fact that other arrangements so much more con-
venient and economical are entirely feasible. In the
average home not equipped with a water supply system,
not less than fifteen minutes a day must be spent in pump-
ing sufficient water to supply the mere necessities of the
household. Fifteen minutes a day in the course of a year
will amount to ten days of nine hours each, and the income
on ten whole days' efforts in a year will certainly more than
warrant the additional expenditure.
All stock thrive better if their water is pure and if they
can get plenty of it ; so as far as this phase of the matter is
concerned, it is a matter of dollars and cents. To the
dairy farmer, especially, is water supply important; he
uses more water than the general farmer, and must supply
it an even temperature all the year round. It is an un-
disputed fact that the drinking of ice water during winter
reduces the vitality of the stock and decreases the amoimt
of milk produced. Hogs, too, are peculiarly susceptible
to the dangers of impure water that often are present when
314
FARM WATER SUPPLY 315
the supply of water is insufficient ; and in warm weather
it is deddedly advantageous to have a carefully cleaned
watering place, for the hog will drink a few swallows every
twenty minutes if it is within reach. Clean water is
equally important in raising healthy poultry ; one poultry
writer asserts that the water contained in the eggs that are
laid annually would fill a canal a mile long, 30 feet wide,
and 20 feet deep.
The development of rural water-supply systems has been
deplorably slow, considering their importance ; the knowl-
edge that good systems are extant and that their principles
and operation are satisfactory does not seem to have led
to their extensive adoption. Recently there seems to be
a stronger tendency toward their more widespread use,
probably because of the fact that there has been fostered
a definite attempt to improve rural home conditions, and
that manufacturers, realizing this, have entered more
earnestly into the field of producing really good systems.
Sources of Supply, — In almost all cases the source of
rural water supply is either a well or a spring ; it is only in
rare instances and exceptional cases where circumstances
and conditions are especially peculiar that surface water
or rain water is used for human consumption. When the
source is a spring, it should be protected by a concrete
curbing, to prevent the ingress of surface or soil-water that
might bring contamination.
Wells are either dug or bored. In the case of a dug well,
the diameter must necessarily be great enough to admit
of a man working within it, as well as of the necessary
hoisting apparatus for removing the earth when any con-
siderable depth is reached. The walls are usually lined
with brick or stone masonry, to retain the earth and keep
it from entering the well. Wells of this type are compara-
3i6 FARM STRUCTURES
tively shallow; they are common in regions where the
soil-water stands at a high level, and they depend upon the
seepage to keep them supplied with water. On account of
this circumstance, they are more or less dangerous, since,
if the seepage occurs from some stratum which originates
at the surface of the ground or at some point near it, there
is great likelihood of impurities being carried into the well.
Innumerable cases are on record where the cause of a
typhoid fever or similar epidemic could be traced directly
to some well in which contamination had occurred as a
result of transmission of the bacteria through shallow
subterranean channels from the vault of an outdoor privy.
Bored wells are the only solution of the water supply
problem in regions where no springs exist and the water-
bearing strata are so deep that they cannot be reached by
digging ; a well more than one thousand feet in depth is
not at all out of the ordinary. The method of producing
a well of this kind is to bore a hole with an augur which will
pass through a pipe of the diameter desired. As the hole
is bored, the pipe, or *' casing,'' is driven down as fast as
the augur removes the earth ahead of it. Special rock
drills have to be employed when passing through rock
strata, and when an underground bowlder is encountered
which deflects the augur, dynamite must be employed to
remove it. When a stratum has been reached which bears
water in sufficient quantity and of desired quality, the
boring is discontinued and a section of pipe called the
*' screen," closed and pointed at the lower end, and perfo-
rated for about three feet of its length, the perforations
being protected by a fine brass screen, is inserted within
the casing at its lower end so as to penetrate the water-
bearing stratum. Water enters through the screen, the
meshes of which are fine enough to keep the sand out.
FARM WATER SUPPLY 317
Some sort of a pump, operating through rods which reach
to the level that water rises within the well, or deeper, is
employed to raise the water to the surface. Bored wells
give a supply of water that is almost certain to be cold and
pure, since it has passed through sufficient filtering mediums
to be thoroughly purified.
Artesian wells are bored wells penetrating water strata
of such a nature and conformation that the water as a
result of pressure is forced out at the top of the well as in a
fountain. The explanation of this can easily be gotten
from Figure 147, which shows the water-bearing stratum
Fig. 147. — Artesian well.
to be in the form of a depression with its ends higher than
the top of the well. This type of well is met with in all
parts of the country ; it derives its name from the fact that
investigation was first made of it in the French city of
Artois (formerly called Artesium) about 1750.
Cisterns are almost universally used as a storage place
for rain water. The method of their construction is similar
to that of dug wells, except that in many cases the walls,
bottom, and even the top are made of concrete.
Types of Water-supply Systems
The term ^^water-supply system" may be taken to
mean the method by which the water is taken from the
source of supply and delivered or distributed at points
3i8 FARM STRUCTURES
more or less convenient to the place where it is used. In
earlier days, when dug wells were the only type known,
the '* sweep'' and the ''wheel and chain" or the windlass,
were the only means used to Uft the water from the wells.
Later, coincident with the development of bored wells,
windmills came into use as a power for operating the
pumps by which the water was raised. For many years,
during the latter part of the nineteenth and through the
first decade of the twentieth century, they were practically
the only source of power on the farm, but the recent devel-
opment of the internal combustion engine, or gas engine
as it is more familiarly known, has brought about its wide-
spread adoption; the flexibility and reliability of the gas
engine as compared with the windmill has added to its popu-
larity. In communities where electricity is available,
this source of power is being taken advantage of.
Hydraidic Ram, — This form of power for distributing
water through pipes has been in use in a small way ever
since its invention by Montgolfier, in 1796, to whom credit
is given for having first perfected the automatic machine.
Hydraulic rams are in quite common use in localities where
conditions are favorable, but they are practically all of
small size, designed to raise but small quantities of water,
and that to small heights.
Figure 148 is a diagrammatic representation of a simple
hydraulic ram. E is the source of supply, A the supply
pipe, B the channel, which should be long and straight,
a and b the valves, a opening downward and b upward,
C the air chest, and D the discharge pipe. Water first
flows out in quantity through valve a, but when it has
acquired a certain velocity it raises that valve, and the
opening is closed. A certain impact results, which raises
valve J, and some of the water passes into the air chest C,
FARM WATER SUPPLY 319
compressing the air above the mouth of the discharge
pipe; the air by its elastic force closes valve b, and the
water which has entered is raised in the discharge pipe D,
As soon as the impulsive action is over, and the water
in the channel is at rest, the valve a falls by its own
weight, the flow resumes, and the whole process is
repeated.
It will be seen that while a portion of the water is wasted
in performing the operation, the power is secured without
cost and attention. The water can be raised to a height
many times as great
as difference in water
levels at E and a ; if
no energy were lost in
friction and in raising
the valves, the height
of ascent would be to
the fall as the quan-
tity which flows out ^^- ^48.-HydrauKcram.
at a is to that which is raised, as, for instance, one fifth
of the total amount of water flowing out of the channel
could be raised to four times the height of the difference
in water levels. As a matter of fact, economical operation
depends somewhat upon the amoimt of fall ; good practice
advises that under ordinary circimistances, one seventh
of the water can be raised and discharged at an eleva-
tion five times as high as the fall, or one fourteenth can
be raised and discharged ten times as high as the faU
apphed, and so in like proportion as the fall in elevation
is varied. One manufacturer gives the following rule for
determining the quantity of water which a ram will deliver :
multiply the fall in feet by the number of gallons flow,
divide this product by twice the height to which the water
320 FARM STRUCTURES
is elevated, and the result will give the quantity of water
(in gallons) which the ram should deliver.
In installing a hydraulic ram there are several precau-
tions which, if observed at the time, will often save trouble
later. The upper end of the supply pipe should be a foot
or more below the surface of the water, and protected by
a strainer or screen to prevent it from becoming clogged.
Pipes should be laid straight to reduce friction as much as
possible, but if turns are necessary, long bends are better
than sharp angles. The length of the drive pipe should be
approximately five times that of the vertical fall, and
should be uniform in diameter throughout. The ram and
all pipes should be located below the frost line, and the
ram itself should be bolted on a level foundation, at a
height sufficient to keep the impetus valve a from being
covered with waste water.
The chief causes of trouble, other than that which would
obviously result if the foregoing precautions were dis-
regarded, are imperfect seating of the valves, which can be
remedied by grinding, and the fiUing of the air chest with
water. It is essential for the successful operation of the ram
that this be prevented, and rams are provided with a small
air or ^'snifting'' valve, which admitaa certain amount of
air at each impulse ; if this valve becomes clogged or flooded
with waste water, the air chest fills with water and the
operation of the ram ceases.
When the supply of usable water is so small that even a
small ram would give practically no discharge, and when a
more abundant supply of unusable water is available,
double-acting or double-supply rams are used. Their
operation is identical with that of single-supply rams, the
impetus valve being located so that there cannot be in the
water discharged any mixed usable and unusable water.
FARM WATER SUPPLY 321
Pressure Systems
The systems that have been described in the preceding
pages constitute various methods of transmitting water
from the source of supply to the point of consumption or
to reservoirs. Modem water supply installations go further
than this — they include arrangements for supplying the
water imder pressure to any part of the farmstead. There
are three methods in common use whereby this pressure
is obtained, — the gravity system, the hydro-pneumatic
system, and the pneumatic system.
Gravity Tank System. — In this system , which is one that
has been widely used in the past and which is still employed
to a considerable extent, the water is forced into tanks
that are elevated higher than the highest water outlet.
From these tanks a system of pipes carries the water to all
the points at which it is needed. The pressure at the
outlet depends, of course, principally upon the height at
which the tanks are located.
The gravity system, though of the simplest type, has
certain disadvantages. Its value is affected by the weather
— in warm weather the water stored in the tanks becomes
warm and flat in taste, and in cold weather it is likely to
freeze. The tanks themselves are likely to rot if made of
wood, and to rust if made of steel, and their supports are
often unable to withstand the strain to which they are
subjected, and serious accidents sometimes occur when
they collapse. Finally, an elevated tank can seldom be
given any architectural treatment that will prevent it
from being a decidedly obvious and unpleasant feature of
the landscape.
Hydro-pneumatic System, — This system was evolved to
overcome the inherent disadvantages of the gravity tank
3a* FARM STRUCTURES
system. The essentials of the system, as shown in Figure
149, comprise a hydro-pneumatic pump, a storage tank,
and a distributing system of pipes. The pump is so con-
structed that it can be arranged to pump either air or
water into the storage tank; the tank itself is built of
sheet steel, and will usually carry a sustained pressure of
150 or 175 pounds without any difficulty.
In the operation of this system, water is pumped into
the tank, compressing the air with which the tank is filled ;
FlO. 140. — Hydra-paeuautii: system.
the air is thus constantly exerting a pressure upon the water,
and when any faucet in the pipe system leading from the
tank is opened, the water is forced out by the pressure
of the air within the tank. The proper pressure which
^ould be maintained in the tank can be easily calculated,
if we know the height of the highest outlet. Since the
tank is usually located in the basement, the highest outlet
is not usually more than 25 feet above the tank. The air
within the tank before water is pumped in is at a pressure
of one atmosphere, or about 15 pounds ; this is the equiva-
lent to the pressure of a column of water 34 feet high;
a column of water 25 feet high will exert a pressure slightly
FARM WATER SUPPLY 323
in excess of 10 pounds. Then to force the last drop of
water out against atmospheric pressure at the highest
outlet, the pressure within the tank at the moment of emp-
tying should be 15 plus 10, or 25, poimds. This, then,
should be the pressure within the tank before any water
is pumped into it, if all that is pumped in is to be driven
out at a pressure not less than 25 pounds. As the tank
is filled, the air within is gradually compressed imtil it
reaches a pressure of from 75 to 100 pounds, the pressure
usually maintained in tanks of this type.
To calculate the size of tank necessary for any installation,
we make use of Boyle's law regarding the elasticity of gases ;
i,e, the temperature remaining the same, the volume of a
gas varies inversely as the pressure; or, pressure times
volume is a constant. Expressed as a formula, it is
pv = k, or pivi = P2V2.
Let us assume that we desire to install a tank which will
hold 240 gallons of water at 60 pounds (gauge) pressure.
The initial pressure, as noted above, is 25 pounds ; the final
pressure is 60 poimds plus the pressure of one atmosphere,
or 75 pounds; the initial volume is unknown, as is the
final volume, but we can express the final volume in terms
of the initial volume as vi — 240, and thus have only one
unknown quantity in the equation.
Then * 25 z;i = 75 (vi - 240),
25 vi = 75 2^1 — 18000
50 Vi = 18000
vi = 3600.
That is, the total capacity of the tank to fulfill the required
conditions is 360 gallons.
The hydro-pneumatic system has proved to be a very
popular and successful system and, as developed by several
324 FARM STRUCTURES
manufacturers, leaves little to be desired in the way of
good operation.
There is a slight leakage of the air imprisoned within the
tank, since some of it is carried away by the outgoing
water ; for this reason it is occasionally necessary to pump
in a small quantity of extra air, to prevent the pressure
from falling below the desired standard. The chief objec-
tion to the system is that there is Ukely to be an accmnula-
tion of sediment in the bottom of the tank ; this objection
is not very great, however, for even should there be any
accumulation, it can be easily removed through special
openings for the purpose. The great advantages of the
system he in the fact that it can be installed within the
basement of a residence, thus avoiding danger of freezing,
and that any reasonable degree of pressure can be main-
tained, at a requirement of only a few minutes' attention
each day, or even less often, depending upon the size of the
tank.
Pneumatic System. — The pneimaatic system derives
its name from the fact that while there is a storage tank
as an essential part of the system, it contains nothing but
compressed air. The other essentials of the system, be-
sides the air-storage tank, are an air compressor, a specially
designed automatic pump, and a system of distributing
pipes leading therefrom. Figure 150 is used to illustrate
the operation .of the pneumatic system. The submerged
pneumatic pump is in reality a double cylinder contri-
vance, with connecting valves, each cylinder having air-
supply and exhaust pipes and a water- discharge pipe.
While one cyhnder is filling, the exhaust pipe being open
and the air-supply pipe being closed, the other one is dis-
charging imder pressure the water contained within itself,
the e3Chaust pipe being closed and the air-supply pipe
FARM WATER SUPPLY 325
from the pressure tank being open. As soon as the second
cyUnder is empty, the valves are automatically operated,
the exhaust opening and the air supply closing ; the oppo-
site occurs in the first cylinder, the exhaust closing and the
compressed air now driving out the water contained therein
through the discharge pipe.
326 FARM STRUCTURES
All the necessary opening and closing of valves is done
automatically by the pressure of the air itself. The auto-
matic mechanism is placed above the cylinders, and con-
tains a valve having several openings, through which the
air alternately enters, or returns as exhaust, from the two
cylinders. The entire pump being submerged, the cylin-
ders fill through intake valves whenever air is allowed to
escape. The intake and outlet valves are automatic in
action, and the water is admitted and discharged alternately
without a perceptible break in the flow from the faucet.
The pneumatic water-supply system is the latest in devel-
opment. It possesses several features that are more or
less advantageous, such as obviating the storage of water,
requiring only one air-storage outfit to supply both hard
and soft water, and being so flexible that it can be adapted
to practically all conditions.
•
Hot-water Supply
A modem water-supply installation is not complete
unless provision is made for a supply of hot water to sink,
laundry, lavatory, and bathtub. The cost of it is not ex-
cessive, since the additional equipment necessary includes
storage tank of small size, heating coils within the range
or furnace or both, and a piping system for distribution.
A diagrammatic illustration of a hot- water outfit is shown
in Figure 151. A represents the boiler or storage tank,
B the heating coils, and C and D the inlet and outlet pipes,
respectively. As heat is appUed at B the circulation is
induced so that all the water within the tank is brought
through the heating coils.
Ordinarily the water stored in range boilers, for use in the
home, is heated in a water back located in the fire box of
the kitchen range, or in coils of pipe in the furnace. The
FARM WATER SUPPLY
327
latter plan, of course, results in heating the water only at
that season of the year when the furnace is in use, so it is
advisable to have a water back in the kitchen range as well,
so that advantage can be taken of the daily cooking fires.
A water back is simply a hollow casting with two tapped
openings for the inlet and outlet pipe connections, as shown
A
\
\
\
^
Fig. 151. — Diagram of water-heater.
in Figure 152. Sometimes it has a partition cast hori-
zontally part way across so that the water will be given a
more extended circulation. The opening for the outlet,
or return pipe, should be made close to the top wall of the
water back so that the very hottest water can flow out and
not be trapped to become converted into steam. Water
backs are made much thicker than would seem necessary
to withstand the pressure to which they are subjected, but
this pressure can never be determined, as it may vary from
a pressure never above 20 pounds per square inch to a
street main pressure of 100 pounds per square inch, or more.
328
FARM STRUCTURES
Then, too, the casting is subjected to severe shrinkage
strains at times and to the strains resulting from the cold
water within and the intensely hot fire without. To pro-
vide for all this, they are ordinarily designed to withstand
an ultimate pressure of 700 poimds per square inch. The
most common cause of water backs bursting is freezing of
the water in the water backs or connections. Conse-
quently, where ranges are e:q)osed in winter weather, extra
precautions should be observed to see that the water pipes
w/////////////////////////////////////^
v»n))»}))fjfi)))))»})})»))n).
1
'h))>))})»)>i>»nn)ifin)nt)7T7r7m
Fig. 152. — Water back.
do not freeze, and if the fire in the range goes out during
the night, it is well to make sure that the water back, flow,
and return pipes are free from ice before firing is started in
the morning.
Where gas is available, a contrivance known as the
automatic instantaneous water heater renders the use of
water backs and pipe coils unnecessary. This consists of
several colls of thin copper pipe, occupying a space inside
a casing and placed immediately over a set of Bunsen
burners ; by this construction, almost all of the heat devel-
oped by the combustion of the gas is absorbed by the coils
and transmitted to the water. The arrangement also
includes a combination automatic gas and water cock,
and a thermostat to shut off the supply of gas, but still.
FARM WATER SUPPLY 329
leave the water flow, when the temperature of the water
exceeds a certain degree.
The operation of the heater is quite simple. When any
hot- water faucet in the system is opened, the pressure in
the automatic valve is relieved, and a supply of gas is
admitted to the Bunsen burners, which is ignited by the
small pilot light which is always burning in close proximity ;
in a few seconds the water within the coils is heated. The
water-controlled gas and water valve is unique in that the
flow of gas and of water are adjusted to each other in such
a way that the flow of water through the copper coils is
proportional to the amount of gas being consumed, so that
just sufficient gas is consumed to heat the water required.
When the water has reached the desired temperature,
or the flow of water has ceased, the gas is automatically
shut off.
As ordinarily constructed, automatic instantaneous
heaters are rated to heat one gallon of water for each cubic
foot of gas consumed, from ordinary temperature to 130
degrees F., which is about the right temperature for do-
mestic water supply.
CHAPTER X
PLUMBING AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL
Plumbing systems for buildings include not only the
drainage systems, whose purpose is to remove wastes, but
the water-supply systems described in the previous chapter
as well. Bacteriological investigations show that more
disease results from the bacteria carried in through the water
supply than from the drainage system, so every precaution
must be taken in the installation of the former to make it
as safe as possible. However, improperly constructed
drainage systems are a source of great danger, and much can
be done to increase their efficiency and safety by selecting
good equipment and having it correctly installed.
Drainage systems include the house sewer, house drain,
soil waste and vent stacks, fixtures, and fixture connections.
The house sewer, generally made of tile pipe or cast-iron
pipe, extends from the street sewer to a point not less than
five feet from the outside of the foundation wall where it
connects with the house drain ; it also receives the discharge
from roof gutters, foundation and area drains, and cellar
drains. The house drain, constructed of iron pipes which
should be given an asphalt coating both inside and out,
is a system of horizontal piping inside the cellar or base-
ment of a building, that extends to and connects with the
house sewer; it receives the discharge of sewage from all
soil and waste lines, and sometimes rain water from roof
gutters. Every house drain should have a main drain
trap located just inside the foundation wall, and should
330
PLUMBING AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL 331
have a clean-out ferrule at the end that turns up to connect
with a soil or waste pipe. A house drain should never be
less than three inches in diameter.
Soil stacks are those that receive the discharge from
water closets and urinals, although they may also receive
the discharge from other fixtures; they connect with the
house drain at the lower end, and their upper end extends
above the roof ; soil pipes are the connecting pipes between
closets or urinals with soil stacks. Waste stacks are similar
to soil stacks, except that they are connected with fixtures
other than closets or urinals; the connections are called
waste pipes. A vent stack is a special ventilating pipe
extending from a point below the lowest fixture up to a
point above the highest fixture, while it may connect
with the stack or extend separately through the roof;
its purpose is to supply air to the outlet of fixture traps,
thus preventing the water seal being broken by siphonage
or back pressure ; the connecting pipes between it and the
traps are called vent pipes.
There are two systems of stacks and branches in use at
the present time; namely, the one-pipe system and the
Pwo-pipe system. In the former a single stack is employed,
to which all fixtures are connected, using non-siphon traps,
or traps in which the seal cannot be broken by siphonage.
This system is much more economical than the two-pipe
system, since the cost of the roughing, or putting in the
stacks and pipes, is only about half of that of the latter, and
the cutting of walls and floors is minimized. From a sani-
tary standpoint it is satisfactory, and the only objection
to it is the possibility of a slight gurgling noise in the waste
pipes when a fixture is flushed. In the two-pipe system
siphon traps are used, and a vent stack is provided by which
the seals of the traps are protected by a system of vent
332
FARM STRUCTURES
pipes ; the more direct the pipes are run and the fewer
fittings used, the more satisfactory will be the operation.
In ordinary residences the diameter of soil pipes and stacks
is almost always three inches, because water closets are now
made with traps not more than three inches in diameter,
and because the stacks can be easily concealed in the walls
of the building. Soil pipes and waste pipes should always
be the full size of the waste outlets from the fixtures, the
outlets being large enough to permit the fixtures being
emptied quickly so as to thoroughly flush the pipes. The
following table gives the sizes of soil or waste pipes and of
the corresponding vent pipe for common fixtures :
Diameter in Inches
ForrusE
Water closet . .
Bathtub . . .
Lavatory . . .
Bidet
Shower bath . .
Sitz bath . . . .
Kitchen sink . .
Slop sink . . . .
Laundry tub . .
Urinal . . . .
Drinking fountain
VcDtPipe
2
:t
l} to 2
A trap is a contrivance which is used to prevent the
passage of air or gas through a pipe without materially
affecting the flow of sewage. To give good results and to
perform their function properly, they should be either
made so they cannot be siphoned or have their seals broken
by back pressure ; they should be sufficiently deep to with-
stand a long period of loss by evaporation without breaking
the seal ; and they should be self-scouring so that no deposi-
PLUMBING AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL 333
^3 -TRAP
tion of solid sewage
can occur. Figure
153 illustrates some
common types of
traps. iS-T'^A^'* 3->RA.p
The selection of
the fixtures used in
a plumbing instal-
lation is of consid-
erable importance. x^ ^
To be perfectly
sanitary, they must NON-sipnori
be of some non-
_ - Fig. 153. — T3rpes of traps.
absorbent, non-cor-
rosive material that will not easily craze, crack, or break,
and that has smooth surfaces to which soil will not adhere
so firmly that it cannot be broken. Strainers or crossbars
should obstruct outlets as little as possible, so that a scour-
ing flow will not be prevented. Overflow outlets should be
provided for those fixtures whose waste outlets have stop-
pers. The plumbing for all fixtures
should be free and open; that is,
not hidden by woodwork or other
casings that would cut off light and
air.
Water Closets. — Water closets are
made either of solid porcelain or of
porcelain-enameled iron, the former
being preferable, since they will
neither stain nor get foul and can
be obtained at the same price, or
even less than the latter. They are
Fig. 154. — Hopper closet — . . ^t. • 1 ^
an undesirable type. made m vanous forms, the Simplest
334
FARM STRUCTURES
Fig, 155. — Washout closet — note
shallow receptacle.
being the hopper closet, shown in Figure 154, which consists
of a funnel or hopper-shaped bowl fitted with a flushing
g^ P^ rim or a pipe-wash connection ;
y III they are not desirable, since
1 I after flushing they are left dry
\ I and present a maximum sur-
^k f face to be soiled; this surface
^^^^^^^^ f sometimes becomes covered
^^^^^^k / I ynth. a coating of bacterial
^ ^ \ / / slime that is extremely foul
" " ^ and disagreeable in odor. The
washout closet is shown in Fig-
ure 155; it is superior to the
hopper closet, but the body of
water retained in this type of
closet is so shallow that fecal
matter is not submerged, consequently offensive odors are
given off. The washdown closet, Figure 156, is a good type
when properly de-
signed so as to give
a sufficient depth of
water to prevent odors
and to prevent any
interior surfaces from
becoming soiled. The
best type of closet yet
designed is the siphon-
jet closet shown in
Figure 157, in which
some of the water
flows through a jet F^g. 156.- Washdown closet -a good type.
at the bottom of the seal, starting siphonic action which
empties the bowl quickly and completely.
PLUMBING AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL 335
Water closets should be so constructed that no woodwork
surrounds them; they are usually connected to the soil
pipe by means of a cemented joint. The seats should be
about an inch thick, of hard wood finished with several
coats of good spar
varnish. Soft-wood
seats with white
enamel paint are
not satisfactory,
since they are easily
discolored by urine
and gases about the
closet. Flush tanks
may be . located
either near the ceil-
ing or just back of
- - , - Fig. 157. — Siphon- jet closet — the best type.
the closet, the latter
form being preferable on account of accessibility for repair ;
the flush connection in the latter form is larger than in the
high tanks, to compensate for the loss in head.
Bathtubs and Lavatories. — These should have a smooth,
impervious surface, large unobstructed outlet, an overflow
channel accessible for cleaning, and no crevices for the
accumulation and retention of dirt. Bathtubs are usually
made of porcelain-enameled iron, since their construction
is simple and subjected to no severe usage, and their cost
would be too high for ordinary installations were soKd
porcelain used in their construction. Lavatories are better
made of solid porcelain, but cheaper ones giving very
satisfactory service can be obtained in enameled iron con-
struction. The same appUes to sitz baths and bidets.
Sinks, — The best sinks are made of porcelain-enameled
iron and of soUd porcelain, in ahnost any desired size.
336 FARM STRUCTURES
Kitchen sinks, when used for dish washing, should have a
draining tray attached, and should have a rubber mat or
wooden grating on the bottom so they will be less destructive
to china or glassware that is accidentally dropped in the
sink. All sinks should be fitted with a grease trap that is
easily accessible for cleaning, which will prevent accumula-
tion of grease on the waste pipe.
Farm Sewage Disposal
The dty resident need never worry about the problem of
sewage disposal, for as a municipal problem it is taken care
of for him ; but to the farmer and the resident in a small
community where municipal advantages are not to be had,
the problem is a really serious one, and has occupied the at-
tention of a number of skilled engineers, who have evolved
various methods of sewage disposal which experience has
shown to be more or less successful in operation.
One of the most undesirable, and certainly the most dis-
gusting and insanitary, features of perhaps 95 per cent
of the farms in this country is the privy as it is ordinarily
foimd, bare, unprotected, a breeding place for flies, and a
source of danger from all kinds of transmissible diseases.
Much has been written about the sanitary privy, and many
have been the schemes for devising one, but the best is
only a makeshift, and possesses many of the inherently
bad defects of all privies.
The installation of a water-supply and plumbing system
renders necessary the provision of some method of taking
care of the wastes from the various fixtures. In some
localities cesspools are used, endangering the water in
surrounding private wells and creating an imwholesome
condition of the subsoil in the immediate vicinity of the
buildings. Such a condition is inexcusable, yet is often
PLUMBING AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL 337
permitted to continue for years, and as soon as one cess-
pool refuses longer to do its work, another is dug, until the
ground is often honeycombed with these pits. Sometimes
the sewage is discharged into storm drains, with the result
that stoppages are frequent and the subsoil is seriously
contaminated by leakages through imperfect joints. In
other locahties is followed the very dangerous procedure
of discharging sewage into streams which in dry weather
may be but a trickling stream ; this practice is objectionable
even when the stream contains sufficient water to effect
a considerable dilution of the sewage.
Cesspools afford a popular and simple method of getting
rid of sewage, but there is a very prevalent misimder-
standing as to their safety and effectiveness. As a matter
of fact, they may apparently completely dispose of the
sewage, but they cannot be considered sanitary, since in
time the soil surrounding them will become what is known
as "water-logged,'' and will retain decomposed sewage to
such an extent as to be extremely objectionable. There is
always the possibility of the unpurified and possibly infected
sewage finding its way into and contaminating an under-
groimd body of water from which wells, even at a consider-
able distance, derive their supply.
Acceptable methods of disposing of sewage in a sanitary
manner are as follow^ :
1. By irrigation.
2. By the use of some form of a septic tank.
Irrigation, as applied to sewage disposal, may be either
of the surface or subsurface type. Surface irrigation, as
the name implies, consists of the discharge of the sewage
upon the surface of the ground, necessarily at some consider-
able distance from occupied buildings and from any well
or source of water supply. To prevent saturation of the
338 FARM STRUCTURES
subsoil, it is usually necessary to place underdrains of com-
mon drain tile beneath the irrigation beds, at a depth of
from four to six feet below the surface of the ground, and
with a good outlet into a ditch or some other water course.
Subsurface irrigation does not differ much from irrigation
proper, save that the sewage is applied beneath the surface
of the groimd. For the proper operation of either of these
systems the land to be irrigated should be completely
dry and porous in character, and in size large enough to
provide for two or more beds of equal size, so that sewage
may be diverted from one bed to another at frequent
intervals, to allow the land last irrigated to rest and regain
its normal condition.
The septic kmk method of sewage disposal is, in fact, the
most scientific, perfect, and efficient system of sewage
disposal yet devised. Until recently it was confined almost
exclusively to the disposal of the sewage of cities and large
villages, and of buildings and institutions of a public
character. Though its application to small plants is as
yet in a more or less experimental stage, still the develop-
ments that are available are much superior to any other
methods yet devised.
The modem theory of complete sewage disposal is exem-
plified in these small plants. Sewage, in general, is a com-
plex liquid containing organic as well as inorganic matter
both in solution and suspension ; the sewage from house-
holds consists of kitchen, laundry, and bathroom wastes,
dirty water from scrubbing, and human wastes from
closets. Modem biological methods of sewage purification
are based upon the fact that all sewage contains numberless
bacteria, most of which are not only harmless, but useful
in acting upon sewage material. These bacteria are of two
classes, the anaerobic bacteria which live and multiply
PLUMBING AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL
339
only in the absence of Kght and air, and the aerobic bac-
teria, which require the oxygen of the air to live and func-
tionate. The anaerobic bacteria liquefy and gasify the
organic matter in suspension in the sewage, while the aero-
bic bacteria act upon the organic matter in solution and
assist in the processes of oxidation and nitrification.
The sewage treatment comprises two stages :
I. A preliminary process for the removal of the organic
matter in suspension; this necessitates as part of the
£:i2
TYTV
■ ^f^^f/T . ^
'■■y.'-f.'.-
•\.
Out/t
■6-
\
«•••■
v•;^^■■^..^:■^^;.::C:•.:>^;^ >^•!"v•^^:■:^^^":^^>.v;^>•^••'>:V■^•■•/;/;.^:^:•:^^
Fig. 158. — Single chamber septic tank.
apparatus a chamber known as the ''septic tank," in which
the anaerobic bacteria are given an opportunity to perform
their functions.
2. A purification process whereby the oxidation and
nitrification of organic matter in solution are accomplished ;
this is carried on in filter beds or in subsurface irrigation
systems where sufficient air is available for the successful
operation of the aerobic bacteria.
Septic tanks consisting of only one compartment, as
shown in Figure 158, have given excellent results in
340
FARM STRUCTURES
actual use. As long as the single compartment tank is
not disturbed, the bacterial processes occurring in it are
not disturbed, and its operation is successful. Within a
'.•.'.v.:
. .... •...«• •.',•••."•4 ' \- %!• .■• •••• •••*;.*
; ;• • • ••."4'' 1 ». •-• -• •..•.-.• ; • •• •>''^- '--r:'-:
'■•■•■ ^ -.»'«o*.'.-.'.-'. •-.• • •.—.....•> >s
Pi
I
Ok
10
&
short time after sewage enters the tank, a scum will form
on the surface an inch or more in thickness, consisting of a
solid mass of putrefactive bacteria, and which serves to
PLUMBING AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL 341
keep out the air so that the anaerobic bacteria can work.
Thus scum should not be disturbed, for disturbance will
retard the putrefaction process. For this reason a single
chamber tank is not entirely satisfactory, because when-
ever it is desired to clean the tank, the scum must be
disturbed. A double chamber tank, as illustrated in Figure
159, is more desirable, since it will provide an imdisturbed
settling chamber, besides permitting of the installation of
an intermittent flow siphon, which is a decidedly advan-
tageous feature.
The size of the tank can be built to suit conditions ; 25
gallons of sewage per person per day will give a basis upon
which the size of the tank can be proportioned. A width
of 3 or 4 feet and a depth the same is satisfactory, and the
length can be made to depend upon the amount of sewage
to be taken care of. Usually it is well to have the tank
large enough so that the sewage may remain in it for two
or three days, thus insuring a bacterial action sufficient to
liquefy the sewage almost completely. The tank should be
built of some water-tight material, preferably concrete, to
which has been added some form of commercial water-
proofing.
From the tank the liquefied sewage is discharged into a
subsurface drainage system, where the aerobic bacteria
are enabled to complete the disposal process. This system
consists simply of ordinary drain tile, laid in the ground
not deeper than a foot or 16 inches from the surface of the
soil to the top of the tile, with loose, protected joints.
The length of the drainage system will depend upon the
character of the soil, stiff, clayey soils requiring that 5 feet
of tile be laid for each gallon of sewage discharged, while
open, porous soils will require only 3 feet of tile for the same
amount of sewage.
342 FARM STRUCTURES
If the tank were so constructed that there might be a
continual seepage of sewage from it, as would be the case
with the tank shown in Figure 152, the soil surrounding the
drainage system might become so water-logged that no
oxygen could penetrate it, thus destroying the action of the
aerobic bacteria. To obviate this difficulty, a device known
as the automatic intermittent flow siphon is installed in a
second chamber; this siphon can be so adjusted that it
will operate only when the depth of the sewage in the si-
phon chan^ber is sufficiently deep to start siphonic action.
Since the siphon is adjustable, it can be made to discharge
as often as desired, permitting, in the meantime, the soil
surrounding the drain tile to dry out and absorb a new
supply of fresh air. The objection might be made that in
cold climates the sewage in the distributing tile might
freeze, thus preventing the operation of the system; but
experience has shown this objection to be unfoimded, the
gases arising from the sewage generating sufficient heat to
counteract cold and prevent freezing.
INDEX
Acetyleae, 288.
burners, 289.
generator, 289.
manufacture, 288.
Air-gas lamps, 287.
Architectural styles, 260.
American, 263.
California, 263.
Colonial, 261.
Dutch, 262.
English, 262.
mission, 263.
Artesian wells, 317.
Ashlar masonry, 18.
Balloon framing, 86.
Bark, 2.
Base, for paints, 55.
Bastard sawing, 9.
Bathroom, 269.
Bathtub, 335.
Beamed ceiling, no.
Bedroom, 268.
Belted, 7.
Bent, 221.
Bessemer process, 15.
Blocks,
concrete, 46.
curing, 47.
design, 47.
laying, 48.
t3rpes, 46.
vitrified day, 151.
Board measure, 10.
Bond, 27.
Boot, 301.
Box sin, 85.
Braced framing, 87.
Brash, 7.
Brick, 23.
classification, 24.
measurement, 25.
size, 25.
strength, 25.
weight, 25.
Bridging, 86.
Broken ashlar, 19.
Broken stone, 33.
Building construction, 79.
Building location, 67.
Building materials, i.
Bungalow, 263.
Burners, acetylene, 289.
Byrkit lath, 93.
California style architecture, 263.
Candles, 285.
Casement windows, 108.
Cement, 32.
Colonial architecture, 261.
Commercial laying house, 199.
Complete circuit system, 304.
Concrete, 31.
blocks, 46.
block sUo, 166.
coloring, 40.
definition, 31.
finish, 39.
floors, 124, 161, 188, 204, 239, 254.
forms, 38, 82, 162.
foundation, 81, 159.
materials, 32.
mixing, 34.
properties, 36.
proix>rtioning, 35.
reenforced, 48.
silos, 156.
strength, 51.
waterproofing, 37.
Cornice, 100.
Crown glass, 63.
Curtain front, 189.
Defects of wood, 5.
belted, 7.
brash, 7.
dry rot, 5.
heart-shake, 6.
knotty, 7.
rindgall, 7.
343
344
INDEX
Defects of wood {continued).
star-shake, 6.
twisted, 7.
upset, 7.
wet rot, 5.
wind-shake, 6.
worms, 5.
Desijpa of joists and girders, 226.
Dietrich's swine house, 208.
Dining room, 266.
Doors,
residence, 106.
silo, 176, 156, 146.
Dormers, loi.
Drains, 330.
Drier, 57.
Dutch architecture, 262.
Efforescence, 28.
Electric lighting, 291.
design of system, 292.
equipment, 292.
lamps, 295.
Enamel paint, 59.
Endogenous stem, i.
English architecture, 262.
English bond, 27.
Estimating, 112.
Excavating, 80, 112.
Exogenous stem, i.
Farm building Ventilation, 273.
Feed rack for sheep, 215.
Fireplace, 299.
Flemish bond, 27.
Floor deafening, 98.
Floors,
bam, 226, 239, 254.
granary, 119.
machine shed, 125.'
poultry house, 187.
residence, 96, 114.
sheep bam, 214.
silo, 161.
swine house, 205.
Flues,
hot-air, 301.
ventilating, 279, 282.
Foundations, 79.
Framing, general, 84.
balloon, 86.
bam, 219.
braced, 87.
floor opening, 88.
poultry-house, 192.
roof, 90.
round bam, 233.
silo roof, 178.
swine house, 208, 211.
Fuller's rule, 36.
Gable roof, 90.
Gambrel roof, 222.
Gas heater for water, 328.
General purpose bam, 256.
Glass, 61.
crown, 63.
ground, 63.
plate, 62.
prismatic, 63.
sheet, 62.
Granaries, 118.
arrangement, 120.
equipment, 120.
floors, 119, 120.
Gravel, 33.
Gravel roofing, 30.
Gravity tank, 321.
Gurler silo, 149.
Gutters,
bam-floor, 238.
roof, 100.
Heart-shake, 6.
Heartwood, 2.
Heating systems, 296.
combined hot-air and hot-water, 310.
design, 311.
essentials, 296.
fireplace, 298.
hot-air, 300.
hot-water, 307.
open-fire, 297.
steam, 302.
vacuum, 311.
Hollow walls, 28.
Hopper closet, 333.
Horse bams, 252.
design, 252.
essentials, 252.
floors, 254.
measurements of stalls, 253.
small, 256.
stallion, 256.
ventilation, 254.
Hot-air heating system, 300.
INDEX
345
Hot-water heating system, 307.
. Hot-water supply, 326.
Hydraulic ram, 318.
Ice houses, 132.
construction, 134.
concrete, 135.
inexpensive, 134.
types, 133.
Ice storage, 133.
Ideal dairy bam, 245.
Indirect radiator, 278.
Individual swine house, 206, 207,
Joints,
brick masonry, 26.
stone masonry, 19.
Joists, 85.
design, 226.
hangers, 89.
Kerosene lamps, 286.
Kiln drjring, 8.
King system of ventilation, 280.
design, 282.
flues, 282.
principles, 281.
Kitchen, 264.
Knotty wood, 7.
Laminae in stone, 18.
Lamps,
acetylene, 289.
air-gas, 287.
electric, 295.
kerosene, 286.
Lath, 93.
Lavatories, 335.
Leader, 301.
Lighting farm buildings, 285.
acetylene, 288.
air-gas, 287.
candles, 285.
electricity, 291.
kerosene, 286.
Living room, 267.
Location of farm buildings, 67.
advantage of good, 76.
application of principles, 73,
principles, 69.
Machine sheds, 123.
arrangement, 126.
floors, 124.
roof framing, 125.
Mission architective, 263.
Mixtures for concrete, 35.
Mortar, 52.
Nails, 63.
classification, 63.
cut, 63.
holding power, 64.
sizes, 66.
special, 63.
wire, 63.
wrought, 63.
One-pipe system, 305, 30^
Paint, 55.
application, 58.
composition, 55, 57.
definition, 55.
enamel, 59.
Painting, 58.
Pigment, 57.
Pipe sizes for plumbing, 332.
Pitch, 91.
Pit silos, 185.
Plate, 89.
Plinth, 107.
Plumbing systems, 330.
Pneumatic water-supply system, 334.
Portable colony house, 198.
Poultry houses, 186.
colony type, 198.
convenience, 190.
commercial, 199.
feed boxes, 191.
floor, 188.
for average farm, 194.
foundations, 187.
general construction, 192.
location, 186.
roofs, 193.
sunlight, 190.
types, 193.
Prismatic glass, 63.
Quarter sawing, 9.
Rafter, 89, 90.
Ready roofing, 31.
Reinforced concrete, 48.
346
INDEX
Residence, 257.
axchitectural styles, 260.
American, 263.
California, 263.
Colonial, 261.
Dutch, 262.
English, 262.
mission, 263.
bathrooms, 269.
bedrooms, 268.
dining room, 266.
kitchen, 264.
living room, 267.
typical plan, 269.
ventilation, 274.
Rifts in stone, 18.
Rindgall, 7.
Roof framing, 90.
Roofing, 29.
gravel, 30.
ready. 31.
shingle, 29.
slate, 29.
tile, 30.
tin, 30.
Roofs,
bam, 222.
gable, 223.
gambrel, 223.
poultry house, 193.
residence, 90.
silo, 176.
swine house, 208.
Roosts, 191.
Round bam, 232.
arrangement, 247, 252.
framing, 233.
Round dairy bam, 247, 252.
Rubble masonry, 191
Sand, 32.
Sapwood, 2.
Seasoning, 7.
Septic tanks, 338.
Sewage disposal, 336.
Sheathing, 92.
Sheep bams, 212.
cost, 213.
design, 213.
essentials, 212.
ventilation, 214.
Sheet glass, 62.
Shingles, 29.
slate, 29.
wood, 29.
Shop, 230.
Shrinkage of timber, 88.
Silage,
pressure, 140.
weight, 141.
Silos, 136.
capacities, 139.
chute, 182.
definition, 136.
development, 137.
doors, 146, 156, 176.
essentials, 137.
foundation, 143, 159.
size, 138.
typc&t 141.
concrete, 156.
gurler, 149.
pit, 185.
stave, 142.
vitrified tile, 151.
Sinks, 335.
Siphon-jet doset, 334.
Slate shingles, 29.
Smith swine house, 211.
Solvent, 57.
Springwood, 3.
Squared-stone masonry, 19.
Stack, 301.
Stairs, 102.
Boston, 104.
construction, 104.
definitions, 103.
dimensions, 104.
housed, 105.
Stallion bam, 255.
Star-shake, 6.
Stave silo, 142.
Steam heating, 302.
Steel, 15.
classification, 15.
manufacture, 15.
properties, 16.
Stone,
building, 21.
classification, 16.
cutting, 20.
varieties of building, 22.
Stone masonry, 18.
varieties, 18.
Storage barns, 218.
Stoves, 300.
INDEX
347
Strength,
concrete, 51.
joists and girders, 226.
steel, 16.
wood, 12.
Stucco, 41.
application, 42.
constituents, 42.
finishing, 45.
Summerwood, 3.
Swine houses, 202.
cost, 204.
equipment, 204.
types, 205.
Tie, brick, 27.
Tile, roofing, 30.
Timber, i.
Timber framing, 219.
Tin roofing, 30.
Traps, 333.
Truss over opening, 87.
Truss, scissors, 125.
Twisted, 7.
Upset, 7.
Vacuum heating system, 311.
Varnish, 59.
application, 60.
definition, 59.
Vehicle, 56.
Veneer, 10.
Ventilating fireplace, 278.
Ventilation, 273.
definition, 274.
farm building, 280.
fireplace, 278.
King system, 280.
purpose, 274.
residence, 274.
stove-heated buildings, 278.
Vitrified tile, 152.
Vitrified-tOe silo, 151.
Walls, 92.
foundation, 82.
residence, 92.
silo, 138.
Washdown doset, 334.
Washout closet, 334.
Water back, 328.
Water closets, 338.
hopper, 334.
siphon-jet, 334.
washdown, 334.
washout, 334.
Water hlunmer, 307.
Water heater, gas, 328.
Waterproofing concrete, 37.
Water-supply systems, 317.
design of hydro-pneumatic, 32a.
gravity tank, 321.
hydraulic ram, 318.
hydro-pneumatic, 321.
pneumatic, 324.
types, 317-
Wells, 315.
artesian, 317.
Wet rot, 6.
Windows, 94.
Wind-shake, 6.
Wire nails, 63, 66.
Wire straightener, 155.
Wisconsin model dairy bam, 244.
Wood, 1.
color, 4.
crushing strength, 12.
defects, 5.
kiln-drying, 8.
odor, 5.
seasoning, 7.
shearing strength, I3.
structure, i.
tensile strength, 12.
testing, II.
varieties, 13.
Worms, 5.
Wrought nails, 63.
Printed in the United States of America.
npHE following pages contain advertisements of a
few of the Macmilian books on kindred subjects
Irrigation and Drsdnage: Principles and
Practice of Their Cultural Phases
By F. H. king
Fifth reprint, cloth, izmo,
S02 pages, ill., $i.6o
This book deals in a clear and helpful way with
immediate practical problems, from the farmer's, fruit
grower's and gardener's standpoint and explains the
principles underlying the methods of culture by irri-
gation and drainage, and their importance in securing
results.
The Soil: Its Nature, Relations, and
Fundamental Principles of Management
By F. H. king
i^h reprint^ clothy I2m0y
303 P<^g^h ii'5o
A luminous and practical discussion of the soil and
its various attributes. The importance of a work Kke
this cannot easily be overestimated.
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
PubliBhers 64-66 Fifth Ayenue New York
Rural Hygiene
By H. N. OGDEN
Cloth f i2fno, iUustrcUed, 434 pages y $1^50
The subject of Rural Hygiene is one that is receiving in-
creasing attention of late years. Professor Ogden has aimed
to incorporate in this volume all the results of recent research
to which he has added the fruits of his own study and investi-
gation. The book will be welcomed as the best text-book in its
field, as well as by the general reader.
" It is in no sense a medical work, rather it contains infor-
mation which, if carried out, would do much to eliminate the
need of medicine." — The Craftsman,
"Professor Ogden has treated his subject in a broad and
comprehensive manner, including sanitary buildings, water
supply, sewage disposal, pure and wholesome foods, infectious
diseases, and healthful personal living. It is beyond question
the most valuable coimtry-Ufe book of the year." — The Inde-
pendent.
" This is one of the best books on the hygiene of the farm
and family I have ever seen. ... It fills a place in the farmer's
library that no other book will." — The Progressive Farmer.
"It is a valuable and timely book, thoroughly practical, and
covering the whole subject most exhaustively." — The Chicago
Tribune.
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
Publisbeni 64-66 Fifth Ayenue ITew York
Rural Text-Book Series
Edited by L. H. BAILEY
Each volume, doth, I2m0y iUustrated
While the " Rural Science Series " is designed primarily for
popular reading and for general use, this related new series is
designed for classroom work and for special use in consultation
and reference. The " Rural Text-Book Series " is planned to
cover eventually the entire range of public school and college
texts.
DuGGAR, B. M. — Physiology of Plant Production . $i.6o
DuGGAR, John Frederick — Southern Field Crops . $1.75
Harper, M. W. — Animal Husbandry for Schools . . $1.40
Lyon, T. L., and Fippin, E. O. — Principles of Soil Manage-
ment $1.75
Mann, A. R. — Beginnings in Agriculture .... $0.75
Montgomery, G. F. — Corn Crops $1,60
Warren, G. F. — Elements of Agriculture . . . , $1.10
Warren, G. F. — Farm Management . . , $1.75
Wheeler, H. J. — Manures and Fertilizers .... $1.60
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
Tablishcrs 61-66 Fifth Avenne Kew York
A NEW IMPORTANT CYCLOPEDIA
The Standard Cyclopedia of
Horticulture
Edited by L. H. BAILEY
With the assistance of over 500 collaborators.
New edition, entirely rewriUen and enlarged with many new features; with 24
plates in color. Nine full-page half-tones and over 4000 text illustrations-
To be complete in six volumes. Sold only in sets by subscription.
This work, the second edition of tiie famous Cyclopedia of
American Horticulture, has been freshly written in the light of
the most recent research and the most modern experience. It
is not merely an ordinary revision or corrected edition of the
old Cyclopedia, but it is a new work from start to finish, with
enlarged boundaries both geographically and practically. It
supersedes and displaces all previous editions or reprints of
every kind whatsoever.
It is the fullest, the newest, the most authoritative of all
works of its kind, and constitutes the most conscientious at-
tempt that has ever been made to compress the whole story of
our horticultural thought, learning, and achievement into one
set of books. The text is under alphabetical arrangement, sup-
plemented by a Synopsis of the Plant Kingdom, a Key to the
identification of the species, and an Index to the complete set.
Illustrated circular sent on request.
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
PnbliBhers 64-66 Fifth Ayenue Hew York
DEC281<I?0
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11