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A6RIC.
LIBRARY

FEEDS AND FEEDING

A HAND-BOOK

FOB THE

STUDENT AND STOCKMAN

W. A. HENRY

, »

. Dean of the College of Agriculture^
and Director of the Agricultural Experiment Station,
University of Wisconsin

1 The eye of the master fattens his cattle."

— German adage.

PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOB

MADISON, WIS.

1898

M. J. CANTWELL, PRINTER, MADISON, WI8.

PREFACE.

For more than a generation past many of the ablest scientists
of the Old World have devoted their energies to a study of
the laws of animal nutrition. American Experiment Stations,
although of recent origin, have added much to our store of
knowledge concerning the application of science to stock feed-
ing. From these fruitful sources the writer has endeavored to
select data important in establishing principles and helpful in
directing rational practice. In addition there has been gathered
from all available sources the experiences and observations of
stockmen.

Much space is occupied by tables, which are usually condensed
and arranged from the original sources, to which references are
made. By their help it is hoped the student will be able to
determine for himself to what extent the deductions drawn are
warranted by the facts. Moreover, the data they contain may
form the basis for new studies with those specially interested,
and may make additional conclusions possible.

The stockman whose training has been solely in the school of
experience often holds in light regard that which is written con-
cerning his vocation. Let him remember that facts and truths
are the same whether their repository is a book or the human
mind. Held by the latter, all perish with the possessor; in the
keeping of the former, the whole world may be benefited. On
the other hand, novices usually underestimate the importance of
experience, often thinking that by reading they can acquire the
knowledge necessary in the prosecution of their business. That
stock feeding is an art and not a science, and that experience and
judgment must rule in its successful conduct, is recognized in
this volume by placing on the title page the adage, "The eye of
the master fattens his cattle." In this we have followed the

258085

iv Preface.

German author Kiihn in his popular work on the same topic. In
the successful management of live stock abstract knowledge can-
not take the place of experience, though it will prove of the
highest value when both are rightly combined. The stockman
who in addition to experience possesses some knowledge of the
composition of the nutrients of feeding stuffs, and has considered
how the animal grows and is nourished by them, is certainly
thereby better equipped for wisely and economically administer-
ing feed to the animals under his care. And in the deeper in-
sight and wider range of vision which these studies insure, there
comes keener enjoyment and a greater satisfaction to the posses-
sor, in his daily round of duties.

Acknowledgment is due my co-worker, Prof. F. "W. Woll, for
assistance, especially in collating the data published by foreign
investigators. His familiarity with this source of information
has been of the highest utility. Mr. A. M. Troyer, a graduate
student in agriculture, has assisted in preparing and verifying

the tables from American sources.

W. A. HENRY.
MADISON, Wis., February, 1898.

CONTENTS.

PART I.— PLANT GROWTH AND ANIMAL NUTRITION.

CHAPTER. PACK.

I. The Plant; How it Grows and Elaborates Food for

Animals . 1

II. Mastication, Digestion and Assimilation ..... 12

III. Digestion, Respiration and Calorimetry ...... 26

IV. Animal Nutrition 40

V. The Source of Muscular Energy; Composition of Ani-
mals Before and After Fattening 63

VI. Influence of Feed on the Animal Body 78

VIL Explanation of Tables of Composition and Feeding
Standards— Methods of Calculating Rations for

Farm Animals, etc 97

PART II.— FEEDING STUFFS.

VIII. Leading Cereals and Their By-products 119

IX. Minor Cereals, Oil-bearing and Leguminous Seeds and

Their By-products 143

X. Indian Corn as a Forage Plant 163

XI. The Grasses, Fresh and Cured — Straw 178

XII. Leguminous Plants for Green Forage and Hay ... 195

XIII. Miscellaneous Feeding Stuffs 211

XIV. Soiling Cattle — Preparation of Feeding Stuffs ... 231

XV. The Ensilage of Fodders 245

XVI. Manurial Value of Feeding Stuffs 263

PART III.— FEEDING FARM ANIMALS.

XVII. Investigations Concerning the Horse 271

XVIII. Feeds for the Horse 292

XIX. Feed and Care of the Horse 311

XX. Calf Rearing 334

XXI. Results of Steer-feeding Trials at the Stations ... 345

XXII. Factors in Steer Fattening— Final Results .... 364

XXIII. Counsel in the Feed Lot 381

XXIV. The Dairy Cow— Scientific Findings 401

vi Contents.

CHAPTER. PAQK.

XXV. Station Tests with Feeding Stuffs for Dairy Cows . . 413

XXVI. Influence of Feed on Milk— Wide and Narrow Rations 437
XXVII. Public Tests of Pure-bred Dairy Cows — Cost of Pro-
ducing Milk and Fat in Dairy Herds at Various

Experiment Stations 448

XXVIII. Feed and Care of the Dairy Cow 463

XXIX. Investigations with Sheep 480

XXX. Experiments in Fattening Sheep— Wool Production . 497

XXXI. General Care of Sheep — Fattening 614

XXXII. Investigations with Swine 635

XXXIII. Value of Various Feeding Stuffs for Pigs 556

XXXIV. Danish Pig-feeding Experiments 683

XXXV. Feeding and Management of Swine— Effect of Feed

on the Carcass of the Pig 604

FEEDS AND FEEDING.

PART I.
PLANT GROWTH AND ANIMAL NUTRITION.

CHAPTEE I.

W IT GROWS A
FOOD FOR ANIMALS.

I. Plant Grmcth.

1. Concerning plant cells. — Since plants and their products in
some form, directly or indirectly, constitute the food of animals,
it is proper in these studies that we briefly examine how the plant
grows and elaborates this food.

The unit of plant growth is the cell. If we study a grain of
corn or a corn stalk we find it made up of cells variously modified,
the whole group together taking on the form of the object under
consideration. In their primary condition all cells are closed
sacs, and contain the juices and other substances incident to plant
growth. The walls of the plant cells are composed of a woody
substance called cellulose. These walls may be thin and tender to
the teeth of the animal, as in the young plants of the fields, or
thick, woody and tough, as in the stems of the forest trees. Before
studying more intimately the plant cell, its contents, and what
occurs within it, let us consider the substances essential to plant
growth.

2. Elements essential to plant life. — The elementary substances
required for plant life are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,

2 Feeds and Feeding.

potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, iron, chlorin and
sulfur. The plant can make no use of these elements in their
uncombined form, with the single exception of oxygen, of which
it may utilize a small amount in elementary form. All the other
elements, as well as oxygen for the most part, must be combined
with one another in some form to be of use to the plant. The
mineral substances which are taken up by the roots of the plant
may be grouped as follows:

Sul fates ^ C Potassium

Phosphates I * I Calcium

Nitrates and | 1 Magnesium and

Chlorids J [ Iron.

Nitrogen in the form of nitrates and as ammonia is taken up
by the plant through its roots. Legumes (peas, clover, etc.)
possess the power of fixing the free nitrogen of the air through
the intermediate action of certain species of bacteria harbored
by the roots. Otherwise such 'nitrogen is not directly available
for plant growth.

3. Water required by plants. — Water, as we may judge from
its abundance in plants, is of the highest importance to them.
Half-grown clover plants may contain as much as 92 per cent,
water, or more than is found in skim milk. The turnip contains
from 87 to 92 per cent, water. When a crop of corn is partially
grown, nine-tenths of its whole weight may be water. Plants
exhale a large amount of water through their leaves during
growth. A sunflower plant 3.3 feet high has been known to
exhale 1.25 pounds of water through its leaves during twelve
hours. Lawes and Gilbert found in the moist climate of England,
that wheat, barley, beans, peas and clover exhaled during five
months of growth about 200 times their dry weight of water. King,
of the Wisconsin Station, l measuring the water given off through
leaf evaporation as well as by the soil supporting the plants,
found that for each pound of dry matter produced by the plant
in root, stem, leaf and seed, there were required for corn 301,
for barley 401, and for oats 501 pounds of water. The transpi-
ration of water by the leaves causes an upward progress of that
liquid from the roots through the stem of at least 1.3 inches

1 Kept. 1891.

Sow the Plant Grows. 3

per minute. Under certain conditions the upward movement of
water in plant stems may exceed 30 inches per minute.

4. How plants gather food. — Carbonic acid, which is next to
water in the amount utilized by plants, is taken up by them
through the medium of the leaves. Ten thousand volumes of air
contain about three volumes of carbonic acid gas; thirty- two
hundred cubic yards of air hold one pound of this gas. An acre
of growing wheat will gather during four months one ton of car-
bonic acid gas, or an amount equal to all the air contains over
the same area of land to a height of three miles.

In the leaves of plants, mostly on their under side, are numerous
minute openings leading into the interior. Air passing through
these carries with it carbonic acid, which is absorbed by the leaf
cells. The feeding roots of plants are clothed with minute hairs,
which take up water from the soil, together with mineral matter
and nitrogen compounds in solution. There are no direct open-
ings in these root hairs, the material being taken up by diffusion.
Boots are capable of dissolving and absorbing solid ingredients
from the soil particles with which they come in contact. Though
they take up some matter which is useless to the plant, roots
exercise a very considerable selective power in the materials
absorbed, and do not seem to gather plant food indiscriminately.

5. Plant building. — Having learned what the plant lives upon
and how it gathers its food, let us consider how it grows. In the
active cells, especially those of the leaves, there is found a trans-
lucent, jelly-like substance called protoplasm. The life of the
plant may be said to exist in this protoplasm. The green coloring
of leaves and stems is due to a substance called chlorophyll con-
tained within the protoplasm. Chlorophyll is formed only in
sunlight. The carbonic acid gas gathered by the leaves is ab-
sorbed by the cells containing protoplasm charged with chloro-
phyll. The plant everywhere is bathed with j uices called i l sap, ' 7
a very large portion of which is water brought in by the roots.
In this sap are mineral matter and nitrogen compounds. And
now for the wonderful transmutation.

The carbonic acid gas and water commingling in the cells are
decomposed and their atoms re-arranged and welded into a new

4 Feeds and Feeding.

substance by the energy of sunlight and heat guided by the life
principle of the protoplasm with its chlorophyll. The result of
the union of the gas and water is starch, with some oxygen left
as a by-product. The oxygen escapes to the air, while the starch
is retained by the plant for manifold uses. It is possible that
starch is not the first substance formed, but it is the first with
which we have to deal.

6. Starch. — The great building material of the plant is starch.
The plant has use for little or none of the starch in the cells
where it is manufactured, but requires it elsewhere. Being insol-
uble in water and forming in cells which are closed sacs, the
starch cannot be transferred to other parts of the plant in its
original form. The difficulty is overcome by the protoplasm of
the cell changing the starch into sugar and soluble substances
closely allied to starch, as we shall presently see. Sugar is solu-
ble in the juices of the plant, and by diffusion it is readily trans-
ferred from cell to cell until it reaches the place where needed.
The principle which renders starch soluble is an unorganized
ferment called " diastase, " which can change two thousand times
its own weight of starch into soluble compounds.

The walls of the innumerable cells of the plant framework are
constructed of cellulose, a substance having the same composition
as starch. Where growth occurs in the enlarging plant, the newly-
formed cells are tender and filled with protoplasm. Each cell
divides into two or more cells, the newly-formed members growing
to full size. The cell walls thus enlarged are built of soluble
sugar changed to insoluble cellulose through the action of pro-
toplasm.

7. Growth from the chemist's standpoint. — Let us review the
subject of plant growth, as we have studied it to this point, from
the position of the chemist, in order to fix more clearly in mind
the process of plant growth.

With the chemist, " O " stands for oxygen, " H " for hydrogen,
"C" for carbon. Water is composed of two atoms of hydrogen
chemically united with one of oxygen. This molecule, which is
the smallest division of the water particle, they symbolize as
H 2 O. In the same manner carbonic acid gas is indicated by CO 2 .

Sow the Plant Grows.

The chemist writes the substances formed from carbonic acid gas
and water in the plant thus:

Starch |

Cellulose} °i ^20^10
Cane sugar Gl2H.2ZOll
Glucose C12H24O12

Let us now consider from the chemist's standpoint how starch
may be formed by the plant from carbonic acid and water, and,
when once formed, how it may be changed to sugar, glucose or
•cellulose.

This may be shown by the following equations:

Taken in by the plant. Changed in the plant to —

Carbonic acid Water Starch Oxygen

12(C02) + 10(H20) = C12H20010 +240
Starch by the addition of one part of water becomes cane
sugar 5 thus:

Starch Water Cane sugar

CI2H20010 + H20 = O^H^O,,
Cane sugar plus one part of water becomes glucose, thus:
Cane sugar Water Glucose

C12H22^11 + H2^ = C12H24O12

In the above we observe that 12 molecules of carbonic acid
united with 10 molecules of water form 1 molecule of starch
with 24 atoms of oxygen remaining. By the second equation we
learn that if one molecule of water is added to the starch molecule,
a molecule of cane sugar results. The addition of another mole-
cule of water to cane sugar gives glucose. The removal of one
molecule of water from cane sugar and two from glucose reduces
these substances back to starch, or to cellulose.

In the above cases the hydrogen and oxygen stand in the same
relation to each other as in water, there being two atoms of the
former to one of the latter. For this reason, starch, cane sugar,
cellulose and similar substances are called carbohydrates. l

8. Plant oils. — Another group of building materials found in
the plant comes under the term " fats'7 or "oils." Though they

1 For information concerning scientific and technical terms the student
will consult the Glossary at the end of the volume.

6 Feeds and Feeding.

are composed of the same three elements found in the carbo-
hydrate group, the hydrogen atoms are not always twice the
number of oxygen atoms. These oils are usually compounded
of several simple oils, the principal of which, with their formulae,

are as follows:

Stearin C57H110O6

Palmitin C51H98O6
Olein C57H10406

Oils give off much more heat during combustion than the car-
bohydrates because they contain a relatively • larger quantity oi
carbon. While found in nearly all parts of the plant, the oils and
fats are chiefly stored in seeds, as flax, cotton, rape, etc. Oats,
wheat and corn contain some fats or oils.

9. Protein compounds. — Thus far we have considered the
plant compounds which result from the union of the three ele-
ments, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. We now come to a more
complex group of plant substances containing two additional ele-
ments, viz., nitrogen and sulfur. It is held that the nitrates
taken up through the roots of plants on reaching the protoplasmic
masses in the active cells are broken up, and the nitric acid and
sulfur are united with starch or a starch derivative, forming a
protein compound. Protein substances may be produced in pro-
toplasmic masses which may or may not contain chlorophyll. The
protoplasm of active cells, where the work of assimilation goes-
on, is itself a protein substance. Very little protein is found in
the woody, older portions of the plant, the greater amount existing
at the point of growth and in the seeds or reproductive parts. In
the seed the protein exists quite largely in the germ itself, and
also in the surrounding envelopes. For a definition of protein,
see Glossary. The protein compounds of plants are divided into
two groups — albuminoids and amides.

10. The albuminoids. — One group of protein substances i&
characterized by the term " albuminoids. " Vegetable albu-
men closely resembles the white of egg, and like it, is coagulated
by heat. Gluten, another albuminoid, is found in the wheat
grain. It may be separated from the starchy portion of wheat
flour by washing the dough in running water, the sticky mass

How the Plant Grows. 1

remaining constituting crude gluten. The nitrogenous portion ot
beans, peas, clover seeds, etc., is likewise an albuminoid called
"legumin."

11. Amides. — The amides are nitrogenous bodies which are
crystalline and soluble in water. Being soluble, they can pass
through the cell walls of plant tissues, and thus are capable of
diffusing from one part of the plant to another. Since the amides
are found in the immature and growing parts of plants, it is
probable that their function is the transfer of organized nitrogen
from one part of the structure to another in the process of plant
building.

12. Mineral compounds. — Though occurring in relatively small
amounts, mineral matter in various combinations is essential to
the life and development of all plants. The elaboration of food
materials in the protoplasmic masses referred to in the previous
paragraph, as well as the development of the young plants from
the seed, require the presence of mineral matter, which is found
everywhere in the plant substance. The leaves of plants contain
more ash or mineral matter than the other portions. This is
probably due to the constant evaporation of water from the
leaves, the ash matter in solution being left behind.

13. The end of plant effort. — If we study the life history of
an individual plant we observe that its first effort is directed
toward self- establishment and enlargement. All of the food
elaborated from the compounds taken from air and soil is trans-
ferred to the growing parts, that the plant may be built up and
reach perfection. As the period of maturity approaches, all the
energies of the plant are changed to that of reproduction or mul-
tiplication. The food materials, which were at first used for leaf
multiplication and enlargement or for the growth of more and
larger stems and roots, are now joined into a current which flows
to the reproductive parts. First come the blossoms, and then
the young, enlarging fruits. Into these the sugars, protein com-
pounds and mineral substances gathered from air and soil, and
elaborated in the green parts, are poured in a steady current.
The wheat plant resulting from a single kernel bears a hundred
fruits in the shape of grains; the Indian corn plant may produce

8 Feeds and Feeding.

a thousand fold. In each of these grains is a miniature plant, —
the germ, about which is stored a generous supply of nutriment.
This is placed in compact, concentrated form, awaiting the time
when the germ begins life on its own account. In the potato
tuber there is a liberal storage of starch. In the beet root the
stored materials are held in the form of cane sugar, reserved for
seed production the following season. Each germ, or repro-
ductive part, is surrounded with food elements, arranged after
nature's choicest plan to aid in reproduction.

14. The sun the source of plant life. — Thus far we have
spoken of the plant as though it accomplished all these wonder-
ful transmutations through self-contained powers. This is incor-
rect. A plant can no more unite the elements of carbonic acid
and water into starch, or move this starch, changed to sugar, to
needed points, than can the wheels of a great factory move with-
out the impelling force of steam or the electric current. The
source of all life and power is the sun, the energy of which in
the shape of light and heat is absorbed by the protoplasmic mass
and its chlorophyll particles. In the plant cells the all-powerful
energy of the sun, guided by the mysterious principle of life,
works all the wonderful transmutations we have recorded.

15. Plants the support of animal life. — Nature has decreed that
it is the function of the plant, through the sun, to build inorganic
compounds into organic matter, in which operation the energy
employed becomes latent. Through digestion and absorption the
various plant compounds are incorporated in the animal body,
or are broken down within it into simpler compounds than those
of the plant structure. In this dissolution the energy which was
hidden in the plant is again revealed in all the manifestations of
animal life. In the coal burning in the grate we observe the
re- appearance of the energy of the sun which was stored in plants
ages ago. In the stalks and ears of corn which we feed to cattle,
we are furnishing energy received from the sun and rendered
dormant in plant building during the previous summer. When
supplying plants and seeds to the animals under his care, the
stockman observes in their growing bodies warmed by internal
fires the energy of the sun transmitted by the plant to the animal.

How tJie Plant Grows.

II. How the Chemist Grroups Plant Substances.

16. Illustrations. — The agricultural chemist divides plant sub-
stances into groups, differing in some cases from those made by
the physiological chemist. In the following table a few stock
feeds are shown as grouped by the agricultural chemist, such pres-
entation being for the purpose of guiding the student in his con-
sideration of this subject.

Composition of certain American feeding stuffs, as arranged by the
agricultural chemist.

Percentage composition.

Feeding stuffs.

O QQ

o£
fc|

Water.

Ash.

Protein.

Crude
fiber.

Nitro-
gen-free
extract.

Ether
extract.

Fresh pasture

grass

75.3

2.5

4.0

5.9

11.4

Mangels

90.9

1.1

1.4

5 5

Corn.

10.6

1.5

10.3

2.2

70.4

5 0

Red clover hay..

15.3

6.2

12.3

24.8

38.1

3.3

The first column presents the names of the feeding stuffs exam-
ined. The second column states the number of analyses from
which the subsequent data are derived. As a rule these analyses
have been made by chemists at different points in the country, so
that when a considerable number have been secured we may
regard the average as representative of the plant or plant sub-
stances under consideration. The remainder of the table comes
under the general heading " Percentage composition." Let us
consider its several divisions.

17. Water. — The chemist places a small quantity of the food
material, usually finely divided by chopping or grinding, into a
small vessel and ascertains its weight. The balance used is so
delicate that a thimbleful of corn meal can be weighed with a
smaller percentage of probable error than is usual when a farmer
weighs a wagon-load of corn on a good scale. The sample is
then placed in an oven, where it is dried at a temperature of 212°
Fahr. for several hours, or until a constant weight is secured.
The heat drives off the water, and the difference between the two

10 Feeds and Feeding.

weights represents the amount of water which the sample origi-
nally contained.

We learn by the third column of the table that the water in
pasture grass is 75.3 per cent, of the whole amount; that is, such
grass is about three-fourths water. Corn carries 10.6 per cent,
of water, while red clover hay contains 15.3 pounds to the hun-
dred weight.

18. Ash. — Having determined the water in the sample, the
chemist next burns it to ascertain its ash 'content. Care is
taken that no charcoal is left, only the clear ash remaining. The
next column shows the percentage of ash in the feeding stuffs
under consideration. In 100 pounds of pasture grass there are
2.5 pounds of ash. Indian corn has only 1.5 pounds of ash for
100 of grain, while red clover hay yields 6.2 pounds. This large
amount comes in part from the accumulation of ash in the leaves
of the clover plant, and in some measure is due to earth washed
up on the stems of the plant by rain, and to the dust which set-
tles on plants, and on hay before it is placed in the barn. Such
foreign material is really not ash, but of necessity is reported as
such.

19. Protein. — The process of determining the protein in a
feeding stuff is too complicated for presentation here. Suffice it to
say that the nitrogen contained therein is determined, and that
the sum so secured is multiplied by 6.25 to determine the protein,
since it has been found that about 16 per cent, of protein sub-
stances consist of nitrogen. By the table we find that the protein
of pasture grass amounts to 4, mangels to 1.4, corn to 10.3, and
red clover hay to 12.3 pounds per hundred weight. "We are
shown that pasture grass is much richer in protein than are
mangels, and that clover hay is likewise richer than the grain of
the corn plant.

20. Crude fiber. — The amount of crude fiber is determined by
boiling a sample of the fodder successively in weak acid and
alkali solutions, which dissolve all the softer parts. That which
remains after washing is called l ' crude fiber. ' ' It consists for the
most part of cellulose, which, as we have already learned, con-
stitutes the framework of the plant. Corn grains contain only

How tlw Plant Grows. 11

2.2 per cent, crude fiber, while clover hay yields nearly 25
per cent.

21. Ether extract or fat. — A sample of the fodder, dried so as
to be free from water, is treated with ether, which has the power
of dissolving fat, wax, resins and similar substances. The matter
extracted by ether is quite commonly called "fat" in works on
plant analysis. In this book it is always spoken of as "ether
extract." In seeds nearly all the ether extract is fat or oil, and
has a corresponding feeding value. In plant leaves and stems
much of the ether extract is wax, chlorophyll and other substances
of lower feeding value than fat. Mangels are shown by the table
to yield only .2 of a pound of ether extract per 100, while corn
reaches 5 per cent.

22. Nitrogen-free extract. — Mtrogen-free extract signifies what
is left of the organic matter of the plant after deducting the pre-
ceding groups of compounds. It contains starch, sugar, pento-
sans, gums, organic acid and other bodies. The nitrogen-free
extract and the crude fiber together constitute the carbohydrates
of the plant physiologist. Nitrogen-free extract is determined
by difference. The total dry matter in the fodder, minus the ash,
ether extract and crude fiber, equals the percentage of nitrogen-
free extract present. The great difference between plants and
seeds as to woody matter is shown in the table. Over 70 per
cent, of the substance of corn and only about 38 per cent, of
clover hay is nitrogen-free extract.

CHAPTEE II.

MASTICATION, DIGESTION AND ASSIMILATION.1

23. Prehension. — The horse when grazing gathers herbage
with the lips, which are very sensitive, and act with great mo-
bility. The food thus gathered is severed with the incisor or
front teeth of the upper and lower jaws. "When feeding on hay
and grain, the horse still makes free use of the lips in working
the food into the mouth.

The ox seizes herbage with the outstretched tongue, and by a
swinging motion of the head severs it as it passes between the
teeth in the lower jaw and the cartilaginous pad of the upper jaw.

The sheep, like the ox, has no teeth in the upper jaw; like the
horse, it makes free use of the lips when grazing. The horse in
grazing crops the herbage nearer to the ground than does the ox,
and the sheep still closer than the horse.

The shape and direction of the front teeth of the hog show an
omniverous feeder. Probably the grazing quality of the hog
varies considerably with the breed, and also in different strains
of the same breed, the skulls and jaws of hogs presenting re-
markable variations in size and shape.

24. Mastication. — The food consumed by the animal is reduced
to fineness by the molar teeth, assisted by the lips, tongue and
cheeks, which pass it to the place for grinding and hold it in
position. With herbivorous animals the lower jaw is much
narrower than the upper. In the horse, when the upper and
lower grinders of one side are in contact, those of the lower jaw
on the other side are nearly or quite an inch to the inside of their
mates above, so that grinding is possible on but one side of the
mouth at a time. As mastication proceeds, the feed is mixed

1 Most of the text and tables in this chapter are adapted from the
Physiology of the Domestic Animals, by Robert Meade Smith, which
•excellent work should be consulted by the student seeking further infor-
mation on these subjects.

Mastication, Digestion and Assimilation.

with saliva poured upon it from glands opening into the mouth
at several points. The food materials in the mouth are gradually
formed into a rounded mass or bolus for swallowing. Colin esti-
mates that a horse requires one and one-half hours to masticate
four pounds of dry hay, and that this amount will make from
sixty to sixty-five boluses, the rate of mastication being from
thirty to eighty strokes of the teeth per minute. Saliva aids
mastication, and a suppression of the flow prolongs the operation.
Colin diverted the flow of saliva by fistulas or openings, and
recorded results as follows:

Time required by the horse in masticating hay — Colin.

All the saliva
poured into
the mouth.

Saliva of
one parotid
escaping.

Saliva of
both parotids
escaping.

Average duration of mastica-
tion of one bolus, seconds..
Strokes of teeth, number

31.7
38.6

34.2
36.6

74.8
74.1

The molar or grinding teeth of the horse wear faster than the
incisors or cutting teeth, and the former would soon fail to meet
were it not that the incisors with increasing age gradually incline
forward, forming a sharper and sharper angle. The seeds of
plants are not all crushed during mastication, and those escaping
are distributed over the fields in the excreta, often still possess-
ing ability to germinate.

25. Insalivation. — While the food is being ground, it is modi-
fied by the saliva poured upon it from glands situated about the
mouth cavity. By means of ingenious experiments, Colin deter-
mined the amount of saliva secreted by the horse, and found that
when feeding on hay there was poured out from eleven to thir-
teen pounds of saliva per hour. Oats require a little more than
their own weight, green fodder half, and dry fodder four times
its weight of saliva during mastication. If the food of the horse
for one day amounts to 11 pounds of hay and 11 pounds of other
dry fodder, this will require four times its weight of saliva, or
88 pounds, to which must be added 4.4 pounds secreted during
rest, making 92.4 pounds in all.

14 Feeds and Feeding.

Smith.1 states that the ox secretes 112 pounds of saliva daily.
In the horse the parotid glands, located at the base of the upper
jaw and emptying near the second molar teeth, yield seven- tenths
of all the saliva secreted.

Animals chew their food on one side of the mouth only at a
time. It has been found that the parotid gland of the horse yields
saliva only on the side where the food is being masticated, the
other gland resting until grinding starts up on its side. The
chemical composition of mixed saliva, which varies somewhat in
different animals, is given for the horse as follows:

Water 992.00

Mucus and albumen 2.00

Alkaline carbonates 1.08

Alkaline chlorids 4.92

Alkaline phosphates and phosphate of lime traces.

1000.00

The mechanical use of saliva has been mentioned; it serves a
second and higher purpose. Saliva contains ptyalin, a soluble
ferment which converts the starch of the food into sugar. It acts
only upon the starchy matters of the food and not upon the cellu-
lose or other constituents. Since the food remains in the mouth
a comparatively short time, but little starch can be changed to
sugar before the mass is swallowed. The action of the saliva on
starch continues in the stomach.

26. Deglutition. — The bolus or rounded mass of food formed by
the action of the teeth, the cheeks and the tongue is forced into
the oesophagus or gullet and on into the stomach. The gullet of
the horse being comparatively small, the boluses do not exceed
an inch or an inch and a half in diameter ; in the ox they may
be double that size.

27. Gastric digestion. — The stomachs of our domestic animals
vary greatly in size, that of the hog holding 7 to 9 quarts, the
horse 17 to 19, and the ox over 300 quarts. Colin, who gives the
above data, found 145 pounds of air- dry fodder in the first three
compartments of the stomach of a cow which had fasted two

1 Physiology of the Domestic Animals.

Mastication, Digestion and Assimilation. 15

days. The stomach of the ox is never without considerable con-
tent, even after long starvation. The digestion of the starchy
matter of the food through action of the saliva continues in the
stomach. After the food 'enters the stomach a churning motion
is set up which causes it to travel from the place of entrance to-
ward the exit. While this motion is going on, a fluid is being
poured upon it from the lining of the stomach. This fluid is at
first alkaline, but gradually becomes more and more acid.

The amount of gastric fluid poured out has not yet been defi-
nitely determined. Some writers place it as high as one-fourth
the weight of the body daily, others a tenth, and others even less.
The composition of the gastric fluid of the sheep is as follows:

Water 986.14

Organic matter (especially ferments) 4. 05

Sodium chlorid 4.37

Calcium chlorid 0. 11

Hydrochloric acid 4.05

Potassium chlorid 1.52

Ammonium chlorid 0.47

Calcium phosphate 1.18

Magnesium phosphate 0.57

Ferric phosphate 0.33

The constituents of the gastric juice which effect changes are
pepsin, rennet and acid. Pepsin is a soluble ferment which acts
upon the food only in the presence of dilute acid. Rennet has
the power of curdling milk, one part coagulating 400,000 parts
of casein. Cane sugar is not fermentable and cannot be assimi-
lated until it is changed to glucose and laevulose. Hydrochloric
acid is present in considerable amount in the gastric juice. Cane
sugar in the food is slowly changed by this acid into laevulose
and glucose. The main action of the gastric juice is, however,
in converting the albuminoids into peptones, leaving the fatty
matter and cellulose to be attacked later. The stomach of the
horse is so small that it cannot contain a full feed at one time,
and consequently that portion which is first eaten is usually
pushed on from the stomach into the small intestines before it
has been long acted on by the gastric juice.

lt> Feeds and Feeding.

28. Gastric digestion of ruminants. — The stomach of the ox
and sheep is large and has four apartments, viz. — the rumen, or
paunch, the first stomach; the honey comb or reticulumj the second
stomach; the manyplies or omasum, the third stomach; and the
fourth stomach, called the rennet or dbomasum. The fourth
stomach corresponds to the single stomach of non-ruminants, —
the horse, pig, etc. After mastication the food passes from the
mouth into the paunch, or first stomach. The first three stomachs
secrete no fluid. In the rumen the food becomes very soft and
moist, owing to the large amount of saliva secreted and because
most of the water drank passes into it. The action of the saliva
in converting starch into sugar continues, and a very considerable
amount of cellulose may be digested through fermentations,
which are favored by the high temperature and the moisture of
the contents. The main purpose of the rumen is to serve as a
storehouse for food. The second stomach, or reticuluin, which
is really a chamber or part of the paunch, contains much fluid,
and serves to force the food into the oesophagus for rumination,
The food, being returned to the mouth, is reduced to greater fine-
ness by chewing, after which it is again swallowed. The second
time it passes either to the rumen or the third stomach. It is
probable that on being re-swallowed most of the food again drops
back into the paunch, and from here the finer portions are forced
directly into the third stomach. Like the first and second, the
third stomach gives off no secretions, and whatever changes
occur in it must be due to the action of the saliva or to fermen-
tations begun in the two preceding stomachs. The action of the
first three stomachs on food is preparatory, for the most part, t»
what occurs in the fourth. The food having been thoroughly
prepared by re- chewing and by maceration in the first three
stomachs, digestion goes on rapidly in the fourth. Here, as in
the stomach of the horse, the albuminoids are changed to pep -
tones. Tissues are dissolved and their oil contents set free. Cane
sugar is to some extent converted into invert sugar by the action
of acid. Starch which escapes conversion into sugar in the
rumen passes on into the intestines. Owing to the very thorough
preparation of the food in the first three stomachs, gastric diges-

Mastication, Digestion and Assimilation. 17

tion in the true stomach of the ox and sheep is more perfect than
in that of the horse and pig. In suckling ruminants the first
three stomachs are less developed than in grown animals. Colin
found that the rumen of a calf held 2.6 pounds, the reticulum
.22, the manyplies .35 pounds, and the abomasum, or true
stomach, 7.7 pounds. As the diet of the animal is changed to
solid food, grass, hay and grains, the first stomach gradually in-
creases in size, and attains the proportionate volume which it
has in grown-up animals. It then holds nine times as much as
the other three stomachs combined.

29. Bile. — Passing into the small intestine, the food is subjected
to the action of three other secretions, — bile, pancreatic juice
and intestinal secretion.

The bile is a greenish fluid of a neutral or alkaline reaction
secreted by the liver, the largest single organ of the body. The
composition of bile is given as follows:

Ox. Pig.

Water 90.4 88.8

Solids 9.6 11.2

Bile salts ^

Lecithin, cholesterin. . >• 8.0 9.5

Fats, soaps j

Mucin and coloring matter 0.3 0.6

Inorganic salts 1.3 1.1

According to Colin the liver of the horse forms over 13 pounds
of bile, the ox 5.7, and the sheep .75 pounds each 24 hours. The
flow of bile is continuous, increasing somewhat as the food passes
into the small intestine. Bile contains a ferment in small amount,
capable of converting starch into sugar. Its main use is to aid
in the absorption of fats. In the small intestine some of the fat
of the food is broken up into glycerin and fatty acids; the latter
unite with the alkalies of the bile and pancreatic juice and form
soaps. These soaps aid in forming and holding the remaining
fat in permanent emulsion. Bile facilitates the passage of the
emulsified fat through the membranes of the intestines, thus
aiding in its absorption. It is not only a secretion in aid of
digestion, but also an excretion or waste product. It prevents,
putrefaction and decomposition of the food in the intestinal canaL
2

18 Feeds and Feeding.

30. Pancreatic juice. — This colorless, alkaline fluid, secreted by
the pancreas or i i sweet breads, ' ' is poured into the intestine at the
same time and at about the same point as the bile, so that these
fluids act together. The pancreatic secretion contains more solids
than the others mentioned, and has therefore a high specific
gravity. It is closely allied to blood serum in composition, and
contains four ferments, one of which splits fats into glycerin and
fatty acids 5 another converts starch into sugar; a third resolves
protein compounds into soluble peptones, while a fourth curdles
milk. In one way the pancreatic juice resembles saliva, in that
it converts starch into sugar. One part of the active ferment of
the pancreatic fluid will convert 40,000 times its own weight of
starch into sugar and dextrin. Like bile, it converts fat into
fatty acids and glycerin; like pepsin, it converts protein sub-
stances into peptones. Unlike the gastric juice, the pancreatic
secretion acts upon protein in an alkaline solution. Colin and
others place the maximum secretion of pancreatic juice in the
horse at three-fifths of a pound per hour.

31. Large intestine. — The processes of digestion are continued
in the large intestine (colon) of the Herbivora. The stomach of
the horse being small, that organ together with the small intes-
tine has not sufficient capacity to accommodate the bulky, com-
paratively indigestible food usually supplied this animal, and is
supplemented by the large intestine, which has a capacity of five
or six times the stomach, permitting the retention of a large
quantity of food. The large intestine of the ox, which is smaller
in proportion than that of the horse, serves the same purpose.

The main office of the large intestine is to serve as a storage
place for the mixed food materials and digestive juices coming
from the small intestines, allowing continued action by the latter.
Here a partial digestion of cellulose takes place through fermen-
tations, all of the juices secreted by the various digestive organs
being without effect on this component. The digestion of cellu-
lose is as yet not clearly understood, but it seems that under cer-
tain conditions gaseous products, mainly marsh gas, are formed
in its fermentations. The value of cellulose has for this reason
been questioned; but the best authorities hold that the digestive

Mastication, Digestion and Assimilation.

portion possesses considerable nutritive value, although not as
much as starch or sugar.

32. Intestines and stomachs of farm animals. — The length
and capacity of the intestines and the capacity of the stomach
of different farm animals are as follows:

Length of intestines and capacity of stomachs of farm animals.

Length of intestine.

Capacity of stomach and
intestine.

Animal.

Average length.

-Q S3 03
g«3

,53

a12«

lls

I^-S

ifi

c-SZl

l^/os

Average capacity.

Horse.
Small intestine
Large intestine

Feet.
73.6
24.5

1:12

Horse.
Stomach

19.0
67.4
137.4

8.5
30.2
61.3

Small intestine..
Large intestine..

Total capacity....

223.8

100.

Ox.

Small intestine
Large intestine

150.9
36.3

4.1
1

1:20

Ox.
Stomach

266.9
69.7
40.1

70.8
18.5
10.7

Small intestine-
Large intestine..

Total capacity....

376.7

100.

Sheep.
Small intestine....
Large intestine....

85.9
21.4

4
1

1:27

Sheep.
Rumen

24.7
2.1
1.0
3.5
9.5
5.9

52.9
4.5
2.0
7.5
20.4
12.7

Betieulum
Man vplies

Abomasum
Small intestine.
Large intestine.

Total capacity....

46.7

i 100.

Hog.
Small intestine....
Large intestine....

60.0
17.1

3.5
1

1:14

Hog.
Stomach

8.5
9.7
10.8

29.2
33.5
37.3

Small intestine.
Large intestine.

Total capacity....

29.0

100.

20 Feeds and Feeding.

Food requires from three to four days to pass through the
whole digestive tract of farm animals. The last traces do not
pass until considerably later. According to Weiske, * it takes
from seven to eight days before the last traces pass the digestive
canal in case of the sheep. (541)

33. The intestinal juice. — The juices secreted by the small
glands along the inner walls of the small intestine contain three
ferments which act upon starch, cane sugar and protein. Starch
is readily converted into sugar by the intestinal juice in a neu-
tral or faintly alkaline solution. The juice further contains a
special ferment which changes cane sugar into glucose and
laevulose.

34. Fermentations. — Numerous organisms which find their way
into the small intestine along with food substances give rise to
fermentations, causing the evolution of various gases, mainly air,
carbonic acid, hydrogen, ammonia, sulfuretted hydrogen and
marsh gas.

35. Absorption. — The stomach and intestines form a convoluted
tube passing through the body. Food materials within this tube
are still outside the body. The entrance of digestion products
into the body is brought about by absorption, which is of two
kinds. The inner walls of the digestive tract are everywhere
lined with blood vessels, and substances soluble in water and
readily diffusible, such as sugar, soaps, salts and peptones, enter
the blood by diffusion.

The inner surface of the small intestine is also lined with cone-
like projections called "villi." The cells of these villi separate
from the fluid contents of the intestines, sugar, fat, peptones,
salts and other materials, and deliver them into ducts of the
lymphatic system, by which they are carried forward toward the
heart, to be mingled with the blood. The material drawn into
the lymphatics by the villi is called chyle, a substance having a
milky appearance owing to the fat held in suspension. The fat in
the chyle of a horse may vary from 1 per cent, when fed on hay,
to 3 per cent, when fed on oats. The composition of chyle is
given in the table on the next page.

1 Journal f. Landw., 1878, p. 175.

Mastication, Digestion and Assimilation.
Composition of chyle.

Before
rumination.

After
rumination.

Fed with
hay and
straw.

Fed with
straw and
clover.

Water

950.89

929.71

951.24

962.21

Fibrin

1.76

1.96

2.82

0.93

Albuminoids

39.74

59 64

38 84

26.48

Fats.

0.81

2.55

0.72

0.49

Salts, soluble in alco-
hol

2.47

2.50

2.77

1.92

Salts, soluble in water

4.33

3.61

3.59

7.97

36. The circulatory system. — The arteries are the tubes or
canals which carry the blood from the heart. As these tubes
pass throughout the body they branch again and again, gradually
growing smaller, until they end in minute divisions called capil-
laries. The ends of the capillaries connect in turn with the
veins, which carry the blood back to the heart. The purified
blood forced outward from the heart through the arteries reaches
the capillaries, through which portions escape to nourish the
tissues of the body. That which is not lost through the capilla-
ries, together with the impurities gathered on the way, returns to
the heart, whence it is forced to the lungs for purification. From
these it returns to the heart, to be again forced over the body.

37. The lymphatics. — Besides the circulatory system there is
a second one which drains the whole animal body toward the
heart only, called the " Lymphatic system." The broken-down
tissues of the body are removed through the lymphatic system,
and the material thus drained is called lymph. Lymph varies
in composition according to the stage of activity of the organs
contributing it and the locality from which it is taken. Lymph
and chyle, the one worn-out material from the tissues of the body,
the other fresh material from the digestive tract, are poured
through the lymphatics into the venous system and on to the
heart, where they mingle with the blood current. It is estimated,
that for every 220 pounds body weight there are 7.5 pounds of
lymph and 6 pounds of chyle formed daily.

22 Feeds and Feeding.

38. The biood. — Blood is the circulating medium of the body,
bearing in its current both the elements of nutrition and waste.
The composition of the blood of a horse is given as follows:

100 Parts Venous Blood.

Corpuscles 32.62

Plasma 67.38

100 Parts Plasma.

Solids 9.16

Water.. ...?... . 90.84

Fibrin 1.01

Albumen 7.76

Eats 0.12

Extractives 0.40

Soluble salts 0.64

Insoluble salts 0.17

The blood of the horse has been estimated at one-eighteenth
the weight of the body. Colin places the blood of the ox at one
twenty-third the body weight. Numerous attempts have been
made to ascertain the time required for the blood to make a com-
plete circuit of the body. Vierordt places the period of circula-
tion for the horse at 31.5 seconds. In the case of the ox it is
estimated that three pints of blood are driven through the left
ventricle of the heart at each beat, and, since there are about
fifty beats per minute, the circulation must be very rapid. The
surging movement of the blood through the artery constitutes
the pulse, and each movement marks a beat of the heart. The
frequency of the pulse in our domestic animals has been placed

as follows: Beats

per minute.

In the horse 36 — 40

•In the ox 45 — 50

In the pig...., 70 — 80

In the sheep 70 — 80

The frequency of the pulse varies greatly with age, as shown by
the following table:

Heart beats per minute.

Horse. Ox.

Newborn 100 — 120 92 — 132

One-fourth year old 68 — 76

One year old 48— 56 50— 68

Eour years of age 38 — 50 56 —

Aged 32— 40 45— 50

Mast teat ion j Digestion and Assimilation. i':>

39. Respiration. — We have seen that the blood is being con-
stantly reinforced with nutriment. At the same time it is taking
up the waste matter of the body which must be removed. This
is accomplished in part by the lungs, into which the blood is
forced from the heart. By a mechanical movement of the ribs the
lungs are expanded and a'ir is drawn into them. Respiration varies
greatly in different animals, and at different ages for the same
animal, as shown in the following table:

Respirations pei~ minute.

In young horse 10 — 12

Adult horse 9 — 20

Young ox 18 — 20

Adult ox 15 — 18

Lamb 16 — 17

Sheep 13 — 16

While in the lungs, the blood takes up oxygen from the inspired
air, and the expired air carries with it carbonic acid and water
eliminated by the blood. The difference between the air as it
passes into the lungs and as it comes from them is shown in the
following table:

Oxygen. Nitrogen. Carbonic acid.

Inspired air contains 20. 81 79. 15 . 04

Expired air contains 16.033 79.557 4.380

The expired air therefore contains from 4 to 5 per cent, less
oxygen and that much more carbonic acid than the inspired air.
Considerable moisture also escapes with the expired air, and a
small amount of other products in the form of organic matter.
The amount of watery vapor given off by a man is estimated at
1.5 pounds per day.

40. Excretion from the kidneys. — A large portion of the water
taken into the body is filtered from the blood as it passes through
the kidneys, from which organs it is conveyed to the bladder.
The amount of water excreted through the kidneys is dependent
upon the quantity drank and that in the food.

Boussingault found the composition of the urine of a horse
fed oats, clover and grass, a cow fed hay and potatoes, and a pig
led cooked potatoes, to be as follows:

24 Feeds and Feeding.

Horse. Cow. Pig.

Urea 31.0 18.5 4.9

Potass, hippurate 4.7 16.5 0.0

Alkaline lactates 20.1 17.2

Potass, bicarb 15.5 16.1 10.7

Mag. carb . 4.2 4.7 0.9

Calcium carb 10.8 0.6 traces.

Potass, sulph 1.2 3.6 2.0

Sodium chlorid 0.7 1.5 1.3

Silica 1.0 traces. 0.1

Phosphates 0.0 0.0 1.0

Water and undetermined substances 910. 0 921. 3 979. 1

1000.00 1000.00 1000.00

41. Composition of urine. — The leading characteristic of urine
is urea, which is the product of the decomposition of the albu-
minoid substances or tissues of the animal body. The other means
of escape for this waste are so small that by measuring the nitrogen
in the urine the nitrogenous waste of the body can be very closely
determined, — a fact of the highest importance. (57) Most of
the potash taken from the food passes away in the urine, while
only a small amount of phosphates is contained therein. (416)

42. Excretions of the skin. — Water passes off through the
sweat glands of the skin, carrying a very small per cent, of solids.
The moisture given off by the sweat glands of a man is placed at
from one to two pounds daily, although it may be increased to
five pounds. The perspiration of animals has not been deter-
mined. Carbonic acid gas and traces of ammonia and free
nitrogen are also given off by the skin.

43. Protein nutrition. — The nitrogenous substances of the food,
as we have seen, are converted into soluble peptones, which are
taken up by absorption, principally through the portal vein,
only a small portion entering the lymphatics. In the blood the
peptone is converted into serum albumen, which is conveyed to
the capillaries, through which it passes, bathing and nourishing
the tissues. The whole body is made up primarily of cells of
various forms, modified to meet each requirement. Nourished
by the serum albumen, the cells may divide again and again during

Mastication, Digestion and Assimilation. 25

growth, or7 if no growth occurs, the serum albumen repairs the
waste of body tissue incident to life and action.

44. Fat nutrition. — The fats contained in the food are largely
absorbed unchanged in the form of an emulsion. A small per-
centage of fat enters the blood through the blood vessels lining the
intestines, but the larger portion through the lymphatics. Though
fats enter the circulation unchanged, they are generally in some
manner modified by the animal consuming them, so that when
built into fatty tissue that of each species has its own character-
istics.

45. Carbohydrate nutrition. — The carbohydrates are converted
into some form of sugar, which enters the blood by absorption
from the intestinal canal. In the liver, sugar is converted into
glycogen and held as reserve, or it is rapidly oxidized into car-
bonic acid and water, the intermediate products being unknown.
Carbohydrates in excess of immediate requirement may be con-
verted into fat and stored in the body. There is no starch in the
bodv of animals.

CHAPTER III.

DIGESTION, RESPIRATION AND CALORIMETEY.

I. Digestibility of Feeding Stuffs.

46. Variation in digestibility of feeding stuffs. — The leading
quality of feeding stuffs is digestibility. Milk is practically all
digestible. Most of the nutrients in corn meal yield to the
digestive solvents, while rye straw is of such character that a
large portion of its substance is indigestible, and therefore inert
in the alimentary tract. In studying the digestibility of a given
feed, the chemist first determines by analysis the percentage of
each of the nutrients it contains. Weighed quantities of the
feed are then given to some animal and the solid excrement
voided during the trial is saved, weighed and samples of it
analyzed. Knowing how much of each nutrient was fed and
how much re-appears in the solid excrement, the difference is
held to be the portion digested, since it must have been retained
in the body.

47. A digestion trial with sheep. — As illustrating the manner
of conducting digestion trials, the following description is given
of one conducted by Armsby with sheep at the Wisconsin
Station. l Desiring to ascertain the digestibility of clover hay
and malt sprouts by sheep, two wethers weighing 87 pounds each
were selected for the trial. They were closely confined in
separate apartments specially constructed for the purpose, and
fed from zinc-lined feed boxes arranged to prevent the fodder
from being wasted. Each day's ration was carefully weighed
and samples reserved for analysis. The solid excrement as it
passed from the wethers was collected by means of rubber-lined
bags attached to the hind quarters of the animal by a light har-
ness. These bags were emptied every twenty-four hours and the

1 Rept. 1884.

Digestion, Respiration and Color imetry.

contents weighed and sampled for analysis. Feeding progressed
six days before the experiment began, in order that all residues
of previous feed might have passed from the alimentary tract.
During the first period each sheep was fed 700 grams (about 1.5
pounds) of clover hay daily, this allowance being consumed
without waste. Water was freely supplied. The average amount
and composition of the food eaten, and the solid excrement
voided daily, are summarized in the following table:

Digestion trial with sheep fed clover hay, average for one day —
Wisconsin Station.

Dry
matter.

Protein.

Crude
fiber.

Nitrogen
-free
extract.

Ether
extract.

Fed 700 grains hay, containing
Excreted 610.6 grams dung,
containing

Grams.
586.1

288.6

Grams.

77.7

40.4

Grams.
191.5

101.5

Grams.
276.7

119.4

Grams.
10.7

7.9

Digested

297.5

37.3

90.0

157.3

2.8

Per cent digested

50.8

48.0

47.1

56.8

26.2

The table shows that in the 700 grams of hay fed there were
586.1 grains of dry matter, and in the solid excrement for one
day, 288.6 grams, leaving a difference of 297.5 grams, or 50.8 per
cent., which is held to be the amount of dry matter digested for
the first period of the first trial. The average for two trials was
51.2 per cent. Of the 77.7 grams of protein supplied in the
ration, 40.4 grams appeared in the solid excrement. The differ-
ence, 37.3 grams, or 48 per cent., represents the amount of pro-
tein which must have been digested and taken into the body of
the sheep from the alimentary tract. In the same manner the
percentage of the other nutrients digested was determined. The
average percentage of each nutrient digested in a given feeding
stuff is termed the " coefficient of digestibility," for that nutrient
and feed.

48. Digestibility of malt sprouts. — Having ascertained the
digestibility of clover hay, Armsby added to the ration an allow-
ance of malt sprouts. The sheep remained in the stanchions as
before, and were fed 600 grams of clover hay and 175 grams of

Feeds and Feeding.

malt sprouts. Weights and analyses of feed and excrement were
made as before. The digestibility of the malt sprouts as deter-
mined in this trial is shown in the following table:

Feeding trial with sheep to ascertain the digestibility of malt sprouts,
average for one day's feeding — Wisconsin Station.

Dry

matter.

Protein.

Crude
fiber.

Nitrogen
-free
extract.

Ether
extract.

Fed 600 grams hay

Grams.
500.9

Grams.
67.4

Grams.
163.3

Grams.
236.3

Grams.
9.4

Fed 175 grains malt sprouts...

154.1

36.8

21.0

87.5

2.2

Total

655.0

104.2

184.3

323.8

11.6

Excreted 681.1 grains dung....

295.2

41.5

100.6

129.0

5.5

Digested, total

359.8

62.7

83.7

194.8

6.1

Digested from hay

256 4

33 2

76 8

135 2

3 8

Digested from malt sprouts...
Per cent, digested

103.4
67.1

29.5

80.2

6.9
32.9

59.6
68.1

2.3
104.6

The digestibility of malt sprouts is determined indirectly in
the following manner: The dry matter fed in the clover hay and
malt sprouts equals 655 grams. The excreted dry matter equals
295.2 grams, so that the total quantity digested is the difference,
359.8 grams. In the previous trial, as the average of two periods,
it was found that 51.2 per cent, of the dry matter in clover hay was
digestible. Multiplying 509 grams by this factor, 256.4 results,
which represents the quantity of dry matter in the hay which
was digested. Subtracting this from 359.8 grams, there is left
103.4 grams, or 67.1 per cent., which must be the dry matter
digested from the malt sprouts. In this manner the several
digestion coefficients for malt sprouts are determined. The table
reports 104. 6 per cent, of the ether extract of the malt sprouts
digested — an absurdity. Such a result may be due to an error
in the work, or more probably to the fact that more ether extract
was digested from the clover hay in the second trial than in the
first one. The statement relative to ether extract in the next
article may have a bearing on this result.

49. Digestibility of food nutrients. — Errors in digestion experi-
ments arise, among other causes, from the addition of bile prod-

Digestion, Eespiration and Calorimetry. 2D

nets to the excreta as well as gummy substances originating from
tissue changes of the alimentary tract.

The digestibility of protein in coarse fodders varies widely,
ranging from 35 to 80 per cent. Usually the higher the ratio of
protein to non-nitrogenous constituents in a feed the greater the
percentage of the protein digested.

Of the crude fiber from 30 to 70 per cent, is digestible by
ruminants, while for the pig and the horse it is considerably less.
The larger utilization of cellulose by ruminants is probably due
to the fact that the food undergoes more thorough preparation for
digestion in the primary stomachs. The addition to the ration
of a food rich in protein aids the digestion of cellulose.

The sum of the digestible nitrogen-free extract and the digest-
ible crude fiber about equals the total nitrogen- free extract of any
given feed.

The digestibility of ether extract varies greatly in different
feeding stuffs, ranging from 30 per cent, in straw to over 90 in
the cereals. The digestibility of the several compounds grouped
under this term cannot be as accurately determined as in case of
the other nutrients, owing to a variety of substances appearing
in the solid excrement, which, although dissolved from it by
ether, cannot be considered as nutritive material that has escaped
digestion. The small quantity of the ether extract usually
present in feeding stuffs also renders the determination of this
component more liable to error.

Zuntz and Lehniann report that the work of chewing the food
and digesting it, in the case of the horse, may represent a consid-
erable proportion of the nutritive value of the food. The effort
in chewing hay represents 11.2 per cent., and in oats 2.8 per
cent, of the total energy yielded by the food.

50. Digestion of coarse fodders. — The leading points of Wolff's
lucid statements on this subject1 are here presented, the first ones
having reference to coarse fodders fed without the addition of
grain.

The quantity of fodder supplied the animal does not affect the
digestibility of the several constituents. Healthy animals under

1 Farm Foods, English edition.

30 Feeds and Feeding.

normal conditions only eat as much fodder as they can properly
digest^ and the digestive fluids are no more effective when operat-
ing on small than on large quantities.

Contrary to general opinion, green fodders are no more digest-
ible than the same forage when carefully preserved by drying.
In practice, however, much of the finer parts of the plant is lost
by breaking off and falling to the ground during the process of
curing. Dew and rain may also effect changes. The loss of dry
matter through mechanical waste in curing may amount to 10
per cent., and the digestibility may be reduced from 4 to 5 per
cent.,, or still more if bad weather prevails during curing. The
storage of fodders even under favorable conditions for a long-
period may decrease their digestibility as well as palatability.

The degree of maturity affects the digestibility of plants. At
Moeckern, oxen fed clover hay cut when coming into bloom
digested 71 per cent, of the protein, when cut at time of full
bloom 65 per cent., and 59 per cent, when cut toward the end of
blooming.

Season, soil and manures influence the digestibility of fodders.
Hay cut during three successive years from the same field, when
fed to sheep, showed 60, 64 and 65 per cent., respectively, of
digestible protein. Crushing, grinding, steaming or fermenting
food does not increase its digestibility, although its palatability
may be thereby improved. At the Moeckern Station, boiled,
scalded or fermented wheat bran showed decreased digestibility
when fed to oxen. A keen appetite resulting from hard labor
does not increase the digestibility of feeds.

Euminants — oxen, cows, sheep and goats — digest the same
kind of fodder equally. Horses digest from 1 to 12 per cent, less
of the dry matter of hay than ruminants. They digest the pro-
tein of hay equally well with sheep, but cannot make as much
use of the ether extract. Horses digest from 7 to 10 per cent,
less nitrogen-free extract than sheep, and as much as 20 per cent,
less crude fiber. The richer the feeding stuff the more nearly
does the horse approach the farm ruminants in the powers of
digestion. Neither the age nor the breed of the animal affects
the powers of digestion, though single individuals often show

Digestion, Respiration and Calorimetry. 31

striking variations from the normal. The range of digestibility
due to species, breed, age and live weight does not, under ordi-
nary conditions, vary more than from 2 to 4 per cent.

51. Coarse and concentrated feeds combined. — When there is
added to a supply of coarse fodder substances rich in protein,
such as oil cake, oats, etc., the digestibility of the coarse fodder
is not thereby increased. The addition of a large quantity of
carbohydrates, such as sugar and starch, to a ration of coarse
forage, may reduce the digestibility of the protein and crude
fiber of the forage. The depression in digestibility caused by
the addition of the carbohydrates is not apparent until the added
starch or sugar exceeds 10 per cent, of the dry matter of the
coarse forage, but is marked by the time the addition reaches 30
percent. For example, at Weende, when sheep were fed 1.75
pounds of hay and 8 ounces of starch per head daily, the diges-
tibility of the protein was reduced from 54 to 32 per cent. The
depression is reduced or suspended by the addition of a highly
nitrogenous feeding stuff, such as oil cake. The addition of fat
to a ration does not decrease the digestibility of the other constit-
uents. Salt does not affect digestion, though it may increase
consumption of feed and improve nutrition.

The student should not confound the digestibility of feeding
stuffs with their final nutritive effect. While two animals may
each digest the same amount of nutrients from the same weight
of a given feed, one may give far better returns for the substances
taken into the body than the other. The utilization of the
nutrients of feeding materials is determined by the breed, indi-
viduality, condition of the animal, etc.

52. Artificial digestion. — While vigorously prosecuting diges-
tion investigations with animals, the chemist has not been idle in
his efforts to find an easier and more rapid method of reaching
the same end. Stutzer has proposed a simple method for deter-
mining the digestibility of protein, by treating the substance
under investigation with weak solutions of pepsin and afterwards
of pancreatic fluid, care being taken to maintain the digesting
maas at the normal temperature of the animal body. The fluids
named act only on the protein of the food, hence this method

32 Feeds and Feeding.

gives only the digestibility of that nutrient. In using this method
it has been found that the digestibility varies with the length of
time the solution is allowed to act, the temperature maintained.
etc. It is therefore only fairly accurate, but is useful as a quick
method of determining the relative digestibility of the substances
under comparison, rather than an absolute one for general guid-
ance. G. Kiihn has shown that the results may be reached bv
the use of pepsin solutions only. l

53. Water extracts. — It has been found that the total quantity
of solid matter which can be extracted from a fodder by the use
of boiling water measures, with considerable accuracy, the quan-
tity of digestible nitrogen-free extract which it contains. Some
of the dissolved matter, however, is protein and ash, so that this
method is not directly accurate, but a guide rather, for practical
purposes.

II. Respiration Studies.

54. The respiration apparatus. — A " respiration apparatus"
is a device for measuring the products of respiration of animals
confined therein. Its leading feature is an air-tight chamber in
which the animal experimented on is confined, with an inlet for
supplying fresh air and an outlet for drawing off the air with its
respiration products. The air entering the chamber as well as
the gases drawn from it are measured and analyzed, to determine
the products 'given off by the subject on trial. The most com-
plete and satisfactory forms of the respiration apparatus are those
constructed according to the plan of Pettenkofer of the Physio-
logical Institute at Munich, the first of which was built through
the munificence of the King of Bavaria. There was recently
constructed at the Wesleyan University, Connecticut, by the
co-operation of the Storrs (Connecticut) Experiment Station
and the United States Department of Agriculture, Washington,
a very complete respiration apparatus especially designed for
the study of human nutrition. ?

In conducting experiments, animals or men, or both, are placed
in the respiration chamber. In some cases labor is performed;

1 Landw. Vers. Sta., 44, pp. 188-256.

2 For a popular description of this
obtained, see Century Magazine, June

2 For a popular description of this apparatus and some of the resul t

, 1897.

Digestion, Respiration and Calorimetry. 33

at other times the enclosed subject is kept as nearly in perfect
rest as possible, with or without a normal food supply. These
studies, necessarily difficult, are not only interesting but important
in furthering our knowledge of the laws of nutrition.

The respiration apparatus has been used for the study of the
formation of fat and the decomposition of the nitrogenous com-
ponents of the body. Used in connection with weighings and
analyses of food, water, and the solid and liquid voidings, the
chemist is able to determine accurately what becomes of the nutri-
ents fed to the animals under trial and the waste products given
off by them, thereby measuring the effect of any given ration.

55. An illustration. — The following example, taken from, one of
the earlier experiments by Henneberg1 at the Weende Station,
will illustrate the manner of studying the formation of flesh and
fat in the body of the ox by means of the respiration apparatus
and digestion experiments.

The animal experimented on was a full-grown ox, which
weighed 1,570 pounds when placed in the respiration chamber.
It was fed the following ration: 11 pounds of clover hay, 13.2
pounds of oat straw, 8.2 pounds of bean meal, 2.13 ounces of
salt, and drank on the average 123.7 pounds of water daily.
The results of one day's trial, arranged to assist the student in
understanding the workings of this method of investigation, are
here presented:

1 Neue Beitrage, Goitingen, 1870, I, p. xix; Kmfft, Lehrb. d. Landw.,
Ill, p. 17.
3

Feeds and Feeding.

Digestion trial with ox in respiration apparatus, results for one
day — Weende Station.

1 kilogram =1000 grams=2.2 pounds.

Mineral
• sub-
stances.

Carbon.

Hydro-
gen.

Nitro-
gen.

Oxygen.

A. Consumption,

70.875 kilograms of feed and
water, containing
12.675 kilograms dry
matter and 58.200
kilograms water.

Grams.
890

Grains.
5 825

Grams.
7 215

Grams.
310

Grams.
56 635

7. 255 kilograms a t m o s-
pheric oxygen

7 255

78.130 Total

890

5 825

7 215

310

63 890

B. Production and ivastc.
54 . 550 kilograms e x c r e-
ment, consisting of
40.65 kilograms solids
13.90 kilograms urine
22 . 545 kilograms r e s p i r a-
tion products, con-
sisting of
9.795 kilograms carb.
acid

575

305

2,585
220

2 670

4,205
1,480

105
170

33,175
11,725

7 130

.030 kilograms
marsh gas..

12.720 kilograms water

1,410

11,310

1 . 035 kilograms increase in
body weight, made
up of
. 220 kilograms albu-
minoids

116

.010 kilograms min-
eral substances

.280 kilograms fat

214

.525 kilograms water

465

78.130 Total

890

5 825

7 215

310

63,890

56. Intake of body. — The first division of the table records
the consumption or intake of the body of the steer for one day,
the results being stated in kilograms. Keducing the weight of
the several substances to pounds, we have the following:

Pounds.

Oxygen taken into blood by way of the lungs 16.0

Dry matter taken into the alimentary tract 27.8

Water drank and in food... . 128.0

Total intake of body for one day 171.8

Digestion, Respiration and Calorimetry. 35

From these data we learn that in twenty-four hours the steer took
into the blood by way of the lungs 16 pounds of oxygen, and
into the alimentary tract 27.8 pounds of dry matter and 128
pounds of water, or 171.8 pounds in all.

57. Waste products. — The second division of the table treats
of production and waste. Let us first consider the waste by the
steer for the day during which the study was conducted. The
loss to the body through the several channels was as follows:

Pounds.

Passed off as solid excrement 89.4

Passed off as urine 30.6

Passed off as respiration products 49.5

Total waste 'from body 169.5

This shows that there passed from the steer as solid excrement
89.4 pounds, of urine 30.6 pounds, while from the lungs there
were given off 49.5 pounds of waste products, somewhat more
than one-half of which was water, and a little less than half car-
bonic acid. The total outgo from the body for the day under
study, was as shown above, 169.5 pounds.

The decomposition of nitrogenous substances in the body is
calculated from the quantity of nitrogen in the urine. As pro-
tein contains 16 per cent, nitrogen on the average, the quantity
of protein corresponding to the nitrogen in the urine is found by
multiplying by iff-, or by 6.25. The table shows that there were
.170 kilograms of nitrogen in the urine of the ox. Multiplying
this by 6.25, there results 1.062 kilograms or 2.38 pounds. This
sum measures both the quantity of nitrogenous nutrients taken
into the body from, the food, and the body tissues which were
broken down and left the body as waste during the day of the trial.

58. Flesh production. — From the above we have the following
in relation to the income and outgo of the body of the steer for
one day:

Pounds.

Total substance passing into the body 171.8

Total waste leaving the body 169.5

Amount retained in the body 2.3

36 Feeds and Feeding.

This shows that 2.3 pounds or only 1.3 per cent, of what entered
the body was retained as a permanent portion thereof, the remain-
der passing away as waste. Part of the substance was inert mat-
ter, and useless, while the larger part was used as fuel for furnishing
energy to the body, and passed off as waste after being so used.

Directing our attention to the portion incorporated in the bodyr
we learn that 35 grams of nitrogen were not excreted, but retained
as a portion of the body. Sixteen per cent, of albuminoid sub-
stances is nitrogen. The albuminoid tissues representing this
quantity of nitrogen are determined in the following manner:

Albuminoids
Nitrogen. Per cent. or lean meat.

.035 X -W- = .22 kilograms.

The albuminoid tissues contain 53 per cent, carbon. Accord-
ingly, the amount of carbon in tissue built during the day is a&
follows:
Lean meat. Per cent. Carbon.

.22 X -ffo = .116 kilograms.

The lean meat therefore contained .116 kilograms of carbon.
There remains .214 kilograms of carbon, which must have gone-
to form fat. Seventy -five per cent, of fat is carbon, — hence the
following:

Carbon. Per cent. Body fat.

.214 -4- TVV = .28 kilograms.

59. Summary of the trial. — From this we learn that there were
.28 kilograms of fat stored in the body during the day of the trial.
Arranging these results, together with the mineral matter and
water retained in the body, for convenient study, we learn that

the nutrients stored as increase were as follows:

Pounds.

. 22 kilograms of albuminoids or lean meat 48

.28 kilograms of fat 61

.01 kilograms of mineral matter 02

.525 kilograms of water 1.17

Total body increase 2.28

It was shown that the income to the body exceeded the outgo*
by 2.3 pounds j the table accounts for practically all of this m

Digestion, Respiration and Calorimetry. 37

the 2.28 pounds of increase. We learn from the above that
during one day of the experiment the ox took into its body 171.8
pounds of material in oxygen, water and dry matter, and from it
built up 2.28 pounds of body substance, which consisted of .48
pounds of albuminoids or lean meat, .61 pounds of fat, .02
pounds of mineral matter, which went mainly to the bones, and
1.17 pounds of water, placed mostly with the lean meat and, in
less proportion, with the fatty tissue.

Where the animal produces other substances than flesh, as in
the case of sheep and milch cows, the method of calculating
production is the same as with oxen, though somewhat more
complicated.

III. Calorimetry.

60. Measuring the heat units of feeds. — The calorimeter is a
device so arranged that when a given substance is burned therein
the heat given off is taken up by water and can be accurately
ascertained. While investigations have been in progress with
the respiration apparatus to determine, what becomes of the food
taken into the body, other workers have endeavored by means of
the calorimeter to ascertain the heat units of food materials. It
has been found that the results obtained with the respiration
apparatus and the calorimeter agree very closely; that is to say,
in supplying the body with fuel, the protein, fat and carbohy-
drates of the food have been found to replace each other in almost
exact proportion to the heat units they evolve when burning.
Prof. Eiibner found the quantity of material equal to 100 parts
of fat to be as follows:

Equivalent for 100 parts of fat as shown by tlie respiration apparatus

and calorimeter.

Nutritive substances,
water-free.

As determined by ex-
periments with animals
in respiration apparatus.

As determined by
burning in the
calorimeter.

L*ean meat

243

235

Starch

232

229

Cane suo^ar

234

235

Grape sugar

256

255

38 Feeds and Feeding.

By this table we learn that 235 parts of lean meat when burned
in the calorimeter give off as much heat as 100 parts of fat. The
respiration- apparatus tests place the equivalent at 243 parts — a
very close agreement with the calorimeter. Starch evolves
almost as much heat as lean meat, and cane and 'grape sugar
somewhat more.

61. Definition of terms. — The Calorie is a term which desig-
nates the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one
kilogram of water 1° Centigrade (or one pound of water 4°
Fahr. ). If instead of the heat unit we use the unit of mechanical
energy, the foot- ton, then the Calorie corresponds to 1.53 foot-
tons; that is, its heat represents the energy required to raise a
weight of 1.53 tons one foot in height. In the following table is
summarized the average energy in one gram of each of the classes
of nutrients.

Potential energy in nutrients of food.

Calories. Foot-tons.

In one gram of protein 4.1 6.3

In one gram of fat (ether extract) 9.3 14.2

In one gram of carbohydrates 4.1 6.3

These figures mean that when a gram of protein, whether of
body substance or furnished in feeding stuffs, is consumed in the
body, it will, if transformed into heat, yield enough heat to raise
the temperature of 4.1 kilograms of water 1° C., or, if trans-
formed into mechanical energy, do the work executed by the
steam-engine in raising a weight of one ton 6.3 feet, or 6.3 tons
one foot. A gram of fat is shown to yield more than twice the
Calories or foot- tons yielded by a gram, of protein or carbohydrates.

Stated in another way, an ounce of protein in the form of lean
meat, or one of carbohydrates in the form of starch or sugar, if
transformed into heat, will raise the temperature of 113 pounds
of water 1° Fahr., while an ounce of fat yields heat sufficient to
warm 225 pounds of water one degree. l

1 This description is adapted from the report on the fuel value of feed-
ing stuffs by W. O. Atwater, Third Annual Report, Storrs School Agrl.
Expt. Station, 1890. The interested reader will find the subject most
entertainingly discussed by the same writer in the Century Magazine
for July, 1887.

Digestion j Respiration and Color imetry. 39

The Calories of food substances show how much heat these will
impart when utilized for that purpose by the animal, or the the-
oretical amount of work they can accomplish.

Reduced to available form, the Calories in feeding stuffs may
be stated as follows:

In one gram. In one pound.

Digestible protein 4.1 Calories. 1860 Calories.

Digestible carbohydrates 4.1 Calories. 1860 Calories.

Digestible fat 9.3 Calories. 4220 Calories.

Knowing the digestible constituents of any feeding stuff, the
student can readily determine its potential energy by using the
above factors.

CHAPTER IV.

ANIMAL NUTRITION.

I. Formation of Body Tissues.

62. Formation of tissues. — Since the protein of the food is the
sole source of nitrogenous substances in the body, it follows that
the formation of flesh is primarily dependent upon the supply of
protein in the food.

In the body there is a slow but continuous breaking down of
tissue. The materials which have been dissolved from the food
in the process of digestion are absorbed by the blood, and through
it distributed to the different parts of the body, where they are
either oxidized (consumed), and heat and energy produced, car-
bonic acid and water being given off, or are used for the production
of components of the body, mainly fat and protein (flesh). The
decomposition of nutritive material in the blood, and of muscular
and other body tissues, goes on continuously as long as the animal
lives, whether it is awake or asleep; being, however, more active
in the former condition. The term " protein consumption ' J as
used in this book is applied to the quantity of nitrogenous
materials decomposed in the animal body, whether originating
from muscular tissue or nitrogenous nutrients in solution in the
fluids of the body. Protein consumption is measured by the
amount of nitrogen found in the urine, since practically all the
nitrogen which leaves the body passes off through this excre-
tion. (57)

If the nitrogenous waste results from the destruction of mus-
cular tissue, as may be the case during starvation, it is spoken
of as "flesh consumption." Since fat-free muscular tissue has
been found to contain, on the average, 3.4 per cent, of nitrogen,
the amount of flesh consumed in the body may be found by multi-

Animal Nutrition. 41

plying the quantity of nitrogen excreted in the urine by 29.4

63. The waste of the body. — The food supplies materials for
making good the waste which the animal sustains through the
living process. When the supply is liberal and exceeds the
demands of the system, material may be stored in the body
by the formation of flesh or fat, and the animal will gain in
weight. If the supply is equal to the material broken down, the
live weight of the animal will remain unchanged. When the
supply is cut short or entirely withheld, the tissues of the body
itself are attacked and the animal loses weight.

There is a minimum amount of protein absolutely necessary
for the maintenance of life. This has been determined by experi-
ments in which dogs, cats, rabbits and other animals have been
starved, and the daily excretion of nitrogen in the urine deter-
mined. During the first days of starvation the excretion of
nitrogen, or, what is the same, the decomposition of protein in
the body, gradually decreases until after five or six days it
remains practically constant. The last portion of the protein in the
fluids of the body has then been drawn upon and the body tissues
are now being destroyed. After a period of continued starvation
the supply from the latter source will also be exhausted and the
animal dies, the time being determined by the condition of the
body at the beginning of starvation. A rise in temperature
occurs at the beginning of starvation, followed by a general fall
until death takes place. Carnivora or flesh-eating animals can
withstand hunger longer than the Herbivora. While dogs and cats
have lived until their weights have decreased 33 to 40 per cent.,
horses and ruminants will die when their weight has been reduced
20 to 25 per cent. l The age of the animal also influences the time
that death occurs from starvation, old animals withstanding the
effects of hunger better than young animals. The latter lose
weight more rapidly and die after a smaller loss of weight than
the former.2

1 M. Wilckens in v. d. Goltz, Handb. d. ges. Landwirtschaft, III, p. 88.

2 Halliburton, Chem. Physiology, p. 834.

42 Feeds and Feeding.

II. Exclusive Protein Feeding.

64. Protein consumption. — In feeding Carnivora it has been
found that an exclusive protein diet causes an increased decom-
position of protein in the body, and that the excess does not
therefore go to form flesh. The following table shows results
obtained by Voit with a dog fed varying quantities of meat which
had been freed from all fat:1

Feeding increasing amounts of fat-free meat to dog — Voit.

Grm

Grms.

Fat-free meat eaten
per dav

800

500

900

1 200

1 500

2 000

2 500

2 660

Urea excreted

106

144

173

'l81

Corresp o n d i 11 g to
flesh

165

442

552

938

1 214

1 463

1 987

2 387

2 498

The protein consumption with this dog varied from 165 grams
(.36 ponnds) per day during hunger to nearly 2,500 grams (5.5
pounds) when the largest amount of protein was fed; that is,
while fed increasing quantities of lean meat the dog did not store
up any of this, but turned it off into the urine as urea. Similar
experiments with Herbivora have, in the main, given the same
results as found with Carnivora.

From the results given in the last table it is evident that the
supply of protein in the food will largely regulate the consump-
tion of protein in the body, and consequently the quantity of
nitrogen appearing in the urine. The following is a summary of
experiments on goats by Stohmann:2

1 Armsby, Manual of Cattle Feeding, p. 128.

2 Biologische Studien, Heft 1, p. 121; Armsby, loc. cit., p. 146.

Animal Nutrition.

Food given and protein digested, consumed and stored in tJie body by
goats — Stohmann.

Date of
experiment.

Feed per day.

Protein
digested per
day.

Protein con-
sumption1
per day.

Gain of
protein
per day.

Hay.

Linseed
meal.

Grams.

May 23-29

1,500

100.

111.6

66.6

1.9

June 6-12

1.450

150.

12-5.0

79.4

9.0

June 20-26

1,400

200.

132.2

90.6

11.1

July 4-10

1,350

250.

150.9

90.1

23.4

July 25-31

1,250

350.

170.5

101.6

18.3

Aug. 8-14

1,100

500.

193.8

117.9

27.4

Aug. 22-28

950

650.

221 A

143.1

30.6

Sept. 5-11

800

800.

257.2

173.7

27.4

Sept, 19-25

1,600

92.9

56.3

-4.4

Oct. 3-9

1,600

74.1

41.9

6.4

1 Exclusive of the protein contained in the milk, which varied but
slightly.

We observe that after the quantity of protein digested reached
150 grams daily there was no increase in the protein stored up in
the body, even though the amount in the food was still further
augmented.

That an exclusive protein diet will not produce body tissue is
well illustrated in the so-called " Banting cure" for obesity,
where the patient is put on a meat and fruit diet, especially the
former, with no potatoes, butter, or bread.

Pfltiger1 has shown that a hard- worked dog fed on "almost
fat-free ' ' meat diet can live on that food alone for seven months,
and on the basis of this experiment concludes, contrary to the
views of Voit and other authorities, that nitrogenous compounds
may sustain life for an indefinite period.

65. Influence of previous feeding. — Beside the supply of pro-
tein in the food, the protein consumption in the body is dependent
upon another factor, viz., the condition of the body of the animal
as a result of previous feeding. It clearly appears from experi-
ments made in this line2 that when a change in diet occurs the
consumption of protein will increase or decrease according to the

1 Archiv d. ges. Physiologic, 52 (1892), p. 2.

2 Armsby, Manual of Cattle Feeding, 1887, p. 129.

Feeds and Feeding.

changes made in the supply of protein in the food. Given a
supply of protein larger than is necessary to maintain the body
tissues, and there will in a few days be an equilibrium between
the supply and consumption of protein in the body, the time
varying with different animals and with the body condition of
each animal. The equilibrium will be reached sooner with a fat
animal than with a lean one, and sooner when the animal receives
food rich in protein and poor in fat than when the opposite occurs.

III. Influence of Other Nutrients on Protein Consumption.

66. Influence of fat. — When fed alone, fat does not decrease
protein consumption in the body, as is shown in the following
results by Yoit with a starving dog:1

Feeding fat only, to a starving dog — Voit.

Grams

Fat per day.

100

200

300

340

350

Protein consumption

170

185

155

187

165

205

291

The influence of fat on protein consumption rather than
decreasing it seems to have increased it slightly. See also table
in Article 82.

67. Influence of carbohydrates. — When fed alone, carbohydrates
have no influence on the consumption of protein and thus act in
the same way as fat. The same amount of protein is decomposed
in the body when nothing but carbohydrates are fed as when no
food whatever is given.

68. Influence of mixed diet. — When the animal is fed on a
mixed diet containing fat, carbohydrates and protein, the con-
sumption of protein depends on the supply of protein in the food,
as in exclusive protein feeding. The following experiment2
serves as an example:

1 Zeitschr. f. Biologic, V, p. 329. Armsby, loc. cit., p. 136.

2 Armsby, loc. cit., p. 137.

Animal Nutrition. 45

Influence of mixed diet on protein consumption — Voit.

Grams

-r. ^ fFat...

250

300

250

200

250

Food \Meat

150

176

250

500

800

1,500

Consumption of protein per day..

233

259

270

502

778

1,381

It will be noticed that with the same quantities of fat in the
food, the protein consumption is larger where the amount of meat
fed is larger; for instance, in the first, third and sixth experi-
ments, 250 grams of fat were fed along with 150, 250 ajxilSOO
grams, respectively, of meat. The consumption of protein in
the body of the animal was, in the order given, 233, 270 and 1,381
grams. The increase in protein consumption does not, however,
keep pace with the increased supply of protein in the food, and
the fat evidently has protected to some extent the protein in the
animal body from consumption. It has been found in the same
way that carbohydrates also decrease the protein consumption in
the body when fed in connection with protein. Thus they save
the protein of the body from decomposition, and as a result more
of the protein of the food can be used for the formation of flesh
in the body. The following experiment by Yoit may be cited to
illustrate this important fact:1

Results of feeding meat and fat — Voit.

Food.

Protein

Difference between

Date.

Urea
per day.

consumption
in body.

supply and con-
sumption of protein.

Meat.

Fat.

Grams.

July 31

1,000

81.7

1,140

—140

Aug. 1

1,000

100

74.5

1,042

—42

Aug. 2

1,000

300

69.3

970

+30

Aug. 3

1,000

81.2

1,134

—134

We see from the above that when on an exclusive meat diet
the animal lost 140 grams of protein per day, while when 300
grams of fat were added to the same quantity of meat as before it
gained 30 grams. We thus learn that the addition of fat (as

1 Armsby, loc. cit., p. 138.

Feeds and Feeding.

also carbohydrates) to a protein diet makes the consumption of
protein smaller than it would be without this addition. The fat
as well as the carbohydrates preserve the protein from decomposi-
tion, thereby favoring the formation of new body tissue.

The following experiments with a dog by Voit also illustrate
this, which is also proved by many others:1

Influence of carbohydrates fed in connection with protein, on protein
consumption — Voit.

Date of experiments.

Food.

Protein

Meat.

Carbohydrates.

consumption.

June 23-July 2 1859

Grams.
500

Grams.
100-300

Grains.
502

July 2-5 1859

500

564

July 4-10, 1864

800

826

July 10-19 1864

800

100-400

763

July 19-20 1864

800

895

July 23-26, 1864 ^

1,000

1,028

July 26-28, 1864

1,000

100-400

902

July 28-Aug 1 1864

1 000

1 112

June 29-July 8 1863 ... .

1,500

1 599

July 8-13 1863

1,500

200

1,454

Jan. 6, 1859

2,000

1,991

jan 7 11 1859

2 000

200-300

1 792

69. Teachings of the above in feeding practice. — From what we
have learned we should expect the best results when the ration
fed contains a sufficient supply of protein with a large proportion
of carbohydrates to protein,*, e., a wide nutritive ratio (132),
and this we find borne out by the results of numerous experi-
ments with all kinds of animals. We quote the following experi-
ments on sheep by Schulze and Marcker, arranged by Armsby
according to the nutritive ratios in the different rations. The
protein in the wool, amounting to about five grams, is not
included in the figures for protein consumption. 2

1 Zeitschrift f. Biologic, V, p. 434; Armsby, loc. cit., p. 150.

2 Journ. f. Landw. XVIII, pp. 1 et seq; Armsby, loc. cit, p. 153.

Animal Nutrition.

Influence of wide and narrow ratios on flesh production — Schulze

and MaercJcer.

No. of experi-
ment.

Protein
digested

Grams.

Nutritive
ratio.

Protein
consump-
tion.

Grams.

Gain of
protein.

Grams.

Gain of protein
in per cent, of
am't digested.

Experiment 6.

30.6

1 17.4

24.3

1.4

4.6

Experiment 12
Experiment 3
Experiment 11
Experiment 2
Experiment 10
Experiment 8

67.9
59.5
68.1
59.7
72.5
85.8

9.4

8.9
8.6
8.6
8.1

7.7

54.8
45.9
56.2
49.1
54.7
63.6

8.0
9.0
6.8
5.5
12.7
17.3

11.8
15.1
10.0
9.2
17.5
20.1

Average

68.9

54.1

9.9

14.0

Experiment 7
Experiment 9
Experiment 17

116.8
156.6
248.3

1 :4.9
1 :3.7
1 :2.2

96.0
142.5
237.6

15.9
9.0
6.1

13.7

5.8
2.5

Average

173.9

158.7

10.3

7.3

The above experiments were not all conducted with the same
animals, and therefore cannot be safely compared with one
another. We notice, however, that supplying a small amount of
protein with a large amount of carbohydrates, as in Experiment
6, gives a poor gain of protein and also a low percentage gain of
protein digested in the food; a medium quantity of protein with
a liberal supply of carbohydrates as given in the first group of
experiments causes a greater consumption of protein in the body,
and a larger percentage of digested protein. When we come to
the last group of experiments, where the digestible carbohydrates
constitute from 4.9 to 2.2 times the quantity of protein present,
we again obtain poor results, there being a large waste of protein
in the body, and a small gain, both relatively and absolutely, for
the total protein supplied. Comparing Experiments 3 and 9, if we
may safely do so, we observe that the same gain of protein to the
body of the animal was obtained in one case from a little more than
one-third of the quantity of digestible protein that was fed in the
other case. At the same time the consumption of protein was
more than three times as large in the latter case as in the former.

48 Feeds and Feeding.

70. Relative effects of fat and carbohydrates. — Experiments by
a large number of investigators on the influence of fat or carbohy-
drates on protein consumption show that the two classes of nutrients
are of practically equal value, pound for pound, for this purpose,
so that so far as saving protein in the body is concerned they may
replace one another. This is an important fact, and shows that
the relative fuel value of these two grand divisions of food sub-
stances is not a measure of their comparative nutritive effect.
(60)

The importance of the high value of carbohydrates in the
formation of flesh is evident. Feeds containing much fat are
comparatively costly, are difficult of digestion by Herbivora, and
an undue amount of them may prove injurious. On the other
hand, the carbohydrates are contained in large proportions in all
the common fodders, are low-priced and are readily consumed
and digested by Herbivora. The carbohydrates in the food of
Herbivora effect what fat does with the Carnivora; they decrease
protein consumption and enable the animal to subsist on a much
smaller quantity of nitrogenous material than would otherwise be
necessary.

71. Influence of amides on protein consumption. — It is now fairly
well established that a large majority of the amides found in plants,
are nutrients proper, that is, when fed they enter the system and
are oxidized in the same way as other food nutrients. The
experiments of Hermann in feeding a dog with gelatine and
tyrosin, a common amide, show that the two feeds can sustain
life and even cause a production of flesh. l

Asparagin, an amide present in most young plants, has repeat-
edly been shown2 to cause a gain of protein in the body when fed
with a fodder poor in protein.

Experiments by Zuntz,8 Potthast,4 and Weiske and Schulze5
are in accordance with the above, and prove that asparagin is a
nutrient, and that it saves muscular tissues from decomposition.

1 Vierteljahresschr. der Naturf. Ges. in Zurich XXI, p. 36.

2 Armsby, loc. cit. p. 163.

3 Jahresb. d. Thier Chemie 12, p. 422.
* Jahresb. d. Thier Chemie 13, p. 344.
6 Zeitschr. f. Biologie 20, p. 277.

Animal Nutrition. 49

It follows, therefore, that in some of their functions at least, amides
may replace albuminoids. It has been found also by indirect
experiments that equally good results have been obtained, where
amides have been substituted for part of the albuminoids in the
ration for growing animals and milch cows, as were obtained
when albuminoids only were fed. In corroboration of the above
we have the similar feeding value of corn silage and a correspond-
ing quantity of dry fodder corn. (655) Silage often contains
nearly half its nitrogen in amide form, while dry fodder corn
has not more than from 12 to 15 per cent, of its nitrogen in the
form of amides.

72. Influence of salt on protein consumption. — Experiments by
Voit with dogs, and by Weiske with sheep, have shown that a
moderate addition of salt to the fodder increases the activity of
the secretion of the body juices and their circulation, and con-
sequently increases the protein consumption in the body. Salt
has a stimulating influence on the appetite of the animal, facili-
tates the passage of albuminoids from the digestive canal into the
blood, and in general increases the energy of the vital processes.
The feeding of salt is therefore especially in place with horses,
young animals and milch cows when fed to their full capacity.

Another effect of salt is to increase the excretion of urine. If
after supplying salt the animal is prevented from drinking water,
then water which would otherwise pass off through the lungs and
skin will be diverted to the kidneys, and if the supply from this
source is not sufficient, water will further be drawn from the body
tissues. The live weight of the animal can therefore shrink
rapidly when salt is administered freely and little water is given j
afterwards, when water is offered, much will be drank, and this,
returned to the digestive tract and tissues, will cause the animal
to increase rapidly in weight.

73. Influence of water on protein consumption. — Abnormally
large quantities of water cause a waste of nutrients in the bodies
of animals through increased protein consumption. Voit has
shown an increase in protein consumption of 25 per cent, from
this source in case of a fasting dog, and Henneberg found an

60 Feeds and Feeding.

increase of 5. 8 per cent, in the case of oxen. l We are taught from
these investigations that everything which gives rise to excessive
drinking of water by growing, and especially fattening, animals,
should be avoided ; as, too high stall temperature, too much salt,
too great exposure, or supplying foods carrying too much water.
The normal ratio of dry matter in food to water (that in food
included) is about 1 : 4 for cattle, and 1 : 2 for sheep.

II. The Fat of the Body.

74. Body fat from fat in the food. — According to the teachings
of Yoit, Wolff, and other authorities, the fat stored in the animal
body may originate from three sources, viz. : directly from the fat
of the food, from the carbohydrates, and from the decomposition
of protein.

The fat of the food which has been acted upon by the digestive
fluids in the intestines may be directly stored in the body of
animals when supplied in large quantities, as has been con-
clusively shown in the case of Carnivora. . Experiments in this
line have been conducted mostly with dogs, at the Physiological
Institute at Munich. Dogs have been starved for a long time
until the supply of fat in the body had entirely disappeared, as
shown by the increased decomposition of protein after that time.
When this stage was reached they were fed for several days
large quantities of fat and only a little meat. When dogs so fed
were slaughtered, it was found that fat had been deposited in the
lungs and in the body tissues in quantities larger than could be
accounted for by the decomposition of the meat fed.

Lebedeff and Munk2 fed a dog mutton suet, and later rape oil,
for a long time and in large quantities, and found that the fat
deposited in the body was more like mutton suet or rape oil in its
chemical properties than normal dog fat. In other experiments
this could not be proved for the reason that the fatty matters sup-
plied were decomposed more easily in the body of the animal
than the fat originating from other sources.

75. Feeding fatty acids. — Munk3 showed that neutral fat may
be formed in the animal body resulting from the feeding of free

1 Armsby, Manual of Cattle Feeding, p. 135.

2 Munk, Physiologic d. Menschen, 1888, p. 273.

3 Biedermaim's Centralblatt, XIII (1884), p. 106.

Animal Nutrition. 51

fatty acids. He fed a starved dog lean meat and a large quantity
of fatty acids prepared from mutton suet. The animal, which
had shrunk 32 per cent, in weight during nineteen days, was fed
3,200 grams of flesh and 2,850 grams of fatty acids in fourteen
days, and increased 17 per cent, in weight during this period.
When killed, a well-developed layer of fat was found under the
skin, and also large deposits of fat on the internal organs. By
use of the knife, 1,100 grams of fat were separated, which
resembled mutton suet, and according to chemical analysis must
have contained at least 96 per cent, of neutral mutton suet. It is
known that fatty acids are formed from the fat of the food in the
digestive processes through the action of the pancreatic juice,
and the above experiment therefore practically proves that the
fat stored in the body of animals may be derived from the fat of
the food. Munk's findings have recently been corroborated by
"Walker, also in experiments with dogs. J

While experiments like those quoted above cannot be made
with Herbivora, there is sufficient evidence to establish the fact
that the fat of the food may, under favorable conditions, directly
contribute to the body fat and milk fat of animals. As will be
seen later on, however, the fat in the animal body is not derived
from one component of the food only, but generally from both the
fat and carbohydrates, or possibly these two in conjunction with
the protein of the food, according to the conditions of feeding and
the relative amounts of the different components fed.

76. Fat from carbohydrates. — Liebig maintained as early as
1842 that the fat of the Herbivora must be derived in a great
measure from the carbohydrates of the food, but considered that
it might also be produced from its nitrogenous components. The
correctness of this view was questioned by leading scientists of
that time, although evidence in its favor was accumulating. In
1852 Lawes and Gilbert published the results of their pig-feeding
experiments, showing that a large portion of the fat stored in
the body of a fattening pig must come from other sources than
the fatty matter of the food. These investigators calculated the

1 Centralbl. f. Physiologic, IV, p. 590; Jahresbr. d. Thier Chemie, 21,
p. 32.

Feeds and Feeding.

total dry and organic matter, mineral matter, non-nitrogenous
constituents, protein and fat stored in a fat pig in one of their
experiments, for each 100 pounds of these constituents consumed
as food, with the results shown below.

Substances stored, voided, etc., by a fattening pig for each 10O
pounds eaten — Eothamsted Experiment Station. l

Consumed
as food.

Stored up in
the animal.

Expired, per-
spired, or voided

Total dry substance

Lbs.
100

Lbs.
15.04

Lbs.
84.96

Mineral matter.

100

2.19

97.81

Organic matter

100

15 59

84 41

Non-nitrogenous constitu-
ents

100

17.74

82.26

Nitrogenous constituents
Fatty matter

100
100

8.35
407.00

91.65

In other experiments these investigators found from four ta
five times as much fat stored in the bodies of fattening pigs as
had been supplied in the food. In spite of the evidence accumu-
lated through this and other experiments, the view that fat may
be formed from carbohydrates was opposed by many scientists
until late years, but the question may now be considered settled.
Of the large number of experiments bearing on this most important
subject, only a few can be here noted. We select late contribu-
tions, in which all the precautions known to modern experimenters
in animal physiology have been observed.

Kern2 found that on an average at least 9,730 grams of fat had
been stored in the bodies of two full-grown fattening sheep during
70 days' feeding, and that only 6,872 grams could be accounted
for as the maximum amount formed from the digestible fat and
protein in the food combined. It thus appears that 2,858 grams,
or 29.4 per cent, of the total quantity of fat stored in the body,
must have been derived from carbohydrates.

Soxhlet3 fed three full-grown pigs of the same age for about

1 On the Composition of Foods in Relation to Respiration, and the
Feeding of Animals, Report British Asso. f. Adv. of Science, 1852, p. 29;
Bui. 22, Office of Expt. Sta., pp. 235-82.

2 Journ. f. Landw. 26, p. 549.

3 Jahresb. Agr. Chemie, 1881, p. 434.

Animal Nutrition.

eleven months on the same preparatory ration of 2.2 to 3.3 pounds
of barley meal per day, and during the five days preceding the
experiment proper, 4.4 pounds of rice meal. At this time the
pigs weighed 219, 220 and 213 pounds. One of the pigs was then
killed and its body analyzed, while the others were put on a ration
of 4.4 pounds of boiled rice, and later on 3.3 pounds of rice, with
some meat extract, both of which foods are almost free from
fat. One of these animals was killed after 75 days, and the other
after 82 days of such feeding, and their bodies analyzed as in the
case of the first animal. On the assumption that the composi-
tion of the bodies of all the pigs was the same when the first pig
was killed, the investigator found the quantity of fat formed in
the bodies of the two animals and its source to be as shown below:

Feeding trial with pigs to show formation of fat from
carbohydrates — Soxhlet.

Pig II.

Pig III.

Fat formed in body during experiment

Kilograms.
10.082

Kilograms.
22 180

Taken up in the food

.300

340

Formed from, components not fat in the food.

9.782
1.589

21.840
1.810

Protein production

3 462

7 169

Fat formed through decomposition of protein.*
Fat formed from carbohydrates

1.779
8.003

3.685
18 155

* Protein consumed X 51.4. (78)

Four to six times as much fat was consequently formed in the
bodies of these animals as could have been derived from the fat
and protein of the food. Even if there was some difference
in the condition of these animals at the end of the prelimin-
ary feeding, it could not be large enough to overthrow the
conclusion that the carbohydrates were the source of the greater
portion of the fat produced during the experiment.

Meissl and Strohmer, l also experimenting on swine, fed two
kilograms of rice daily to a one-year old pig weighing 309
pounds. During a part of the time the pig was confined in a
Pettenkofer respiration apparatus and the respiration products
determined. Of the data obtained the following are reproduced:

1 Jahresb. d. Thier Chemie, 13, p. 39.

54 Feeds and Feeding.

Carbon, Nitrogen,

grams. grams.

Digested from the food 765.37 18.67

Outgo in respiratory and excreted products... 476.15 12.59

Remaining in the body of the animal 289. 22 6. 08

The surplus of nitrogen corresponds to the formation of 38
grams of protein, (58) containing 201 grams of carbon; there is
then left for the formation of fat from the carbon surplus 269.12
grams. This would be contained in 269.12x1.3, (58) or 349.9
grams of fat. The total quantity of fat in the food amounted to
7.9 grams, so that if this was digested and deposited in the body,
342 grams of fat must have been formed from other sources. The
nitrogen excreted as urea showed a decomposition of 65.4 grams
of protein in the body of the animal. This quantity of protein
could at best form no more than 65.4 x .514, (78) or 33.6 grams
of fat, leaving 308.4 grams of fat deposited in the body to be
derived from carbohydrates. Seven to eight times as much fat,
therefore, originated from this source as could have been formed
from the protein and the fat in the food.

The formation of fat from carbohydrates in the nutrition of
ruminants, especially cattle, is conclusively proved by the results
of experiments conducted by G-. Kiihn during 1882-90. x

77. formation of fat in milk. — Collier2 has shown in the case of
a herd of pure-bred cows that the fat in the food was sufficient to
account for the fat produced in the milk during all but the first two
months of their lactation period. The average ratio of fat in food
to fat in milk for the whole period of lactation for all cows
was 121 : 100. It should be remembered, however, that the fat
in the food consumed by the cows was not wholly digested, and
was, moreover, the " crude fat" or ether extract of chemical
analysis. This extract contains chlorophyll and other impurities
dissolved from the fodders by the ether in the process of analysis.
Allowing 17.4 per cent, for impurities, Collier says there is still
enough fat in the food to account for the fat recovered in the milk.

The experiments with milch cows have not given as decisive

iLandw. Vers.. 44. pp. 1-4581.

2N. Y. Expt. Station (Geneva), 1891, p. 120.

Animal Nutrition. 55

results as those made with, sheep, pigs, geese and ducks, some of
which have been reported in the preceding pages;1 but as the
formation of fat from carbohydrates has been established in the case
of other animals, it follows that cows also have the same ability,
since the nutritive processes are essentially the same in all the
higher animals.

The formation of fat from carbohydrates was long considered
impossible because no intermediate steps in the transformation
were known. Lately, however, it has been found that butyric,
capronic and higher solid fatty acids are formed from carbohy-
drates in putrefactive processes. We have seen that the fatty
acids are readily taken up by the animal system and changed into
fats, which may be deposited in the body or oxidized, according
to the supply of nutrients and the nutritive condition of the
animal. (75) This being true, there is no theoretical difficulty in
the way of the formation of the fat of milk from carbohydrates.

78. Fat from protein. — It has long been known that fatty acids
may be formed from protein substances in putrefactive processes,
both in the animal body and elsewhere, and also through oxidizing
agents. In certain diseases, especially cases of phosphorus poison-
ing, fatty degeneration will occur in the body; the muscles waste
and a waxy fat appears in their stead, and is also deposited on the
internal organs. In one case the dry matter in the liver of a man
who died from phosphorus poisoning contained the enormous
amount of 76.8 per cent, of fat.2 In an experiment by Bauer,3
a dog was poisoned with phosphorus after having been starved
twelve days. It died seven days later. The excretion of urea
was quite constant from the fifth to the twelfth day of the experi-
ment, amounting to 7.8 grams daily. After the poisoning had
begun, the excretion increased until it amounted to 23.9 grams
per day, i. e., three times the normal amount. It was ascertained
with another dog treated the same way, but kept in a respiration
apparatus, that the excretion of carbonic acid and the amount of
oxygen taken up decreased one-half after the phosphorus feeding

1 For a review of the extensive literature on the subject up to August,
1881, S3e B. Sclmlze, Landw. Jahrb., II, p. 57.

2 Wolff, Landw. Fiitterungslehre, 1888, p. 44.

3 Zeitschr. f. Biologic, VII, p. 76; Voit, Phpdologie, p. 248.

56 Feeds and Feeding.

began. In this case there was a greater decomposition of protein
into urea and fat, with a smaller absorption of oxygen, and con-
sequently a decreased oxidation of the fat, both processes com-
bining to produce fat in the body. The muscles of the poisoned
dog contained 42.4 per cent, of fat, and the liver 30 per cent., or
three times more than was present in the normal nutrition of the
dog, and at least ten times more than would have been found after
twenty days of starvation, if phosphorus had not been administered.
According to Henneberg, l 100 pounds of protein will form
33.45 pounds of urea on decomposition; the remainder, 66.55
pounds, after uniting with 12.3 parts of water, may form 51.4
pounds of fat and 27.4 pounds of carbonic acid. The maximum
quantity of fat which protein can form under the most favorable
conditions is, therefore, 51.4 per cent.

III. Formation of Fat in the Body.

79. Concerning fat. — Having ascertained the sources of fat in
the animal body, we next consider the principles governing its
formation and consumption. The formation of fat in the body
will take place when the supply of nutrients in the food exceeds
the immediate demands of the system. To study the effect of
single nutrients on fat formation and consumption, we follow the
plan employed in the study of protein consumption, and investi-
gate the conditions which are most favorable to the formation of
fat in the animal body and least favorable to its consumption.

80. Feeding with fat alone. — While exclusive protein feeding
induces only protein consumption in the body, and does not con-
tribute to the formation of flesh, an exclusive fat diet has no
influence on the decomposition of fat in the body, the same amount
being deposited whether much or little fat is fed. A dog experi-
mented with by Pettenkofer and Voit lost 96 grams of fat daily dur-
ing hunger. When 100 grams of fat were fed daily, an average of
1)7 grams of fat was oxidized, showing that the loss of fat in the
body was barely covered by the feeding of fat. 2 A relatively
larger decomposition of fat takes place in the bodies of very fat

1 Landw. Versuchs-Stationen, XX, p. 394.

2 Voit, Physiologic, p. 128.

Animal Nutrition.

animals than in lean ones. This partially explains why the
fattening of animals grows more difficult during the last stages of
the fattening period. (565)

81. Feeding protein alone. — Large quantities of protein protect
the body fat from oxidation, as will be seen by the following
experiment by Pettenkofer and Yoit1 with a dog fed exclusively
on fat-free meat, and kept in a respiration apparatus:

Feeding fat-free meat to dog in respiration apparatus — Pettenkofer

and Voit.

Meat fed.

Protein con-
sumption.

Gain (+) or loss
(—) of flesh.

Gain (+)orloss
(— ) of body fat.

Grams.
0

Grams.

165
599
1,079
1,499
1,500
1,757
2,044
2,512

Grains.

—165
— 99
— 79

+ J

+ 43
— 44
— 12

Grams.

—95
—47
—19
-f29
4-4

+ 1

+58
+57

,500

1 000

1,500

1,800

2,000

2,500

The increased feeding of fat-free meat caused an increased con-
sumption of protein, but the decomposition of fat was checked by
feeding 1,500 grams (about 3.3 pounds) of fat -free meat per day,
and where larger quantities of fat- free meat were fed the animal
was able to lay on fat. The consumption of protein was at the
same time greatly decreased.

82. Feeding both protein and fat. — The following experiments
by Pettenkofer and Yoit2 show the influence of different quanti-
ties of fat and meat on the decomposition of protein and fat in
the body of a dog. Comparing the data given in the table, we
notice the influence of the feed in the different combinations.
Where the same quantity of protein was fed in the form of meat,
with varying quantities of fat, the gain in body fat was larger
when the largest quantities of fat were fed, and the gain was, as
a rule, proportional to the quantity fed. With a liberal supply

'Voit, ibid., p. 116.

2 Zeitschr. f. Biologie, IX, p. 30; Voit, Physiologic, p. 134.

Feeds and Feeding.

of protein, as in Experiments 5 and 9, about as much protein was
left in the body as was supplied in the fat of the food. From
this it appears that the body fat formed from the protein in the
food is less stable than that derived from the fat of the food, and
that fat derived from protein will be decomposed more easily in
the body than the fat of the food.

Results of feeding meat and fat to a dog — PettenJcofer and Voit.

Expt.
No.

Food.

Changes in the body.

Meat.

Fat.

Protein.

Fat.

Consump-
tion.

Gain.

Consumption .

Gain.

Grams.

400
500
500
800
1,500
1,500
1,500
1,500
1,500

Grams.

200
100
200
350
30
60
100
100
150

Grams.

450
491
517
635
1,457
1,501
1,402
1,451
1,455

Grams.
— 50

+ 9
— 17

4-165

±1

+ 98
+ 49

+ 45

Grams.

159
66
109
136
0
21
9
0
14

Grams.

41
34
91
214
32
39
91
109
136

7..

83. Feeding with protein and carbohydrates. — For information
regarding this subject, as in the preceding ones, we have recourse
to the experiments of Pettenkofer and Yoit. *

Feeding protein and carbohydrates to a dog — Pettenkofer and Voit.

Food.

Amount of
protein de-
composed
calculated
from urea
excreted.

Protein
gained or
lost by the
body.

Amount
of carbo-
hydrates
decom-
posed.

Fat.

Flesh

Starch

Sugar

Fat

From
fat of
food.

Lost
from
the
body.

Derived
from
food
other
than fat

0
0
400
400
400
500
500
800
1500
1800
2500

379
608
211

22
10

'"e"

"ii"

211
193
436
393
413
568
537
608
1475
1469
2512

211

379
608
211
227
344
167
182
379
172
379
0

+17
+22
-10
.

+ 5

-193
- 36

- 68
- 37
+192
+ 25
+331
+ 12

- 8
-25

227

""39"'
20
16
55
43
112
57

344
167

182

379
172
379

+14
+ 4
+10

1 Loc. cit, p. 145.

Animal Nutrition. 59

Even when the food given consisted of non-nitrogenous mate-
rials only, there was a laying-on of fat; when only protein was
fed, the excretion of urea was increased proportionately, and there
was a small production of fat, which may have been derived from
the small amount of fat always present in lean meat.

Yoit found from a number of experiments that carbohydrates
cause a decrease of fat consumption in the body, and that they
are oxidized in preference to the body fat. If enough carbohy-
drates are fed with the protein, all the fat that may have origi-
nated from the protein may be deposited as body fat. If the
quantity of carbohydrates fed is increased beyond this point,
there will be no further laying-on of fat, the excess of carbohy-
drates being burned. In this particular the carbohydrates act
differently from fat fed in conjunction with protein, since the
more fat the animal can be induced to eat the larger will be the
quantity of fat deposited.

Voit' s position, that even the largest quantities of carbohydrates
fed in connection with protein are decomposed in the animal
body, is held untenable by Pfliiger, l who maintains that if an
amount of fat or starch above the needs of the system be fed to
an animal whose nitrogen income and outgo has been brought to
a state of equilibrium, the nutritive balance will not be influenced
thereby; i. e., the excretion of urea and oxidation of carbon will
go on without increase, the excess of fat or starch passing off
undigested.

84. Relative value of fat and carbohydrates. — In experiments
with fat and carbohydrates for fat production in the animal body,
Pettenkofer and Voit2 found that 100 parts of fat were equivalent
to 172-179 parts, average 175 parts, of carbohydrates (starch)
for this purpose. When considering the formation of flesh in the
animal body, it was shown that carbohydrates and fat were
practically of equal value, pound for pound, as aids in flesh for-
mation. (70) Neither of these offices can be filled by fats to the
extent indicated by their fuel value as determined by caloriinetric
investigations, (60) or as would be inferred from the quantity of

1 Pfluger's Archiv, 51 (1892), p. 317.

2 Voit, Physiologie, p. 150.

60 Feeds and Feeding.

oxygen required for their complete combustion into carbonic acid
and water.

85. Effect of water on fat consumption. — Excessive water
drinking and the feeding of very wet foods have a deleterious
effect on the formation of fat. Any conditions which cause an
excessive consumption of water must of course be avoided with
fattening animals. Abnormally large quantities of water tax the
system unnecessarily and retard the formation of flesh and fat.
A high stable temperature is to be avoided, as it increases the
amount of water drank and induces greater perspiration. Ani-
mals worry and lose their appetites under such conditions. Too
low a temperature, on the other hand, is objectionable, since
increased oxidation is then necessary to maintain the body
heat.

86. Size of the body. — A small animal has a relatively larger
body surface, and therefore loses more heat through radiation,
than a large-sized animal. According to Henneberg, l more than
nine-tenths of all the heat produced by the animal goes to supply
the loss sustained by radiation and to evaporation of water in
perspiration. Of the heat lost, 26.7 per cent, is through perspira-
tion and 65. 1 per cent, is by radiation. For the same classes of
animals the radiation of heat stands in the ratio of relative body
surface. The body surface of animals of different classes, how-
ever, does not alone determine the quantity of nutrients needed
for the preservation of the animal. According to maintenance
experiments, an ox will need about .6 grams of protein and 7.4
grams of non-nitrogenous substances for every kilogram of body
weight, while a full-grown sheep will need 1.2 grams of protein
.and 10.5 grams of non- nitrogenous substances per kilogram of
body weight. 2

87. Muscular exertion. — Muscular exertion of any kind in-
creases the oxidation processes going on in the body of animals;
vigorous exercise must therefore be avoided in the case of fat-
tening stock and milch cows. While this applies to external
movements, it also holds good so far as the internal organs are

1 Neue Beitrage, 1871, p. 227; Armsby, Manual, p. 231.

2 Wolff, Fiitterungslehre, 1888, p. 54.

Animal Nutrition. 61

concerned, especially the work of digesting feed. A bulky
fodder requires more energy on the part of the animal to move
it through the digestive canal, and larger quantities of digestive
fluids to extract its nutritive elements than does a concentrated
fodder ; hence the importance of supplying hard- worked horses,
milch cows and fattening animals a concentrated, easily -digested
ration.

88. Concerning the fattening process. — The process of fatten-
ing depends on the amount of nutrients taken up by the system
over and above its requirements. It is therefore evident that
anything which will decrease the oxidation processes going on in
the body, that is, decrease the waste caused by the wear and tear
of muscles and internal organs, will prove conducive to fat pro-
duction. The quantity of oxygen taken up by the blood is
dependent on the nutritive condition of the bodyj the more
material supplied and the more energetic the processes of decom-
position, the more oxygen is needed. There is, however, a limit
to the amount of oxygen that can be absorbed by the blood, this
limit being determined by the amount of blood in the body and
its content of haemoglobin, the characteristic coloring matter of
the red blood corpuscles. A small amount of blood and a small
haemoglobin content of the same are therefore favorable to fatten-
ing. "We see in this a possible explanation of the custom reported
to be practiced in some parts of Europe of bleeding fattening
animals.

Eeference has been made to the possible formation of fat by a
degenerative process from the muscles of the body through phos-
phorus poisoning; (78) the phosphorus in this case acts as a
poison by depriving the blood of its oxygen, and the result is the
formation of fatty matter from the muscular tissues.

89. Influence of light on fattening. — The influence of light on
fattening has been studied by Graffenberger, J the experiments
being made with both young and full-grown rabbits. One set of
animals was kept in the light, and another in a dark room. The
investigator found that the content of haemoglobin in the blood
of the rabbits kept in the dark was decreased, and the amount of

1 Pfliiger's Archiv, 53 (1893), p. 238.

62 Feeds and Feeding.

blood in the bodies of these animals decreased somewhat on long
confinement in a dark room. The average quantity of blood in
the animals kept in the light was 22.2 grams, and of those kept
in a darkened room, 17.2 grams. In another experiment, the
bodies of rabbits kept in light and dark rooms contained 100.3
grams and 90. 6 grams of blood, respectively. According to these
experiments, darkening the stable will have a stimulating influ-
ence on the formation of fat in the bodies of animals. Graffen-
berger also ascertained that the production of fat in animals kept
in the light and those kept in the dark was as 100 : 126 for the
first 16 days. After 46 days the ratio was as 100 : 119. With
full-grown animals the increase was as 100 : 216 after 24 days,
and as 100 : 138 after 75 days.

The deprivation of daylight, therefore, caused an increase in
the formation of fat and an increase in live weight. The increase
was larger in the case of full-grown animals than with younger
ones; and further, by prolonging the absence of light the increase
was relatively smaller than for the shorter time. As the develop-
ment of the skeleton and liver of the animal is retarded by dark-
ness, the prolonged absence of light has a deleterious effect upon
the health of the animal. "While Graffenberger corroborates the
results of Moleschott, l Platen, 2 and other early investigators, that
light causes an increased excretion of carbonic acid and a greater
consumption of oxygen, he finds that protein consumption is not
influenced by the absence or presence of daylight.

1 Wien Med. Wochenschr., 1855.

2 Pfliiger's Archiv, 11, p. 272.

CHAPTER V.

THE SOURCE OF MUSCULAR ENERGY; COMPOSITION" OF ANIMALS
BEFORE AND AFTER FATTENING.

I. The Source of Muscular Energy and the Production of Force.

90. Food the basis of life. — The ultimate object of most of
the food supplied to the animal is the production of work. All
the manifestations of life, shown in a thousand ways by the animal,
are in some manner derived from the food. The horse is kept for
the direct production of labor. The cow, in furnishing milk,
supplies a substance used for building up the tissues of the body
or for the production of work. Doubtless the manner in which
the food is converted into energy will always exceed man's power
to definitely determine, but many facts in this connection already
known are interesting and highly instructive.

We have learned that the substances which enter the body as
food can be grouped under three great divisions: protein, carbo-
hydrates, and ether extract. (7-9) We have further learned
that when the protein of the food has entered the body proper
and been broken down, the amount of this loss to the body can
be measured by nitrogen found in the urea. (57) The carbo-
hydrates and ether extract, when absorbed from the alimentary
tract to nurture the body, may be built up into body fat or de-
composed into carbonic acid and water, heat and energy being
given off in this process. The water resulting from the decom-
position cannot be used as a measure of the broken-down carbo-
hydrates and fat, for the reason that it is mingled with water
from other sources when excreted. Scientists are, nevertheless,
able to determine the quantity of these substances which has been
broken down, by measuring the carbonic acid exhaled in the
breath of the animal.

Feeds and Feeding.

91. Liebig's theory. — It was held by Liebig that the exercise
of force is due to the breaking- down of lean- meat tissue in the
animal body, as is shown by the following:1

"The amount of azotized food (protein) necessary to restore
the equilibrium between waste and supply is directly propor-
tional to the amount of tissues metamorphosed.

"The amount of living matter, which in the body loses the
condition of life, is, in equal temperatures, directly proportional
to the mechanical effects produced in a given time.

"The amount of tissue metamorphosed in a given time may be
measured by the quantity of nitrogen in the urine.

" The sum of the mechanical effects produced in two individuals
in the same temperature is proportional to the amount of nitrogen
in their urine; whether the mechanical force has been employed
in voluntary or involuntary motions, whether it has been consumed
by limbs or by the heart and other viscera."

92. Lawes and Gilbert's trial. — Lawes and Gilbert held a different
view, believing that protein did not play the exclusive part in the
production of energy claimed for it. Putting their doubts to test,
they conducted the following experiment: 2 Two pigs of similar
weight and appearance were selected. To one was given all
it would consume of lentil meal, a feed rich in protein, containing
about 4 per cent, of nitrogen. The other pig was fed all it would
consume of barley meal, containing less than 2 per cent, of nitro-
gen. Each pig was confined in a frame, with arrangements for
collecting the faeces and urine separately. All the usual precau-
tions for good work were observed, with the following results:

Feeding pigs protein-rich and protein-poor rations — EothamsUd

Station.

Periods.

Food.

Nitrogen
in food.

Urea
voided.

Urea-
nitrogen.

Days.
3

No. 1, lentil meal

Grams.
123.

Grains.
134.

Grams.
62.6

No. 2, barley meal

58.9

61 5

28.7

No 1 lentil meal

120 6

141

65 8

No. 2 barley meal

51 2

52 1

24 3

1 Organic Chemistry in its Application to Physiology and Pathology.

2 Jour. Boy. Agl. Soc., 1895; Bui. 22, Office of Expt. Sta.

The Source of Muscular Energy.

Here were two animals at rest, one getting much nitrogen in its
feed and the other a limited amount. Yfhile the work performed
by the pigs was equal, or very nearly so, for both were equally at
rest, the amount of nitrogen excreted in the urea varied greatly,
being in proportion to the amount of that element in the feed
given.

93. Nitrogen excretion during hard labor. — We next present a
case in which there was severe physical exertion, that we may
learn whether the nitrogen excreted bears a direct relation to
the work performed. In 1865, Professors Tick and Wislicenus
ascended the Faulhorn, an Alpine mountain. l In this laborious
effort they were careful to note their diet and to preserve all the
urine excreted during the trip, which was afterwards analyzed.
From before the ascent until after returning, the food consumed
contained only starch, fat and sugar. The following is a sum-
mary of the results so far as they relate to the point under con-
sideration:

Nitrogen excreted in the urine by Fick and Wislicenus while ascending

Mt. Faulhorn.

Urea.

Nitrogen,
in urea.

Total
nitrogen.

Nitrogen,
excreted
per hour
(average).

Pick.
Night before ascent

Grams.
12.4820

Grams.
5.8249

Grams.
6.9153

Grains.
0.63

Diirin0" ascent

7.0330

3 2681

3 3130

After ascent

5.1718

2.4151

2.4293

Night after ascent

4.8167

.45

Wislicenus.
Night before ascent

11.7614

5.4887

6.6841

.61

During ascent

6.6973

3.1254

3.1336

After ascent

5.1020

2.3809

2.4165

.40

5.3462

.51

"The record of the actual quantities is sufficient to show that
much less nitrogen was excreted by both experimenters during
and after than before the ascent. But the calculated amounts of

1 Loc. cit.
5

Feeds and Feeding.

nitrogen excreted per hour during each of the periods, as given
in the last column of the table, bring the main results more clearly
to view. It is seen that, on the average, only about two-thirds
as much nitrogen was excreted per hour during and after the
ascent as prior to it, when there would be more or less residue in
the system from the last albuminous meal."

Had the nitrogenous tissues of the body been broken down
directly in proportion to the labor performed, there would have
been a large increase of nitrogen in the urea of these persons dur-
ing and just after their fatiguing work, but such is not the case.

In 1866, Frankland, 1 studying the sources of muscular power,
made numerous calorimetrical determinations of the energy
evolved by the combustion of muscle, urea and various foods, or
constituents of food, and concluded that the transformation of
muscular tissue alone cannot account for more than a small frac-
tion of the muscular power developed by animals.

94. The excretion of carbonic acid. — Let us now study the
quantities of carbonic acid given off by animals under different
conditions of labor and rest.

The great increase in the carbonic acid exhaled during work,
and its decrease with the cessation of work, are clearly brought
out in trials by Smith, 2 as shown in the following table:

Amount of carbonic acid exhaled by the horse under varying condi-
tions — Smith.

Carbonic acid exhaled per hour.

Pony (work
trotting).

Horse (work
galloping).

Best

Cubic feet.

0.7648
2.3954
.4631

Cubic feet.

Work

20.6265
1.3133

12.4353
1.1693

1 Phil. Mag. 1866, 4th Ser., Vol. XXXII, p. 182; loc. cit.

2 Jour. Physiology, 1890, No. 1; loc. cit.

The Source of Muscular Energy.

The following table by the same investigator shows the great
increase in the carbonic acid gas exhaled with increasing labor:

Carbonic acid exhaled by the horse at rest and at work — Smith.

Carbonic a<
per 1

rid exhaled
lour.

Series A.

Series B.

Rest

Cubic feet.
1.0282

Cubic feet.
1.2346

"Walking .

1 0972

1 0586

Trotting

2.9482

4.8309

Canterin0*

4.9159

5.0080

14.9725

These tables show the variation in the amount of carbonic acid
given off by the lungs of animals during labor, and the rapid
increase as the labor increases. No such findings are on record
with regard to the excretion of nitrogen in the urea. The con-
clusion is irresistible that the carbohydrates and the fat of the
food and of the body, and not protein, are the main sources of
body energy.

95. Body heat does not measure the energy of food. — On this
subject Wolff writes:1 u The great increase in the combustion
of fat during work has led to the assumption that this constitutes
the chief source of muscular energy, that the work done is the
result of the heat produced, and that in the animal body a con-
version of heat into force takes place, just as the steam-engine
produces work through the heat of the burning fuel by the inter-
vention of steam, or as the hot-air engine executes work by means
of the heated air. The non-nitrogenous food stuffs are directly
concerned in this heat production, and it has been calculated that
20 per cent, of the heat produced by their combustion is con-
verted into work, which is a far larger proportion than that yet
attained by the most efficient steam-engines, which only convert
about 10 per cent, of the heat they receive into work. It is open
to question, however, whether the heat produced in the body can
be directly converted into mechanical work as in the case of the

1 Farm Foods, English edition, pp. 82, 83, Cousins,

Feeds and Feeding.

air engine, or can even be considered its direct source/ since the
necessary conditions of alternate heating and cooling of the whole
or a part do not hold good in the animal body, and make a com-
parison between the two impossible The increased

production of heat during work and the increased respiration are
but secondary effects, the result of work, and can by no means
be regarded as its primary or direct cause. The increased heat
produced in work is dissipated in evaporation from the body and
by greater heat radiation, and is eventually reduced again to the
normal.'7

96. Food requirements for work vary. — Wolff further writes:1
"The food required to produce work varies with the form of
muscular activity or the work done. Katzenstein, for instance,
found that work done by men turning a wheel with the arms
produced a greater expenditure of material in the body than the
same work done with the legs. The volume of oxygen used per
kilogram-meter of work done with hand-labor amounted to 1.96
cubic centimeters, but when the work was done with the legs,
only from 1.19 to 1.51 cubic centimeters."

Further, the degree of practice in a particular kind of work
influences the expenditure of material in the body, as Gruber
found by experiments on himself. The carbonic acid produced
every twenty minutes amounted to the following:

Best.

Walking.

Climbing.

Out of
practice.

In
practice.

12.83

22.42

38.83
7376

31.00
7639

Zuntz and Lehmann obtained similar results in their experi-
ments on the horse. "It can be deduced from the total experi-
mental results that no constant relationship can be set up between
the production of work and consumption of food; the entire
organization of an animal, its individual and variable peculiarities
and condition, etc., create great differences in the economical

1 Farm Foods, pp. 84, 85.

The Source of Muscular Energy. 69

employment of its power in doing the same piece of work; with,
the same individual the quality and intensity of the work produces
great differences, and further researches are required to reduce
the variations in question by regular use to an individual and
perhaps a typical average value. ' '

97. The sources of muscular energy. — Wolff further says:1
" The essential sources of muscular power are seen in the decom-
position processes in the body, i. e., in the destruction which
portions of the body or the food resorbed from the digestive tract
undergo by the passage of the plasma through the tissues. To
this end, as we have already seen in the case of fat-production,
both nitrogenous and non- nitrogenous substances contribute. As
these materials are resolved by the influence of oxygen into
simple groups of atoms, the energy of chemical force which
previously linked the atoms together in more complicated group-
ings is set at liberty, and can be employed as kinetic energy for
the external work of the body. In a condition of rest, this energy
serves for the internal work of the organs or is converted into
electric current, etc. The animal body often stores up a certain
amount of energy 5 as soon as this store has been rapidly exhausted
by work, a period of rest is necessary to enable fresh material to
flow through the tissue- cells and generate fresh energy for the
production of more active work. The force-production and all
phenomena resulting from the combustion of organic matter in
the animal body must obey the law of the conservation of energy. "

98. Conclusion. — Taking the experiments here presented and
many others by the investigators for guidance, we may conclude
that in the exercise of force there is greatly increased expenditure
of the non-nitrogenous constituents of the food (carbohydrates
and ether extract), and but little of the nitrogenous. (440) At
the same time the importance of nitrogenous food must not be
under-estimated, for, as Wolff tells us: "No one expects much
work from men or animals fed on a diet poor in nitrogen, such as
potatoes and rice. Fatness of body is never considered a sign of
muscular strength. "

1 Farm Foods, pp. 85, 86.

70 Feeds and Feeding.

" A highly liberal diet is absolutely necessary to preserve the
flesh and fat in the body, and at the same time to keep it in a
powerful condition. An addition of fat, which is the most intense
respiration material, is often a desirable addition and nearly as
important as albumen; and it is a suggestive fact that the working
classes have a decided taste for fatty dishes, and that oats — a
food proportionately rich in fat — are recognized as an excellent
food for horses."1

In the above we have the strongest statements possible in favor
of the importance of protein for the production of work. When
we consider the large proportion of carbohydrates and ether ex-
tract in the ration, and remember that fat contains more than twice
the heat units of protein, we must concede that these food-groups
furnish most of the energy developed in the animal body. (43&-
441)

II. Composition of Steers, Sheep and Pigs, and their Increase during

Fattening.

99. Investigations of Lawes and Gilbert. — The only extended
investigations concerning the composition of the bodies of farm
animals and of the increase during fattening are those conducted
by Lawes and Gilbert of the Eothamsted (England) Station.
These investigations, which were begun in 1848, were first pub-
lished in 1859. 2 The second part, relating to the composition of
the ash of the entire animal and certain separate parts, was pub-
lished in 1863. 8 This work will stand for all time a witness to
the high standard of painstaking research established by these
pioneer English experimenters in agricultural science. Only a
brief summary of their work can here be given, taken mainly from
their recent contribution on The Feeding of Animals. 4

To determine the ultimate composition of steers, sheep and pigs,
the entire bodies of ten animals of each group were subjected to
analysis. The findings are condensed in the table here given:

1 Farm Foods, p. 91.

2 Phil. Trans., Part II, 1859; Jour. Roy. Agl. Soc., 1860.

8 Phil. Trans., Part III, 1883; Rothamsted Memoirs, Vols. II, III, IV.
4 Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc., 1895. See also Bui. 22, Office of Experiment
Stations.

Composition of Animal Body.

Percentage composition of the entire bodies, the carcasses and the offal
of ten animals of different descriptions, or in different conditions
of maturity — Lawes and Gilbert.

Contents

Description of animal.

Mineral
matter
(ash).

Nitroge-
nous sub-
stance.

Fat.

Total dry
sub-
stance.

Water.

of stom-
ach and
intestin's
in moist

state.

Division I. Per cent, in the entire animal (fasted live weight).

Fatcalf

3.80

15.2

14.8

33.8

63.0

3 17

Half-fat ox

4.66

16.6

19.1

40.3

51.5

8.19

Fat ox

3.92

14.5

30.1

48.5

45.5

5.98

Fat lamb

2.94

12.3

28 5

43 7

47.8

8.54

Store sheep

3.16

14.8

18.7

36.7

57.3

6.00

Half-fat oM sheep
Fat sheep

3.17

2 81

14.0

12 2

23.5
35 6

40.7
50 6

50.2
43 4

9.05
6 02

Extra-fat sheep .

2.90

10.9

45 8

59 6

35 2

5.18

Store pig

2.67

13.7

23.3

39.7

55.1

5.22

Fat pie....

1.65

10.9

42.2

54.7

41.3

3.97

Means of all

3.17

13.5

28.2

44.9

49.0

6.13

Division II. Per cent, in carcass.

Fatcalf

4.48

16.6

37.7

62.3

Half-fat ox

5 56

17.8

22 6

46 0

54 0

Fat ox

4.56

15.0

34.8

54.4

45.6

Fat lamb

3.63

10.9

36.9

51.4

48.6

Store sheep

4.36

14.5

23.8

42.7

57.3

Half-fat old sheep

4.13

14.9

31.3

50.3

49.7

Fat sheep

3.45

11.5

45.4

60.3

39 7

Extra-fat sheep

2.77

9.1

55.1

67.0

33.0

Store pig

2.57

14.0

28.1

44.7

55.3

Fat pig

1 40

10 5

49 5

61 4

38 6

Means of all

3.69

13.5

34.4

51.6

48.4

Division III. Per cent, in offal (excluding contents of stomach and intestines).

Fatcalf

3 41

17.1

14 6

35 1

64 9

Half-fat ox

4.05

20.6

15.7

40 4

59 6

Fat ox

3.40

17.5

26.3

47 2

52 8

Fat lamb

2 45

18.9

20 1

41 5

58 5

Store sheep

2.19

18.0

16 1

36 3

63 7

Half-fat old sheep

2.72

17.7

18.5

38.9

61.1

Fat sheep

2.32

16.1

26.4

44.8

55.2

Extra-fat sheep

3.64

16.8

34.5

54.9

45.1

Store pig

3.07

14.0

15 0

32 1

67 9

Fatr>isr....

2.97

14.8

22.8

40 6

59 4

Means of all

3.02

17.2

21.0

41.2

58.8

72 Feeds and Feeding.

The first division of the table relates to the composition of the
entire body (fasted live weight) of the animal. Eeferring to the
second column, headed "mineral matter/' we learn that in every
100 pounds of the body of the fat calf there are 3.8 pounds of ash
or mineral matter; that is, if the body of the calf were consumed
by fire, there would remain that amount of ash for each 100
pounds of body weight. With the half- fat ox the ash amounts to
4.66 pounds, while for the fat ox it falls to 3.92 pounds for each
100 pounds live weight.

In like manner we learn that in 100 pounds of live lean pig
(fasted weight) there are 2.67 pounds of ash or mineral matter,
while in the fat pig there are only 1.65 pounds. The pig has
less mineral matter in its body than other farm animals.

100. Nitrogenous substance. — In the muscles, tendons, liga-
ments, hide, hair, horns, blood, nerves and organic matter of the
bones is found the nitrogenous substance of the body. Most of
the nitrogenous substance is in the red meat or lean portion of the
flesh. For each 100 pounds of body weight the fat calf has 15.2
pounds of nitrogenous substance. This is slightly increased for the
half-fat ox, and reduced for the fat ox. In the lean sheep and pig
there is less nitrogenous substance than in the fat calf, while for
the extra-fat sheep and fat pig the lean meat constitutes only 10.9
pounds in each 100 pounds of body.

101. Fat of the body.- — In the fat calf there are 14.8 pounds of
fat for 100 pounds of body weight. This is increased to 19.1 for
the half- fat ox and 30.1 pounds for the ox when fat. Lean sheep
show 18. 7 pounds of fat, while in extra fat sheep it runs up to
45.8 per 100 pounds weight. The lean pig shows 23.3 per cent,
and the fat pig 42.2 per cent, of fat.

It is interesting to observe that the body of the fat calf contains
almost as much fat, and that of the fat ox more than two pounds
of fat, for each pound of nitrogenous or lean- meat substance. Even
in lean sheep there is more fat than lean meat, and with the
extra- fat sheep there is four times as much fat as dry lean meat.
The same is true of the fat pig.

102. Water and dry substance in the body. — In the next two
columns of the table is a statement of the total dry substance and

Composition of Animal Body. 73

the water in the animal's body. It is shown that 63 out of every
100 pounds live weight of the fat calf's body is water. \Yith the
half-fat ox, this is materially reduced, and with the fat ox it
amounts to 45.5 per cent. Thus we learn that considerably more
than half the body weight of the calf, and nearly half that of the
fatted ox is water. In extra-fat sheep the water content falls to
35.2 pounds, the lowest of all farm animals, while for the fat pig
it is 41.3 pounds for each 100 pounds. On the average, for all
animals studied, 49 pounds in every 100 of body weight is water.
The supreme importance of this neutral fluid to the animal sys-
tem is strikingly brought out by these figures.

103. Composition of the increase while fattening. — Lawes and
Gilbert's researches furnish data showing that the process of
fattening is really what the term implies — the lay ing- on of
fat. During fattening the percentage of total dry matter in
the body is considerably increased, and the fatty matter accu-
mulated is much greater than the nitrogenous substance. The
increase during fattening of moderately fattened oxen will con-
tain scarcely more than 1.5 per cent, of mineral matter, 8 per
cent, of nitrogenous substance, and 65 per cent, of fat, the total
dry substance put on during fattening ranging from 70 to 75 per
cent. The remainder of the increase is water. If steers grow
as well as fatten, there may be more mineral matter and nitrog-
enous substance, less fat and more water in the added growth,
than just reported. In such case about two-thirds of the increase
is dry substance and one-third water, while if the steer is mature,
the added weight while fattening consists of as much as three-
fourths dry substance and one-fourth water.

Studies of sheep lead to the conclusion that the increase during
fattening will contain not less than 2 per cent, of mineral matter
and frequently more — a decided increase over the ox, due largely
to the growth of wool during fattening. Of the added weight of
sheep during fattening, from 70 to 75 per cent, may be fat.

While fattening, the pig adds scarcely any mineral matter to the
body, and rarely more than 7.5 per cent, of nitrogenous substance,
the fat forming as much as 70 per cent, of the increase. Of the
gain in weight made by the pig during fattening, about 75 per
cent, is dry matter and 25 per cent, water. The increase of less

Feeds and Feeding.

highly fattened pigs contains more nitrogenous substance, more
water and less fat.

104. Comparative fattening qualities of different farm animals. —

Gathering their results into a single table for the purpose of study-
ing the comparative fattening qualities of farm animals, Lawes
and Gilbert present the following table, giving the proportion of
the various organs and parts of the body, the feed consumed
weekly, gains, etc. :

Comparative fattening qualities of farm animals — Lawes and Gilbert.
Belation of parts in 100 pounds live weight.

Oxen.

Sheep.

Pigs.

Average of

249

Stomachs and contents

Lbs.
11 5

Lbs.

7 4

Lbs.
1 3

Intestines and contents

2.8

3 5

6 2

Internal loose fat

14.3
4.6

10.9
7.0

7,5

1 6

Heart, aorta, lungs, windpipe, liver, gall-blad-
der and con tents, pancreas, spleen and blood..
Other offal parts

7.0
13.0

7.3
15. 0

6.6
1.1

Total offal parts

38.9

40 2

16 8

Carcass

59.3

59.7

82.6

Loss by evaporation etc

1 8

0 1

0 6

Total

100.0

Per 100 pounds live weight.

Dry substance consumed in
Increase yielded per week ..

food

per

week

12.
1.

5
13

16
1

27
6

.0
43

Per 100 pounds dry substance of food.

Fat in increase

5.2

7 0

15 7

Total dry substance in increase

6.2

8 0

17 6

Total dry substance in excretions

36 5

31 9

16 7

Average fat.

In lean condition

16 0

18 0

22 0

In fat condition

30 0

33 0

44 0

In increase while fattening

60 0

65 0

70 0

Composition of Animal Body. 75

The table presents the summaries from the study of 16 oxen,
249 sheep and 59 pigs. For the ox we learn that the stomach
and contents constitute 11.5 per cent., for the sheep 7.4 per cent.,
and for the pig but 1.3 per cent, of the live weight. The very
small size of the stomach of the pig is here made evident. It is
shown that 59.3 per cent, of the live weight of the fatted ox is
returned as dressed carcass. Sheep dress about the same as steers,
while the pig returns 82.6 per cent, dressed weight, greatly
exceeding the ox and sheep in the proportion of valuable parts.

In the second division of the table we learn that for each 100
pounds of live weight the steer consumes 12.5 pounds of dry
matter, the sheep somewhat more, and the pig 27.27 pounds
of dry matter each week. The fattening steer increases 1.13
per cent, of his live weight weekly, the sheep 1.76 per cent.,
while the pig makes surprising gains, increasing 6.43 per cent, of
his live weight in a week.

In the next division of the table we are told of the fat and dry
substance in the increase, and also of the dry substance in the
excretions. Here the sheep leads the steer, and the pig more
than doubles the increase of either.

105. Feeds and fattening. — The following is adapted from
Warington:1 Lawes and Gilbert reckon that on an average for
the* whole fattening period, an ox will produce 100 pounds of live
weight from the consumption of 250 pounds of oil cake, 600
pounds of clover hay and 3,500 pounds of Swedes (turnips).
Sheep will produce the same increase by the consumption of 250
pounds of oil cake, 300 pounds of clover hay and 4,000 pounds
of Swedes. Pigs will require about 500 pounds of barley meal
to yield a similar result. Taking these data, the rate of food
consumption and the increase yielded will be as follows:

1 Chemistry of the Farm.

Feeds and Feeding.

Results with fattening animals per 100 pounds live weight, per week —

Warington.

Received by the
animal.

Results produced.

Total
dry
food.

Digestible
organic
matter.

Food con-
sumed for
heat and
work.*

Dry ma-
nuref pro-
duced.

Increase in
live weight.

Oxen

Lbs.

12.5
16.0
27.0

Lbs.

8.9
12.3
22.0

Lbs.

6.86
9.06
12.58

Lbs.

4.56
5.10
4.51

Lbs.

1.13
1.76
6.43

Sheep

Pigs...

Results obtained in relation to food consumed.

Increase in live
weight.

On 100 pounds of dry food.

Per 100
Ibs. dry
food.

Per 100
Ibs. di-
gested or-
ganic
matter.

Consumed,
for heat and
work.*

Dry manure
produced.!

Dry in-
crease
yielded.

Oxen

Lbs.

9.0
11.0

23.8

Lbs.

12.7
14.3

29.2

Lbs.

54.9
56.6
46.6

Lbs.

36.5
31.9
16.7

Lbs.

6.2
8.0
17.6

Sheep

Pigs

* In calculating the amount of food consumed for the production of
heat and work, it has been assumed that the fat in the increase has been
derived entirely from the fat and carbohydrates supplied by the food.

t The manure is exclusive of litter.

Warington tells us in the first table that pigs are able to con-
sume far more food in proportion to their live weight than
either sheep or oxen. This is due to the concentrated and digesti-
ble character of the food commonly supplied the fattening pig,
and to the great capacity of this animal for assimilation. The
proportion of stomach is greater in the ox or sheep than in the
pig, being for 100 pounds live weight, 3.2 for the ox, 2.5 for the
sheep, and .7 for the pig. On the other hand, the proportion of
the intestines is greater with the pig. (32) Ruminants are thus
best fitted for dealing with feeds requiring prolonged digestion,
while the pig excels in the capacity for assimilation.

Composition of Animal Body.

As a natural result of the larger consumption of food, the pig
increases in weight more rapidly than the sheep or ox. Not only
is the rate of increase more rapid, but the increase yielded by the
pig is also far greater in proportion to the food consumed, as
plainly appears from the lower division of the table. The pig,
with its very large consumption of food, has, in fact, to spend a
smaller proportion of it on heat and work, and has a larger sur-
plus to store as increase. Of 100 pounds digested organic
matter, the fattening ox spends about 77 for heat and work, the
sheep 74, and the pig 57. The upper division of the table shows,
however, that in a given time a pig converts a much larger
amount of food into heat and work than either the sheep or ox.
This greater consumption probably represents the internal work
performed in lay ing- on increase. The pig, with its rapid feeding
and high rate of increase, is undoubtedly the most economical meat-
making machine at the farmer's disposal. The returns of sheep
lie between those given by oxen and pigs, being, however, much
nearer the former than the latter. The German experiments
place the sheep below the ox as an economic producer of increase,
instead of above it, as in the Bothamsted statistics just quoted.
The difference is probably due to the different breeds of animals
under experiment.

106. Nitrogen and ash in carcasses of farm animals. — The table
shows the quantity of nitrogen, and principal ash constituents, in
the fasted live weight of animals analyzed at Eothamsted.

Ash constituents and nitrogen in 1,000 pounds of various animals,
based on live fasted weight, including contents of stomach and
intestines — Lawes and Gilbert.

Nitrogen .

Phosphoric
acid.

Potash.

Lime.

Magnesia.

Fat calf.

Lbs.
24 64

Lbs.
15 35

Lbs.
2 06

Lbs.
16 46

Lbs.
0 79

Half-fat ox ... .

27 45

18 39

2 05

21 11

0 85

Fatox

23.26

15.51

1.76

17 92

0 61

Fat lamb

19.71

11.26

1.66

12.81

0 52

Store sheep

23 77

11 88

1 74

13 21

0 56

Fat sheep

19 76

10 40

1 48

11 84

0 48

Store pig

22 08

10 66

1 96

10 79

0 53

Fat me .,

17 65

6 54

1 38

6 36

0 32

CHAPTER VI.

INFLUENCE OF FEED OHf THE ANIMAL BODY.

I. Influence of Feed on the Growing Body of the Pig.

107. Sanborn's findings.— In 1884, Sanborn, of the Missouri
Agricultural College,1 observed more lean and less fat in the
bodies of pigs fed ship-stuff (middlings) than in those of pigs fed
corn meal. He wrote: " Does a food rich in carbohydrates and
fat tend to produce an increased proportion of fat to flesh? . . .
I have heretofore observed that a pig fed on ship-stuff (mid-
dlings), versus corn, gave an apparently better muscular develop-
ment from ship-stuff. . , . Experience convinces me that
the exclusive use of corn meal for a feeding ration is detrimental
to a vigorous and healthy muscular development, producing a
pig easily subject to disease, distasteful to our consumers, and
more costly than is ^necessary. " In later bulletins2 this investi-
gator reports studies in which pigs were fed dried blood and corn
meal in opposition to corn meal only. The weights of various
internal organs were ascertained, and the fat and lean of the car-
casses separated by the knife, and weighed. The data thus
obtained confirmed the original statement. Marked differences
in the relative size of some of the internal organs were also
reported.

108. Studies at other Stations. — Eecognizing the great impor-
tance of this line of study from the scientific standpoint, and its
significance to the breeder of swine, to the farmer interested in
pig feeding, and to the consumer of pork products as well, the
writer conducted several trials in the same line as Sanborn's, at
the Wisconsin Station. 3 In these trials dried blood, (338) mid-

1 Bui. 10.

* Buls. 14, 19, Mo. Agrl. Col.

* Repts. 1886, '87, '88, '89.

Influence of Feed on the Animal Body. 79

dlings, peas and skim milk, articles rich in protein, were fed in
opposition to corn meal, which was used because it is the com-
mon pig feed of the country and is the richest in carbohydrates
of its class.

The same subject was investigated at the Kansas Station1 by
Shelton, who fed pigs a mixture of shorts and bran in opposition
to corn meal, potatoes and tallow.

At the Alabama Station, 2 Duggar fed cowpeas, which are rich
in protein, in opposition to corn meal. (863)

In France, Fortier, 3 likewise recognizing the importance of
this work, duplicated in one instance a trial by the writer, feed-
ing dried blood, skim milk and middlings in opposition to corn
meal only, to ascertain if parallel results could be obtained in
his country. Thus we have the results of feeding pigs rations
rich in protein and poor in protein at five widely-separated points.

The results of these several trials are condensed in the following
comprehensive tables:

Bui. 9.
2 Bui. 82.

xt. Trav. Soc. Cent. d'Agr., Dept. Seine-Inf., 1889, 1890.

Feeds and Feeding.

CX3

££?

£3

||
&~

O oo 10

02 C5CO

,Q T-H <^|

00 1C

00 iO

CO 00 O

oco oo

00 CO(M

<M(M<M

ood

ddlin
rn me

•f M M

-a

888

rHrHCO

111

Shorts, bran
Potatoes ta

Dried bl
Corn m

Cowpea
Corn m

- -»

133

Influence of Feed on the Animal Body.

0 3co'

rHCO
t- CO

VOi— 1 •*
CO t^- 1C
CO ^t" CO

Tfrl

CO t-CO

-*»OIO

coo

<M CO i^

C1CO

IOCO

Milk, midd
Corn meal

I, Shorts, bran
I Potatoes tallow

Dried b
Corn m

-3,3

82 Feeds and Feeding.

109. What the tables show. — The first table shows that in every
instance the protein-rich ration produced heavier gains than the
others. In the several columns are given the weights of various
parts and organs of the body. Since pigs fed on the several
rations reached different weights at the time of slaughter, the
weights are reduced to a common standard for comparison. This
is done in the second table, where the weights of the different
parts are stated for each 100 pounds of dressed carcass.

It is seen in the second table that the pigs fed the protein-rich
rations usually show a larger shrinkage than those getting corn
meal. This is accounted for in part by the larger amount of
blood, heavier livers and other organs of the protein-fed pigs.

In nearly every instance the pigs receiving the protein-rich
rations yielded more blood than those fed corn. In the Kansas
trial the pigs getting shorts and bran had 51.2 ounces of blood to
100 pounds of carcass, while the corn-fed pigs had only 36.8
ounces. In Fortier's trials in France, the blood of the corn-meal-
fed pigs was less than half that of the pigs receiving the protein-
rich ration, the ratio standing 55.1 to 26.1. The only exception
was in the Wisconsin trial, where the pigs were made very fat
by feeding milk.

In every instance the pigs fed the protein-rich rations had
heavier livers than the others, the difference often being very
marked. For example, in the Missouri trial the pigs fed mid-
dlings had livers weighing 48.4 ounces to 100 pounds of carcass,
while those of the lot fed corn weighed only 31.9.

Generally, the kidneys of the protein-fed pigs are heaviest,
though in Fortier's trials the reverse occurs.

The tenderloin muscles lying along the back of the pig are
easily dissected from the remainder of the carcass, and in one
trial in Wisconsin and in the Kansas trial these muscles were
separated and weighed. In both cases the muscles of the pigs
getting the protein-rich rations were heavier in proportion to the
weight of the body than those of the pigs fed corn. This is proof
of more lean meat in the carcasses of pigs fed the most protein.

The pigs getting corn meal gave more leaf lard than the others,
excepting in the French trial, where the results were practically
equal.

Influence of Feed on the Animal Body.

110. Strength of thigh-bones. — In the Wisconsin and Kansas
trials the strength of the thigh-bones of the pigs in the different
lots was determined in the following manner: The two rounded
iron-supporting edges of the testing machine were set four inches
apart, and on these the thigh-bones were placed, one at a time,
always in the same position. The rounded eklge of the breaking
bar rested on the bone midway between the two supports. The
pressure downward upon the bone, which was gradually increased,
was measured on the tilting-beam of the machine, and the weight
which the bone supported at the time it broke was recorded. In
every instance the pigs fed the protein- rich ration possessed the
strongest bones, the difference often being very marked. For
example, in one Wisconsin trial the bones of the corn- fed pigs
broke at 380 pounds on the average, and those of the pigs fed
milk, blood and middlings at 503 pounds. These weights are for
each 100 pounds of dressed carcass, and show in favor of the
mixed ration by 32 per cent.

111. What analysis revealed. — In one of the Wisconsin trials
we went further into details, making partial analyses of some of
the body organs. In this trial there were four pigs in each lot.
To the first lot was fed a ration consisting of one-third dried
blood and two-thirds corn meal, by weight. The second lot
received one-half pea meal and one-half corn meal, while the
third was fed corn meal only. All lots received hard-wood ashes,
salt and water additional. The weights and gains of the pigs
are shown in the following table:

Weights and gains of pigs variously fed — Wisconsin Station.

Feed

•

Average
weight at
begin-
ning.

Average
gain dur-
ing trial.

Average
feed per
100 Ibs.
gain.

Lot I, J

- dried blood,

§ corn meal

Lbs.
9G

Lbs.

202

Lbs.
409

Lot II, 3

r pea meal, £

corn meal

180

449

Lot III, '

corn meal o

nlv .

155

481

It is shown by the table that the lot fed dried blood and corn
meal made the best gains with the least food, that receiving pea

Feeds and Feeding.

meal coming second, while corn meal gave the poorest returns
with the most feed consumed for a given gain. The dry matter
of the blood and dry matter and fat in the kidneys were deter-
mined with the results presented in the following table:

Results of partial analyses of blood and kidneys of pigs fed on dried
blood, pea meal and corn meal — Wisconsin Station.

Results for 4 pigs.

Fed
blood
and
corn.

Fed
peas
and
corn.

Fed
corn
only.

Average dressed weight, pounds

248

228

212

Blood per 100 Ibs. dressed weight, grams

1332

1263

1237

Per cent, dry matter in blood

24 24

24 58

24 09

Dry matter in blood per 100 Ibs. dressed weight, grams

323

310

298

Kidneys, grams per 100 Ibs. dressed weight

111

Following for 2 pigs each lot only:
Percent, dry matter in kidneys

24 41

25 80

26 26

Per cent, fat in kidneys

4 71

4 49

6 41

Dry matter in kidneys to 100 Ibs. dressed wt. , grams
Dry matter in kidneys less fat per 100 Ibs. dressed
weight grams

23.4
18 8

24.4
20 1

20.7
15 6

The table shows the dry matter in the blood to be quite uniform
for the three lots, the corn-fed lot containing the lowest percent-
age. The total dry matter of the kidneys is highest with the
corn-fed pigs, the difference being due to the larger amount
of fat in the kidneys. The highest percentage of dry matter in
the kidneys to dressed carcass is for the pigs fed peas and corn,
with those fed blood and corn coming second.

112. Modifications of carcass. — That the bodies of the pigs
were affected by the feed given in these trials is made plain by
the colored engravings presented by Fortier of France and the
writer, * and by the half-tone reproductions from photographs by
Shelton2 and the writer. 3 These views show what Sanborn origi-
nally announced, viz., that there is more lean meat in proportion
to fat in the carcasses of protein -fed pigs than in the carcasses of
those getting corn meal.

i Kept. Wis. Sta., 1886.
* Bui. 9, Kan. Sta.
"Kept. Wis. Sta., 1888.

Influence of Feed on the Animal Body.

Sanborn's analyses and statements were further substantiated
by the writer in the following manner: From one side of the car-
cass the sixth rib and the flesh lying over it were cut out. The
rib and the skin were removed and the remaining flesh of the sec-
tion analyzed. As before stated, the tenderloin muscle of the
back, lying in the angle made by the spinous processes and the
ribs, is quite free from connection with adjacent tissue. That por-
tion of this muscle lying over the seventh and eighth ribs was
selected for analysis, with the average results presented in the
following table:

Analyses of sections of the carcasses of pigs fed on dried blood, pea
meal and corn meal — Wisconsin Station.

Four pigs in
each lot.

Sixth-rib cut.

Tenderloin muscle.

Water.

Fat.

Dry lean
meat.

Water.

Fat.

Dry lean
meat.

Per cent.

Blood-fed
Peas-fed
Corn-fed

27.16
28.41
20.16

64.68
62.94
73.56

8.16
8.65
6.28

67.96
69.49
67.45

8.22
6.17
9.41

23.32
24.34
23.14

For present purposes we may assume that the flesh lying over
the sixth rib is representative of the whole carcass. This being
true, the carcasses of the protein-fed pigs contained eight parts
more water and ten parts less fat to the hundred pounds than the
carcasses of the pigs fed corn. For dry lean meat the results are
a little more than six per cent, for the corn-fed pigs and above
eight per cent, for the other lots. There was, then, about one-
third more lean meat in the carcasses of the protein-fed pigs than
in the carcasses of those getting corn. The analysis reveals more
fat and somewhat less lean meat percentagely in the tenderloin
muscles of the corn-fed pigs.

113. Misconception concerning the experiments. — There has
been misconception concerning the purpose and interpretation of
these experiments.1 A few writers have inferred that claims
were advanced by some of the investigators that lean meat can

1 Harris on the Pig, 2d Ed.; Agr. Science, vol. 2: Bept. Kan. Bd.
Agr., Apr. 1889.

86 Feeds and Feeding.

be produced in the body of the pig at the will of the feeder.
Others interpret the investigations as an attack upon Indian corn
for swine feeding, while still others declare the experiments
inaccurate, or that the figures show nothing unusual. These
writers refer to the experiments by Lawes and Gilbert in which
the carcasses of pigs fed bran, beans and lentils showed no dif-
ference in the proportion of muscle to fat over those receiv-
ing carbonaceous foods. They overlook the vital point in the
problem, viz., that these later experiments were with growing
pigs, while the early ones were with animals well advanced
toward maturity. In the Lawes and Gilbert trials the protein
feeds used were not altogether suitable for pigs. How much their
results were modified by this fact it is impossible to state.

For a discussion of the practical bearing of these experiments
see articles 936-940.

II. Strengthening the Bones of Pigs Kept Exclusively on Corn.

114. Hard-wood ashes and bone meal for pigs fed corn. — When
feeding corn to pigs as the exclusive ration, the writer observed a
strong craving by the pigs for wood ashes, considerable quantities
of which were consumed, if opportunity offered. Were the ashes
a benefit to the pigs or not? To answer this question three exper-
iments were conducted. 1

In each trial six pigs, all from one litter, were used, the animals
being from 105 to 128 days old when the feeding began. The
previous feed had been liberal in variety and supply, and the
pigs were well started in their development when the trial began.
They were divided into three lots of two each, and all lots were
fed liberally on corn meal, with salt and water additional. Lot I
received nothing else. Lot II was allowed hard-wood ashes
supplied in a separate trough. Instead of ashes, Lot III was
given a spoonful of bone meal with each feed. In regard to
the amount of these articles consumed, it may be stated that in
one of the trials, which lasted 112 days, two pigs consumed 10.5
pounds of bone meal and 7.5 pounds of salt, and in the same time
two other pigs consumed 33 pounds of hard- wood ashes and

i Bept. Wis. Expt. Sta., 1896; Bui. 25.

Influence of Feed on the Animal Body.

8 pounds of salt. The pigs were confined in pens, with small
yards at the rear for exercise. The ground in these yards was
covered with boards to prevent the animals from rooting in the
earth and eating quantities of it, as those not getting ashes or
bone meal would have done had opportunity offered. The
trials lasted from 84 to 128 days without any of the animals
dying or becoming sick, a surprising fact for the lots living
wholly on corn meal, salt and water.

115. What the trials revealed. — As the trials progressed it
became evident that none of the pigs were properly nurtured,
though the difference in favor of those getting bone nieal or ashes
was very marked. The pigs allowed neither ashes nor bone meal
were most plainly dwarfed. It was evident that the corn meal,
salt and water did not supply all the elements essential to build-
ing a normal framework of bone and muscle. These dwarfs
became so fat that the jowls and bellies of some of them nearly
touched the ground.

The pigs getting ashes or bone meal grew very well for
some time, but toward the close of the trial they made only
fair gains, showing that the nutrients supplied were still too
limited in character to allow normal development. On slaughter,
the several lots showed no difference in the proportion of fat
to lean, nor was there any difference in the size or character
of the various internal organs. The bones, however, were a most
interesting study. In the same manner as described in the pre-
ceding topic, the thigh bones of these pigs were broken in a test-
ing machine with the results shown below:

Results with pigs living on corn meal with or icithout bone meal and
hard-wood ashes in addition — Wisconsin Station.

When bone
meal was
fed.

When ashes
were fed.

When
neither was
fed.

Corn meal required to produce 100
pounds of gain pounds

487

491

629

Average breaking strength of thigh
bones pounds

680

581

301

Average ash in thigh bone, grams

166

150

107

88 Feeds and Feeding.

After being broken, the bones were burned to determine the
ash they contained.

By the table we learn that feeding bone meal or hard- wood
ashes to pigs otherwise confined to a corn- meal diet effected a
saving of 23 per cent, in the corn required for 100 pounds of
gain. We further find that by feeding hard- wood ashes or bone
meal to pigs otherwise living wholly on corn, the strength of the
thigh bones was about double that of pigs not allowed bone meal
or ashes. It was further found that when the bones were burned,
those of the pigs getting ashes or bone meal contained about 50
per cent, more ash than the others. This latter fact was sub-
stantiated in another interesting way. After burning, the bones
of the pigs which had received no ashes or bone meal crumbled
at once on handling, while those from the pigs fed ashes or bone
meal still retained their form after burning and did not crumble
When carefully handled.

III. Influence of Wide and Narrow Rations on Growth and Fattening.

116. The Maine Station trial. — At the Maine Station, l Jordan
conducted a trial with growing and fattening steers, beginning
with calves and feeding to maturity, for the purpose of deter-
mining the influence of a ration rich in protein and one relatively
poor in protein on the rate of growth and character of the flesh
produced. This is the most elaborate experiment of the kind
yet conducted in this country, having been wisely planned and
carefully carried out in all its numerous details.

117. Plan of experiment. — Four high-grade Short-horn steer
calves, ranging in age from 5 to 7 months when the trial began,
were used. Two of these calves were fed a ration rich in protein, as
given below, while the other two received one ample in its supply
of nutrients but relatively poor in protein. (133-5) After feed-
ing 17 months, one steer in each lot was slaughtered and the
carcasses analyzed; after ten months' more feeding, or 27 months
in all, the remaining two were slaughtered and the carcasses
likewise analyzed. The four steers were fed alike at all times on
roughage, which consisted mostly of timothy hay, some fodder

1 Rept. 1895.

Influence of Feed on the Animal Body.

corn and corn silage being fed during the first winter only,
concentrates for the two lots were as follows:

The

Lot I.

Steers 1 and 2.
Protein-rich ration.

Lot II.

Steers 3 and 4.
Protein-poor ration.

Corn meal, 2 parts.

Wheat bran, 1 part, by weight.

Nutritive ratio, 1 : 9.7.

Linseed meal, 2 parts.
Corn meal, 1 part.
Wheat bran, 1 part, by weight.
Nutritive ratio, 1 : 5.2.

In this trial no attempt was made to force the steers to rapid
growth, the aim being rather to keep them gaining steadily. The
trial was carried to a successful termination, no serious interrup-
tions of any kind occurring. The feed and gains are presented in
the following table:

Total feed eaten and total gains by four steers — Maine Station.

Lot I.
Fed protein-rich
food.

Lot II.
Fed protein-poor
food.

Number of months fed

Steer 1.

17
514
3,414
4,173
2,211
9,700
221
958
737

Steer 2.

27
843
7,783
4,728
4,818
17,329
345
1,307
962

Steer 3.

27
833
6,811
4,493
4,737
16,041
285
1,290
1.005

Steer 4.

17
521
3,520
4,469
2,255
10,234
318
870
552

Number of days fed

Total hay eaten pounds

Total fodder and silage eaten, pounds ..
Total mixed grains eaten, pounds
Total food eaten pounds

Initial weight of steers pounds .

End weight of steers, pounds

Total gain of each steer, pounds

118. Digestible nutrients consumed. — The table shows the total
feed consumed; the digestible nutrients in this feed are given in
the accompanying table:

Digestible matter consumed by the steers — Maine Station.

Pounds

Protein.

Carbohy-
drates.

Ether ex-
tract.

Total
feed.

matter for
one pound

gam.

Protein-rich fed.

Lbs.

Steer 1, fed!7mos.

619

2,869

160

3,648

4.95

Steer 2, fed 27 mos.

1,265

5,853

321

7,439

7.73

Protein-poor fed.

Steer 3, fed 27 mos.

700

6,128

295

7,123

7.08

Steer 4, fed 17 mos.

370

3,264

154

3,788

6.86

Feeds and Feeding.

119. Concerning gains. — Our attention is next directed to a con-
sideration of the gains made by two steers up to the end of the
17-months period. These are given in the following table:

Total and relative gains of two lots of steers — Maine Station.

Weight
pair fed
more pro-
tein.

Weight
pair fed
less pro-
tein.

Greater
weight of
protein
pair.

Increase
of differ-
ence in
weight.

At beginning of experiment...

Lbs.
566

Lbs.
603

Lbs.
—37

Lbs.

At end of three months

778

746

At end of six months

1,010

921

At end of nine months

1,379

1,249

130

At end of twelve months

1,618

1,475

143

At end of fifteen months

1 861

1 677

184

At end of seven teen months...

1,981

1,807

174

-10

The steers getting the richer protein ration made the more
rapid gains up to 17 months of age, at which time they weighed
174 pounds more than the other pair. Jordan reports that those
getting the most protein showed the effects of their food in better
general appearance and greater thrift.

120. Gains of remaining steers. — As before stated, at the end
of 17 months' feeding one steer from each lot was killed and the
carcasses subjected to analysis. The feeding of the other two
steers, one in each lot, continued for 10 months longer under the
same conditions. It is interesting and significant to observe that
during these last 10 months the steer getting the protein-rich
ration did not gain as rapidly as the one fed the protein-poor
ration, so that at the end of 27 months the two animals were
nearly equal in weight. This is shown in the accompanying table :

Gain of steers fed for the longer period, 27 months — Maine Station.

Protein-rich
fed.

Protein-poor
fed.

Weight of steer at beginning

Lbs.
345

Lbs.

285

AVeight of steer at end

1,307

1,290

Net srain, 27 months...

962

1,005

Influence of Feed on the Animal Body.

Here we are shown that while the steer getting the protein-rich
ration gained 962 pounds in 10 months, the one receiving the
protein-poor ration made a gain of 1,005 pounds, or 43 pounds
more than the one fed the ration which at first gave the best
returns. This result is the surprise of the investigation.

121. Digestible matter for one pound of growth. — In the follow-
ing table is presented the digestible matter required for one
pound of growth during different periods :

Amount of digestible matter required to produce one pound of growth
with steers — Maine Station.

Both steers of each lot, by periods.

Steers fed
more protein.

Steers fed less
protein.

During first three months

4.06
4.26
3.83
6.45
6.97

5.96
5.53
4.35

6.87
8.08

Dunn0" second three months

Duriiior third three months

During fourth three months

During fifth three months

Average

5.11

6.16

Each steer, whole period fed.
Steer No. 1, 514 days (17 months
Steer No. 2, 843 days (27 months
Steer No. 3, 833 days (27 months
Steer No. 4, 521 days ( 17 months

4.95
7.73

7.08
6.86

The above table shows that when the calves were building flesh
and bone, the protein-rich ration was much more effective than
the other. From the beginning to the end of 15 months7 feeding,
5.11 pounds of digestible nutrients in the protein-rich ration
proved as effective as 6. 16 pounds of nutrients in the protein-poor
ration.

In the second division of the table we learn that with the two
steers fed for 27 months, 7.73 pounds of the digestible nutrients
in the protein-rich ration were required during the whole period
for one pound of gain, while only 6.86 pounds of digestible nutri-
ents were required for one pound of gain with the protein-poor
ration; that is, while the protein -rich ration was more effective
during the growing stages, that containing less protein but more
carbohydrates proved the most efficient at the end of the 27

Feeds and Feeding.

months of feeding. This is the second very interesting point,
and one not in accord with the usual teachings.

122. Concerning carcasses. — When slaughtered, all the in-
ternal organs of each steer, together with the blood, were care-
fully weighed. It was found that there was no difference in the
amount of blood or in the size of the various organs growing out
•of the character of the feed supplied, nor was there any marked
difference in the percentage of dressed carcass to live weight for
the two lots. The composition of the bodies is shown in the fol-
lowing table:

Composition of steers' bodies and of increased growth — Maine Station.

Entire bodies,
except skin.

In fresh material.

In water-free material.

Water.

Dry sub-
stance.

Protein.

Fat.

Ash.

Two steers fed 27
months, pounds
Two steers fed 17
months, pounds

Per cent, composition
younger steers

1,072.9
829.2

924.6
593.2

329.3
248.0

492.6
276.9

102.6

68.2

243.7

58.2

42.4

331.4
41.8

57.6

81.3
41.8

24.5

215.7
46.7

65.1

34.4
11.5

10.4

Per cent, composition
increase for next 10
months

Here we are shown that the bodies of the steers fed 17 months
contained 58.2 per cent, water and 41.8 dry substance. Taking
younger steers for the basis, the increase of the older ones
during the final 10 months of feeding is shown in the last line of
the table. From this we learn that 42.4 per cent, increase in
weight of the steers during the last 10 months was water, while
57.6 per cent, was dry substance.

Influence of Feed on the Animal Body. 93

123. Composition of carcass. — The data of the composition of
the dressed carcass are given in the following table, these being
divided into groups according to the feeding of the steers :

Percentage composition of dressed carcass , fresh substance — Maine

Station.

Water.

Protein.

Fat.

Ash.

Protein-rich

food{

Steer 1,

Steer 2,

fed 17 mos.
fed 27 mos.

59.02
51.91

17.89
16.93

18.53
25.86

4.56
5.30

Protein-poor

food{

Steer 3,
Steer 4,

fed 27 mos.
fed 17 mos.

52.16
56.30

17.10

17.82

25.32
20.27

5.42
5.61

Let us first study the carcasses of the steers fed for 17 months.
That of the steer getting the protein- rich ration contained more
than 3 per cent, more water, the same amount of protein, and
nearly 2 per cent, less fat than the other. This is in line with
other work in showing that one of the results of feeding much
protein to growing animals is a carcass containing more water.
For the steers carried through 27 months of feeding there i&
practically no difference in the composition of the carcasses.

124. Conclusion. — Eeviewing this experiment we are led to con-
clude that rations rich in protein are more conducive to rapid
growth and finer general appearance of the animal when young,
than rations rich in carbohydrates and rather poor in protein. It
appears that when the protein-poor ration contains enough nitro-
gen and ash to supply the actual demands of the body, the animal
carefully conserves them, being enabled thereby to fulfill the law&
of its nature as to growth. No doubt if the steers getting the
least protein had been supplied with less protein and ash than
nature requires for good body -building, they would plainly have
shown it by an abnormal development; but, fortunately, such con-
ditions were not laid down in this experiment. This experiment
and its teachings should be compared with the feeding trials with
pigs by Sanborn, the writer and others, reported in the first part
of the chapter, where strongly one-sided rations were fed.

94 Feeds and Feeding.

III. Exclusive Meal, Feeding — Withholding Coarse Forage
from Ruminants.

125. Exclusive meal feeding.— In 1874 Mr. Linus W. Miller,
of New York, reported that for several years he had successfully
maintained a herd of dairy cows while dry in winter for a period
of about eight weeks by giving to each animal as its sole feed not
above three quarts of finely-ground corn meal, daily. l It was his
practice to cut off the hay supply when meal feeding began. At
first the animals were more or less restless, but they soon quieted
down, all rumination ceasing. Only a small quantity of water
was drank. The animals remained in fair flesh. In the spring,
on changing back to normal feeding, a limited amount of hay was
at first given and the supply gradually increased. Calves from
cows thus maintained were strong and healthy.

A committee was appointed by L. B. Arnold, president of the
American Dairyman's Association, to visit Mr. Miller's stable and
report to the Association its findings. The committee reported
that it found that cows weighing about 900 pounds each had been
fed exclusively on corn meal for seven weeks at the time of
inspection, the animals receiving on the average three quarts of
corn meal each, daily. It further reported: " The cows did not
ruminate. Were very quiet; did not evince any inordinate
desire for food when hay was shown them; not so much as is dis-
played by cows that are fed on hay alone, in the usual way of
feeding, a little less than they will eat. Were much more quiet
than cows fed mostly on meal with a small feeding of hay; say,
four to five pounds per day. We could not discover any signs of
suffering or unrest in any way whatever."

On a second visit of the committee, thirteen days after hay
feeding had been resumed in the spring, the cows were " filled
up ' ' and did not appear different from others which had been
wintered in the usual way. The committee further reported
that the calves from these cows " are of more than ordinary size,
fleshy, strong, active and healthy. ' '

1 Kept. American Dairvman's Association, 1874; Meal Feeding and
Animal Digestion, a text-book for all who feed condensed food (2d Ed.),
by Linus W. Miller, pub. by author; Country Gentleman, 1876; Armsby,
Manual of Cattle Feeding, pp. 378-383.

Influence of Feed on the Animal Body. 95

This system of feeding, or absence of feeding, excited much
discussion in the agricultural press at the time, but the practice
seems never to have become general and the subject is now
almost forgotten.

126. Sanborn's trials. — At the Utah Station,1 Sanborn main-
tained a calf six weeks in winter on grain and milk, when,
through its cravings for coarse forage, the sawdust used for bed-
ding was eaten, with death as a consequence. Sheep were success-
fully maintained for several months on grain and roots, with no
coarse forage whatever. They shrank in weight at first, but
after the paunch was cleared of coarse feed they made fair gains.
A two-year-old steer weighing 635 pounds on April 13, was fed
grain only, with water, until December 2 following, when it
weighed 825 pounds. Eumination ceased upon withdrawal of
coarse feed. It was observed that gains in these trials were made
on about the same amount of feed as is required with pigs.
Cattle so fed drank very little water, voiding a larger proportion
as urine than those fed in the usual manner. The first and second
stomachs of sheep and cattle so fed weighed less than the average
for such animals, the first stomach notably so. When slaughtered
the first stomach was found hardly half full. The blood of the
steer weighed more than the average, and the lungs less.

127. Davenport's experiments. — At the Illinois Station, 2 Daven-
port maintained calves upon skim milk or skim milk and grain
for long periods. A June calf was maintained exclusively upon
skim milk until the following January, seven months, by which
time it refused its feed, could not hold up its head and appeared
nearly dead. When straw and hay were placed before it they
were greedily consumed, and three hours later the calf was
ruminating in contentment, thereafter making satisfactory gains
upon mixed feed. In a second experiment a calf dropped in May
subsisted on skim milk only until September, when, although
consuming seventy pounds of skim milk daily, the creature
showed great unrest. Some grain was then fed in addition to
milk, with still unfavorable indications. In October, when hay
was offered, it was greedily eaten and rumination began five

1 Bui. 46. 2 Bui. 21.

96 Feeds and Feeding.

and one-half hours later. Another calf was maintained from
June until September upon milk and mixed grains. By the latter
date it evinced no desire for feed and would not rise. Later it
suddenly died.

It was observed in these trials that although enormous quantities
of milk or milk and grain were consumed, there was no fat on the
carcass or about the kidneys of the calf that died. The muscles,
instead of being shrunken, were plump but exceedingly dense
and rigid to the touch.

128. Conclusions. — The investigations of Davenport show that
the quantity of food consumed by an animal is not necessarily an
indication of its economic use, enormous amounts being taken by
these calves in the vain effort to satisfy an abnormal appetite.
Under this form of starvation, for such it was, even with the
liberal supply of the particular food given, there was observed
1 i a ravenous appetite followed by enlargement and stiffening of
the joints, spells of dizziness and difficult locomotion, all followed
by periods of relief, and finally by a settled feeling of indiffer-
ence to food."

From these several trials it is evident that mature ruminants
can be maintained for a considerable period upon a limited
amount of ground grain, and if liberally supplied therewith
they may even gain in weight. "With young animals the demand
of nature seems more imperative, and it appears that calves can-
not be brought to maturity upon grain and milk, either singly or
combined, as the sole feed, but must have some coarse forage,
without which rumination is impossible.

CHAPTER VII.

EXPLANATION OF TABLES OF COMPOSITION AND FEEDING STAND-
ARDS — METHODS OF CALCULATING RATIONS FOE FARM ANI-
MALS, ETC.

I. Tables of Composition and Feeding Standards.

129. Nutrients of feeding stuffs. — We have already learned how
the chemist divides the constituents of feeding stuffs into groups,
which are placed in tables for convenient reference. From Table
I of the Appendix there is here abstracted the fragment marked
Example Table A, for the purpose of discussing the subject
of nutrients in feeding stuffs.

Example Table A, showing the water and total nutrients found by the
chemist in several common feeding stuffs.

Feeding stuffs.

Total in 100 pounds.

Water.

Protein.

Crude
fiber.

Nitrogen-
free extract.

Ether
extract.

Roughage.
Corn stover, field cured..
Red clover hay

Lbs.

40.5
15.3
13.2
9.2

10.6
11.0
11.9
9.2

Lbs.

3.8
12.3
5.9
4.0

10.3
11.8
15.4
32.9

Lbs.

19.7

24.8
29.0
37.0

2.2
9.5
9.0
8.9

Lbs.

31.5
38.1
45.0
42.4

70.4
59.7
53.9
35.4

Lbs.

1.1
3.3
2.5
2.3

5.0
5.0
4.0
7.9

Timothy hay

Oat straw

Concentrates.
Corn dent

Oats

"Wheat bran

Linseed meal, O. P

In tables of this character the results stated are always the
average of all analyses for each feed on record at the time of com-
pilation.

The table shows that 100 pounds of average field- cured fodder
corn contain 40.5 pounds of water — a much larger amount than
the feeder will, on first thought, suppose possible in what he has
7

Feeds and Feeding.

always regarded as "dry" forage. Of the nutrients in 100
pounds of stover, 3.8 pounds are protein, while the same weight
of oat straw contains 4 pounds. Were it not for the large amount
of water in corn stover, it would exceed straw in protein. Of
crude fiber, the least valuable constituent of fodders, the stover
contains 19. 7 pounds, or only about one-half as much as oat straw.
In nitrogen-free extract straw again leads, containing 42.4 pounds
against 31.5 in stover. The table shows that the concentrates
usually contain a higher proportion of protein than the coarse
fodders, red clover and other legumes excepted. Corn is low in
crude fiber, while oats are relatively high because of the husk
which surrounds the oat kernel. The cereals, especially corn, are
rich in nitrogen-free extract, which is principally starch. Corn
and oats each contain five pounds of ether extract, and linseed
meal eight pounds, practically all oil.

130. Digestion coefficients. — Elsewhere it is shown how the
animal physiologist through feeding trials and analytical work
ascertains what percentage of the several nutrients in a feeding
stuff is digested by farm animals. Table II of the Appendix sum-
marizes the results of digestion trials with the leading feeds.
Example Table B, here given, shows the average digestion coef-
ficients for the feeding stuffs given in Table A.

Example Table B, showing the average coefficients of digestibility for
the feeding stuffs presented in Table A.

Feeding stuffs.

No. of
separate
trials.

Percentage digestibility.

Dry
matter.

Protein.

Crude
fiber.

Nitrogen-
free
extract.

Ether
extract.

Roughage.
Corn stover, all
varieties
Red clover hay
Timothy hay...
Oat straw

Concentrates.

8
2
26
19

12
39
11

60
55
57

91
70
61

45
55

48
30

78
79

67
46
52
54

58
20
22

61
64
63
44

93
76

62
53
60
33

86
83
68

Oats

Wheat bran
liinseed meal.
O. P

Tables of Composition and Feeding Standards. 99

The second column of the table shows that eight feeding trials
have been made with corn stover to determine the digestibility of
its several components. Sixty per cent, of the dry matter, 45 of the
protein, 67 of the crude fiber, 61 of the nitrogen-free extract, and
62 per cent, of the ether extract are, on the average, digested
from this fodder by the fluids of the alimentary tract and absorbed
by the animal body. In statements of this character, the aver-
age of a large number of determinations is more satisfactory and
reliable than the data of a single trial.

Table A shows that oat straw contains more protein than corn
stover. Table B shows that 45 per cent, of the protein in corn
stover, and only 30 per cent, of that in oat straw, are digestible.
It shows that the nutrients in the concentrates are more digestible
than those in roughage, crude fiber excepted. For example,
78 per cent, of the protein in the oat grain, and only 30 per cent,
of that in oat straw, are digestible. In corn stover 61 per cent, of
the nitrogen-free extract is digestible, and in the corn grain 93
per cent. It thus appears that a given quantity of total nutrients
in concentrated feeding stuffs is usually more valuable than the
same amount in coarse forage.

131. Total digestible nutrients. — Example Table C is a por-
tion of Table III of the Appendix. Having learned the composi-
tion of the several common feeding stuffs from Table A, and the
percentage digestibility of each of these nutrients from Table B,
the student is now in position to consider the third table, derived
from them, presenting the digestible substance in 100 pounds of
each of the feeding stuffs under consideration. The statement
for each nutrient in this table is determined by multiplying its
composition, as given in Table A, by the factor of digestibility in
Table B.

100

Feeds and Feeding.

Example Table C, showing the digestibility in feeding stuffs considered
under Tables A and B.

Feeding stuffs.

Total
dry
matter.

Total digestible substance
in 100 pounds.

Nutritive
ratio.

Protein.

Carbohy-
drates.

Ether
extract.

Roughage.
Corn stover

Lbs.

59.5

84.7
86.8
90.8

89.4
89.0
88.1
90.8

Lbs.

1.7

6.8
2.8
1.2

7.8
9.2
12.2
29.3

Lbs.

32.4

35.8
43.4
38.6

66.7
47.3
39.2
32.7

Lbs.

0.7
1.7
1.5

0.8

4.3
4.2
2.7
7.0

1 :20
1 :5.8
1 : 16.7
1 :33.7

1 :9.8
1 :6.2
1 :3.7
1 :1.7

Red clover hay

Timothy hay

Oat straw..

Concentrates.
Corn or corn meal

Oats

Wheat bran

Oil meal, O. P

Table A shows that corn stover contains 3.8 pounds of protein
and oat straw 4 pounds; 45 per cent, of the protein in stover, and
only 30 per cent, of that in straw, are digestible; consequently 100
pounds of average corn stover contain 1.7 pounds of digestible
protein, while the same weight of oat straw contains only 1.2
pounds. Thus it is shown that although oat straw contains more
total protein than corn stover, the latter has more digestible pro-
tein. In digestible protein clover hay stands in strong contrast
with oat straw, — 100 pounds of the former containing 6.8 pounds
against 1.2 pounds for the straw. Corn contains 66.7 pounds of
digestible carbohydrates per hundred weight, while corn stover
contains 32.4 pounds, or one-half as much.

132. Nutritive ratio. — This expression, not heretofore used, is
common with the student of feeding problems and should be
understood by all, since it is helpful in studying different feeding
substances. By " nutritive ratio " is meant the ratio which exists
between the amount of the digestible protein in a given feeding
stuff and the amount of the digestible carbohydrates and ether
extract it contains. It is ascertained in the following manner:
The amount of digestible ether extract is multiplied by 2.4,
because ether extract is considered as having this heat value com-

Tables of Composition and Feeding Standards. 101

pared with, the carbohydrates. l The product obtained is added
to the total quantity of digestible carbohydrates in the given fod-
der and the sum is divided by the digestible protein.

The method of calculating the nutritive ratio for corn stover,
the digestible nutrients in which are protein 1.7, carbohydrates
32.4, and ether extract 0.7. is as follows:

/ 7 **

Ether Heat

extract. equivalent.

.7 X 2.4 = 1.68

Carbohy-
drates.
1.68 + 32.4 = 34.08

Protein.

34.08 + 1.7 = 20 +

Kutritive ratio 1 : 20.

In expressing the nutritive ratio of corn stover thus, 1 : 20, it
is meant that for each pound of digestible protein in corn stover
there are 20 pounds of digestible carbohydrates and ether-extract
equivalent. The nutritive ratios of the several feeds are placed
in the last column of the table. The nutritive ratio of oat straw
is shown by the table to be 1 : 33.7. This is called a " wide " ratio
because of the very large quantity of carbohydrates contained
in this feed in proportion to the protein. With Indian corn the
nutritive ratio is 1 : 9.8. Such an expression is spoken of as a
i i medium 7 ' ratio. In oil meal the nutritive ratio is 1 : 1. 7, the
protein almost equaling the carbohydrates and fat combined.
Such an expression is called a " narrow " nutritive ratio.

133. Wofff-Lehmann feeding standards. — Step by step we have
advanced until it is shown in the last table what portion of feed-
ing stuffs is available for the nutrition of farm animals. Let us
next direct attention to the quantity of the several nutrients
in feeding stuffs required by farm animals. While analytical work
and digestion trials were in progress by the physiologist and
chemist, feeding trials were being conducted to determine how
much protein, carbohydrates and ether extract were required to
properly nurture farm animals of the several classes, under various

1 American writers generally use the factor 2.2 or 2.25. See Article 61.

102

Feeds and Feeding.

conditions. The following Example Table D from Table IV
of the Appendix presents the food requirements of certain farm
animals:

Example Table D7 sJiowing the amount of dry matter and digestible
nutrients required daily by farm animals per 1,000 pounds live
weight.

Dry

matter.

Digestible nutrients.

Nutritive
ratio.

Protein.

Carbohy-
drates.

Ether
extract.

Ox at complete rest in
stall.

Lbs.
18.0

30.0

29.0
24.0

Lbs.
0.7

2.5

2.5
2.0

Lbs.
8.0

15.0

13.0
11.0

Lbs.
0.1

0.5

0.5
0.6

1 ill. 8
1 :6.5

1 :5.7
1 :6.2

Fattening cattle (first
period )

Milch cow (yielding 22
pounds daily)..

Horse (medium work)....

NOTE. — The " Sum of nutrients " in the larger table has been omitted
from this table in order to simplify the explanation.

The first subject for consideration is the amount of nutrients
required to maintain an ox weighing 1,000 pounds when at rest
in the stall, neither gaining nor losing in weight. The table
states this to be as follows: Dry matter, 18 pounds; digestible
protein, .7 pounds; digestible carbohydrates, 8 pounds; ether
extract, .1 pound. A ration containing these nutrients has a nutri-
tive ratio of 1 : 11.8. (443) Although the ox is referred to as
"at rest," nevertheless work is being accomplished. The heart
is forcing blood currents through the body, and digestion and
assimilation are in progress; even the act of standing and breath-
ing constitutes work. Each of the many manifestations of life
calls for food-fuel and repair material. Conceding that the above
feeding standard is correct, the ox which receives less nutrients
than here stated will lose in weight, while if more are allowed
he will increase in weight.

n. Calculating Rations for Farm Animals.

134. Ration for the steer at rest. — With Table C, giving the
digestible nutrients in several common feeding stuffs, and Table D,
stating the requirements of the ox for maintenance, we have the

Calculating Rations for Farm Animals.

103

data for calculating how much feed should be supplied in order
to maintain this animal.

For the trial ration, we decide to use 10 pounds of corn stover
and 10 pounds of oat straw. Let us ascertain the digestible
nutrients these will supply.

Calculations for dry matter and digestible nutrients in corn stover and

oat straw.

Corn stover.

In 100
pounds.

Dry matter 59.5 —

Protein 1.7 —

Carbohydrates 32.4 —

Ether extract . .

In 10
pounds.

- 100 X 10

= 5.95

- 100 X 10

= .17

- 100 X 10

= 3.24

- 100 X 10

= .07

- 100 X 10

= 9.08

- 100 X 10

= .12

- 100 X 10

= 3.86

- 100 X 10

= .08

Oat straw.

Dry matter 90.8 — 100

Protein 1.2 —

Carbohydrates 38. 6

Ether extract .8 —

Arranging these in a table, with the Wolff-Lehmann standard
for comparison, we have:

First trial maintenance ration for ox at rest weighing 1,000 pounds —
Wolff-Lehmann Standard.

Feeding stuffs.

Dry

matter.

Digestible nutrients.

Nutritive
ratio.

Protein.

Carbohy-
drates.

Ether
extract.

Corn stover, 10 pounds ...
Oat straw, 10 pounds

Lbs.

5.95
9.08

Lbs.

.17

.12

Lbs.

3.24
3.86

Lbs.

.07

.08

First trial ration.

15.03

.29

7.10

.15

Wolff-Lehmann stand' rd

18.0

.10

1:11.8

The trial ration falls below the standard in everything except
ether extract, the deficiency being especially marked as to protein.

104

Feeds and Feeding.

To complete the ration there is added one pound each of oil meal
and corn meal. Ascertaining the nutrients in these as before, we
have the second trial maintenance ration, which is as follows:

Second trial maintenance ration for ox at rest weighing 1,000 pounds —
Wolff-Lelimann Standard.

Feeding stuffs.

Dry
matter.

Digestible nutrients.

Nutritive
ratio.

Protein.

Carbohy-
drates.

Ether
extract.

Ration as above

Lbs.

15.03

.908
.894

Lbs.

.29
.293
.078

Lbs.

7.10
.327
.667

Lbs.

.15
.07
.043

. *

Oil meal 1 pound

Com meal 1 pound . ...

Second trial ration

16.832

.661

8.094

.203

1:12.5

WohT-Lehmann stand' rd

18.0

8.0

.10

1:11.8

This second trial ration falls below the standard by more than
a pound of dry matter, but this deficiency is of small importance.
In protein the ration is almost up to the standard, exceeding it
slightly in carbohydrates, and considerably in ether extract.

The nutritive ratio of this ration is 1 : 12. 5. The ration approx-
imates the standard as closely as can be attained without using
fractions of pounds, and near enough for purposes of illustration.
From this we learn that ten pounds each of corn stover and oat
straw, and one pound each of oil meal and corn meal per day, will
nurture a steer weighing 1,000 pounds so that he will neither gain
nor lose in weight — that is, such a combination constitutes a
1 i maintenance ? ' ration.

135. A ration for the fattening steer. — Example Table D shows
that the fattening steer (first period) requires more than three
times as much protein, five times as much ether extract, and
nearly twice as much carbohydrates, as constitute a maintenance
ration, with the nutritive ratio narrowed to 1 : 6. 5. It is apparent
that more concentrated feed must enter into this ration than into
the first one. For a trial ration we choose 10 pounds of corn

Calculating Eations for Farm Animals.

105

stover, 8 pounds of oat straw and 12 pounds of corn. Calculating
the nutrients in these as in the first instance, we have:

-First trial ration for the rapid fattening of a steer weighing 1,000
pounds (first period) — Wolff -Lehmann Standard.

Feeding stuffs.

Dry

matter.

Digestible nutrients.

Nutritive
ratio.

Protein.

Carbohy-
drates.

Ether
extract.

Corn stover, 10 pounds ...
Oat straw 8 pounds

Lbs.

5.95
7.264
10.728

Lbs.

.17

.096
.936

Lbs.

3.24

3.088
8.004

Lbs.

.07
.064
.516

Corn 12 pounds

First trial ration

23.942

1.202

14.332

.650

Wolff-Lehmann standard

30.0

2.5

15.0

.50

1:6.5

This trial ration falls below the standard in each nutrient,
especially in protein. Some feed rich in protein should be added,
and accordingly 4 pounds of oil ineal, O. P., are used.

Second trial ration for the rapid fattening of a steer — Wolff-Lehmann

Standard.

Feeding stuffs.

Dry

matter.

Digestible nutrients.

Nutritive
ratio.

Protein.

Carbohy-
drates.

Ether
extract.

Ration as above

Lbs.

23.942
3.632

Lbs.

1.202
1.172

Lbs.

14.332
1.308

Lbs.

.65

.28

Oil meal, O. P., 4 pounds

Second trial ration

27.574

2.374

15.640

.93

1: 7.5

Wolff-Lehmann stand 'rd

30.0

2.5

15.00

.50

1:6.5

This ration falls below the standard by nearly 2.5 pounds of
dry matter and a little more than . 1 of a pound protein. There
is an excess of both carbohydrates and ether extract. By re-
ducing the allowance of corn meal one pound and increasing

106 Feeds and Feeding.

the oil meal by the same amount, the standard would be more
nearly reached, although there is already a fairly close agreement.
This shows that the fattening steer weighing 1,000 pounds will
be nurtured to very nearly his full requirement when receiving
the following ration: 10 pounds of corn stover, 8 pounds of oat
straw, 12 pounds of corn, 4 pounds of oil meal.

136. Calculating a ration for the dairy cow. — In determining
a ration for a dairy cow yielding 22 pounds of milk daily, we
choose from the list of feeds in Table C, 8 pounds of red clover
hay, 10 pounds of corn stover, 3 pounds of oat straw, for rough-
age, and 5 pounds each of corn meal and bran for concentrates.
The digestible nutrient^ in these are ascertained as follows:

Calculations for dry matter and digestible nutrients in trial
ration for dairy cow.

Red clover hay. Corn stover.

In 100 In 8 In 100 In 10

pounds. pounds. pounds. pounds.

84.7^100X8 = 6.776 59.5-4-100x10=5.95

6.8^-100x8 = .544 1.7-4-100x10 = .17

35.8-4-100x8=2.864 32.4-4-100x10=3.24

1.7 -4-100x8 = .136 . .7-4-100x10 = .07

Oat straw. Corn meal.

In 100 In 3 ^- In 100 In 5

pounds. pounds. pounds. pounds.

90.8-4-100x3=2.724 89.4-f-100x5=4.47
1.2^-100x3= .036 7.8-^-100x5= .39

38.6-4-100x3 = 1.158 66.7-4-100x5=3.335
.8-^100x3= .024 4.3-4-100x5 = .215

Bran.
In 100 In 5

pounds. pounds.

88.1-4-100x5=4.405
12.2-^-100x5= .61
39.2-4-100x5=1.96
2.7^-100x5= .135

Arranging these results in tabular form, with the Wolff- Leh-
mann standard for comparison, we have the following:

Calculating Rations for Farm Animals.

107

First trial ration for dairy cow weighing 1,000 pounds and yielding 22
pounds of milk daily — Wolff -Lelimann Standard.

Feeding stuffs.

Dry

matter.

Digestible nutrients.

Nutri-
tive
ratio.

Protein.

Carbohy-
drates.

Ether
extract.

Bed clover hay, 8 pounds ..
Corn stover 10 pounds

Lbs.

6.776
.5.95
2.724
4.47
4.405

Lbs.

.544
.17
.036
.39
.61

Lbs.

2.864
3.24
1.158
3.335
1.96

Lbs.

.136
.07
.024
.215
.135

Oat straw 3 pounds

Corn meal 5 pounds •

Bran 5 pounds..

First trial ration

24.325

1.750

12.557

.580

Wolff-Lehmann standard..

29.0

2.5

13.0

.50

1 :5.7

This trial ration falls considerably below the standard, espe-
cially in protein, and to correct this, 3 pounds of oil meal are
added.

Second trial ration for dairy cow weighing 1,000 pounds and yielding
22 pounds of milk daily — Wolff-Lehmann Standard.

Feeding stuffs.

Dry
matter.

Digestible nutrients.

Nutri-
tive
ratio.

Protein.

Carbohy-
drates.

Ether
extract.

Ration as above

Lbs.

24.325
2.724

Lbs.

1.750

.879

Lbs.

12.557

.981

Lbs.

.580
.21

Oil meal 3 pounds

Second trial ration

27.049

2.629

13.538

.79

1:5.9

Wolff-Lehmann standard ..

29.0

2.5

13.0

.50

1:5.7

The second trial ration is 2 pounds below the standard in dry
matter, something of little significance as it is really of satisfactory
volume as it stands. All the nutrients are slightly in excess of
the standard, the nutritive ratio being 1:5.9, while the standard
calls for 1:5.7.

We learn from this that a satisfactory ration for a dairy cow
weighing 1,000 pounds and yielding 22 pounds of milk daily
may be composed of the following: Eed clover, 8 pounds ; corn

108 Feeds and Feeding.

stover, 10 pounds; corn meal and bran, each 5 pounds; oat straw
and oil meal, each 3 pounds.

137. Concerning rations. — In preparing a ration it is well to start
with what may be called a "trial " ration, composed of two or
more kinds of coarse forage with a moderate supply of some
desirable concentrate. When the nutrients these furnish have
been placed in tabular form, a few trials will determine the
quantity of other concentrates necessary to bring the ration up
to the standard. It is usually impossible to compound rations
for ruminants from common American feeding stuffs which will
furnish the large amount of dry matter called for by the Wolff-
Lehmann standard. While volume is an important factor in
feeding, it is better to allow the ration to fall below the standard
in dry matter than to add so much coarse forage with its large
percentage of inert matter. Our common feeding materials are
of such composition that in placing enough of them in the ration
to furnish the requisite protein and carbohydrates, there is usually
an excess of ether extract according to the standard, but this
cannot be avoided. There is no direct way of calculating the
exact quantities of the nutrients to be used in formulating rations,
the desired result being reached only by repeated trials, each
bringing the calculation nearer the desired standard. With the
explanations given, the stockman should find no difficulty in
calculating rations for the farm animals under his care.

III. Feeding Tables and Standards.

138. The first feeding table. — The first attempt to systematically
compare various feeding stuffs one with another was by Thaer, 1
who in 1810 published a table giving what he termed "hay
equivalents." With common hay as the standard unit, the feed-
ing values were in part as follows:

One hundred pounds meadow hay is equal in feeding value to —
200 pounds potatoes. 602 pounds cabbages.

625 pounds mangels. 91 pounds clover hay.

417 pounds rutabagas. 91 pounds alfalfa hay.

Naturally, opinions varied as to the comparative values of vari-
1 Thaer, Landwirtschaft, New Ed., 1880, p. 211.

Feeding Tables and Standards. 109

ous feeding stuffs, and so there were about as many tables of " hay
equivalents ' ' as there were writers on economic agriculture. Im-
perfect as it was, Thaer's table served to draw attention to an
important subject and was the beginning of something far more
elaborate and useful.

139. The first feeding standard. — In 1859 Grouven1 proposed
the first feeding standard for farm animals, based on the total
quantity of protein, carbohydrates and ether extract found by
analysis in feeding stuffs. This standard fell short of require-
ments, since it considered the total nutrients instead of the digesti-
ble portion.

140. Wolffs standards.— In 1864, Dr. Emil v. Wolff, the great
German scientist and author, published for the first time, in
Mentzel & v. Lengerke's Agricultural Calendar, standards based
upon the digestible nutrients of feeding stuffs. In these stand-
ards the attempt was made to meet the physiological require-
ments of the animal by supplying sufficient protein, carbohydrates
and ether extract for all the needs of the body, without waste of
any of the nutrients. Wolff's feeding standards have become
popular among the more progressive American farmers and
stockmen and have been used wherever agricultural science
is recognized. Their popularity is due in a large measure to
their simplicity, ease of application, and the positive character
of the statements made. In these standards, accompanied by
tables of digestibility, the stockman has before him the data
necessary to calculate rations for the different farm animals, little
or nothing being left in uncertainty.

141. Kuehn's position. — The strength of Wolff's standards is
also their weakness, for such mathematical statements cannot
stand without marked qualifications when dealing with the com-
plex problem of animal life and its nurture by food.

Julius Kiihn, another German writer and investigator of the
highest repute, holds2 that Wolff's standards "are objectionable
and misleading to the farmer.77 According to this author, Wolff

1 Feeding Standards for Domestic Animals, Expt. Sta. Rec., vol. IV;
also Agricultur-Chemie, Koln, 1859, p. 603.

2 Feeding Standards for Domestic Animals, Expt. Sta. Rec., vol. IV,
pp. 6-13.

110 Feeds and Feeding.

is incorrect when he bases the total quantity of food to be sup-
plied on the organic substance contained, instead of the dry
matter, as originally stated by Lingenthal and Grouven. Again,
Wolff places the allowance of organic matter required by the
dairy cow at 25 pounds ; Kiihn tells us this may vary between the
extremes of 20 and 33.5 pounds. Changes in the amount of dry
matter supplied should, however, always be gradual. Kiihn fur-
ther protests against prescribing exact quantities of nutrients as
norms or standards. "For the individual nutrients, as for the

' total amount of food, it is essential to determine the amount for
each individual case, and in doing this the particular conditions
should be considered.77 Wolff does not distinguish between
digestible albuminoids and amides; Kiihn holds that the lower
nutritive effect of amide compounds can no longer be doubted,
and that these amides can at best serve only as albuminoid con-
servers, like the carbohydrates, and further that the non-albu-
minoid protein includes compounds which do not even exert this
conserving action and whose nutritive function is very doubtful.
Grouven fixed the total protein (digestible and indigestible)
for the dairy cow at 2. 74 pounds, while Wolff places the standard
at 2.5 of digestible albuminoids and amides. Kiihn states that
the cow of high productive capacity during her largest flow of

j milk requires more than 2.5 pounds of digestible protein, while
smaller amounts than Wolff names should be given with dimin-
ishing milk flow. Again, the ether extract or so-called "fat"
of food varies in nutritive effect according to its origin; that from
oil cake, for example, having a higher feeding value than that
found in coarse fodders. In the same way, nitrogen-free extract
includes substances, of variable composition, some of which are
of questionable nutritive value, and to count all these as equiva-
lent to starch for feeding purposes is far from correct. Finally,
Kiihn lays stress on the importance of individual feeding, declar-
ing that the stockman must carefully study the requirements of
each animal and nourish it according to its individual wants,
instead of placing all members of the herd or flock on inflexible
rations constructed according to definite standards. He con-
cludes that fodders vary so greatly in composition that to use

Feeding Tables and Standards. Ill

average analyses in calculating rations with the exactness pre-
scribed by Wolff may lead to very unsatisfactory results.

142. The Wolif-Lehmann standard. — Wolff's feeding standards
' were given annually in the Mentzel-Lengerke Agricultural Cal-
endar from 1864 to 1896. The calendar for 1897 was prepared by
Dr. C. Lehmann of the Berlin Agricultural College. This table
is changed from Wolff's in several particulars. "Dry matter"
takes the place of " organic matter77 in Wolff's table. A
double column not used by Wolff is headed "Sum of nutrients."
In the first of these columns all of the digestible crude fiber is
included with the other nutrients. In the second column only
one-half of the crude fiber found digestible is included. Leh-
mann recognizes the varying wants of dairy cows by classifying
them in four divisions according to the milk they yield, the
heaviest milkers receiving the most nutrients.

While Wolff's tables have heretofore been universally used
in this country, it seems proper to adopt the modifications of
Lehmann.

143. Introduction of standards in America. — Feeding standards
were first brought to the attention of Americans by Atwater1 in
1874, and the efforts of this teacher and investigator have fortu-
nately been continued in the same line to the present time, greatly
to the advancement of scientific agriculture in this country.
Armsby's Manual of Cattle Feeding, based on Wolff's book2 on
the same subject, appeared in 1880 and marked an era in the
educational development of this topic. From these sources the
students in our agricultural colleges, writers and lecturers have
come to know of feeding standards, and through them, thousands
of feeders have learned to calculate rations for farm animals.

IV. The Several Feeding Standards.

144. The maintenance ration for the ox. — In 1879 Sanborn, 3 of
the New Hampshire Agricultural College, reported that the steer
could be maintained on a smaller amount of hay than called for
by Wolff's standard. Subsequent experiments by this investi-

1Rept. Me. State Bd. Agr., 1874; Kept. Secy. Conn. Bd. Agr., 1874-5.

2 Futterungslehre, 1st ed., 1874; 6th ed., 1895.

* Kept. N. H. Bd. Agr., 1879. See also subsequent reports.

112 Feeds and Feeding.

gator confirmed his statement that Wolff's maintenance standard
was really sufficient in nutrients to allow the animal to make a
gain in weight. These statements were at first controverted, 1 the
assumption being that the Germans must be right and the Ameri-
can investigator wrong. At the Cornell University Station,2
Caldwell, feeding four steers on a ration containing the following
nutrients: dry substance 15.3, protein .68, carbohydrates and fat
8.6 (nutritive ratio, 1: 13.2), secured the following:

Weight of 4 steers, January 20, 3,492 pounds.
Weight of 4 steers, March 21, 3,672 pounds.

Here is a gain of 180 pounds in two months on a maintenance
ration according to Wolff.

Eeviewing his own and the work of others, Caldwell wrote:
"The results of the many tests to which they (standard rations)
have been subjected at various places in the country make it
evident that with such data as we at present have at command,
no ration can be calculated that will do the same work or pro-
duce the effect for which it was calculated in all cases, and per-
haps not even in a majority of cases, and that sometimes such
rations entirely fail to accomplish the purpose for which they
were calculated and used."

145. Kuehn's standard maintenance ration. — Investigations ex-
tending from 1882 to 1890 by G. Kuhn3 show that the full-grown
ox kept in perfect quiet in the stall can be maintained on .7
pounds of digestible protein and 6.6 pounds of digestible nitrogen-
free extract for each one thousand pounds of live weight. If more
nutrients than these are supplied, each one hundred grams of
digestible starch may cause a deposit of 20 to 24 grams of fat in
the body of the ox.

146. Woll's findings. — At the Wisconsin Station, 4 Woll ascer-
tained by correspondence with a number of the leading dairymen
of America the composition of the rations which they had used
successfully with their herds. Eeports were received from the
managers of 128 herds including more than 3,000 cows.

1 See various articles, Rural New-Yorker, 1882.

2 Kept. 1883-85.

3 Ldw. Vers. Stat., 44, p. 257.
* Bui. 38; Kept. 1894.

Feeding Tables and Standards.

113

Grouping the returns by sections, and calculating the dry and
digestible matter in the rations reported, the following table was
prepared:

Rations fed by 128 American dairymen as ascertained by Woll —
Wisconsin Station.

Where ration was
fed.

No. of
rations
fed.

Dry

matter.

Digestible matter.

Nutri-
tive
ratio.

Pro-
tein.

Car-
bohy-
drates.

Ether
ex-
tract.

Total.

Eastern states

55
56
2
6
9

Lbs.

24.38
24.64

23.48
29.28
21.57

Lbs.

2.20
2.08
2.00
3.05
1.76

Lbs.

13.31
13.37
12.14
14.58
11.69

Lbs.

.77
.72
1.05
.75
.63

Lbs.

16.28
16.17
15.19

18.38
14.08

1 6.8
1 7.2
1 7.2
1 5.3
1 7.4

Middle states

Southern states
Western states
Canada

In these averages we observe a wide variation in the nutrients
fed, the minimum falling much below WolfTs standard, while the
maximum materially exceeds it. As a summary report of the
rations fed by leading American dairymen, this table is valuable,
representing as it does the practice of so many experienced feeders.
On the other hand, it is unsatisfactory because in many cases the
feed was not weighed, the figures reported being estimates.

147. Studies by the Connecticut (Storrs) Station.— Atwater and
Phelps, of the Connecticut (Storrs) Station, l studied in person the
rations used by a number of dairymen in their state. Their work
included weighing and sampling the feed and the milk, both of
which were analyzed by the Station. (681) The following table
presents the extremes observed in these studies:

Minimum and maximum rations fed by Connecticut dairymen as deter-
mined by Atwater and Phelps — Connecticut (Storrs} Station.

Organic
matter.

Digestible
protein.

Digestible
ether ex-
tract.

Digestible
carbohy-
drates.

Nutri-
tive
ratio.

Minimum, 27 rations....
Maximum, 27 rations ...
Average 27 rations ...

Lbs.

20.5
33.7
25.5

Lbs.

1.35
3.48
2.36

Lbs.

.56
1.36

.87

Lbs.

10.47
18.25
13.76

1 4.5
1 11.3
1 6.7

Kept. 1896.

114

Feeds and Feeding.

148. Standard rations for dairy cows. — From the reports of 128
American dairymen gathered by Woll, that investigator deduces
what he calls the American ration for dairy cows. Based
on their personal study of dairy herds covering three winters
as just noted, Atwater and Phelps of the Storrs Station offer a
tentative standard. Below are grouped the several standards for
convenient reference by the student.

American and German feeding standards for dairy cows. — Digestible
nutrients per day per 1, 000 pounds live weight.

Ration.

Dry

matter.

Digestible nutrients.

Nutri-
tive
ratio.

Protein.

Carbohy-
drates.

Ether
extract.

Wolff original (German)
feeding ration

Lbs.

24.0*
24.5
25.0*

25.0
27.0
29.0
32.0

Lbs.

2.5
2.15
2.5

1.6
2.0
2.5
3.3

Lbs.

12.5
13.27
12 to 13

10.0
11.0
13.0
13.0

Lbs.

0.4
.74
.5 to .8

0.3
0.4
0.5
0.8

1:5.4
1:6.9
1:5.6

1:6.7
1:6.0
1:5.7
1:4.5 .

Woll proposed American
ration

Atwater & Phelps pro-
posed standard

Wolff-Lehmanii German
ration

I. When giving 11 Ibs. of
milk daily

II. When giving 16£ Ibs.
of milk daily

III. When giving 22 Ibs.
of milk daily

IV. When giving 27£ Ibs.
of milk daily

* Organic matter.

Kiihn's1 standard ration for a thousand-pound dairy cow under

varying conditions is as follows:

Pounds.

Dry matter 20-33.5

Digestible albuminoids 1.5-2.4

Digestible ether extract 4r- .7

Digestible nitrogen-free extract, assimilable crude fiber, and

amides 12 - 14

Nutritive ratio 1 : 5.5-8

Reviewing the above, it is found that WolPs proposed American
dairy ration calls for less protein and more carbohydrates and
ether extract than Wolffs, the nutritive ratio being 1 : 6.9 against
1 : 5.4. Atwater and Phelps' proposed standard coincides with

1 Die zweckmassigste Ernahrung des Rindviehes, 1887, p. 2-57.

Feeding Tables and Standards. 115

Wolff's in protein, while the digestible carbohydrates run from
12 to 13 pounds and the fat from .5 to .8 pounds. The Wolff-
Lehmann standard gives a wide range according to the milk yield.

149. Concerning Kuehn's ration. — Kiihn's method of procedure
in compounding a ration is different from those already discussed.
He first sets forth a basal ration composed principally of coarse
forage carrying the nutriment required by the cow when giving
little or no milk. This basal ration should contain 1.5 to 1.7
pounds of digestible albuminoids per thousand pounds live weight,
and may exceed this with animals of exceptional capacity. A
like proportion of non- nitrogenous and ether-extract nutrients go
with the basal ration. To this is added an amount of concen-
trates sufficient to enable the cow to yield the best returns.
Animals of low productive capacity are fed a small ration, while
those capable of large returns are liberally supplied with nutri-
ents. The range of dry matter and nutrients for cows of different
capacities is given in the table.

Kiihn considers the albuminoids only, as available for protein
nutrition, and places the amides with the carbohydrates. In con-
structing his ration he recognizes the great variability of feeding
stuffs as to composition, and holds the individuality of the cow as
something of great importance. His idea, if fully carried out,
would necessitate a chemical analysis of all the different feeding
stuffs used each season, something impracticable under ordinary
conditions.

I49a. Fuel value of rations. — In Article 61 the following fuel
values are shown for the several nutrients in feeding stuffs:

Calories in one pound.

Protein 1,860

Carbohydrates 1, 860

Ether extract 4,240

It has been proposed that these Calorie values be assigned to
the digestible nutrients of the ration for the purpose of simplify-
ing the results. Atwater writes on this point:1 "This use of
fuel values gives a means of simplifying the calculation of rations.
It will be understood that the proportions of fats and carbohy-
drates are only relative ; in other words, that one may be diniin-

1 Kept, of Storrs (Conn.) Expt. Sta., 1890, p. 179.

116

Feeds and Feeding.

ished if the other be correspondingly increased. If our theories
are correct, the important matter is to provide sufficient protein
and sufficient total energy without varying too much from the
most desirable relative proportions of the fats and carbohydrates.' >
The Calories in the second trial ration for the dairy cow
reported under Article 136 are determined in the following
manner: The digestible protein and digestible carbohydrates of
the ration are added together and the sum is multiplied by 1,860,
the fuel value of one pound of these nutrients. In the same
manner the ether extract is multiplied by 4,240, its fuel value.
The calculations are as follows:

In ration.

Protein Carbohydrates
Lbs. Lbs.

Total

Lbs.

2.629 +
Protein and
Carbohydrates
Lbs.

13.538 =
Calories in
one pound

16.167

Calories.

16.167 X

Ether extract

Lbs.

1,860 =

30,070

.79 X
Total

4,240
in ration...

3,350

33.420

Arranging the digestible nutrients and Calories for the standard
ration for the cow when giving 22 pounds of milk daily, and for
the second trial ration for the dairy cow as calculated above, the
following table is derived:

Digestible nutrients.

Calories.

Protein.

Carbohy-
drates.

Ether
extract.

Wolff-Lehmann standard for
dairy cow

Lbs.

2.5
2.629

Lbs.

13.0
13.538

Lbs.

.50

.79

30,950
33,420

Second trial ration for dairy
cow

By the table we learn that the digestible nutrients in the stand-
ard ration for the cow when giving 22 pounds of milk daily,
would, on combustion, yield 30,950 Calories, while the second
trial ration given in Article 136 yields 33,420 Calories, an excess
above the standard of nearly 10 per cent.

Value of the Different Nutrients. 117

While it is important from a scientific standpoint to study the
fuel value of rations, such use in compounding them for practi-
cal purposes is hardly warranted, since a statement of the several
nutrients themselves is more explicit and satisfactory.

150. Conclusions relative to feeding standards. — The vast
amount of work of the chemist and physiologist as shown in the
several tables under discussion in this chapter must be apparent
to every student who has followed the subject to this point.
When one learns that these tables after all are not what they first
seem as to exactness and reliability, he is tempted to cast them
aside as of no value in the conduct of his feeding operations. Due
reflection will check such a course, for enormous gain has already
come to our stock interests from this source. Tables of chemical
composition and feeding standards are efforts toward a desired
end, and the student will always study these with interest, and
the prudent feeder will never ignore them in his care of live stock.

V. Placing Money Values on the Different Nutrients in Feeding Stuffs.

151. Character of the inquiry. — Since commercial fertilizers are
sold on their content of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, it
seems possible to ascertain the values of the several common feed-
ing stuffs from their content of digestible protein, carbohydrates
and ether extract. (420) This matter takes concrete form in the
questions asked at farmers' meetings and in the agricultural
papers as to the relative values of different feeds; for example,
the value of a ton of bran or oil meal when corn or oats are worth
a certain sum per bushel.

152. Studies of values. — More than a generation ago Wolff,
studying the by-products of flouring mills and oil factories,
based calculations on the current prices of these several feeds, and
found that, allowing the nitrogen-free extract a value of 1, protein
had a relative value of 2.4, and ether extract 3.

Konig placed the ratio of protein, fat and nitrogen-free extract
at 2. 7 : 2.9 : 1. The German Natural History Society,1 after
investigating the matter, concluded that the average values of
nutrients of the leading feeding stuffs of Germany were as 3 : 3 : 1

1 Landw. Jahrb. 9, p. 805.

118

Feeds and Feeding.

for protein, fat and nitrogen-free extract, respectively. Several
American Stations have also endeavored to ascertain the money
value of concentrates according to the nutrients they contain, with
the results presented in the table below:

Valuations of nutrients in American concentrated feeding stuffs —
various Experiment Stations.

Station.

Refer-
ence.

Value in cents per
pound.

Ratios.

Pro-
tein.

Ether
ex-
tract.

Car-
bohy-
drates.

Pro-
tein.

Ether
ex-
tract.

Car-
bohy-
drates.

Conn....
Conn....
Del

Jenkins...
Jenkins...
Penny
Huston ...
Voorhees..
Woll
H.,B.& J

Kept. 1888
Kept. 1890
Kept. 1889
Bui. 37
Kept. 1891
Kept. 1891
Rept. 1895

1.60
1.40
1.23
1.00
0.91
1.52
2.02

4.2
2.9
4.45
2.75
5.91
3.58
—.19

0.96
1.40
0.52
0.63
1.12
0.47
0.91

1.7
1.0
2.4
1.6
0.8
3.2
2.2

4.4
2.1
8.6
4.4
5.3
7.6
—.21

1
1
1
1
1
1
1

Ind
N. J
Wis
Vt

The data in the above table were secured in the following
manner: The market values of all the concentrated feeding stuifs
in the state were tabulated, together with the pounds of digestible
protein, carbohydrates and ether extract they contained. Then
by a mathematical process the supposed relative value of each of
the nutrients was determined, with results presented in the table.
In Connecticut, for example, it was found that taking all the
common concentrated feeding stuffs offered in the market at cur-
rent values, each pound of digestible protein in these feeds cost
on the average 1.6 cents, one pound of digestible fat 2.4 cents,
and a pound of digestible carbohydrates .96 cents. Hills, Boyce
and Jones, of the Vermont Station, calculating the commercial
values of concentrates for their state, found by the process usually
employed that digestible fat had a value of — .19 cents, or that it
was worth less than nothing, — an absurdity of course. Surprised
at this, they investigated the subject in a broad manner and came
to the conclusion that the method employed to determine these
values is inaccurate and without merit. At present it is impos-
sible to state the value of one feeding stuff in terms of another
from calculations based upon the nutrients contained in each.

PART II.

FEEDING STUFFS.

CHAPTER VIII.

LEADING CEREALS AND THEIR BY- PRODUCTS.

I. Indian Corn and its By-products.
Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents.

Name of feed.

Dry

matter
in 100
pounds.

Digestible nutrients
in 100 pounds.

Fertilizing constitu-
ents in 1,000 pounds.

Pro-
tein.

Carbo-
hy-
drates.

Ether
ex-
tract.

Nitro-
gen.

Phos-
phoric
acid.

Pot-
ash.

•
Average of all analyses
Dent corn

Lbs.

89.1
89.4
88.7
91.2
89.3
84.9
90.9
, 91.8
"89.6
91.8
94.3
88.9
91.9
93.2
34.6

Lbs.

7.9
7.8
8.0
' 8.8
0.4
4.4
7.4
25.8
9.0
11.4
26.7
7.5
30.3
18.7
5.5

Lbs.

66.7
66.7
66.2
63.7
52.5
60.0
59.8
43.3
61.2
58.4
38.8
55.2
35.3
51.7
21.7

Lbs.

4.3
4.3
4.3
7.0
0.3
2.9
4.6
11.0
6.2
6.5
12.4
6.8
14.5
8.7
2.3

Lbs.

18.2
16.5
16.8
18.6
5.0
14.1
16.3
50.3
26.5
22.4
49.8
16.3
57.7
36.3
9.8

Lbs.
7.0

Lbs.
4.0

Flint corn . .

Sweet corn

Corn cob /

.6
5.7
12.1
3.3
8.0
7.0
5.1
9.8

6.0
4.7
6.8
0.5
5.0
5.2
1.5
4.9

Corn and cob meal

Corn bran

Gluten meal

Germ meal

Starch, refuse

Grano-gluten

Hominy chops

Glucose meal

Sugar meal

4.1
1.0

0.3
1.0

Starch feed, wet

153. General characteristics. — Indian corn is the best relished
grain available for our domestic animals, their fondness for it
being remarkable. A possible explanation of this fact may lie
in the large amount of oil which the corn grain carries; again,
on mastication corn breaks into flinty, nutty particles, and is

120 Feeds and Feeding.

therefore more palatable than the wheat grain, for instance, which
on crushing and mingling with saliva turns to a sticky dough.

154. Races of corn. — The races of corn of interest to stockmen
are embraced under the terms "Dent," "Flint/7 and "Sweet."
In dent corn the starchy material is floury in character, except a
small portion near the exterior, which is corneous or flinty. In
flint corn most of the starch has a corneous character, which
is plainly revealed when the grain is cut across. Though different
in appearance the corneous portion is chemically the same as the
floury part. Dent and flint corns are practically of the same
chemical composition. The flint varieties flourish along the
northern rim of the corn belt with its cooler climate; dent corn
flourishes where a higher temperature prevails. By planting one
variety or another, corn may be profitably grown in every state
in the Union. It is said that flint corn when carried from its
northern home to southern districts gradually changes to dent,
while under reverse conditions dent varieties assume the char-
acteristics of flint corn.

It is often asserted that yellow corn is more nutritious than
white, and sometimes the opposite is claimed. There is nothing
in chemical analysis or experience to warrant either assumption.
It is doubtless true that some varieties of one kind are superior
to certain varieties of the other, but no uniform rule prevails.

Sweet corn is characterized by hard, wrinkly grains, due to
shrinkage in drying and their corneous character. The table
shows that sweet corn is somewhat richer in protein than corn of
other races. It does not yield quite as much digestible carbohy-
drates, the difference being more than made up, however, by the
larger content of fat and protein. The grain of sweet corn con-
tains considerable glucose while ripening, and this adds much to
its palatability, though not necessarily to the nutritive qualities,
since sugar has the same feeding value as starch.

155. Corn a carbonaceous food. — The leading characteristic of
the corn grain is the large proportion of starchy matter, coupled
with the rather low protein content and a low percentage of
ash. Compared with wheat, corn has somewhat less carbohy-
drates, less protein, but more oil. Much of the oil and protein is

Leading Cereals and tlieir By-products. 121

gathered in and about the corn germ lying at the base of the
kernel. Eich in starch and oil, the function of corn is plainly
to produce heat and fat when fed to farm animals. For fattening
purposes no other grain equals corn. Lacking in protein and ash,
this grain is not well suited for the production of bone and mus-
cle in young and growing animals. See Chapter VI, also Arti-
cle 421.

156. Corn as human food. — Considering the nutrition it carries
and the market price, corn is by far the cheapest food offered to
mankind over a large part of .the civilized world. That it has
not been more generally used can be explained only in part. In
the first place, corn meal cannot be made into a light, porous loaf,
as can flour from the wheat grain. Again, when reduced to meal
on grinding, the oil of the grain, and especially that in the germ,
soon becomes rancid, and the meal loses its palatability. This
trouble is remedied in part by processes of manufacture in which
the germ is removed.

157. Corn cob. — Corn cobs consist largely of crude fiber and
consequently have a low feeding value. When corn has not
fully ripened, more nutriment remains in the cob, which is then
not so hard and woody. If deleterious fermentations have not
occurred, such cobs are readily eaten by cattle. Cob goes well
with the grain which produces it, and many cattle feeders are
satisfied with this use of an otherwise waste product, drawing
their conclusions from experience and observation.

158. Corn and cob meal. — Sometimes corn together with the
cob which bears it are crushed at the same operation, the
resulting product being called " corn and cob meal.'7 Great dif-
ficulty is experienced in reducing the cob to reasonable fineness.
If left coarse, farm animals usually push the pieces of cob aside
and consume only the mealj if ground sufficiently fine, much
power is required in the reduction. Difficulty is experienced in
finding mills suitable for this purpose and in providing power
sufficient for reducing the cobs. Seasonably fine corn and cob
meal has been found very satisfactory for stock feeding. Experi-
ments by the Paris Omnibus Company1 showed that corn and cob

1 Pott, Fiihling's Landw. Zeitung, 1893, p. 483.

122 Feeds and Feeding.

meal gave better returns than pure corn meal. Stockmen quite
generally report favorably on its use. (539, 633, 849) Since the
nutriment in the corn cob is not large, it is not easy to understand
why this compound meets with general favor, especially since the
cost of grinding is considerably increased. It has been suggested
that pure corn meal lies heavy in the animal's stomach, and
while in this condition is not so readily attacked by the juices of
digestion. On the other hand, the particles of cob when asso-
ciated with the meal cause the mass to lie loose in the stomach,
in condition for easy digestive action.

159. Weight of corn and cob. — Aside from its water content,
corn shows a very uniform composition for different regions of our
country. "While the moisture in old corn varies little from 12
per cent., it may reach 20 and even 25 per cent, for ear com
freshly husked. Corn carrying as much as 20 per cent, water will
not keep if stored in any considerable quantity. At the Kansas
Agricultural College, Shelton1 placed 200 pounds of ear corn,
which had been ripe fully six weeks before it was husked, in a
box which was placed in a crib of corn with corn all about it. In
July, eight months later, the corn weighed 187.5 pounds, showing
a shrinkage of 6 per cent.

At the Illinois Station, 2 Morrow reports three years' investi-
gations as showing that 1,000 bushels of ear corn, medium
varieties, shrunk 115 bushels, or 11.5 per cent., between the time
of gathering and when thoroughly air-dry. Corn husked Novem-
ber 1 required 70 pounds of ears of early, 73 pounds of medium
and 78 pounds of late maturing varieties to yield one bushel, or
56 pounds of shelled corn.

At the Kentucky Station, 3 Scovell found that corn placed in a
loft November 17, shrunk from 7.4 to 18.3 per cent, in weight.

About one-fifth the weight of well-dried ear corn of the better
varieties consists of cob; that is, 70 pounds of well- dried ear corn
will yield 56 pounds of shelled corn.

160. The pellagra corn disease. — Among the rural population
of northern Italy there occurs a peculiar, fatal disease called

1 Kept. Prof. Agr., 1884.
* Bui. 13.
a Kept. 1889.

Leading Cereals and their By-products. 123

"pellagra," which has been traced to the almost exclusive use of
corn as food by the people. The poverty of the corn grain in
protein and ash may explain in some measure this ailment.
According to investigations, the disease is charged by some to the
presence of mould fungi. Fua1 found aspergillus and penicillium
fungi in corn meal which had caused pellagra, and was able to
separate from it several poisonous substances, evidently decom-
position products. 2

161. Corn by-products. — The use of corn in the manufacture of
starch, glucose, beer, spirits, etc., has grown enormously of late,
resulting in great quantities of by-products of high feeding value
for stock. In most of the processes of manufacture the first step
is to secure the starch of the corn grain as free as possible from
the other constituents. The composition of the corn grain in its
different parts and the various by-products left in the manufacture
have been studied by Voorhees at the New Jersey Station,3 a
summary of his findings being as follows: The husk or skin
which covers the corn kernel consists of two layers, which on
removal constitute what is known as corn bran; this contains
practically all the crude fiber of the corn grain. Below the husk
or skin layer, but near the outside of the grain, comes a layer of
cells rich in gluten or protein, yellow in color, and not readily
separable from the remainder of the kernel. Most of the pro-
tein of the corn grain lies in this layer. Near the base of the
grain is the germ, which also contains gluten, and is particularly
rich in oil and mineral matters. The body of the corn grain
proper is composed almost entirely of starch, the cells being
packed to repletion therewith. Voorhees separated 100 grams of
corn kernels into skin, germ and starch portions, and analyzing
these secured the results presented in the following table:

1 Pott. Landw. Futterm., 1889, p. 410, foot note.

2 See also Konig, Die niensch. Nahr. u. Genussm., II, 1893, p. 474.
" Bui. 106.

124

Feeds and Feeding.

Composition of the several parts of the corn grain — New Jersey

Station.

Composition of the water-free material.

Corn and

In 100

Nutrients.

Fertilizing constit-
uents.

its parts.

corn.

Water.

Pro-
tein.

Car-
bohy-
drates.

Crude
fiber.

Ether
extract.

Crude
ash.

Nitro-
gen.

Phos-
phoric
acid.

Pot-
ash.

Original

Per
cent.

Per

cent.

Per

cent.

Per
cent.

Per cent.

Per
cent.

Per
ct.

corn

100.0

24.7

12.6

79.3

2.0

4.3

1.7

2.0

0.8

0.5

Skin

5.6

15.3

6.6

75.4

16.5

1.6

1.3

1.1

0.2

0.4

Germ

10.2

29.6

21.7

45.8

2.9

29.6

11.1

3.5

6.2

2.9

Starchy

part

84.3

24.7

12.2

85.6

0.7

1.5

0.7

2.0

0.4

0.2

162. What the table shows. — The germ, which constitutes only
about 10 per cent, of the kernel, contains 65 per cent, of the
ether extract, 61.5 per cent, of the mineral matter, 71 per cent,
of the phosphoric acid, 60 per cent, of the potash and 16.3 per
cent, of the nitrogen or protein of the whole grain. The starchy
portion of the grain carries very little crude fiber or ash, but is
rich in carbohydrates in the form of starch. The skin yields
most of the crude fiber, the whole amount being small.

163. Starch production. — Briefly described, starch is obtained
from the corn grain in the following manner: The corn is gener-
ally soaked until soft and then ground to meal in running water.
The hulls or husks float to the surface and are removed; the
germs sink to the bottom, and the water, carrying with it the
gluten and starch, passes on through long troughs, in which the
starch, being the heavier of the two, settles to the bottom while
the gluten floats on. The various by-products thus separated are
dried and sold, either separately or combined, under various
names, while the resulting starch, freed from these substances, is
treated in different ways for various manufactured products.

164. Of what the by-products consist. — All the by-products
combined constitute what is known as gluten feed, which is really
the corn grain less the starch it carries. This feed is rich in
ether extract and protein, and is well suited for dairy cows and
fattening stock.

Leading Cereals and their By-products. 125

Gluten meal does not contain either the hull or germ, and is
very rich in ether extract and protein. Because of its concen-
tration it should always be diluted or extended with some light
material like wheat bran or corn bran. (546, 637, 850) Corn bran
consists of the hulls of the corn grain, and is relatively low in
feeding value. Corn germ is very rich in protein and oil. Corn
oil meal and corn oil cake consist of the pressed germs freed from
most of the oil they carry, and are rich in ether extract and pro-
tein. These by-products should never be fed in large quantity,
but mixed with other grain feeds. Often the by-products of the
factory are disposed of in a wet condition, and are then styled
1 ' wet starch ' ' or " wet glucose feeds. ' J

When corn is manufactured into hominy or other human food
articles, the skin of the grain, the germ, etc., constitute by-prod-
ucts more or less similar to those above described. Unfortunately
for the purchaser there is no uniformity in the composition of
these by-products, and they reach the trade under whatever
names the manufacturers are pleased to place upon them, thus
preventing any general treatment of the subject.

165. Nitrogen and mineral matter in corn. — Compared with
grains generally, corn is not rich in nitrogen and mineral matter.
Compared even with hay from the leguminous plants, e. g., red
clover hay, it likewise stands low. This poverty of mineral
matter and nitrogen explains in some measure why the corn crop
is not so exhausting to the soil as many others. The prudent
feeder in using corn should always bear in mind its low nitrogen
and mineral content, and make good what is lacking by supplying
the wants of his animals from other sources. In choosing between
corn and other feed, when purchasing in the market, he should
bear in mind that a given weight of this grain does not bring to
his farm as much fertility as do many other feeding stuffs. In
gluten meal, grano-gluten and cream gluten, the nitrogen reaches
a very respectable figure, though in mineral matter the standing
is still low.

126

Feeds and Feeding.

II. Wheat and its By-products in Milling.
Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents.

Name of feed.

Dry

matter
in 100
pounds.

Digestible nutrients
in 100 pounds.

Fertilizing constitu-
ents in 1,000 pounds.

Pro-
tein.

Carbo-
hy-
drates.

Ether
ex-
tract.

Nitro-
gen.

Phos-
phoric
acid.

Pot-
ash.

Wheat

Lbs.

89.5
87.6
87.6
90.3

88.1
88.5
87.7
88.2
87.9
88.4

Lbs.

10.2
8.9
8.2
13.5
12.2
12.9
12.3
12.2
12.8
9.8

Lbs.

69.2
62.4
62.7
61.3
39.2
40.1
37.1
50.0
53.0
51.0

Lbs.

1.7
0.9
0.9
2.0
2.7
3.4
2.6
3.8
3.4
2.2

Lbs.

23.6
18.9

28.9
31.8
26.7

Lbs.

7.9
2.2
5.6
21.4
28.9

Lbs.

5.0
1.5
3.5
10.9
16.1

His^h-ajrade flour

Low-grade flour

Dark feeding flour

W^heat bran

Wheat bran, spring wheat
Wheat bran, winter wheat
Wlieat shorts

28.2
26.3
24.4

13.5
9.5
11.7

5.9
6.3

8.4

Wheat middlings.

Wheat screenings

166. Wheat grain. — From the earliest times the wheat plant has
furnished the choicest food grain for man. Wheat has probably
never been degraded to stock-feeding purposes until the most
recent times. During the last decade, owing to enormous pro-
duction, the prices for this grain fell until they approached quite
close to those received for corn. When this anomalous and dis-
couraging situation was reached, our farmers at first hesitated,
but with a sagacity most creditable to them quickly overcame
their long-held and not unwarranted prejudice against this seem-
ing perversion of nature and began to deal out wheat in large
quantities to their stock. Coburn1 reports that in Kansas, during
the year 1893, more than 4,000,000 bushels of wheat were fed to
stock by the farmers of that state, and that in 1894 the amount
so disposed of reached the enormous volume of 8,500,000 bushels.
Since it costs more to produce wheat than corn, it is reasonable
to suppose that this grain will never become a common feed for
stock, but the feeder should know its value both absolute and
relative, and hold himself ready to make use of it whenever
market conditions warrant.

Compared with corn, wheat carries a higher percentage of
starch, less ether extract and more protein. Thus it more clearly

i Kept. Kan. St. Bd. Agr., Sept. 30, 1894.

Leading Cereals and their By-products. 127

furnishes a balanced ration for farm animals. It follows that
this grain meets the requirements of young and growing animals
better than corn, a statement which is corroborated by the experi-
ence of feeders. Because two or more kinds of feed should always
be given rather than one only, the feeder should prize wheat
highly for furnishing variety to his usually too short list of avail-
able articles. It should also be remembered in considering prices
that a bushel of wheat weighs seven per cent, more than a bushel
of corn.

167. Wheat for feeding. — Wheat, may be regarded as a satis-
factory feed for all kinds of farm stock, in the hands of intelli-
gent feeders. Mixed with corn, oats or bran it is superior to
either alone for work horses. For fattening cattle and dairy cows
it not only furnishes abundance of nutrients, but through variety
gives edge to the appetite. When on a visit to William Wat-
son, the prince of American feeders, some years since, the writer
found him feeding whole wheat of fine quality to sheep in prep-
aration for a fat-stock show. For sheep this grain alone or mixed
with others may be fed in the entire or whole condition; for
other stock it should receive some form of preparation, either
grinding, boiling or soaking. During mastication wheat and
wheat flour adhere to the gums, forming a pasty mass. This can
be prevented by mingling bran, corn meal or some such substance
with the wheat or flour. Though a feed of great palatability and
healthfulness, wheat does not equal corn for fattening purposes,
yielding perhaps ten per cent, less returns. (462, 543, 638-9,
759-60, 850)

168. Character of flesh from wheat feeding. — Swift & Co.
(Packers, Chicago), replying to an inquiry concerning the char-
.acter of the flesh of wheat and corn-fed cattle and hogs, wrote:1

1 i There is quite a perceptible difference between wheat and corn-
fed hogs and cattle. We do not consider that wheat-fed stock
yields as well as corn- fed, there being less fat. The lean meat on
wheat-fed cattle has a somewhat brighter red than on corn-fed
•cattle. The lean meat from wheat-fed hogs is very nice, but as
the yield is not so good there is no particular advantage in it to
1 Prairie Fanner, Oct. 20, 1894.

128 Feeds and Feeding.

packers; but we consider wheat-fed stock worth as much, as
corn-fed. "

169. Damaged wheat. — When low prices prevail for wheat,
only the best grades should be sold by the farmer. Shrunken
and damaged grain has almost no market value at such times,
while for feeding purposes it may be nearly or quite equal to
grain which commands the highest price. The farmer should
carefully grade his grain at home and sell only the best.

Sometimes the farmer with such wheat on hand hesitates about
feeding it, fearing disastrous results. A number of inquiries a&
to the advisability of feeding poor wheat have come to the writer
in past years, and he has always recommended that, instead of
wasting such grain, it be fed in moderate quantities mixed with
other materials. No ill results have ever come to notice from
such grain when fed in reasonable quantity. (763-4)

170. Composition of wheat grain. — If we examine the wheat grain
we find, first of all, three membranous coats which have some-
what the character of straw, and show on analysis about the same
composition, with corresponding feeding value. Beneath these
comes the fourth, called the "aleurone layer,77 which is rich in
protein, and which during the process of milling goes with the
three outer layers to form bran. The embryo or germ of the
grain is rich in oil, protein and mineral matter. The remaining
portion of the grain consists of thin- walled cells, all packed to
repletion with starch grains. Associated with the starch are
grains of protein matter called gluten, which give to dough from
wheat flour that tenacity which enables it to retain gas bubbles,
produced by yeast fermentation, during baking, thereby yielding
a light, porous bread. In producing flour the aim of the miller is
to secure all of the starch and gluten possible, avoiding the other
constituents of the grain. He avoids incorporating the embryo
or germ because, though rich in oil and protein, it turns dark on
exposure to the air and gives the flour a specked appearance;
further, the germ makes a sticky dough. Nor does the miller
desire the aleurone layer, rich though it is in protein, for flour
containing it has a brown tint. The amount of gluten in the
wheat grain is smallest in the center and increases toward the

Leading Cereals and their By-products. 129

outside. Gluten being a desirable constituent of flour, the miller,
for this reason and for greater yield, aims to secure all of the
interior content of the grain possible, up to the aleurone layer
itself. In modern milling the wheat grain is first broken into
a few pieces, and these are gradually reduced to flour by re-
peated grinding and bolting. Bran, as we have seen, consists
of the three outer coatings of the wheat grain and the aleurone
layer, with some of the starchy particles adhering. Shorts
consist of re-ground bran. Middlings contain the finer bran
particles and more flour j often with this grade there are incorpo-
rated the germs of the wheat grain. The better grades of mid-
dlings are sometimes used for human food.

In the manufacture of flour, from twenty-five to thirty-three
per cent, of the weight of the wheat grain remains as offal avail-
able for stock feeding. Since the consumption of wheat in this
country is about 4.5 bushels, or 270 pounds, for each person, the
by-products of this grain amount to nearly 70 pounds per capita,
not including the enormous amount resulting from the wheat
milled for export.

171. Feeding bread. — An English writer1 reports that a cab
proprietor in London some years since tried the experiment of
feeding bread to horses, with economy and success, the only
trouble being that many loaves were consumed by the workmen.
He further states that he has seen the coachmen of Paris feeding
brown bread to their horses, and that this food is given to horses
in countries where hay is dear. To prevent stealing, he recom-
mends that straw be mixed with the dough before baking.

172. Low-grade flour. — Our table shows the nutrients in low-
grade flour to vary little from those in flour of the higher grade.
Such flour can rarely be used with profit by the stockman so long
as still lower grades of by-products are obtainable at the usual
prices. Prof. Primrose McConnell, England,2 reports having
fed American low-grade flour for six months, and is " rather sur-
prised at the beneficial results.77

173. Dark feeding flour. — The lowest grade of flour, known as
"dark feeding flour/7 "red dog,77 etc., usually contains the

1 The Field, England, July 15, 1893.

2 Agricultural Gazette, 1893, p. 351.

130 Feeds and Feeding.

germs of the wheat grain, and because of this it is rich in protein
and fat. Such flour has a high feeding value, especially for
growing pigs, hard-worked horses and milch cows. Feeders
should watch the markets for this brand, and may be able at
times to use it to much profit.

174. Middlings and shorts.— " Middlings " and "shorts" are
terms used interchangeably to some extent. It has become rather
common of late to find shorts consisting simply of ground-over
bran, almost free from floury particles, with the sweepings and
dirt of the mill added. Such material is very unsatisfactory for
stock feeding and should be avoided.

Middlings are especially useful for feeding pigs and horses,
since neither of these animals can utilize much crude fiber. For
horses they should be mixed with corn meal, oats or other feed-
ing stuffs, as pure middlings are a heavy feed and liable to pro-
duce colic. For pigs, middlings mixed with corn meal or skim
milk serve admirably in promoting growth and building healthy
muscular bodies. (463, 641, 854)

175. Bran. — Wheat bran carries, as we have seen, a consider-
able amount of crude fiber, somewhat resembling straw in this
particular. It differs from straw in that the inner surface of the
bran flakes is made up of the aleurone layer of the wheat grain,
which is very rich in protein and in addition carries some starch.
Understanding its character and composition, we are in position to
make the best use of this abundant by-product in feeding farm
stock. With some horsemen bran is fed only occasionally, being
supplied once or twice a week in the form of a "mash," made
by scalding with hot water, in which case it is a mild laxative
and very beneficial. Bran has, however, become a common feed
in many well-managed stables. At the Stanford horse farm, a few
years since, the writer found it being fed in moderate quantity
to horses of all ages, from weanlings to stallions and brood
mares. Bran is quite commonly used in feeding omnibus and cab
horses. (451) Hard- worked horses, which have neither the time
nor energy necessary to digest feeds with much bulk, should not
receive much bran, owing to its coarse, fibrous character. Grow-
ing horses, brood mares and stallions can be fed bran liberally
with excellent results because of the large amount of mineral

Leading Cereals and their By-products. 131

matter and protein it contains, its volume not working against it
with these animals. In steer feeding bran serves admirably with
corn in any form. Fed with this grain it gives bulk, supplies
protein, and keeps the animal from cloying, as it may when long
maintained on a single kind of feed, such as corn. The stockman
feeding corn to his steers will find them making better gains and
showing better condition by using bran for one-third of the con-
centrates. The light character of the bran is well shown in cases
of over-feeding. Though a horse or cow may be gorged with
bran, it usually suffers no marked inconvenience therefrom, while
an over-feed of corn or cotton-seed meal may produce fatal
gastric disturbances.

Bran is par excellence a leading feed for the dairy cow, furnish-
ing not only bulk, a desirable quality in this case, but protein and
ash matter, which are so much needed in the formation of milk.
As a complementary food to corn meal, the combination of bran
and that grain is not to be excelled. For young pigs bran is too
coarse and straw-like, (896) and middlings should be substituted
for it. For brood sows and older animals some bran may be fed
with profit, and may prove very useful if the remainder of the
ration is in concentrated form, for volume is necessary with the
feed of such animals. This by-product is also very satisfactory
in the sheep yard, being relished by fattening sheep, breeding
ewes and growing lambs. (463, 544, 640-42, 762, 855)

176. Fertilizing ingredients. — We learn from the table that the
wheat grain is somewhat richer in nitrogen and mineral matter
than corn. The by-products of wheat in milling are much richer
in these particulars than the grain from which they are derived.
High-grade flour is not rich in nitrogen or mineral matter. Low-
grade flour is rich in nitrogen but low in mineral matter. Dark
feeding flour is rich in nitrogen and mineral matter. Bran and
shorts carry all the elements of fertility in large quantity, and for
this reason are highly appreciated by those feeders whose interest
reaches beyond their cattle to the lands they till. (414) When
very low in price, bran may be used as a fertilizer by direct
application to the land, but such perversion should not be toler-
ated. It should be first fed to animals and, through their drop-
pings, it will reach the land almost undiminished in fertility.

132

Feeds and Feeding.

The great Northwest is now largely devoted to wheat growing.
Here the farmers are gathering into the wheat grains the fertility
which has been accumnlating for ages. (414) Prudent farmers
and stockmen further east, knowing of the fertilizing ingredients
in the by-prodncts of the flouring mills, are making large use
of them, and by carefully saving the droppings from their cattle
and applying them to the land, are transferring the great fertility
of the Northwest to other districts. In this depletion of the soil
of the Northwest by almost exclusive wheat growing, and in
transferring the fertility taken up by this crop to other regions
in the by-products of milling, we are experiencing one of the
greatest economic changes ever witnessed in American agriculture.

III. Eye and its By-products.
Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents.

Name of feed.

Dry

matter
in 100
pounds.

Digestible nutrients
in 100 pounds.

Fertilizing constitu-
ents in 1,000 pounds.

Pro-
tein.

Carbo-
hy-
drates.

Ether
ex-
tract.

Nitro-
gen.

Phos-
phoric
acid.

Pot-
ash.

Rve

Lbs.

88.4
88.4
90.7

Lbs.

9.9
11.5
11.9

Lbs.

67.6
50.3
45.1

Lbs.

1.1
2.0

1.6

Lbs.

17.6
23.2
18.4

Lbs.

8.2
22.8
12.6

Lb°.

5.4
14.0
8.1

Rye bran

Rye shorts

The table shows that rye does not differ materially from wheat
in composition, nor are its by-products chemically dissimilar from
those of the wheat grain.

177. Rye and its by-products as stock feeds. — Work horses
in Germany are fed rye to a limited extent, 1 each animal receiv-
ing from two to four pounds of grain daily in addition to oats or
other concentrated feed.

According to Boggild, 2 rye imparts a characteristic flavor to
milk and may cause bitter butter. The Scandinavian Preserving
Company of Copenhagen, which preserves butter by sealing in
air-tight cans for shipment to distant countries, prohibits the
feeding of rye on the farms of its patrons. It is probable that
the limited use of rye with dairy cows will prove satisfactory.

1 Pott, Futterm., p. 395.

2 Malkeribruget i Danmark, 1st eel., p. 70.

Leading Cereals and their By-products.

133

Fjord's experiments with pigs show that rye has a feeding
value about equal to barley, and that the quality of pork from
this grain is satisfactory. (891) Barley and rye were shown to
be superior to rye shorts. (895) The pork from rye shorts was
of an inferior quality, showing more shrinkage and being softer
than that from rye and barley mixed. (466)

The use of rye and its by-products in this country is quite lim-
ited, and in consequence there is little data concerning this grain
for feeding purposes. Since it is used quite extensively for human
food, we may suppose that rye is not inimical to animal life, and
that under proper limitations it will prove satisfactory with farm
stock. It has been charged that since ergot, a fungus having
medicinal effects, grows on rye heads, rye may therefore prove
dangerous to farm animals and may even cause abortion. This
charge seems unreasonable when we reflect upon the common use
of this grain for human food in European countries. (283)

IY. Barley and its By-products in Brewing.
Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents.

Name of feed.

Dry
matter
in 100
•pounds.

Digestible nutrients
in 100 pounds.

Fertilizing constitu-
ents in 1,000 pounds.

Pro-
tein.

Carbo-
hy-
drates.

Ether
ex-
tract.

Nitro-
gen.

Phos-
phoric
acid.

Pot-
ash.

Barley

Lbs.

89.1
89.8
24.3
91.8

Lbs.

8.7
18.6
3.9
15.7

Lbs.

65.6
37.1
9.3
36.3

Lbs.

1.6
1.7
1.4
5.1

Lbs.

15.1
35.5

8.9
36.2

Lbs.

7.9
14.3
3.1
10.3

Lbs.

4.8
16.3
0.5
0.9

Malt sprouts . . .

Brewers7 grains, wet

Brewers' grains, dried

178. Characteristics. — Barley is one of the most widely culti-
vated cereals, growing as far north as 70 degrees latitude in Lap-
land near North Cape, while in this country it is found in Arizona
and California flourishing beside groves of the lemon and orange.
This grain, which was probably the chief bread plant with many
ancient nations, is now devoted almost wholly to brewing and
stock feeding. * The use of barley as a feed for animals is still

1 For a history of the barley plant and many other interesting facts in
relation thereto, see Brewer's Special Report on the Cereals. 10th U. 8.
Census.

134 Feeds and Feeding.

confined almost wholly to the Pacific slope, where corn and oats
do not flourish in equal degree. The use of barley, most certainly
its lower grades, will become more common with our stockmen
when its value and special advantages are better known. The
table shows that digestible protein is higher in barley than in oats,
and considerably higher than in corn. The carbohydrates in this
grain exceed those in oats and fall below those in corn. Barley
has less oil than oats or corn.

Eichardson l finds that barley from Dakota contains the largest
percentage of protein, while that from Oregon shows lowest.
In these particulars the record resembles that of wheat from
the same regions. According to the same author the hull of the
barley grain averages 15.22 per cent, of its total weight. There
are varieties of barley without beards and still others without
hulls, both grown to a limited extent in this country. Brewer
found a hull-less barley grown by the Pueblo Indians at Taos,
K. M., for bread making, which was very nutritious, carrying a
higher per cent, of protein than wheat. Cooke, of the Colorado
Station, 2 reports that hull-less barley yields profitable crops of
grain in the mountain parks of that state at an elevation of 7,000
feet. At higher altitudes it is cut for hay, yielding a roughage
containing sufficient nutriment to alone nourish hard-worked
horses. In feeding trials with pigs, hull-less barley gave better
returns than common barley or corn. The Arabs maintained
their horses almost exclusively on barley, the grain being admin-
istered unground. This grain is fed to the horse with excellent
results by the Berbers in northern Africa. 3 Pott 4 regards barley
as the best cereal for the horse, oats only excepted.

Barley is a common feed for dairy cows in north Europe. The
Danes sow barley and oats together in the proportion of one part
of barley seed to two of oats. The mixed grain from this crop is
ground previous to feeding, and is regarded as the best for dairy
cows and other stock. Pott states that barley is beneficial in its
influence on the quality of milk and butter. This grain is

i Bui. 9, Div. of Chem., U. S. Dept. Agr., 1886.

* Bui. 40.

»Expt. Sta. Record, V, p. 626.

4 Land w. Futterm., p. 399.

Leading Cereals and their By-products. 135

extensively used in England and northern Europe for pork pro-
duction, and may be regarded as standing at the head of all grains
for producing flesh of fine quality both as to hardness and flavor.
(894) Strangely, there is a rather widespread shade of prejudice
existing against the use of barley for stock feeding in this country,
some even asserting that it is poisonous to farm stock. Perhaps
the brewers, wishing to control the entire use of this crop, have
furthered the prejudice. This charge should be dismissed as
unworthy of intelligent farmers, for the experience of the old
world is entirely against it. Barley often commands a low price
because the grains have been tarnished during harvest by rain-
fall or foggy weather. Such grain has lost little or none of its
nutrients, though for the brewer its value may have been much
diminished. The wise stockman will use such barley for feed
rather than force it on the market at the low price which it com-
mands. (460, 857, 891)

179. Malting. — To appreciate the value of barley by-products
we should understand their origin. In malting, the grain is first
steeped in wooden or stone cisterns, where it remains until
sufficiently soft to be easily crushed between the thumb and
finger without yielding a milky juice. The grains are next
spread upon a frame in a mass about twenty inches deep. Here
the temperature rises to about 150 degrees, and the grains begin
to germinate, sending out tiny sprouts. In the third step the
sprouting barley is spread upon the floor for the purpose of con-
trolling the germination, increasing or retarding it according to
circumstances.

These three steps are all for the single purpose of converting
the starchy matter of the grain into soluble dextrin and sugar,
which is accomplished by a natural ferment in the grain, called
diastase. All of the substance of the barley grain which goes
into the sprouts is waste to the malster, and yet he cannot pro-
duce malt without sprouting the grain ; hence the close watching
and sudden checking of growth when that point is reached. In
the fourth stage the grains are kiln-dried, destroying the sprouts,
which are next separated from the grain by sieves, leaving the
dried barley grains with their load of soluble constituents. Such

136 Feeds and Feeding.

grain when dried is known as malt, and the dried germs are
termed malt sprouts.

ISO. Brewers' grains. — In the manufacture of beer the brewer
extracts from the malt the soluble dextrin and sugar. The liquor
containing this is called wort, which upon proper fermentation
and further treatment constitutes beer. The malt grains, freed
from the dextrin and sugar, while in wet form are known as wet
brewers' grains, a by-product of great volume at all breweries.
It is evident from this presentation that the brewer who uses only
the starch of the barley grain does not care for varieties of grain
rich in protein, but rather the contrary. According to Eichard-
son, Marcker found that a first-class malting barley should not
carry over 8.67 per cent, protein, which is about two-thirds that
found in American grains. The requirements of the stockman
who seeks feeds rich in protein are in the opposite direction, so
that the poorest barley for malting may be the best for feeding.
Light- colored, bright barley makes beer of better color than dark,
weather-stained grains; hence the lower price paid by the malster
for weather-stained barley.

181. Malt for stock. — Lawes and Gilbert, l after experimenting
with malt, conclude: "A given weight of barley is more pro-
ductive both of the milk of cows and of the increase in live weight
of fattening animals than the amount of malt and malt dust

(malt sprouts) that would be produced from it

Irrespective of economy, malt is undoubtedly a very good food
for stock; and common experience seems to show that a certain
amount of it is beneficial when given in admixture, and in change,
with other food to young or weakly animals, or in making up for
exhibition or sale; that is, when the object is to produce a par-
ticular result irrespective of the economy required in ordinary
feeding."

Occasionally malt slightly injured by fire or other cause is offered
for sale at a low price, and, knowing its value, the opportunity
for purchase and feeding at a profit should not be lost by the
watchful stockman. 2

1 Rothamsted Memoirs, Vol. 4.

2 See Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc., 1892.

Leading Cereals and their By-products. 137

182. Wet brewers' grains. — These grains can only be fed in the
vicinity of the brewery, owing to the large amount of water they
carry. This fact has led to the extensive feeding of dairy cows
in the proximity of breweries, which are generally located where
there is a large demand for milk. Because a certain kind of city
milk supply is often in the hands of ignorant people and is not
properly supervised by officials, the cows in some instances are
crowded into dark sheds where the air is foul and the animals
enjoy little or no exercise or sunshine. Because the wet grains
are low priced and easily procured, the cows are wholly or almost
entirely maintained upon them. The drippings from the wet
grains pass downward through the feed boxes and under the
floors of the stable, where fermentation takes place, giving rise to
bad odors. Often, too, the grains accumulate in the stable and
are not fed until they have become putrid. In view of all these
circumstances, it is not surprising that boards of health have
sometimes reached the conclusion that wet brewers' grains are not
a suitable feed for dairy cows under any circumstances, and have
prohibited the sale of milk from cows fed upon them.

There is nothing whatever in wet brewers' grains which is
poisonous or deleterious in milk production, provided they are
properly fed while fresh. The trouble arises from the great
abuse of a most excellent feeding material which is of such char-
acter that it can easily be abused. Supplied in reasonable
quantity while fresh, and fed in water-tight boxes which are
kept clean, with nutritious hay and other coarse provender,
there is no better feed for dairy cows. So great and so frequent,
however, are the dangers from their abuse, that wet brewers'
grains should never be used for cows yielding milk for city
supply unless they are fed under the strict supervision of com-
petent officials. If this cannot be done, then perhaps it is best to
prohibit their use altogether.

183. Dried brewers' grains. — By removing the excessive moist-
ure of the wet grains through drying, a product is obtained
which is concentrated and no more perishable than bran. Dried
brewers' grains are rich in protein, low in carbohydrates and rich,
in ether extract. They are most excellent feed for dairy cows,

138 Feeds and Feeding.

ranking with bran and oil meal in palatability and general good
effects.

Sattig l reports using dried brewers7 grains and finding them a
cheap winter feed for horses, the energy and general condition of
the animals being pronounced as good as though they were main-
tained on oats. Trials in feeding the dried grains to street- car
horses by the !New Jersey Station gave satisfactory results, with
the cost of the ration reduced several cents per day. (461, 475)

184. Malt sprouts. — The tiny sprouts originating from the
barley grain in the process of malting are separated from the
grains after they have dried, by sieving. Minute as are these
sprouts, they accumulate in large quantities, and malsters can fur-
nish them by the car-load or train-load. The table shows that malt
sprouts carry nearly twenty per cent, of digestible protein, with
the carbohydrates and fat running low. Unfortunately this feed
is not much relished by cattle, and for this reason can only be fed
in limited quantity. Malt sprouts absorb a large quantity of
water and should be soaked for several hours before feeding.
Two or three pounds of sprouts can be profitably fed to dairy cows
daily, because of their low cost and the high fertility they carry.
(473)

185. Fertilizing constituents. — The barley grain itself does not
differ materially from the other cereals in fertilizing components.
Malt sprouts are rich in phosphoric acid and potash. In some
cases sprouts are directly applied to the land as a fertilizer, but if
of good quality, their feeding value should not thus be lost. Often
they can be purchased at a lower price than the commercial value
of the fertility they contain, so that they cost nothing as feed if
the droppings of the cattle receiving them are carefully saved.
Brewers' grains are rich in nitrogen and phosphates, but very low
in potash.

* Milch Zeitung, 1886, p. 185.

Leading Cereals and their By-products.

139

Y. Oats and their By-products.
Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents.

Name of feed.

Dry
matter
in 100
pounds.

Digestible nutrients
in 100 pounds.

Fertilizing constitu-
ents in 1,000 pounds.

Pro-
tein.

Carbo-
hy-
drates.

Ether
ex-
tract.

Nitro-
gen.

Phos-
phoric
acid.

Pot-
ash.

Oats

Lbs.

89.0
92.1
92.3
93.5
90.6

Lbs.

9.2
11.5
12.5
8.9
1.3

Lbs.

47.3
52.1

46.9
38.4
40.1

Lbs.

4.2

5.9
2.8
5.1
0.6

Lbs.

20.6
23.5
17.2
21.6
5.2

Lbs.
8.2

Lbs.
6.2

Out meal

Oat feed or shorts

9.1

5.s

Oat dust

Oat hulls .*!.

2.4

5.2

186. Concerning the oat grain. — The oat crop ranks third in
importance among cereals in the United States. Owing to the
uncertainty of wheat as to yield, and its falling price during recent
years, the oat crop has been in the ascendency and has greatly
increased. Though primarily used as feed for animals, the oat
grain now holds a prominent place among nutrients for man in both
Europe and America. No grain varies so widely in weight per
bushel as oats. In the southern portion of our country a bushel of
oats often weighs only twenty pounds, while on the Pacific coast
the same volume may weigh fifty pounds. Southern oat grains
have an inflated husk and bear an awn or beard which causes
the grains to lie loose in the measure. The kernel is larger
than that of the Northern grain. At the North the oat grain is-
encased in a compact hull, which is not often awned. According
to Richardson, l the hulls of oats are from twenty-four to forty-
five per cent, of the weight of the grain, the average being about
thirty per cent. Richardson states: " The proportion of husk to
kernel and the compactness of the grain prove to be the all-impor-
tant factors, and the weight per bushel the best means of judging
the value of the grain. "

At the Ohio Station, 2 Hickman, studying the question whether
the weight per bushel for oats indicated the net amount of kernels,,
secured these results:

1 Bui. 9, Div. of Chemistry, U. S. Dept. Agr., Washington.

2 Bui. 57.

140 Feeds and Feeding.

Weight of grain Per cent.

Number of varieties in test. per bushel. kernel.

4 36 Ibs. 68

3 34 Ibs. 67

7 30 Ibs. 69

Here we observe that the lightest oats yielded the highest per-
centage weight of kernels to hull. This test points to the conclu-
sion that light oats are not necessarily low in actual nutriment,
and is contrary to the teaching of Eichardson.

The oat grain shows a higher proportion of digestible protein
than corn or wheat, while in ether extract it exceeds wheat and
nearly equals corn. With a lower carbohydrate content, the
nutritive ratio is such that this grain contains within itself quite
a well balanced ration for farm animals.

A hull-less variety of oats is occasionally grown in this country.
For poultry and swine it serves a useful purpose, but for other
farm stock, varieties of oats with hulls are preferable.

187. New oats unfit for feeding. — Storer l treats of this question
in the following words: u As all horse keepers know, new oats
are unfit to be given to working horses. They loosen the bowels
of the animals, make their flesh watery, or ' soften them down, J
as the term is; i. e., they render animals apt to sweat easily, and, in
general, put them ( out of condition. ' How or why the new oats
produce these effects is not known; but in the course of a few
months after harvest, and especially after cold weather has set in,
the oats undergo a change of some kind, either of after-ripening
or of fermentation, and are thereafter fit to be fed to horses.
Probably this difference between new and old oats depends upon
a change in the chemical composition of some one peculiar, and,
so to say, medicinal constituent of the oat grain. "

188. A stimulating principle in oats. — The mettle shown by the
horse nurtured on oats has led to the supposition that this grain
contains a stimulating principle. In 1885 Norton separated an
albuminoid from the oat grain which Johnston named " avenine."
Later work of the chemists effectually did away with Johnston's
albuminoid, and it was left to Sanson 2 to announce the discovery

1 Agriculture in Some of Ite Relations with Chemistry, Vol. II.

2 Comptes Bendus 96, I, p. 75; Biederm. Centralbl., 1884, p. 20.

istry, vol.
., 1884, p.

Leading Cereals and their By-products. 141

of a stimulating principle in the seed coats of the oat grain. Tim
was supposed to be an alkaloid, varying in quantity in different
varieties of oats and also with soil, climate, etc. Sanson concludes,
that one kilogram (2.2 pounds) of oats will generally contain suf-
ficient avenine to exert a stimulating influence on the motor nerves
of the horse for an hour. He claims that grinding and crushing
the oats destroys or weakens the principle, for which reason
ground oats are not as effective as whole oats. Careful investiga-
tions by later chemists have failed to discover any characteristic
alkaloid, or in fact any nitrogenous compound of indicated char-
acter. l Thus we are left in uncertainty as to any stimulating
principle in oats. Whether found or not, all horsemen will still
unite in holding this grain without a peer for nurturing their
favorite animals. (456-9, 463, 465)

Oats are usually administered to horses unground, grinding
being necessary only for animals whose mastication is imperfect,
and for foals. For dairy cows there is no better grain than oats,
but the use of oats in the dairy is often restricted by their price.
(642) In Denmark oats are frequently used by dairymen, who
sow this grain with barley, feeding the two in combination. (178)
For very young pigs oats should be ground and the hulls sieved
out because they are too woody. For pigs more or less mature,
and for breeding stock especially, some oats, ground or unground,
are always in place. (858)

189. By-products. — In the preparation of oat meal for human
food several by-products result. Oat hulls are of low value, as
the table shows, being worth little more than the same weight of
wheat- or oat- chaff. Their value may be materially greater if
broken kernels are found with them. Oat hulls being produced
in large quantities at the oatmeal mills and having a low feeding
value, are used by unscrupulous feed dealers for mixing with
corn meal and other feeding stuffs, the mixture being represented
to prospective purchasers as containing ground oats, in evidence
of which are the numerous hulls. In purchasing ground feeds,
where an admixture of oats is claimed, it is always well to

* Ldw. Vers. Sta. 36, p. 299; Kept. Conn. Sta. 1891, p. 124; Kept. Me.
Expt. Sta. 1891, p. 58, corr.

142 Feeds and Feeding.

remember this possible source of fraud and inspect the feed to
ascertain if the oat kernels are present in proper proportion with
the hulls.

In preparing oatmeal, after the grains are hulled the kernels
are freed from the pencil of minute hairs found at one end. These
hairs, small as they are, accumulate in quantity and form the basis
of " oat- dust feed." As shown by the table, oat dust has a fair
feeding value, and is useful, provided broken oat kernels are pres-
ent and the mass does not contain too much of the sweepings
from the mill. "Oat feed" or "oat shorts" are terms which,
characterize by-products of variable composition; they may
have a high feeding value, as shown by the table. (859) Those
in position to secure products from oatmeal factories will, by
studying the subject and watching for opportunities, often be
able to secure feeding stuffs of high value at relatively low prices.

CHAPTEE IX.

MINOR CEREALS, OIL-BEARING AND LEGUMINOUS SEEDS AND
THEIR BY-PRODUCTS.

I. Rice and its By-products.
Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents.

Name of feed.

Dry

matter
in 100
pounds.

Digestible nutrients
in 100 pounds.

Fertilizing constitu-
ents in 1,000 pounds.

Pro-
tein.

Carbo-
hy-
drates.

Ether
ex-
tract.

Nitro-
gen.

Phos-
phoric
acid.

Pot-
ash.

Rice

Lbs.

87.6
91.8
90.3
90.0

Lbs.

4.8
1.6
5.3
9.0

Lbs.

72.2
44.5
45.1
56.4

Lbs.

0.3
0.6
7.3
6.5

Lbs.

10.8
5.8
7.1
19.7

Lbs.

1.8
1.7
2.9
26.7

Lbs.

0.9
1.4
2.4
7.1

Rice hulls

190. Parts of the rice grain. — The rice grain is not directly used
for stock feeding, but its by-products from the mills in the South
are available in considerable quantity for that purpose. Accord-
ing to Boss, l the products from 162 pounds of rough rice are as

follows:

95 pounds clean rice, all grades.

8 pounds polish.
30 pounds bran.
29 pounds chaff, straw, trash, dust, etc.

191. By-products of rice. — Eice hulls are so woody that they are
not useful for feeding purposes except in periods of great scarcity
of coarse provender. Eice bran, composed of the outside of the
rice grain and more or less of the germ, is of moderate feeding
value for dairy cows and pigs. Eice polish, a dust-like powder,
is rich in nutritive elements, and very valuable for feeding cows,
pigs, etc. It is rich in both nitrogen and phosphoric acid, and
hence a valuable manure results from using this feed. Accord-

1 Bui. 24, La. Expt. -Sta.

144

Feeds and Feeding.

ing to Pott, l rice meal is an excellent feed for milk production.
Nine pounds per day have been fed to cows with no unfavorable
results. Eancid rice meal has a bad influence on milk and but-
ter and is apt to disturb the digestion of the cow. (864)

Eice and its by-products are low in fertilizing ingredients with
the exception of rice polish, which is quite rich in nitrogen and
phosphoric acid.

II. Buckwheat and its By-products.
Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituent*.

Name of feed.

Dry

matter
in 100
pounds.

Digestible nutrients
in 100 pounds.

Fertilizing constitu-
ents in 1,000 pounds.

Pro-
tein.

Carbo-
hy-
drates.

Ether
ex-
tract.

Nitro-
gen.

Phos-
phoric
acid.

Pot-
ash.

Buckwheat

Lbs.

87.4
86.8
89.5
88.9
87.3

Lbs.

7.7
2.1
7.4
21.1
22.0

Lbs.

49.2
27.9
30.4
33.5
33.4

Lbs.

1.8
0.6
1.9
5.5
5.4

Lbs.

14.4
4.9
36.4

Lbs.

4.4
0.7
17.8

Lba.

2.1
5.2

12.8

Buckwheat hulls

Buckwheat bran

Buckwheat shorts

Buckwheat middlings

42.8

21.9

11.4

192. Concerning the buckwheat grain. — The grain of the buck-
wheat plant, rarely used as stock feed, has a fair feeding value,
its nutrients running somewhat lower than the -leading cereals. In
certain districts large quantities of buckwheat by-products are
available to the stockman, who, understanding their nature and
composition, may avail himself of an excellent feed at com-
paratively low cost. The black, woody hulls of the buckwheat
grain have little feeding value, and should be used only when
coarse feeds are scarce and high priced, in which case they
may serve to give bulk to the feed of animals that otherwise
might starve. On the other hand, that portion of the buckwheat
grain immediately inside the hull which forms the middlings, is
rich in protein and ether extract, and has a high feeding value.
The miller, aiming to sell as much of the hulls as possible, mixes
them with the middlings, designating this compound u buck-
wheat bran." (862) The intelligent purchaser, knowing that the
hulls are practically worthless, will avoid them and buy only the

i Futtermittel, p. 551.

Minor Cereals, Oil-bearing and Leguminous Seeds. 145

floury middlings. Buckwheat bran and middlings are nearly
always used for cow-feeding, having the reputation of producing
a large flow of milk. It has been charged that buckwheat by-
products make a white, tallowy butter and pork of a low quality.
These charges are probably without foundation, * when the feeds
are not given in excess.

The feeder may make liberal use of the floury portions of the
buckwheat grain, well assured that they are valuable, and that
usually they are an economical feed.

193. Fertilizing constituents. — Buckwheat middlings are rich
in fertility, especially in nitrogen and phosphoric acid, and this
fact should enhance their value in the estimation of the farmer-
stockman.

TTT. Sorghum and Millet Seed.
Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents.

Name of feed.

Dry

matter
in 100
pounds.

Digestible nutrients
in 100 pounds.

Fertilizing constitu-
ents in 1,000 pounds.

Pro-
tein.

Carbo-
hy-
drates.

Ether
ex-
tract.

Nitro-
gen.

Phos-
phoric
acid.

Pot-
ash.

Sorghum seed

Lbs.

87.2
85.9
84.8
86.0

Lbs.

7.0
7.4
7.8
8.9

Lbs.

52.1
48.3
57.1
45.0

Lbs.

3.1
2.9
2.7
3.2

Lbs.

14.8
16.3

Lbs.
8.1

Lbs.
4.2

Kaffir corn

Millet

20.4

8.5

3.6

194. Concerning sorghum. — According to Collier,2 nine-tenths
of the natives of India subsist upon the grain of the sorghum
plant. Sorghum and millet are the common cereal plants of much
of China and Turkestan. Sorghum seed is extensively used for
human food in Africa and to some extent in the West Indies.

The sorghums may be divided into two races: saccharine and
non-saccharine. In the latter the plant-stems are pithy and
carry little or no sugar, the nutritive substance being mostly
deposited in the numerous seeds of the ample seed-head crowning
the plant. The stems of saccharine sorghums contain much

1 Rept. Ottawa, Canada, Expt. Farms, 1895.

2 Sorghum, Its Culture and Uses: An address before the Chamber of
Commerce, New York, 1885.

146

Feeds and Feeding.

sugar, designed primarily for conversion into starch in the seed-
grains. In recent years the sorghums, especially the non- sac-
charine varieties, have come rapidly into favor in the semi -arid
districts of the Western United States, ranging from Northwestern
Texas across the Indian Territory and Kansas, into Nebraska and
South Dakota. The sorghums which flourish in this region are
known as Kaffir, Egyptian and Jerusalem corn. According to
Coburn, l Kansas grew 215, 000 acres of Kaffir and Jerusalem corn
in 1895. (274)

195. Yields of sorghum. — Burtis2 reports the following com-
parative yields of Kaffir and Indian corn at the Kansas Agricult-
ural College:

Yield of Kaffir and Indian corn — Kansas Agricultural College.

Year.

Red Kaffir corn.

Indian corn.

Grain per
acre,
bushels.

Stover
per acre,
tons.

Grain
per acre,
bushels.

Stover
per acre,
tons.

1889 .

71.0
19.0
98.0
50.0
49.0

9.0
4.2
6.0
5.0
5.3
2 0
1.5

56.0
22.0
74.0
30.0
30.0

2.5
2.5

3.0
4.6
1.8
1.0
1.6

1890

1891

1892

1893

1894

1895

43.1

22.8

Average

55.0

4.7

39.1

2.4

By the table we learn that at Manhattan, which is in the corn
belt of Kansas, Kaffir corn leads the great American cereal in
yield.

The seed is sown either broadcast, in which case it is devoted
to forage, or in drills, when it is cultivated like Indian corn. The
seed of Kaffir corn weighs from fifty-six to sixty pounds to the
bushel. Since this grain is used by millions of human beings for
food, we can readily believe it valuable for feeding farm stock.
Enthusiasts declare it fully equal to Indian corn for stock feeding,
but this statement seems overdrawn. Probably Kaffir corn ranks

1 Kept. Kan. St. Bd. Agr., Dec. 1895.

2 Qr. Kept. Kan. Bd. Agr., Mar. 1896.

Minor Cereals, Oil-bearing and Leguminous Seeds. 147

a little below barley in feeding value. Sorghum culture is partic-
ularly recommended in warm districts where Indian corn may
fall short of giving fair returns for lack of sufficient moisture in
the soil, and where hot; drying winds are common. In the corn
districts proper, useful as the sorghums are, they will never seri-
ously rival Indian corn. (547-8, 861)

196. Broom-corn seed. — In districts where broom corn is grown,
large quantities of the seed are annually wasted through ignorance
and carelessness of the growers. Broom- corn heads are cut before
the seed has fully matured, and as the latter is usually removed
before it has had time to become thoroughly dry, it easily ferments
when left in heaps, and is wasted. With a little care in drying
the seed may be saved as is other grain, or it may be kept as silage,
either in a regular silo or simply covered with earth, as was shown
to be practicable by Miles l years ago. Broom- corn seed will
prove satisfactory for feeding cattle if used in reasonable quantity.

197. The saccharine sorghums. — At the Wisconsin University2
the writer, experimenting with sorghum for the manufacture of
sugar, secured seed as a by-product at the rate of from twenty-seven
to thirty-two bushels per acre; this seed weighed fifty-one pounds
per bushel.

At the New Jersey Station, Cook 3 secured seed at the rate of
1,300 pounds per acre from sorghum cane grown for syrup.

Concerning the statement that sorghum seed contains tannin, a
bitter principle which renders the seed unfit for feeding stock,
Wiley writes: 4 " A careful examination of sorghum seed has
failed to discover the presence of tannin, and the only possible
injurious principle which it can contain is the coloring matter of
the glumes." (643)

198. Millet. — Millet is grown in South Europe, parts of Asia
and in Africa for human as well as for animal food. At the Mas-
sachusetts (Hatch) Station,5 Brooks grew 37.2 bushels of millet
seed, weighing forty-seven pounds per bushel, on a half acre of
land. Different varieties yielded as follows: 6 Panicum ital-

1 Country Gentleman, March 23, 1876.

2 Rept. on Amber Cane and the Ensilage of Fodders, 1881.

3 Kept, 1885.

* Rept. U. S. Dept. of Agr., 1889.
5 Bui. 18. 6 Rept. 1892.

148

Feeds and Feeding.

icum, 55 bushels; Panicum cms galli, 69 bushels, and Panicum
miliaceum, 28 bushels per acre. Brooks concludes that millet
cannot successfully compete with Indian corn under conditions
prevailing in Massachusetts. Millet seed resembles oats in com-
position, but we cannot point to experiments which definitely settle
the feeding value of the several varieties.

Stewart1 writes: " Millet meal is a highly appropriate food
for young or mature horses. It has a higher proportion of albu-
minoids and a higher nutritive ratio than oats, but having less
oil. It is found, when well ground (and it cannot properly be
fed without grinding), to be one of the best rations for horses,
being particularly adapted to the development of muscular
strength."

The culture of sorghums and millets for grain and forage is to
be recommended for the warmer districts of the United States,
where there is scant rainfall and where hot, drying winds prevail.
Where Indian corn flourishes, these crops are not able to compete
with that great cereal. (272)

IV. Oil-bearing Seeds and their By-products.
Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents.

Name of feed.

Dry
matter
in 100
pounds.

Digestible nutrients
in 100 pounds.

Fertilizing constitu-
ents in 1,000 pounds.

Pro-
tein.

Carbo-
hy-
drates.

Ether
ex-
tract.

Nitro-
gen.

Phos-
phoric
acid.

Pot-
ash.

Flax seed

Lbs.

90.8
90.8
89.9
89.7
91.8
88.9
89.7
89.6
92.5
91.8
89.3
90.0

Lbs.

20.6
29.3
28.2
12.5
37.2
0.3
15.6
16.0
12.1
31.2
42.9
25.2

Lbs.

17.1
32.7
40.1
30.0
16.9
33.1
38.3
52.6
20.8
19.6
22.8
23.7

Lbs.

29.0
7.0
2.8
17.3
12.2
1.7
10.5
9.0
29.0
12.8
6.9
7.5

Lbs.

36.1
54.3

57.8
31.3
67.9
6.9
32.8
26.9
22.8
55.5
75.6
49.6

Lbs.

13.9
16.6
18.3
12.7
28.8
2.5
16.0
11.0
12.2
21.5
13.1
20.0

Lbs.

10.3
13.7
13.9
11.7
8.7
10.2
24.0
5.0
5.6
11.7
15.0
13.0

Linseed meal, old process..
Linseed meal, new process.
Cotton seed

Cotton-seed hulls

Cocoaiiut meal .

Palnmut meal

Sunflower seed

Peanut meal

Rape-seed meal ....

199. Concerning oil-bearing seeds. — The leading oil-bearing
seeds in this country are from the flax and cotton plants. Others
1 Feeding Animals.

Minor Cereals, Oil-bearing and Leguminous Seeds. 149

of much importance in foreign countries are little known here.
Flax grain carries a considerable quantity of protein with an
excess of oil. There is no starch in well-matured flax seeds. On
account of the high commercial value of the oil, flax seed is rarely
used as a feed.

At the Iowa Station, l Wilson fed ground flax seed with skim
milk to calves with excellent results. (519) When flax seed was
fed to cows at the rate of eight pounds per head daily, no ill
results followed such heavy feeding. Some feeders claim that
flax seed should only be fed in a very limited quantity, since it
contains a cathartic principle.

200. Oil cake and oil meal. — At the oil mills, after crushing the
seeds, the oil is removed by one of two processes. In the first the
crushed seed is heated and placed between cloths or in sacks which
are piled one on another and the mass subjected to hydraulic pres-
sure, to extract the oil. The residue after pressure, stripped of the
wrappings, appears as hard slabs or cakes, about an inch thick by
one foot in width and two in length. These slabs constitute the
oil cakes of commerce, and in the entire form are shipped abroad
for use by farmers in other countries. The unbroken cake is
preferred for shipping, as it is the most condensed, and because
the foreign feeder, suspicious of adulteration, knows that such
cakes are always as pure as the seed from which they were pro-
duced. "When required for feeding, the cake is reduced to the
size of small hickory nuts or hazel nuts in a mill, the material
being known as " nut cake." In this country the cake is usually
ground to a meal at the factory and is then shipped in bags.
"Where the oil is secured by direct pressure from the ground flax
seed as described above, the by-product is known as t i old process ' '
cake or oil meal.

201. New-process oil meal. — In the manufacture of new-process
oil meal, according to Woll, 2 the seed is crushed and heated to
165° Fahr., as in the production of old-process meal. The crushed
mass while warm is placed in large vertical cylinders or percola-
tors, and over it naphtha, a volatile petroleum compound, is

* Bills. 14, 16, 19, 35.
2 Kept. Wis. Sta. 1895.

150 Feeds and Feeding.

poured and allowed to drain out at the bottom of the cylinder.
Naphtha dissolves the oil from the ground flax seed, being repeat-
edly added until nearly all the oil is extracted. After this has been
accomplished, steam is let into the percolator, and the naphtha
which did not drain off is gradually driven out of the mass as
vapor. This is so effectively done that no smell of naphtha is
noticeable in the residue. From the percolators, after steaming,
the meal is transferred to driers, from which it is elevated to the
meal bins. This by-product is known as " new-process ' ' oil meal.

202. The swelling process. — Woll1 gives the following simple
method of ascertaining whether oil meal is new- or old- process:
" Pulverize a small quantity of the meal and put a level table-
spoonful of it into a tumbler; then add ten tablespoonfuls of
boiling hot water to the meal, stir thoroughly and leave to settle.
If the meal is new-process meal, it will settle in the course of an
hour and will leave about half of the water clear on top." Old-
process meal will remain jelly-like.

203. Adulteration of oil meal. — Adulteration of oil meal may
be brought about through using immature flax seed or that con-
taining weed seed, or, finally, foreign matter may be added to the
meal after grinding the cake. Immature flax seed contains starch,
while fully mature seed contains none. Weed seeds contain much
starch. If then starch grains are found in linseed meal, it is
because of immature flax-seed grains, weed seeds, or both.

The manufacturer of oil meal endeavors to have the flax-seed
as free from foreign substances as possible, for the reason that
such foreign matter absorbs and holds oil, thereby reducing the
amount available. Any serious adulterations of oil meal must
therefore occur through the direct addition of foreign material to
the meal after the oil has been extracted. Woll found no oil meals
purposely adulterated, though he examined many samples.

204. Relative value of old- and new- process oil meal. — Woll, 2
conducting artificial digestion trials with twelve samples of old-
process and nine samples of new-process oil meal, found that 94.3
per cent, of the protein in old-process and 84.1 per cent, of pro-

1 Loc. cit.

2 Loc. cit.

Minor Cereals, Oil-bearing and Leguminous Seeds. 151

tein in the new-process meal were digestible. The lower digesti-
bility of the new-process meal is doubtless due to the action of
steam used in driving off the naphtha, as heat has been found to
lower the digestibility of nitrogenous compounds in food sub-
stances generally. Because of the more complete extraction of the
oil, new-process meal contains more protein than does old-process.
Because of the lower digestibility of new-process meal, a given
weight of this feed contains somewhat less digestible protein than
does old-process meal. Old-process meal is poorer in carbohy-
drates but considerably richer in oil than new-process.

At the Iowa Station,1 Wilson and Eeed, testing the relative
merits of the two meals with fattening cattle, found that new-pro-
cess gave equally as good returns as old -process meal when fed
in connection with other fodders.

205. Value of oil in oil cake. — Russian flax-seed oil cake carries
more oil than does American. To decide the merits of oil cake con-
taining much or little oil, tests were conducted in England by
Cooke2 under direction of the Norfolk Chamber of Agriculture,
with Sir John B. Lawes and Dr. Voelcker as counselors. Sixty
sheep were divided into two lots of thirty each; to the first lot was
given cake containing six to seven per cent, oil, while the second
lot received cake containing from fifteen to sixteen per cent. oil.
The by-fodders were the same with both lots.

Eesults of feeding linseed cake, low in oil and rich in oil, to sheep —
Cooke j Norfolk, England.

Low-oil cake.

High-oil cake.

Number of sheep

Length of experiment weeks

Feed consumed per week.
Linseed cake, pounds

4.8

Clover hay chaff pounds

4 8

Swedes (turnips), pounds

87.8

88 0

Gain in weight.
Per head during experiment, pounds
Increase per head, per week, pounds

33.5
2.1

38.3
2.4

1 Bui. 33.

2 Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc., 1889.

152 Feeds and Feeding.

We observe that the cake rich in oil produced nearly five
pounds more gain per head than cake low in oil. The sheep
receiving the cake rich in oil brought a higher price per pound
than the others. The conclusion was that, " weight for weight,
linseed oil to the extent of fifteen per cent, in a cake has a much
higher feeding value than have the other constituents of a linseed
cake which in the absence of the oil would replace it."

206. OH cake or oil meal as a feeding stuff. — There is no more
healthful feed than oil meal or oil cake. Its general effect is to
place the animal in fine condition, with a pliable skin, an oily,
sleek coat and a good quality of flesh upon handling. No other
farm feed has such a general beneficial effect on the digestive
tract as has oil meal, and the feeder should always have a quantity
on hand to deal out to his stock whenever judgment directs its
use. A small quantity of oil meal may be fed to horses, but as it
is fattening and does not make hard flesh, the allowance should
always be limited. (472) It is with fattening steers and with
sheep that oil meal shows at its best. For steers two or three
pounds can be given daily in connection with other feeds. Larger
amounts may be used if prices permit.

Clay1 reports starting yearling steers on grass with two or three
pounds of oil meal daily in addition to oat bran. Gradually the
amount of meal was increased, until in the fall twelve pounds of
meal were fed daily to each steer with satisfactory returns. (545,
553)

Yoelcker, 2 conducting experiments with sheep at Woburn,
England, writes: a From these results it must be concluded that
it is more profitable to feed sheep on linseed cake alone than on
one-half linseed cake and half barley."

Owing to the price of oil meal, it should generally constitute
not more than one- third of the grain ration, but to this limit it has
a high value because of its helpful effect on the digestive tract,
and in stimulating through its palatability a heavy consumption
of the feeds with which it is mixed. For growing calves, oil meal
is of great utility and has already come into general use with pro-
gressive stockmen.

1 Live Stock Kept, Chicago, Jan. 20, 1893.

2 Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc., 1892.

Minor Cereals, Ott-bearing and Leguminous Seeds. 153

The effect of oil meal on the quality of milk and butter has
been questioned, but if not over two or three pounds are fed daily
per cow, no ill results but much good will follow its use. (646-7)
A handful of oil meal at a feed will prove healthful to growing
pigs, and advertise itself in their sleek coats and general healthy
appearance. (892) The American farmer should give up the
use of oil meal and adopt the practice of his English brother in
feeding this valuable article in the nut form, which is more pala-
table with cattle.

207. Castor-oil seed in linseed meal. — Fatalities are occasion-
ally reported among cattle by English feeders through using oil
meal containing the pomace or beans of the castor-oil plant, which
deadly poison occasionally gets into the meal by accident, in
warehouses or elsewhere. The presence of castor beans or pom-
ace in the ration is shown by severe purging of the animal eating
even a very small amount of it, followed occasionally by death.
Leather * reports a method of detecting the castor bean or castor
pomace in stock feeds, which though too complicated for the
feeder is useful to the chemist.

208. Fertilizing constituents in linseed meals. — Linseed cake or
meal is rich in the elements of fertility, especially nitrogen, and
for this reason as well as its general good qualities and nutritive
effect it is a favorite feeding stuff with the English stockman.
The voidings of animals receiving this feed should be carefully
saved, for in the fertility they contain rests quite a fraction of the
first cost of this feed.

209. Home use of oil meal. — A large portion of the oil cake
produced in this country from flax seed finds a market in Euro-
pean countries. The quantity shipped abroad varies greatly from
year to year, according to the relative prices ruling for feeding
stuffs in European and American markets. Woll 2 estimates that
if half the oil cake manufactured in this country is shipped abroad,
it means an annual loss of more than thirteen million pounds of
nitrogen, four million pounds of phosphoric acid and three and a
half million pounds of potash, representing an aggregate value, as

1 Analyst. Vol. 17; Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc., 1892.

2 Kept. Wis. Sta., 1895.

154 Feeds and Feeding.

commercial fertilizers, of over two million dollars. This loss of
fertility to American farms is a serious matter, which can easily
be prevented by feeding the oil cake at home. See Chap. XVI.

210. Cotton seed.1 — The products of the cotton plant used as
food for live stock are cotton seed, cotton-seed cake or meal, and
cotton -seed hulls.

The cotton crop of the United States amounts to over 9, 000, 000
bales annually on the average, yielding about 4,500,000 tons of
cotton seed as a by-product, since for each pound of fiber the cot-
ton plant produces about two pounds of seed. No one can acquaint
himself with the great value of cotton seed and its by-products,
and then consider this enormous annual output of seed, without
becoming deeply impressed with the great possibilities for stock
feeding at the South. Previous to 1860 almost all this vast sup-
ply of stock feed was wasted by the Southern planter, who allowed
the seed to rot back of the gin house in ignorance of its worth,
while meat and other animal products were purchased at high cost
from Northern farmers. The utilization of the cotton seed and
its products as food for both man and beast is an excellent exam-
ple of what science has accomplished for the advancement of
agriculture.

According to the report of the Tenth Census, one hundred
pounds of cotton seed yields approximately:

Pounds.

Cotton-seed meal 37.5

Cotton-seed oil 12.5

Cotton-seed hulls 48 . 9

Short lint from hulls 1.1

211. Teeding cotton seed.-^Seed as left by the cotton-gin is now
a common feed at the South for steers and dairy cows. It is
usually supplied to cattle without treatment of any kind, though
in some cases it is roasted, boiled or steamed before feeding.

Trials at the Texas Station2 by Gulley and Curtis show that
seed at seven dollars per ton made cheaper though somewhat
smaller gains than cotton-seed meal costing twenty dollars per

1 Much of the data here presented is from Bui. 33, The Cotton Plant,
Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. Dept. Agr.

2 Buls. 6, 10.

Minor Cereals, Oil-bearing and Leguminous Seeds. 155

ton. Connell and Carson, of the same Station,1 conclude that
boiled or roasted cotton seed is more palatable, less laxative and
produces more rapid gains than raw cotton seed, but that the
latter makes the cheaper gain. They state that the advantages
obtained from roasting the seed do not pay for the expense
involved.

At the Mississippi Station, 2 Lloyd, summarizing three years'
work, concludes that steamed cotton seed is better and cheaper
for producing milk and butter than either raw seed or cotton-
seed meal. Butter produced from cotton -seed meal cost twice
as much as that produced from steamed or raw seed. The wise
planter, knowing the value of whole cotton seed as a stock food,
will not dispose of good seed to the oil mills at prices below its
worth to him.

212. Cotton-seed cake and meal. — At the oil mills the envelope
of the cotton seed is cut by machinery in such a way that the oily
kernels are freed from it. These seed-envelopes are known as
cotton-seed hulls; they are dry, leathery and covered with lint.
The oily kernels, separated from the hulls, are crushed, heated,
placed between cloths or sacks and subjected to hydraulic pres-
sure to remove the oil. The residue is a yellowish board-like
cake about one inch thick, one foot wide and two feet in length.
In this form it is shipped abroad as cotton-oil cake. For home
use the cake is reduced to meal by grinding, and transported in
sacks the same as linseed meal.

213. Cotton-seed meal for horses. — Gebek3 reports draft horses
doing well on a ration containing two pounds of cotton-seed meal.
The use of cotton seed-meal for horses will be greatly extended at
the South if experiments reveal equally good results.

214. Feeding steers cotton-seed meal and hulls. — The practice
of fattening steers exclusively on cotton-seed hulls and cotton-seed
meal was begun in the South about 1883. The business has so
grown that it is estimated that 400,000 cattle were fattened at the
oil mills of the South for the season of 1893-94, besides large
numbers of sheep. In these establishments the ration for steers at

1 Bui. 27.

2 Bui. 21.

3 Landw. Vers. Sta., 42, p. 294.

156 Feeds and Feeding.

first consists of three or four pounds of cotton-seed meal, which is
gradually increased to six, eight or even ten pounds per head
daily, with all the hulls the steers will eat additional, which
amounts to about four pounds of hulls for each pound of meal.
The feeding period lasts from ninety to one hundred and twenty
days. (558-560)

In reply to an inquiry from the writer, Swift & Co. (Packers,
Chicago) state that cotton- seed meal makes a good quality of beef.
They express the opinion that a still better quality is produced
where the meal is fed in connection with other concentrates.

215. Effects of cotton seed on steer fat. — At the Texas Sta-
tion, l Harrington and Adriance found the kidney, caul and body
fats of steers fed raw, roasted or boiled cotton seed to have melt-
ing points of 4.1,° 3.2° and 8.7° C. higher than the correspond-
ing fats of corn-fed steers. The influence on tallow was somewhat
less than that produced with butter j while on mutton suet it was
marked as with butter. Butterine from beef tallow of steers fed
cotton-seed by-products might give Becchi's test, thus confusing
ordinary chemical tests for pure butter.

216. Cotton-seed meal for dairy cows. — At the Maine Station, 2
Jordan found that the substitution of cotton- seed meal for an
equal quantity of corn meal increased the production of milk and
butter to a profitable extent. At the Pennsylvania Station,3
Hunt fed six pounds of cotton- seed meal per day to cows without
apparent injury to health, and by substituting equal weights of
cotton-seed meal for wheat bran increased the milk yield one-fifth.
In general, feeding cotton-seed meal to dairy cows has proved
satisfactory when the allowance has not exceeded five or six
pounds daily for short periods, and three or four pounds for long
periods. (637, 644, 646, 723)

217. Effects of cotton seed on the quality of butter. — At the
Texas Station, 4 Harrington and Curtis, experimenting with cot-
ton-seed and its by-products with dairy cows, conclude that these
feeds materially raise the melting point of butter and lower its

* Bui. 29.

* Repts. 1885-87.
8 Bui. 17.

* Agricultural Science, III, p. 79; Kept. 1889; Buls. 11, 29.

Minor Cereals, Oil-bearing and Leguminous Seeds. 157

volatile fatty acids; that when cotton seed is fed alone or forms
a large part of the ration, a light- colored butter of inferior quality
results. Butter produced from the heavy feeding of cotton seed
showed poor flavor and had the appearance of being overworked.
Fed in reasonable amount, cotton seed and its by-products pro-
duce satisfactory butter, which is firmer and will stastid shipment
better in warm climates than where no seed is fed. Harrington's
• results were corroborated by Wiley, l and Lupton and Anderson. 2
The results of recent experiments at the Iowa Station 3 go in the
opposite direction. The preponderance of evidence at hand shows,
however, that cotton- seed meal hardens butter, gives it a tallowy
consistency and makes it deficient in natural color.

218. Cotton-seed meal for calves and pigs. — At the North
Carolina Station, 4 two calves getting from one to six ounces of
cotton-seed meal daily, died after one month's feeding. Other
instances of the same kind are reported.

The use of cotton seed and cotton-seed meal for swine has been
extensively investigated at the Texas Station 5 by Curtis. As a
check in his experiments one lot of pigs was fed corn in each trial,
and these pigs always made excellent gains, with no deaths,
thereby showing that normal conditions generally prevailed. On
the other hand, many pigs fed cotton seed or cotton- seed meal sick-
ened and died in from six to eight weeks after feeding began. The
mortality of the pigs receiving cotton-seed meal was 87 per cent, j
when roasted seed was fed it was 75 per cent., and for boiled seed,
25 per cent. In these experiments no trouble occurred until sev-
eral weeks after feeding commenced, and it was observed that
pigs escaping sickness and death for thirty days beyond the time
when the trouble usually began were safe from attack, though they
were permanently stunted in growth. As a result of his studies
Curtis concludes: " There is no profit whatever in feeding cotton
seed in any form, or cotton- seed meal, to hogs of any age."

219. Cotton-seed poisoning. — According to Curtis, "the first
sign of sickness appears in from six to eight weeks after cotton-

1 Proc. Soc. Prom. Agr. Science. 1889, p. 84.

2 Bui. 25, Ala. Sta.

* Bui. 32.

* Bui. 109.
5 Bui. 21.

158 Feeds and Feeding.

seed meal is added to the ration. It is shown by a moping dull-
ness of the animal, with loss of appetite and tendency to lie

apart The fatal cases all show spasmodic breathing,

and in many instances the animal will turn in one direction only.

When exhausted by his efforts the animal drops

down suddenly, sometimes flat upon the belly, sometimes on its
haunches, with his fore legs well apart to keep from falling over,
almost always with evidence of more or less acute internal pain. At
death a quantity of bloody foam exudes from mouth and nostrils. J J

Cornevin1 fed two three-months old pigs 4.3 and 6.6 pounds,
respectively, of brownish-yellow Egyptian cotton-seed meal, with
fatal effect. A dog weighing fifty -three pounds was killed by
subcutaneous injections of a watery extract from 1.7 pounds of
seed. In all cases examination showed the digestive tract of the
animals to be highly inflamed. The oil pressed from the seed
had no poisonous properties.

All efforts to determine the poisonous principle in the cotton
seed — if there really be one — have thus far proved futile, and
the matter is still a mystery. The ill effects have been ascribed
to the lint of the seed, to the leathery seed coats causing injury
to the delicate lining of the digestive tract, to moulds, to changes
in the composition of the meal when exposed to the air, and to
some definite poisonous principle in the seed itself, as in the
case of the castor- oil bean.

220. The rational use of cotton seed and cotton-seed meal. —
It may be stated in general terms that when cotton seed or its by-
products are fed in reasonable quantity with a proper complement
of other feeding stuffs, satisfactory results are secured with all
farm animals except calves and swine.

Wet or mouldy cotton seed, or that which has heated, should
not be fed. Good cotton-seed meal has a bright yellow color and
a fresh, pleasant taste. Meal of a dull red color, due to exposure
to the air, that from musty seed as well as that which has fer-
mented, should not be used for feeding purposes.

221. Cotton-seed hulls. — Until recently cotton-seed hulls were
regarded as of no value except for fuel at the mills. It was soon

1 Ann. Agron. 1896; Milch Zeit. 1897, p. 342.

Minor Cereals, Oil-bearing and Leguminous Seeds. 159

found, however, that cattle would eat them freely, and they have
come into extensive use for steer and cow feeding, having a market
value of from two to four dollars per ton. Cotton-seed hulls, as
shown by the table, contain less digestible nutrients than oat
straw, but since they are a by-product which would otherwise be
wasted, they are of considerable advantage to feeders in proximity
to the mills. Where broken kernels of the cotton seed adhere to
the hulls, their feeding value is considerably increased.

222. Fertility in cotton seed. — So rich is cotton-seed meal in
fertilizing elements that no small part of it goes at once from the
oil mills to fertilizer works, there to be mixed with other sub-
stances, and to be sold back to planters as a fertilizer. In the lint,
which is the one object sought in cotton growing, there is but a
trace of nitrogen and mineral matter, while the seed is rich in
these elements of fertility. In the 4,500,000 tons of seed which
must be grown each year in producing the cotton crop of the
South, the amount of fertility taken from the land is almost
beyond comprehension. In this continuous drain of fertility by
cotton growing we have a partial explanation of the present
poverty of the soils in many of the cotton districts. If the
cotton grower will adopt mixed farming and feed cotton seed and
cotton-seed meal to his stock, returning the manure to the land,
two values will be received from the crop, and a rational agricult-
ural practice inaugurated, which is sorely needed in a region
where nature has done so much and man so little to place agricult-
ure upon a substantial basis.

223. Cocoanut meal. — The residue in the manufacture of cocoa-
nut oil is known as cocoanut or cocoa meal. It is used quite exten-
sively by dairymen in the vicinity of San Francisco. Cocoanut
meal has the reputation of producing fine butter of considerable
firmness and is therefore recommended for summer feeding to dairy
cows. It may be used with advantage for swine and sheep,
serving also as a partial substitute for oats with working horses.
(474)

224. Palmnut meal. — This residue in the manufacture of palm
oil has been extensively used in Europe as a stock food. It has
good keeping qualities, is appetizing and easily digested. The

160 Feeds and Feeding.

oil palm is cultivated in Africa, South America and the West
Indies, from which countries the meal is largely shipped to
Europe. Palmnut meal is highly prized as a food for dairy cows.

225. Peanut meal. — The by-product in the manufacture of oil
from the peanut or earth-nut is used in various European countries
for stock feeding. Peanut meal is one of the richest known foods
in the amount of protein it yields. Voelcker l states that peanut
cake proved on trial to be a useful feeding material for cattle,
having a value about equal to beans. (892)

226. Sunflower seed cake. — The sunflower is grown in Eussia
on a commercial scale, one variety with small seeds producing an
oil which serves as a substitute for other vegetable oils. The
large seeds of another variety are consumed as a dainty by the
people.

The average of five experiments conducted by the North Caro-
lina Station 2 in as many parts of the state showed a yield of
sixty-five bushels of sunflower seed per acre. Mammoth Eussian
sunflower seed weighed 26.7 pounds per bushel, with 21.5 per
cent, oil; Black Giant seed weighed 32 pounds per bushel, with
20.8 per cent. oil.

Bartlett, of the Maine Station,3 concludes that, "With the
same cultivation, corn produces a third more protein and twice
as much carbohydrates as sunflower heads. "

227. Fertilizing constituents. — In general all the oil-bearing
seeds are rich in fertilizing constituents, especially nitrogen. The
extraction of the oil removes none of the fertilizing value, but
concentrates it in the residue. The stockman who is interested
in the fertility of his land as well as the nourishment of his stock
should never forget these facts when considering the purchase of
various feeding stuffs.

1 Jour. Eoy. Agr. Soc., 1893.

2 Bui. 90 b.

» Kept. 1895.

Minor Cereals, Oil-bearing and Leguminous Seeds. 161

V. Leguminous Seeds.
Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents.

Name of feed.

Dry
matter
in 100
pounds.

Digestible nutrients
in 100 pounds.

Fertilizing constitu-
ents in 1,000 pounds.

Pro-
tein.

Carbo-
hy-
drates.

Ether
ex-
tract.

Nitro-
gen.

Phos-
phoric
acid.

Pot-
ash.

Peas

Lbs.

89.5
89.2
85.2
85.7

Lbs.

16.8
29.6
18.3
22.4

Lbs.

51.8
22.3
54.2
49.3

Lbs.

0.7
14.4
1.1
1.2

Lbs.

30.8
53.0
33.3
40.7

Lbs.

8.2
18.7

Lbs.

9.9
19.9

Soja (soy) bean

Cowpea. ...

Horse bean

12.0

12.9

228. The field pea. — The field pea is extensively grown in
Canada for stock feeding, succeeding also along the northern rim
of the corn belt and still farther north, where in some measure it
takes the place of corn for feeding purposes. The richness of the
pea in protein marks it as particularly useful with growing ani-
mals, dairy cows and pigs. A part of the protein in peas as well
as in other leguminous seeds is identical in composition with the
casein of milk, and is termed " vegetable77 casein. This has led
some writers to affirm that meals from these seeds are useful in
mixtures for calf feeding. Pea meal is sodden in character and
too heavy to be fed as the only grain allowance. It should be
lightened or extended by mixing with it bran, ground oats or corn
meal.

Peas may be harvested while still green by turning pigs into the
pea field as soon as the seeds are well formed. Under this sys-
tem the animals harvest the crop without labor to the stockman,
and, receiving that sort of food which forms bone and muscle,
they are prepared for final fattening on corn or other dry food.
Peas are often sown with oats, the latter plants forming support
for the weak vines. (Ill, 311, 860)

229. Soja (soy) bean. — This Japanese plant flourishes in the
Southern states and as far north as Kansas. In Japan it serves
for human food, but in this country it is used only by stock-
men. Like all leguminous seeds, the soja bean is rich in pro-
tein, standing perhaps at the head of the list; unlike many in
its class, it is also rich in oil. Because the seeds must be

162 Feeds and Feeding.

gathered by hand, the plant has generally been used only for
forage. At the Kansas Station1 this plant gave yields ranging
from 12.5 to 19 bushels of beans per acre. At the Massachusetts
Station2 a comparative test of soja-beaii meal with cotton- seed
meal terminated in favor of the former for milk and butter pro-
duction. (310) See Farmers' Bui. 58, Office of Experiment Sta-
tions, Dept. Agr., Washington.

230. Cowpea. — This plant now holds an important place with
Southern stockmen because of its rapid growth and the large
amount of forage it yields. The earlier varieties will make a
satisfactory growth as far north as Wisconsin, though all the
seeds will not ripen before frost. As with the soja bean, the
seeds which ripen first must be gathered by hand. For this
reason the crop is usually cut for hay or silage.

At the Alabama Station, 3 Duggar fed cowpeas to fattening pigs
with excellent returns. More lean meat was found in the bodies
of pigs fed cowpeas than those fed corn meal only. (109, 863)

At the Texas Station, 4 the cowpea gave yields ranging from
eight to thirty-five bushels per acre. These findings point to the
value of the plant for producing concentrated feed. (309)

231. Horse bean. — This legume is used in England for feeding
stock, especially horses. The horse bean grows fairly well in
some parts of Canada, but has never proved a success in the
United States.

232. The common field bean. — Many varieties of the common
field bean are grown in this country for human food. In bean-
growing districts, cull beans are purchasable in large quantities,
usually at low prices, and should be used by stockmen, since they
are then a cheap feed. Sheep are fond of beans administered in
a raw state. For other animals they should be cooked. Since
they are rich in protein, corn meal is a natural addition to the
porridge.

233. Fertilizing constituents. — All leguminous seeds are rich
in nitrogen with from fair to rather high mineral content. The
soja bean is of particular value in the nitrogen and ash it carries.

* Bui. 32. 2 Kept. 1893.

s Bul. 82. * Bui. 34.

CHAPTER X.

INDIAN CORN AS A FORAGE PLANT.
Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents.

Name of feed.

Dry

matter.

Digestible nutrients
in 100 pounds.

Fertilizing constitu-
ents in 1,000 pounds.

Pro-
tein.

Carbo-
hy-
drates.

Ether
ex-
tract.

Nitro-
gen.

Phos-
phoric
acid.

Pot-
ash.

Green fodder corn (aver-
age, all varieties)

Lbs.

20.7
57.8
59.5

Lbs.

1.0
2.5
1.7

Lbs.

11.6
34.6
32.4

Lbs.

0.4
1.2
0.7

Lbs.

4.1
17.6
10.4

Lbs.

1.5
5.4
2.9

Lbs.

3.3

8.9
14.0

Fodder corn, field-cured....
Corn stover, field-cured

234. Concerning Indian corn. — Indian corn (maize) is the im-
perial agricultural plant of America. This giant annual grass
reaches a height of from seven to fifteen feet in four or five months'
growth, producing under favorable conditions from 30,000 to
50,000 pounds of green forage per acre, of which from 5,000 to
9,000 pounds are dry matter. If grown in a dense mass but little
seed forms, and we have a rank grass which cures into a bright,
nutritious coarse hay. If the plants are grown at some distance
one from, another, a large yield of grain results, with excellent
forage as a secondary product.

Were a reliable seedsman to advertise Indian corn by a new
name, recounting only its actual merits while ingeniously conceal-
ing its identity, his words would either be discredited or he would
have an unlimited number of purchasers for this seed -novelty at
almost any figure he might name. The possibilities of American
stock farms in the live stock they may carry and the animal prod-
ucts they may turn off is measured only by the quantity of corn
and clover which the land will produce, and this, under good
management, seems almost unlimited.

235. Definitions. — To avoid confusion the term " fodder corn"
or "corn fodder," used in this book, is appliod to stalks of corn,

164

Feeds and Feeding.

either green or dry, which are grown for forage and from which
the ears or " nubbins," if they carry any, have not been removed.
' l Stover ' ' applies to the dry stalks of corn from which the ears
have been removed. Fodder corn or corn fodder, then, is the corn
plant, either fresh or cured, with or without ears, which has been
grown for forage; stover is shock corn minus the ears.

236. Thickness of planting and nutrients. — At the Illinois Sta-
tion1 Morrow and Hunt, studying the results of thick and thin
seeding on the yield of nutrients, reached conclusions at the end
of three years' study which are summarized in the table below.
In these trials dent corn was planted in varying rates, from one
kernel every three inches to one every twenty -four inches, the
corn rows being three feet eight inches apart.

Results of planting corn kernels various distances apart in rows, aver-
age of three years'1 trials — Illinois Station.

Thickness of planting.

Yield.

Digestible sub-
stance per acre.

Sto-
ver
per
acre.

Sto-
ver
for
each
Ib. of
corn.

Distance between
kernels in row.

Kernels
per
acre.

Good
ears.

Poor
ears.

Sto-
ver.

Grain

Total.

3 inches

47,520
23,760
15,840
11,880
9,504
5,940

Bu.

13
37
55
73
63
49

Bu.

46
39
22
16
11
6

Lbs.

3,968
3,058
2,562

2,480
2,398
2,066

Lbs.

2,250
2,922

2,977
3,113
2,782
2,141

Lbs.

6,218
5,980
5,539
5,593
5,180
4,207

Tons.

4.8
3.7
3.1
3.0
2.9
2.5

Lbs.

3.6
1.9
1.5
1.3
1.4
1.5

6 inches

9 inches

12 inches

15 inches

24 inches

We observe that with the kernels three inches apart in the
row, or 47,000 per acre, there were thirteen bushels of sound
ears and forty-six bushels of poor ears or nubbins per acre.
Poor as are these returns from the standpoint of grain produc-
tion, we gather the interesting and exceedingly important fact
that with thick planting there were the largest returns in total
digestible nutrients per acre. Over 6,000 pounds of digestible
dry matter were secured in nearly five tons of stover and corn
harvested. With this thickness of seeding there were 3. 6 pounds
of stover for each pound of grain. The largest yield of sound

i Bui. 13.

Indian Corn as a Forage Plant. 165

ear corn was returned from planting the kernels twelve inches
apart in the row, or about 12,000 per acre, from which the returns
were seventy-three bushels of sound ears and sixteen bushels of
poor ears per acre, with only about 600 pounds less digestible
matter than was returned from planting the kernels four times as
thick.

Morrow holds that, for Illinois conditions, 10,000 good stalks
of corn per acre (secured by planting about 12,000 kernels) give
the best returns in grain. The lesson from the above table is
confirmed by the work of other Stations, and teaches that when
the stockman is seeking the greatest amount of nutrients possible
from the corn crop he will plant the seed so thickly as to choke
the ears to about half their natural size. If, on the other hand,
his aim is to produce grain, with stover secondary, then he will
plant the seed grains at such distances one from another as will
allow each individual plant to produce one or more full-sized
ears of corn. No rule can be given which is applicable in
all cases for guidance as to the amount of seed corn to be planted
per acre. This varies greatly and is determined by local condi-
tions. One must know quite accurately the capacity of his land
for this crop and seed accordingly, bearing in mind, as shown
above, that thick seeding gives the most total nutrients, while
medium seeding gives the most sound grain.

237. Increase of nutrients during maturity. — At the New York
(Geneva) Station1 Ladd conducted investigations in relation to the
storage of nutrients by the growing corn plant, and has arranged his
data in excellent form for study. His findings are substantiated
by results in the same line obtained at several other Stations. The
great importance of the subject is sufficient excuse for the space
here occupied. The stockman should know what the corn plants
in his field are doing in the way of gathering food between
early growth and maturity. He should have a keen appreciation
of this wonderful process of food -gather ing, and as full knowledge
as possible of when and under what conditions the maximum
results are obtained by the plant. Ladd' s study of the corn plant
extends from the time it was tasseled until the kernels were

i Kept. 1889.

166

Feeds and Feeding.

ripe. To the novice, when a field of corn is fully tasseled,
it has about completed its growth, but the following table shows
in a most effective manner that great changes are still going on
within the stalks and that the storage of nutrients has only fairly
begun:

Water and dry matter in corn crop at different periods after tasseling —
New York (Geneva} Station.

Date of
cutting.

Stage of growth.

Corn
per
acre.

Water
per
acre.

Dry

matter
per
acre.

July 30.

Fully tasseled

Tons.
9.0

Tons.

8 2

Tons.

Auer. 9.

Fully silked

12.9

11 3

1 5

Aug. 21.

Kernels watery to full milk

16 3

14.0

2 3

Sept 7

Kernels glazing

16 1

12 5

3 6

Sept 23

Ripe

14 2

10 3

4 0

The table shows that an acre of corn when fully tasseled
weighed nine tons, more than eight of which were water. The
water in the corn continued to increase in total amount until
August 21, at which time the kernels had reached the full milk
stage, after which it decreased. The total dry matter increased
from the beginning. Between the milk and glazing stages there
was the remarkable increase of over a ton of dry matter per acre
of crop in seventeen days. From glazing to full ripeness there
was a further increase of dry matter, though it was small.

238. Nutrients at different stages. — Ladd found the percent-
age of nutrients in the crop at different periods to be as given
below:

Percentage of nutrients in the dry matter of ripening corn — Neiv
York (Geneva) Station.

July 30.

Aug. 9.

Aug. 21

Sept. 7.

Sept. 23

Ash

r8 6

6.5

5.0

4.2

4.6

14.8

14.2

10.3

8.9

8.6

Crude fiber

31 8

28.4

27.2

24.4

21.9

Nitrogen-free extract

40.4

45 5

52 6

58.9

61.0

Ether extract

4 5

5.5

4.9

3 6

4.0

Indian Corn as a Forage Plant.

107

In studying the foregoing table the reader should bear in mind
the great increase in dry matter which occurs as the plant ripens.

239. Total nutrients of the corn crop. — The preceding table
would be misleading were it not followed by another showing the
total nutrients in the crop at different periods of maturity:

Water and nutrients in an acre of corn at different stages of matu-
rity— New York (Geneva) Station.

Per acre.

Tas-
seled,
July 30.

Silked,
Aug. 9.

Milk,
Aug. 21.

Glazed,
Sept. 7.

Ripe,
Sept,
23.

Yield

Lbs,
18,045.0

16,426.0
1,619.0
138.9
239.8
514.2
653.9
72.2

Lbs.
25,745.0

22,666.0
3,078.0
201.3
436.8
872.9
1,399.3
167.8

Lbs.
32,600.0

27,957.0
4,643.0
232.2
478.7
1,262.0
2,441.3
228.9

Lbs.
32,295.0

25,093.0
7,202.0
302.5
643.9
1,755.9
4,239.8
260.0

Lbs.
28,460.0

20,542.0
7,918.0
364.2
677.8
1,734.0
4,827.6
314.3

Water

Dry matter

Ash

Albuminoids

Crude fiber

Nitrogen-free extract

Ether extract...

From the above we learn that the crop increased about 10,000
pounds in weight between tasseling and maturing. Of this increase
about 4,000 pounds were water, the remainder being dry matter.
The dry matter in the crop, which amounted to only 1, 600 pounds
at tasseling time, increased to 7,900 pounds when the corn was
ripe. The analyses show that between the milk and the glazing
stages and on to the final period of ripening there is a constant
and remarkable increase in the nutrients stored by this plant.

240. Changes in protein. — Ladd also made a study of the albu-
minoid and amide nitrogen in the crop with the following results:

Albuminoid and amide nitrogen of the ripening corn crop — New
York (Geneva') Station.

Date.

Stage of maturity.

Total
nitrogen.

Albu-
minoid
nitrogen.

Amide
nitrogen.

July 30. . .

Tasseled

Lbs.
38 4

Lbs.
27 4

Lbs.
11 0

Auir. 9

Silked

69 9

44 6

25 2

Aug. 21.

Kernels in milk

77 6

66 4

17 3

Sept. 7. . .

Corn glazed

103 0

78 5

24 5

Sept. 23

Corn ripe

108 5

91 1

17 4

168

Feeds and Feeding.

The table shows that while there was a steady increase in the
total albuminoid nitrogen up to the maturity of the plant, the
amide nitrogen varied greatly at different periods, being less
when the corn was ripe than at earlier dates.

241. Nitrogen-free extract. — The greatest increase in nutrients
between tasseling and maturity was with the nitrogen- free extract,
that part of the corn plant next in value to protein.

Increase of nitrogen-free extract 'in ripening corn — New YorJc
(Geneva) Station.

Date.

Stage of maturity.

Glucose.

Sucrose.

Starch.

July 30

Tasseled.

Lbs.
58 3

Lbs.
9 1

Lbs.
122 2

Aiij?. 9
Aug. 21

Silked
In milk

300.4
665 0

110.8
129.0

491.3

706.7

Sept. 7 . ...

Glazed

720 2

95.1

1.735.0

Sept. 23

Ripe

538.4

148.9

2,852.9

Concerning these changes Ladd says: "The total starch per
acre increased more than twenty-three times between tasseling of
corn and harvesting, a period of fifty-five days. From the stage
of glazing of corn until full ripening the increase in dry matter
was 716 pounds, the increase in nitrogen-free extract 587 pounds,
while the increase of sugar and starch was 989 pounds, or greater
by 273 pounds than the entire gain in crop. That is, much of the
nitrogen-free extract, which at period of glazing of corn was in
the transitory state, had been translocated and transformed into
sugars and starch. ' '

Jordan, of the Maine Station, l studying the same subject, writes:
" Owing to the relatively large production of sugars and starch
in the late stages of growth, a pound of the dry substance of the
mature well-eared corn plant possesses a higher nutritive value
than at any earlier stage of growth." Compare with develop-
ment of the timothy plant, Article 259.

242. Importance of maturity. — These tables teach the farmer
that he should delay harvesting the corn crop until the plants
have been allowed to accomplish their full work of gathering,
elaborating and locating nutritive matter. To harvest a corn
crop for forage or silage while the grain is in the milk stage is to

1 Kept. 1895.

Indian Cam as a Forage Plant.

169

sacrifice a large part of the feeding value which would come
to this crop were harvesting delayed until the corn is passing the
glazing stage. In the large amount of water which the corn plant
carries when quite green, the stockman learns why corn which
has just tasseled, when thrown to his cattle, often shows such
unsatisfactory results. Stock cannot consume enough of such
forage to supply themselves with the nourishment required.

243. Distribution of nutrients in the plant. — The proportion of
nutrients in the several parts of the corn plant has been studied
at several Stations with interesting results. Armsby, l studying
the returns of corn crops at four Stations, reports the following
yields of ears and stover:

Station. Ears.

New Jersey (Dent) 4,774 Ibs.

Connecticut (Flint) 4,216 Ibs.

Wisconsin (Dent) 4, 941 Ibs.

Pennsylvania ( Dent ) 3, 72 7 Ibs.

Stover.
4,041 Ibs.
4, 360 Ibs.
4,490 Ibs.
2,460 Ibs.

Average 4,415 Ibs. 3,838 Ibs.

We learn from the above that somewhat more than one-half
the total weight of the corn crop, grown for grain, is found in the
ears.

Concerning the nutrients in corn Armsby gives the following:

Digestible nutrients in one acre of corn and stover — average of crop

at four Stations.

Digestible nutrients.

Ears.

Stover.

Total crop.

Protein . .

Lbs.
244

Lbs.

Lbs.
327

Oarbohvdrates

2,301

1,473

3,774

Kther extract

125

147

Total.

2,670

1,578

4,248

Per cent

100

We learn that 37 per cent, of the total digestible nutrients in a
crop of corn grown for the grain is in the stover and 63 per
cent, in the ears.

Kept. Penn. Sta., 1887.

170

Feeds and Feeding.

244. The corn plant under Maryland conditions. — At the Mary-
land Station1 Patterson studied the nutrients of the corn crop of
that region with the following results:

Yield per acre of digestible nutrients in different portions of the corn
plant — Maryland Station.

Parts.

Ash.

Pro-
tein.

Crude
fiber.

Nitrogen-
free extract.

Ether
extract.

Total dry
substance.

Ears

Lbs.

Lbs.
157

Lbs.
13

Lbs.
30

Lbs.
1,530

Topped fodder

190

232

450

Blades

105

197

Husks

168

246

426

Stubble

241

304

569

We learn that for Maryland conditions 48 per cent, of the
digestible matter appears in the ear and 52 per cent, in various
portions of the stover.

245. What the corn plant yields in Georgia. — At the Georgia
Station,2 Redding, working out results for his region, reports:

Digestible nutrients in each portion of the corn plant — Georgia

Station.

Parts,

Protein.

Nitrogen-free
extract.*

Butts

Lbs.

8.0

Lbs.

485.0

Top stalks

3.9

95.4

Bottom blades.

5 9

106 2

Top blades

3 5

68 7

Shucks.

7.4

198.8

Tassels

1.1

20.3

Grain .*

159.0

1,604.0

(jobs

9 0

249.0

Constituents.

* Including fat X 2.27.

By the above we learn that about two-thirds of the value of the
corn crop of Georgia is found in the ears, the results corroborating
Armsby ' s statement.

i Bui. 20. 2 Bui. 30.

Indian Corn as a Forage Plant.

171

246. Losses in field curing. — Since corn forage gathered into
shocks (stooks) presents a considerable surface to the weather,
losses must occur through washing by rains and wasting of the
leaves by the wind. It has been found, however, that larger
losses occur in shock corn than is possible from this cause alone.

At the Wisconsin Station, Woll1 determined the dry matter
and protein in a crop of corn when it was cut and shocked, and
again after the shocks had cured and been exposed to the weather
for several months. The investigation extended over four years,
with the results given in the table:

Losses of shock corn in field — Wisconsin Station.

Green
fodder.

Cured
fodder.

ss.

Average for two varieties, total weight.

Lbs.
129,014

Lbs.
31,738

Lbs.

Per cent

Dry matter.

32,432

23,270

9,162

28 3

Protein

2 581

1 682

899

34 8

Results of four years' work.
Drv matter

72,164

54,937

17,227

23 8

Protein

5,706

4,317

1,389

24 3

We are told of a loss of nearly one-fourth of dry matter and
protein which the crop contained at harvest time by preserving
corn forage in the usual manner. This seems incredible, but the
subject has been studied by too many Stations with unanimity of
results to admit of further question. Cooke2 has shown that
heavy losses occur in shock corn in the dry climate of Colorado.
The substances lost through wasting are protein and nitrogen- free
extract (sugar, starch, etc.), the more valuable portions of the
forage. Nor is it possible to entirely prevent these losses by
placing the cured fodder under shelter or in the stack, for it has
been found that the forage continues to waste even under these
favorable conditions.

At this time we are unable to state through what instrumen-
tality all these losses are brought about. Some substance is washed
away by rain, and the winds carry oif exposed leaves and parts
of the stalks on the outside of the shocks, but these sources of loss

1 A Book on Silage.

2 Bui. 30, Colo. Expt. Sta.

172 Feeds and Feeding.

are not sufficient to account for all the shortage. Probably fer-
mentations are slowly but steadily wasting the substance of the
forage.

In view of these facts, when calculating the value of a crop of
corn forage, a deduction should be made from its worth at harvest
time for its reduced value at feeding time, if the latter occurs
some months after harvest.

247. Fodder corn for soiling. — Feeding corn in the green stage
should become a general practice upon most farms, for the reason
that, during the fall, pastures are often scanty, and if forced to
subsist entirely upon them animals cannot do their best. It will
be found that an acre of corn fed while green, if quite well matured,
may so advance the condition of steers, dairy cows or other stock
as to yield a double value over what it would if saved until winter
and fed out at a time when there is often a plethora of the same
material.

248. Shocking (stooking) corn. — The process of shocking corn
is too well understood to need description. The loss from weath-
ering can be much reduced by making larger shocks than are
commonly found, and exercising care in their construction. In
the shock the corn stalks stand almost vertical, and if the shock
be not bound too tightly there is room enough when the stalks wilt
to admit currents of air which pass from below upward and out.
Such currents carry off the moisture and dry the interior portion
of the shock, without allowing mould to work injury to the drying
material. No simple system of preservation can be more perfect
for the end in view than that which we find in the common
method of harvesting corn forage by standing the stalks upright
in closely-bound bunches. When shock corn is pronounced dry
by the farmer, it still carries a much larger percentage of water
than does hay, as we learn from the table. This fact should not
be overlooked when considering the amount of material required
for nourishing farm animals.

249. Feeding shock corn. — In districts where corn is grown for
the grain and put into shocks, farmers not infrequently follow the
practice of separating the corn from the stover by husking. For
steer feeding there seems no valid reason for the extra expense

Indian Corn as a Forage Plant. 173

incurred by the operation, for the steers can as well perform the
work. The same statement holds true in some measure for dairy
cows. An ear of corn with the husks still about it possesses an
aroma which is largely lost when it is thrown into the crib, where
it is often polluted by vermin. That cattle appreciate the fresh-
ness of unhusked corn is shown by the eagerness with which
they search the stalks for ears. Whoever has watched a cow
searching through a bundle of stover for a possible ear or nubbin
of corn which the would-be thrifty farmer has by accident over-
looked, cannot fail to be impressed with the folly of the farmer in
so carefully performing his work. It is true that when fed in this
manner some corn will pass through the animal unbroken, but
feeding trials have shown that despite such waste there is usually
profit in the system over that of husking and reducing the corn
to meal. A part of the corn can be husked to furnish grain for
other purposes, and the remainder of the crop left for the cattle.
By a little study to ascertain the amount of grain the shocks
carry, the feeder can soon adjust the supply of corn to forage so
as to give each animal its proper allowance of grain along with
the fodder. Because one' s ancestors laboriously husked corn and
afterwards divided the crop with the miller for grinding is no
reason why in these later days of high-priced labor and low-
priced products we should still be husking corn for cattle, when
these animals have all day in which to do the work and willingly
perform it. (581)

250. Cured fodder corn. — Corn grown and cured for forage con-
stitutes a coarse hay of high feeding value produced at low cost.
Because only a portion of the nutriment has gone into the ear,
the stalks of fodder corn are more nutritious and palatable than
stover, which has lost much of its substance to the grain it pro-
duced.

In feeding fodder corn to horses care should be taken that they
do not get too much grain; otherwise there is no better forage for
them. Corn fodder, in which the ears have been choked to half
or less than half their normal size by thick planting, is one of the
most valuable forms of roughage for dairy cows, steers in the first
stages of fattening, and young cattle. All the corn these animals

174 Feeds and Feeding.

require can be supplied them unhusked, in which form there is
no labor or expense for husking and grinding. The ears of thickly-
grown fodder corn are small, palatable and easily masticated.
When corn fodder is fed to cattle they should be allowed ample
time to work it over before cleaning out the mangers or feed racks.
The Indian corn plant grown for hay, and carrying more or less
grain, according to requirements, possesses a value not fully appre-
ciated by stockmen generally. We have become so accustomed
to growing this grass for the grain it yields and using the rough^
age as a sort of straw, to be eaten or wasted as accident determines,
that we have almost wholly overlooked its hay-making qualities.
(652)

251. Corn stover. — The forage which remains after removing
the ear has a higher feeding value than is usually ascribed to it.
For idle horses and growing colts corn stover may be used in
winter with advantage. This forage is now commonly fed to
dairy cows, and experience attests its value. By running stover
through the shredder or feed cutter the proportion readily eaten
by cattle may be materially increased. (653)

252. " Pulling" fodder.— At the South the custom prevails of
stripping the leaves from the corn stalk while still green and cur-
ing them into a nutritious form of hay. Stubbs, of the Louisiana
Station,1 found that " pulling'7 fodder from the stalks of corn
caused a shrinkage in the yield of grain of from fifteen to twenty
per cent. Bedding, at the Georgia Station, 2 after investigating the
subject, writes: " The strongest argument against the practice
is the meager results of fodder compared with the amount of labor
involved. The same labor employed in mowing grass or any good
forage crop, even without the use of improved harvesting ma-
chinery, would yield vastly greater results. " Stock-growing at
the South will never attain the dignity the situation merits until
the custom of i ' pulling ' ' corn leaves is abandoned and the planters
address themselves to intelligent modern methods of cultivating
and harvesting the many valuable forage plants which can be
grown in that region.

1 Bui. 22; see also Bui. 104, N. C. Sta.

2 Bui. 10.

Indian Corn as a Forage Plant. 175

253. A new corn product. — The pith of the corn stalk furnishes
a packing for the walls of vessels which will prevent the entrance
of water into the ship when the hull is pierced. It is found that
for each pound of suitable pith there are fifteen pounds of blades,
husks and stalks remaining as waste or by-products. It is pro-
posed to grind this waste into a meal for stock feeding. At the
Maryland Station, l Patterson found this new food substance more
digestible than whole fodder, in feeding trials with steers, and

• quite satisfactory in comparison with corn blades. Cows and steers
fed corn-stalk meal ruminated as naturally as if feeding on hay.

254. The so-called corn-stalk disease. — In the central corn dis-
tricts the common practice is to remove the ears of corn from the
standing stalks and turn cattle into the stalk fields to gather the
ears left by the huskers and consume what they will of the rough-
age. Not infrequently, within a day or two after turning the
cattle into the fields, they suddenly sicken and die. Thousands
of cattle are lost each fall in this way, and the subject has attracted
much attention and elicited several theories as to the cause.
Moore 2 concludes that the disease is probably due to some poison-
ous principle in the dried corn stalk or its leaves. Without
being able to name a remedy, he prudently points a way by which
all danger from this source can be avoided. He calls attention
to the fact that the corn-stalk disease never attacks cattle fed
shock corn or corn stover. He recommends that the stockman
shock at least a portion of his corn crop and feed this to his cattle
instead of turning them into the stalk fields. Possibly, too, if
stockmen will feed shock corn to their cattle for a few days or
weeks previous to turning them into the stalk fields, the danger
may be averted, since by this practice the animals will become
accustomed to this form of feed.

255. Corn smut. — Besides the direct losses caused by corn
smut, it has frequently been charged that the smut masses are
poisonous to cattle eating them. To settle this important matter,
a number of experiments have been conducted in which the smut
was fed to cattle and the effects noted.

' Bui. 43.

2 Bui. 10, Bur. of An. Ind., U. S. Dept. Agr; see also Bui. 58, Kan. Sta.

176 Feeds and Feeding.

The first trial reported is that by Gamgee, * in which forty-two
pounds of corn smut were fed to two cows without ill effects.

At the Wisconsin University 2 the writer conducted a smut-
feeding experiment with two milch cows in the following manner:
Clean smut was fed with bran, only a few ounces being daily given
at first, the allowance being increased as rapidly as the cows
would consume it. When the quantity fed reached thirty-two
ounces daily for each cow, one of them refused to eat the feed con-
taining the smut, and the experiment with her was closed. The
other cow seemed greedy for this substance, and the allowance
was increased until sixty-four ounces, an amount which filled a
peck measure, was fed. For a time the cow seemed to thrive on
the smut and was growing fat, but was suddenly taken sick and
died within a few hours after the trouble was first observed. A
post-mortem examination revealed no certain cause of the fatality.

At the Michigan Station 3 Smith fed corn smut to four cows, the
maximum daily allowance reaching eleven pounds of fairly well
cleaned smut per cow. Ten pounds of such smut filled a half
bushel measure. When eating eleven pounds of smut daily, one
cow showed indisposition for a time, but soon returned to normal
health.

In experiments by the Bureau of Animal Industry, 4 TL S. De-
partment of Agriculture, Washington, corn smut was fed to heifers
without ill effects. With all the trials but one ending with-
out disaster, it seems reasonable to conclude that corn smut is
at least not a virulent poison, if indeed it is one in any sense of
the word. It is probable that in the Wisconsin and Michigan
cases, where one cow died and the other was indisposed, the ani-
mals suffered because of eating too much highly nitrogenous
material rather than anything poisonous. Worse results might
have followed the feeding of the same volume of corn meal or
cotton-seed meal. It would seem that there is little or no danger
from corn smut unless cattle consume a large quantity. This is
possible where they are allowed to roam through stalk fields and

1 Kept. Diseases of Cattle, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Washington, 1871.

2 Rept. Bd. Regents, 1881.
s Bui. 137.

* Bui. 10.

Indian Corn as a Forage Plant. 177

gather what they will. There may be cases where animals seek
ont the smut and eat inordinately of it.

256. Fertilizing constituents. — The table shows that corn fodder
carries a fair amount of nitrogen, percentagely. Because of the
large tonnage, the crop takes from the land a considerable quan-
tity of this element. Stover is quite rich in potash.

On the whole, the corn crop in any form must be regarded as
a carbohydrate crop and utilized on that basis. Its complement
in feeding is clover or some legume, and these latter plants should
always be grown on the same farm in order to keep the fields in
good fertility as well as furnish the stock nitrogen and mineral
matter, in which corn is somewhat deficient.
12

CHAPTEE XL

THE GRASSES, FKESH AND CUHED — STRAW.

I. Grass for Pasture and Soiling.
Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents.

Name of feed.

Dry
matter
in 100
pounds.

Digestible nutrients
in 100 pounds.

Fertilizing constitu-
ents in 1,000 pounds.

Pro-
tein.

Carbo-
hy-
drates.

Ether
ex-
tract.

Nitro-
gen.

Phos-
phoric
acid.

Pot-
ash.

Grass.
Pasture grasses (mixed) ...
Kentucky blue grass

Lbs.

20.0
34.9
38.4
27.0
34.7
37.8
23.4
20.6

86.8
90.1
91.1
78.8
92.3
87.1
83.4

90.4
92.9
90.8
85.8
85 .,7
85.7

Lbs.

2.5
3.0
1.2
1.5
2.1
2.6
2.1
0.6

2.8
4.9
4.8
4.8
4.5
5.9
7.9

0.4
0.6
1.2
0.7
0.3
1.5

Lbs.

10.2
19.8
19.1
11.4
21.2
18.9
14.1
12.2

43.4
42.3
46.9
37.3
51.7
40.9
40.1

36.3
40.6
38.6
41.2
23.3
33.0

Lbs.

0.5
0.8
0.6
0.5
0.6
1.0
0.4
0.4

1.4
1.4
1.0
2.0
1.3
1.2
1.5

0.4
0.4
0.8
0.6
0.5
0.7

Lbs.
9.1

Lbs.
2.3

Lbs.
7.5

Timothy, different stages...
Orchard grass, in bloom....
Redtop, in bloom

4.8
4.3

2.6
1.6

7.6
7.6

Oat fodder

4.9
3.3
2.3

12.6
13.1
11.5
11.9
12.0
14.1
16.1

5.9
4.6
6.2
13.1
7.9

1.3
1.5
0.9

5.3
4.1

3.6
4.0
3.5
2.7
4.3

1.2

2.8
2.0
3.0
7.0

3.8
7.3
2.3

9.0
18.8
10.2
15.7
13.0
15.5
14.9

5.1
7.9
12.4
20.9
4.2

Rye fodder

Sorghum . .

Hay.
Timothy

Orchard grass

Redtop

Kentucky blue grass

Hungarian grass

Mixed grasses

Rowen (mixed)

Straw.
"Wheat

Rye

Oat

Barley

Wheat chaff.

Oat chaff

257. Concerning pastures. — The time for turning stock to
pasture is hailed with delight by stockmen, for it means exercise
and outdoor life to animals long confined in quarters which at best
are not as satisfactory as those afforded by the change. It means
dropping a large part of the " chores " which bind together with
a cord of duty all the daylight hours of winter. With the live
stock caring for themselves in the pasture comes the opportunity

The Grasses, Fresh and Cured. 179

for sowing the seed and gathering the harvest from which prov-
ender for the next season is to come.

It is a fact which cannot escape the attention of students of
agricultural economics, that our stockmen rely too blindly upon
pastures for the maintenance of their cattle during half the year.
But a few centuries ago the inhabitants of Great Britain trusted
to the growth of natural herbage for the support of their stock not
only in summer but throughout the entire year. If their animals,
foraging for themselves as best they could, survived the winter,
all was well; if they died from starvation, it was an " act of
God.'7 We have abandoned the crude practices of our ancestors,
and now carefully store in barns abundance of provender for
feeding flocks and herds during winter's rigor. We are amazed
that our ancestors were so improvident as to gather no winter
feed for their cattle, while for ours great barns are built and stored
with provender. By turning cattle to pasture in spring and let-
ting them forage as best they may until winter we show that all
the barbaric blood has not yet been eliminated from our veins. If
the summer rains are timely and abundant, the cattle are well
nourished on these pastures; if drought prevails they suffer for
food as surely, and often as severely, as did the live stock of
England in winter, ages ago. To suffering from scant food there
is added the heat of "dog days" and the ever-present annoyance
of blood- sucking flies. Our stockmen will never be worthy of
their calling, nor their flocks and herds yield their best returns,
until ample provision is made against drought-ruined pastures in
summer. Every argument which stands in favor of storing
provender for stock in winter holds with equal force for providing
feed to make good any possible shortage of pastures in summer.

258. Yields of pasture grass. — At the Pennsylvania Station, l
Holter studied the yield of a pasture consisting of blue grass and
white clover. By means of a lawn mower with attachment the
grass as cut was gathered, with the following yields per acre:

1 Kept. 1889.

180

Feeds and Feeding.

Yield of pasture grass per acre from May 1 to Oct. 15 inclusive —
Pennsylvania Station.

Total
substance.

Digestible
matter.

Lbs.
5,720

Lbs.

Total dry matter

1 613

1 190

Albuminoid, nitrogen

331

249

Non-albuminoid nitrogen

Crude fiber

300

226

Nitrogen-free extract

706

534

Ether extract

Ash

136

At the Michigan Station, x Crozier cut the growing timothy from
a plat of grass eight times during the season, while on another
plat of the same area the timothy was allowed to make full
growth and was then cut for hay. It was found that the yield of
dry matter in the hay was about four times that of the grass which
was cut eight times. The per cent, of protein in the grass cut
eight times was about three times that in the once -cut grass. This
experiment shows that our pastures in their short herbage yield
a much higher proportion of muscle-making nutrients than is
obtained from grasses which are allowed to mature, but that much
the largest returns are secured by allowing them to ripen. (554)

259. Changes in grass during ripening. — At the Illinois Sta-
tion, 2 Hunt studied the effects of maturity on the yield and com-
position of several forage plants. Timothy was examined at four
periods covering about one month in all, beginning June 25,
when the plants were in full bloom. The yield of hay and the
total nutrients per acre for each of the four periods are given in
the table at the end of this Article.

It will be seen that, on the whole, there was. a steady increase in
the weight of the crop as the plants progressed toward maturity.
We observe only a slight increase in the total protein content after
the first cutting. Between the first and last cuttings the crude
fiber increased more than 300 pounds and the nitrogen-free extract
more than 350 pounds, while the ether extract was reduced in
total quantity as ripening progressed. It appears, then, in this

i Bui. 141. ~~» Bui. 5.

Tlie G-rasses, Fresh and Cured.

181

study, that aside from protein, the timothy plant had not elabo-
rated its full complement of nutrients at the time of blossoming,
and to secure the largest total quantity of nutrients in the hay we
must wait until the seeds of this grass are nearly ripe. By so
doing we gain no protein or ether extract, but a very consider-
able quantity of crude fiber, which is not valuable, and still more
nitrogen-free extract, which is an important addition.

Yield of hay and nutrients from timothy at four periods of growth —

Illinois Station.

Hav

Total

nutrients p

>er acre.

Date.

Stage of develop-
ment.

per
acre.

Pro-
tein.

Crude
fiber.

Nitrogen-
free
extract.

Ether
extract.

Ash.

June 25

Full bloom

Lbs.
4 480

Lbs.
240

Lbs.
1,056

Lbs.
1,602

Lbs.
165

Lbs.
224

July 2

One-half anthers
shed

4.320

225

1,155

1,663

152

228

July 11
July 23

Seed in dough....
Seed nearly ripe..

5,240
5,180

246
253

1,380
1,377

1,960
2,058

153
137

273
239

260. Time to cut grass for hay. — Generally the admonitions are
for early cutting, and where there is much hay to be gathered,
work should certainly begin early in order that it be completed
before the grass seeds are so ripe as to shell from the heads of the
late-cut grass. Early-cut hay seems more palatable to stock, and,
pound for pound, more satisfactory. On the other hand, we can
secure a considerably larger quantity of the carbohydrates by
delaying the harvest until the grass seeds are fully formed. In
the increase of nutrients in the timothy plant up to a late period,
we have a repetition of what occurs in that other grass, the Indian
corn plant, in the study of which we have learned that the storage
of nutrients continues up to the last rtage of ripening. (241)

For the dairy cow and sheep grass should be cut early, since these
animals do not relish hay that is woody and lacking in aroma,
as is the case with late- cut hay. For horses and fattening cattle
the choice of dates for cutting probably falls the other way, being
in favor of later cutting. These animals subsist mostly on con-
centrated feed, and hay serves more for "filling," as horsemen

182 Feeds and Feeding.

say. If harvesting is delayed too long, the stems of the grasses
are tough and stringy, and the seeds shatter from the heads. Such
hay has little aroma and lacks palatability, if not nutrients.

Sanborn 1 conducted trials with early- and late- cut hay for fat-
tening steers, and found that the late- cut hay gave the best returns.
The writer, in an unpublished experiment conducted several years
since, reached the same result.

261. Points in hay making. — Important as is the subject of hay
making, there is not much of a definite character that can be writ-
ten concerning it. The widely varying nature of the crops to be
converted into hay, the dampness or dryness of the soil of the
meadows, the humidity of the atmosphere, and the intensity and
continuance of sunlight and heat, are all modifying factors in this
problem and combine to keep it one of those arts which cannot be
definitely discussed in books. Some points of interest and possi-
ble importance will be here considered. We have drawn largely
from Storer, 2 whose classic work on agriculture should be read
by all.

262. The aroma of hay. — Though an unweighable quantity, the
aroma of grass has real value in rendering hay more palatable.
When the sun dissipates the dew from the drying grass in the
meadow we detect the escaping aroma, because the dow in rising
carries some of it into the atmosphere. Here is one reason why
hay should not remain scattered over the meadow at night. If
new-mown hay lies for a time in the sunlight, the bleaching which
we observe indicates that chemical changes are taking place within
the grass stems and leaves, and such changes are not of advantage.
Green- colored, sweet- smelling hay is really the best, and prudent
stockmen in securing provender will not overlook such seemingly
small points as preserving the aroma and preventing bleaching.

263. Changes during hay curing. — Grass stems remain alive, in
a certain sense, for some time after they have been severed by the
mower, and the leaves while succulent and green continue to
exhale moisture in a natural way. If grasses whose leaves are
still fresh are gathered into bundles so the leaves are not at once

1 Kept. New Hamp. Bd. Agr., 1880.

2 Agriculture in Some of its Relations with Chemistry.

The Grasses, Fresh and Cured. 183

withered, the leaves will continue to draw water from the stems,
and in so doing rid them of moisture and hasten the drying grass
toward the condition of hay. In this fact we have an explana-
tion of one of the advantages obtained in curing grass in cocks or
bundles rather than by spreading it out thinly in the hot sun.
Hay which is cocked in the afternoon entraps much warm air,
and the mass remains in a condition favorable to the transpiration
of moisture during the night. The heat yielded by the plant in
carrying on its life functions, and the warm air entrapped by grass
gathered in the afternoon, should not be confused with that which
may develop in partially cured or damp hay through fermenta-
tion. When hay that has been cocked for a time is exposed to
the air in flakes, the moisture which has been diffused evenly
through the mass is yielded up rapidly and such material is soon
dried. While hay can be made without going through the sweat-
ing process in the cock, it is usually much better because of
having undergone such action. Hay put into the barn when it
is so dry that it will not pack well is not in first-class condition.
It should be mowed away with just that amount of moisture which
allows it to settle compactly when treaded down.

264. Treatment of hay. — Salt and lime scattered over hay when
it is put into the mow tend to prevent fermentation and check the
growth of molds and mildews. Salt renders hay more palatable.
These materials are not essentials in hay making, but are helpful
when partially cured hay is being stored during bad weather.
Damp hay may be improved by placing it in alternate layers with
dry straw 5 the straw absorbs moisture from the hay and so
improves in quality. It also imbibes some of its aroma, so that
cattle will more readily eat both straw and hay.

Hay from the second- growth grasses or aftermath is rich in
nutrients, but it comes at a time when the ground is often damp,
the days short and the sun's heat weak. This unfortunate com-
bination renders the curing of aftermath into hay difficult and
the product usually of less value than first-crop hay. Cured under
favorable conditions, aftermath hay is an excellent article for
winter feeding.

New-made hay is laxative, and should not be fed to work
horses or driving horses, since their flesh becomes soft through its

184

Feeds and. Feeding.

use. !N~ot until the sweating process has been completed in the
mow and the mass cooled off can new- crop hay be safely fed.

265. Dried versus green grass. — At the Pennsylvania Station, l
Armsby tested dried and fresh grass for cows in the following
manner: Short grass on the college lawn, cut with a lawn-mower,
was divided into two portions, one of which was fed to a cow in
the fresh stage, the other half being dried over a steam boiler
and fed in turn to the same cow.

This investigator had previously conducted an experiment at
the Wisconsin Station in which grass from nine to ten inches in
height was used. Here half the grass was fed fresh, and the
other half, cut at the same time, was dried in the sun and fed to
the same cow. The yield of milk and butter-fat in these tests
was as follows:

Daily yield of milk and fat with cows fed green and dried grass —
Pennsylvania and Wisconsin Stations.

Station.

Green grass.

Dried grass.

Milk.

Fat.

Milk.

Fat.

Pennsylvania . ....

Lbs.

26.01
16.98

Lbs.

1.08
.92

Lbs.

25.27
17.81

Lbs.

1.06
1.00

"Wisconsin

Average

21.5

1.00

21.54

1.03

These results are practically equal, showing that grass when
dried in the best possible manner yields as much nutriment as
will the same grass when fresh. In practice it is impossible
to dry grass or other forage plants in such a manner that the
product will equal the same plants in a fresh condition. In.
hay -making more or less of the finer portions of the forage plants
are broken off and lost. Again, continued exposure of plants to
the sun reduces their palatability by bleaching and the loss of
aromatic compounds. Dew works injury, and rain carries away
the more soluble portions. Thus, while dried forage may theo-
retically equal the fresh substance, in practice it falls short, the
difference in value being determined by the circumstances con-
trolling the harvest.

' Itept. 1888.

The Grasses, Fresh and Cured. 185

266. Losses due to weathering. — Stockhardt1 cured one sample
of meadow hay in three days and left another in the field for
thirteen days in alternate wet and dry weather. Analysis showed
that the weathered hay lost 12.5 per cent, of its total dry sub-
stance> representing one-fourth of its original nutritive value.
Marcker2 calculated the loss of meadow-hay exposed through a
prolonged and heavy rain as 18.4 and 1 7.6 per cent, of the dry sub-
stance. This heavy withdrawal of the soluble portion of the
hay leaves more woody fiber and indigestible matter proportion-
ately, which renders the hay more difficult of digestion. Then,
too, the aroma of forage will be dissipated by exposure.

II. The Common Grass Plants for Pasture and Soiling.

267. Kentucky blue grass. — This grass, often called "June
grass, " is found everywhere in the Northeastern states. By its
persistence it often drives out red clover and timothy as meadow
crops, and holds in pastures, open woodlands and roadsides against
all other claimants. As shown by the table, this grass is the
richest in digestible protein and ether extract of any in the list,
a finding borne out by the experience of stockmen. The char-
acteristics of Kentucky blue grass exhibited in its habits of growth
should be understood by the stockman to guide him in wisely
using it. Because its seed ripens with the commencement of sum-
mer, Kentucky blue grass prepares for that event by gathering
much of the nutriment necessary in seed production the preceding
fall. With the coming of spring it pushes forward vigorously,
and early in May the fields are covered with a dense carpet of
nutritious grass. "With the shooting of the grass stems for seed-
bearing the last of May, the energies of the plant reach their cul-
mination and there is a cessation of growth. The blue grass has
entered a period of rest, and for a few months there is little evi-
dence of life. If at this time drought occurs, the pastures turn
brown and the plants appear to be dead or dying. With the
coming of the fall rains all is changed and a green carpet again
covers the pastures. The blue-grass plants have passed the rest-
ing period and are again gathering nourishment for the next
summer's seed bearing.

1 Wolff, Farm Foods, English edition, p. 155. * Loc. cit.

186 Feeds and Feeding.

The prudent stockman, recognizing these habits of growth, with
alternate abundance and scarcity in food supply, realizes that he
must not rely entirely upon blue-grass pasture for a uniform sup-
ply of nutriment for his cattle throughout the whole season. He
stocks the pastures lightly in spring so that the overplus herbage
of May and June may remain to be drawn upon during the dor-
mant period of midsummer, or, stocking his pastures more heav-
ily, he anticipates the midsummer shortage by providing a liberal
supply of silage, green clover, green corn, or other forage crops.
Knowing the characteristics of his pastures and acting upon this
knowledge, his stock suffers little or no loss from the usual mid-
summer shortage, but grows steadily throughout the season.

Kentucky blue grass is primarily a pasture grass and should
always be regarded as such. The small yield of hay from this
grass is of fair quality both as to protein and carbohydrates, while
it is quite rich in ether extract.

268. Timothy or herd's grass. — This common hay plant of the
Northeastern states is successfully grown as far west as Nebraska,
and Sanborn reports large yields at the Utah Station. l Analysis
shows that timothy hay varies in composition, especially in pro-
tein, according to the soil on which it is grown and the amount
and character of the fertilizers used. Soils enriched by manure
yield hay carrying more protein than is found in that produced
on lands of low fertility. With its stiff, woody stems and few
leaves the timothy plant cures rapidly into hay. Its character-
istic appearance, which easily distinguishes it from the hay of
other species, adds to its commercial value. Timothy seeds are
large and easily recognized, and as they are produced in abun-
dance and hold their vitality well, they aid this grass in holding
favor with the farmer. Timothy hay is usually free from dust,
is clean and rarely attacked by molds. It is relished by horses
which secure most of their nourishment from oats or other grain.
All these qualities combine to render hay from the timothy plant
a favorite with both grower and buyer.

While timothy meets quite fully the demands of city condi-
tions, it should not occupy an important place on well -managed

1 Kept. 1892.

The Grasses, Fresh and Cured. 187

stock farms, for the yield of forage is too small to warrant adher-
ence to this crop alone for farm -horse feed. Fodder corn, hay
from the cereals, and bright straw are substitutes that may be
fed with economy and satisfaction to all horses not required for
road work.

Timothy meadows afford but little aftermath, and if pastured
at all closely this grass is easily destroyed. Eed clover should be
grown with timothy, if possible, for the combination furnishes a
superior hay both in quantity and quality for many purposes.
When grown together, the hay produced the first season after
seeding will consist largely of clover. Many of the clover roots
die at the end of this season, and the nutriment from these
nourishes the timothy plants, which spring into ascendency the
second season, yielding a hay in which clover forms the smaller
portion. (478)

269. Orchard grass. — This grass starts very early in the spring
and ripens about two weeks in advance of timothy. For this rea-
son it associates well with red clover. Hay from orchard grass
is inclined to be harsh, woody and lacking in aroma, and is not
particularly relished by stock. These defects can be partially
overcome by cutting the grass very early. Orchard grass does
not form an even, dense sod, but grows in tufts or tussocks, for
which reason it should not be sown alone, but with other grasses
and with clovers. Mixed with other grasses, orchard grass serves
a useful purpose in pastures, and under favorable conditions will
hold its own indefinitely.

Tracy, of the Mississippi Station, l reports orchard grass as
making a better winter growth on heavy clay soils than any other
species tested. In that region it commences growth in February
and yields hay in May.

270. Redtop. — This widely disseminated grass of several spe-
cies is especially valuable on damp, low lands, where it forms
a close turf, furnishing excellent pasture and a valuable hay,
composed of fine stems and rather numerous leaves. Redtop
appears indigenous to ^Northern meadows and should be more
generally grown wherever the land is suitable.

1 Bui. 20.

188 Feeds and Feeding.

Tracy, of the Mississippi Station, l found no better grass for
marshy lands and seepy hillsides.

271. Mixed permanent grasses. — Nature rarely covers any
large area with a single species of vegetation, and it is better to
humor her by having several varieties of grass and clover in the
same meadow or pasture than growing a single one, no matter how
valuable. For stock feeding at the North, a mixture of redtop,
timothy and orchard grass with one or two kinds of clover will
give a larger yield of aromatic, palatable hay than is possible
with a single variety. There are several other varieties of grasses
which will thrive in special locations. The stockman should
experiment freely with the more promising varieties, that he may
learn by direct experiment which combinations are best suited to
his condition.

272. Hungarian grass, millet. — The millets, which are annual
grasses, consist of many races and varieties mixed in hopeless
confusion. German millet and Hungarian grass are the millets
commonly grown in the Northern states. Sown in early summer,
they thrive remarkably in hot and even dry weather, reaching
the harvest period in August or September. In order to produce
hay of fine quality, a liberal allowance of seed should be sown.
With thin seeding millet stems are coarse and reed-like, forming
a hay of low quality. All forms of millet grass designed for
hay should be cut just as the plant is coming into blossom, to
avoid the formation of hard seeds which are indigestible by
horses and cattle. Hay from thickly-seeded millet, if cut early,
is useful for cattle and sheep feeding. If given to horses, it
should be fed very sparingly and under close supervision. (198)

For millet-hay injurious to horses, see Article 482.

At the Massachusetts Station,2 Brooks, experimenting with
Japanese millet, grew crops in which the plants reached a height
of six feet, yielding from twelve to eighteen tons of green forage
per acre. Millet forage was much relished by dairy cows, prov-
ing superior to flint corn fodder.

273. Grasses at the South. — In the past the Southern planter
has despised grasses because they seriously interfered with the

* Bui. 20. 2 Bept. 1895.

The Grasses, Fresh and Cured.

cultivation of the cotton crop. Now that mixed farming is gain-
ing friends in that region, some of the many grasses which grow
readily there are receiving attention, only a few of which can be
mentioned.

Teosinte is a giant grass, somewhat resembling the sorghum
plant. Stubbs, of the Louisiana Station, l reports a yield of over
fifty tons of green teosinte forage per acre. This plant is too
tropical in character to hare a forage value outside a belt border-
ing the gulf.

Millo-maize is a variety of sorghum which succeeds in the south-
ern portion of our country. At the Louisiana Station, 2 a yield of
thirteen tons of cured forage and thirty-nine bushels of seed was
obtained from one acre. Bermuda grass is now common in the
South, spreading by both seed and creeping stems. Tracy, of the
Mississippi Station, 3 reports a yield of from two to four tons of
Bermuda hay per acre in two cuttings. Bermuda grass is useful
for forage and pasture, its sod resembling in some measure that
formed by Kentucky blue grass at the North.

Numerous grasses can be grown with profit at the South. 4 With
a large list of true grasses and legumes available for forage pur-
poses, there seems no reason why the Southern states should not
become a favorite region for stock growing.

274. Sorghum. — The sorghum plant, being more difficult of
cultivation in the humid regions than Indian corn, gives way to
the latter in the production of green forage. At the Pennsylvania
Station, 5 Armsby, studying this plant for soiling purposes, con-
cludes that it has no special value for that state. Amber-cane
sorghum gave a yield of but little over ten tons of green forage
per acre, while dent corn under similar conditions returned from
ten to fifteen tons. In the semi- arid region of the Southwest,
sorghum grows with great vigor, withstanding drought and drying
winds remarkably well. Because of these characteristics and the
abundant nutriment contained in stems, leaves and seed heads,
the sorghum plant is destined to occupy a prominent place in the

* Bui. 19.

2 Bui. 22.

3 Bui. 20.

4 Farmers' Bui. 18, U. S. Dept. Agr.

• Kept. 1889.

190 Feeds and Feeding.

agriculture of this district, furnishing green forage to stock dur-
ing shortage of pastures in summer and fall, and the best of dry
fodder in winter. (194)

275. Dangers from second-growth sorghum. — The agricultural
press reports cattle dying suddenly after eating very small quanti-
ties of second-growth sorghum. Coburn1 quotes Pritchard, the
Kansas state veterinarian, as saying: " Second -growth sorghum
under certain conditions is very destructive indeed to cattle, small
quantities killing them almost instantly. . . Just what this
destructive agent is I am unable to say.' ' In the same report ref-
erence is made to Kaffir corn causing the same trouble. Tracy2
reports that second-growth " chicken corn," a variety of sorghum
found in the Gulf states, when eaten by cattle, sometimes pro-
duces fatal results within a few minutes. He says: "It seems
to affect only certain animals, or perhaps only certain plants
produce the ill effects, as generally only a few animals in a herd
are killed, and these are commonly found near together." No
one knows why second-growth sorghum should cause trouble in
the way noted, and no remedy is known. Prevention is the only
means at hand.

276. Sorghum hay. — In the semi-arid region of the Southwest,
the sorghum plant possesses many advantages for producing a
coarse hay of high feeding value. In parts of Kansas and Texas,
stockmen plant the seed by means of grain drills ; at other times
it is sown broadcast. Sorghum may also be planted in wide drills
and cultivated like corn. This giant grass, when sown broadcast,
is cut with a mower, and after partially drying is gathered into
windrows, and finally into bunches of considerable size, where it
remains until required for feeding, or the bunches are gathered
into stacks.

When planted in drills, sorghum should be harvested in shocks,
as is common with Indian corn. The stems of the saccharine
sorghums are rich in sugar and are eagerly consumed by farm
stock in winter. The leaves .of all varieties of sorghum form a
bright, palatable, nutritious hay, free from dust and very useful

1 Kept. Kan. Bd. Agr.. Sept. 1894.

2 Bui. 20, Miss. Expt. Sta.

The Grasses, Fresh and Cured. 191

for feeding horses especially, also for sheep and cattle. The sor-
ghum plant may be successfully used for silage.

277. The cereals as forage plants. — Wheat, oats, barley and
rye plants may serve for pasture and hay production in many
cases with profit. These grasses, for such they are, may be sown
at almost any time during the growing season, and will soon cover
the ground with a carpet of green, affording much nutritious
pasture, where otherwise nothing of value would be produced.

Eye sown in August will furnish pasture, three or four weeks
later, that will continue useful until winter sets in, and is again
available as soon as vegetation starts in the spring. Stewart1
states that fifty sheep may be continuously pastured in summer
upon six acres of land sown to rye the previous fall, if, in addi-
tion to the pasture, they are fed a little linseed meal and corn.

Green rye, when used for soiling or pasturing cows, has the
reputation of imparting a bad flavor to milk. This trouble can
usually be averted by turning the cows to pasture,' immediately
after milking, for two or three hours, after which time other feed
should be given.

Barley furnishes an excellent pasture in a short time after
seeding, and yields liberally of green forage. Sown in fields
from which a grain crop has been harvested, barley will grow two
or three feet in height and may even head out before heavy fall
frosts. At the Alabama (Canebrake) Station2 a field seeded in
the fall with barley yielded 23, 100 pounds of green forage by the
following March. Winter wheat can likewise be used for pasture
and yields a nutritious herbage suitable for soiling. In southern
Kansas winter wheat pastured by cows in mild weather is said to
impart a grass flavor to what otherwise would grade as winter
butter.

278. Oats or barley and peas. — The value of oats and peas
and barley and peas for forage crops has been tested by Eoberts
and Clinton at the Cornell Station.3 They write: "Banking
next to corn as a forage crop and a close second, comes oats and
peas. In the two years in which we have been conducting experi-

1 "Feeding Animals."
a Bui. 9.
3 Bui. 135.

192 Feeds and Feeding.

ments in the production of forage this combination has proven
itself well worthy of a place on every farm where stock is kept.
It is valuable either for pasture, for cutting as a soiling crop, or
when allowed to mature it may be cured for hay, making a most
valuable article. When planted in succession of about two weeks,
the first planting being as early in the spring as conditions will
permit, a succession of highly nutritious forage is produced which
is greatly relished by stock. If a more general use was made of
oats and peas for summer feeding it would greatly decrease the
expense of the production of milk and the cost of maintaining
cattle and economize land very materially. A. highly nutritious
forage would be obtained, rich in protein and furnishing nearly a
balanced ration for milch cows. A large amount can be produced
per acre and it may be grown from early spring to late fall. A
slight freeze does not affect it, and it may be sown in the spring
before frosts are over, and the late forage frequently remains in
good condition until December. The oats and peas at this Station
sown August 1, 1896, were in good condition for feeding until a
severe freeze on the night of December 2 cut them down. For
late forage, however, barley and peas are recommended instead
of oats and peas. For sowing any time after July 1st, substitute
barley for oats. The reason for this is that in late summer barley
makes more rapid growth, is less likely to attacks of rust and
other fungous diseases than are oats."

279. The small grains as hay crops. — Wheat, oats and barley,
used as grasses, are capable of producing excellent hay if har-
vested at the proper time. Barley constitutes the common hay
crop of the Pacific Slope outside the alfalfa region, and there is no
reason why this plant, as well as oats and wheat, should not be
employed as a hay producer in other portions of the country. If
the meadows fail to yield the usual supply of hay, the loss can be
made good by having recourse to small grain grown as a substi-
tute. When used for hay production, grasses from the cereal
grains should be cut when the seed is in the early milk stage, at
which time the stems and leaves may be easily cured into bright,
dust-free hay of a quality well suited for feeding horses or dairy
cows.

The Grasses, Fresh and Cured. 193

Crops of the cereals which have made too heavy a growth of
straw because of wet weather usually lodge badly, and when this
occurs the yield of grain is unsatisfactory. Such overgrown grain
can be converted into hay with more profit than would result from
a light crop of poor grain, which costs much to harvest.

280. Straw. — While primarily used for bedding purposes, the
softer kinds, especially oat and barley straw, are serviceable for
feeding purposes. In Canada and England chaifed straw is com-
monly mixed with pulped roots and the mass allowed to soften
and even ferment slightly; thus prepared, cattle readily consume
large quantities with satisfactory returns. Oat straw, because of
its nutrients and its soft, pliable stems, leads for feeding purposes,
with barley following. Wheat straw, being coarse and stiff, is
not as satisfactory, though some will be eaten by cattle. Bye
straw is woody, harsh and should be used for bedding purposes.

281. Chaff. — Wheat and oat chaff contain more protein than
straw, and because of their fineness and softness they are useful in
feeding stock. Often with chaff there are found light and broken
kernels which have escaped the threshers; by these the value of
chaff, so called, is materially increased.

282. Flax straw. — Where flax is grown for the seed, the straw
or haulm is generally wasted. Stockmen who have fed flax straw
to horses and cattle report satisfactory results from its use. Fre-
quently some flax seed is left in the straw, which increases its
value. There seems no foundation for the statement that the fiber
of flax straw forms balls of indigestible matter in the stomachs of
farm animals. It is no doubt digested the same as other fibrous
matter — the lint of cotton, for example. Some flax straw may
always be fed, and during times of scarcity it will prove a boon
to the stockman who overcomes his prejudice and supplies it freely
to his hungry animals.

283. Ergot. — At times the grains of the rye plant and seeds of
the grasses are attacked by a fungus called ergot which causes
them to become several times their normal size. Ergot grains
are usually spur-like in form, quite rigid, and nearly black in
color. Being quite large on rye, ergot grains may be detected
when the observer is some distance away. On the heads of the

194 Feeds and Feeding.

smaller grasses they can only be found by close inspection, but
this is not difficult when one is familiar with their appearance.
When eaten by animals ergot may produce convulsions, paralysis
of the hind limbs, slowness of heart action and death by exhaus-
tion. With pregnant animals in an advanced period of gestation
it may produce abortion. Epidemics of abortion in cows have
been traced to this cause, and veterinary surgeons employ ergot
to expedite languid labor. Ergotism shows itself most commonly
in deranged nutrition; the limbs of the animal affected turn black
and shrivel, dying as though attacked by dry gangrene. 1

There have been several serious outbreaks of this disease in
the last form noted in different parts of the United States, gener-
ally in the Western states. Much needless excitement has been
caused in some instances through reports current in the press that
the ailment was the dreaded contagious " foot-and-mouth ? ' dis-
ease. Only cattle have so far been attacked. Horses, it is said,
reject hay containing ergot.

The observant stockman can usually forestall all trouble from
ergot by examining the grass heads in the meadows and pastures
immediately before haying and avoiding grass carrying the fungus.
A little study will enable one to detect ergot grains even on grasses
as fine and small as blue grass and redtop, while they are seen
without difficulty on heads of timothy and wild rye.

Ergot poisoning generally makes its appearance in late winter
or early spring with cattle in poor condition that are subsisting
wholly or largely upon hay. It announces its presence by a dis-
eased condition of the limbs, the extremities of which are cold
and almost lifeless. The trouble may continue until the hoofs
slough off with dry gangrene. Cattle that are affected should
have their feed changed at once to remove the cause of the trouble;
they should be warmly housed and given a variety of nourish-
ing feed.

Stalker 2 affirms that cattle fed corn are never poisoned by
ergot, — probably because this feed is nourishing and furnishes
an abundance of heat to the body. (177)

1 For account of ergot and ergotism see article Ergota, National Dis-
pensatory; also Special Report on Diseases of Cattle and Cattle Feeding,
Report Bureau Animal Industry, 1895-6. U. S. Dept. Agr., Washington.

2 Bui. 17, Iowa Sta.

CHAPTEE XH.

LEGUMINOUS PLANTS FOE GREEN FORAGE AND HAY.

Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents.

Name of feed.

Dry
matter
in 100
pounds.

Digestible nutrients
in 100 pounds.

Fertilizing constitu-
ents in 1,000 pounds.

Pro-
tein.

Carbo-
hy-
drates.

Ether
ex-
tract.

Nitro-
gen.

Phos-
phoric
acid.

Pot-
ash.

Green forage.
Red clover at different
stages

Lbs.

29.2
25.2
19.1
28.2
16.4
24.9

84.7
78.8
90.3
90.3
90.4
91.6
89.3
89.9
86.4

Lbs.

2.9
2.7
2.4
3.9
1.8
3.2

6.8
5.7
8.4
11.5
10.5
11.0
10.8
2.3
4.3

Lbs.

14.8
13.1
9.1
12.7
8.7
11.0

35.8
32.0
42.5
42.2
34.9
39.6
38.6
40.0
32.3

Lbs.

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.2
0.5

1.7
1.9
1.5
1.5
1.2
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.8

Lbs.

5.3
4.4
4.3
7.2
2.7
2.9

20.7
22.3
23.4
27.5
20.5
21.9
19.5
17.5
14.3

Lbs.

1.3
1.1
1.3
1.3
3.0
1.5

3.8
5.5
6.7
5.2
4.0
5.1
5.2
4.0
3.5

Lbs.

4.6
2.0
4.9
5.6
3.1
5.3

22.0
12.2
22.3
18.1
13.1
16.8
14.7
13.2
10.2

Alsike bloom

Crimson clover

Alfalfa

Cowpea

Sola bean

Hay and straw.
Red clover, medium

Red clover, mammoth
Alsike clover

\Vhite clover

Alfalfa

Cowpea

Soja-bean straw. . . ..

Pea-vine straw.

284. Concerning legumes. — The prominent characteristic of
the true grasses, including the corn plant, is their large content
of carbohydrates with a meager amount of protein; in the legumes
we have a relatively large proportion of protein to carbohydrates
and fat. Each of these great groups of agricultural plants, then,
presents to the feeder what the other lacks, and so are comple-
mentary to each other.

The highest use of the corn plant is bearing grain, with a large
secondary place in supplying forage. In the legumes we have
for the most part forage plants only, the seeds being generally too
small to be useful for food, though beans and peas are an excep-
tion. Another marked difference between the legumes and the
grasses, including the cereals, is their after or residual effect upon

196

Feeds and Feeding.

the soil. "When the latter have been grown for a period upon a
tract they have exhausted its fertility in some measure. Where
clover is grown, although much fertility is removed with the crop,
the land still seems in excellent heart for other crops which follow.

The discovery that the free nitrogen of the air can be fixed by
the legumes and turned over to the soil, thus securing without
cost to the farmer one of the most precious elements so largely
required by plants, has at last explained what was so long a
mystery, and should make us doubly appreciative of these most
useful plants.

In the northeastern United States the clovers are the commonly
cultivated leguminous plants. In the southern portion of our
country, crimson and Japan clover, the cowpea, soja bean and
other legumes flourish, while the whole western half of the United
States is served by that wonderful representative, the alfalfa or
lucern plant.

285. Red clover. — This plant is found on every well-regulated
farm in the northeastern United States, where with grasses it
stands prominent in rotation with corn and the cereals. Eed
clover serves for both pasture and hay purposes, yielding large
returns.

At the Wisconsin Station,1 Woll, cutting clover three times
during the season, secured the results given below:

Yield of three crops of red clover — Wisconsin Station.

Date of cutting.

Green
clover.

Dry

matter.

Dry

matter.

First crop May 29

Lbs.
29,220

Per cent.
8 2

Lbs.
2,402

Second crop July 16

16,020

22 5

3,599

Third crop, Sept. 1

7,221

27.5

1,986

Here is a yield of over twenty-five tons of green forage per
acre, which may be regarded as representing the maximum
return for this crop. From one-half to two- thirds this amount
may be relied upon by the stockman as a fair crop under practical
conditions.

Kept. 1889.

Leguminous Plants for Green Forage and Hay.

197

It will be seen that the first crop contained but 8.2 per cent, of
dry matter, or less than is found in skim milk. It is evident that
this crop was cut some time before it had reached the proper
maturity for making hay. Here is an explanation why early-cut
green clover, when used for soiling cattle, often gives such un-
satisfactory returns; such forage is mostly water, and the cattle
receiving it cannot consume enough to gain the nourishment they
require. The total dry matter of the three crops amounted to
nearly four tons — a most satisfactory showing.

286. Development of nutrients in the clover plant. — Hunt, of
the Illinois Station, l has arranged the results of studies relating
to the development of the clover plant for hay production, con-
ducted by himself and others, in tables, portions of which are
here presented:

Yield of hay, and nutrients in the same, from the clover plant cut at
different stages — various Stations.

Stage of growth at time of
cutting.

Fresh
sub-
stance.

Pro-
tein.

Ether
ex-
tract

Crude
fiber.

Nitro-
gen-free
extract.

Ash.

Medium red clover.
Illinois (Hunt).
Full bloom

Lbs.
3 600

Lbs.
400

Lbs.
197

Lbs.

660

Lbs.
1 052

Lbs.
217

Three-fourths heads dead

3,260

379

156

672

1,024

196

Pennsylvania (Jordan).
Heads in bloom

4 210

539

116

1,033

1 731

260

Some heads dead

4 141

469

106

1,248

1,379

226

Heads all dead

3 915

421

1,260

1,378

208

Connecticut (At water).
Just before bloom

1 618

198

384

664

115

Full bloom

1 641

189

390

682

107

Nearly out of bloom

2,054

230

523

837

129

Nearly ripe

1 802

158

484

746

Mammoth red clover.
Illinois (Hunt).
Beginning to bloom

4 340

443

212

971

1 317

252

Full bloom

5,440

519

237

1,404

1,612

266

Nearly out of bloom

4,213

386

173

1,110

1,504

218

We observe that clover gave the largest returns of protein
when the heads were in full bloom or just past that stage. When
the crop stood until some of the heads were dead or later, the

1 Bui. 5.

198 Feeds and Feeding.

protein content was materially reduced, and with the heads all
dead it was still further diminished. There was also a diminution
in the ether extract and ash after the full-bloom stage of develop-
ment was passed. The nitrogen-free extract, carrying the most
valuable carbohydrates, was also materially lessened after the
plant had passed the full-bloom stage. On the other hand, the
crude fiber, which renders hay woody and is the least valuable
portion, was increased in the period between full bloom and the
time when the heads were all dead. Probably much of the loss
in nutrients at this time was through the leaves and finer parts of
the plant falling off and wasting on the ground.

287. The proper time for cutting clover. — The table just given
throws much light on this important topic, and clearly points to
full bloom as theoretically the best time for cutting clover for hay.
If cut before bloom the amount of water in the crop is so excess-
ive that the process of hay making is slow and unsatisfactory. If
delayed until the blossom heads are all brown, the conversion into
hay is much simplified, for the plants have then parted with much
of the water they carry while developing, and are consequently
easily dried. But such hay, as shown by the table, has lost much
of its valuable protein and carbohydrates. Practice and theory,
then, combine in setting the period when one-third of the clover
heads are turning brown, as the best, all factors considered, for
hay making.

288. Methods of clover hay making. — Hay making from clover
has fallen into three lines, each of which has its advantages accord-
ing to locality and weather conditions. Under the first system
the clover is mown as soon as the dew is off, and by frequent ted-
dings and turnings, aided by bright, hot sunshine, it is ready for
raking in the afternoon, and housing before five o' clock, at which
time the gathering dew shuts off further operations. Under this
system the clover plant must be well ripened, indeed past its
prime, for hay, and the weather very favorable, if good results
are to be secured.

The second system differs from the first only in cutting the
clover so late in the afternoon that the dew does not materially
affect the plants because they have as yet wilted but little. The

Leguminous Plants for Green Forage and Hay.

199

following day hay making proceeds as rapidly as possible, the
crop being placed under cover before night- fall.

Under the third system clover is cut after the dew is off and
remains without tedding until afternoon, when it is gathered into
windrows, and from these into bunches or cocks before the dew
falls, which stand several days, undergoing a sweating process.
After sweating they are opened in flakes, which give off their
moisture rapidly, and the material is soon ready for the barn.
Hay curing in cocks is often protected by muslin covers or caps,
which are useful in protecting the bunches from rain.

Whichever system is adopted, too great care cannot be exer-
cised in preserving the finer parts of the plant, which are liable
to be wasted, leaving only the coarse, woody stems to be gathered.
Under all systems of hay production the clover plant should not
be placed in barn or stack when carrying external moisture, either
dew or rain. This foreign moisture appears to be more detri-
mental in the curing of hay than the natural sap of the plant.

289. Losses in curing. — According to Wolff, l from twenty-five
to forty per cent, of the dry substance of clover hay can be ex-
tracted by cold water. Eitthausen cured one sample of clover
hay quickly and allowed another to lie a fortnight in the rain.
The composition of the two samples was as follows:

Composition of good clover hay and that injured by rain — Ritthausen.

Not rained,
upon.

Rained
upon.

Water :

Per cent.
16 0

Per cent
16 0

Protein

14.6

15 8

Crude fiber

25 3

37.4

Nitrogen-free and ether extracts

36 1

23 4

Ash

8 0

7 5

We see that the sample rained upon contained more protein than
did the one which was well preserved. Evidently much more of
the nitrogen- free extract than protein is removed by soaking the
hay with water. This explains the fact so often noticed in prac-

1 Farm Foods, Cousins, p. 160.

200 Feeds and Feeding.

tice, that clover hay apparently rich in protein may have little
value owing to the large quantity of crude fiber and the small
amount of nitrogen-free extract it contains. Contrary to the show-
ing made above, a large portion of protein is often removed from
hay when soaked by rain. (304)

290. Spontaneous combustion. — It seems beyond question that
barns containing clover hay and stacks of the same are occasion-
ally consumed by fire originating through spontaneous combus-
tion. The subject though an old one is still involved in mystery.
Cohn, of Breslau, l considers that spontaneous combustion in hay
is produced through the action of a mould fungus. . -

Reviewing the many experiences reported, 2 it seems that there
is danger from spontaneous combustion only in seasons when the
clover plant contains an unusual amount of moisture at haying
time, or when the hay material carries to stack or barn more or
less water foreign to it, i. e., rain or dew.

291. Use of clover hay. — Clover hay is not usually considered a
satisfactory roughage for the horse, the dust it carries proving
very detrimental to that animal. A limited amount of good
clover hay may, however, be fed to horses of all kinds with favor-
able results.

For the cow there is no better roughage than good clover hay.
It furnishes the large amount of protein and ash essential to milk,
and is palatable and much relished. With well- cured clover
hay forming one-half or two-thirds of the roughage of the ration,
the dairyman is able to cut down the allowance of concentrated
feed, thus reducing the cost of the ration. (653) For growing
calves and young stock clover hay is most important. If it is more
essential one place than another, probably the shepherd has first
claim to clover hay, for his animals of all degrees will not give
as favorable returns from any other form of roughage.

For soiling purposes clover holds an important place, since the
crop is available early in the season and is highly relished by
cattle. The writer secured a yield of clover used for soiling pur-
poses of 27,000 pounds per acre in three cuttings. (365) At

1 Veterinary Journal, 31, p. 310.

2 See various articles in Breeder's Gazette, 1889.

Leguminous Plants for Green Forage and Hay. 201

the Pennsylvania Station, J yields of six to seven tons in one case
and over thirteen tons in another are reported.

For pigs, clover pasture serves an excellent purpose, building
good bone and a framework capable of taking on fat rapidly when
the period of receiving concentrated food arrives. We can find no
records of the yields of clover fields when devoted to the pastur-
age of swine. Our Stations should report experiments on this
point. In feeding green clover one should always have in mind
its extreme succulence, and that the quantity which the animal
is capable of consuming may not contain the requisite nourish-
ment if the plants are very succulent.

Bloat or hoven menaces cattle and sheep pastured on the clover
field. To avoid this the cattle should not be turned to pasture
while very hungry or before the dew has risen. Further, some
dry forage, such as hay or straw, should be placed in feed racks
in the pasture. To this cattle and sheep will resort when threat-
ened with bloat. It is said that if cattle and sheep can have
access to dry roughage while feeding on pasture, they will not
suffer from this ailment.

292. Mammoth clover. — The distinctive characteristics of mam-
moth clover are its rank growth, coarse stems, and the feature of
blooming two or three weeks later than the medium variety. This
variety yields but one cutting during the season, and because
of this the field is frequently used for pasture for several weeks
in the spring. After removing the stock the plants shoot up
and soon are ready for the mower. Wallace 2 recommends that
medium and mammoth clover seed be sown in equal proportions,
together with grasses for pasture, holding that since the mammoth
variety blooms later, there is more nearly a succession of good
forage than is possible with only one variety.

293. Alsike clover. — This variety of clover has weak stems,
which fall to the ground unless supported by attendant grasses.
Well-made alsike hay ranks with the best, though the yield is not
large. At the Illinois Station,3 Hunt and Morrow secured 1.2
tons of alsike hay against 2.1 tons of medium clover hay per acre.

1 Kept. 1888-89.

2 "Clover Culture."
8 Bui. 15.

202 Feeds and Feeding.

This variety of clover flourishes on land too moist for other
clovers, though it will not grow in really wet soils. While red
clover usually dies out the second year, alsike stands for many
years, this feature increasing its value for pasture purposes.

294. Scarlet or crimson clover. — This clover is an annual,
resembling the wheat plant in this phase of its habits. If sown
in late summer or early fall, in the southern part of the United
States it grows somewhat during the winter, and with the coming
of spring advances rapidly to the hay period, which is reached
by late spring, after which the plants die. In making its round
of growth in the fall and spring, crimson clover resembles winter
wheat. On the other hand, if sown in spring it blossoms in late
summer, matures its seeds and dies, thus following the habit of
spring wheat. The winter form of this plant has flourished with
remarkable success from Delaware1 southward to the Carolinas. 2
Crimson clover can be grown throughout the Southern states as
a winter plant, but its use has not yet become general. The
Northern states are too cold for fall-sown crimson clover, but it
may be used as a summer crop with some advantage, though
generally it is inferior to red clover. Wherever it flourishes,
crimson clover will be found useful for soiling purposes, and if
cut early it makes hay of fair quality.

295. Danger to horses from overripe crimson clover. — The blos-
som heads of crimson clover are covered with minute hairs, which
become rigid as the heads ripen. Investigations conducted by the
Department of Agriculture, 3 Washington, show that death may
result to horses when fed overripe crimson clover. A circular
from the Department states: "If overripe crimson clover is fed
to horses, the bristly hairs (of the heads) will accumulate in the
stomach or intestines in spherical balls, which are increased in
size by repeated additions of the same matter to their surfaces,
the whole mass tending to become more compact because most of
the hairs, upwardly barbed, are constantly pushing toward the
center, base foremost. When a ball has reached a sufficient size
(whether after a few days or several weeks we have no means of

1 Bui. 16, Del. Sta.

2 Bui. 73, North Car. Sta.

3 Circular No. 8, Div. of Botany, 1896.

Leguminous Plants for Green Forage and Hay. 203

knowing), it acts as a plug in the intestine, interfering with the
vital functions, and finally, after a few hours of intense suffering,
the horse dies from peritonitis or some related difficulty."

There seems no cure for this ailment. It can be avoided by
curing crimson clover into hay at the proper stage for making
that product. Hay from overripe crimson clover, and the refuse
left when seed is threshed, should not be fed to horses.

296. Japan clover. — This plant has proved most helpful to
Southern agriculture because it adds nitrogen to the soil, binds it
together, prevents washing, and furnishes a nutritious food for
stock. On sterile land it yields pasture only, while under favor-
able conditions it reaches a height of from twenty to thirty
inches, furnishing as much as three tons of hay per acre, which,
according to Tracy, l is equal to the best clover hay. (650)

297. Burr clover. — This plant is best known in California,
where, growing wild, it furnishes abundant winter pasture. Tracy
recommends its use in the South. Its best growth is from Feb-
ruary to May, after which it disappears. Harrington, of the
Texas Station,2 reports the plant in favor with cattle, but not
relished by horses.

298. Alfalfa or lucern. — This plant flourishes in the western
half of the United States, and is of even more importance to that
vast region than is red clover to the eastern United States. In
the San Joaquin Valley, California, alfalfa reaches its highest per-
fection, yielding under the hot suns on the alluvial soils of that
district from five to seven cuttings of from one to two tons each,
annually. In Colorado and Utah two to three cuttings are obtained.
In the humid region, especially Kansas and Nebraska, alfalfa is
grown to a limited extent, interest in the crop having much
increased of late. It is also gaining favor in the East as the
farmers learn to grow it.

299. Yield of alfalfa.— At the New York (Geneva) Station,*
Wheeler reports the following yields of alfalfa cut four times dur-
ing the season for soiling:

1 Bui. 20, Miss. Sta.

2 Bui. 20.

3 Bui. 118.

204

Feeds and Feeding.

Yield of alfalfa during three years — New York (Geneva} Station.

Year.

Actual
area.

Green
weight.

Dry

matter.

Protein.

Albu-
minoids.

Date of first
cutting.

Acres.

Lbs.

1894..

2.3

64,596

17,034

2,574

2,068

June 1.

1894..

1.3

33,803

8,116

1,660

1,278

May 11.

1895..

1.3

37,129

8,666

1,452

1,120

May 15.

1896..

1.3

34,991

8,527

1,522

1,167

May 27.

1896..

1.25

36,514

7,461

1,302

1,054

May 12.

Here are returns of fourteen tons of green forage per acre, with
dry matter exceeding three tons. The date of first cutting is a
point of much interest to stockmen, especially dairymen who
practice soiling. "We learn that in 1894 the first plants were
ready for soiling May 11, thus furnishing very early forage.

300. Iowa experience with alfalfa. — At the Iowa Station,1 Cur-
tis reports alfalfa under trial. The same season after seeding in
the spring, two tons of hay were secured in three cuttings; the
second season the total of three cuttings, made June 1, July 7,
and September 3, was as follows for plats seeded by different
methods:

Upland,

Bottom,

tons.

Plat I. Broadcast

5 3

5.52

Plat II. Drilled one way

5 18

5.52

Plat III. Cross drilled

5.25

5.12

Plat IV. Press drilled....

5.08

4.22

The third cutting was from five to ten per cent, lighter than the
first two, which were practically equal. The hay was found to
be of excellent quality, apparently no more difficult to cure than
that from clover. Further experience is necessary to determine
whether this plant will stand winter conditions in Iowa, but at the
date of reporting all was favorable.

301. Alfalfa compared with corn. — At the Colorado Station,8
Cooke compared a crop of dent corn from one acre of land with
returns from a like area of alfalfa three years seeded on an adjoin-
ing plat. The corn crop was a fair one, equaling fourteen tons of

1 Bui. 34.

2 Bui. 26.

Leguminous Plants for Green Forage and Hay.

205

green forage per acre. The alfalfa was cut three times, yielding
4, 600 pounds of hay at the first cutting, 3, 350 pounds the second,
and 3,250 pounds at the third cutting, or a total of 5.6 tons of hay
per acre. The total digestible nutrients of the two crops are pre-
sented in the following table:

Comparative yield of corn forage and alfalfa hay — Colorado Station.

Total.

Digestible.

Corn.

Alfalfa.

Corn.

Alfalfa.

Dry matter

Lbs.

5,539
405
3,263
1,472
84
315

Lbs.

10,304
1,602

4,782
2,800
246
829

Lbs.

3,605
296
2,186
1,060
63

Lbs.

5,611
1,198
3,114
1,198
101

Albuminoids

Starch, sugar, etc

Fiber

Ether extract . .

Ash

It will be seen that the alfalfa yielded nearly twice as many
pounds of dry matter as the corn, with the digestible nutrients far
in the lead. The protein of the alfalfa was three times that of the
corn.

302. Nutrients in the alfalfa crop. — At the Utah Station,1
Widtsoe made a study of the nutrients of the alfalfa crop, and
iome of the facts gathered are presented in the following table:

Nutrients per acre in three cuttings of alfalfa — Utah Station.
First Cutting.

Condition of growth.

Pro-
tein.

Nitrogen-
free ex-
tract.

Crude
fiber.

Ether
extract.

Ash.

May 4.

Height, 6 J inches

Lbs.

607

Lbs.
168

Lbs.
40

Lbs.
167

June 1.
Height, 18 inches

697

1,247

618

103

369

July 7.
Full flower

745

2,278

2 108

118

431

Aug. 10.
Flowers fallen, leaves dry
Aug. 24.
Still drier

644

428

2,298
1 776

2,531
2 544

116
94

423
311

1 Bui. 48.

206

Feeds and Feeding.
Second Cutting.

July 7.
Budding.

334

657

357

197

July 20.
Medium bloom

519

1,140

1,031

314

Aug. 3.
Full flower

551

1 529

1 316

323

Aug. 24.
Leaves dry

388

1,484

1,329

333

Third Cutting.

Aug. 17

138

317

155

Auff 31

322

757

634

211

Sept. 14

298

934

818

214

Widtsoe concludes that to insure a large yield of dry matter
and albuminoids, alfalfa should be cut not earlier than the period
of middle bloom, and that the blossoms should not be past full
bloom. This is from two to three weeks after the flower buds
appear.

303. Losses in hay making. — Headden, of the Colorado Sta-
tion, l found that " a very leafy, small-stemmed alfalfa plant may
have more than 60 per cent, of leaves, and, consequently, less than
40 per cent, of stems, but the stems of an average plant will amount
to between 40 and 60 per cent. . . . Inasmuch as many of the
smaller stems may go with the leaves, the loss in hay making
can, and in some cases does, amount to from 50 to 60 and even
more per cent. . . . We have been led by our experience
and observation to the conclusion that the minimum loss from the
falling off of leaves and stems in successful hay making amounts
to from 15 to 20 per cent., and in cases where the conditions have
been unfavorable to as much as 60 and even 66 per cent, of the
dry crop, or, for each 1,700 pounds of hay taken off the field, at
least 300 pounds of leaves and small stems are left, and, in very
bad cases, as much as 1,200 pounds may be left for each 800
pounds taken. Of course, the latter is extreme, but it does occa-
sionally happen even in this land of perpetual sunshine. ' '

304. Damage to alfalfa hay from rain. — Headden studied the
losses in alfalfa hay due to bad weather. One sample of hay re-

* Bui. 35.

Leguminous Plants for Green Forage and Hay. 207

mained out fifteen days, during which time it was subjected to three
rain storms, amounting in all to 1.76 inches. The other sample
was from hay cured without injury by rain. Samples of this hay
were analyzed with the results shown below:

Hay not Hay

damaged. damaged.

Ash 12.2 per cent. 12.7 per cent.

Crude fiber 26.5 per cent. 38.8 percent,

Etherextract 3.9 percent. 3.8percent.

Protein 18.7 per cent. 11.0 percent.

Nitrogen-free extract 38.7 per cent. 33.6 per cent.

It will be seen that the crude fiber, the poorest part of the hay,
was increased, and the protein and nitrogen-free extract, the
more valuable portions, were materially reduced by weathering.
Headden concludes that the estimate of farmers that storms re-
duce the value of hay one- half is reasonable. (289)

305. Alfalfa in the eastern United States. — Attempts to grow
alfalfa in the Eastern states have generally ended in failure. The
wonderful results obtained in the West have served to keep alive
an interest in this plant and stimulated renewed trials from
time to time. The results obtained by several Stations show that
large returns are possible under favorable conditions. In search-
ing for the causes of failure, it appears that the most general one
is insufficient care in securing a good stand of plants. To reach
this end the ground seeded to alfalfa must be free from weed-
seeds, so that the young plants, which are weak when they first
spring up, may grow untrammeled. The desired end will be ac-
complished by summer-fallowing the proposed alfolfa field for one
season in order to reduce the soil to proper fineness, and especially
to sprout and kill all weed-seeds lying near the surface. The
following spring sow from twenty to thirty pounds of alfalfa seed
in drills or cover lightly with a harrow.

306. Manner of growth. — The alfalfa plant is a gross feeder,
its tap root reaching many feet into the soil. Headden, of the
Colorado Station, l found alfalfa roots twelve and one-half feet
below the surface. This indicates that the plant should have a
.subsoil through which the roots may pass, with water not nearer

1 Bui. 35.

208 Feeds and Feeding.

than six feet. A gravelly or sandy subsoil affords the most favor-
able conditions for downward root growth, though they are not
absolutely essential. Although under favorable circumstances a
fair crop of hay may be secured the first season, alfalfa requires
two or three years to become well established.

Headden reports from actual count on small areas that the num-
ber of alfalfa plants per acre varied from 70,000 on a field in
poor condition to 653,000 on one seeded six months before, and
526,000 on a field ten years established, the latter yielding four
tons of hay per acre.

307. Alfalfa for pasture. — This plant is extensively used for
pasture in the West, especially in the Salt Eiver Valley, Arizona,
where large numbers of cattle and swine are successfully grazed
upon it. The hoofs of farm animals work injury to the crowns of
the plant, and this shortens the life of the alfalfa field given over
to pasturage. Sheep crop the tender sprouts too closely. Where
possible it is better to use the mower and carry the forage to the
animals. With cattle and sheep feeding on green alfalfa, there
is always danger from bloat, against which precautions must be
taken. (291)

At the Kansas Agricultural College, l Shelton, pasturing pigs
on half an acre of alfalfa during the summer, fed 1,760 pounds of
corn additional, and secured a gain of 717 pounds. Allowing 329
pounds as the probable product from the corn, there remains to
the credit of the half acre of alfalfa 388 pounds of gain. (875)

308. Alfalfa hay. — In making hay from this plant the greatest
care should be exercised in saving the leaves and finer parts, so
easily wasted. The green plants cut with the mower should be
gathered when partly dry with the hay rake into windrows suf-
ficiently loose to dry still more, but compact enough to hold the
leaves and finer parts. Hay making from alfalfa cannot be taught
by books, but the figures presented by the Colorado Station show-
ing the possible losses in hay making should incite the farmer and
stockman to a careful study of the principles underlying success-
ful practice in handling the crop. There is no more palatable
roughage for farm animals than good alfalfa hay. This hay is best

iRep. Prof, of Agr., 1884.

Leguminous Plants for Green Forage and Hay. 209

suited for dairy cows, fattening sheep and fattening cattle, though,
it is used to a limited extent for horse feeding. The large amount
of protein contained in the plant, either green or cured, makes it
possible for the feeder to properly maintain his animals upon
alfalfa with but a limited allowance of grain or other feeding
stuff. (822)

309. Cowpea. — This plant is used in the South more largely
for renovating the soil than for forage, yet it has considerable
value for the latter purpose. The following yields per acre are
reported from the Georgia Station1 by Bedding: 13,020 pounds
of green matter, 2,618 pounds of dry matter, and 840 pounds of
seed.

At the South Carolina Station, 2 McBryde reports a yield of 3.6
tons of cowpea hay per acre. Analyses showed that this forage
contained more than twice the digestible nutrients harvested in
an acre of oats yielding 40 bushels, and more than 40 per cent,
more than an acre of corn yielding 30 bushels.

The Southern farmer has large use for this plant by sowing late
after oats or wheat, or in the corn field as a catch crop. The cow-
pea vine may be mixed with corn forage for making silage. Vir-
ginia and Kansas mark the northern limit of profitable culture
for the cowpea in general, though early varieties may be grown
with advantage in southern Illinois, and even further north where
sown on particularly warm and favorable soils. (230)

310. The soja (or soy) bean. — According to Georgeson, 3 the soja
bean has been grown for six years with success at the Kansas Sta-
tion. A field of wheat stubble sown in July gave a crop which
matured before frost. The stiff stems of this plant reach a height
of from two to three feet, and the yield is better than the navy or
field bean. If made into hay, as much as three tons per acre may
be secured from a field of soja-bean plants. This plant is gain-
ing friends at the South, but is too tender to be generally useful
at the North in competition with red clover and alfalfa. (229)

311. The common field-pea vine. — The common field-pea is
grown in Canada and the Northern states for seed and human

* Bui. 17. 2 Kept. 1889.

8 Prairie Farmer, Nov. 9, 1895.
14

210 Feeds and Feeding.

food; and to some extent for forage. A combination of peas and
oats, if cut early, forms a forage of high nutritive quality much
appreciated by farm stock, especially sheep and dairy cows. In
the grain which this plant furnishes and the hay which it is pos-
sible to secure from it, the stockman located far north has a fair
compensation for the absence of the corn crop. (228)

312. Hairy vetch. — This plant, from Eussia, is under trial with
promise of success in some districts. Sown in the fall with rye,
it finds support from the rye stems and furnishes much forage of
fair quality. The seed may also be sown in the spring. The
stems of the plant are weak, and for this reason it is not useful
when grown alone. Tracy1 reports that in the South the vines
of this vetch may reach a length of from ten to twelve feet, form-
ing a dense mass of forage two feet in depth. He reports that
stock of all kinds eat this plant greedily both in pasture and as hay.

313. Fertilizing constituents of legumes. — Now that it is defi-
nitely ascertained that the legumes fix the free nitrogen of the air
in root, stem and leaf, this group of agricultural plants should
have a double interest with the farmer- stockman who looks to the
welfare of both fields and stock. In nitrogen and potash the
legumes lead the cereals, while the phosphoric acid is in fair
quantity. The manure from legume hay is more valuable than
that from the corn plant or straw from the cereals.

1 Farmers' Bui. 18, U. S. Dept. Agr.

CHAPTEE XIII.

MISCELLANEOUS FEEDING STUFFS.

I. Hoots and Tubers.
Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents.

Name of feed.

Dry
matter
in 100
pounds.

Digestible nutrients
in 100 pounds.

Fertilizing constitu-
ents in 1,000 pounds.

Pro-
tein.

Carbo-
hy-
drates.

Ether
ex-
tract.

Nitro-
gen.

Phos-
phoric
acid.

Pot-
ash.

Potato

Lbs.

21.1
13.0
13.5
9.1
9.5
11.4
11.4
11.7
20.0

Lbs.

0.9
1.2
1.1
1.1
1.0
1.0
0.8
1.6
2.0

Lbs.

16.3
8.8
10.2
5.4
7.2
8.1
7.8
11.2
16.8

Lbs.

0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2

Lbs.

3.2
2.4
2.2
1.9
1.8
1.9
1.5
1.8
2.6

Lbs.

1.2
0.9
1.0
0.9
1.0
1.2
0.9
2.0
1.4

Lbs.

4.6
4.4
4.8
3.8
3.9
4.9
5.1
4.4
4.7

Beet, common

Beet, sugar

Beet, mangel

Flat turnip

Ruta-baga

( Carrot

Parsnip

Artichoke

314. Yield of root crops.— At the Ohio Station,1 Thome and
Hickman, as the result of trials covering twelve years, report
that sugar beets gave an average yield of sixteen tons per acre on
land which during the same time would yield sixty bushels of
shelled corn per acre. They estimate that beets cost two dollars
per ton to raise, harvest and place in the cellar. At the Ottawa
(Canada) Station, 2 Eobertson reports mangels and carrots yield-
ing 13.5 tons per acre, and costing for rent of land, cultivation
and storage of the crop two dollars and fifty cents per ton.

Zavitz, of the Ontario Agricultural College, 3 reports the yields
of the three best varieties each of potatoes and roots, under test
for five to six years, to be as follows:

Potatoes, 185 bushels per acre.
Carrots, 28 tons per acre.
Mangels, 24 tons per acre.

1 Rept. 9.

2 Rept. 1892.
8 Rept, 1896.

Turnips ( fall or flat), 23 tons per acre,
Swedes ( ruta-bagas),20 tons per acre.
Sugar beets, 17 tons per acre.

212

Feeds and Feeding.

The yields are based on comparatively small areas, but the
figures are valuable in expressing the comparative returns of the
several crops.

315. Yield of digestible nutrients. — The digestible nutrients
yielded by each crop are the true measure of their value to the
farmer. These are presented in the following table:

Estimated yield of digestible nutrients per acre in root crops grown at
the Ontario Agricultural College. • •

Crop.

Dry

matter.

Pro-
tein.

Car-
bohy-
drates.

Ether
extract.

185 bushels of potatoes

Lbs.
2 342

Lbs.
100

Lbs.
1,809

Lbs.

28 tons carrots

6 384

448

4,368

112

24 tons mangels

4,368

528

2,592

23 tons fall (flat) turnips

4,370

460

3.312

20 tons ruta-bagas (Swedes)

4,560

400

3,240

17 tons sugar beets

4,590

374

3,468

The potato gives the poorest returns of any crop under trial
measured by the total digestible matter. The mangel and turnip
lead in protein, while the carrot and sugar beet stand first in
carbohydrates. The relatively low amount of protein in the
sugar beet with its high content of carbohydrates, mostly sugar,
shows how successfully that plant has been bred for the single
purpose of sugar production.

316. The potato. — Despite the poor showing for the potato it often
happens that the farmer has large quantities of these tubers which
would better be fed to his stock than forced on a profitless market.
According to Fjord's experiments, four pounds of potatoes are
worth one pound of grain for pig feeding. Trials by the writer
showed that 445 pounds of potatoes, when cooked, were equal to
100 pounds of corn meal for pigs. (483-6, 866, 897) For pig
feeding, potatoes should be cooked and mixed with meal; for
sheep and cattle they are fed sliced, with good results. Care
should be exercised in regulating the amount fed, heavy feeding
of raw potatoes inducing scouring. (658)

317. The carrot. — This root is much relished by horses of all
ages and conditions. (487) Being watery, it cannot be fed in

Miscellaneous Feeding Stuffs. 213

quantity to hard- worked or driving horses. Carrots also serve
well for other stock, especially dairy cows. (900)

318. The mangel. — Though the most watery of all roots, the
mangel crop stands well in total dry matter because of the large
yield. At the Cornell Station, l Eoberts found the yield of dry
matter practically the same in mangels and sugar beets, with the
labor of harvesting the sugar beets fully twice that of the mangels.

Because the large roots stand well out of the ground, the mangel
is easily cultivated and harvested. It is mainly devoted to feed-
ing cows, and is used to some extent for sheep feeding. When
boiled and mixed with meal it is excellent for feeding swine and
stock hogs. (549, 898)

319. Sugar beet. — Through careful selection this root has been
marvelously developed for the single purpose of producing sugar.
Because it sets deep in the ground the sugar beet is more
expensive to harvest than other roots. If fed in large quantity
this root induces scouring, possibly because of its high sugar
content. Because of these facts, Eoberts7 conclusion, that it is
better to grow mangels instead, should generally be followed.
Farmers patronizing sugar factories having waste beets should
utilize them. (766, 899)

320. Ruta-baga (Swede turnip) . — This root is next to the mangel
for ease of cultivation and harvesting. Sheep prefer the ruta-
baga to all other roots. Like other turnips the ruta-baga may
taint the milk of cows, and for this reason should be fed in only
limited quantity immediately after milking. This root is a favor-
ite with the stockmen of Canada. (489, 901)

321. Flat turnip.— This root yields less nutriment than the ruta-
baga, and is not as satisfactory for general use in stock feeding.
Sown as a catch crop, large yields are often secured at small cost.
This root is used mainly for feeding sheep, as it affects milk still
more unfavorably than the ruta-baga.

322. Parsnip. — The parsnip is a favorite root crop with the
dairy farmers on the islands of Jersey and Guernsey. Since it
contains more nutriment, especially carbohydrates, than most
roots, and is easily grown, its use should become more common.

1 Bui. 25.

214 Feeds and Feeding.

323. Artichoke. — At the Massachusetts Station,1 Goessmann
reports artichokes planted May 4 yielding a crop in November at
the rate of 8.2 tons per acre. At the Arkansas Station 2 the
yield was from 454 to 612 bushels per acre. Schweitzer, of the
Missouri Station, 8 found artichokes of equal value with potatoes
for pig feeding. (488, 868) The artichoke crop is harvested by
allowing pigs to root out and consume the tubers.

324. Storing roots. — Boots should be stored dry in well- venti-
lated cellars or pits where the temperature is just above freezing.
Many stockmen hold that roots are not suitable for feeding until
several weeks after harvesting and storage, during which time
they undergo a process of ripening which fits them for animal use.

325. Feeding roots. — In Great Britain roots take the place of
much of the grain and coarse forage which would otherwise be
required by stock. In such cases sheep are fed as much as
20 and cattle 100 pounds daily. In this country, where they
are more often used for variety than nourishment, the animal is
given a smaller allowance. For horses four or five pounds of
carrots, for dairy cows twenty to thirty pounds of mangels, and
for sheep four or five pounds of ruta-bagas, are a fair daily allow-
ance of roots, and one that will greatly conduce to the healthful -
ness of flock and herd.

Carrots may be fed to horses without slicing.

Boots of all kinds should be sliced for sheep, and either sliced
or pulped for cattle. This crop is not generally used for swine
feeding in this country, but small quantities may be fed to animals
of all ages with advantage. (657, 765, 867)

326. Roots modify the animal carcass. — At the Utah Station, 4
Sanborn fed roots to steers, sheep and swine, and on determining
the water and fat of the carcasses wrote: u (1) The live- weight
gain for cattle and sheep was greater, and for hogs less, when fed
on roots. (2) The dressed weight of cattle, sheep and hogs
showed in every case greater shrinkage for those fed on roots.
(3) The root-fed animals contained more blood and necessarily

1 Bept. 10.

2 Bui. 31.
a Bul/29.
* Bui. 17.

Miscellaneous Feeding Stuffs. 215

more water in the blood. (4) The root-fed steers had heavier
vital organs. (5) The fat was always less for the root-fed ani-
mals, and affords a somewhat decisive test of their relative value."

Thus we learn that roots cause a more watery carcass than do
dry feeds. For breeding stock especially, and even for animals
in the early stages of fattening, may not this point be one of value
instead of detriment ? The shote running on clover pasture like-
wise has a watery carcass because of the succulent feed eaten, yet
it lays on fat at small cost for food consumed. Grass-fed steers are
in the best condition, because of such feed, to make rapid gains
when changed to more solid food. A steer fed roots during the
first part of the fattening period should remain more vigorous and
make better gains for food consumed than one held on dry feed
from start to finish. There is no doubt that for breeding stock
the less tense flesh, a natural sequence of root feeding, is more
conducive to vigorous young at birth, and to their hearty mainte-
nance after birth, than dry feed continued without intermission
throughout our long winters. The dairy cow takes kindly to suc-
culent food, and cannot get it in better form than in that furnished
by roots. If silage is not used, then let roots be fed, in a limited
way at least, to our farm stock. When with dry feed we can
produce beef cattle and mutton sheep equal to those of Great
Britain, and dairy cows generally as good as those of Jersey, then
and not until then can we say there is no place for roots or some
other succulent feed on American farms.

327. Root crops not generally grown. — Despite the advice of
agricultural writers urging the use of roots, and the example of
the English and Canadian feeders, who rely so largely on this
crop, roots are no more generally grown in the United States than
they were fifty years ago. The cause for this lack of interest is
explained by Storer in the following: l " Corn is remarkable, not
only for its easy cultivation, but for its enormous yield both of
food and of fodder. It is at once a grain crop and a forage crop;
or, even more emphatically, a bread crop and a fallow crop.
Practically it has hitherto in good part, if not entirely, done away
with the need of cultivating roots for cattle food in this country,

1 Agriculture, Vol. II, p. 313.

216

Feeds and Feeding.

and it has enormously curtailed the growing of leguminous forage
crops also. It is a highly interesting and still debatable question
as to how and when and where (if anywhere) systems of farm-
ing based on the supplementing of Indian corn with roots may
best be practiced."

While the corn plant is so truly the superior of the root crop,
stockmen should watch, lest failing to make the proper use of the
one they neglect the other. Farmers as a rule should have some
succulent food for their stock during the long winter 5 if it is not in
the form of silage, then let it be roots.

II. Miscellaneous Forage Plants, Fruits, etc. l
Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents.

Name of feed.

Dry*
matter
in 100
pounds.

Digestible nutrients
in 100 pounds.

Fertilizing constitu-
ents in 1,000 pounds.

Pro-
tein.

Carbo-
hy-
drates.

Ether
ex-
tract.

Nitro-
gen.

Phos-
phoric
acid.

Pot-
ash.

Cabbage

Lbs.

15.3
20.0
12.0
9.1
19.2
11.6
14.0
44.7

Lbs.

1.8
.5
.7
.0
.4
.4
.5
2.1

Lbs.

8.2
9.8
4.6
5.8
8.3
4.6
8.1
34.4

Lbs.

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.8
0.2
0.2
1.7

Lbs.

3.8
3.8
4.1

Lbs.

1.1
2.5
1.5

Lbs.

4.3
5.9
6.2

Spurry

Sugar-beet leaves

Pumpkin, field

Pumpkin, garden

1.1
4.2
4.5

1.6
1.1
1.5

0.9
7.5
3.6

Prickly comfrey

Acorns, fresh

328. Cabbage. — This plant is grown to some extent in Europe
for stock-feeding. On rich ground, yields fully equal or greater
than those from roots may be obtained. No food is more highly
relished by sheep or dairy cows, though for the latter cabbage
must be fed with caution because it imparts a taint to the milk.
Where soiling is practiced, cabbage may be found a profitable
crop, though the labor required in the cultivation and the diffi-
culties of storage will probably turn the feeder to the corn plant
in its stead.

329. Spurry. — This plant, grown to a small extent in Europe,
may possibly prove of value in America on soils too light and
sandy for red clover. Kedzie, of the Michigan Station, 2 reports

1 For description of numerous varieties of forage plants see Fodder and
Forage Plants, Bui. 2, Division of Agrostology, U. 8. Dept. Agr.

2 Bui. 101.

Miscellaneous Feeding Stuffs. 217

quite favorably on this plant for light, sandy land. Stockmen
who can grow crops of red clover and corn have no use for spurry.

330. Sugar-beet leaves. — In the vicinity of beet-sugar factories
leaves from the beet are available in large quantities. Because
of oxalic acid in the leaves, they can be fed to stock only in limited
quantity without injurious effects. In Europe beet leaves are
preserved by building them up in layers, and sprinkling lime over
each layer for the purpose of neutralizing the oxalic acid. The
heaps thus made are covered with earth and held until required
for feeding.

331. Pumpkin. — Grown as a main crop or even as a secondary
one in the corn field, the pumpkin vine often yields large returns
at small cost for production. A tract of well-prepared land
devoted exclusively to this vegetable will pay well under good
management. For dairy cows the pumpkin is an excellent fall
feed, none being more highly relished; for swine in the first stages
of fattening they are useful either fresh or cooked with meal.

There is a tradition among farmers that pumpkin seeds increase
the excretion from the kidneys and should be removed before feed-
ing. In the dispensatory the pumpkin seed is given as a vermi-
fuge, with no reference to any other property. Since the seeds
contain nutriment they should not be wasted.

332. Prickly comfrey. — From time to time we find this plant
highly praised in the agricultural press for its forage properties.
At the Wisconsin Station l a comfrey plat was found to require
about the same cultivation as the same area planted to potatoes.
Woll, comparing the returns from this plat, when well established,
with an adjacent area of red clover seeded the year before, found
that the red clover in three cuttings yielded twenty- three per
cent, more dry matter and twenty-five per cent, more protein
than did the comfrey. Cattle generally will not eat this plant
when first offered to them, but soon overcome the objection. Gen-
erally the stockman would better give his attention to red clover,
alfalfa or corn than attempt to use comfrey.

333. Cactus. — In times of scarcity several species of cactus in
western Texas are used for maintaining cattle and sheep. The

* Kept. 1889.

218 Feeds and Feeding.

prickles of the leaves are scorched off by fire before feeding.
Carothers l reports: " During the severe drought of last winter
and the previous one many thousands of cattle were fed upon the
scorched pear cactus leaves, but it was the universal experience
that it was necessary to give some species of roughage with it;
that if fed alone it would not be assimilated and would cause
scouring or diarrhoaa."

The feed is sometimes prepared by steaming the chopped leaves
mixed with cotton seed, and this compound is reported as very
satisfactory. 2

334. Forage rape. — Though as yet grown in but a limited way
the rape plant is rapidly gaining in favor in this country, mainly
through the instrumentality of our Experiment Stations, which
have brought it prominently to the attention of stockmen. The
Dwarf Essex is the variety commonly sown. In a few instances
bird-seed rape has been sown, resulting in a product of no feeding-
value. Eape may be sown at any time from early spring until
August in the Northern states, the seed being scattered at the
rate of three or four pounds per acre broadcast, or two or three
pounds per acre in drills thirty inches apart. Only in the latter
form is any cultivation required. The crop is harvested by turn-
ing stock directly into the rape field to consume the abundant
nutritious leaves and stems, which are the parts eaten. It cannot
be utilized to advantage as a dry forage, nor as silage owing to its
large water content. Zavitz3 reports a yield of twenty-seven tons
per acre from two pounds of seed sown in drills twenty-seven
inches apart, the crop being cultivated every ten days. At the
Wisconsin Station,4 Craig secured a yield of nine and three-
quarters tons of rape at a single cutting from a half acre of land,
while a small plat yielded at the rate of thirty -six tons per acre
from two cuttings.

335. Uses of rape. — For cattle, rape is highly prized by some
feeders for furnishing a succulent feed during the fall months
and preparing them for winter. It has also been fed to dairy cows,
but must be used with caution lest it taint the milk. Trials at

1 Agr. Sci., Vol. I, 1887, No. 11.

2 See Bui. 3. Bot. Div. U. S. Dep. Agr.

s Eept. 19, Ont. Agr. Col. 4 Kept. 11.

Miscellaneous Feeding Stuff's. 219

the Wisconsin Station1 by Craig show that rape has a very con-
siderable value for feeding swine, especially during the earlier
stages of fattening. This feed is much relished by pigs. Being
succulent it distends the digestive tract and prepares it for the
heavier grain feeding which follows.

It is on sheep farms that rape will find its largest use. It can
be fed to all classes of sheep with advantage, and since the animals
harvest the crop the cost of feeding it is insignificant compared
with the returns. Within eight weeks after seeding the plants
are large enough for use, and they are then fed off by turning the
sheep directly into the field to gather the forage at will. Craig,
of the Wisconsin Station, 2 makes the following recommendations:
* ' The attempt should never be made to feed lambs rape without
giving them a couple of hours grazing on pasture before turning
them into the rape. This is necessary for the safety of the lambs,
as they are otherwise very liable to bloat, and the combined feed-
ing of pasture and rape results in greater gains. ' '
. The rape crop, which will probably grow anywhere in the
United States at some season of the year, is recommended to
farmers and stockmen as well worthy of trial, since it is produced
at small expense for seed and culture and yields an immense
amount of nutritious forage, the flavor and succulence of which
are highly appreciated by cattle, especially sheep and swine.
(656, 767-769, 879)

336. Acorn. — In some of the forests of Europe this crop has
considerable value for swine feeding, and is used to a limited
extent in this country. The influence of acorns on the flesh of
swine is uncertain, some asserting that the pork from acorn-fed
swine is satisfactory, while others affirm that it is soft and un-
desirable.

337. Leaves and twigs. — The small branches and leaves of
trees are fed regularly to farm animals in the mountain regions of
Europe where herbage is scarce, and in case of failure of pastures
or the hay crop they have been extensively used elsewhere.
Twigs contain about fifty per cent, digestible components, mostly
non-nitrogenous substances. They contain from forty to fifty per

1 Bui. 58. 2 Loc. cit.

220

Feeds and Feeding.

cent, dry matter, and generally less than two per cent, of protein.
Leaves are somewhat more digestible than twigs, and the better
kinds compare favorably, in feeding value, to meadow hay.
Leaves of the ash, birch, linden and elder are considered of
greatest value, in the order given. They are eaten with relish,
especially by goats and sheep, and are often harvested in the fall
and dried for winter feeding.

III. Slaughter-house and Beet-sugar Factory Refuse.
Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents.

Name of feed.

Dry

matter
in 100
pounds.

Digestible nutrients
in 100 pounds.

Fertilizing constitu-
ents in 1,000 pounds.

Pro-
tein.

Carbo-
hy-
drates.

Ether
ex-
tract.

Nitro-
gen.

Phos-
phoric
acid.

Pot-
ash.

Driedblood

Lbs.

91.5

89.3
89.2
10.2
79.2

Lbs.

52.3
66.2
44.1
0.6
9.1

Lbs.

.0
.3
.0
7.3
59.5

Lbs.

2.5
13.7
10.3

Lbs.

135.0
113.9
77.5
1.4
14.6

Lbs.

13.5
7.0
120.0
0.2
0.5

Lbs.

7.7
1.0
2.0
0.4
56.3

Meatscrap

Dried fish

Beet molasses

338. Dried blood. — Dried blood from the slaughter-house is
used for the most part by farmers and gardeners for fertilizing
purposes. Such use seems a perversion, for it should first be
employed as a feeding stuff and the voidings of the animals to
which it has been fed applied to field and garden, thus securing
two values. Dried blood may serve a useful purpose with the
stockman, especially the pig feeder. We have learned that corn
lacks protein; dried blood is a complementary food, since it is
remarkably rich in protein. Pigs at weaning time will relish a
tablespoonful of dried blood daily with their feed, and this allow-
ance may be gradually increased until two ounces are fed daily to
each animal. Those feeding pigs, especially if handling breeding
stock, should not allow the gardeners to have first claim to such a
useful adjunct to the short list of really desirable feeding ma-
terials usually available. See Chapter VI. (778, 902)

339. Flesh meal, meat scrap. — The introduction of meat scrap
or flesh meal as a feed for stock is due to the efforts of Baron
Liebig, at whose instance the first factory for making meat extract

Miscellaneous Feeding Stuffs. 221

was founded in Uraguay, and who suggested the utilization of
the refuse meat for stock feeding. Large quantities of flesh meal
or meat scrap are now shipped from South America to Europe for
use as feed and fertilizers. As shown by the table, this product
is remarkably rich in protein, which gives it a high value in con-
nection with corn for feeding stock, especially pigs.

According to Wolff, l flesh meal has been found satisfactory as-
a food for ruminants as-well as for swine. When fed to cows and
oxen, only a limited quantity should at first be given, the amount
being increased until two or three pounds are fed daily. Lambs-
and sheep digest flesh meal as completely as do pigs, and thrive
on this feed.

Judging from the results obtained with flesh meal, there is no-
reason why the better grades of meat scrap produced at our
slaughter-houses should not be used for feeding stock, especially
pigs. La Querriere, 2 discussing meat scrap, concludes that it is
excellent for horses when boiled and mixed with hay and straw.
The practice of feeding meat to horses is by no means new. The
Arabs prepared camels' flesh with other feed in the form of cakes
which were given to their horses, thus providing a concentrated,
nutritious food.

Scheurer 3 has shown that meat scrap mixed with ground grain
and baked into a bread can be kept for at least seven years with-
out suffering deterioration. A division of English army horses
fed American dried meat made into a biscuit with oats showed
decided superiority over horses fed in the ordinary way. Such
meat biscuits have been recommended for feeding race-horses.
(778, 874)

340. Dried fish, fish scrap. — Two feeds made from fish have
been placed on the market, viz., fish scrap, which is the dried
and ground refuse in the manufacture of dried codfish, and her-
ring cakes or fish meal, which are the whole fish, dried and
ground. Both fish scrap and fish cake are used as cattle feeds in
the coast regions of Europe. (551) The effects of fish cakes on
milk and butter have been studied by Kilson, 4 Winberg 6 and

1 Farm Foods, Eng. Ed., p. 204.

2 Milchzeitung, 1881, p. 753.
3Loc. cit.

4 Kgl. Landtbr. Akad. Handl., 1889. 257.
8 Tidskrift f. Landtmaend, 1891, 522.

"222 Feeds and Feeding.

Speir, l who report no bad influence on the milk when reasonable
quantities are fed. In Mlson's experiments, eighty parts of her-
ring cake replaced one hundred parts of linseed cake in the
ration of dairy cows. a (661)

With dried fish used so largely for fertilizing purposes, the
stockman will readily understand the high value of manure or-
iginating from this feed.

341. Sugar-beet pulp. — With the development of the beet-sugar
industry in this country there will arise much inquiry as to the
value of the refuse from the factory for stock feeding. Beet pulp
contains about ninety per cent, water and ten per cent, solids.
The solid matter is composed in part of the cell walls of the beet
root, and for this reason contains considerable crude fiber. This
fact, and its watery character, indicate that the best use of beet
pulp is to serve as a feed for cattle and sheep. Bran and clover
or alfalfa hay are complementary feeding stuffs for balancing the
ration.

According to Myrick, 3 a system of feeding cattle in sheds and
pens is in operation at the Lehi (Utah) beet sugar factory, where
2,000 head of cattle are fattened each season. Here each animal
consumes from 100 to 125 pounds of pulp daily in addition to 15
pounds of hay. " These cattle command a very good market,
the meat being very juicy and tender. "

Feeding tests were conducted by practical farmers under direc-
tion of the Halle (Germany) Station, 4 in which a uniform quan-
tity of grain and hay was fed to cows and steers throughout the
trial, with beet pulp supplied in different amounts, for the several
periods. As a summary of some of these trials we have the fol-
lowing:

1 Trans. Highl. & Agr. Soc., J888, pp. 112-128.

2 Concerning the feeding of salt herrings to milch cows, see Rept. Conn.
Expt. Sta., 1890, p. 180.

3 Sugar: a New and Profitable Industry.
«Expt. Sta. Rec., Vol. 3.

Miscellaneous Feeding Stuffs.

223

Yield of milk from dairy cows and gain of steers fed varying quanti-
ties of beet pulp — Halle (Germany) Station.

Cows.

Period I and V.

Period II and IV.

Period III.

Beet pulp fed

44 pounds.

66 pounds.

88 pounds.

Milk vield

29. 4 pounds.

30.7 pounds.

31.1 pounds.

Steers.

Beet pulp fed

66 pounds.

88 pounds.

110 pounds.

Do.il v Grain

3 3 pounds.

3.5 pounds.

2.8 pounds.

With, cows, eighty -eight pounds of pulp caused the largest flow
-of milk, while with steers the medium quantity supplied, eighty-
eight pounds, gave the best -returns, a larger amount materially
reducing the gain.

342. Silage from beet pulp. — Beet pulp makes a very fair
•quality of silage, and because of the large quantity turned out by
the factory in a comparatively short time, much of the pulp
should be preserved in the silo in order that the period of its use-
fulness may be materially extended. The simplest form of pres-
ervation is effected by excavating trenches three or four feet in
depth, and wide enough to drive a team and wagon through.
Loads of beet pulp are deposited in this, and when the mass is
several feet above the surface of the ground it is arranged with
sloping sides which are covered with straw, and on this earth is
placed to keep out air and frost. For storing pulp the silo, con-
structed in the same manner as for the preservation of green corn,
will in the end be found more economical.

Beet silage is relished by cattle, and serves well for feeding
them, both for flesh and milk. It has about half the value of
<»orn silage.

343. Importance of utilizing beet pulp. — Farmers growing beets
for the sugar factory should not be content with this operation,
but should add to their system that of feeding a large amount of
pulp — at least as much as results from the beets grown by them.

By feeding stock beet pulp and the other waste of the crop,
large quantities of manure will be made which will assist in keep-

224 Feeds and Feeding.

ing the farm in high fertility, assuring large crops from the beet
fields and ample forage from other lands, used in rotation, for the
maintenance of live stock. A farming community which will
intelligently grow beets and utilize the pulp resulting from them
in the feeding of cattle will be able to grow as large crops, in addi-
tion to the beets, as were produced before adding that industry,
and to maintain many more cattle than was possible before beet
farming was inaugurated. This statement is warranted by the
conditions prevailing in the beet districts of Europe. Beet culture
means more cattle and larger crops generally, rather than less,
provided always that the pulp from the beets is properly utilized.

344. Molasses from the beet factory. — Beet molasses, the residue
in the manufacture of sugar, is a bitter substance having purging
properties. In Europe much of this material has heretofore been
wasted, but through continued study by the investigators more
and more of it is being utilized. It has been found that a stock
food can be prepared by combining beet molasses and dried peat
from bogs. The acid in the peat is said to neutralize the alkali
of the molasses.

In Sweden, Insulander1 fed as much as 3.3 pounds of molasses
daily to dairy cows by diluting with twice its weight of water
and pouring it over the feed. Work -horses were fed 2.2 pounds
daily, and pigs were successfully fed molasses with skim milk.

Clausen and Friderichsen2 have shown that beet molasses con-
taining fifty per cent, of sugar, when mixed with fresh blood, may
stand exposed to the air for a long time without putrefaction.
By adding this mixture of molasses and blood to corn meal or
other cereal products and drying, a very nutritious compound is
obtained which is palatable with all kinds of farm stock.

345. Quantities of molasses to be fed. — According to Hollrung3
the following quantities of beet molasses may be fed with good
results to farm animals, daily, per thousand pounds live weight:
Draft oxen, 4.4 pounds; fattening steers, 8.8 pounds; milch cows,
2.75 pounds; fattening sheep, 5.5 pounds and ewes .3 pounds.

1 Expt. Sta. Rec.. Vol. 7.

2 A New Rational Method for the Utilization of Blood — Copenhagen,
1896.

3 Jahresb. Agr. Chem., 1895, p. 446.

Miscellaneous Feeding Stuffs. 225

Animals advanced in pregnancy should be allowed only half the
usual quantity.

346. Potash in beet molasses. — The high potash content of
beet molasses, together with a considerable quantity of nitrogen,
shows that this by-product should not be wasted, but its ultimate
fertilizing constituents saved to the farm.

347. Sorghum and cane-sugar molasses. — Unlike bitter beet
molasses, that from the cane plant is palatable and much relished
by all farm animals. Cane molasses contains about fifty per cent,
sugar and twelve per cent. gums. The nutrients it contains are
about equal to those in corn, and, since starch and sugar have
practically the same nutritive value, cane molasses has the same
feeding value as an equal weight of corn.

At the Texas Station, l Gulley fed molasses with cotton-seed
hulls and cotton-seed meal to fattening steers with good results.
When molasses was added to silage, the combination gave poorer
returns than silage alone. (552)

Molasses is used to some extent for preparing animals for show
or sale. Its good effect for this purpose is doubtless due to its
palatability inducing large consumption of the feed substances
with which it is mingled. Flesh put on through molasses feeding
is not considered substantial, and this substance is said to be
deleterious to breeding animals, leading to sterility, especially
with males. •

343. Sugar. — Lawes and Gilbert's investigations to determine
the relative value of sugar and starch in foods are well summar-
ized in the following: 2 "In conclusion, the evidence of direct
experiment clearly goes to show that all but identical amounts 6f
the dry substance of cane sugar and of starch are both consumed
by a given weight of animal within a given time, and are required
to yield a given weight of increase. The practical identity in
feeding-value, which from the known chemical relationship of
these two substances has hitherto been assumed, is now therefore
experimentally illustrated, and it probably only varies in point
of fact with their slightly varying percentages of carbon."

1 Bui. 10.

2 The Equivalency of Starch and Sugar in Food, Rothamsted Memoirs,
Vol. II.

226

Feeds and Feeding.

III. Cow's Milk and its By-products.
Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents.

Kind of milk.

Dry
matter
in 100
pounds.

Digestible nutrients
in 100 pounds.

Fertilizing: constitu-
ents in 1,000 pounds.

Pro-
tein.*

Carbo-
hy-
dratesf

Ether
ex-
tract.J

Nitro-
gen.

Phos-
phoric
acid.

Pot-
ash.

Cow's milk

Lbs.

12.8
25.4
9.6
9.4
9.9
6.6

Lbs.

3.6
17.6
3.1

2.9
3.9
0.8

Lbs.

4.9
2.7
4.7
5.2
4.0
4.7

Lbs.

3.7
3.6
0.8
0.3
1.1
0.3

Lbs.

5.3

28.2
5.6
5.6
4.8
1.5

Lbs.

1.9
6.6
2.0
2.0
1.7
1.4

Lbs.

1.8
1.1
1.9
1.9
1.6
1.8

Cow's milk colostrum ....

Skim milk gravity

Skim milk, centrifugal ....
Buttermilk

Whey

* Casein and albumen. f Milk sugar. J Fat.

349. Concerning milk. — Milk is the only substance which we
know to be designed by nature for the sole purpose of supplying
nourishment for animal life. For this reason it must always pos-
sess a peculiar interest to the student of animal nutrition. It
seems reasonable to suppose, from its single purpose, that milk
not only contains all the nutrients necessary to sustain the life of
young animals but that these are arranged in proper proportion.

350. Fat and serum. — The milk of the cow may be divided into
fat and milk serum. The percentage of fat in the milk of the
same cow may vary greatly both in the entire milk produced at
different periods and in different portions drawn at the same
milking. The first milk drawn is poor in fat, while that last
drawn is very rich, as is shown by the following table prepared
by Babcock of the Wisconsin Station:1

Percentage composition of first and last milk from the cow and of the
serum — Wisconsin Station.

Composition of milk.

Composition of milk
serum.

Water.

Solids.

Fat.

Water.

Solids.

Trial No. 1.
First milk

88.17
80.82

88.73
80.37

11.83
19.18

11.27
19.63

1.32
9.63

1.07
10.36

89.35
89.43

89.69
89.66

10.65
10.57

10.31
10.34

StriDDimrs ...

ZH«^O.S;

First milk

Stripping?* ....

Bui. 18.

Miscellaneous Feeding Stuffs. 227

It will be seen that the last milk drawn was from seven to ten
times as rich in fat as that first drawn. On the other hand, the
serum, which consists of the milk solids less the fat, is substan-
tially constant in composition.

351. Milk fat. — In the manufacture of butter, the object of the
dairyman is to secure all the fat possible from the milk with but a
trace of the other constituents. By the use of the centrifugal sep-
arator most of the fat is abstracted from the milk, the residue
amounting to from one to three-tenths of one per cent. In grav-
ity creaming, which was formerly the only process employed, about
seven-tenths of one per cent, of fat is usually left in the skim
milk. For this reason gravity skim milk is usually somewhat
superior for feeding purposes to that skimmed by the centrifugal
separator.

352. The nitrogenous constituents. — As the table shows, aver-
age milk contains 3.6 per cent, of nitrogenous substances, mainly
casein and albumen, in the proportion of about five parts of casein
to one of albumen.

In the manufacture of cheese, rennet is added to the milk for
the purpose of coagulating the casein. The casein thus coagulated
entraps the fat globules and carries most of them into the curd.
The albumen, which does not coagulate, together with the milk
sugar passes into the whey, as does some of the fat. The amount
of fat present in whey varies greatly, according to the manner in
which the curd is manipulated previous to drawing the whey.

353. Milk sugar. — Milk sugar in separate form is a white
powder of low sweetening power, and is much less soluble than
cane sugar, which it closely resembles in chemical composition.
"When milk sours some of the sugar is changed to lactic acid, which
has the effect of coagulating or curdling the casein. When about
eight-tenths of one per cent, of acid has developed, fermentation
ceases, so that sour milk may still contain much of the original
milk sugar. Judging from its composition, milk sugar has about
the same value for feeding as the same weight of starch.

354. Ash in milk. — In each hundred pounds of milk there are
about seven-tenths of a pound of mineral matter, consisting chiefly
of phosphates and chlorids of potash, soda and lime.

228 Feeds and Feeding.

355. Colostrum. — The first milk yielded by the cow after calv-
ing is yellow, thick and viscous, differing from natural milk in
its high protein and ash content with low fat and milk sugar.
The albumen of colostrum milk may reach 13.6 per cent., while in
normal milk it is about one-half of one per cent. This first milk is
exceedingly important to the young animal at birth, and should
never be withheld from it, for besides yielding nutriment it pos-
sesses properties which serve to cleanse the alimentary tract and
properly start the work of digestion. (527)

356. Whole milk. — Whole milk is too valuable, in most in-
stances, to be used as a feed for farm animals, though the stock-
man should never hesitate to supply it when required by very
young or valuable animals. Young stock being prepared for
exhibition can be forced ahead rapidly by the judicious use of
unskimmed milk, and the knowing ones connected with our live-
stock exhibitions could tell, if they would, some interesting stories
concerning the feeding of milk to animals whose weights, if not
their ages, would indicate that they should long before have been
weaned. (504, 516, 659, 736)

357. Skim milk. — Because of the protein and ash it carries,
skim milk is of high value in building up the muscular and bony
framework of young animals. According to Pott, l the horses of
the Cooperative Dairy Association of Hamburg are fed large
quantities of skim milk and buttermilk with satisfactory results.
In eastern Prussia suckling foals are fed buttermilk and sour
skim milk.

Where skim milk is fed care should be exercised in its admin-
istration. The vessels which hold the milk and those from which
it is fed should be kept clean and wholesome. Milk should
always be fed to very young animals at blood temperature, lest
on entering the stomach at a lower temperature than maintained
by that organ it arrest the progress of digestion. With very
young animals skim milk should be fed not less than three times
daily. (518-20, 659, 869-71, 886-8, 890)

358. Buttermilk. — This by-product has substantially the same
composition as skim milk. Tests at the Massachusetts Station2

1 Futtermittel, p. 645. 2 Buls. 13, 18.

Miscellaneous Feeding Stuffs. 229

show that buttermilk has about the same feeding value as skim
milk with pigs. In the hands of skilled feeders buttermilk may
also be used in calf rearing, though many have failed in this un-
dertaking. Except for very young animals buttermilk may be
used successfully wherever skim milk is employed as a feed.
Creameries often dilute buttermilk with water, thereby reducing
its value. (872)

359. Whey. — Whey is an exceedingly thin food, and is so liable
to misuse that many prefer to waste it rather than incur the risk
attendant upon its use. Whey may be fed to pigs with profit, but
it must be kept in clean vessels and fed in a cleanly manner. At
the Ontario Agricultural College, l Day secured as good results
with whey somewhat soured as with sweet whey. The feeder
should not conclude from this that sour whey held in filthy tanks
and vessels is a suitable feed for farm stock. (523, 528, 660, 873,
887,889,890)

360. Fertilizing value. — The dairyman who sells butter and
feeds the skim milk and buttermilk to farm animals parts with but
an insignificant amount of fertility. When cheese is made, if the
whey is returned to the farm, a considerable portion of the min-
eral matter of the milk is conserved, but most of the nitrogen is
lost. If whole milk is sold, the drain of fertilizing matter is con-
siderable. These differences should always be borne in mind in
conducting the various branches of dairy farming.

V. Condimental Foods.

361. Findings of investigators. — Proprietary articles styled
" Prepared Food,77 "Seed Meal," etc., costing from three to ten
cents per pound, are common, and judging from the advertising
space given them in newspapers a large amount of money must
be received from their sale each year. It is generally claimed
for these feeds that they possess great nutritive properties and
medicinal qualities combined.

In England Thorley's Food is a standard article of this class,
having been largely advertised for many years. Lawes and Gil-
bert tested its effectiveness with sheep, and conclude:2 "The

* Kept. 1896.

2 Rothamsted Memoirs, Vol. II.

230 Feeds and Feeding.

last column .... shows that in both of the comparative
experiments more food was consumed to produce a given amount
of increase with Thorley's Food than without. "

362. Nutriotone. — This condiment has been extensively adver-
tised in the East as a food-medicine for farm animals, with the
following directions for dairy cows: "Give two large tablespoon-
fuls with each feed. This will produce a great increase of much
richer milk."

Nutriotone was tested by the Vermont1 and Maine Stations. *
No advantages followed its use at the Yermont Station.
The following summarizes the findings at the Maine Station:

Milk. Fat.

Lbs. Lbs.

Average for twenty-one days without nutriotorie 2 , 281 101

Average for twenty-one days with nutriotone 2 , 264 101

It will be seen that this condiment was practically without
effect.

363. Condimental foods not recommended. — The basis of the
better class of condimental foods is flax-seed meal, oil meal or
the by-products from oleaginous seeds, locust-bean meal, etc.
They are spiced with anise, cumin and other aromatic seeds.
Fenugreek, slippery-elm bark, charcoal, common salt, saltpeter,
copperas, etc., are added according to the notions of the com-
pounder. Turmeric is sometimes used to give a yellow color.

As to these nostrums it may be said that vigorous, healthy
animals do not make better use of their feed because of their
addition. If animals are out of condition they should receive
specific treatment according to their ailments. A good manager
of live stock will have no use for these high-priced condimental
foods or condition powders; a poor manager will never have fine-
stock by employing them.

1 Rept. 1894.
* Kept. 1896.

CHAPTER XIV.

SOILING CATTLE — PREPARATION OF FEEDING STUFFS.
I. Soiling.

364. Advantages of soiling.— By " soiling'7 is meant supplying
forage fresh from the fields to farm stock more or less confined.
The first American writer to bring this subject to the attention of
our people was Josiah Quincy, whose admirable essays, first
printed in the Massachusetts Agricultural Journal in 1820, were
later gathered into a little book entitled " The Soiling of Cattle,7'
now out of print.

Quincy points out six distinct advantages from soiling: First,
the saving of land; second, the saving of fencing; third, the econo-
mizing of food; fourth, the better condition and greater comfort
of the cattle; fifth, the greater product of milk; sixth, the attain-
ment of manure.

According to this author there are six ways in which farm
animals destroy the articles destined for their food. First, by
eating; second, by walking; third, by dunging; fourth, by staling;
fifth, by lying down; sixth, by breathing on it. Of these six, the
first only is useful; all the others are wasteful.

Quincy reports his own experience where twenty cows, kept
in stalls, were fed green food supplied six times a day. They
were allowed exercise in an open yard. These twenty cows sub-
sisted on the green crops from seventeen acres of land where fifty
acres had previously been required.

365. Station findings. — At the Wisconsin Station, l the writer
kept three cows for the summer on an excellent blue-grass pasture.
During the same period three other cows were maintained in
stable and yard by soiling. The cows in the pasture consumed

1 Kept. 1885.

232

Feeds and Feeding.

the grass fron 3.7 acres; the soiled cows ate the forage from 1.5

acres. The yield of forage was as follows:

Pounds.

Green clover, three cuttings 18,792

Green fodder corn 23,658

Green oats 2,385

Waste from the above 1,655

Total green forage eaten, from 1.5 acres 43 , 180

The products obtained were as follows:

Pasture and soiling crops compared — Wisconsin Station.

From 3.7
acres past-
ure.

From one
acre past-
ure.

From 1.5

acres soil-
ing crops.

From one
acre soil-
ing crops.

Milk

Lbs.
6,583

Lbs.
1,780

Lbs.
7,173

Lbs.

4,782

Butter

303

294

196

This shows that in Wisconsin one acre of soiling crop equals
about two and one-half acres of good blue-grass pasture for feed-
ing dairy cows.

At the Pennsylvania Station, * during a test of soiling versus
pasture, Armsby secured the following results in digestible organic

matter and albuminoids:

Digestible Digestible

organic matter, albuminoids.

Pounds. Pounds.

Yield of one acre of pasture 1,125 249

Yield of one acre of rye and corn 5,776 328

Yield of one acre of clover and corn 5,914 374

At the Connecticut (Storrs) Station,2 Phelps maintained four
cows from June 1 to November 1 on soiling crops produced on
two and one-half acres of land.

At the Iowa Station, 3 Wilson maintained three cows in a dark-
ened stable on soiling crops during the summer, while three
others were given the range of "one of the best blue-grass
pastures in the state, well shaded with occasional trees and in
places by dense woods, with water accessible. ' 7 The trial began
June 20, and continued until August 8, when the cows confined

Kept. 1889.

2 Bui. 9.

8 Bui. 15.

Soiling.

233

in the stable were turned to pasture and those which had been
in pasture were soiled in the stable. The second part of the trial
continued until September 26. The yield of milk and butter for

the whole period was as follows:

Milk, Fat,

pounds. pounds.

From three cows kept in stable 7,216 254

From three cows in pasture 7,287 259

The cattle kept indoors steadily gained in weight, while those
in the pasture lost.

366. Soiling crops. — Where cattle are maintained by soiling,
provision should be made for a succession of green crops for con-
tinuous feeding. In the table below, Lindsey1 gives the crops
required for the complete soiling of ten cows:

Oops, and areas for same, for soiling ten cows during the entire
summer — Massachusetts (Hatch) Station.

Crop.

Seed per acre.

Time of
seeding.

Area.

Time of cutting.

Rye

2bu

Sept. 10-15...
Sept 10-15
July 15-Aug.l

Sept

£ acre
|acre
I acre

facre

£acre
Jacre
£acre

Jacre
^ acre

May 20-May 30
June 1-June 15
June 15-Jime 25

June 15-June 30

June 25-July 10
July 10-July 20
June 25-July 10

July 10-July 20

July 25-Aug. 20

Aug. 10-Aug. 20
Aug. 25-Sept. 15
Aug. 25-Sept. 10
Sept. 10-Sept. 20
Sept. 20-Sept. 30

Oct. 1-Oct. 20

Wheat

2bu

Red clover

20 Ibs

Grass and clover

Vetch and oats..
Vetch and oats..
Peas and oats ...

Peas and oats...

Barnyard millet
Barnyard millet
Soja bean

(i bu. red top...]
J bu. timothy. [•
101bs.r.cloverJ
(3 bu. oats )
\501bs. vetch.../
50 Ibs. vetch
f 1£ bu. Canada)
\l| bu. oats /
f H bu. Canada \
\l|bu. oats /
1 peck

April 20

April 30

April 20 ..

April 30
May 10 .

1 peck
18 quarts

May 25
May 20

i acre
- acre

Corn

May 20

£acre
J acre

Corn .

May 30. .

Hungarian

1 bu

July 15

\ acre

Barley and peas

/l£bu. peas \
\l|bu. barley.../

Ausf. 5 ...

lacre

The above will prove a guide for many, though all may not
be able to follow in detail all the directions given. 3

* Bui. 39, Mass. (Hatch) Sta.

2 For soiling crops recommended by Phelps, see Bui. 8, Conn. (Storrs)
8ta.

234 Feeds and Feeding.

367. Labor involved. — Many who recognize the advantages of
soiling are deterred from practicing it, arguing that the large
amount of labor required in supplying the green forage daily
more than offsets the benefits derived. There is both misconcep-
tion and lack of knowledge on this point. Wilson1 shows that if
green forage is gathered twice a week, and spread not too thickly
on the barn floor, it will keep in good condition until required for
feeding. Most of the crops used can be cut with a mower and
gathered by the hay rake or loaded directly by means of the hay
loader. Even if pitched by hand, a large quantity of material
can be gathered in a very short time. A dairy cow or steer will
require from sixty to one hundred pounds of green forage daily.

368. Partial soiling. — So revolutionary is the practice of com-
plete soiling that few stockmen are ready to adopt it at once, even
when conceding the merits of the system. Partial soiling is prac-
ticable with all and should be followed on every well-managed
stock farm. The usual midsummer shrinkage in the milk flow of
dairy cows and of flesh with beef cattle can be prevented by hous-
ing the stock in darkened stables, if flies are troublesome, during
the heated portion of the day, and feeding them liberally with
green forage. At night the cattle can be turned to pasture for
exercise and grazing. Because of the extra allowance of proven-
der supplied during the most trying time of the year, fattening
steers will continue their gains, the young stock will not cease
growing, and dairy cows will yield the normal flow of milk.
Usually it will be found profitable to continue supplying extra
feed during the fall, even though the pastures have in part recov-
ered their ability to supply nutriment. Partial soiling rightly
followed will be found a most profitable practice on many farms.
By it more stock can be kept than on pastures only, and more
even gains will be made during the season by all stock so fed.

In using soiling crops it should not be forgotten that growing,
immature plants consist largely of water, and often cattle cannot
consume enough of such forage to gain the nourishment they
require. For this reason, where the crops are quite green, some
dry forage should be supplied in addition to the green.

1 Bui. 15, Iowa Sta.

Preparation of Feeding Stuffs. 235

The use of silage will greatly extend the practice of soiling. A
corn crop stored in the fall may be partially fed out during winter
and the remainder utilized as needed during the summer. Many
dairymen are making use of the silo for summer feeding, with
excellent results.

Where lands are high priced, or where the stockman desires to
keep a large number of cattle upon a limited acreage, soiling is
the best possible means to that end. Cattle fed by soiling should
always be allowed exercise in the open lot where they can enjoy
the sunshine and fresh air. This can be provided by making use
of a small pasture.

II. Preparation of Feed for Live Stock.

369. Concerning cooked feed. — The early writers on agriculture
usually recommended the cooking or steaming of all kinds of feed.
In 1812 Arthur Young l described a gruel for stock which he
claimed to be exceedingly nutritious and economical.

Morton, author of the Cyclopedia of Agriculture, recommended
cooking or steaming feed. Later writers, however, have advanced
the strongest arguments.

Prof. Mapes wrote:2 "Kaw food is not in condition to be ap-
proximated to the tissues of animal life. The experiment, often
tried, has proved that eighteen or nineteen pounds of cooked corn
are equal to fifty pounds of raw corn for hog feed.77

Joseph Sullivant, a member of the Ohio State Board of Agri-
culture, wrote:3 "I conclude that nine pounds of pork from a
bushel of raw corn fed in the ear, twelve pounds from raw meal,
thirteen and a half pounds from boiled corn, and sixteen and a
half pounds from cooked meal, is no more than a moderate aver-
age the feeder may expect to realize from a bushel of corn under
ordinary circumstances of weather, with dry and clean feeding
pens. All this is within the amounts we have shown to be prob-
able and attainable upon our chemical basis. "

Other authorities could be quoted, but these suffice to show that
the teachers were generally in favor of cooking food for stock.

1 A system of preparing corn, etc., for the cheaper feeding of horses, etc.
2 Trans. Am. lust., 1854, p. 373.
* Kept. Ohio Bd. Agr.,

236 Feeds and Feeding.

So much for theory: — what are the results of experiment and
experience 1

370. Steaming roughage for cattle. — Fifty years ago there
could be found in this country a number of establishments, more
or less elaborate and expensive, designed for the purpose of
steaming or boiling forage for cattle. The work was usually
undertaken by men of means, and was sometimes carried out
with much detail and often at considerable expense. It is signif-
icant that none of these practices was long maintained.

Experiments with feeding steamed hay to oxen, made at Pop-
elsdorf, J showed very decisively that steaming rendered the com-
ponents of hay less digestible; especially was this true of the
protein. When the hay was fed dry, 46 per cent, of the protein
was digested, while only 30 per cent, was digested from the
steamed hay. (664)

We may summarize the results of cooking coarse forage for
cattle by quoting the reply to an inquirer given many years ago
by the editor of an agricultural journal:2 "The advantages are
very slight and not worth the trouble of either building the fire,
cutting the wood or erecting the apparatus, to say nothing of all
these combined, with danger and insurance added. "

371. Cooking feed for swine. — While the practice of steaming
roughage for cattle has been universally abandoned wherever
undertaken, much is still said concerning the advantages of cook-
ing feed for swine. This subject has been carefully investigated
at our Stations with practically concordant results, so that we are
not without definite help on an important topic.

Elsewhere (836) is given a summary of numerous trials with
cooked and uncooked feed for swine conducted at the Experiment
Stations of this country with the surprising result of an average
loss of 6 per cent, in the value of the feed because of cooking.
The reader will be interested in the opinions of the various ex-
perimenters who conducted the feeding trials.

Shelton, 3 concluding an account of a feeding trial where cooked

* Hornberger, Landw. Jahrb. VIII. 933; see Armsby. Manual of Cat-
tle Feeding, p. 266.

2 Country Gentleman, 1861, p. 112.

3 Kept. Prof. Agr., Kan. Agr. Col., 1885.

Preparation of Feeding Stuffs. 237

proved inferior to uncooked, wrote: "The figures given
above need but little comment. They show as conclusively as
figures can show anything that the cooked corn was less useful
than the raw grain. . . . Such an entire unanimity of results
can only be explained upon the theory that the cooking was an
injurious process so far as its use for food for fattening animals is
concerned. "

Brown, of the Ontario Agricultural College, l conducted several
trials with cooked and uncooked peas and corn and gives his con-
clusions as follows: "I am not at present prepared to say defi-
nitely what other kinds of food may do, raw or cooked, with pigs-
or other domestic animals, or how the other animals will thrive
with peas or corn, raw or boiled, but I now assert, on the strongest
possible grounds, «... that for fast and cheap production
of pork raw peas are fifty per cent, better than cooked peas or
Indian corn in any shape.'7

The trustees of the Maine College,2 summing up the results
obtained at that institution of nine years' continuous feeding of
cooked and uncooked corn meal to pigs, wrote: "The results
have in every case pointed to the superior value of uncooked
meal for the production of pork."

No one can review the accumulation of experimental data from
our Stations, all substantially adverse to cooking feed for swine,
without being convinced that the matter is practically settled so
far as most feeding stuffs are concerned. A few feeds appear to
require the modifying influence of heat and moisture to render
them palatable and digestible with stock. Potatoes cannot be
successfully fed to swine in any quantity unless they are first
cooked, and roots are more palatable if cooked and meal is added
to the mass. The writer has shown that pigeon-grass seed must
be cooked to be satisfactorily consumed by swine. This treat-
ment is doubtless made necessary by the thick, woody seed- coats
of this grain.

Feeders should not confuse the effects of cooked feeds upon farm
stock with the advantages of supplying them with warm feed in
palatable form. To the assertion that stockmen who cook feed

1 Bept. 1876. * Kept. Me. State Col., 1878.

238 Feeds and Feeding.

have the finest animals, the writer ventures the opinion that one
who is willing to cook feed will usually give his animals many
attentions which feeders generally pass by as not worthy of their
time or notice. It is this extra care and the larger variety of
feeds usually supplied rather than the cooking which make ani-
mals of superior quality. For the purpose of affording variety,
the various grains, roots and tubers, together with clover or
alfalfa chaff, may be boiled or steamed for pigs and used as a part
of the ration. The advantages of a limited quantity of such feed,
when grain constitutes the remainder of the ration, are con-
ceded.

372. Cooked feed for horses. — Supplying a limited quantity of
cooked feed to horses is practiced to some extent in Europe and
this country. MacNeilage * reports that the use of boiled feed
for horses is growing less common in the west of Scotland.

An excellent feed for horses is made by boiling barley and oats
in a kettle with considerable water and pouring the mass over
chaffed hay, allowing the whole to stand until the hay is well
softened. Bran, roots and a small quantity of oil meal may be
added to the pottage. Boiled feed is useful with colts, brood
mares and stallions when fed two or three times a week. It may
be fed once a day to draft horses which are in preparation for sale
or exhibition.

373. Artificial digestion trials.— At the New York (Geneva)
Station,2 Ladd determined artificially the digestibility of the
nitrogenous portion of several common feeding stuffs before and
after cooking, with the results shown below:

Digestion trials with cooJced and uncooked feeding stuffs — New
"York (Geneva} Station.

Feeding stuff.

Per cent, nitrogenous sub-
stance digested.

Uncooked.

Cooked.

Fresh corn meal

68.6
72.6
67.7
87.7

60.5
63.2
53.3

73.8

Old corn meal

Cotton-seed meal...

1 Trans. High, and Agr. Soc., 1890. 2 Kept. 1885.

Preparation of Feeding Stuffs. 239

In every instance more of the nitrogenous substance was digested
from the uncooked than from the cooked food. These results are
substantiated by the investigations of others.

374. The function of cooked food. — A limited allowance of
steamed or cooked grain mingled with chaffed hay or roots is
helpful to horses because of favorable action on the digestive tract.
Growing pigs and breeding swine are often materially aided by a
reasonable allowance of boiled or steamed clover or alfalfa chaff,
roots or tubers to which meal has been added. Such food pos-
sesses considerable volume — a desirable characteristic for feeds
designed for the class of stock mentioned. It is not conceded
that feeds are generally rendered more digestible by the action of
moist heat, but rather that their palatability has been increased
and the physical character of the compounds thus prepared
made such as to render them desirable for animals under cer-
tain conditions. As a general proposition it may be stated that
it does not pay to cook food for stock when such food will be satis-
factorily consumed without cooking, for cooking does not increase
the digestibility of feeding stuffs, but may lower it, and there is
considerable expense involved in the operation.

375. Soaking feed. — Corn often becomes hard and flinty a few
months after husking, and causes sore mouths with fattening
animals. So little of such feed is then eaten that gains may en-
tirely cease or the animals even fall back in weight. Grain which
is difficult of mastication should either be ground or soaked to
such degree of softness as will allow the animals to consume full
rations without difficulty. Soaking can hardly increase the digesti-
bility of feeds, though it may indirectly do so by permitting bet-
ter mastication and thereby more complete action of the digestive
fluids. (477, 537, 665, 758, 837)

376. Chaff, or cut hay and straw. — The practice of running hay
and straw through the feed cutter, or chaffing it, is almost uni-
versal in establishments where large numbers of horses are kept;
it is not common on ordinary stock farms. Moore1 some years
since addressed letters to well-known agriculturists of England
asking for information on this topic. He ascertained that 70 per

1 Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc., 1888.

240 Feeds and Feeding.

cent, of those replying chaffed the hay and straw fed their stock,
while 20 per cent, followed partial chaffing, and 10 per cent, were
adverse to the practice.

377. Advantages of chaffing. — The advantages of chaffing (cut-
ting) hay in establishments where large numbers of animals are
fed are apparent upon a little reflection. In such places the
hay if long occupies too much space, litters up the building, and
the attendants are not readily able to supply each animal its
proper allowance. Where hay is chaffed, the addition of a small
amount of water lays the dust, and the helper can rapidly and
accurately measure the quantity ordered for each animal. These
advantages do not hold with the same force on stock farms, where
the feeder personally supervises the supply of provender to a
comparatively limited number of animals. Again, when hay and
straw are chaffed, then moistened, and meal added, the mixture
is in condition to be rapidly masticated and swallowed, so that the
nutriment has a longer time to remain in the stomach for diges-
tion than is possible where long, dry hay is fed. This is an item
of importance with hard-worked horses which are in the stable
only at night. Horses not hard worked, fattening cattle, and
farm stock generally, have ample time for mastication and diges-
tion, and with these there is less necessity, or none, for chaffing
hay and straw.

378. Cutting and shredding corn forage. — Corn forage, because
of the coarseness of the stalks, is an unsatisfactory material to
handle in the stable unless it has first been run through the cutter
or shredder. Eeduced to fragments by cutting or shredding, this
forage causes little trouble, and the waste, if any, is excellent for
bedding.

The value of cut or shredded corn stalks for feeding purposes
will vary according to the character of the fodder used, the
animals to which it is fed and the manner of feeding.

At the Kansas Station, l Shelton experimented with stover cut
in lengths varying from one- fourth inch to two inches, the trials
extending through three seasons. Instead of most of the cut
fodder being consumed by the cows, there was an average waste

i Kept. 1889.

Preparation of Feeding Stuffs.

241

of 31 per cent, of all the cut fodder. During one season's trial it
was observed that the finer the fodder was cut the larger the pro-
portion of waste. This investigator summarized his conclusions
for Kansas conditions as follows: "I am abundantly satisfied from
accurate experiments made to test the point, and from a large gen-
eral experience, that the chief, almost only, value of cutting fodder
is found in the fact that such chopped fodder can be placed in the
manger and generally handled much more conveniently than the
unchopped."

379. Results of shredding stover. — Quite contrary results were
obtained by the writer in a series of trials at the Wisconsin Sta-
tion, J in which shredded corn fodder or stover was used. In these
trials the same amount of grain and hay was fed to each lot of cows
on trial. Those fed whole roughage were supplied with such quan-
tity as seemed necessary to their wants, for they could not be
made to consume the coarser portions of the long stalks, with the
partial exception next noted. In the third trial Stowell's Ever-
green sweet corn fodder, carrying a considerable quantity of ears,
was fed. The stalks of this fodder were soft and pliable, and
when fed whole the cows consumed almost all of them, leaving
only 143 pounds of stalks out of 1,600 pounds of fodder fed.

Summary of three trials when feeding shredded and unshredded corn
forage to dairy cows — Wisconsin Station.

Stover
fed.

Stover
eaten.

Milk
produced.

First trial.
Shredded stover

Lbs.
721

Lbs.
All

Lbs,
1 387

Uncut stover

1,133

975

1 419

Second trial.
Shredded stover

1,217

All

1 418

Uncut stover

1 934

1 356

1 439

Third trial.
Shredded fodder r.

1,600

All

989

Uiicut fodder . ..

1 600

1 457

872

-L, YJI

1 Kept. 1886.
16

242

Feeds and Feeding.

Summarizing the preceding data, we have: When feeding corn
forage with hay and grain, the cows getting —

3,538 pounds shredded stover or fodder produced 3,794 pounds of milk.
4,667 pounds unshredded stover or fodder produced 3,730 pounds of milk.

If we count the milk returns equal for the two lots, — though
they are slightly in favor of the cows getting the shredded fod-
der,— we have a saving of 24 per cent, of corn forage by using it
in shredded form.

Here are different results from thoso secured by Shelton. How
can they be harmonized f In the first place, the stalks used by
Shelton were much coarser and harsher than those grown in Wis-
consin, and it is probable that his cattle were offered such liberal
quantities of forage that they naturally chose the softer portions,
wasting the remainder. Again, it is possible that the sharp edges
of the fine- cut corn stalks made the mouths of the cattle sore, so
that they could not eat forage as they otherwise would.

380. Long hay and dry feed. — At the Maine Station,1 Jordan
fed rations of long hay and chaffed hay as follows:

During the first and third periods, each lasting thirty days, five
cows were fed long hay with an allowance of dry grain fed sep-
arately. During the intermediate period the cows were fed the
same amount of hay chopped fine, with the same quantity of meal
as before. The cut hay and meal were first mixed, then wet,
and the mixture allowed to stand for several hours before feeding.
The middle period lasted fifty -one days.

Yield of milk and butter from cows fed wet and dry rations — Maine

Station.

Periods

Average yielc

, five cows.

Milk.

Butter.

Lbs.
130.1

Lbs.
5.4

III Long hay, fed dry

100.5

3.8

Average of two periods

115.3

4.6

II. Hay chaffed mixed with grain, fed wet..

113.2

4.24

Kept. 1890.

Preparation of Feeding Stuffs.

243

We learn from the above that the cows did somewhat better on
the long hay and dry feed, both for milk and butter, than on the
same feed supplied in chaff form, wet and mixed with grain.

381. Wet chaffed hay for calves. — At the Iowa Station, l Speer
divided a bunch of six calves into two lots of three each. To one
lot was fed corn and cob meal morning and evening, with dry, long
timothy hay given after the meal had been consumed. For the
other lot the feeding was as follows: Some hay was run through
the feed-cutter and moistened. Over this was sprinkled the corn
and cob meal, and the whole thoroughly mixed. An hour and a
half after the wet grain and hay mixture had been fed the calves
were supplied with dry, long hay.

Feeding dry meal, and meal on moistened hay, to calves — Iowa Station.

Average
weight at
beginning.

Average
gain.

Grain for
100 pounds
gain.

Meal fed drv

Lbs.
452

Lbs.

75.8

Lbs.
542

Meal fed wet, mixed with hay

480

68.4

600

It will be seen that the calves fed the dry meal gained some-
what more than the others, and required less feed for one hundred
pounds of gain.

382. Grinding grain. — This subject is a difficult one to discuss
owing to the great variety of conditions existing as to both grain
and animals. Directions are here given which may serve to
guide the feeder in his practice. For horses which are out of the
stable during the day and worked hard, all grain, with the possible
exception of oats, should be ground. For those at extremely hard
work, all grain should be ground and mixed with chaffed hay.
For idle horses, oats or corn should not be ground, nor need the
hay or straw be chaffed. A cow yielding a large flow of milk
should be regarded as a hard-working animal and her feed pre-
pared accordingly. (633) Fattening steers and pigs may be
crowded more rapidly with meal than with whole grain, though
there is more danger attendant upon its use. (536, 539) Sheep

1 Bui. 12.

244 Feeds and Feeding.

worth feeding can always grind their own grain. In general, idle
animals and those having ample time for mastication, rumination
and digestion do not need their grain or roughage prepared as
carefully as do those with only limited time for these essential
operations. Experiments quite generally show increased gains
from grinding grain, but in many cases they are not sufficient to
pay the cost of grinding. (848)

383. Preparing roots. — Boots are prepared for stock either by
slicing or pulping. For sheep they should be cut into small, shor£
pieces. Boots reduced to pulp are fed with chaffed hay and straw
to steers and cows with excellent results. The method of prep-
aration is as follows: *A layer of chaffed hay or straw is spread
upon the barn floor and over this is placed one of root-pulp, fol-
lowed by chaff, and then pulp again until the heap reaches the
desired size. Sometimes oil meal, corn meal or other grain is
added. After forming the layers the mass is shoveled over
until the ingredients are thoroughly mixed, after which it is al-
lowed to stand until the next day, by which time a slight fermen-
tation has started and the mixture is ready for feeding. This
system has value on farms where it is desirable to feed large
quantities of straw or low-grade hay which would otherwise be
refused or wasted by the animals. The serious objection to the
practice is the large amount of labor involved, yet it is advan-
tageous in some cases.

CHAPTEE XY.

THE ENSILAGE OF FODDERS.

Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents.

Variety of silage.

Dry

matter
in 100
pounds.

Digestible nutrients
in 100 pounds.

Fertilizing constitu-
ents in 1,000 pounds.

Pro-
tein.

Carbo-
hy-
drates.

Ether
ex-
tract.

Nitro-
gen.

Phos-
phoric
acid.

Pot-
ash.

Corn

Lbs.

20.9
28.0
23.9
27.5
32.0
20.7
25.8

21.0
24.0

Lbs.

0.9
2.0
0.6
3.0
1.9
1.5
2.7

1.6
1.6

Lbs.

11.3
13.5
14.9
8.5
13.4
8.6
8.7

9.2
13.0

Lbs.

0.7
1.0
0.2
1.9
1.6
0.9
1.3

0.7
0.7

Lbs.

2.8

Lbs.
1.1

Lbs.
3.7

Clover

Sorghum

Alfalfa

Grass

Cowpea vine

Soja bean

Barn-yard millet and soja
bean

Corn and soja bean

384. Permanency of this method of food preservation. — For

more than two decades the subject of silos and silage has been
prominently before the American farmer for consideration. Much
space has been given to the matter by the agricultural press
and much time devoted to discussions in relation thereto in agri-
cultural gatherings. Unfortunately for this form of food preser-
vation extravagant claims were advanced in its behalf by some
of its early enthusiastic advocates. These naturally aroused the
suspicion of conservative people, who looked upon the matter as
something for the day only and unworthy of thoughtful consider-
ation or investigation. Silos and silage have outlasted their over-
zealous friends, and through the experience of practical feeders
and the investigations of our Experiment Stations we are now
able to discuss the subject intelligently. Because corn is the great
silo crop, a consideration of the matter turns upon the relative

246

Feeds and Feeding.

merits of fodder corn dried in the ordinary way and preserved by
the system of ensilage.

385. Relative losses in drying and ensilage. — The following
table presents data gathered at several Stations relative to the
losses incurred in preserving green corn forage by shocking and by
ensilage. In these trials a quantity of fodder was cut and placed
in the shock or stook. In some cases the shocks remained in the
field untouched until winter ; in others they were made into
larger shocks, or were placed in the barn for protection. At the
time of cutting and shocking the corn, another equal portion from
the same field was placed in the silo.

Relative losses incident to curing corn fodder by drying and ly en-
silage — Various Stations.

Corn

silage.

Corn f

odder.

Station.

Dry
matter.

Protein.

Dry

matter.

Protein.

Vermont, Rept. 1889
Vermont, Rept. 1891

Percent

14.7
20 0

Percent
13.6

Percent

13.6*
19.0

Percent
17 6

Vermont, Rept. 1892

18.0

11 0

18 0

9.0

Vermont Rept 1894

20 0

12 0

20 0

12 0

New Jersey, Bui. 19
Pennsylvania, Rept. 1889 . ..

18.0
10 8

26 5

17.3
21 0

13 8

Wisconsin Rept. 1891, av. four years..

15.6

16.8

23.8

24.3

* Large shocks; 15.1 per cent, for small shocks.

The figures show the range of losses which may occur by either
process of preserving fodders. It is evident that the systems, as
commonly practiced, possess about equal merit in the proportion
of nutriment they conserve.

386. Necessary losses in silage. — In considering the losses of
silage the waste found in the top layer, which acts as a cover for
the material below, has always been taken into account. This
loss is a constant one, being no more for a deep silo than for a
shallow one. By using fresh grass, wet chaff or other cheap ma-
terial for covering, or by beginning to feed from the silo imme-
diately after filling, the loss commonly occurring in the top layer
may be reduced or entirely avoided.

The Ensilage of Fodders.

247

King, studying the subject at the Wisconsin Station1 with a
round silo, concludes after four years' experience that, omitting
the losses found in the top layer and those which may occur at the
bottom of the silo, the other losses need not exceed ten per cent,
of dry matter for corn and eighteen per cent, for red clover.

387. Character of silo losses. — At the Maine Station,2 Jordan
investigated this subject during three years, with the findings
presented in the following table:

Composition of water-free substances in green corn and silage made
therefrom — Maine Station.

18*

$1.

l«

J2.

1883.

Constituent.

Green
corn.

Silage.

Green
corn.

Silage.

Green
corn.

Silage*

Silage.

Ash, pure

Per ct.
5.0

Per ct.
5 5

Per ct.
3 7

Per ct.
4.0

Per ct.
3.3

Per ct.
3.7

Perct.
3.7

Nitrogen X 6.25

6.5

7.2

8 0

8.9

7.3

7.5

7.3

Crude fiber

24 2

27.4

35.2

35 7

29 8

34 0

33 8

Other carbohydrates

62.3

57.0

51.0

49.2

57.7

52 1

52 6

Ether extract

1.9

2.9

2.0

2.3

2.4

2.8t

Total nitrogen

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.2

Albuminoid nitrogen, di-
rect determination

0.9

0.6

1.0

0.6

0.8

0.5

0.6

Amide nitrogen, by dif-
ference

0.1

0.6

0.3

0.8

0.4

0 7

0.6

Percentage of total non-
albuminoid nitrogen, by
difference

13.3

50.4

13.3

33.1

29 9

58 5

52.6

* Dried quickly. f Assumed.

"We learn from the above table that in the process of ensilage
the crude fiber of the corn plant is not reduced or changed by the
heat and moisture of the silo. The other carbohydrates, consti-
tuting as they do the more valuable non -nitrogenous portion of
the forage, are diminished percentagely and in total quantity.
The ether extract is increased through the formation of lactic
acid. We further observe that a considerable portion of the al-
buminoid nitrogen in the green forage is changed to amide nitro-
gen. This reduction of organic nitrogen from albuminoid to
simpler forms has been held to indicate a large loss in the feeding

i Bui. 59.

2Soc. Pro. Agr. Sci., 1884.

248

Feeds and Feeding.

value of the protein constituents of silage, a fact not borne out by
direct feeding tests. (655)

388. Digestibility of silage and fodder corn. — The studies of the
chemists on this subject have been arranged by Woll1 in the fol-
lowing table:

Average digestion coefficients for corn silage and green and cured fod-
der corn — Arranged by Woll.

Forage.

Dry
matter.

Ash.

Pro-
tein.

Crude
fiber.

N.-free
extract.

Ether
extract.

Green fodder corn

So far as this table shows, there is no appreciable difference in
the digestibility of corn silage and dry fodder corn, both being
somewhat less digestible than green fodder.

389. Yield of milk per hundred pounds of dry matter. — At
several Stations feeding trials were so conducted that a compari-
son can be made of the yield of milk from the same quantity of
dry matter fed in silage and dry corn fodder respectively.

Milk produced from dry matter in silage and dry fodder corn — Vari-
ous Stations.

No.

Milk pi
per 100

oduced
pounds.

Station and reference.

trials.

Basis of calculation.

Silage.

Fodder
corn.

\Visconsin 7th Report

Dry matter in:
AVhole ration.

Lbs.
76 9

Lbs.
86 0

AVisconsin 8th Report

\Vhole ration.

70 4

78 7

Vermont 1892 Report

AVhole ration

82 0

76 5

Vermont, 1892 Report

Whole ration

73 5

73 4

Pennsylvania 1890 Report.

AVhole ration

111 9

106 3

AVisconsin 6th Report

Exptl. forage only

155 0

146 1

AVisconsin. 5th Report

Exptl. forage only

166 2

149 6

Vermont 1891 Report

Exptl forage only

240 0

218 0

Reviewing the table we observe that excepting the first and
second trials there were larger returns of milk, when feeding a
1 A Book on Silage.

The Ensilage of Fodders. 249

given quantity of dry matter in the form of silage, than from the
same amount of dry matter in the dry fodder. The average for
the eight trials is about four per cent, more milk from the dry
matter in the form of silage.

390. Feeding tests with silage and fodder corn. — Feeding tests
with silage and fodder corn made at the Vermont1 and Wiscon-
sin2 Stations were conducted as follows: In each case two rows
of corn across the field were cut and placed in shocks, while the
next two rows were run through the feed- cutter and placed in the
silo. By thus alternating until the silo was filled, equal -quanti-
ties of material of the same composition were obtained. The
dried fodder so produced was run through the feed- cutter and fed
in opposition to the silage to dairy cows, with equal quantities of
hay and grain.

The results at the Yermont Station were as follows:

14,262 pounds green fodder corn when dried, fed with a uniform daily
allowance of hay and grain, produced 7,688 pounds of milk.

14,262 pounds of green fodder corn converted into silage, and fed with
the same daily ration of hay and grain, produced 8,525 pounds of milk.

At the Wisconsin Station the results were:

From 29,800 pounds of green fodder were obtained 24,440 pounds of
silage, which, fed with 1,648 pounds of hay and 2,884 pounds of grain,
produced 7,496 pounds of milk, containing 340.4 pounds of fat.

From 29,800 pounds of green fodder were obtained 7,330 pounds of field-
cured fodder corn, which, fed with 1,567 pounds of hay and 2,743 pounds
of grain, produced 7,119 pounds of milk, containing 318.2 pounds of fat.

At the Vermont Station the silage ration produced 837 pounds
or 11 per cent, more milk than was obtained from the dry fodder
ration.

At the Wisconsin Station the silage ration yielded 377 pounds
more milk and 22 pounds more fat — a difference in favor of
silage of 5 per cent, in milk and 6 per cent, in fat.

391. Relative merits of silage and dry fodder corn. — We have
seen that the losses of nutrients in the two methods of curing are
about equal. We have further learned that the digestibility of

1 Kept, 1891.

2 Kept. 1891.

250 Feeds and Feeding.

corn silage and of dry fodder is practically the same. Finally,
actual feeding trials with dairy cows have shown that silage usu-
ally gives better results than a corresponding amount of dry fodder.
The difference in favor of silage is probably due in part to the
fact that cattle usually reject the dry butts of the corn stalk,
even when cut fine, while in silage this part is readily eaten.
Thus, with a given amount of forage of either kind, somewhat
more of that in the form of silage is consumed. Again, silage is
more acceptable to stock than dry fodder, and a larger amount
of dry matter is consumed in the same time, which conduces to
greater gains in flesh or larger yields of milk. Because the ani-
mal willingly eats more food in the shape of silage, there is more
nutriment left to form milk or flesh after the wants of the body
are met.

It is a significant fact that the largest users of silage declare the
most strongly in favor of this forage. (654-5)

392. Effects of silage on the carcass. — At the Utah Station, l
Sanborn found that the flesh of steers fed silage contained six per
cent, and that of sheep two per cent, more water than the flesh
of other animals of the same kind receiving dry forage. Like
roots, silage makes a watery carcass, which is soft to the touch.
Some have considered this a disadvantage. Is it not rather a
desirable condition, within reasonable limits, for all farm stock,
including fattening animals during the earlier stages of that pro-
cess?

Feeding dry forage only during the long winters tends to pro-
duce a dry, firm flesh — a condition certainly not conducive to
the highest degree of health if summer pastures afford the ideal
feed. While silage is highly useful in the preliminary stages
of steer feeding, and its continued use in moderate quantity
throughout the fattening period is desirable, the proportion of
this succulent food to dry forage should be diminished as fatten-
ing advances, in order that the flesh may become more solid.

393. YieSd of silage corn and roots.. — Corn silage and roots both
claim the feeder's interest because of their palatability and succu-
lence. Since they are equally relished by stock, the choice between

* Bui. 8.

The Ensilage of Fodders.

251

them must finally turn upon the amount of nutriment produced
from a given area of land and the cost of production. Woll l
presents the following table, showing the green substance and the
flry matter yielded by both crops at four Stations:

Yield and dry matter per acre of roots and green fodder corn — Four

Stations.

Crops compared.

Maine Station.

Pennsylvania
Station.

Ohio Station.

Ontario
College.

Green
sub-
stance.

Dry

matter

Green
sub-
stance.

Dry
matter

Green
sub-
stance.

Dry

matter

Green
sub-
stance.

Dry
matter

Ruta-ba^as

Lbs.

31,695
15,375
28,500
17,645
39,645

Lbs.

3,415
1,613
2,559
2,590
5,580

Lbs.

42,780
55,320
46,120
32,663
41,172

Lbs.

4,877
5,034
4,382
4,737
8,135

16,177

2,382

31,500

3,000

Turnips

Suo'ar beets.

11,436
18,591

2,010
5,522

Fodder corn

6,000

It is seen that fodder corn yields about twice the dry matter
that can be secured from a crop of roots grown on the same land.

394. Dry matter in silage and roots. — The value of the dry
matter of roots and silage for milk production has been studied
at the Ohio, 2 Pennsylvania 3 and Vermont4 Stations with the fol-
lowing results:

MUk produced by feeding one hundred pounds of dry matter in corn
silage and beets — Three Stations.

Beets.

Corn
silage.

Ohio Station:
1889

Lbs.
59

Lbs.
62

1890

1891

1892

Pennsylvania Station .'

Vermont Station

113

119

It will be seen that although practically all of the dry matter
of beets is digestible, while a considerable portion of that in corn
silage is not, dairy cows, when fed rations consisting largely of

1 A Book 011 Silage.

2 Bept. 1893. 3 Kept. 1890. « Kept. 1895.

252 Feeds and Feeding.

beets or silage, yield somewhat better returns for the dry matter in
the silage. The difference in favor of the dry matter of silage
in these six trials is three per cent.

395. Relative cost of beets and silage. — Armsby, of the Penn-
sylvania Station, l estimates the cost of one acre of corn placed
in the silo at $21.12, while to grow and house an acre of beets
costs $56. 70.

At the Ohio Station, 2 Thorne reports that an acre of beets,
harvesting 15f tons and containing 3,000 pounds of dry matter,
cost as much as an acre of corn yielding 57 bushels of grain and
containing 6,000 pounds of dry matter. The great disadvantage
of roots in competition with corn silage is here made apparent.
(550, 765)

396. Removing the ears from silage corn previous to ensilage. —
About the year 1890 the agricultural press contained favorable
notices of a system of silage making, which in brief is as fol-
lows: The ripening ears of corn are removed from the stalks
and cured on the barn floor or elsewhere under cover. The corn
stalks freed from the ears are then run through the feed- cutter
and preserved as silage. At feeding time a part of the dry ear
corn reduced to meal is fed to cattle with the silage. It was
claimed that this was an economical practice. Woll summarizes
the results at the Wisconsin Station, 3 where silage from equal
areas of land was used, thus:

33,750 pounds of silage, with ears, fed in addition to hay and grain (the
feed containing 17,127.5 pounds of dry matter in all), produced 11,835
pounds of milk.

27,571 pounds of silage with ears picked off, plus 4,341 pounds of dry
ear corn, in addition to hay and grain as before (the feed containing
16,491.7 pounds of dry matter in all), produced 11,423 pounds of milk.

Hills, of the Vermont Station, 4 reports that an acre of green
corn fodder, including ears, 'reduced to silage, was equal in feed-
ing value to 1.26 acres of silage from stalks stripped of their
ears, fed with the meal made by grinding the dry ear corn which

1 Bui. 26.

2 Kept. 1893.

8 Repts. 1891, 1892.
* Kept. 1892.

The Ensilage of Fodders.

253

was produced by the crop. These trials show that the practice
of separating and drying the ear corn in silage making is not
warranted by the results, and that it is better to run the ear corn
into the silo with the fodder.

397. Southern versus Northern seed corn for silage. — Digestion
trials conducted during five years at the Maine Station l by
Jordan showed that sixty-five per cent, of the dry matter in the
Southern corn silage was digestible as against seventy-three per
cent, in the silage from corn of home-grown varieties.

Digestion trials were also conducted at the Pennsylvania Sta-
tion 2 during three years by Armsby. In the following table are
given the findings of the Maine and Pennsylvania Stations from
direct trials, and similar data from three other Stations, the Maine
coefficients of digestibility being used in calculating the data
given in the last column of the table:

Green weight, dry matter and digestible substance per acre in corn
forage from southern- and northern- grown seed — Five Stations.

Green
weight.

Dry

matter.

Digestible
substance.

Maine — 7 trials, 5 years.
Southern corn

Lbs.
34 761

Lbs.
5 036

Lbs.
3 251

Field corn

22,269

4 224

3 076

Pennsylvania — 3 years.
Southern corn

32 321

7 993

5 042

Dent corn

18 606

6 177

4 149

Cornell*
AVhite Southern corn

34 060

7 320

4 758

Pride of the North corn

16 980

4 102

2 953

Wisconsin.-f
B. & \V. silage corn.

47 040

8 329

5 414

Dent corn

24,890

7 263

5*229

Minnesota.^.
Southern corn

43,000

7 985

3 887

Dent corn

19,500

4 518

2 911

* Bui. 16. f Rep t. 1888. J Bui. 40.

The table shows larger yields of green forage in every instance

1 Rept. 1893.

2 Rept. 1892.

254 Feeds and Feeding.

from Southern corn, which likewise leads in dry matter and total
digestible substance, although percentagely lower in digestibility,
as shown by Jordan.

398. When to use Southern corn for silage. — From the table it
appears that we are assured of larger returns of total dry and
digestible matter at the North by the use of large Southern varie-
ties of corn. Southern corn should not be grown for either silo
or forage purposes, however, unless the climatic conditions per-
mit the ears to develop grains of corn which reach the glazing stage
at time of harvest. This variety of corn will prove a favorite for
both silage and dry forage where there is an urgent demand for
the largest possible amount of coarse, palatable forage from a
given acreage. By the use of Southern varieties of seed corn at
the North the stockman can provide an enormous quantity of
roughage from a given area.

On the other hand the stockman who has a fair supply of hay,
straw or stover at command will fill his silo with a richer feed-
ing stuff than that produced by Southern corn, and for this pur-
pose will use varieties of flint or dent corn which will fully
mature in his locality, planting the crop in such manner as to
secure a relatively large proportion of grain to roughage. Silage
made from the smaller varieties of corn, carrying a considerable
proportion of ears, will prove a rich feeding stuff which will
materially reduce the necessity for additional grain. Corn silage,
which is rich in carbohydrates, should be supplemented by clover
hay, if possible, not only because some dry food is required, but
because this hay is rich in protein.

399. Space occupied by silage and dry fodder. — A cubic foot of
hay in the mow weighs about five pounds. According to King 1
a cubic foot of corn silage in a thirty-foot silo weighs 30.6 pounds.
Estimating that hay contains 13.2 per cent, and silage 79.1 per
cent, of water, we have the following:

One cubic foot of hay in the mow contains 4.34 Ibs. dry matter.

One cubic foot of silage in a thirty-foot silo contains 8.28 Ibs. dry matter.

We learn that a given volume of silage contains nearly twice as
much dry matter as the same volume of hay stored in the mow.
1 Bui. 59, Wis. Sta.

The Ensilage of Fodders. 255

400. Cpst of putting green corn fodder in the silo. — The cost for
labor involved in placing a corn crop in the silo is reported by
several Stations to be as follows:

New Hampshire (Bui. 1) $1.08 per ton.

Massachusetts (Kept. 1884) 1.50 per ton.

Kansas (Bui. 48) 71 per ton.

Maryland (Kept. 1889) 1.43 per ton.

King, of the Wisconsin Station, l studied the operation of silo
filling on four Wisconsin dairy farms, and found the average
amount of green fodder placed in the silo per man, daily, to be as
follows:

Farm No. 1 2.96 tons per 10 hours labor.

Farm No. 2 2.60 tons per 10 hours labor.

Farm No. 3 2.45 tons per 10 hours labor.

Farm No. 4 2.43 tons per 10 hours labor.

Station Farm, 1893 2.37 tons per 10 hours labor.

Average 2.56 tons per 10 hours labor.

This shows that for each man working ten hours, about two
and one-half tons of green corn fodder were placed in the silo.
Estimating labor at fifteen cents per hour we have 58.6 cents as
the cost of putting one ton of green corn in the silo. (655)

401. Crops for the silo. — Indian corn is pre-eminently suited
for silage, the solid, succulent stems, when cut into short lengths
or shredded, packing closely, thereby excluding the air and form-
ing a solid mass which keeps well. By planting the kernels
rather thickly in the row the corn plants will develop the proper
proportion of ear to stalk to form a silage sufficiently rich in
nutrients while still furnishing a larger quantity of roughage.
Investigation and experience teach that the corn crop should
be well matured before it is harvested for the silo. Silage from
immature corn is. sour and of low feeding value. Many of the
adverse reports on silage are due to the use of immature, watery
corn plants. See Chapter X.

Eed clover stands next to corn for silage purposes. There is
still much to be learned concerning the proper method of convert-
ing clover into silage, if we may judge from the wide range in the

1 Kept. 1893.

256 Feeds and Feeding.

quality of silage commonly produced from clover. "While some
lots of clover silage are all that can be desired, in most instances
this silage possesses a rank, disagreeable odor and is unsatisfactory,
not being relished by stock. Judging from limited experience,
it would appear that the best quality of clover silage is secured
by cutting the clover at the usual time for hay making, and al-
lowing the plants to lose a part of their moisture by wilting be-
fore they are placed in the silo. Green, sappy clover contains
too much moisture for the best silage. The hollow stems of the
rye plant and their fibrous character, even when quite green, seem
to prevent its conversion into first-class silage, though it is used
to some extent for this purpose. Attempts have been made to
use such crops as cabbage, rape and the various roots, mangels,
ruta-bagas, etc., for silage, but without success.

402. The Robertson mixture. — Eobertson, of the Dominion Sta-
tion, l Ottawa, in the effort to secure a silage containing the nu-
trients of a balanced ration, concluded that the following mixture
would prove satisfactory: Ten tons of green fodder corn, three
tons of English horse beans, and one and a half tons of sunflower
heads. To secure the proper proportion of these crops under Cana-
dian conditions, for each acre of corn there should be planted
half an acre of horse beans and one-fourth of an acre of sunflowers.
This mixture was found satisfactory in feeding trials with dairy
cows and fattening steers. Since the horse bean does not thrive
in the United States except possibly in the extreme north, some
other plant must be substituted in mixtures of this character.
Mr. G. F. Weston, Superintendent of the Biltmore estate, North
Carolina, reports to the writer that he has found that one load of
cowpea vines mixed with two loads of green corn forage produces
an excellent silage for dairy cows.

403. Silage for farm stock. — Silage is pre-eminently a food
for the cow, and its use will largely remain with the dairy
farmer. Because of its succulence and palatability, this forage is
recommended as a substitute for roots with fattening cattle. Sil-
age proves an excellent food for sheep, being especially useful
with ewes having lambs at foot. From its composition silage is

* Kept. 1893-95.

The Ensilage of Fodders. 257

plainly not adapted to pig feeding. Some silage may be fed to
idle horses, but for work horses the amount must necessarily be
limited because of its bulky, soft character.

404. On the rational use of silage. — The silo and its product
must now be regarded as a fixed factor in American agriculture.
Those farms which carry a relatively small amount of stock do not
require the silo. On such farms corn is rarely planted for forage,
and the straw stacks in the barn yards, slowly rotting to manure,
show that grain is grown for the market rather than for home
feeding.

On the other hand many farms are heavily stocked with cattle,
and everything raised finds waiting mouths with demands for still
more. In such cases the feeder will find his best ally in the
Indian corn plant. On heavily- manured lands enormous crops of
corn forage carrying much grain may be grown, and this utilized
as dry fodder serves admirably, while the silo will materially ex-
tend its availability. Corn forage carrying many small ears,
placed in the pit at one operation, rests in the most compact
form, safely awaiting the time for use. Dried fodder corn stored
in the stack or mow deteriorates rapidly with the coming of
spring, the stalks becoming brittle and losing in palatability.
Silage keeps with less loss than does fodder during this time, and
what is not needed for spring feeding will help out the short
summer pastures. "Where intensive farming is practiced the silo
will prove an important factor.

405. Effect of silage upon quality of milk. — Milk -condensing
factories have quite generally refused to accept milk from dairies
where silage is fed. Whether there is a just foundation for this
prejudice remains unsettled at the present time. Not all con-
densing factories, however, are adverse to the use of silage by their
patrons. The Michigan Condensed Milk Company, with factories
at Lansing and Howell, Michigan, accepts milk from silage-fed
cows. In the winter and spring of 1897, about one-fourth of the
milk received at the Lansing factory was from this source and
the company was urging its patrons to erect and use silos, at the
same time insisting that well-matured corn only be used. 1

1 From information furnished by G. H. True of the Mich. Agl. College,
17

258 Feeds and Feeding.

Experts, as a rule, can detect a silage odor or flavor in milk from
silage-fed cows. The fact does not seem of much importance,
however, when we know that milk furnished by many of the best
dairymen, who are heavy feeders of silage, is readily disposed of
to critical customers in cities, who pay high prices for what they
regard an excellent article. Butter from dairies where silage is
properly fed meets with no objection from consumers.

In view of the fact that many thousands of silos are now in use
by the best dairymen of America, there seems no longer any
foundation for objections to the legitimate use of silage as a food
for the dairy cow.

II. Building and Filling the Silo.

406. Silo construction. — Without question the round wooden
silo devised by King1 is the one which will be most commonly con-
structed. The following brief description is adapted from King' s
directions: A circular foundation of stone or brick is constructed
extending about three feet above ground level to secure immunity
of the timbers from moisture. The top of the stone wall is neces-
sarily thicker than the superstructure, and has a shoulder bev-
eled outward, or inward, either form being satisfactory. Cir-
cular silos may be of any size from sixteen feet in diameter up-
ward. For the superstructure, set 2 x 4 inch studding of not less
than twenty-four feet in length on the foundation, standing them
twelve inches apart. To the outside of the studding nail half-
inch sheathing; then cover with building paper, and finally
with half- inch siding. In warm districts the building paper may
be omitted. Each board nailed horizontally on a round silo is
part of a hoop, and all combine to give a structure of great
stability. The inside of the silo can be finished in several ways.
If lumber is employed, use three thicknesses of half- inch boards
not over six inches wide, with two layers of building paper be-
tween, thus making an air-tight inner wall. Ventilation, which
is of the highest importance to the preservation of this shell, is
provided by openings at bottom and top through the outside
siding, the air passing upward in the four-inch space made by
the studding. Instead of wood for lining brick may be used,

i Bui. 59, Wis. Expt. Sta.

The Ensilage of Fodders.

259

in which case only one thickness of inside boards is provided,
against which the bricks rest. If large, the silo may be lined
with combined sheeting and lathing, and then plastered. Small-
diameter silos should be first boarded inside and then lathed and
plastered. Doors, which must be air-tight when closed, should
be provided every six feet, and a dormer window in the roof
admits the end of the silage carrier.

The advantages of a round silo are: The largest cubic capacity
for a given amount of building material, no springing of walls
through internal pressure, no corners for poor silage, and finally,
great strength for a minimum amount of building material. The
round silo may be connected by a passage-way with the feeding
stable.

407. The rectangular silo. — Silos placed in the barn are usually
of rectangular form, the girts extending horizontally with an
inside lining of boards running vertically. Corners are avoided
by boarding across them. When covered on the outside, venti-
lation may be provided by tacking cleats with holes in them to
the girts and nailing the outside boarding to them.

408. Weight of silage at different depths. — King1 calculates
the weight of silage two days after filling the silo to be as follows:

Weight of silage in silos of different depths — King.

Depth of silage.

Weight at different
depths.

Mean weight of silage for
whole depth of silo.

Feet:
1

Lbs. per cu. ft.
18.7

Lbs. per cu. ft.
18 7

33.1

26.1

46.2

33.3

56.4

39.6

61.0

42 8

The above shows that ten feet down in the silo the silage
weighs about thirty-three pounds per cubic foot, while at thirty-
six feet in depth it weighs sixty-one pounds per cubic foot. The
mean weight for silage at different depths is shown in the last
column.

Bui. 59, Wis. Expt. Sta.

260

Feeds and Feeding.

409. Capacity of silos. — The following table by the same author
gives the capacity of round silos at different depths and varying
inside diameters:

Approximate capacity of cylindrical silos for well-matured corn silage,

in tons — King.

Inside Diameter in Feet.

Depth,

feet.

Tons.

20..

58.8

67.0

75.6

84.7

94.4

104.6

115.3

126.6

138.3

150.6

163.4

176.8

21..

62 9

71.6

80.8

90.6

100.9

111.8

123.3

135.3

147.9

161.0

174 7

189 0

.22..

67.4

76.5

86.4

96.8

107.9

119.6

131.8

144.7

158.1

172.2

186.8

202.1

23..

71.7

81.6

92.1

103.3

115.1

127.5

140.6

154.3

168.7

183.6

199.3

215.5

,24..

76.1

86.6

97.8

109.6

122.1

135.3

149.2

163.7

179.0

194.9

211.5

228.7

25..

80.6

89.6

103.6

116.1

129.3

143.3

158.0

173.4

189.5

206.4

223.9

242.2

,26..

85.5

97.2

109.8

123.0

137.1

151.9

167.5

183.8

200.9

218.8

237.4

256.7

27..

90.2

102.6

115.8

129.8

144.7

100.3

176.7

194.0

212.0

230.8

250.5

270.9

,28..

95.0

108.1

122.0

136.8

152.4

168.9

186.2

204.3

223.3

243.2

263.9

285.4

29..

99.9

113.7

128.3

143.9

160.3

177.6

195.8

214.9

234.9

255.8

277.6

300.2

'80..

105.0

119.4

134.8

151.1

168.4

186.6

205.7

225.8

246.8

268.7

291.6

315.3

31..

109.8

124.9

141.1

158.2

176.2

195.2

215.3

236.3

258.2

281.8

305.1

330.0

32..

115.1

135.9

147.8

165.7

184.6

204.6

225.5

247.5

270.5

294.6

319.6

345.7

In the above table the horizontal lines give the number of tons
held by silos of the diameter marked at the top of the columns
and depth marked at the side.

410. The proper horizontal feeding area. — Silage cannot be cut
down in sections like hay in the mow or stack, as the air passing
inward and upward would rapidly deteriorate the whole mass.
The proper method is to remove a certain portion of the silage
from the top of the pit each day, and experience has shown
that the rate of removal should be not less than 1.2 inches per
day. Every two inches in depth of corn silage weighs about five
pounds per square foot near the top of the silo and ten pounds
near the bottom, averaging about seven and a half pounds. On
this basis the proper surface area may be placed at five square
feet per cow, daily. As a guide for the proper surface area of
the silo, King gives the following table, showing the inside diam-
eter of silos which will allow the silage to be fed down at the
rate of two or three inches a day when each cow is allowed forty

The Ensilage of Fodders. 261

pounds of silage daily, — silos to be of sufficient capacity to hold
silage for 180 days:

Necessary diameter of silos for feeding different numbers of cows
while removing from 2 to 3.2 inches of silage daily — King.

No. of
cows.

Silo 30 ft. deep, no partition.
Mean depth fed daily, 2 inches.

Silo 24 ft. deep with partition.
Mean depth fed daily, 3. 2 inches.

Contents.

Round,
diame-
ter in ft.

Square,
sides,
in ft.

Contents.

Round,
diame-
ter in ft.

Square,
sides,
in ft.

Tons.

Cu. ft.

Tons.

Cu. ft.

30.
40.
50.
60.
70.
80.
90.
100.

108
144
180
216
252
288
324
360

4,091
6,545
8,182
9,818
11,454
13,091
14,727
16,364

15
16.75
18.75
20.5
22
22.5
25
26.5

12x14
14x16
16x18
18x18
20x20
20x22
22x24
24x24

108
144
180
216
252
288
324
360

5,510
7,347
9,184
11,020
12,857
14,691
16,531
18,367

20
22
24
26
28
29.75
31.25

16x16
18x18
20x20

22x22
22x26
24x26
26x28
28x28

411. Rate of filling. — From seven to fifteen days should be al-
lowed for filling the silo, as this not only permits more feed to be
stored, but also insures better and sweeter silage with smaller
loss of dry matter than when the operation is crowded into a
period of two or three days. Time is required for the silage to
settle and to expel the entangled air by heat and by setting free
carbonic acid gas.

On the subject of filling King writes:1 " Corn and clover may
be put into the silo either whole or cut, as seems best under the
circumstances. In either case good silage can be made if proper
care is taken, but more care and usually more time will be re-
quired to fill a silo with either whole corn or clover than to run
it through the cutter first; and it is certain that more time will be
required to take the silage out of the silo if put in whole. . . .
To insure the best silage and the least loss of dry matter it is im-
portant that the silage should have a depth at the close of filling
of not less than 24 feet, and 30 feet is better than 24 feet."

412. Tilling and covering. — During filling the inpouring material
should be well spread and tramped near the walls, and should
also be well tramped every two or three days thereafter for a

cit.

262 Feeds and Feeding.

period of ten days. The contents having become settled, the
surface of the pit may be covered with fresh marsh grass, weeds,
chaff, cut straw or other cheap or waste substance, or a portion
of the surface silage may be allowed to decay and form the cover-
ing. The application of fifteen or twenty pounds of water to each
square foot of surface will cause the material at the top of the pit
to ferment rapidly and soon compact itself into an impervious
layer. Feeding from the silo may commence at once or may be
delayed indefinitely. If only a part of the silage is used during
winter the remainder may be covered again and held until sum-
mer, when it may serve a useful purpose during a period of drought
or short pastures.

CHAPTEE XVI.

MANURIAL VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS.

413. Essential constituents of fertilizers. — Only three of the
constituents which plants remove from the soil need be considered
in this chapter, viz., nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, for
all the others are usually held in such abundance that no thought
need be given them. While it is possible for the legumes to
gather nitrogen indirectly from the air, the supply from this source
is not always sufficient, and it is often necessary to add nitrogen
compounds to the soil for the purpose of enriching it. Phosphoric
acid and potash are the two mineral compounds which are not
always held by the soil in sufficient quantity to give profitable
crops and must be supplied in the form of manures or fertilizers.

Farm-yard manures may benefit the soil because the vegetable
matter they contain acts as a mulch and forms humus, but so far
as feeding the plants is concerned their worth rests upon the nitro-
gen, phosphoric acid and potash they contain.

414. Fertilizing constituents of feeding stuffs. — The quantity of
nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash found in the various feed-
ing stuffs is given in Table III of the Appendix. The examples
presented below are abstracted from that table for the purpose of
illustration:

Table showing fertilizing constituents in 1,000 pounds of common
feeding stuffs — From Table III of the Appendix.

Feeding stuffs.

Nitrogen.

Phosphoric
acid.

Potash.

Wheat straw

Lbs.
5.9

Lbs.
1.2

Lbs.
5.1

Timothy hay

12.6

5 3

9 0

Clover hay . . .

20.7

3.8

22.0

Corn

18 2

7 0

4 0

Wheat

23.6

7.9

5.0

AVheat bran

26 7

28 9

16.1

Oil meal, O. P

54 3

16 6

13.7

264

Feeds and Feeding.

From this table we learn that wheat straw contains 5.9 pounds
of nitrogen, and timothy hay more than twice as much, or 12.6
pounds. Clover hay is richer than timothy hay in nitrogen, and
especially in potash, though poorer in phosphoric acid. We
observe a larger quantity of all the fertilizing constituents, espe-
cially phosphoric acid and potash, in wheat bran than in the wheat
grain, from which bran is derived. This is because the starchy
part of the wheat grain used for flour holds little fertility, while
the outside portion of the grain which goes into the bran contains
most of the nitrogen and ash.

415. Amount of excrement voided by farm animals. — Information
on this subject from American experiments is quite limited, but
the following will prove useful:

Voidings per day of twenty-four hours "by farm animals as deter-
mined at several Stations.

Animal.

Station.

Solid
excre-
ment.

Urine.

Total.

Horse

Cornell, Bui. 3

Lbs.

Lbs.
54 5

Horse

Cornell, Bui. 13

58 2

Average

56 3

Cow

Cornell, Bui. 27.

Cow

Geneva, Kept. 1890

Cow

Geneva, Kept. 1890

Cow

Minnesota, Bui. 26

Average.

Sheep
Piff

Massachusetts, Rept. 1893
Minnesota, Bui. 26

1.8
4.3

2.0

2 9

3.8

7.2

The table shows that the voidings of the horse amount to over
55 pounds, the cow 68, the sheep nearly 4, and the pig over 7
pounds each 24 hours.

416. Manure from the ox. — At the Ontario Agricultural Col-
lege, J an ox was confined from birth to maturity in a large box-
stall having a cement floor. The stall was well bedded, and the
animal given exercise by leading, when required. Account was

1 Rept. 1893.

Manurial Value of Feeding Stuffs. 265

kept of all water and food supplied, and of the voidings, with the
following results:

Manure obtained from steer confined in box-stall thirty -six months —

Ontario Agricultural College.

Pounds. Pounds.

Weight of steer at end of thirty-six months 1,588

Water drank 42,449

Feed consumed: Pounds.

Milk 3,862

Roots 7,270

Grain 5,857

Coarse forage 20,957

Total 37,946

Total weight of feed and water 80,395

Total weight of excrement 46,560

Total manure, including bedding 59,280

Excrement per pound gain, live weight 30

Manure, including bedding, per pound gain, live weight 37

417. Heiden's method for calculating manure produced. — Heiden1
computed the amount of manure produced by farm animals in the
following manner. He found that 47.3 per cent, of the dry mat-
ter supplied in the food of the horse re-appears in the solid and
liquid voidings, which contain 77.5 per cent, water and 22.5 per
cent, dry matter. From these data the following proportion is

derived:

22.5 : 100 :: 47.3 : (210)

By this we understand that for each 100 pounds of dry matter
fed the horse there are 210 pounds of voidings. This method of
calculation gives the following results for each 100 pounds of dry

matter fed:

The horse voids 210 pounds of fresh manure.
The cow voids 380 pounds of fresh manure.
The sheep voids 180 pounds of fresh manure.

418. Nitrogen and ash retained and voided by farm animals. — In

supplying feeding stuffs to farm animals some of the nitrogen and
ash they contain are taken up for nourishment and retained in .
the body, or, after use, expelled in the urine. A considerable
portion of the substances under discussion is not dissolved from

Storer's Agriculture, Vol. 1, p. 515.

266

Feeds and Feeding.

the feeds during their passage through the alimentary tract, but
passes off with other useless matter in the solid voidings.

The nitrogen and ash of feeding stuffs retained and voided by
the animal are given in the table below, which summarizes the
Eothamsted experiments as reported by Warington:1

Per cent, of nitrogen and ash voided as excrement or secured as ani-
mal produce with various farm animals — Rothamsted Station.

Nitrogen.

Ash.

Ob-
tained
as car-
cass or
milk.

Voided
as solid
excre-
ment.

Voided
as liq-
uid ex-
cre-
ment.

In total
excre-
ment.

Obtained
as live
weight
or milk.

Voided
in excre-
ment and
perspired.

Fattening ox
Fattening sheep .
Fattening pig....
Milch cow

3.9
4.3
14.7
24.5

22.6
16.7
22.0
18.1

73.5
79.0
63.3
57.4

96.1
95.7
85.3
75.5

2.3
3.8
4.0
10.3

97.7
96.2
96.0
89.7

The above data may be considered as representative of average
results. From them we learn that the fattening ox retains only
3.9 per cent, of the nitrogen supplied in its food, voiding 22.6 per
cent, in the solid excrement and 73.5 per cent, in the urine ; in
all, 96.1 per cent, of the nitrogen supplied this animal in his
food re-appears in the excrement and less than 4 per cent, is
stored in the body. This large return of nitrogen seems reason-
able when we remember that during the fattening process the
grown ox adds little to his body besides fat, which we know con-
tains no nitrogen.

With the cow, 24.5 per cent, of the nitrogen in the feed is used
mainly for the production of the casein and albumen of the milk,
and 75.5 per cent, appears in the excrement.

Of the ash from 2.3 to 10.3 per cent, is retained by the ani-
mal or goes into the milk. Thus it is shown that from 75 to 95
per cent, of all the fertilizing constituents of feeding stuffs re-
' appears in the solid and liquid excrement.

419. Composition of excrement. — It is important that the farmer
understand the composition of the excrement of farm animals

1 Chemistry of the Farm, pp. 124-25.

Manurial Value of Feeding Stuffs.

267

in order to intelligently utilize manures. The source of the
fertility in manures is well illustrated by the following table from
Hebert, * which shows the location of the nitrogen, phosphoric
acid and potash in the excrement of the horse and cow:

Location of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash in excrement —

Hebert.

Nitrogen.

Phosphoric
acid.

Potash.

Horse, urine

Per cent.
1 52

Per cent.
Trace.

Per cent.
0 92

Horse, solid excrement

0 55

0 35

0 10

Cow, urine.

1 05

Trace

1 36

Cow, solid excrement

0 43

0 12

0 04

We learn that the urine of the horse contains 1.52 per cent, of
nitrogen and the solid excrement .55 per cent, or one- third as
much. The reverse holds true for the phosphoric acid, for only
a trace of this appears in the urine and nearly all in the solid
excrement. Of the potash, .9 per cent, is found in the urine and
only .1 per cent, in the solid excrement.

The fertilizing constituents which pass off with the solid excre-
ment are largely insoluble and to this extent not directly avail-
able to plants when applied in manures. On the other hand, the
constituents which appear in the urine are in soluble form and
directly available to the plant.

420. Commercial fertilizers. — The soil in parts of our country is
now so depleted that farmers and planters are forced to make
large use of commercial fertilizers in order to secure remunerative
crops. The commercial fertilizers sold in the United States during
the year 1896 amounted to 1,355,000 tons.2 Placing a value on
these of $20 per ton, a reasonable estimate, we have a total of
over $27,000,000 paid out by farmers and gardeners living mainly
in the Atlantic and Gulf states for commercial fertilizers in a
single year. For the year 1895 the farmers of Connecticut 8 ex-
pended over $700,000, and those in New Jersey 4 $1,575,000, for
commercial fertilizers.

1 Expt. Sta. Record, Vol. 5; also Fertility of the Land, Roberts, p. 180.

2 American Fertilizer. Dec., 1896.

3 Rept. Conn. Expt. Sta., 1895. * Rept. N. J. Expt. Sta., 1896.

268

Feeds and Feeding.

The market value of commercial fertilizers is based on their
content of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. Because of the
enormous quantity of fertilizers used, each of their three valuable
constituents has a definite market value. The average price
of these ingredients in the wholesale markets is as follows: Nitro-
gen, 15; phosphoric acid, 7, and potash 4.5 cents per pound.
The prices of these articles do not fluctuate any more than do
those of other standard articles of commerce.

421. Valuation of fertilizer constituents in feeding stuffs. — If we
follow the plan adopted by some Eastern Stations of placing the
same values on nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash in feeding-
stuffs that these constituents bring when sold in commercial fer-
tilizers, we are in a position to compare the fertilizing values of
the several feeding stuff's. Wheat bran and corn are compared
in the table below:

Value of the fertilizing constituents in 1,000 pounds of wheat bran

and corn.

Constituents.

Wheat bran.

Corn.

Pounds.

Price
per Ib.

Total.

Pounds.

Price
per Ib.

Total.

Nitrogen

26.7
28.9
16.1

Cents.

15
7
4.5

Dollars.

4.00
2.02

.72

7
4

Cents.

7
4.5

Dollars.

2.70
.49
.18

Phosphoric acid
Potash

Total.

6.74

3.37

From the above we learn that the value of the fertilizing
constituents in 1,000 pounds of bran is $6.74, and in the same
weight of corn one-half as much, or $3.37. By doubling these
figures we have the following:

Value of fertilizing constituents in one ton of wheat bran $13.48

Value of fertilizing constituents in one ton of corn 6.74

422. What the figures mean. — The farmer will ask if it is
here taught that he can get returns of $13.48 by the application
of one ton of bran to his land as a fertilizer. Such a deduction
is not the purpose of these figures. They mean, however, that

Manurial Value of Feeding Stuffs. 261>

a ton of bran contains nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash in
such amount that if bought in the form of commercial fertilizers
they would cost at least the sum named. They mean that the
farmer who harvests a ton of corn and seeks to return to the field
the same amount of fertility that was abstracted by this crop
must pay not less than $6.74 for the requisite fertilizers, if bought
in the market. Virgin soils as a rule contain a large amount of
available fertility, and pioneer farmers, drawing upon Nature's
store, give little consideration to the subject. The Western
farmer cultivating prairie lands, when marketing corn considers
that in so doing he is selling labor and perhaps rent of the land;
but rarely does he realize that he is also selling fertility, to re-
place which would cost as much and often more than the crop
brings. The Eastern farmer and Southern planter are now culti-
vating soils which have been so depleted of available plant food
that the subject of fertilizers is a matter of the deepest concern
to them.

When one who cultivates the soil must choose between com-
mercial fertilizers and barn-yard manures, it is reasonable to
estimate that the latter have a value of at least two-thirds the
former, based on their nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash con-
tents. Because the soils of the West are still rich in original
fertility, the farmers of that region have as yet little need of
commercial fertilizers, and barn-yard manures in consequence
have a lower value than in the older-settled regions. For con-
venience of comparison, it is perhaps best to use the same valua-
tions for nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash in farm manures
that these same compounds command when sold in the form of
commercial fertilizers. Such values should always be used, how-
ever, under the limitations above presented. With sharp com-
petition confronting every one who cultivates the soil, the
careful saving of farm manures and their judicious application
are vital factors in farming operations, and as essential to con-
tinued success as plowing the land or planting the crop.

423. Manure produced by farm animals. — Eoberts 1 gathers the
following interesting data showing the daily and yearly produc-

1 The Fertility of the Land.

270

Feeds and Feeding.

tion of manure by farm animals maintained under average condi-
tions:

Fertilizing constituents in solids and liquids voided by farm animals,
daily and yearly — Various sources, Roberts.

Daily.

Yearly.

Value
per
year.

Nitro-
gen.

Phos.
acid.

Pot-
ash.

Nitro
gen.

Phos.
acid.

Pot-
ash.

Horse (Hebert)

Lbs.

.342
.467
.023
.0326

Lbs.

.131
.071
.014
.0246

Lbs.

.112

.294
.039
.50*

Lbs.

125.2
170.6
8.4
11.9

Lbs.

47.8
26.0
5.6
10.6

Lbs.

43.2
107.6
14.3
11.9

$24.06
32.25
2.29
3.06

Cow

Sheep (Muntz and Girard)
Pig (JBoussingault)

* Estimated.

424. Value of farm manure per ton. — Roberts, gathering the
data at Cornell Station and elsewhere, deduces the following as
the average value per ton of manures from various farm animals,
nitrogen being rated at fifteen cent^ phosphoric acid at seven
cents and potash at four and one-half cents per pound:

Value per
ton.

Horse

Cow

Sheep

Pig

It should be borne in mind that the value of farm manures de-
pends primarily upon the character of the feed given, and, in the
second place, upon the animal to which the feed is supplied.
Manure which originates from the use of concentrated feeding
stuffs usually has a high value, because such feeds are rich in
nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. Manure resulting from
the use of straw and coarse forage has a correspondingly low
value. l

$2.49
2.43
4.25
3.20

1 The student desiring additional information on matters treated in this
chapter should consult: The Fertility of the Land, Roberts; Agriculture
in Some of its Relations with Chemistry, Storer.

PART III.
FEEDING FARM ANIMALS.

CHAPTEE XVH.

INVESTIGATIONS CONCERNING THE HORSE.

I. Mare and Foal.

425. Period of gestation. — According to Youatt, l the average
period of gestation for the mare is eleven months, but it may be
diminished five weeks or extended six weeks. Of 582 mares re-
ported by M. Tessier, the shortest period was 287 days, the longest
419, and the average 330 days. 2

426. Weight and growth of foals. — Boussingault 3 found that:
"1. Foals, the issue of mares weighing from 960 to 1,100

pounds, weigh at birth about 112 pounds.

"2. During suckling, for three months the weight increases in
the relation of 278 : 100, and the increase corresponds very nearly
to 2.2 pounds per head per day.

"3. The increase in weight per day of foals from the end of
the first to the end of the second year is about 1.3 pounds, and
towards the third year the increase per day falls to something
under one pound.

"4. After three full years, the period at which the horse has
very nearly attained his growth and development, any increase
becomes less and less perceptible. ' '

1 The Horse, p. 222.

2 Farmers' Cyclopedia, Johnson, p. 562.
8 Rural Economy, Am. ed., p. 464.

272

Feeds and Feeding.

427. Weight of trotting foals at birth.— At Allen farm, Pitts
field, Mass., Meston1 recorded the weights of foals at birth, as
summarized in the following table:

Weight of trotting -bred foals at birth and other data relating thereto —
Meston, Allen Farm.

Averages.

21 colts.

23 fillies.

15 of
av. or

less wt.

6 above
av. wt.

13 of
av. or

less wt.

10
above
av. wt

Weight of foals at birth, pounds

98.5

1,070
1,065
343
.29

129

1,156
1,095
337

.38

102

1,160
1,066
338
.30

123

1,155
1,071
340
.36

Weight of their dams after foaling,
pounds

W^eio'ht of their sires pounds

Period of gestation days

Foetal growth per day, pounds

428. Increase in weight of foals. — Mestori 2 recorded the in-
crease in weight of trotting-bred foals up to four months, with the
results shown in the following table:

Growth of suckling trotting-bred foals up to four months — Meston,

Allen Farm.

Age of foals.

No.
of

foals.

Av.

growth
per
day.

Av. growth per
day of foals of —

No.
of
foals
above
av.

Extremes in
growth — Ibs.
per day.

Av.

Above

Max.

Min.

wt. or

av. wt.

wt.

foal.

under.

Lbs.

From 3 to 9 days.

3.70

3.76

3.62

6.00*

1.60

From 11 to 19 days.

3.34

3.17

3.53

4.71

2.00

From 22 to 28 days.
From 31 to 39 days.

12
16

2.80
2.67

2.78
2.64

2.H4
2.79

3
5

3.01
3.08

2.00
.82

From 40 to 49 days.
From 52 to 59 days.

15
10

2.67
2.46

2.55

2.38

2.81
2.56

7
3

3.23
2.94

.88

.72

From 60 to 69 days.

2.33

2 22

2.81

2.94

.84

From 70 to 79 days.

2.35

2]30

2.39

3.00

.55

From 80 to 88 days.

2.14

2.13

2.16

2.68

.51

Over 3 and under 4

months

2.10

2.00

2.28

2.53

1.75

* Doubtful.

Country Gentleman, 1894, pp. 636-7.
Loc. cit.

Investigations Concerning the Horse. 273

429. Mare's milk. — The following table presents the composi-
tion of mare's milk, with cow's milk for comparison, according
to Konig: 1

Percentage composition of mare's milk; cow's milk being given for
comparison — Konig.

Water.

Casein
and albu-
men.

Fat.

Sugar.

Ash.

Average 47 analyses mare's milk.
Average 793 analyses cow's milk.

90.78
87.17

1.99
3.55

1.21
3.69

5.67

4.88

0.35
.71

It is shown that mare's milk contains more water than that of
the cow, the casein, albumen, fat and ash being about one-half
that found in cow's milk, while the sugar is nearly one per cent,
higher. If cow's milk is used for feeding foals, it should be
diluted with water and sugar added.

The quantity of milk yielded by mares has been determined in
only a few cases. According to Goltz, 2 Tartarian mares produce
from 450 to 500 pounds of milk per year in addition to that
required by their foals. Such mares remain in milk two years.

Vieth 3 reports that good milking mares on the steppes of south-
eastern Russia yield from 4 to 5 liters (quarts) of milk daily when
milked five times a day, as is the practice.

II. Wolff's Studies of Feed Consumed and Work Performed, by the

Horse.

430. Plan of investigation. — Wolff's feeding and digestion ex-
periments with the horse are the first extensive and systematic
efforts in this line. From the necessities of the case his work
was done with single animals. He first studied the comparative
digestibility of various feeding stuffs with the horse, and later
the relation of feed consumed to the amount of work performed.
To discuss the results of these investigations intelligently it is
necessary to first consider the method adopted for measuring the
work done by the horse.

1 Clieiu. cl. MeiiRch. Nahr. u. Genus-mitteL

2 Lamlw. Ill, p. 520.

8 Ld\v. Vers. iSta. 31 (1885), p. 354.
18

274 Feeds and Feeding.

431. Measuring the work of horses. — In measuring work done,
the engineer uses as the unit a foot-pound (or foot-ton), the term
meaning the work accomplished in lifting one pound (or one ton)
one foot high. In comparing the work performed by horses under
varying conditions it will be necessary to use the same expres-
sion. A nominal horse-power is 33;000 foot-pounds per minute.
This amount of work was ascertained by James Watts, the in-
ventor of the steam-engine, in a series of experiments with com-
pound pulleys. As the capacity of animals for hard work is
limited, no horse can work constantly more than eight hours a
day. The work done by a horse during a day will be represented
by 33, 000 x 8 x 60 = 15, 840, 000 foot-pounds. This is, however, an
excessive amount of work. An average horse will do only about
22,000 foot-pounds per minute. This work continued for eight
hours gives 10,560,000 foot-pounds, which is regarded as an or-
dinary day's work for a medium-sized horse.

In the Hohenheim experiments l the following figures were
obtained for eight hours, constituting a day's work:

Foot-pounds.

A. Hauling on level track 7,999,800

B. Working in horse-sweep 12,996,000

Perels2 gives the following data for a day's work of eight hours
for strong, well-fed horses:

A. Hauling on level track — Foot-pounds.

Heavy work 17,051,000

Ordinary work ' 12,996,000

B. Working in horse-sweep 10,136,900

432. Wolff's dynamometer. — To measure the work performed
by the horse in a given time, Wolff constructed a horse dynamom-
eter, which may be described as a sweep, the axis of which
consisted of two parts — a lower stationary cast-iron base and an
upper loose cast-iron cover. This cover was connected with the
sweep, and could be weighted so that the friction between the re-
volving cover and the stationary base on which it rested could be
increased at will. The details of the dynamometer, and the ar-

1 Wolff, Ldw. Jahrb. VIII, Suppl. I, p. 115.

2 Deutsche Ldw. Presse, 1878, Sept. 18; Ldw. Jahrb. VIII, Suppl. I,
p. 115.

Investigations Concerning the Horse. 275

rangements for controlling the work performed, are very com-
plicated and need not be described here. 1 In the first series of
experiments with the dynamometer conducted during the summer
of 1877, 2 the daily work performed by the horse during the five
periods of the experiment amounted to 3,429,500, 6,864,000,
10, 288, 500, 6, 859, 000 and 3, 429, 500 foot-pounds. The ration fed
daily throughout the experiment was 13.2 pounds of oats, 11
pounds of hay, 3.3 pounds of cut winter- wheat straw, and A
ounces of salt. The weight of the horse was 1,177 pounds.

433. What was shown by the digestion trials. — Digestion trials
conducted during each period showed that the amount of
work performed by the horse did not exert any influence on
the digestibility of the ration fed. The digestion coefficients
found during the five periods were: for dry matter, 57, 56, 56, 54,
53 per cent. ; for protein, 71, 68, 70, 67, 68 per cent. ; for nitrogen-
free extract, 68, 70, 68, 68, 64 percent., etc. The somewhat lower
digestibility of the ration during the last period is accounted for
by the influence of the storing of the hay — the digestibility of
hay decreasing with age. The animal was never overworked
during the digestion experiments, the hardest labor being easily
within its capacity. The heavier work done during the third
period was accompanied by a greater quantity of water drank and
a decrease in the live weight of the animal. The results obtained
were corroborated in a second trial, when a highly nitrogenous
ration containing field beans was fed (16.5 pounds of hay and
8.8 pounds of beans), and also in still later experiments by the
same investigator. 3 The results obtained by Grandeau and
Leclerc with French cab horses (442) do not quite correspond with
those found by Wolff with German farm horses, as given above,
the former investigators finding a small depression in the digesti-
bility of rations fed to horses doing slow work compared with
that obtained when resting in the stall, and a somewhat larger
depression when doing harder work. The differences obtained
were within three per cent, of those found by Wolff, and are not,
therefore, of much practical importance.

1 For a detailed description of the apparatus, with illustrations, see
w. Vers. Sta. 21, 1877, p. 21.

2 Ldw. Jahrb. VIII, 1879, Suppl. I, p. 73. *» ibid., p. 78.

276 Feeds and Feeding.

434. Nutrients required for maintenance and work. — Wolff's ex-
periments show that a horse of average size will do medium hard
work and maintain his weight on a ration containing about 12
pounds of digestible matter. A nutritive ratio of 1: 6.4 proved
better than the narrow ration of 1:3. When, as in the later ex-
periments, less than 9. 5 pounds of digestible matter were supplied
in the ration, the weight of the horse decreased, the decrease
being, under otherwise similar conditions, more marked when a
narrow nutritive ratio (1:3.4) was fed than when a wider ratio
(1: 5.6) was given. (445) When heavier work was done, a sup-
ply of 12 pounds of digestible matter did not suffice to maintain
the weight of the horse. This could only be attained by furnish-
ing larger quantities of nutrients, viz., about 15.5 pounds.

The digestible nutrients necessary to maintain a horse of 1,100
pounds in a medium nutritive condition, when not performing
any mechanical work, was found in repeated experiments with
three horses to be 9.25 pounds on an average, when a consider-
able portion, at least one-half^ of the ration was made up of
coarse feed, viz., meafttov hay. This proportion of coarse feed
will hold good for farm horses doing an average day's work in
rather slow time. Horses which are required to do heavy work
and in rapid time, as, for instance, mail-coach or army horses,
must have rations which are easily digested, and they should
consist of concentrated feeding stuffs with some chaffed straw and
little or no hay. x

435. Value of the various components of fodders. — According
to Wolff's experiments, the digestible albuminoids of the feed
have, beyond a certain minimum, no higher value for production
of work than the same quantity of starch or of the starch equiva-
lent of digestible non-nitrogenous substances. (Chapter V, pt. 1. )
He found that the digestible organic substances in coarse fodders,
mainly meadow hay, have considerably lower value for the pro-
duction of work in the case of the horse than have the same sub-
stances in concentrated feeding stuffs, — for instance, oats. The
explanation given, the correctness of which is disputed by good
authorities, is that the crude fiber, largely present in the coarse

* Wolff, Ldw. Jahrb., 1887, Suppl. III.

Investigations Concerning the Horse.

277

fodders, is of no value to the horse either for maintenance or for
production of wwk, the decomposition of cellulose taking place in
the colon through the action of ferments, after it has passed the
digestive tract. For keeping a horse of 1, 100 pounds weight at
maintenance, 9.25 pounds of digestible matter are required in the
ration, as has been seen. Of crude fiber-free nutrients, 7.28 to
7.50 pounds were found necessary, an average of 7.39 pounds.
This result is an average of thirty-eight experiments with three
horses and agrees closely with the findings of Grandeau and
Leclerc, who obtained 7.47 pounds as the average of six closely
agreeing experiments with two horses.

436. Work possible from one pound of feed. — Beyond the 7.39
pounds of digestible crude fiber-free nutrients required for the
maintenance of a 1, 100 pound horse, each additional . 22 of a pound
(100 grams) of the crude fiber-free digestible nutrients will, ac-
cording to Wolff, increase the power of the horse for muscular
work about 400,000 foot-pounds. The table presented below
shows the total available work possible from one pound of com-
mon feeding stuff on this basis:

Work, in foot-pounds, obtainable from one pound of various food
substances when fed to the horse — Wolff.

Feed.

No. of
anal-
yses.

No. of
diges-
tion ex-
peri-
ments.

Total
digesti-
ble or-
ganic
matter.

Digesti-
ble
crude
fiber.

Equivalent to work.

Crude
fiber in-
cluded.

Crude
fiber ex-
cluded.

Meadow hay

16
5
4

4
8
I
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

7
6
7
22
1
1
5
1
1
1
1
1
1

Per ct.

40.6
41.1

46.2
15.7
60.2
70.7
80.0
72.4
66.7
63.4
63.4
74.0
21.5
6.0

Per ct.

11.4
12.0
11.0
7.6
2.0
4.1
1.5
4.5
0.5
8.7

Foot-
pounds.

736,500
745,600
838,100
284,800
1,092,000
1,282,000
,452,000
,313,000
,210,000
,150,000
,150,000
,343,000
390,000
108,800

Foot-
pounds.

529,800
527,900
638.600
147.000
1,055,000
1,209,000
1,424,000
1,232,000
1,201,000
992,400
1,150,000
1,343,000
390,000
108,800

Clover hay

Alfalfa hay

\Vheat straw ..

Oats

Barley

Corn

Field beans

Peas

Lupines

Linseed cake

Flaxseed .

Potatoes

Carrots

278

Feeds and, Feeding.

437. Feed requirements for work. — The manner of calculating
the amount of feed necessary for the performance of a certain
amount of work may be illustrated by an example cited by
Wolff.1 If a riding horse in average condition, weighing 937
pounds, and 1,157 pounds with rider and saddle, travels 20.5
miles daily, he performs the amount of work shown in the table,
which calls for corresponding quantities of nutrients.

Nutrients required for work of varying degrees — Wolff.

Movement.

Move-
ment
per
second.

Time
required.

Energy
used per
second.

Total
energy.

Digestible
nutrients
required.

Walking

Feet.
4 1

Seconds.
26,400

Foot-
pounJs.

301,998

Foot-
pounds.

7,971,700

Lbs.

2 85

Slow trot

8 2

13,200

1,207,978

15,945,300

5 70

Canter

20 5

5,280

7,356,502

38,842,900

13.9

To the digestible nutrients given in the last column must be
added the quantity necessary to maintain the animal, aside from
the performance of any work, which will amount to 6. 70 pounds
per 1,000 pounds weight (7.39 for 1,100 pounds), so that ordi-
narily the supply of digestible matter in the ration would be re-
spectively 9. 13, 11. 97 and 20. 17 pounds. The two amounts in the
last column are larger than any horse will be able to assimilate,
but a continuous canter or even slow trot for the whole distance
of 20 miles represents an amount of work rarely performed by
the horse. If we assume that one-third of the distance was
traveled in a walk, one-third in a slow trot, and one-third in a
canter, we find that the total time required would be 14,960
seconds, the total energy used 11,874,000 foot-pounds, and the
corresponding feed requirements 4.25 pounds of digestible
matter. This added to the feed required for maintenance
amounts to 10.52 pounds of digestible matter. A horse walking
20 miles will require seven hours and twenty minutes. If equal
distances are traveled in walk, trot and canter, it will take four
hours and nine minutes. The total energy spent in the former

1 Landw. Jahrb., 1887, Suppl. Ill, p. 120.

Investigations Concerning the Horse.

279

case with a rider will call for 9.12 pounds of digestible sub-
stances in the feed (exclusive of crude fiber), and in the latter
10.52 pounds. A daily ration of 8.8 pounds of good meadow
hay and about 11 pounds of oats will supply the demand for the
former effort, and 8.8 pounds of hay and 13.2 pounds of oats the
latter.

438. Rate of movement. — In practice it is generally assumed
that the speed of the horse per second amounts to 4.1 feet in
walking; in slow trot, 8.2 feet; in rapid trot, 12.3 feet; in short
canter, 16.4 feet; in canter, 20.5 feet, and in full gallop, 24.6 feet. l

The strain of work by a full-grown, well-fed horse can, accord-
ing to Eueff, continue on an average for eight hours a day; for
instance, a horse weighing about 900 pounds can carry 176 pounds,
with a speed of 4.1 feet per second, for eight hours without suf-
fering exhaustion, traveling in that time a little more than 22
miles. The length of time can be increased, but if more energy
is called into play by increasing both the load and the speed, the
animal will become exhausted. If, for instance, both the load
and the speed be increased one-fourth, the working hours must
be shortened one-fourth, and vice versa.

439. Influence of rapidity of work. — The amount of work which
a horse is able to perform on a certain ration remains practically
the same whether done during a shorter or longer period of time,
or by hauling a smaller or greater load. The following summary
given by Wolff 2 shows this statement to be correct:

Influence of rapidity of work by the horse — Wolff.

Period.

No. of
turns of
sweep.

Load.

Distance
walked.

Period of
walking.

Total day's
work per-
formed.

Work
per
second.

1,000
750
600

Lbs.

88
132
176

Feet.

86,560
64,920
51,950

Minutes.

515
396
354

Foot-
pounds.

12,300,200
12,279,300
12,078,400

Foot-
pounds.

397.8
517.0

568.2

Ill

The total work done remained practically the same in all cases,
and the nutritive condition of the horse was apparently unchanged,
i Wolff, Landw. Jahrb., 1887, Suppl. Ill, p. 119. 2 Loc. cit., p. 71.

280 Feeds and Feeding.

The ability of the horse to perform a definite amount of work was
therefore the same whether it was performed in less than six hours
or in more than eight hours.

440. An example of severe work. — Wolff cites the intense work
of the mail-coach horses on the route from Plieningen to Stutt-
gart, Germany. Two strongly-built, spirited horses, in good
flesh, drawing a heavy mail-coach, often carrying eight passen-
gers, go twice daily out and home, up and down the mountain
road at a trot. The total distance traveled is 35 miles, with an
average speed of 7.87 feet per second. These horses are fed
daily per head from 22 to 24 pounds of oats mixed with cut straw,
and in addition hay ad libitum, of which they eat very little —
often none at all. The oats consumed contained from 13.2 to 14.5
pounds of digestible matter, and the day's work represents at
least 21, 660, 000 foot-pounds per horse. "When the feed equivalent
of the work performed is subtracted, much less than 9.25 pounds
of the digestible matter remains as the maintenance ration when
calculated on the basis of a weight of 1,100 pounds per horse.

441. The German army horse. — The German army horse often
travels over 40 miles in a day, one-third of the distance being in
a walk, trot and gallop, respectively. This work means an ex-
penditure of energy amounting to not less than 23, 748, 000 foot-
pounds, or a feed requirement of 14.77 pounds of digestible matter,
including the food of support. The horses are fed on an average a
ration consisting of only 5.5 pounds of hay, 11 pounds of oats,
and some cut straw. This ration contains only ab'out 8. 8 pounds
of digestible components, and "it is therefore not hard to under-
stand why the horses lose heavily in weight during the maneuvers,
and that, when these are over, a large number of animals have to
be disposed of as not adapted for use in military service; they are
also unfit for almost any other work."

III. The Investigations of Grandeau and Leclere.

442. Digestibility of horse feeds. — Grandeau and Leclere1 stud-
ied the digestibility of horse feeds and the relation of food to the
amount of work performed by the light draft horses of the Paris

* Ann. de la Sci. Agron., 1884, Vol. II, p. 325.

Investigations Concerning the Horse.

281

Cab Company. They determined the digestibility successively of
maintenance rations, rations fed horses when walking without
load, and rations for light-working horses. Three horses were
included in the experiments, the rations consisting of about three-
fourths grain and one-fourth coarse feed supplied in the following
quantities:

Rations fed horses during digestion trials — Grandeau and Leclerc.

Hay.

Straw.

Oats.

Beans.

Corn.

Corn
cake.

Total.

Maintenance ration

Lbs.

2.3
2.5

Lbs.

1.2
1.4

Lbs.

4.3

4.8

Lbs.

.9
1.0

Lbs.

3.3
3.5

Lbs.

12.6
13.9

^Valking ration .

3.5

1 9

6 5

1 4

4 8

1.0

19.1

The three experimental rations stand in the ratio of 1: 1.1: 1.5.
Each period lasted a month, the three horses being successively
put on the same rations and subjected to the same conditions. The
horses weighed 972, 945 and 992 pounds at the beginning of the
experiments. The following average digestion coefficients for the
above rations were obtained:

Digestion coefficients for rations fed three horses — Grandeau and

Leclerc.

Exercise.

No.
of
trials.

Organic
matter.

Pro-
tein.

Cellu-
lose.

Nitrogen-
free ex-
tract.

Ether
extract.

At rest

^\ alkin0' no work

^Valking, work .

Trot, no work

Trot, work

The digestibility of the rations when the horses were walking
a distance of about twelve miles per day was no smaller than when
at rest. There was an extreme depression of 5 per cent, in the
digestibility of the total organic matter and 7 per cent, in the
protein when the horses were worked hard. (433) It further
appears from the table that the digestion of cellulose, which
eccurs principally in the colon or large intestine, is affected more

282

Feeds and Feeding.

than any other constituent by the amount of exercise or work;
the motion of the horse probably determines its more rapid pas-
sage through the system. Grandeau states that the results accord
with practical experience, which teaches that the digestion of
horses is relatively the most efficient when they are resting or
doing little work.

443. Maintenance rations for horses.1 — We have seen that by
" maintenance ration" is understood the minimum supply of
feed which will keep a horse from losing weight while at rest in
the stable with only the small amount of walking exercise neces-
sary to preserve health. (133) In Grandeau' s experiments with
meadow hay as the sole diet, three horses were kept at rest for
periods amounting to four or five months each, half an hour's
walking exercise being allowed per day. Each horse received
17.6 pounds of hay per day, which proved exactly sufficient to
maintain his weight unaltered. The three horses did not digest
the hay equally well, and thus each horse was really nourished
and its weight maintained by somewhat different amounts of food.
The average result for each horse was as follows:

Maintenance experiments with horses fed meadow hay — Grandeau

and Leclerc.

Weight of horse.

Total organic matter
digested per day.

Actual
amount.

Per 1,000
Ibs. weight.

No 2 897 pounds

Lbs.

5.90
5.98
6.31

Lbs.

6.57
7.00

7.82
7.02

No 3 853 pounds

No. 1, 806 pounds

Grandeau and Leclerc experimented with many other rations,
"but in only a few cases did their maintenance diets exactly meet
the wants of the horse. These results are given in the next
table; they are less valuable than those obtained with meadow
hay, given above.

1 After Warington, London Live Stock Journal, 1894, p. 49, et seq.

Investigations Concerning the Horse.

283

Maintenance experiments with horses — Grandeau and Leclerc.

Diet.

Weight of
horse.

Total organic matter per day.

In ration.

Digested.

Digested
per 1,000
Ibs. weight.

Hay alone (mean)

Lbs.

868
913
1,013
972
906

Lbs.

14.08
8.59
11.57

9.48
9.49

Lbs.

6.09
6.41
8.33
7.30
6.74

Lbs.

7.02
7.02
8.22
7.£0
7.45

Oaf s alone (crushed)

Corn and oat straw

Corn, oats, hay and straw...
Corn, oats, hay and straw...

These figures illustrate very plainly the weak point in a diet
containing much hay or straw, viz., the large quantity which
must be given to animals to produce a certain effect, due to the
low digestibility of these feeds.

444. Protein required in maintenance rations. 1 — In construct-
ing a maintenance ration for an animal it is important to know
what is the smallest quantity of protein required to replace the
daily waste of the body; the ration should of course never supply
less than this amount. The quantity does not seem to have been
exactly determined in the case of the horse, but judging from
the French experiments it must be quite small. The average
amount of digestible albuminoids received daily by the three
horses during fourteen months while fed entirely upon hay was
only . 54 pounds per 1, 000 pounds live weight. This quantity cor-
responds to that determined by German experiments as mini-
mum quantities for an ox of 1,000 pounds kept on a maintenance
diet The minimum for the horse, is, however, less than the
above average. Horse No. 3 during June and July received a>
daily average of only .48 pounds per 1,000 pounds weight, yet
this was apparently sufficient, as the horse gained about five
pounds in weight during these two months. In another case
the same horse received daily, during one month, only ,37 pounds
of digestible albuminoids per 1,000 pounds live weight. The
horse gained somewhat in weight while at rest, but the analyses
of the urine showed that he lost rather more nitrogen than he

1 After Warington, loc. cit.

284 Feeds and Feeding.

received in the food. We are therefore disposed to assume
about .45 pouuds of digestible protein per 1,000 pounds live
weight as the minimum quantity for the maintenance of a horse.
Since oats contain about nine per cent, of digestible protein,
about five pounds of oats daily would supply all the protein
necessary to replace the wear of muscular tissue in the horse
during rest. This amount of oats would contain about 4.3 pounds
of organic matter, or 2.7 less than required according to the re-
sults of Grandeau's experiments. The horse would therefore be
unable to hold his own on five pounds of oats alone, but would
need nearly as much hay in addition. (134)

445. Nutritive ratio for work horses. — In the experiments by
Orandeau conducted in 1889-90, the question of the most profit-
able nutritive ratio for work horses was considered. l (132-4) In
place of the ration previously fed, having a nutritive ratio of
about 1 : 7, an Indian corn and straw ration, having a ratio of
1 : 10, and one of beans and straw, with a ratio of 1 : 3, were fed.
The effect of these rations was studied with three horses for a
year, they being at rest in the stall, or given walking or trot-
ting exercise, or work at the sweep at a walking or trotting
pace, or finally given work before the carriage. The rations
varied of course with the work performed, but the same propor-
tions of each feed given during rest were continued during the
other periods, the quantities only being increased. The corn ra-
tion fed during rest was 9.4 pounds corn, 5.4 pounds cut straw j
the bean ration 9 pounds beans, 8.5 pounds cut straw. The straw
fed was barley straw during 1889 and oat straw during 1890.
The average weight of the three horses during the whole experi-
ment was, for corn periods 976.8 and for bean periods 1,045.5
pounds. The increase in weight was partly due to the larger
quantity in nutrients of the bean ration, amounting to about 6 per
cent. In spite of the larger quantities of nutrients fed during the
bean periods, the effect of the rations was about the same, and
when a difference occurred it was in favor of the corn. A better
utilization of the fodder must therefore have taken place during the
corn periods, since there was no evidence of any difference in the

1 Ann. de la Sci. Agr., 1892, p. 1.

Investigations Concerning the Horse. 285

nutritive condition of the horse or in its capacity for work in favor
of beans. The main difference in the rations is in the greater
protein content of the bean ration, the quantity of carbohydrates
being practically the same in both cases.

The conclusion drawn, therefore, is that a very narrow nutritive
ratio is not advantageous, but that experience must still decide
how far the ration may be profitably widened. The author bel ie ves
that 1 : 7 is about a correct nutritive ratio for the utilization of all
components of the ration for the work horse. (434)

446. Feed required for performing work. — Grandeau's re-
searches 1 do not furnish much information as to the quantity of
feed required for the performance of known amounts of work, for
although graduated amounts of measured work were performed
by the horses under each diet, it was rare that the ration proved
exactly sufficient for maintaining the horses' weight without gain
or loss. Some points of importance were, however, clearly made
out. One of these is the effect of pace on the amount of labor
exerted and the feed required therefor. Thus, a horse walking
12.5 miles per day was kept in condition with a daily ration of
19.4 pounds of hay, while one of 24 pounds was insufficient when
the same distance was covered at a trot. Again, a horse walking
the above distance and hauling a load, the additional work being
equivalent to 1,943 foot- tons, was sufficiently nourished by a
ration of 26.4 pounds of hay, but one of 32.6 pounds (all the
horse would eat) was not enough to maintain its weight when the
same work was done at a trot. That work is performed at least
cost to the system when done slowly is a fact well recognized by
every old and feeble man, but the principle has not generally
been recognized as true in all cases.

Some of the reasons why rapid labor is less economically per-
formed than slow labor are readily apparent. When a horse is
trotting, the frequency of the pulse, and consequently the work
performed by the heart, is much increased. The trotting or gal-
loping horse lifts his own weight at each step, but allows it to
fall again, the result appearing only as heat. The temperature
of the horse rises with exertion, and much heat is lost by the

1 After Warington, loc. cit.

286

Feeds and Feeding.

evaporation of water through, the skin and lungs. The propor-
tion of the food employed to produce heat is thus increased, while
the proportion appearing as work is diminished. There are other
mechanical reasons why rapid motion generally consumes more
power than slow motion, even when the distance traveled and the
weight moved are the same. Grandeau gives tables showing the
temperature of the body of the horse before and after work.
When the work performed was at all severe, a very distinct rise
in body temperature was observed — from 2° to 4° Fahr.

447. Water drank by horses. — Grandeau and Leclerc l report
the following quantities of water drank by two horses under dif-
ferent conditions:

Horse A. Horse B.

Lbs. daily. Lbs. daily.

Walking, performing no labor 24.9 30.7

Walking, performing labor. 28.9 35.4

Trotting, performing no labor 31.3 27 . 6

Trotting, performing labor 52.0 50.7

448. Loss of weight during work. — Grandeau and Leclerc' s in-
vestigations 2 furnish abundant material for studying the loss of
weight of horses and the quantities of water drank during differ-
ent kinds of work. The following are some of the results:

Loss in weight of horses during work and when at rest — Grandeau

and Leclerc.

No. of horse.

Av.

live
weight.

Av. length of
trial.

Walking, no
work.

Water
drank
per
day.

Walking,
work.

Water
drank

day.

Loss in weight.

A.M.

P.M.

A.M.

P.M.

A.M.

P.M.

Ill

Lbs.

850
800

Min.

145
145

Min.

J51
151

Lbs.

2.0
2.8

Lbs.

1.6

2.7

Lbs.

24.9
30.7

Lbs.

2.8
4.9

Lbs.

3.9
5.4

Lbs.

28.9
35.4

Ill

850

800

80
79

79
79

Trotting, no
work.

31.3

27.6

Trotting,
work.

52.0
50.7

2.7
4.5

3.2
5.5

8.0
9.7

9.1
10.5

The difference between the loss in weight of the horse when
walking and trotting, or that obtained when working and idle, is

1 Loc. cit.

2 Ann. Sci. Agr., 1888, II, p. 276.

Investigations Concerning the Horse. 287

due not only to wear of muscles and decomposition of nutritive
fluids in the body of the animal, but is partly accounted for by
the increased evaporation of water due to the heavier work. The
water evaporated daily under varying conditions of exercise, as
determined in experiments with different diets, was as follows:

Water evaporated
Condition of horse. per day, Ibs.

At rest 6.4

Walking exercise 8.6

At work, walking 12.7

Trotting 13.4

At work, trotting 20.6

The distance trotted was the same as that walked, and the load
drawn was the same. The heat consumed in the evaporation of
water was quite considerable. The exhalation of water by breath
and perspiration thus diminishes the quantity of food available
for the production of work.

IV. Miscellaneous Findings by the Investigators.

449. Relation of speed to work. — According to M. Fourier, l
the daily work of a good horse has a maximum, under the best
load for each speed, of about 2.95 feet per second, or 10,596 feet
(two miles nearly) an hour. Taking this maximum as unity,
he gives the following as the probable value of work per pound
at other speeds:

Feet. Miles. Daily work.

6,560 1.25 0.69

10,596 2.00 1.00

13,120 2.50 .99

19,680 3.75 .94

26,240 5.00 .83

32,800 6.25 .68

39,360 7.50 .51

45,920 8.75 .33

52,480 10.00 .18

59,040 11.25 .07

The data presented show that the horse is at his best for draw-
ing a load when moving at the rate of about two miles per hour.

1 Genie Rural, III, 175, quoted by Thurston, The Animal as a Machine
and a Prime Motor, p. 52.

288 Feeds and Feeding.

If the speed be increased beyond this, then less of the energy
can be devoted to drawing the load. With a speed of ten miles
per hour about two-tenths of the maximum work can be per-
formed, and a further increase of a mile and a quarter per hour re-
duces the possible work to less than one- tenth of the maximum.

" Where the animal must develop maximum power continuously
at any considerable speed, the number required for a specific
work will always be greatly increased. Thus, in coaching, the
proprietors of mail-coaches, even on the admirable highways of
Great Britain, maintain one horse per mile of route for each
coach and worked in fours, so that, going and returning, each
travels eight miles per day, working only an hour or less each
day on the average. The coach weighs, loaded, two tons, and
its coefficient of friction on good roads is about .035."

Draft horses moving two and one-half miles an hour are ex-
pected to do seven times the work of coach horses moving ten
miles. l

450. Work done by the horse and the mule. — Eennie2 found
the hauling power of a draft horse weighing 1,200 pounds
equal to about 108 pounds at 2.5 miles an hour, or 22,300 foot-
pounds per minute, for 8 hours per day — a twenty-mile haul.
This is a little over two-thirds of a Watt horse-power, at which
value Eennie rates the average draft horse, and this is taken
to be, ordinarily, five times the power of a man. Between 2.5
and 4 miles an hour, the hauling power of the horse is nearly
inversely as the speed.

The mule carries a load of 200 to 400 pounds, and its day's
work consists, usually, in the transportation of the equivalent of
5,000 to 6,000 pounds one mile. The ass carries 175 pounds and
upward, and its day's work is the equivalent of 3,000 to 4,000
pounds one mile.

According to Weisbach, a horse should be able to carry 240
pounds on its back 3.5 feet per second ten hours a day. Carrying
160 pounds he should be able to trot seven feet per second seven
hours a day, doing in the day nearly ten per cent, less work than
before.

1 Barbour, Cyclopaedia of Manufactures.

* Thurston, The Animal as a Machine and a Prime Motor, p. 59.

Investigations Concerning the Horse. 289

The pulling power of a draft animal is said to be, as a rule,
about one-fifth its weight. Its usual effort, in the case of the
horse at least, is seldom in excess of one-tenth, or about one-half
the maximum. One hundred pounds is a common pull for the
average horse in draft vehicles.

In racing the requirement of speed reduces the work performed
( carrying the rider) to the smallest amount possible. Law writes : l
" When it is considered that an ounce of additional loading to
the same horse may make the difference of a yard or more in half
a mile of running, it will be seen how greatly the weight borne
may affect the issue in the case of horses of equal powers. "

451. Investigations by Muentz. — Miintz 2 determined the digesti-
bility of a large number of feeding stuffs fcr horses at rest receiv-
ing only one kind of feed at a time. The digestion coefficients
for the total organic matter were: Corn, 94.5 per cent; barley,
84.5 per cent.; beans, 84.5 per cent.; oats, 75.1 percent.; wheat
bran, 93.3 per cent.; meadow hay, 43.3 to 61.0 per cent.; wheat
straw, 49.4 per cent. ; carrots, 94.6 per cent. Corn and bran thus
appear to be the most digestible of the common horse feeds. (175)
The digestibility attributed to wheat straw is higher than that
calculated from Wolffs experiments, in which it was fed in con-
nection with other feeds of known digestibility. Twenty- one per
cent, of the organic matter was calculated as digestible in WolfFs
experiments made with three lots of straw in six single trials. 3

In Miintz's experiments, 33 pounds of straw were consumed
daily by the horse during the last month, supplying 13 pounds of
digestible matter, yet the horse died from exhaustion; the ration
in fact supplied only .157 pounds of digestible protein, or about
one-third of the quantity necessary for maintenance.

452. Water drank by the horse. — The amount of water drank
by the horse varies with the character of the feed, as shown in the
researches of the various experiments. It is smallest when the
diet is largely ma,de up of concentrates and largest when roughage
only is given. "With the mixed diet employed for the Paris cab
horse the average proportion of water to dry matter was 2.1 : 1

1 Breeds of the Domestic Animals of the British Isles.
* Warington, London Live Stock Journal, 1894, pp. 9, 49.
» Dietrich and Konig, Futterm., Vol. II, p. 1097.
19

290

Feeds and Feeding.

when the horse was at rest, and 3.6:1 when the horse did cab
service. Individual horses differ greatly in the quantity of water
drank. The relation of the feed eaten, work done and water drank
by horses is shown by the data given in Wolff >s experiments. l

Amount of water drank by horses — Wolff.

Feed per day.

Daily work.

Water.

Water

Period.

Hay.

Oats.

Revo-
lutions
of

Trac-
tion.

Daily
tem-
pera-
ture.

Water
drank.

In
dung.

In
urine.

Ex-
pired
and

per Ib.
dry
mat-
ter.

sweep.

spired.

Lbs.

15 4

12 1

1 000

—5 1

61 5

29 6

18 3

17 7

2 8

15 4

12 1

750

132

4 1

64 6

30 1

19 4

19 0

2 9

15 4

12 1

600

176

_ 1

58 8

29 8

19 8

13 5

11 0

12 1

550

132

10 2

47 1

21 6

15 6

13 1

2 4

6 6

12 1

350

132

8 5

35 8

16 9

11 4

10 0

2 4

6 6

15 4

700

132

17 8

41 3

20 5

13 6

10 4

Corn.

7 . .

15 4

7 7

650

132

19 4

58 9

24 1

15 4

22 2

3 1

24.3

300

132

19.5

73.0

35.3

21.6

18.7

3.5

The water in the feed, which ranged from 2.7 to 4.2 pounds,
is not included in the first part of the table. The figures in the
last column show the number of pounds of water drank and that
contained in the feed per pound of dry matter consumed. The
preceding shows that the amount of water drank by the horse
varies mdre than that of any other domestic animal and should
be supplied according to requirements. The wisdom of supplying
it frequently during hard labor is plainly indicated in these data.

453. Decrease in weight of the horse during work. — Eueff 2 in-
vestigated the loss in weight of horses during work, correction
being made for the fodder eaten and the dung dropped. Farm
horses doing medium work lost on an average 7. 7 pounds in weight
during eleven hours. The following results were obtained with
German army horses: A division of riding horses ridden for 25
minutes in walk, trot and gallop lost on an average 4 pounds in
weight. A gelding 8 years old, carrying a weight of 176 pounds,
in training as a school horse, lost 11 pounds in 25 minutes; another
horse the same; after 24 hours only 1 pound was regained. A

1 Landw. Jahrb. 1887, Suppl. Ill, p. 109.

2 Landw. Wochenbl. d. k. k. Ackerbaum., 1870, 109; v. Gohren, Fiit-
terungeslehre, 1872, p. 370.

Investigations Concerning the Horse. 291

14-year-old blind stallion ridden for an hour and thirty minutes
by a rider weighing 166 pounds lost 33 pounds weight; during
24 hours 22 pounds were regained. A 23-year-old mare weighing
770 pounds, ridden for a distance of six miles in walk or trot, lost
22 pounds.

454. Variation in weight. — Boussingault1 studied the varia-
tions in weight of horses while on the same feed and under simi-
lar conditions. The changes in the weights of two horses, found
in fifteen daily weighings between December 16 and 31, are shown

below:2

Weight of Weight of

horse, Ibs. mare, Ibs.

Average, December 16 to 31 994.4 1,081.9

Maximum weight 1,010.9 1,092.7

Minimum weight 985.6 1,064.8

Greatest difference above average 16.5 10.8

Greatest difference below average 8.8 17.1

Difference between extreme weights.. 25.3 27.9

Another horse 12 years old, taken fasting at four o'clock in the
morning, weighed 1,051 pounds. At the same hour of the nexfc
day he weighed 1,060 pounds, and at the same hour on the third
day 1,038 pounds. Boussingault calls attention to the necessity
of carrying on feeding experiments for a considerable time and
with several animals, in order to escape, or at all events lessen,
the errors that would be introduced into the conclusions by these
accidental differences in weight.

455. Effect of disturbed conditions on horses. — Lehmann, Hage-
mann and Zuntz3 found that the disturbance of horses in the
stable has a decided influence on the consumption of feed. The
presence of many flies caused an excretion of carbonic acid of 10
per cent, above that in case of those not so annoyed.

1 Agronomic, Chemie Agricole et Physiologie, 5 (1874), p. 156.
* Ann. de la Sci. Agron., 1884, II, p. 330; Hural Economy, p. 397.
« Landw. Jahrb., XXIII, 1894, p. 125.

CHAPTEE XVHI.

FEEDS FOE THE HORSE.

456. Oats. — Horses nurtured on oats show mettle which can-
not be reached by the use of any other feeding stuff. (188) Then,
too, there is no grain so safe for horse feeding, the animal rarely
being seriously injured if by accident or otherwise the groom
deals out an over supply. This safety is due in no small measure
to the presence of the oat hull, which causes a given weight of
grain to possess considerable volume, because of which there is
less liability of mistake in measuring out the ration; further, the
digestive tract cannot hold a quantity of oat grains sufficient to
produce serious disorders. Unless the horse is hard pressed for
time or has poor teeth, oats should be fed in the whole condition.
Musty oats should be avoided.

Horsemen generally agree that new oats should not be used,
though Boussingault, l conducting extensive experiments with
army horses, arrived at the conclusion that new oats do not pos-
sess the injurious qualities attributed to them.

457. Substitutes for oats. — According to experiments made
at Hohenheim (Germany) and Paris, oats may often be profit-
ably replaced by other concentrated and easily digested feeding
stuffs for the production of work by horses. Because of their
palatability it seems desirable and advantageous not to entirely
omit oats from the ration, but only to reduce the allowance to a
certain minimum. This is, however, very important at times
on account of the high market value of this grain. During
feeding experiments at Hohenheim in 1893-94, a horse was fed
a daily ration consisting of 6 pounds of meadow hay, 5 pounds of
cut straw, 2 pounds of oats, 3 pounds of field beans, 8 pounds of

1 Ann. de la Sci. Agron., 1884, II, p. 331.

Feeds for the Horse. 293

corn and about 1 ounce of salt per 1,000 pounds weight. The
nutritive ratio of this ration is about 1:6.4. In case of work
horses, especially those doing rapid work, not accustomed to
voluminous rations and not having the capacity for them, more
intensive feeding will be in order, such, for instance, as that
practiced by the Paris Omnibus Company, where 28 per cent, of
the rations for horses consists of roughage (meadow hay and oat
straw in the proportion of 2:1), and 72 per cent., or nearly
three-fourths, of concentrates (oats, bean, corn, oil cake), the
nutritive ratio being about 1 : 7.2. l

458. Relative value of oats, beans and corn. — As a result of
feeding experiments with horses at Hohenheim, Wolff 2 concludes
that in feeding work horses, 4 pounds of oats are equivalent to 3.5
pounds of field beans, and 4 pounds of beans to 3.5 pounds of
corn. On the basis of these figures, oats, beans and corn have a
relative value for horses of 4 : 3.5 : 3, or perhaps more correctly,
5:4.5:4.

459. Relative value of hay and oats. — According to WolfPs8 ex-
periments, 2.5 pounds of good meadow hay have an equal nutritive
value of 1.5 pounds of oats, if the digestible crude fiber be in-
cluded in both cases; without this the ratio will be 2 : 1.

460. Barley. — This useful grain for the horse has as yet been lit-
tle fed in the eastern United States, probably because of its gen-
eral high price. On the Pacific coast barley is extensively used
for feeding horses at all kinds of work. Where the horse's teeth
are good and the labor not severe, barley may be fed whole.
Ground barley, when mixed with the saliva, like wheat, forms a
pasty mass in the mouth, and is therefore unpleasant to the horse
while eating; if, instead of grinding, the grains are crushed to
flattened discs between iron rollers, they are more palatable and
acceptable to the horse. (178)

461. Dried brewers' grains. — At the New Jersey Station, 4 dried
brewers' grains were fed to street-car horses in place of oats.
Horses averaging 17COO pounds in weight were required to make

1 Wolff, Ldw. Jahrb., XXIV, p. 267.

2 Loc. cit.

8 Ldw. Jahrb.. XXIV, p. 269.
* Itept. 1892.

294: Feeds and Feeding.

four trips daily of six miles each, with increased work on Sundays.
The rations were as follows:

Oat Ration.

Pounds,

Hay '.... 6

Wheat bran 2

Corn, unground 4

Dried Brewers' Grains Ration.
Pounds.

Hay 6

Wheat bran 2

Corn, unground 4

Dried brewers' grains -8

Each ration was fed to a group of four horses for a month, then
the two feeds reversed for a second month. Then followed a
period in which the stable ration prevailed with both lots, the
trial closing with a month's feeding of the two rations to the
original lots, as in the first instance. The veterinarian in charge
of the horses reports: ' 1 1 have watched the horses closely from the
beginning to the end of the experiment and have failed to dis-
cover any ill effects from the use of dried brewers' grains. The
horses fed the grains have been as healthy as I have ever known
them to be." The conclusions of the Station authorities were:
"That in both rations the nutrients furnished were sufficient to
maintain the weight of the animals under average work," and
" That on the whole, a pound of dried brewers' grains was quite
as useful as a pound of oats in a ration for work horses." It wa&
found that the oat ration cost, at prevailing prices, 24. 3 cents per
day, while the ration containing brewers' grains cost 19.4 cents,
a difference of 4.9 cents per day per horse, or twenty per cent, of
the cost of the oat ration — an insignificant amount perhaps for a
single horse, but making an aggregate of great importance for
large establishments.

According to Wolff,1 "The effect of dried brewers' grains
has been found to be uncertain, and on that account their use
has been abandoned by the German war department. ' ' While
brewers' grains dried by any open-air process may be subject to
criticism, the charge cannot stand for grains which are dried
rapidly in partial vacuum. (183)

462. Wheat.— At the North Dakota Station, 2 Shepperd fed
No. 1 hard unground wheat to three horses for four weeks, sup-

1 Farm Foods, Eng. ed., p. 247.
» Bui. JO,

Feeds for the Horse.

295

plying each animal about fourteen pounds daily. These horses
averaged nine hours' work daily for all the working days of the
month. The horses gained in weight during the trial. Concern-
ing wheat as a horse feed Shepperd writes: "It was with diffi-
culty that they (the horses) were kept from getting l off feed >
and otherwise deranged in digestion, when fed this ration of pure
wheat. A large proportion of the kernels were passed through
the alimentary tract unbroken, while other grains were broken
but only partially digested. . . . The test demonstrated clearly
that it is not advisable to use wheat alone as a grain ration for
horses, and the less expert the feeder the greater the risk. ' ' ( 166-9)
463. Bran and shorts compared with oats. — Shepperd l com-
pared bran and oats as a feed for work horses and mules in sum-
mer, eight horses and four mules being used. The animals were
divided into two even lots, all receiving good prairie hay for
roughage. To one lot was fed oats, while the other received a
mixture of bran and shorts, equal parts by weight. The horses
averaged somewhat more than seven hours work per day, the
labor being quite severe.

Bran and shorts, equal parts by weight, compared with oats — North

Dakota Station.

Grain
eaten.

Gain or loss
in weight.

Work
done.

Feeding bran and shorts.
Total equal to 876 horses one day .

Lbs.
12 910

Lbs.
Loss 10

Hours.
5 705

"\Veekly averatre per horse

103

Loss 1-12

1 46

Feeding oats.
Total equal to 792 horses one day

11,838

Gain 10

4,796

"Weekly average per horse

105

Gain 1 12

It is shown that the horses fed bran and shorts ate somewhat
less concentrates per week, lost a little in weight, but did three
and one-half hours more work per week each than those fed oats.
Upon the whole, bran and shorts proved of equal worth to oats
for feeding horses and mules. (174-5)

464. Bran, whole wheat and shorts versus bran and shorts. —
Shepperd 2 also compared the value of a mixture of bran, wheat

Loc. cit.

2 Loc. cit.

296

Feeds and Feeding.

and shorts, equal parts by weight, with bran and shorts only, for
horses.

Feeding bran, wheat and shorts, in opposition to bran and shorts —
North Dakota Station.

Grain
eaten.

Gain or loss
in weight.

Work
done.

Feeding bran} wheat and shorts.
Total, 12 horses 4 weeks

Lbs.
5 068

Lbs.
Gain 20

Hours.

1 775

Average, 1 horse 4 weeks

422

Gain 2

148

Feeding bran and shorts.
Total, 12 horses 4 weeks

4 941

Gain 160

1,642

Average, 1 horse 4 weeks

412

Gain 13

137

The summary shows that each horse fed whole wheat, in addi-
tion to bran and shorts, while doing eleven hours more work con-
sumed ten pounds more grain and gained eleven pounds less per
month, on the average, than those getting bran and shorts only.
This indicates that whole wheat has no advantage over the same
weight of bran and shorts in the ration.

465. Ground wheat and bran compared with oats. — Shepperd 1
next fed a mixture of two parts ground wheat and one part bran,
by weight, to one lot of work horses, while another received whole
oats. The trial began in November and continued until March,
with the results here given:

Whole oats compared with a mixture of two parts ground wheat and one
part bran, by weight — North Dakota Station.

Grain
eaten.

Gain or loss
in weight.

Work
done.

Feeding wheat meal and bran.
Total, 6 horses 4 weeks.

Lbs.
1,266

Lbs.
Gain 95

Hours.
310

Average per horse, 4 weeks

211

Gain 16

Feeding oats.
Total, 6 horses 4 weeks

1,413

Loss 5

296

Average per horse, 4 weeks

235

Loss 1

In these trials, although the horses getting oats ate somewhat
more grain, they showed a slight loss in weight while doing some-
what less work than those fed ground wheat and bran.

1 Loc. cit.

Feeds for the Horse. 297

Shepperd concludes: "The horses did nicely on the ration
consisting of two parts ground wheat and one part bran with
prairie hay. Wheat is a concentrated food and needs this amount
of bran to make it loose and cooling enough for the digestive sys-
tem of the horse."

466. Boiled rye as a substitute for oats. — It having been stated
that rye, boiled till the grain bursts, may be used as a substitute
for an equal volume of oats in the keep of a horse, Boussingault1
tested the matter with two horses which had been previously fed
a ration consisting of 22 pounds of hay and 5.5 pounds of oats.
The same volume of boiled rye, containing 4.15 pounds of un-
cooked grain, was then substituted for the oats. Average weight
of horses: first weighing, 1,004.5 pounds • second weighing, 963
pounds,* loss per head during 11 days, 41.5 pounds.

Boussingault writes: " In fact with such a ration as this, in
which water was made to replace solid corn, no other result could
reasonably be expected. " (177)

467. Indian corn. — Next to oats, corn is the common grain for
horses in America, being used most largely in the southern por-
tion of the corn belt and southward in the cotton states. While
conceding that corn is not the equal of oats as a grain for the horse,
nevertheless, because of its low cost and the high feeding value it
possesses, this grain will be extensively used where large numbers
of horses must be economically maintained. Corn may be fed whole
to horses, but generally it is made fine by grinding and mixed
with various other concentrates. (158) Corn and cob meal is
preferable to pure corn meal. Corn meal alone is a sodden sub-
stance in the animal's stomach, and should be diluted or extended
with something of light character. Bran serves well for this pur-
pose because of its lightness and cooling effect as well as the protein
and mineral matter it furnishes. (451) Corn is best suited to
animals at plain, steady work. Its supply should be limited with
colts and growing horses because of its lack of ash and protein.
Wolff2 quotes Lehmann in the following statement: "Maize
contains a high proportion of digestible carbohydrates, and tends

1 Rural Economy.

2 Farm Foods, Eng. ed., p. 246.

298 Feeds and Feeding.

to make tlie animal fat and liable to sweat; while it improves their
appearance, it somewhat detracts from their physical energy."

468. The Paris Omnibus Company's experiments. — The Paris
Omnibus Company, employing nearly ten thousand horses, began
feeding trials with Indian corn in 1874. 1 Sixteen horses of dif-
ferent ages having up to the time of the experiment been fed a
ration consisting of 18.7 pounds of oats, 1.8 pounds of bran, with
hay and straw additional, received, gradually, more and more corn
in the place of oats, until after one month the oats were replaced
by corn. The horses weighed on an average 1194.1 pounds at
the beginning of the experiment, and at the end, four months
later, 1219.8 pounds. They were in good flesh and had grown
fat, although they had worked hard during this time. It was
found, however, that they were less spirited and seemed to lose in
energy when more than nine pounds of oats were replaced by
corn. The conclusions were that a mixture of 6.6 pounds of
corn and 12.1 pounds of oats will prove most satisfactory for work
horses, the ratio varying in each case according to the tempera-
ment of the animal. Twenty-five other horses doing 'bus service
were fed 11 pounds of oats and 6.6 pounds of corn, after a longer
transition period, with hay and straw as before, and after six
months equally favorable results were obtained. All horses of the
company were fed in this manner during 1876 and afterwards.
They maintained their weight, and according to the records of the
company did more work in 1876 than in 1875 on the oat ration.
" Compared with the time when only oats were fed, they are
more calm at the present and lack the former abundance of
vivacity; but on the other hand, work as well and as rapidly as
before." The company saved $9.26 per horse during 1876 by the
partial substitution of corn for oats.

469. Muntz's experiments. — In 1881, Muntz conducted experi-
ments with horses belonging to the Paris Omnibus Company, 2
the first of which was with 362 horses fed 9.5 pounds oats, 6.7
pounds corn, 2.1 pounds beans, 1.1 pounds bran, 10.4 pounds
hay and 11.4 pounds straw daily. The average weight of the

1 Journ. de 1'Agr. 1877, p. 127; Biederm. Centralbl. 1877, p. 255.

2 Recueil. de Med. Veter., Feb. 1880; Biederm. Centralbl. 1881, p. 767.

Feeds for the Horse. 299

horses remained the same during the experiment ; the amount of
work done did not change, showing that the ration met the re-
quirements of the animals. In the second series more corn and
less oats were fed, the ration being 6.8 pounds oats, 9.7 pounds
corn, 3.3 pounds beans, .9 pounds bran, 6.6 pounds hay and 13.2
pounds straw. The animals gained in weight on this ration, the
work remaining the same as before.

According to the experience gained by the company, corn may
be best fed crushed to horses. It was found most advantageous
to grind the corn with the cobs left in. Corn and cob meal is
considered a better feed than pure corn meal on account of its
higher content of cellulose, which renders it more like oats.
Thirty per cent, of an oat ration may be replaced by corn and
cob meal. Similar reports as to the availability of corn for
horse feeding are published in regard to the Berlin Street Car
Company, 1 the Berlin mail-horse stables, 2 and the New York
Omnibus Company. 3

At the Utah Station, 4 Sanborn found that horses fed corn and
timothy did as well as those fed oats, clover and timothy hay.
Mills, 5 at the same Station, found that corn sustained the weight
of horses better than oats.

470. An adverse report on corn feeding. — It is stated 6 that the
stockholders of the London Omnibus Company objected to the
intensive feeding of corn to the horses of the company, " because
the mortality had increased with the extensive feeding of corn and
the horses seem to wear out much sooner. " The horses fattened
by the corn feeding, but the muscular system was not kept strong,
and the nervous force of the animals decreased, as a result of
which the veterinarian was oftener consulted than before the ex-
tensive use of corn began. Similar experiences are reported in
the case of the street- car horses of Berlin. 7

*Nordd. Landw. 1881, p. 141; Biederm. Centralbl. 1881. p. 768.

* Ldw. Blatt. f. Oldenburg, 1880, p. 180.

3 Thur. Ldw. Zeit. 1880, p. 161. See also the exhaustive report on the
subject by Bruckmiiller on experiments conducted with army horses
under the auspices of the Austrian government, Oest. Viertelj. f. Wiss.
Vet. kunde, 49 (1878), p. 1; Biederm. Centralbl. 1878. p. 470.

* Bui. 30. » Bui. 36.

6 Fuhling's Landw. Zeitung, 39, 1890, p. 63.

7 Jahrsb. Agrl. Ch., 1890, p. 641.

300

Feeds and Feeding.

471. Kloepfer's conclusions concerning corn. — Dr. Kloepfer l
draws the following conclusions from investigations conducted bj
himself and others concerning the value of Indian corn as a food
for horses: "Corn is well adapted to replace oats, since the
chemical composition of both cereals, especially as regards protein
and fat, are nearly the same. The whole grain feed may be made
up of corn in winter time and three-fourths of it in summer time.
Five pounds of corn are equivalent to six pounds of oats. The
heaviest feed should be given at night. The change from oats to
corn feed should occur very gradually, the transition period last-
ing from two to four weeks according to the extent to which the
oats are to be fed in connection with the corn. New corn should
not be fed to horses. The American dent varieties of corn are the
best adapted to horse feeding. "

472. Feeds rich in protein compared with oats for colts. — Jordan,
of the Maine Station, 2 conducted feeding experiments with colts
in which oats were fed against a mixture of other concentrates,
such as peas and wheat middlings, in the first trial, and gluten
meal, linseed meal and middlings in the second trial. In the first
trial, which lasted 137 days, oats when fed to three grade Per-
cheron colts, 9, 16 and 18 months old, produced less growth than an
«qual weight of a mixture of peas and middlings, the relation of
growth made being as 100 : 111. In the second trial, two Per-
«heron colts, both 11 months old, were fed oats against middlings,
gluten meal and linseed meal, in the proportion of 60 : 35 : 15.
Ten pounds of hay were fed each colt daily in addition to the grain.
The experiment lasted 84 days, the results being as follows:

Feeding mixed grain to colts in opposition to oats — Maine Station.

Period I.
Grain
mixture.

Period II.
Oats.

Weight at
beginning.

Daily gain when on —

Grain
mixture.

Oats.

Colt I

Lbs.

6
5

Lbs.

7
6

Lbs.

711
602

Lbs.

1.51
•1.16

Lbs.

.43
.93

Colt II

1 Biederm. Centralbl. 1895, p. 275.
* Repts. 1891-92.

Feeds for the Horse. 301

In both experiments a greater growth was obtained from the
mixed grains with both animals. (206) These trials show that
when oats are high priced other concentrates may be substituted
for them in colt feeding without checking growth. Some oats
should be fed, if possible, because of their tonic effect.

473. Peanut meal and malt sprouts. — Eusche l gives results of
experiments showing that peanut meal and malt sprouts may be
used with advantage as a feed for foals in place of oats.

474. Cocoanut meal. — The French war department investi-
gated the value of cocoanut meal for horses. 2 Ten army horses
were fed cocoanut meal for four weeks in place of an equal quan-
tity of oats in the ordinary ration. Five horses receiving the
ordinary oat ration were included in the experiment and given
the same work as the others. They were exercised only a little
during the first period, January 12 to 30, viz., 8 to 9 miles. They
were worked harder for the next two weeks, January 31 to Feb-
ruary 12, 15-17.5 miles. Weighings were taken before and after
the change was made with averages as follows:

Cocoanut-meal ration. Ordinary ration.
Pounds. Pounds.

January 12 963.4 986.4

January 31 977.5 992.9

February 12 970.9 983.2

The results proved that cocoanut meal was equal and even
superior to the same weight of oats. According to French prices
of feeding stuffs, a substitution as in the above experiment would
bring about a reduction in the cost of keeping army horses of
$10 each per year. (223)

475. Compounding rations for work horses. — At the New Jersey
Station, 8 Yoorhees, studying to compound rations which should
be low in cost but effective, conducted trials with two lots of two
horses each, the work being as near uniform for each lot as could
be arranged. In these trials corn meal and dried brewers7 grains
furnished the concentrates for one ration, while for the other corn

* Landw. 25, 1889, p. 361; Jahrsb. Agrl. Ch. 1889. p. 621.

* Milch Zeit. 1883, p. 517.
8 Kept. 1893.

302

Feeds and Feeding.

meal, wheat bran and oil meal were used. The trial continued
six months with the results reported in the tables below:

Feeding low-priced rations to horses — New Jersey Station.
Lot I. Ration: Dried brewers' grains and corn meal.

Hay.

Corn
meal.

Dried

brewers'
grains.

Average
weight.

Cost of
ration.

Horse 1

Lbs.
8 0

Lbs.
6.5

Lbs.
1,110

Cents.
19 8

Horse 2

8 0

6 2

5 8

1,191

18 9

Lot II. Ration: Corn meal, wheat bran and oil meal.

Hay.

Corn
meal.

Wheat
bran.

Oil

meal.

Average
live
weight.

Cost of
ration.

Horse 3

Lbs.
8 0

Lbs.
6 2

Lbs.
5.0

Lbs.
1 4

Lbs.
1,127

Cents.

20 8

Horse 4

8 0

6.9

5 8

1.7

1,226

22.3

The horses held their own in weight, and appeared in satis-
factory condition throughout the whole period. The prices al-
lowed for feed in the above tables are as follows: Timothy hay,
$18; wheat bran, $17.50; corn meal, $22; dried brewers' grains,
417; linseed meal, $29. At these prices the cost of the rations
was lowest where dried brewers' grains were used, and highest
where wheat bran and oil meal were fed. A gardener living near
the Station, guided by its teachings, fed a ration similar to No. 1
with success, and effected a saving in his feed bills for the year
of about $150 over previous cost under the customary feeding of
the vicinity. Yoorhees concludes: " That the kind and quality
of specific nutrients contained in feeds, and not their names,
should guide in the preparation of rations. That while oats are
an excellent feed, it is not alone because they are oats, but
because of the amount and proportion of the more valuable
nutrients, fat and protein, contained in them. That dried brew-
ers' grains are a wholesome, nutritious and palatable horse feed,
and at present prices they may be substituted for oats and a de-
cided saving made in the cost of the ration.'7 (183)

Feeds for the Horse. 303

476. Relative merits of the grains. — Settegast l discusses the
relative value of grain feeds for horses as follows: " Among all
cereals, oats are the best adapted to horse feeding; their place can
hardly be filled in colt raising. In the ration for full-grown horses,
rye and barley may to some extent be substituted for oats. A par-
tial substitution of the seeds of legumes (beans, peas, vetches) for
oats to the extent of about one-third the concentrates has been
practiced in cases of continued heavy team work. The experi-
ence of late years has further shown that corn may be considered
as approximating oats in value for work horses. ExperimentvS
have shown that a ration of 17 pounds of corn and 10 pounds
of straw is profitable for omnibus horses. In periods of rest the
concentrates may advantageously be decreased one-half with rid-
ing and work horses. ' '

477. Dried and soaked grain. — Wolff 2 found that in the case of
healthy horses with good teeth, the utilization of beans and corn
remained about the same whether fed whole and in dry condition,
or fed after having been previously soaked in water for twenty-
four hours, care being taken in the latter case to guard against
loss of nutrients. (375)

478. Timothy hay. — Although chemical analysis shows timothy
hay not particularly rich in digestible nutrients, nevertheless
it is the standard in its class throughout the northeastern United
States. One reason for its popularity lies in the fact that it is
easily distinguished from hay of all other grasses, and both the
farmer who grows it and the horseman who feeds it feel no un-
certainty as to its identity or quality. Its freedom from dust
•commends good timothy hay as a horse feed, and it is an excellent
roughage for horses, whose sustenance comes mostly from the
grain they receive. (268)

479. Clover hay. — Clover hay is generally so loaded with dust
that horsemen have come to regard it with disfavor under all
circumstances. This prej udice should be overcome, for well-made
clover hay will serve a valuable purpose in the stable in many
instances. Its relatively high content of protein makes it more
nearly a balanced ration in itself, but the high proportion of in-

1 Thierzucht, II, 110.

2 Landw. Jahrb. 16, 1887, Sup. Ill, p. 21.

304 Feeds and Feeding.

digestible matter necessitates the consumption of too large a
quantity to permit its extensive use with horses in active service.
For growing colts and idle horses, bright, clean clover hay may
often be fed with marked economy. With corn fodder or bright
straw it may constitute the sole roughage for such animals.

480. Fodder corn and stover. — Fodder corn, grown so thickly
as to permit of only small " nubbins" forming, and cured in the
shock into a bright, dust-free forage, is one of the best articles
available for roughage in horse feeding. While the stalk and
husk will be left uneaten, the leaves disappear with a relish
when offered to horses under any conditions. Not only are
corn leaves usually quite free from dust, but, they are palatable
and full of nutriment. For stallions, brood mares, idle horses
and growing colts, corn forage of good quality will be found an
economical substitute for timothy hay. When the tonnage of a
field of fodder corn is compared with the yield of timothy hay from
a like area, it is apparent that the forage of the corn plant should
hold a prominent place with horsemen who seek economy while
at the same time wishing to supply a palatable, nutritious rough-
age. See Chapter X.

481. Straw. — Some straw can always be fed to horses, the
amount varying with the work and the purpose for which the
animal is used. Idle horses, having ample time for masticating
and digesting their feed, can subsist almost wholly on good bright
straw; hard- worked animals and those required to move rapidly
can make use of only a little, — the feeder must judge from the
conditions how much to supply. It is a notable fact that many
horses are fed costly hay for roughage when cheaper straw or
fodder corn would prove equally satisfactory. In relative value
for horse feeding, the straws rank in the following order: Oat,
barley, wheat, rye, the last named being of slight utility.

482. Millet hay injurious to horses. — Hinebajjch, veterinarian
of the North Dakota Station, l reports that during the winter of
1891-92 an ailment passing under the name of the " millet dis-
ease" prevailed in North Dakota, about one animal in every ten
so affected dying. It was called the millet disease because from
ninety-five to ninety-eight animals out of every hundred affected

Feeds for the Horse. 305

had previously been fed millet. Experiments were made in
feeding millet hay to a number of horses for the purpose of
studying its effect. The following statement relative to one
test seems quite conclusive':1 " By feeding her (a mare) millet
(hay) for about three months, she would become so lame in the
joints of the hind legs that it was almost impossible for her to
walk, and on discontinuing the feeding of millet she would grad-
ually recover, until at the end of three or four months she would
again be in normal condition. As soon as that condition was
reached, would again feed millet until the mare was in such a
condition that she could scarcely stand, then again quit feeding
millet. We have alternated with millet and other hay, produc-
ing the conditions referred to at will, for nearly two years. In
the meantime the horse has suffered in condition and does not at
all resemble her former self. She is valueless as far as work is
concerned, and is only kept for experimental purposes. We are
able at any time to demonstrate the effect from feeding millet, by
allowing her to have millet exclusively as coarse food for a por-
tion of two months. " Letters sent to veterinarians, farmers and
others in the state brought replies which showed that ill results
had quite generally been observed from the use of millet, mani-
fested usually by increased action of the kidneys. The bulletin con-
cludes: "Our experiments have thoroughly demonstrated that
millet, when used entirely as a coarse food, is injurious to horses:
First, in producing an increased action of the kidneys. Second,
in causing lameness and swelling of the joints. Third, in produc-
ing infusion of blood into the joints. Fourth, in destroying the
texture of the bone, rendering it softer and less tenacious, so that
traction causes the ligaments and muscles to be torn loose. "

It is remarkable that millet, one of the oldest known plants,
and one that is used so extensively in various countries, should
fall under this serious charge. Possibly hay from the plant is
injurious in some districts while harmless elsewhere, or in some
years it may prove deleterious while usually safe for feeding.
Having been put on his guard, the horseman will use millet with
caution, awaiting further reports from the investigators. It should

* Bui. 26, N. Dak. Sta.
20

306 Feeds and Feeding.

be noted that in the cases where trouble arose millet hay was used
exclusively for roughage. Ill effects can probably be avoided by
using this hay in limited quantity for roughage and not continu-
ously. Nothing unfavorable to the use of millet hay for cattle or
sheep feeding has been reported. (272)

483. Boussingault's experiments with roots. — Instigated by the
terrible drought of 1840, Boussingault of France studied the value
of roots and tubers in rations for horses on his farm at Bechel-
bronn. l Eight horses, separated into two groups of four each,
were used in the following experiments: The ordinary ration for
work horses at his farm, which maintained them in excellent con-
dition, was, per head per day, 22 pounds of hay, 5.5 pounds of
straw, and 7.25 pounds of oats. This ration was fed in all the
experiments with the changes noted.

484. Steamed potatoes. — In the first experiment half the hay
was replaced by lightly-steamed potatoes in the proportion of 280
pounds of potatoes to 100 pounds of hay, the theoretical equiva-
lent of potatoes in hay value. (138) The potatoes were mashed
and mixed with cut straw and put into the manger when cold.
The animals were weighed after having been on this feed a few
days, and again after twenty-four days. The average weight per
horse was: First weighing, 1,134.9 pounds; second weighing,
1,111 pounds; average loss per horse during twenty-four days, 23.9
pounds. The allowance of 30. 8 pounds of steamed potatoes could
not then, under the conditions, replace the 11 pounds of hay.
The weather was very inclement during the experiment, and the
teams were worked hard at ordinary fall farm work. (658)

485. Potatoes substituted for hay. — This experiment, a dupli-
cate of that just reported, was conducted under more favorable
conditions for 63 days. The horses gained 10.1 pounds each on
an average during this time, 30.8 pounds of potatoes proving fully
equal to 11 pounds of hay. Boussingault concludes that the ex-
periment shows that the comparative value of hay and potatoes
for horses is not far from 100 : 280.

486. Hay and potatoes. — Eleven pounds of hay in the usual al-
lowance were replaced by 30.8 pounds of potatoes, and the whole
of the oats and straw by 15.4 pounds of hay, making the ration

1 llurul Economy, p. 400.

Feeds for tJie Horse.

307

fed: Hay, 26.6 pounds; potatoes, 30.8 pounds. Boussingault re-
fers to the experiment as follows:1 " This was a ration which it
was the more interesting to try, from the circumstances of Profes-
sor Liebig2 having come to the conclusion, from certain theoret-
ical views, that it must be impossible to keep horses in health and
strength upon hay and potatoes exclusively." The experiment
was continued a fortnight with the following results:

Group
No. 1.

Group
No. 2.

Both
groups.

Mean weight
per horse.

First weighing

Lbs.
4,620

Lbs.
4,312

Lbs.
8 932

Lbs.
1,116

Second, weighing

4,675

4,697

9,372

1,171

Gain in fourteen davs

385

440

Undoubtedly a large part of the reported gain was from the in-
creased weight of the contents of the alimentary tract, but it was
apparent that the ration was sufficient to nourish the horses. (316,
866, 897)

487. Carrot. — The records show only a single trial with this
root, by Boussingault, 3 reported as follows: "On one occasion at
the stable of Bechelbronn, when the potato in one of our rations
was replaced by an equal weight of carrots, the effect was highly
disadvantageous, and even in following the theoretical equivalent
of the carrot (350 pounds carrots equal 100 pounds of good
meadow hay, calculated from chemical analysis), we had still no
reason to be perfectly satisfied." The carrot is not utilized in
this country by horsemen for furnishing nutriment, but rather for
satisfying the craving of the horse for succulent feed and for
variety. When given with that end in view its worth no doubt
far exceeds that measured by the nutrients contained. (317)

488. Artichoke. — This tuber is held by Boussingault 4 to be an
excellent food for the horse. It is greedily eaten and horses
thrive on it. In an experiment by this investigator, thirty pounds
of sliced artichokes were substituted for half the hay in the ration.

1 Loc. cit., p. 402.

2 Agricultural Chemistry.

3 Loc. cit. 4 Loc. cit.

308

Feeds and Feeding.

Having become accustomed to this feed the horses were weighed,
and again when they had been on the feed for eleven days. The
average weight per horse was: first weighing, 1,113 pounds; second
weighing, 1,114 pounds, — a gain in eleven days of one pound per
head. (323,868)

489. Ruta-baga (Swede) turnip. — Boussingault fed 31 pounds
of Swede turnips in place of part of the hay in the ration. The
horses lost 52.8 pounds each in nine days, showing that the cal-
culated ration was too low. In another experiment with the
same horses where Swedes were introduced in the ratio of 400 : 100
of hay, the horses kept their weight at the point to which it had
fallen, but did not gain.

II. Concerning Rations for Horses.

490. Rations fed to Paris cab horses. — The experiments by
Grandeau and Leclerc, the results of which are summarized
in another place, (442-8) were made with horses belonging
to the Paris Cab Company. The following table gives the daily
standard rations of the horses used by the company at the time
the experimental maintenance rations were fed, and the one
finally adopted as best for work. These horses weighed from 800
to 900 pounds each. The data, with description of the same, are
taken from Lawes and Gilbert's essay on feeding farm animals.1

Rations fed to horses of the Paris Cab Company — Lawes and Gilbert.

Ration.

Beans.

Oats.

Corn.

Corn
cake.

Hay.

Straw.

Total
food.

Total
dry
matter

Lbs.

Previously used

1.5

7.2

5.3

1.1

3.9

2.1

21.1

18.1

Maintenance, No. 1.

4.3

3.2

2.3

1.3

12.6

10.9

Maintenance, No. 2.
Finally adopted

.8
1.4

3.9
6.5

2.9

4.8

.6
1.0

2.1
3.5

1.1

1.8

11.4
19.0

9.8
16.3

" It seems that the system of the establishment was to work the
horses on alternate days, and to give less hay, straw and corn, but
more oats and beans, though less total food, on the days of work.
The figures in the top line, representing the ' Previous ; ration,

1 Jour. Boy. Agr. Soc., 1895, p. 140.

Feeds for the Horse.

309

are in each case the mean of two days7 rations: The ' Mainte-
nance ration, No. 1,' was fixed at three-fifths of the ' Previous7
ration; but, as the animals gained in weight, l Maintenance
ration, No. 2,7 which was one-tenth less than No. 1, was subse-
quently adopted. Even then the horses rather gained in weight.
Finally, as it was considered that the standard or ' Previous7
ration was too high, the ration for work, as given in the bottom
line of the table, which is one and one-half times as much as
f Maintenance ration, No. I,7 and about one-tenth less than the
' Previous7 ration, was adopted. It is, however, said that
under the new regime the horses were somewhat underfed, but
whether the reduced ration is still maintained we are not aware.
It will be observed that the proportion of beans fed was very
small compared to that of cereals. Still, it will be seen presently
that the proportion was very considerably higher than in the case
of the omnibus horses of Paris.77

491. Rations fed to Paris omnibus horses. — The following table
presents the average ration of the horses belonging to the Paris
Omnibus Company for six years (1879-80 and 1884-87 inclusive).
The figures are calculated from the results given in the annual
reports of the general secretary of the company, and are furnished
by Lawes and Gilbert in the paper mentioned. l The average
number of horses belonging to the company was about 13,000,
and their average weight was 1,240 pounds.

Average rations fed to horses of the Paris Omnibiw Company dur-
ing six years — Lawes and Gilbert.

Year.

Beans.

Oats.

Corn.

Hay.

Straw.

Bran,
etc.

Total
food.

Total dry
matter.

1879

Lbs.
1 4

Lbs.
10 1

Lbs.
6 9

Lbs.
9 1

Lbs.
10 5

Lbs.

Lbs.
37.8

Lbs.
32 2

1880

1 4

8 8

8 3

7.8

11.1

37 4

31 8

1884

1 4

8 7

8 5

8 7

36 7

31 3

1885 . .

6 2

11 3

8 5

8 4

36 1

30 8

1886

5 5

13 0

8 6

7 3

35 0

30 0

1887

8 1

10 8

8.7

8 2

35 8

30 5

" It will be seen that the actual amount of dry matter supplied
per head per day is nearly twice as much as in the case of the
* Loc. cit.

310 Feeds and Feeding.

cab horses previously given; that is, much more in proportion to
a given live weight. It will be further seen that the proportion
of beans to cereal grains is much less than in the case of the cab
horses, and was reduced to a very small quantity in the later
years. In fact, the grain given consisted almost exclusively of
oats and corn, that of the oats being reduced but that of the corn
in a greater degree increased, in later years, coincidently with
the reduction in the amount of beans. On the occasion of a visit
of one of us to the general secretary in 1887, it was suggested to
him that the supply of the highly nitrogenous leguminous seeds
might be mainly, if not exclusively, reserved for old or over-
worked horses; and he subsequently informed us that he had
found their use in such cases advantageous.77

CHAPTEE XIX.

FEED AND CARE OF THE HOUSE.

492. The range of feeding stuffs for horses. — At any point of
observation we find the ration for the horse usually composed of
only one or two kinds of grain and the same limited number of
coarse dry fodders, the feeder insisting that these are practically
all that can be given this animal with safety and economy. We
need not travel far, however, to find the list more or less changed,
sometimes entirely so, yet with the same claim as to superiority
or necessity as before. In the Northern states the almost uni-
versal feeds for the horse are timothy hay and oats; in the South,
Indian corn serves mainly for tire concentrates, with dried corn
leaves for roughage. On the Pacific coast, crushed barley is the
common grain, while the hay comes from the wild oat, the barley
or wheat plant. Passing to other countries, we find an interest-
ing array of articles in the dietary of the horse, though still no
large number is in use in any one locality. In London1 we
read: "In some sterile countries, horses are forced to subsist on
dried fish, and even vegetable mould; in Arabia, on milk, flesh
balls, eggs, broth, etc. In Persia, barley is a common food for
good horses. In some parts of India, salt, pepper and other spices
are made up into balls, as big as billiard balls, with flour and
butter, and thrust down the animal's throat. . . . Meat broth
(especially sheep's head) is also given to horses. . , » In
Bengal, a vetch, something like the tare, is used. On the western
side of India, a sort of pigeon pea, called gram, is the usual foodj
with grass in the season, and hay all the year. Indian corn or
rice is, I think, seldom if ever given to horses in India as ordinary
food. In the West Indies they are fed on maize, Guinea corn,
and sugar-cane tops; and, in some instances, on the sugar itself, in

1 Encyclopaedia of Agriculture, 1866: Article, Feeding of Horses.

312 Feeds and Feeding.

the form of molasses. In France, Spain and Italy, besides the
grasses, the leaves of limes, vines, the tops of acacia, the seeds of
the carob tree, etc., are used."

493. Successful horse feeding a skilled art. — With each feeder
using a limited variety of feeding stuffs one might at first suppose
that the successful management of the horse, so far as feeding is
concerned, is a simple matter, when in reality it is the very op-
posite. Given two grooms with similar conditions as to horses
to be cared for, work performed, and feed bins to draw from. In
one case the team emerges from the stable with an action and
Btyle which at once announces it in the best of condition; in the
other case, the lagging step, dull eye and rough coat advertise
better than words the lack of judgment in feeding and manage-
ment. In the second case the unsatisfactory condition of the ani-
mals has not necessarily been brought about by any saving at the
feed bin and hay mow; indeed, very frequently the poorer groom
makes the more frequent request for supplies. The indescrib-
able qualities which, rightly commingled, mark the good feeder
cannot be acquired from lectures nor from books, but must, in a
large measure, be born in the horseman. Study and observation
will add to the ability of the feeder, but all that may be written
will not make one an adept, nor cover his defects, if he does not
take to the work naturally. No one can study the practices of
successful horsemen without becoming strongly impressed with
the fact that there are several ways of reaching the desired end of
high finish and fine action with the horse. With the pig we can
calculate about how much increase in weight is returned from a
pound of corn. The horse is on a higher plane, and weight alone is
not the only or even the main object in view; nerve and action are
qualities which count for more than mere avoirdupois. The skill
of the * * artist ' > horse feeder enters into the very life of the creature
he manages along with the food he supplies. If the reader finds
the counsel given in regard to feed and management not entirely
to his satisfaction, let him remember that we have chosen that
course which seems on the whole the most rational and generally
applicable, conceding that good results may also be obtained by
following other systems.

Feed and Care of the Horse. 313

494. The foal. — It is of the highest importance in horse rearing
that the young start life in full health and vigor, and to this end
the foal should very soon after birth take a good draught of the
colostrum or first milk of the dam. Colostrum possesses purga-
tive properties which tend to discharge from the alimentary tract
the faecal matters collected therein during foetal life. If this
result is not accomplished naturally, a gentle purgative of castor
oil should be administered. With the bowels cleared, the foal
is in condition to utilize the more natural milk of the dam which
follows, gaining strength and increasing in weight from the start.
There are several dangers to the life of the young foal which
should be carefully guarded against. Some dams, more fre-
quently those with their first foal and those hard worked, fail
to supply the proper amount of nourishment, and the young lan-
guish. In such cases the mare should be provided with food
which will stimulate the milk flow; good pasture grass is of course
the best, but if this is absent concentrates should be given in the
shape of oats, rolled barley or wheat bran, with an equal weight
of corn or corn and cob meal. Not infrequently the foal suffers
from an over-supply of nourishment or because the milk is too
rich, or from both combined, and the indigestion resulting may
terminate in diarrhoea. In such cases the food allowance of the
dam should be restricted and some of her milk drawn by the
attendant, remembering always that the last milk carries the most
fat, which substance is usually the disturbing element.

After foaling, the mare should be confined for a few days, her
feed being simple in character and not too abundant; with favora-
ble conditions, at the end of a week she should be turned to pasture,
with proper protection for herself and foal from the inclemencies
of the weather. Under favorable conditions the dam and foal
will shift for themselves, but watchfulness should never cease
in noting thrift and progress and checking the first appearance
of ailment. Diarrhoea brought on by over-feeding or exposure
to inclement weather is a common trouble and should be checked
at once. Parched flour, rice-meal gruel and boiled milk are all
excellent correctives for this ailment. Constipation, the other
common evil, may be relieved by the use of castor oil and by

314 Feeds and Feeding.

injections of warm water to which soap has been added. In all
cases of derangement, at once lessen the amount of food for both
dam and foal, since nothing aids nature more at such times than
to reduce the work of the digestive tract.

495. Feeding the foal before weaning. — Horsemen who are
anxious to see the foals getting on, frequently induce them when
quite young to take nourishment other than that supplied by the
dam, the supplementary feeding often starting two months from
birth. By placing the feed box from which the dam eats her grain
a little raised from the ground, the foal will early begin nibbling
from the mother's supply and soon acquire a taste for grain.
This habit can be strengthened in no better way than that de-
scribed by Splan, l which is as follows: " With the colts all out to
grass and doing well, it is time to separate the oldest of them from
the younger and commence feeding them grain, which is done in
this way: Build a pen in some suitable place which is the most
convenient, making it high enough so that the mare will not try
to jump it, and have the space from the ground to the bottom rail
or board sufficient to allow the foal to pass under. Put in a handy
gate or bars, then an ample feed trough. Lead your mares and
foals singly into this enclosure and let them eat together two or
three times and they will soon learn where the food is. Take out
the mares, shut up the gate, leave the colts in. Keep a good sup-
ply of oats there, and you will find the foals there regularly run-
ning in and out getting their rations. To induce the dam to
loiter about this place, keep a large lump of rock salt near it and
occasionally a mess of oats, and there is no further trouble. In
this way, at weaning time, which is at the age of five months, the
colts have learned to eat, and the result is that when they are
taken away from their dams they do not miss them so much.77

496. The Palo Alto system. — The method employed on the
Stanford farm in teaching foals to eat, studied by the writer in
1892, carries with it also handling and breaking them to lead
by the halter. At this farm each mare with foal is kept in
a separate box-stall at night, while during the day two mares
with foals occupy for a time the same paddock j the foals thus

1 Life with the Trotters, p. 424.

Feed and Care of ths Horse. 315

thrown together become companions, their friendship being very
marked, and proving beneficial at weaning time. In teaching
them to eat, two men enter the paddock each with a pan in
which are some dry crushed oats. Each foal wears a halter; over
the back of the animal a quarter-inch rope, made into a large
loop, is passed, this loop falling to the hock joints and passing
up along each side of the body to the withers, whence a single
cord passes through a ring in the halter so as to be held by the
same hand that holds the leading strap. With rope and lead
strap in one hand and a pan of crushed oats in the other, the
attendant serves the foal with feed, gently inducing it to move
forward, from time to time, by pulling on the halter and drawing
on the rope at the same time; the loop tightening about the but-
tocks impels the foal forward, preventing all tendency to pull at the
halter and teaching the young thing that when the groom tightens
on the lead strap it is to move ahead. The handling of two
foals at the same time when companions, and while still with
their dams, makes each more fearless and less restive than if alone.
In a short time the foal is halter-broken, and can be led about the
paddock without grain being held before it.

497. Weaning the foal. — The foal is weaned when five or six
months old. The operation calls for good judgment and careful
attention, but is not difficult if the preliminaries have been
properly carried out. Having given Splan's method of teaching
the foal to eat grain, we will follow him through the period of
weaning.1 "Now we put on the halters and keep them on,
leading the foals more or less while weaning them. Leave them
in their boxes, two or three together, several days, and have the
boxes open into a nice grass paddock. Let them run out and in,
give them oats mixed with bran and sorghum cut up fine, and in
a few days more turn them out in the fields away from their dams,
where there is plenty of grass and water, and a large trough with
feed in it constantly. They have been in the habit of taking
milk a great many times a day, and they need food just as often.
The best way is to keep plenty of mixed food for them, using
cracked corn and oats, also unthrashed oats run through a cutting-

1 Loc. cit., pp. 424-5.

316 Feeds and Feeding.

box, then mixed with bran and water enough to moisten it to
make the bran adhere to the oats.'7

At Palo Alto foals were weaned at five months of age; in this
case the pair which had run together and become acquainted
were put in a darkened stall in the evening, the dam being
placed out of hearing. They were not allowed to suck after
the first separation. The box- stalls were without projections of
any kind, so that it was impossible for the foals to injure them-
selves, though they often reared against the sides of the stall or
struck at the door in struggling to escape. The companionship
of the pair, and the fact that they had been taught to eat dry
food, helped them to sooner forget their dams.

498. Feeding the colt after weaning. — Colts are nondescripts,
for the rearing of which no definite rules can be given, but com-
mon sense, patience and alertness should prevail. These awk-
ward animals, utterly useless as yet, must nevertheless be care-
fully looked after, the aim being to supply food liberally, with
plenty of sunlight and an abundance of exercise. Oats lead in the
list of feeding stuffs, but shorts and bran with barley, peas and
feome corn may be profitably used where economy is important.
These feeds, aside from corn, are rich in bone-making material
and will be found satisfactory as well as economical. Colts suf-
fer at times from teething, and to subsist wholly upon hard, dry
food may work injury. Steamed crushed oats or barley, thick-
ened with bran, will prove appetizing and very nourishing in
such cases. Boots may be cooked and the mass extended with
ground grain and bran. A limited quantity of this feed given at
night in winter- time, daily, or two or three times a week, will
show its effect in a better colt and a more thrifty general appear-
ance. Withholding coarse provender and giving concentrated
grain in large quantities in its place at this period is to be dep-
recated, for it is important that the digestive tract be developed
to a moderate extent by distention with coarse feed that it may
serve its purpose when the animal is grown. The "big belly"
which a properly-fed colt may carry at this period is nothing to
its harm, even though it annoy the short-sighted stockman who
foolishly may wish to see in his growing colt the trim form of the
finished product.

Feed and Care of the Horse. 317

A fair allowance of grain for the colt, measured in oats, is as

follows:

Up to one year of age, from 2 to 3 pounds.
From one to two years of age, 4 to 5 pounds.
From two to three years of age, 7 to 8 pounds.

While an ample allowance of such roughage as hay, straw
and stover should be supplied, it should always be less than the
animal would eat had it free access to this provender. The
colt, like the mature horse, should not be allowed all the rough-
age it can consume, for such over-supply tends to gorge the
digestive tract with inert matter, and may work lasting injury.

Liberal feeding must be counterbalanced by an abundance of
outdoor exercise. In no other way can colts be ruined so surely
and so permanently as by liberal feeding and close confinement.
Each day from three to ten hours should be spent in the open airr
according to the condition of the weather and other circumstances.

499. Rearing by hand. — It occasionally happens that the foal
must be reared artificially or perish. If the young thing has
never received any of its mother's milk, the bowels should first
of all be moved by a dose of castor oil. Cow's milk, to which at
least one- fourth its volume of water, together with some sugar,
has been added, (429) makes a fair substitute for mare's milk
and should be given at blood temperature. Gruels may be made
by boiling beans or peas and removing the skins by passing the
pulp through a sieve. Oil meal made into a jelly by boiling, and
shorts prepared in the same way, are excellent for the motherless
foal.

500. Cow's milk for foal feeding. — Cow's milk is often used with
advantage in feeding foals. Foals suffering from distemper can-
not always take solid food satisfactorily and may be nurtured on
cow' s milk. The foal may be taught to drink milk by pouring it
upon the grain feed; the young thing eats the moistened feed,
and by tipping the pan it soon learns to drink the separated milk.

At the Iowa Station, l Wilson and Curtiss fed whole milk, and
later separator skim milk, with satisfactory results, to imported
Percheron, Shire and French Coach weanling fillies shortly after

1 Bui. 18.

318 Feeds and Feeding.

their arrival and while out of condition. In changing from whole
milk to separator skim milk, it was necessary to reduce the
amount of milk fed for a day or two to prevent scouring. Ten
pounds of separator skim milk was found to effect a saving of one
pound of grain. l Grattan reports favorably on the use of skim milk
for foals. Even when fed sour or lobbered, satisfactory results were
obtained after they were accustomed to it. MacNeilage objects
to the use of cow's milk for foals, claiming "no better means of
manufacturing wind-suckers was ever devised, and it is rare that
yearlings so brought out count for much as two-year-olds and
three-year-olds."2 This adverse criticism is a timely warning
against the too free use of milk in foal feeding. While we may
give a large amount of milk to a pig, forcing its growth to the
utmost, we should remember that this animal is designed for the
pork barrel, while the growing colt is intended for quite a differ-
ent purpose. Milk carries a large amount of bone and muscle-
building material and is very palatable. Jn judicious hands its
use is commended. (356-7)

501. Feed and care of the stallion. — The following from San-
ders 3 is replete with good counsel in relation to the stallion :
" The food should mainly be good, sound oats — nothing is better;
but this should be varied by an occasional ration of corn or barley;
for horses, like men, are fond of a variety in their food, and an
occasional change of diet is conducive to health. Wheat bran is
an invaluable adjunct to the grain ration, and can never be dis-
pensed with. It is the cheapest, safest and best of all regulators
for the bowels, and it is especially rich in some of the most im-
portant elements of nutrition. No specific directions as to the
quantity of food can be given. Some horses will require nearly
twice as much as others; and the quantity that may be safely
given will depend somewhat upon the amount of exercise in any
given case. Some horsemen recommend feeding three and others
four times a day; but in either case no more should be given
than will be promptly eaten up clean. If any food should be left
in the box it should be at once removed and the quantity at the

i Breeder's Gazette. Vol. VI, 1884, p. 796.
2Tnins. Highl.and Agrl. Soc., 1890, p. 152.
8 " Horse Breeding," pp. 144-46.

Feed and Care of the Horse. 319

next time of feeding should be reduced accordingly. As a rule,
it will be safe to feed as much as the horse will eat with apparent
relish; and then, with plenty of exercise, he will not become
overloaded with fat. The hay, as well as the grain feed, should
be sound and free from mould and dust, and the stall should be
kept clean, well lighted and perfectly ventilated.

"The amount of exercise to be given will vary somewhat with
the condition and habit of the horse. If he be in thin flesh, and
it is thought best to fatten him up, the exercise should be lighter
than it otherwise would be; and, on the other hand, if there is a
tendency to become too fat, this may be corrected by increasing the
amount of exercise that is given. Draft horses should rarely be led
or driven faster than a walk in taking their exercise, and they will
require much less of it than the roadster or the running horse —
a moderate 'jog' daily will benefit them. I am clearly of the
opinion that in no one particular is there more faulty manage-
ment on the part of lazy grooms and stable hands than in the
matter of exercising stallions while doing service in the stud.
They should not be walked nor jogged so long that they will be-
come jaded or wearied, but should have enough of it daily to keep
the muscles hard and firm, the appetite good and to prevent them
from laying on an undue amount of fat. No draft horse, under
ordinary circumstances, should have less exercise than five miles
a day, and the roadster and running horse may safely have six
miles, which in some cases should be increased to eight or even
ten.

"The point to be aimed at in the stable management of the
stallion is so to feed, groom and exercise as to keep the horse to
the very highest possible pitch of strength and vigor. The idea
which prevails among many stable grooms that feeding this or
that nostrum will increase the ability of a horse to get foals is
sheer nonsense. Anything that adds to the health, strength and
vigor of the horse will increase his virility or sexual power,
simply because the sexual organs will partake of the general tone
of the system; and, on the contrary, whatever tends to impair the
health and vigor of the general system will have a deleterious
effect upon the sexual organs. A healthy horse needs nothing

320 Feeds and Feeding.

but good food, pure air, plenty of exercise, with due attention to
cleanliness and regularity in feeding and watering; and when all
these things are attended to properly the drugs and nostrums that
stable lore prescribes as t good for a horse ' would be better thrown
to the dogs. "

502. Food for the mare. — While in foal the mare does not
necessarily require food different in quality from that fed at other
times, but the quantity should be somewhat larger, all conditions
being equal. Those used for breeding purposes only will do well
without grain when on nutritious pasture, but if the grass is in-
sufficient, some additional feed in the shape of grain should be
given. Working mares are more sure of bringing good foals
than those idle in pasture, provided judgment is used in handling
and feeding. They should be worked with regularity, the labor
never being severe or taxing, nor should the nature of the work
ever be such as to make long intervals between feeds, for then
great hunger may be followed by surfeiting. Idleness is the bane
of horse rearing and should be avoided whenever possible. To
place the mare in a box-stall and confine her there without suit-
able exercise, while supplied an abundance of feed, is to adopt a
practice only too common and one carrying large risk. Abun-
dance of exercise must always go with liberal feeding.

As to the kind of feed for the mare in foal, oats lead, yet shorts
and bran may be fed with economy and beneficial results; mashes
can be given occasionally, and where possible cooked feed may be
supplied at night, three times a week. Through the use of proper
foods the bowels will be kept in a natural condition, and should
be a little loose rather than otherwise at time of parturition.

503. Feeding the trotter. — The single requisite of speed makes
the carrying of every pound of useless body weight, and more
especially of feed, a serious matter in the management of the trot-
ting horse. More important than this, even, is the effect of the
food upon the character of the muscles formed from it, and espe-
cially upon the nerve and mettle of the horse. For help in this
line we can draw from no better source than Hiram Woodruff, *
who tells how the trotter should be fed and managed.

1 The Trotting Horse of America, pp. 90-105.

Feed and Care of the Horse. 321

When going into winter quarters, the feed of the trotter should
be reduced fully one-half in order to prevent fattening, for too
much fat on the intestines and about the heart makes the trainer
no end of trouble in working it off. A few carrots may be given
and a bran mash occasionally, with good clean, sweet hay. Horses
whose legs must undergo blistering or firing should have feed of
a cooling nature, mashes and carrots being in more abundance,
with less oats, in order to reduce the tendency to feverish, inflam-
matory symptoms. Care must be taken not to permit the animal
to get flabby or washy by too much soft food while undergo-
ing treatment. Horses turned out to the field should be fed oats
twice a day, for the exposure to the severity of the weather in-
creases the need of heat-giving food. In the spring when shed-
ding, bran mashes are in order to keep the bowels open. Flax
seed and linseed meal should not be given, for they have a tend-
ency to relax the system too suddenly and to cause the old hair
to come away before the new coat is well started.

"With the beginning of the season (we quote directly from
the author),1 while the jogging, the first part of the trotting
horse's preparation, is in progress, the strength of the feed may
be increased, though not up to the extent that will be requisite
when the work is made longer and sharper. He may have, dur-
ing this first part of the preparation, from eight to ten quarts of
oats a day, according to his capacity as a feeder, and the demands
made by nature for supply of strong food under work. As the
oats are increased, the horse will want less hay, but may still
have all he will eat up clean. After taking his feed of oats, he
will not consume as much hay in general; but some horses are
such gluttons that it is necessary to limit them as to hay almost
from the first. There are even some who will eat the straw of
their bedding when they have had all the grain and hay that
should be fed to them; and, with these, it sometimes becomes
necessary to put on the muzzle long before the time for the trial
or the race. No carrots are now to be given, and I believe corn
to be unnecessary and often mischievous. It is heating, and does
not contain as much of the stuff that goes to make up hard flesh

1 Loe. cit., p. 99.
21

322 Feeds and Feeding.

and elastic muscle as oats. There may be instances, however, in
which a light feeder can be got to eat up his oats, and a handful
of corn as well, when the latter is mixed with them. In such a
case it is well to give it; but in no case should corn be used as a
substitute for the allowance of oats the horse in training ought to
have.

" While the jogging and after preparation are going on, a bran-
niash now and then will be proper. Probably about once a week
will be often enough and not too often; but this will be indicated
by the condition of the horse's bowels and by his constitutional
tendencies and requirements. If his bowels are relaxed, the use
of the bran-mash is not apparent; and if he is of the light, washy
order, never having much substance, and easily melting away
when put into sharp training work, mashes are to be given
more sparingly than with one of the opposite character. The
trainer is never to relax his vigilance of observation, or let his
judgment go to sleep and trust to arbitrary rules. . . . Dur-
ing the fast work, preparatory to the coming trial, the horse will
have been put upon his largest allowance of strong food. Some
will not eat more than eight or ten quarts of oats a day; and it is
necessary to be very vigilant and careful that these light feeders
are not over-marked in work. Twelve or thirteen quarts is about
what a good feeder ought to have. Some will eat sixteen quarts
of oats a day, but my belief is that three quarts of it does more
harm than good."

Splan tells us1 that Earus, in the hottest part of the summer,
consumed fifteen pounds of oats per day, which he regarded as the
maximum for a strong, energetic horse.

All horsemen agree in regarding oats as the one grain suit-
able for animals where speed is sought regardless of cost of food.
While this opinion prevails in this country, we should remem-
ber that the Arab horse usually subsists upon barley.

504. Feeding the carriage horse. — Style and action should be
prerequisites with the carriage horse, economy in feeding stand-
ing second. Oats easily lead among concentrates, for any good
driver will tell us that a horse fed on oats exhibits mettle as from
no other feed. For variety, rolled wheat or barley with bran

1 Life with the Trotters, p. 302.

Feed and Care of the Horse. 323

may form a portion of the ration. From ten to twelve pounds of
oats, or their equivalent, should suffice for the concentrates,
divided into three feeds, the evening meal being the largest.
Cooked grain, having a tendency to soften the flesh, should not
generally be given, though a feed once or twice a week will have
a cooling effect; bran mashes will be conducive to the same end.
A part of the hay may be chaffed and moistened before feeding;
the remainder may be fed long, as the carriage horse has plenty
of time for masticating his food. From ten to twelve pounds ot
hay should be allowed in order to bring the total weight of the
ration within the limit of twenty or twenty-two pounds.

While the large abdomen cannot be tolerated in the carriage
horse, we should not forget that there must be a certain bulk or
volume to the feed in order that the digestive functions may be
properly maintained. Carriage horses are usually over-fed and
under or irregularly exercised, the latter trouble arising from the
absence or business engagements of the owner or because of inclem-
ent weather. For these reasons mainly, the period of satisfac-
tory service with this class of animals is usually short. Where
daily driving cannot be practiced, under-feeding rather than heavy
feeding should prevail as the safer course. When the team is
not taken from the stable during the day, the concentrates or
grain portion of the ration should at once be reduced one- third
or one-half, and the normal allowance should not again be given
until work or exercise demands it. Such action requires firmness
on the part of the feeder who wishes to treat his animals with
kindness, but any other system than that of accurately gauging
feed to work is harmful and ultimately disastrous.

505. Feeding the work horse. — The work horse, having but few
days of idleness, possesses a hearty appetite and a vigorous diges-
tion, so that if intelligently cared for, his lot is not altogether an
unhappy one; nor is he to be commiserated when compared with
his aristocratic kin, the carriage horse, which by high living and
periods of enforced idleness, followed occasionally perhaps by
hours of over-exertion, generally has but a brief career and that
sometimes attended with many ills. Eegularity in work brings
regularity of feeding, and these greatly conduce to comfort and
long years of usefulness.

324 Feeds and Feeding.

The concentrates for work horses can rarely consist wholly of
oats because of their cost. Boiled wheat and barley are excellent
substitutes, and corn meal, or preferably corn and cob meal, may
form from one-third to one-half of the ration. Bran has come into
general use as part feed for the horse. Shorts or middlings may
be used to the extent of two or three pounds per day. This por-
tion of the wheat grain is excellent for the horse, except that the
heavy or floury middlings, if fed in quantity, are liable to induce
colic with many horses. Cooked feed may be given two or three
times a week for cooling the system; in its absence, bran mashes
should be given. A small allowance of roots is always in
order.

The work horse should be supplied with about two pounds of
provender daily for each hundred pounds of weight. Of this,
from ten to eighteen pounds, according to the severity of the labor
performed, should be grain in some form. The heavy feeding
should come at night, after the long day's work is over and when
the animal has time for masticating and digesting his food. After
watering comes the administration of the grain, which should
constitute one-half to two-thirds of the day's allowance. This
may be fed separately, or preferably upon moistened, chaffed hay.
The amount of chaffed hay with which the grain is mixed should
not exceed one peck in volume.

Ground grain and chaffed hay are fed in mixed form that the
animal may masticate his food and pass it to the stomach more
quickly than is possible with the material whole and in dry form.
A fair allowance of long hay should always be thrown into the
manger for the animal to finish on, after the stomach is replen-
ished and while he is resting but still requiring more food. The
morning meal should be comparatively light, consisting mostly of
grain with some chaffed hay. It should not possess much bulk,
and should be in condition to be easily and rapidly consumed so
as to be well out of the way when the animal is led from the
stable. The mid-day meal is omitted in many stables, but most
horsemen hold that some grain should be given at noon, which
claim seems reasonable from our knowledge of the horse's stomach
and the digestive process. In any case the amount of feed given
at mid- day should not be large.

Feed and Care of the Horse. 325

506. Preparation of feed. — The food requirements of the horse
vary more than for any other farm animal because of their wide
range in weight and the great diversity and severity of the labor
performed. Idle horses may be maintained wholly or almost
wholly upon hay, straw or corn fodder, fed uncut. Such animals
have ample time for masticating food, and their systems not being
taxed by labor, they are able to subsist on food which contains a
large percentage of inert matter. Forage possessing considerable
volume, as hay and straw, is suitable for such animals because a
reasonable amount will furnish the necessary nutriment, and it is
better to have the digestive tract well distended with food sub-
stnnces than contracted, as would be the case if concentrates pos-
sessing only the requisite nutriment were supplied.

For horses taxed to the limit of their endurance all grain
should be ground and fed upon moistened, chaffed hay. Food
thus prepared is more rapidly masticated and consequently re-
mains a longer time in the stomach. A little long hay may be
supplied the animal, to be consumed at leisure after the stomach is
well filled. Understanding the requirements of animals repre-
senting the two extremes, one can adjust the food preparation and
supply to meet the various intermediate cases as they arise.

There is always more or less dust with hay, and this rough-
age should always be administered in such manner as to cause
the horse the least annoyance. Dusty hay should be avoided if
possible. Sprinkling the. hay lightly with water is the simplest
way of reducing the trouble to the minimum.

507. The order of administering grain, hay and water. — Colin' s
investigations on the stomach of the horse x show that this organ
must fill and empty itself two or three times for each feed given.
(34^ In one case he administered 2,500 grams (5.5 pounds) of
hay to a horse, which was then killed, and on opening the stomach
less than one-half of the hay was found therein, the remainder
having passed into the intestines. Other animals killed at longer
intervals after feeding showed that the passage of the food into the
intestines was not as rapid toward the end of the repast as at the
beginning. From this it appears there are two periods in thedi-

1 Traite d. Phys. Comp. des Animaux.

326 Feeds and Feeding.

gestion of hay; in the first, the material is pushed on, almost as
soon as it enters the stomach, into the intestines by the food which
follows, while toward the end of the meal the passage is slow and
the digestion in the stomach more perfect.

Marlot, conducting experiments at the Agricultural College,
Department of Yonne, France, fed four quarts of oats to a horse
which was killed soon after. An examination of the stomach
showed that three quarts of the oats had been carried by the
water into the intestines. The grain of the ration being rich in
protein should remain in the stomach as long as possible for the
digestion of this nutrient.

Sanborn, studying the effects of watering before and after feed-
ing, concludes as follows:1

"1. Horses watered before feeding grain retained their weight
better than when watered after feeding grain. 2. Horses watered
before feeding had the better appetite or ate the most. 3. Horses
watered after feeding grain, in ratio to the food eaten, seemed to
digest it as well as those watered before feeding. In a prior trial
there was a small apparent advantage in favor of feeding after
watering, on digestion. 4. It seems advisable to water both be-
fore and after feeding. "

In some cases cruelty is certainly practiced towards horses in
withholding a normal water supply. Splan2 writes: "As to
water I think every horse should have all he wants at all times.
A man says: Why, will you give your horse water before a race ?
Yes, before the race, in the race and after the race, arid any other
time the horse wants to drink. . . . When I said give your
horse all the water he wants before the race, I do not mean that
you shall tie him up where he cannot get a drink for five or six
hours on a hot day in a warm stall, and then take him to the pump
and give him all he wants. What I mean is to give him water
often, and in that way he will take but a small quantity at a
time."

In general we may say that horses should have their regular
and largest supply of water previous to feeding, and it may also

1 Bui. 9, Utah Expt. Sta.

* Life with the Trotters, pp. 302-3.

Feed and Care of the Horse. 327

be well to supply a limited quantity after feeding. When the
horses come to the stable heated and fatigued, a little fresh water,
even if cold, may be given with beneficial effect — say eight or ten
quarts. Then when cooled off and rested, what they still re-
quire should be supplied. When on the road a few quarts of
water can be given with safety, no matter how much the horse is
heated, but a large quantity should never be supplied at one time.
On journeys, water should be given every few miles.

A theoretical system of feeding would require that the horse
be given water first of all, and that this be followed by hay, the
grain being withheld until at least some hay had been consumed.
While the plan of watering first is easily followed, we cannot and
should not make the horse wait for the grain, consuming his hay
allowance first, for until the grain is given he is nervous and
unsatisfied. In practice the concentrates will usually be supplied
before hay is given. A middle ground can be taken by watering
first and then feeding ground grain sprinkled upon a small allow-
ance of moistened chaffed hay. This will satisfy the desire of
the horse by supplying the most palatable portion of his food
early, and yet insure the retention of the grain in the stomach for
a considerable period, since masticating and swallowing the cut
hay with accompanying meal will require some time.

The small size of the stomach of the horse indicates the impro-
priety of long fasting. While it is a fact that horses employed
by some establishments go from daylight until dark without food,
it seems that where possible these fasts should be broken by a
small feed of grain at mid- day.

Over-feeding with hay is the source of a long list of ills with
the horse. Through carelessness or mistaken kindness the mangers
are often kept filled with hay, and because of his long hours of
idleness in the stable the horse falls into the habit of gorging
himself with this provender. Not only is there waste of hay in
such cases, but whatever is eaten beyond requirement exhausts
the digestive system and weakens its influence upon the other
nutrients of the ration. Staring coats, labored breathing and
quick tiring are the least serious, though probably the most
easily noticeable, results of this common practice. There should

328 Feeds and Feeding.

be a definite allowance of hay for the horse at each feeding time,
and this should always fall short of what would be consumed if
more were given. Next to failure to provide abundant and sys-
tematic exercise the common fault in horse management, where
animals are used for pleasure, is that of overfeeding with hay.

508. Systematic feeding of the highest importance. — No one
can review the literature of horse feeding or personally study the
practices in various stables located at widely separated points, as
the writer has done, without realizing that there are many suc-
cessful ways of feeding and managing the horse. The uses to
which this animal is put are so varied, and the feeding materials
at command so diverse for different localities, that any hard-and-
fast rules as to kind of feed and amount to be supplied are out
of the question. One thing is certain, however: Whatever feed-
ing stuffs are employed and whatever order of feeding is adopted,
regularity and uniformity should prevail at all times. The ani-
mal during his round of work anticipates the feeding hour. The
digestive system, and indeed the whole organism of the body,
becomes accustomed to this certain order, and thrift and health
are the natural concomitants, while irregularity and uncertainty
are always productive of unsatisfactory results.

509. Variety in feed of importance. — Horsemen sometimes state
that with plenty of oats and good hay at command they care noth-
ing for other food articles. While it is true that a horse can be
maintained on this short dietary, it seems reasonable that equally
good or better results are obtainable, and the cost of keeping often
lessened, by adopting a more extended bill of fare. Experiments
with other domestic animals plainly show the advantages of j udi-
ciously formed combinations of feeding stuffs over any single one.
If energy and spirited action were the only qualities desirable in
the horse, then perhaps oats with hay might suffice; but when we
consider the number and complexity of the components of bone,
tissue and nerve, we can well believe that these are better nour-
ished by several kinds of grain and forage plants than by one or
two only.

A striking illustration of the value of variety in food and its
proper administration is shown by Mr. Charles Hunting, a

Feed and Care of the Horse. 329

superintendent having under his care some 7,000 horses em-
ployed in the collieries of North England, who writes as follows:1
"I was called to a colliery in Durham some time ago; the out-
put at this place was decreased from fifteen to twenty score per
day through the horses being unable, from want of condition, to
get the work out. The animals were miserably poor, though
allowed 168 pounds of oats and 154 pounds of hay each per
week. The oats were not crushed and the hay was not chopped.
The horses were large, none under 16 hands, many 16.2. They
worked very long hours, and took heavy loads, but I confess I
was astonished at their appearance after many months of such
apparently liberal feeding. On September 1 their food was
changed to the following:

Crushed peas 35 Ibs. at 34s. per qr.

Crushed barley 20 Ibs. at 28s. per qr.

Crushed oats 40 Ibs. at 28s. per qr.

Bran 14 Ibs. at T^d. per st.

Hay 7sts. at9d.

Total 12s. 91<L

"The old plan gave us:

Oats 168 Ibs. at 28s. per qr. 14s. Od.

Hay 11 sts. at 9d. perst. 8s. 3d.

Total £1 2s. 3d.

Difference: 9s. 5£d. per horse per week.

"Notice, too, that besides this saving in money, the digestive
organs had 56 pounds less hay and 59 pounds less corn (grain) to
digest. Or: —

Mixed grim 109 Ibs. Old oats 168 Ibs.

Hay 981bs. Hay 154 Ibs.

Total 207 Ibs. Total 322 Ibs.

"Result: Within three months this stud was in excellent
health and condition, drawing out of the pit, without any appli-
cation of engine power, about twenty to thirty scores more per
day than when I first saw them. There were 149 horses on the
colliery, so by this change a saving of £3,662 12s. l£d. per annum
was effected."

1 Paper read before New Castle Farmers' Club by Mr. Chas. Hunting.
South Hetton, County of Durham, England; see The English Cart
Horse Stud Book, Vol. I, p. xlv.

330 Feeds and Feeding.

510. The supervision of feeding. — In stables where many horses
are maintained, a group or row of animals should remain in the
care of the same attendant, the whole establishment being under
the watchful supervision of the superintendent. While we can
estimate quite closely the amount of food to be given a hundred
or a thousand horses, there must always be modifications and con-
cessions to individual members of the establishment to be recog-
nized and provided for by the guiding mind, — one horse should
have a little more than the regulation allowance, and the next
possibly a little less, the object being to keep each in the -desired
condition. Usually it is not well to leave the feeding of horses
to their own driver, for he has his likes and dislikes, and the
favorites are pretty certain to receive more than their proper
allowance of grain, while the others suffer. A watchful superin-
tendent must ever be on the alert to see that each animal secures
the needed provender.

511. Exercise essential, to the maintenance of health. — The
Arabs have a saying, " Rest and fat are the greatest enemies of
the horse. ' ' The horse is par excellence the creature of motion,
and in its feeding and management we should hold this point
ever in view. The prudent horseman will bear in mind that cor-
relative with liberal feeding there must be hearty exercise or
severe labor, and that these conditions may be happily balanced.
As soon as hard labor ceases, or constant and vigorous exercise is
over, it will be found absolutely necessary to reduce the allow-
ance of food if the proper balance is to be maintained. The idle
horse should be limited to less than half the grain given while on
regular duty, and in some instances it were better to give none,
provided the roughage supplied be of good quality.

A colt fed heavily on suitable nutrients will grow rapidly
and develop good bone and strong muscle, provided at all times
there be a proper balance between exercise and feed. The
highly-fed colt should be out of doors from eight to ten hours a
day, and should move several miles each day either in the field,
on the track, or both. A mature horse should be in the open air
not less than four or five hours a day and should travel from ten
to fifteen miles daily to maintain health.

Feed and Care of the Horse. 331

512. Rations. — The following rations given by various author-
ities may serve as a general guide in determining the amount of
feed which should be allowed the horse under diverse conditions:

Character of animal and _ \ _

work required. Concentrates. Roughage*

Trotting horse.— Hiram Woodruff.1

Colt, weaning time ...................... 2 pounds oats. Hay ad lib.

Colt, one year old ......................... 4 pounds oats. Hay ad lib.

Colt, two years old ....................... 6 pounc^j oats. Hay ad lib.

Colt, two years old, in training. ... 8 pounds oats. {
Colt, three years old, in training... 8-12 pounds oats, j

Trotting horse.— Splan. *
Horse on circuit ........................... 10 pounds oats. {

Horse on circuit ........................... 15 pounds oats,

in exceptional Hay, fair
cases (as with Rarus). amount.

Horse variously used. — Stonehenge.3

Race horse ................................... 15 pounds oats. 6-8 pounds hay.

Hack ............................................ 8 pounds oats. 12 pounds hay.

Horse variously used. — Fleming.4

P^y ............................................ * pounds oats. {Hajj0™^te

Hunter, small .............................. 12 pounds oats. 12 pounds hay,

Hunter, large ............................... 16 pounds oats. 10 pounds hay.

Carriage, light work ..................... 10 pounds oats. 12 pounds hay.

The draft horse.— Sidney.5

Heavy, hard work ...... { *6 founds beats, { 15 ^ds chaff-

1 3 pounds corn. \ ed clover hay.

Farm horse. — Settegast.6
Li<?ht ™k ................................. 6-10 P^ "a*- {

13 pounds oats. {

1 The Trotting Horse of America. 2 Life with the Trotters.

8 The Horse. * The Practical Horse Keeper. ° Book of the Horse.
• Thierzucht, II, 1888, p. 109.

332

Feeds and Feeding.

513. Rations for army horses. — The following are the rations
allowed army horses in the countries noted:

Ration.

Government. Weight of horse. Concentrates. fioughage.

United States, *• cavalry, 950 to 1,150 Ibs. 12 Ibs. oats. ^

»r L 14 Ibs. hay.
J

corn or
barley,

United States, artillery, 1,050 to 1,200 Ibs. 12 Ibs. oats,

corn
barley

3. oats, 1

•n or [• 14 Ibs. hay.

rley. J

Germany,* cavalry ................... 1,050 Ibs. 10 Ibs. oats.* { J^

Germany, cavalry-officers' ....................... 11 Ibs. oats. { *•*

Great Britain," cavalry ...................... ..... 10 Ibs. oats. { ^ j[j

Great Britain, cavalry, severe duty ......... 12-14 Ibs. oats. { 1| j^'

* Wolff (Article 441) refers to the German cavalry ration as containing
11 pounds of oats.

514. Rations used by street-car companies. — The rations used
by street- car companies are interesting not only because they show
the feed required by animals thus worked, but, because of the
constant and severe labor performed by this class of animals,
we can learn of the food requirements of hard- worked horses.
The following rations a,re given by Fleming4 as the daily allow-
ance for horses of some of the principal tramway (horse-car) com-
panies of Great Britain:

Rations for British tramway (street-car} horses — Fleming.

London.

Liverpool.

Glasgow.

Edinburgh.

Dublin.

Lbs.
Corn .. 7

Lbs.
Corn 12

Lbs.
Oats .. 6

Lbs.
Oats 8

Lbs.
Corn... 14

Oats ... 3

Beans 4

Corn.. 11

Corn 4

Oats... 3

Peas... 3
Hay 12

Cut hay ... 14
Bran . .. 1

Hay .. 8.5
Straw 1

Beans 4
Hay 14

Hay ... 12
Bran .. .5

Straw.. 1

Bran.. .5

Marshlum. 2

Special Agent Mattes, of the Department of Agriculture, has

1 From information furnished by Chas. Bird, Quartermaster General
U. S. Army, Washington.

2 Landw. Jahrb., 1887, Suppl. TIT, p. 72.

8 Fleming, The Practical Horse Keeper, p. 89.

Loe. cit., p. 88.

Feed and Care of the Horse.

333

gathered important information1 concerning the rations of street-
car horses on the Continent, some of which are herewith pre-
sented:

Rations for street-car horses in various European cities — Mattes.

City.

Daily allowance per horse.

Nutrients in ration.

Corn.

Oats.

Hay.

Straw.

Prot.

Carbh.

Fat.

Nut.
ratio.

Bremen

Lbs.

14.3

7.7

15.4
11.0
17.6
6.6

Lbs.

2.2*
11.0

"*4.T
1.7
11.0
15.4

Lbs.

8.8
4.4

13.2
13.2
7.7
5.5
11.0

Lbs.

2.2
3.3

1.1
1.1
4.4
4.4
2.2

Lbs.

2.03
1.76

1.94
1.94
2.01
1.76
1.83

Lbs.

13.18
11.42

13.96
12.85
15.17
11.13
13.54

Lbs.

.75

.84

.75
.75
.86
.79
.73

Lbs.

1 :7.7
1:7.7

1:8.2
1:7.6
1:8.6
1:7.4
1:8.4

Brussels

Bordeaux —
Winter

Summer

Hamburg

Munich

Vienna

*1.1 pounds additional of peas.

In examining these rations, we observe that corn usually con-
stitutes a part of the ration. Most of the corn used in the
United Kingdom and Germany comes from this country. Even
with the increased cost incident to importation, many companies
find it a relatively cheap food, and make large use of it.

1 Report of the Statistician, October, 1894, Department of Agriculture,
Washington.

CHAPTER XX.

CALF REARING.

I. Findings of the Investigators.

\j 515. Birth weight of calves. — According to Krafft, l the weight
of calves at birth is from one-twelfth to one-fourteenth the weight
of the dam. This authority places the weight at birth as follows:

Birth weight.
Pounds.

Light-weight calves 48— 66

Average calves 66 — 92

Heavy calves 97—110

Very heavy calves 115 — 128

516. Whole milk for calves. — Bertschinger gives the following
results for feeding trials with whole milk to calves in the Canton
of Zurich, Switzerland:2

Number of calves fattened 34

Duration of fattening period, weeks 11J

Quantity of whole milk fed, per calf, pounds 1,612.6

Live weight of calves at beginning, pounds 102.5

Increase in weight, pounds 166.4

One pound of increase, live weight, was obtained for each 10.1
pounds of whole milk fed.

Martiny8 found that from 3.5 to 6 pounds of new milk were
sufficient to produce a pound of gain, live weight, with calves
between the first and fifth weeks, while from 16 to 20 pounds were
required for a pound of gain with older animals.

At the Pennsylvania Station, 4 Hunt fed three calves full milk
containing an average of 4. 6 per cent, of fat for 161 days. These
calves gained 1.77 pounds each daily, requiring 8.7 pounds of

1 Lehrb. d. Ldw., 3, 1890, p. 85.

2 Fleischmann, Molkereiwesen, 1876, p. 150.
8 Die Milch, 2, 1871, pp. 9-15.

« Kept. 1891.

Calf Bearing. 335

whole milk and one pound each of hay and grain for one pound
of growth. (356)

517. Feeding skim milk. — Fleischmann1 quotes an experiment
with six calves receiving skim milk only. Twelve pounds of
skim milk were required for one pound of gain.

Beckhusen2 reports feeding trials with calves receiving skim
milk and making an average daily gain of 2.1 pounds. One
pound of gain was produced from 13.3 pounds of skim milk.
From 7.9 to 20. 1 pounds of skim milk were required for one pound
of gain, according to the age of the animal. (357)

518. Separator skim milk. — Du Eoi3 fed 18 calves, averaging
91.5 pounds at birth, for 37 days. Each calf received 11.4 pounds
of full milk and 896. 7 pounds of separator skim milk, and gained
on the average 52.9 pounds, giving one pound of increase for 16
pounds of separator skim milk. In this trial one pound of new
milk was considered equal to two pounds of skim milk.

519. The Iowa Station tests. — Calf rearing with separator skim
milk has been studied by Curtiss, of the Iowa Station, 4 who gives
the following recent important results. Milk from the college
dairy herd was fed immediately after it had passed through the
separator, the temperature being from 85 to 90 degrees Fahr.
The chief object of the experiments was to determine the best
grain to feed in connection with skim milk. Oil meal, oat meal
and corn meal, with a little ground flax seed additional, were
used. The first test, conducted during the summer, lasted sixty
days, with two calves, — one Short-horn and one Holstein in each
lot, — averaging 182 pounds when the trial began. The second
trial, with two calves in each lot, conducted during the fall and
winter, lasted ninety days. The calves were high-grade Short-
horns, from two to three weeks old when the feeding began. The
third trial was conducted during the winter with four pure-
bred Short-horns in each lot, averaging 200 pounds when the
trial began. From thirteen to twenty pounds of skim milk were
fed to each calf daily in these trials. The calves in Lot I were

1 Molkereiwesen, p. 368; Milch Zeitung, 1875, p. 1481.

* Milch Zeitung, 1880, p. 214.

8 Der Laudbote, 1887, No. 14, and v. d. Goltz, Landw. 3, p. 420.

336

Feeds and Feeding.

fed oil meal and milk. Lot II received ground oats and milk,
the hulls of the oats having been sieved from the ground grain
in the second and third trials. Lot III received corn meal with
about 10 per cent, of ground flax seed additional. A summary
of the trials appears in the following table:

Summary of three trials with separator skim milk and various
meals — Iowa Station.

Kind of feed.

No. of calves.

Total feed given.

Total
gain.

Av.
daily
gain
per
head.

Dry
matter
per 100
pounds
of gain.

Cost of
feed
per
pound
of
gain.

Nutri-
tive
ratio.

Lot I. Oil meal

9.168 Ibs. sep. milk ...
1,728 Ibs. hay

Lbs.
873

Lbs.
1.47

Lbs.
339

Cts.
2.8

1:2.6

703 Ibs. oil meal

Lot II. Oat meal

9,160 Ibs. sep. milk ...
1,730 Ibs. hay

927"

1.57

337

2.1

1:3.6

875 Ibs. oat meal

Lot III. Corn meal.

9,168 Ibs. sep. milk ...
1,731 Ibs. hay

flax seed and
milk .....

772 Ibs. corn meal...

925

1.56

330

2.2

1 : 4

84 Ibs. flax seed

Commenting on the experiments, Curtiss writes: " The results
of all the investigations made at this Station strongly indicate that
it is not only unnecessary but poor economy and poor practice in
feeding to use a highly nitrogenous product like oil meal in com-
bination with separator skim milk. The practice has neither
logical reason nor scientific theory for its support; and in the corn-
belt states, with their surplus of corn and oats, there is no neces-
sity for the purchase of a high-priced nitrogenous product to be
used in supplementing the skim- milk ration." (199)

520. Gravity versus separator skim milk. — Thirty-two calves
less than 10 weeks old, weighing on an average 130 pounds, were
fed from 30 to 50 days on three Danish estates under the direction
of the Copenhagen (Denmark) Station. 1 The calves received
about 20 pounds of separator skim milk daily per head in addi-
tion to oats, peanut meal, corn, barley or hay, singly or combined.
The average weight of the calves at the beginning of the experi-

1 Kept. 1894

Calf Rearing. 337

ment and the gain made, together with the fat content of the

skim milk, are given in the following table:

Gravity Separator

skim milk, skim milk.

Average weight per head at beginning, pounds. ... 130 . 2 132 . 7

Daily gain per head, pounds 1.50 1.43

Difference in favor of gravity skim milk, pounds. .07

Fat content of the milk, per cent 60 .14

From the above we learn that where Che gravity skim milk pro-
duced a gain of 1.5 pounds per day, the calves fed on separator
skim milk gained 1.43 pounds daily. When the value of the
excess of butter fat left in the gravity skim milk is taken into con-
sideration, it will be seen that the increase in weight of the calves
was of much less value than the butter which the excess fat would
have made.

521. Feeding cod liver oil, oleomargarine and sugar. — At the
Massachusetts Station, Lindsey1 found that cod liver oil added to
the skim milk fed to calves proved unsatisfactory, the animals
sometimes refusing the food containing it. A cheap grade of
oleomargarine was heated to 110 degrees Fahr., and mixed with
the skim, milk by churning. It was found that one ounce of oil
per quart of skim milk was all that the calf could take with-
out producing indigestion. Cotton-seed oil and corn oil to the
amount of one-half ounce per quart of milk were fed without
bad effect. A calf fed skim milk to which was added one part
oleo and two parts brown sugar gave good results, making a gain
of over two pounds daily, with the kidneys well covered with
fat. Calves fed on this artificial milk were superior to those re-
ceiving skim milk, but not equal in fatness to sucking calves.

522. Flax seed. — Behrens found that calves receiving about
one-half pound of flax seed per day with skim milk made an
average gain of 1.85 pounds per day, while those receiving skim
milk only, gained 1.55 pounds.

523. Whey for calf feeding. — Graef, 2 testing the relative value
of whey and skim milk, secured a gain of two pounds per day
with calves fed on skim milk, while those fed whey gained from
1 to 1.4 pounds only. The quantities of food are not stated. (359)

i Repts. 1893-94.

* Milch Zeitung, 1880, p. 143.

338 Feeds and Feeding.

524. Producing veal on pastures. — Krafft1 reports the fatten-
ing of calves on the low lands of the Schleswig-Holstein marshes,
where veal of excellent quality is produced. One hectare (2.47
acres) of pasture is considered necessary to produce 600 kilo-
grams (1,320 pounds) of gain, or 534 pounds of gain per acre.
The flesh of such calves cannot be "veal" in the usual accepta-
tion of that term.

525. Gain from skim milk fed calves and pigs. — Meischmann, 2
reviewing the increase of calves and swine fed skim milk, con-
cludes that calves make greater gains from a given quantity of
skim milk than do pigs. (741, 869-71, 886-8)

II. Bearing the Calf.

526. Feeding for beef. — Where beef is the principal object, the
calf is usually allowed to draw its milk supply direct from the
dam. In such cases few precautions are necessary, the most im-
portant being to see that the young thing does not get too much
milk, as this causes indigestion. If the calf remains with the
dam, the udder of the cow should be stripped clean night and
morning; neglect may result in soreness to the teats and udder,
ending in destroying the usefulness of the dam. If the calf is
getting too much feed, the supply should be diminished by strip-
ping the cow after allowing it to take only part of the milk,
remembering that the last milk yielded by the cow is the
richest in fat, (615) and that it is the richness as well as the
quantity that causes trouble. Where calves are separated from
their dams, at first allow them to suck three times daily, soon re-
ducing to twice a day. The greatest danger in this system comes
at weaning time, when, if the calf has not been properly taught
to eat solid food, it is apt to pine and shrink in weight, or at least
make little gain. To avoid this, teach it to eat a little grain
daily, using ground corn, bran, oil meal and hay.

The first departure from the primitive system above described
is putting two calves with each cow, which is practicable and de-
sirable where the cow yields a good flow of milk.
. The sucking calf should gain 3 pounds per day for the first
month, 2.5 pounds for the second and 2 pounds for subsequent

*Landw., 3, p. 163. * Molkereiwesen, p. 373,

Calf Rearing. 339

months. Hunt* s experiments show that calves given full milk from
the pail require from 8 to 9 pounds of whole milk for each pound of
gain, and make a gain of over 1. 75 pounds daily. While in ttie
beef districts the calf will be allowed to take its own milk, there
are sections where the stockman finds it more profitable to sell
the fat of milk in the form of butter and use substitutes for the
fat together with skim milk as feed for the calf. This system
involves labor, skill and watchfulness on the part of the feeder,
but its success has been demonstrated on many farms.

After weaning, good growth will be continued by using oats
and corn with a little oil meal, supplying at all times plenty of
bright hay or fodder corn. Nothing excels pasture grass for flesh-
building with the beef calf, and to approximate this in winter
the stockman should have roots or silage in order to keep the
young animals in a sappy, growing condition. The stockman
should not forget that the "calf fat" or first fat of the calf must
not be lost if beef is the ultimate object.

527. Rearing the dairy calf. — The fat of milk has too high a
value with the dairyman to be used for calf feeding, and experi-
ence has shown that dairy stock of the highest quality can be
produced from feeding skim milk. Under this system the calf
is allowed to draw milk from the dam for two or three days, early
weaning being preferable for both cow and calf. The calf should
always get the first milk (colostrum) of the cow, as this is neces-
sary for properly clearing the bowels and starting the digest-
ive functions. (355) Warm full milk is fed from the pail not
less than three times daily until the calf is two or three weeks
old, after which skim milk is gradually substituted. From one
to two weeks should pass in changing from full milk to skim
milk. Oil meal converted to jelly by adding boiling water is
relished by young calves, which soon learn to look for it at
the bottom of the pail. At first a tablespoonful of oil meal is
sufficient for a fed. This may be increased gradually, as the calf
grows, to half a pound per day. Curtiss has shown that corn
meal is an excellent and cheap addition to milk for calvesj oats,
shorts or other grain feeds may also be used.
i The supply of full milk for the calf should be not over 10
pounds at first, and end with 15 pounds daily. The skim milk

340 Feeds and Feeding.

should not exceed 18 pounds daily until the calf is five weeks
old, and only in rare cases should an amount beyond 24 pounds
be given. Many calves are destroyed by being overfed with skim
milk by persons who act as though they thought to make up the
lacking qualities of this feed by giving more of it. Young calves
should be fed not less than three times daily until four or five weeks
old. The milk should be heated to blood temperature, and the
careful feeder will use a thermometer to ascertain the proper degree.

Where calves do poorly on skim milk, the results are charge-
able to the abuse of that feed. Too large a supply of milk, in-
frequent and irregular feeding, milk too cold for digestion, and
sour feeding-pails, are the causes of nine-tenths of the trouble.

The calf is best taught to drink by using the fingers. The
various devices for calf feeding are usually unsatisfactory and
often dangerous because of accumulations of milk in concealed
places, which cannot be washed out, but remain to become
putrid and disease-breeding. The calf is taught to eat grain by
placing a handful of whole or ground oats, shorts or other feed
in its mouth immediately after supplying the milk. Allow no
more grain in the feed box than will be wholly consumed between
feeds. Hay from early -cut grass or clover should also be supplied.
Calves should be tied if they annoy one another. Properly fed
on skim milk, with oil meal, corn, oats or other grain additional,
the careful feeder can count on a gain with calves of from one
and a half to two pounds per day for the first four months.

In rearing calves intended for beef production there is little
danger in crowding them rapidly, every pound gained bringing
the animal so much nearer the desired end. The dairy calf should
be fed in such a manner as to insure a steady growth without
tendency to become fat. The food should be nutritious, but not
concentrated in character. Clover hay, corn stover, and silage
without much corn in it, with a little straw, should constitute the
roughage. Bran, barley and oats are excellent for the small
allowance of grain required. A calf intended for a model dairy
cow should not gain over one and one-half pounds per day for the
first four months and less thereafter.

528. Whey. — In the cheese districts, calves are frequently raised
jipon whey, which feed is a poor substitute for even skim milk.

Calf Bearing. 841

When used, whey should be fed in not too large quantity and
amends made for the abstracted constituents by the addition of
oil meal, ground oats, etc. Care should be taken to feed the
whey while as nearly sweet as possible, and all vessels holding it
should be scalded daily so as to be free from a sour taint. While
none too good in itself, any nutritive qualities whey may possess
are rendered of still less worth by allowing it to ferment or by
feeding in dirty vessels. (359)

529. Hay tea. — Stewart1 gives the following experience with a
hay -tea ration for calves: "This old expedient to rear calves
without milk had an excellent basis, as do most common prac-
tices. The soluble nutritive constituents of the hay are extracted
by boiling, (53) and this extract contains all the food elements
required to grow the animal, besides being as digestible as milk.
If the hay is cut early, when it has most soluble matter, and is
of good quality, the tea will grow good calves, but this extract
frequently has too small a proportion of albuminous and fatty
matter. Yet, if the hay tea is boiled down so as not to contain too
much water for the dry substance, calves will usually thrive upon
it. We tried an experiment by feeding two gallons of hay tea, in
which one-fourth of a pound of flax seed and one-fourth of a pound
of wheat middlings had been boiled, to each of five calves thirty
days old. This experiment was continued sixty days, with a
gradual increase, during the last thirty days, of the middlings to
one pound per day. These calves did remarkably well, gaining
an average of a little over two pounds per head per day."

530. Feed and care after weaning. — With calves properly bred
for the intended purpose — thrifty, fat and sleek- coated if de-
signed for beef production, and in fair flesh, with a bright eye,
if intended for dairying — the foundation of a good herd is laid.
The stockman should always bear in mind that gains are never
so cheaply made, so far as feed is concerned, as with the young
animal, and for this reason, if no other, it should be pushed ahead
as rapidly as is consistent with the end in view.

The table of feeding stuffs (349) shows that milk contains a large
proportion of protein for muscle-making as well as ash for building
1 Feeding Animals, p. 246.

Feeds and Feeding.

the " framework of "the ! young. In the composition of milk —
Nature's food for the young — we have a guide to the formation,
of rations for young, growing animals. Pasture grass is also rich,
in protein, and should be the main reliance when available. Oil
meal and oats, mixed with corn, are the best concentrates for
growing beef animals, while some oil meal, together with oats,
shorts and bran, with ample roughage, are most desirable for
those of the dairy type. Counteract the tendency of grain feeds
to make rigid, hard flesh by the use of pasture grass in summer
and roots or silage in winter. Always keep the young things in a
sappy, growing condition For roughage, aside from pasture and
silage, use corn stalks, clover or alfalfa hay, these two latter feeds
being rich in protein, for building the muscular system. A liberal
amount of bulky feed should always be supplied young cattle
to stimulate the growth of a roomy digestive tract. This is
especially important with heifers designed for the dairy. If con-
fined indoors the calf should have before it at all times, or atj
frequent intervals, a sod of loamy earth. A double handful of
earth is good if nothing better is at hand. Why the calf should
crave earthy matter cannot always be explained, but, knowing
the fact, let the creature be supplied with this substance, feeling
assured that Nature makes no mistake in matters like this, even
if for the present they are beyond our understanding.

531. Fall calves. — Where cattle are reared under natural con-
ditions, the rule that the young be dropped in the spring will
continue, but this practice is not necessarily the most successful
in the older sections of the country. Fall-dropped calves come
at a time when the little attentions they need can easily be given,
and they occupy but little space in barn or shed. Subsisting on
the mother's milk, or on skim milk with a little grain and hay,
when spring comes the youngsters are large enough to make good
use of the pastures, and the result is progress from the start,
until fall, when they return to the barn or shed large enough and
strong enough in digestion to make good use of the dry provender
necessitated by winter conditions.

Calf Rearing. 343

III. Feeding for Vecd.

532. Essentials. — To meet the highest requirements of the
market, veal should riot only carry a considerable amount of fat,
but the flesh must show to the practiced eye that no coarse food
has been eaten by the calf from birth to the time of slaughter.
For the highest grade of veal, whole milk is the one feed allowed
and growth must be pushed as rapidly as possible, the whole pro-
cess being completed before there is any tendency in the meat to
take on the coarse character incident to the beef period. The
demand for fine veal is growing, and can be greatly increased by
supplying a high-grade product. In this line of meat production
the farmers in parts of Europe are far in the lead. Dutch butchers
are extremely expert in judging whether the calf has received
any other feed than whole milk. Only when whole milk has
been used exclusively is the white of the eye of the veal calf free
from any yellow tint, and the insides of the eye-lids, lips and nose
perfectly white.

533. A Scotch system of veal making. — At Strathaven, Scot-
land, a region noted for the excellence of its veal, l the calves are
fed on fresh cow's milk, the youngest receiving that first drawn
from the cows and the older ones the last and richer portion; (615)
thus one calf is often fed portions of milk which come from two
or three cows. After the third week they receive as much milk
twice a day as they will take. After feeding they are bedded,
the stable being kept rather warm and dark. Lumps of chalk
are placed where the calves have access to them. The fattening
period continues from five to seven weeks, when a dressed weight
of 100 to 120 pounds is secured.

In the vicinity of London veal calves are fed for about ten
weeks in isolated pens, as in Holland. They ordinarily dress 140
pounds.

534. The Dutch system. — In Holland, where unusually heavy,
well-fatted calves are a specialty, the following practices are com-
mon, according to Forssell:2 As soon as dropped the calf is placed
in a stall which is so narrow that it cannot turn around though it

1 Molk. Zeit., 1894, p. 547.

*Fodret och Utfodringen, 1893, p. 155.

344 Feeds and Feeding.

can lie and stand comfortably. The floor of the stall is of lattice
work or perforated boards and littered daily so that the animal
has a perfectly dry berth. The stalls are 6.5 feet long by 1.6
broad and about 5 feet high. The calf barn is kept dark. (89)
Twice or three times daily the calves get as much milk as they
will drink, and during the first fourteen days only the dam's milk
is fed. Eggs or other by-feeds are not given. The calf consumes
about 34 pounds of full milk daily on the average for the whole
fattening period of ten or twelve weeks, at which time the veal is
considered to be at its best. To prevent calves from eating feed
other than milk they are muzzled if straw or other roughage
is used for bedding. Finely-ground shells and sand are given to
prevent scouring. The dressed weight ranges from 187 to 220
pounds, or, according to Eost, l from 220 to 330 pounds. One
pound of gain is made in the beginning from eight pounds of
milk, and toward the close from twelve pounds, the average
being ten pounds. 2

The fat calf dresses from 55 to 60 per cent, of its live weight.

iMolk. Zeit., 1894, p. 547.

* Kraft, Landwirtschaft, III, p. 163.

CHAPTER XXL

RESULTS OF STEER-FEEDING TRIALS AT THE STATIONS.

I. Findings with Various Feeds.

535. Difficulties of steer fattening. — Among farm animals there
is none so difficult to experiment with, all things considered, as
the fattening steer. In this work the returns for the feed supplied
are measured by the gain of the animal from day to day. While
at first it is not difficult to increase the weight of the steer, the
problem is far from easy when the final stages of the fattening
period are reached. The animal then has a dainty appetite and
is easily thrown off feed by small variations in the character or
amount of the provender supplied. Other influences also, such as
the weather, surroundings, attendants, etc., go to produce favor-
able or unfavorable results. Considering the difficulties, it is not
surprising that many of the early feeding trials with steers by our
Stations have not furnished data which will stand the test of time.
Some good work has been done, however, as these pages show.

536. Ear corn compared with corn meal. — At the Kansas Sta-
tion, 1 Georgeson compared ear corn and corn meal for feeding
steers, with the results shown in the table:

Feeding corn and corn meal to steers — Kansas Station.

Feed.

Av. wt.

of steer
at be-

Total
grain

Fodder

Total

Feedf
pound

or 100
3 gain.

gin-
ning.

eaten.

gain.

Grain.

Stover.

First trial.
Corn meal.

Lbs.
1 211

Lbs.
3 575

Lbs.
940

Lbs.
268

Lbs.
1 334

Lbs.
350

Ear corn

1 215

4 027

1 341

284

1,418

472

Second trial.
Corn meal.

1 129

2 646

607

290

911

209

Ear corn ... .

1 158

3 223

535

230

1 402

232

Buls. 34, 60.

346

and Feeding.

Three-year-old Kansas range steers were fed in the first trial
and two- and three -year- old grade Short-horns in the second. In
each case the steers were divided into two lots of five each, one
receiving ear corn and stover and the other corn meal and stover.
The first trial lasted six months and the second five months.

By the table we are shown that the steers fed ear corn gained
somewhat more than those fed corn mealj they required, however,
eighty-four pounds or six per cent, more grain.

Commenting upon the first trial as above reported, Georgeson
writes as follows: "This is not a very favorable showing for corn
meal, and I confess the result is contrary to my expectations. A
considerable percentage of the whole corn passes through the
animal undigested, and it would seem that the digestive juices
could act to better advantage on the fine corn meal than on the
partially-masticated grains of corn and extract more nourishment
from it, but apparently this is not the case.77

In the second trial there was a saving of 35 per cent, of the
corn by grinding, which may be regarded as the extreme saving
possible in such feeding. This result is the largest saving of grain
by grinding yet reported by any of the Stations so far as the writer
is able to learn. (156, 382, 582, 848)

537. Soaked corn. — At the Kansas Station, * Georgeson divided
a bunch of ten thrifty steers into two lots of five each, giving the
first corn which had been soaked until it had begun to soften,
while the second received dry corn. Both lots were confined in
open yards with sheds for shelter, and received the same rough-
age. All statements of the corn fed are based on the weight of
dry corn. The trial began November 7, lasting five months, with
the results shown in the table:

Results obtained when feeding soaked and dry shelled corn — Kansas

Station.

Feed.

Av. wt.

of steers.

Total
corn
eaten.

Total
fodder
eaten.

Whole
gain.

AV. gain
per
head.

Grain
per 100
pounds
gain.

Fodder
per 100
pounds
gain.

Dry corn ....

Lbs.
1 033

Lbs.
16 244

Lbs.
8 127

Lbs.

1 468

Lbs.
294

Lbs.
1 105

Lbs.

564

Soaked corn .....

1,033

15,787

8,340

1,632

326

938

512

Bui. 47.

Results of Steer-feeding friah'at the Stations.

34?

The table shows that the steers fed soaked corn did not consume
quite as much grain as the other lot, yet made a better gain. In
this trial there was a saving of fifteen per cent, by soaking shelled
corn. (375)

538. Gain of shotes following steers. — Fortunately Georgeson
placed eight thrifty shotes, averaging eighty -eight pounds per
head, with each lot of steers, to pick up the corn voided in the
droppings. At first they subsisted entirely on such corn, but
later, when they had grown larger, they were supplied additional
grain from a trough, with the following results:

Extra feed and gain of shotes following steers fed soaked and dry
corn — Kansas Station.

Shotes following steers fed —

Extra
corn fed.

Total gain
of lot.

Com fed
extra per
100 Ibs gain.

Dry corn j.. .'....

Lbs.
1,272

Lbs.

747 ,

Lbs.
170

1 272

635

' 200

• :

The above shows that the shotes secured jinore than one-half
their feed from the droppings, and that the drbppings from steers
getting dry corn gave the best returns.

By combining the data of feed and gain with both hogs and
steers, we ascertain the grain required for the combined gain as
follows:

Gain of steers and shotes when shotes followed fattening steers —

Kansas Station.

Total grain
fed to steers
and shotes.

Total gain
of steers
and shotes.

Corn for 100
pounds
gain.

' '

Steers fed dry corn, with shotes fol-
lowing

Lbs.
17,516

Lbs.
2,215

Lbs.
791

Steers fed soaked corn, with shotes
following '.

17,059

2,267

: 752 ,,

Combining the feed for steers and shotes and likewise the
gains of both, we find that 791 pounds of corn were required for

348

feed* and feeding.

100 pounds of gain of steers and shotes where the steers were fed
dry corn, and 752 pounds of grain for 100 pounds of gain with
steers and shotes where the steers were fed soaked corn. This
shows a net saving, by soaking corn for steers, of about five per
cent. (583, 634, 880-81)

539. Corn and cob meal. — For information on this subject we
turn to Shelton's investigations conducted at the Kansas Agri-
cultural College1 during 1884-85. Ten steers were used each
year, the trial in 1884 lasting 140 days, and that in 1885, 150
days. In each trial the steers were divided into two lots of five
each; corn and cob meal was fed to one lot and corn meal to the
other, the roughage in both cases consisting of oat straw, orchard-
grass hay and clover hay.

Eesults obtained in feeding corn meal and corn and cob meal to steers —
Kansas Agricultural College.

Av. wt.

A TT

Meal

Av.

Feed.

of steers
at be-

Total
feed.

Total
gain.

-A.V.

gain per

per 100
IDS. in-

daily
gain per

ginning

crease.

steer.

Lbs.

Experiment, 1884.

Corn and cob meal.

815

11,565

1,580

316

732

2.25

847

11,612

1,460

292

795

2.08

Experiment, 1885.

Corn and cob meal.

1,128

12,918

1,025

205

1,260

1.44

Corn meal.

1 150

12 654

1,085

217

1,166

1.36

It is shown that the corn and cob meal gave the best daily gain
in both cases. In one instance less corn and cob meal was re-
quired for a given gain, while in the other more was required.
The average of the two trials shows that a pound of corn and cob
meal is equal to a pound of pure corn meal in steer feeding.

In explanation of the marked difference in the amount of feed
required for a given gain in these two trials, we have the follow-
ing statement concerning the cattle: " The steers of 1883-84 were
a thin, half- grown lot of ' natives,7 while those in use in 1884-85
were high-grade Short-horns, mature and full -fleshed at the start."
The second lot was also fed for a longer period. (158, 382, 633)

1Eepts. Prof. Agr., 1884-85.

Results of Steer-feeding Trials at the Stations.

349

540. Corn, cob and husk. — At the Texas Station, * Curtis fed
corn, cob and husk ground coarsely to three steers, and coarsely-
ground shelled corn to three others, for a period of seventy days,
with the following results: ;

Feeding ground com, cob and husk in comparison with ground corn to
steers — Texas Station.

Feed.

Total
feed.

Total
gain.

Av. gain
per day.

Meal for
100 Ibs.
gain.

Lot I.

Lot II.

Corn, cob and husk meal..
Coarse corn meal

Lbs.

2,395
1,864

Lbs.

481
465

Lbs.

2.29
2.21

Lbs.

498
400

The table shows that where 400 pounds of clear corn meal gave
100 pounds of increase, there were required 498 pounds of husk,
cob and corn together. The weight of the cob and husk was 72
pounds for each 56 pounds of shelled corn. Omitting the cob and
husk, it is found that 100 pounds of gain was made from 388
pounds of meal plus the cob and husk. This shows a saving of
three per cent, by feeding the cob and husk with the grain.

541. Time required for corn to pass through the steer. — At the
Kansas Station, 2 Georgeson determined the time required for corn
to pass through the alimentary canal of the fattening steer in the
following manner: To five steers getting white corn, 50 pounds
of red corn grains were given in three feeds on January loth, viz. :
12 M., 3 P. M. and 6 P. M. At 9 A. M. on the 16th the red
kernels fed the day before began to appear in the manure. The
maximum number of kernels of red corn was reached on the after-
noon of the 17th, when they began to decrease, until the 19th,
when only a few kernels were found on washing the droppings
of each lot.

542. Amount of corn passing through steers unbroken. — When
feeding dry and soaked corn to steers with shotes following as
described in Articles 537-38, Georgeson3 determined the quantity
of corn in the voidings.

During 28 days five steers were fed 3,045 pounds (weight be-

1 Bui. 2. * Bui. 47, • Loc, cit

350

Feeds and Feeding.

fore soaking) of soaked corn, and during that period 339 pounds
of grains of corn (weight after drying) were washed from the
yoidings. This is 11 per cent, of the total corn consumed by the
steers during the period. Another lot of five steers was fed 3,060
pounds of dry shelled corn, the voidings from which gave 486
pounds of corn, or nearly 16 per cent, of unbroken corn. The
hogs following steers getting dry corn made greater gains than
those following steers getting soaked corn. The explanation is in
the above percentages.

The corn grains which had passed through the steers were
found to contain between 55 and 60 per cent, water, those which
had been soaked previous to feeding having somewhat more than
the other. The corn which had been fed dry was found to ab-
sorb still more water when soaked, showing that it had not been
fully saturated, although it had passed the whole length of the
alimentary canal.

543. Wheat meal.— At the Ohio Station,1 Thorne and Hick-
man, testing wheat meal in opposition to corn meal during two
feeding trials, secured the results shown in the table:

Feeding corn meal and wheat meal to steers — Ohio Station.

Dry sub-

Feed.

No. of cat-
tle fed.

Daily gain
per steer.

stance con-
sumed per
pound of

Cost of feed
per pound
of gain.

gam.

, Lbs.

Lbs.

Cents. I

Test, 1894.

.•

Corn meal ..

2 07

10 31

7 79

^Vheat meal. .

1 98

10 02

7 75

Test, 1895.

Com meal. .......

2 02

9.90

7.01

\V heat meal.

1 70

11.78 ,

8.95

It is shown in both trials that the steers fed corn meal made
the highest average daily gain, and made their gain also upon
less dry matter than the others. At prevailing prices for corn
and wheat, it is evident that corn is the cheaper feed. No doubt
some wheat meal may be used with satisfactory results in steer

* Bui. 60.

Results of Steer-feeding Trials at the Stations. 351

feeding, but it should not constitute the exclusive grain feed
unless prices rule lower than for corn. (166—8)

544. Bran. — An experiment is reported from Minneapolis1 in
which the lightest bran made at the Pillsbury A mill was fed
with hay to fifteen common steers for a period of four months.
Each animal was fed separately, all feed being weighed. The
steers were allowed exercise in a small yard. The steers weighed
from 800 to 1,100 pounds at the time the experiment began, in
May, 1886. The following summarizes the results:

Pounds.

Total bran fed . 24,064

Total hay fed 28,925

Total gain in weight, 15 steers 3,545

Average gain in weight (4 months). 236

Feed for 100 pounds gain jBran....

These satisfactory gains show that bran may be successfully
used for fattening steers. (175, 206)

545. OH meal. — At the Kansas Station, 2 Georgeson fed oil cake
with hay to three steers averaging 1,050 pounds for a period of

129 days, with the following results:

Pounds.

Oil cake consumed per head 1,639

Hay consumed per head... 1,822

Average gain per head 224

Fed for one hundred pounds gain { Oil meal—

This experimenter concludes: "The exclusive diet of oil cake
did not yield as good results as either the ' balanced ration ' or corn.
The animal organism appears to be unable to make use of so
highly concentrated nitrogenous food to good advantage.'7

At the Iowa Station, Wilson and Curtiss3 fed oil meal to steers
on clover pasture, securing a gain of 100 pounds for each 400
pounds of oil meal fed. Another group of steers on a similar
pasture required 532 pounds of corn meal for 100 pounds of gain.

546. Gluten meal. — At the Ohio Station, 4 Thorne and Hick-
man used gluten meal during two feeding trials, in one of which
oil meal was fed in opposition. In calculating the results, old-

1 Fugitive pamphlet, published in 1886.
I. 20.

* Bui. 39. 8 Bui. 20. * Bui. 60.

352 Feeds and Feeding.

process oil meal was figured at $26 per ton, and gluten meal at
$18 per ton, the current market prices.

Feeding oil meal and gluten meal — Ohio Station.

Feed.

Number
of cattle
compared.

Daily

gain
per
steer.

Dry sub-
stance
consumed
per pound
of gain.

Cost of
feed per
pound
gain.

Oil meal

Lbs.
1.96

Lbs.
10.78

Cents.
8.52

Gluten meal

2 11

10 05

7 31

Mixed meals with gluten meal
Mixed meals without gluten meal...
Mixed meals with gluten meal

8
4

2.15
1.98
2.02

10.31
10.10
9.90

7.42
7.49

7 01

Mixed meals without gluten meal...

2.05

11.07

7.40

It is seen that gluten meal was a cheaper feed than oil meal at
the prices stated. Where gluten meal was fed with other grains,
it always cheapened the cost of production. These experimenters
conclude: The results warrant the statement that " for fattening
cattle these feeding stuffs (gluten meal and oil meal) are approxi-
mately of equal value, pound for pound, and that the one which
can be bought for the least money is the one to use." As yet
the feeding value of this class of corn by-products has been passed
unnoticed by those who fatten cattle; if experience shall confirm
their worth as substitutes for oil meal in the feed lot they will
acquire a new interest with many. (161-164)

547. Kaffir corn. — At the Kansas Station, l Georgeson divided
a bunch of twelve grade Short-horn and three grade Hereford
three-year-old steers into three lots of five each. For concentrates
the first lot was fed corn meal, the second red Kaffir-corn meal,
and the third white Kaffir- corn meal. In each case the grain was
ground so fine that about three-fourths of the meal passed through
a sieve having a one-twentieth inch mesh. The roughage during
the first part of the trial consisted of Kaffir-corn stover; later corn
stover and alfalfa hay were fed. One hundred pounds of the
stover were fed daily to each lot of steers, and the rejected por-
tion weighed and deducted from the total, so that the weights
in the table are the amounts of forage actually consumed. The

Results of Steer-feeding Trials at the Stations.

353

results of the trial, which lasted 175 days, are presented in the
following table:

Feeding Kaffir -corn meal in comparison with corn meal to steers —

Kansas Station.

Feed.

Av. wt.

at be-
gin-
ning.

Feed eaten.

Av.

gain
per
steer.

Feed for 100
pounds gain.

Grain.

Rough-
age.

Grain.

Rough-
age.

Lot I corn meal

Lbs.
1,036

1,021
1,025

Lbs.
16,271

16,271
16,271

Lbs.
9,297

10,300
10,828

Lbs.
326

299
313

Lbs.
997

1,086
1,041

Lbs.
569

688
692

Lot II, red Kaffir-corn
meal

Lot III, white Kaffir-
corn meal

Commenting on the above, Georgeson writes: "The fact that
these lots show so little difference in their gains and the value
received for the grain fed is a gratifying proof of the value of Kaffir
corn. The feeding value of corn has long been known, but this is the
first experiment in which Kaffir corn has been tested so thoroughly
and for so long a period under normal conditions. The steers
were fair representatives of the grade cattle raised in the Central
West. They were neither high-bred cattle nor common scrubs.
The conditions of the experiment were those that prevail with the
average farmer and feeder. They were fed in open lots, where
they could seek the shelter of a small shed when desired, but
they were not pampered or petted in any way. The results
obtained in this case can be obtained by any feeder in the state
without providing better quarters or giving more attention to
their feed and care than can be and is furnished by the average
farmer anywhere.'7 (195)

548. Value of droppings from steers fed Kaffir corn. — In the
trial above reported, seven shotes were placed with each lot of
steers to gain what they could from the droppings. Each lot was
fed substantially the same amount of corn from a trough, the
allowance being small in order to force the shotes to thoroughly
work over the droppings. Samples of the steers' droppings were
washed and the undigested meal separated, dried and weighed
23

354

Feeds and Feeding.

to ascertain the portion which passed through them. The extra
feed given the shotes, the available meal in the droppings, the
gains, etc., are shown in the following table:

Feed and gain of shotes following steers fed corn meal and Kaffir
corn — Kansas Station.

Lot I,

following
steers fed
corn
meal.

Lot II,

following
steers fed
red Kaffir
corn.

Lot III,
following
steers fed
white
Kaffir
corn.

Grain eaten from trough

Lbs.
2,520

Lbs.
2 480

Calculated feed available in manure.

705

1,475

1,842

Gain of ^ach lot

635

698

725

Feed available for 100 pounds of gain

507

572

596

It will be seen that the shotes following the steers fed corn meal
made 100 pounds of gain from 507 pounds of calculated grain in
the droppings and the extra allowance supplied from the trough.
The shotes following the steers fed Kaffir corn made larger gains
from the same allowance of extra grain fed in the trough than
those following the steers fed corn meal. This shows that they
secured more nutriment from the droppings than did the shotes
following the corn-fed steers.

Georgeson summarizes this portion of the experiment in the
following words: "The experiment proves that hogs can utilize
Kaffir- corn feed in the manure and bring out the value in pork
in about the same ratio of values that exists between corn and
Kaffir corn."

Such results in conjunction with those reported in the preced-
ing article show the worth of Kaffir corn in the feed lot, and will
enhance its value in the minds of stockmen of the Southwest in
districts where the rainfall is scant for maximum corn crops
though sufficient for this sorghum.

549. Roots. — The British stockman, the best feeder the world
knows, has made large use of roots for fattening purposes. The
American farmer, and especially the stockman at the West, has
made little or no use of them. For information on this subject we

Results of Steer-feeding Trials at the Stations.

355

naturally turn to Canada, where we find the following experi-
ment by Brown. l Six animals were divided into lots of two each
and given roots, hay, bran and pea meal, with the following
results:

Result of 84 days1 trial with roots for cattle feeding — Ontario
Agricultural College.

Roots fed.

Wt. of

animals
at be-
gin-
ning.

Daily
in-
crease.

Feed per steer, daily.

Hay.

Bran.

Pea meal.

Roots.

Sugar beets

Lbs.

1,059
1.063
1,061

1,061

Lbs.

2.31

2.38
2.30

Lbs.

10.5
11.5
12

Lbs.

3
3
3

Lbs.

6.5
6.5
6.5

Lbs.

52
55
52

Miaugels

Turnips

Average

2.33

11.3

485

3
129

6.5
279

53
2,275

Feed for 100 pounds
grain

The table shows that somewhat more than a ton of roots, to-
gether with 400 pounds of pea meal and bran and 500 pounds of
hay, were required for 100 pounds of increase. (318)

550. Silage compared with roots. — The use of silage for cattle
feeding originated with dairymen, and down to the present time
steer feeders have always regarded silage as possibly suitable for
dairy cows, but too sloppy and sour for beef making. A few have
made use of silage with favorable results.

At the Ontario Agricultural College, 2 Shaw fed three groups of
grade Short- horn steers of two each on silage and roots. The hay
was timothy and clover, the roots turnips and mangels, and the
meal equal weights of ground peas, barley and oats. The feed
consumed per animal daily was:

ri^.^T / 57.47 pounds silage.

Group I | 11. 72 pounds meal.

{30.6 pounds silage.
11.13 pounds meal.
9.3 pounds hay.
{43.07 pounds roots.
11.12 pounds meal.
11.22

Group III.

pounds hay.

1 Rept. Ont. Agr. Col., 1883.

2 Rept. 1891.

356

Feeds and Feeding.

The following table shows the result of the trial, beginning De-
cember 11 and lasting 146 days:

Feeding steers with roots and silage — Ontario Agricultural College.

Lot I.

Silage
and meal.

Lot II.

Silage,
hay and
meal.

Lot III.

Boots,
hay and
meal.

AVeight at comnien cement

Lbs.
2.789

Lbs.
2,735

Lbs.
2,672

Gain of two steers, 146 days

555

448

537

Average gain per steer

277

224

268

1.90

1.53

1.84

From the table we learn that the steers fed the largest amount
of silage daily made the greatest total gain with the highest daily
rate of increase. Placing a reasonable value upon silage and
roots, the gains from silage were made at a lower cost than those
from roots.

At the Wisconsin Station1 the writer fed silage to steers with
excellent results. In one trial, four two- and three-year-old steers,
fed on corn silage only, made a gain of 222 pounds in 36 days, or
1.5 pounds per day each. It required 3,558 pounds of silage to
make 100 pounds gain. (393-5)

551. Fish scrap for fattening steers. — Fink fed three-year-old
steers2 of the Holstein breed 3.3 pounds of fish scrap per head
per day, the remainder of the ration consisting of hay, potatoes,
straw, rye, barley and oats. The average daily gain per head
during 90 days was 3.3 pounds. The quality of meat was satis-
factory. (340,661)

552. Molasses. — Georgeson3 fed molasses with corn meal and
corn fodder to three steers for a period of nineteen weeks with
the following results:

Total feed required for 100 pounds gain.

Pounds.

Molasses '. 598

Corn meal 807

Stover..., 705

1 Kept. 1888.

* Milch Zeit. 25 (1896), p. 51.

8 Bui. 39, Kan. Expt. Sta.

Results of Steer-feeding Trials at the Stations.

357

Commenting on this Georgeson writes: " A mixture of molasses
and corn meal proved to be a very inferior fattening material."
(347)

553. The " balanced " ration. — It is reasonable to suppose, and
experiment proves, that a combination of two or more varieties
of grain gives more economical returns for a given weight of
feed than a single kind. This is illustrated in experiments by
Georgeson at the Kansas Station. l In three trials, one lot of
steers was fed a " balanced ration,77 containing a "judicious mixt-
ure of corn meal, oil meal, bran and shorts, the proportion of
the albuminoids and carbohydrates in the feed to approximate the
requirements of the feeding standard, and in addition to this mixt-
ure to have what corn fodder and hay they would eat." Against
steers thus fed were others whose allowance consisted of ear corn,
with corn stover and prairie hay for roughage. The data given
are averages for one steer:

Result of three years' experiments feeding a "balanced ration17
against ear corn — Kansas Station.

A. Experiment of 1892, lasting 6 months with 5 steers on each side.

Rations.

Av. wt.

per steer.

Av. amt.
grain per
steer.

Fodder
per steer.

Av. gain
during
expt.

Grain
per 100
IDS. gain.

Fodder
per 100
Ibs. gain.

Balanced ration
Ear corn

Lbs.

1,198
1,213

Lbs.

4,357
4,027

Lbs.

1,422
1,341

Lbs.

436

284

Lbs.

1,001
1,418

Lbs.

326
472

B. Experiment of 1893, lasting 4 months with 5 steers on each side.

Balanced ration
Ear corn

1,083
1,073

2,969
2,723

865
1,214

309
274

961
994

280
443

C. Experiment of 1896, lasting 5 months with 5 steers on each side.

Balanced ration

1,123

3,055

973

406

752

240

Ear corn

1,158

3,223

535

230

1,401

233

The average of three trials shows:

Corn consumed for 100 pounds gain 1,271 pounds.

Mixed grains consumed for 100 pounds gain 905 pounds.

These figures show that 28 per cent, less grain was required

1 Buls. 34, 39 and 60.

358 Feeds and Feeding.

for 100 pounds of gain when feeding the so-called " balanced ra-
tion ' ' than where ear corn alone was given. At most Western
points the " balanced ration" will cost 28 per cent, more than a
corn ration, but in many localities it will prove much cheaper
than corn alone. l

554. Pasturing steers. — Though a large portion of the gain
made by cattle originates from pasture, we have little data upon
the subject. This lack of information is due no doubt to the
great difference in the productive power of pastures, and from
the lack of uniformity of herbage growth from year to year.
Morrow2 conducted interesting investigations on the gain of steers
maintained wholly on tame pastures from May 1 to November 1.
The gains with different lots are as follows:

4 head of yearling steers, maintained on pasture alone, showed an aver-
age gain of 332 pounds each.

10 head of yearling steers, maintained on pasture alone, showed an aver-
age gain of 285 pounds each.

2 head of yearling steers, maintained on pasture alone, showed an aver-
age gain of 440 pounds each.

These gains are probably fully equal to the average obtained
with cattle on Western tame pastures of good quality. They show
that from such pastures we may look for a gain of from 300 to
400 pounds per head for the season with yearling steers. (258)

555. Feeding grain to steers on pasture. — At the Iowa Sta-
tion, 3 Wilson and Curtiss, fattening steers on pasture with and
without grain, obtained the following results:

10 steers on pasture only, gained 2.01 pounds each daily.

10 steers on pasture with grain, gained 2.13 pounds each daily.

The steers fed grain received ten pounds of corn and cob meal
each daily.

At the Missouri Agricultural College, 4 Sanborn conducted two
trials in feeding steers on grain while on pasture, both at a loss.

1 For a discussion of these experiments by Georgeson, see Qr. Kept.
Kan. Bd. Agr., Dec. 1897.

2 Bui. 1, Col. of Agr., Univ. of 111.

* Bui. 28.

* Bui. 8.

Results of Steer-feeding Trials at the Stations.

359

Morrow1 secured the following gains with steers full fed with
grain for the season, while on pasture:

Yearlings.

2 head of steers showed an average gain of 507 pounds each.

4 head of steers showed an average gain of 284 pounds each.

Two-year-olds.

7 head of steers showed an average gain of 466 pounds each.

8 head of steers showed an average gain of 380 pounds each.

4 head of steers showed an average gain of 406 pounds each.

Summarizing his experience. Morrow concludes: " The results
from two years' trial indicate that a grain ration to young steers
on good pasture is not usually profitable. The value of the in-
crease in weight by the grain-fed steers over those having grass
only will not repay the cost of food and labor. The increased
value of the animals from earlier maturity and better quality may
make grain feeding profitable." (666-7)

556. Water drank during fattening. — The amount of water drank
by fattening steers, which varies greatly, may be placed at from
50 to 125 pound per day. Georgeson2 kept a record of the water
drank by fattening steers, with results as follows:

Water drank by fattening steers in winter — Kansas Station.

Feed.

Water
drank
daily per
steer.

Water
drank
per pound
gain.

Water
drank
per pound
of feed.

First trial:
Lot I, Corn meal, bran, shorts, oil meal
with hay

Lbs.

75
47

73
91
56

Lbs.

31
33
31

56
57

Lbs.

2.4

1.8
1.6

2.5

2.4
3.4
1.8

Lot II, Corn meal with corn fodder
Lot III, Ear corn with corn fodder

Second trial:
Lot I, Corn meal, bran, shorts, oil meal
with hay

Lot II, Corn meal, molasses and corn
fodder

Lot III, Oil cake, hay

Lot IV, Ear corn, corn fodder

In the above we observe that where the most protein was fed the
largest amount of water was drank j the smallest amount with the
ear-corn and corn- fodder ration.

»Bul. 1, Col. of Agr., Univ. of 111.

2 Buls. 34, 39, Kan. Sta.

360

Feeds and Feeding.

At the North Carolina Station, l Emery, feeding steers on cot-
ton-seed meal and hulls, found the following in regard to water
and dry matter consumed by fattening steers:

Dry matter eaten and water drank daily by fattening steers per
1,000 pounds live weight — North Carolina Station.

Tied

steers.

Loose
steers.

Dry matter consumed

Lbs.
21 3

Lbs.
21 2

Water drank and in feed

58 3

53 9

Total average consumption of dry food and water

79 6

75.1

Pounds water to one pound dry food

2 7

2 6

557. Variation in individual weight while fattening. — The stock-
man who will weigh a fattening steer daily for a few weeks will
be surprised at the variation in the weights recorded. Even
thrifty steers that are steadily fattening, so far as the feeder can
judge, will show surprising variations in weight from day to day,
and even from week to week. Much data could be given on this
point, but a few figures from one of Georgeson's experiments at
the Kansas Station2 will suffice:

Weekly weight of steers during a feeding trial — Kansas Station.

Date.

Weight
of steer
No. 1.

Gain
or

loss.

Weight
of steer
No. 2.

Gain
or
loss.

Weight
of steer
No. 3.

Gain
or
loss.

Nov 30

Lbs.
1 232

Lbs.

Lbs.
1 190

Lbs.

Lbs.
1 207

Lbs.

Dec. 7

1,269

1.205

1,240

Dec. 14

1,280

1,213

1,236

-4

Dec. 21

1,278

1,226

1,244

Dec 28

1,325

1,250

1,270

Mav 2

1 545

583

1 567

May 9

1,565

,603

1,593

May 16

1,597

,620

1,619

May 23

1,598

,643

1,626

May 30

1,610

,606

—37

1,593

-33

These variations, which are not extraordinary, show how diffi-
cult it is to determine the true weight of a steer at any given

Bui. 93.

2 Bui. 34.

Results of Steer- feeding Trials at the Stations. 361

period. Our Experiment Stations are now generally adopting the
practice of weighing the steer for three successive days and taking
the average of these three weights as the true weight of the steer on
the second day. It has been supposed that this variation is due to
a difference in the amount of water drank from day to day, but
this explanation does not always seem sufficient. It is prob-
ably due in many cases to the irregular movement of the contents
of the digestive tract, which movement is influenced by changes
in the character and quality of the food consumed, the exercise
or confinement enforced, and the effect of the weather.

H. Beef Making at the South.

558. What Southern Stations have found. — For generations the
effort of the South has been toward cotton production, which de-
mands scrupulously clean culture. Until recently grass has been
a despised plant, but it is now overrunning many of the old
plantations, and while restoring the soil to something like its
former fertility and clothing the gashed fields with a carpet of
green, it is giving good returns in nutritious food to the cattle
grazing upon it. Many a worn-out cotton plantation can be made
to yield in Bermuda grass, Johnson grass, Japan clover, corn,
sorghum and other plants, an amount of feed that would surprise
Northern stockmen.

559. Cotton seed for beef production. — Equally important with
the growth of grass is the enormous production of cotton seed,
which furnishes a most valuable feed for cattle. Cotton seed,
either raw, boiled or roasted, furnishes a nutritious food for cattle,
while meal from the seed is the richest stock food produced in
this country. The hulls of the cotton seed have been found to
possess considerable feeding value as a substitute for hay. Because
of their abundance and availability they constitute a factor of
importance in steer feeding at the South.

Ssveral of the Southern Experiment Stations have been doing
useful work in showing the value and importance of the cotton
seed and its by-products for steer feeding. While it is impossi-
ble to report all the results in this line, the following examples

362

Feeds and Feeding.

are given as representing the territory interested and furnishing
data concerning the important points of the subject:

Results obtained with steers fed cotton seed in various forms at
Southern Experiment Stations.

Results by McConnell, Texas Station.1

*t
If

Av.wt.
at be-
gin-
ning.

Gain
per
head.

Av.

daily
gain
per
head.

Feed for 100 Ibs. of gain.

4
4
4
4
4

Lbs.

638
625
630
576
615

513
513
509
5U
522

Lbs.

186
199
207
192
203

266
222
223
208
193

Lbs.

1.86
1.99
2.07
1.92
2.03

2.66
2.22
2.23
2.08
1.93

Lbs.

268 Cotton-seed meal....
264 Roasted cotton seed
256 Boiled cotton seed..
276 Raw cotton seed

Lbs.
388 hulls

Lbs.

1074 silage.
216 hay.
201 hay.
276 hay.
371 hay.

713 silage.
158 hay.
128 hay.
155 hay.
185 hay.

322 corn

372 corn

269 corn

694 corn . . .

185 Cotton-seed meal...
229 Roasted cotton seed
233 Boiled cotton seed..
246 Raw cotton seed

252 hulls

312 corn .

b68 corn

291 com

759 corn

Results by Emery, North Carolina Station.3

796

178

1 78

224 Raw cotton seed

1021 cotton-seed hulls

784

184

1.84

231 Raw cotton seed

1016 cotton-seed hulls

Results by Bennett and Menke, Arkansas Station.3

589

247

2 74

209 Raw cotton seed ...

707 cotton-seed hulls

2
2

721
710

221
176

2.45
1.95

185 Raw cotton seed
175 Raw cotton seed

603 cotton-seed hulls
580 cotton-seed hulls

425 pea hay.
412 pea hay.

Results by Stubbs, Louisiana Station.*

6
5

774
727

154
153

2.2
2.8

298 Cotton-seed meal...
231 Cotton-seed meal...

1053 cotton-seed hulls
672 cotton-seed hulls

85 molasses.
62 molasses.

1 Bui. 27. a Bui. 93. 3 3d Ann. Rept. Ark. Expt. Sta. * Bui. 34, 2d Sen

This table shows the high value of the cotton seed, whether
raw, roasted or boiled, and also of its by-product, cotton-seed
meal, for beef production. No grain raised at the North equals it,
pound for pound, for beef production. When we reflect that for
every pound of cotton fiber grown there are two pounds of seed,
no argument is needed to convince us that the South is capable
of producing the beef required for home consumption.

Connell found, as shown by the preceding table, that the cheap-
est ration was raw cotton seed with about equal weights of corn

Results of Steer -feeding Trials at the Stations. 363

and hay. Such a mixture is not only economical, but will prob-
ably make better meat than cotton-seed meal or cotton seed fed
as the sole concentrate.

Connell and Carson, of the Texas Station, l having fed cotton-
seed meal and hulls in varying proportions to fattening steers,
conclude that the largest daily gain can be secured by feeding
three pounds of hulls for each pound of meal. If a larger pro-
portion of meal is fed the cost of the gain will be somewhat in-
creased. When the price of a ton of cotton-seed meal is to the
price of a ton of hulls as 5 to 1, then a pound of meal should be
fed for each five pounds of hulls. For example, if meal is worth
$15 a ton and the hulls $3, then five pounds of hulls should be
fed for each pound of meal. If the hulls are worth less in pro-
portion, then more hulls should be fed in proportion to the meal.
(210-215)

560. "Fat sickness." — Cattle fed on cotton-seed meal and
hulls are occasionally afflicted with inflammation of the eyes,
which may terminate in total loss of sight. The trouble has been
attributed to damaged cotton seed, to mal-nutrition, etc., but
nothing definite has yet been determined. "Fat sickness" may
attack thrifty, fat cattle. Cattle fattened on meal are said to be
especially liable to attacks when turned to pasture. The trouble
is prevalent during certain seasons, while in other years no cattle
are affected. It is reasonable to suppose that furnishing a larger
variety of food in the ration would prevent the difficulty.

» Bui. 41.

CHAPTEE XXII.

FACTOBS IN STEEB, FATTENING — FINAL RESULTS.

I. Conditions Affecting Results,

561. Influence of shelter and confinement. — At the Kansas Sta-
tion, 1 Georgeson, testing the influence of shelter, confined five
steers by tying in a stable, allowing five others to run loose in an
open yard with a shed at one side for shelter. The steers were
Western cattle three years old past, fed ear corn and stover. The
trial began November 30, lasting six months. The following
year it was duplicated with grade Short-horns six months younger
than those in the preceding trial. The second trial began Decem-
ber 20, continuing four months. The third trial followed the
plan of the other two. The steers were mostly grade Short-
horns, two and one-half to three years old, and were put into
the feed lot October 23, — the feeding continuing five months.
The results of the three trials are herewith summarized:

Results of three trials with steers fed in barn and in yard — Kansas

Station.

Where fed.

Ear
corn
eaten.

Fodder
eaten.

Gain.

Ear corn
per 100
Ibs. gain.

Fodder
per 100
Ibs. gain.

1892. Lasting six months.

Lbs.
4,027

Lbs.
1,341

Lbs.

284

Lbs.
1,418

Lbs.
472

Fed in v&rd . ...

4 871

907

313

1 556

290

1893. Lasting four months.
Fed in barn

2,723

1,214

274

994

443

Fed in yard

3,158

1,444

276

1,144

523

1895. Lasting Jive months.
Fed in barn .

3 223

535

230

\ 401

233

Fed in yard

3,372

457

217

1 554

210

In all the trials the steers running in the yard consumed more
grain than those confined, and on the whole made larger gains,

* Buls. 34, 39.

Factors in Steer Feeding. 365

at a cost, however, of about 12 per cent, more grain for a given
amount of increase.

Moscrop1 reports a feeding trial at Yorkshire, England, in
which three lots of steers of four each were used. The first four
were confined by tying in the stable, the second placed separately
in boxes, each 10 x 10 feet, while the third group occupied an open
lot, along one side of which was a shed. Each lot of steers re-
ceived the same amount of Indian corn and oil cake, thus throw-
ing the difference in the amount of feed consumed on the turnips
and straw chaff which were fed additional. The steers in the
open lot with shed for shelter made somewhat the most rapid
gain, consuming, however, about 50 per cent, more turnips than
those confined by tying. Those in the boxes consumed 25 per
cent. more.

At the "Woburn Station, England, equally good results were
obtained in two trials with steers running in a yard with shed for
shelter, fed in test with others confined in box-stalls. 2

Thorne and Hickman at the Ohio Station, 3 feeding steers in
the barn in opposition to others in the open yard with shed to run
under, conclude: "The differences here indicated are not suffi-
cient to justify the assertion that either method of caring for
cattle was better than the other.'7

At the North Carolina Station, 4 Emery, testing the effects of
close confinement and liberty of movement, concludes that if
cattle are well fed and kept quiet and contented, it does not
matter, in feeding for fattening purposes, whether they are tied or
turned loose in a limited range.

Sanborn, experimenting first in Missouri, 5 and later in Utah, ft
with steers concludes: "It now looks as though the true method
of wintering cattle consists in giving the freedom of warm quar-
ters with liberty of outdoor runs at their pleasure." (630)

562. Changes during fattening to be avoided. — Sometimes as
grass springs up in May the stockman is not ready to dispose of

1 Trans. High, and Agr. Soc., 1872.

2 Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc., 1887, 1890.

3 Bui. 60. < Bui. 93.

c Syn. of Expt. Mo. Expt. Sta.
• Kept. 1892.

366

Feeds and Feeding.

his cattle, and must choose between continuing stall or yard
feeding and turning the cattle to pasture for a short time before
disposing of them. What to do in such cases is often perplexing.
We have some help in the experiments of Thome and Hickman
at the Ohio Station. *

About May 1 a group of steers which had been fed experi-
mentally during the winter was divided, part being turned to
grass and part kept in the stable, grain and hay feeding being
continued, practically to the full demands of both. The results
are shown in the following table:

Results of turning partially -fattened steers to pasture — Ohio Station.

Treatment.

Number
of cattle.

Dry sub-
stance
con-
sumed
per steer
per day.

Daily
cost of
food per
steer.

Daily
gain per
steer.

Dry sub-
stance
con-
sumed
per Ib. of
gain.

Cost of
food per
pound
of gain.

1894.
Lot I, kept in barn
Lot II, pastured 30
days

16
15

Lbs.
20.16

15 39

Cents.
15.33

12.93

Lbs.
2.00

1.42

Lbs.
10.00

10.84

Cents.
7.66

9.10

1895.
Lot I, kept in barn
Lot II, pastured 45
days

8
8

20.99
15.21

16.09
12.55

1.76
1.37

11.95
11.10

9.14
9.16

We observe that the steers turned to pasture ate nearly as much
grain and half as much hay as those kept in the barn. Even
with this aid the change from barn to pasture did not result
favorably, as is shown by the smaller daily gain in each case and
by the increased cost of gain in one instance and equal cost in the
other.

At the Iowa Station, 2 Wilson and Curtiss, changing 20 Short-
liorn and Angus steers from feed lot to pasture, though still
giving grain, secured a gain of only .6 of a pound per head daily
during the 15 days in which the gradual change was being made.
These investigators, 3 in changing another lot of steers back from
pasture to feed lot in the fall, likewise secured a gain of only .6 of
a pound per head daily during the 15 days in which the change
occurred. These steers usually made a gain of about two pounds

1 Bui. 60. 2 Bui. 28. 3 Bui. 20, Iowa Sta.

Factors in Steer Feeding.

367

each daily. Commenting on the result they write: " A chang-
ing period is a losing period, if the change is radical."

These trials accord with the experience of stockmen, who find
it unsatisfactory to change wholly or nearly finished cattle from
one set of conditions to another, no matter what the new con-
ditions. When steers are to be sold at no distant date, it is best
to continue them under the existing system of feed and confine-
ment, rather than change to new conditions, even though the latter
may appear more favorable.

563. Effect of age on rate of gain. — The daily rate of gain with
cattle on full feed is directly affected by the age of the animal.
This is illustrated by the records of the fat-stock shows. Some
of the results obtained in England are shown in the following
table:

Age and weight of steers slaughtered at the Smithfield {England) Fat-
Stock Show, 1888-95. 1

No. of
animals.

Age.

Average
daily
gain.

Live wt.
at slaugh-
tering.

Dressed
meat to
live wt.

Shorthorn.
1 year old

Days.
642

Lbs.
2.11

Lbs.
1,355

Per cent.
66.13

2 years old

963

1.92

1,842

67.48

1,321

1.70

2,251

69.38

Hereford.
1 year old

663

1 97

1,308

65 08

2 years old

1,020

1.78

1,817

67 15

3 years old ... .

1,349

1.64

2,218

69.18

Devon.
1 year old

634

1.75

1,112

66.01

2 years old

1,045

1 51

1,583

67 73

3 years old

1,311

1.37

1,796

67.32

Aberdeen-Angus.
1 year old

668

2.04

1,366

65.37

2 years old

1,008

1.74

1,765

66 67

3 years old. . ...

1,346

1 59

2,138

67.39

Sussex.
1 year old

677

2.15

1,452

65 42

989

1.86

1,837

68.18

3 years old

1,285

1 61

2,064

67 98

Red Polled.
2 years old

1,002

1.64

1,631

65 73

1,362

1.49

2,022

65 77

Galloway.
2 years old .. .

1,027

1 64

1 688

64 45

3 vears old....

1,344

1.47

1,969

64.84

1 Reported annually in
Oazette, London.

the Live Stock Journal and Agricultural

368

Feeds and Feeding.

This same problem has been worked out by Stewart, l who sum-
marizes the records of eight annual exhibits at the American Fat-
Stock Show, Chicago, as follows:

Age and rate of gain of animals exhibited at the American Fat-Stock
Show, Chicago, 1878-85 — Stewart.

Number of animals.

Age.

Average
weight.

Gain per
day.

30 ....

Days.

297

Lbs.
780

Lbs.
2 63

152 ....

612

1,334

2 18

145

943

1,639

1.74

133

1,283

1,938

1.51

The above shows that choice cattle fed for exhibition made an
average daily gain of 2.63 pounds up to 297 days of age; after
this the gain gradually fell off with increasing age, until when the
animals averaged 1,283 days of age, the rate of gain for the whole
period was only 1.51 pounds daily.

The point under consideration is more strongly brought out in
the following table, 2 which shows the gains by periods:

Gain of steers exhibited at American Fat-Stock Show, by periods —

Stewart.

Period.

Length
of
period.

Average
gain per
head.

Average
daily gain
per head.

Days.

297

Lbs.
780

Lbs.
2.63

315

554

1.76

331

305

.92

340

299

.88

The table shows that up to 297 days the cattle made an average
daily gain (including birth weight) of 2.63 pounds, while for the
final period of 340 days there was a gain of only .88 pounds daily
per head. The gradual decrease in the ability of the steer to
lay on flesh is apparent to every one upon a little thought. There
must come a time in the life history of the animal when there is
no increase in weight no matter what amount of food is consumed;

1 Feeding Animals, 3d ed., App. 2 Loc. cit.

Factors in Steer Feeding.

369

all the animal can or will then eat constitutes the food of sup-
port, or is wasted. (595-6)

564. Cost of gain increases with age. — We have seen that the
daily gain possible with steers decreases as the age of the animal
increases. The results obtained at our Stations and the records
of the fat-stock shows teach that each pound of gain costs more
with increasing age, as illustrated in the following table:

Cost of 100 pounds gain, live weight, with steers of different ages.

1-12 months old.

12-24 months old

24r-36 months old

No. of
ani-
mals.

Cost of
food.

No. of
ani-
mals.

Cost of
food.

No. of
ani-
mals.

Cost of
food.

Fat-Stock Show, '82. l
Fat-Stock Show, '83..
Michigan Station2....
Wisconsin Station3...
Massachusetts Sta-
tion4

9
6
10
16

$4.03
3.70

1.87
4.20

5
4
10
11

$7.98
8.12
7.37
6.13

7.49

$12.54

9.57

12.38

1 Kept. 111. Bd. Agr., 1884. 2 Bui. 44. 8 Kept. 1886. * Kept. 1891.

The table shows that in every instance the cost of gain with the
steer during the first twelve months of growth is less than for
later periods. At the Fat-Stock Show for 1882 the feed for 100
pounds of gain with steers up to twelve months cost $4.03; between
twelve and twenty-four months it was $7.98, while between twenty-
four and thirty-six months the cost reached $12.54.

565. Cost of grain increases with length of fattening period. —
Other conditions being equal, the longer the fattening period the
larger the quantity of feed required to produce a given gain.
This is brought out by Georgeson, of the Kansas Station, l who
found the grain required for 100 pounds of gain with fattening
steers for different periods to be as follows:

Feed for Increase of

100 Ibs. gain. feed required.

Up to 56 days the steers required.. 730 pounds of grain

Up to 84 days the steers required.. 807 pounds of grain. 10 per cent.
Up to 112 days the steers required.. 840 pounds of grain. 15 per cent.
Up to 140 days the steers required.. 901 pounds of grain. 23 per cent.
Up to 1(38 days the steers required.. 927 pounds of grain. 27 per cent.
Up to 182 days the steers required.. 1000 pounds of grain. 37 per cent.

i Bui. 34.
24

370 Feed* and Feeding.

We learn by the preceding data that while at first only 730
pounds of grain were required for 100 pounds of gain, for the
whole six-months period over 1,000 pounds were required. The
increase of feed percentagely is shown in the last column. It
begins with 10 per cent, and increases to 37 per cent. The heavy
cost of thoroughly fattening the steer and the importance of
selling at the earliest possible date are here made plain. (80,
594, 847)

566. Feed for 100 pounds gain during fattening. — By consulting
the tables in the preceding chapter the student can ascertain the
feed requirements of steers while fattening. The grain in addi-
tion to roughage required for 100 pounds of gain will be found to
range from 400 to 1, 500 pounds. This wide range of requirements
can but excite keen interest among students of stock management.
The lowest amounts stated are for results at the Texas Station;
here the steers were all of light weight though quite mature, and
it is probable they were very thin in flesh at the beginning of the
feeding period, so that a part of the increased weight was due to
a natural filling-up process. The feeding period, too, was short.
Where as much as 1,500 pounds of grain were required for 100
pounds of gain, it was for a six-months feeding period, with corn
only for concentrates, and the animals were well fattened.

In general, taking the available data we have presented for the
basis, it may be stated that about 1,000 pounds of grain will be re-
quired for 100 pounds of gain with well-fattened steers, on the aver-
age, besides 500 pounds of coarse food in the shape of hay, stover,
etc. Steers in thin flesh, those fed for short periods only, and lots
handled under unusually favorable conditions will give the re-
quired gain for a considerably less amount of grain than just stated,
while those fed for long periods may require 50 per cent. more.
(757,875)

567. Dry matter required for 100 pounds of gain. — Thome1 sum-
marizes the results of feeding trials at Stations in eight states with
132 steers, and finds that 1,023 pounds of dry matter were re-
quired for each 100 pounds of gain.

Lawes and Gilbert2 tell us that from 12 to 13 pounds of dry

1 Bui. 60, Ohio Expt. Bta.

2 Bothamsted Memoirs, Vol. V.

Factors in Steer Feeding.

371

substance are required for each pound of increase, live weight,
with fattening steers. The feeding trials at many of our Stations
have usually covered only short periods, and these, as we have
seen, are favorable to heavy gains for feed consumed. This being
true, the figures given by Lawes and Gilbert should hold standard
for the present at least.

568. Cost of 100 pounds gain with fattening steers. — The cost
of the gain made by steers will vary according to the section of
country in which the feeding is carried on. In the statements
which follow, the current market prices for feed at the point of
feeding are used.

At the Massachusetts Station1 the cost of feed for each 100
pounds increase, live weight, of steers was found to be $10.58.
This high cost is representative of conditions prevailing in the
Eastern States, where feeding stuffs are much higher priced than
in the great agricultural districts of the West. (812)

At the Kansas Station, with 20 range steers three years old
past, fed for 182 days, Georgeson2 secured the results shown in
the following table:

Amount of feed and cost of same for 100 pounds of gain with range
steers fed six months — Kansas Station.

Feed given.

Cost of
food per
head.

Daily
gain per
head.

Gain in
182 days
per
head.

Grain
for
100 Ibs.
gain.

Hay or

stover
for 100
Ibs.
gain.

Cost for
100 Ibs.
gain.

Lot I.

Corn meal, oil meal,
shorts, bran and
tame hay

$31.00
21.11

20.85
25.20

Lbs.

2.4
1.47

1.56
1.72

Lbs.

436

268

284
313

Lbs.

1,000
1,334

1,410
1,530

Lbs.

320
350

470
280

$7.11

7.87

7.34
8.05

Lot II.

Corn meal, stover-
Lot III.
Ear corn, stover,
fed in barn

Lot IV.
Ear corn, stover,
fed in yard

1 Kept. 1894.

2 Bui. 34.

372

Feeds and Feeding.

If we include all charges — interest, taxes, labor, feed and risk —
it will be found that one hundred pounds of gain made during fat-
tening, by well-finished steers, cost from eight to ten dollars at
the West and from ten to twelve dollars at the East.

At the Iowa Station, * Wilson and Curtiss fed 18 steers of nine
different breeds with results as follows:

Cost of feed with steers during three feeding periods of 92 days
each — Iowa Station.

Date.

Kind of feed.

Gain per
head per
day.

Cost of
feed per
100 Ibs.
gain.

March to May...

Lot I-II.
Corn meal, oil meal, hay and
roots

Lbs.
2 48

$5 93

June to Aug

Lot I.
Corn meal, clover pasture

2 32

4 31

Lot II.
Oil meal, clover pasture ..

2 03

6 21

Oct to Dec

Lot I.
Snapped corn, corn meal, oil
meal roots and hay.

3 26

5 92

Lot II.
Snapped corn, corn meal, oil
meal, roots and hay

2 8

6 38

These trials are representative of conditions in the Mississippi
Valley. We observe that the lowest cost was $4. 31 for 100 pounds
of gain, in Iowa, with steers getting corn meal on clover pasture.
The highest cost was $8.05 for steers at the Kansas Station getting
ear corn.

in. Value of Breed in Beef Making.

569. Amount of feed consumed. — Every person with experi-
ence in the cattle business concedes that " blood tells " in beef
production. Where there is such unanimity of expression the
fact must exist, but the reasons given are not always the same
and so are worthy of careful examination.

Occasionally the claim is advanced that well-bred cattle eat
less than natives or scrubs. This opinion is not generally held
by owners of pure-bred or high-grade stock, who know that their

* Bui. 20.

Factors in Steer Feeding.

373

animals when gaining rapidly are hearty feeders, though when
mature they require only a small amount of provender for main-
tenance. Nothing in the tables given in this chapter warrants the
statement that pure-bred or high-grade cattle of the beef breeds
are small eaters.

570. Less feed for a given gain. — The second claim, and a
more reasonable one, is that cattle bred specifically for beef give
better returns for a given amount of feed than those bred for milk
production or those of promiscuous or low breeding. This claim
is quite generally advanced by stockmen, and is usually conceded
without calling for proof.

A few Stations have undertaken the difficult task of testing
the comparative merits of the several breeds. While the number
of animals tested is not large, by combining all the data at hand
we get some light on the question though we cannot hope to en-
tirely settle it. Figures are given in the next table from trials at
five Stations where pure-bred and native steers were fed in com-
parison for periods varying from ninety-two days to eighteen
months:

Grain required for 100 pounds of gain with steers of several 'breeds
as found at various Experiment Stations.

Station.

Length
of
period.

Age at
begin-
ning.

Short-horn.

Hereford.

Eed Polled. 1

Galloway.

Devon.

Holstein. |

•?

Native.

Iowa (a) ..
Iowa (ft)...

92 days..
6 mos...

i yr

1 yr
18 mos...
1 yr
161 days..
18 mos.

2 yrs...
2 yrs...
lyr....
2 yrs...
lyr....
1 yr....
3 yrs...

Ibs.

659

965
557
796
493
597
777

Ibs.
874

Ibs.

744
W

Ibs.
753

Ibs.
977

Ibs.
663

Ibs.
712

Ibs.
870

Ibs.
861

Ibs.

Michigan
Michigan
Michigan
Ontario (/
Kansas (g
Missouri (

c) ....
d)...
e)

561
916
552
793

581
763
612
553

477

755
478
495

565
939
66S

557

807

"698"

::.'.":

686

491
876
631

) ..

1 yr....

706

742

661

1 ""

(a) Bui. 20.
(e) Bui. 69.

(6) Bui. 28. (c) Bui. 44.

(/) Kept. 1892. (g) Bui. 51.

(d) Bui. 44.
(A) Bui. 24.

There were two steers in each Michigan trial and in the first
Iowa trial. In the second Iowa trial there were ten Short-
horn and ten Angus steers; in the Ontario trial there was only
one of eachj in the Kansas trial there were six Short-horns and

374 Feeds and Feeding.

six Natives; in the Missouri trial there were six Short-horns, three
Herefords, four Angus and four Natives. The student should not
take averages of the trials in drawing conclusions, since the con-
ditions at the different Stations varied greatly, but they should
be studied separately. The tests cover periods ranging from 92
days to 18 months. The least amount of grain (477 pounds) for
100 pounds of gain was with Devon steers, and the largest amount
(977 pounds) was with Galloways.

Eeviewing the data of the table it will be seen that while we can
single out cases where the beef- bred steer has produced 100 pounds
of gain with less feed than the dairy-bred or native steer, yet the
largest amount of feed consumed by any animal for a given gain
also stands charged to one of the beef type. We are thus unable
from the data at hand to show that a pound of feed goes further
in making gain with beef-bred animals than with those not
specially designed for that purpose. These figures are a sur-
prise to the writer, as they must be to the reader; but as they
represent practically all the work done at the Stations to date
they should stand for the present.

571. Early maturity. — The most common claim for superiority in
the beef breeds is that animals so bred mature earlier than others.
Consulting the figures given in the next table we find that steers
of the strictly dairy breeds reached as heavy weight as did several
of the beef-breed representatives. Holstein steers made substan-
tially as large daily gains as did any of the others, and Jersey and
Native steers rivaled the Devons. So far as data from the Stations
go, we have no evidence that beef -bred animals make more rapid
growth than do others. The claim of early maturity, then, is not
substantiated by the data at hand if daily gain in live weight is
the sole measure used. The degree of maturity of the animal is
not measured entirely, however, by its weight, so that this divis-
ion of the subject cannot be considered as covered by the data
presented in regard to daily gain.

572. Dressed weight of carcass.— %This topic naturally follows
that just presented, and fortunately, from the experiments last
quoted, we have data at command. The animals used in the
several tests at the Stations were slaughtered and the weight of the

Factors in Steer Feeding.

375

carcasses reported. Gathering the data into a table we have the
following:

Dressed weight of carcass of different breeds of cattle — Various Sta-
tions.

Breed.

No. of
ani-
mals.

No. of

sta-
tions.

Av.

age.

Av. live
weight.

Daily
gain
from
birth.

Limits
of dressed
weight.

Av.

dressed
weight.

Hereford

11
2
16
2
26
6
7
1
1
6
3
9

4
1
4
1
5
3
3
1
1
3
2
3

Days.

983
1,000
976
1,000
1,011
923
1,021
1,095
1,021
937
1,058
1,038

Lbs.

1,515
1,520
1,493
1,570
1,510
1,503
1,376
1,320
1,625
1,469
1,440
1,259

Lbs.

1.54
.1.52
1.53
1.57
1.50
1.62
1.35
1.20
1.59
1.57
1.36
1.26

Per cent.

63.0-68.0
63.8-66.5
63.2-69.0
64.8
62.1-68
62.0-66.7
62.5-65.8

Per ct.

65.0
65.2

64.8
64.8
64.4
63.9
63.6
63.3.
63.0
62.6
60.5
60.2

Red Polled

Aberdeen- Angus
Swiss

Short-horn

Galloway

Devon

\yrshire

Sussex

Holstein

60.6-64.4
58.7-63.9
57.9-61.5

Jersev

Native

The data referring to live weight at the time of slaughter and
daily gain from birth have already been discussed; let us now
consider the dressed weights of cattle of the several breeds. The
Ked Polls give the largest percentage of dressed carcass to live
weight, but the figures are the average for two animals only,
and the best of these is lower than the best of the representatives
of five other breeds. Were as many animals included as there
are of the Short- horns, for example, they would no doubt rank
lower in the list. (See Article 563. )

The last column of the table is one of great significance and
worthy of study by all interested in the problem under discussion.
We find that steers of the so-called beef breeds yield from 64
to 65 per cent, of dressed carcass to live weight, while Native
steers and those of the dairy breeds dress from 60 to 63 per
cent. Jersey and Native steers dress the lowest. On the aver-
age, eleven Hereford steers fed and slaughtered at four Experi-
ment Stations yielded eight per cent, more dressed carcass to
live weight than did nine Native steers fed at three Experiment
Stations. The weights of the native and dairy-bred steers are so
great that we may be sure they were fully as mature and as well

376

Feeds and Feeding.

fatted as their competitors. Here is the first marked difference
between beef-bred and other cattle.

573. Percentage of loose tallow to dressed weight. — At the

Iowa Station, l Wilson and Curtiss found a larger amount of fat
about the internal organs of steers of the dairy breeds than about
the viscera of animals of the beef breeds, as is shown by the fol-
lowing table:

Dressed weight of carcass and "loose" tallow of steers of various
breeds — Iowa Station.

Breed.

Average
dressed
weight.

Loose
tallow.

Per cent, of loose
tallow to beef.

Short-horn

Lbs.
1,092

Lbs.
145

13 3

Hereford

1,022

129

12.6

Bed Poll

990

125

12 6

Galloway

1 088

147

13 5

Angus.

1,137

156 5

13 8

Devon .

815

122 5

15 0

Swiss

1,017

119

11 7

Holstein

862

155

17 9

Jersey

880

165.5

18.8

The above table presents most important data. The Short-horn
steers dressing about 1,100 pounds yielded 145 pounds, or 13.3
per cent., of loose tallow. Jersey steers averaging 880 pounds
yielded over 165 pounds, or 18.8 per cent. , of loose tallow. These
figures are corroborated by findings in the same direction at the
Michigan'2 and Missouri Stations. 3 Commenting on the character
of the carcasses of steers of the various breeds slaughtered at the
Michigan Station, Davenport wrote: "Note the excess of rough
tallow in Walton (a Holstein steer) as compared with the others.
Walton was 'all cow,' as the saying goes, and the fat about his
kidneys was astonishing.77

From these data we may conclude that there is a specific dif
ference between the beef and dairy breeds in the disposition of
fat in the body. It appears that the beef representatives, when
fattening, place a large portion of the fat between the muscular
fibers of the tissues. Steers of the dairy breeds, on the other

' Bui. 20. 2 Bui. 24. * Bui. 69.

Factors in Steer Feeding.

377

hand, deposit much, fat about the intestines and the kidneys.
Fat intimately commingled with the muscular fibers of the tis-
sues renders such meat tender and toothsome; when placed in
separate masses anywhere in the body, and especially within
the body cavity, it has a low value as a merchantable article.
While fat stored as in the dairy breeds may be best placed for
animals designed for milk production, such disposition is certainly
against their usefulness in beef production. In this distinction
we have a remarkable example of the effort toward specialization
in the beef and dairy breeds, and the lesson is important and far-
reaching. Here, then, is the second distinct characteristic of the
beef-bred steer.

574. Proportion of valuable parts in carcass. — Georgeson of the
Kansas Station, l and Wilson and Curtiss of the Iowa Station, 2
closed feeding trials with breed representatives by forwarding the
animals to Swift & Co., Packers, Chicago and Kansas City, for
slaughter. The accompanying table presents the proportion of
the several parts yielded by the dressed carcasses:

Percentage of the various cuts in the dressed carcasses of Holstem, Na-
tive and Short-horn steers — Kansas and Iowa Experiment Stations.

Kansas.

Iowa.

Short-
horn.

Native.

Short-
horn.

Holstein.

Ijoins

16.6
9.6
22.9
20.6
13.5
6.1
10.7

17.0
10.1
22.4
20.8
12.8
5.8
11.1

17.1
9.9
22.9
21.1
15.4
5.7
7.9

16.6
10.2
23.3
21.9
14.2
6.4
7.4

Ribs

Rounds

Chucks

Plates

Shanks

Minor cheap parts

So far as the figures go, there is nothing to show the superiority
of the beef breeds in yielding a larger percentage of high-priced
cuts. Of course, since the percentage of dressed carcass to live
weight is greater in the beef breeds, they actually yield somewhat
more pounds of valuable parts than the non-beef breeds. But
such data are not final on the point in question. The thickness

1 Bui. 51.

2 Bui. 20.

378

Feeds and Feeding.

of the flesh over the carcass, which is one factor of its worth in the
market, is not indicated by percentages of the several parts. A
thin-fleshed steer will not cut up percentagely much different from
one that furnishes thick cuts of meat.

575. Judgment of the market. — Difference in quality is quickly
noted in the market and prices vary accordingly. The eighteen
steers representing nine breeds fattened by the Iowa Station, when
shipped to Chicago, were passed upon by a committee of three
stock buyers, with the results shown in the following table:

Value placed by experts on steers of nine breeds sold by the Iowa
Experiment Station at the Union Stock Yards, Chicago.

Breeds.

Average
live
weight.

Experts'
valuation
per cwt.

Hereford

l,5251bs.
l,6601bs.
l,6351bs.
l,7251bs.
l,5201bs.
l,5701bs.
l,2901bs.
l,4101bs.
l,4301bs.

$6.62J
6.37i
6.37i
6.37<
6.25
6.00
5.75
5.00
4.50

Short-horn .

Galloway

Aberdeen-Angus

Bed Polled

Swiss

Devon

Holstein .

Jersev ...

Here is a difference between the highest and lowest valuations
of $2.12 per hundred weight, or about 32 per cent.

In the slaughter test of the Kansas Short-horns and Natives
before referred to, the loins of the best Short-horns were rated at
18 cents per pound, while those of the Natives were placed as low
as 14 cents. There is not this difference in actual food value
between the carcasses or cuts, but the exactions of the market are
all-powerful and must be recognized as final in this discussion.

576. Quality. — Beyond that which can be expressed in figures
or stated percentagely lies that indefinable something described
by the word " quality, " which enters into this as into all other
objects of barter. No one can compare a bunch of well-fed beef
bred steers with one representing the dairy breeds or natives with -
out being impressed by a difference not measured by the scales.
Speaking of tho breed tests, Wilson and Curtiss write: "The
carcasses of the dairy breeds lacked in thickness of cuts, and the

Factors in Steer Feeding. 379

marbling of the fat and lean was not equal to that of the others
(beef breeds).'7 Georgeson, reviewing his results, writes: . . .
"The Short-horns gave the best returns, not simply because the
gross weight of their carcasses was greater than that of the scrubs,
but also because their meat was esteemed better by experts in the
packing-house who were asked to judge of the quality and assign
prices.'7 Of the Ontario native; Shaw wrote: " There was a
lack of thickness of carcass throughout, the deficiency in depth of
rib and loin being very noticeable, and the absence of what may
be termed fleshiness was conspicuous."

577. In conclusion. — In our study of the value of specific breed-
ing for beef production we have found, as shown in the preceding
articles, that the steer bred for beef does not consume less feed
than do others of the same weight, nor does he necessarily reach a
given weight in less days, though generally such is the case. Nor
do our figures show that 100 pounds of gain, live weight, can be
made by the beef steer with less feed than other cattle require.

The first specific difference 13 found in the marked superiority
of true beef cattle in yielding a larger percentage of dressed weight
to live carcass. A second difference of deep significance is in
the disposition of the fat, the beef steer placing this surplus
material where it serves its highest purpose as human food —
among the muscular fibers of the tissues, — while the dairy -bred
animal deposits it in quantity about the viscera.

"While if we divide the dressed carcass into the several parts
required by the trade we cannot show that the proportion of these
varies in cattle of different breeds, yet the thickness of the flesh
of these parts is certainly in favor of the beef breeds.

These differences, with others which cannot be distinctly speci-
fied coming under the term " quality," combine to make the beef
steer what his name indicates — an animal specifically designed
for the most favorable production of the best meat.

HI. Other Findings.

578. Dressed weight of cattle. — The percentage of dressed
carcass to live weight of cattle varies according to several condi-
tions, the leading of which are: 1, the age of the animal j 2, the

380

Feeds and Feeding.

degree to which, it has been fattened; and 3, the breed or beef
character. This last point has already been noted. Let us con-
sider the other two conditions.

In studying the effects of age we turn to the records of the
American Fat-Stock Show1 for the year 1884, which show:

Slaughter test at the American Fat-Stock Show, Chicago.

Age of animals.

Number
of ani-
mals.

Live
weight at
slaughter.

Weight
of dressed
carcass.

Per cent, of
dressed car-
cass to live
weight.

Three years and under four..
Two years and under three-
One year and under two
Under one year.

10
11
6
1

Lbs.

2,025
1,631
1,240
930

Lbs.

1,378
1,089
789
562

67
66
63
60

Here we find that three-year-old steers dressed 67 per cent, of
the shrunken live weight of the animal, while those under one year
gave only 60 per cent, of dressed carcass. The importance of
maturity on the returns of dressed carcass is here shown.

The degree of fattening also determines the percentage of valu-
able parts. In fattening, the weight of the secondary parts of the
steer is not materially increased; for example, the head, hide,
hoofs and viscera do not increase much in weight, while the car-
cass proper weighs more because of the large percentage of fat
added. Common steers but little fattened may yield no more than
fifty per cent, of live weight in carcass, dressing away one-half.

579. Shrinkage due to shipping. — At the Kansas Station/
Georgeson found that steers weighing 1,350 pounds shrank from
9 to 68 pounds per head, the average being 27 pounds, when
shipped from Manhattan to Kansas City, a distance of about one
hundred miles. Steers weighing 1, 550 pounds, shipped from the
Iowa Station3 to Chicago, about three hundred miles, shrunk 71.5
pounds. Steers shipped from the Ohio Station at Wooster4 to
Pittsburg, about one hundred and fifty miles, weighed somewhat
more Monday, after watering, than at home Saturday before
watering.

1 Breeder's Gazette, Chicago, 1884, p. 824. 2 Bui. 39. 8 Bui. 20. * Bui. 60.

CHAPTER

COUNSEL IN THE FEED LOT.

I. Feed and Management of Fattening Cattle.

580. Indian corn. — Indian corn must continue the great grain
food for steer fattening in the United States. While we can-
not vie with England in luxuriance of pasture, the advantage
given our farmers by the corn plant more than offsets this, and
places us at the front in beef production. Xo concentrate is so
relished by cattle as corn, the kernels of which carry consider-
able oil, rendering them toothsome and palatable to a degree not
equaled by other grain. Not only does corn carry oil, but it is
loaded with starch, likewise a fat-former, thus affording the nu-
triment needed for filling the tissues of the steer's body with fat,
rendering the muscles tender and juicy. The success of steer
feeding in America must depend largely upon the supply of
Indian corn available for this purpose.

581. Beef returns per acre of corn. — Stewart1 reports a trial
conducted by himself with ten steers averaging 1,175 pounds,
which were fed four measured acres of shock corn estimated to
yield 40 bushels of grain per acre. The unhusked shock corn
was run through a feed cutter, and 40 pounds of the mixture,
with 2 pounds of linseed meal, given daily. The four acres
of corn lasted 70 days, each steer gaining 200 pounds on the aver-
age in that time. Allowing for the oil meal, the author concludes
that this corn crop gave a return of 400 pounds of beef per acre,
which, at five cents per pound for the increase, yields $20 for an
acre of corn so fed. This is about twice the returns obtained by
Morrow from an acre of Illinois pasture grazed by yearling steers.

582. Plain feeding of corn recommended. — The practice, com-
mon in the corn belt, of supplying unhusked or unground corn to
steers, has developed the feeling among Eastern feeders that the

1 Feeding Animals, p. 311.

382 Feeds and Feeding.

method is wasteful and could be immensely improved by grinding
the grain. "No one can study the Western situation without be-
coming impressed with the belief that the better class of these
feeders are, after all, about right in this practice. Corn is never
so acceptable to a steer as when unhusked. There is a freshness
und palatability about an ear of corn wrapt in Nature' s covering
which every steer recognizes and shows by the eagerness with
which he consumes it.

Feeding shock corn is a satisfactory practice in many instances,
for the crop is then handled with the least labor. The fodder
with its wealth of ears is thrown into long feed racks standing in
an open lot or under a shed, the steers doing the husking and
grinding. Some fodder is eaten, and the waste ears and grains
are eagerly picked up by shotes running with the steers.

Snapped corn, i. e. , ears severed from the stalks but still wrapt
in the husks, is successfully used for steer feeding. Husked ear
corn is extensively fed, though the grains are not so fresh as in
the two forms named above and are not always so acceptable
because of another condition, viz., hardness of the grains. Corn
in the crib exposed to the dry air of the West often becomes very
hard and the grains injure the mouth of the steer in the process
of mastication. To avoid this difficulty the ears are chopped or
broken into pieces or fed after soaking. Soaking does not render
the grain more digestible, but enables the steer to crush it with
more ease and often to consume a larger quantity.

Trials at the Stations show that corn meal gives larger gains
with steers than the same weight of unground grain. It is prob-
able also that meal permits of a higher finish with steers than
unground corn. Practical experience and studies by the Stations
show that pigs following steers fed corn meal get very little from
the droppings; not because such droppings are without nutri-
ment, but rather because the meal in the droppings is in a form
which cannot be utilized by the pig.

Eeviewing the subject from the standpoint of experiment and
practice, the writer is of the opinion that where corn is cheap the
Western custom of feeding it whole to steers with lively shotes
following is the most economical, all things considered, if ration-

Feed and Management of Fattening Cattle. 383

ally practiced. In general, directions for feeding cheap corn may
be summed up by the single statement: Let the feeder supply this
grain to his cattle in the most inexpensive manner possible so
long as they consume full rations without difficulty in mastication.
(536, 538)

583. Preparing corn for feeding. — Not infrequently the feeder
must prepare corn for his cattle, — the large size of the ears,
the dryness of the grain, or other conditions rendering some
treatment necessary. Soaking the corn has already been re-
ferred to and may often be practiced with advantage. The simplest
form of reduction is the rather crude but common practice of
breaking the ears, in the feed box, into three or four pieces,
using a hatehet. Another satisfactory method of preparation is
to reduce the ears, with or without husks, to a reasonable degree
of fineness by running them through a crusher, which breaks the
cobs into many pieces, cracking some of the kernels. Corn and
cob meal has been found very satisfactory by feeders, the animals
not getting uoff feed" so easily as when pure meal is fed.

As before stated, larger returns can be secured from corn meal
than from whole grain, but there are several disadvantages
attendant upon its use. Little or nothing can be gained by pigs
following steers fed corn meal, and because of its heavy nature
indigestion and other difficulties commonly attend its use. Corn
meal should never be fed alone in large quantity, but should
be diluted or given increased bulk by the addition of bran, oil
meal or other substance, in which case the dangers incident to its
use are usually overcome. The claim that toward the close of the
fattening period corn meal is especially useful in giving more finish
is probably correct, on the theory that the digestive organs have
become weakened by the continued feeding of whole corn, and
their activities are in some measure renewed when the steer is
given meal.

The amount of corn to be fed fattening steers and the gain
made are shown in the preceding chapter.

584. Bran. — This by-product was at first regarded with favor
only by dairymen. Gradually the steer feeder is learning its value
in connection with other grain in the feed box. Because of its

384 Feeds and Feeding.

bulky character and its cooling, slightly laxative properties, bran
is a most excellent dilutent for corn meal, cotton-seed meal and
other heavy food substances. Where it can be obtained at a rea-
sonable price, the stockman will find much satisfaction in mixing
one-third its weight of bran with corn meal. (544)

585. OH meal. — Oil meal is an article of great importance in
the feed lot. The highly carbonaceous Indian corn has the reputa-
tion of rapidly " burning up" the digestive tract of the steer
when fed continuously in large quantity. Oil meal, though an
exceedingly rich food, is of the opposite nature, and when fed
in reasonable amount has a cooling and generally beneficial
effect on the system. The feeder who uses from two to four
pounds of oil meal a day with corn in any form will be pleased with
the result. A steer fed oil meal has a glossy coat and a handling
quality not attained without the use of this feed. (206) This
quality indicates the value of oil meal for the finishing period in
steer fattening. The feeder should use oil cake in nut form rather
than as meal.

586. Roots. — In steer feeding, roots are valuable, especially in
the earlier stages, because of their cooling effect and the nutri-
ment they afford. At first 50 or 60 pounds of roots may be fed
daily to each steer. As the fattening period progresses, the
quantity should be diminished to allow the flesh to become firm.
For steer feeding, roots should always be sliced or pulped. In the
latter case the pulped mass is mixed with chaffed hay or straw
and held until the dry forage has become moist and soft. The
mangel is preferred for steer feeding. (325-6, 549)

587. Silage. — If the stockman desires a cheap, succulent feed
for his cattle in winter, he will find it in corn silage. The same
quantity of nutriment that a root crop yields can be produced
more economically in corn forage stored in the shape of silage,
and this article can be fed with satisfaction to steers during the
early stages of fattening. At first as much as 40 or 50 pounds
of silage may be given daily to each steer; when the full grain-
feeding period arrives let the allowance be cut down to 25 or 30
pounds per day. A limited use of this feed will keep the system
cool and the appetite vigorous. (550)

Feed and Management of Fattening Cattle. 385

588. Turning to pasture. — There are two theories in regard to
the proper time for turning steers to grass, each with points of
advantage. It is generally advocated by American writers that
stock be kept in the yard until the pastures furnish an abundance of
nutritious grass. Often when stock is turned on such pastures the
ration of the feed-lot is at once cut off, in which case the change
is so violent as to give the cattle a serious set-back. Under the
other system the cattle are turned to pasture as soon as the grass
begins to grow, and while the springing blades are still watery
and furnish little nutriment. The lack of feed in the pasture
forces the stock to rely on the feed rack to satisfy hunger. While
the first grass yields little nutriment, it still has an effect on the
digestive system and prepares the animal gradually for the change
from dry feed to the rich grass which soon follows. It is a well-
known fact that stock shrink badly when changed from feed-
lot to pasture, and it is possible that the practice of turning
early to grass, at the same time keeping up heavy feeding, is
better than holding cattle longer on dry food only and then shift-
ing at once to full pasture. In any event, let grain and some
dry forage be still offered the cattle when first turned to grass.

589. Large versus small pastures. — The subject of large or
small pastures is frequently discussed. The majority of experi-
enced American feeders favor a single large range rather than
numerous small pastures. Grasses, both in variety and quality,
are never quite the same over the whole of a large pasture, and
cattle soon detect the slight differences and satisfy their desire for
variety by ranging from one spot to another. In large pastures
the habits of the animals become regular, and it'is interesting to
study their movements. The herd will be found in the morning
on one side of the valley, feeding on the more abundant vegeta-
tion; later as the sun's heat increases they appear on the hill-
side, where there is a movement of air and where the grasses are
shorter but more nutritious; while at noon they are to be seen
resting in the shade at still another point. This regularity in
grazing certainly conduces to comfort and quiet and is of impor-
tance to profitable returns. Where the pastures are cut up into
several lots, the fresh bite of rank herbage which comes with each

change leads to irregularity and unrest, thus reducing the gains,
25

386 Feeds and Feeding.

590. The possibilities of pastures. — Sir J. B. Lawes1 reports
a pasture of 14 acres in Leicestershire, England, on which 17 oxen
were grazed without artificial food throughout the season, return-
ing from 500 to 600 pounds of increase, live weight, per acre.

From Morrow's trials (554—5) we are led to estimate that in
the Mississippi Valley, on the richer farming lands, we may look
for about 200 pounds of gain with steers from each acre of tame
pasture. This gives land capable of these results a value of from
fifty to one hundred dollars per acre for that purpose at a reason-
able rate of interest on the money invested.

591. Grain feeding on pastures. — The writer once heard J. D.
Gillett, the great Illinois steer feeder of the last generation, say
that he could not afford to fatten steers in winter. His cattle
were fattened in the summer and fall, subsisting in winter in stalk-
fields and on the dry grasses of the pastures. In summer they
luxuriated in rich old blue- grass pastures where the feed boxes
always stood loaded with grain. The great success attained by this
feeder is sufficient evidence of the wisdom of his practice with
the conditions and markets then prevailing — good prices for
well-fattened cattle.

"Wallace, 2 in summarizing the experience of numerous cattle
feeders in the West, writes: "The general opinion seems to be
that good steers fed grain on grass will gain from 75 to 100
pounds per month, and that steers on good pasture will, during
the two or three most favorable grazing months, gain almost as
much on grass alone. . . . From all the facts I have been able
to obtain, I am inclined to the opinion that in general there is not
much money in »f ceding grain to steers that are on full pasture of
the best kind."

Where pastures carry a sufficient growth of grass for full feed
even during mid-summer, it is usually best to allow the cattle to
subsist entirely on natural herbage, for this is of low cost, and
animals relying upon their own exertions gather their food vigor-
ously and willingly, wasting no time in standing idly waiting
for food. Where the pastures run short in mid-summer, and the
lack of food, together with flies and heat, are cutting down gains
already made, feeding with grain should be practiced.

* Kept. Ont. Agr. Col.. 1886.

> Live Stock Report, Chicago, June 3, 1892.

Feed and Management of Fattening Cattle. 387

Where steers are grained on pasture, the feeder begins in the
spring by supplying about one peck of corn per head, increasing
the amount to fully one-third of a bushel daily by mid-summer
for grown steers. The corn is dealt out once a day in a feed box
in the lot. Pigs should follow to save the waste. Instead of
giving corn only, it is better, when possible, to substitute two or
three pounds of oil meal or bran for the same weight of corn.
The feed should always be supplied at the same hour. Where
grain is fed, not over half the usual area of pasture land is re-
quired. Pasture- fed steers eat about as much grain as if confined
to the feed lot. (555)

592. Water. — It goes without saying that the fattening steer
must be supplied with sufficient water to slake his thirst, for
otherwise he would grow restless and fail to make proper gain.
No effort should be made, however, to induce him to consume
large quantities of water, which is considered to have a somewhat
depleting effect on the body tissues. (73) Many good feeders
insist that there be water before the cattle at all times, and usu-
ally this is the more convenient arrangement. If water is supplied
but once a day, care should be taken that all animals have oppor-
tunity for a good fill.

593. Salting. — Animals fed large quantities of nutritious food,
such as fattening steers receive, show a strong desire for salt, and
this craving should be satisfied by a reasonable supply. The
excessive use of salt leads to a heavy consumption of water,
thereby increasing the flow of urine — a result not desirable.
(72-3, 85) Kiihn1 recommends one ounce of salt per day, for a
steer weighing 1,000 pounds, at the beginning of the fattening
period, one and one-third of an ounce at the middle, and one and
two-thirds of an ounce at the close. The form of salt to be sup-
plied to cattle, granular or rock, is a matter of convenience with
the stockman.

594. What fattening the steer means. — It is important to have
a clear knowledge of what the fattening process is. The grown
steer, with framework of bone overlaid with muscles and encased

1 Emahr. d. Eindviehes, 9th ed., p. 325.

388 Feeds and Feeding.

in hide, requires a certain amount of nutriment for mere exist-
ence. To supply this only, enables him to continue existence,
but does not appease his appetite, which craves still more food.
If provender beyond the requirements for maintenance is supplied,
more or less of the surplus is converted into fat and stowed away
among the muscular tissues of the body, in the bones, under the
hide and about the viscera. This fat is fuel in the animal economy,
for which Nature shows an eagerness by manufacturing and lay-
ing up a certain amount against the time of need. Impelled by a
hearty appetite, the steer at first gains rapidly in fat, gratifying
the feeder in the increase reported by the scales. After fat-
tening has progressed a few months, the appetite of the steer
loses its keen edge, and he shows a daintiness when taking his
food not at first exhibited. If placed on the scales from time to
time, he shows smaller and smaller gains. Every pound of in-
crease now requires more pounds of feed than at first. The fat-
tening process may be likened to inflating a bicycle tire or a foot-
ball with air. The operation is rapid and easy at first, but be-
comes more and more difficult until the limit is reached. Finally,
the steer, though consuming a fair amount of feed, shows no gain
whatever. He has been fattened to his limit, and though he may
be held there for a time he will soon begin to retrograde, just as
a ripened apple grows poorer in quality after perfection has been
reached. The feeder, recognizing this, should aim to fatten his
cattle rapidly, and, as soon as they are acceptably fat, dispose oi
them without delay. To continue fattening longer than demanded
by the market, or to hold cattle when once fattened, adds greatly
to their cost. (565)

595. Cost of feeding increases with age. — Excluding birth
weight, the steer maintains a practically uniform rate of gain
until he becomes two years old. While this is true in relation to
gain in weight, we have shown that the cost of producing the gain
in the second year is about double that for the first, and for the
third the cost is about three times that of the first year. Eecog-
nizing these facts, the stockman who grows the cattle he feeds
should place them on the market at as early a date as possible,
other conditions being equal. (563-4)

Feed and Management of Fattening Cattle. 389

596. Cost of finished steer. — Anything from the lips or pen of

that king of feeders of the last generation, J. D. Gillett, should
be preserved. Here is Mr. Gillett's estimate of the cost of grow-
ing a steer up to thirty -six months of age:1

Cost of steer twelve months old.

Value of calf at birth $3 00

Expenses of dam of calf, chargeable to calf for one year as fol-
lows: eight per cent, interest on $50, value of cow 4 00

Keep of yearling and feed of cow 12 months 12 25

Insurance on cow 1 00

Bisk of failure of cow to breed 1 75

Loss of calves by death, etc , 1 00

No corn fed up to 12 months.

Value of pasture and keep up to 12 months 6 00

Total 29 00

Weight of calf at 12 months, 700 pounds, at five cents 35 00

Profit at 12 months of age 6 00

Cost from twelve to twenty-four months of age.

Value of steer at 12 months of age $35 00

Value of shock corn, flO bushels, at 35 cents 38 50

Pasture 12 to 24 months 3 00

Interest and risk 2 80

Total 79 30

Less 500 pounds pork made on droppings of steer, at five cents. ... 25 00

Net cost 12 to 24 months 54 30

Weight of steer at 24 months 1,600 pounds, at six and a half cents 104 00

Profit at 12 months of age 49 70

Cost from twenty-four to thirty-six montfts of age.

Value of steer at 24 months of age $104 00

Value of shock corn consumed in entire year, 125 bus., at 35 cents 43 75

Pasture, May 1 to Nov. 1 4 00

Interest and risk 8 32

Total 160 07

Less 500 pounds pork at five cents, made on droppings of steer... 25 00

Cost at 36 months of age... 135 07

Weight at 36 months of age, 2,200 pounds, at seven cents 154 00

Profit at 36 months of age 18 93

1 Fugitive paper copied into Farmers' Review, Chicago, Dec. 7, 1882.

390 Feeds and Feeding.

In those days prices for grain, interest rates, and especially
prices of fat cattle, were higher than at present, and the student
in using the figures must make allowance for the changes wrought
by time: the lesson taught still stands.

597. Modern market demands. — Some readers will recall the
period when it was not considered advisable to fatten a steer until
he was five years old; a much larger number will recollect the
early exhibits at the American Fat-Stock Show, Chicago, where
prizes were given for "big steers" often five or more years old
and weighing up to two tons. The long-legged, raw-boned creat-
ures that competed for premiums in those days are a thing of the
past, though there is still room for improvement. The butcher
now calls for " handy " steers, ranging from 1,200 to 1,500 pounds
in weight. These are well described in the following, taken from
Bell's Messenger:1 "The winner now has to be short-legged,
broad and deep, full in the flank, well sprung ribs, and good
twist. His bottom lines should be as straight as his top lines,
and as wide, and he should have no thick, patchy fat anywhere.
Experience has shown that thick-bodied, short-legged steers,
with full flanks, pay the feeder best, and give best profit to the
butcher. Big ones are no longer needed. Small sizes are best,
with plenty of quality, and with youth on their side the meat is
juicy and tender. Age is counted in months now, instead of years,
and the change is for the better."

To produce steers which meet these requirements a high degree
of skill and judgment must be exercised in breeding and feeding.
From the tables we are taught the important lesson that less feed
is required to bring animals to the required standard because of
the smaller size of the individuals when fattened. High skill in
breeding and feeding thus oppose the plainer breeding and slower
feeding of former times.

598. Early maturity. — What can be accomplished in the way of
early maturity is illustrated by results obtained by Mr. "W. A.
Harris, of Linwood, Kansas. 2 Mr. Harris fed pure-bred and
grade Short-horn calves, coming in December, January and Feb-

1 Quoted in Live Stock Kept., Chicago, July 19, 1895.

2 Breeder's Gazette, Chicago, 1890, p. 437.

Feed and Management of Fattening Cattle. 391

ruary, until the following December, at which time they averaged
eleven months old. These calves received most of their dam's
milk until six or seven months old. Mr. Harris calculates that
they consumed —

20 bushels of ear corn, worth $5

1,000 pounds of bran, worth 6

300 pounds of oil meal, worth 3

Total costof grain $14

In addition they had pastures and what hay they would eat,
valued at $4. These calves weighed from 910 to 920 pounds
each at eleven months and sold from $3.80 to $5 per hundred,
which returns are certainly satisfactory when the short time for
turning the capital involved is considered. All farmers are not
in position to follow such forcing methods as these, yet it is well to
bear this extreme example in mind, and consider whether or not
the results cannot be approximated if not actually attained.

599. Low-pressure feeding. — Under the system just recom-
mended, much costly concentrated feed is required. There are
farms on which the high-pressure system is not advisable, but
where cattle may be profitably fed by following an almost oppo-
site method. On farms where there are large quantities of hay,
straw and corn forage, together with ample pastures, it is possi-
ble to practice a system which utilizes all these, reserving most of
the grain grown for use during the final fattening period. Under
this system the calves designed ultimately for beef are fed a small
amount of grain only during the first year, receiving an abun-
dance of roughage in winter and running on good pastures in sum-
mer. Such stock should more than hold its weight in winter and
gain heavily on the pastures in summer. Heavy feeding with
grain begins when the steers are two years old. Well-bred steers
from 30 to 36 months old raised in this manner, fed grain in quantity
only during the last five or six months, should weigh from 1,300
to 1,500 pounds — a size ample for market demands.

600. The feed lot. — Dry, protected yards, with sheds on the
windward side under which the animals may lie in comfort, form
the ideal place for steer feeding. To keep the steer stanchioned
or confined by a rope in the stable entails useless labor on the

392 Feeds and Feeding.

stockman, prevents proper exercise, and conduces to a filthy ap-
pearance of the animal, thus working against the best gains and
the highest sale price. Crude as has been much of the open-yard
feeding in the West, the cattle so fed have really experienced
more comfort than had they been confined in the stable, as is
common in the East. The fattening steer places the excess food
in an increasing layer of fat under the skin, which retains the
heat. His food is heating in character, and, being in a plethoric
condition, he much prefers the open air and sunshine with the
freedom of the yard, even in winter, to the confinement of the
stable with its foul air and cramped quarters.

601. Feed racks. — Let the sheds be so constructed as to afford
protection from the winds and driving storms. Either under the
shed, where accessible by wagon, or in an open lot which the shed
faces, and close by, arrange racks for fodder and boxes for grain.
It is not well to have feed boxes and fodder rack combined, since
the litter from the forage falling upon the feed renders it distaste-
ful to cattle with dainty appetites.

602. Frequency of feeding. — There is nothing helpful on this
point from experiments, and when we turn to feeders for light we
find a diversity of opinion as to the proper practice. It is rea-
sonable that all young animals should be fed at least three times
a day, while those approaching maturity and not heavily fed are
amply provided for in two feeds. Maturing cattle prosper, and
perhaps do their best, when supplied grain but once a day, with
roughage to run to at pleasure. It is certain that many of the
best feeders at the West supply grain but once a day. The once-
fed steer goes to the though with paunch well emptied and ap-
petite at the best; filling himself to the utmost, he has ample time
for rumination and subsequent digestion.

603. Getting cattle to full feed.— The fattening steer should be
brought to full feed gradually, the time required in reaching that
point varying from one to two months. Steers which have pre-
viously been fed grain take to it readily, while those which have
always lived on roughage and pastures must bo carefully managed
in this particular. Young cattle are more difficult to bring to
full feed than mature ones. By supplying an abundance of rough-

Feed and Management of Fattening Cattle. 393

age of good quality there is less danger in bringing cattle to full
feed.

When once the feeding period is well inaugurated, all sudden
changes in attendants, place and manner of feeding as well as of
the feed itself should be carefully avoided. Everything should
move with quiet, clock -like regularity. The cattle come to know
not only the hour but almost the minute of the feeder's arrival
and watch for him. On his coming they expect the same sort of
feed as before and the same little attentions. All of this means
better gains than are possible from any irregular system. If
changes in feed are necessary, as they sometimes are, — for ex-
ample, changirg from ear corn or shelled corn to corn meal, — the
transition should be gradual rather than immediate and violent.
Sometimes stockmen are tempted to give their cattle bits of un-
usual food in expectation of stimulating the appetite and getting
heavier gains. This practice is often worse than useless. The
gourmand steer is content with uniformity in his rations, and if
not led to anticipate unusual attentions is satisfied with a limited
bill of fare, provided always the supply is ample.

604. Close attention required. — The ability to fatten cattle
rapidly and profitably is a gift, to be increased and strengthened
by experience and study. The ability to carry a steer through
a six months' fattening period without once getting him " off feed "
is possessed by many a stockman; but how this faculty is attained
is something he cannot always impart to others. In general,
when the steer has reached full feed, aU the grain he will readily
consume should be supplied, but any left in the feed box, to be
breathed over, is worse than wasted.

Scouring, the bane of the stock feeder, should be carefully
avoided, since a single day's laxness will cut off a week's gain.
This trouble is generally induced by over-feeding, by unwhole-
some food, or by a faulty combination in the ration. Over-feed-
ing comes from a desire of the attendant to push his cattle to
better gains, or from carelessness and irregularity in measuring
out the feed supply. The ideal stockman has a quick discern-
ment which takes in every animal in the lot at a glance, and a
quiet judgment which guides the hand in dealing out feed ample

394 Feeds and Feeding.

for the wants of all, but not a pound excess. Cattle of the same
age, or at least those of equal size and strength, should be fed in
the same enclosure. Weak animals, and those unable for any rea-
son to crowd to the feed trough and get their share, should be
placed where they can be supplied in quiet.

605. Other points to be observed. — The droppings of the steer
are an excellent index of the progress of fattening. While they
should never be hard, they should still be thick enough to "pile
up " and have that unctious appearance which indicates a healthy
action of the liver. There is an odor from the droppings of thrifty,
well-fed steers known and quickly recognized by every good
feeder. Thin droppings and those with a sour smell indicate
something wrong in the feed yard.

The conduct of the steer is a further guide in marking the prog-
ress of fattening. The manner in which he approaches the feed
box; his quiet pose while ruminating and audible breathing when
lying down, showing the lungs cramped by the well-filled paunch 5
the quiet eye which stands full from the fattening socket; the
oily coat, — all are points that awaken the interest, admiration
and satisfaction of the successful feeder.

606. Preparing steers for shipment. — Clay1 writes: " A day or
two previous to shipping, feed the cattle in a pen, and feed hay
only. The secret of shipping all classes of cattle is to place them
on the cars full of food but with as little moisture as possible. A
steer full of water is apt to have loose bowels and show up badly
in the yards; properly handled cattle should arrive in the sale
pens dry behind and ready for a good fill of water; not very
thirsty but in good condition to drink freely. Many shippers
think that by salting their cattle or feeding them oats they can
fool the buyers, but it always goes against them to use unnatural
amounts. As to feed on the road, nothing equals good sweet hay,
which excels corn or other grains because it is easily digested and
does not fever the animal. Of water in mid- summer, care must
be taken to supply the animal wants, whereas in winter a steer
can go for many hours without a drink. Cattle should arrive at
the sale yards at from 5 to 8 A. M., appearing on the scene as

1 Live Stock Report, Chicago, Sept. 28, 1894.

Feed and Management of Fattening Cattle.

395

near the latter hour as possible, since they always look better just
after they have been fed and watered."

Funkhouser1 advises feeding all the hay the cattle will eat,
and reducing the grain fed at least one-half two or three days be-
fore shipping. For steers in transit allow 250 pounds of hay and
one and one-half bushels of grain per car. Steers on pasture that
have had corn should be taken off pasture twenty-four hours be-
fore shipping, and allowed half a feed of corn with plenty of hay.

II. Rations for Fattening Steers.

607. Theoretical rations for fattening steers. — To show the
amount of feed a steer should receive according to the Wolff- Leh-
mann standard, two rations are presented which are reasonably
close to the requirements. In the first, corn is the leading con-
centrate, with oil meal additional to furnish the protein; in the
second, silage furnishes the roughage, with bran, corn and cob
meal and cotton- seed meal for the concentrates. See Chapter
VII, Part II.

Rations compounded in accordance with the Wolff-Lehmann feeding
standard for steers weighing 1,000 pounds, first period.

Dry
matter.

Digestible nutrients.

Pro-
tein.

Carbo-
hy-
drates.

Ether
extract.

Ration No. 1.
Wolff-Lehmann standard

Lbs.
30

Lbs.
2.50

Lbs.
15.00

Lbs.
.50

Corn fodder, 8 pounds

4.62
1.69
12.52
3.63

.20
.13
1.09
1.17

2.77
.72
9.34
1.31

.03
.03
.60
.28

Clover hay, 2 pounds

Dent corn, 14 pounds

Oil meal, O. P., 4 pounds

Total

22.46

2.59

14.14

.94

Ration No. 2.
Corn silage, 30 pounds

6.27
4.54
8.81
3.40
1.84

.27
.06
1.22
.18
.74

3.39
1.93
3.92
2.40
.38

.21
.04
.27
.12
.24

Oat straw, 5 pounds

Roller bran, 10 pounds. ...

Corn and cob meal. 4 pounds

Cotton-seed meal, 2" pounds

Total

24.86

2.47

12.02

.88

1 Breeder's Gazette, Chicago, Jan. 18, 1893.

396

Feeds and Feeding.

In both rations there is much less dry matter than is called for
by the standard. This departure is not of much significance, as
the ration possesses a reasonable volume. The carbohydrates are
less than called for by the standard, but this is nearly made good
by the excess of ether extract.

These rations are constructed on purely theoretical grounds,
but will be found satisfactory where the feeding-stuffs called for
are reasonable in price.

608. Rations used at the Experiment Stations. — In the feeding
trials at various Experiment Stations numerous rations have been
used, a few of which are here presented, care being taken in
their selection to present as wide a range of feeding materials as
possible.

Ontario Agricultural College. *

Roots and corn. Lbs.

Roots and barley. Lbs.

Av. wt. of steers fed 1,061

Dailygain 2.14

Hay 12.

Boots 46.

Bran 5.

Barley 11.25

Iowa Experiment Station.*

Corn and oil meal. Lbs.

Av. wt. of steers fed 1,340

Dailygain 2.8

Snapped corn 22.5

Corn meal 3.7

Oil meal 4.2

Hay 5.7

Av. wt. of steers fed 1,106

Dailygain 2.31

Hay..
Roots
Bran
Corn..

9.5
34.
3.5
9.25

Oregon Experiment Station. 3

Wheat and silage. Lbs.

Av. wt. of steers fed 847

Daily gain 2.

Chopped wheat 10.3

Clover hay 8.

Corn silage 18.

Kansas Experiment Station.

1 ' Balanced ' ' ration. Lbs.

Av. wt. of steers fed 1,083

Dailygain 2.4

Corn and stover. Lbs.

Av. wt. of steers fed 1,211

Dailygain 1.7

Corn meal..

Shorts

Bran

Oil meal....
Tame hay..

10.
5.
2.
4.
6.5

Ear corn.
Stover...

26.7
5.

Bept 1883. 2 Bui. 20. * Bui. 37. * Buls. 34 and 39.

Feed and Management of Fattening Cattle. 397

Texas Experiment Station.1

Cotton-seed meal and hulls. Lbs. Corn and cotton seed. Lbs.

Av. wt. of steers fed 638 Av. wt. of steers fed 576

Daily gain 1.76 Daily gain 1.9

Cotton-seed meal 5. Corn 5.3

Cotton-seed hulls 7.2 Cottonseed 5.2

Corn silage 20. Hay 5.3

III. Fattening Range Cattle.

609. Description of operations. — About the year 1885 several
companies controlling Western ranges undertook the experiment
of moving cattle to points in the corn belt for fattening while in
transit to the stock markets. Two results were sought, — a higher
finish, and relieving an overstocked range. Of the several efforts
in this direction, that of the Standard Cattle Co., with ranches in
Wyoming and Montana, and a feeding establishment at Ames,
Neb., is the best example. The possessions of this company at
Ames include a number of farms aggregating several thousand
acres, with additional rented lands lying in the Platte valley pos-
sessing a rich, black, sandy soil, well adapted to corn growing.

The barn of this company is 682 feet long and over 200 feet
wide, with a capacity for 3,008 steers, each animal occupying a
separate stall 4x8 feet. There are eight double rows of cattle with
heads toward each other. A tramway extends between each
double row of cattle, down which a car travels used for distribut-
ing the meal and hay, which are placed in broad, flat feeding
boxes, the sides of which act as rails for the car wheels. On each
side of the feed boxes next to the steers is a narrow trough through
which fresh water for drinking continually flows. The pumps
which lift this water also send a flood down the ditch behind the
steers, into which passes from each stall the voidings of the animals,
the whole wasting into the Platte river. The roof of this monster
barn begins low at the sides and rises by steps with windows in
each rise, so that the interior is well lighted and easily ventilated.
A mill and elevator adjoining is connected by a tramway. The
arrangements permit feeding the cattle and cleaning the stable
with the minimum of labor. Each season, in addition to the
1 Bui. 27.

398 Feeds and Feeding.

cattle in the stable, several thousand are fed in bunches of a
few hundred each on the outlying farms of the company. These
steers are fed grain in open boxes, supplied once or twice a day,
and hay from long racks filled whenever occasion requires.

This mammoth business has from its inception been under the
care of Mr. E. M. Allen, General Manager of the Company, who
gives personal supervision to the work in all departments. From
a careful examination of the feeding operations as conducted at
the stable and the several outdoor quarters in 1890, at which
time over 7,000 cattle were receiving grain, the writer believes
the experiment of wholesale range cattle feeding at Ames has as
fair a trial as can possibly be given.

Fortunately for the student, Mr. Allen has kept complete records
of all feeding operations from the beginning. The results are
an accumulation of data bearing on the question of the whole-
sale feeding of range cattle, which because of the magnitude of
the operations, the many years covered by them, and the unusual
care and accuracy with which the records have been kept, have
become invaluable to the student of animal husbandry, as well as
of keen interest to many who have to deal with the problem of
cattle-feeding at the West.

610. The data obtained. — The tables here presented give the
most important data of the operations at Ames down to the
present, covering eleven years' operations, during which time
49, 648 cattle have been fed. These cattle were mostly steers from
Wyoming and Montana ranges with some Texans and spayed
heifers. The cattle were four and five years old when fed. They
were wild when brought to the feeding station, and were unused
to feed and confinement. These conditions combined to make
the preliminary feeding period a long one, and the quantity of
feed required for a given gain large. Notwithstanding this the
operation as a whole is thoroughly representative of its class, and
furnishes an important and instructive lesson. l

1 The data presented were kindly furnished by Mr. Allen. A more ex-
tended account of the operations is given by Coburn in the Quarterly
Report of the Kansas State Board of Agriculture, December, 1897.

Feed and Management of Fattening Cattle. 399

Number of cattle marketed and gains — Standard Cattle Co., Allen.

Year.

Number
of cattle
marketed

Number
of days
fed.

Av. wt.
of cattle
when
received.

Av. wt.

of cattle
at
market.

Av.

gain.

Shrink-
age per
head.

Lbs.

1886-87...

5,417

151

959

1,097

138

13.2

1887-88...

5,586

202

989

1,235

246

62.3

1888-89...

4,269

180

1,036

1,298

262

24.9

1889-90...

6,033

197

870

1,119

249

22.8

1890-91...

7,298

222

,032

1,272

240

35.9

1891-92...

2,176

252

,116

1,399

283

71.6

1892-93...

1,222

126

955

1,175

220

59.2

1893-94...

2,539

182

,053

1,281

228

54.3

1894r-95...

5,878

152

,073

1,290

217

42.8

1895-96...

3,775

171

,154

1,392

238

46.6

1896-97...

5,454

215

1,066

1,304

238

41.8

Amount of grain and hay fed to cattle reported in previous table.

Year.

Corn.

Oats.

Bran.

Oil meal.

Hay.

Stover.

1886-87

Lbs.

9 693 702

Lbs.
354 968

Lbs.
1 453 176

Lbs.
1 143 000

Tons.
5 050

Tons.

1887-88

17,060.838

767,179

624,885

665,752

7,817

1888-89

10.421,864

416 442

428 530

706 966

4,682

1889-90

21 064 820

1 439 196

2 451 255

390 856

3 340

1890-91

19 389 664

22 528

1 208 010

3 717 890

7 805

1891-92

9 987 798

53' 152

' 6 132

'270 '690

4,392

1892-93 ...

2 192 680

10 470

151 480

1 101

1893 94

6 740 328

241 895

481 320

2 042

1894-95

9 388 121

f 61,790 \

2 022 140

2 517 532

3 546

1,433

1895-96

8 728 384

1 1,443,606*)
1 849 536

1 121 090

798 040

1 451

2 864

1896-97

21 288 792

( ' 34|208 )
J 194 688f y

718 000

228 000

4 087

5 938

I 15,250tj

* Wheat. f Barley. \ Peas.

Daily feed consumed and daily gains.

Year.

No. of
cattle fed.

No. of
days fed.

'Grain per
head per
day.

Hay per
head per
day.

Stover per
head per
day.

Av. gain
of cattle
per day.

1886-S7

5,532

151

Lbs.
15.1

•Lbs.
12.1

Lbs.

Lbs.
9

1887-88

5,717

202

16 5

13 5

1888-89

4,355

180

15.3

11.9

1889-90

7,090

197

4.8

1890-91

7,376

222

9 5

1891-92

2 198

252

15 9

1892-93

1,269

126

14.7

13.7

1893-94

2,609

182

15.7

8 6

1894-95

5 925

152

7 8

3 1

1895-96

3 827

171

4 5

8 7

1896-97

5,495

215

6 9

400

Feeds and Feeding.

Cost for food and labor of feeding cattle, seasons of 1891^-95, 1895-96
and 1896-97 — Standard Cattle Co., Allen.

1894-95.

1895-96.

1896-97.

Amount
per head.

Cost per
head.

Amount
per head.

Cost per
head.

Amount
per head.

Cost per
head.

Corn

Bu.

28.3
.3

$12 13
09
2 44

4 27
2 13

Bu.

40.7
8.6
5.2
3.7

$7 19
2 17
1 59
1 67

Bu.

69.1
.2
2.3
.7

$8 55
03
46
37

Oats

Bran

6.1
7.6
4.1

Oil cake

Wheat

Peas

04
17

78
1 55
71
10
04

Barley

.7
Tons.
.7
1.1

Hay

Tons.
.6

3 61

Tons.
.4

Stover

Forage beets

03
03

1 24
07
02

Silage....

Salt

Total grain

Bu.

46.4
Tons.
.6

1 24 85

1 71
24

Bu.

58.2
Tons.
.4

il4 58

2 55
16

Bu.

74.8
Tons.
1.8

1 12 80

1 67
35
02

Total hay and
stover

Labor

Coal and gasoline
Oil .

Insurance

21
33

Horse forage

Total labor

2 49

3 16

2 27

Total food and
labor.

27 34

17 74

15 07

Av. No. days fed.

152

171

215

Av. gain per head

in pounds

217

238

Cost of 100 pounds
grain.. ..

$12 60

$7 45

$6 33

CHAPTER XXIV.

THE DAIEY COW — SCIENTIFIC FINDINGS.

611. Period of gestation. — " The average period of gestation for
the cow is 284 days; small cows, heifers with their first calf, and
old animals, usually go a day or two less; bulls are carried a day
or two longer than cow- calves.77 1

612. Economy of the dairy cow. — Not only is dairying the lead-
ing animal industry of our country at this time, but so it must
continue indefinitely, for the reason that the cow is a more econom-
ical producer of food for human beings than is the ox or the pig.
This is ably shown by Lawes and Gilbert2 in the following table:

Comparison of the constituents of food earthed off in milk and in the
fattening increase of the ox — Lawes and Gilbert.

(1 Imperial gallon = 4 quarts = 10.33 Ibs.)

Nitrog-
enous
sub-
stance.

Fat.

Non-nitro-
genous
substances
not fat
(sugar).

Mineral
matter.

Total
solid
matter.

In milk per week— Cow.

If 4 quarts per head, per day
If 6 quarts per head, per day

If 8 quarts per head per day

Lbs.

2.64
3.96
5 28

Lbs.

2.53
3.80
5 06

Lbs.

8.33
4.99
6 66

Lbs.

.54

.81
1 08

Lbs.

9.04
13.56
18 08

If 10 quarts per head, per day
If 12 quarts per head, per day
If 14 quarts per head per day

6.60
7.92
9 24

6.33
7.59
8 86

8.32
9.99
11 65

1.35
1.62
1 89

22.60
27.12
31 64

If 16 quarts per head, per day
If 18 quarts per head, per day
If 20 quarts per head, per day

10.56
11.88
13 20

10.12
11.39
12 65

13.32
14.98
16 65

2.16
2.43
2 70

36.16
40.68
45 20

In increase in live weight per week — Ox.

If 10 pounds increase

6 35

7 25

If 15 pounds increase

1 13

9 53

10 88

"We are shown by the table that the fattening steer, gaining
15 pounds weekly, yields 1.13 pounds of nitrogenous substance or

1 Sheldon, Dairy Fanning.
26

2 Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc., 1895.

402 Feeds and Feeding.

water-free lean meat, while the dairy cow during the same period,
when yielding 10 quarts of milk daily, returns in this milk 6.6
pounds of nitrogenous substance, casein and albumen, or six times
as much. Of mineral matter the ox stores during the week .22
pounds, while the dairy cow secretes in her milk 1.35 pounds, or
again, about six times as much. The steer adds to his carcass
9.53 pounds of fat, while in the milk of the cow there are 6.33
pounds of fat, or two-thirds as much. During this time, how-
ever, the cow has secreted in her milk 8.32 pounds of milk sugar,
against which there is no comparable substance in the flesh of the
ox. Eeducing this sugar to its fat equivalent, (60) the cow is
shown to have yielded as much fat or fat equivalent as has the
steer. Commenting on this table, Lawes and Gilbert write:1

"Thus, as compared with fattening increase, which may, in a
sense, be said to be little more than an accumulation of reserve
material from excess of food, milk is a special product of a special
gland for a special normal exigency of the animal."

Thome, of the Ohio Station,2 comparing the returns from
steers and dairy cows, concludes that the steer gains three pounds
in live weight when consuming the same quantity of feed as the
cow when producing one pound of butter-fat.

In this country, where stock foods are still so abundant and
population sparse, we use the flesh of animals freely, even waste-
fully. "When population grows dense, the ox will be the first to
disappear from our agriculture because it is not an economical
producer of human food, while the dairy cow will remain an
economical instrument for that purpose. (695)

613. Yield of products. — A good dairy cow will yield in one
year 6,600 pounds of milk, in which there are:

285 pounds of fat.
376 pounds of milk sugar.
220 pounds of casein and albumen.
49 pounds of ash.

Total, 930 pounds of solids.
These substances are practically all digestible.

1 Loc. cit. 2 Kept. 1893.

The Dairy Cow — Scientific Findings. 403

6(4. Ratio of milk yield to body weight. — Kraemer1 states that
cows yield during the year from four to eight times their body
weight in milk, and that each pound of dry matter fed will return
from four- to eight-tenths of a pound of milk, these returns being
gauged by the character of the cow, as follows:

Character Yield of milk Milk per pound dry

of cow. in body weight. matter in feed.

Poor 4 times. .4 pounds.

Medium 5 times. .5 pounds.

Good 6 times. .6 pounds.

Very good 7 tunes. .7 pounds.

Excellent 8 tunes. .8 pounds.

615. Percentage fat in successive portions of milk. — At the New

York (Geneva) Station, 2 Collier examined the milk from 5 cows
as drawn, pint by pint, and found the fat in the successive lots as
follows: .85, 1.43, 1.68, 2.02, 2.23, 2.65, 3.27, 3.74, 4.05, 4.86,
4.48, 4.30, 5.23, while the average of the whole milk was 3.21.
The average per cent, of fat in the first and last pints was .85 and
5.23, an increase of nearly 500 per cent. The average per cent,
of fat in the first and last halves of the milk was 1.92 and 4.35, an
increase of 127 per cent.

The above shows the poverty in fat of the first milk drawn
from the cow and the richness of that last drawn. It shows that
those who allow calves to have the first milk from the cow and
reserve the strippings withhold the richest milk.

616. Concerning fat globules. — Collier3 places the average se-
cretion of milk by the cow at . 7 of a pound or 19. 6 cubic inches
per hour. One ten-thousandth of a cubic millimeter of milk was
found to contain on an average 152 fat globules. (828) From
these data he concludes that the average cow in the Geneva Station
herd secreted 138,210,000 fat globules each second. According
to Babcock4 the number of fat globules in a quart of milk of
average composition is not less than 2,000,000,000,000. These
figures are beyond comprehension, and should increase our in-
terest in the marvelous processes of animal life. Appreciating

1 Die Schule der Schweizer-kasers.

2 Kept. 1891.

3 Kept. New York (Geneva) Sta., 1892.
« Bui. 18, Wis. Expt. Sta.

404

Feeds and Feeding.

these facts the thoughtful dairyman will not regard the dairy cow
an idler.

617. Relation of live weight to yield. — The relation of live
weight to yield of milk and fat by cows is illustrated in the fol-
lowing table by Woll, 1 which gives a summary of the results of
Breed Test !No. 1, conducted at the World's Columbian Exposi-
tion, Chicago, 1893, the data given being the average and total
figures for seventy -five animals. (See Chapter XXVII, Part I. )
The cows are grouped according to their live weight into three
sets, the first including the lightest animals, the second represent-
ing the medium, and the third the heavy cows. The scale of prices
for feeds is of course arbitrary, but being the same for all ani-
mals it serves the desired purpose.

Relation of average live weight of cows to yield of milk and fat —
Columbian Dairy Test No. 1, fifteen days — Woll.

Breed.

Live
wt.

Yield of —

Yield per 1.000
Ibs. live weight.

Cost
of
food.

Cost of
producing
100 Ibs.
of fat.

Milk.

Fat.

Milk.

Fat.

Light cows.
Jersey

Lbs.

846
839

988

Lbs.

510.1
422.0
434.3

Lbs.

22.91
18.49
15.86

Lbs.

603.0
502.9
439.5

Lbs.

27.08
22.04
16.05

$377
3 00
350

$1645
16 23
2206

Guernsey

Short-horn..

Average

891

455.5

19.09

511.2

21.42

$3 42

$17 93

Medium cows.
Jersey

923
923

1,127

532.1
417.8
510.0

24.74
18.97
18.47

576.5
452.6
452.7

26.80
20.55
16.40

$3 98
307
4 02

$1609
16 14
21 74

Guernsey

Short-horn

Average

991

486.6

20.73

490.9

20.91

$3 69

$1779

Heavy cows.
Jersey

999
1,001
1,302

557.3
475.0
524.7

24.74
21.40

18.22

557.8
474.5
403.1

24.77
21.38
14.00

$404
3 08
4 09

$1633
14 40

2245

Guernsey

Short-horn

Averasre

1,101

519.0

21.45

471.4

19.48

$374

$17 42

The different groups include the same number of cows of each
breed, so that the influence of breed is practically eliminated.
The results show that the lightest cows produced less milk and fat
than the other two groups, the cost of feed also being less. The
yield of milk and fat per 1,000 pounds live weight was great-
est with the light cows and least with the heaviest cows. Calcu-

1 Hoard's Dairyman, March 30, June 22, 1894.

The Dairy Cow — Scientific Findings. 405

lating the cost of 100 pounds of fat, the results favor the heaviest
cows, though the difference is small.

618. Large versus small cows. — Brandl1 conducted three ex-
periments with light and heavy dairy cows, each lasting four
weeks, the second commencing seventy days after the close of the
first, and the third a year after the beginning of the first. Thirty
of the heaviest milkers in the herd were separated into two lots
of fifteen cows each, according to live weight. The cows were
kept under similar conditions as to feed and care during the trial,
none being bred after the beginning of the experiment. The
average weight of the heavy cows was 1,205 pounds and of the
light cows 979 pounds. The leading conclusions from the experi-
ments are:

1. The milk of the small cows is richer in fat than that of the
large ones.

2. Large cows eat a greater amount of feed than small cowsj per
thousand pounds live weight they eat less.

3. Small cows produce less milk than large cows, absolutely
and relatively.

4. When in thin flesh small cows may produce more per thou-
sand pounds live weight than large cows.

5. Large farrow cows are more persistent milkers; on the other
hand, small cows show a greater tendency to fatten on the same
feed, with a decrease in milk flow.

6. The loss in selling ten of the large cows amounted to five
guilden per head on the average, after having been kept nearly
a year, while the loss for ten small cows was twelve guilden per
head.

619. Dairy compared with beef type. — At the Minnesota Sta-
tion2 Haecker conducted a trial which shows in a marked way the
difference between cows of the so-called dairy type and the blocky
beef cow. The Station herd was separated into four lots, Group I
including those of the beef type, Group II showing less tendency
to the beef type, Group III embracing spare cows lacking in
depth, and Group IV spare cows with deep bodies, representing
the dairy type.

1 Jahresber. u. Agr. Chemie., 1894, 474. 2 Bui. 35.

406

Feeds and Feeding.

The results of this interesting trial are shown in the following
table:

Beef and dairy type cows compared — Minnesota Station.

Group.

No. of
ani-
mals.

Av. live
weight.

Dry

matter
eaten
per day.

Dry
matter
per 1,000
Ibs. of
live wt.

Dry

matter
per Ib.
of fat.

Cost of
one Ib.
of fat.

I. Beef type

Lbs.
1 240

Lbs.
20 81

Lbs.
16 66

Lbs.
31.25

Cents.
17 5

II. Less of beef type...
III. Lacking depth of
body

4
3

945

875

20.37
19 95

21.02
23 00

26.42
25 54

15.1
14 6

IV. Dairy tvt>e ...

951

21.86

23.58

21.15

12.1

Discussing the results, Haecker writes: "The productive
capacity of the cow depends more upon type and conformation
than upon size or breed. Those of the beef type produced fat at
a cost of seventeen and a half cents per pound; those carrying a
medium amount of flesh produced fat at a cost of fifteen and one-
tenth cents per pound; the spare cows lacking in depth of body
produced fat at a cost of fourteen and six-tenths cents per pound,
and the spare cows having deep bodies produced fat at a cost of
twelve and one-tenth cents per pound.'7

620. Effect of age of cow on productivity of feed. — Studying
the Ohio Station herd, Thorne1 reports on the influence of age
as follows:

Effect of age of cow on returns for feed given — Ohio Station.

Age.

No. of
cows.

Days since
calving.

Fat per 100
Ibs. dry
matter.

Live weight.

Gain.

Loss.

3 and 4 years...
5 years

7
7
10
6
4
5
6 .
2

127
260
135
157
115
172
105
133

Lbs.

2.95
2.99
3.45
3.62
3.14
3.05
3.22
2.75

Lbs.

33
23
29

Lbs.

6 years

7 years

8 years.

9 years

12
9
15

10 years

11 and 13 years..

Kept. Ohio Sta., 1893.

TJie Dairy Cow — Scientific Findings.

407

We learn that from her first calf up to and including the
seventh year, the cow gives gradually increasing returns for a
given quantity of feed; after the seventh year they gradually
diminish until the eleventh to the thirteenth year, when the
returns from feed are less than with the heifer. There is an in-
crease in weight during the first years, followed in later years
by some loss in weight. This table is in harmony with the ex-
perience of dairymen as to the most profitable years in the life
of the cow.

621. Advance in lactation and productivity of feed. — Thorne1
also studied the feed consumption and fat returns of thirty-one
cows used in tests at the Ohio and Wisconsin Stations, and deduced
the table given below for the purpose of showing the returns from
the cow as the lactation period advances:

Returns for feed consumed as time since calving increases — Ohio
and Wisconsin Stations.

Distance from calving.

No.
of
cows.

Fat per
100 Ibs.
dry
matter.

Live weight.

Gain.

Loss.

Less than 60 days* average 39 days

3
9
13
6

Lbs.

4.16
3.32
3.05
2.90

Lbs.

Lbs.
.04

From 60 to 120 days; average 91 days
From 120 to 180 days; average 142 days ..
More than 180 days; average 256 days

.11

.27
.34

We learn that shortly after calving the cow is at her best in
the fat she returns for feed consumed, and that during this period
there is usually a loss in body weight. As time since calving
increases the return of fat for feed consumed is reduced, the
cow, when well nurtured, increasing somewhat in weight. Dur-
ing the last stages of lactation the cow returns only about three-
fourths as much fat for feed consumed as shortly after calving.

622. Influence of time from calving on milk flow. — Sturtevant, 2
studying the diminution in milk flow of cows from month to
month after calving, reached the conclusion that this decrease

1 Loc. cit.

* Eept. New York (Geneva) Sta., 1886.

408

Feedx and Feeding.

may be placed at about nine per cent, of the yield for the preced-
ing month. The actual average yield of a herd and the theoret-
ical yield, according to this factor, appear in the following
table:

Monthly decrease in milk flow of dairy cows, actual and theoretical —

Sturtevant.

For whole herd.

For cows that went
dry between 8th and
12th month.

Actual
daily milk
yield.

Theoretical
daily milk
yield.

Actual
daily milk
yield.

Theoretical
daily milk
yield.

1st month.

Lbs.

25.7
24.4
22.0
19.9
17.3
16.5
14.9
13.4
12.3
11.1

Lbs.

25.7
23.4
21.3
19.4
17.7
16.1
14.7
13.4
12.2
11.1

Lbs.

26.9
25.2
22.8
20.6
18.7
17.0
15.0
12.7
11.6
10.4

Lbs.

26.9
24.5
22.3
21.3
18.5
16.9
15.4
14.0
12.8
11.6

2d month

3d month

4th month

5th month

6th month

7th month

8th month.

9th month

10th month .

In the table given above, the theoretical yield for each month
was obtained by subtracting nine per cent, of the yield for the
previous month from the yield for that month. We observe that
the actual yield agrees closely with the theoretical in showing the
possible yield of milk by the cow in any given month.

623. Heavy feeders may be the most profitable. — At the Penn-
sylvania Station, l Waters and Hess, studying the returns from
nine cows in the Station herd during a trial lasting 150 days, se-
cured important data relative to the food consumed and the yield
of butter. Cows which had been tested the previous year were
used in this trial. Some of these had excellent butter records,
while others were of average or low productive power. All were
fed liberally according to their capacity for consuming food.
Records were kept of consumption and production.

In a table prepared by these investigators are summarized the
butter yielded by each cow the preceding season, the cost of the

1 Bept. 1895.

The Dairy Cow — Scientific Findings.

409

feed eaten during the test and the net profit per cow daily. These
results are shown below:

Net profits of individual dairy cows — Pennsylvania Station,

Cow.

Yield of
butter
previous
year.

Yield of
butter
during ex-
periment.

Digestible
material
consumed
daily.

Average
daily cost
of feed.

Average
daily net
profit.

No. 1...

Lbs.
365

Lbs.
211

Lbs.
15.8

Cents.
18

Cents.
25

No. 2

345

182

15.3

No. 3

365

164

14 1

No. 4

322

156

15 0

No. 5 . ..

318

152

14.5

No. 6

340

135

13.3

No. 7

276

127

14.5

No. 8

231

117

13 7

No. 9 ..

13.7

We observe that, as a rule, the cows which ate the most gave
the largest net returns; the smallest eaters gave the least.

624. Another illustration. — Armsby1 presents an interesting
study of the cows used in the ninety -day test at the Columbian
Exposition, 1893. (Chapter XXVII, Part I. ) These cows were
arranged in eleven groups, irrespective of breed, according to the
amount of total solids produced during ninety days.

Showing of the ninety-day butter test, Columbian Exposition — Armsby.

Average total yield of —

Cost of
feed.

Net
profits.*

Feed cost per Ib.

Solids.

Fat.

Solids.

Fat

«s cows

Lbs.

478.13
446.24
427.90
400.60
375.83
346.70
329.99
315.09
301.63
278.94
253.34

Lbs.

154.11
140.78
139.84
126.41
125.68
107.53
101.91
99.07
98.23
90.00
79.29

$24 84
22 78
22 97
20 95
21 59
20 55
20 75
19 36
18 91
19 18
19 S5

$5741
52 30
51 66
4601
45 18
35 87
33 36
33 23
32 79
28 34
21 98

Cents.

5.19
5.11
5.37
5.23
5.77
5.93
6.29
6.14
6.27
6.87
7.84

Cente.

16.11
16.18
16. 43
16.58
17.17
19.11
20.36
19.54
19.25
21.31
25.04

(> COWS

H COWS

(> cows

8 cows

8 cows.

7 cows

f) COWS

7 cows

6 cows

4 cows

* Computed as in test, except live weight not included.

1 Jersey Bulletin, Dec. 23, 1896.

410 Feeds and Feeding.

The table shows that the cows yielding the largest amount of
solids and fat consumed the most feed; further, and what is of
the most importance, they gave the largest net profit. The cows
giving the smallest yield cost 20 per cent, less to feed, but the
net profits from them were 60 per cent, less than from the heavy
feeders. It does not follow that every large feeder in a dairy
herd is an economical cow; the wise dairyman will not judge
his cows by the amount of feed, but rather by the milk yield and
fat test, taking cognizance, in the second place, of the feed con-
sumed.

625. Amount of water drank. — In feeding experiments at the
Copenhagen Station1 the water drank by seventy-six cows on two

estates was as follows:

Av. water drank
per day.

Ordinary ration 97.9 pounds.

Same, 2 Ibs. grain replaced by 20 Ibs. roots 81.4 pounds.

Same, 4 Ibs. grain replaced by 40 Ibs. roots 61.6 pounds.

Same, plus 40 Ibs. roots 74. 8 pounds.

At the Pennsylvania Station, 2 Armsby found that cows averag-
ing 773 pounds in weight, confined to stalls in summer where ait
average temperature of 70° Fahr. prevailed, and living on fresh
grass, drank 61 pounds of water per head per day, while cows aver-
aging 735 pounds, confined in stalls where a temperature of 73°
prevailed, drank 107 pounds when fed on dry grass.

At the Wisconsin Station3 the same investigator found that
more water was drank with narrow rations than with wide ones.
Thus, with a nutritive ratio of 1 : 5.5, there were 4.33 pounds of
water drank for each pound of dry matter, while with a ratio of
1 : 8.6 only 2.41 pounds were drank.

In general it may be said that cows require about four pounds of
water for each pound of dry matter in the feed consumed.

Sturtevant, of the New York (Geneva) Station,4 writes: "A
water supply should be. sufficient to furnish an average of eight
gallons daily per head for the cows kept, in order to be assured
of a full supply."

626. Relation of water drank or in food to milk yield. — Collier,
reporting findings in this matter at the Geneva Station,5 writes:

1 Kept 1890, p. 8. 2 Rept. 1888. 8 Kept. 1886. 4 Kept. 1886.
8 Proc. of "New York Farmers," 1892-93.

The Dairy Cow — Scientific Findings. 411

11 We have found that our cows which averaged 898 pounds in
weight drank each month 1, 660 pounds of water, and their food
contained in addition 775 pounds, or a total of 2,435 pounds of
water for a milk yield of 529 pounds, an average of 4. 6 pounds
of water for one pound of milk. These same cows while dry
drank each month 1,054 pounds of water, and there were 532
pounds in their food, an aggregate of 1,586 pounds, or 65.1 per
cent, of the amount they had during lactation.'7

627. Warm versus cold water. — At the Wisconsin Station, l
King conducted two trials where water warmed to a temperature
of 70° Fahr. was supplied to one lot of cows in opposition to
water at a temperature of 32° given a second lot. In the first trial
the cows receiving the warm water gave 6 per cent, more milk
than those getting cold water, while in the second trial there is a
difference of only one per cent, in favor of the warmer water.
The cows given the warm water drank from 8 to 10 pounds more
daily than those supplied cold water.

At the Indiana Station, 2 Wolf found that when the temper-
ature of the water supplied was reduced from 79° to 38° Fahr.,
the cows fell off 8 per cent, in milk yield.

628. Drinking at will. — Backhaus3 reports trials with cows
kept in an ordinary stable where water was given them twice
daily; they were then changed to stalls having troughs with a
constant water supply in each manger. Under this change the
milk yield increased on an average about one pound per cow daily,
there being no decrease in the fat content. The increased yield
due to a constant supply of water was estimated at 225 pounds
of milk per cow annually. (710)

629. Salt for milch cows. 4 — Three cows were fed from June 20
to July 15 without an allowance of salt; the milk yielded from
July 4 to 18 amounted to 454 pounds. From July 18 to August 1,
4 ounces of salt were given daily to each cow, and the yield of
milk during this time was 564 pounds, an increase of 110 pounds.

63Q. Value of shelter.— At the Indiana Station, « Plumb tested
the value of shelter with six grade cows divided into two lots of

1 Repte. 1889-90. 2 Bui. 24. 8 Milch Zeit.. 1892. pp. 509^12.
« Loc. cit., 1895, p. 186. ° Bui. 47.

412 Feeds and Feeding.

three each, the lots being as nearly equal in all respects as possi-
ble. One lot was housed in the stable except on pleasant days,
when an hour's exercise was allowed. On disagreeable days they
were turned out to drink and immediately returned to their stalls.
The lot subjected to exposure was turned into the yard at 8 A. M.,
regardless of the weather, and returned to the barn at 4 P. M. In
a protected corner of the barnyard was an open shed furnishing
shelter, and under this the mid-day feed of hay was given. Evi-
dently the cows most exposed were even then under more comfort-
able conditions than are cows on many dairy farms at the North
during winter. The trial lasted 48 days, during which time the
exposed cows ate 512 pounds less hay, but 388 pounds more corn
meal and 368 pounds more bran than the housed lot. Despite
the extra feed they shrank 33 pounds in weight, while the shel-
tered lot gained 231 pounds and gave 161 pounds more milk.
Plumb, summarizing the result, gives the following financial
statement: •

Saving in cost of feed eaten $4 23

Value of extra milk, 161 pounds 2 79

Value of 231 pounds gain at 2.5 cents per pound 5 77

Amount saved by sheltering three cows 48 days.... $12 79
Amount saved by sheltering one cow 48 days 4 26

These results, showing the great importance of sheltering dairy
cows, stand in strong contrast with experimental data in regard
to shelter in winter for fattening sheep and steers. (561, 697, 750)

631. Influence of work on quality of milk. — The composition
and quality of the milk of two cows employed in plowing was
studied by Domic. * It was found that the composition of the
milk was but slightly changed because of the work performed.
The quantity of milk decreased 15. 5 and 10. 5 per cent, respect-
ively. The quality was impaired, its keeping ability being low-
ered, and the acidity increased 1 to 2 degrees.

632. Effects of grooming. — In experiments by Backhaus2 with
cows, a difference of 2.5 to 8.3 per cent, in the yield of milk and
fat was noted in favor of grooming cows.

* Milch Zeit., 1896, p. 331.

2 Jour. f. Landw., 41, 1893, p. 332.

CHAPTER XXV.

STATION TESTS WITH FEEDING STUFFS FOE DAIRY COWS.
I. Concentrated Feeds.

633. Whole corn compared with corn and cob meal. — In a feed-
ing trial with seven cows at the Ohio Station, 1 corn and cob meal
fed with hay was compared with ear corn. The average yield

per cow during a fourteen- day period was:

Daily milk Per cent, fat

yield. in milk.

When fed corn and cob meal 16. 2 pounds. 3.57

When fed whole ear corn 15. 7 pounds. 3.76

It will be seen that during the corn and cob meal period the
yield of milk was one-half pound more daily for each cow. This
has little significance, however, when it is remembered that the
period of lactation was advanced two weeks during the second
trial. (158, 382, 539)

(534. Waste in feeding whole ear corn. — At the Wisconsin Sta-
tion, Woll, 2 observing unbroken grains of corn in the excrement
of cows fed dry ear corn and also those getting ear corn in silage,
ascertained the amount of grain passed by the cows during twenty-
four hours. The droppings were washed and the grains of corn
collected. The figures in the table give the weight of the corn
calculated to the same water content as when fed:

Amount of corn found in excrement of cows — Wisconsin Station.

Cow fed
dry
corn.

Cow fed
silage
corn.

Weight of corn as fed, pounds . ..

5 75

12 23

Weight of droppings for twenty-four hours,
pounds

84 75

Undigested kernels of corn quarts. .. .

1 25

Weight of kernels, pounds.

1 05

367

Per cent, of corn appearing in droppings

18 3

3 0

Kept. 1883.

2 Kept. 1892.

414

Feeds and Feeding.

We learn by this table that over 18 per cent, of the dry ear
corn and only 3 per cent, of the silage corn passed through the
alimentary tract in practically unbroken form. The voided corn
was tested in a seed germinator, 43 per cent, of the dry corn grains
and none of the silage kernels germinating. (538)

635. Maize feed versus corn meal and bran. — At the Vermont
Station, Hills1 compared maize feed with corn meal and bran,
equal parts by weight, for dairy cows. The roughage consisted
of two parts of hay and one of silage.

Maize feed versus corn meal and bran — Vermont Station.

Feed eaten.

Products.

Roughage.

Maize feed.

Corn meal
and bran.

Milk.

Fat.

Lbs.

2,424

2,427

Lbs.
1,000

Lbs.

2,388
2,164

Lbs.

114.3
102.2

1,008

tn favor of ma

ize feed

224

12.1

636. Gluten feed compared with corn meal and bran. — In trials
by Hills at the Vermont Station2 cows were fed daily eight
pounds of corn meal and bran, equal parts by weight, during the
first and third periods. In the second period gluten feed was
substituted for half the corn and bran mixture.

Gluten feed} corn meal and bran compared with corn meal and bran
only — Vermont Station.

Feed eaten.

Roughage.

Gluten with
corn meal and
bran.

Corn meal
and bran
only.

Milk.

Fat.

Lbs.

2,846
2,924

Lbs.
1,000

Lbs.

3,048
2,760

Lbs,

142.2
125.6

1,000

In favor of glu

288

16.6

Products.

1 Bui. 48.

2 Loc. cit.

Station Tests with Feeds for Dairy Cows.

415

Because of the heavy character of the gluten feed it was deemed
advisable that not over one -half of the concentrates in the ration
consist of this material. The roughage was of equal parts silage
and hay, by weight.

There was a gain of 10.4 per cent, of milk and 13.2 per cent,
of fat by substituting gluten feed for half the corn meal and bran
of the ration.

The results of this trial and that with maize feed substantiate
the claim of high nutritive value for these by-products of the
glucose and starch factories. (161-4)

637. Gluten meal compared with cotton-seed meal. — At the
Maine Station, l Bartlett fed six cows, averaging 900 pounds each,
for two months on rations containing cotton-seed meal and gluten
meal, with the results shown in the table:

Feeding cotton-seed meal and gluten meal — Maine Station.

Ration.

Average daily
products, per
cow.

Milk.

Fat.

Timothy hay, 15 pounds...
Silage, 20 pounds

Gluten meal, 3 pounds
Corn meal, 2 pounds

Lbs.
18.6

Lbs.
0.92

Bran 2 pounds

Timothy hay, 15 pounds...
Silage, 20 pounds

Cotton-seed meal, 2 pounds

18.9

0.96

Bran 3 pounds

Bartlett concludes: "The foregoing data indicate that gluten
meal is fully equal to cotton-seed meal when fed in sufficient
quantity to make the amount of digestible nutrients equal in each
ration. It is not equal to cotton-seed meal pound for pound as a
source of protein, as it contains, on an average, about one-quarter
less of that nutrient. It makes a very good quality of butter, but
slightly softer than that made from cotton-seed meal when fed in
the quantity used in this experiment." (161-4, 210-12, 216-17)

638. Wheat meal compared with corn meal. — At the Maine Sta-
tion, 2 Bartlett also compared wheat meal with corn meal, six cows

1 Kept. 1896. 2 Kept. 1895.

416

Feeds and Feeding.

being used. In the first and third periods all received the follow-
ing ration: Timothy hay, eighteen pounds 5 wheat meal, five
pounds; cotton-seed meal, two pounds. In the second period corn
meal was substituted for wheat meal.

Wheat meal compared with corn meal — Maine Station.

Average daily
yield.

Weight.

Water
drank
daily.

Milk.

Fat.

Gain.

Loss.

Period I wheat meal

Lbs.

19.7
18.8
17.0

Lbs.

.87
.85
.84

Lbs.
3

Lbs.

61
64
68

Period II corn meal

Period III, wheat meal

Making allowance for decreased milk flow as the lactation
period lengthened, the results may be regarded as practically
equal. There was a slight gain in weight by the cows during the
two wheat-meal periods, while when corn meal was fed there was
a decided decrease. We conclude that wheat meal is at least
equal to corn meal as a feed for the dairy cow. (166-8)

639. Wheat meal compared with mixed grain. — At the Ontario
Agricultural College, 1 Dean fed one lot of cows wheat meal, and
another mixed grain consisting of one-half oats and one-fourth
each of ground barley and peas. Nine pounds of grain were
fed daily with hay, straw and silage, the trial lasting sixty days.

Feeding wheat meal in comparison with mixed grain meal — Ontario
Agricultural College.

Grain fed.

Milk per cow
daily.

Total increase in
live weight.

Cost of produc-
ing 100 Ibs. of
milk.

Mixed meal

26 8 pounds.

38.5 pounds.

46 cents.

Wheat meal

24 1 pounds.

10 pounds.

57 cents.

The milk flow was better maintained on the mixed-meal ration
than on the ground- wheat ration. The cost of producing 100
pounds of milk was calculated on the basis of ordinary Ontario

iBept.1893.

Station Tests with Feeds for Dairy Cows.

417

prices for cattle feeds, viz.: hay $6.50, straw $2, silage $1.75, per
ton; oats 24J cents, peas 57 cents, barley 38 cents and wheat 60
cents, per bushel. (166-8)

640. Wheat bran compared with mixed grain. — During the years
1893-94 extensive feeding trials were conducted by the Copen-
hagen Experiment Station1 on the estates of dairy farmers. In
these trials 447 cows were used. One lot of cows on each estate
was fed a mixture of barley and oats; a second was fed one-half
wheat bran and one-half grain mixture, while a third lot received
wheat bran only. The results briefly summarized were as follows:

Feeding mixed grain and wheat bran to 447 dairy cows — Copen-
hagen (Denmark) Station.

Mixed
grain.

One-half
grain, one-
half bran.

Wheat
bran
only.

Average milk yield per cow, pounds
Average per cent, solids in milk

21.9
11 66

22.1
11 75

22.1
11.77

Average per cent, fat in milk

3.04

3.11

3.12

These results agree closely, and from them we may assume that
wheat bran is of equal feeding value for milch cows with a
mixture of barley and oats.

The findings of this test are of great value because of the large
number of cows used in it and from the further fact that the
animals were on various large farms under normal conditions,
while all the observations were taken and recorded by Station
officials. (175)

641. Shorts compared with wheat bran. — The Copenhagen Sta-
tion also conducted trials with wheat shorts in comparison with
wheat bran, 240 cows on several estates being used in trials dur-
ing the years 1893-94. The shorts gave a slightly larger milk
yield on three of the estates, but the difference was small.

Combining the results of this trial with those reported in the
preceding article, we learn that bran, shorts and mixed grain are
practically of equal value for feeding the dairy cow. (174)

1 29th Kept. 1894.
27

418

Feeds and Feeding.

642. Ground oats compared with wheat bran. — At the Wiscon-
sin Station, l Woll compared ground oats with wheat bran in two
feeding trials with six cows. Ten pounds of these concentrates
were given each cow daily with the results shown below:

Returns from feeding ground oats and bran — Wisconsin Station.

Daily milk
yield.

Daily fat
yield.

Per cent,
fat.

Lbs.
21 07

Lbs.
933

4 65

Bran

1U 19

845

4.68

In favor of oats

1 88

088

— 03

Here is a return of 10 per cent, more milk and fat from oats
than from bran. The high value of oats in the dairy is well
illustrated in this trial. (175, 186)

643. Sorghum-seed meaL — At the New Jersey Station, 2 Cook
tested the relative merits of amber cane sorghum-seed meal and
corn meal for milk production. Three cows were fed the follow-
ing ration per 1, 000 pounds live weight: Twenty pounds brewers7
grains, nine pounds corn meal, five pounds corn stover, and five
pounds bran. After receiving this ration twenty days, sorghum-
seed meal was gradually substituted for the corn meal until it re-
placed the latter — the same amount, nine pounds, being fed.
When this feed had been used twenty days the ration was grad-
ually changed back to corn meal. The results for the three
periods are as follows:

Period I. Cows fed corn meal averaged 28.1 pounds of milk each daily.
Period II. Cows fed sorghum meal averaged 24.6 pounds of milk each

daily.
Period III. Cows fed corn meal averaged 27 pounds of milk each daily.

It was observed that when the full sorghum-meal ration was
reached the yield of milk dropped immediately. On the other
hand, when changing from sorghum back to corn meal there was
an increase in the milk flow. These trials show that sorghum
meal is 10 per cent, less valuable than corn meal for milk pro-
duction. (197)

» Kept. 1890. 2 Kept. 1882.

Station Tests with Feeds for Dairy Cows.

419

644. Cotton seed and its by-products. — At the Mississippi Sta-
tion, l Lloyd tested cotton seed and its by-products in various
forms for milk and butter production with the results summarized
in the following tdble:2

Feeding cotton seed and its by-products to dairy cows — Mississippi

Station.

Ration.

Duration
of period.

Number of
animals.

Fat content
of milk.

Cost of feed
per gallon
of milk.

Average
daily but-
ter pro-
duction. |

Cost of feed
per Ib. of
butter.

Four grade Jerseys and one
grade Holstein. (a)
9.5 pounds raw cotton seed,
9.2 pounds Bermuda
hay

Days.
35

Gal-
lons.

1.10

Per

cent.

5.62

Cents.

7.7

Pound.

.498

Cents.
17 4

10.6 pounds roasted cotton
seed. 10.5 pounds Ber-
muda hay

1.22

5 55

8.5

.545

19 1

10.4 pounds boiled cotton
seed, 8.5 pounds Ber-
muda hay

5.64

8 8

439

19 6

9.9 pounds corn meal, 9.9
pounds Bermuda hay...
9.5 pounds raw cotton seed,
8.5 pounds timothy
hay

35
35

5
5

1.47
.91

3.86
5.43

12.8
12.8

.455
.396

41.4
29.5

9.5 pounds raw cotton seed,
10.9 pounds Bermuda
hav

1 30

5 38

12 3

560

28 5

Four grade Jerseys and one
grade Holstein. (b)
7.8 pounds raw cotton seed,
.7.7 pounds Bermuda
hay, 10 pounds silage ...
8 pounds raw cotton seed,
4.9 pounds timothy
hay, 9.8 pounds silage ...
9.9 pounds boiled cotton
seed, 7.5 pounds Ber-
muda hay, 9.9 pounds
silage

35
35

5
5

1.09
.97

1 56

5.95
5.73

5 84

6.3
8.3

4 9

.522
.438

717

13.2
18.4

10 9

9.9 pounds boiled cotton
seed. 6.5 pounds timo-
thy hay, 9.9 pounds sil-
age

1 30

5 87

1Q I

8.8 pounds cotton -seed
meal, 10.2 pounds Ber-
muda hay, 9.9 pounds
silage

1 51

5 74

9 8

680

8.8 pounds cotton -seed
meal, 8.8 pounds timo-
thy hay, 9.9 pounds sil-
age

1 51

5 70

12 6

685

28 1

(a) Bui. lo.— Cost of feed in these six experiments, per ton: Raw cotton seed, $fi;
boiled cotton seed, $6.30; roasted cotton seed, $7.20; cotton-seed meal, $20; Bermuda
hay. $12.50; corn meal. $25; timothy hay, $20.80.

(6) Bui. 21.— Roasted and boiled cotton seed and cotton-seed meal were same prices
as in note (a); Bermuda hay, $10; timothy hay, $21.46; and silage $2 per ton,

1 Buls. 15, 21.

2 The Cotton Plant: Its History, etc., p. 412.

420

Feeds and Feeding.

It will be seen that the cheapest returns were obtained from
feeding boiled cotton seed, Bermuda hay and silage; next in
economy came raw cotton seed, while cotton -seed meal, at the
price charged, stood third in cost. Cotton seed was found to be
much cheaper than corn meal. (216-17, 723)

645. Cotton-seed meal compared with bran. — At the Pennsyl-
vania Station, 1 Hunt obtained about one-fifth more milk when the
cows were fed cotton-seed meal in place of bran, the cotton-seed
meal (six pounds) constituting about three-fifths of the concen-
trates and about one-fourth of the total feed eaten. The percent-
ages of fat in the milk were not influenced by changes in feed.

646. Linseed meal versus cotton-seed meal. — At the Pennsyl-
vania Station, 2 Waters and Hess compared linseed meal with cot-
ton-seed meal. Nine cows were used in this trial, the ration in
one period consisting of cotton -seed meal, chopped wheat and corn
stover; later, the cows were fed the same ration, except that lin-
seed meal (old process) was substituted for the cotton-seed meal.
The results of the trial were as follows:

I/inseed meal (old process) and cotton-seed meal compared — Penn-
sylvania Station.

Feeds given.

Cows fed on —

Linseed meal.

Cotton-seed
meal.

Oil meal or cotton-seed meal.

Rat

5. 99 pounds.
5. 99 pounds.
9. 31 pounds.

ion.

5. 26 pounds.
6. 69 pounds.
9. 28 pounds.

Chopped wheat ..

Corn stover

Digestible nutrients

12. 74 pounds.
1 :4.4

Product, 9 c<

4, 087. 7 pounds.
258. 3 pounds.
379. 8 pounds.

12. 87 pounds.

i . q q
1 ! O*V

>ws, 30 days.

4, 381. 9 pounds.
254.0 pounds.
405. 8 pounds.

Nutritive ratio

Milk

Butter .. ..

Solids not fat

Average per cent, fat in milk

5.1

Sum]

91. 2 pounds.
14. 4 pounds.

4.7

nary.

87. 7 pounds.
15.0 pounds.

Digestible matter for 100 pounds milk ..
Digestible matter for 1 pound butter

Kept. 1891.

Kept. 1895.

Station Tests with Feeds for Dairy Cows.

421

Though the rations are not identical they so nearly coincide in
digestible nutrients that the results are comparable. It will be
seen that the cows receiving cotton-seed meal were fed slightly
more digestible matter with a somewhat narrower nutritive ratio.

In these trials cotton-seed meal produced more milk than did
linseed meal, while the latter gave somewhat better returns in
butter. All things considered, neither feed showed an advantage
over the other. (206-216)

647. OH cake compared with grain. — During feeding trials with
cows conducted by the Copenhagen Station1 in 1891 and 1892,
the comparative feeding value of grain and oil cake of various
kinds was studied, two hundred and forty cows on various estates
being used in the trials. The grain fed was a mixture of barley
and oats; the oil cake consisted of equal parts by weight of palm
nut, rape seed, and sunflower-seed cake. In each series of ex-
periments, three lots of cows were fed as follows: Lot I, f grain,
J oil cake; Lot II, J grain, £ oil cake; Lot III, J grain and f oil
cake. The yield and fat content of the milk obtained during the
experiments are as shown below, the figures being the average of
the experiments continued for two years:

Feeding grain and oil caJce in varying proportions to 24.0 dairy cows —
Copenhagen (Denmark) Station.

Lot I.

f grain,
J oil cake.

Lot II.
£ grain,
% oil cake.

Lot III.

\ grain,
f oil cake.

Average daily milk yield, pounds..
Average percent, of milk solids....
Average per cent, of fat

21.7
11.90
3 20

22.9
11.85
3.17

23.4
11.84
3.20

The table shows that for each one hundred pounds of oil cake
substituted for the same amount of mixed grain there was a gain of
sixty-six pounds of milk, provided the oil cake did not constitute
more than half of the grain ration. The feeding of this amount
of oil cake in the ration therefore proved economical.

648. Dried distillery grains compared with oats. — Experiments
were made in 1893 by Gripenberg at the Mustiala (Finland)

1 27th Kept. 1892.

422

Feeds and Feeding.

Agricultural College1 with four milch cows, in a comparison of
dried distillers' grains with oats for milk and butter production.
Hay and roots were fed in addition to the grain, the results being
as follows:

Oats compared with dried distillers' (/rains for dairy cows — Mustlala
(Finland) Agricultural College.

Daily yield.

Per cent fat.

Milk.

Fat.

Oats

Lbs.

28.9
32.3

Lbs.

.88
.96

3.05
2.97

Distillers' grains

The dried distillers' grains produced about 12 per cent, more
milk and 9 per cent, more fat than did the oats, thus showing a
high feeding value.

II. Coarse Feed.

649. Upland prairie hay versus timothy hay. — At the Minnesota
Station, 2 Haecker compared these hays as feed for dairy cows. The
prairie hay was composed of native grasses grown on the uplands
of Minnesota, and was of excellent quality. The timothy hay
was medium fine, rather short, cut early and properly cured,
showing fine aroma and good color. Sixteen cows were used in
the trial, each group receiving the same quantity of grain and
hay. The experiment lasted about three months, with the re-
sults shown in the table:

Comparison of native upland prairie hay and timothy hay — Minne-
sota Station.

Feed given.

Digestible nutrients in
rations.

Returns.

Grain.

Sil-
age.

Hay.

Pro-
tein.

Carbo-
hy-
drates.

Ether
extract.

Milk.

Fat.

Lbs.

Prairie hay
Timothy hay..

2,013
2,016

1,680
1,680

1,840
1,840

2.1

2.2

12.5
13.1

.69
.74

2,586
2,547

120.7
121.3

Biet. 1893.

2 Bui. 35.

Station Tests with Feeds for Dairy Cows.

423

It will be seen that almost identical quantities of milk and fat
were produced by the two lots of cows, the excess of milk being
in favor of prairie hay, and the excess of fat in favor of timothy.
From this we conclude that upland prairie hay of good quality is
fully as valuable for feeding dairy cows as a good grade of timothy
hay.

650. Japan clover hay versus Bermuda hay. — In an experiment
with sixty cows conducted at the Mississippi Station1 by Lloyd,
half were fed mixed hay (Japan clover and some chicken corn) and
the other half Bermuda hay. Cotton seed, cotton-seed meal or
corn meal was fed in connection with the hay. The mixed hay was
valued at $7 and the Bermuda hay at $10 per ton. The experi-
ment was continued about twelve weeks. The 'average results
obtained per cow daily were as follows, the yield of fat given in
the table being calculated from the yield of butter by multiplying
by .82, the percentage of pure fat contained:

Feeding mixed hay and Bermuda hay to dairy cows — Mississippi

Station.

Daily yield.

Per cent,
fat.

Average cost of one —

Milk.

Fat.

Gal. milk.

Lb. butter.

Bermuda hay

Lbs.

' 8.6
8.0

Lbs.

.35
.34

4.08
4.23

Cents.

11.3
10.6

Cents.

26.6
24.3

Mixed hay

Bermuda hay produced somewhat more milk and slightly more
fat than did the Japan clover hay. At the prices charged the
mixed hay was the cheaper; at equal prices there would be little
difference in cost of products. (296)

651. Timothy hay versus meadow fox-tail hay. — An experiment
was conducted at Mustiala (Finland) Agricultural College2 for
the purpose of obtaining data concerning the relative value of
timothy and meadow fox- tail (Alopecurus') hay for milk and butter
production. The cows received similar quantities of both kinds
of hay, ranging from 11.7 to 17.6 pounds per head per day, and
oat straw ad libitum. The same amount of concentrates and roots

Bui. 13.

2 Biet. 1893.

424

Feeds and Feeding.

was fed to each cow. Ten cows were included in the experiment,
with the daily yield of milk and fat as follows:

Feeding timothy and meadow fox-tail hay to dairy cows — Mustiala
(Finland) Agricultural College.

Daily yield.

Per cent. fat.

Milk.

Fat.

Timothy hay

Lbs.

23.5

24.8

Lbs.

.71

.77

2.97
3.08

Alopecurus hay. ....... .

The fox- tail hay produced 5.5 per cent, more milk and 8.4 per
cent, more fat than the timothy.

652, Fodder corn compared with timothy hay. — At the Penn-
sylvania Station, l Hunt and Caldwell fed fodder corn and timothy
hay to cows to determine the relative merits of these two common
roughage crops. There were four cows in each lot, the trial last-
ing forty-five days, with the results shown in the table:

Fodder corn versus timothy hay — Pennsylvania Station.

Cows fed
hay.

Cows fed
fodder corn.

Hay or fodder eaten

Lbs.
4,237

Lbs.
4,102

Ground oats eaten

540

Bran eaten

540

Total milk yielded ...

3.084

2 921

Total fat yielded

116

120

Gain or loss of cows in weight

84 gain.

23 loss.

It will be seen that the cows ate somewhat more hay than fod-
der, the grain fed being the same in both cases. More milk
was obtained from the hay, but the fodder corn yielded more
butter, the cows in this lot giving slightly richer milk than the
others. The cows fed hay gained in weight, while those on fod-
der corn lost. The trial shows these feeds to be substantially
equal, pound for pound. This being true, the high value of

* Kept. 1892.

Station Tests with Feeds for Dairy Cows. 425

fodder corn is apparent; for while two tons of timothy hay per
acre is a good return, these investigators report that the fodder
corn used in the trial yielded at the rate of 8,885 pounds per
acre. The trial suggests the possibility that timothy hay con-
duces to the storage of fat in the body of the cow, while fodder
corn turns the fat into the milk. (250)

653. Corn stover versus mixed hay and clover hay. — At the
Wisconsin Station1 the writer compared corn stover with mixed
hay and clover hay for dairy cows, under the following conditions:
A crop of yellow dent corn yielding 4,490 pounds of stalks when
dried in the shock, and 4,941 pounds of ears per acre, was har-
vested in the usual manner. After drying, the corn was husked
and the stalks reserved for feeding. Uncut stalks were fed in
comparison with uncut hay. The mixed hay consisted of one-
third clover and two-thirds timothy. The clover hay used was
from medium red clover, cut early to preserve the leaves and
heads in good condition. Four good cows were used, forming
two lots of two each, one lot getting hay, while the other was fed
stover. After three weeks the feeding was reversed, and the trial
continued for the same period. The concentrates of the ration
consisted of five parts corn meal and seven parts wheat bran by
weight, fed dry. The results of the trial are here summarized.

Comparing corn stover with mixed hay, when each was sup-
plemented by 280 pounds of corn meal and 392 pounds of wheat
bran, it was found that —

2,374 pounds of corn stover returned 1,120.7 pounds of milk, making 57
pounds of butter.

755 pounds of mixed hay returned 1,064 pounds of milk, making 56.1
pounds of butter.

Comparing corn stover with clover hay, grain being fed as
above, it was found that —

1,867 pounds of corn stover returned 1,079.3 pounds of milk, making
52.2 pounds of butter.

643 pounds of clover hay returned 1,059 pounds of milk, making 54.5
pounds of butter.

The returns being practically equal, we conclude that one ton
of mixed clover and timothy hay is worth three tons of corn stover,
or corn stalks, fed as were these.

1 Kept. 1884.

426 Feeds and Feeding.

In the second trial one ton of clover hay was found to be worth
somewhat more than three tons of corn stover.

As before noted, the corn stover wasfed uncut, and the parts
left uneaten, day by day, were saved and weighed. It was found
that thirty -four per cent, of the fodder remained unconsumed in
the coarser portions of the corn stalks. (251)

Dairymen will be interested in learning the quantity of feed
required for a unit of milk and butter in the above trial. These
are given in the following table:

Feed for 100 pounds of milk and 100 pounds of butter as shown in tlie
trial just reported.

When feeding corn stover.

For 100 pounds of milk. For 100 pounds of butter.

193 pounds stover. 3 , 880 pounds of stover.

60 pounds corn meal and bran. 1,233 pounds corn meal and bran.

When feeding mixed hay.

71 pounds mixed hay. 1 , 348 pounds mixed hay.

62 pounds corn meal and bran. 1 , 200 pounds corn meal and bran.

When feeding clover hay.

60 pounds clover hay. 1, 179 pounds clover hay.

63 pounds corn meal and bran. 1 , 231 pounds corn meal and bran.

654. Silage compared with hay. — At the Maine Station, 1 Jordan
compared silage made from various kinds of corn with "good
hay" (mostly timothy) for milk production. Four cows were
fed, first hay, later hay and silage, and again hay. During the
whole period each cow received the same amount of concentrates
daily. The following results were secured:

On hay and grain Feb. 17 to Men. 9 21 . 7 pounds milk.

On hay, silage and grain. ...Mch. 10 to May 11 22.5 pounds milk.

On hay and grain May 12 to May 25 19.6 pounds milk.

Here is an increase when changing from hay to silage and hay,
and a decrease when changing back from silage to hay. The
effects of the two feeds are shown in another table by the same
investigator, who groups the milk yield of the four cows in

1 Kept. 1889.

Station Tests with Feeds for Dairy Cows. 427

fourteen- day periods just preceding or following a change in the
roughage supplied.

Total yield of milk, four cows, 14 days.

On hay 1,212 pounds.

Changed to silage and hay 1,294 pounds.

An increase of 82 pounds, or 7 per cent.

On silage and hay 1,200 pounds.

Changed to hay 1,100 pounds.

A decrease of 100 pounds, or 8 per cent.

We observe that when the cows were changed from hay to silage
and hay there was an increase of 7 per cent, in the milk flow, and
when changed back a shrinkage of 8 per cent. There was no
difference in the composition of the milk because of the different
feeds. Jordan concludes: "In this experiment the addition of
silage to the ration resulted in a somewhat increased production
of milk solids, which was not caused by an increase in the digesti-
ble food material eaten, but which must have been due either to
the superior value of the nutrients of the silage over those of the
hay or to the general physiological effect of feeding a greater
variety of foods. In other words, 8.8 pounds of silage proved to
be somewhat superior to 1.98 pounds of hay (mostly timothy),
the quantity of digestible material being the same in the two
cases. . . . Assuming the digestible matter of hay and silage
to be of equal value, pound for pound, when hay is worth $10
per ton, silage of the kind used in this experiment would be
worth $2.25 per ton. But this silage contained more water than
the average. . . . Had it been of average quality, then the
ton value reckoned on the above basis would be $2.62. But in
this case we should give the silage the credit of the increased
milk production, which seems to have been at the rate of 85
pounds of milk to each ton of silage.77 (390-91)

655. Silage versus fodder corn. — At the New Jersey Station1
Yoorhees and Lane conducted a trial with silage and fodder corn
for milk production.

A field of fifteen acres was planted to corn in rows three feet
six inches apart, with the stalks eight inches apart in the row.

1 Bui. 122.

428

Feeds and Feeding.

The crop was harvested the first week in September, when the ears
were beginning to glaze. The corn from twelve acres was run
through the feed-cutter and placed in a silo, 11.25 tons being the
average yield of green forage per acre. The crop of three acres
was harvested by cutting and shocking in the usual manner.
After curing for one month the forage was stored in the barn, the
average yield being 4.1 tons of dry fodder per acre. The cost of
placing the crop in the silo was $11.22 per acre. (400) The cost
for cutting, shocking, storing the fodder and running it through
the feed-cutter was $10.31 per acre.

The total losses in dry matter were assumed to be practically
equal for the two methods. The changes in the fodder were found
to be an increase in crude fiber and a decrease in protein, ash and
nitrogen-free extract. The changes in the silo resulted in the
conversion of about two-thirds of the albuminoids into amides.
(385-7) Two lots of four cows each were fed silage and fodder
respectively, the feeds for the lots being reversed at the close of
the first period in order that both lots might be tested upon the
same feed. The rations were so compounded that the fodder or
silage furnished at least one-half the total dry matter and two-
thirds the digestible carbohydrates. The silage was eaten with-
out waste, while a portion of the fodder was left uneaten. Both
lots of cows gained in weight during the trial. The production
of milk and fat is shown in the following table:

Feeding silage and dry forage to dairy cows — New Jersey Station.

No. of
days.

Total
yield of
milk.

Av.

yield
per day
per cow

Av. per

cent, of
fat.

Total
yield of
fat.

Av. fat
per day
per cow

Silage

Lbs.
2 276.2

Lbs.
23.7

3 78

Lbs.
86.15

Lbs.

897

Dry fodder ration

2 017 9

21 0

3 86

78 02

813

258 3

2 7

— 0 08

8 13

084

Percent, of increase

12.8

10 4

It will be seen that the silage ration produced 12.8 per cent,
more milk and 10.4 per cent, more fat than did the dry forage.

656. Rape for milch cows. — At the Ontario Agricultural Col-
lege, 1 Shaw investigated the value of rape for milch cows. Four

* Kept. 1892.

Station Tests with Feeds for Dairy Cows. 429

cows were separated into two lots and fed during four periods
lasting fifty-three days. Eape was fed during Periods II and IV.
The cows were pastured during Period I, and fed hay and silage
during Period III. Five pounds of meal were fed daily per head
throughout the trial. Lot I received forty pounds of rape per
day, and hay ad libitum; Lot n was fed rape ad libitum, consuming
on an average seventy-six pounds daily. The average daily milk

yield for each lot was as follows:

Rape. No rape.

Lot 1 19. 13 pounds. 17.25 pounds.

Lot II 18. 20 pounds. 17. 74 pounds.

The rape was fed both before and after milking without im-
parting any perceptible taint to the milk in either case. The
results obtained are promising for rape as a feed for the dairy
cow. (334-5)

657. Roots versus concentrated feeds. — At the Copenhagen
Station, 1 eighteen series of experiments were conducted for three
consecutive years with 636 cows separated into 62 lots. The
addition of 40 pounds of mangels or 50 pounds of turnips to an
ordinary ration for milch cows increased the daily milk yield by
2.75 pounds, the cows increasing 3.63 pounds per head in live
weight, eating 3.08 pounds less straw daily. In two preceding
years, 2.86 and 1.76 pounds more milk were obtained on heavy
root feeding, the average weight being 5.5 and 3.74 pounds
more, and the quantity of straw eaten .55 and 1.98 pounds less
per head daily. No appreciable difference in the chemical com-
position of the milk was observed resulting from the more intense
feeding. These experiments show that one pound of concentrates,
made up of grain, bran and oil cake, proved equal to ten pounds
of mangels in feeding dairy cows. There was no appreciable dif-
ference in the water content of the milk produced by feeding
varying quantities of roots. The water found in the milk was
within .24 of one per cent, for the different lots of cows, the lowest
water content appearing in the milk from cows receiving the
largest quantity of roots. These extensive experiments completely
refute the charge that milk can be indirectly watered by feeding
roots. (325)

1 20th Kept. 1890.

430 Feeds and Feeding.

658. Feeding potatoes. — According to Cornevin1 milch cows
may be maintained exclusively on a ration of potatoes, eating
about seven per cent, of their weight daily. Feeding exclu-
sively on potatoes increases the milk flow, but the cows shrink
in weight and take their feed with repugnance if it is continued
for any length of time. Steamed potatoes are readily eaten by
milch cows, but, if fed exclusively, digestion troubles will soon
appear and rumination be disturbed or suspended.

In feeding potatoes in connection with other feeds, Cornevin
obtained the best results when the potatoes furnished fifty per
cent, of the total dry matter of the ration. It was found that raw
potatoes favored milk secretion, while steamed potatoes increased
the live weight and produced a deposition of fat. (316, 484—6,
866, 897)

III. Miscellaneous Feeding Substances.

659. Feeding milk and skim milk.— At the Iowa Station, 2 Wil-
son fed full milk and afterwards skim milk to dairy cows. The
cows shrunk in weight on full milk and gained on skim milk.
The results obtained were fairly satisfactory.

Holdefleisz3 recommends feeding skim milk to cows. He states
that they easily digest rations containing five, six or even eight
liters (quarts) of skim milk, even if sour; that skim milk has a
favorable influence on the production of milk, and that it saves
grain. The practice has been followed by a few American dairy-
men, who report good results.4 (357, 736, 869-71, 886-8)

660. Whey for milch cows. — Schrodt5 fed whey to milch cows
at the Kiel Dairy Station. The ration consisted of 11 pounds
clover hay, 5.5 pounds barley straw, 10 pounds mangels, 5.5
pounds wheat bran and 2. 2 pounds palm-nut meal. During one
period 11 pounds of sweet whey were fed and during another 22
pounds. The whey had a favorable influence on the quantity of
milk yielded, and no deleterious effect on the quality of the but-
ter. (359,873,887,889)

1 Jahresber. Agr. Chemie, 1894, p. 480. 2 Bui. 17.

3 Allg. Ztg. f. deutsche Landw.,Vol. 16. No.7; Buerstenbinder, Jahresb..
1886, p. 444. * Bui. 38, Wis. Expt. Sta.

5 Landw. Wochenbl. f. Schl. Hoi., 1882, p. 237; Jahresber. u. Agr.
Chemie, 1882, p. 441.

Station Tests with Feeds for Dairy Cows.

431

661. Fish scrap. — According to Kiihn, * milk and butter of
normal quality were produced on a daily allowance of 2.3 pounds
of fat-free fish scrap supplied with a variety of other feed, no
deleterious effects resulting. (340, 551, 779)

662. Feeding fat to dairy cows. — At the Cornell Station, 2 Wing
conducted two trials in which tallow was fed to dairy cows in
addition to the usual feed. In each trial five cows were used. In
the first the cows were on pasture, receiving in addition eight
pounds of grain. In the second they were on winter feed, receiving
a like allowance of grain. The milk yield and its composition were
ascertained for one week before the trial began. After this pre-
liminary period, beef tallow was added to the ration, commencing
with four ounces per day for each cow. When this was readily
eaten, more tallow was added, until after the fourth week the
allowance for each cow reached two pounds daily. With this
amount added to the ration the trial continued six weeks longer,
or until the tenth week, at which time tallow was dropped from
the ration, the observations continuing two weeks longer. In the
table below appear the results found with two cows by weekly
periods, these being representative of all the animals under trial:

Adding tallow to the ration of dairy cows; data for two cows, repre-
sentative of ten — Cornell Station.

Cow No. 1.

Cow No. 2.

Tallow
fed
daily.

Av.

milk
yield
daily.

Per

cent,
fat.

Av.

yield
butter
fat
daily.

Tallow
fed
daily.

Av.

milk
yield
daily.

Per

cent,
fat.

Av. yield
butter fat
daily.

Preliminary week
First week

Oz.

........

13
20
29
32
32
32
32
32
32

Lbs.

47.2
48.9
49.5
46.1
43.8
46.2
42.7
43.3
44.1
41.5
36.8
42.6
41.2

3.5
3.5
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.2
3.6
3.4
3.0
3.3
3.0
3.1
3.3

Lbs.

1.66
1.69
1.72
1.66
.60
.50
.51
.45
.32
.37
.08
.32
.36

Oz.
........

20
27
30
32
30
32
32
32

Lbs.

25.9
27.3
26.3
24.6
23.6
21.8
21.2
20.3
23.4
22.6
19.8
21.9
21.3

4.4
.7
.8
.9
.0
.8
.9
5.0
4.7
4.6
4.5
4.2
4.3

Lbs.

1.14
1.29
1.25
1.19
1.19
1.04
1.03
1.01
1.10
1.03
0.89
0.91
0.90

Second, week

Third week. .

Fourth week

Fifth week

Sixth week

Seventh week

Eighth week

Ninth week

Tenth week
Eleventh week
Twelfth week

1 Jahresber. u. Agr. Chemie, 1894, p. 482.

2 Bui. 92.

432 Feeds and Feeding.

It will be seen that, despite the addition of tallow to the ration
in increasing amount up to two pounds per cow daily, there was
the normal gradual falling oif in the milk flow, the percentage of
fat in the milk remaining substantially the same. With cow No. 2
there was possibly an increase of three-tenths or four-tenths of one
per cent, fat for a time succeeding the first use of tallow; there was,
however, a diminution in the milk flow, so that the total fat
secreted was increased by not more than one- tenth of a pound
daily, and even this increase might not have been due to the feed-
ing of tallow. After feeding this cow tallow four weeks, the total
fat in the milk had fallen below the amount she was giving at the
time tallow feeding began. Wing concludes: " In this quite ex-
tended trial there has been no increase in fat in the milk by feed-
ing tallow to the cows in addition to a liberal grain ration. These
results were obtained with ten different cows of two breeds of
various ages in various periods of lactation, extending over a
period of ten weeks, for at least six of which they ate two pounds
per head per day of tallow."

At the New Hampshire Station,1 Wood fed cotton-seed oil,
palm oil, corn oil, cocoanut oil, oleo oil and stearin in an ordi-
nary ration to cows, and concludes: "That the first effect of an
increase of fat in the cow's ration is to increase the per cent, of fat
in the milk; that with the continuance of such a ration the tend-
ency is for the milk to return to its normal condition; that the
increase in fat is due not to the oils, but to the unnatural char-
acter of the ration."

663. Feeding potassium chlorid. — Bieler2 fed twenty-five grams
(about one ounce) of potassium chlorid per day per cow, and
noticed an appreciable increase in the yield of milk, but the solids
and fat decreased simultaneously. The effect of the potassium
chlorid on the milk secretion covered only a few days, when it
again became normal.

664. Cooking feed. — Spear3 fed cooked meal to four cows and
uncooked meal to four others during a period of thirteen weeks.
The cows receiving the cooked feed gave six-tenths of a pound of

* Bui. 20.

2 Hilger's Jahresber., 1893, 403.

3 Trans. High, and Agrl. Soc., p. 1891.

Station Tests with Feeds for Dairy Cows.

433

milk more per day than those getting uncooked feed, with no
difference in the quality of the milk. These returns do not pay
for the labor involved, and are in conformity with the results
obtained with other farm animals when given cooked feed. (370,
836)

665. Feeding grain in form of slop. — It is frequently asserted
that sloppy feeds increase the milk flow. This matter was tested
by Dean at the Ontario Agricultural College. l For roughage the
cows were fed silage and pasture; for concentrates, two pounds
of ground wheat and four pounds of bran. The results appear
below:

Effect of wetting the feed supplied dairy cows — Ontario Station.

Form of feed.

Milk yield,
two-week
periods.

Per cent,
of fat
in milk.

Eight cows.
Fed dry feed

Lbs.
3 062

3 96

Fed wet feed once daily

3,157

3 82

Fed wet feed twice daily

2,940

3 86

Six cows.
Fed dry feed

1,110

3.60

Fed wet noon feed

1 085

3 63

There is nothing in the above to indicate that feeding meal in
the form of slop induces a greater flow or changes the character
of the milk. Dean's conclusions are, " This experiment would
indicate that slopping is an expensive way to feed cows."

666. Feeding grain to cows on pasture. — The utility of feeding
grain to cows on pasture has been studied at the Cornell Station2
during several seasons.

In the first trial cows receiving grain while on a luxuriant past-
ure gave less milk, but an equal amount of fat, with those getting
no grain on the same pasture.

The next season, with the pastures luxuriant except for a short
time in midsummer, the lot receiving grain and that without
grain did .equally well.

1 Repts. 1893-94.
* Buls. 13, 22, 36, 49.
28

434

Feeds and Feeding.

In the third trial both lots were soiled with grass, one lot get-
ting grass only, while the second received grain in addition. In
this trial the grain-fed cows gave just enough more fat to pay for
the grain received.

In order to determine the value of grain for cows on pasture
under practical conditions, a fourth trial was conducted with
a herd of cows owned by a New York farmer. This herd, con-
sisting of sixteen cows which had been lightly fed during the
winter, was divided into two lots of eight each, all grazing in the
same pasture. Each cow of Lot I was fed four quarts daily of a
mixture of two parts corn meal, one part wheat bran and one
part cotton-seed meal, by weight. The test began May 23.
August 10, the pastures becoming poor, both lots were fed green
fodder corn. On September 9, green millet was substituted for
the fodder corn. October 1, meadow grass was substituted for
the millet, and this was followed October 13 with pumpkins in
generous quantity. It will be noted that the cows getting no
grain were much better fed than those on most farms. The find-
ings of the trial, which lasted twenty-two weeks, are here pre-
sented:

Feeding grain to cows on pasture — Trial by Cornell Station.

Lot I.

Lot II.

Pasture
with grain.

Pasture
without grain.

5,200

None.

Milk yield, pounds

22,629

17,698

Excess in. favor of Lot I pounds

4 931

Per cent excess

Grain in weight per cow pounds

166

113

Excess in favor of Lot I pounds ....

Average per cent, of fat in milk

4.67

4 70

Average per cent, of total solids in milk.

14.08

14.19

"We learn from the above that the eight cows in Lot I were fed
5,200 pounds of grain and gave 4,931 pounds or 28 per cent, more
milk than those getting no grain. Both lots gained in weight,
Lot I leading by fifty-three pounds on the average for each cow.
The use of grain did not change the composition of the milk.

Station Tests with Feeds for Dairy Cows. 435

Bemembering that this trial was conducted 011 a New York dairy
farm, we are taught that even when the midsummer and fall
shortage in pasture is overcome by the use of fodder corn, pump-
kins, etc., the result of feeding grain is to secure about one pound
of milk extra for each pound of grain fed. (555)

667. Residual effects of grain feeding. — The following year the
herd was turned to pasture as usual, no grain being supplied to
either lot. Beginning April 1 a record was kept of milk yields.
Six cows in each lot of the previous year still remained upon the
farm. Their yield of milk for six months was as follows:

Lot I. Lot II.

Fed grain Fed no grain

previous year, previous year, j

Average yield per cow, six months, pounds 3,440 2,960

In favor of Lot I, pounds 480 ........

Per cent, in favor of Lot 1 16

It will be seen that the cows in Lot I averaged 480 pounds of
milk, or 16 per cent, more than those in Lot II. Commenting
on this, Eoberts writes: "It seems reasonable to assume that this
increased production was due to the grain fed the preceding year,
especially in the case of the younger animals. Indeed it was
plainly evident that the grain-fed two-year-olds and three-year-
olds developed into better animals than their stable mates having
no grain.77

At the Kansas Station,1 Shelton, when feeding from 11.5 to
12.5 pounds of corn meal, bran or oats daily to cows on "ample
pasturage, consisting for the most part of orchard grass and red
clover," found an increase in milk flow, due to the grain fed,
varying from 16 to 31 per cent. ; yet this increase was not suffi-
cient to directly pay for the extra feed supplied.

At the North Dakota Station, 2 Kaufman fed bran and shorts
to cows grazing on a pasture of mixed tame grasses and clover,
other cows in the same pasture receiving no grain. The results
show only about 6 per cent, increase in the yield of fat because
of the grain fed. The cows getting grain increased in weight
more than the others, but the combined results were too small
to pay for the grain fed.

i Kept. 1888. 2 Bui. 16.

436 Feeds and Feeding.

These findings coincide with those obtained when feeding grain
to steers on pasture. (555) From all the evidence at hand we
may conclude that where pastures are luxuriant there are no
profits from feeding cows grain; where there is not ample feed the
increased milk returns will certainly compensate for the grain or
green forage fed. The possible residual effect of feeding cows on
pasture, as pointed out by Roberts, is important and should not
be overlooked. Where pastures are short, unless green forage
or grain is fed to cows the milk flow will decrease, and later,
should the pastures revive, it will be found almost impossible to
bring the milk yield back to the normal. The increase in value
of the droppings from grain-fed cows should also be considered,
and will often prove the turning point in favor of a reasonable
use of grain, especially kinds rich in fertilizing elements.

CHAPTEE XXVI.

INFLUENCE OF FEED ON MILK — WIDE AND NARROW RATIONS.
I. Feed in Relation to Milk.

668. Possible modifications of milk by feed. — If feed has any
influence on the character of milk, we may suppose these modifi-
cations will take one or more of the following forms:

(a) An increase or decrease in the total quantity of milk yielded.
(6) Increasing or decreasing the ratio of solids to water in the
milk.

(d) Changing the chemical or physical character of one or more
components.

{e} Changing the flavor or odor of milk or derivatives from it.
Let us consider these several possible changes in the order pre-
sented.

(a) Effect of Feed on Quantity.

669. Liberal and meager rations. — Most dairymen have learned
that under liberal feeding the dairy cow is stimulated to the best
niilk returns within her capacity. So generous is the cow in
this particular that dairymen will concede they rarely supply
their animals sufficient feed to induce the largest flow of milk
possible with all members of the herd. With scant rations or
those of faulty character, the normal milk flow of the cow is
diminished, though she will still yield this fluid for a time while
undergoing starvation. Milk being designed for the support of
the young, Nature has provided for its supply to the limit of ani-
mal endurance.

670. Influence of character of ration. — The abundance and pro-
portion of the several nutrients in the ration and the quantity of
inert matter it contains may affect the flow of milk. This is il-

438

Feeds and Feeding.

lustrated by an experiment at the Ontario Agricultural College1
by Dean, in which six cows were divided into three lots of two
each. One ration consisted exclusively of coarse feed, supplying
more carbohydrates and less protein than the cow required. It
contained a large quantity of inert matter. ( 136 ) The next ration
contained an ample supply of carbohydrates and an over-supply
of protein, the latter being contained in rich, heavy oil meals.
The third ration was a normal one. By alternating the rations
for the three groups of cows, the influence of a decreasing milk
flow was eliminated from the results, which were as follows:

Feeding an improperly compounded and a well balanced ration to dairy
cows — Ontario Agricultural College.

Ration.

Total
digesti-
ble mat-
ter.

Nutri-
tive
ratio.

Av. live
weight.

Daily
yield of
milk.

Fat.

A. Silage 50 Ibs., hay 6 Ibs.,
bran 5 Ibs

Lbs.
10 79

1:84

Lbs.
1,068

Lbs.
29.7

Per ct.

3.82

I. Silage 30 Ibs., oat straw
20 Ibs hay 10 Ibs

15 89

1 :25.6

1,014

21.8

3.67

II. Hay 20 Ibs., oil meal 4
Ibs., cotton-seed meal
51bs

14.76

1 :3.9

1,091

29.3

3.49

III. Hay 20 Ibs., pea meal 4
Ibs., oat meal 5 Ibs.,
corn meal 8 Ibs

20.27

1:68

1,110

31.8

3.25

Under A is given the preliminary ration fed to all the cows;
with this there was an average daily milk yield of 29.7 pounds.
When ration I was fed the cows dropped to 21.8 pounds of milk.
In this ration we find a liberal allowance of carbohydrates with
too little protein and too much inert matter. Though the cows
were filled with feed they were poorly nurtured. Under II there
was abundant nutrition, but the oil meals given were heavy in
character and too liberal in quantity for the best results though
the milk flow was increased to nearly the normal. With III we
have a better balanced ration; the cows were over-fed, but the
better character of the ration secured larger returns than were
possible under previous feeding, the amount of milk now reach-

i Rept. 1891.

Influence of Feed on Milk. 439

ing 31. & pounds daily. It is evident that the character and quan-
tity of feed given directly affect the flow of milk, and over-feed-
ing or the use of improperly compounded rations may bring poor
results as well as under- feeding.

(&) Increasing or Decreasing the Eatio of Solids to Water in Milk.

671. Influence of succulent feed. — It is commonly asserted that
succulent feed causes thinner milk, i. e., renders it more watery.
Schmoeger, l at the Proskau Dairy Institute, showed that feeding
30 liters (quarts) of distillery slop daily per head to a herd of
37 cows did not affect the composition of milk, the average solids
being 11.83 per cent, and fat 3.29 per cent, with the slop feeding
as against 11.61 per cent, and 3.28 per cent., respectively, during
the previous period.

Trials by Armsby, feeding green and dried grass to milch cows,
showed no change in the composition of the milk because of the
more succulent grass. (265) In the Danish experiments, where
roots were fed, the highest per cent, of solids appeared in the milk
of cows receiving the largest quantity of roots. (657)

672. Influence of pasture. — The effect of pasture on the com-
position of milk should here receive consideration. The Copen-
hagen Station2 conducted trials with 240 cows for two years. The
per cent, of fat in the milk of these cows, when stall-fed with dry
feed and when on pasture, was as follows:

Lot A. Lot B. Lot C.

Stall feeding, dry feed.... 3.27 per cent. 3.25 per cent. 3.26 per cent.
Pasture 3.40 per cent. 3.39 per cent. 3.39 per cent.

There was a slightly higher fat content with cows on pasture in
all cases.

At the Vermont Station, 3 Hills, studying the change in com-
position of milk of cows changed from barn to pasture during
five years, concludes: "The evidence appears overwhelming that
cows on early pasturage — May and June — make not only more,
but richer, milk than during the last months of their barn life."
In these cases the higher fat content is always accompanied by a

1 Milch Zeit., 1883, 129.

2 Kept. 27, 1891-92.
8 Kept. 1893.

440 Feeds and Feeding.

higher percentage of total solids; that is, the milk from the past-
ure contains less water.

Sebelien1 calls attention to similar changes in the composition
of milk produced by Norwegian cows while on mountain pastures
as compared with that produced in the valleys.

Conclusions are not uniform in this particular, as shown by the
findings of Lawes and Gilbert,2 who write: "The yield of milk
was, however, in a much greater degree increased by grazing
than by any other change in the food; and with us, at any rate,
the influence of roots comes next in order to that of grass,
though far behind it, in this respect. But with grazing, as has
been shown, the percentage composition of the milk is consider-
ably reduced; though, owing to the greatly increased quantity
yielded, the amount of constituents removed in the milk whilst
grazing may, nevertheless, be greater per head per day than
under any other conditions. "

With such conflict of opinion may we not agree with Sebelien,
who suggests that the general feeling of well-being, the influence
of sunlight, the pleasant spring weather and an outdoor life have
more to do with the change produced, whether the fat is increased
or decreased percentagely, than does the change in feed itself.

"With the coming of spring, the cows that have long been con-
fined to their quarters in the stable find life irksome; the rough-
age at this time becomes dry and loses in aroma and palatability.
Then, too, the animals are shedding their coats. These factors
combine against normal milk production in the last days of con-
finement, and make the contrast of pasture life with its succulent
feed all the more marked.

673. Watery feed does not necessarily make watery milk. — Be-
viewing the subject broadly, we may conclude that succulent feeds
have no deleterious effect upon the composition of milk; on the
other hand, in many cases they may have a beneficial influence.
It is entirely possible that such highly -diluted feeds as distillery
slops, beet chips and wet brewers' grains, when fed in abnormal
quantities for long periods, may prove prejudicial, though we can
point to no definite experiments showing such results.

*Tidskr. f. n. Landbr., II, 208. 2 Jour. Eoy. Agrl. Soc., 1895.

Influence of Feed on Milk. 441

674. Opinions and early experiments. — In the whole realm of
dairying no subject arises so frequently for discussion as the in-
fluence of feed on the amount of fat in milk. Though the Bab-
cock test is fast clearing away uncertainties, many dairymen still
hold that certain feeds or feed combinations cause the cow to pro-
duce milk richer or poorer in fat than the normal. Scientists,
too, have been divided on this question, some holding with the
practical dairymen, so called, while others urge that the results
of investigations do not warrant their position.

In 1869 Kiihn1 wrote: "The system of feeding is one of sec-
ondary importance for milk production; the yield of milk is
primarily dependent on the development or productive capacity
of the milk glands of each cow, and even with changes from
light to heavy feed the supply does not increase in proportion to
the nutrients supplied. The same holds true where the farmer
aims to increase any single component of the milk, as fat, since
it is not possible to attain a one-sided increase of this or any other
component in the milk by changes in the system of feeding. No
such changes can, at any rate, be reached as are of practical im-
portance. "

The author of the above, however, in 1874-77 conducted trials2
in which palm-nut meal in particular, and also malt sprouts, pea-
nut meal and cotton-seed meal, when fed to dairy cows, appeared
to have an influence on the quality of milk, the fat content being
increased. Usually these experiments were made with single
cows and the feeding periods were of short duration, thus giving
the immediate influence of a change of feed undue prominence.
In later experiments with palm-nut meal, where all the necessary
precautions were taken, the later conclusions of Kiihn were not
substantiated.

Numerous investigations, direct and indirect, on this point
have been conducted at American Stations, a reference to which,
even, would occupy too much space. The most marked example
of seeming change in composition through feed influence was by

1 Landw. Vers. Sta., 12, p. 441.

2 Jour. f. Landw., 1874r-77.

4*42 Feeds and Feeding.

Patrick, at the Iowa Station,1 where .58 per cent, more fat was
found in the milk of cows getting sugar meal than was found in
the milk of the same cows when fed corn and cob meal. Amer-
ican findings do not generally show any marked permanent change
in the fat content of milk brought about by feed; indeed, when
Patrick2 again fed sugar meal, only a slight difference was found
in its favor, some cows giving adverse results. We may conclude
in this case, then, that these results were accidental, or rather
that they were due to other than the assigned cause.

675. Danish experiments. — The experiments with cows by the
Copenhagen Station3 furnish reliable data on this important sub-
ject, because of the large number of animals employed and the
character of the feeds supplied. Friis, treating of this subject,
writes: "In the comparative feeding trials with milch cows now
conducted for several years by this Station, in which 1,639 cows
have been included (separated into 161 lots on ten estates in dif-
ferent parts of our country), it has been repeatedly found that
the changes made in the feed of the lots have practically had
no influence on the chemical composition of the milk. In these
experiments grain has been fed against roots, against oil cake,
and against wheat bran or shorts; grain and oil cake have been
fed against roots, or roots have been fed as additional food.'7

676. Possible exceptions. — It is possible that a cow which has
long been illy nurtured and is in poor condition will give milk
abnormally low in fat, and that the milk will increase in richness
of fat with increased feed supply and the approach of the body
to normal conditions. When a cow is fed a starvation ration the
milk may be richer or poorer in fat than the normal, the quantity
decreasing rapidly. There is little known that is definite or sat-
isfactory on these points.

(d) Changes in Character or Composition of One or More of the
Components of Milk.

677. Effect of feed on composition of butter-fat. — It is gener-
ally agreed that feed affects in some way the character of the
fat of milk, which is shown practically by the varying character

* Bui. 14. 2 Bui. 15, Iowa Sta. 8 Kept. 1894.

Influence of Peed on Milk. 443

of butter. A number of investigators have studied the vari-
ations in hardness, melting point, volatile fatty acids, etc., of
butter-fat, due, it is generally supposed, to the different feeding
stuffs employed in nurturing the cow. While each investigator
has arrived at certain conclusions seemingly warranted by the
trials he has conducted, on classification these findings show little
agreement, so that Frear, J studying all the available data, was
forced to write: "They do not, however, suffice either for the
framing of a theory as to the relation of the several food constit-
uents to the fats of the milk, or for the quantitative measure of
the influence of a given food."

As with scientists, so with practical feeders, — we can find them
stating with much assurance that this or that particular feed has
this or that influence on the character of the butter made while
feeding it; when we classify these opinions, however, we find
them discordant and standing in opposition on the same article.

As to cotton- seed meal there is fairly uniform agreement that
it makes a hard butter; while often deleterious, therefore, it may
be useful in firming butter required for the summer trade. (For
the influence of cotton- seed meal on butter see Article 217. ) The
changes in the quality of butter due to length of time from calv-
ing are generally greater than those wrought by any special sys-
tem of feeding. As originally shown by Nilson, 2 fat from fresh
cows contains a larger amount of volatile fatty acids than is found
at any later stage of the lactation period; as a result, butter
from such cows has a high flavor, comparatively speaking, while
that from strippers is deficient in flavor and of Jallowy consist-
ence.

(e) Feed Influences on Flavor and Odor of MUk or Its Derivatives.

678. Flavors of milk, butter, etc. — Besides the variations already
referred to which are supposably measurable by the chemist,
there are immeasurable ones which may exert a potent influence
on the quality of milk and its products, these being perceived by
the sense of taste or smell — usually by the former. Certain articles
eaten by cows — leeks, onions, turnips, etc. — give flavors detected
. Science, 1893. * Kgl. Landtbruks Ak. Handl., 1885, 45.

444 Feeds and Feeding.

by the majority of persons using milk. Eye, when pastured,
gives an unpleasant flavor to milk, not detected by all, but by
many. Grass has a marked effect on the flavor of butter, de-
tected by all in spring when the cows are first changed from dry
feed to pasture. This flavor is soon unnoticed, but whether it
really disappea-rs, or is unobserved because of familiarity brought
about by daily use, is an open question. The intensity of flavors
and odors in milk originating from certain feeds probably varies
with different cows, the milk of some showing these faults in a
more marked degree than others. Often odors and flavors in
milk charged to the cow are due to contamination of the milk
after it is drawn and while left in the stable or elsewhere.

679. A review of the subject. — Eeviewing the matter, it seems
from the data at hand that it is possible to vary the composition
of cow's milk for short periods by marked changes in the character
of the feed supplied, there being an increase of one or two-tenths
of one per cent, of fat when feeds rich in protein are given,
though sometimes the change is the other way. The extensive
Danish investigations conclusively show that the dairy farmer
cannot hope to measurably increase the percentage of fat in his
milk by any practicable system of feeding.

It is remarkable that dairymen have so generally held an er-
roneous opinion regarding the ability of feed to permanently af-
fect the quality of milk. They have doubtless been led into this
error because with any marked improvement of the ration for the
cow there has always come a larger flow of milk, and consequently
a larger total amount of fat. It would appear that the variations
in the fat percentage of milk are oftener brought about by nervous
influences than through the character of the feed supplied. Even
the variations found when first changing to new rations may be a
nervous rather than a feed effect, thus explaining why the change
is but temporary.

When the function of milk is considered, the view here held as
to its stability of composition seems rational. If the milk of the
dam were subject to marked or violent fluctuations, varying in
composition with every small change in quantity or quality of
food-supply, the welfare of the young animal receiving it would

Influence of Wide and Narrow Eations. 445

be constantly threatened. Kature has wisely provided that this
vital food shall remain quite constant in composition so far as
nutritive influences are concerned, though the quantity must vary
with the abundance or scantiness of the feed supplied.

It is not apparent why nervous impulses should affect the com-
position of milk so readily while feed does not. It appears that
the milk glands are under nervous control, and whatever threatens
the existence of the dam or her young, or mars her equanimity,
is immediately reflected in the milk secretion.

680. Conclusion. — The dairyman who wishes to improve the
quality of his milk must look to breed rather than to the char-
acter of the feed. Within the breed he must select those animals
shown by the fat test to yield high percentages of the desired in-
gredient. Securing suitable animals, he will reach the quantity
of fat sought by supplying his cows with rations ample in quan-
tity, rich in digestible components and altogether palatable and
wholesome.

II. Wide and Narrow Eations.

681. Storrs Station studies. — The Storrs (Connecticut) Station
is conducting an important investigation in relation to the cost of
nutrients supplied dairy cows and the milk and butter returns.
A representative of the Station is located with a chosen dairy-
man for a period of twelve days, during which time he weighs
the feed and milk of each cow of the herd, sending samples to the
Station for analysis. From the results of the analyses and the re-
ports of the representative, the Station authorities formulate a new
ration, presumed by them to be superior to that being fed. After
the new ration has been used for a time, the herd is again visited,
the representative remaining twelve days, as before, to study the
effects of the ration. In every instance narrower rations have
been substituted for the original, showing that the Station finds the
dairyman not feeding liberally enough of protein, according to its
understanding of the needs of the cow. (147-8) Under this sys-
tem nine herds have been studied by the Station authorities. The
nutrients of the rations found on the first visit, and those used

446

Feed* and Feeding.

later upon recommendation of the Station, are given in the fol-
lowing table:

Rations fed by Connecticut dairymen and those adopted by them on
recommendation of the Storrs Station.

Av.
wt.
per
cow.

Kation fed.

Digesti-
ble pro-
tein.

Calor-
ies.

Nutri-
tive
ratio.

Av. of nine rations originally fed by Con-
necticut farmers

Lbs. .
750

750

, Lbs.
1.68

2.17

26,650
25,900

1 :7.5
1 :5.6

Av. of nine rations adopted by farmers
on recommendation of Storrs Station..

It will be seen that the change is mainly in supplying more
protein in the ration, thus narrowing the nutritive ratio. The
dairymen found by following the Station's advice that they were
able to effect a saving in feed cost of about six cents per hundred
pounds of milk and two cents for each pound of butter produced.

682. Influence of feed prices on economy of rations. — The best
ration for Connecticut dairymen, or the most scientifically com-
pounded, may not be the most satisfactory for Western conditions,
because of difference in price for leading feed-stuffs, for at the
West the carbohydrates are lower priced relatively than in the
East. To illustrate this point let us calculate the cost of milk
and butter for feed consumed, based on the different conditions.
In the following table is given the Connecticut prices reported by
the Station and average Western prices for common feeding- stuffs:

Prices for feeding stuffs used in the Connecticut feeding trials and
those prevailing in the dairy district of the West.

Kind of feed.

Con-
necti-
cut.

West-
ern.

Kind of feed.

Con-
necti-
cut.

West-
ern.

Concentrates.
Wheat bran

$13-19

$12

Roughage.
Hay 1st quality

$16 00-18

$8 00

Corn meal .

14-21

12 00

6 00

Corn and cob meal

16-20

Hay clover

14 00

8 00

Cotton-seed meal. . .

21 26

Oat hay

12 00-14

8 00

Linseed meal (O. P.)

22-30

Bog hay

8 00

3 00

18-25

Corn silage

2 50

2 00

Gluten feed

14-19

Corn fodder

10 00

5 00

Imperial feed (wheat)...

Corn stover

8 00

4 00

Wheat middlings

14-20

Oat straw

10 00

3 00

Malt sprouts......

12 00

8 00

Potatoes, small, per bu..

• 10

Influence of Wide and Narrow Rations.

447

With these prices for feed we have calculated the cost of pro-
ducing 100 pounds of milk and one pound of butter with the
nine herds of cows used in the Connecticut investigations, and
find the result as follows:

Cost of feed for producing 100 pounds of milk and one pound of
butter under Connecticut and Western conditions.

Wide]

ration.

Narrow

ration.

Result
narrow

of using
y ration.

100 Ibs.
milk.

lib.
butter.

100 Ibs.
milk.

lib.
butter.

Milk.

Butter.

At Co n n e c t i c u t
prices for feed
At Western prices
for feed.

Dollars.

1.12
629

Cents.

.21
115

Dollars.

1.08
689

Cents.

19.0
12 3

Cents.

Saved
6
Lost
6

Cents.

Saved
2

Lost

It will be seen that the Connecticut farmer eifects a saving of
six cents on a hundred pounds of milk and two cents on a pound
of butter by adopting the narrow ration recommended by the
Station. Were the Western farmer to follow the Station' s counsel,
he would lose six cents on a hundred pounds of milk and eight-
tenths of a cent on a pound of butter.

CHAPTER XXVII.

PUBLIC TESTS OF PURE-BRED DAIRY COWS — COST OF PRODUC-
ING MILK AND FAT IN DAIRY HERDS AT VARIOUS EXPERI-
MENT STATIONS.

I. Test at the World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1898.

683. Concerning the test. — The authorities in charge of the
World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893, in co-operation
with representatives of the various dairy and cattle breeders7 asso-
ciations of America, planned a test of dairy breeds to occur dur-
ing the six months of the Exposition. The original plan embraced
herds of animals representing all the leading dairy breeds. Each
herd was to be managed by the association entering it, account
being taken of all feed consumed and products returned. The
general supervision of the cows and the manufacture of the milk
was in charge of a committee representing the Association of
American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations and
representatives of the breed associations participating in the test.
Commodious stables were constructed, silos built and filled, and
a large dairy building erected. The outcome was the entrance
of three herds of twenty-five cows each in the contest, the Jersey,
Guernsey and Short-horn breeds being represented. The data
of this contest are said to fill 900 pages of record books. l

1 Most unfortunately the official records of this test have never been
published although certain summaries have been given to the public
through various channels. The Association of Agricultural Colleges, in
whose charge the records were left, has offered to deposit them with the
Agricultural Department at Washington, where doubtless they will be
available for reference in the future. For reports of the test, see numbers
of the Breeder's Gazette, Chicago, 1890-1893, inclusive. The most complete
summary appears in Jersey Bulletin, Indianapolis, Dec. 20, 1893. An-
other summary was published by James Cheesman, Southborough, Mass.,
printed originally in Journal of the British Dairy Farmers' Association,
London, 1894- also in pamphlet form by the author. Another summary
was published in pamphlet form by Valancey E. Fuller, Superintendent
of the Jersey herd during the contest. The tables here presented are
from the Jersey Bulletin and the Cheesman report.

Public Tests of Pure-bred Dairy Cows.

449

Only the briefest summary of the more important results can
be here presented, but these should prove useful to dairy students
and others, the accuracy of the figures being unquestioned.

684. Prices charged for feed. — The prices charged for feed con-
sumed by the cows during the contest, fixed by the chief of the
Agricultural Division of the Exposition, appear in the table
below:

Prices charged per ton for feed consumed by cows — Columbian Dairy

Contest.

Cheese
test.

Ninety-
day
butter
test.

Thirty-
day
butter
test.

Heifer
butter
test.

Timothy hay (mixed)

$11 50

Corn meal .

22 00

$22 00

Cotton-seed meal

26 00

Linseed meal

22 00

Oats

23 00

Middlings

13 00

Bran...

12 50

Clover hay ..

11 00

Silage

4 00

2 50

1 50

Grano-gluten

14 75

Cream-gl u ten

17 50

Corn hearts

13 50

Green clover

8 00

Swale grass

1 00

New hay

10 00

Carrots

8 00

685. Allowance for products. — A scale of prices for products
was also fixed by the Division Chief, that for cheese ranging
from eight to sixteen cents per pound, according to the score
of these products as determined by expert judges. Whey was
rated at eight cents per hundred pounds. In the butter contests
all the fat produced by the cows was calculated as butter on the
basis of eighty per cent, fat in the butter. The price allowed for
the butter was forty-five cents or less per pound, depending upon
its quality as scored by experts. Solids not fat in the skim milk
and buttermilk were credited at two cents per pound. The live
weight gained by the cows during the trial was rated to their
credit at four and a half cents per pound.
29

450

Feeds and Feeding.

686. Description of the tests. — The first test was for cheese
production, the trial beginning May 12 and continuing fifteen
days, with twenty-five cows in each herd.

The next trial was for the production of butter, with credits for
butter, solids not fat, and gains in live weight. There were twenty-
five cows in each herd, the trial beginning June 1 and continu-
ing ninety days. ;

The third trial, beginning August 30, lasted thirty days, there
being fifteen cows in each herd. In this trial butter only was
credited.

The contest ended with a test of heifers, lasting twenty-one
days, — fat, solids, and live weight being credited.

Summaries of each of the trials are presented in the following
tables:

Cheese test May 12-86, 1893, fifteen days, twenty -five cows in each herd.

Breed.

Price
per Ib.
cheese.

Value of products.

Total
cost of
feed.

Total
net
gain.

Cheese

Whey.

Live
wt.
gained

Total.

Jersey

$ .1836
.1195
.1300

$193 98
1&5 22
14014

89 26
7 73
867

$1472
21 60
31 91

$21796
164 55
18072

$98 14
7625
9936

$119 82
88 30
81 36

Guernsey

Feed Consumed.

Breed.

fil

l-sl

3
•d

oga

Lbs.

Jersey

3,395
5 000

3,840
1,765

370

519

2,391
450

600
995

2,204
1,533

450
410

1,106
886

1,667

677

Shortrhoi'n

4,784

5,978

371

519

997

1,194

1,645

382

948

Returns from Feed.

Breed.

C 0

O-H

Jill

Cost of
cheese
per Ib.

gill

Lbs.

13,296.4

Lbs.

1,877.4

Lbs.
1,451.8

Lbs.
11,579

Lbs.
327

Lbs.
9.16

$ .068

$ .083

Guernsey
Short-horn....

10,938.6
12,186.9

1,503.8
1,544.3

1,130.6
1,077.6

9,667
10,839

480
709

9.67
11.31

.067
.092

.078
.076

Public Tests of Pure-bred Dairy Cows.

451

^H-*

M ^"

02 bo

Green
clover.

Cream
gluten.

&-,**

Sll

3? S

4 HI

452

Feeds and Feeding.

-»3 °

its

O^aft

d -J

""' ©X)

d > bo

•Sa«

o a

" '''

S ^:

E g S

S^c
•-(»

O o

Public Tests of Pure-bred Dairy Cows,
L

. r-IOOO

,3 els.

§1

^^i,

_,00«D

o-a

a 88 ss

453

Feeds and Feeding.

$&*

jsa

Jers
Sho

I-

£8

Eos
£

BD+S

23
II

rsey
ort-ho

Public Tests of Pure-bred Dairy Cows.

455

Best cow in each breed in the several tests, World's Columbian Ex-
position, Chicago, 1893.

Cheese test— Fifteen days.

Products.

Value of products.

Value

Breed.

Whey.

Gain
or loss
of live

Total.

of food
eaten.

gain.

weight

Lbs.

Jersey, Ida Marigold
Guernsey, Sweet Ada
Short-horn, Nora

674
535
663

70.9
54.1
60.7

586.6
472.7
590.0

$947
647

788

$ .47
.38
.47

$126
1 67
252

$1120

852
1087

$423
325
460

$897
527
627

Butter test — Ninety days.

Breed.

Butter.

Cost of
food.

Live
Wt.

Credit.

Debit.

Net
profit.

Jersey, Brown Bessie

Guernsey Materna

Lbs.

3,634
3 512

Lbs.

178
153

Lbs.

217
185

$2551
22 69

Lbs.

+ 81
- 13

$9875
81 11

$2553
23 28

$7322
5782

Short-horn, Nora.

3,680

134

166

24 11

+115

7680

24 17

5263

Butter test— Thirty days.

Breed.

Butter.

Credit
sales.

Debit
food.

Net
profit.

Lbs.
72.24

$33 27

$8 57

$24 «J

Guernsey, Purity

54.80

24 95

5 58

1938

Short-horn, Kitty Clay 4th

62.24

28 53

8 49

20 Oi

Heifer test— Twenty-one days.

Breed.

Milk.

Butter.

Value
of but-
ter.

Value
of
solids
not fat.

Value
of live
wt.
gain-
ed.

Total
credit.

Cost of
food.

Profit,

Lbs.
563

Lbs.
37.5

$15 00

$1 07

$0 86

$16 92

$5 70

$11 22

Shortrhorn

591 •

26.1

1044

104

351

1499

402

1097

II. Experiment Station Breed Tests.

687. Tests at the Stations. — Tests of pure-bred dairy cows
covering considerable periods of time have been conducted at
three Experiment Stations, viz. : New York (Geneva), 1 Maine, a
and New Jersey. 3

1 Eept. 1894. * Rept. 1890. 3 Kept. 1890.

456

Feeds and Feeding.

The results of the tests with each breed are considered in the
following table:

Trials with pure-bred dairy cows at three American Stations.

Breed.

No. of
cows.

No. of
lacta-
tion pe-
riods.

Average yield
per year.

Av.

per
cent,
fat.

Cost of —

100 Ibs.
milk.

1 Ib. fat.
Cents.

20.1
20.2
20.5
16.1
19.1
16.1
17.2

25.2
26.8
20.4

20.6
15.3
22.4
17.9
20.8

Milk.

Fat.

New York Sta-
tion.
American Hold-
erness.

2
4
3
4
4
4
1

2
2

4
4
3
3
3

4
12
5
6
4
11
2

3
4
4

4
4
3
3
3

Lbs.

5,721

6,824
3,984
5,385
7,918
5,045
6,055

8,369
6,612
5,460

7,461
7,446
8,455
7,695
10,457

Lbs.

213.1
244.8
183.3
285.5
266.1
282.1
269.0

285.0
233.0
297.0

275.3
379.0
300.2
376.3
396.3

3.73
3.60
4.60
5.30
3.36
5.60
4.44

3.47
3.67
5,50

3.69
5.09
3.55
4.89
3.79

Cents.

76.0
74.0
94.0
86.0
65.0
90.0
78.0

85.5
94.9
113.0

76.0
78.1
79.7
87.5
79.0

Ayrshire

Devon

Guernsey

Holstein

Jersey .

Short-horn .

Maine Station.
Holstein

Ayrshire

Jersey

New Jersey Sta-
tion.
Ayrshire ....

Guernsey

Holstein

Jersey

Short-horn

688. Combining the results. — To secure better averages the
figures last presented are combined in the following table, the
cows being grouped by breeds:

Summary of trials with pure-bred dairy cows at three American Stations.

Breed.

No. of
cows.

No. of
lacta-
tion pe-
riods.

Average yield
per year.

Av.

per
cent,
fat.

Cost of —

100 Ibs.
milk.

1 Ib. fat.

Milk.

Fat.

American Hold-
erness.

2
10
3

9
9
4

4
20
5
10

10
18
5

Lbs.

5,721

6,909
3,984
6,210

8,215
5,579
8,696

Lbs.

213.1

248.5
183.3
322.9

282.0
301.1
345.4

3.73
3.. 60
4.60
5.20

3.43
5.40
3.97

Cents.

76.0

78.5
94.0
82.8

74.7
94.7

78.7

Cents.

20.1
21.5
20.5
15.8

21.5
17.4
19.4

Ayrshire

Devon

Guernsey

Holstein - Fries-
ian .

Jersey

Short-horn

Station Findings with Dairy Herds. 457

In the preceding table the results for forty-five pure-bred cows
carried through seventy-two lactation periods are reported. The
valuations of feed stuffs by the different Stations vary somewhat,
so that the averages are not strictly correct in the combinations as
made; yet it is believed that these condensed figures are on the
whole in the best form for comparative study.

III. Station Findings with Dairy Herds.

689. The Station herds reported. — The practical dairyman is
interested in learning the results of operations conducted with
dairy herds for an entire year, knowing that such records, when
correctly reported, are of special value. Fortunately we are able
to present yearly tests at four widely-separated Stations to aid
those interested in reaching conclusions as to the cost of feed re-
quired in producing a given quantity of milk and fat.

Wing, of the Cornell Station, l reports the returns from a herd
of twenty cows, mostly Holstein and Jersey grades. Pure-bred
and grades of the leading dairy breeds constituted the herd of
twenty-three cows at the Minnesota Station, 2 reported by Haecker.
Soule tells of the returns from a herd of twelve cows embracing
Short-horns and Jerseys at the Missouri Station.3 The fifteen
cows in the Utah Station4 herd, reported by Linfield, were com-
mon animals selected in the vicinity of the Station by means of
the Babcock test. Of course the cows were better than the
average in the vicinity.

690. Prices allowed for feed. — The prices for feed as given
below are those assumed by the Station authorities presenting
the data of the herd trials. The student should compare these
prices with those ruling about him for feeding stuffs of the same
class. If the dairyman wishes to compare the results of these
trials with what he has accomplished with his own herd he can
do so without difficulty by placing that value on each feeding
stuff used which represents its selling price in his local market.
Naturally the prices vary considerably, being highest in New
York and lowest at the West.

1 Bui. 52. 2 Bui. 35. 3 Bui. 26. « Bui. 43.

458

Feeds and Feeding.

Prices used in calculating cost of producing milk and fat in dairy

herds at four Stations.
New York. Minnesota.

Hay, per ton $9 00

Silage, per ton 1 75

Wheat bran, per ton 18 00

Oats, per bushel 35

Cotton-seed meal, per ton ... 25 00

Corn meal, per ton 2000

Corn stover, per ton 3 00

Fresh grass, per ton 1 75

Roots, per ton 2 00

Pasture, per week 30

Missouri.

Hay, perton $6 00

Corn chop, per ton 16 00

Oil cake, perton 20 00

Cotton-seed meal, per ton... 18 00

Bran, perton 12 00

Pasture, per season 3 00

Hay, timothy, perton $5 60

Hay, prairie, per ton 3 20

Hay, millet, per ton 5 60

Silage, perton 200

Hay, oat, per ton 4 80

Com meal, per ton 14 00

Barley meal, per ton 14 00

Linseed meal, perton 26 00

Oats, per ton 18 00

Bran, perton 11 00

Mangels, squashes, per ton.. 2 00

Pasture, per season 3 50

Utah.

Alfalfa hay, per ton $3 75

Mixed hay, per ton 6 75

Wheat, perton 12 66

Barley, per ton 15 00

Bran, perton 9 00

Pasture, per month 1 00

691. Cost of milk and fat. — From the data collected we are
able to learn the cost of feed required by the dairy cow in pro-
ducing one hundred pounds of milk and one pound of fat at four
widely-separated American Experiment Stations, the data being
summarized in the table below:

Cost of feed required in the production of one hundred pounds of milk
and (me pound of fat, by months — Four Stations.

New York.

Minnesota.

Missouri.

Utah.

Average.

N, umber of cows

l,1231bs.
286 Ibs.

976 Ibs.
301 Ibs.

12
990 Ibs.
248 Ibs.

15
970 Ibs.
222 Ibs.

Average weight of COWK
Average fat per cow

Month.

£x

"oi-J

§3

£*
|1

<D+*

§*

&
|1

.Q
Q? -+J

s«

0>*3

January

8 .64
.68
.71
.71

8 .17

.18
.18
.18
.145
.075
.095
.155
.125
.105
.175
.155

8 .65
.67
.67
.71
.59
.32
.37
.51
.51
.60
.68
.65

8 .149
.151
.165
.162
.132
.076
.078
.114
.106
.140
.159
.164

8 .94
1.01
1.21
1.01
.43
.24
.23
.14
.21
.42
.65
1.03

8 .240
.253
.299
.234
.096
.053
.053
.033
.052
.098
.153
.265

8 .56

.62
.59
.49
.48
.15
.19
.21
.26
.38
.59
.63

8 .138
.160
.142
.121
.113
.038
.049
.051
.066
.091
.135
.143

9 .68
.72
.76
.71
.54
.26
.31
.42
.41
.47
.65
.71

8 .168
.179
.187
.171
.125
.064
.072
.098
.094
.112
.157
.174

February

March

April ...

Mav

June

.28
.38
.65
.51
.41
.65
.63

July

August.

September .

October

November

December

Average

8 .57

8 .145

$ .58

8 .133

8 .63

$ .152

8 .43

8 .104

8 .55

8 .133

Station Findings with Dairy Herds.

459

The Kew York and Minnesota herds evidently contained the
most carefully selected cows, and this tended to reduce the cost of
milk and fat production. "We observe that milk and fat cost the
most during the winter months, the high price continuing into
March in Utah, and through April at the other Stations. In May
there is a diminution in cost at all Stations except Utah. During
June at three of the Stations the milk and fat reach their low-
est cost for food consumed, the cows then being on pasture. In
Missouri the lowest price was reached in August — quite contrary
to dairy experience in most states. With the passing of summer
comes increased cost, until by November winter prices have
again been reached. It is evident from these figures that milk of
the lowest cost is produced in summer on pasture. The average
cost of 100 pounds of milk at the four Stations for the year is 55
cents; the cost of one pound of fat is 13.3 cents.

692. Feed consumed by the dairy cow, yearly. — The data pre-
sented by three of the Stations reporting are in such form that we
can determine the average amount of feed required for keeping a
dairy cow one year, the cost for the same and the returns in milk
and fat These are as follows:

Average amount of feed consumed and returns for feedy per year, by
dairy cows — Three Stations.

Station.

Feed eaten per cow.

Aver-
age cost
of feed
per cow.

Av. returns
per cow, per
year.

Past-
ure.

Concen-
trates.

Roughage.

Bran, grain,
oil meal, etc.

Roots, sil-
age, green
fodder.

Hay.

Milk.

Fat.

Minnesota ..
Missouri
Utah

Days.

131
191
123

Lbs.

3,435
3,027
1,534

Lbs.
5,306

Lbs.

2,029
3,480
4,301

$37 82
35 30
22 28

Lbs.

6,408
5,927
5,655

Lbs.

301

248
230

1,535

We learn that the number of days on pasture varied from 123
in Utah to 191 in Missouri. The Minnesota cows consumed
one and three-fourths tons of concentrates or grain feed each, over
two and one-half tons of roots and about one ton of hay. At the

460

Feeds and Feeding.

other Stations, with a smaller allowance of concentrates, there
was an increase in hay consumption. The average cost of keep-
ing a cow ranged from $22.28 in Utah to $37.82 in Minnesota.
The butter returns varied from 230 to 301 pounds and the milk
from 5,655 to 6,408 pounds per cow.

693. Herd record for one year. — We turn with interest to a
report of the Station herd at Cornell University, l where the cost
of feed consumed and the returns from each cow in the herd,
twenty in number, are reported separately. "When Prof. Roberts
took charge of the herd in 1875 the yield of milk was 3,000 pounds
per cow; now descendants of these cows average more than 7,000
pounds of milk each. The prices allowed for feeding stuffs con-
sumed have already been stated. The returns from the twenty
cows are given in the following table:

Cost of feedj milk and fat as determined during a year's trial with a
herd of twenty cows — Cornell Station.

No. of cow.

Age.

Cost of
feed con-
sumed

Milk pro-

Cost of
100 IDS.

Fat pro-

Cost of
one Ib.

Yrs. Mos.

during
the year.

duced.

of milk.

duced.

of fat.

No. 1

74-

$44 24

Lbs.
8,028 50

$0 55

Lbs.
391.62

$0 115

No. 2

5 4

47 65

9,739.75

309.19

15o

No. 3

3 5

42 00

4,743.25

233.63

No. 4.

1 9

49 07

6,008.50

219.34

225

No 5.

74-

38 74

6,214.50

326.68

No. 6.

1 10

41 24

2,829 75

1 48

159.02

No. 7

6 4

52 06

11,165.00

417.97

125

No. 8

39 96

5,670.50

285.10

No. 9

36 24

3,387.75

1 07

197.33

185

No. 10

4 8

46 51

6,323.50

224.71

No 11.

1 9

43 80

5,136 00

160.79

No. 12

3 5

43 66

5,785.75

294.30

No. 13

10 4

44 34

5,458.50

195.31

225

No. 14

2 4

45 98

7,757.25

260.34

175

No 15

3 4

47 44

9,003 25

299 07

No 16.

6 4

43 12

9,776.50

330.59

No. 17

7 3

47 87

10,417.00

302.93

No. 18

3 4

48 63

7,955.00

282.35

No. 19

74-

53 38

8,655.50

382.77

No 20.

49 08

10,754 00

439.37

Total

$905 01

144,809.75

5,712.41

Average

45 25

7,240.50

$0 625

285.62

$0 158

Bui. 52.

Station Findings with Dairy Herds.

461

The preceding table is especially valuable because it covers a
year's findings with all the cows of the herd, none being omitted
in order to raise the average.

We observe a wide range in the cost of feed consumed by the
several cows, a still wider one in the yield of milk, and a marked
difference in the cost of producing milk and fat. It is apparent
from this table that even in well -nurtured dairy herds, where all
conditions are favorable, it is of the highest importance to study
feed consumption and the returns of milk and fat of each cow that
the poor ones may be eliminated and only the best reserved for
future breeders and producers.

694. Dry matter required. — Another lesson from the Cornell
herd is here presented. The dry matter in the feed required for
producing one hundred pounds of milk and one pound of butter-
fat with each of the cows during seven months — November to
April inclusive — is given in the following table:

Dry matter required in food by cows for one hundred pounds of
milk and one pound of fat — Cornell Station.

No. of cow.

Dry matter consumed.

Live wt.

Dry matter
consumed
per 1,000 Ibs.
live wt.
per day.

For each
100 Ibs.
milk.

For each
Ib. fat.

No. 1...

Lbs.

79
87
136
148
92
249
81
106
141
123
140
137
120
101
91
94
74
102
104
83

Lbs.

17
28
27
42
17
44
22
21
25
36
47
26
33
31
28
28
25
28
23
19

Lbs.

858
1,326
946
972
1,123
815
,474
,071
829
,270
,001
,030
,283
,007
,160
,305
,520
,183
1,239
1,040

Lbs.

28.8
22.8
25.8
25.9
22.9
29.2
21.3
22.6
30.8
20.7
25.1
22.9
23.4
26.1
25.4
22.2
21.6
25.5
24.7
26.4

No. 2

No. 3...

No. 4

No. 5

No. 6

No. 7

No. 8

No. 9

No. 10

No. 11

No. 12

No. 13

No. 14

No. 15

No. 16

No. 17

No. 18

No. 19

No. 20

Average

104

24.7

462 Feeds and Feeding.

The average for the herd of 20 cows shows that 104 pounds of
dry matter in the feed produced 100 pounds of milk, and 27
pounds produced 1 pound of butter-fat; 24 pounds of dry matter
were consumed daily per 1,000 pounds of live weight Eleven
cows whose average weight was 1,004 pounds consumed more
than 24 pounds of dry matter per 1,000 pounds live weight daily.
Nine cows whose average weight was 1,267 pounds ate less than
24 pounds of dry matter per 1,000 pounds live weight. This
indicates that large cows may consume smaller quantities of feed
in proportion to their weight than small cows. (740)

CHAPTEE XXVIII.

FEED AND CAKE OF THE DAIEY COW.

I. Care and Management.

695. Dairying based on maternity of the cow. — Nature's practice
of accumulating fat beneath the skin and between the muscular
fibers of the animal body is to store heat and energy-producing
material against a time of need. The process at first goes on
rapidly, but after a time the system becomes gorged, and a
further storage of fat is accomplished only at a high cost for feed
consumed. (565) How different with the dairy cow, which eats
heartily the food given her, not for the purpose of storing fat to
protect herself against a time of possible bodily want, but for the
•nurture of her young. Food given at night is digested and con-
verted into milk ready for the calf in the morning, the assim-
ilated products disappearing from day to day almost as soon as
elaborated, making easy way for more of the same kind from the
same source. Doubtless it is because the milk product is daily
given up by the cow that she so greatly excels the steer in the
economical production of human food; for the steer, gaining in
weight and fat, must vitalize and carry about as a part of the
body, day after day, all the added flesh. (612)

The appropriation by man of the milk designed by nature for
the calf makes possible the great art of dairying. Taking ad-
vantage of the all-powerful impulse of motherhood for the pres-
ervation of the young of the species, man stimulates the dairy
cow by abundant feed and favorable surroundings to produce
much more milk than is really needed by the calf were it still
the object of her care. In so doing he has made the dairy cow
more or less an artificial creature.

The basis, then, of our dairy system is the maternity of the
cow, and successful dairying depends upon rationally recognizing

464 Feeds and Feeding.

this fact. To W. D. Hoard, of Wisconsin, belongs the credit of
bringing this subject to the attention of dairymen. * No one can
fairly consider the dairy problem from this standpoint without
regarding the cow in a new light and thereby becoming a better
dairyman.

696. Caring for the cow. — While our purpose is to cover the
question of feeding, that subject cannot be wisely considered
unless certain matters concerning the handling of the cow be first
discussed. Though it cannot be affirmed that the digestion of
food by the cow is affected by the character of her surroundings,
it is certain that the yield of milk and its character are directly
influenced thereby, so that the results to the dairyman are the
same. Good returns from a given supply of feed, no matter how
abundant and satisfactory, cannot be looked for, unless the cow
also has comfortable quarters and is intelligently handled.

697. Necessity for shelter. — In another article (561) it is shown
that the steer, gorged with food, and each day adding to the layer
of heat-holding fat just beneath the skin, can withstand consid-
erable cold, often showing preference for the open shed to the
close stable. The condition of the dairy cow is in strong opposi-
tion to this, her system being relaxed by the annual drain of
maternity and the semi- daily heavy loss of nutrients drawn from
her in the abundant milk flow. The observant stockman will at
once detect the fundamental difference in the condition of the
dairy cow and the fattening ox in regard to ability to withstand
exposure to the weather. To be profitably managed and yield
wholesome milk a cow must be comfortably housed in a well-
ventilated stable in winter, the temperature of which should not
fall below forty degrees as the minimum, or rise above sixty de-
grees as the maximum. In such a stable, provided with abun-
dance of sunlight, she is in condition, so far as environment is
concerned, to yield the highest returns for the feed given. (630)

698. Exercise. — With the fattening animal soon to be slaugh-
tered, confinement more or less close is advisable, since it pre-
vents waste of tissue and conserves the feed. The end in view
with the daiiy cow is radically different, for she must give milk

1 Bui. No. 1, Wisconsin Farmers' Institute, and elsewhere.

Feed and Care of the Dairy Cow. 465

almost daily during the whole period of her usefulness, and the
milk so yielded must be wholesome in character, fit in all partic-
ulars for the most delicate. It is certainly reasonable to hold
that the cow cannot maintain the high standard of bodily health
and vigor essential to the production of healthful milk when she
is closely confined in the stable for long periods without oppor-
tunity for outdoor air and exercise. She should be allowed
several hours' exercise daily out of doors, or in quarters other
than where she passes most of her time, the change affording
opportunity to breath the pure air and drink in the sunshine, as
well as to exercise the muscles which have not been called into
action while in confinement, and resting those taxed by occupying
a forced position in the narrow stall or stanchion.

699. Professor Roberts' system. — At the North, where the
winters are severe, it is difficult to give cattle the requisite exer-
cise without forcing them to undergo exposure during inclement
weather. At the Cornell Station, l Professor Eoberts has for years
followed a plan of seemingly great value in its teachings to the
dairymen of the North. Here the cows stand in stanchions while
feeding and being milked, but are afterward turned into a
covered enclosure, where they are free to stand or lie at will;
thus they have a feed room and an exercise room each specially
adapted to its purpose. The accumulations from the horse stable
are spread over the floor of the covered yard, and this in turn is
covered liberally with straw, on which land plaster is sprinkled
to prevent odors arising. This perfect system of saving manure
should of itself, in a few years, pay for the cost of the additional
space required. By this plan the stable proper can be reduced
to the smallest size compatible with holding the animals while
being milked and fed. It can be kept scrupulously clean and prop-
erly aired, since the cows are out of it several hours daily. The
animals come to their provender at meal time with the best of ap-
petites, and return to their larger quarters to ruminate in comfort.

700. Regularity and kindness. — To skilful feeding the successful
dairyman will add regularity and kindness in the management of

* Bui. 13; The Fertility of the Land, p. 201.
30

466 Feeds and Feeding.

his herd. The true dairy cow is easily affected by unfavorable
conditions.

Babcock of the Wisconsin Station, l after careful studies with
cows in many ways, writes: "The elaboration of milk does not
proceed at a uniform rate from milking to milking, but is most
active at the time of milking, and is dependent not only upon the
stimulus which the milk glands derive from the manipulation of
the teats and udder, but upon the nervous condition of the animal
at the time of milking.

"In consequence of this, slight changes in the conditions under
which the milking is done may have a decided influence upon
both the yield and quality of milk. As a general rule the quality
of milk, measured by the per cent, of fat which it contains, is
more sensitive to changes of this kind than is the yield of milk.
Among the changes which appear to have most influence in this
respect, the following are of especial importance, viz. : Change in
the interval between milkings and in the rate of milking 5 change
of milkers and manner of milking, especially if the manipula-
tion of the teats and udder be different; change of environment
and any circumstance which excites or even slightly disturbs the
animal at the time — excitement between milkings, if the cow has
become quiet before milking, appears to have comparatively little
influence. As would be expected there is a great difference in
cows in this respect, some being very sensitive, while others are
scarcely affected at all. In our experiments cows that have been
giving milk for a long time have been less sensitive in this respect
than fresh cows that were giving a large quantity of milk, but
this may have been due to individual characteristics of the
animals tested and not to the advanced period of lactation. I
would recommend, therefore, in order to obtain the best results
from any cow, that first of all she be treated kindly, all sources of
excitement being avoided so far as possible. She should also be
fed and milked at regular intervals by the same person, and all
conditions should be maintained as nearly uniform as possible at
all times. It is my opinion that kind treatment and pleasant
surroundings will have a greater influence upon the quality of

1 Kept. 1889.

Feed and Care of the Dairy Cow. 467

milk than the kind of food, provided the ration given contains
sufficient nutriment for the maintenance of the animal. "

701. Feed and care of the bull. — The ration for the bull calf
should be rich in muscle- and bone-making material and ample in
amount. As much growth as possible should be secured from
pasture, because flesh from this source is the best that can be
made, and also because of the vigor and tone this form of feed
insures. In order to retain the young bull in pasture, a fence
may be constructed with strong posts eight feet apart set deep in
the ground; to these six or more strands of doubled barbed-wire
are fastened. This makes an enclosure that will easily hold the
young fellow, and here in the air and sunshine, with grass under
foot, he will build a framework and establish a constitution which
will not leave him old at four or five years, as we have come to
think bulls to be. In winter, if possible, allow the bull exer-
cise in an open lot with shed on one side to protect from the storm.
The feed supply should consist of ample roughage, such as clover
hay, corn stover and oat straw, with shorts, bran and oats for
concentrates, these, however, being not too abundant.

If the mature bull must be confined to the shed or housed in sum-
mer there should be a liberal allowance of green feed, which will
alleviate in some measure the hardship of continued confinement.
A reform is needed in our present methods of confining bulls, —
leaving them more in the pasture than at present. To do this
the enclosure must be made secure with plank fences, supple-
mented by wires for older animals, to insure safety, for there is
too great risk of life in allowing these creatures to run at large
with the herd in pasture.

702. Fall and spring cows. — On the plains of the West, where
we find the cow under natural conditions, calves must be dropped
in the spring in order to become strong enough to withstand the
rigor of the following winter. In dairy districts the cow is under
artificial conditions, and nature need not be followed in all par-
ticulars. Cows fresh in the spring yield most of their milk dur-
ing periods of low prices for dairy products, and on returning to
winter quarters the milk flow is not stimulated by the feed and
conditions there prevailing. The cow that is fresh in the fall

468 Feeds and Feeding.

gives a liberal supply of milk during winter, and when spring
comes will flush again under the stimulus of fresh pastures. Fall-
fresh cows will probably yield from ten to fifteen per cent, more
milk in the twelve-month than those calving in the spring.

703. Care before and after calving. — There is a strong natural
tendency with most good cows to become fat when not yielding
milk. The pregnant dry cow should receive such feed supply as
will allow her to attain, without difficulty, a good body condition.
Grass is the best feed for this purpose,* and if the dry cow can
flesh up on grass alone it should be done. Dairy cows are so
heavily fed with grain while giving milk that this opportunity
for change of feed and for recuperation should be utilized by the
dairyman. While there is a diversity of opinion among dairy-
men as to the ideal condition of the cow at calving time, it is rea-
sonable to hold that she should be in good flesh, though not
" butcher fat.'7 Before calving the feed should be cooling in
character. Silage, roots, clover, hay, and fodder corn without
ears, are all desirable for roughage. Bran, middlings, oats,
and a little oil meal should prove satisfactory for concentrates.
Immediately before calving let the supply of feed be relatively
small. After calving, tepid water only should be given, as cold
water may bring on a threatening ailment. If nourishment is
needed, a little oat meal or ground oats in the water given will
prove helpful. Let the feed supplied after calving be light for a
few days and always under, rather than equal to, the desire of the
cow. The use of a clinical thermometer in ascertaining the tem-
perature of the cow from time to time for a few days before and
after calving, or until all danger is past, is a most helpful means
of determining the general condition of the animal and an aid in
forestalling serious trouble.

704. Frequency of feeding. — The frequency with which feed
should be supplied cows has not been settled, and perhaps never
will be until the members of the human family agree on the num-
ber of meals a day and the character of each best suited to their
own needs. From the large size of the paunch and the apparent
necessity for rumination, it does not seem essential to supply feed
many times a day. The common practice of feeding twice a day,

Feed and Care of the Dairy Cow. 469

once in the morning and once late in the afternoon, with an arm-
ful of roughage to pick over at midday, appears a reasonable one,
and conforms well with the labor requirements of the stable.
There are dairymen who are never through feeding. They give
first a little of this, then a little of that, keeping themselves busy-
in the stable most of the day in caring for their cows. The cows
of such persons usually yield good returns, and their owners
ascribe success to their particular system of feeding, when in-
stead it is the general good care and not the particular system
that should be credited. As with mankind, habit rules in these
matters; and any system which is reasonable, having once been
established, should not be set aside unless the feeder is sure of
advantage from the change, which should be gradual, if possible.

705. Order of feeding concentrates, roughage and water. — The
digestive tract of the cow is provided with a large storage room
for the reception of feed. (28, 34) In the paunch the various
articles swallowed are rapidly and thoroughly commingled by the
churning action of that organ. Hay and grain are soon thoroughly
intermixed, and gradually soften in the warm liquid there so
abundant. This being true, the order of supplying the several
constituents of the ration is not of importance from a physiological
standpoint. The cow seems best satisfied when receiving the
concentrates or more appetizing portion of the ration first, and
after this has been disposed of she begins in contentment to chew
the hay, silage or other roughage placed before her. As barn
operations are usually conducted, watering follows dry feed.

706. Preparation of feed. — As the dairy cow when giving a
large flow of milk is accomplishing much work, it is best to pre-
pare the feed for rapid mastication when possible without too
great cost. Grain should generally be ground and roots sliced.
Where labor is high priced, as at the West, it is preferable in
many cases to feed the cow in the most simple manner, even
though as large returns do not follow.

707. Dry feed. — Cows take kindly to dry feed, and as a rule
prefer it to that in a sloppy condition. Because of the thorough
admixture of the contents of the rumen, where there is abun-
dance of moisture, there seems no occasion for converting meal

470 Feeds and Feeding.

into slop before feeding. By supplying the feed dry the mangers
can be kept more wholesome with less labor in administering it.

708. Liberal feeding. — The dairyman should never forget that
about sixty per cent, of all the cow can eat is required to sustain
her body, and only after this amount is provided can there be
any returns to him. (134) Having incurred the expense neces-
sary to operate a dairy, in the purchase of lands, buildings and
cows, he is certainly shortsighted who will withhold any part of
the forty per cent, of provender which will produce returns for
himself. When the dairyman has reached the point of liberal
feeding, he should begin to study the individual needs of the
members. Since some cows can profitably utilize more feed than
others the distribution of concentrates should proceed with dis-
crimination, some animals being fed more and others less than
the average of the herd.

709. Confinement during heated periods. — Whether or not the
dairyman practice soiling, there are periods in summer when
cows should be in the stable during the day and turned to past-
ure at night. During heated periods, when flies are troublesome,
cows fall off greatly in their milk, this shrinkage measuring in
some degree their suffering. At such times it is best to place
them in darkened stables and supply green forage supplemented
with meal. For exercise turn them out at night in yard or
pasture. Knowing how difficult it is to bring cows back to their
normal flow after these periods of shrinkage, the wise dairyman
will not be unwilling to provide for their comfort at such times.

710. Water. — That the cow requires a liberal supply of water
goes without saying; for not only must the wants of the body be
met, but a considerable quantity is drained off with the milk
twice daily. (73) Being creatures of habit, cows can subsist
when supplied water once each day, but an opportunity to reach
the trough morning and evening is preferable. It is becoming
quite common to supply water to cows individually in small
troughs or vessels placed in front of them in the stable. If this
supply can be kept wholesome the practice is satisfactory; but
close inspection will show that in many cases, perhaps a majority,
these individual watering devices are traps for filth and foul -smell-

Feed and Care of the Dairy Cow. 471

ing water. The dairyman should convince himself, by using his
nose as well as his eyes, that the water in these devices is pure
and wholesome.

Whatever method of watering is employed, let uniformity pre-
vail, the cows having opportunity to secure all they wish without
fear of one another or of being forced to undergo hardship in
securing it. Often the dairyman boasts of a spring or creek at
which his cows may help themselves. These sources of supply
are sometimes a long distance from the stable, and the animals
are daily forced to make journeys to them, often in inclement
weather, thereby experiencing discomfort and actual hardship.
A good well with wind-mill will prove superior to springs and
brooks in most cases, because with these water can be delivered
when and where it is needed. (628)

711. Salt. — Though little is known from investigation on this
subject, it is evident from the extreme fondness of dairy cows for
salt that this article should be regularly and abundantly supplied
them. The necessity for salt increases with the amount of con-
centrates given. From three- fourths to one ounce of salt daily is
a reasonable allowance. It should be supplied daily rather than
at irregular or infrequent periods in larger quantities. The prac-
tice of placing large lumps of rock salt where they are accessible
to the herd is satisfactory, provided the salt is kept under cover
in a clean box. (72, 629)

II. Feed for the Dairy Cow.

712. Necessity for concentrated feed. — The dairy cow when
yielding a liberal supply of milk should be regarded as an animal
at hard labor. We have seen that the work-horse must have
more grain and less roughage as his labor increases, and the same
is true with the cow. (Chapter XVII, Part II.) A portion of
the provender must therefore take the form of grain or concen-
trates. Moreover, if she is yielding a large amount of milk, i. e.,
working hard, it is best to aid her by reducing the grain to fine-
ness by grinding. The dry cow is doing little work and can sub-
sist on less feed, and this may be coarser in character.

713. The relation of concentrates to roughage. — The relation
of concentrates to roughage should always be borne in mind.

472 Feeds and Feeding.

The rule should be to feed nearly as much roughage as the cow
will consume without overtaxing her 5 then supply sufficient con-
centrates to bring the digestible matter up to the required stand-
ard. About four-tenths of the digestible nutrients should be
given in the form of concentrates and six-tenths in the roughage.
It will not do to feed all grain in expectation of better returns.
A satisfactory ration must possess a certain bulk or volume in
order to properly distend the abdomen. Without this the pro-
cesses of digestion cannot proceed normally. This should never
be forgotten, even when forcing cows in dairy contests. (Chapter

vn.)

714. Concerning the various feed stuffs. — In general, the vari-
ous feeding stuffs used by dairymen have been fully considered
in earlier chapters, so that only some of the more common ones
need be here taken up, and these only in a brief way.

715. Corn. — To this grain is due in no small measure the
pre-eminence of the great dairy district of the West, in which
Indian corn flourishes. No article is more palatable to the cow
than corn in almost any form, and her fondness for it has often
led to its abuse. Milk production calls for a large amount ot
protein in the ration, and this protein constituent is not abundant
in corn; for this reason corn should not form more than one-half
or three-fifths of the concentrates.

Where labor is high priced and corn cheap, it will be found
economical to feed corn without husking. The simplest way is to
use shock corn, throwing the long stalks with the ears into the
feed mangers. The cows at first search for the ears, and having
consumed these strip off the leaves, even eating the finer portions
of the stalks. By supplying corn on the stalk for the evening feed,
so as to allow the cows a long period for working them over, all
will be consumed before morning except some of the coarser por-
tions of the stalks, thus reducing the labor of removing the waste.
Dairymen, however, will generally prefer to run their shock corn
through the feed- cutter or shredder, which leaves the material in
a form relished by the cow and easily handled. The broken ears
of corn are then easily masticated, the cobs also being consumed.

With unhusked corn care must be taken to supply only the
requisite amount of grain, which can be determined by selecting

Feed and Care of the Dairy Cow. 473

an average shock, husking out the ears and ascertaining how
much shelled corn it carries. In feeding corn in this manner
some of the grain will pass into the droppings undigested, but
this need not be wasted if lusty shotes are given the opportunity
of searching it out. (538, 634)

716. Corn meal. — When exposed to the air corn becomes dry
and should then be ground before feeding. Corn meal is a heavy,
rich feed and should always be lightened or extended by the use
of bran, shorts, oil meal, or some other feed of light character.
Corn and cob meal will be found satisfactory for dairy feeding,
and is recommended whenever it is possible to secure it at not too
great expense for grinding.

717. By-products of corn. — Gluten meal, cream-gluten, grano-
gluten, corn germ and other by-products of corn are all excellent
articles for feeding the cow, and their use is strongly commended.
Eastern dairymen have learned to appreciate these articles and
use them extensively, while Western dairymen, often living at
no great distance from the factories where they are produced,
know little or nothing concerning them. (161-4, 635-7)

718. Oats. — It is not difficult to believe that oats, the most val-
uable grain for the horse, are also a prime feed for the dairy cow.
The husk of the oat, though carrying little nutriment, renders this
grain a feed of light character in the stomach and easy of diges-
tion. With the data given us by Woll, (642) the dairy farmer
is in position to easily determine whether he can afford to feed
the oats he may grow, or exchange them for bran or other com-
mon feeds.

The by-products of oat-meal factories are valuable just in the
proportion in which the kernels of the oat grain appear in them.
Often there are sufficient fragments of kernels in these articles to
warrant the payment of a fair price for them; but when the hulls
only are offered the dairyman would better let them alone, for
they are no better than the roughage in his mows and stacks.

719. Wheat bran and middlings. — Next to corn, wheat bran is
the great cow feed of this country. Rich in ash and protein,
carrying a fair amount of starchy matter, its light, chaffy char-
acter renders it the natural complement of heavy corn meal.

474 Feeds and Feeding.

Though its nutritive constituents approximate those of cotton-
seed meal, it mixes well with that feed, causing it to lie more
lightly in the stomach.

The large amount of mineral matter in bran is another factor
of much importance in milk production. In milk there is much
mineral matter, placed there for the framework of the calf, and
bran supplies this more abundantly than most feeding stuffs.

Middlings, like bran, are extensively fed to dairy cows. Being
themselves heavy in character, they do not mix well with heavy
feeds like cotton- seed meal and corn meal. Dairymen will find
middlings much relished by cows and yielding satisfactory re-
turns. Bran and middlings are conceded by all who have fed
them to favorably affect the flow of milk. (174—5)

Cows may be fed as much as six to eight pounds of bran daily
and from four .to six pounds of middlings.

720. Rye. — This grain is fed in small quantities to milch cows
in Denmark. It is said to have a somewhat deleterious influence
on the quality of butter. The same statement applies to rye bran.
Not over three pounds of ground rye or rye bran should be fed in
one day to milch cows.

721. Barley. — The common grain for milch cows in Denmark
is barley and oats, generally sown and harvested together, the
proportion of barley and oats in the mixture being 2:3, or 1:2.
Barley alone is not fed extensively to cows, wheat bran being
preferred on the score of cheapness and influence on the milk
secretion. Barley will prove beneficial to cows fed heavily with
roots, since it counteracts their laxative influence. From three
to five pounds of ground barley will suffice in the ration of the
cow, bran proving an excellent complementary feed. (178)

722. Brewers' grains. — Fresh brewers' grains constitute one of
the best of feeds for the dairy cow. She is fond of them, and they
influence most favorably the flow of milk. Fed while fresh, in
reasonable quantity, supplemented by bright hay or corn fodder
for dry feed, the grains being supplied in tight feed-boxes which
can be kept clean, and with all other conditions favorable to the
healthfulness of the cow, no valid objection can be raised against
this form of feed. From twenty to thirty pounds of wet grains

Feed and Care of the Dairy Cow. 475

should constitute a day's allowance. Because the grains are low
priced is no reason for over-feeding with them. Corn meal is an
excellent complementary feed, two or three pounds being used
daily with the grains. Because of their sloppy character, some
dry feed should always be supplied with the grains unless the
cows are at pasture in summer. (182)

Dried brewers' grains can be economically transported and form
an excellent feed for cows. Their purpose in the ration will be
largely to supply protein, which they carry in abundance. It
seems strange that American dried brewers' grains should find
their market largely in distant Germany. Four or five pounds of
dried grains will furnish a considerable portion of the protein re-
quired in the ration and prove very acceptable to the cow. (183)

723. Cotton seed and its by-products. — Vanderford, of the Ten-
nessee Station, 1 concludes as follows, after a study of cotton seed
and its by-products for cows: "We can recommend as giving
satisfactory results the use of as much as 15 pounds of cotton-seed
hulls in the dairy ration per 1,000 pounds live weight. A larger
proportion has, with our cows, caused a weakening of the digest-
ive powers, evidenced in some cases by a tendency to diarrhoea,
in others to constipation."

Of cotton- seed meal he writes: " We do not think it advisable
to feed more than five pounds of cotton-seed meal daily to milch
cows. For butter- making it is not advisable to exceed three
pounds daily. Many years of close observation elsewhere, as
well as the results of recent experiments, induce the writer to be-
lieve that it is not safe to feed cotton-seed meal as the sole addi-
tion to the daily allowance of coarse fodders, particularly during
the three months preceding and month after calving."

Connell and Clayton, 2 experimenting with cotton-seed meal and
cotton seed, found boiled cotton seed the cheapest available feed.
Lloyd, 3 testing cotton seed and cotton- seed meal, reached the fol-
lowing results, when cotton seed was valued at six dollars per ton
and cotton -seed meal at twenty dollars per ton: " By comparing
the averages of the lots fed on steamed seed, raw seed, and on

- Bui. April, 1893.

2 Bui. 33, Texas Expt. Sta.

8 Bui. 21, Miss. Expt. Sta.

476 Feeds and Feeding.

cotton-seed meal (the rations of hay being the same in each
case), it was found that, with steamed seed, milk was produced at
a cost of 6.5 cents per gallon and butter at 14.3 cents per pound;
with raw seed, milk was produced at 7.25 cents per gallon and
butter at 15.58 cents per pound; and from cotton-seed meal, milk
was produced at a cost of 11.13 cents per gallon and butter at
25.02 cents per pound. "

While the seed may be fed raw, it is stated that cooking pre-
vents it from imparting an undesirable flavor to butter. (210-12,
216-17, 644)

724. Clover hay. — "No dry forage can prove superior to good
clover hay for the cow, because of its palatability and its rela-
tively high protein content. This hay should generally be fed
long, since it is fresher and shows less dust when so handled than
after passing through the feed- cutter. From ten to twelve pounds
is a sufficient allowance for a day's feed. Corn fodder, corn
stover or corn silage are complementary forms of roughage. (291)

725. Timothy hay. — Generally dairymen cannot afford to feed
timothy hay because of the high price it commands compared
with its very moderate value for roughage when fed to the cow,
and also because of the small yield returned per acre. Where
prices are high, if there is timothy hay on hand, let it be sold and
fodder corn used in its place. Often a ton of timothy hay can be
sold for a sum that will purchase a ton of bran, in which case the
bran should be used with fodder corn or other roughage.

726. Millet hay. — Hay from millet or Hungarian grass, when
well preserved, is useful for feeding if supplied once a day for
roughage. Since millet is not rich in protein, not over six or eight
pounds should be fed daily. (482) Clover hay is a complement-
ary roughage feed because rich in protein.

727. Fodder corn. — In this country successful dairying rests
largely upon the judicious use qf the corn plant for forage. The
best forage is secured where the seed grains of corn are planted
just thick enough to grow stalks which will carry a generous sup-
ply of small ears or nubbins. Harvested at the right time, a
large yield of forage is secured, which is so palatable that, pre-
served either as silage or cured in the shock, practically all of the

Feed and Care of the Dairy Cow. 477

material is available as feed for the cow if rightly handled. Next
to the direct care of the herd, the greatest study of the dairyman
should be in learning to economically grow, harvest and admin-
ister the corn plant.

The cow may receive from ten to fifteen pounds of fodder corn
daily with advantage. If this has been grown with a " nubbin "
or small ear on most of the stalks, a fair allowance of the rough-
age will furnish as much grain as should be fed. (250)

728. Corn stover. — Where corn is grown for the grain, the
straw or stover which remains after husking the ears, though of
less value than fodder corn, may still serve an important place
in the feed stable. Cows are fond of the finer parts of the corn
stalk, and if the stover is run through a feed- cutter and not too
liberally supplied, but a small part of the stalks will be wasted.
Where the stalks are coarse and inert, as they are in the southern
part of the corn belt and further south, this statement does not
apply, for there corn stalks are not much relished by cows, though
in silage form they are readily eaten. (251)

729. Roots. — In Europe dairymen make large use of roots.
In this country, where Indian corn flourishes, silage from corn
will be found more economical considering cost of production,
and is equally satisfactory with the root crop for feeding cows.
Where the dairyman does not have silage it will be well to feed
some roots. Mangels are the best for cows and should be pulped
or sliced. Canadian dairymen often pulp the roots and mix this
with chaffed hay, allowing the mass to stand a day before feed-
ing. From twenty to forty pounds of mangels is a day's allow-
ance. Sugar beets also serve for feeding cows. Being much
richer than mangels, a smaller quantity should be fed. (325)

730. Silage. — Silage, principally from the corn plant, is now a
factor of first importance on thousands of American dairy farms.
That silage is well liked by the cow, that she thrives on it and
yields milk liberally, that properly fed it does not impair her
health, — all these points have been settled in favor of the
silo and its product. Since corn silage is rich in carbohydrates
and low in protein, clover hay is the common complementary
roughage.

478 Feeds and Feeding.

The character of silage is such that, even though cows seem-
ingly thrive on it when fed alone, some dry roughage should be
supplied with it. In northern latitudes the cow should not be
wholly maintained in winter on silage. Good corn silage always
contains a liberal supply of ears, and the amount to be fed de-
pends directly upon the proportion of ears to forage. From thirty
to fifty pounds is the usual daily allowance for a cow. (See Chap-
ter XV.)

731. Rations for dairy cows. — The young dairyman scans re-
ports to ascertain what others are feeding their cows; the dairy-
man with years of experience is not averse to knowing of the
practices of others, though he may be slow in changing to that
which is new. (136)

In 1894, Woll, of the Wisconsin Station, l by correspondence
secured data concerning the rations fed by more than a hundred
dairymen scattered over the United States. (146) As most of
them were noted in their specialty, we can place no better guide
before the reader than a group of rations from this source:

Colorado. — 20 Ibs. alfalfa hay, 5 Ibs. oat straw, 2£ Ibs. wheat bran, 2J Ibs.
shorts, 5 Ibs. oats, 1£ Ibs. cotton-seed meal.

Connecticut. — 35 Ibs. corn silage, 10 Ibs. hay, 3 Ibs. bran, 3 Ibs. corn and
cob meal, 2 Ibs. cotton-seed meal, 2 Ibs. Chicago gluten meal.

Illinois.— 10 Ibs. timothy hay, 10 Ibs. clover hay, 8 Ibs. corn, 1£ Ibs. oats.

Indiana.— 30 Ibs. corn silage, 5 Ibs. clover hay, 3 Ibs. corn fodder, 1 Ib.
oat straw, 1 Ib. wheat straw, 5 Ibs. bran, 2 Ibs. oil meal, 2 Ibs. cot-
ton-seed meal.

Iowa.— 50 Ibs. corn silage, 5 Ibs. hay, 5 Ibs. corn fodder, 1 Ib. oat straw,

1 Ib. barley straw, 5 Ibs. ear corn, 2£ Ibs. ground oats and barley.

Kentucky.— 32.5 Ibs. corn silage, 6 Ibs. clover hay, 3 Ibs. corn fodder, 5
Ibs. corn meal, 4 Ibs. ship-stuff, 2 Ibs. oil meal.

Massachusetts.— 40 Ibs. corn silage, 5 Ibs. English hay, 5 Ibs. clover hay,

2 Ibs. bran, 2 Ibs. gluten meal, 1 Ib. cotton-seed meal, 1 Ib. oil
meal.

Michigan.— 27.5 Ibs. corn silage, 3£ Ibs. clover hay, 3£ Ibs. timothy hay,
3.6 Ibs. bran, $ Ib. oats, 1 Ib. rye, £ Ib. oil meal.

i Bui. 38.

Feed and Care of the Dairy Cow. 479

Minnesota.— % Ibs. corn stover, 7 Ibs. clover and timothy hay, 5 Ibs. sheaf
oats, 3 Ibs. ruta-bagas, 2 Ibs. bran, 3 Ibs. oats, 3 Ibs. corn meal, 2 Ibs.
oil meal.

Nebraska. — 20 Ibs. prairie hay, 10 Ibs. corn stover, 5.7 Ibs. corn meal, 2.9
Ibs. bran, 1.4 Ibs. oil meal.

New Hampshire. — 10 Ibs. clover and witch-grass hay, 10 Ibs. corn stover,
5 Ibs. unthrashed barley, 2 Ibs. corn and cob meal, 2 Ibs. shorts, 2
Ibs. cotton-seed meal.

New Jersey. — 24 Ibs. corn silage, 8 Ibs. corn meal, 2 Ibs. bran, 4 Ibs. oats,

2 Ibs. oil meal.

New York. — 25 Ibs. corn silage, 7 Ibs. mixed hay, 4 Ibs. corn meal, 5
Ibs. bran, £ Ib. oil meal, £ Ib. cotton-seed meal.

North Carolina. — 30 Ibs. corn silage, 8 Ibs. fodder corn, 3 Ibs. corn meal,

3 Ibs. bran, 1 Ib. cotton-seed meal.

Ohio.— 10 Ibs. clover hay, 20 Ibs. corn stover, 8 Ibs. corn meal, 3 Ibs. corn
and cob meal, 1 Ib. bran, 8 Ibs. roots.

Pennsylvania.— 45 Ibs. corn silage, 7 Ibs. mixed hay, 6 Ibs. bran, 2 Ibs.
cotton-seed meal.

Texas.— 30 Ibs. corn silage, 13 £ Ibs. sorghum hay, 1.3 Ibs. corn meal, 2.6
Ibs. cotton-seed meal, 2.2 Ibs. cotton seed, 1.3 Ibs. wheat bran.

Utah.— 35 Ibs. alfalfa hay, 6f Ibs. wheat bran, 3£ Ibs. barley.

Vermont.— 35 Ibs. corn silage, 10 Ibs. mixed hay, 2 Ibs. bran, 3.2 Ibs. corn
meal, 1 Ib. oil meal, .8 Ib. cotton-seed meaL

West Virginia.— 48 Ibs. corn silage, 2| Ibs. corn and cob meal, 2J Ibs.
ground wheat, 2£ Ibs. oats, 2-J- Ibs. barley meal.

Washington.— 15 Ibs. alfalfa hay, 7 Ibs. bran, 7 Ibs. shorts, 2 Ibs. malt
sprouts.

Wisconsin.— 40 Ibs. corn silage, 8 Ibs. clover hay, 6 Ibs. bran, 2 Ibs. pea
meal.

Canada.— 45 Ibs. turnips, 7 Ibs. wheat chaff, 15 Ibs. silage, 2J Ibs. oats,
2£ Ibs. pea meal.

CHAPTEE TTXTX".

INVESTIGATIONS WITH SHEEP.

732. Periods of gestation. — Tessier, in a report to the Academy
of Sciences, Paris, l gives the results of his observations on the
period of gestation of 912 ewes. The shortest period for the ewe
carrying her lamb was 146 days, and the longest 161, a range of
15 days. More than three-fourths of the ewes yeaned between
the 150th and 154th day after impregnation, bringing the average
about 152 days, or 21 weeks and 5 days. Bandall's statement2
as to the period of gestation coincides with that of Tessier.

733. Composition of ewe's milk. — Konig3 gives the composi-
tion of ewe's milk as below. For comparison, the table gives the
average composition of cow's milk as stated by the same author.

Composition of ewe's milk, cow's milk being given for comparison —

Konig.

Casein

Water.

and

Fat.

Sugar.

Ash.

albumen.

Per ct.

Average 32 analyses ewe's
milk

80 82

6.52

6.86

4 91

Average 793 analyses cow's
milk

87 17

3 55

3 69

4 88

734. Ewe's milk. — In America sheep are not generally used for
producing milk for man, as in many districts abroad, especially
in mountain regions, where this milk is extensively employed,
partly for direct consumption and partly for the manufacture of
cheese. Ewe's milk differs from cow's milk mainly in its greater
proportion of fat and protein. Much higher percentages than

1 According to Colman, Sheep of Great Britain, p. 250.

» The Practical Shepherd, p. 207.

8 Chem. d. mensch. Nahr. u. Genus-mitteL

Investigations icith Sheep.

481

the average given in the preceding table have often been found
by investigators. 1

The yield of milk by sheep will vary greatly according to the
condition of feed and the breed. Martiny states2 that the yield
of Friesian milk sheep in Westphalia, Germany, is abont four
quarts of milk daily for four months. These sheep lamb once a
year, dropping two or three lambs. Three sheep are estimated
to consume as much feed as one cow. Ordinary sheep yield from
100 to 150 pounds of milk per year, while the milk breeds pro-
duce 300 pounds or more. 3

The period of lactation for sheep is from four to six months.

735. Weight of lambs at birth. — The weight of lambs at birth
will vary with the breed, ranging from 5.5 to 12 and even 15
pounds, the latter weight being unusual.

At the Ontario Agricultural College, 4 Brown reports the fol-
lowing weights of pure-bred and grade lambs from Canadian ewes:

Weight of lambs at birth — Ontario Agricultural College.

Breed.

Pure-bred.

Cross-bred
with Canadian
grade ewes.

Lincoln

Lbs.
9 0

Lbs.
8 3

Leicester

9 25

9 5

Cotswold

7 0

8 0

Highland

7 25

9 0

Cheviot

12 0

9 0

Oxford

11 0

10.5

Shropshire

9 5

Hampshire

9 o

10 0

Southdown

7 5

10.5

Merino

8 0

736. Feeding milk to lambs. — At the Wisconsin Station5 the
writer endeavored to ascertain whether lambs make as good use
of food given them as other farm animals, by rearing them on

1 See Staz. Sper. Ag. Ital. 23, p. 572; Analyst, 1893, p. 248; Fleischmann.
ilchwirtschaft, 1893, p. 5

2 Die Milch, 1871, . 183.

Milchwirtschaft, 1893, p. 54.

2 Die Milch, 1871, p. 1

3 Concerning yield of milk from sheep, see Weiske, Journ. f. Landw.,

, , . . .,

1881, p. 451; Rodiczky, Oestr. Ldw. Wochenbl., 1886, No. 47; Besana,
Analyst, 1893, p. 248; Goltz, Landw., Ill, p. 460; Shepperd, Agrl. Science,

VI, p. 397.
4 Re

ipt. 1885.
31

0 Rept. 1890.

482 Feeds and Feeding.

cow's milk and other appropriate feeding stuffs. The four lambs
in the trial were from large high-grade merino ewes sired by a
pure-bred Shropshire ram. They were vigorous, growthy speci-
mens, ten days old at the beginning of the trial, averaging ten
pounds each in weight. At first they were fed cow's milk at
blood heat, this milk constituting their only food for twenty-one
days, after which skim milk, oats and green clover were supplied.
The following data show the food required for 100 pounds of gain

with these lambs, beginning at 10 days of age:

Feed per 100
Period. Feed given. Ibs. gain.

Pounds.
First period, 21 days ........................ Cow's milk ......................... 579

YSweet skim milk ................ 830

Second period, 115 days ................... -j Ground oats ....................... 119

(Green clover ....................... 262

At the close of the last period, when 167 days old, the lambs
averaged 79 pounds each, showing a daily gain, including birth
weight, of nearly one-half pound each. (356, 659)

The heavy gains which followed the use of cow's milk in this
trial suggest the profitable use of that article in forcing lambs
to meet the requirements of special markets, e. g., " Christmas
lambs."

737. Lambs compared with pigs. — At the Michigan Agricult-
ural College,1 Miles fed Essex pigs, eleven days old, cow's milk
for four weeks, with the results shown in the following table:

Cow's milk required for 100 pounds gain by young Essex pigs —
Michigan Agricultural College.

1st week.
720 Ibs.

2d week.
792 Ibs.

3d week.
1,181 Ibs.

4th week.
1,013 Ibs.

Av. <for four
weeks.

925 Ibs.

During the third week of the trial the pigs were " off feed,"
so that the average is somewhat too high.

Making reasonable allowance for this, the lambs fed in the "Wis-
consin trial noted above lead in the gains made from cow's milk.

1 Kept. Mich. Bd. of Agr., 1866, p. 61.

Investigations with Sheep. 483

738. Relative economy of lambs and pigs. — Elsewhere (831) is
shown the feed required by pigs before weaning for 100 pounds
of gain. From these figures and those reported in Article 736
the data given below are deduced.

Feed required for 100 pounds of increase by young pigs and lambs —
Wisconsin Station.

Feed.

Pigs.

Lambs.

Meal...

Lbs.
231

Lbs.
119

Skim milk

534

830

Green clover

262

Meal equivalent

320

284

The above data show that before weaning pigs require 231
pounds of meal and 534 pounds of skim milk for 100 pounds of
gain. Estimating 6 pounds of milk equal to one of meal, ac-
cording to the Danish formula, (888) we have 320 pounds of meal
or equivalent as the feed for 100 pounds of gain with pigs before
weaning. During the second period of the trial with lambs, the
following quantities of feed were required for 100 pounds of gain:
119 pounds of meal, 830 of milk and 262 pounds of green clover.
Estimating the milk at the same equivalent in meal as before,
and ten pounds of green clover equal to one of meal, we have
284 pounds of grain or grain equivalent as the feed required
for 100 pounds of gain with young lambs, or thirty-six pounds
less than that required by the pigs. From this it is apparent
that lambs make at least as economical gains for feed consumed
as do pigs of the same age.

739. The milking qualities of ewes. — Instructive experiments
were conducted by Shepperd, l at the Wisconsin Station, to de-
termine the milking qualities of high-grade Shropshire ewes.
Lambs at foot were muzzled except at regular periods, when each
was allowed to take milk from its dam while the attendant drew
milk from the other teat. The' amount of milk yielded by the
ewes was determined by weighing each lamb on a delicate scale

1 Agricultural Science, VI, pp. 397-405.

484

Feeds and Feeding.

immediately before and after sucking. The results 'are shown
below:

Yield, per cent, of fat and specific gravity of ewe's milJc — Wisconsin

Station.

No. of ewe.

No. of days
tested.

Daily milk
yield.

Per cent. fat.

Specific
gravity.

1
2
3
4

10
6
6
6

3.961bs.
2.831bs.
3.03 Ibs.
2.51 Ibs.

5.2
5.4

5.62
6.25

1.037
1.049
1.037
1.036

From the above we learn that four ewes gave from 2.5 to 4
pounds of milk each daily, containing from 5.2 to 6.25 per cent,
of fat. The milk was of high specific gravity, showing a large
content of solids. (825)

740. Feed required for 100 pounds of milk. — Ewes fed singly
and in groups of two were given weighed quantities of feed and
water, and the milk yield noted. The concentrates fed consisted
of three parts bran and one part oil meal. This with clover hay
of good quality, though a little coarse, and a few sliced potatoes,
constituted the ration. The results were as follows:

Quantity of feed and water consumed by ewes in producing 100
pounds of milk — Wisconsin Station.

No. of ewe.

Grain.

Clover hay.

Potatoes.

Water.

Lbs.

61.6

293

55.5

417

404

The above figures are helpful to the student in comparing the
sheep with other domestic animals as an economical producer of
milk. They show the ewe to be as economical as the cow in turn-
ing hay and grain into milk. It should not be forgotten that
while yielding milk the ewe is also growing a fleece. (694)

741. Value of ewe's milk for lamb growing. — In conducting his
studies with ewes and lambs, Shepperd noted the amount of milk

Investigations with Sheep.

485

consumed by lambs and their gains, with the results reported
in the table. In these trials the lamb was kept separate from
the ewe, except when sucking. It was weighed both before and
after sucking to ascertain the amount of milk yielded by the ewe.
The results appear in the following table:

Daily gain, and gain per pound of ewe's milk, by young lambs —
Wisconsin Station

No. of lamb.

Age of lamb.

Gain per day.

Gain per Ib. of
milk.

Days.

Lbs.

.62

.156

.47

.166

.44

.145

.40

.159

Here were daily gains ranging from .4 to over .6 of a pound per
lamb, each pound of milk producing about .15 of a pound in-
crease, live weight. Shepperd concludes his report with the state-
ment that the gain of lambs, during the first month of their lives
at least, is largely controlled by the quantity of milk yielded by
the ewe, and as a consequence that ewes should be carefully se-
lected for their milking qualities. (525, 825-8)

742. Influence of shearing on milk yield. — Weiske1 conducted
an experiment to ascertain the influence of shearing on the pro-
duction of milk by sheep. A Southdown-Merino ewe weighing
77 pounds was fed the following ration directly after lambing:
Meadow hay, 1.1 pounds; beets, 2.2 pounds; ground barley, 1.1
pounds. On this food she produced the following quantities of
milk:

Days after lambing, May.. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
Pounds of milk 1.2, 1.4, 1.6, 1.7, 1.9, 2.0, 2.0, 2.2, 2.2.

The milk contained from 14.28 to 16.51 per cent, total solids.
During days following the last one noted above, the milk yield
remained at 2.2 pounds, but decreased, when the ewe was shorn,
May 20, as follows:

May 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25.

Pounds of milk 2.2, 2.0, 1.9, 1.7, 1.65, 1.57.

1 Landwirth., 1879, p. 329.

486

Feeds and Feeding.

When half a pound of flax seed was added to the ration the milk
production increased as follows:

May 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31.

Pounds of milk 1.5, 1.7, 2.0, 2.1, 2.0, 2.1.

The influence of the flax seed in overcoming the shock to the
system through shearing is shown by a return to the normal milk
flow through its use.

743. Soiling ewes and lambs. — Because of their daintiness and
the large variety of plants they crop, soiling sheep is impracti-
cable. Desiring to ascertain, regardless of cost, the amount of food
required by sheep for growth in summer, the writer conducted
the trial reported below. l Ten large Merino ewes were chosen,
each with a lamb at foot one month old, when the trial began,
June 3. The lambs were vigorous, their sire being an imported
Shropshire. With patience and laborious attention to every de-
tail, the shepherd fed the lot successfully, with the results given
in the following table:

Feed required for 100 pounds gain when soiling ewes and lambs —

Wisconsin Station.

Periods.

Green
clover.

Green corn
fodder.

Hay.

Oats.

JSwes and lambs, before weaning.
1st period June 3 July 29 (57 days)

Lbs.
2 882

Lbs.
478

Lbs.

Lbs.
45

2d period ' July 29-Sept 16 (49 days)

555

2,400

J^ambs only, after weaning.
3d period Sept 16-Oct 14 (28 days)

915

292

413

Feed for 100 pounds gain.

Placing a fair price on the substances consumed, we find that
100 pounds of increase was made at a reasonable cost. When we
remember that the ewes would have preferred to do their own
foraging, and would have eaten many weeds and weed seeds as
well as better forage, we must conclude that evidence points to the
sheep as one of the most economical meat producers on the farm.

744. Sheep compared with lambs for fattening.— This -impor-
tant subject has received little attention at our Stations. The only

1 Kept. Wis. Expt. Sta., 1890.

Investigations with Sheep.

487

trial reported is by Hayes of the Minnesota Station. l Ten North
Dakota half-bred Shropshire lambs were fed in opposition to ten
Montana two-year-old grade Merino wethers. The feed consisted
of wheat screenings and hay, the trial lasting eighty- four days,
with results given below:

Feeding lambs in opposition to mature wethers — Minnesota, Station.

Breed.

Total

feed.

Av. wt.

at be-
srin-

Total
eraiD

Daily

u'ui i)

Feed ft
Ibs. g

>r!00
ain.

Grain.

Hay.

nmg.

Grain.

Hay.

Dakota Shropshire
grade lambs

Lbs.
1,776

Lbs.
609

Lbs.
74

Lbs.
244

Lbs.
.29

Lbs.

728

Lbs.
250

Montana two-year-
old Merino weth-
ers

2,110

542

107

172

1,227

315

We observe that the lambs gave the usual returns from wheat
screenings and made satisfactory gains. On the other hand,
the wethers gained only one-fifth of a pound per day, and con-
sumed 70 per cent, more grain for a given gain than the lambs.
Possibly when more trials are on record, the feeding qualities of
lambs and mature sheep will show less difference than in this
case; but it is well known that young animals give the best
returns for feed consumed.

745. Iowa Station breed test. — The most extensive breed test
conducted in this country was at the Iowa Station2 by Wilson
and Curtiss. In the first trial there were ten wether lambs in
each lot, most of which were selected in Canada especially for
the trial. The Merinos in the first trial were of the National
Delaine strain, raised in Iowa. The.Eange lambs were from
Wyoming. In the second trial there were nine lambs in each lot,
mostly from Canada. The Merinos in this triaj were of the
Bambouillet strain, bred in Ohio. In the first trial the feeding
lasted ninety days and in the second one hundred and five days,
and was alike in all particulars for each lot. In closing the ex-
periment the lambs were shipped to Chicago and there valued by

iRept. 1893.
2 Buls. 33-35.

488

Feeds and Feeding.

experts both, before and after slaughter. The leading results of
the trials are summarized in the following tables:

Weight and gain of fattening wether lambs in breed test — Iowa Station.

Breed.

Av. age.

Av. wt. at
beginning.

Av. daily
gain.

Dry matter
per 100 Ibs.
gain.

First
trial.

Sec-
ond
trial.

First
trial.

Sec-
ond
trial.

First
trial.

Sec-
ond
trial.

First
trial.

Sec-
ond
trial.

Southdown

Days.

374
371
374
394
345
347
362
367
362

Days.

289
279
279

285
291

268

277
277

Lbs.

91
101
119
117
121
118
132
101
82

Lbs.

88
95
92
94

86
85
83

Lbs.

.45
.48
.52
.55
.55
.62
.52
.48
29

Lbs.

.35
.36
.40
.40
.46
.50
.44
.43

Lbs.

738
718
740
740
729
653
749
785
935

Lbs.

989
1,026
1,031
1,036
910
848
934
989

Shropshire

Oxford

Suffolk. .

Lincoln

Cotswold. ..

Leicester

Dorset

Merino

Rambouillet

255

.37

1,029
1,030

Shropshire ewes

255

.31

Range...

331

.37

684

Price and weight of dressed carcass and of fleece in breed test —

Iowa Station.

Breed.

Price per 100
Ibs. live wt.

Per cent,
dressed car-
cass.

Av. wt. of
fleece.

Value of
fleece per
head.

First
trial.

Sec-
ond
trial.

First
trial.

Sec-
ond
trial.

First

trial.

Sec-
ond
trial.

First
trial.

Sec-
ond
trial.

Southdown

$4 75
4 63
4 50
4 25
4 50
4 50
4 50
3 75
4 25

$5 75
5 60
5 40
5 00
5 25
5 25
5 25
5 50

'"s'ob

5 65

55.4
56.3
55.2
53.6
55.7
54.9
57.8
52.6
51.8

55.6

55.26
52.88
50.08
52.54
51.08
53.57
51.87
54.11

*49 .57
54.55

Lbs.

6.8
8.8
11.0
7.7
12.9
12.7
11.6
6.8
9.9

"s'.T

Lbs.

4.6
7.8
8.0
5.2
10.4
9.8
8.9
6.0

6.6

$0 75
93
1 44
86
1 79
1 66
1 76
77
1 00

""67

$0 64
1 10
1 16
75
1 56
1 46
1 33
83

Shropshire

Oxford

Suffolk

Lincoln *

Cotswold.

Leicester

Dorset

Merino

Rambouillet
Shropshire ewes

Range....

4 50

Investigations with Sheep.

489

746. Lawes and Gilbert's breed test. — These investigators tested
the comparative fattening qualities of the different English breeds
of sheep. l Their data of the feed requirements for gain by the
various breeds during fattening are as follows:

Feed required for 100 pounds gain, live weight, with sheep of various
breeds — Rothamsted Station.

Breeds.

Av. wt.

at be-
gin-
ning.

Av. total
increase
per head.

Feed consumed to produce 100
Ibs. increase, live weight.

OU cake.

Clover hay.

Swedes.

Sussex.

Lbs.

88
114
95
91
101
120

Lbs.

53
70
45
43
45
64

Lbs.

297
291
264
263
264
253

Lbs.

285
261
252
250
251
217

Lbs.

3,836
3,967
3.725
3,671
3,761
3,558

Hamp shire

Cross-bred wethers.
Cross-bred ewes

Leicester

Cotswold

747. Ontario College breed test. — At the Ontario Agricultural
College, 2 Brown fed grade lambs of different breeds to test their
relative fattening qualities, the trial beginning in November and
closing in March, with the following results:

Trial with grade wether lambs of several breeds — Ontario Agricultural

College.

Breed.

Wt. on

entry.

Gain.

Feed for 100 pounds gain.

Hay.

Roots.

Oil
cake.

Oats.

Peas.

Bran.

Cotswold

Lbs.

106
109
95
122
120

Lbs.

41
31
41
43
37

Lbs.

493
465
341

386
368

Lbs.

920
1,239
937
1,007
1,139

Lbs.

195
252

188
200
235

Lbs.

136
181
134
130
157

Lbs.

273

358
268
263
315

Lbs.

83
110
80
81
93

Leicester

Oxford

Shropshire
»Southdown

Average.

110

411

1,048

214

148

295

The results of these trials present interesting studies, but should
not be regarded as determining the relative merits of the several
breeds.

' Jour. Roy. Agrl. Soc., 1851, 1852, 1855; Rothamsted Memoirs, Vol. II.
2 Rept. 1885.

490

Feeds and Feeding.

748. " Self-feed " for fattening lambs.— Some feeders follow the
practice of placing quantities of grain sufficient to last a week or
more in a box arranged so that the grain passes down into the
feed trough as rapidly as the sheep consume the supply below.
The purpose of the i i self-feed " is to save the time and labor of
the shepherd, and also to allow the animals to have grain before
them at all times. Trials with self- feed are reported from the
Michigan Station1 with ten lambs in each lot, and Minnesota Sta-
tion2 with eight lambs in each lot, the results being given below:

Trials with u self -feed" for fattening lambs — Michigan and Minne-
sota Stations.

Feed given.

Wt.at
begin-
ning.

Gain.

Daily
gain.

Feed for 100
Ibs. gain.

Grain.

Hay.

Grain.

Michigan.

Self-feed.
Corn

Lbs.

1,506

1,838

1,579
1,703

3,023
2,225

Lbs.

961

959

1,097
1,124

432
753

Lbs.

82
80

Lbs.

248
,237

328
267

333
300

Lbs.

.23

.31
.25

.35
.32

Lbs.

387
405

334
421

130
251

Lba

607
776

481
689

908
742

Corn and bran

Regular feed.
Corn

Corn and bran .

Minnesota.
Self-feed.
Wheat screenings. . . .
Regular.
Wheat screenings. . . .

Mumford, 8 reviewing his studies with the self- feed, writes:
"The experiments are quite conclusive, extending as they do
over a period of three years under varying conditions and with
different lots of sheep. We are led to the conclusion that fatten-
ing lambs by means of a self- feed is an expensive practice, and that
economy of production requires more attention to the variation in
the appetites of the animals than can be given by this method. ' '

749. Fattening shorn lambs. — At the Michigan Station, 4 Muni-
ford divided a bunch of twenty lambs into two lots of ten each.
One lot was shorn and the other left unshorn, both receiving
similar treatment as to feed and care. The grain consisted of
corn and wheat, equal parts by weight, fed with good clover hay.

1 Bui. 113. 2 Bui. 44. 3 Bui. 128, Mich. Expt. Sta. * Bui. 128.

Investigations with Sheep.

491

The trial began in November, lasting thirteen weeks. Both lots
were kept in a barn, the window in the pen containing unshorn
lambs being kept open, while that in the pen of the shorn lambs
was kept closed. In spite of this care the shorn lambs suffered
from the cold. The result of the trial is tabulated below:

Feeding shorn and unshorn lambs — Michigan Station.

Feed*

saten.

Av. wt.

at be-

Total
o-ain

Daily
srain

Feed foi
ga]

• 100 Ibs.
in.

Grain.

Hay.

gining.

Grain.

Hay.

Unshorn
Shorn

Lbs.

1,164
1,266

Lbs.

1,173
1,336

Lbs.

85
84

Lbs.

230
161

Lbs.

.25
.18

Lbs.

506

786

Lbs.

510

830

The shorn lambs ate more food, drank less water and made 30
per cent, less gain than the unshorn lambs.

At the Wisconsin Station,1 Craig studied the subject during
four years, the first trial beginning in December, and subsequent
ones earlier, the last two beginning in October. As with Mum-
ford, Craig's results were unfavorable to shearing fattening lambs
after winter begun, while they favored early shearing. His con-
clusions are:

"1. Fall shearing is a beneficial practice to prepare lambs that
are six months old for the early winter market.

" 2. To secure the benefits of fall shearing it should be done
early in the season, at least not later than October.

"3. When done under such circumstances, the removal of the
fleece hastens the fattening, and the gain is made at a slightly
cheaper rate.

"4. The results show that by shearing in the fall and again in
the spring more wool is obtained than from a single spring
shearing, but the market value of the two clippings is not any
greater than that of the single clipping in which the fibers of the
fleece are longer.

11 5. When the lambs are to be fattened during three or four of
the winter months, there appears to be no practical advantage in
fall shearing. "

1 Kept. 1894.

492

Feeds and Feeding.

750. Exposure versus confinement. — Next to feed, the feeding
place and the method of confinement are of importance in fatten-
ing sheep. At the Minnesota Station, l Shaw fed four lots of
eight lambs each under various conditions as to confinement. Lot
I was kept out of doors continuously in a yard sheltered from the
wind by a low building at one side. Lots II and III were con-
fined in yards with an open shed for shelter. Lot IV was kept
in a compartment of the barn having one large window facing
the east, for ventilation. The fed for all lots was the same. The
table below presents the results:

Effect of various methods of confinement on fattening lambs — Min-
nesota Station.

Aver-

\\r

Feed fo]

r 100 Ibs.

gain.

Where fed.

age
weight.

daily
gain.

Wheat
screen-
ings.

Oil
meal.

Hay.

Lot I, out of doors

Lbs.
80

Lbs.

.28

Lbs.

804

Lbs.
90

Lbs.
316

Lot II, in lot with shed....
Lot III, in lot with shed....
Lot IV in stable

84
78
78

.36

.32

817
668

722

74
80

127
251

283

It will be seen that the lot kept out of doors made as rapid
gains as that confined in the stable, but required somewhat more
feed for a given gain. Lots II and III, kept in the shed, made
the largest and Lot III the cheapest gain.

At the Michigan Station, 2 Mumford kept one lot of lambs con-
tinuously in an open yard in winter where they were sometimes
drenched with rain and covered with snow. A second lot was
fed in a barn, at no time being allowed to go outside. The re-
sults were slightly in favor of the lambs kept indoors, but the
difference was far less than would be supposed by persons who
are not familiar with the hardiness of fattening sheep. The re-
sults of this trial do not show that rain and snow are beneficial
to the fattening sheep, but rather that indoor confinement may be
as damaging as outdoor exposure. (561, 630)

i Bui. 44. ~~« Bui. 128.

Investigations with Sheep.

493

751. Water drank. — Several Stations have weighed the water
drank by lambs while fattening. The following table presents a
range of results helpful to those seeking information on this
point:

Water drank ~by lambs on various rations during fattening — Mich-
igan and Cornell Stations.

Grain fed.

Weight at be- 1
ginning.

>»

Water drank
daily.

Feed and water per 100
Ibs. gain.

&d
s«
2s

11
&

Remarks.

Grain.

Boots.

Corn1 . .

Lbs.
82
80

80
85
84

81
84

59
56

Lbs.

.31
.25

.28
,22
!l8

.38
.13

.19

'.22

Lbs.

3.02
3.85

4.83
1.35
2.03

1.87
.40

3.02
1.10

Lbs.

481
639

526

583
786

406

505
470

Lbs.

334
421

394
530
830

243
1,018

457

486

Lbs.

1,146"

685
4,900

880*
501

Lbs.

966
1,515

1,740
599
1,148

495
314

1,598
505

Lbs.

702
913

804
965
1,397

641
1,516

1,033
880

Confined.
Confined.

Confined.
Freedom of yard.
Shorn 2d week of
experiment.
Confined.
Confined.

Warm barn.

% corn, % bran 1
8 wheat, % oil
meal *

% corn, % wheat 3...
% corn, % wheat "...

Corn and roots *
Sugar beets 2

1 part oil meal, 2
parts cotton-seed
meal, 4 pts. bran 3
7 parts corn, 1 part
oats3

* Silage.

752. Weight of fattened sheep.— At the Ontario College,4
Brown reports the following weights of fat shorn shearlings (sheep
once shorn) :

Live weight of fat shorn wethers at 44$

College.

— Ontario Agricultural

Average
weight of
tops.

Average
weight of
culls.

Mean
weight.

Daily
gain per

Leicester high grades

Lbs.
242

Lbs.

Lbs.
242

Lbs.
54

Leicester grades

189

Oxford grades

186

147

167

Shropshire grades

185

148

167

.37

Southdown °Tades

165

133

149

Merino grades .*..

138

Mean

184

175

Bui. 113, Mich. Sta.
Bui. 47, Cornell Sta.

2 Bui. 128, Mich. Sta.
4 Kept. 1882.

494

Feeds and Feeding.

The weight of fat sheep of the several breeds competing for
prizes at the American Fat-Stock Show, Chicago, during the years
1878 to 1884, both inclusive, 3 are shown in the following table:

Weight of fat sheep of various breeds — American Fat-Stock Show,

Chicago.

Breed.

Wether
2yrs.
old or
over.

Wether
lyr.
and un-
der 2
yrs.

Wether
under 1
yr. old.

Ewe 2
yrs. or
over.

Ewel

yr-

and
under
2 yrs.

Ewe

under

o?dF'

Cotswold

Lbs.

258
263
205
223
137
221 '

Lbs.

199
239
172
181
112
188

Lbs.

142
151
119
117
79
118

Lbs.

273
238
169
216
101
213

Lbs.

235
204
130
208
73
165

Lbs.

127
112
97
87
52
122

Other long wools

Southdown

Other middle wools

American merino

Grades or crosses

753. Daily gain for various breeds. — The best daily gains2 with
fat wethers at the American Fat-Stock Show, Chicago, between
the years 1879 and 1882, both inclusive, are as follows:

Weight and daily gain of wether making the most rapid gain — Ameri-
can Fat-Stock Show, Chicago.

Wethers two and under three years.

Year.

Breed.

Age in
days.

Weight

Av. gain per
day since
birth.

1879...

969

Lbs.
300

Lbs.
.31

1881...

Cotswold

933

281

.30

Wethers one and under two years.

1878

Cotswold

535

220

1880

Grade Oxford

612

232

1882

Leicester

600

295

Wethers under one

year.

1878

170

152

1881...

Southdown

213

193

1882

Leicester

235

178

1 Trans. Dept. Agr. 111., 1884, p. 228.

2Loc. cit.

Investigations with SJwep.

495

754. Weight of carcass. — Lawes and Gilbert1 found in trials
with sheep of the various breeds the following weights of dressed
carcass with well-fattened animals:

Marketable produce for each 100 pounds unfasted iceiglit of sheep1 in-
cluding wool — Rothamsted Station.

Breed.

Mutton
(less tallow).

Wool.

Lbs. Ozs.
53 3

Lbs. Ozs.
4 0

Hampshires

53 6

3 7

(Jross-bred wethers .

51 2

4 10

50 10

5 6 .

Leicester's >

50 11

5 9

53 6

5 4

Eelative to live and dead weights, the conclusions of these in-
vestigators are:

11 Hoggets or tegs (ewes or wethers under twelve months old)
in a lean or store condition will contain about one-half of their,
weight carcass, and about one-half offal.

" Shorn sheep, sufficiently fat for the market, will contain
about 56 pounds of carcass in every 100 pounds of the unfasted
live weight.

"Sheep in an ordinary state of fatness yield from 7 pounds to 14
pounds of offal or loose fat per head, according to breed and size;
the long- wools giving the least, and the Downs the most."

755. Tat-Stock Show test. — At the American Fat-Stock Show
in 1884, 2 animals competing for prizes were slaughtered, with the
results shown in the following table:
Slaughter tests with sheep at the American Fat-Stock Show, Chicago.

Age of animals.

Number.

Live weight
at slaughter.

Weight of
dressed car-
cass.

Per cent.

Lbs.

T wo years or over
One year, under two...
Under one year

2
4

248
171
99

156
105
57

63
61
57

1 Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc., 1851, p. 414; Rothamsted Memoirs, 1852, Vol. II,
p. 175. 2 Breeder's Gazette, 1884, p. 824.

496

Feeds and Feeding.

756. Shrinkage in shipping. — Cooke, of the Colorado Station, *
after fattening selected Western sheep and lambs on alfalfa hay,
wheat, corn and roots, shipped them from Fort Collins, Colorado,
to Chicago, with results shown in the table:

Shrinkage and dressed weight of Western sheep, shipped from Colorado
to Chicago — Colorado Station.

Kind.

Weight at
Fort
Collins.

Weight at
Chicago
stock
yard.

Per cent,
shrinkage

Per cent,
dressed
carcass to
Chicago
weight.

Per cent,
tallow to
Chicago
weight.

AVestern lambs

Lbs.
149.0

Lbs.
135

9 4

57.0

Western wethers ...
Mexican sheep

168.0
99.5

153
92

9.0
6.5

55.0
53.5

8.3
8.5

By the above we learn that selected Western lambs weighing
149 pounds at Fort Collins, Colorado, shrunk 14 pounds, or
9.4 per cent., on shipment to Chicago. These lambs dressed
57 per cent, of their Chicago weight, 9 per cent, of which was
tallow; that is, for each 100 pounds live weight there were 9
pounds of tallow and 48 pounds of carcass ready for the butcher's
block.

1 Bui. 32.

CHAPTEE XXX.

EXPERIMENTS IN FATTENING SHEEP — WOOL PRODUCTION.

I. Feeds and Fattening.

757. Indian corn. — Since a large proportion of the sheep in
this country are fattened on corn, both student and stockman
are interested in learning the quantity of this grain required for
a given gain. In the table below are presented the results of five
trials with corn for fattening lambs at three Stations. The aver-
age of these trials should constitute reliable data as to the quan-
tity of corn and hay required to produce one hundred pounds of
gain with lambs.

Fattening lambs on corn and hay — Michigan, Wisconsin and
Minnesota Stations.

Where fed.

Days
fed

Feed

eaten.

Av.

wt. at
be°tiii-

Gain.

Av.

daily

Feed
Ibs.

for 100
gain.

Corn.

Hay.

ning.

gam.

Corn.

Hay.

Michigan *

105

Lbs.
1 579

Lbs.
1,097

Lbs.
82

Lbs.
328

Lbs.
31

Lbs.
481

Lbs.
334

Michigan*

105

1,506

961

248

.24

607

387

Michigan f

1,208

1,142

233

.26

518

490

Wisconsin £

428

288

104

.37

411

277

Minnesota. §

1 103

849

211

.25

523

402

Av. of 5 trials

1,165

887

225

.29

507

378

* Bui. 113. | Bui. 128. J Kept. 1895. g Bui. 31.

In the Wisconsin trial there were 5 lambs; in the other trials
there were 10 lambs.

From this table we learn that lambs averaging 81 pounds each
during feeding trials averaging 13 weeks in length made gains
of three- tenths of a pound per head daily, requiring about 500
pounds of corn and 400 pounds of hay for 100 pounds of increase,
live weight, (566, 845)
32

498

Feeds and Feeding.

758. Dry versus soaked corn for sheep. — Mueller1 fed sheep
on dry and soaked corn. Twenty sheep nearly two years old
were fed 1.4 pounds of whole corn per day per head, ten animals
receiving the grain dry and ten receiving it soaked with as much
water as it would absorb. At the end of a period of ten weeks
the live weight of the sheep fed dry corn had increased 6. 6 pounds
more per head than the lot receiving soaked corn; after four weeks
more, the live weight of the former lot had increased 12.1 pounds
per head more than the second lot. The author explains the
poorer utilization of the soaked corn by the decreased secretion
of saliva when grain so treated was fed. (375)

759. Wheat. — The low price ruling for wheat in recent years
has stimulated much interest in its use for fattening sheep. A
trial at the Michigan Station2 by Mumford, in which wheat was
fed, in opposition to corn, to lots of ten lambs each, is summar-
ized in the following table:

Feeding lambs wheat in opposition to corn — Michigan Station.

Grain.

?eT

Feed eaten.

Av. wt. at
begin-
ning.

Gain.

Av.

daily
gain.

Feed for 100
Ibs. gain.

Grain.

Hay.

Grain.

Hay.

Corn

91
91

Lbs.

1,208
1,201

Lbs.

1,142
1,199

Lbs.

85
85

Lbs.

233
217

Lbs.

.26
.24

Lbs.

518
553

Lbs.

490
552

Wheat .

By the above we learn that the lambs fed wheat required more
feed for a given gain and did not make quite so large daily gains
as those fed corn. (166-8, 852)

760. English experience with wheat. — Voelcker conducted three
trials at the Woburn (England) Station to ascertain the feeding
value of wheat as a grain for fattening sheep. 8 Wheat meal was
found unsatisfactory owing to the fact that the meal adhered to
the jaws of the sheep when eating it, forming a sticky mass.
Whole wheat was substituted, and the effect was remarkable; the
sheep which would barely clean up the half-pound allowance of

1 Braunschw. Landw. Zeit., 1885, p. 209; Jahresb. Agr. Chemie, 1885,
p. 576.

2 Bui. 128. 8 Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc., 1886^88.

Experiments in Fattening Sheep.

499

wheat meal readily ate three-fourths of a pound of whole wheat.
Accordingly, during the remainder of the first and the two fol-
lowing trials, whole wheat was fed. The following table summar-
izes the results of the last two trials:

Feeding whole icheat to sheep — Woburn (England) Station.

Days
fed.

Av.

wt. at

begin-
ning.

Feed given daily.

Av.

gain
per
day.

Swede
turnips.

Chaffed
hay.

Wheat.

First trial

95
112

Lbs.

156
119

Lbs.

28
20

Lbs.

Second trial

These gains are satisfactory considering the length of the trials.
Voelcker concludes from three seasons' experiments with wheat>
oil meal, and cotton -seed meal, that whole wheat produced the
cheapest gain at current prices for stock foods in England.

761. Oats. — At the Michigan Station, l Mumford compared oats
with corn in a feeding trial lasting 119 days with ten lambs in
each lot, averaging 83 pounds, with results presented in the table:
Feeding oats in opposition to corn — Michigan Station.

Grain.

Feed eaten.

Av.

wt. at
begin-
ning.

Gain.

Av.

daily
gain.

Feed for 100 Ibs.
gain.

Grain

Hay.

Roots

Grain

Hay.

Boots

Oats

Lbs.

1,963
1,757

Lbs.

1,694
1,675

Lbs.

1,190
1,190

Lbs.

83
83

Lbs.

379
443

Lbs.

.31
.37

Lbs.

518
396

Lbs.

447
378

Lbs.

314

269

Corn

In this trial the oats did not give .as large daily gains as did
the corn; further, it required 100 pounds or 25 per cent, more
oats than corn for a given gain. Since 500 pounds of corn is
shown to be the usual grain requirement for 100 pounds of gain
with lambs, it is probable that further trials will show oats not
far below corn in value, though they can hardly equal it.

762. Bran. — At the Michigan Station, 2 Mumford fed corn in
opposition to bran during a period of 119 days, to two lots of ten

1 Bui. 107. 2 Bui. 107.

500

Feeds and Feeding.

lambs averaging 83 pounds in weight, with, the results given in
the table:
Feeding trial with bran and corn in opposition — Michigan Station.

Grain.

Feed eaten.

Av.

wt. at
begin-
ing.

Gain.

Av.

daily
gain.

Feed for 100 Ibs.
gain.

Grain

Hay.

Roots

Grain

Hay.

Roots

Corn

Lbs.

1,757
1,779

Lbs.

1,675

1,728

Lbs.

1,190
1,190

Lbs.

443
242

Lbs.

.37
.20

Lbs.

396
735

Lbs.

378
714

Lbs.

269
492

Bran

"We learn from this trial that it required nearly twice as much
bran as corn for the same gain. (175)

763. Wheat screenings. — At the Minnesota Station, J Shaw fed
lambs wheat screenings in opposition to wheat. Concerning the
former he wrote: "The screenings were under rather than over
the average in quality, having but little wheat of any kind in
them."

One-tenth of the ration consisted of oil meal. There were eight
lambs in each lot, the trial lasting 117 days, with results given
below:
Feeding wheat screenings in opposition to wheat — Minnesota Station.

Grain.

Feed eaten.

Wt.

at
begin-
ning.

Gain.

Daily
gain.

Feed for 100
Ibs. gain.

Grain

Hay.

Grain

Hay.

Wheat.

Lbs.

1.758

2,225

Lbs.

772
753

Lbs.

278
300

Lbs.

.30
.32

Lbs.

631

742

Lbs.

277
251

Screenings

By the above we learn that it required about 27 per cent, more
wheat screenings than wheat to produce a given gain. The high
feeding value of screenings for sheep in comparison with their
cost in the Northwest is illustrated in this trial. (169)

764. Shrunken wheat, wild buckwheat and pigeon-grass seed. —
At the Minnesota Station, 2 Hayes fed four lots of ten lambs each
for 84 days on rations of cracked corn, small wheat, wild buck-

1 Bui. 44. 2 Rept. 1893.

Experiments in Fattening Sheep.

501

wheat and pigeon-grass seed, respectively, with the results pre-
sented in the table below:

Feeding cracked corn, small wheat, wild "buckwheat and pigeon-grass
seed — Minnesota Station.

Grain.

Feed

eaten.

Av.

wt. at
begin-

Gain.

Daily
gain.

Feed
Ibs.

for 100
gain.

Grain

Hay.

ning.

Grain

Hay.

Cracked corn

Lbs.
1 103

Lbs.
849

Lbs.
71

Lbs.
211

Lbs.
25

Lbs.
523

Lbs.
402

Small wheat

1,505

742

202

745

367

Pigeon-grass seed

1,975

427

226

874

189

Wild buckwheat

1,934

591

237

.28

816

249

The table shows that corn gave normal results, 523 pounds of
that grain and 402 pounds of hay making 100 pounds of gain.
Of the other mill and elevator by-products there were required for
100 pounds gain with lambs the following amounts: small wheat,
745 pounds; wild buckwheat, 816; pigeon-grass seed, 874 pounds.

765. Corn silage versus roots. — At the Michigan Station,1
Mumford compared corn silage with roots for fattening lambs,
with eight in each lot in the first trial and twenty in each lot in
the second. In the first trial, lasting 84 days, sugar beets and
com silage were used, and in the second, lasting 119 days, ruta-
baga turnips and corn silage were fed. In the first trial the
lambs weighed 87 pounds, and in the second 73 pounds each, at
the beginning. The grain fed consisted of two parts oats and
one part bran in the first trial, and equal parts of oats and bran
in the second. The table shows the results:

Feeding corn silage in opposition to roots — Michigan Station.

Trial.

Feed eaten.

Gain.

Av.

daily
gain.

Feed for 100 Ibs. gain.

Grain

Hay.

Roots

Silage

Grain

Hay.

Roots

Silage

First...
Second

Lbs.

672
672
2,345
2,345

Lbs.

672
536
2.439
1,974

Lbs.
3,172

Lbs.

288
240
589
586

Lbs.

.43
.36
.25
.25

Lbs,

233
280
398
400

Lbs.

233
223
413
337

Lbs.
1,101

Lbs.

3,014

1,256

13,413

2,277

8,108

1,383

1 Buls. 84, 107.

502 Feeds and Feeding.

In the first trial, where sugar beets were fed in opposition to
corn silage, roots gave somewhat better results, while in the sec-
ond, where ruta-bagas were fed, the results were slightly in favor
of the corn silage. Until further trials we may consider roots
and corn silage practically equal in feeding value for fattening
lambs. Feeding roots or silage cut down the amount of grain
required in fattening the lambs 25 to 40 per cent. (325, 393-5)

766. Sugar beets. — At the Michigan Station,1 Mumford fed
sugar beets and hay only to lots of ten lambs each for 91 days,
with the following results:

Feeding sugar beets and hay to fattening lambs — Michigan

Station.

Pounds.

Beets fed 5,685

Hay fed 1,181

Average weight at beginning 84

Total gain 116

Average daily gain .13

Feed for 100 pounds of gain —

Hoots 4,600

Hay 1,018

We observe that the lambs made only half the usual daily gain
when a full allowance of grain was given. Placing a value on
roots proportionate to cost of production, we find that the use
of roots without grain for lambs cannot be recommended, since
root feeding is more expensive than a combination of roots and
grain. (320)

767. Rape. — At the Ontario Agricultural College, 2 Shaw di-
vided a field of rape into three plats of an acre each, by means
of hurdle fences, and placed fifteen lambs on each acre. To the
lambs on the first acre no additional feed was given j those on the
second received half a pound of oats each daily; those on the
third were allowed an adjoining pasture, thus being provided
with rape and grass at the same time. The acre of rape lasted
the fifteen lambs fifty-eight days in each instance, though the

' Bui. 128.
' Kept. 1891.

Experiments in Fattening Sheep.

503

second acre was not eaten as bare as the others,
summarized below:

The results are

Feeding three acres of rape with 15 lambs to each acre — Ontario
Agricultural College.

Acre I.
Rape
only.

Acre II.
Rape and
oats.

Acre III.
Rape and
pasture.

Weight of 15 lambs at commencement...
Average weight of lambs

Lbs.

1,069.
71

Lbs.
1,065.

Lbs.

1,064.
71

Weight of lambs at close

1.413

1,413

1,484

Increased weight from 1 acre of rape

344

348.

420

Average individual increase

22.93

23.67

28.0

Average daily increase

In this trial the oats did not increase the returns, while the past-
ure proved very beneficial. In another trial1 six lambs feeding
on one-sixth of an acre gained 120 pounds in 42 days, the monthly
gain being 14.28 pounds per lamb. At this rate one acre of rape
would pasture 25 lambs two months and yield 762 pounds of
increase. We may regard this amount as representing the ex-
treme returns possible. (334—5)

Trials with rape for lamb feeding were conducted at the Wis-
consin Station2 by Craig. In these trials corn, oats, oil meal,
etc., were fed to lambs running on a rape pasture, with the results
summarized below:

Results of three feeding trials with lambs on rape — Wisconsin Station*

No. of
lambs.

Av. wt. at
begin-
ning.

Area of
rape plat.

Length of
feeding
period.

Grain
eaten.

Total
gain.

Av. daily
gain.

Lbs.

Acres.

Days.

Lbs.

251

149

.37

1,440

414

.28

480

142

.48

The above figures are commended to stockmen looking for ad-
ditional feeding stuffs for sheep. Based on the returns from the
second trial, an acre of rape, with somewhat less than one and

1 Loc. cit. 2 Rept. 1894.

504

Feeds and Feeding.

one-half tons of grain additional, will return 800 pounds of in-
crease with lambs. After allowing liberally for the value of the
grain, there are profitable returns from the rape field.

768. Rape compared with blue-grass pasture. — At the Wiscon-
sin Station1 Craig studied the influence of rape forage and blue-
grass pasture in the fattening of lambs. A bunch of 96 grade
Shropshire lambs from Northern Wisconsin was divided into two
lots of 48 each, one grazing on blue-grass pasture and the other
hurdled on a rape field. In addition to this feed they were sup-
plied a grain mixture of equal parts of peas and corn by weight.
The lambs were fed on pasture or rape for four weeks, after which
they were placed in feeding pens and the grain ration increased.
During the preliminary feeding of four weeks the 48 lambs on the
rape pasture consumed .64 acres of rape, gaining 50 per cent,
more in weight than the lot on blue-grass pasture. The results
of the trial are summarized in the table below:

Rape compared with blue- grass pasture in preparing lambs for fat-
tening — Wisconsin Station.

Preliminary period of four weeks on
pasture with light grain ration.

Fattening period of twelve
weeks in pens.

Pasture.

Av.

wt. at
begin-
ning.

Av.

gain
per
week.

Hay

eateu.

Grain
eaten.

Av.

gain
per
head.

Feed for 100
pounds gain.

Hay.

Grain

Rape

Lbs.

63
67

Lbs.

2.6
1.7

Lbs.

2,488
2,704

Lbs.

4,084
4,084

Lbs.

261
315

Lbs.

429
476

Blue-grass

During the four weeks preliminary feeding, the lambs on rape
with some grain gained 2.6 pounds per head weekly, while those
on blue-grass gained but 1.7 pounds. During the twelve weeks
fattening which followed the preliminary period just described
the rape-fed lambs gained 20 pounds, while those on the blue-grass
pasture gained 18 pounds. The amount of grain required for 100
pounds of gain was also less with the lambs previously fed on
rape. This trial tends to establish a secondary value for rape in
sheep feeding.

1 Kept. 1897.

Experiments in Fattening Sheep.

505

769. Rape as a second crop. — In another trial Shaw1 sowed
rape August 12 on ground which had grown a crop of winter
wheat the same season. On October 17, sixty lambs were turned
into this field and pastured twenty-five days without other feed,

with results as follows:

Pounds.

Weight of 60 lambs at beginning of experiment .-.. 3,423

Weight at close 3,813

Increase in weight 390

Increase in weight per acre 179

Average individual increase 6.5

Average daily individual increase .26

This is a most favorable showing for rape as a second crop.
The feeder watching for opportunity to increase profits will not
be slow in following this example.

770. Alfalfa hay.— At the Michigan Station,2 H. W. Mumford
fed one lot of ten lambs on a ration containing alfalfa hay for
roughage, giving a second lot of ten, clover hay, both receiving
the same allowance of shelled corn and roots. The results of the
trial, which lasted fourteen weeks, are summarized in the follow-
ing table:

Alfalfa hay compared with clover hay — Michigan Station.

Feed per 100

Digestible nutri-
ents per day per

Dry

mat-

Ration.

Av.

weekly
gain per
lamb.

Ibs. gain.

1,000 pounds.

Nu-
tri-
tive
ratio.

ter
per
100
Ibs.
gain.

Rough-
age.

Grain

Pro-
tein.

Car-
bohy-
drates

Ether
ex-
tract.

Alfalfa, corn

Lbs.

and roots

2.45

355

395

2.2

15.6

.84

1:7.9

716

Clover hay, corn

and roots

2.31

354

423

2.0

15.0

.87

1:8.4

•

718

It will be seen that the dry matter consumed for 100 pounds of
gain was practically equal for the two lots, but the heavier gains
were made by those getting alfalfa. Commenting on this trial,
Mumford writes: "By feeding to each lamb an average of 1.3
pounds of alfalfa hay per day, with corn and roots, the lambs so

1 Rept. Ont. Agr. Col., 1891. 2 Bui. 136.

506

Feeds and Feeding.

fed gained an average of 2.45 pounds per week, or 34.4 pounds
during the whole period of fourteen weeks." (822)

771. Fattening Western sheep on alfalfa hay. — At the Colorado
Station, l Cooke conducted an experiment in feeding wheat, corn,
sugar beets and alfalfa hay to Western and Mexican yearlings and
lambs, averaging 88 pounds each, during a period of 98 days,
with results shown in the following table:

Feeding Western and Mexican sheep — Colorado Station.

Grain.

Feed eaten.

Gain.

Daily
gain.

Feed for 100
Ibs. gain.

Grain

Hay.

Beets.

Grain

Hay.

Beets.

Wheat .,

Lbs.

980
1,315
1,315

Lbs.

5,009
6,139

5,682
4,728

Lbs.
8,150

Lbs.

661
640

575
607

Lbs.

.34
.33
.29
.31

Lbs.

148

205
229

Lbs.

758
959
988
779

Lbs.
1,233

Wheat..

Corn

9,792

1,613

In all cases the daily gains of the sheep were satisfactory. Be-
cause of its nutritive quality and palatability, alfalfa hay is more
than mere " filling," assisting materially in fattening, thus re-
ducing the amount of grain which would otherwise be required.

772. Oat straw — At the Michigan Station, 2 H. W. Mumford
fed one lot of ten lambs upon oat straw for roughage, and a second
lot of ten upon clover hay and cut corn stover, both getting corn
and roots in addition. The results of the trial, which lasted four-
teen weeks, are shown in the following table:

Oat straw compared with corn stover — Michigan Station.

Ration.

•

Av.

weekly
gain per
lamb.

Feed per 100
Ibs. gain.

Digestible nutri-
ents per day per
1,000 pounds.

Nu-
tri-
tive
ratio.

Dry

mat-
ter

Ibs.
gain.

Rough-
age.

Grain

Pro-
tein.

Car-
bohy-
drates

Ether
ex-
tract.

Oat straw, corn
and roots.

Lbs.
2.03

2.38

Lbs.
396

344

Lbs.

478

408

Lbs.
1.5

1.8

Lbs.
16.3

15.2

Lbs.
.78

.82

1:12.6
1 :9.7

Lbs.
833

653

Clover hay, corn
stover, corn
and roots

Bui. 32.

Bul. 136.

Experiments in Fattening SJieep.

507

It will be seen that though oat straw was useful it was inferior
to the combination of clover hay and corn stover; 180 pounds, or
27 per cent., more dry matter being required for the same gain.
Commenting on oat straw as a feed for lambs, Mumford writes:
' ' Lambs fed on oat straw as the fodder part of the ration consumed
an average of 1.25 pounds per lamb per day. The average total
gain of each lamb was 28.5 pounds, or 2.03 pounds per week.
The results of this experiment seem to indicate that the value of
oat straw in the fodder ration of fattening lambs has been hitherto
underrated."

773. MHIet hay.— At the Michigan Station, * H. W. Mumford
fed two lots of lambs of ten each, giving to one millet hay for
roughage and the other clover hay and oat straw, both lots receiv-
ing corn and roots additional. The trial, which lasted fourteen
weeks, gave the results summarized in the table.

Millet hay compared with clover hay and oat straw — Michigan Station.

Ration.

Av.

weekly
gain per
lamb.

Feed per 100
Ibs. gain.

Digestible nutri-
ents per day per
1,000 pounds.

Nu-
tri-
tive
ratio.

Dry

mat-
ter
per
100
Ibs.
gaiD.

Rough-
age.

Grain

Pro-
tein.

Car-
bohy-
drates

Ether
ex-
tract.

Lbs,

Lbs.

Millet hay, corn

and roots

1.84

355

523

1.8

16.1

.81

1:10.4

846

Clover hay, oat

straw, corn

and roots

2.26

357

430

1.8

15.6

.83

1:9.9

738

The clover-hay oat-straw ration proved superior to that con-
taining millet hay, the difference being 14 per cent, in favor ot
the former measured by the dry matter consumed per 100 pounds
of gain. Commenting on the use of millet hay for feeding lambs,
Mumford writes: "More care is necessary in feeding millet hay
to fattening lambs than any other coarse fodder. Unless fed in
small quantities it induces scour. Each lamb in the lot receiv-
ing millet hay was fed an average of .9 of a pound per day

Bui. 136.

508

Feeds and Feeding.

throughout the feeding period and gained 25.8 pounds per lamb.'7
The gain for the other lot was 31.7 pounds per head. (272, 482)
774. Corn stover. — At the Michigan Station, x H. W. Mumford
fed corn stover to one lot of ten lambs, and clover hay and bean
straw to a second lot of ten, both getting corn and roots in addi-
tion. The results of this trial, which lasted fourteen weeks, are
presented in the following table:

Corn stover compared with clover hay and bean straw — Michigan

Station.

Eation.

Average
weekly
gain per
lamb.

Feed per 100
pounds.

Dry matter
per 100
pounds gain

Roughage

Grain.

Corn stover, corn and roots....
Clover hay, bean straw, corn
and roots

Lbs.
2.15

2.30

Lbs.
383

373

Lbs.
451

421

Lbs.
676

735

Regarding this trial Mumford says: i l The principal objection to
feeding corn stalks (stover) to lambs is that, when fed in the bun-
dle from racks, the lambs waste a large percentage of the fodder.
The only satisfactory method of feeding them is in racks after
they have been cut in a cutting box or silage machine. The
stalks fed in this experiment were cut with an ordinary silage
cutter and fed from racks. The average daily ration of this
fodder was 1.18 pounds for each of the ten lambs. Each lamb
in the lot receiving corn stalks as the fodder ration gained an
average of 2.15 pounds per week, or 30.2 pounds for the whole
period. Such flattering results should make every sheep feeder
value his corn stalks highly, and induce him to take every pos-
sible precaution to properly preserve them.'7

775. Grain for lambs before weaning. — At the Wisconsin Sta-
tion,2 Craig fed grain to high-grade Shropshire lambs before
weaning, corn, oats, bran and peas being used in the different
trials. The grain was placed in a trough where it was accessible
to the lambs through a " creep," while it could not be reached
by the 'dams. The lambs were induced to eat grain at as early a

1 Bui. 136. 2 Kept. 1897.

Experiments in Fattening Sheep.

509

date as possible. On an average they were fed grain ten weeks
before being weaned. The results of the trials, which were con-
tinued during three seasons with 66 lambs in all, are shown in the

following table:

Feeding various grains to lambs before weaning — Wisconsin Station.

Grain fed.

Av. wt. at

beginning.

Av. gain
per week.

Grain per
100 Ibs. gain

Corn meal

Lbs.
42

Lbs.
3.8

Lbs.
63

Whole oats

3.8

Wheat bran

3.5

Cracked peas*

3.7

* Average of two trials.

It is shown by the table that corn meal was the most econom-
ical feed during these trials, less being required than of other
grains and as good weekly returns secured. Corn meal will prove
satisfactory for young lambs before weaning if they are designed
for the butcher.

776. Corn alone and in combination. — At the Wisconsin Sta-
tion1 grain in combination was fed against corn meal alone to high-
grade Shropshire lambs before and after weaning. The results
of one trial with five lambs in each of three lots are shown in the
following table:

Corn meal compared with grain mixtures — Wisconsin Station.

Grain ration.

Av. wt. at
beginning

Av. gain in
8 weeks.

Total grain
eaten.

Grain eaten
per 100 Ibs.
gain.

Corn meal only

Lbs.

Lbs.
37

Lbs.
26

Corn meal and oats
Corn meal and peas

60
57

28
28

After weaning — 8 weeks.

Corn meal cnly

131

Corn meal and oats

131

Corn meal and peas

133

Kept. 1897.

510 Feeds and Feeding.

It is shown that corn meal alone proved a more economical feed
than in combination with oats or peas before weaning and of equal
value to these combinations after weaning.

It is probable that corn meal will force the largest and most
economical gain with lambs both before and after weaning, the
protein they require being secured from the dam's milk and past-
ure grass. It is not prudent, however, to use corn alone for ewe
lambs which are to be used later for breeding purposes, for this
grain builds fat and not bone and muscle.

777. Feeding grain to lambs before weaning. — At the Wiscon-
sin Station, 1 Craig conducted trials with lambs receiving grain
before weaning, other lots fed in comparison getting none. Among
the conclusions reached are the following:

"The continuous grain feeding from birth until the lambs were
about ten months old did not produce any noticeable difference in
the carcasses in respect to the mixture of fat and lean.

"The lambs that were fed grain continuously from birth until
about ten months old sheared a heavier fleece of either washed
or unwashed wool than those that did not receive any grain pre-
vious to the third or fattening period.

"The wool from the lambs that were fed grain from birth con-
tained more yolk or grease than that from those that had no grain
previous to the fattening period.

"The continuous grain feeding materially influenced the early
maturity of the lambs. In three of the trials the lambs so fed
weighed as much per head seven weeks before the conclusion of
the trials as those that had no grain weighed at the end of the
trials. In the remaining two trials, the grain-fed lambs equaled
the average weight of those that did not receive any grain, four
weeks before. The cost of securing these (equal) weights did
not materially differ in most of the trials.

"When the lambs are to be sold at weaning time in July, at
the age of three or four months, it is profitable to feed grain be-
fore weaning.

"When the lambs are to be sold when about seven months old
in November, it will pay to feed them grain both before and after
weaning.

1 Kept. 1896.

Experiments in Fattening Sheep. 511

" When the lambs are fed grain continuously from birth, they
are fit for the market at any time, so that advantage may be taken
of any favorable fluctuation that may occur in market prices. "

778. Meat scrap and dried blood. — Wildt1 determined the di-
gestibility of meat scrap and dried blood in experiments with
sheep and found them able to digest the following percentages:

Meat scrap: protein 95, fat 98.
Dried blood: protein 62, fat 100.

Regnard2 obtained excellent results when feeding dried blood
to lambs in place of milk, supplying about one-half pound daily
for each 100 pounds live weight. Sheep may gradually be taught
to eat both the above mentioned feeds. (338-9)

779. Fish scrap. — According to Kellner, 3 sheep are able to di-
gest 90 per cent, of the protein in fish scrap and 76 per cent of
the crude fat. Fish scrap is somewhat less digestible, therefore,
than meat scrap. It should only be fed sparingly, especially
in the beginning, the maximum allowance being from one-half to
two-thirds of a pound daily per hundred pounds of sheep. (340,
661)

780. Influence of protein on the carcass. — At the Wisconsin
Station,4 Craig found that Shropshire-Merino wether lambs,
when fed on shelled corn, corn silage and corn fodder — a carbo-
hydrate ration, — averaged, when fat, 112 pounds, and dressed 49
per cent, of their live weight Another lot under similar condi-
tions, fed oats, oil meal, clover silage and clover hay — a protein
ration, — weighed 117 pounds, and dressed 51 per cent of their live
weight At the Cornell Station5 Roberts fed rations varying from
carbonaceous to highly nitrogenous to grade Shropshire and
Southdown lambs, which dressed from 45 to 51 per cent of their
live weight, equally high returns being secured from the car-
bonaceous food. 6

1 Landw. Vers. Stat, 1877, p. 20.

* Pott, Landw. Futtermittel, p. 656.

* Landw. Vers. Stat, 1877, p. 430.

* Itept. 1889.
0 Bui. 8.

« See Reports Storrs Expt. Sta., 1894-96,

512 Feeds and Feeding.

II. Wool Production.

781. Influence of soil and climate. — The effects of geological
formations and soils generally are quite marked on the character-
istics of sheep. Brown1 shows that soil in the vegetation it pro-
duces, and climate, were prime factors in evolving the various
breeds of English sheep 5 the rich low lands with their- abundance
of nutritious grasses producing the heavy-bodied, plethoric Long-
wools, while the next higher grade of lands with less abundant
herbage gives the Downs and Middle- wools, leaving to the mount-
ains and more scant herbage the active, still lighter breeds.

Colernan2 states that the peculiar luster of the Lincoln wool
diminishes when these sheep pass to a less congenial soil; that
wool in certain districts of Yorkshire brings a higher price than
that of other localities, the advantage being probably due to a
favorable combination of soil and climate. He further states
that limestone soils, while for many reasons peculiarly suited to
sheep raising, have a tendency to produce a harshness in wool
which renders it less valuable than that from sheep living on
clays or gravels.

While a dry, porous soil is no doubt directly favorable to the
general healthfullness of sheep, there seems a further possible
beneficial result through a finer, more nutritious quality of the
food plants grown on such soils. Chemical analysis may not be
able to discover or measure this difference in composition or
quality, yet its existence seems probable.

The ability of man to overcome the differences marked by
nature is frequently surprising. Darwin3 quotes Lasterye: " The
preservation of the (Spanish) Merino race in its utmost purity
at the Cape of Good Hope, in the marshes of Holland, and under
the rigorous climate of Sweden, furnishes an additional support
of this my unalterable principle that fine-wool sheep may be kept
wherever industrious men and intelligent breeders exist. "

At the Wisconsin Station, 4 Craig found that lambs fed grain
from an early age grew faster than those getting no grain, and

1 British Sheep Farming.

* Cattle, Sheep and Pigs of Great Britain.

* Animals and Plants under Domestication.
« Bept. 1896.

Wool Production.

513

further, that the better- fed lambs each sheared about one pound
more of wool. On scouring the wool from the different lots, the
returns of washed wool were practically equal — the higher feed-
ing had produced more yolk but not more wool.

Gohren states1 that the absolute quantity and quality of wool
produced is less a function of feeding than of breeding. Com-
pare with Chapter XXVI.

782. Frequency of shearing. — Another question of interest is
the effect of removing the wool from sheep several times instead
of once each year. An experiment was conducted with Eam-
bouillet sheep, by Weiske and Dehmal, 2 to study the influence of
frequent shearing on the yield of wool. Two animals were shorn
every other month for a year, and two at the beginning and at
the end of the experiment. The sheep received the same feed
and treatment throughout the year. The average yield of wool
was as follows:

Growth of wool.

Unwashed
wool.

Pure wool
fiber.

Per ct.
yolk.

Six times shorn.
November and December

Lbs.
1.75

Lbs.
69

61.4

January and February

1 82

.84

54 1

March and April

2 40

1.04

51 6

May and June

2 18

58 2

July and August.

2 28

57 3

September and October

2 01

.82

58.5

Total..

12 44

5 26

57 7

Once shorn

12 80

4 30

65 8

The sheep shorn six times produced somewhat less unwashed
wool but about 22 per cent, more pure wool fiber than those shorn
once. The wool from the once- shorn sheep contained more yolk
than the other.

1 Futterungslehre, 1872, p. 511.

2 Jour. f. Landw., 1882.

CHAPTER XXXI.

GENERAL CAKE OF SHEEP — FATTENING.

I. Shepherd and Flock.

783. Food of the sheep. — The sheep is the plant- scavenger of
the farm. Through its dainty nibbling of herbage, we might
suppose its likes were few and dislikes many, yet every plant
at some period of its growth seems palatable. If sufficient num-
bers of sheep are kept on one field for any length of time, every-
thing green is eaten, many species of plants being entirely de-
stroyed.

While sheep, like other farm animals, exhibit strong prefer-
ences for certain food articles, necessity may cause them to subsist
upon substances far removed from t the usual dietary. Low1 re-
ports that the sheep of the Shetland Islands, feed upon seaweed
during the winter months, knowing by instinct the first ebbing
of the tide, and that they are fed dried fish when normal foods
are scarce.

McDonald 2 writes of Iceland sheep : l ' The only kindness which
these animals receive from their keepers in the winter is being fed
on fish-bones and frozen offal, when their natural food is buried
too deep even for their ingenuity and patience. "

While sheep may subsist upon articles such as are mentioned
above, the organs of mastication and digestion plainly indicate that
plants in some form constitute their natural food. The cutting
teeth in the lower jaw of the sheep fit against the cartilaginous
pad above in such manner that, when feeding, the herbage is torn
off rather than cut. The faeces of the sheep show the finest
grinding of any of our farm animals, minute weed seeds being
generally crushed and destroyed.

1 The Breeds of the Domestic Animals of the British Islands.

2 Cattle, Sheep and Peer,

General Care of Sheep. 515

784. Mutton breeds and the Merinos compared. — The Merino
sheep is peculiarly a wool-bearer, and nearly all lines descended
from the Spanish stock have been selected with that single end in
view. The story of the Spanish Merino in its home country forms
one of the most interesting chapters extant in the history of live
stock. 1 In their pilgrimage from South to Central Spain each
spring, and their return in the fall, the Spanish flocks make
annual journeys covering in all about one thousand miles. Only
the strongest and most rugged animals survive the long, fatiguing
and perilous marches. The ability to exist in enormous flocks, to
range over a vast territory, and to subsist upon scant food, are the
leading of the many remarkable qualities wrought by stern fate
into the very fiber and constitution of the Merino sheep.

Almost opposite in some respects are the English mutton
breeds of sheep, which have been reared in small flocks confined
to limited pastures, the best specimens being saved and nurtured
by kindly hands with intelligent attention to all their wants.
They have been sheltered from storms and given roughage and
grain from barn and stack, whenever the fields were scant of
herbage or the weather severe. In general, the life of the
English mutton sheep has been one of plenty almost to surfeit
and quiet contentment. In this country we cannot hope to attain
the wonderful success reached by British sheep-owners unless we
follow closely or improve upon their methods. The rules and
practices prevalent in this country in handling Merino sheep will
prove satisfactory with the mutton breeds, and the feeder in the
very inception of his flock experience should duly consider the
habits and characteristics of the animals he is handling.

785. Size of the flock. — The sheep is distinctively a gregarious
animal. The American Merino of to-day, improved as it is over
its ancestors, still shows in a marked manner the result of inherit-
ance by its adaptability to exist in large flocks and thrive under
ordinary conditions of care and keep. With reasonable over-
sight, thousands of Merino sheep can be held in single bands
where the range is am pie 5 and for the period of fattening tens of
thousands can be successfully fed together, as is now commonly

1 Low's Domestic Animals of the British Islands, Vol. II.

516 Feeds and Feeding.

done with range sheep brought to feeding points in the Trans-
Missouri corn states.

To give the highest returns the English mutton sheep must be
kept in small flocks, where each member can receive attention
when needed from the shepherd. Of the mutton breeds, two
hundred sheep are probably as many as can be successfully man-
aged in one flock, and to secure the best returns from so large a
number as this, one should have experience in their management.
The novice would better begin with a flock of twenty-five, in-
creasing the number as experience grows into intelligent, well-
directed management.

786. Quarters for the flock. — Above every other animal on the
farm, the sheep to be profitable must be kept dry as to coat and
feet; inattention to either of these essentials will result disas-
trously. With dry quarters sheep will stand a considerable de-
gree of cold without inconvenience; indeed, their quarters should
not be as warm as for other farm animals. One thickness of
closely -matched boards will make the barn or shed where sheep
are confined sufficiently warm in the Northern states except for
winter lambs. Ventilation is of great importance and should be
ample, care being taken to avoid direct drafts.

The amount of space provided for each sheep will vary with
the size of the animal. A ewe weighing 100 pounds will require
about ten square feet of ground space, while one weighing 150
pounds should have fifteen square feet. A space 40x40 feet
square will therefore accommodate about 160 sheep weighing 100
pounds each, or 100 weighing 160 pounds, not allowing for feed
racks. Provide 15 inches running length of feed rack for each
sheep weighing 100 pounds, and two feet for those weighing 200
pounds.

787. Winter care of the flock. — The flock should be so divided
into groups that all members of the division are of the same age,
strength and general characteristics. A flock or division of mut-
ton sheep, to give the highest returns, should not contain over
fifty members. Aged breeding ewes should constitute one band,
the shearing ewes another, the ewe lambs a third, and the wether
lambs a fourth. These bands should be again divided if there is

General Care of Sheep. 517

a marked difference between their strongest and weakest mem-
bers. The wise flock-master will give attentive care to the divis-
ion of his flock that each member may have an equal chance with
its fellows at the feed trough and in enjoying comforts and atten-
tions from his hand.

788. Feed for breeding ewes. — There is no better roughage in
winter for breeding ewes than clover hay, alfalfa hay being its
counterpart at the West. Then follow corn fodder, cut in the
fall while the leaves are still green, pea straw, oat straw, barley
straw, etc. In addition to roughage each breeding ewe should
receive half a pound of grain daily, consisting of oats, bran,
peas, or a mixture of these. Oil meal is acceptable, and a table
spoonful or two may be given to each ewe daily. Corn should
form a small part, at most, of the ration for breeding ewes, which
should always be kept in good condition and carry more flesh than
most American farmers think proper. To winter them on straw,
or straw with a little hay and no grain, is to perpetuate a flock
that will gradually but surely degenerate.

789. Date of lambing. — The lamb dropped in late winter or
early spring is more valuable than one coming in early summer.
Under good management the early-yeaued lamb comes into the
world with comfortable surroundings and a kind master in at-
tendance to give attentions conducive to comfort and growth.
"With the coming of spring the young thing is of sufficient size
and strength to pass out with its dam and make the most of the
fresh grass and genial sunshine. Where there are poor accom-
modations or cold quarters, lambs should not be dropped in north-
ern latitudes earlier than the month of May, and on pasture. The
ambitious flock-master will not be content with this second-rate
system, but will provide suitable quarters that his ewes may lamb
early.

790. Hushing the ewes. — With the mutton breeds twin lambs
are very desirable, and, to secure a large percentage of these,
English flock-masters practice what is called " flushing " the ewes
at breeding time. The ewes are given an extra supply of nutri-
tious, highly palatable food for two or three weeks before the
desired date of breeding that they may be rapidly gaining in flesh

518 Feeds and Feeding.

at that time. Well-fed ewes have more twin lambs than those
poorly nurtured.

791. At lambing time. — As lambing time approaches the shep-
herd should take quarters in the sheep barn or close by, and re-
main in attendance until the season is over. Lambs of mutton
breeds are often in need of quick, intelligent attention from the
shepherd as they enter the world. If the young lamb is unable
to draw milk within a few minutes after birth, it should have
help to secure this first and most important feed. To this end
the ewe must sometimes be held and the lamb aided, the whole
being accomplished by that patient skill so characteristic of the
good shepherd, but so impossible of description. With twins,
one is usually weaker than the other, and frequently the mother
cares for only the stronger one; here the shepherd's tact serves
well in promptly helping the weaker member to its full share of
food. Lambs can be successfully reared on cow's milk, though
close attention is necessary in its successful use during the first
month. Warm cow's milk can be fed from a teapot over the
spout of which a rubber "cot" with opening in end has been
placed; or a nursing bottle may be used. At first the lamb should
be fed fifteen or eighteen times a day; later, half a dozen times.

The shepherd, rooming close by the lying-in quarters, should
be in attendance every two or three hours in the night when the
lambing season is on, to help the weak ones and see that all are
prospering. With the first fill of milk from the dam the new-
born lamb becomes comfortable and is usually able thereafter to
take care of itself. Lambs of the mutton breeds are often weak
at birth, but under good management gain rapidly in strength.

For two or three days after parturition the ewe should be sup-
plied sparingly with dry food of the same character as that given
before lambing. Succulent feed should be supplied with the de-
mand for more milk by the young.

792. Teaching the young lamb to eat.— When about two weeks
old the lusty young lamb will be found nibbling at the feed trough
beside its dam, and the shepherd should provide specially for its
wants in order to early accustom it to take additional food. This
is accomplished by having an enclosure or room adjoining the

General Care of Sheep. 519

ewe-pen into which the lambs find their way, while the mothers
are prevented from entering because of the limited size of the
openings, called the " lamb-creep. " In this space place a low,
flat- bottomed trough, with an obstruction lengthwise across the
top to prevent the lamb from jumping into it. In this trough
sprinkle a little meal especially palatable to the lamb, such as
ground oats, bran, shorts, corn meal, oil meal — one or all, — vary-
ing the mixture to suit the changing tastes of the young things.
They will at first take but little of this feed, but soon become
regular attendants at the trough through habit impelled by hearty
appetite. The feed in the trough at any time should not be more
than will be consumed before the next supply is due. If for any
reason there is an over-supply, it should be removed and the
trough thoroughly cleaned before the next allowance is placed
therein. Feed should be fresh and have no smell of the stable
about it; that left over from time to time can be given to the pigs.

793. Turning to pasture. — With the springing of the grass,
ewes and lambs should be turned to pasture for a short time dur-
ing the warmer part of the day. It is generally best to accom-
plish the change to pasture gradually and while the grass is short.
After a few hours spent in the sunshine, nibbling at the grass,
the ewes and lambs should be returned to shelter, where a full
feed awaits them. "When the grass has become ample and nutri-
tious, stable feeding may be dropped for ewes, or both ewes and
lambs, according to the plan followed. With good pasture, breed-
ing ewes need no grain; indeed, -we may look forward to the
pasture season as marking the time to "draw the grain from
their systems," as it is termed by feeders.

In some instances pastures are so stimulating to the milk flow
of ewes that the over-supply of rich milk thereby induced causes
digestive derangement and sudden death with young lambs. The
shepherd should watch closely and forestall such trouble by re-
moving the ewes from the pasture after a few hours grazing each
day, and giving hay or other dry feeds, thereby shutting off a
part of the milk flow.

794. Weaning lambs. — If it is desirable to push the lambs in
growth beyond the possibilities of the pasture, at a convenient

520 Feeds and Feeding.

point let there be a " lamb- creep,'7 which is a passage-way made
of slats or pickets so placed that the lambs can pass through,
while the ewes are prevented because of their size. In a space
accessible by way of the creep, place a trough for feeding grain.
Whenever the lamb passes through the creep it should find some-
thing in this trough tempting the appetite, — oats, bran, pea meal
and corn meal constituting the leading articles. Grain never gives
such large returns as when fed to thrifty young animals, and the
growing lamb is no exception. Lambs of the mutton breeds, more
or less helpless at birth, are lusty at four months of age, and will be
found grazing regularly beside their dams in pasture when not at
rest or eating grain beyond the lamb- creep. At this age, for
their own good as well as that of the ewes, weaning time is at
hand. Let them then be so far separated from their dams that
neither can hear the bleating of the other. For a few days the
ewes should be held on short pasture or kept in the yard upon
dry feed. Their udders should be examined, and if necessary, as
is often the case with the best mothers, they should be drained of
milk a few times lest inflammation arise. At weaning time the
lambs should be put on the best pasture and given a liberal sup-
ply of grain in addition, in order to mitigate the effects of weaning.
To this end new clover seeding is especially relished, while young
second- crop clover is also satisfactory. An especially choice bite
may always be provided for the lambs at this important time by
a little forethought on the part of the stockman.

795. Water and salt. — Opinions with regard to the amount of
water necessary for sheep vary more than with any other domes-
tic animal. Miller of Canada, who has had large experience with
English mutton sheep, writes:1 "I have noticed that wherever
sheep are fed so that they will not drink water they are fed in
nearly the proper manner. In this country, where we have such
warm summers, it is hard to do that, but the nearer we come to
it the nearer we are feeding in a perfect way.'7 In countries
with heavy dews and ample succulent feed in summer, and where
root crops are largely used in winter, water may possibly be de-
nied sheep, but under most conditions it is a necessity and should

1 Wis. Farm Inst. Bui. 7.

General Care of Sheep. 521

never be withheld. A sheep should have from one to six quarts
of water daily, according to feed and weather.

Sheep require salt, and it should be supplied them at regular
intervals. In winter it may be given in a trough used only for
this purpose. In summer, salt may be rendered otherwise use-
ful by scattering it on the sprouts growing about the stumps and
brush patches, or over noxious weeds. In consuming salt so
placed a flock will destroy many harmful plants.

796. Vermin. — Sheep are subject at all times to attacks of ticks
and lice. Wherever these animals are kept there should be a drip-
ping tank ready for use at any time. At shearing time the ticks
leave the sheep and pass to the lambs. The lambs should then
be dipped.

There should be frequent examinations of the flock to note its
freedom from vermin, and the trouble forestalled by dipping if
any trouble is apparent. No flock can thrive while its members
are infected by parasites.

II. Fattening Sheep and Lambs.

797. Mature sheep. — It is generally conceded unwise to feed
yearlings for the block, since they are shedding teeth and are
therefore not in condition to give good returns for feed and care.
Unless prices for wool rule high the stockman cannot afford to
carry wethers past the period when they may be fed off as lambs.
Culls from the flock can be prepared for the butcher at any time
by the use of a little extra grain. In the vicinity of cities,
profitable sales can be made of fat culls offered at times when
regular feeders have failed to supply the market.

798. Fat lambs. — The demand for well-fattened lambs steadily
increases, the tender, juicy meat finding favor among Americans.
Not only do prices for fat lambs rule high as compared with
mature sheep and farm animals generally, but there are other ad-
vantages in favor of feeding off lambs before they reach maturity.
A given weight of feed goes further with lambs than with mature
sheep; the money invested is sooner turned, and there is less risk
from death and accident. Thus everything tends toward hurry-
ing lambs to market as rapidly as they can be fattened and as
early as they can be disposed of to secure the highest prices.

522 Feeds and Feeding.

799. Quarters for fattening. — Fattening sheep should be pro-
tected from wet coats and feet at all times. Ideal quarters in the
Northern states are a dry, littered yard, with a sunny exposure,
provided with a well-bedded, comfortable shed extending along
the windward side to break the cold winds and driving storms. In
such quarters the air is bracing, the sunshine invigorating, and,
covered with a heavy coat and filled with rich grain, the animals
are warm and comfortable, and comfort is essential to the highest
gains. If confined in barns warm enough for dairy cows, sheep
sweat badly in winter. Stone basements are not satisfactory
places for fattening sheep; if used, ample ventilation must be
provided. Damp walls are a sure indication of lack of ventila-
tion and impending trouble.

800. Feed racks. — Grain and roughage should be fed sepa-
rately. Backs for roughage in the yards should be large, so that
a considerable quantity of hay may be deposited in them, thus
making that part of the feeding simple. If sheep are fed in closed
quarters, the hay should be supplied daily, since they dislike feed
that has been " blown upon/7 as shepherds say. Grain troughs
should have a wide, flat bottom, thus forcing the sheep to con-
sume the grain slowly, rather than bolt it by mouthfuls. Not
less than fifteen inches of linear trough space should be provided
for each animal fed. There is no need of incurring heavy ex-
pense in arranging yards, sheds, racks and troughs unless the
improvements are to be permanent.

801. Corn. — Corn is the best single grain for lambs, causing
them to put on fat rapidly and not forcing growth, as is the case
with some other concentrates. It is shown elsewhere (757) that
about 500 pounds of corn and 400 pounds of clover hay may be
regarded as the standard allowance for producing 100 pounds of
gain with lambs where all conditions are favorable. From this
data the feeder can readily calculate the cost and possible profits
of fattening lambs.

802. Wheat. — Trials show that wheat is not as valuable as corn
for fattening sheep, being worth about ten per cent. less. At the
Colorado Station, Cooke observed that lambs fed on wheat grew
in frame and muscle rather than fattened. This conclusion is rea-
sonable judging from the composition and character of this grain.

General Care of Sheep. 523

803. Wheat screenings. — Enormous quantities of broken and
shrunken wheat are annually turned out by the elevators and
mills of the Northwest. There are also large quantities of pigeon-
grass seed, wild buckwheat, etc., screened from grain. All these,
usually in combination, are sold at low rates. Eeports of feeding
trials show these substances of value in the feed lot, and their
use should be carefully considered in localities where they can be
obtained without the payment of heavy freight bills. If possible,
corn should be mixed with screenings, as these no doubt, like
wheat, tend to produce growth as well as to fatten.

804. Oats. — Where oats are low in price they may be used
for sheep feeding and will produce excellent mutton. Like wheat,
oats conduce to growth in lambs rather than immediate fattening;
hence it is best to mix corn with them for fattening lambs when
possible.

805. Bran. — Experiments show that bran is not especially
desirable for fattening sheep, a large quantity being required for
a given gain. Like wheat and oats, bran conduces to growth
rather than fattening; its bulky character is also against its use
for this purpose, though a limited quantity may be useful. It is
better in most cases to supply the sheep with concentrated food
like corn, and cheaper roughage like clover hay, to furnish the
bulk required in feed during fattening.

806. Grinding grain. — Of all farm animals the sheep is best
able to do its own grinding, and, except in rare cases, whole grain
only should be furnished. The common saying of feeders, that
a sheep which cannot grind its own grain is not worth feeding, is
a truthful one. Valuable breeding sheep with poor teeth may
be perpetuated in usefulness by being fed ground grain. At the
Colorado Station, Cooke, in feeding Western sheep on wheat, ob-
served that much of the grain passed through the animals un-
broken. This experience is certainly unusual, but shows what
may occasionally happen.

807. Roughage. — The Eastern stockman should provide clover
hay in abundance for his flock, both red and alsike varieties
proving satisfactory. So long as there is an ample supply of
good clover hay, sheep show little desire for other varieties of

524 Feeds and Feeding.

forage. The clover should be cut early in order to secure the
leaves and heads, which are the parts desired.

In the irrigated regions of the West alfalfa furnishes a hay su-
perior even to red clover in palatability and the nutriment which
it carries. Alfalfa hay of good quality not only answers for
roughage, but because of its abundant nutriment serves as a par-
tial substitute for grain, thus materially reducing the cost of
feeding and fattening.

Next in value to hay from the legumes come the dry leaves of the
corn plant. For sheep feeding, corn should be cut early and cured
in well-made shocks. It can be fed uncut, or if more convenient
may be run through the feed- cutter, though cutting will not induce
sheep to eat any of the coarser parts, as is the case with cattle.

808. Dipping. — Before sheep are admitted to the fattening pens
they should be carefully examined by an experienced shepherd,
and if any evidence of skin disease or vermin is found the flock
should be dipped in the most thorough manner. At the West,
scab stands an ever-present menace to profitable fattening. In
the East, lice and ticks infest the flocks of farmers and sheep-
raisers who are not especially careful in flock management.
To attempt to fatten sheep afflicted with any of these pests is
to court loss and possibly disaster. Sheep which are seemingly
free from ticks will, if infested by them, show irritability and
restlessness as soon as fattening begins.

809. Length of feeding period and gains. — The feeding period
with sheep and lambs should last from twelve to fifteen weeks,
according to the condition of the sheep in the beginning and the
rapidity with which they gain. The tables in the preceding
chapter show that lambs, when gaining normally, increase in
weight at least a quarter of a pound per day. For a feeding
period of 100 days the gains should therefore reach from 25 to 30
pounds per head. This weight, mostly fat, added to the carcass
of a lamb weighing originally 80 to 100 pounds, brings it to the
size desired by the market.

810. Feed consumed. — As a result of carefully conducted ex-
periments with sheep of different breeds, Lawes and Gilbert1

1 Rothamsted Memoirs, Vol. II.

General Care of Sheep. 525

write as follows concerning the consumption of food by sheep
while being fattened:

" Sheep of different breeds consume quantities of food in pro-
portion to their respective weights when at an equal age, stage
of feeding, etc. ; that is to say, three sheep weighing 100 pounds
each will consume the same quantity of food as two sheep of 150
pounds each.

" Sheep on good fattening food, such as oil cake or corn, with
chaff and roots, will consume weekly about 4. 75 pounds of oil
cake, 4. 75 pounds of hay, and about 70 pounds of roots, for every
100 pounds of their live weight.

"When fed as above, they will consume every week about one-
seventh of their own weight of the dry substance of food; that is,
after deducting the moisture it contains."

811. Rate of increase. — Lawes and Gilbert drew the following
conclusions from the same experiments concerning the rate of
increase:

"Sheep well fed and under cover will increase about two per
cent, per week upon their weight; that is to say, 100 pounds live
weight will increase from 1.75 pounds to 2 pounds per week.

"To increase 100 pounds in live weight, sheep will consume
about 225 pounds of oil cake or corn, 225 pounds of hay-chaff,
and from 3,000 to 3,750 pounds of roots.

"The increase of a fattening sheep is at the rate of about one
pound live weight to eight or nine pounds of the dry substance of
the food consumed."

812. Cost of gain. — The numerous trials reported elsewhere
giving the quantities of feed required for 100 pounds of gain will
enable the feeder to calculate very closely what it will cost to pro-
duce 100 pounds of gain with fattening lambs. For instance, if
it requires 500 pounds of corn and 400 of clover hay for 100
pounds of gain, and corn is worth 28 cents a bushel (50 cents
per 100 pounds) and hay $8 per ton (40 cents per 100 pounds),
the cost will be as follows:

500 pounds of corn at 50 cents $2 50

400 pounds of hay at 40 cents 1 60

Cost of 100 pounds gain, live weight $4 10

526 Feeds and Feeding.

This may be considered as the minimum cost of feed for pro-
ducing 100 pounds of gain with lambs at the price named for
corn and clover hay. Often the feed required will for various
causes exceed the amount here stated; again, sheep require more
feed for a given gain than lambs. The cost with other combina-
tions of feed may easily be worked out in the same manner from
data in the tables. Comparing the cost of gains made by lambs
and steers, it will be found that the former give the best returns
for the feed supplied. (566, 882) Sheep will probably cost from
twenty-five to thirty per cent, more for a given gain than lambs.

813. Hints on sheep feeding. — Sheep feeders do not begin
operations at an early hour in winter, preferring not to disturb
their animals until the day breaks. Usually grain is first given,
followed by hay and water. The trough in which grain is fed
should be kept clean at all times, and there should be ample room,
that each animal may get its share of grain. Nowhere does the
skill of the feeder show more plainly than in getting sheep to full
grain feed without a member of the flock getting "off feed."
Western sheep may not be able to take over one-tenth of a pound
of grain per day at first. If so, two months or ten weeks may be
required in getting the flock to full feed. English mutton sheep
take to grain more readily, and in some cases no more than three
or four weeks need intervene between starting and full feeding.
In no case should this operation be hurried, for it means waste of
feed and the permanent injury if not loss of some of the animals.

814. Regularity and quiet. — While regularity and quiet are of
importance at all times in the management of stock, they are
paramount in successfully handling fattening sheep. Sheep, like
other animals, are creatures of habit and should always be
handled by the same attendant, who should move among them
quietly, giving notice of his approach by speaking to his flock,
and closing doors and gates gently. Dogs and strangers should
be kept from the feeding pens at all times if possible.

815. Maintenance food for breeding ewes in winter. — At the
Wisconsin Station, l Craig conducted trials to ascertain the amount
of food required to maintain pregnant ewes in good condition in

1 Itept. 1893.

General Care of Sheep.

527

winter. The ewes were Shropshires and Shropshire-Merino crosses
ranging from 148 to 177 pounds each in weight at the beginning
of the trial. Each lot was fed separately and received one-half
pound of oats or bran per head daily. In addition to this, rough-
age was supplied as shown in the table. The figures given below
are calculated for 100 ewes averaging about 160 pounds each.

Feed required in winter to maintain 100 pregnant breeding ewes,
weighing from 14.8 to 177 pounds each — Wisconsin Station.

Koughage fed.

Coarse
forage.

Sugar beets.

Oats or
bran.

Amount
of refuse.

Increase
in live wt.
per head,
8 weeks.

Corn fodder (cut)
Oat straw

Lbs.

175

110

Lbs.

310
310

Lbs.

50
50

Per cent.

20
22

Lbs.

10.6
1

Blue-grass hay....

Oat hay (uncut)..
Oat hay (cut)
Alsike clover hay

Corn silage
Sugar beets

150

210
150
200

220
330

310
Coru silage.

250
240

280

Hay.

150
150

50
50
50

50
50

6.2

33
35
16

4.8

19.1
4.7
19.

1.6

Clover silage

260

150

12.9

7.3

By the above we note that to maintain a flock of 100 breeding
ewes weighing about 16, 000 pounds, there are required daily 50
pounds of oats or bran, 175 pounds of corn fodder and 310 pounds
of sugar beets. The stockman can easily calculate the cost of
this ration. Under Western conditions the cost of maintaining
a flock of 100 large ewes will be about $1 per day, or one cent
per head when kept on corn fodder, sugar beets and oats. Re-
viewing these findings, Craig reports that alsike clover hay was
considered one of the best feeds in the list, being eaten with rel-
ish and comparatively small waste. Cut (chaffed) oat hay was
found unsatisfactory, as the pieces gathered in the wool about the
necks of the sheep, and it was not so well eaten. Corn silage
was found desirable unless it contained much corn, which is in-
jurious to breeding ewes.

528

Feeds and Feeding.

816. Rations for fattening lambs. — At various Stations different
feeding stuffs and combinations of feeds have been used with
lambs for fattening purposes. Examples are here presented to
aid the feeder in forming satisfactory combinations of grain and
roughage and to guide in determining the quantities required.
In all cases the rations are calculated for 100 head. The weight
of the lambs is given in each example.

Michigan Experiment Station. l
Corn and clover hay. Lbs.

Av. wt. of lambs fed.
Daily gain

.31

Shelled corn 149

Clover hay 104

Wisconsin Experiment Station. 2

Corn and corn fodder. Lbs.

Av. wt. of lambs fed 76

Daily gain 27

Shelled corn 154

Corn fodder.... ,. 188

Michigan Experiment Station. l Michigan Experiment Station.

Corn, bran and clover hay.

Corn, oil meal and clover hay.
Lbs.

Av. wt. of lambs fed 83

Daily gain 34

Corn 132

Oil meal 33

Clover hay 110

Michigan Experiment Station. 3

Corn, wheat and clover hay. Lbs.

Av. wt. of lambs fed 85

Daily gain 25

Shelled corn 64

Wheat 64

Clover hay 129

Wisconsin Experiment Station. 2

Corn, peas and corn fodder. Lbs.

Av. wt. of lambs fed 76

Daily gain 32

Shelled corn 87

Peas 87

Corn fodder.... ,.183

Av. wt. of lambs fed.
Daily gain

Lbs.
80
.25

Bui. 113.

Kept. 1896.

Shelled corn 81

Bran 81

Clover hay 107

Wisconsin Experiment Station. 2

Corn, oats and hay. Lbs.

Av. wt. of lambs fed 89

Daily gain 38

Shelled corn 94

Oats 94

Hay 95

Michigan Experiment Station. 4

Oats, hay and roots. Lbs.

Av. wt. of lambs fed 83

Daily gain 31

Oats 164

Clover hay 140

Ruta-bagas 100

8 Bui. 128. * Bui. 107.

General Care of Sheep. 529

Minnesota Experiment Station. l Texas Experiment Station. 2

Wheat screenings and timothy hay. Cotton-seed meal and cotton-seed

Lbs. hulls. Lbs.

Av. wt. of lambs fed 74 Av. wt. of lambs fed 62

Daily gain 29 Daily gain 28

Wheat screenings 211 Cotton-seed meal 97

Timothy hay 72 Cotton-seed hulls 97

Minnesota Experiment Station. l Colorado Experiment Station. 8

Barley ', oil meal and timothy hay. Cracked corn and alfalfa hay.

Lbs. Lbs.

Av. wt. of lambs fed 76 Av. wt. of lambs fed 89

Daily gain 33 Daily gain 29

Barley 189 Alfalfa hay 290

Oil meal 19 Corn 67

Timothy hay 72

HI. Winter or " Christmas Lamb " Raising.

817. Requirements of the market. — In our large cities there is
a demand for " Christmas " or winter lambs. There are several
obstacles to be met in raising lambs satisfactory for this market,
the most difficult of which is breeding the ewes at the right
season, and the proper nurture of the young lambs to develop
carcasses which will meet the fastidious requirements of the
gourmand. A leader in this high-art branch of sheep farming
is Mr. J. S. Woodward, of Lockport, K Y., who has been in the
business twenty-five years. The facts given below are condensed
from an essay by Mr. Woodward in the Wisconsin Farmers' In-
stitute Bulletin No. 7.

" Christmas lambs," as they are frequently called, should
present a well- developed leg of mutton with plenty of lean meat,
tender and juicy, with a good thick caul to spread over the car-
cass when on exhibition. A dressed lamb weighing twenty-five
pounds, fulfilling the requirements, is superior to one weighing
twice that which is lean and bony.

818. Mating. — Mr. Woodward prefers grade Merinos not lesa
than two years old coming three, because they are the best
mothers. He mates short-legged, heavy-bodied, stocky ewe&

i Bui. 31. 2 Bui. 10. « Bui. 32.

530 Feeds and Feeding.

with a Dorset ram, preferring that breed because the lambs are
often doubles, are hardy and fatten quickly. Some breeders pre-
fer Hampshires for sires, because of their large, growthy lambs.
One of the greatest difficulties in breeding Christmas lambs
is to have them dropped sufficiently early to be large enough for
sale when the market demands them. The breed and condi-
tion of the ewe has much to do in this matter. The ram is
turned with the ewes about the first of June. It has been found
that keeping the ewes shut up and away from most of their food
for a few days, and giving them extra food before turning in
the rams, conduces to breeding. Even with favorable conditions
all ewes will not breed at the desired time, and to secure 400
lambs about 500 ewes are necessary. The ewes which fail to
breed are sold early, and those breeding late give lambs useful
for later sales. Ewes which are successful breeders are kept as
long as possible, since it is found that one lambing in November-
is more likely to breed at the right time the following year than
one lambing in April or May.

819. Care and feed of ewes. — The barns in which the ewes are
kept are such as permit maintaining an average temperature as
nearly 50 deg. Fahr. as possible in winter, the mercury never
going below 40 degrees. The folds or pens in this barn have 320
square feet space for each 20 ewes, in addition to which is an
annex 6x18 feet adjoining each pen, into which the lambs only
can go for extra food. The ewes are shorn in January, the object
being to keep them cooler and allow more space. Mr. Woodward
claims further that shorn ewes give more milk. For roughage
the ewes are fed clover hay, corn silage, mangels and some flat
turnips; the concentrates consist of linseed meal, bran and a
little corn meal. The object is to get the ewe fat, and Mr. Wood-
ward does not care how fat she is, provided the end is reached
with such foods as are described above. In warm quarters suc-
culent feed may be given with safety.

820. Feeding the lambs. — The lambs get their additional food
in the side pens, beginning to eat when two weeks old. At first
unmixed new-process linseed meal is used. The troughs are
cleaned every morning and a fresh supply of meal put in, giving

General Care of Sheep. 531

all the lambs will eat. When a few weeks old cracked corn is
added to the ration, and later barley and a few oats. Some clover
hay, cut when in fall bloom and kept in a special mow, serves
for roughage. Every effort is made to induce the young things
to not only eat, but to eat a large quantity, and keep eating.
Weak lambs are fed new milk from a teapot with a rubber cot, hav-
ing a hole punctured in the end of it, placed on the spout. Ewes
bereft of their lambs through sale are given a lamb from twins
to raise. To force the ewe to own a lamb, a movable partition
is used to separate her and the lamb from the flock, and the lamb
is helped to suck twenty times a day until owned by its foster-
mother. Water weakly tinctured with the essence of pepper-
mint sprinkled over the nose of the ewe and over the lamb
frequently helps to effect an adoption. Through this system of
forcing the best lambs weigh from 40 to 47 pounds alive at six
weeks, and as much as 34 pounds dressed. These lambs are
dressed in a special manner, the carcass being covered with white
muslin and sewed up in burlap. To be profitable they should
bring five dollars or more per head. This specialty in sheep
husbandry can only be profitably carried on by experts who have
gained experience through patient, well-directed effort and who
have markets not too far distant that will pay the high prices
such products must command.

IV. Fattening Plains Sheep.

821. Fattening in the corn belt. — Anew industry has sprung up
in the West within the last decade — that of fattening "Plains"
sheep in the corn-growing centers. In the winter of 1889 and
1890, l 625,000 head of plains sheep were fattened in the state of
Nebraska alone, the great corn crop of that year forming the basis
of operations. Briefly, the system is as follows: During the sum-
mer, Plains sheep purchased in New Mexico, Colorado, or other
Western ranges, are gradually moved eastward, grazing as they
go. Often they are dipped en route to destroy or make sure there
is no scab, the bane of the feeder under this system. By the time
the corn is ripe the sheep have reached some point where it is for

1 Special Report on the Sheep Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agr., pp. 845-94.

532 Feeds and Feeding.

sale in vast quantities and at a low price. A corral or enclosure
is made of pickets, and into this the sheep are driven, to remain
until fattened. Sometimes there are sheds for shelter, usually
not Often 20,000 to 30,000, divided into a few bunches, are fed
at a single point. Wild hay is unloaded against the picket fence,
through which the sheep feed. The only labor in handling the
hay after unloading is for an attendant to keep it moved up close
to the fence. From one and a half to two bushels of corn fed in
troughs are required per day for 100 head of sheep. To this is
usually added a few pounds of oil meal. The feeding continues
about 100 days, the sheep gaining on an average about 15 pounds
per head during that time. The profit comes mainly from in-
creasing the original value of the sheep. The industry is an ir-
regular and uncertain one. If scab breaks out, as it is liable to
do, there is often a heavy loss to the feeder. Again, the profit
depends upon the price of corn, wliich varies greatly from year
to year and cannot be foretold much in advance of the time for
feeding. Large numbers of Montana sheep are fed in much the
same manner in Minnesota on the screenings from mills and
elevators. This feed is proving excellent for the purpose. Be-
cause of bits of straw and chaff in the screenings fattening sheep
do not surfeit so easily on screenings as on corn, and they may
even be fed without giving any hay in addition.

822. Cooke's report — Fattening on alfalfa hay and grain. — In
Bulletin 32 of the Colorado Station, Cooke gathers a large
amount of information concerning fattening Western sheep in
Colorado on grain and alfalfa hay grown by irrigation. Accord-
ing to this author more than 117,000 sheep and lambs fed in
Colorado were shipped to the Chicago market during the season
of 1895. It is estimated these sheep consumed 136,000 bushels
of wheat, 95,000 bushels of corn, 840 tons of other grain, and
more than 27,000 tons of alfalfa hay. The sheep and lambs used
were Colorado-grown or from New Mexico or Idaho. New
Mexico and Colorado sheep are usually driven to the places
where fed. The location for feeding is selected because of the
abundance of alfalfa hay, together with an available supply of
grain. A summary of the system from the bulletin is as follows:

General Care of Sheep. 533

" In feeding southern (New Mexico) lambs they are put on
hay alone from one to three weeks and then grain feeding begins.
In feeding sheep on a large scale, the grain is fed in a separate
corral. The sheep are kept in bunches of about 400. The grain
is put in feed troughs, the gates are opened, and they are allowed
about ten minutes to eat the grain; then they are driven back
and the next bunch brought in. By this method all of the sheep
have a chance to get some grain, and even the greediest sheep
cannot get very much.

" The first grain fed is merely sprinkled in the trough to get
the sheep used to it. The principal skill in feeding sheep is to
increase the grain so gradually that the sheep will eat it greedily
all the time. Most feeders use pails and reckon feed by the
number of bucketfuls fed per day. A bucketful of 20 pounds to
400 sheep twice a day is one-tenth of a pound per day, and this is
as much of an increase as it is considered safe to make at any one
time, and it is customary to increase only one-half of this.

"Lambs put in the pens in November will receive their first
grain at the beginning of December, and for the first week will
get less than one- tenth of a pound per day per head; that is, the
feeder will use a week in getting them up from nothing to one-tenth
of a pound. The rest of the month to the first of January they
will not get over one-fourth pound. Some hold through the
whole month of January on one-fourth pound, while some gradu-
ally increase through the month to one-half pound.

"This is all considered preparatory, and real grain feeding
begins the first of February. Feeders vary in the speed with
which they increase the grain; but by the first of March few will
be feeding less than one pound, and the sheep are kept on full
feed from then until they go on the market. If nothing but
wheat is fed, it is hard to get the sheep to eat over a pound per
head per day. . . . The hay fed to sheep in Colorado is all
alfalfa. It is fed in racks that are about 14 feet wide. These
racks are simply low fences inclosing a space of 14 feet wide and
any desired length. The fences are made of three 8-inch boards
running lengthwise of the racks, the bottom one resting on the
ground, the others above with 8-inch spaces, making a fence 40

534 Feeds and Feeding.

inches high. The hay is pitched into the middle by the wagon-
load and pushed up to the sides two or three times per day as fast
as the sheep need it. There should be rack enough so that most
of the sheep can eat at the same time. This will require about one
foot per head for lambs and 15 inches per head for older sheep.
. . . A large part of the feeding yards in Colorado are located
on the banks of streams, or near enough to rivers so that ditches
can be run through the yards and the surplus water returned to
the river. . . . During the coldest winter, sheep will drink
only a quart of water per head, but in warm weather 5 to 6
quarts is an ordinary amount. . . . Opinions differ as to the
amount of salt required in fattening sheep. The most common
practice is to keep lumps of rock salt where the sheep can lick
them. . . . Southern lambs are so light of fleece that they
never need shearing in the fall. But if they are to be fed until
the last of May they get very fat, and their thick fleece at that
time makes them suffer from the heat. ... If sheared six
weeks before shipping they will grow enough more rapidly to
make up the weight of the wool, shrink less in shipping and
pack quite a number more in the car, lessening the freight
charges per head. . . . With Western sheep the case is quite
different; they are larger, the fleece is longer and grows earlier.
They have to be sheared if they are to be fed late in the spring.
. . . This fall shearing applies only to good, well-grown
lambs. Wethers and ewes do not need shearing if they are to be
marketed before April 15. If they are to be held until late in
May they had better be sheared in the spring rather than in the
fell." (308,770-71)

CHAPTER XXXII.

INVESTIGATIONS WITH SWINE.

823. Period of gestation. — According to Coburn, l young sows
carry their pigs from 100 to 106 days; old sows from 112 to 115

Spencer,2 writing of English pigs, says: "The variations in
the time which a sow will carry her pigs are very slight, and these
are pretty well regulated by the age and condition of the sow;
thus, old and weakly sows and yelts (young sows) will most fre-
quently bring forth a day or two before the expiration of the six-
teen weeks. Sows in fair condition will generally farrow on the
one hundred and twelfth day, while strong and vigorous sows will
frequently go a few days over time."

824. Weight of pigs at farrowing time. — A number of observa-
tions have been made by the writer at the Wisconsin Station8 in
relation to the weight of pigs at farrowing. The findings with
seven sows are reported below:

Weights of pigs in order farrowed — Wisconsin Station.

Breed.

No. 1

No. 2

No. 3

No. 4

No. 5

No. 6

No. 7

No. 8

No. 9

No. 10

Total.

Pure-bred Berk-
shire

Lbs.
2.1

2.7
2.1
2.5
2.0
2.1
*2.6

Lbs.
1.9

2.4
2.7
2.3
1.9

2.2
2.7

Lbs.

2.2

2.3
2.5
2.3
2.2
2.2
2.7

Lbs.
2.0

2.9
2.8
2.4
2.1
2.4
2.8

Lbs.
*1.5

2.0
3.0
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.4

Lbs.
1.8

2.7
3.0
1.9
2.3
2.4
2.4

Lbs.
1.9

3.1
2.6

Lbs.
*1.0

2.1

Lbs.
2.6

2.3

Lbs.
*1.3

Lbs.
19.2

22.5
18.7
13.4
12.6
13.5
15.6

Cross-bred Pol.-
Chester Wbite
Pure-bred Pol.-
China
Pure-bred Pol.-
China . .

Pure-bred Pol.-
Cbina

Cross-bred Pol.-
Chester White
Pure-bred Pol.-
China

* Farrowed dead.

The sows under study ranged in age from' one to four years and
in weight from 240 to 577 pounds before farrowing. As the pigs

1 Swine Husbandry.

2 "Pigs, Breeds and Management."

Kept. 1897.

536

Feeds and Feeding.

were farrowed they were marked by the attendant in order to ob-
serve any differences in weight or other conditions.

It will be seen that the number of pigs in the several litters
ranged from 6 to 10 and the weight of the litters from 13.5 to 22.5
pounds each. The pigs when farrowed weighed from 1.3 to 2.6
pounds each. '

Frequently in a litter of pigs there is one member much weaker
than the others, and this is sty led the "runt77 or "teatman." It
is sometimes spoken of as the last pig farrowed, this occurrence
seeming in some unknown way to mark its inferiority. As the
table shows, the last pig farrowed was not necessarily lighter in
weight than the others, and the attendant observed no weakness
or other mark indicating its inferiority.

825. Milk yielded by the sow. — So far as known to the writer
there is no reference in agricultural literature to the quantity
of milk yielded by the sow. At the Wisconsin Station, l Woll
and the writer ascertained the milk yield of four sows whose age,
weight, etc., are given in the following table:

Data concerning age, feed, etc., of sows — Wisconsin Station.

No.
of
sow.

Age.

Date of
farrow-
ing.

Weight
after
farrow-
ing.

No.
of
pigs.

Feed consumed daily by sows.

Date.

Mid-
dlings

Corn
meal.

Skim
milk.

Yr.

Lbs.

April 1

438

April 2-5

April 19-21

May 5-8

April 1

456

April 10-12

1.5

June 1-3

3.5

June 18-20

April 10

220

May 30- June 2

June 17-19

4.5

Mayl

286

June 2-4

The litter of pigs was confined in a pen separate from the
sow during three- day periods. At intervals of two hours by day,
and from four to five by night, the attendant would weigh the pigs

1 Kept. 1897.

Investigations with Swine.

53T

together in a basket and immediately place them with the dam.
The pigs soon drained the udders of the dam, and directly this
was accomplished they were gathered into the basket and once
more weighed. The difference between the first and second
weights of the pigs was credited as milk yielded by the dam.
The sows used were pure-bred Poland- Chinas with the exception
of No. 4, which was a cross-bred Poland-China Chester White.

826. Quantity of milk yielded. — As before stated, the yield of
milk by each sow was determined for periods of three days, the
first observation occurring shortly after farrowing. Subsequent
determinations were at intervals of about two weeks. The weights
of milk yielded by the several sows are given in the following
table:

Milk yielded daily by four sows, in pounds, avoirdupois — Wisconsin

Station.

Date.

Sow No. 1, 6 pigs

Sow No. 2, 6 pigs

Sow No. 3, 7 pigs

Sow No. 4, 8 pigs

1st day.

2nd day.

3rd day.

Average

-d

C<I

3rd day.

Average

•a

T3
£3
<N

3rd day.

Average

•d
2

2nd day.

3rd day.

Average

April 2-4.

* o

3 9

ft 7

R 4

April 10-12

s \

S 7

4 4

8 8

April 19-21 ....

7 7

8 7

8 4

8 R

T.2

April 26-28

4.3

4.6

5..3

4.7

i'.'i

"5".!

April 27-29....
May 3-5

4.6

4.7

5.3

4.9

May 5-7
May 13-15
May 14-16

6.1

5.9

5.4

5.8

'H"i

"fTo

'Via

V".6

7.7

May 20-22

7.2

7.1

7.2

May 30-June 1
May 31-June 2

"H's

n 4

fi"l

5" 3

7.3

7.2

6.8

7.1

June 6-8

7.2

7.5

7.3

June 16-18
June 17-19

1.6

l"?

I'R

2.3

2.0

1.0

2.1

June 23-25

3.5

3.2

3.3

Averages..

5 8

4 1

5 4

5.5

The table shows that the average daily milk yield ranged from
4.1 pounds with sow No. 2 to 5.8 pounds with sow No. 1. The
highest yield of milk on any one day was 8.7 pounds by sow
No. 1, twenty days after farrowing. (739)

827. Composition of sow's milk. — During the experiment sam-
ples of the sows' milk were obtained and subjected to chemical
analysis. Great difficulty was experienced in securing the sam-
ples, the sows being quite unwilling to allow any milk to be drawn

538

Feeds and Feeding.

by the attendant. After considerable experimenting it was found
that the best way to obtain a sample was to allow the pigs to partly
empty the udder, when one was gently pushed aside by the at-
tendant, who quickly drew what milk he could before the dam
was aware of the operation. Even after the attendant had be-
come familiar with the difficulties and learned the best method
of proceeding, only about 30 cc., or one fluid ounce of milk,
could be obtained as the result of half a dozen efforts. From the
four sows nine samples of milk were secured, which were analyzed
with the results given below:

Composition of sow's milk — Wisconsin Station.

Sample.

1
1

Casein and albumen.

Jjjj

fry

'>
M

Solids not fat.

^
|0

I
1

Microscop-
ic exami-
nation.

2 •

ft'

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

April 1.
April 12.
April 21.
May 6....
June 2...
June 3...
June 4...

No.l
No. 2
No.l
No.l
No. 3
No. 2
No. 4
No. 3
No. 2

25.09
18.40
20.27
17.96
17.12
20.46
20.54
18.22
18.76

16.10
8.66
8.32

3^89
8.53
8.02
6.67
7.09

6.05
5.11
5.95
5.33
6.09
6.12
5.77
6.67
7.28

2
4
5.14

4.48
5.82
4.68
5.96
4.08
3.07

94
63
.86
.95
1.32
1.13
.79
1.12
1.32

8.99
9.74
11.95
10.76
13.23
11.93
12.52
10.87
11.67

3.40
3.83
8.27
5.80
7.10
5.27
7,33
3.07
1.33

""787
1.379

""983
2,295
1,516
1,960
2,536

"no"

""40"

T.0454"
1.0358
1.0396
1.0,350
1.0388

Average all samples...
Average of 7 samples-
Average of 5 samples..

19.65
19.05
19.02

8.24
7.06
6.78

6.04
6.20
6.39

(4.75)
4.75
4.72

(1.07)
1.07
1.14

(1.0389)
(1.0389)
1.038J

11.41
11.99
12.24

5.04
5.45

4.82

1,635

828. What the table shows. — From the table we learn that the
fat in the milk under examination ranged from a little less than 4
to over 16 per cent. The data for average composition show
that sow's milk is richer in all components than cow's milk, this
being especially true in regard to fat and sugar. On the average
these sows yielded about one- third of a pound of fat each, daily.
The microscopical examination showed that the fat globules in
the milk of these sows were very minute, averaging only one-
quarter the size of those in cow's milk. On the other hand, the
number of globules in a given volume of sow's milk was about
eight times as many as are found in cow's milk. (616)

Investigations with Swine.

539

Judging from the composition of sow's milk as shown by these
analyses, where cow's milk is fed to very young pigs some sugar
and cream should be added to make it resemble the milk they
would normally receive.

829. Individual gain of young pigs. — Since the student may wish
to know the individual gains of the members of the litter when
quite young, the following table is given showing weight and
gains of sow and pigs studied by the writer at the Wisconsin Sta-
tion. 1 The data cover 70 days before and 49 after weaning.

Before the pigs were weaned the sow consumed 463 pounds of
corn meal and 1,207 pounds of skim milk. The pigs, fed at a
separate trough, during the same time consumed 122 pounds of
corn meal and 367 pounds of skim milk. During forty -nine days
immediately after weaning, the pigs consumed 651 pounds of corn
meal and 1,953 pounds of skim milk.

Weight of pigs at birth and individual gains before and after wean-
ing — Wisconsin Station.

Before weaning.

Date.

Days
from
birth.

wt.

of
sow.

Weight of pigs.

No. 1

No. 2

No. 3

No. 4

No. 6

No. 7

No. 8

May 24. ..

Lbs.
332

'"200"

285
277
278
280
293
280
278
268
261

Lbs.

May 25

0
7
14
21
29
35
42
49
56
63
70

3.6
7.1
10.7
19.0
19.4
24.2
28.0
32.5
40.5
47.0
50.5

3.2
5.1
7.7
11.5
14.5
16.4
18.7
19.0
22.5
24.5
25.0

3.3
5.9
9.9
13.5
17.4
22.2
25.5
30.0
37.0
44.0
50.0

3.2

6.4
9.4
13.5
17.8
23.1
26.5
32.5
43.5
51.0
60.5

3.4
6.3
9.5
12.5
15.6
20.6
23.5
29.0
38.0
45.5
50.0

3.2

5.8
9.2
12.5
16.0
20.9
24.2
29.5
38.0
45.0
51.0

2.8
4.8
7.5
10.8
14.1
18.2
22.0
26.0
35.5
42.5
47.0

1.9
3.0
5.1

7.6
10.4
14.4
16.5
21.0
26.5
31.0
37.5

May 31

June 7

June 14 . .

June 21

June 28

JulyS

July 12

July 19

July 26

August 2

Gain

—29

46.9

21.8

46.7

57.3

46.6

47.8

44.2

35.6

After weaning.

August 2

50 5

25 0

50 0

60 5

50 0

51 0

47 5

37 5

August 9

53.0

25.0

57.5

68.0

57.5

55 0

54 5

44.0

August 16

August 23

14
21

57.0
62 5

27.5
33 5

63.5
72 5

75.0
86 5

61.0
67 0

59.0
69 0

61.0
72 0

50.0
56 0

69 0

43 0

84 0

101 0

80 0

76 0

79 0

64 0

September 13

77.5

48.0

94 0

105 'o

86 0

88*0

88 0

74 0

September 20

85 5

56 0

104 0

114 0

92 0

93 0

82 0

Gain

35.0

31.0

54 0

53 5

42 0

45.5

44 5

'Kept. 1890.

540

Feeds and Feeding.

It will be seen that the sow lost 29 pounds in weight while
suckling her pigs, the pigs gaining from 21. 8 to 57. 3 pounds each
in the ten weeks between farrowing and weaning. For the seven
weeks succeeding weaning, the individual gains ranged from. 31
to 54 pounds.

830. Weight of pigs at birth — Early gains. — At the Wisconsin
Station,1 the writer kept records of the birth- weight and also
weekly gains of twelve litters, numbering 86 pigs in all, for a
period of ten weeks, at the close of which they were weaned.
After weaning the records were continued with eight litters, con-
taining 62 pigs in all, for seven weeks. The dams were pure-bred
or high-grade Poland- Chinas or Chester Whites. The results are
shown below.

Average lirth-weight and weekly gains of pigs before and after wean-
ing — Wisconsin Station.

Before weaning, ten weeks, average
of 12 litters, 86 pigs.

After weaning, 7 weeks, average of
8 litters, 62 pigs.

Week.

Average weight.

Gain.

Week.

Average weight.

Gain.

Lbs.

At birth..

2.5

4.4

1.9

41.5

7.0

2.6

46.7

5.2

9.8

2.8

52.0

5.3

12.5

2.7

58.3

6.3

15.6

3.1

64.2

5.9

18.6

3.0

69.8

5.6

22.6

4.0

76.5

6.7

27.8

5.2

84.1

7.6

33.1

5.3

38.5

5.4

The heaviest pig in these litters weighed 3.6 pounds at birth
and the lightest 1.6 pounds, the average for the lot being 2.5
pounds.

During the first week after birth the pigs made a gain of 1.9
pounds. Overlooking irregularities, we may say that the pigs
made a weekly gain of three pounds per head the fifth week after
birth, four pounds the seventh week and five and one-half pounds
the tenth week. At the end of the seventh week after weaning,

1 Eepts. 1889, 1890, 1897.

Investigations with Swine.

541

when 119 days old, they were gaining more than seven pounds
each, weekly, or over a pound per day. ,

831. feeding pigs through the dam. — The question whether a
pound of food goes further when fed directly to young pigs or when
first fed to the dam is an interesting one to the stockman. The
writer has conducted trials with eight litters of pigs, noting feed
and gains, for information on this subject. l In all cases the darns
and pigs were weighed separately each week, and record kept of
the food eaten by each sow and her litter before weaning, and of
the pigs after weaning. The pigs were taught to eat at an early
date, and encouraged to do so by placing food in a trough where it
was accessible to them but not to the dam. The feed consisted of
corn meal, middlings, oats, barley and skim milk. At ten weeks
the pigs were weaned, the feeding continuing for seven weeks.
We were thus enabled to measure the feed required for gain by
the sow and pigs before weaning, and by the same pigs after
weaning. In all cases the loss in weight by the sow while suck-
ling her young is taken into account, the results reported being
the net gains after deducting such loss.

Feed required for 100 pounds of gain with sow and pigs before wean-
ing, and by the same pigs after weaning — Wisconsin Station.

Sows and
pigs before
weaning.

Pigs after weaning.

Meal.

Milk.

Meal.

Milk.

Lot I....

Lbs.

241

288
198
240
184
254
235
208

Lbs.

563

649
654
528
482
509
474
416

Lbs.

251
215
213
177

187
251
259

286

Lbs.

587
577
449
542
562
502
518
571

Lot II

Lot III

Lot IV

Lot V

Lot VI

Lot VII

Lot VIII

Average

231

534

230

539

It will be seen that the sow and pigs together before weaning,
and the pigs alone after weaning, required almost identical quan-

1 Loc. cit.

542 Feeds and Feeding.

titles of milk and meal for the production of 100 pounds net gain.
At first thought it appears impossible that as good gains can be
secured with young pigs from a given amount of feed administered
through the sow as can be obtained by direct feeding. A pos-
sible explanation lies in the fact that the body of the very young
pig contains a large proportion of water, so that less dry matter
is required for a pound of gain than with older animals. Again,
each pound of flesh lost by the dam during this time may have
yielded more than a pound of increase with her young.

832. Effects of feed on teeth and skull.— Schwartzkopff, of the
Minnesota Station, l treating of the influence of feed upon the for-
mation of the skull and the dentition of pigs, writes:

"1. The order of succession of teeth in our precocious pigs
runs the same as in the primitive hog.

' i 2. The times when the teeth appear are variable, according
to race, feeding and health. The same breeds raised under the
same conditions will show the same appearance.

"3. The form of the skull depends upon nutrition, health, and
more or less employment of certain muscles of the head and neck.
Skulls of poorly nourished pigs are more long and slender than
from those well nourished. Pigs which are prevented from root-
ing will acquire a short, high and rounded head, while those that
are forced to root to secure a portion of their food will develop a
long and slender form of head."

833. Length of intestines. — Darwin2 states that the nature of
the food supplied the pig by man has evidently changed the
length of the intestines. He quotes Cuvier as reporting the total
length of the intestines of the wild boar to be nine times the body
length; in the domestic boar 13.5 to 1; in the Siam boar 16 to 1.
The writer measured the intestines of 39 fattened hogs and found
that the large intestine varied from 13 to 16 feet, and the small
intestine from 54 to 60 feet, in length. The average extreme
body length of these animals was 3. 5 feet. This makes the small
intestine alone from 16 to 19 times the length of the body, and
the large and small intestines combined about 21 times the body

1 Bui. 7; Breeder's Gazette, 1889, pp. 536-7.

2 Animals and Plants under Domestication.

Investigations with Swine.

543

length. From these figures it appears that the intestines of pigs
of the improved breeds are longer in proportion to the body than
those given by Cuvier. This may indicate that the modern pig
can digest his food more thoroughly than his ancestors, and also
that he can eat a larger quantity of food in a given time.

834. Water drank. — We find little recorded on this subject,
possibly because the matter is not considered of importance by
many. In a feeding trial by the writer at the Wisconsin Station, l
a group of ten pigs divided into two lots of five each, one lot
getting barley meal and the other corn meal, was fed for a period
of eight weeks, with the results given below:

Feed and water consumed by pigs fattened on barley meal and corn
meal — Wisconsin Station.

Feed given.

Av. wt.

pigs at be-
ginning.

Total
grain
eaten.

Total
gain.

Total
water
consumed

Feed
eaten per
100 Ibs.
gain.

Water
consumed
per 100 Ibs
feed eaten

Lbs.

Barley meal..

208

2,832

601

9,056

471

320

Corn meal....

209

3,100

713

6,620

435

213

The weight of water reported includes that required for soak-
ing the meal and also that drank from a second trough.

It will be seen that the pigs fed corn meal consumed about two
pounds of water, and the barley-fed pigs over three pounds, for each
pound of meal eaten. The pigs getting corn meal consumed over
900 pounds of water, and the barley-fed pigs about 1,500 pounds,
for each 100 pounds of gain in live weight. Pigs fed corn meal
appear to require less water than when on other feeds. (375)

835. Breed tests. — A number of breed tests with swine have
been conducted by the Stations. In the following trial by the
writer at the Wisconsin Station2 a boar and four sows of the Berk-
shire breed were fed in comparison with a boar and four sows of
the Poland- China breed. The animals were registered, coming
from several breeders of repute. The pigs ran on blue-grass past-
ure in summer and fall and were comfortably housed in winter.

1 Rept. 1890. * Kept. 1894.

544

Feeds and Feeding.

Feed was supplied to each animal separately, and a record kept
of everything consumed except the pasture grass. The weight
and gain of the pigs during the trial of 224 days are given in the
table:

Weight and gain of pure-bred Berkshire and Poland- China pigs —
Wisconsin Station.

Boar.

Sow number —

Poland- Chinas.
Weight at beginning

Lbs.

70
223

Lbs.

103

232

Lbs.

121

245

Lbs.

105
237

Lbs.

102
231

Gain in 224 days ....

Weight at close

293

172

208

335

99
230

366

85
220

342

86
256

333

247

Berkshires.
Weight at beginning

Gain in 224 days

T\f eight at close ..

380

335

305

342

312

As these pigs were to be used for breeding purposes they were
supplied with a variety of nutritious foods, — shorts, corn meal,
oil meal, with some milk and whey, — the purpose being to secure
good bone and muscle rather than fat. In calculating results five
pounds of skim milk and ten pounds of whey were counted equal
to one pound of grain. The total gain and the feed required for
100 pounds of gain are as follows:

Poland-Chinas. Berkshires.

Total gain of lot l,1681bs. l,167lbs.

Feed for 100 pounds of gain 524 Ibs. 512 Ibs.

It will be seen that the Poland -Chinas gained one pound more
than the Berkshires, and required 12 pounds more grain for 100
pounds of gain. At the close of the trial the Berkshire sows,
ranging between 305 and 342 pounds in weight, were practically
mature in bone and muscle and carried considerable fat. The
Poland- China sows ranged from 333 to 366 pounds and were not
fully developed, being of a larger type than the Berkshires. To
have fed them to the same degree of maturity as the Berkshires
would have necessitated a farther gain in weight of from 25 to 50
pounds each. Having carefully watched the animals throughout

Investigations ivith Surine.

545

the trial, the writer is convinced that with these representatives of
the two leading Western breeds of swine there was practically no
difference in the food requirements for a given gain.

Summing up the breed trials with swine conducted by American
Stations, we have the results given below:

Tests with pure-bred swine — Various Experiment Stations.

Breed.

i«
|i

Days fed.

-A .

£.3bi>
. b£C

£fl

§1

Isf

g^«*

fl*g£

8£g

*s5

Feed.

Massachusetts.*
Small Yorkshire
Berkshire

6
7

149
140

Lbs.

33
22

Lbs.

1.12
1.16

Lbs.

200
183

Lbs.

316

289

83.6
81.6

Corn meal, bran and
gluten meal with

Poland-China
Tarn worth

4
4

134
114

30
32

1.31
1.40

206
191

307
304

81.7
82.3

either buttermilk
or skim milk.

Vermont.!
Small Yorkshire
Berkshire

184
172

23
26

1.04
1.17

201

227

353
321

84.1
83

Corn meal and bran
with either skim

Poland-China

160

1.20

228

371

milk or butter-

Chester White

172

1.36

262

335

84.5

milk.

Michifjan.%
Berkshire
Poland-China
Duroc-Jersey

4
4
4

154
154
154

81
81
89

1.23
1.20
1.47

272
264
320

460
514
467

83.5
84.7
83.2

2 parts middlings
with 1 part each of
ground oats and

corn.

Maine.\
Tain worth

Berkshire

273
266

.95
.90

278
267

488
493

76.3
78 0

Oats, peas, corn

Chester White
Duroc-Jersey
Cheshire .

2
2
1

140
157
157

65
57
82

1.15
1.03
1.16

225
219
265

443
464
600

meal, skim milk
and middlings.

Onlario.\
Berkshire.. ~~

Poland-China ...

117
117

66
69

.01
.03

185
190

475
607

77.19
77.18

Yorkshire

117

.08

177

589

74.45

Meal mixtures.

Chester White
Tain worth

117
117

62
54

.05
00

185
171

557
469

77.10
75 79

Duroc-Jersey

117

.16

199

580

77.21

Wixconnn.^
Berkshire..

224

101

1.04

334

512

Corn meal, shorts,

Poland-China

224

100

1 04

333

524

cotton-seed meal,
oil meal, skim
milk and Whey.

* Kept. 1891. fRepts. 1890-2-3-4. J Bui. 60. § Kept. 1893. | Ag. College, Kept. 1896.

U Kept. 1894.

The remarkably small amount of feed required to produce one
hundred pounds of gain with the pigs fed in the Massachusetts
and Vermont trials is due to the large quantity of skim milk and
buttermilk fed.

836. Cooking feed for swine. — Experiments with cooked feed
for pigs have been so numerous that all cannot be here presented.
35

546 Feeds and Feeding.

Those given are selected because they are strictly representative,
covering a wide range of country, feeds and conditions.

At the Kansas Agricultural College, l Shelton fed one lot of five
pigs cooked shelled corn, while a second lot of four, similar in
all respects, was given uncooked shelled corn, the trial lasting
ninety days. In cooking, the corn was placed in a barrel and
water poured over it. Into this mass a pipe carried steam at a
pressure ranging from 30 to 60 pounds. The kernels were cooked
until they were sufficiently soft to be easily mashed between the
thumb and finger.

At the Iowa Agricultural College, 2 Stalker conducted trials for
120 days in summer with cooked and uncooked shelled corn fed
to Berkshire pigs.

At the Dominion (Canada) Station,3 Eobertson fed grade
Chester Whites a mixture of ground peas, barley and rye, the trials
beginning in December and lasting 141 days.

At the Ohio Station,4 Devol fed pure-bred Poland -Chinas and
Berkshires for 112 days in winter. One lot of three pigs received
the meal cooked, while to the second lot it was given dry and un-
cooked.

At the Wisconsin Station,5 the writer has conducted many
trials with cooked and uncooked feed for pigs. Only the later
ones are here reported. These trials lasted from 56 to 84 days
each, the kinds of feed experimented with being given in the
table.

The five trials reported from the Wisconsin Station, as will be
seen by consulting the table, are slightly in favor of cooked feed, the
difference being very small, however. These are the only feed-
ing trials reported from any Experiment Station, so far as known
to the writer, where the results are favorable to cooking. Ten
other trials by the writer with cooked and uncooked feed for swine
all gave results unfavorable to cooking. These and a number of
trials at other Stations with cooked and uncooked feed for swine
are not here included for lack of space. With this explanation

illept. Prof. Agr., 1885.

2 Coburn, Swine Husbandry, p. 134.

8 Ottawa, Kept, 1891.

* Kept. 1887. B Repts. 1886-87-94.

Investigations with Swine.

547

of the conditions of the several trials, let us examine the results
grouped in the table below:

Feeding cooked and uncooked feed to pigs — Various Stations.

Station and feed.

No. of animals.

Average weight
at beginning.

Grain

eaten.

Total gain.

Feed for 100
Ibs. gain.

Uncooked.

Kansas.
Shelled corn. (Cooked with steam
vs. grain fed dry.)

5
4

Lbs.

219
252

Lbs.

1.15
1.68

Lbs.

3,894

Lbs.

520
605

Lbs.
749

Lbs,
"*630"

3,811

Iowa.
Shelled corn. (Not stated how
cooked. )

Corn meal. (Not stated how
cooked.)

3
3

156
164

.87
1.10

1,680

"iiesb

312
379

538

""443"

3
3

173

168

.87
1.08

1,680

"li'680

299
377

562

'"445*

Ottawa.
Ground peas, barley, rye, equal
parts. (Cooked with steam.)

4
4

1.09

.86

2,928

702
564

417

"425*"

2,398

Ohio.
Corn meal. ( Cooked to a mush. )

191
205

1.20
1.14

2,386

404

b83

591

"'552*
""452"

2,116

Wisconsin.

Corn meal and shorts, equal parts.
(Cooked in large kettle.) Three

7
7

97
100

1.16
1.20

3,041

"3", 198

684
707

444

4
4

75
80

1.15
1.09

1,617

"ijere

386
366

419

'"438"

2
2

141

138

1.29
1.26

678

""688

145
141

468

'"488"

Wisconsin.
Two parts corn meal, one part
shorts. (Cooked in large kettle.)
Two trials.

10
10

103
106

1.03
1.11

3,204

"sisiiB

724
779

443

'"451"
"442*"

4
4

147
151

1.37
1.33

1,292

'i'isiV

307

298

421

Average of ten trials

505

476

Including all the trials then, so far as known, that have been
favorable to cooking feed, and omitting many, for lack of space,
that are unfavorable to that operation, the average shows that 476
pounds of uncooked meal or grain were required for 100 pounds
of gain with pigs, while after it was cooked 505 pounds were re-
quired. This shows a loss of six per cent, of the feeding value
of these substances through cooking.

837. Soaked meal versus dry meal. — At the Wisconsin Station, *
the writer conducted two trials, lasting sixty-eight days each,
with wet and dry meal, the feed used being corn meal and shorts,

1 Kept. 1888.

548

Feeds and Feeding.

equal parts. One lot of pigs was fed dry meal, while the meal
for the other lot was moistened with water after being placed in
the trough.

At the Minnesota Station, l Smith conducted trials, lasting 112
days, with corn meal, shorts and oil meal, fed wet to one lot of
pigs and dry to a second lot.

At the Oregon Station, 2 French fed two lots of Berkshire pigs
on a mixture of shorts, wheat, oats and bran. The pigs were
two and one-half months old at the beginning of the trial, which
lasted 182 days. The grain mixture was fed dry to one lot, and
allowed to soak between times of feeding for the other.

At the Missouri Station, 3 four lots of pigs were fed wheat and
wheat chop by Conner for 100 days, dry grain being used in com-
parison with grain that had been soaked thirty-six hours. The
results of these trials are summarized in the table:

Results of feeding pigs wet and dry meal — Four Stations.

Station and feed.

No. of animals.

A fcb

CJOH

Daily gain.

Grain

eaten.

Feed for
100 Ibs. gain

Average we
at beginn

-w

Wisconsin.
Corn meal and
shorts, equal
parts.

3
3
2

Lbs.

114
115
1(55
171

Lbs.

1.25
1.70
1.18
1.62

Lbs.

1,228

"983"

Lbs.
' l)861

"1)046

Lbs.

255
337
161
220

Lbs.

481

"eio"

Lbs.

•"404"
"471*

437
"458"

Minnesota.
Two parts corn meal,
two parts shorts,
one part oil meal
(0. £).

3
3
3
3

34
29
33
30

1.02
.73

.74

.80

"i)b'85

1,140

1,500
"1)233

343

246
249
269

"44'i"

458

Oregon.
Shorts, chopped wheat,
oats and bran.

63
61

1.24
1.45

2,115

"2)819

453

527

467

'"446"

Missouri.
Wheat chop.

Four parts whole wheat,
one part bran.

3
3
3
3

111
112
118
119

1.87
2.02
1.38
1.25

2,339
"2i'l'05

"2)419
"2)054

562
605
414
374

416
"508"

"406"
'"549"

Average of all trials

483

451

The table shows that on the average 451 pounds of grain or
meal, when wet or soaked, were equal in feeding value to 483

» Bui. 22. 2 Bui. 28. 8 Bui. 29.

Investigations with Swine. 549

pounds of dry grain or meal, a difference of 7 per cent, in favor
of using wet or soaked meal.

The results show that the soaking of corn is about as useful in
increasing its feeding value as grinding. Experiment Stations
should give more data on both these important matters.

838. Value of exercise.— At the Utah Station, l Mills gathered
data on this subject with pigs during trials lasting four years.
Some of the animals were confined in small pens, others in yards,
while still others had the run of pastures. The pigs used were the
common stock of the region, weighing about 75 pounds each when
the trials began. A summary of these trials is as follows:

Results of four years' trials with pigs confined in pens and allowed
exercise in yards and pastures — Utah Station.

Daily
gain.

Feed for
100 Ibs.
of gain.

Pigs confined in small pens

901bs.

512 Ibs.

Pigs allowed exercise in yards and run of pastures.

l.lOlbs.

420 Ibs.

These figures show .2 of a pound greater daily gain, and a sav-
ing of 92 pounds of grain, or 18 per cent, of the feed, in making
100 pounds of gain, in favor of yard and pasture over close con-
finement. The reader should remember that the results were
obtained with shotes, and that the pastures should be credited
with the food they furnished, which is of course an unknown
amount. (903)

839. Value of shelter. — At the Kansas Agricultural College, *
Shelton tested the value of shelter during winter with ten pure-
bred Berkshires, weighing from 200 to 250 pounds each, divided
into two lots of five each. One lot was placed in a warm base-
ment, each pig occupying a pen by itself. The pigs in the other
lot were likewise kept in separate pens, but in an open yard, the
only protection being a board fence on the north. The trial began
November 27, lasting ten weeks. The outdoor temperature ranged
from 12 degrees below to 31 above zero, Fahr., and the indoor tem-
perature from 19 to 42 degrees above. The pigs were given all the

> Bui. 40. 2 Bept. Prof. Agr., 1883.

550

Feeds and Feeding.

shelled corn they would consume without waste, with the results
stated below:

Sheltering pigs in basement of barn as opposed to keeping in the open
yard — Kansas Agricultural College.

Total feed
consumed.

Total gain.

Feed for
100 Ibs.
gain.

Pigs kept in barn

2,878 Ibs.

604 Iba.

476 Ibs.

Pigs kept in open yard

2,8441bs.

479 Ibs.

593 Ibs.

We learn from the above that the pigs kept in the open yard
required 117 pounds, or 25 per cent., more corn for 100 pounds
of gain than those given shelter.

840. Food of support. — Sanborn's investigations1 in this line
are the only ones reported for this country. In these trials pigs
were fed middlings, the aim being to supply just sufficient food
to keep the animal at even weight — neither gaining nor losing.
The difficulties of such an undertaking are apparent to the
thoughtful stockman. The findings are as follows:

Maintenance allowance or food of support for the pig — Missouri
Agricultural College.

No. of
pigs.

Av. wt.
during
trial.

Days
fed.

Feed
eaten.

Total
gain.

Per cent,
of live wt.
eaten
daily.

Tune.

Lbs.

1.5

2.1

Summer.

172

352

20.0

1.9

Winter (warm].

173

172

3.0

1.7

Winter (warm).

175

1,184

3.0

2.0

Summer.

In these trials the pigs always made a slight gain, but it was
so small that we may ignore it, the error being on the right side.
We learn that pigs weighing 48 pounds require 2.1 pounds of
middlings for the maintenance or support of one hundred pounds
of live weight, and that pigs weighing from 172 to 175 pounds
required from 1.7 to 2 per cent, of their live weight in middlings

1 Bui. 28, Mo. Agr. CoL

Investigations with Swine.

551

for maintenance. In general, then, and until this matter is
worked out more fully, we may say that a pig requires for its main-
tenance two pounds of feed of value equal to middlings for each
100 pounds of live weight.

841. Weight, gain, and feed consumed by pigs. — At many of
our Stations records of weights and gains of pigs and feed con-
sumed by them have been so reported as to permit of studies con-
cerning the influence of increased size and weight of the animal
on the consumption of feed. All of the available data from
trials of this character conducted in this country up to the time
of going to press enter into the composition of the table given
below. In compiling this table, six pounds of skim milk or
twelve pounds of whey are calculated as equal to one pound of
grain, according to the Danish valuation of these articles. For
convenience of study, the data are presented for each period cov-
ering fifty pounds of growth, the actual average weight of the
pigs, however, being given for each division.

Data relative to feed, weight and gain of pigs — Many American

Stations.

Weight of pigs in
pounds.

Actual average
weight.

Number of Sta-
tions reporting.

Total number of
trials.

Total number of
animals fed.

Average feed
eaten per day.

Feed eaten per
100 Ibs. live wt.

Average gain per
day.

1 &

15 to 50

Lbs.

174

Lbs.
2 23

Lbs.
5 95

Lbs.
76

Lbs.

293

50 to 100

100

417

3 35

4 32

.83

400

100 to 150. ...

128

119

495

4 79

3 75

1 10

437

150 to 200

174

107

489

5 91

3 43

1 24

482

200 to 250

226

300

6 57

2 91

1 33

498

250 to 300.

271

223

7 40

2 74

1 46

511

300 to 350

320

105

7 50

2 35

1 40

535

350 to 400.

378

8 52

2 25

1 98

431

400 to 450

429

8 18

1 91

1.71

479

450 to 500

471

10.00

2.12

1 77

562

In the above table the large number of trials reported for
pigs weighing up to 350 pounds each furnishes reliable data.
After this point is reached the number of animals is too small to

552 Feeds and Feeding.

give reliable averages. The heavy-weight hogs reported in the
last three lines of the table were fed by the writer. They were
mature specimens, with large frames and in lean flesh when feed-
ing began, having been summered on pasture without grain. The
figures are introduced to show what may be accomplished with ma-
ture hogs when they are in thin flesh at the beginning of fattening.
We learn from the main portion of the table that from 105 to
495 pigs were employed in calculating each line of data. The
number of trials furnishing the data varied from 19 to 119, and
were conducted by from 3 to 13 Experiment Stations.

842. Amount of feed consumed daily by the pig. — The sixth
c/olurnn of the table shows the average amount of feed consumed
daily by pigs of different weights. From it we learn that pigs
weighing less than 50 pounds each, averaging 38 pounds, con-
sumed on the average 2.23 pounds of grain or grain equivalent
daily. As the animal increased in weight there was a gradual
increase in the amount of food consumed, until we find the 450-
pound hog eating 10 pounds of grain daily, or more than four
times as much as the 50-pound pig.

843. Feed per 100 pounds live weight. — In the seventh column
it is shown that pigs weighing 38 pounds consumed 5. 95 pounds
of feed for each 100 pounds of live weight. This is about six per
cent, of their live weight As the pigs grew larger they con-
sumed less feed for 100 pounds of live weight, until with the
heaviest hogs the feed consumed was but little more than two per
cent, of their live weight. Here was a decrease of about two-
thirds in the feed consumption per 100 pounds between early
weight and maturity.

844. Average daily gain. — In the next column are presented
data concerning the daily gain of the pig. It is shown that the
38-pound pig gained .76 of a pound, or 2 per cent, of its own
weight, daily. As it increased in size the pig made larger daily
gains, the maximum being reached with those weighing 271
pounds, which made a daily gain of 1.46 pounds. With large,
thin hogs the gain reached 1.98 pounds, or practically two pounds
per day, but these animals, because of their mature frames and
thin flesh, were fed under exceptional circumstances.

Investigations with Swine.

553

845. Feed for 100 pounds of gain. — The last column is of in-
terest to all, especially the practical feeder, for it teaches a most
interesting and important lesson concerning the feed requirements
of pigs. Those which averaged 38 pounds each made 100 pounds
of gain from 293 pounds of feed. This exceedingly small allow-
ance of feed for gain was probably due in part to the fact that the
young pigs used in these trials received much skim milk, which
was practically all digestible, the other feed given being also
more highly digestible than that usually supplied older animals.
With pigs weighing 78 pounds, 400 pounds of feed were required
for 100 pounds of gain. There was a gradual increase in feed
requirements for 100 pounds of gain, until the hog weighing 320
pounds required 535 pounds of grain for 100 of gain. This is 135
pounds, or 33 per cent., more feed than was required by the 78-
pound pig. (566, 757, 907)

846. Percentage gain of pigs from birth to maturity. — In a pre-
ceding table (830) were given the birth-weight and weekly gains
of twelve litters of pigs. In the table just presented the weights
and gains for older animals were given. Combining data from
both these tables the following is deduced, which presents the
weekly gain in pounds and percentagely of pigs from birth to
maturity:

Weekly gain of pigs from birth to maturity — Various Stations.

Age or weight of pigs.

Weight of pigs.

Gain in 7 days.

At birth

Lbs.
2 5

Per cent.

First week

4 4

Second, week

7 0

Third week ... .

9 8

Fourth week

12 5

Fifth week

15 6

&ixthweek

18 6

Seventh week

22 6

Eighth week

27 8

Ninth week

33 1

Tenth week

38 5

Under 100 pounds

7 0

Under 150 pounds

128

6 0

Under 200 pounds

174

5.0

Under 250 pounds

226

4 1

Under 300 pounds

271

3 8

Under 350 pounds

320

3 1

554 Feeds and Feeding.

The table shows that the pigs averaged 2.5 pounds in weight
when farrowed. When these pigs were one week old they weighed
on the average 4.4 pounds each — a gain of 76 per cent, of their
farrow weight in one week. "When the pigs were two weeks old
they weighed on the average 7 pounds each, an increase of 59 per
cent, over their weight at the close of the preceding week. Grad-
ually the percentage of weekly increase diminished, until with
the close of the tenth week it stood at 16 per cent.

Here the data furnished by the first table closes, and what fol-
lows is drawn from the second. Under this division, when the
pigs reached an average of 78 pounds each, they gained 7 per
cent, of their live weight in one week. Gradually the percentage
of increase was reduced, until with the hog weighing 320 pounds
it was 3.1 per cent. Had the trials been prolonged there would
have come a time when the animals would have eaten no more
feed than would maintain them, making no gain whatever, or
even falling back in weight.

In comparing figures like those in the last table we should
not forget that the bodies of very young animals are composed
largely of water, while with mature ones the proportion of water
in the increase is small, the gain being mostly fat.

847. Length of the fattening period. — The following example
illustrates why pigs require more and more feed for a given gain
as the period of confinement and high feeding lengthens. (565)
In a trial conducted by the writer at the Wisconsin Station, l
eighteen cross-bred Poland- China Chester White hogs of unusually
good bone and constitution were used. Previous to the trial these
animals had been on an experiment in the rape and clover field,
where they had received a fair allowance of grain, because of
which they were in rather high flesh, though they had not reached
their normal size. The feed during this trial consisted of two-
thirds corn or corn meal and one- third wheat middlings — soft-
coal ashes and salt being supplied in addition.

Owing to the strong constitutions and general high quality of
these hogs, the writer believes these results are fully as favorable
for a long feeding period as stockmen can hope to attain under
the best conditions.

1 Kept. 1897.

Investigations with Swine.

555

In the following table appear the data gathered during this
trial:

Influence of length of fattening period on the food consumption and
gain of hogs — Wisconsin Station.

Aver-
age
weight.

Aver-
age
weekly
gain.

Feed
eaten
during
week
per hog.

Feed for 100 pounds
of gain.

weeks.

By four-week
periods.

First week

Lbs.

222
235
246
257

Lbs.

11.4
13.3
10.5
10.7

Lbs.

41
48
50
50

Lbs.

362
362
475
473

First
four weeks,
418 Ibs.

Second week

Fifth week:

270
281
294
303

13.9
10.1
13.1
8.9

51
51
51
61

368
510
391
572

Second
four weeks,
461 IDS.

Sixth week

Seventh week

JBighth week

Ninth week

313
322
332
340

10.5

8.9
9.6
8.8

52
52
52
52

499
587
549
598

Third
four weeks,
559 Ibs.

Tenth week

Eleventh week

Twelfth week.

Studying the table, it is seen that the heaviest weekly gains and
the smallest amount of feed consumed per week were at the begin-
n ing of the trial. As the trial continued, the weekly gain in weight
gradually diminished, while the feed consumed per week gradu-
ally increased. In consequence of these two opposite factors, the
amount of feed required to produce 100 pounds of gain increased
from week to week as the trial progressed. During the first week
of the trial 362 pounds of feed made 100 pounds of gain, while
during the last week 598 pounds were required. Grouping the
results into periods of four weeks each, we find that for the first
four weeks 418 pounds of feed were required for 100 pounds of
gain. During the second four weeks there were required 461
pounds of feed, or ten per cent, more, for 100 pounds of gain.
For the last four weeks, 559 pounds of feed were required, or an
increase of 33 per cent, for 100 pounds of gain.

The lesson is plain that the gain of fattening hogs after the first
four or five weeks of confinement is secured only by constantly in-
creasing quantities of feed for a given weight of increase.

CHAPTEE XXXIII.

YALUE OF VARIOUS FEEDING STUFFS FOR PIGS.

848. Corn meal compared with corn. — The question whether
corn shall be ground before it is fed to fattening swine is one of
great importance because of the vast quantity of this grain an-
nually used for this purpose. The subject has not received the
attention it merits from investigators at the Stations, only a few
trials being on record. Those reported in the following table are
upon the point in question:

Feeding shelled corn in opposition to corn meal — Kentucky, Missouri
and Ohio Stations.

Where fed.

No. animals
fed.

Av. wt. at
beginning.

Grain eaten.

.s
*s
&

Feed for 100
pounds gain.

Whole
corn.

si
6*

Shelled
corn.

Kentucky*. j
Missouri^ -I

2
2
4
4
4
4
3
3

Lbs.

100
100
160
150
85
86
205
199

Lbs.

1.39
1.44
2.04
1.90
.54
.35
1.14
1.20

Lbs.

Lbs.
753

Lbs.

175

182
638
594
250
164
383
404

Lbs.

Lbs.
430

780

429

3,196

501

2,864

482

1,612

645

Ohio* {
Av. of trials

1,239

755

2,116

552

2,039

505

543

532

*Rept. 1889. | Buls. 1, 10. JRept. 1887.

Averaging these trials, we find that 532 pounds of corn meal
or 543 pounds of whole corn were required for 100 pounds of gain.
This shows that two per cent, only was saved by grinding.

To secure more information on this subject, the writer began
investigations in 1896 with whole and ground corn for pigs, and
lias completed four trials as reported on the following page. l

* Bepts. Wis. Exp. Sta., 1896-97.

Value, of Various Feeding Stuffs for Pigs.

557

In these trials the pigs were divided into even lots, one lot
receiving corn meal ground fine and the other shelled corn. Some
middlings was fed in order to secure more economical gains, the
allowance being the same for both lots on trial. The corn used
was Number 2 Iowa yellow dent, containing about twelve per cent,
moisture. Summarizing the results we have the following:

Feeding pigs whole corn or shelled corn, with middlings additional —
Wisconsin Station.

Av. wt.

at be-

Av.

Total 1
100 Ibs

*eed for
5. gain.

Feed.

gin-
ning.

Av.

gain.

daily
gain.

Corn-
meal
ration.

Whole-
corn
ration.

1896.

First trial, 9 pigs in each lot.
Lot I Fed corn meal

Lbs.
346

Lbs.
150

Lbs.
2 14

Lbs.
443

Lbs.

Lot II Fed shelled corn

354

137

1 96

481

Second trial, 10 pigs in each lot
Lot I Fed corn meal

223

108

1 54

487

Lot II. Fed shelled corn

225

1 13

591

1897.
First trial, 9 pigs in each lot.
Lot I Fed corn meal

210

150

1 78

442

Lot II. Fed shelled corn

212

109

1 30

501

Second trial, 7 pigs in each lot.
Lot I. Fed corn meal

198

1.37

462

Lot II. Fed shelled corn

183

1 25

424

Average of four trials, 70
pigs in all .. .

459

499

In the trials reported above, seventy pigs in all were used.
With so large a number the average presents figures of value on
the question under consideration. It will be seen that in three of
the four trials, corn meal was more economical than whole corn.
The average for the four trials shows that 459 pounds of corn
meal and middlings, or 499 pounds of whole corn and middlings,
were required to make 100 pounds of gain. The saving eifected
by grinding the corn was eight per cent. (382, 536)

849. Value of corn and cob meal. — Sanborn reports experi-
ments with corn and cob meal for pig feeding from the New
Hampshire1 and Missouri Agricultural Colleges.2

1 Kept. New Hamp. Bd. Agr. 1880. pp. 259-262.
»BoL 1, Col. of Agr., 1883.

558

Feeds and Feeding.

Shelton, of the Kansas Agricultural College, 1 also conducted a
trial with the same material. Their findings are summarized in
the following table:

Feeding corn and cob meal in comparison with corn meal to pigs —
New Hampshire, Missouri and Kansas Agricultural Colleges.

Av.

wt. at
be-
gin-
ning.

Corn
and cob
meal
eaten.

Corn
meal
eaten.

Gain while on —

Feed for 100
pounds gain.

Corn
and cob
meal.

Corn
meal.

Corn
and cob
meal.

Corn
meal.

New Hampshire
Missouri

Lbs.

52
161
199

Lbs.

1,915

2,893
3,619

Lbs.

1,527
3,196
3,832

Lbs.

416
456
557

Lbs.

317

638
572

Lbs.

460
634
650

Lbs.

482
501
670

Kansas . .

In the New Hampshire and Kansas trials, corn and cob meal
proved superior to the same weight of corn meal, while in the
Missouri trial corn meal was more valuable.

Practical experience is strongly in favor of using the cob with
the grain when feeding meal to farm animals. (158)

850. Gluten meal and corn compared with wheat. — At the Cor-
nell Station, 2 Watson divided a bunch of twelve pigs into two
lots of six each, the first lot receiving wheat meal and the second
a mixture of corn meal and gluten meal, both being fed skim
milk in addition. Feeding began October 10 and continued four
months, with the results shown in the table:

Corn and gluten meal compared with wheat meal — Cornell Station.

Feed consumed.

Feed for 100

Av.

Ibs. gain.

wt. at

Av.

Corn

begin-
ning.

gain.

Skim
milk.

Wheat.

meal
and
gluten

Milk.

Grain

meal.

Lbs.

Lot I fed wheat

198

8,110

3,473

682

292

Lot II, fed corn meal

and gluten meal...

218

8,110

3,561

621

272

1 Kept. 1894.

2 Bui. 89.

Value of Various Feeding Stuffs for Pigs.

559

The table shows that a combination of gluten meal and corn
meal was about seven per cent, superior to wheat meal when both
were fed in connection with skim milk. (161-4, 166-8)

851. Wheat. — Because of the low price of wheat during recent
years, a number of Stations have endeavored to determine its
value as a feed for fattening pigs. Trials at four of the Stations
are summarized in the following table:

Nummary of tests with wheat meal and corn meal for pig feeding —

Various Stations.

Station.

Av. wt. at

beginning.

No. of
days
fed.

Feed eaten.

Feed for 100
Ibs. gain.

Corn
meal
fed.

Wheat
meal
fed.

Corn
meal.

Wheat
meal.

Corn
meal.

Wheat
meal.

Kansas*

Lbs.

152
136
96
243
247

Lbs.

163
137
103
247
247

77
70
90
63
126

Lbs.

2,294
1,228
1,159
1,212
6,014

Lbs.

•2,257
1,273
1,144
1,206
6,054

Lbs.

439
453
,458
499
496

Lbs.

411

438
481
522
465

Ohiof

8outh Dakota}...
Wisconsin $

AVisconsin $

469

463

* Bui. 53. f Kan. State Bd. Agr., Sept. 30, 1894. } Bui. 38. | Kept. 1895.

The average of the above five trials at four Stations shows that
six pounds more of corn meal than of wheat meal were required
to produce one hundred pounds of gain, live weight, with pigs.
The difference being so small, we may conclude that wheat meal
and corn meal are practically of equal value for fattening swine.

852. Combining wheat and corn meal. — In the preceding article
it was shown that wheat meal and corn meal were practically of
•equal value for pig feeding. At the Wisconsin Station, while
feeding wheat meal to pigs, the writer fed a mixture of corn
meal and wheat meal to other lots to test the value of mixtures
over single feeds. By these feeding trials it was shown that a
mixture of wheat and corn meal, equal parts, was more effective
than wheat meal alone, the saving by feeding the mixture amount-
ing to five per cent. In these results we have a good illustration
of the economy of feeding grains in combination rather than

560

Feeds and Feeding.

singly. (759) The results of these trials in which a mixture of
wheat meal and corn meal were fed in opposition to corn meal
alone, are as follows:

Feeding wheat meal and a mixture of wheat and corn meal — Wiscon-
sin Station.

Av. weight at

Total feed con-

Feed for 100 Ibs.

beginning.

sumed.

gain.

Half

No. of

Half

Wheat

corn
meal.

days
fed.

Wheat

corn
meal,

Wheat

corn
meal.

meal.

half

meal.

half

meal.

half

wheat

meal.

Lbs.

First trial....

113

116

975

988

510

502

Second trial.

119

112

1,054

502

488

Third trial...

247

246

1,206

1,227

522

491

Fourth trial.

247

241

126

6,054

6,088

465

460

Average ..

500

485

853. Feeding sheaf wheat. — The value of unthreshed wheat
was determined by French, at the Oregon Station.1 Twelve
high-grade Berkshire pigs about eight months old were divided
into two lots of six each, the first being fed a mixture of three
parts chopped (coarse-ground) wheat and one part each of shorts
and ground oats, the second lot being supplied with wheat in the
sheaf. Sample sheaves when threshed showed that thirty-five per
cent, of their weight was grain, and the grain consumed was cal-
culated on this basis. The results of the trial, which lasted from
September 3 to October 29, are summarized below:

Feeding sheaf wheat in comparison with ground wheat , shorts and
ground oats — Oregon Station.

Av. wt. at
begin-
ning.

Average
gain.

Total
grain
fed.

Feed for
100 Ibs.
gain.

Lot I, fed grain mixture
Lot II, fed sheaf wheat

Lbs.

187
188

Lbs.

150
45

Lbs.

3,587
1,988

Lbs.

397
744

* Bui. 42.

Value of Various Feeding Stuffs for Pigs.

561

It will be seen that the pigs fed. sheaf wheat consumed about
one-half as much grain as did the other lot and made only one-
third the gain. French reports that the pigs fed sheaf wheat
worked from three to four hours daily in separating the grain
from the straw, and the table shows that even with this exertion
they were not able to secure sufficient feed to permit rapid gains.

854. Middlings. — At the Wisconsin Station, l the writer fed three
lots of three pigs each on corn meal and middlings, giving the
first corn meal, the second middlings, and the third a mixture of
the two, equal parts.

At the Missouri Agricultural College, 2 Sanborn conducted two
trials with middlings in comparison with corn and corn meal.
The results of these trials are summarized below:

Comparative value of middlings and corn meal for pig feeding —
Wisconsin Station and Missouri Agricultural College.

Station and feed.

Days
fed.

Feed
eaten.

Gain.

Feed for
100 Ibs.
gain.

Wisconsin Station.
Lot I, corn meal

Lbs.
559

Lbs.
104

Lbs.
537

Lot II, middlings

501

522

Lot III, equal parts middlings and
fiorn Tneal, , .. . ...

470

107

439

Missouri College.
Lot I, corn meal

116

1,612

250

645

Lot II, middlings

116

1 524

252

605

Missouri College.
Lot I, corn

397

502

Lot II, middlings

334

367

In these trials middlings proved superior to corn, Sanborn' s
second trial showing a remarkably high value for this feed. This
investigator, commenting3 on this by-product of wheat milling,
writes: " The economy of ship-stuff (middlings) compared with
corn has been noted by me every year for seven years, the figures
of which are as 108 to 100."

The economy of feeding middlings and corn meal in combina-
tion instead of separately is shown in the Wisconsin trial, where

1 Kept. 1885. 2 Buls. 10, 14. 8 Bui. 14.

562

Feeds and Feeding.

439 pounds of the corn-middlings mixture proved as valuable as
522 of middlings or 537 of corn meal when fed separately. While
middlings were superior to corn when fed alone, a combination
of the two proved twenty per cent, more economical than mid-
dlings alone. (107, 174)

855. Wheat bran compared with middlings. — At the Maine Sta-
tion, * Jordan fed pigs, weighing 200 pounds each, with bran and
skim milk in one case, and middlings and skim milk in another,
the trial lasting seventy- two days, with results as below:

Lot A fed: Gain.

413 pounds middlings 1 tin *~

1,126 pounds skim milk} 110 pounds.

Lot B fed:

413 pounds bran \ -,. ,„ •.
1,126 pounds skimmilk I 4 Pounds-

The results show that with the same allowance of feed the mid-
dlings were twice as valuable as the bran. (174-5, 896)

856. Bran with corn for pig feeding. — At the Alabama Station, 2
Duggar fed Essex pigs corn and an equal mixture of corn and
wheat bran for a period of sixteen weeks, there being three pigs
on each feed. The results are shown in the following table:

Feeding corn or a mixture of corn and wheat bran — Alabama Station.

Av. wt.

Food

Grain fed.

at be-
gin-

Food
eaten.

Gain.

for 100
pounds

ning.

gain.

Lbs.

844

173

487

Lot II fed \ corn i wheat bran ....

1,044

203

521

The two trials just reported show that wheat bran cannot suc-
cessfully be used in large amount in pig feeding, especially with
young animals. This fact is doubtless due to the coarse, fibrous
character of bran and the large percentage of inert matter it
carries.

857. Barley meal. — To ascertain the value of barley for pig
feeding the writer conducted trials at the Wisconsin Station8 in

1 Kept. 1889. 2 Bui. 82. 8 Rept. 1890.

Value of Various Feeding Stuffs for Pigs.

563

which barley meal was fed in opposition to corn meal. In the
first trial there were five pigs in each lot, and in the second six.
The results are summarized below:

Feeding barley meal and corn meal to pigs — Wisconsin Station.

Grain fed.

Av. wt.

at begin-
ning.

Food
eaten.

Gain.

Grain

consumed
for 100
Ibs. gain.

Barley meal

Lbs.

208

Lbs.
2 832

Lbs.
601

Lbs.
471

Corn meal

209

3,100

713

435

Barley meal and milk vs. corn meal and milk.

Grain fed.

Av. wt.

at be-
gin-
ning.

Feed eaten.

Water
drank.

Gain.

Feed and water
for 100 Ibs. gain.

Grain

Milk.

Grain

Milk.

W'ter
drank

Barley meal

Lbs.

79
73

Lbs.

1,993
1,807

Lbs.

2,404
2,192

Lbs.

3,511

1,686

Lbs.

604
591

Lbs.

330
306

Lbs.

398
371

Lbs.

581

285

C'orn meal

By the first table we learn that —

471 pounds of barley meal produced 100 pounds of gain.
435 pounds of corn meal produced 100 pounds of gain.

This shows a difference of thirty-six pounds in favor of corn
meal. In the second trial there is a difference of twenty-four
pounds of meal and twenty-seven pounds of skim milk. Averaging
both trials we find that it required eight per cent, more barley
meal than corn meal to produce a given gain. These results co-
incide with Fjord's experiments in showing that barley is some-
what less valuable than corn for fattening swine, though the dif-
ference is not large. (178, 894) When we take into account the
fact that barley has been found by the Danes to be the best single
grain for the production of bacon of the highest quality, its value
in swine feeding is apparent.

It is interesting to note in the second trial that the barley-fed
pigs drank about twice as much water as those getting corn meal.

564

Feeds and Feeding.

858. Oats. — At the Wisconsin Station, l the writer conducted
trials with whole and ground oats fed with corn meal to pigs,
with results shown in the table:

Feeding whole and ground oats with corn meal to pigs — Wisconsin

Station.

Feed.

Av. wt.
at be-
ginning

Daily
gain.

Feed
eaten.

Gain.

Grain
for 100
pounds
gain.

Whole oats.
% whole oats ^ corn meal

Lbs.
117

Lbs.
68

Lbs.

1,388

Lbs.
246

Lbs.
564

J whole oats $ corn meal ....

114

1,457

296

492

Ground oats.

$ ground oats, £ corn meal
| ground oats, f corn meal

113
114

1.03
1.27

1,593
1,839

371

457

429

402

We learn from the above that the best returns were secured
when feeding a ration consisting of one-third ground oats and
two-thirds corn meal. Whole oats gave poorer returns than ground
oats. The feed requirements for 100 pounds of gain in both trials
where ground oats were used were very low, and show the high
value of this grain for pig feeding when ground and fed in com-
bination with corn meal. (186-7)

859. Oat feed. — Oat feed was tested at the Massachusetts Sta-
tion2 by Lindsey. Six grade Chester White pigs from the same
litter were divided into two lots, with four pigs in the first and
two in the second. One lot received oat feed, the other corn meal,
both getting skim milk, with the following results:

Oat feed in comparison with corn meal — Massachusetts Station.

Total feed.

Gain.

Feed for 100 Ibs.
gain.

Milk.

Meal.

Milk.

Meal.

Lbs.

Four pigs getting oat feed
Two pigs getting corn meal...

5,389
2,695

869
435

377
225

1,429
1,198

231
193

About 20 per cent, more oat feed than corn meal was required
* Kept. 1889. * Rept. 1896.

Value of Various Feeding Stuffs for Pigs.

565

to produce 100 pounds of gain. The lower value of this feed was
doubtless due to the oat hulls it contained. (189)

860. Peas. — At the Utah Station, l Mills fed one lot of pigs on
ground peas and bran, and another upon corn and bran, equal
parts. The trial, which was conducted in winter, lasted 161 days.

At the South Dakota Station, 2 Chilcott fed soaked peas to one
lot of pigs, and soaked corn meal to a second. The trial was con-
ducted during the fall, lasting 90 days, with results as follows:
Feeding peas to pigs — Utah and South Dakota Stations.

Station.

Feed.

No. of
animals
on trial.

Av. wt
at be-
ginning

Daily
gain.

Grain
eaten.

Gain.

Grain
forlOO
Ibs.
gain.

Utah.

Ground peas and

Lbs.

bran, equal parts,
fed wet

Ill

1.09

1,919

528

363

Corn and bran

112

.63

1,379

303

455

South

Canada field peas,

Dakota.

unground, soaked

1.21

918

218

421

Corn meal, soaked..

1.40

1,159

253

458

In both cases peas proved superior to corn. (228)

861. Kaffir corn. — At the Kansas Station,3 Georgeson fed red

Kaffir- corn meal in opposition to corn meal and soja-bean meal,

with the results given below:

Feeding Kaffir-corn meal to pigs — Kansas Station.

Feed.

No. of
animals
on trial.

Av. wt.

at be-
ginning

Daily
gain
per
head.

Grain
eaten.

Gain.

Grain
for
100
Ibs.
gain.

First trial.'
Kaffir-corn meal

Lbs.
153

Lbs.
1 37

Lbs.
2,180

Lbs.
423

Lbs.
515

Corn meal

152

1 70

2,294

523

439

Second trial.
Kaffir-corn meal

3 •

1,188

191

621

Corn meal

1 477

306

482

f Kaffir-corn meal \
J soja-bean meal /

1.44

2,166

547

396

§ corn meal ")

£ soja-bean meal /

1.46

2,048

554

369

Bui. 34.

2 Bui. 38.

3 Buls. 53, 61.

566

Feeds and Feeding.

The table indicates that Kaffir- corn meal falls from eighteen to
thirty-three per cent, below corn meal in value for pig feeding.
This grain, though rich in carbohydrates, lacks protein, and is
therefore not suitable for feeding alone to young pigs. The ad-
vantage of adding some substance rich in protein to the ration of
corn or Kaffir corn is shown in the last trial, where the soja-bean
ineal materially increased the daily gain of the pigs, and cut down
the requirements of feed for 100 pounds of gain in a marked de-
gree. It is probable that if Kaffir corn were boiled it would prove
more satisfactory in pig feeding, as was shown to be the case with
pigeon-grass seed. (195, 865)

862. Buckwheat. — At the Ottawa Station, l Eobertson fed lots
of five pigs each on ground buckwheat and ground wheat, the
trial lasting 77 days. A second trial with six pigs in each lot
was conducted for 140 days. For half the ration one lot received
ground buckwheat, the other ground wheat; the other half of
the ration consisted of ground barley, rye and wheat, and wheat
bran. In all trials the meal was soaked thirty hours before feed-
ing. The results were as fellows:

Feeding buckwheat in comparison with wheat and mixed grain —

Ottawa Station.

Av. wt.

Feed

Feed given.

at be-
gin-

Feed
eaten.

Gain.

for 100
Ibs.

ning.

gain.

JWrst trial.

Lbs.

Ground buckwheat

103

2,109

474

445

Ground wheat.

1,272

310

410

Second trial.

$ ground buckwheat, £ mixture of
barley, rye, wheat, and wheat bran.
£ ground wheat, £ mixture barley,

3,238

800

405

rye, wheat, and wheat bran . ...

2,463

649

380

This shows that though buckwheat has a high value it does
not quite equal wheat as a feed for pigs. Six per cent, more grain
was required in the buckwheat mixture than in the wheat mixture
for 100 pounds of gain. (192)

1 Repts. 1894-95.

Value of Various Feeding Stuffs for Pigs.

567

863. Cowpeas. — At the Alabama Station, * Duggar fed lots of
four Essex pigs each upon corn, cowpeas, or a mixture of the
two, for a period of sixteen weeks, with the results given in the

table:

•
Feeding corn or cowpeas, or equal mixtures of the two — Alabama

Station.

Av. wt.

Feed

at be-
gin-

Feed
eaten.

Gain.

for 100
Ibs.

ning.

gam.

Lbs.

Lbs,

Lot I, corn

844

173

487

Lot II cowpeas

954

198

481

Lot III, £ corn, $ cowpeas

909

210

433

The above shows that corn and cowpeas were practically equal
for producing gain, while a mixture of the two proved superior
to either alone. (108, 230)

864. Rice meal. — At the Massachusetts Station, 2 Lindsey tested
the value of rice meal for pig feeding in the following manner:
A litter of six ten -week-old pigs was divided into two lots of three
each. The first lot was fed rice meal, and the second corn meal,
both getting skim milk in addition. The result of the trial was
as follows:

Feeding rice meal and corn meal to pigs — Massachusetts Station.

Feed.

Feed

eaten.

Grain.

Feed fo]

r 100 Ibs.
in.

Milk.

Meal.

Milk.

MeaL

Rice meal

Lbs.
3,519

Lbs.

867

Lbs.
385

Lbs.
914

Lbs.

225

3,519

867

386

912

225

This trial shows that, when fed in connection with skim milk,
rice meal has practically the same value as corn meal and skim
milk. (191)

865. Pigeon-grass seed. — Two trials were conducted by the
writer at the Wisconsin Station3 with pigeon-grass seed screened

* Bui. 82. 2 Kept, 1896. 3 Kept. 1894.

5G8

Feeds and Feeding.

from wheat, to test its value for pig feeding. The pigs used were
pure-bred Polands and Berkshires, six on each feed. A prelimi-
nary trial showed that the pigs would eat but little of the raw
meal, though after cooking it was consumed with relish. Accord-
ingly the trial was planned as follows: Lot I received a ration
consisting of two-thirds pigeon-grass meal, thoroughly cooked,
mixed with one -third corn meal, uncooked. Lot II received
corn meal, uncooked, only. To Lot III was fed a ration of one-
third pigeon-grass seed meal and two-thirds corn meal, both un-
cooked. Lot III consumed the ration containing this proportion
of pigeon-grass seed meal without serious objection. The table
summarizes the results:

Feeding pigeon-grass meal, cooked and uncooked, with corn additional
to pigs — Wisconsin Station.

Kind and condition of feed.

Av. wt.
at be-
ginning

Gain.

Feed eaten.

Grain
for 100
pounds
gain.

Corn
meal.

Pigeon-
grass
meal.

Lot I, § cooked pigeon-grass meal,
^ corn meal uncooked

Lbs.

238
238

235

Lbs.

264
224

201

Lbs.

416
1,199

656

Lbs.
965

Lbs.

522
535

566

Lot II, corn meal only, uncooked.
Lot III, £ pigeon-grass meal, un-
cooked, f corn meal, uncooked..

377

The above shows that the ration containing two-thirds cooked
pigeon-grass meal and one-third uncooked corn meal was superior
to corn meal only. The third lot, fed one-third pigeon-grass
meal and two- thirds corn meal, both uncooked, gave poorer re-
turns than the others. It is evident that pigeon-grass seed when
cooked is a valuable feed for swine, and the trials show it was
much relished. To be satisfactory for pig feeding the seed of this
grass should be both ground and cooked.

866. Potatoes. — At the Wisconsin Station,1 the writer con-
ducted trials with cooked potatoes mixed with uncooked corn
meal, fed in opposition to uncooked corn meal only, to fattening
pigs. The potatoes were cooked in as little water as possible, it

1 Kept. 1890.

Value of Various Feeding Stuffs for Pigs.

569

being found that they were most relished when so prepared.
After cooking they were mashed in the kettle and corn meal
added, the whole forming a thick mush. In the first trial there
were three pigs in each lot, and two in the second, the trials last-
ing forty-two days.

Feeding cooked potatoes with corn meal addedj and corn meal only, to
fattening pigs — Wisconsin Station.

Corn meal alone.

Av. wt. at
beginning

Grain fed.

Gain.

Corn meal
forlOOlbe.
gain.

First trial

Lbs.
243

Lbs.
983

Lbs.
224

Lbs.

' 438

Second trial

216

578

131

441

Corn meal and potatoes.

Av. wt.

at be-
ginning

Feed eaten.

Gain.

Feed for 100 Ibs.
gain.

Corn
meal.

Pota-
toes.

Corn
meal.

Pota-
toes.

Lbs.

870
702

First trial

Lbs.

242
223

Lbs.

444
351

Lbs.

1,332
1,053

Lbs.

153
150

Lbs.

290
234

Second trial

Combining the first and second trials we have the following:

440 pounds of corn meal produced 100 pounds of gain.
262 pounds of corn meal with 786 pounds of cooked potatoes produced
100 pounds of gain.

Prom this we find that 786 pounds of cooked potatoes, when fed
with corn meal, effected a saving of 178 pounds of corn mealj to
save 100 pounds of corn meal would therefore require 441 pounds
of potatoes. In Fjord' s experiments, 400 pounds of potatoes were
held equal to 100 pounds of grain. As corn is somewhat more
valuable for fattening the pig than the grains used by Fjord, these
results may be considered concordant in determining the value of
potatoes and meal. (897) In general, we may say that a bushel of
corn is worth four and one-half bushels of potatoes for fattening

570

Feeds and Feeding.

purposes when cooked and fed with corn meal. Potatoes may have
a higher value than the rating here given, in furnishing variety in
ration to growing animals. (316, 658)

867. Roots. — At the Ottawa Station, l Eobertson fed a mixture
of peas, barley and rye, steamed and warm, to one lot of pigs,
giving a second lot the same feed, with sugar beets additional.
For a third lot the grain was uncooked. The fourth lot received
the same feed as the third, with sugar beets additional.

At the Utah Station, 2 Sanborn fed wheat to one lot of pigs and
wheat and roots to a second. In a second trial a mixture of oats,
peas, wheat and barley was fed to one lot, with roots additional
to a second.

At the Ohio Station, 3 Devol fed corn to one lot of pigs and corn
and roots, mostly carrots, to a second lot. The results of these
trials are summarized in the following table:

Feeding grain with and without roots — Ottawa, Utah and Ohio Stations.

Station.

No. of
ani-
mals.

Av. wt.
at be-
gin-
ning.

Feed eaten.

Gain.

Feed for 100
Ibs. gain.

Grain

Boots

Grain

Roots

Ottawa.
Grain only

4
4
4
4

3
3
2
2

5
5

Lbs.

75
47

77
50

95
90
61
65

140
141

Lbs.

2,928
2,411
2,398
2,223

858
120
1,120
500

2,520
2,562

Lbs.

702
625
564
571

59
52
172
152

432
472

Lbs.

416

386
425
389

607
231
651
329

583
543

Lbs.

Grain and roots
Grain only

1,538

246

Grain and roots

Utah.
Grain only

1,563

273

Grain and roots
Grain only

828

1,592

Grain and roots

Ohio.
Grain only

2,346

1,543

Grain and roots

1,213

257

Averaging the above trials we learn that feeding 400 pounds of
roots saved 65 pounds of grain. On this basis, 615 pounds of roots
would save 100 pounds of grain. The results conform closely with
the Danish findings, in which one pound of barley proved equal to

Kept. 1891.

Rept. 1891.

Rept. 1884.

Value of Various Feeding Stuff's for Pigs.

571

six to eight pounds of mangels and four to eight pounds of fod-
der beets. (325)

868. Artichoke. — Schweitzer, of the Missouri Station, J reports
a trial by Porter in which artichokes were fed with wheat meal
to pigs, 325 pounds of wheat meal and 820 pounds of artichokes
giving 100 pounds increase. Artichokes were found to have the
same feeding value as potatoes. (323, 488)

868a. Milk. — Scheven2 found that when whole (unskimmed)
milk was fed to pigs twelve weeks old, from 900 to 1,620 pounds
produced 100 pounds of gain, the average being 1,253 pounds.
Studying the value of skim milk, this investigator found that 1,613
pounds of sweet skim milk and 1,545 pounds of sour skim milk
produced 100 pounds of gain. He concludes that skim milk i&
rendered more useful by combining it with starchy feeds.

869. Feeding separator skim milk. — At the Wisconsin Station, 8
the writer conducted nineteen trials with eighty-eight pigs of all
ages, to determine the value of separator skim milk in combina-
tion with corn meal. The proportion of milk to meal varied from
one to nine pounds of milk for each pound of meal fed. For
convenience the results are arranged in groups j the first group
comprising the trials in which not over three pounds of skim
milk were fed with one pound of corn meal, the second when
from three to five pounds of milk were given with each pound of
corn meal, etc. The quantity of meal and milk required for 100
pounds of gain is here shown:

Separator skim milk and corn meal required for 100 pounds of gain —
Wisconsin Station.

Feed for 100

No. of

pounds gain.

trials.

Meal.

Milk.

When feeding:

Lbs.

1 pound corn meal to 1-3 pounds skim milk..
1 pound corn meal to 3-5 pounds skim milk..
1 pound corn meal to 5-7 pounds skim milk..
1 pound corn meal to 7-9 pounds skim milk..

3
8
5
3

321

265
250

207

585
1,048
1,434
1,616

1 Bui. 29. 2 Martiny, Die Milch.

3 Rept. 1895.

572

Feeds and Feeding.

Assuming that 500 pounds of corn meal, fed alone, would have
produced 100 pounds of gain with these pigs, we find that with
the first group 585 pounds of skim milk effected a saving of 179
pounds of corn meal. On this basis, 327 pounds of skim milk
equals 100 pounds of corn meal when not over three pounds of
milk are fed with each pound of meal. Calculating the value of
skim milk in connection with corn meal for pig feeding according
to the proportion fed with the meal, we deduce the following:

When feeding 1 pound of corn meal with from 1-3 pounds of separator

skim milk, 327 pounds of skim milk saves 100 pounds of meal.
When feeding 1 pound of corn meal with from 3-5 pounds of separator

skim milk, 446 pounds of skim milk saves 100 pounds of meal.
When feeding 1 pound of corn meal with from 5-7 pounds of separator

skim milk, 574 pounds of skim milk saves 100 pounds of meal.
When feeding 1 pound of corn meal with from. 7-9 pounds of separator

skim milk, 552 pounds of skim milk saves 100 pounds of meal.
Average of all, 475 pounds of skim milk equals 100 pounds of meal.

Fjord's experiments show six pounds of skim milk equal to one
pound of grain. The difference in the ratios is doubtless due to
the fact that Fjord fed a much larger proportion of milk to meal
than was usually employed in the Wisconsin trials. (357, 659)

870. Placing a money value on separator skim milk. — The feeder
wishing to know the money value of skim milk measured in corn at
varying prices will find the following table of value:

Value of separator sldm milk in combination with corn meal for pig
feeding, with corn at varying prices.

Value of corn.

Value of 100 pounds of skim milk.

When feed-

ing 1 to 3
pounds of
milk for 1
pound of

ing 7 to 9
pounds of
milk for 1
pound of

Aver-
age of
all trials

corn meal.

Cents.

$10 per ton

(28 cents per bushel

12 per ton

(33.6 cents per bushel

14 per ton

(39.2 cents per bushel

16 per ton

(44.8 cents per bushel

18 per ton
20 per ton
30 per ton

(50.4 cents per bushel
(56.0 cents per bushel
(84.0 cents per bushel

28
31
46

•27

19
21
32

Value of Various Feeding Stuffs for Pigs.

573

The table shows that when corn is worth $10 per ton (28 cents
per bushel), separator skim milk has a value for pig feeding of
15 cents per hundred pounds, provided not more than three
pounds of milk are fed with each pound of meal. If, however,
the feeder gives nine pounds of milk with each pound of meal,
then skim milk is worth only nine cents per hundred pounds.
The average of the trials is eleven cents. With higher values for
corn there is a relative increase in value for skim milk.

In the above we have measured skim milk with corn meal for
making gains with pigs. Those familiar with this feeding stuff,
appreciating its worth for bone and muscle building, know that
in many cases it has a higher value than is here given, especially
for growing pigs.

871. Sweet and sour milk compared. — At the Vermont Station, 1
Cooke fed sweet and sour milk to pigs, there being three animals
in each lot in the first trial, and four in each lot in the second.
The sour milk was allowed to reach the loppered or coagulated
stage before being fed.

Feeding sweet and sour skim milk to very young pigs — Vermont

Station.

Feed

Av. wt.
of pigs
jit be~

Feed<

?aten.

Gain.

Feed foi
gaJ

r 100 Ibs,
n.

ginning

Milk.

Grain.

Milk.

Grain.

First trial.
Sweet skim milk...
Sour skim milk
Second trial.
Sweet milk

Lbs.

16
17

Lbs.

6,057
5,996

9 632

Lbs.

935
926

2 100

Lbs.

473
524

955

Lbs.

1,280
1,144

1 009

Lbs.

198
177

220

Sour milk

9,632

2 100

963

1,000

218

In the second trial the results were practically equal; in the
first trial the pigs getting sour milk gave better returns. Of these,
Cooke writes: "It was evident within three weeks after the pigs
were put on the separate diets that those having sour milk were eat-
ing their food with a better relish, were looking sleeker and grow-
ing faster, although both lots ate their food up clean. "

* Bepts. 1891-92.

574

Feeds and Feeding.

The evident superiority of sour milk over sweet milk (868a)
for pig feeding — in most cases at least — awaits explanation
from the investigators.

872. Buttermilk. — At the Massachusetts Station,1 Goessmann
fed lots of three pigs each on buttermilk and skim milk to ascer-
tain their relative value. Both lots received corn meal additional,
with results shown in the table:

Feeding buttermilk and sldm milk — Massachusetts Station.

Feed

Av. wt.

at be-

Feed*

saten.

Gain.

Feed foi
gai

• 100 Ibs.
n.

ginning

Milk.

Corn
meal.

Milk.

Corn
meal.

Buttermilk

Lbs.
48

Lbs.
8,372

Lbs.
718

Lbs.
619

Lbs.
1,351

Lbs.
116

Skim milk

8,592

713

618

1,390

115

It will be seen that buttermilk gave as good returns as skim
milk. In general it may be assumed that when no water has been
added to buttermilk it has a feeding value with pigs equal to
skim milk. (358)

873. Whey. — At the Wisconsin Station, 2 the writer conducted
several trials with whey for pig feeding, two of which are reported
below. At the Ontario Agricultural College, 8 Dean reports two
trials with this by-product. In these trials, one lot of pigs was
maintained on meal only, the pigs at the Wisconsin Station get-
ting a mixture of corn meal and middlings, and those at the
Ontario College wheat and barley mixed with an equal weight of
shorts.

The whey used in these trials was from the manufacture of full-
cream cheese; hence it contained a considerable quantity of fat
and some casein. In Fjord's experiments, in Denmark, 1,200
pounds of whey equaled 100 pounds of meal. (887, 889) The
whey used by this investigator was the by-product from the manu-
facture of skim cheese from centrifugal skim milk. Such whey
is necessarily poorer in fat than that used in American trials.
(359, 660)

» Bept. 1884. " * Bept. 1891. « Bept. 1896.

Value of Various Feeding Stuffs for Pigs.

675

The results of the Wisconsin and Ontario trials with whey as
a feed for pigs is shown in the following table:

Feeding trials with grain and whey — Wisconsin Station and Ontario

College.

Wisconsin Station.

No. of
pigs in

Daily
gain
DGF

Feed foi
ga

r 100 Ibs.
in.

trial.

head.

Meal.

Whey.

First tried.
Lot I

Lbs.
1.00

Lbs.
463

Lbs.

Lot II .?...

1 47

327

687

Lot III. ..

1.11

257

1.815

Lot IV

1.13

181

1,871

Average for whey-fed lots

255

1,458

Second tried.
Lot I

486

Lot II.

1 21

372

1,100

Lot III :.

1 12

289

1.726

Lot IV

1.09

232

2,309

Average for whey-fed lots

298

1,712

Ontario Agricultural College.

Lot I

1 43

494

Lot II

1 76

381

860

Lot III

1 78

383

819

Averaging the results of the trials we find that —

481 pounds of grain produced 100 pounds gain.

303 pounds of grain with 1,398 pounds of whey produced 100 pounds gain.

This shows that 1,398 pounds of whey saved 178 pounds of
grain. On this basis, 785 pounds of whey equals 100 pounds of
grain.

874. Meat scrap. — An experiment by Watson at the Cornell
Station1 throws light on the value of meat scrap for feeding pigs.
A bunch of twelve pigs divided into two lots of six each was fed
four months, beginning October 10, as follows: Lot I received
oorn meal only, while Lot II was fed one part meat scrap to two

1 Bui. 89.

576

Feeds and Feeding.

parts corn meal, by weight. The results of the trial are shown
in the following table:

Feeding corn meal and meat scrap in comparison with corn meal
only — Cornell Station.

Av. wt.
at be-
gin-
ning.

Av.

gain.

Feed consumed.

Feed for 100
Ibs. gain.

Corn
meal.

Corn meal
and meat
scrap.

Corn
meal.

Corn meal
and meat
scrap.

Lot I, fed corn meal
only. .

Lbs.
64

Lbs.
103

173

Lbs.
2,639

Lbs.

Lbs.
426

Lbs.

Lot II, fed corn meal
and meat scrap

4,147

400

The meat scrap caused a large consumption of feed — something
desired by feeders. The pigs fed meat scrap gained 70 per cent,
more than those fed corn meal only, but the saving in feed for a
given gain was only 6 per cent. Somewhat more lean meat was
found in the carcass of the pigs receiving the meat scrap. (339)

875. Pasture. — At the Utah Station,1 Mills conducted trials
covering four seasons, with pigs in pens and on pastures consisting
of alfalfa and grass, principally the former. (307) Some pigs
were fed all the grain they would consume, while others received
a limited supply or none at all.

Feeding pigs varying amounts of grain on pasture — Utah Station.

Where and how fed.

No. of
trials.

Average
daily gain

Grain for
100 pounds
of gain.

In yard, fed grass, full grain ration
In pasture, full grain ration

4
4

Lbs.

1.1
1.3

Lbs.

465
417

In pasture, three-fourths grain ration...
In pasture, one-half grain ration

2
2

1.2

.87

377
352

In pasture, one-fourth grain ration
In pasture, no grain.

2
3

.64
.36

243

In pen, fed grass only

*.26

* Loss.

"We learn that the pigs confined in the yard and fed grass with

Bui. 40.

Value of Various Feeding Stuffs for Pigs. 577

a full grain ration made an average daily gain of 1.1 pounds, re-
quiring 465 pounds of grain for 100 pounds of gain, while those
in the pasture, likewise receiving a full feed of grain, made a
daily gain of 1.3 pounds, requiring only 417 pounds for 100 of
gain. There was a saving of 10 per cent, by feeding on pasture
instead of in the yard, where grass was supplied in addition to
the grain.

The table also shows that when feeding three-fourths of a full
grain allowance the pigs made a daily gain of 1.2 pounds, requir-
ing only 377 pounds of grain for 100 of gain. With still less
grain the daily gain was much reduced, but so also was the
amount of feed required for 100 pounds of gain. Finally, three
trials on pasture without grain showed an average daily gain
of .36 of a pound a day, or 2J pounds a week — a very satis-
factory result. When grass was cut and carried to pigs confined
in pen, they could not be maintained on this feed alone, shrinking
in weight at the rate of .26 pounds daily. (307) These results
show that the pig cannot be successfully nourished by soiling, as
can cattle, especially the dairy cow.

876. Clover hay with meal. — Stewart1 fed pigs averaging sev-
enty-five pounds each with corn meal, two quarts of short-cut
clover hay being added to each day's allowance, and the whole
wet with hot water and allowed to stand from ten to twelve
hours before feeding. Another lot received meal prepared in the
same way but without the clover mixture. The lot getting clover
hay showed the best appetite, the greatest thrift and made the
steadiest gains. The pigs getting meal gained 110 pounds each
in 120 days, while those having the cut clover hay mixed with
their meal gained 143 pounds, or 30 per cent. more. (927) The
possible value of moistened clover hay as a by-feed with pigs is
well illustrated by this trial.

877. Corn and blue-grass pasture. — At the Illinois Station, 2
Morrow conducted four trials during three seasons with pigs rang-
ing on blue -grass pasture. One lot was given a full feed of corn,
the second a half feed only. As a check, a bunch of three pigs

1 Feeding Animals, p. 472.

2 Bui. 16.

578

Feeds and Feeding.

was confined in a lot free from vegetation and fed corn. All
were supplied with coal -slack, salt and water. The first period
in each trial lasted eight weeks and the second four weeks. The
averages for the four trials are given below:

Trials with pigs fed corn on blue-grass pasture, or corn only — Illi-
nois Station.

Total
gain.

Corn
fed.

Corn per
100 Ibs.
gain.

Lots given half feed of corn, on grass first
period

Lbs.
505

Lbs.
2 190

Lbs.
433

Fed full grain allowance, second period

463

2,076

448

Average

441

Lots given full feed of corn on grass, first
period

905

4,217

465

Second period

327

1 796

549

Average

507

Lots given corn with no grass, first period ...
Second period

791
224

4,207
1,625

532
725

Average

629

We learn from the above that the best returns were secured
when giving a half feed of corn on blue-grass pasture during the
first period of eight weeks, then following for the next four weeks
with a full feed of corn, the pigs still running on pasture. Under
these conditions 441 pounds of corn gave 100 pounds gain. Where
the pigs were given a full feed of corn at all times while on past-
ure, 507 pounds of corn were required for 100 pounds of gain.
The check lots fed in yards without grass required 629 pounds of
corn for 100 pounds of gain. There was a saving of 30 per cent,
when a half feed of corn was given on pasture, and of 20 per cent,
when a full feed was given, as compared with feeding hogs in the
lot without pasture.

878. Teeding pigs on pasture only. — The trials reported by Mills
(875) show that pigs may make fair gains on pasture alone when
alfalfa is the main forage plant. Morrow1 reports that all at-
tempts to carry pigs On blue-grass pasture without feeding grain
resulted so unfavorably that he was forced to give up experiments

i Bui. 16, 111. Expt. Sta.

Value of Various Feeding Stuffs for Pigs.

579

in this line. Unpublished data secured by the writer coincide
with these findings. It is possible that pigs may make satisfac-
tory gains on pastures alone, but no Station has yet shown that
they can do so, if we except Utah, where alfalfa was grazed.

879. Rape forage. — At the Wisconsin Station,1 Craig con-
ducted two trials with rape forage as a feed for swine, in prep-
aration for the final fattening period. In the first trial there
were twenty grade Poland-China pigs; in the second, thirty-eight
grade Chester Whites. In each case the pigs were divided into
two even lots, the first having a run in a rape field, with grain
additional, and the second, confined in a pen, receiving grain
only. The first trial lasted 76 days and the second 42 days,
during which time the feed consumed and the gains were as shown
in the following table:

Feeding grain with and without rape forage — Wisconsin Station.

Corn.

Mid-
dlings.

Rape.

Gain.

First trial.
Lot I, in rape field

Lbs.

1,386

Lbs.
690

Acres.
.32

Lbs.
853

Lot II in pen

2 096

1 042

857

Difference. . .

710

352

Second trial.
Lot I, in rape field

2,220

1,109

1,066

Lot II in pen

3 106

1,553

1,076

Difference. .

886

444

Summarizing the two trials and calling the gains equal, we
learn that .92 acres of rape saved 2,392 pounds of grain. This
shows one acre of rape equivalent to 2, 600 pounds of grain in pig
feeding. Since rape can be used as a catch crop, and costs but
two or three dollars an acre for seed and planting and nothing
for harvesting, the value of this crop in swine feeding is apparent.
(334-5)

880. Droppings of corn-fed steers and pasture. — At the Illinois
Station, 2 Morrow grazed three yearling steers on a two-acre blue-
grass pasture, giving a full feed of corn additional. Two pigs were,

1 Kept. 1897. 2 Bui. 16.

580 Feeds and Feeding.

placed in the same lot to subsist upon the droppings of the steers
and the pasture. As a check trial, other pigs were confined
in a similar pasture and fed shelled corn. During two trials,
lasting twelve weeks each, the gains made by the pigs were as
follows:

First trial. Second trial .

Average gain of pigs following steers on pasture. 59 pounds. 59 pounds.
Average gain of pigs fed corn on pasture 72 pounds. 99 pounds.

It will be seen that the pigs following the steers made excellent
gains compared with those ranging on pasture and receiving in
addition a full feed of corn. Since the nutriment in the drop-
pings would otherwise have been wasted, the great importance
of following up grain-fed steers with pigs is apparent. Morrow
states that when the pigs following the steers were finally fattened
they gained in weight for a time at the rate of 3.2 pounds each
daily, and returned as much as 16.8 pounds of increase from one
bushel of corn. This trial shows the value of the droppings of
grain- fed steers in preparing shotes for final fattening. (538)

881. Droppings of corn-fed steers for pigs. — The writer1 divided
a bunch of twelve steers into two lots of six each, giving to the
first shelled corn and to the second corn meal. Each steer re-
ceived thirteen pounds of corn or corn meal daily, with half that
weight of wheat bran in addition. With each lot were placed
three pigs, averaging 175 pounds each, to subsist on the drop-
pings, their further needs being supplied by corn fed in a trough.
As a check, three pigs were placed in a pen and fed corn. The
results are shown below:

Gains of pigs following corn- fed steers — Wisconsin Station.

Feed for 100
pounds gain

Per cent, corn
saved by pigs
eating drop-
pings of steers.

Pigs in pen.

564 Ibs.

Pigs following steers getting corn meal
Pigs following steers getting whole corn

479 Ibs.
272 Ibs.

15
52

The above shows a saving of 15 per cent, in the feed required

Wis. Expt. Sta., Kept. 1884.

Value of Various Feeding Stuffs for Pigs.

581

by pigs following steers getting corn meal, and 52 per cent, with
those following steers getting whole corn.

These results are in conformity with the experience of stockmen,
who have learned that the droppings of meal-fed steers are not
as valuable as those from steers getting whole corn. (538)

882. Gain from a bushel of corn. — In the table below are given
the results of a large number of feeding trials by Morrow, at the
Illinois Station, J in which whole corn only was fed to pigs:

Results of feeding whole corn only to pigs — Illinois Station.

No.
of
lot.

Time of feeding.

No. of
days.

No. of
pigs.

Av. wt.

of pigs.

Gain
per day.

Corn for
100 Ibs.
gain.

Gain
per bu.
of corn
fed.

Lbs.

Nov. 24 to Dec. 29..

290

2.56

418

13.4

Nov. 24 to Dec. 22..

284

2.70

382

14.7

Dec. 15 to Dec. 22..

311

3.21

333

16.8

May 5 to June 2..

153

1.39

437

12.8

June 2 to June 30..

192

1.38

484

11.6

June 30 to July 28..

224

.85

646-

8.7

April 29 to May 27..

209

1.40

380

14.7

June 10 to July 22..

• 2

212

.90

535

10.5

July 30 to Sept. 10..

.77

441.

12.7

June 17 to Sept. 9..

207

.60

676

8.3

Dec. 30 to Feb. 4..

109

.51

808

6.9

Jan. 24 to Feb. 4..

106

1.05

465

12.0

Nov. 22 to Jan. 4..

210

1.30

500

11.2

Jan. 17 to Feb. 21..

192

1.29

460

12.2

Nov. 3 to Dec. 15..

120

.74

605

9.3

Dec. 15 to Dec. 22..

138

.55

620

8.9

tals and averages

173

1.09

534

10.9

* Omitted from averages.

The above shows that on an average the pigs gained about 1.1
pounds per day, and that a bushel of corn weighing 56 pounds
produced 10. 9 pounds of gain, live weight. The table shows a
wide range of returns — as low as 6.9 pounds of gain from a bushel
of corn in one case, while at the other extreme we have 16.8
pounds. This last return, for one week only, was with pigs which
had previously followed steers fed corn on blue-grass pasture.
While, then, the gains may range from 6 to 16 pounds, we may
conclude that 11 pounds of increase, live weight, is a satisfactory
return from a bushel of whole corn. (568, 812)

1 BuL 16.

582 Feeds and Feeding.

883. Pork production at the South.— At the Arkansas Station, *
Bennett fed corn meal and bran to a sow and five pigs on clover
pasture. At weaning time the sow was removed and the experi-
ment continued with the five pigs. From March 30 to July 26
the pigs were kept on clover. From that date until September 21
they were maintained on sorghum stalks and sorghum seed.
From the latter date until November 15 they were confined in a
field planted with Spanish peanuts. The total feed eaten by the
sow while suckling the pigs, and by the five pigs during growth
and fattening, was as follows:

Grain.

Bran fed 98 pounds.

Corn fed during growth and fattening 33 J bushels.

Crops gathered for pigs.

Clover 25 acres.

Sorghum 25 acres.

Spanish peanuts 60 acres.

Total 1.10 acres.

The combined weight of the five pigs when ten months old was
as follows:

Weight before slaughtering 1 , 215 pounds.

Weight after slaughtering 1,032 pounds.

Average weight before slaughtering 243 pounds.

Average dressed weight. 206 pounds.

Clover was found very satisfactory for pasture while it remained
fresh and grain was fed in addition. Seed and stalks of sorghum
also proved satisfactory. While feeding on Spanish peanuts
the pigs grew rapidly. Bennett concludes that two weeks' final
feeding with corn will suffice to harden the flesh of pigs fed on
peanuts.

1 Bui. 41.

CHAPTER XXXIV.

DANISH PIG-FEEDING EXPERIMENTS.

I. Trials with Various Feeds.

884. The work of Fjord and Friis. — Since the year 1880 a large
number of pig- feeding experiments have been conducted by the
Danish Experiment Station at Copenhagen, under the direction
of the late Professor J. N. Fjord and his successor, F. Friis.
These experiments are exceedingly valuable because of the vari-
ety of conditions under which they were conducted, the large
number of animals included, and the care bestowed on the details
of the work.

The feeding was conducted on the co-operative plan on a num-
ber of Danish estates, or large farms, under the direct supervis-
ion of the officials of the Station, who planned the experiments,
made the weighings, sampled and analyzed the feeds and con-
ducted the slaughtering tests. In these trials the pigs were
divided into selected even lots composed of five to ten animals
each, the different lots being so fed as to express the comparative
value of the feeds under examination. In a majority of cases
the object in view was the relative feeding value of different
swine foods under good farm conditions. Incidentally a number
of other problems were included, such as the value of shel-
ter, the influence of water on fattening, breed experiments, ques-
tion of sex in fattening, influence of season on fattening, etc.
The results of these experiments have been published in the
periodical reports (Beretninger) of the Station, of which thirty-
nine have appeared to date.

The Danish pound equals 1.1 pounds avoirdupois. As the
results stated are nearly always relative, they are given in Danish
pounds, as they appear in the original reports. Wherever avoir-
dupois pounds are given, it is so stated.

584

Feeds and Feeding.

885. Slaughtering tests. — On the completion of the feeding
trials the animals were usually shipped to a Danish pork-packing
house, where they were slaughtered in the presence of one of the
Station officers. Weighings were made and notes taken by ex-
perts as to the quality of the carcass, the thickness of the layer
of fat over the shoulder and loin, as well as any characteristic
differences in the lots attributable to the system of feeding fol-
lowed or to other causes. The carcasses were grouped in four
classes, according to their quality. Class I contained those car-
casses which graded best; Class IV was the poorest, with Classes
II and HI intermediate. The grading was always with special
reference to the demands of the English market. The quality
of the meat, whether hard or soft, the thickness of the layer of
external fat, the size of the carcass, and other points determin-
ing their commercial value, were the deciding factors. As an
illustration of the grading we present the figures given below,
which are the results of an examination and grading of 158 ani-
mals used in one trial:1

Illustration of pork grading for English market requirements — Copen-
hagen Station.

Grade of pork.

No. of

ani-
mals.

Live

weight.

Shrink-
age.

Thickness
of fat on
shoulder.

Thick-
ness of
fat on
loin.

Highest. Class I

Lbs.
158

Per cent.
25.9

Inches.
1.7

Inches.
1.0

Next best, Class II
Lowest,* Class III

49
10

170
181

24.7
23.2

2.0
2.2

1.3
1.5

*One animal only in Class IV.

It will be seen that the best grade included the lightest animals,
these falling under 175 pounds avoirdupois. The shrinkage with
this grade was heavy — nearly 26 per cent. The fat on the shoulder
and loin was much thinner than with those in the poorest grade.
The flesh also was much firmer.

886. Centrifugal versus gravity skim milk. — Seven experiments8
were conducted with 72 animals in all, the trials lasting 4 to 6

» Kept. 10, 1887. » Kept. 2, 1884.

Danish Pig-feeding Experiments. 585

weeks. Barley, oats, corn and peanut meal were fed separately
or combined; in all cases more or less skim milk was given in
addition to the grain. The pigs were all less than 12 weeks old,
averaging 6 weeks, and weighing less than 40 pounds at the begin-
ning of the trials. The feed consumed and the average gain
are shown below:

Gain of pigs fed gravity and separator skim milk with grain — Copen-
hagen Station.

Gravity skim
milk.

Centrifugal
skim milk.

Average daily gain per head . .

776 Ibs.

741 Ibs.

Difference in favor of gravity skimming

035 Ibs.

Percent, of fat in skim milk

63 per cent.

. 15 per cent.

The pigs in these trials were fed about 8 pounds of milk a day
on the average. Of gravity skim milk 100 pounds produced a lit-
tle over .4 pounds more gain in live weight than the same quantity
of centrifugal skim milk. The pigs fed gravity skim milk gained
as much in 23 days as the others in 24 days. Allowing a fair
value for the butter fat, centrifuging the milk is shown to be the
more profitable method. (357, 659, 869-71)

887. Skim milk compared with whey. — The relative value of
separator skim milk and whey left in the manufacture of skim
cheese from separator skim milk was studied1 in experiments
conducted during 1885-87. In one series, where three pounds of
whey were fed against one pound of skim milk, the weight of
the pigs fed varied from 79 to 105 pounds. These trials included
34 animals, the feeding lasting from 53 to 60 days. There was a
daily gain of .91 pounds for the lots fed skim milk and 1.22 pounds
for those fed whey.

Another series of experiments2 was conducted on six different
farms with 258 animals in all, varying from 28 to 174 pounds each
at the beginning of the trials, the feeding periods running from
50 to 160 days. In this series, which included nineteen trials,
two pounds of whey were fed against one pound of separator

1 Kept. 1887.

* Kept, 10, p. 26.

58<6 Feeds and Feeding.

skim milk. The average gain for the animals in both lots was
exactly the same, viz., 1.13 pounds daily.

The conclusion drawn is that one pound of separator skim milk
equals two pounds of whey obtained in the manufacture of cheese
from separator skim milk. Such whey is necessarily very free
from fat, and consequently has as low a feeding value as whey can

These results were corroborated by similar experiments con-
ducted during 1887-88, as well as by still later trials. l

The results of investigations at the Wisconsin Station and the
Ontario Agricultural College (873) show that whey has a higher
feeding value for pigs than is here reported. The reason for this
lies in the fact that in the American trials the whey contained
more fat and probably more casein than that fed at the Danish
Station. (359,660)

888. Skim milk compared with grain. — Centrifugal skim milk
was compared2 with rye and barley, being first fed in the ratio of
5 pounds of milk to 1 of grain; in later experiments, 6 pounds
of milk to 1 of grain. Groups containing 175 pigs in all were
divided into 35 lots. The milk fed varied in amount as shown in
the table, which gives also the average grain consumed daily and
the gain made per animal.

81dm, milk compared with barley and rye — Copenhagen Station.

Feed given daily.

Average daily increase.

When fed
barley.

When fed
rye.

1.27 Ibs. grain, 16.3 Ibs. skim -milk

.79 Ibs.
.91 Ibs.
.99 Ibs.

.81 Ibs.
.91 Ibs.
1.00 Ibs.

2.17 Ibs. grain, 12.1 Ibs. skim milk

2.97 Ibs. grain, 7.8 Ibs. skim milk..

It will be seen that greater gains were made where the quantity
of skim milk fed was decreased. The results show that 5 pounds
of milk could not replace 1 pound of grain, where rye or barley
was fed with the skim milk. In the second and third series of
trials 60 pigs were used in each series. When the allowance of

1 Kept. 15, p. 88.
* Kept. 10, 1887.

Danish Pig-feeding Experiments.

58?

skim milk was decreased in the ratio of 1 pound of grain to 6 pounds
of skim milk on the average, the following results were obtained:

Comparison of centrifugal skim milk with rye and barley — Copen-
hagen Station.

Grain and milk fed.

Average daily increase.

When fed
barley.

When fed
rye.

Average.

First series.
1.2 Ibs. grain, 14.6 Ibs. skim milk...
1.7 Ibs. ^rain, 11.2 Ibs. skim milk...
2.3 Ibs. grain, 7.2 Ibs. skim milk...
Second series.
1.3 Ibs. grain, 14.6 Ibs. skim milk...
2.0 Ibs. grain, 10.7 Ibs. skirn milk...
2.6 Ibs. grain, 6.8 Ibs. skim milk...

.85 Ibs.
.86 Ibs.
.90 Ibs.

.92 Ibs.
.95 Ibs.
.94 Ibs.

.88 Ibs.
.88 Ibs.
.83 Ibs.

.95 Ibs.
.95 Ibs.
.96 Ibs.

.87 Ibs.
.87 Ibs.
.87 Ibs.

.94 Ibs.
.95 Ibs.
.95 Ibs.

In later work at that Station these feeds have always been
substituted for one another in the proportion of 6 pounds of sep-
arator skim milk for 1 pound of grain. If all experiments in
this line are averaged, we find that the daily gain per head was
practically identical, whether much or little grain was replaced by
skim milk, in the ratio of 1 to 6, showing that the comparative
feeding value of these feeds is expressed by this ratio.

889. Grain compared with whey. — Two series of experiments1
with sixty animals in all were conducted, in which one pound of
grain was fed as an equivalent to twelve pounds of whey from
separator skim-milk cheese. In these trials the average weight
of the pigs fed was about 50 pounds, the experiments lasting 115
days each, with results shown below:

Feeding whey and grain to pigs — Copenhagen Station.

Daily increase
Feed per pig daily. per head.

1.3 Ibs. grain, 27.1 Ibs. whey, 1 Ib. buttermilk 945 Ibs.

1.95 Ibs. grain, 19.3 Ibs. whey, 1 Ib. buttermilk 950 Ibs.

2.6 Ibs. grain, 11.5 Ibs. whey, 1 Ib. buttermilk 955 Ibs.

The results show that one pound of rye or barley is equal to
twelve pounds of whey from centrifugal skim-milk cheese. We
have already shown that one pound of rye or barley is equivalent

1 Kept. 1887, p. 38,

588

Feeds and Feeding.

to six pounds of skim milk. One pound of skim milk is there-
fore equal to two pounds of whey. (660, 873)

890. Quality of skim-milk and whey-fed pork. — Slaughter tests1
show the quality of skim-milk pork somewhat superior to that
produced from whey, as indicated in the following table:

Results of slaughter tests with pigs fed whey and skim milk — Copen-
hagen Station.

Skim
milk.

Whey.

Shrinkage in slaughtering, per cent

24 6

24 9

Percentage classification of carcasses.
Class I

73 0

48 0

Class II

27 0

44 0

Class III

8 0

891. Rye compared with barley. — The average of 11 experi-
ments,2 with 110 animals, shows a daily gain of .865 pounds for
barley- fed pigs and .873 pounds for those fed rye. These gains
being practically equal show similar values for rye and barley
as pig feeds. An examination of the carcasses at slaughtering
time gave the following classification:

Results with barley and rye-fed pigs — Copenhagen Station.

Barley fed.

Rye-fed.

Per cent dressed weight

74 3 per cent

75 per cent.

Class I

68 0 per cent.

63 per cent.

Class II

21 0 per cent.

34 per cent.

Class III

11.0 per cent.

3 per cent.

The results indicate a practical equality between the two feeds
for pork production. (177-8)

While rye is shown to be of equal value with barley for pig
feeding we will learn later (895) that its by-product, rye shorts,
is very unsatisfactory for this purpose.

892. Grain compared with oil cake. — Experiments8 were con-
ducted in 1887-88 on 12 estates with 406 animals in all, divided

1 Kept. 1887, p. 52.
« Ibid., p. 37.
» Kept. 15, 1889.

Danish Pig-feeding Experiments.

589

into 77 lots, each containing at least 5 pigs. The experiments
lasted from 65 to 140 days, averaging 110 days. Sunflower-seed
cake, hemp -seed cake, palm- nut meal, peanut meal and blood
bread were each fed against rye or barley. The oil cake was fed
in connection with skim milk in some of the experiments, and with
whey in others. The lots fed grain and oil cake received half
their concentrates in the form of oil cake; those fed grain only,
received skim milk or whey in addition. The averages of these
extensive trials in which whey or barley meal was fed in oppo-
sition to oil cakes are shown in the following table, which con-
denses the results so that they may be easily compared by the
student:

Feeding various forms of oil cake in comparison with grain — Copen-
hagen Station.

Average daily
gain per head.

Grain.

Grain and
oil cakes.

Average 14 trials with oil cakes fed with milk..
Average 16 trials with oil cakes fed with whey.

Lbs.

.87
.85

Lbs.

.87
.85

Average of above trials ,

Average 10 trials with sunflower-seed cake.

Average 6 trials with hemp-seed cake

Average 10 trials with palm-nut cake

Average 10 trials with peanut cake

.88
.89
.84
.81

.86

.88
.82
.84

Average of above trials.

.85

These results prove conclusively, it would seem, that a pound
of oil cake has no more value for pigs than a pound of rye or
barley, no matter with what other substance or under what con-
ditions it may be fed. (206)

893. Slaughter tests of pigs fed in the preceding experiments. 1
Sunflower-seed cake and hemp-seed cake fed in connection with
skiin milk produced a soft quality of pork, which would com-
mand a lower price in the general market than that produced by

1 Loc. cit.

590

Feeds and Feeding.

the corresponding grain -fed lots. When fed in connection with
whey, the quality of the pork compared favorably with that pro-
duced from barley or rye. There is no evidence that peanut or
palm- nut cake injured the quality of the pork when fed with
either skim milk or whey. These points are shown in the fol-
lowing table, which summarizes the results obtained at slaugh-
tering time with some of the pigs fed in the trials reported in the
preceding article:

Average data at slaughtering time with pigs fed various forms of
oil cake — Copenhagen Station.

Feed.

Av.
live
wt.

Shrink-
age.

Av.

thick-
ness of
pork.

No. of pigs
in class.

Sun/lower-seed cake.
Skim /Grain.

Lbs.

161
161
163
162

160
162
156
156

184
178
159
162

185

178
167
174

Per ct.

24.4
25.3
26.4
26.5

24.7
23.5

24.8
24.9

28.3
28.9
27.5
29.2

28.1
29.6
29.4
29.4

Inches.

1.3
1.3
1.5
1.4

1.4
1.3
1.5
1.4

1.5
1.4
1.5
1.4

1.5
1.5
1.5

1.6

14
1

5
11
9
15

10
8
10
11

6
12
20
15

1
3
5

5
1
5
13

"l2"

milk. \ Grain and oil cake..
„,, /Grain.;.

ney' \ Grain and oil cake..
Peanut cake.
Skim /Grain.

milk. \ Grain and oil cake..
~wvi /Grain.

2
2

ney* \ Grain and oil cake..
Hemp-seed cake.
Skim /Grain.

milk, t Grain and oil cake.,
wvi / Grain.

2
1

4
1
1
4

ney' 1 Grain and oil cake..
Palm-nut cake.
Skim f Grain

milk. \ Grain and oil cake..
wvi / Grain.

ey' \ Grain and oil cake..

In experiments1 conducted in the years 1891-94, the same
kinds of oil cake used in the preceding trials were compared with
barley, but the ratio of barley to oil cake in these trials, instead
of being 1 to 1, as in the first trials, was 1 to 2 or 2 to 1. In all
the series one lot of pigs was fed barley alone, for the sake of com-
parison. A small quantity of buttermilk and skim milk was also

1 Kept. 30, 1895.

Danish Pig-feeding Experiments.

591

fed with the different rations. The gains made by the different
lots were as follows:

Later trials with feeding grain in comparison with oil cakes — Copen-
hagen Station.

Feed.

Average weight at
beginning.

Daily gain.

Bar-
ley.

f bar-
ley,
ioil
cake.

Jbar-
Jey,
foil
cake.

Bar-
ley

$ bar-
ley,

ioil
cake.

£ bar-
ley,
foil
cake.

Sunflower-seed cake.
With skim milk, 4 trials

Lbs.

70.6
60.5

71.2
64.1

67.8

Lbs.

71.6

60.6

73.2

64.8
68.7

Lbs.

70.1
60.4

72.2
64.3
67.6

Lbs.
1J5

I.IT

1.23
1.19
1.17

Lbs.

1.12
-1-.21

1.19
1.20
1.16

Lbs.

1.01
1.13

1.16
1.14
1.06

With whey 2 trials

Palm-nut meed.
With whey, 1 trial

Average of 3 trials with whey..
Average of 7 trials

These experiments in connection with those previously made
show that the rations containing less than half the concentrates
in the form of oil cake were nearly as effective as a pure grain
ration, and that increasing the quantity of oil cake feel produced
poorer results, the difference being greater when skim milk was
fed than when feeding whey. When roots were fed in both
rations the effect of the oil cake was still not so good, so far as
gain in live weight goes, as in case of pure grain feeding. These
results are of peculiar interest, since the higher protein content of
the oil cakes would a priori indicate a higher feeding value for
them than the cereals possess. In feeding trials with cows at the
same Station (647) and elsewhere, oil cake has always been
found superior to grain in nutritive value. They show that oil
in feeds has not the high nutritive value with pigs assigned it by
trials with the ruminants. While we accept these results and
should act upon them in the practical feeding of the pig, we
await the studies of the investigators to show why oil in feeds is
less valuable with this animal than with the cow.

894. Rye or barley versus Indian corn. — In 1888-89, seven
series of experiments1 were made with 144 pigs, on 13 different

1 Kept, 1890.

592

Feeds and Feeding.

estates, in which Indian corn was compared with barley or rye.
The grains were fed against one another in equal quantities by
weight, with results given below:

Trials with barley or rye fed in opposition to Indian corn — Copen-
hagen Station.

Average weight.

Average gain per
day.

Lot I.
Bar-
ley or
rye.

Lot
II.
J bar-
ley or
i^e, £
corn.

Lot
III.

Corn.

Lot I.
Bar-
ley or
rye.

Lot
II.

} bar-
ley or
rye, }
corn.

Lot
III.

Corn.

Feed per day per head.

3.61 Ibs. grain, 9.7 Ibs. skim milk,
19.4 Ibs. whey, 1 Ib. buttermilk.

Softness of pork, points.

No. of carcasses in highest grade.
No. of carcasses in lowest grade...

Lbs.
79.9

Lbs.
1.32

Lbs.
1.36

Lbs.
1.35

8
1

3
10

The gain made on corn was slightly higher than that made on
either barley (857) or rye, and about equal to that made on a
mixture of the two. The slaughter tests show that the shrinkage
was practically the same for the three lots. Corn made the softest
pork, and also gave the largest number of carcasses in the fourth,
or lowest, grade.

The experiments were continued during 1892-93. l Since the
quality of the pork seemed inferior when corn was fed through-
out the fattening period, experiments were made in which corn
was fed until the pigs of the different lots weighed 120, 140, or
160 pounds, after which barley was fed for grain until the close
of the fattening period. (919) For comparison, one lot was fed
barley and another corn exclusively, in each trial. Dairy refuse
was given in addition in all cases. The grains were substituted,
pound for pound, for one another in the rations fed the different
lots. Results are available from five series of experiments with
115 pigs in all, the trials lasting from 100 to 140 days. It was
found that the lots fed corn all the time made somewhat heavier

Kept. 1895.

Danish Pig -feeding Experiments.

593

gains, the average daily increase being .04 pounds per head
higher, as shown below:

Feeding pigs on corn, and finishing them with barley — Copenhagen

Station.

Barley
only.

Corn to
120 Ibs.

Corn to
140 IDS.

Corn to
160 Ibs.

Corn
only.

Av. wt. at beginning

Lbs,
46

Lbs.
49

Lbs.
46

Lbs.
45

Lbs.
46

Av. daily gain, live weight ...

1.10

1.09

1.14

1.10*

1.14

* Average for four trials.

The tests and data obtained at slaughtering time furnished val-
uable information concerning the quality of the pork produced,
as summarized in the table below:

Average results at slaughtering time of pigs fed barley or corn —
Copenhagen Station.

Feed.

Av. wt.
at
slaugh-
tering.

Shrink-
age.

Thick-
ness of
pork.

Soft-
ness of
pork.

Per cent,
in class.

II.

III.

IV.

Lbs.

Per cent.

Inches.

Points.

Barley all time

183

22.9

1.3

1.4

Corn till 120 Ibs...

181

22.0

1.5

1.6

Corn till 140 Ibs...

186

21.7

1.5

2.0

Corn till 160 Ibs...

183

22.2

1.5

2.3

Corn all time

185

21.1

1.5

2.7

Exclusive barley feeding gave pork of the highest quality, (178)
while exclusive corn feeding produced a poor quality. The pork
increased in softness the longer the pigs were fed corn, the lowest
quality resulting where corn was fed all the time. (153)

895. Grain compared with rye shorts.1 — In comparing rye and
barley, or rye alone, with rye shorts in three series of experi-
ments, the grain alone always produced better results than equal
mixtures of grain and rye shorts, and these mixtures were again
better than rye shorts alone. The daily gains made were .77
pounds for barley or rye alone, .70 pounds for grain and rye shorts
mixed half and half, .61 pounds for rye shorts only, in one series

* Bept. 19, 1890.
38

594

Feeds and Feeding.

of trials; in another, 1.22 pounds, 1.20 pounds, and 1.08 pounds,
respectively. The third series cannot be used, because the pigs
fed rye shorts became sick. The quality of the pork produced
where rye shorts were fed was poor, especially where all rye shorts
were given, as will be seen in the table below:

Quality of pork made when feeding grain and rye shorts — Copen-
hagen Station.

Feed.

Wt. at

slaugh-
tering.

Shrink-
age.

Thick-
ness of
pork.

Soft-
ness of
pork.

Class.

II.

III.

7
2

IV.

Grain (rye and
barley )

Lbs.
162

159
145

Lbs.
24.2

24.9
26.6

Inches.
1.5

1.4
1.3

Points.
1.7

2.5
3.7

1
1

7
16

Half grain, half
rye shorts

Rye shorts

The number of points for softness of pork increased rapidly
with the feeding of rye shorts, and the classification of the car-
casses showed that a poor quality of pork was produced when
this feed was given.

896. Wheat bran compared with rye and barley. — Trials with
wheat bran compared with barley or rye for pigs1 were conducted
during 1890-92 on five different farms and included 115 pigs, the
trials lasting 112 days. Wheat bran was fed against rye on
some farms and against barley on others, skim milk or whey
being fed in addition. In four out of five trials the largest average
gain was made by the lots fed grain, closely followed by those re-
ceiving a mixture of five parts barley or rye and seven parts wheat
bran for every ten parts of grain fed the other lots. Bran alone
did not produce as good results as a mixture of equal parts of
grain and bran. The one-sided bran feeding in several instances
caused sickness among the pigs, while none occurred in the other
lots. Wheat bran has an appreciably lower nutritive value than
barley or rye for pig feeding. In scoring the carcasses, the pork
produced on wheat bran was found to be of poorer quality than
that produced on grain, and shrank more in dressing, although
the results were not so unfavorable with wheat bran as were the
previous experiments with rye shorts. (175, 177-8, 855)

1 Kept. 26, 1892.

Danish Pig-feeding Experiments.

595

897. Grain compared with boiled potatoes. — Three series of ex-
periments1 were made to test the comparative value of cooked
potatoes with grain, when both were fed in connection with skim
milk or whey. Four pounds of potatoes were fed against one
pound of grain, and the gains made were practically the same.
Four pounds of boiled potatoes should thus be considered equal
to one pound of grain in pig feeding. The quality of the pork
produced from potato feeding was good and did not differ appre-
ciably from that of lots differently fed.

898. Comparative feeding value of mangels2 and grain.3 — For
the purpose of determining the comparative value of mangels and
grain as feeds for pigs the trials reported below were conducted.
All lots received skim milk or whey in addition to the grain and
roots, except Lots E and F, to which an equivalent of additional
roots was given. The average daily gains are shown below:

Average daily gain of pigs fed grain and mangels — Copenhagen

Station.

10 Ibs. roots =
1 Ib. of grain.

8 Ibs. roots =
1 Ib. of grain.

Grain.

Roots.

Grain.

Roots.

Lots A, B, C and D

.76 Ibs.

.83 Ibs.
.86 Ibs.

.85 Ibs.

.86 Ibs.
.89 Ibs.

Lots E and F

The above shows that ten pounds of mangels were more than
equal, and eight pounds about equal, to one pound of grain in
these trials.

The quality of the pork produced by the different lots was very
satisfactory 5 even where one-fourth of the daily feed was given
in the form of roots, no deleterious effect was noticed. (3J8)

899. Grain compared with beets of different sugar content. — A
preliminary feeding experiment4 with beets of different sugar con-
tent was made in 1890 to ascertain their comparative feeding val-
ues. Mangels containing 12.71 per cent, dry matter and 8.93 per

1 Rept. 19, 1890.

2 In the Danish experiments all roots were fed uncooked, unless other-
wise noted, and either whole or sliced, generally the latter. (316, 658,
866)

3 Rept. 1890. * Rept. 26, 1892.

596 Feeds and Feeding.

cent sugar were fed against fodder beets containing 19.86 per cent,
dry matter and 13.8 per cent sugar, or against barley. The
experiment included 25 pigs averaging 79 pounds each, and
lasted 70 days.

The indications were that for pigs one pound of barley had a
feeding value equal to six to eight pounds of mangels, or four to
eight pounds of fodder beets.

In experiments1 during 1891-92, lots including 204 pigs were
fed four kinds of roots in addition to dairy refuse and grain. The
roots used were: (1) Eckendorf mangels, containing 11 per cent
dry matter and 6.7 per cent sugar; (2) Elvetham mangels, con-
taining 13.6 per cent dry matter and 8.9 per cent sugar ; (3) fod-
der sugar beets, containing 16.5 per cent dry matter and 10.9
per cent sugar; (4) sugar beets, containing 21.2 per cent, dry
matter and 14 per cent sugar. The lots fed barley only, made
the largest gain, closely followed by those half of whose grain
was replaced by roots in the following ratio: For 1 pound of
barley was substituted 7.5 pounds of Eckendorf mangels, 6.5
pounds of Elvetham mangels, 5 pounds of fodder beets and 4
pounds of sugar beets. These quantities of the different kinds of
roots proved nearly equivalent in feeding value. The authorities
conclude that about 40 per cent of the daily ration of the pig
may be advantageously made up of roots. The data secured at
slaughtering time led to the conclusion that the feeding of roots
to the extent practiced in these experiments produced pork of
a quality fully equal to that resulting from grain feeding. (320)

900. Carrots compared with mangels. — In 1892-94, 2 experi-
ments were conducted on nine different estates with 893 pigs,
divided into 175 lots. It was found in the comparative trials
that carrots and mangels containing equal quantities of dry mat-
ter had similar values in pig feeding; in other words, the amount
of dry matter in roots is of importance rather than the total
weight or the quantity of sugar contained. (317)

901. Turnips compared with whey. — When feeding barley and
whey to pigs, turnips were substituted for part of the whey. In
two experiments3 with 30 animals, barley and whey gave an in-

* Kept. 26, 1892. * Kept 30, 1895. » Ibid.

Danish Pig-feeding Experiments.

597

crease of 1.08 pounds daily per head, while turnips gave only .96
pounds, showing that whey had a higher feeding value, pound
for pound, than turnips. (319)

902. Grain compared with blood bread. — Blood bread prepared
from blood and barley meal, baked in an oven the same as ordi-
nary bread, was compared1 with grain in two trials with 40
animals, lasting 138 and 120 days, respectively. Four lots of
pigs were fed grain and four lots blood bread. Two lots in each
trial received skim milk and two whey in addition to the con-
centrated feed. The results are as follows:

Results of feeding blood bread in comparison with grain — Copenhagen

Station.

Average weight.

Av. daily gain
per head.

Feed per head per day.

Grain

(rye, or
rye and

Blood
bread.

Grain
fed.

Blood
bread
fad

barley).

Lbs,

Lbs.

1.64 Ibs. cone, feed, 15.5 Ibs. milk

58.6

58.4

.98

.74

2.46 Ibs. cone, feed, 10.6 Ibs. milk

58.4

.97

.65

Average

.70

1.77 Ibs. cone, feed, 20.6 Ibs. whey,

1.4 Ibs. skim milk

61.6

61.4

1.00

.79

2,65 Ibs. cone, feed, 10.8 Ibs. whey,

1 Ib. skim milk

61.6

61 4

1 13

.87

Average.

1 07

Average of both trials

1.02

.76

The blood bread contained more water than was supposed when
the experiments were started. Its average percentage chemical
composition was as follows:

Water, 59.6; protein, 20; starch, 16.1; fat, 4; cellulose, 2.4; ash, 1.5.

The trials showed the blood bread decidedly inferior to rye
or barley when fed in connection with skim milk or whey. It
was concluded that had it contained less water different results
might have been secured. It is possible, however, that baking
the bread may have lowered its feeding value for pigs, the same as
1 Kept 15, 1889.

698

Feeds and Feeding.

does cooking feed. A study at slaughtering time of the carcasses
of the pigs fed as described on the preceding page gave the re-
sults shown in the following table:

Average data at slaughtering time with hogs fed Mood bread and
grain — Copenhagen Station.

Feed.

Aver-
age live
weight.

Shrink-
age.

Aver-
age
thick-
ness of
pork.

Softness
of pork.

No. of carcasses
in class.

II.

III.

IV.

Grain with milk
Blood bread with
milk

Lbs.

192

182

173
158

Lbs.

26.0
32.2

26.4

29.2

Inches.

1.6
1.3

1.4
1.2

Points.

1.7

3.4

2.8
4.6

7
10

7
5

2
5

Grain with whey
Blood bread with
whey

The results show that the quality of the pork produced by the
lot fed blood bread was on the whole inferior to that produced
by the grain-fed lot.

In regard to shrinkage, and the quality of pork as shown by
the number of points for softness for the different lots, the live
weights of the lots fed blood bread and milk were more in accord
with the demands of the market than those of the correspond-
ing lots fed grain. This explains why all animals in this lot
were placed in Class I. Besides yielding soft pork with consider-
able shrinkage, the blood bread showed a tendency to produce too
thin an external layer of fat, making what the pork-packers call
a "skinny" carcass. (338)

II. Various Problems in Pig Feeding.

903. Shelter for pigs. — Two experiments1 were made with
eight pigs each, separated into two lots, each pig receiving the
following feed daily: 6.2 pounds skim milk; 6.5 pounds wheyj
2.2 pounds rye, barley, corn and peanut meal, mixed.

Lot I ran in the open yard during the day, while Lot II was

' Bept. 10, 1887.

Danish Pig-feeding Experiments.

599

kept indoors. The experiment lasted 130 days, with the average
weights and gains shown in the table:

Results of shelter tests with pigs — Copenhagen Station.

Experiment I.

Experiment II.

Av. daily
gain,
both
trials.

Av. wt.

at be-
gin-
ning.

Av.

daily
gain.

Av. wt.
at be-
gin-
ning.

Av.

daily
gain.

Pigs kept indoors

Lbs.

64.5
64.0

Lbs.

.80
.91

Lbs.

63.8
62.5

Lbs.

.81

.87

Lbs.

.80
.89

Pigs kept outdoors

The number of animals in the trial is too small to allow gen-
eralization, but the result favors exercise for light pigs. (838)

904. Effect of addition of water to feed. — Three experiments1
were conducted with 68 pigs, the trials continuing 60, 120 and
160 days, respectively. In Experiment I the skim milk and
buttermilk fed Lot A was diluted with twice its volume of water;
Lot B received one-half this quantity of water. In Experiments
II and III as much water was added to the milk of Lot A as
there was skim milk. Lot B was allowed water at will, supplied
separately. The feed eaten and gains are shown in the table:

Results of watering the feed of pigs — Copenhagen Station.

Skim
milk.

Butter-
milk.

t
£

Grain.

Water.

Av.

wt.

Daily
gains
made.

Expt. I, Lot A...
Expt. I, Lot B...

Lbs.

3.0
3.0

Lbs.

3.0
3.0

Lbs.

8.0
8.0

Lbs.

2.3
2.3

Lbs.

12.0
6.0

Lbs.

121.8
129.0

Lbs.

.73
.71

Expt. II, Lot A..

14.5

1 0

2 6

14 5

72 7

Expt. II, Lot B.

14 5

1 0

2 3

2 6*

72 2

1 02

Expt. Ill, Lot A

10 5

1.0

1.3

10 5

27 0

.68

Expt. Ill, Lot B

10 5

1 0

1 3

1 0*

29 3

* Water ad libitum.

The average of the three trials shows a daily gain of . 78 pounds
for Lot A, getting water with their feed, and .80 pounds for Lot

i Kept. 10, 1887.

600

Feeds and Feeding.

B, getting less water. As the results are practically equal, it
cannot be said that the addition of water to the skim milk was a
disadvantage in these trials.

905. Winter and summer feeding compared. — Pig-feeding ex-
periments conducted by the Copenhagen Station1 since 1887 have
been summarized with a view of obtaining information concern-
ing the amount of feed required for 100 pounds of growth in
winter and in summer. In all trials the skim milk, whey, roots,
etc., fed have been reduced to their grain equivalent as deter-
mined by the various trials. The animals were separated into
three groups, according to their live weight. The following aver-
age results as to feed eaten for one pound of increased live weight
were obtained:

Feed consumed for one hundred pounds increase with pigs in winter
and in summer — Copenliagen Station.

Period of
growth and
average weight
of pigs.

No. of experiments

Feed eaten (grain
equivalent) per
day per head.

Feed (grain equiv-
alent) for 100
Ibs. gain.

Winter.

Summer.

Winter.

Summer.

Winter.

Summer.

Lbs.

35 to 751bs....
75 to 115 IDS
115tol551bs

Totals and
averages ...

10
43
47

17
39
43

2.66
3.96
5.26

2.65
3.92
5.25

371
446
516

346
397
457

100

3.96

3.94

444

400

The table gives the average results of 100 experiments in win-
ter and 99 in summer. Since each trial included from 20 to 30
animals, or more, we have the average results obtained with
feeding at least 2,500 animals. The feed for one pound of gain,
given in " totals and averages," is the arithmetical mean of each
set of three figures in the different columns, the data for eacli
period of growth being considered of equal value without regard
to the number of experiments included in each, since all the
groups contain an ample number of experiments to give a true
expression of the feed requirements of the animals embraced
within each period.

» Bept. 30, 1895.

Danish Pig-feeding Experiments.

601

We note that the pigs ate only a little more feed in winter than
in summer, and that it required 44 pounds or 11 per cent, more
feed in winter than in summer to produce 100 pounds of gain.
The figures given doubtless express the feed requirements of pigs
under ordinary conditions in Denmark. The climate of Denmark
is tempered by cool summers and is not excessively cold in win-
ter. The average temperatures observed during the trials are
given in the following table, the figures being for the air, stable
and feed:
Temperatures recorded in pig-feeding trials — Copenhagen Station.

Period of
growth.

No. of experi-
ments.

Temperature, degrees Fahrenheit.

Winter.

Summer.

Winter.

Summer.

Air.

Stable.

Feed.

Air.

Stable.

Feed.

35 to 75 Ibs....
75 to 115 Ibs...
115 to 155 Ibs...

9
36
25

17
35
24

35.6
34.3
36.0

47.7

48.7
49.1

50.2
51.1
52.9

58.8
59.2
56.1

61.2
61.2
59.9

59.4
59.9
58.3

The table shows there was an average difference of only 20 or
25 degrees Fahr. between the summer and winter temperature
when the experiments were conducted. These differences show
a narrower range than prevails in most parts of the United States.

906. Light versus heavy feeding. — In two series of experiments
with 60 animals in all, l the influence of the intensity of feeding
on gain was made a special object of investigation. One experi-
ment lasted 120 days, the other 210 days. The feeds used were
barley, buttermilk, skim milk and whey.

Results from heavy and light feeding — Copenhagen Station.

Feeding.

Grain fed
daily.

Av. wt. of
pigs at be-
ginning of
exp't.

Gain per
day.

Grain for
100 Ibs.
gain.

Tjiffht

Lbs.
3 61

Lbs.
34 9

Lbs.
92

Lbs.
391

Medium,

4 23

35 0

1 07

397

Heavy

4 51

35.1

1 12

404

Kept. 30, 1895.

602

Feeds and Feeding.

These results indicate a tendency toward a poorer utiliza-
tion of the feed in the heavier feeding; the differences obtained
are not, however, so great as in the case of winter and summer
feeding.

907. Feed required for 100 pounds of gain. — In the following
table1 the grain or its equivalent required for 100 pounds of
gain is reported for 355 animals in 16 experiments. These trials
were with pigs ranging from 35 to 315 pounds, live weight. The
figures given in the second line of the table are the arithmetical
means of all figures for pigs coming within the range of live
weight given in each column. Seven experiments supplying
additional data for the five intermediate periods are given in the
third line. The results of these important investigations are
summarized in the following table:

Grain or equivalent fed to produce 100 pounds gain with pigs —
Copenhagen Station.

Average weight of pigs in lots —

35-75
Ibs.

II.

75-115
Ibs.

III.

115-155
Ibs.

IV.

155-195
Ibs.

195-235
Ibs.

VI.

235-275
Ibs.

VII.

275-315-
Ibs.

No. of experiments
Av. feed required, Ibs..
Av. feed required in
seven comparative
experiments, Ibs

3
376

10
435

437

466

465

15
513

499

540

543

11
614

624

3
639

We notice a steady increase in the feed required to produce
100 pounds of gain with increasing weight of the animals. Pigs
weighing 275 pounds required nearly twice as much feed for 100
pounds of increase as those weighing from 35 to 75 pounds.
(845)

908. Barrows compared with sows. — The following table,2
which includes data obtained from 1,216 animals, gives informa-
tion concerning the comparative fattening qualities of barrows
and sows.

Although data from a large number of animals were employed
in the computation, the table shows no practical difference in

1 Kept. 30, 1895. * Loc. cit.

Danish Pig-feeding Experiments.

603

the results obtained for the two sexes as regards either gain,
shrinkage, or quality of carcass.

Comparative fattening qualities of barrows and sows — Copenhagen

Station.

•

Barrow.

Sow.

No. of animals
in trials.

Barrow.

Sow.

Av. wt. per head at beginning, Ibs.
Av. wt. per head at close, Ibs

54
167

55
165

586
575
11
575
364

630
613
17
613
373

Animals dropped during expts

Daily gain per head, Ibs

.987
22.6
1.5
1.4
33.3

44
33
20
3

.975
23.2
1.4
1.5
33.7

56
29
12
3

Shrinkage, per cent

Thickness of pork inches

Softness of pork points

Length of body inches.

Percentage classification:
Class I

160
120
72
12

209
108
43
13

Class II

Class III . .

Class IV

909. Breed tests. — Six essentially pure breeds of swine, l in-
cluding 120 animals in all, were compared, the trials lasting 148
to 168 days each, with the following average daily gains:

Eesults of breed tests — Copenhagen Station.

Breed.

Average weight at begin-
ning of trials.

Average daily gain
per head.

II.

III.

II.

III.

Vendsyssel

Lbs.

20.5
20.3
19.9

Lbs.
30.4

Lbs.

.99
.91
94

Lbs.
.94

Lbs.

Native
Hoist ebro

19.9

.92

Tamworth

30.2

.97

Poland-China

19 8

.93

The animals of the native breeds made the poorest gain, and
the Yendsyssel and Tamworth the best, but the differences were
small. Neither did the data obtained at slaughtering time show
any appreciable difference between the breeds as to value of car-
cass, except that the Poland- China breed proved superior to the
native, on account of the greater hardness of the pork. (835)

1 Kept. 15, 1889.

CHAPTER XXXV.

FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE — EFFECT OF FEED ON
THE CARCASS OF THE PIG.

I. Feeding and Management.

910. Breeding stock. — In the successful management of breed-
ing stock the prime requisite is ample pasture, that the animals
may be maintained in the open air and sunshine, away from pens
and yards, during as large a portion of the year as possible.
Roaming in pastures covered with nutritious clovers and grasses,
the pigs will develop healthy bodies. The pasture will not alone
suffice for nutriment and should be supplemented by foods espe-
cially adapted to bone and muscle building. Pigs of the larger
breeds should receive sufficient nutriment to insure about one
pound of growth per day, in order to reach the standard weight
of 300 pounds when one year old. (841)

The boar should be kept on pasture as much as possible, and
when confined should be provided with a large lot for exercise.
After the growth of the framework is completed this animal
should receive only sufficient feed to continue in fair condition,
all tendency to grossness being avoided. It is especially impor-
tant to supply coarse feeds, as roots, whole oats, bran, and boiled
chaffed clover hay.

911. Feed for the brood sow. — The feed for the sow before far-
rowing should be nutritious but not concentrated. Heavy, con-
centrated feed stuffs may be extended or given volume by using
bran, which serves well for this purpose, and roots, which are
much relished, and by supplying chaffed clover or alfalfa hay
softened with boiling water. Some corn may be fed, but meals
rich in protein — oats, peas, middlings and barley — should supply
most of the nutriment. Breeders differ in their management of
sows before farrowing, some insisting that they be held in thin
flesh, while others would have them in high condition. They
will prove satisfactory when in good flesh, provided it is put oil

Feeding and Management of Swine. 605

under proper regulations as to character of feed and amount
of exercise. As farrowing-time approaches let the feed be sloppy
and limited in quantity. Any tendency to costiveness should be
overcome by feeding bran, oil meal, roots, or other feeds of a cor-
rective character. For two or three days after farrowing supply
only a limited quantity of feed. A thin, warm slop made of mid-
dlings, oatmeal with a very little oil meal, poured a little at a
time into the feeding trough, will quench the thirst of the new
mother and answer all requirements. Eating her young, an act
quite common with brood sows, is unnatural, and reflects upon
the management of the feeder, indicating that feed and exercise
have not been properly regulated.

912. Importance of exercise. — Sows carrying much flesh, made
while confined in small pens, will prove at best unsatisfactory
breeders. In summer, exercise is easily secured by the use of
pasture, but winter conditions at the North are so adverse to out-
door life of the pig that much ingenuity is called for on the
part of the herdsman to attain the desired end. Sows will gain
exercise in winter, when the weather is not too severe, if turned
into sheltered yards where horses and cattle will not annoy them.
If litter from the stable is thrown in the yard, exercise will be
gained while working this over in search of waste grains. Some
exercise can also be forced by scattering grains of corn or oats,
preferably the latter, very thinly over the feeding floor. In
gathering the grains the sows will be kept upon their feet for some
time. If exercise can be secured in no other way, the sows
should be driven for some time each day by the herdsman along
a lane or roadway or about the yard.

913. Feeding sow and pigs. — If all goes well at farrowing-
time, the feed may be gradually increased after two or three
days, with the increasing flow of milk and the growing demands
of the pigs, until a full ration is supplied. Brood sows should
be heavily fed, for the gains of young pigs are made at low cost
for feed consumed. (831) Good brood sows with large litters
will usually fall off in weight despite the best of care and feed, but
such decrease is no reflection upon the skill of the feeder. In
feeding a brood sow the herdsman can draw upon all feeds at his

606 Feeds and Feeding.

command. Middlings, ground oats and corn meal are particu-
larly useful and should be liberally supplied; some bran, ground
peas, barley and other grains will also prove helpful. The by-
products of the dairy — skim milk and buttermilk — are always
in place and may be used to almost any extent. Cooked roots,
potatoes or pumpkins with a liberal admixture of meal form an
acceptable ration.

At farrowing-time, as soon as the young pigs have drawn their
first sustenance, it is well to at once separate them from the dam,
placing them near by in a chaff-lined box or barrel. Sows which
have been properly handled before farrowing will not usually re-
sist such separation. Here the pigs are safe from harm, and the
attendant can pass them to the dam at intervals of a few hours
for nourishment. Mature sows are often so clumsy that unless
some precaution is taken they will kill their young by lying upon
them. After two or three days the pigs are sufficiently strong
and active to be entirely given over to the care of the dam.
Pigs often injure the teats or udders of the sow while sucking,
because of sharp teeth. Their mouths should be examined and
the injurious members filed or broken off — a simple operation.

When two or three weeks old, pigs will take a little nourish-
ment provided for them in a separate trough, which should be
located at a convenient point in pen or lot accessible to the pigs
but not to the dam. At first, place only a pint or two of feed in
the trough, and when this is eaten give more. Skim milk will
be the most relished, but in its absence a thin porridge of mid-
dlings or sieved ground oats with a little oil meal will prove sat-
isfactory. Soaked grains of corn scattered over the feeding floor
will keep the young things busy and on their feet, getting exercise
while securing nourishment. The pigs should be encouraged to
eat as much as possible from the side trough.

914. Exercise for young pigs. — Well-nurtured young pigs often
become very fat, and many die unless abundant exercise is pro-
vided. If sufficient exercise cannot be given, danger can in part
be averted by reducing the feed supply, though by this growth
is more or less checked. In the absence of more natural exercise,
the herdsman should turn the pigs out of doors two or three

Feeding and Management of Swine. 607

times a day and drive them about the yard for a time. Selle1
describes a means of exercise for winter pigs as follows: Wagon
loads of sods are placed in the cellar in the fall. In winter these
sods, with bits of meat scrap or cracklings added, are thrown into
the pens, to be worked over by the young pigs. In searching for
cracklings or scraps in the sods the pigs get exercise by rooting
as well as some feed.

Upon the first appearance of scouring or other ailment, the sup-
ply of food should be reduced and the diet changed if possible.
Carefully remove all excrement and change the animals to new
quarters if they can be provided.

915. Weaning the pigs. — Pigs are generally weaned when from
seven to ten weeks old. This is best accomplished by first re-
moving the two strongest members of the litter to a separate pen,
and after two or three days taking away others, always choosing
the most vigorous, until all are removed. Under this practice the
milk flow of the dam will gradually diminish until it ceases.
Many breeders allow pigs to wean themselves, — a result reached
without difficulty where they are liberally supplied with palata-
ble nourishment at a side trough. When the pigs are weaned
they should be placed in groups of not over twenty, care being
taken that the members in each group are the same size. Where
large numbers of pigs of varying sizes range together, the weaker
ones are at a disadvantage at the feed trough and are liable to
permanent injury from lack of feed and the rough treatment they
receive.

916. Teeding shotes. — Under good management, the period be-
tween weaning and fattening the pig is bridged without difficulty.
First, let this animal be kept upon natural earth, having the
freedom of the pasture as long as possible. There is no better
place for the growing pig intended for either breeding or fatten-
ing than a wood-lot of mixed herbage or a pasture carpeted with
blue grass, clover or alfalfa. Pigs should wear no rings in their
noses unless much rooting is done, for this cruel restriction works
injury to the animal in several ways. While on pasture, the
shote should still receive feed possessing bulk and carrying a

1 Wis. Farmers' Institute Bui., 1894.

608 Feeds and Feeding.

liberal supply of protein for muscle building and ash for the bones.
If these are amply supplied, some corn may be fed without harm.
The feeder should aim to keep the pig steadily increasing in
weight from one-half to one pound per day, according to the size
of the animal. (830)

917. Fattening the pig. — Pigs are now prepared for market at all
ages and the feeder should be governed by local requirements.
A pig which has been reared on pasture supplemented with feed-
ing stuffs rich in protein and ash can be rapidly and economically
fitted for the market. Having been supplied with nutritious,
cooling grasses and other plants of the field, the digestive tract
of this animal becomes ample in size, healthy, active, and easily
able to digest large quantities of feed, the whole system being in
condition to assimilate the nutriment supplied and utilize it to
the fullest extent.

n. Feed for Swine.

918. Feeding corn. — In this country Indian corn must continue
the common feeding stuff for swine. Because it is rich in carbo-
hydrates and fat and low in protein and ash, the special function
of this grain in pig feeding is the production of fat. (154) Hav-
ing a proper knowledge of its composition and limitations, the
feeder is in position to wisely use this great cereal. For breed-
ing stock, corn should constitute not over half the ration at any
time, the amount being smallest with young animals. As the body
increases in size and nears maturity, the demand for protein and
ash becomes less, and the proportion of corn to other grain can
be gradually increased, until during the fattening stage the ration
may, if desired, consist almost wholly of this grain.

Whether corn should be fed whole or as meal depends upon
circumstances. (848) If the kernels are so hard as to cause sore
mouths, thereby preventing easy mastication, the grain should
be ground. If no trouble arises from this source, the utility of
grinding hinges on the relative cost of grain and grinding. We
have seen (848) that some grain is saved by reduction to meal,
and the feeder can easily estimate whether he should incur
the extra expense of grinding. Where grinding is not possible

Feeding and Management of Swine. 609

hard corn may be prepared for feeding by soaking the grains.
Ear corn and shelled corn can be satisfactorily fed to fattening
pigs upon a feeding floor of matched lumber, swept clean each
day. Corn meal should always be soaked with water before
feeding, the dry meal being unpalatable. Kemembering that
feeds in combination are better than the same feeds given singly,
the prudent stockman will provide some complementary feed for
pigs getting corn, even though the proportion of the secondary
feed be small. (894)

919. Demand for leaner pork. — Consumers at home and abroad
are calling for leaner pork, and the feeder should cater to market
requirements. The demand can be met by using more protein-
rich feeds, with less corn, during the growth of the pig, and
especially by shortening the fattening period. Feeding the by-
products of milling, oats, barley, or the waste products of the
dairy, with corn, the fattening period not being unduly pro-
longed, produces pork which will easily meet the requirements
of the most discriminating market. (894)

920. Why lard rules low in price. — Millions of barrels of mineral
oil are now obtained yearly from the oil wells, and an enormous
quantity of vegetable oil is produced from the cotton seed.
The combined effect of these two articles is to limit the use of
animal fats to the dining-table, while formerly they served for
both lubricants and illuminants as well as for human food. The
introduction and general use of the oils named has brought
about one of the greatest economic changes of recent times. In
this change we have an explanation of the low prices ruling for
lard and tallow. Despite the low price for animal fats, con-
sumers are calling for still less fat in pork, or at least a larger
proportion of lean to fat. So long as oil can be secured from the
earth and from the cotton seed, we cannot hope for high prices
for lard or other animal fats. With these conditions confronting
us, there seems no alternative but to produce more lean and less
fat pork.

921. Wheat. — We have seen (851) that wheat divides honors
with corn in its ability to produce gain with pigs, and because it
contains more protein and ash it comes nearer fulfilling the re-

610 Feeds and Feeding.

quirements of an all-around feed. Wheat is much superior to
corn for young pigs and shotes. (167, 802) The flesh of wheat-
fed pigs is considered very satisfactory, generally carrying less
fat than that from corn-fed animals. Because the grains are
small and hard, wheat should always be reduced to meal before it
is fed. Soaked wheat has proved unsatisfactory with many feed-
ers. As we have seen, (852) wheat and corn meal in combina-
tion give better gains than either separately.

922. Middlings. — As a feed for swine at all periods of their
development, middlings stand pre-eminent. Because it con-
tains much protein and ash and is not loaded with crude-fiber
like bran, this feeding stuff is particularly suited to the nourish-
ment of very young pigs, ranking next to the by-products of the
dairy for that purpose. (107) Middlings serve admirably with
corn for feeding pigs during the fattening period. Like other
milling by-products, middlings are said to produce soft pork, and
therefore should never be fed alone, but always with corn, barley
or other grains.

923. Bran. — This part of the wheat grain carries much protein
and mineral matter, but its fibrous, chaffy character renders it
unfit for the digestive apparatus of the young pig, which has but
a limited capacity. (896) Middlings rather than bran should be
fed to young pigs, but as they increase in size some bran may
be fed with advantage, especially where it is desirable to add
volume to the feed. Bran may be fed with good results to breed-
ing stock and to a limited extent to fattening swine, the amount
in the latter case being restricted, lest the volume of the feed
be too much increased. Harris1 recommends that bran be sup-
plied to pigs in a separate trough, where they can eat it at will.

924. Barley. — Judging from the European standard, barley
leads the cereals in the quality of pork produced. (894) lu
quantity of product returned from feeding a given weight of
grain it yields to corn. (857, 894) Because consumers are grow-
ing more critical, the pig feeder should study the uses of barley
in the feeding pen that he may profit by using it whenever op-
portunity offers. Barley flourishes in the Western states, and in

1 The Pig, p. 253.

Feeding and Management of Swine. 611

conjunction with alfalfa may prove instrumental in turning many-
sections into profitable centers of pork production. This becomes
all the more a certainty because consumers are learning to appre-
ciate the higher grades of pork.

925. Peas. — Where this plant flourishes, farmers will find peas
an excellent feed for swine. Because of the large amount of pro-
tein they contain peas can be used with advantage in feeding
young pigs, shotes, and in the production of lean pork. Farmers
living north of the corn belt may find pork production still prof-
itable through the proper use of peas. For feeding swine, peas
should be ground, and, because of the high protein content and
the heavy character of the meal they make, they should always
be fed in conjunction with corn, barley, or other cereals. (860)

926. Dairy by-products. — No materials are more generally use-
ful in all stages of swine feeding than skim milk and buttermilk.
They should be supplied only in limited quantity to brood sows
before farrowing; after farrowing the limit need scarcely be set.
As trials show, (869) the best returns are secured when not over
three pounds of milk are fed with each pound of meal in the
ration. Feeding trials have also shown (108) that skim milk
favors the development of muscle and builds the strongest bones.
Cooke's trials (871) indicate that sour milk has a high feeding
value with pigs. Buttermilk, when not diluted with washings
from the creamery, is as valuable as skim milk for pigs. As a
complementary feed corn meal stands first, since it is rich in car-
bohydrates, while the milk furnishes protein and ash, the bone
and muscle building elements. Breeders of pure-bred swine will
find dairy by-products of the highest utility in producing pigs of
model form and strong bone. (See Chapter VI.)

927. Clover hay. — An omniverous feeder by nature, the pig
suffers seriously when forced to subsist upon the cereals alone.
Such feeds lack the bulk or volume essential to healthy, vigorous
digestive action. An excellent corrective for concentrated feeds
in winter is found in well-made clover hay. For pig feeding,
clover hay should be run through the feed- cutter and the chaff
well soaked by pouring scalding water over it. To the material
so softened add meal, and teed the mixture once a day to all pigs

612 Feeds and Feeding.

except those in the last stages of fattening. While the pig gets
some nourishment from the hay, much of the advantage is doubt-
less due to the normal distention of the digestive tract effected
by this material. (876)

928. Pasture. — Experienced feeders appreciate the value of
pasture for swine. Doubtless the returns from an acre of past-
ure-land have been overstated by some writers, but its advan-
tages, on the whole, have not been overdrawn. The results at
the Utah Station (875) show that a gain of one- third of a pound
daily is possible with thrifty shotes on good alfalfa pasture. For
pasture, alfalfa and red clover doubtless lead all other plants of
the field, (875) white clover, blue grass and rape following in
value. Pasture plants, to be satisfactory with swine, must be
short and tender, all effort to make them eat the long stems being
useless. Booting in pastures tends to lengthen the skull, increase
the size of the animal's head and enlarge the muscles running
along the back of the neck. (832) Where health and lean
meat are the objects sought, pigs should have no rings in their
noses, and should be allowed to govern their own actions as to
how much they tear up the sod in search of animal and vegetable
food. All means for preventing rooting are at best necessary
evils. When on pasture pigs should be fed grain, the amount of
green forage consumed about supporting them, leaving the addi-
tional food to be utilized in increasing their weight.

929. Administration of feed. — Suckling pigs take nourishment
from the dam about every two hours, and we may accept Nature's-
guidance for the frequency of feeding very young animals. At
weaning time the pigs should receive feed at least three times
daily, with water always accessible. Since the digestive tract of
this animal is of limited volume, probably the best results in fat-
tening can be obtained with three feeds daily; but habit controls
here as elsewhere, and stockmen can easily accustom their ani-
mals to expect feed morning and evening only, meanwhile being
content.

Since meal when dry is more slowly masticated than when
moistened, it might be supposed that the greater addition of saliva
consequent upon slow eating would increase the digestibility of

Feeding and Management of Swine. 613

meal so fed, bnt the trials so far made favor moistening the feed
with water. Observation shows that the pig does not take kindly
to dry meal, eating it very slowly, and often rooting much of it
out of the trough. On the whole sloppy feeds are best for the
pig. (837)

930. Confinement. — It is possible to confine a few pigs in a sty
when young and carry them successfully to the end of their
career, but only a limited number of animals can be managed in
one pen under such a system. When handled in large numbers
pigs should be given ample range during the growing period, and
be confined to pens only during the fattening stage. Experiments
show that the best gains for feed consumed are secured during the
first four weeks of confinement; that up to eight weeks good re-
sults are possible; while if the feeding period is extended to
twelve weeks the gains during the last four weeks are made at a
greatly increased consumption for a given gain. As a rule pigs
should not be fed over eight weeks in a pen, though they may be
held somewhat longer if a rising market is assured, or for other
good cause. (838, 847, 903)

931. Variety in feeding stuffs. — In feeding pigs we may always
rely upon two feeding stuffs giving better results than one, and,:
guided by this, the feeder should have a variety at command.;
(852) Usually he has on hand one leading variety of grain or
meal; let him intelligently search for complementary feeds. Por
example, if corn is relied upon as the main feed, this aliment, so
rich in carbonaceous matter, should be supplemented with one
rich in protein and ash. Milk, middlings, oat meal and pea meal
naturally supplement corn, and, if volume is desired, bran will
prove helpful.

932. Ball-feeding show pigs. — Stephens1 describes how, toward
the close of the feeding period, English pigs fed for exhibitions are
induced to put on the last possible ounce of fat. Equal quantities
of bean, corn, barley and wheat meals are used, and three parts
of this mixture added to one part of middlings, with the addi-
tion of a little linseed meal. This material is moistened with
milk to form a dough and made into balls the size of an egg.

1 Book of the Farm.

614 Feeds and Feeding.

After the pigs have eaten all they will of the ordinary feed they
are given a dessert of these balls dipped in milk. The pigs soon
learn to sit on their haunches and are fed the dainty morsels one
after another in turn, each pig, after eating the thinner food given
him in the trough, consuming about a gallon more of these ball
mixtures.

933. Influence of feed on quality of pork. — Brewer1 summarizes
his experience in regard to the influence of the food of swine on
the quality of the flesh produced, as follows:

"The best flavored pork and. the heaviest weight of the same
was obtained in case of milk-fed swine; next to milk came the
cereals — corn, barley, oats and peas. Potatoes produced a soft,
light pork which loses a good deal in boiling. The meat of swine
fed on flour-mill by-products was yellow, without body, and of a
poor flavor. Oil meals produced a loose, oily pork of an unpleas-
ant flavor. Beans produced a hard, indigestible and flavorless
pork, and acorns one that was light, hard and unhealthy."

No extended work has yet been done in this country on the
influence of feeds on pork, and for the present we must be guided
by the statements of foreign observers, mainly the Danish inves-
tigators. Here is an important field for our Experiment Stations.
(885, also various articles in Chapter XXXIV. )

934. Correctives for swine. — Every stockman who has kept
pigs in confinement has observed their strange craving for seem-
ingly unnatural substances, — sand rock, soft brick, mortar, rot-
ten wood, charcoal, soft coal, ashes, soap suds and many other
articles being greedily devoured when offered. Such objects
lie outside the range of nutritive substances, and we are puzzled
to know why they should be so eagerly consumed. In the wild
state, the hog ranges through woods and open tracts, living upon
small animals, larvae, and vegetation generally. This material is
of such character and is gathered in such manner that some of
the soil is swallowed with it. With rings in its nose to prevent
rooting while in the pasture, confined on board floors during
the fattening period and given feeds containing little ash, the
pig's life is passed under unnatural conditions. Another cause

1 Gohren. Futterungslehre, 1872, p. 420.

Feeding and Management of Swine. 615

for this craving may be intestinal worms, which are checked
or destroyed by some of the substances consumed. Unsatisfac-
tory or incomplete as such explanations may be, the fact remains
that the pig seeks out these unnatural substances and greedily
consumes them. The feeder would best supply what the pig
craves in this direction and search for explanations later if he
wishes.

Ashes either from wood or coal will always be in place in the
feeding pen and even in the feed lot. It is surprising how much
of these will be consumed by a bunch of pigs. Feeding trials
show that pigs when confined to an exclusive corn diet are
greatly benefited by ashes, this substance causing the feed to be
more effective and adding to the strength of the bones — the
latter result probably being due to the lime in the ashes. (114)
Bone meal is another substance useful for strengthening the bones
of pigs. By saving the droppings, substantially all the value of
this high-grade fertilizer may be secured for field and garden
after it has served its purpose with the pigs.

935. Corn-cob charcoal. — Corn cobs are abundant in districts
where swine feeding is largely practiced. They can serve no
better purpose so far as needed than in producing charcoal for
use in the feeding pens.

The following directions for reducing cobs to charcoal are given
by Theodore Louis, l a breeder of high repute in the Northwest:
"Dig a hole in the ground five feet deep, one foot in diameter at
the bottom and five feet at the top, for the charcoal pit. Take
the corn cobs, which have been saved in a dry place, and, start-
ing a fire in the bottom of this pit, keep adding cobs so that the
flame is gradually drawn to the top of the pit, which will be
thus filled with the cobs. Then take a sheet iron cover, similar
to a pot lid in form, and over five feet in diameter, so as to
amply cover the hole and close up the burning mass, sealing the
edges of this lid in turn with earth. At the end of twelve hours
you may uncover and take out a fine sample of corn-cob charcoal."

Charcoal so produced may be fed directly, or, better still, com-
pounded as directed by Mr. Louis in the following manner:

1 Farm, Stock and Home, July 15, 1894.

616 Feeds and Feeding.

1 1 Take 6 bushels of this cob charcoal, or 3 bushels of common
charcoal; 8 pounds of salt; 2 quarts of air-slacked lime; 1 bushel
of wood ashes. Break the charcoal well down, with shovel or
other implement, and thoroughly mix. Then take 1 J- pounds of
copperas and dissolve in hot water, and with an ordinary water-
ing pot sprinkle over the whole mass and then again mix thor-
oughly. Put this mixture into the self- feeding boxes, and plaoo
them where hogs of all ages can eat of their contents at pleasure.77
Where corn cobs are burned for fuel in the prairie districts the
ashes should be saved for the pigs.

III. Discussion of the Experiments Reported in Cliapter VI on the
Effects of Feed on the Body of the Pig.

936. Lessons from the experiments. — The practical bearings of
the investigations on the mal-nutrition of pigs reported in Chapter
VI are here presented. These experiments were conducted at
several Stations in widely separated states and countries and with
different feeds, yet the results were concordant in showing that
the frame of the growing animal and the vital organs can be
greatly modified by improper nutrition, — the muscles pro-
duced by such feeding being less than normal in size, the bones
robbed of their strength, the vital organs, such as the liver and
kidneys, modified, and even the blood reduced in quantity. Are
there not lessons here for the student, and the breeder and feeder
as well, which, if understood and appreciated, will help to a bet-
ter management of farm animals, especially the pig ?

937. Limits of bone and muscle development. — In studying
these experiments we should understand the limitations of nature
in the development of the muscle and bone systems. No feeds or
combinations of feeds are known which will cause an animal to
develop bone and muscle beyond what is set by inheritance. It.
was shown that pigs fed skim milk, dried blood and other protein-
rich feeds had stronger bones and larger muscles (more lean meat)
than those receiving corn meal only, but this does not show that
these animals had increased in bone and muscle beyond the normal.

In supplying pigs in these experiments with feeds rich in pro-
tein and ash, their bodies were developed in bone and muscle to

Feeding and Management of Swine. 617

the limit of their constitutions set by inheritance. On the other
hand, the growing pigs which received corn only during the trials
were prevented, through lack of sufficient proper nutrients, from
developing normal frames of bone and muscle. Pigs can be fed
to produce bone and lean meat only as such flesh and bone are
the sequence of normal development. It is entirely possible, on
the other hand, to so feed or mal-nurture them as to prevent a
normal growth of bone and muscle or lean meat while storing
abnormally large quantities of fat

938. The fat of the body.— Study will show that the deposi-
tion of fat in the body is a matter of feed and conditions, con-
trolled primarily by inheritance or constitution and having a
wide range for the individual. Fat is reserve fuel stored in
the body against a time of need. This true, Nature, which has
set close limits to the development of the animal frame, shows
no such restriction in the accumulation of fat. If conditions and
feed are favorable, the animal stores large quantities of fat, the
ability to do so being set by inheritance, character of feed, amount
of exercise, etc.

939. Illustration from the human frame. — We can best illus-
trate the above by reference to the human frame. No person by
what he eats, in kind or quantity, can increase in bone or muscle
beyond the normal of constitutional inheritance. On the other
hand, the amount of fatty matter which is deposited in the tissues
of the human body varies with different individuals, according
to constitution, habits, character of food and amount of exercise
taken. The grown athlete cannot add a pound of muscle to his
body because of the food he eats; indeed, when he goes into
training he reduces his weight, losing fat and water from the
tissues. While a human being cannot add to his stature nor
increase the muscles of his body by the kind of food he eats, the
fat stored in the tissues may in extreme cases even double the
normal weight of the body.

940. Lessons for breeder and feeder. — The observant feeder
and breeder of swine studying these trials must be impressed with
the plastic character of the body of the growing animal. He
learns that the bones and muscles as well as some of the internal
organs of the body can be thrown out of their normal relation

618 Feeds and Feeding.

one to another through an unbalanced or improper food supply.
He sees it possible for immature animals to live a long time with-
out showing disease, while being dwarfed in form and made pre-
maturely fat. He learns that Nature's plan is to grow the frame-
work first and lay on fat afterwards. He understands that while
no farmer would feed his pigs as these were fed, wrong feeding
may nevertheless unconsciously be practiced by many. He con-
cludes, rightly, that if a pig or other young animal is mal-nur-
tured so as to modify its bones, muscles and vital organs ever so
little, and the animal so affected is later used for breeding pur-
poses, the descendants likewise being rnal- nurtured, the cumula-
tive ill effects may in a few generations become very marked. He
sees disaster through the excessive use of corn, rich in carbohy-
drates but poor in bone and muscle elements, as the sole feed for
young pigs. On the other hand, he studies the long list of feed-
ing stuffs complementary to corn which will build strong bones
and ample muscles. By the judicious use of feed mixtures he
secures animals of great vigor, and selecting the best of these in
framework and constitution, he holds his herd to a high standard.
The feeder learns that the young pig should be nurtured upon
a combination of feeding stuffs that will first develop a normal
frame of bone and muscle. Having the desired frame, if the
market demands lean meat, he will produce this to the limit of
the pig's normal development, adding fat at the close of the
feeding period to the extent desired by the market. In America
corn is the common feeding stuff for swine, and pigs show such
fondness for it that harm often results because the practice of
the feeder and breeder is guided by the appetite of the animal
rather than by a knowledge of the composition and limitations of
feeds. Let us not despise corn because, when wrongly and ex-
cessively used as it purposely was in these experiments with
young, growing pigs, it failed to develop the normal framework
of bone and muscle. Each feed has its function in the nutrition
of animals, and only by its abuse can unfavorable results follow.
This grain has enabled the United States to take first rank among
nations in the quantity of pork produced, and upon its judicious
use rests future success.

APPENDIX.

TABLE I. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN FEEDING

STUFFS.

This table is mainly from Farmers' Bulletin 22, TJ. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, 1895, which in turn is based on Jenkins and
Winton's tables in Bulletin 11, Office of Experiment Stations,
Department of Agriculture, Washington.

Analyses not from the source above mentioned are in most
cases from the following: Zusammensetzung der Futterm., Diet-
rich and Konig; Farm Foods, Wolff, English edition, Cousins j
Woll, Handbook for Farmers and Dairy men ; Holland, Beport
Massachusetts (Hatch) Experiment Station, 1896 j Jenkins and
Winton's tables, and Bulletin 87, New Jersey Experiment Station.

Feeding stuffs.

Percentage composition.

No. of
analyses.

Water.

Ash.

Pro-
tein.

Crude
fiber.

Nitro-
gen-free
extract.

Ether
ex-
tract.

CONCENTRATES.
Corn, dent

10.6
11.3
8.8
15.0
10.7
15.1
9.1
10.7
11.1
8.1
10.9
65.4
9.1
5.8
8.1
8.2
7.8

%10.5
10.4
10.5

1.5
1.4
1.9
1.4
1.4
1.5
1.3
4.0
2.5
1.3
0.9
0.3
0.9
2.8
0.7
0.9
1.1

1.8
1.9
1.8

10.3
10.5
11.6
9.2
2.4
8.5
9.0
9.8
9.8
11.1
19.7
6.1
22.8
31.1
36.1
29.3
24.0

11.9
12.5
11.8

2.2
1.7
2.8
1.9
30.1
6.6
12.7
4.1
3.8
9.9
4.7
3.1
7.6
12.0
1.3
3.3
5.3

1.8
1.8
1.8

70.4
70.1
66.8
68.7
54.9
64.8
62.2
64.0
64.5
62.5
54.8
22.0
52.7
33.4
39.0
46.5
51.2

71.9
71.2
72.0

5.0

5.0
8.1
3.8
0.5
3.5
5.8
7.4
8.3
7.1
9.0
3.1
6.9
14.9
14.8
11.8
10.6

2.1
2.2
2.1

86
68
28
77
18
7
5
3
12
6
4
12
3
1
3
20
11

310
13
262

Corn, flint

Corn, sweet

Corn meal

Corn cob

Corn and cob meal

Corn bran

Corn germ

Hominy chops.

Germ meal

Dried starch and sugar feed
Starch feed wet

Maize feed, Chicago

Grano-gluten

Cream gluten

Gluten meal..

Gluten feed

^Vheat, all analyses

\Vheat, spring

Wheat, winter.

620

Feeds and Feeding.

TABLE I. Average composition of American feeding stuffs — continued,.

Feeding stuflfe.

Percentage composition.

No. of

analyses. \\

Water.

Ash.

Pro-
tein.

Crude
fiber.

Nitro-
gen-free
extract.

Ether
ex-
tract.

CONCENTRATES — con.
Flour, high grade

12.2
12.0
9.7
11.9
11.5
12 3

0.6
2.0
4.3
5.8
5.4
5.9
3.3
4.6
2.9

1.9
0.7
3.6
5.9

2.4
2.6
3.6
1.0
3.6
5.7

3.0
2.0
3.7
6.9
6.7

0.4
8.1
13.2
10.0
6.7

2.0
1.0

2.2
3.0
5.1

4.8

2.1
3.4
1.5
3.3
5.0

4.3
4.7
5.7

5.8

14.9
18.0
19.9
15.4
16.1
16.0
15.6
14.9
12.5

10.6
6.7
14.7
18.0

12.4
10.5
12.3
5.4
19.9
23.2

11.8
14.7
16.0
13.5
3.3

7.4
12.0
3.6
12.1
11.7

10.0
6.9
4.6
12.4
27.1
28.9

9.1
10.2
9.9
11.8
9.9

22.6
21.6
32.9
33.2

0.3
0.9
3.8
9.0
8.0
8.1
4.6
7.4
4.9

1.7
0.4
3.5
5.1

2.7
6.5
7.3
3.8
11.0
10.7

9.5
0.9
6.1
18.2
29.7

0.2
5.4
35.7
9.5
6.3

8.7
0.3
43.5
31.9
8.3
4.1

2.6
7.1
1.4
9.5

7.7

7.1
7.3
8.9
9.5

70.0
63.3
56.2
53.9
54.5
1 53.7
60.4
56.8
65.1

72.5
78.3
63.8
59.9

69.8
66.3
61.8
12.5
51.7
48.5

59.7
67.4
59.4
50.2
52.1

79.2
51.2
38.6
49.9
58.0

64.5

75.8
35.3
38.8
40.8
41.9

69.8
63.6
74.9
57.4
63.2

23.2
27.9
35.4
38.4

2.0
3.9
6.2
4.0
4.5
4.0
4.0
4.5
3.0

1.7

0.8
2.8
2.8

1.8
2.2
2.8
1.6
5.6
1.7

5.0
7.1
7.1

4.8
1.0

0.4
13.1
0.7
8.8
7.3

2.2
1.4
1.1
3.3
7.6
7.1

3.6
3.0
3.0
4.0

4.7

33.7
30.4
7.9
3.0

1
1
1
88
10
7
82
12
10

6
4
T
1

2
15
3
4

30
6
4
2
1

10
2
3
5
4

8
4
2

2
2
3

2
1

'"i

50
2
21
14

Flour, low grade

Flour, dark feeding

Bran, all analyses

Bran, spring wheat

Middlings

12.1
11.8
11.6

11.6
13.1
11.6
9.3

10.9
11.9
12.2
75.7

8.2
10.2

11.0
7.9

7.7
6.5
7.3

12.4
10.2

8.2
9.7
;10.0

12.6
14.6
13.2
10.5
11.1
13.2

12.8
11.5
9.3
14.0
9.5

9.2
8.1
9.2
10.1

Shorts

\Vheat screenings.

Bye

Bye flour

Bve bran

Bye shorts

Barley

Barley screenings

Brewers' grains, wet

Brewers' grains, dried.

Malt sprouts

Oats

Oat meal

Oat feed

Oat dust

Oat hulls

Bice

Bice meal

Bice hulls.

Bice bran

Bice polish

Buckwheat

Buckwheat flour

Buckwheat hulls

Buckwheat bran

Buckwheat shorts

Buckwheat middlings

Sorghum seed

Broom-corn seed

Kaffir-corn seed

Millet seed

Hungarian grass seed
Flax seed...

Flax seed, ground..

Linseed meal, old process..
Linseed meal, new process.

Appendix.

621

TABLE I. Average composition of American feeding stuffs — continued*

Feeding stuffb.

Percentage composition.

No. of
analyses. |

Water

Ash.

Pro-
tein.

Crude
fiber.

Nitro-
gen-free
extract

Ether
ex-
tract.

CONCENTR ATES — COn.

10.3
6.1
8.2
11.1

6.2
10.3
10.4
8 6
10.8

7.5
10.7
10.0

10.5
10.8
14.8
11.3

42.2
40.5
50.9
30.0

79.3
79.0
73.4
79.8
77.1
79.1
66.2
76.1

15.3
13.2
15.0

14.2

14.1
9.9

8.9
8.7
21.2

3.5
5.5

7.2
2.8

4.7
5.9
4.3
2.6
6.7

2.4
4.9
7.9

2.6
4.7
3.2
3.8

2.7
3.4
1.8
5.5

1.2
1.2
1.5
1.1
1.1
1.3
2.9
0.7

5.5
4.4
4.5

4.4

3.9
6.0

5.2
4.9
6.3

18.4
16.8
42.3
4.2

31.2
19.7
16.8
16.3
32.8

27.9
47.6
31.2

20.2
34.0

20.8
26.6

4.5
3.8
2.5
6.0

1.8
1.7
2.0
2.0
2.7
1.9
2.1
0.5

7.4
5.9
6.0

5.7

5.0
8.1

7.9
8.0

7.8

23.2
20.4
5.6
46.3

3.7
14.4
24.0
29.9
13.5

7.0
5.1
11.3

14.4

4.8
4.1

7.2

14.3
•19.7
15.8
21.4

5.0
5-6
6.7
4.3
4.3
4.4
8.7
7.3

27.2
29.0
29.6

28.1

31.1
32.4

28.6
29.9
23.0

24.7
23.5
23.6
33.4

17.6
38.7
35.0
21.4
27.1

15.6
23.7
30.0

51.1

28.8
55.7
50.1

34.7
31.5
28.3
35.7

12.2
12.0
15.5
12.1
14.6
12.8
19.0
14.9

42.1
45.0
41.9

44.6

43.7
41.0

47.5
46.4
37.8

19.9

27.7
13.1
2.2

36.6
11.0
9.5
21.2
9.1

39.6
8.0
9.6

1.2
16.9
1.4
1.0

1.6
1.1
0.7
1.4

0.5
0.5
0.9
0.7
0.8
0.5
1.1
0.5

2.5
2.5
3.0

3.0

2.2
2.6

1.9
2.1
3.9

2
35

Cotton seed, roasted

Cotton-seed meal

Cotton-seed hulls

Cotton-seed kernels (with-
out hulls)

Cocoanut cake

Palm-nut meal

600-
2

Sunflower seed

Sunflower-seed cake

Peanut kernel (without
hulls)

7
2480
500

2
8
5
1

35
60
16
17

126
63
7
40
10
21
4
4

126
68
12

12
10

9
3
10

Peanut meal

Rape-seed cake...

Pea meal . ..

Soja bean

Cowpea

Horse bean

ROUGHAGE.

Corn forage, field cured.
Fodder corn

Corn stover

Corn husks

Corn leaves

Corn forage, green.

Fodder corn, all varieties,...
Dent varieties

Dent, kernels glazed

Flint varieties

Flint, kernels glazed

Sweet varieties

Leaves and husks

Stripped stalks

Hay from grasses.

Hay from mixed grasses
Timothy, all analyses

Timothy, cut in full bloom..
Timothy, cut soon after
bloom

Timothy, cut when nearly
ripe

Orchard grass

Red top, cut at different
stages

Red top, cut in bloom

Kentucky blue grass

622

Feeds and Feeding.

TABI/E I. Average composition of American feeding stuffs — continued.

Feeding stuffs.

Percentage composition.

fcg

Water.

Ash.

Pro-
tein.

Crude
fiber.

Nitro-
gen-free
extract.

Ether
ex-
tract.

ROUGHAGE — continued.
Hay from grasses — con.
Kentucky blue gr&ss, cut
when seed in mill£

24.4

27.8
7.7
20.0
8.5
14.0
16.6
12.9
15.0
15.0
11.6
10.4
14.3
9.3
10.3
10.2

80.0
65.1
61.6
73.0
65.3
62.2
76.6
79.4
79.0
71.1
69.9

73.2
69.5
75.0
75.0

15.3

20.8
21.2
9.7
9.7
9.6
11.0
8.4
10.7
11.3
15.0

7.0

6.4
6.0
6.8
6.9
7.9
6.8
5.5
4.2
5.2
6.7
7.7
3.8
5.6
6.6
6.1

2.0
2.8
2.1
2.0
2.3
2.5
1.8
1.1
1.8
1.7
1.8

2.5
2.0
1.5
1.9

6.2
6.6
6.1

8.3
8.3
8.6
8.5
7.4
7.5
7.2
6.7

6.3

5.8
7.5
7.0
7.5
10.1
11.6
10.1
8.8
9.3
7.2
5.5
5.0
9.9
7.7
7.2

3.5
4.1
3.1
2.6
2.8
3.4
2.6
1.3
2.7
3.1
2.4

3.1
2.4
2.1
2.4

12.3
12.4
10.7
12.8
15.7
15.2
13.8
14.3
16.6
15.4
13.7

24.5

23.8
27.7
25.9
30.5
25.4
22.5
27.6
24.7
29.2
26.6
30.0
25.0
30.6
30.0
28.5

4.0
9.1
11.8
8.2
11.0
11.2
11.6
6.1
7.9
9.2
10.8

6.8
9.4
7.8
7.0

24.8
21.9
24.5
25.6
24.1
27.2
24.0
25.0
20.1
22.3
24.7

34.2

33.2
49.0
38.4
45.0
40.5
39.4
41.3
44.9
39.0
45.9
44.1
48.8
41.1
42.0
45.9

9.7
17.6
20.2
13.3
17.7
19.3
6.8
11.6
8.0
14.2
14.3

13.3
15.8
13.1
13.1

38.1
33.8
33.6
40.7
39.3
36.6
39.0
42.7
42.2
38.6
37.6

3.6

3.0
2.1
2.7
1.7
2.1
3.1
2.6
2.4
2.3
2.0
2.4
3.3
3.5
3.4
2.1

0.8
1.3
1.2
0.9
0.9
1.4
0.6
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8

1.3
0.9
0.5
0.6

3.3
4.5
3.9

2.9
2.9
2.8
3.7
' 2.2
2.2
5.2
2.3

4
13
9
4
4
23
17
1
1
8
10
1
2
2
2

Kentucky blue grass, cut

Hungarian grass

Meadow fescue

Italian rye grass

Perennial rye grass

Rowen (mixed)

Mixed grasses and clovers...
Barley hay, cut in milk
Oat hay cut in milk

Swamp hay

Salt-marsh hay

\Vild-oat grass

Buttercups

\Vhite daisy

Fresh grass.
Pasture grass

Kentucky blue grass

18
56
4
5
6
7
11
1
14
4

24
3
12

38
6
10
9
7
7
2
21
8
6
1

Timothy, different stages...
Orchard grass, in bloom
Red top, in bloom

Oat fodder.

Rye fodder

Sorghum Ibdder

Barley fodder

Hungarian grass.

Meadow fescue, in bloom ...
Italian rye grass, coming
into bloom.. ..

Tall oat grass, in bloom

Japanese millet

Barnyard millet

Hay from legumes.
Red clover.

Red clover, in bloom

Red cloA'er, mammoth ....

Alsike clover

White clover

Crimson clover

Japan clover

Alfalfa

Cowpea

Soja bean

Pea vine

Appendix.

623

TABLE I. Average composition of American feeding stuffs — continued.

Feeding stuffs.

Percentage composition.

c'f

£a

Water.

Ash.

Pro-
tein.

Crude
fiber.

Nitro-
gen-free
extract.

Ether
ex-
tract.

ROUGHAGE — continued.
Hay from legumes — con.
Vetch

11.3
9.2
8.4
7.6
15.0

70.8
74.8
80.9
71.8
83.6
75.1
79.5
84.2
66.7

9.6
7.1
9.2
14!2
14.3
14.3
9.9
10.1
9.2

79.1
76.1
72.0
74.2
85.0
79.3

69.8
50.1

79.0
76.0
80.8

78.9

88.5
86.5
90.9
90.5

88.6

7.9
7.2
7.9
10.8
7.3

2.1
2.0
1.7
2.7
1.7
2.6
3.2
1.2
2.9

4.2
3.2
5.1
5.7

9.2
10.0
5.5

5.8

8.7

1.4
1.1

2.6
2.8
0.6
2.9

4.5
3.5

2.8
2.4
1.6

1.0
1.0
0.9
1.1
0.8
1.2

17.0
15.2
22.9
10.7
14.8

4.4
3.9
3.1

4.8
2.4
4.0

2.7
2.8
8.7

3.4
3.0
4.0
3.5
4.5
4.0
5.2
4.6
8.8

1.7

0.8
4.2
4.1
1.2
2.7

3.8
5.9

2.8
2.5
2.4

2.1
1.5
1.8
1.4
1.1
1.2

2-5.4
21.6
26.2
23.6
20.4

8.1
7.4
5.2
7.4
4.8
6.7
5.4
4.9
7.9

38.1
38.9
37.0
36.0
36.0
34.0
43.0
40.4
37.6

6.0

6.4
8.4
9.7
3.3
6.0

9.5
13.0

7.2
7.2
5.8

0.6

0.9
0.9
0.9
1.2
1.3

36.1
44.2
31.4
42.7
39.5

13.5
11.0
8.4
12.3
7.1
10.6
8.6
6.5
12.2

43.4
46.6
42.4
39.0
34.6
36.2
35.1
37.4
34.3

11.0
15.3
11.6
6.9

8.8
7.6

11.1

26.0

7.2
11.1
9.2

17.3
8.0
9.8
5.5
6.2
7.5

2.3
2.6
3.2
4.6
3.0

1.1
0.9
0.7
1.0
0.4
1.0
0.7
0.4
1.6

1.3
1.2
2.3
1.5
1.4
1.5
1.3
1.7
1.4

0.8
0.3
1.2
2.2
1.1
1.5

1.3
1.6

1.0
0.8
0.3

0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.2

5
3
5

43
4
3
23
10
27
9
2
2

7
7
12
97

""3

4
1

99
6
5

1
1
2

1
1

9
4
1

12
»
19
9
3
4

Flat pea

Peanut vines ( without nuts )
•Sautoin.

Fresh legumes.

Red clover, different stages.
Alsike clover

Crimson clover

Alfalfa

Cowpea.

Soja bean

Serradella

Horse bean

Flat pea

Straw.
Wheat

Rye

Oat

Barley

Wheat chaff.

Oatchaff

Buckwheat straw

Soja bean

Horse bean

Silage.
Corn

Sorghum

Red clover

Soja bean

Apple pomace

Cowpea vine

Cowpea and soja-bean vines,
mixed

Field-pea vine

Barnyard millet and soja
bean

Corn and soja bean

Rve...

Hoots and tubers.
Potato

Beets, common

Beet, sugar

Beet, mangel

Turnip

Ruta-baga

624

Feeds and Feeding.

TABLE I. Average composition of American feeding stuffs — continued.

Feeding stuffs.

Percentage composition.

No. of
analyses. |

Water.

Ash.

Pro-
tein.

Crude
fiber.

Nitro-
gen-free
extract.

Ether
ex-
tract.

Hoots and tubers — con.
Carrot

88.6
88.3
79.5
71.1

90.5
75.7

88.0
90.9
80.8
88.4
84.5
55.3
80.8

87.2
74.6
91.0
81.3
86.9
80.8
90.4
90.6
90.1
93.8

8.5
10.7
10.8
89.8
20.8
76.7
83.9
93.7

5.0

1.0
0.7
1.0
1.0

1.4
4.0
2.4
0.5
0.9
2.2
2.0
1.0
0.4

0.7
1.6
0.4
0.8
0.9
1.1
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.4

4.7
4.1
29.2
0.6
10.6
0.5
0.6
0.2

11.3

1.1
1.6
2.6
1.5

2.4
2.0
2.6
1.3
1.8
2.4
2.3
2.5
0.7

3.6
17.6
2.1
6.3
3.7
6.2
3.3
3.1
4.0
0.6

84.4
71.2
48.4
0.9
9.1
1.4
0.6
1.9

27.4

1.3
1.0
0.8
1.3

1.5
4.9
2.2
1.7
1.8
1.6
2.6
4.4
1.2

7.6
10.2
15.9
24.7

3.9
12.7
4.4
5.2
7.9
5.1
8.4
34.8
16.6

4.9
2.7
5.3
4.7
4.4
4.8
4.7
5.3
4.0
5.1

0.4
0.2
0.2
0.4

0.4
0.8
0.4
0.4
0.8
0.3
0.5
1.9
0.4

3.7
3.6
1.2
6.8
4.1
7.1
0.9
0.3
1.1
0.1

2.5
13.7
11.6

Parsnip

Artichoke

2
1

Sweet potato

MISCELLANEOUS.
Cabbage...

Spurry

Sugar-beet leaves .. . .

Pumpkin (field)

Pumpkin (garden) •

Prickly comfrey

"'a

793
42

Rape

Acorns, fresh

Apples ...

Cow's milk

Cow's milk colostrum

Mare's milK

Ewe's milk

Goat's milk

Sow's milk

7
96

7
85
46

3
144
6
16
35
7
2
1

Skim milk, gravity....
Skim milk centrifugal

Buttermilk

Whey

Dried blood

Meat scrap

0.3

Dried fish

Beet pulp. . .

2.4

6.3
59.5
16.2
11.7*
2.8

36.1

Beet molasses.

Apple pomace

3.9
3.2
0.6

8.0

1.3

Sorghum bBgasse

Distillery slops

0.9
12.3

Dried sediment from distil-
lery slops

Includes fat

Appendix.

625

TABLE II. AVERAGE DIGESTIBILITY OF AMERICAN FEEDING-
STUFFS, WITH ADDITIONS FROM THE GERMAN TABLES.

The data of this table are mainly from digestion trials con-
ducted by American Experiment Stations, as compiled by Lindsey
in the report of the Massachusetts (Hatch) Experiment Station
for 1896. Coefficients from this source are marked "M" in the
last column of the table. To render the table more complete,
additions have been made from the German tables. Those marked
" L" are from Mentzel & Lengerke's Landw. Kalender for 1898.
Those marked " K " are from Zusammensetzung der Futtermittel,
Dietrich and Konig.

A. Experiments with Ruminants.

Feeding stuffs.

"3
£

^
&

Dry matter.

Protein.

Crude fiber.

Nitrogen-free
extract.

Ether ex-
tract.

Authority.

CONCENTRATES.
Dent corn

Per

cent.

Per

cent.

Per
cent.

Per

cent.

Per

cent.

Corn meal

Corn cob

Corn and cob meal

Glu ten meal

Gluten meal (Chicago)

Gluten meal (King's).

Gluten feed

Gluten feed (Buffalo)

Gluten feed (Pope's).

Gluten feed (Peoria)

Gluten feed (Atlas)

Maize feed (Chicago)

Cream gluten (Pope's)

Wheat bran ,.

68 *

Wheat bran, spring wheat
Wheat bran, winter wheat
Wheat middlings

2
3

63
62
79

77
82

24
27
36

70
65

76
64

M.
M.

Rye meal

Barley

Malt sprouts

100

Brewers' grains, wet

Ti,

Brewers' grains, dried

Oats

Flax seed

Linseed meal, old process.
Linseed meal, new process

57
74

78
84

89
93

M.
M.

626

Feeds and Feeding.

TABLE II. Average digestibility of American feeding stuffs — continued.

Feeding stuffs.

No. of trials.

Dry matter.

Crude fiber.

CD**

fce^

fc°

Ether ex-
tract.

Authority.

CONCENTRATES — continued.
Cotton seed

Per

cent..

Per

cent.

Per

cent.

Per

cent.

Per

cent.

Cotton seed roasted

Cotton-seed meal

Cotton-seed hulls

Cotton-seed hulls, when led
with cotton-seed meal

Cotton-seed hulls, when fed
with cotton-seed meal

Cotton-seed feed (hulls and
meal )

Cotton-seed feed (hulls and
meal). ..*

Pea meal

Soj a-hean meal

Peanut feed

ROUGHAGE.

Fodder corn, field-cured.

Dent and flint varieties, aver-
age

Dent mature ... .

Dent in milk i

Dent, immature, B. & W.
( coarse )

Dent, immature, no ears formed
Flint mature

8
9

65
71

62
65

64
73

66
70

M.
M

Flint ears just forming

Sweet, mature

Corn stover, field-cured.
Corn stover all varieties

Corn* stover

Corn stover, shredded, fed dry.
Corn stover, shredded, fed wet.
Corn stover, tops and blades ...
Corn stover, leaves

2
2
2
2

60
60
56

40 •
36
55
56

65
70
71
61

56
59
62
59

72
74
71
63

M.
M.
M.
M.

Corn stover, stalk below ear....
Corn stover, stalk above ear
Corn stover, husks

2
2
2

67
55

21
22
30

74
71
80

69
54

80
64
33

M.
M,

Corn stover, leaves below ear...
Corn forage, green.

Dent fodder corn, average glaz-
ino* and mature

2
18

65
66

35
53

78
52

68
74

56
76

M.
M,

Dent fodder corn, mature
Dent fodder corn, glazing
Dent fodder corn in milk.

4
9
9

67
70

51
54
61

51
64

72
75
76

78
78

M.
M.
M

Dent fodder corn, immature ...

Appendix. 627

TABLE II. Average digestibility of American feeding stuffs — continued.

Feeding stuffs.

1
o

Dry matter.

Protein.

Crude fiber.

CD"

Ether ex-
tract.

Authority.

ROUGHAGE — continued.
Corn for age, green — continued

Dent fodder corn, glazing, B.
& W (coarse)

Per

cent.

Per

cent.

Per
cent.

Sweet fodder corn, roasting ear
statre

Sweet fodder corn, in milk

Hay from grasses.

Meadow hay, rich in protein...
Meadow hay, medium in pro-
tein

48
94

67
61

66
57

63
60

68
64

57
53

L.
Ti.

Meadow hay, poor in protein..
Timothy all trials

56
57

50
48

56
52

59
63

49
57

L.
M

Timothy, cut in bloom

Timothy, cut soon after bloom
Orchard grass

10
3

45
60

47
61

60
55

53
55

M.
M

Redtop..

Hungarian

Mixed, rich in protein

ftO

Mixed medium in protein

Rowen average.

Dried pasture grass

Barlev hay

Oats and vetch

Timothy and clover, poorly
cured

Blue-joint grass ( Calamagros-
tis Canadensw} in bloom
Blue-joint grass, past bloom....
Wild-oat grass (Danthonica
spicata)

2
1

69
40

70
57

72
37

69
43

52
37

M.
M.

Cats-tail millet ( Pennesetum
spicatum)

Johnson grass

Witch (quack) grass ( THticum
repens)

Sorghum fodder (leaves).

Sorghum bagasse (stalks after
juice is removed)

Swamp hay

Salt hav of black grass ( Juncui
Gerardi). .

Low meadow fox grass ( &par-
tinajuncea)

High-grown salt hay (largely
tipartina juncea )

Branch grass (Npartina juncec
with tfpartina stricta, var.
glabra )

628

Feeds and Feeding.

TABLE II. Average digestibility of American feeding stuffs — continued.

Feeding stuffs.

No. of trials.

Dry matter.

Protein.

Crude fiber.

Nitrogen-free
extract.

Ether ex-
tract.

Authority.

ROUGHAGE — continued.
Hay from grasses — continued.

Buttercups (Ranunculus aeris]
White weed (Ox eye daisy)
(Leucanthemum vulgar e)

Straw and chaff.
Wheat straw

2
2

Per

cent.

Per
cent.

56
58

Per
cent.

41
46

Per

cent.

67
67

Per
cent.

70
62

M.
M.

Rye straw

Oat straw

Ti,

Barley straw

Soja-bean straw

Oat chaff

Wheat chaff

Grasses, green.
Pasture grasses, mixed

Timothy

Orchard grass, in bloom

Oat fodder, in bloom

Rye, formation of heads

Sorghum, average

Barley, in bloom

Hungarian grass, early to late
bloom

Barley and peas, full bloom
Oats and peas, bloom(?)

2
2

60
68

77
81

43
57

61
66

M.
M

Rowen grass, mostly timothy,
two-thirds grown

Hay from legumes.
Red clover, in bloom..

Red clover, late bloom, fair
quality

Red clover, good quality
Alsike

2
8

52
62

49
66

48
53

58
71

43
50

M.
M

White

Crimson

Alfalfa

Alfalfa, late bloom

Alfalfa, stage not given

Cowpea-vine, fair quality
Soja-bean

2
2

59
62

65
71

43
61

71
69

M.
M

Vetch

Serradella, in bloom

T,,

Peanut vines

Sanfoin

Appendix. 629

TABLE II. Average digestibility of American feeding stuffs — continued.

Feeding stuflfa.

No. of trials.

Dry matter.

Protein.

9
•tf

s|
SP!

Ether ex-
tract.

Authority.

ROUGHAGE — continued.
Legumes, green.
Bed clover, late bloom

Per
cent.

Per

cent.

Per
cent.

Rowen, late bloom

Crimson clover, late bloom.
Alfalfa

3
2

69
67

77
81

56
45

66
52

M.
T,

Cowpea, ready for soiling.
Soja Dean, before bloom

2
9,

76
66

74
79

57
50

59
54

Soja bean, seed half grown
Canada peas, just before bloom

Silage.

Dent corn, grain milk stage to
mature

2
2

62
71

69
82

41
62

73
71

54
52

M.
M.

Dent corn, immature

Dent corn, stage uncertain

Dent corn, fine crushed (steers)
Dent corn, fine crushed (sheep)
Dent corn, uncooked, ears ma-
ture

2
2

64
54

38
22

75
64

65
55

76
68

M.
M.

Dent corn, cooked, ears mature

Flint, ears glazing

Sweet, some ears matured.. .

Soja bean

Cowpea vine

Barnyard millet and soja bean
Corn and soja bean

4
3

59
69

57
65

69
65

59
75

72
82

M.
M

Roots and tubers.
Potato

ft3

Potato

Beet, mangel

Sugar beet

ft8

Sugar beet

100

Turnip, flat

100

Ruta-baga

MISCELLANEOUS.
Cow's milk

100

Acorns, fresh

Dried blood

100

Meat scrap

Fish guano

Beet pulp

630

Feeds and Feeding.

TABLE II. Average digestibility of American feeding stuffs — continued.
B. Experiments with Pigs.

Feeding stuffs.

No. of trials.

Dry matter.

Protein.

Crude fiber.

Nitrogen-free
extract.

Ether ex-
tract.

i
Authority.

Corn meal .

Per
cent.

Per

cent.

Per

cent.

Corn meal

Corn kernels, whole

Corn and cob meal

Pea meal

M ;

Barley meal

Wheat whole

:72

\Vheat, cracked. .. .......

\Vheat shorts

M '

^Wheat bran

Rye bran

Potato

Dried blood

Flesh meal ...

8our milk

Appendix.

031

TABLE III. AVERAGE DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS AND FERTIL-
IZING CONSTITUENTS IN AMERICAN FEEDING STUFFS.

The data of this table for the digestible nutrients are derived
tinly from the two preceding tables. In other cases they are
Bulletin 22, Office of Experiment Stations, TJ. S. Depart-
it of Agriculture, Washington; Handbook for Farmers and
Dairymen, Woll; Farm Foods, Wolff (English edition, Cousins),
and ZusammensjAing der Futtermittel, Dietrich and Konig.

The fertilizkj^ptonstituents are principally from the Year Book
for 1895, TJ.^yn^epartme^t of Agriculture, Washington, with
additions from Wolff, DietEch and Konig, and Bulletin 87, New
Jersey Experiment Statiorf

Name of feed.

Dry

matter
in 100
pounds.

Digestible nutrients
jg 100 pounds.

Fertilizing constitu-
ents in 1,000 pounds.

tein.

Carbo-
hy-
drates.

Ether
ex-
tract.

Nitro-
gen.

Phos-
phoric
acid.

Pot-
ash.

CONCENTRATES.
Corn, all analyses

Lbs.

89.1
89.4
88.7
91.2
89.3
84.9
90.9
91.8
89.6
91.8
94.3
88.9
1)1.9
93.2
34.6

89.5
87.6
87.6
90.3
88.1
88?6
87.7
88.2
87.9
88.4

88.4
88.4
90.7

89.1
89.8

r.5

8.0
8.8
0.4
4.4
7.4
25.8
9.0
11.4
26.7
7.5
30.3
18.7
5.5

10.2
8.9
8.2
13.5
12.2
12.9
12.3
12.2
12.8
9.8

9.9
11.5
11.9

8.7
18.6

Lbs.

66.7
66.7
66.2
63.7
52.5
60.0
5918

38^8
55.2
35.3
51.7
21.7

69.2
62.4
62.7
61.3
39.2
40.1
37.1
50.0
53.0
51.0

67.6
50.3
45.1

65.6
37.1

Lbs.

4.3
4.3
4.3
7.0
0.3
2.9
4.6
11.0
6.2
6.5
12.4
6.8
14.5
8.7
2.3

1.7
0.9
0.9
2.0
2.7
3.4
2.6
3.8
3.4
2.2

1.1

2.0
1.6

1.6
1.7

Lbs.

18.2
16.5
16.8
18.6
5.0
14.1
16.3
50.3
26.5
22.4
49.8
16.3
57.7
36.3
9.8

23.6
18.9
28.9
31.8
26.7

Lbs,
7.0

Lbs.
4.0

Dent corn

Flint corn

Sweet corn ....

Corn cob

.6
5.7
12.1
3.3
8.0
7.0
5.1
9.8

6.0
4.7
6.8
0.5
5.0
5.2
1.5
4.9

Corn and cob meal

Corn bran

Gluten meal

Germ meal

Starch refuse

Grano-gluten

Hominy chops

Glucose meal

Sugar meal ....

4.1
1.0

7.9
2.2
5.6
21.4
28.9

0.3
1.0

5.0
1.5
3.5
10.9
16.1

Starch feed, wet

Wheat

High-grade flour

Low-grade flour

Dark feeding flour

AVheat bran

Wheat bran, spring wheat
Wheat bran, winter wheat
Wheat shorts

28.2
26.3
24.4

17.6
23.2
18.4

15.1
35.5

13.5
9.5
11.7

8.2
22.8
12.6

7.9
14.3

5.9
6.3

8.4

5.4
14.0

8.1

4.8
16.3

Wheat middlings

\Vheat screenings

Bye

Rye bran

Bye shorts

Barley

Malt sprouts...,

632

Feeds and Feeding.

TABLE III. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents — con.

Name of feed.

CONCENTRATES — continued.
Brewers' grains wet

Dry

matter
in 100
pounds.

Lbs.

24.3
91.8

89.0
92.1
92.3
93.5
90.6

87.6
91.8.
90. A
90.1

87!3

87.2
85.9
84.8
86.0

90.8
90.8
89.9
89.7
91.8
88.9
89.7
89.6
92.5
91.8
89.3
90.0

89.5
89.2
85.2
85.7

20.7
57.8
59.5

Digestible nutrients^
in 100 pounds.

NHUlizing const it si-
enTW^^pOO pounds.

Pro-
tein.

Lbs.

3.9
15.7

9.2
11. 5j
12.51

8.91
1.3*

5.3

9.0

7.7
2.1 |
7.4
21.1
22.0

7.0
7.4

7.8
8.9

20.6
29.3
28.2
12.5
37.2
0.3
15.6
16.0
12.1
31.2
42.9
25.2

16.8
29.6
18.3
22.4

1.0
2.5
1.7

Carbo-
hy-
drates.

Lbs.

9.3
36.3

47.3
k52.1
1*6.9

fcs.4

W'1

72.2
44.5
45.1
56.4

49.2
27.9
30.4
33.5
33.4

52.1

48.3
57.1
45.0

17.1

32.7
40.1
30.0
16.9
33.1
38.3
52.6
20.8
19.6
22.8
23.7

51.8
22 3
54.2
49.3

11.6
34.6
32.4

Ether
ex-
tract.

Lbs.
1.4

5.S
2.8 ]
5.1
0.6

0.3
0.6
7.3
6.5

1.8
0.6
1.9
5.5
5.4

3.1

2.9
2.7
3.2

29.0
7.0
2.8
17.3
12.2
1.7
10.5
9.0
29.0
12.8
6.9
7.5

0.7
14.4
1.1
1.2

0.4
1.2
0.7

Nitro-
gen.

Lbs.

.8.9
36.2

5.2

10.8
5.8
7.1
19.7

14.4
4.9
36.4

Phosfc
phoric
acid.

Lbs.

3.1
10.3

8.2

Pot-

0.9
6.2

Brewers' grains dried.

Oats

Oatmeal

Oat feed or shorts

9.1

5.3

Oat dust

Oat hulls

2.4

1.8
1.7
2.9
26.7

4.4

0.7
17.8

5.2

0.9
1.4
2.4
7.1

2.1
5.2

12.8

Rice

Bice hulls

Bice bran

Bice polish

Buckwheat

Buckwheat hulls

Buckwheat bran

Buckwheat shorts

Buckwheat middlings

42.8

14.8
16.3

21.9
8.1

11.4
4.2

Sorghum seed

Broom-corn seed

Kaffir corn

Millet

20.4

36.1
54.3

57.8
31.3
67.9
6.9
32.8
26.9
22.8
55.5
75.6
49.6

30.8
53.0
33.3
40.7

4.1
17.6
10.4

8.5

13.9
16.6
18.3
12.7
28.8
2.5
16.0
11.0
12.2
21.5
13.1
20.0

8.2
18.7

3.6

10.3
13.7
13.9
11.7
8.7
10.2
24.0
5.0
5.6
11.7
15.0
13.0

9.9
19.9

Flax seed

Linseed meal, old process..
Linseed meal, new process.
Cottonseed

Cotton-seed meal

Cotton-seed hulls

Cocoanutmeal

Palm-nut meal

Sunflower seed

Sunflower-seed cakes

Peanut meal

B«ape-seed meal

Peas

Soja (soy) bean

Cowpea

Horse bean

12.0

1.5
5.4
2.9

12.9

3.3

8.9
14.0

ROUGHAGE.
Fodder corn.
Fodder corn, green

Fodder corn, field-cured...
Corn stover, field-cured....

Appendix.

633

TABLE III. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents — con.

4 ^ame of feed.

^ROUGH AGE — continued.
fresh grass.

Pasture grasses (m^ed) ...
Kentucky blue grj^V.

Dry

matter
in 100
pounds.

Lbs.

20.0
34.9
«4
[)
1

20.6
30.1
28.9
21.0
16.0
16.0

86.8
90.1
91.1

78.8
92.3
87.1
83.4
80.0
88.7
91.1
88.4
92.1
85.0

90.4
92.9
90.8
65.8
85.7
85.7

29.2
25.2
19.1
28.2
16.4
24.9

84.7
78.8
90.3
90.3
90.4

Digestible nutrients
in 100 pounds.

Fertilizing constitu-
ents in 1,000 pounds.

Pro-
tein.

Lbs.

2.5
3.0
1.2
1.5
2.1
2.6
2.1
0.6
1.5

2.tf

4.8
4.5
5.9
7.9
4.2
10.8
4.3
2.4
3.5
3.8

0.4
0.6
1.2
0.7
0.3
1.5

2.9
2.7
2.4
3.9
1.8
3.2

6.8
5.7
8.4
11.5
10.5

Carbo-
hy-
drates.

Lbs.

10.2
19.8
19.1
11.4
21.2
18.9
14.1
12.2
16.8
16.0
10.2
7.1
7.2

43.4
42.3
46.9
37.3
51.7
40.9
40.1
43 13
38V
46M
29 1
44.7
40.7

36.3
40.6
38.6
41.2
23.3
33.0

14.8
13.1
9.1
12.7

8.7
11.0

35.8
32.0
42.5
42.2
34.9

Ether
ex-
tract.

Lbs.

0.5
0.8
0.6
0.5
0.6
1.0
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2

1.4
1.4
1.0
2.0
1.3
1.2
1.5
1.7
1.5
1.5
0.9
0.7
1.2

0.4
0.4
0.8
0.6
0.5
0.7

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.2
0.5

1.7
1.9
1.5
1.5
1.2

Nitro-
gen.

Lbs.
9.1

Phos-
phoric
acid.

Lbs.
2.3

Pot-
ash.

Lbs.
7.5

Timothy' diffe^jBfctges. ..
Orchard grass, flTffoom. . . .
Redtop, inblo^B.
Oat fodder
live fodder

4.8
4.3

2.6
1.6

7.6
7.6

4.9
3.3
2.3

1.3
1.5
0.9

3.8
7.3
2.3

Sorghum

Meadow fescue, in bloom..
Hunsrarian grass

3.9

1.6

5.5

Peas and oats

Hay.
Timothy

12.6
13.1
11.5
11.9
12.0
14.1
16.1
9.9
23.2

5.3
4.1
3.6
4.0
3.5
2.7
4.3
4.0
6.7

9.0
18.8
10.2
15.7
13.0
15.5
14.9
21.0
10.8

Orchard grass

Redtop

K.entuckv blue grass

Hungarian orass

Mixed grasses.

Rowen (mixed)

Meadow fescue

Soja-bean hay

Oat hay

Marsh or swamp hay

White daisy

Straw.
"Wheat

5.9
4.6
6.2
13.1
7.9

1.2

2.8
2.0
3.0
7.0

5.1

7.9
12.4
20.9

4.2

Rye ...

Oat.

Barley

Wheat chaff.

Oat chaff

Fresh legumes.

Red clover, different stages
Alsike bloom

5.3
4.4
4.3
7.2
2.7
2.9

20.7
22.3
23.4
27.5
20.5

1.3
1.1
1.3
1.3
1.0
1.5

3.8
5.5
6.7
5.2
4.0

4.6
2.0
4.9
5.6
3.1
5.3

22.0
12.2
22.3
18.1
13.1

Crimson clover

Alfalfa

Cowpea.

Soja bean

Legume hay and straw.
Red clover, medium

Red clover, mammoth
Alsike clover

White clover

Crimson clover

634

Feeds and Feeding.

TABLE III. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing Constituents — con.

Name of feed.

Dry
matter
in 100
pounds.

Digestible nutrients IW^^i zing const itu-
in 100 pounds. enTM^LOOO pounds.

Pro-
tein.

Carbo-
hy-
drates

Lbs.

39.6
38.6
40.0
32.3

11.3

Ether
ex-
tract.

Lbs.
1.2

0.7
1.0

Nitro-
gen.

Lbs.
21.9

2.8

Phos-
phoric
acid.

Lbs.

5.1
5.2
4.0
3.5

1.1

Pot-

aij.1 1 .

^F'

16. a

14.7
13.2
10.2

3.7

ROUGHAGE — continued.
Legume hay and straw — con.

Alfalfa

Lbs.

91.6

89.3
89.9
86.4

20.9

28 0

Lbs.

11.0

10.8
2.3
4.3

0.9
2.0

Cowpea

Soja-beaii straw.

Pea- vine straw

Silage.
Corn

Clover .. ..

Sorghum

23.9
27.5
32.0

20.7
25.8

21.0
24.fi

21.1
13.0
13.5
9.1
9.5
11.4
11.4
11.7
20.0

15.3
20.0
*2.0
9.1
19.2
11.6
14.0
44.7

91 5

0.6
3.0
1.9
1.5
2.7

1.6
1.6

0.9
1.2
1.1
1.1
1.0
1.0
0.8
1.6
2.0

1.8
1.5
1.7
1.0
1.4
1.4
1.5
2.1

52.3
66.2
44.1
0.6
9.1

3.6
17.6
3.1
2.9
3.9
0.8

14.9
8.5
13.4

8.6
8.7

9.2
13.0

16.3

8.8
10.2
5.4
7.2
8.1
7.8
11.2
16.8

8.2
9.8
4.6
5.8
8.3
4.6
8.1
34.4

.0
.3
.0
7.3
59.5

4.9
2.7
4.7
5.2
4.0
4.7

0.2
1.9
1.6
0.9
1.3

0.7
0.7

0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2

0 4

Alfalfa

Grass

Cowpea vine

Soja bean

Barn-yard millet and soja
bean

Corn and soja bean

Roots and tubers.
Potato

3.2
2.4
2.2
1.9
1.8
1.9
1.5
1.8
2.6

3.8

1.2
0.9
1.0
0.9
1.0
1.2
0.9
2.0
1.4

1.1

4.6
4.4
4.8-
3.8
3.9-
4.9-
5.1
4.4
4.7

4.:}

Beet, common

Beet, sugar

Beet, mangel

Flat turnip

Ruta-baga

Carrot

Parsnip.

Artichoke

MISCELLANEOUS.
Cabbage

Spurry

0.3
0.2
0.3
0.8
0.2
0.2
1.7

2.5
13.7
10.3

3.8
4.1

2.5
1.5

5.9
6.2

Sugar-beet leaves

Pumpkin, field

Pumpkin, garden

1.1
4.2
4.5

1.6
1.1
1.5

7if>
3.6

Prickly comfrey

Rape .

Acorns, fresh

Dried blood

35.0
13.9
77.5
1.4
14.6

5.3

28.2
5.6
5.6
4.8
1.5

13.5
7.0
20.0
0.2
0.5

1.9
6.6
2.0
2.0
1.7
1.4

7.T
1.0
2.o

0^4
56.3

1.8
1.1

1.9
1.6
1.8

Meat scrap
Dried fish

89.3
89.2
10.2
79.2

12.8
25.4
9.6
9.4
9.9
6.6

Beet pulp

Beet molasses...

3.7
3.6
0.8
0.3
1.1
0.3

Cow's milk..

Cow's milk, colostrum
Skim milk gravity

Skim milk, centrifugal ....
Buttermilk

W hey

Appendix. 635

TABLE IV. FEEDING STANDARDS FOR FARM ANIMALS.

The table of feeding standards here presented is taken from
Mentzel & Lengerke's Landw. Kalender for 1898. It comprises
the standards originally prepared by Dr. Emil v. Wolff for that
publication, modified by Dr. C. Lehmann. The standards hav-
ing been described at length in Chapter VII of this work, little
remains to be added for the guidance of the student in their use.

The standards are arranged to meet the requirements of farm
animals under normal conditions. The student should not ac-
cept the statements in the standards as absolute, but rather as
data of a helpful nature, to be varied in practice as circumstances
suggest.

The statements in the column headed "Dry Matter " should
be regarded as approximate only, since the digestive tract of the
animal readily adapts itself to variations of 10 per cent, or more
from the standard of volume.

The column headed "Sum of Nutrients" combines the data of
the three preceding columns, the ether extract being multiplied
by 2.4 before adding. In the first column of this division of the
table, marked "Crude Fiber— 1," all the digestible nutrients are
included. In the second division, marked "Crude Fiber =J," it
is assumed that 30 per cent, of the digestible non-nitrogenous
nutrients consists of crude fiber, and one-half of this, or 15 per
cent., is deducted. This deduction should be made in the case
of rations containing much coarse forage.

The standards are for animals of normal size. Those of small
breeds will require somewhat more nutrients, amounting in some
cases to .3 of a pound of nitrogenous and 1.5 pounds of non-
nitrogenous digestible nutrients daily for 1,000 pounds of live
weight of animals.

Narrowing the nutritive ratio in feeding full-grown animals is
for the purpose of lessening the depression of digestibility, (51)
to enliven the temperament, or to increase the production of milk
at the expense of laying on fat.

The different standards given for the same class of animals
according to performance illustrate the manner and direction in
which desirable changes should be made.

636

Feeds and Feeding.

In considering the fattening standards the student should bear
in mind that the most rapid fattening is usually the most econom-
ical, so that the standards given may often be profitably increased.

Standards for milch cows are given for the middle of the lacta-
tion period with animals yielding milk of average composition.

The standards for growing animals contemplate only a mod-
erate amount of exercise; if much is taken, add 15 per cent. —
mostly non-nitrogenous nutrients — to the ration. If no exercise
is taken, deduct 15 per cent, from the standard.

Animal.

Per day per 1,000 pounds live weight.

1
I

Digestible nutrients.

||
3*

H®

Sum of
nutrients.

Crud
=1

B fiber
=X

1. Oxen.
At rest in stall

Lbs

18
22
25
28

30
30
26

27
29
32

20
23

20
24
26

Lbs.

0.7
1.4

2.0

2.8

2.5

3.0

2.7

1.6
2.0
2.5
3.3

1.2
1.5

2.9

3.0
3.5

1.5
2.0
2.5

2.5

Lbs.

8.0
10.0
11.5
13.0

15.0
14.5
15.0

10.0
11.0
13.0
13.0

10.5
12.0

15.0

15.0
14.5

9.5
11.0
13.3

15.5

Lbs.

0.1
0.3
0.5
0.8

0.5
0.7
0.7

0.3
0.4
0.5
0.8.

0.2
0.3

0.5

0.5
0.6

0.4
0.6
0.8

0.4

Lbs.

8.9
12.1
14.7
17.7

18.7
19.2
19.4

12.3
14.0
16.7
18.2

12.2
14.2

19.1

19.2
19.4

12.0
14.5
17.7

Lbs.

7.5

9.7
12.0
15.0

15.6
17.0
17.2

10.2
12.2
14.4
16.0

10.0
12.0

16.3

16.5
16.9

10.0
12.8
15.5

11.8
7.7
6.5
5.3

6.5
5.4

6.2

6.7
6.0
5.7
4.5

9.1

8.5

5.6

5.4
4.6

7.0
6.2
6.0

6.6

At light work

At medium work.

At heavy work

£ . fattening cattle.
First period

Second period .

Third period

£. Milch cows.

When yielding daily —
11 0 pounds of milk

16.6 pounds of milk ....

22 0 pounds of inilk

27.5 pounds of irnlk

4. Sheep.
Coarse wool

Fine wool

5. Breeding ewes.
With lambs

6. Fattening sheep.
First period

Second period

7. Horses.
Light work

Medium work

Heavy work.

& jBrood sows

Appendix.

637

TABLE IV. Feeding standards for farm animals — continued.

Animal*

Per day per 1,000 pounds live weight.

b
«

Digestible nutrients.

^ .
]|

•gg
£3

5*
g«

Sum of

nutrients.

Crud
=1

3 fiber
=Y*

£3

9. fattening swine.

Lbs

36
32
25

23
24

27
26
26

23
24
25
24
24

25
25
23
22

26
26
24
23

35
32
28
25

44
35
33
30

Lbs.

4.5
4.0
2.7

4.0
3.0
2.0
1.8
1.5

4.2
3.5
2.5
2.0
1.8

3.4

2.8
2.1
1.8
1.5

4.4
3.5
3.0
2.2
2.0

7.6
5.0
3.7
2.8
2.1

7.6
5.0
4.3
3.6
3.0

Lbs.

25.0
24.0
18.0

13.0
12.8
12.5
12 5
12.0

13.0

12.8
13.2
12.5
12.0

15.4
13.8
11.5
11.2
10.8

15.5
15.0
14.3
12.6
12.0

28.0
23.1
21.3
18.7
15.3

28.0
23.1
22.3

20.5
18.3

Lbs.

0.7
0.5
0.4

2.0
1.0

0.5
0.4
0.3

2.0
1.5
0.7
0.5
0.4

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3

0.9
0.7
0.5
0.5
0.4

1.0
0.8
0.4
0.3
0.2

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.3

Lbs.

21
2

21.8
18.2
15.7
15.3
14.2

20.0
19.9
17.4
15.7
14.8

20.5
18.0
14.8
14.0
13.0

22.1
20.2
18.5
16.0
15.0

30
26
22
17

38
30
28
25
22

Lbs.

).2
2.0

21.0
17.0
13.7
12.8
11.8

21.5
19.0
15.8
13.9
13.2

18.4
15.8
12.8
12.0
11.0

20.9
17.8
16.3
13 8
12.8

.0
.0
.0
.2
.9

.0
.0
.0
.1
.0

5.9
6.3
7.0

4.5
5.1
6.8
7.5
8.5

4.2
4.7
6.0
6.8
7.2

5.0
5.4
6.0
7.0

7.7

4.0
4.8
5.2
6.3
6.5

4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
7.5

4.0
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.4

Third period.

to. Growing cattle.

Dairy breeds.
Age in Av. live wt.
months. per head, Ibs.
2- 3 150
3- 6 300
6-12 500
12-18 700

18-24 900
11. Growing cattle.
Beef breeds.
2- 3 160
3- 6 330
6-12 550
12-18 750
18-24 950
12. Growing sheep.
Wool breeds.
4r- 6 60 ...

6- 8 75

8-11 80

11-15 90

15-20 100
13. Growing sheep.
Mutton breeds.
4- 6 60

6- 8 80

8-11 100

11-15 120
15-20 150

14» Growing swine.
Breeding stock.
2- 3 50

3- 5 ..100
5- 6 120
6- 8 200
8-12 250
15. Growing, fattening swine.
2- 3 50
3- 5 100
5- 6 150
6- 8 200
9-12 300

GLOSSARY.

Technical terms which may not have been explained in the body of the
book are here defined. The botanical names of a number of agricult-
ural plants are also given to aid the reader who might otherwise be un-
certain which species or variety is meant.

Abomasum. The 'fourth stomach of ruminants. (28)

Ad libitum. At pleasure. In case of feeding farm animals, all they will
eat of any particular feeding stuff.

Albuminoids. The more complex forms of protein. They are usually in-
soluble in water or may be rendered so by heat. (10) See Protein.

Alfalfa. Medicago sativa.

Aliment. Food, nutriment.

Alimentary tract or canal. The duct comprising the stomach, intestines,
etc., by which food (aliment) is conveyed through the body, and
the useless parts evacuated. (32)

Alsike clover. Trifolium hybridum.

Amides. Protein compounds simpler than the albuminoids, which are
capable of transference in the plant, or such as have been reduced
to their present form from the albuminoids. (71) See Protein.

Artichoke. Helianthus tuberosus.

Ash. The portion of a feeding stuff which remains after it has been
burned.

Assimilate. The conversion of digested nutrients into the fluid or solid
substances of the body.

Balanced ration. A combination of farm foods containing the various
nutrients in such proportion and amount as will nurture the ani-
mal for twenty-four hours, with the least waste of nutrients.

Barnyard millet. Panicum cms-galli. k

Bolus. A rounded mass; the portion of the food ready to be swallowed
at one time.

Burr clover. Medicago maculata.

Calorie. The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one
kilogram of water one degree Centigrade (or one pound of water
four degrees Fahrenheit). (61)

Carbhydrates. See Carbohydrates.

Carbohydrates. A group of nutrients rich in protein and containing
oxygen and hydrogen in the proportion in which they form water.
The carbohydrates do not contain nitrogen.

Glossary. 639

Carnivorous. A term applied to animals that feed chiefly on flesh.
Casein. The protein substance of milk which is coagulated by rennet or

acids.

Castor oil bean. The seed of Riclnus communis.
Cathartic. A medicine that acts as a purge.
Cellulose. The cell tissue of plants. The lint of cotton and wood pulp

are almost pure cellulose. See Crude fiber.
Chyle. A milky fluid found in the lacteals, consisting of digested but

unassimilated nutrients in solution, and the digested fatty matter

of the food in a state of emulsion. (35)

Concentrates. The more nutritious portion of the rations of farm ani-
mals, embracing such feeding stuffs as corn, oil meal, etc.
Corn. See Indian corn.
Corn fodder, or fodder corn. Stalks of corn, either green or dried, which

are grown for forage and from which the ears or nubbins, if they

carry any, have not been removed.
Corn stover. See Stover.
Cowpea. Dolichos katiang, var. sinensis.
Crimson clover. Trifolium incarnatum.
Crude fiber. The framework forming the walls of the cells of plants. It

is composed of cellulose and lignin, ^he latter being the more

woody portion. (20)
Crude protein. See Protein.
Diastase. The ferment found in seeds while germinating, especially in

malting barley, by aid of which starch is converted into glucose.
Digestible matter. The part of feeding stuffs brought into solution or

semi-solution by the digestive fluids.
Digestible nutrients. The portion of any food constituent that is digested

by animals.
Digestion coefficient. The percentage of any particular nutrient of a

feeding stuff which is found to be digestible.
Digestive tract. See Alimentary tract.
Dry matter. The portion of a feeding stuff remaining after the water or

moisture contained therein has been driven off' by heat.
Emulsion. A milk-like mixture of a liquid and a solid, or of two liquids

in which one of the constituents, generally fat or oil, is present in

suspension in an exceedingly fine mechanical condition.
Ensilage. As a noun, the forage preserved in a silo; now usually termed

silage, which see. As a verb, to place in a silo.
Ergot. A parasitic fungus of poisonous qualities found on some of the

cereals and grasses. (283)
Ether extract. That which is dissolved from a water-free feeding stuff

by means of ether. It is often termed "fat" by agricultural

writers. (21)

640 Feeds and Feeding.

Excrement. The indigestible or refuse matter of farm foods voided by
animals.

Fertilizing constituents. The nitrogen and mineral components of feed-
ing stuffs. Generally the term applies only to nitrogen, phos-
phoric acid and potash, since these are most apt to be lacking in
the soil or present in insufficient quantities.

Reid pea. Pisum arvense.

Fodder corn. See Corn fodder.

Foot-ton. The work performed in raising a weight of one ton to a height
of one foot.

Glucose, fruit sugar. The form of sugar found in fruits, honey, etc.; alsa
in the alimentary canal. It can be obtained by treating starch or
cane sugar (sucrose) with dilute mineral acids.

Glycogen. A carbohydrate resembling starch, found in the liver.

Grain equivalent. The term used to designate the comparative value of
grain and less concentrated feeding stuffs, such as milk, whey,
roots, etc.

Gram. A metric weight. 453.6 grams equal one pound avoirdupois.

Hairy vetch. Vicia vittosa.

Herbivorous. A term applied to animals that subsist on vegetable foods-

Herd's grass. See Timothy.

Hungarian grass, German millet. Set aria italica, var. germanica.

Ibid. In the same place; preceding reference.

Indian corn, or maize. Zea mays.

Intestine. The lower part of the alimentary canal. (32)

Japan clover. Lespedeza striata.

Japanese millet. Setaria italica, vars.

June grass. See Kentucky blue grass.

Kaffir corn. Sorghum vulgare.

Kentucky blue grass, or June grass. Poa pratensis.

Kilogram. A metric weight equal to 2.2-f- pounds.

Lacteals. Minute tubes which take the chyle from the alimentary canal
and convey it to the thoracic duct. See Lymphatics.

Legumes. Plants belonging to the botanical family Leguminosse. Ex-
amples: red clover, peas, beans.

Levulose. Invert sugar, obtained with dextrose or grape sugar when
cane sugar is heated with dilute mineral acids.

Liter. A metric measure of capacity equaling 1.05-f- quarts.

Loc. cit. In the place referred to; preceding reference.

Lucern. See Alfalfa.

Lymph. The colorless fluid found in the lymphatics of the animal body.

Lymphatics. The vein-like vessels that convey lymph. (37)

Lymphatic system. The system of lymph vessels which collect and con-
vey the lymph. (37)

Glossary. 641

Maintenance ration. An allowance of food sufficient to maintain a rest-
ing " nimal — neither gaining nor losing in weight.
Mammoth clover. Trifolium medium.
Mangel, mangel-wurzel. Beta vulgaris.
Masticate. To crush or grind food with the teeth. (34)
Meadow fescue. Festuca pratensis.

Metabolism. The process by which, on the one hand, the digested food
is built up into living matter, and on the other, the living matter
is broken down into simpler products within a cell or organism.
Meter. A metric unit of length equaling 3.28 feet.
Millet, common. Panicum miliaceum.

Millo maize. Sorghum vulgare or Andropogon sorghum, var.

Mineral matter. .See Ash. (18)

Nitrogen-free extract. The portion of a feeding stuff remaining when the
moisture, ether extract and crude fiber are deducted; it includes
starch, sugar, gums, etc. (22)

Nitrogenous substance. Any food substance containing nitrogen. See
Protein.

Nutrient. Any food constituent or group of food constituents capable of
nourishing animals. Sugar, carbohydrates and protein are nu-
trients.

Nutritive ratio. The proportion of digestible protein to digestible carbo-
hydrates and ether extract in a ration, the percentage of ether
extract being multiplied by 2.4 and added to the carbohydrates.

OH meal. As understood by American farmers, this term applies only to
linseed oil cake reduced to meal by grinding. (200)

Omasum. The third stomach of ruminants. (28)

Omniverous. Eating or living upon annual or vegetable food indiscrim-
inately.

Orchard grass. Dactylis glomerata.

Organic matter. The part of a feeding stuff which is destroyed by burn-
ing.

Parsnip. Pastinaca saliva.

Pepsin. The digestive ferment found in the stomach of animals. (27)

Period of gestation. The length of tune of carrying the young; from
conception to birth.

Period of lactation. The time during which the animal suckles her
young; with dairy cows, the period from calving to drying off.

Prickly comfrey. Symphytum asperrimum.

Protein. A term used to characterize the constituents of feeding stuffs
which contain nitrogen. The organic part of the bones, muscles,
tendons, internal organs, skin, etc., of the animal body are formed
from the protein nutrients of feeding stuffs. Wheat gluten and
white of egg are examples of protein. On the average, 16 per cent.
41

642 Feeds and Feeding.

of protein compounds is nitrogen, the other elements being the
same as in carbohj^drates and fat. The protein compounds
in feeding stuffs can be divided into albuminoids and amides,
which see. The terms " nitrogenous compound " and u nitrogenous
substance" have the same meaning as protein.

Protoplasm. The jelly-like or granular substance of living plant-cells. ( 5 )

Provender. Forage, grain, or feed of any kind.

Ptyalin. The ferment contained in the saliva. (25)

Pumpkin. Cucurbita pepo.

Rape. JBrassica napus.

Ration. The allowance of provender given to an animal during twenty-
four hours.

Red clover. Trifolium pratense.

Redtop. Agrostis vulgar is.

Rennet. The ferment found in the lining of the rennet stomach of young
mammals. (27)

Respiration apparatus. An apparatus for determining the waste matter
thrown off by the lungs of an animal. (54, 55)

Reticulum, or honey comb. The second stomach of ruminants. (28)

Roughage. The coarse portion of a ration, including such feeding stuffs
as hay, corn fodder, silage, roots, etc. See Concentrates.

Rumen, or paunch. The first stomach of ruminants. (28)

Ruminant. An animal that chews the cud.

Ruta-baga, Swedish turnip, Swedes. Brassica campestris, var.

Saliva. The secretion of the salivary glands of the mouth, the office of
which is to moisten the food and through its ferment, ptyalin,
partially digest the starchy components of the food. (25)

Scarlet or crimson clover. Trifolium incarnatum.

Silage. A succulent forage preserved in the silo.

Silo. An air-tight structure used for the preservation of forage in a suc-
culent condition.

Soiling. The system of feeding farm animals in a barn or enclosure with
fresh grass or green fodders, as corn, rye, oats, etc.

Soja bean, or soy bean. Soja hispida.

Sorghum. Sorghum vulgare, var. saccharatum.

Spurry. Spergula arvensis.

Stover. The dry stalks of corn from which the ears have been removed.

Succulent feed. Feed containing much water, as grass, silage, roots.

Swedish clover. See Alsike clover.

Teosinte. Euchlaena luxurians.

Timothy, or Herd's grass. Phleum pratense.

Villi. Minute hair-like projections on the inside of the intestines, through
which the larger portion of the digested nutrients is absorbed. (35)

White clover. Trifolium rcpens.

INDEX.

The references are to pages.

Abomasum, 16.

Absorption, 20.

Acorn, 219.

Age, effect of 011 gain of steers, 367.

Age of cow, effect of on productivity of

feed, 406.
Albuminoids, 6.
Alfalfa or lucern, 203.

compared with corn, 204.

for pasture, 208.

in eastern United States, 207.

Iowa experience with, 201.

losses in hay making, 206.

manner of growth, 207.

yield of, 203.

Alfalfa crop, nutrients in, 205.
Alfalfa hay, 208.

damage from rain, 206.

fattening Western sheep on, 508.

for sheep, 505.

and grain for fattening sheep, 532.
Alsike clover, 201.
American Fat Stock Show, slaughter tests,

380.

American ration for dairy cows, 114.
Amides, 7.

influence on protein consumption, 48.
Animal body, dry substance in, 72.

fat in, 72.

influence of feed on, 78.

nitrogenous substance in, 72.

water in, 72.

Animal carcass, modification by roots, 214.
Animal nutrition, 40.
Artichoke, 214.

for horses, 307.

for pigs, 571.
Artificial digestion, 31.

trials, 238.
Ash, 7, 10.

retained and voided by farm animals,

265.
Ashes, for pigs fed on corn, 86.

for swine, 614.
Asparagin, a nutrient, 48.

influence on protein consumption, 48.
Balanced ration, for steers, 357.
Ball-leeding show pigs, 613.
Barley, characteristics of, 133.

fertilizing constituents of, 138.

for cows, 474.

for horses, 293.

for swine, 562, 610.

Barley vs. centrifugal skim milk for pigs,
586.

vs. Indian corn for pigs, 591.

vs. rye for pigs, 588.

Barley and its by-products in brewing, 188.
Barley and peas, 191.
Barrows vs. sows in swine feeding, 602.
Beef, feeding for, 338.

production, cotton seed for, 361.

making, at the South, 361.
value of breed in, 372.

returns per acre of corn, 381.

see Steer feeding.

Beef and dairy cows compared, 405.
Beet molasses, 224.

potash in, 225.
Beet pulp, means of utilizing, 223.

silage from, 223.
Beets of different sugar content vs. grain

for pigs, 595.

Beets and silage, relative cost, 252.
Beets, see Roots.
Bile, 17.
Blood, the, 22.

plasma, composition of, 22.

venous, composition of, 22.

dried, feeding pigs on, 78.

for sheep, 511.

Blood bread vs. grain for pigs, 597.
Body fat, source of, 50.
Body heat not a measure of the energy of

food, 67.

Body tissues, formation of, 40.
Body waste, the, 41.

Bone and muscle development, limits, 616.
Bone meal for corn-fed pigs, 86.
Bones, strength of pig's, 83.
Bran for sheep, 499, 523.

for steers, 383.

for swine, 610.

vs. oats for horses, 295.
Bran and shorts vs. bran for horses, 295.

see Wheat bran.

Breed, value of, in beef making, 372.
Breed tests with pigs, 543, 603.

with cows, 455.

with steers, 373,375.

with sheep, 487-89.
Brewers' grains, 136.

for cows, 474.

dried, 137.

for horses, 293.

wet, 137.

644

Index.

Brood sow, feed for, 601.

importance of exercise for, 605.
Broom-corn seed, 147.
Buckwheat, for pigs, 566.

wild, for sheep, 500.
Buckwheat grain, 144.
Buckwheat and its by-products, 144.

fertilizing constituents of, 145.
Bull, feed and care of, 467.
Burr clover, 203.
Butter, effect of cotton seed on quality of,

156.

Butter fat, effect of feed on composition of,
442.

see Fat and Milk fat.
Buttermilk, 228.

for pigs, 574.
Cabbage, 216.
Cactus, 217.
Calf, composition of, 71.

rearing, 331, 338.

dairy, rearing, 339.

see Calves.
Calorie, 38.
Calorimeter, 37.
Calorimetry, 37.
Calves, birth weight of, 334.

cod liver oil for, 337.

cotton-seed meal for, 157.

fall, 342.

flax seed for, 337.

feed and care after weaning, 341.

gravity vs. separator skim milk, 836.

hay tea for, 341.

oleomargarine for, 337.

separator skim milk for, 335.

skim milk fed, gain from, 333.

skim rnilk for, 335.

sugar for, 337.

veal, feeding, 343.

wet chaffed hay for, 243.

whey for, 337, 340.

withholding coarse food from, 95.

whole milk for, 334.
Calving, influence of time from, on milk

flow, 407.
Cane sugar, 5.

molasses, 225.

Carbohydrate nutrition, 25.
Carbohydrates, influence on protein con-
sumption, 44.

potential energy of, 38.

source of fat, 51.
Carbohydrates and fat, effects of, 48.

value of, 59.

Carbonic acid, excretion of, 66.
Carcass, modifications of, 84.

of farm animals, nitrogen and ash, 77.
Carriage horse, feeding of, 322.
Carrots, 212.

for horses, 307.

vs. mangels for pigs, 596.
Castor oil seed in linseed meal, 153.
Cattle, dressed weight of, 379.

Cattle, fattening, feed and management*
381.

range, fattening, 397.

see Steer.
Cellulose, 5.

Cereals, as forage plants, 191.
Chaff, 239.

Chaffing, advantages of, 240.
Charcoal, for pigs, 615.

cob, how to make, 615.
Chewing hay, work perforrr ed in, 29.
Chewing oats, work performed in, 29.
Christmas-lamb raising, 529.
Chyle, 20.

composition of, 21.
Circulatory system, the, 21.
Clover, red, 196.

mammoth, 201.

alsike, 201.

crimson or scarlet, 202.

Japan, 203.

burr, 203.

proper time for cutting, 198.
Clover plant, development of nutrients, 197*
Clover hay, for cows, 476.

for horses, 303.

for sheep, 506.

for swine, 611.

losses in curing, 199.

making, methods of, 198.

spontaneous combustion of, 200.

use of, 200.

with meal for pigs, 577.
Coarse and concentrated feeds, digestion

of, 31.

Coarse fodders, digestibility of, 29.
Coarse forage, withholding from rumi-
nants, 94.
Cocoanut meal, 159.

for horses, 301.
Cod liver oil for calves, 337.
Coefficients of digestibility, 98.
Colon, 18.
Colostrum, 228.
Colt, feeding after weaning, 316.

protein feeds vs. oats for, 300.

rations for, 331.

see Foal.

Columbian Exposition, dairy tests, 448*
Commercial fertilizers, 267.
Composition of feeding stuffs, 97.
Concentrated feeds for dairy cows, 413*
Concentrates, 97.
Condimental foods, 229.

notes concerning, 229.

not recommended, 230.
Confinement, of fattening steers, 364.

vs. exposure, for sheep, 492.
Cooked feed, value of, 235.

function of, 239.

for cows, 432.

for horses, 238.

for swine, 236, 545.

experiments with, for swine, 515^

Index.

645

Corn, 119.

a carbonaceous food, 120.

alone and in combination,for sheep, 509

amount passing through steer, 349.

as human food, 121.

beef returns per acre, 381.

composition of, 125.

composition of the several parts of, 124.

dry vs. soaked, for sheep, 498.

for cows, 472.

for fattening cattle, 381.

for horses, 297.

adverse report, 299.
Kloepfer's conclusions, 300.
for sheep, 497, 522.
for steers, plain feeding of, recom

mended, 881.
for swine, 608.

gain from a bushel of, with pigs, 581.
nitrogen and mineral matter in, 125.
preparation of, for feeding, 383.
races of, 120.
soaked, for steers, 346.
time required to pass through steer,

349.

vs. oil cake for pigs, 588.
vs. rye or barley for pigs, 591.
whole vs. corn and cob meal for cows,

413.

waste in feeding to cows, 413.
Corn and blue-grass pasture for pigs, 577.
Corn and its by-products, 119.
Corn and cob, weight of, 122.
Corn and cob meal, 121.
for pigs, 557.
for steers, 348.
Corn by-products, 123.

for cows, 473.

Corn belt, fattening sheep in, 531.
Corn cob, 121.

Corn cob and husks, for steers, 349.
Corn cob charcoal, for swine, 615.
Corn crop, nutrients of, 167.

importance of maturity, 168.

increase of nutrients during maturity,

165.

influence of thickness of planting, 164.
losses in field-curing, 171.
Corn fodder, fertilizing constituents of, 177.
pulling of, 174.
see Fodder corn.

Corn forage, cutting and shredding, 240.
shock, feeding, 172.
shocking, 172.
stocking, 172.

Corn-fed pigs, strengthening bones of, 86.
Corn meal for cows, 473.
only, for cows, 94.
only, for pigs, 78, 86.
vs. corn for pigs, 556.
see Corn.

Corn plant, changes in protein, 167.
distribution of nutrients in, 169.
in Georgia, 170.

Corn plant, increase of nutrients during

maturity, 165.

nitrogen-free extract in, 168.
nutrients at different stages, 166.
southern, time to cut for silage, 254.

vs. northern, for silage, 253.
under Maryland conditions, 170.
Corn product, a new, 175.
Corn silage, see Silage corn.
Corn smut, 175.

feeding experiments with, 176.
Corn stover, 174.
for cows, 477.
for sheep, 508.
vs. mixed hay and clover hay for cows,

425.

see Stover.

Corn-stalk disease, the so-called, 175.
Correctives for swine, 614.
Cost of finished steer, 389.
Cotton seed, 154.

effect of, on butter, 156.

on steer fat, 156.
feeding of, 154.
fertility in, 159.
for beef production, 361.
Cotton seed and its by-products for cows,

419, 475.
Cotton seed and cotton-seed meal, rational

use of, 158.

Cotton-seed cake and meal, 155.
Cotton-seed hulls, 158.
Cotton-seed meal, for calves, 157.
for dairy cows, 156.
for horses, 155.
for pigs, 157.

vs. wheat bran for cows, 420.
Cotton-seed meal and hulls for steers, 156.
Cotton-seed poisoning, 157.
Cows, advance in lactation of, and pro-
ductivity of feed, 407.
amount of water drank by, 410.
annual feed consumption of, 459.
barley for, 474.
brewers' grains for, 474.
by-products of corn for, 473.
care before and after weaning, 468.
caring for, 464.
clover hay for, 476.
concerning feeding stuffs for, 472.
confinement during heated periods, 470,
consumption of dry matter by, 461.
cooking feed for, 432.
corn for, 472.
corn meal for, 473.
corn stover for, 477.
corn stover vs. hay for, 425.
cotton seed and its by-products for, 419,

475.

cotton-seed meal vs* bran for, 420.
dairy, compared with beef type, 406.
rations for, 478.

test at Columbian Exposition, 448.
dairying based on maternity of, 488.

646

Index.

Cows, Danish experiments with, 442.

distillery grains, dried, vs. oats for, 421.

drinking at will, 411.

dry feed for, 469.

effect of age on productivity of feed, 406.

effect of grooming, 412.

exercise for, 464.

fall and spring, 467.

feeding exclusively with meal, 94.

feeding fat to, 431.

feeding grain in form of slop to, 433.

feeding potassium chlorid to, 432.

fish scrap for, 431.

fodder corn for, 476.

fodder corn vs. timothy hay for, 424.

frequency in feeding of, 468.

gluten feed vs. corn meal and bran for,

414.
gluten meal vs. cotton-seed meal for,

415.

heavy feeders the most profitable, 408.
influence of work on quality of milk,

412.
Japan clover hay vs. Bermuda hay for,

423.

large vs. small, 405.
linseed meal vs. cotton-seed meal for,

420.

liberal and meager rations for, 437.
liberal feeding of, 470.
maize feed vs. corn meal and bran for,

414.

milk of, and its by-products, 226.
milk and skim milk for, 430.
millet hay for, 476.
necessity of shelter for, 464.
oats for, 473.

oats, ground, vs. wheat bran for, 418.
. oil cake vs. grain for, 421.
on, pasture, feeding grain to, 433.
order of feeding, 469.
potatoes for, 430.
preparation of feed for, 469.
rape for, 428.

record for one year of, at Cornell Sta-
tion, 460.
regularity and kindness in handling,

465.
relation of concentrates and roughage

for, 471.
relation of water drank to milk yield,

410.

residual effect of grain feeding, 435.
Roberts' system of caring for, 465.
roots for, 477.

roots vs. concentrated feeds for, 429.
rye for, 474.
salt for, 471.

shorts vs. wheat bran for, 417.
silage for, 477.

silage vs. fodder corn for, 427.
silage vs. hay for, 426.
sorghum-seed meal for, 418.
timothy hay for, 476.

Cows, timothy hay vs. meadow foxtail hay
for, 423.

upland prairie hay vs. timothy hay for,
422.

value of shelter for, 411.

warm vs. cold water for, 411.

water for, 470.

wheat bran and middlings for, 473.

wheat bran vs. mixed grain for, 417.

wheat meal vs. corn meal for, 415.

wheat meal vs. mixed grain for, 416.

whey for, 430.

whole corn vs. corn and cob meal, 413.

wide and narrow rations for, 445.

see Dairy cow.
Cowpea, 162, 209.
Cowpeas for pigs, 567.
Crimson clover, 202.

overripe, dangerous to horses, 202.
Crops for the silo, 255.
Crude fiber, 10.

Dairy by-products for swine, 611.
Dairy calf, rearing, 339.
Dairy cow, American rations for the, 114.

calculating ration for, 106.

care and management of, 463.

cotton-seed meal for, 156.

economy of, 401.

feed for, 471.

feed and care of, 463.

investigations concerning, 401.

period of gestation, 401.

pure-bred, public tests of, 448.

tests at Experiment Stations, 455.

ratio of milk yield to body weight, 408,

relation of live weight to yield of, 404.

rations for, 478.

standard rations for, 114.

yield of products, 402.

see Cow.

Dairy herds, Station findings with, 457.
Danish experiments in cow feeding, 442,
Danish pig-feeding experiments, 583.

slaughtering tests, 584.
Deglutition, 14.
Diastase, 4.
Digestible matter for one pound of growth,

91.

Digestible nutrients, total, 99.
Digestibility, depression in, 31.

not affected by fat, 81.

not affected by salt, 81.

of coarse and concentrated feeds com-
bined, 31.

of feeds by various animals, 30.

of fodder, affected by weather, 30.

of fodder, not affected by drying, 30.

of nutrients, 28.
Digestion, artificial, 31.
Digestion coefficients, 98.
Digestion trial, with sheep, 26.

with ox in respiration apparatus, 34.
Dipping fattening sheep, 524.
Distillery grains, dried, vs. oats for cows, 42 L

Index.

647

Dried blood, 220.

for pigs, 78.

for sheep, 511.
Dried brewers' grains, 137.

for horses, 293.
Dried fish, 221.

Dry matter required for 100 pounds of gain
. with steers, 370.

Dry substance in the animal body, 72.
Dutch system of veal making, the, 343.
Dynamometer, Wolff's, 274.
Ear corn vs. corn meal for steers, 345.
Ensilage, see Silage.
Ergot, 193.
Ether extract, 11.

potential energy of, 38.
Ewes, breeding, food for, 517.

maintenance food for, in winter, 526.

care and feed of, 530.

feed required for 100 pounds of milk,
484.

flushing, 517.

milking qualities of, 483.
Ewe's milk, composition of, 480.

value of, for lamb growing, 484.
Ewes and lambs, soiling of, 486.
Exclusive meal feeding, 94.
Excrement, amount of, voided by farm
animals, 264.

composition of, 266.
Excretions, from the kidneys, 23.

of the skin, 24.
Exercise for cows, 464.

importance of, in horse management,
330.

value of, for pigs, 549.

Experiment Stations, findings with dairy
herds by, 457.

trials of pure-bred dairy cows at, 455.
Exposure vs. confinement for sheep, 492.
Farm animals, amount of excrement
voided by, 264.

calculating rations for, 102.

comparative fattening qualities of, 74.

manure produced by, 269.

nitrogen and ash in carcass of, 77.

nitrogen and ash retained and voided

by, 265.

Farm manure, value of, per ton, 270.
Farm stock, silage for, 256.
Fat, 11.

cost of production, 448, 458.

equivalent of foods for 100 parts of, 37.

feeding to dairy cows, 431.

feeding with, 56.

in milk, formation of, 54.

in the animal body, 72.
formation of, 56.

influence of, on protein consumption,
44.

potential energy of, 88.

value of, for fat formation, 59.
Fat and carbohydrates, relative effects of,
48.

Fat consumption, influence of water on, 60.
Fat formation, from carbohydrates, 51.
from protein, 55.
method of studying, 33.
influence of feeding fat on, 56.
influence of feeding protein on, 57.
influence of feeding protein and carbo-
hydrates on, 58.
influence of feeding protein and fat on,

57.

Fat nutrition, 25.
Fat of cow's milk, 226.
Fat of the body, disposition of, 617.

source of, 50.
Fat sickness, 363.
Fat, see Butter fat.
Fat-Stock Show, sheep at, 495.
Fattening and feeds, 75.
Fattening, composition of increase during,

73.

influence of light on, 61.
Fattening of steers, feed for 100 pounds

gain during, 370. i-"

Fattening period, cost of gain increases

with length of, 369.
for pigs, length of, 554.
Fattening process, concerning the, 61.
Fattening qualities, comparative, of dif-
ferent farm animals, 74.
Fattening sheep, quarters for, 522.
Fattening shorn lambs, 490.
Fatty acids, feeding of, 50.
I Feed, influence of, on animal body, 78, 616.
effect of, on composition of butter fat,

442.

on milk, a review of, 444.
on teeth and skull of pigs, 542.
on the body of the pig, 78.
on quality of pork, 614.
concentrated, necessity of, for cows, 471.
cooking, for swine, 236.
dry, for cows, 469.
for the dairy cow, 471.
for live stock, preparation of, 235.
influence of cost of, on economy of ra-
tions, 446.

preparation of, for cows, 469.
required for 100 pounds gain with pigs,

551,602.

requirements for work with horses, 278,
soaking of, 239.

succulent, influence of, on milk, 439.
wet, does not necessarily make watery

milk, 440.
Feed and care of the bull, 467.

of the dairy cow, 463.
Feed consumption, annual, by dairy cows,

459.

Feed lot, counsel in the, 381.
Feed racks for fattening sheep, 522.
Feeding, liberal, of cows, 470.
exclusively with meal, 94.
frequency of, for cows, 468.
order of, for cows, 469.

648

Index.

Feeding, previous, influence of, 43.
Feeding horses, order of administering

feeds, 325.

Feeding dark flour, 129.
Feeding, for beef, 338.

swine, light vs. heavy, 601.

exclusively on corn, 78, 86.
Feeding standards, conclusions relative to,
117.

explanations of, 97, 108.

introduction of, in America, 111.

Wolff-L-ehmann, 101.
Feeding stuffs, digestibility of, 26.

fertilizing constituents of, 263.

for cows, 472.

manurial value of, 263.

money value of different nutrients in,
117.

nutrients of, 97.

valuation of fertilizing constituents in,
268.

variation in digestibility of, 26.
Feeding tables, explanation of, 108.
Feed required in fattening, 75.
Feeds, order of administering to horses, 325.
Fermentations in the stomach, 20.
Fertilizers, commercial, 267.

essential constituents of, 263.
Fertilizing constituents in feeding stuffs,

valuation of, 268.
Field bean, 162.

Field-curing corn, losses in, 171.
Field pea, 161.

common, vine of, 209.
Fish scrap, 221.

for cows, 431.

for fattening steers, 356.

for sheep, 511.
Flat turnip, 213.
Flavor of milk, butter, etc., feed influences

on, 443.
Flax seed, 148.

for calves, 149, 337.
Flax straw, 193.
Flesh consumption, 40.
Flesh formation, method of studying, 33.
Flesh meal, 220.
Flesh production, 35.

influence of wide and narrow rations

on, 47.
Flour, dark, feeding of, 129.

low-grade, feeding of, 129.
Flock, quarters for, 516.

size of, 515.

winter care of, 516.

see Sheep.
Foals, 313.

feeding, cow's milk for, 317.
• feeding before weaning, 314.

increase in weight of, 272.

Palo Alto system of feeding, 314.

rearing by hand, 317.

trotting, weight at birth, 272.

weaning, 315.

Foals, weight and growth of, 271.

see Colt.
Fodders, coarse, digestibility of, 29.

pulling of, 174.

value of components of, for horses, 27tf.
Fodder corn and silage, feeding tests with,

249.
Fodder corn, cured, 173.

digestibility of, 248.

for cows, 476.

for horses, 304.

for soiling, 172.

dry, and silage, relative merits of, 249.

dry, milk produced from dry matter
in, 248.

green, cost of placing in silo, 255.

vs. timothy hay for cows, 424.

see Corn fodder.
Food, the basis of life, 63.

energy of, not measured by body heat,

67.

Food nutrients, digestibility of, 28.
Food requirements for work, 68.
Forage, rape, 218.

coarse, withholding of, from rumi-
nants, 94.

Force, production of, 63.
Formation of body tissues, 40.
Fuel value of rations, 115.
Gain, cost of, in steers, increases with age,
369.

increases with length of fattening pe-
riod^.
Gastric digestion, 14.

of ruminants, 16.
Gastric fluid, composition of, 15.
Glucose, 5.
Gluten feed vs. corn meal and bran for

cows, 414.

Gluten meal vs. cotton-seed meal for cows,
415.

for steers, 351.
Gluten meal and corn vs. wheat for pigs,

558.

Glycogen, 25.

Grain, feeding, to cows on pasture, 433.
in form of slop to cows, 433.
to lambs before weaning, 510.

for lambs before weaning, 508.

grinding, 243.

mixed, vs. oats for colts, 300.

relative merits of, for horses, 303.

vs. beets for pigs, 595.

vs. boiled potatoes for pigs, 595.

vs. blood bread for pigs, 597.

vs. mangels for pigs, 595.

vs. rye shorts for pigs, 593.
Grain-feeding cows on pasture, 433.

steers on pasture, 358.

residual e fleet of, 435.
Grain feeds vs. skim milk for pigs, 586.

vs. whey for pigs, 587.
Grass, changes in, during ripening, 180.

dry vs. green, 184.

Index.

649

Grass, for pasture and soiling, ITS.
Hungarian, 188.
mixed, 188.
orchard, 187.
redtop, 187.
timothy, 186.
time to cut for hay, 181.
Grasses, at the South, 188.
mixed, permanent, 188.
see Hay and Pasture.
Grinding grain, 213.

for fattening sheep, 523.
Grooming cows, effect of, 412.
Growth and fattening, influence of wide

and narrow rations on, 88.
Hairy vetch, 210.

Hard-wood ashes for corn-fed pigs, 86.

Hay, 180, 185.

aroma of, 182.

chaffing, 239.

long and chaffed, experiments with, 242.

time to cut grass for, 181.

treatment of, 183.

wet chaffed, for calves, 243.

see Grasses and Legumes.

Hay and oats, relative value of, for horses,

293.

Hay and potatoes for horses, 306.
Hay crops, the small grains as, 192.
Hay curing, changes during, 182.
Hay making, losses due to weathering, 185.

points in, 182.
Hay tea for calves. 341.
Heart-beats per minute, in horse and ox, 22.
Heat-units of feeds, measurement of, 37.
Heating water for cows, 411.
Heiden's method ftx^calculating amount

of manure produced, 265.
Hemp-seed cake vs. grain for pigs, 588.
Herd record for one year, 460.
Herd's grass, 186.
Hogs, see Pigs.

Honey-comb stomach, the, 16.
Horse bean, 162.
Horses, adverse report on feeding corn to,

299.

army, rations for, 332.
artichokes for, 307.
barley for, 293.

bran and shorts vs. oats for, 295.
bran, wheat and shorts vs. bran and

shorts for, 295.
carriage, feeding of, 322.
carrots for, 307.
clover hay for, 303.
cocoanut meal for, 301.
cooked feed for, 238.
conclusions concerning corn for, 300.
dried brewers' grains for, 293.
effect of disturbed conditions on, 291.
experiments in feeding, 306.
feed and care of, 311.
feed consumed and work performed by,
273.

Horses, feeds for, 292.

feed required by, for performing work,
285.

feed requirements for work, 278.

fodder corn for, 304.

German army, 280.

importance of exercise for, 330.
variety of feed for, 328.

Indian corn for, 297.

influence of rapidity of work, 279.

investigations concerning, 271.

loss of weight of, during work, 286, 290.

maintenance rations for, 282.

malt sprouts for, 301.

measuring the work of, 274.

millet hay injurious to, 304.

nutrients required for maintenance
and work, 276.

oats for, 292.

order of administering grain, hay and
water, 325.

Paris Cab, rations fed to, 308.

Paris Omnibus, rations fed to, 309.

peanut meal for, 301.

potatoes vs. hay for, 306.

preparation of feed for, 325.

protein required in maintenance ra-
tions for, 283.

range of feeding stuffs for, 811.

rate of movement, 279.

rations for, 308, 331.

relation of speed to work of, 287.

relative merits of grains for, 303.

results of digestion trials with, 276, 281.

roots for, 306.

ruta-bagas for, 308.

steamed potatoes for, 306.

stover for, 304.

straw for, 304.

street-car, rations for, 332.

substitutes for oats for, 292.

systematic feeding of, of highest im-
portance, 328.

time used in masticating hay, 13.

timothy hay for, 303.

variation in weight of, 291.

water drank by, 286, 289.

wheat and bran vs. oats for, 296.

work done by, 288.

wheat for, 294.

work, compounding rations for, 301.

work, feeding of, 323.

work, nutritive ratio for, 284.
lorse feeding, successful, a skilled art, 312.

supervision of, 330.
lorse-feeding experiments, 273, 280, 298.
Horse feeds, digestion of, 280.
Hungarian grass, 188.

see Millet,
lydrochloric acid in gastric juice, 15.
ncrease during fattening, composition of,
73.

ndian corn, see Corn,
nsalivation, 13.

650

Index.

Intake of body in respiration and feeding,

34.

Intestinal juice, the, 20.
Intestines, large, 18.

length of, of pigs, 542.

of farm animals, length and capacity

6f, 19.

Japan clover, 203.
Japan clover hay vs. Bermuda hay for

cows, 423.

Japanese millet, 188.
June grass, 185.
Kaffir corn, value of, in steer droppings, 353.

for pigs, 565.

for steers, 352.

red, yield of, 146.
Kentucky blue grass, 185.
Kidneys, excretion from, 23.
Kiihn's rations, method of compounding,

115.

Kiihn's standard maintenance ration, 112.
Labor, hard, nitrogen excretion during, 65.
Lactation of cow, advance in, and produc-
tivity of feed, 407.

Lamb growing, value of ewe's milk for, 484.
Lambing, date of, 517.
Lambing time, care of sheep at, 518.
Lambs, compared with pigs, 482.

fat, 521.

fattening, rations for, 528.
"self-feed "for, 490.

feeding grain to, before weaning, 510.

feeding milk to, 481.

feeding of, 530.

grain for, before weaning, 508.

shorn, fattening of, 490.

vs. sheep for fattening, 486.

water drank by, during fattening, 493.

weaning of, 519.

weight at birth, 481.

winter or Christmas, raising, 529.

see Sheep.

Lambs and pigs, relative economy of, 483.
Lard, cause of low price of, 609.
Large intestine, 18.
Leaves and twigs, 219.
Legumes, 195.

fertilizing constituents of, 210.
Leguminous plants for green forage and

hay, 195.
Leguminous seeds, 161.

fertilizing constituents of, 162.
Liebig's theory concerning the function of

protein, 64.

Light, influence of, on fattening, 61.
Linseed meal, 149.

castor oil seed in, 153.

fertilizing constituents of, 153.

vs. cotton-seed meal for cows, 420.

see Oil meal.

Low-grade flour, feeding of, 129.
Lucern, see Alfalfa.
Lymphatic system, the, 21.
Lymphatics, the, 21.

Maintenance food for breeding ewes, 52tj.
Maintenance rations, for horses, 282.

for oxen, 111.

Kiihn's, 112.

protein required in, 283.
Maize, see Corn.
Maize feed vs. corn meal and bran for cows,

414.

Malt for stock, 136.
Malting, 135.
Malt sprouts, 138.

digestibility of, 27.

for horses, 301.
Mammoth clover, 201.
Mangels, 213.

vs. carrots for pigs, 596.

vs. grain for pigs, 595.
Manure, from the ox, 264.

produced by farm animals, 269.

produced, Heiden's method for calcu-
lating amount of, 265.
Manurial value of feeding stuffs, 263.
Manyplies, 16.
Mare, food for, "20.

period of gestation of, 271.

see Horse.

Mare's milk, composition of, 273.
Mare and foal, investigations concerning,.

271.
Mastication, 12.

time required by horse for, 13.
Mating sheep, 529.
Meal feeding, exclusive, 94.
Meat scrap, 220.

for pigs, 575.

for sheep, 511.
Middlings for swine, 610.

vs. corn fqr pigs, 561.

see Shorts. "
Milch cows, salt for, 411.

see Cows.
Milk, 226.

changing components of, 441.

changing ratio of solids to water in, -W;

cost of production of, 448, 458.

cow's, for foal feeding, 317.

effect of feed on quantity of, 437.

ewe's, composition of, 480.

feed required for 100 pounds of, 484
value of, for lamb growing, 484.

fat globules of, 403.

feeding of, to lambs, 481.

feed in relation to, 437.

influence of character of rations on,.4o7>

influence of feed on, 437.

influence of feed on flavor of, 443.

influence of feed on, review of, 444.

influence of pasture on, 439.

influence of succulent feed on, 439.

mare's, 273.

nitrogenous constituents of, 227.

modifications of, by feeding, 437.

per cent, of fat in successive portions,
of, 403.

Index.

651

Milk, sow's, concerning, 536.
quantity yielded, 537.
composition of, 537.
sweet vs. sour, for pigs, 573.
whole, 228.

for calves, 334.
for pigs, 571.
Milk and its by-products, fertilizing value

of, 229.

Milk and skim milk for cows, 430.
Milk ash, 227.
Milk fat, 226, 227.
Milk flow, influence of time from calving

on, 407.

Milk serum, 226.
Milk sugar, 227.
Milk yield, influence of shearing wool on,

485.

Milking qualities of ewes, 488.
Millet, 147, 188.

Japanese, 188.
Millet hay, for cows, 476.
injurious to horses, 304.
for sheep, 507.
see Hungarian grass.
Millo maize, 189.
Mineral compounds, 7.
Molasses, for steers, 356.

from the beet factory, 224.
Money value of different nutrients in feed-
ing stuffs, 117.

Mule, the, work done by, 288.
Muscular energy, source of, 63, 69.
Muscular exertion, 60.
Mutton breeds and the Merinos compared,

515.
Narrow and wide rations, influence of, on

flesh production, 47.

Nitrogen, excretion during hard labor, 65.
retained and voided by farm animals,

265.

Nitrogen-free extract, 11.
Nitrogenous substances, calculation of

composition, 35.
in the animal body, 72.
see Protein.

Nutrients, total, digestibility of, 99.
in feeding stuffs, 97.
placing money value on, 117.
valuation of, in concentrated feeding

stuffs, 117.
Nutriotone, 230.
Nutrition, animal, 40.
Nutritive ratio, 100.
Oat feed for pigs, 564.
Oat grain, the, 139.
Oat straw for sheep, 506.
Oats, a stimulating principle in, 140.
by-products of, 141.
for cows, 473.
for fattening sheep, 523.
for horses, 292.

boiled rye as a substitute for, 297.
substitutes for, 292.

Oats, for pigs, 564.

for sheep, 499.

ground, vs. wheat bran for cows, 418.

new, unfit for feeding, 140.

vs. bran and shorts, for horses, 295.
Oats and hay, relative value of, for horses,

293.

Oats and peas, 191.
Oats and their by-products, 139.
Oats, beans and corn, relative value of, for

horses, 293.
Oil-bearing seeds and their by-products,

148.
Oil cake, value of oil in, 151.

vs. grain for pigs, 588.

vs. grain for cows, 421.
Oil cake and oil meal, 149.

as a feeding stuff, 152.
Oil meal, adulteration of, 150.

for steers, 351, 384.

home use of, 153.

new-process, 149.

relative value of old- and new-process,
150.

swelling process of, 150.

see Linseed meal.
Olein, 6.

Oleomargarine for calves, 337.
Omasum, 16.
Orchard grass, 187.
Ox, maintenance ration for, 111.

manure from, 264.

see Steer.
Palmitin, 6.

Palm-nut cake vs. grain for pigs, 588.
Palm-nut meal, 159.
Pancreatic juice, 18.

Paris Omnibus Co., horse experiments con-
ducted by, 298.
Parsnip, 213.
Pasture, concerning, 178.

droppings of corn-fed steers on, for pigs,
579.

feeding grain to steers on, 358.

feeding pigs on, only, 578.

for pigs, 576, 612.

grain-feeding steers on, 386.

grasses for, 178.

influence of, on milk, 439.

possibilities of, for steer feeding, 386.

producing veal on, 338.

small vs. large, for steers, 385.

time for turning steers to, 385.

turning sheep to, 519.
Pasture grass, yield of, 179.
Pasturing steers, 358.
Paunch, 16.

Peanut cake vs. grain for pigs, 588.
Peanut meal, 160.

for horses, 301.
Pear cactus, 218.
Peas, 161.

for pigs, 565, 611.
Pea-vine hay, 209.

652

Index.

Pellagra corn disease, the, 122.
Pepsin, 15.

Permanent grasses, mixed, 188.
Pigeon-grass seed, for pigs, 667.

for sheep, 600.

Pigs, amount of feed consumed by, 552.
artichokes for, 571.
average daily gain by, 552.
barley meal for, 562.
barley vs. centrifugal skim milk for,

586.

breed tests of, 543.
buckwheat for, 566.
buttermilk for, 574.
carrots vs. mangels for, 596.
centrifugal vs. gravity skim milk for,

584.

clover hay with meal for, 577.
compared with lambs, 482.
composition of, 70.
corn and blue-grass pasture for, 577.
corn-fed, hard-wood ashes and bone

meal for, 86.

strengthening the bones of, 86.
corn meal vs. corn for, 55d.
cotton-seed meal for, 157.
cowpeas for, 567.

droppings of corn-fed steers for, 580.
early gains of, 540.
effect of addition of water to the feed

for, 599.

effects of feed on teeth and skull of, 542.
fattening, 608.
fiat vs. lean, experiments with, 78.

experiments with, misconception

concerning, 85.

feed for 100 pounds of gain of, 553, 602.
feed for 100 pounds live weight of, 552.
feeding of, 605.

on pasture only, 578.
through the dam, 541.
following corn-led steers, gains of, 580.
food of support, 550.
for shows, ball-feeding of, 613.
gain from a bushel of corn by, 581.
gluten meal and corn vs. wheat for, 558.
grain vs. beets of different sugar con-
tent for, 595.
vs. blood bread for, 597.
vs. boiled potatoes for, 595.
vs. oil cake for, 588.
vs. rye shorts for, 593.
hemp-seed cake vs. grain for, 588.
increase, composition of, during fatten-
ing, 70.

Influence of, on the growing body of, 78.
Kaffir corn for, 565.
length of fattening period for, 554.
length of intestines, 542.
mangels vs. grain for, 595.
meat scrap for, 575.
middlings vs. corn meal for, 561.
oat feed for, 564.
oats for, 564.

Pigs, palm-nut cake vs. grain for, 588.

partial analyses of blood and kidneys
of, 84.

pasture for, 576.

percentage gain of, from birth to matu-
rity, 553.

peanut cake vs. grain for, 588.

peas for, 565.

pigeon-grass seed for, 567.

potatoes for, 568.

rape forage for, 579.

rice meal for, 567.

roots for, 570.

rye or barley vs. Indian corn for, 591.

rye vs. barley for, 588,

vs. centrifugal skim milk for, 588.

separator skim milk for, 571.

sheaf wheat for, 560.

shelter for, 598.

skim milk fed, gain from, 338.

skim milk vs. grain for, 586.
vs. whey for, 5S5.

soaked meal vs. dry meal for, 547.

strength of thigh bones of, 83.

sunflower-seed cake vs. grain for, 588.

sweet vs. sour milk for, 573.

turnips vs. whey for, 596.

value of corn and cob meal for, 557.

value of exercise for, 549.

value of shelter for, 549.

value of various feeding stuffs for, 556.

water drank by, 543.

weaning, 607.

weight, gain and feed consumed by, 581.
at birth, 535, 510.

wheat for, 559.

wheat and corn meal for, 559.

wheat bran vs. middlings for, 562,
vs. rye and barley for, 594.
with corn for, 562.

whey for, 574.

whey vs. grain for, 574, 587.

whole milk for, 571.

winter vs. summer feeding of, 600.

young, exercise for, 606.

see 8wine.

Pigs and lambs, relative economy of, 483.
Pig feeding, centrifugal vs. gravity skim

milk, 584.
Pig-feeding experiments, Danish, 583.

lessons for the breeder and feeder, 617.

lessons from experiments in, 616.
Plains sheep, fattening of, 531.
Plant building, 3.
Plant cells, 1.
Plant effort, the end of, 7.
Plant growth, 1.

from the chemist's standpoint, 4.
Plant life, the sun the source of, 8.
Plant oils, 5.
Plant substances, how grouped by the

chemist, 9.
Plants, elements essential to, 1.

how food is gathered by, 3.

Index.

653

Plants, the support of animal life, 8.

water required by, 2.
Planting corn, influence of thickness in

164.

Poisoning from cotton seed, 157.
Pork, influence of feed on quality of, 614.
lean, demand for, 609.
production at the South, 682.
skim milk and whey fed, quality of

588.

Potassium chlorid, feeding of, to cows, 432.
Potato, 212.

boiled vs. grain for pigs, 595.
for cows, 430.
for pigs, 568.

steamed, for horses, 306.
vs. hay for horses, 306.
Potential energy of food nutrients, 38.
Prehension, 12.
Prickly comfrey, 217.
Protein, 10.

influence of, on fat formation, 57.
potential energy of, 38.
the source of fat, 55.
Protein and carbohydrates, influence of

feeding, on fat formation, 58.
Protein and fat, influence of feeding, on fat

formation, 57.
Protein compounds, 6.
Protein consumption, 42.

influence of amides on, 48.
influence of carbohydrates on, 44.
influence of carbohydrates fed with

protein on, 46.
Influence of fat on, 44.
influence of mixed diet on, 44.
influence of salt on, 49.
influence of various nutrients on, 44.
influence of water on, 49.
Protein feeding, exclusive, 42.
Protein nutrition, 24.
Protein, see Nitrogenous substances.
Pulp, sugar beet, 222.
Pulse, frequency of, in farm animals, 22.
Pumpkin, 217.

Pure-bred steers, quality of, 378.
Range cattle, fattening, 397.
Rape, for milch cows, 428.
for pigs, 579.
for sheep, 502.
second crop for sheep, 505.
use of, 218.

vs. blue-grass pasture for sheep, 504.
Rations, calculating, 102.

fed by American dairymen, 113.

fed by Connecticut dairymen, 113.

fed to Paris Omnibus Co. horses, 309.

for army horses, 332.

for dairy cows, 478.

for farm animals, calculating, 102.

for fattening lambs, 528.

for fattening steers, 396.

for horses, 308, 331.

for streetrcar horses, 3C2.

Rations, for work horses, 301.
fuel value of, 115.

influence of character of, on milk, 437.
influence of feed prices on economy of,

446.

liberal and meager, for milk produc-
tion, 437.

theoretical, for fattening steers, 393.
wide and narrow, for cows, 437, 445.
influence of, on growth and fatten-
ing, 88.
Red clover, 196.

yield of three crops of, 196.
see Clover.
Redtop, 187.
Rennet, 15.
Rennet stomach, 16.
Respiration, 23.

exchange of gases in, 23.
per minute in farm animals, 23.
Respiration apparatus, 32.

digestion trial with ox in, 34.
illustration of use of, 33.
Respiration studies, 32.
Reticulum, 16.
Rice grain, parts of, 143.
Rice and its by-products, 143.
Rice meal for pigs, 567.
Robertson mixture, for silage, 253.
Roots, dry matter in, 251.
feeding of, 214.
for cows, 477.
for horses, 308.
for pigs, 570.
for steers, 354, 384.

modification of animal carcass by, 214.
preparation of, 244.
storing of, 214.

vs. concentrated feed for cows, 429.
yield of, 250.
Root crops, not generally grown, 215.
yield of, 211.

yield of digestible nutrients, 212.
Roots and tubers, 211.

see Beets, Turnips, Carrots, etc.
Roughage, 97.

for cattle, steaming of, 236.
for fattening sheep, 5-3.
Rumen, 16.
Ruminants, gastric digestion of, 16.

withholding coarse forage from, 94.
Ruta-bagas, 213.
for horses, 308.
or cows, 474.
vs. barley for pigs, 588.
vs. centrifugal skim milk for pigs, 586.
boiled, as a substitute for oats, 297.
flye and barley vs. wheat bran for pigs, 594..
Rye and its by-products, 132.

as stock feeds, 132.
lye or barley vs. Indian corn for pigs, 591-
Rye shorts vs. grain for pigs, 503.
Saliva, composition of, 14.
secretion of, 14.

654

Index.

Salt, for cows, 471.

for sheep, 520.

for steers, 387.

influence of, on protein consumption,

49.

Scarlet or crimson clover, 202.
Scotch system of veal making, 343.
Keif-feed for fattening lambs, 490.
Separator skim milk, for calves, 335.

placing a money value on, 572.
Shearing, frequency of, 513.

influence of, on milk yield, 485.
Sheep, at American Fat-Stock Show, 495.

alfalfa hay for, 505.

attacks of vermin, 521.

bran for, 253, 499.

breed tests of, 487, 489.

care of, at lambing time, 518.

comparison of the Mutton breeds and
the Merinos, 515.

composition of, 70.

corn alone and in combination for, 509.

corn for, 497, 522.

corn silage vs. roots for, 501.

corn stover for, 508.

cost of gain, 525.

daily gain of, for the various breeds of,
494.

dipping, 524.

dried blood for, 511.

dry vs. soaked corn for, 498.

English experience with wheat for, 498.

exposure vs. confinement of, 492.

fattened, weight of, 493.

fattening, 514.

feed consumed by, 524.

feed racks for, 522.

feeding, hints on, 526.

fish scrap for, 511.

food of, 514.

general care of, 514.

grinding grain for, 523.

increase during fattening, 70.

influence of protein On carcass of, 511.

in the corn belt, 531.

investigations with, 480.

length of feeding period and gains of,
524.

mating of, 529.

mature, 521.

meat scrap for, 511.

millet hay for, 507.

on alfalfa hay and grain, 532.

oat straw for, 506.

oats for, 499, 528.

period of gestation, 489.

Plains, fattening of, 531.

rape for, 502.

rape, second crop of, for, 505.

rape vs. blue-grass pasture for, 504.

regularity and quiet for, 526.

rate of increase, 525.

roughage for, 523.

shrinkage of, in shipping, 496.

Sheep, shrunken wheat, wild buckwheat
and pigeon-grass seed for, 500.

sugar beets for, 502.

turning to pasture, 519.

vs. lambs for fattening, 486.

water and salt for, 520.

weight of carcass of, 495.

Western, fattening on alfalfa hay, 508,

wheat for, 498, 552.

wheat screenings for, 500, 523.

see Lambs.
Shelter, for pigs, 598.

influence of, in fattening steers, 864.

necessity of, for cows, 464.

value of, for cows, 411.

for pigs, 549.

Shepherd and flock, 514.
Shock corn, feeding of, 172.
Shorts, 130.

vs. wheat bran for cows, 417.

see Middlings.
Shotes, feeding, 607.

following steers, gain of, 347.
Shrinkage in shipping of sheep, 406.
Silage, 245.

digestibility of, 248.

effect of, on quality of milk, 257.
on carcass of steers, 250.

for cows, 477.

for farm stock, 256.

for steers, 381.

from beet pulp, 223.

importance of proper horizontal area
in feeding, 260.

milk produced from dry matter in, 248.

on the rational use of, 257.

relative losses in, and drying, 246.

Southern vs. Northern seed corn for,
253.

time of cutting Southern corn for, 254.

vs. fodder corn for cows, 417.

vs. hay for cows, 426.

vs. roots for steers, 355.

weight of, at different depths, 259.
Silage and beets, relative cost of, 252.
Silage and dry fodder corn, relative merits
of, 219.

space occupied by, 251.
Silage and fodder corn, feeding tests with,

249.

Silage and roots, dry matter in, 251.
Silage, corn and roots, yield of, 250.
Silage, corn, removing ears from, previous
to ensilage, 252.

corn, vs. roots for sheep, 501.

yield of, 250.
Silo, capacity of, 260.

filling and covering, 261.

building and filling of, 258.

crops for, 25^5.

rate of filling, 261.

rectangular, 2,39.
Silo construction, 258.
Silo losses, character of, 247.

Index.

655

Siloing fodders, permanency of method of,

245.

Size of the body, a factor in feeding, 60.
Skim milk, 228.

centrifugal vs. gravity, for pigs, 584.

for calves, 335.

gravity vs. separator, for calves, 336.

separator, for pigs, 571.

placing a money value on, 572.

vs. grain for pigs, 583.

vs. whey for pigs, 585.
Skim milk- and whey-fed pork, quality of,

588.

Skin, excretions of, 24.
Slaughtering tests of pigs, 589.
Slop, feeding grain in form of, to cows, 433.
Small grains, the, as hay crops, 192.
Smutrfeeding experiments, 176.
Smut on corn, 175.

Soaked meal vs. dry meal for pigs, 547.
Soaking feed, 239.
Soiling, advantage of, 231.

experiments, concerning value of, 231.

fodder corn for, 172.

labor involved in, 234.

partial, 234.
Soiling cattle, 231.
Soiling crops, 233.

Soiling crops and pasture compared, 232.
Soiling.ewes and lambs, 486.
Soja bean, 161, 209.
Sorghum, 145, 189.

non-saccharine, 145.

saccharine, 145, 147.

second growth, dangers from, 190.

yield of, 146.
Sorghum hay, 190.
Sorghum molasses, 225.
Sorghum-seed meal for cows, 418.
South, the, pork production at, 582.
Southern vs. Northern seed corn for silage,

253.
Sows, milk yielded by, 536.

composition of milk of, 537.

quantity of milk yielded by, 537.

vs. barrows in swine feeding, 602.
Sows and pigs, feeding of, 605.
Soy bean, 161, 209.
Spontaneous combustion, 200.
Spurry, 216.

Stallion, the, feed and care of, 318,
Standard Cattle Co., amount of grain and
hay fed to cattle, 399.

cost of feeding cattle, 400.

daily feed consumed and gains of steers,
399.

number of cattle marketed and gains,

399.

Standard rations for dairy cows, 114.
Starch, 4, 5.

Starch production, 124.
Steaming roughage for cattle, 236.
Stearin, 6.
Steer, at rest, rations for, 102.

Steer, amount of corn passing through,

unbroken, 349.

amount of feed consumed, 872.
balanced ration for, 357.
bran for, 383.
changes during fattening of, to be

avoided, 365.

composition of carcass of, 70, 92.
] composition of increased growth of, 92.
corn and cob meal for, 3 18.
corn, cob and husks for, 349.
• corn-fed, droppings of, for pigs, 580.

droppings of, on pasture, 579.
cost of feeding increases with age, 388.
i cost of finished, 38 J.

cost of gain increases with length of

fattening period, 369.
dressed weight of carcass of, 374.
dry matter required for 100 pounds of

gain in, 370.

ear corn vs. corn meal for, 345.
early maturity of, 374, 390.
effect of age on rate of gain of, 367.
effect of silage on carcass of, 250.
, explanation of fattening process, 387.
fattening, cost of 100 pounds of gain

with, 370.

experiments with, 88.
flsh scrap for, 356.
Indian corn for, 381.
rations for, 104,395.
rations used at Experiment Sta-
tions, 396.
salt for, 387.

variation in individual weight, 360.
water for, 387.
water drank by, 359.
fed Kaffir corn, value of droppings
; from, 353.

feed for 100 pounds of gain during fat-
tening, 370.

frequency of feeding, 392.
finished, cost of, 389.
gluten meal for, 351.
grain-feeding of, on pastures, 383.
influence of wide and narrow rations

on, 88.

increase during fattening, 70.
Kaffir corn for, 352.
low-pressure feeding, 391.
molasses for, 356.
modern market demands, 390.
oil meal for, 351, 384.
on pasture, feeding grain to, 358.
pasturing of, 358.
percentage of loose tallow to dressed

weight of, 376.

preparing corn for feeding, 383.
preparing for shipment, 394.
proportion of valuable parts in carcass

of, 377.
pure-bred, amount of feed consumed

by, 372.
less feed with, for given gain, 373.

656

Index.

Steer, value of, 378.

roots for, 351, 384.

salt for, 387.

silage for, 384.

silage vs. roots for, 355.

soaked corn for, 346.

time required for corn to pass through,
349.

turning to pasture, 385.

water drank during fattening, 359.

water for, 387.

wheat bran for, 351.

wheat meal for, 350.

withholding coarse feed from, 95.
Steer fat, effect of cotton seed on, 156,
Steer fattening, difficulties of, 345.

influence of shelter and confinement,

36*.
Steer feeding, by Standard Cattle Co., 399.

close attention required, 393.

cost of gain increases with age, 369.

demands of modern market, 390.

factors in, 364.

feed lot for, 391.

feed racks for, 392.

low-pressure, 391.

trials, results of, 345.

what Southern Stations have found,
361.

see Ox and Cattle.
Stomachs of farm animals, capacity of,

14, 19.
Stover, 174.

for horses, 304.

results of shredding, 241.

see Corn stover.
Straw, 193.

cut, 239.

for horses, 304.
Sugar, 225.

for calves, 337.
Sugar beet, 213.

for sheep, 502.

leaves, 217.

pulp, 222.
Sunflower-seed cake, 160.

vs. grain for pigs, 588
Support, food of, tor pigs, 550.
Swede turnip, 213.
Swedish clover, see Alsike.
Swelling process, with linseed meal, 159.
Swine, administration of feeds to, 612.

barley for, 610.

bran for, 610.

breed tests of, 543, 603.

breeding stock, management of, 604.

clover hay for, 611.

confinement for, 613.

cooking feed for, 236, 545.

corn-cob charcoal for, 615.

correctives for, 614.

dairy by-products for, 611.

feed for, 608.

feeding corn to, 608.

Swine, light vs. heavy feeding of, 601.

management of, 604.

middlings for, 610.

need of variety in feeding stuffs for, 613.

pasture for, 612.

peas for, 611.

period of gestation, 535.

pure-bred, tests with, 543.

wheat for, 609.

see Pigs.
Tallow, in carcass of steers, relation of, to

dressed weight, 376.
Teosinte, 189.

Thigh bones of pigs, strength of, 83.
Timothy, or Herd's grass, 186.

yield of hay and nutrients from, 181.
Timothy hay, for cows, 476.

for horses, 303.

vs. meadow foxtail hay for cows, 423.
Trotter, feeding the, 320.
Turnips vs. whey for pigs, 596.
Upland prairie hay vs. timothy hay for

cows, 422.

Urine, composition of, 23, 24.
Valuations of nutrients in feeding stuffs,

117.
Veal, essentials in feeding for, 343.

feeding for, 313.

production of, on pastures, 338.
Veal making, a Scotch system of, 343.

the Dutch system of, 343.
Vermin on sheep, 521.
Villi, 20.
Waste products in respiration and feeding,

35.
Water, 9.

drank by fattening lambs, 493.
by horses, 286, 289.
by pigs, 599.

effect of addition of, to feed for pigs,
599.

effect of, on fat consumption, 60.

for cows, 470.

for sheep, 520.

influence of, on protein consumption,
49.

in the animal body, 72.

warm vs. cold for cows, 411.
Water extracts, 32.
Weaning lambs, 519.
Weight, of horses, variation in, 291.

loss of, in horses during work, 286, 290.

of pigs, gain and feed consumed by, 551.
Wheat, for feeding, 127.

for horses, 294.

for pigs, 559.

for sheep, 498, 522.

English experience with, 498.

for swine, 609.

sheaf, for pigs, 560.

damaged, 128.

shrunken, for sheep, 500.
Wheat and bran vs. oats for horses, 296.
Wheat and corn meal for pigs, 559.

Index.

657

Wheat and its by-products in milling, 126.
Wheat bran, 130.

and middlings for cows, 473.

for steers, 351.

vs. middlings for pigs, 562.

vs. mixed grain for cows, 417.

vs. rye and barley for pigs, 594.

with corn for pigs, 562.

see Bran.

Wheat bread, feeding of, 129.
Wheat feeding, character of flesh from, 127.
Wheat grain, 126.

composition of, 128.

fertilizing ingredients of, 131.
Wheat meal for steers, 350.

vs. corn meal for cows, 415.

vs. mixed grain for cows, 416.
Wheat middlings, 130.
Wheat screenings for sheep, 500, 523.
Wheat shorts, 130.

see Shorts and Middlings.
Whey, 229.

for calves, 337, 340.

for milch cows, 430.

for pigs, 574.

vs. grain for pigs, 587.

vs. skim milk for pigs,, 585.

vs. turnips for pigs, 596.
Wide and narrow rations, influence of, on

flesh production, 47.
Winter lamb raising, 529.
Winter vs. summer feeding of pigs, 600.
Wolff's dynamometer, 274.

feeding standards, 109.

investigations in horse feeding by, 273.

Wolff-Lehmann feeding standards, 101, 111.
Wool production, 497.

influence of soil and climate on, 512.
Work, by cows, influence of, on quality of

milk, 412.
feed required for performing, by horses,

285.

food requirements for, 68.
obtainable from food substances when

fed to horse, 277.

Work horses, compounding rations for, 324.
feeding of, 323.
nutritive ratio for, 284.
World's Columbian Exposition, test of

dairy cows at, 448.
Yield of alfalfa per acre, 204.
Yield of corn varies with thickness of

planting, 164.
Yield of digestible nutrients in root crop,

212.
Yield of hay and nutrients of timothy, four

periods of growth, 181.
Yield of milk per cow, various Experiment

Stations, 459.

Yield of milk at different stages of lacta-
tion, 408.

Yield of milk per cow yearly, 460.
Yield of nutrients in clover crop at differ-
ent stages of maturity, 197.
Yield of nutrients in corn crop at various

stages of maturity, 167.
Yield of nutrients in pasture grass, per

acre, 180.

Yield of red clover crop, 196.
Yield of root crops, 211.

14 DAY USE

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