THE FIELD BOOK OF MANURES;
OR. THE
AMERICAN MUCK BOOK;
TREATING OF THE
NATURE, PROPERTIES, SOURCES, HISTORY, AND OPERATIONS
OF ALL THE PRINCIPAL FERTILISERS AND MANURES
IY COMMON USE, WITH SPECIFIC DIRECTIONS FOR
THEIR PREPARATION, PRESERVATION, AND AP-
PLICATION TO THE SOIL AND TO CROPS ;
AS COMBINED WITH
Till: LEADING PRINCIPLE S
OF
PRACTICAL. AND SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE;
DRAWN FROM
AUTHENTIC SOURCES, ACTUAL EXPERIENCE, AND
PERSONAL OBSERVATION.
Illustrated with Engravings
BY D. J. BROWNE,
*CTHOR OF THE SYLVA AMERICANA, A TREATISE ON FOREST TRC1
" Muck is the mother of the meal chest."
Old Scottish Saying,
NEW YORK:
A. 0. MOORE, AGRICULTURAL BOOK PUBLISHER,
(LATE o. M. BAXTON A co.,)
NO. 140 I'ULTON 8TBEET
Entered according to Act of Cougress, in the year 185S, by
C. M. SAXTON,
In the Clerk'* Office of the District Court of the United Stattw for the Southern
District of New York.
COMMENDATORY LETTEfl.
Boston, JVor. Gtlt, 1851.
DEAR SIR : 1 have the pleasure of acknowledging the receipt of a copy of th«
u American Muck Hook," recently published by you, and edited by Mr. D. J. Browne
From im attentive examination of the pages of this book, I have come to the con-
clusion that it Is one of the best works extant, on the principles of scientific agricul-
ture, and the best compendium of our most recent knowledge of the nature of ma-
nures and their adaptation to particular soils and crops. It cannot be expected that
a eingle volume could possibly contain the whole sum of chemical knowledge, appli-
cable to the science of agriculture ; but on looking over the closely-printed and com-
pact tables of analyses, and the abundant formulas, which this publication contains.
1 could not fail to be surprised at the industry manifested in preparing it. I was
*lso gratified to find it so well adapted to the American system of husbandry, and so
practical in its character. Its copious and accurate index adds not a little to its v.ulue.
I shall certainly recommend it to my agricultu-al friends as a very useful book, and
•ne necessary to every scientific farmer. I am
Respectfully your ob't. serv't.
CHARLES T. JACK JON, State Assayer, fc
T« C. M. SAXTON, ESQ. N. Y.
PREFACE.
In ottering the public a work on Manures, in the face of so many treatises on th«
cubject, one would naturally be led to expect that the author would add something
new to the common stock of existing agricultural knowledge, much of which lias been
handed down from generation to generation for many hundred years ; or, at least, that
he would give some satisfactory reason for thus introducing himself to public notice.
The design of the AMERICAN MUCK BOOK, then, is not to present uny novel or
hitherto unheard-of theory or hypothesis in agriculture ; but to collect, arrange, and
condense what men of experience and sound judgment, both of ancient and modern
times, have already written upon the subject, embodied in a simplified form, together
with such facts and observations as have come directly under the notice of the author,
and such as may safely be recommended for general practice, treated of at the same
time in such a manner as shall come within the comprehension of the "working
farmer" who may have formed comparatively but little acquaintance with chemical
science.
In order that he may not be accused of the reproach of making too free a use of the
labors of others who have written before him, the author would shelter himself for
the present, as well as for all past occasions, under the following Horatiau maxim :
" Publica materies privati juris erit, si
JVec circa vilcm patalumque moraberis oriem,"
which has been thus paraphrased : " A well-known subject, even though alresd?
ably handled, becomes as much the property of the author who treats of it anew as if
he had been the first to wriie about it, provided always it be treated in a novel man*
ner." According to the foregoing rule, then, it is hoped that so much of novelty
will be found in this work as shall distinguish it from every other book ever written
on the subject, stamping it at the same time with an identity of its own, and making
It interesting and acceptable to the great body for whom it is designed.
Furthermore, the author has the candor, honesty, and fearlessness to confess that
he has made, for the public good, a fr>e use of the labors of Theophrastus, Oato, Pliny,
Columella, Varro, lleresbachius, Gouge, Worlige, Honghton, Ellis, Hale, Dickson,
Priestly, Meadowbank, Dundon^id, Davy, Chaptal, Berzelius, Vauquelin, Vitalis, Eln-
hof, Schweitzer, Girardin, Boussingault, Sprengel, Payen, Herapath, Johnston, An-
derson, Main, Way, Ogston, Rham, Morton, and Johnson, of Europe, and of Jackson,
Beck. Emmons, Shephard, Norton, Rogers, Booth, Gardner, and Antisell, of the Uni-
ted States, without giving them in several instances such credit as the over-nice critic
would fain to demand. He has endeavored not to deviate, however, from established
custom, except in cases where he deemed it expedient to change the language, in
part, for the sake of brevity, elucidation, or Americanising the subject, or adapting
it to our climate, resources, economy, condition of soil, class and rotation of crops,
&c., &c. Much of the matter is* entirely original, founded on the practice and actual
experience of the author, and a large share of the work has been re-written or com-
posed anew. With this candid avowel, no further apology would seem necessary.
JWio York, September lOtA, 1851. D. J. B.
ADVERTISEMENT.
AT the solicitation of many eminent and practical agriculturists, who have often
expressed the desire for a treatise on Manures, giving in a condensed form the sub-
stance of what is already known on the subject, and embracing in particular what
has been revealed by modern science, the publisher has boon induced to bring out
the present work.
Among the chief reasons for selecting the author for the performance of such an
Undertaking, and his adaptability for the accomplishment of the task, are the follow-
ing :— Mr. Browne was bred and educated a practical fanner; within the last thirty
years, his attention has been exclusively directed to Agriculture, Chemistry, Geology,
and their kindred sciences, and in the mean time he has travelled and resided more
or less in various parts of North and South America, the West Indies, Europe, and
Western Africa, which has afforded him opportunities to witness the entire range of
farming, gardening, and planting, in all the varied aspects of soils, crops, climate*,
and the different systems practised. Within the last fifteen years, ho has been under
the tuition, or in concert with several of the most eminent chemists of the age, ant'
has read or consulted most of the works, both ancient and modern, relating to the
subject under consideration ; and hence, he will be found equally at home in the
closet, in the laboratory, and in the field.
There is one feature in thu present work which would seem to claim particular at-
tention ; and that is, in reading several of the quotations from old authors, it will be
seen that many facts and principles attributed to modern discovery, were known long
before the days of Davy, Liebig, and a Itost of others, who have been looked upon
by many as prodigies of the age. As instances of this, It will be seen that the use
of bones as a manure was known to the Welsh in the middle of the first century ;
horns, hoofs, and guano, in the seventeenth century ; nitrogen, ammonia, gypaum,
super-phosphate of lime, sulphuric acid, the other alkalies and acids, as well as peat
and swamp mud, green crops, rain water, snow, hail, &c., in the eighteenth century.
Hence the farmer may rest assured that all the above-named substances may be safely
used agreeably to the directions given in this work, as they have stood the test in
many climates, and in various ages of the 'vorld.
Another feature which is also deserving of notice, is the frequent use made of the
labors of Professors Way, Ogston, Johnston, and other European chemists, which
would seem, at the first view, to be inapplicable to our country, and as out of place
In coming from a foreign source. But when it is considered that immense sums of
money have been expended for experiments and analyses by the Royal Agricultural
Society of England, as well as by other similar associations abroad, and but compara-
tively a small amount expended either by any of our state or general goveninrents. it
will be obvious that the author must have made use of these facts, or have issued
the work in a less complete state. One thing is certain, the information is reliuble in
coming from so high authorities, and, on general principles, will apply to all countries
of the globe.
C. M. 8AXTOM
tfew York, September 16tA, 1851.
COMMENDATORY NOTICE,
FROM PROF. J. A. NASH, OF AMHERST COLLEGE, MASS
DLAR SIR : — Of all the subjects connected with practical agriculture, noi.e is more
important than that of manures.
It ia trne there are spa's on the earth's surface — mere spots, almost too small to be
worth naming — where nature, or, as I would rather say, the Creator, has sufficiently
guarded against the exhaustion of the soil.
The general rule is, that cropping exhausts. However good lands may have been
originally, they cannot give always without receiving. The essential elements of
fertility, taken off by continued cropping, must, in some form, be returned. Lands
originally fertile must be manured to keep them fertile.
But the greater portion of lands, by far, are not originally good. They are de-
fective—are too clayey, or too sandy ; too tenacious of Water, or not sufficiently
so ; either holding organic matter too long in a state nndigestible by plants, or de-
composing it too soon, and giving it to the winds. These not only need manuring,
but amending. Their character is to be changed.
If the farmer would keep his good lands productive ; if he would make his ordi-
nary lands better ; if he would reclaim those which are now useless ; it" lie would
render his whole farm capable of an increasingly profitable cultivation, all
of which can be done, he must study the subject of manures ; and the " American
Field Book of Manures " is, in my opinion, just the book he will need.
When this book first made its appearance, I read it with intense interest ; and I
pronounced it as, in my opinion, the very best book for practical farmers which I
had seen. I thought that the editor, D. J. Browne, Esq., and yourself, as the pub-
lisher, had done a very great service to agriculture, in giving it to the public. Two
years, in which I have studied the book faithfully, have not altered the judgment I
then formed. I rejoice that a new edition is called for. In now commending a sec-
ond edition to the farmers of our country, I have but to say what scores of intelli-
gent farmers will bear me witness, that I have said uniformly ever since the bo^j
first appeared, that it is a first-rate book, on a most important subject.
farmers may follow the counsels erf this book without danger of being misifd.
». A NASH
INDEX.
PAOEH.
Acts Apo-Crersic 335
Carbonic W, 169
Crenic 335
Humic 104, 199
Hydrochloric 25
Muriatic 25
Nitric 349
Oxalic 206
Phosphoric 30.J
" Dilute 351
Silicic 152
Sulphuric 245
« Dilute 3.-)!
Ulmic 104, 199
Uric 38, 857, 381, 883
Air of the Atmosphere 5
Dephlogisticated 27
Empyreal 27
Fixed 10
Marsh 19
Vital 27
Alabaster 68
Albite 64
Alum, Earth of 3:i
Alumina 33
Ammonia 7, 35
Atnmoniacal Salts 35
Analysis of Albite , 64
of American Potash 135
of Augite 164
of Basalt r65
of Bitterns 55
of Bleacher's Wuste 334
of Blood 220
Of Bones 232, 233, 243, -244
of Brewer's Steep Water. ...35'J
of Coal 61,62
of Common Salt 144
" of Coprolitos 63
of CotioQ Fibre 180
of Feldspar 64
Of Gas Lime 103
of Green-Sand Marl 124, li~>, 1*27
of Greenstone Trap 163
of Guanos, (Table of, i 288
Piati
Analvsb v»C Hair 293
of Morn '-SK
if llornlilende. 07, 164
f Infiirisoriul Sand 049
if Ivory Turnings 299
if Kelp" 44
f Magnesian Limestone 112, 113
f Mica 66
of New -Jersey Plumphorite. . 13-J
of New- York Cluys 59
of Nuw-Vork Marls lv!2
of Nii;hl Soil 2ii4, --Hi.)
of Oyster Shells 313
of Pan Scale 55
of Pearlash 133
of Peat 41
of Pouil Mud 3rtl
of Salt Spring's ....318
of Scutch 3K>
of Sea \\'ator 367
of Sower Water 3W
of Shales and Slates i53
of Shell Sand 315
of Skins of AuimaU 317
of Soda Ash 155
of Soot 160
of Spring Water 361
of Urea.. 319
of Urine of the Cow 32(1
of « of Man 318
Analysis of Ashes of American
Trees
" lA'ached.... 51
of Barley.. 47
of Coal 39,40
of Cow Duni? 255
of the Kxcrejnent i ,
of the Cow
of the Donuwtic / 0-7
Fowl S
of the Ho;,' 260
of the Norse 262
of Man 2«4
of the Pigeon «57
..JUi-.--l.i-], -"i
'354
PAGES.
Analysis of Ashes of Flax ............ 182
from Soaper's I r.t
Waste ....... J °J
of Hemlock i lfio
Spruce Bark. J
of Indian (x>rn ..... . 190
of Kentucky lilue I inn
Grass ........ j '
J203
of leaves of Iron
Wood .........
of " Dog Wood.. 203
of " Apple Tree.. '.203
of Linseed ......... 206
Of Oats ......... 47, 192
of Orchard Grass. . . 199
ofliape ......... 47,399
of Rape Cuke ...... 218
of " " Seed..lHO
of " Oil Cake... 180
of Red Clover ...... 1H8
of Rice Straw and I o00
Chaff ........ j3 3
of Sprats ........... 274
of Sugar Cane ..... 46
" Refuse ____ 230
of Timothy ......... 199
of Turnip .......... 197
ofWheat .......... 47
of Wool .......... 293
Anamalised Carbon .................. •-.'•-.)
Animal Charcoal .................... 229
Animals, Excrement of ............... 25(1
Apatite ......................... 109, i:«)
Apo-Crenate of Lime ................ 102
of Potash ............... l:t7
of Soda ................ 157
Apple Murk ......................... 210
Arg» ......................
Asphalt um ...... ...........
Augite
Azote ..........
Ashes
L«acnea
of Anthracite Coal
of Bituminous "
of Peat ........................ 40
of Seaweed .................... 43
of Soaper's Waste .............. 53
of Sugar Cane ................. 45
of Vegetables, not Woody ...... 40
of Wood ...................... 48
Bagasse ............................. 45
Bark of Trees and Shrubs ............ Ui7
Barnyard Manure .................... 370
Barilla ........................... 43, 154
Barley, Methods of supplying the Re- > ,,„
quisite Ingredients to an Acre of j
Basalt ............................... 164
Beryl ............................... 67
Bi-Carbonate of Soda ............ 145, 158
of Lime... ............ 86
Bi-Phosphate of Lime ........... 177,239
of Soda ................ 158
Bi-Sulphuret of Iron ................ 78
Bitterns .................... ....... 55
PACKS.
Bleaching Powdor 101
Bone Black . 229
Earth 109,231
Bones 231
Bun, ing of 239
Decomposing of 240, -217
Dissolving of 245
Great Antiquity of Use of as a I i(.,,
Manure i "
Grinding of 239
Steaming of 240
Bleacher's Waste 334
Blood 225
Blubber, Refuse 227
Brick Dust 56
Bristles 294
Building Rubbish 58
Burnt Clay 56
Calcium, Prot-oxide of 81
Chloride of 103
Carbonate of Ammonia 70
of Iron 80
of Lime 87, 88
of Magnesia 112
of Potash 134
of Soda 154
Carbonic Acid 10, 169
Cfinent, Water 87, 112
Chalk 87
229
172
f )
s >
)
Charcoal Aniuia1, ..................
Per-centage and weight of
produced by various kind
of Wood..'.
Volume of Gases absorbed
by
Charred Peat
Apple Pomace
Bagasse
Saw D.isi...
tan Hark .....
Chip Du.i« ...........
Chloride ol Caiciimi
of Limy
of Magnesium
of Pot.issium
of Sodium
Chlorine.
Chlorite
Clmi.r Dump
Citrate of Potash
ClamShells
Clay, Burnt
Unbunit
Clover
Coal Dust
Coul Tur
Coprolites
185.
Coral and Coral S:md
Cotton Refuse
Seed
" OilCake
C:-enate of Lime
of Potash
of Soda
174
177
177
177
177
178
378
100
101
115
136
142
12
67
10
137
317
56
59
187
60
332
62
248
179
180
180
103
137
157
Vlll
PAGW.
Crops, Rotation of 418
Crustiicea, etc., 273
Cubic Nitre 157
Petre 157
Cuttings 295
Dew 361
Dung of Animals 250
Long 372
Short 372
Electricity, as a Fertiliser 13
Epsom Salts 118
Excrement of Animals 250
of the Ass.../ 253
of the Camel 253
of the Cow 254
of the Deer 256
of the Dog 256
of the Domestic Fowl 257
Of the Duck 238
of the Goat 258
of the Goose 258
of the Guinea Fowl 259
of the Hog 260
of the Horse 261
of Man 264,301
of the Pigeon 266
of the Rabbit 268
of Sea Fowls 268
of the Sheep 269
of the Turkey 271
fallowing 15
Feathers 272
Feldspar 64, 110, 140
Fire Damp 19
Fish 273 1
Alewife, or Spring Herring 275
Clams, Crabs, Lobsters, etc 278
Cockles 278
Hard Head.... 270
Horse-Foot, or King Crab 275
Menhaden 276
Mossbunker .276
Mussels 278
Offal of 278
Panhagen 276
Shad 275
Skippangs 276
Flax Shives and Leaves 181
Flesh, Muscles, &c., of Dead Ani- ) ™,
mals } *'"
Folding, or Yarding 278
Galvanism, as a Fertiliser 14
Gas, Azote 20
Carbonic Acid 10
Chlorine - 12
Hydrochloric-Acid '. 25
Hydrogen 19
Muriatic-Acid 25
Nitrogen. 26
Oxygen 27
Gas-House Liquor 336
Gas Lime 102
Gas Tar 336
Glauber's Salt 150 j
Gneiss 65'
PADS..
Granite 65, 1)0
Grape Skins and Seeds -216
Greaves 293
Grewi Manure* . Ife3
Artichoke 184
liokhiira. Clover 185
Horace 1H6
Buckwheat 186
Cow Pea IU3
Indian Corn 1<JO
Outs 192
Old Grass 190
Uape 193
Rod Clover IK7
Rye 194
Sorrel 194
Spnrry 196
Turnip 197
Vetch 198
While Lupin 191
White Mustard 192
Yeatman 1'ea 193
Green Suud 123, 140
" Marl 110, 123
Greenstone Trap 136
Guano.. 2«0
Anagamos ift(4
Bolivian 286
Chilian 286
Florida 269, 2M4
Ichaboe 286
Modi! of Estimating Value of. . .289
Patagonian 287
Peruvian '. . . .284
Saldiinha-llay 287
Selecting of 285
Guerneyism 17
Gypsum 68
Hail 3tii
Hair 294
Husk of Rice -J5Q
Hay, Refuse . . . 19¥
Heat, Influence of on Vegetatiou
Herbaceous Plants 224
Hoofs ...297
Hornblende 6(5, 110
Horns and Horn Piths 296
" Shavings 296
Huinic Acid 104, 19!)
Humus 199
Hydrate of Lime 83
of Muguesiu 1 13
of Soda 154
Hvdrogen .. 19
Indian Corn, Methods of supplying )
the Requisite Ingredients to an V 413
Acre of j
Insect Remains 297
Iron 75
Irrigation 336
Ivory Turnings 299
Kelp 43, 154
Kitchen Wash 349
Leaf Mould 203
Leather Refuse ">JU
INDEX.
ix
PAGES. '• PAOBS.
f,«ives of Treo.* 202 Manures, Special, Application of 387
Lichens from R >cks and Trees 204 " Concluding R<H4i7
Light, Influence of on Vegetation 21 marks on J '
Lime 80 " Rationale of 387
Air-Slacked 83, 93 Marble 87
Apo-Creuate of 102 Marl 119
Bi-Carbonate of 88 Clayey 120
Bi-Phosphate of 107, 239 Green-Sand 123, 1 10
Burning of 91, 02,93,94 ; Shell Ill
Carbonate of 87, 83 Stony 122
Caustic , 83 j Matter, Organic, "}
Chlorideof 101 Amount removed ion, oqo'-icn 1Q4 -m
Crenateof 102 from an acre by | •»»> 392, 393, 384, 3».
Crude or (Jnburnt 98 various Crops. J
Hipo-Sulphite of 103 Mica 6C, 110
Hot 83 Moss from Rocks and Trws 204
Humate of 104 Mould, Vegetable 199
Hydrate of 84 Muck, Swamp 207
Hydraulic 87, 99, 105, 112 Mud 379
Mild 84^ Frog-Pond 381
Modes of Applying 95 Pond 380
Nitateof 106 River 380
of Gas Works 102 Salt-Marsh 382
Oxalateof 107 j Sea 382
Oxy-Muriate of 102 ! Sink-Hole 381
Oyster-shell 83 Mulching 17
Phosphate of 107 Muriate of Ammonia 30
Quicklime 83 of Soda 142
Shell 83 Night Soil 204, 301, 305
Silicate of 110 Nitrate of Ammonia 30
Slaking of 83,93, 49 I of Lime 106
Solubility of 83 of Magnesia 11G
Sulphate of 68, 111 of Potash 137
Sulphite of 103 of Soda 157
Super-Phosphate of 109 ] Nitre 137, 150
Theory of Action of 84 Nitrogen 26
Water 87,112 Nitrogen, Amount of in Oil Cake I 0()-
Limestone, Crude or Unburnt 98 ' from Different Countries j '
Crushed 98 Oats, Method of supplying the Re- t 499
Impure 99 quisito Ingredients to an Acre of {
Sand and Gravel 100, 151 Offal of Slaughterhouses 302
Liquid Manures, Collecting of 329 » >il Cake 204
Apparatus for A p- I ,~- Oil Cake, Composition of 205
plying !. <327 Oil, Train 227
Carts 331, 330 Orchards, Mulching of 18
TankB 328 Oxalato of Ammonia 36
Magnesia Ill of Lime 107
Carbonate of 1 12 of Potash 138
Caustic 1 15 Oxalic Acid 206
Hydrate of ..113 Oxidation 27
Nitrate of 116 Oxide of Aluminium 33
Phoephateof 117 of Calcium 81,83
Silicate of 117 of Iron 76, 77
Sulphateof 118 of Magnesium Ill
Magnesium, Chloride of. ..115 of Potassium 132
Prot-Oxide of HI of Silicum 152
Malt Dust 203 of Sodium 154
Manganese 118 Oxygen 27
Manure, Barnyard ....370 Oxygenation 29
" Management of 370 Oxy-Muriate of Lime 102
Long 372 Oyster Shells. 312
Pigyard 383 Pan Scale 55
Short 372 Paring and Kurninir 178
Street 381 " 'without Fire I7fl
Manure*, Special 3b7 Poarla.sh 134,135
PA.OES.
Peat ... ""7
Phosphate of Alumina 34
of Lime 1»7
of Magnesia 117
of Potash 139
of Soda I"'8
Phosphorite 107, 109, 130
Pigyard Manure 383
Pine Straw, (leaves,) 217
Plants, Constituents of 388, 38!
Source of Carbon ol 389 ,
" Hydrogen of 389
" Nitrogen of 390 I
" Oxygen of 390
" Phosphorus of 390
» Sulphur of 390
Amount of Miu-"]
eral Matter of |
abstracted }• 392, 393, 394, 395
from an Acre I
of J
Plaster of Paris 69
Pomace 216
Potash, or Potassa 132
Apo-Crenate of 336
Carbonate of 134
Citrate of 137
Crenate of 336
Oxalate of 138
Phosphate of 139
Nitrate of 137
Silicate of 140
Tartrate of 137
Potassium, Hydrated Prot-Oxide of. ...132
Chloride of 136
Sulphuretof 160
Potatoes, Modes of supplying the Re- ) ., 5
quisite Ingredients to an Acre of ) '
Poudrette 305
American 310
Flemish 305
Payen's 309
Madame Vivert Duboul's.. .307
Urate 308
Premings 295
Prot-Oxide of Sodium 154
of Calcium 83
of Hydrogen 354
of Potassium 136
Prussian Blue, Residuum of 312
Pyrites 79
Rags, Woollen 324
Rape Dust 217
Recipe No. 1. To Prepare a Top- ) .„„
dressing for an Acre of Wheat. . J **•
No. 2. To Prepare a Top- 1
dressing for an Acre of > 404
Wheat i
No. 3. To Prepare' a Dress- "I
ing to be plowed or har- I
rowed into an Acre of J-404
Grass Sward or a Clo-
Tor Lev for Wheat. . . .
PAGES
Ker.ipe No. 4. To Prepare a Dress- "|
ing for an Acre of Land 1 405
not in (Jrass, not much f
Worn, for Wheat ...... J
No. 5. To Prepare a Dress- "j
iug to be plowed into an I 405
Acre of Laud to be sown
with Wheat
J
No. 6. To Prepare :i Dress-
ing to be plowed into an
Acre of Laud to be sown
with Wheat ...........
No. 7. To Prepare a Dross-
ing to be plowed iiitoan
Acre of Land to bo sown
with Wheat ...........
No. 8. To Prepare Wheat )
Seed for an Acre— a He- V 406
medy for Smut ......... )
No. 9. A Remedy for Slugs / 4™,
on Wheat ............. i
No. 10. To Prepare a Dress- ~1
ing for an Acre of Rye 1 ^^
to be plowed in with the f
Seed .................. j
No. 11. To Prepare a Dress- ]
ing and a Top-Dressing I
for an Acre of Rye to be >406
applied at the Time of I
Sowing ................ J
No. 12. To Prepare a Dress- ]
ing for an Acre of Rye, \,,^
to be applied previous to j
Sowing ................ J
No. 13. To Prepare Seed Rye > .,,„
for an Acre of Land ... S
No. 14. To Prepare a Dress-
ing for an Acre of Oats,
to be harrowed in with
the Seed ...............
No. 15. To Prepare <i Dross- ")
ing for an Acre of Land I
previously cultivated I ...
with Potatoes, Wheat,,1
or Indian Corn, for a
Crop of Barley
No. 16. To Prepare a Dress- 1
ing for an Acre of Barley 410
to be harrowed in with ' '
the Seed'
No. 17. To Prepare a Dress- 1
ing for an Acre of Bar- 1 ..a
ley to be plowed in with f
ey to be plu
the Seed . . .
M
PAGES.
Recipe No. 18. To Prepare Seed Bar- ) 4|0
le/ for an Acre of Land i
No. 19. To Prepare a Dress- )
ing for an Acre of Indian >413
Corn .................. )
No. 20. To Prepare a Dress
ing for an Acre of Indi- ! ,..
an Corn on Light Sandy f
Laud .................. J
No. 21. To Prepare i Dress-")
ing for an Acre of Indi- ! ,,,
an Corn to be applied in f
the Hill with the Seed, j
No. 22. To Prepare a Steep I .,.
for an Acre of Seed Corn \
No. 23. To Prepare a Soak ) ,,-
for an Acre of Seed Corn j
No. 24. To Prepare a
ing for an Acre of Pota-
toes, to be applied in the
Hill at the Time of
Planting ................
No. 25. To Prepare a Dress-"
ing for an Acre of Pota-
toes, to be applied in the > 410
Hill at the Time of
Planting ...............
No. 26. To Prepare a Dress-"
ing for an Acre of Pota-
toes, to be applied in the < ,
Hill on a newly broken '
sod at the Time of Plant-
ing ....................
Refuse, Cotton ..................... T. 179
Bleacher's ................... 334
Blubber ..................... 227
Brine ........................ 335
Gluemaker's ................. 313
Hay ........................ 198
Lard and Tallow Trier's ....... 29 J
Leather ..................... 3(X)
of Sugar Refineries ........... 5W9
Prussian Blue ................ 312
Slaughterhouse .............. 30:2
Starch ....................... 220
Wool ........................ 295
Woollen .................. . . .293
Rice Straw and Husk ................ 223
Rotation of Crops ................... 418
Rye, Methods of supplying the Re- > Am
quisite Ingredients to an Acre of {
Sal Ammoniac ....................... 36
Salt, Common ................... 101, 142
Glauber's .................. , ... 139
of Sorrel ...................... 139
Spirit of ........................ 25
Springs ................... . .367
PAGICS.
Salt Sprijg Water 368
Saltpetre 137
Salt-", Ainmoniucal 35
Epsom 119
Sand 130
Coral 248
Green 123, 140
Limestone 1(10, 151
Sea 151
Shell 312
Saw Dust 221
Schorl 67
Scutch 315
Sea Water 367
Sea Weed 219
Selenite 68
Serpentine 165
Sewerage 386
Sewer Water 368
Shade, as a Fertiliser 17
Shale 153
Shavings of Wood 221
Shell Sand 312
Shells of Oysters, Clams, etc 312
Shoddy i>95
Silex 152
Silica 152
Silicate of Alumina 34
of Lime 110
of Magnesia 117
of Potash 140
of Soda 159
Silicum, Oxide of 152
Skins of Animals 315
Slate, Decomposed 153
Slugs on Wheat, Remedy for 407
Smut in Wheat, Remedy for 406
Snow, Melted 347, 361
Soap Suds 349
Sodium, Prot-Oxide of 154
Chloride of - 142, 157
Sulphuret of 160
Soda 154
Apo-Crenate of 33t>
Ash 154
Bi-C;irbonate of 145, 156
Bi-Phosphate of 158
Carbonate of 154
Caustic 156
Crenate of 336
Hydrate of 154
Muriate of 142
Nitate of 157
Phosphate of 158
Silicate of I5!»
.Sulphate of I5K
Soiling 280,377
Soils, Absorbent Power of 60
Soot 16C
Starch Refuse i-JO
Straw and Chaff of Grain 2-J1
Straw of R ice 223
Sugar Refineries, Refuse of 229
Sulphate of Alumina 35
of Ammonia 3»>, 70
INDEX.
PACES. PAOKS.
BuIpliuU of -jime 08,111 Vitriol, Green 79
of Iron 79 Oil of 352
of Magnesia 118 \Vash from Kitchen 349
of Potash 142 Water 333
of Soda 159 Brewer's Sleep 359
Sulphur 162 Distiller's Steep 369
Sulphuret of Iron 78 I)uncr 3ti(l
of Potassium 160 Fertilising Qualities of 34(5
of Sodium 160 Flax 360
Super-Phosphate of Lime 109 Guano 3(10
Swamp Muck 207 Hail 361
Syenite 65, 110 Lake 361
Taffo 256 of Stiirch Manufactories 361
Tan Hark 221 Potato 361
Tangue 115 Bain 361,347
Tartrate of Potash 137 River 347, 361
Tourmaline 67 Halt Spring 368
Train Oil 227 Sea 367
Trap 110, 140, 163 Sewer 368
Trez 114 Snow 347, 361
Ulmic Acid 114, 199 Spring 361
Urateof Ammonia 38 Weeds 224
Urea 310 Wheat Crop, Methods of supplying )
Urate, Manufacture of 308 the Ingredients to the Land for > 399
Urine 317 the Food of )
of Man 318 Woody Fibre 221
of the Cow 319 Wool ." 295
of the Horse 322 Woollen Rags 324
of the Pig 322 Woollen Waste 395
of the Sheep 322 j Yards, Back, Scrapings ol 378
Vapor, Watery, of the Atmosphere. . . 30 i Zeolite 66
tJASEOUS AND IMPONDERABLE MANURES.
AIR OF THE ATMOSPHERE.
npHE air we breathe, and in which plants live and grow, is
possessed of weight, is susceptible of compression and expan-
sion, is the medium of heat and cold, and is indispensable to
the lives of- all terrestrial animals and plants. By a most beau-
tiful arrangement in the economy of nature, the different pro-
cesses of animal and vegetable respiration are wisely made
mutually to assist each other, the particular gases thrown off
by the respiration of the one, harmoniously contributing to
the support of the other.
In investigating the air of our atmosphere, we find it is com-
posed principally of a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen gases,
in the proportion very nearly of 21 of the former to 79 of the
latter. It contains, however, as a constituent necessary to the
very existence of vegetable life, a small per-centage of car-
bonic acid. On an average, this carbonic acid amounts to
about ^/offths part of the bulk of the air. On the shores of the
sea or of great lakes, this quantity diminishes; and it becomes
sensibly less as we recede from the land. It is also less by
day than by night, (as 3T3ff30-ths to 4r3/ffths,) and it is less over a
moist than over a dry soil.
The air is also imbued with moisture. Watery vapor is
everywhere diffused through it, but the quantity varies with
g GASEOUS AND
the season of the ysar, with the climate, with the natare of the
locality, with its allitude, and with its distance from the equa-
tor. In temperate climates, it oscillates on the same spot be-
tween i and H per cent, of the weight of the air; being least
in mid-winter and greatest in the hot months of summer.
There are also mingled with the atmosphere, traces of the
vast variety of substances, which are capable of rising from
the surface of the earth in the form of vapor ; such, for in-
stance, as are given off by decaying animal or vegetable mat
ter, which are the produce of disease in either class of bodies,
or which are evolved during the operations of nature in the in-
organic kingdom, or by the artificial processes of man. Among
these accidental vapors are to be included those miasmata,
which, in certain parts of the world, render whole districts un-
healthy, as well as certain compounds of ammonia, which are
inferred to exist in the atmosphere, because they can be de-
tected in rain water, or in newly-fallen snow.
In this constitution of the atmosphere, we can discover many
beautiful adaptations to the wants and structure of animals
and plants. The exciting effect of pure oxygen on the animal
economy is diluted by the large admixture with nitrogen; the
quantity of carbonic acid present is sufficient to supply food
to the plant, while it is not so great as to prove injurious to
the animal ; and the watery vapor suffices to maintain the re-
quisite moisture and flexibility of the parts of both orders of
beings, without being, in general, in such a proportion as to
prove hurtful to either.
The air, also, by its subtlety, diffuses itself everywhere.
Into every pore of the soil it makes its way. When there, it
yields its oxygen or its carbonic acid to the dead vegetable
matter, or to the living root. A shower of rain expels the half-
corrupted air, to be succeeded by a purer poition as the watei
retires. The heat of the sun warms the soil and expands the
imprisoned gases; these partially escape, and are, as before,
replaced by other air when the rays of the sun are withdrawn.
By the action of these and other causes, a constant circulo-
IMPONDEHABLS MANURES. 7
lion is, to a certain extent, kept up between the atmosphere
on the surface, which plays among the leaves and stems of
plants, and the air which mingles with the soil and ministers
to the roots.
The operation and precise effects of the atmosphere on
vegetation will be found in the next and succeeding articles,
embraced under this division of the subject.
AMMONIA.
AMMONIA, ammoniacal gas, spirits of hartshorn, alkaline air,
or volatile alkali, which names it has at different periods as-
sumed, is ;x gaseous compound, formed of 1 equivalent of
nitrogen, 14JL, and 3 of hydrogen, having an atomic weight, or
combining number, of 17j. When pure, it is an incondensa-
ble colorless gas, possessing great pungency, acridity, and
alkaline properties, acting powerfully on the nose and eyes.
It is incapable of supporting combustion, and is nearly in-
flammable. Water, at the common temperature and pressure
of the atmosphere, readily absorbs about 780 times its bulk,
and in this state forms strong liquid ammonia, which, when
much more dilute, is popularly known as spirits of hartshorn, or
water of ammonia of the shops.
Ammonia, in combination with acids, is frequently found
ready formed in nature ; but that met with in commerce was
originally brought from Egypt, where it was obtained by sub-
limation under the form of sal ammoniac, (muriate or hydro-
chlorate of ammonia, of modern chemists,) from the soot pro-
duced by burning camel's dung. It was afterwards procured
from putrid urine by distillation ; but at the present day, it is
chiefly prepared from the ammoniacal liquor of gas works,
and the manufactories of animal charcoal, ivory or bone black,
or by steeping animal substances in a solution of the muriate
of magnesia. In a state of nature, it is found in variable
quantities among the saline products of volcanoes, in sea water,
in bituminous coal, and in the leaves of some plants. It ex-
g GASEOUS AND
ists in considerable quantity in guano, the dung and urine of
animals, and is well known to form one of the products of all
fermenting animal matter; and its smell may readily be de-
tected in cesspools, dunghills, in or near stables where horses;
cattle, &c., are kept, in rain-water cisterns, and near the sur-
face of cultivated ground just after the commencement of a
summer shower.
Ammonia is known to exist in the atmosphere in small and
variable quantity, as well as in rain water, snow, hail, and
dew. It has also been found in many clays, and traces of it
may be discovered in most soils; but it is not known to be a
natural or essential constituent of any of the solid rocks of
which the crust of this globe is composed. These clays and
soils, therefore, are supposed to have derived their ammonia
from the air. Whence, then, is this ammonia derived, and is
its quantity sufficient to supply the demands of the entire veg-
etation of the globe '{ On this subject, Professor Johnston re-
marks: "When animal substances undergo decay, nearly all
the nitrogen they contain is ultimately separated from the othei
constituents in the form of ammonia. During the decay of
plants, also, a portion of their nitrogen escapes in the state of
ammonia. Of the ammonia thus formed, much ascends into
the air, chiefly in combination with carbonic acid, as carbon-
ate of ammonia, (smelling salts,) and much remains in the
soil. Were the whole of the nitrogen contained in plants and
animals to assume the form of ammonia when they decay, and
remain in the soil or in the air, it would always be within the
reach cither of the roots or leaves of the living races ; and
thus the same ammonia might again and again return into the
circulation of new vegetable tribes, and be always alone suffi-
cient to supply all the demands of the existing vegetation of
the globe.
"But of the ammonia thus forme J, a portion is daily washed
from the soil by the rains and carried to the sea, and much
more, probably, is washed from the air by the waters of the
sea itself, or by the rains which fall directly into the wide
IMPONDERABLE MANURES. 9
oceans; and we know of no compensating process by which
this ammonia can be restored to the air, and again made uso
ful to vegetation.
" T.ie fact which most clearly illustrates the production of
ammonia in nature, both on the surface of the earth, in the
soil, and far in the interior near the seat of volcanic fires,
is this: That, if a current of moist air be made to pass
over red-hot charcoal, carbonic acid and ammonia are
simultaneously formed. This is, in reality, only a repetition
in another form of what takes place, when vegetable matter
decays, or iron filings rust in moist air. The carbon and the
iron decompose the watery vapor in the air, and combine with
its oxygen, while at the instant of its liberation, the hydrogen
of the water combines with the nitrogen of the air, and forms
ammonia.
" The source of the ammonia, evolved in volcanic districts,
therefore, is no longer obscure. The existence of combustible
matter in such districts, and at great depths beneath the sur-
face, can, in few cases, be doubted, and the passage of a mixed
atmosphere of common air and steam over such combustible
matter, at a high temperature, appears to be alone necessary
o the production ot ammonia, it is unnecessary, men, 10
nave recourse to doubtful speculations in order to account for
the natural reproduction of ammonia, to a certain extent, in
the place of that which is constantly undergoing decomposi-
tion by the agency of ••j.uscs, such as those above described.
But is the indefinite quantity of ammonia reproduced by these
indirect methods sufficient to replace all that is lost? Can it
be supposed to impart to plants all the nitrogen they require?"
In the opinion of the author just quoted, ammonia is sup-
plied to plants chiefly by the natural decay of animal and
vegetable substances; and nitric acid — partly by the natural
oxidation of dead organic matter, and partly by the direct
union of oxygen and nitrogen through the agency of atmos-
pheric electricity.
For fur'her information on the operation and Application of
JO GASEOUS AND
ammonia, the reader is referred to AMMONIAC A'. SALTS under the
head of "Saline Manures," &c., and GAS-HOUSE LIQUOR, under
the head of " Liquid Manures."
OARBONIO ACID GAS.
THIS compound, which is also known under the names of
fixed air and choke damp, is widely distributed throughout all
nature, and is the product, of the combustion of carbon in an
abundance of oxygen. It is gaseous at all temperatures under
ordinary pressure — is incombustible, and incapable of sup-
porting combustion and respiration. Like oxygen, hydrogen,
and nitrogen, it is colorless and transparent, but may readily
be distinguished from all these by its acid taste and smell, by
its solubility in water, and by its great density. Water, at
60° F., under the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere, dissolves
rather more than its own bulk of this gas (100 measures of
water dissolve 106 of gas). It is about one half heavier than
the atmosphere, near the earth, and hence may be poured
through the air from one vessel into another. Hence, also,
where it issues from the earth in large quantities, as in many
volcanic districts, il flows along the surface like water, enter?
into and fills up the cracks and hollows, and sometimes runs
to a considerable distance irom its source before u is dissi
pated among the still air, through which it ascends much
more slowly than the ot'ier gases of which the atmosphere is
composed.
Burning bodies are extinguished in carbonic acid, and liv-
ing beings plunged into it instantly cease to breathe. Mixed
with |th of its bulk of this gas, the atmospheric air is rendered
unfit for respiration. It is, however, the principal food of
plants, being absorbed by their leaves and roots in large
quantity. Hence the presence of carbonic acid in tho atmos-
phere is necessary to the growth of plants, and they have been
observed to thrive better when the quantity of this gas in "the
lir is considerably augmented. Plants will bear about 20
IMPONDERABLE MANURES. 11
per cent, of this gas in addition to what is natural to them, hut
then they must be exposed to the light. Probably from 5 to
8 per cent, is as much as can be safely used. Common air, as
has been already stated, does not contain more on an average
than ^Vtfth of its bulk of carbonic acid ; but M. De Saussure
found that plants in the sunshine grew better when it was in-
creased to -jLth of the bulk of the air, but beyond this quantity
they were injured by its presence, even when exposed to the
sun. When the carbonic acid amounted to one half, the
plants died in seven days; when it reached two thirds of the
bulk of the air, they ceased to grow altogether. In the shade,
any increase of carbonic acid beyond that which naturally
exists in the atmosphere of our globe, was found to be injuri-
ous.
In nature, carbonic acid is produced under a great variety
of circumstances. It is given off from the lungs of all animals
during respiration. It is formed daring the progress of fer-
mentation. Fermented liquors owe their sparkling qualities
to the presence of this gas. During the decay of animal and
vegetable substances in the air, in compost heaps, or in the
soil, it is evolved in great abundance. In certain volcanic
countries, it issues in large quantity from springs and from
cracks and fissures in the surface of tne earth ; while the vast
amount of carbon contained in the W( od and coal daily con-
sumed by burning, is carried up into the atmosphere, chiefly
in this form.
Carbonic acid consists of 1 equivalent of carbon and 2
•>f oxygen. It unites with bases, (potash, soda, lime, &c.,) and
forms compounds known by the name of carbonates. Thus
pearlash is an impure :arbonate of potash ; the common soda
of the shops, carbonate "fsoda; ana limestone or chalk, carbon-
ates of lime. From the^e compounds, it may be readily disen-
gaged by pouring upon them diluted muriatic or sulphuric
acids. From limestone, it is also readily expelled by heat, as
in the common limekilns. During this process, the limestone
loses nearly 44 per cent of its weight, (43^ when pure and
12 GASEOUS AND
tir) ,) a loss which represents the quantity of tarbonic acid
driven off. Hence by burning limestone on the spot where it
is quarried, nearly one half the cost of transportation may be
saved. — Johnston.
CHLORINE.
CHLORINE, when pure, is a gaseous substance, possessing a
yellowish-green color, a disagreeable, pungent, suffocating
odor, and an astringent, acid taste. It is a non-supporter of
ordinary combustion and respiration, although phosphorous
gold leaf, metallic potassium and sodium, and several other
metals take fire in it and burn of their own accord. It is
nearly 2£ times heavier than common air, and therefore may
be readily poured from one vessel into another. Water absorbs
twice its own bulk of the gas, acquiring its color, smell, and
disagreeable astringent taste. If a mixture of common salt
and black oxide of manganese be put into a flask or bottle of
colorless glass, and sulphuric acid, (oil of vitriol,) be poured
upon it, a gas of a greenish-yellow color will be given off,
and will gradually fill the bottle. Its most rer<trkable prop-
erties are, its power of destroying almost al] vegetable and
animal colors, as well as the putrid odor of Discomposing or-
ganic matter. Hence its value as a bleaching agent, and as
a disinfectant and fumigant.
Animals cannot breathe it without suffocation; and when
unmixed with air, it speedily kills all living vegetables. The
solution of chlorine in water was found by Davy to promote
the germination of seeds.
It does not exist, and is rarely evolved in nature in a free or
uncombined state, and therefore is not known to exercise any
direct action upon the general vegetation of the globe. It ex-
ists largely, however, in common salt, (chloride of sodium,)
every 100 Ibs. of this substan2e containing upwards of 60 Ibs.
of chlorine. Indirectly, therefore, it may be supposed to in-
fluence, in some degree, the growth of plants, where common
IMPONDERABLE MANURES. IS
mil exists naturally in the soil, or is artificially applied in any
form to the land. — Tahnslon.
ELECTRICITY.
WITHIN the last half century, much interest has been taken
in Europe and in this country, but not with much success, in
the application of this agent, as a stimulant or fertiliser in
forwarding garden vegetables, and indeed, field crops and
trees. Yet, from the very nature of electricity, its operations
arc too little understood for the cultivator to derive much ad-
vantage from its use. Sir H. Davy, in treating of this subject
says : " Electrical changes are constantly taking place in na-
ture on the surface of the earth, and in the atmosphere ; but
as yet, the effects of this power in vegetation have not been
correctly estimated. It has been shown by experiments made
by means of the Voltaic battery, (the instrument in which
,iectricity is evolved by the mutual action of zinc, copper, and
vater,; that compound bodies, in general, are capable of being
decomposed by electrical powers; and it is probable, that the
various electrical phenomena occurring in our system must
influence both the germination of seeds and the growth of
plants. I found that, an acorn sprouted much more rapidly in
water positively electrified by the Voltaic instrument, than in
water negatively electrified ; and experiments made upon the
atmosphere show that clouds are usually negative ; and as
when a cloud is in one state of electricity, the surface of the
earth beneath is brought into an opposite state, it is probable
that, in common cases, the surface of the earth is positive."
The plans which have more recently been adopted in this
country, and by some, thought to have been attended with
success, are the two following, as detailed in Gardner's Farm-
er's Dictionary: — Wires are supported upon a trellis running
north and south, at a height of four to six feet above the
ground as denoted in fig. 1 ; at the ends of each trelfis, they
aue bent dcwn to the ground and about three inches below it.
GASEOUS AND
and are conveyed at this depth through the »oil, from OIK; to
the other end, so that the wire forms a parallelogram, thus •
Wire.
Surface of the earth.
Wire.
FIG. 1.
A number of these, at distances of two to four feet, are
arranged through the fields, and the grain or plants sown in
the soil or in drills. It is stated on good authority that rye
oats, wheat, &c., so treated, are singularly developed and ad-
vanced in maturity. May it not be worthy of trial ? In this
case, the atmospheric electricity is supposed to act.
The second plan is a Galvanic arrangement. Large plates
of sheet copper and zinc arc used, the size depending upon
the distance at which they are placed — 18 inches deep and
three feet long may be used at a distance of 50 feet; these are
sunk into the soil vertically, excepting three inches of the top,
which is left exposed ; from one to the other, passes a stout cop-
per wire, which is well soldered to both, and sustained by a
few sticks or a trellis.
Wire supported by sticks above the soil.
.... Surface of the soil.
*
Zinc plale. pIG 2. Copper plato.
Such an arrangement may be made to inclose four or five
drills of potatoes, carrots, parsnips, &c. The fluid of the earth,
acting on the zinc, produces a corrosion, which gives rise to
the Galvanic or electric curren, that traverses the soil, and is
said to cause plants to grow very rapidly. An experiment
after this plan was tried on potatoes by a Mr. Ross, at Ravens-
wood, Long Island, in 1844, and it is stated, was successful
IMPONDERABLE MANURES. 16
I ALLOWING.
RN land is allowed to rest without having (tny seed sown
upon it, and without being touched by the plov, it is called a
tea ; but when it is allowed to rest, and at the same time is
plowed, and exposed to the influence of the atmosphere, for
the purpose of rendering it more friable, clearing it of herbage
or weeds, and of absorbing fertilising gases, it was originally
called a fallow ; but now, different names are given to fallows,
according to the purposes for which they are intended, and
the manner and season in which they are made. Thus a
naked fallow is that in which the ground is plowed at suitable
intervals for several times in succession, and remaining some
length of time without being sov/n. A green fallow is thai
where the land has been rendeied mellow by plowing under
a crop of oats, rye, buckwheat, clover, ray grass, turnips,
lucern, chickory, lupines, or other cheap vegetables just in
flower, by means of which, poor soils are cheaply and rapidly
improved, especially if a liming be given. In this mode offal-
lowing, no time is lost by the land lying idle, or in an unpro-
ductive state. Fallows are also sometimes distinguished by
the season of the year in which the operation is chiefly or
wholly performed, as summer and winter fallows. They are
also named after the crops plowed under, as clover fallow, tur-
nip fallow, &c.
Fallowing was so much practised in the ancient Roman
husbandry, that seldom any seed was sown but on a fallow,
and the product, in some cases, was nearly double that of the
present day : but in England and this country, the practice is
now generally regarded as unprofitable, requiring much time
and expenditure, which might otherwise be better employed.
But, on clayey soils, a complete fallow has long been consid-
ered as the basis of every profitable rotation crop by the most
judicious farmers of Scotland ; and according to their concur-
ring experience, on wet, cohesive soils, however good the
(VASICOUS AND
course of tillage, no trials, made upon a la.-ge scale, to post-
pone a fallow more than eight years, hr^e hitherto been suc-
cessfu1 Their land has been uniformly recruited during fal-
lowing. which is proved by the circumstance, that, in all soils,
a much less quantity of dung is necessary after a summer fal-
low.
Different soils require different classes of fallowing, as well
•us a different rotation of crops, which the season of the year
and local circumstances will naturally suggest themselves to
the prudent husbandman, so that no absolute rule of one dis-
trict will apply to another. The principal use of fallowing is
in altering the mechanical arrangement of the soil, either by
pulverising it, or making it more compact, both of which
effects are thereby produced, according to circumstances, and
in absorbing fertilising gases from the atmosphere as well as
in destroying roots, seed weeds, and insects. Although a
winter fallow is an excellent thing in light sandy ground, as a
preparation for spring crops, a naked summer fallow should
seldom, if ever, be adopted, as a green fallow, in general, will
serve the desired end ; but not so with deep, stiff, clayey soils,
which require a thorough drying and pulverising before they
can be benefitted by the autumnal and winter rains, that
would otherwise render the earth more compact and hard..
They ought to be plowed* in such a manner as to expose the
largest and the most uneven surface, in order that the rays of
'he sun may fall upon it, and that the winds may have easier
access to impregnate the soil with the nutritious gases
of the air. For, by exposing the soil in large clods to the
action of the sun's rays, in spring and summer, it is heated
to a temperature of 120° F., and often much higher, by
which its moisture is exhaled, and the clay partakes somewhat
of the character of that which has been burnt by fire. It then
becomes more brittle, absorbs nitrogen ajid ammonia from the
air, and is less liable to cohere with subsequent moisture.
Clods upon the surface, after wheat is sown, do little or no
harm, hut rather do good ; they afford shelter to the young
IMPONDERABLE MANURES. ..7
plants during the winter, and their crumbling down in the
spring, as they always do after frost, affords a renewed supply
of nutriment to the crop.
Again, after all the soluble matter in a soil is exhausted by
cropping, there still remains much carbonaceous matter, the
remains of woody fibre, which imbibes a large proportion of
oxygen when exposed to the air, that would otherwise remain
inert in the soil unless a new fermentation were excited in it
by this or some other means. Now, in clayey soils, this car-
bonaceous matter is effectually excluded from absorbing oxy-
gen and nitrogen from the air, but is brought into a condition
to do so by summer fallowing. The effect of this and of its
imbibing moisture, is its gradual conversion into carbonic acid
and carbureted hydrogen for the nourishment of plants, and
thereby answers one of the principal ends proposed.
GITRNETISM— MTJLOHING-SHADE.
EVERY farmer knows, that when a soil has been shaded for
a considerable time by a dense crop of clover, ray grass, hemp,
turnips, cabbages, peas, &c., or is covered by buildings, boards,
stones, shavings, sawdust, tan bark, chaff, straw, coarse hay,
or other fibrous matter, though naturally hard -and stiff, be-
comes mellow, soft, and free, and obviously is in a state of
fermentation. This may be accounted for on the principle
that putrefaction, or solution of vegetable substances in the
soil, is more readily promoted by a close or stagnated state of
the air, than by a constant supply and addition of oxygen
from a pure atmosphere ; or, in other words, that such a cov-
ering will prevent the excessive exhalation of moisture, nitre*
gen, hydrogen and carbonic acid gases, which accumulate
and thereby promote the putrefaction or decomposition of ve^
etable matters, and thus enrich the soil.
It is upon this principle, that the new and peculiar kind 4
manuring, called Gurneyism, depends, which is stated to
been employed with signal success, by Mr. Gurney, a fan
18 GASEOUS AN!'
of East Cornwall, in England, a few years since. The opera-
tion consists in covering grass land with long straw, coarse
hay, or other fibrous matter, which is allowed to remain upon
the ground until the grass springs through it to the desired
height, and then raking it off and spreading it on another por-
tion of the field; the operation being repeated as long as the
straw or hay remains sufficiently entire to be conveniently ap-
plied. It is upon the same principle, too, that orchards and
fruit trees are rendered more productive by mulching with
straw or refuse hay around their trunks and over their roots ;
and from this, and other causes, the quality of a poor, thin, un-
productive soil, which has been for some time shaded by
brush wood or a dense forest, is materially improved. In a
forest, however, all other vegetation being prevented, the land,
besides receiving a yearly manuring of vegetable mould from
the fallen leaves, is caused to be many years in uninterrupted
fallow; and is sheltered, also, from the beating of rain drops,
which slowly and gently descend upon it, fraught with prin-
ciples of fertility, instead of washing out the valuable saline
matter it may contain. Beneath the overshadowing branches
of a forest, too, the soil is also protected from the wind, and
to this protection Sprengel attributes much of that rapid im-
provement so generally experienced where lands are covered
with wood. The winds carry along with them earthy matter,
which they again deposit in the still forest, and thus gradually
form a soil even in places where it is the most bare.
Independent of the above considerations, shade is necessary
for all plants in their infancy, when they are diseased, or
when they have suffered violence by removal. Seeds germi-
nate best in obscurity, and young plants thrive better when
shaded for a few days after they are up. The clouds often
furnish such shade, but art may use means to give it to them.
Seeds that are necessary to be sown on tno surface, or with a
little earth over them, also grow best it shaded for a time,
Shade, too, is necessary for such plants, as it is desirable tc
1 sulong their freshness and flowering; and it is equally im-
'IMPONDERABLE mANUKKS. 19
portant and almosv indispensable to all plants in cuttings, or
slips, in order that they may root well. But plants in the
light purify the air by absorbing carbonic acid and disengag-
ing their oxygen, and at night, they corrupt the air by suffer-
ing carbonic acid to escape without being decomposed.
HYDROGEN.
HYDROGEN, in its pure state, exists only as a gas, and is the
lightest substance known. It has neither taste nor smell ; is
colorless, transparent, and highly inflammable; but does not
support either combustion or respiration; being 16 times
lighter than oxygen gas, and nearly 14J times lighter than
atmospheric air. In all its properties, it resembles a metal ; or,
in other words, it is a gaseous metal, even as mercury is a
liquid one. Combined with oxygen, it forms icater ; with chlo-
rine, muriatic acid ; with nitrogen, ammonia; with phosphorus,
phosphoreted hydrogen; and with sulphur, sulphureled hydrogen.
It also enters into the composition of all compounds containing
water, (as the hydrates of lime, magnesia, &c.,) numerous
acids and salts, and the various proximate organic principles
both of the animal and vegetable kingdoms. Its compound?
with carbon, forming coal and oil gases, employed for lighting
our cities, are of much economical value.
Plants contain from 6 to 7 per cent, of hydrogen in the dried
portion without water, in which there is £th by weight; fat
and wax contain from 10 to 13 per cent.
Light Carbureted Hydrogen. — This substance is abundantly
formed during the decay of vegetable matter in moist places,
or in stagnant pools, from the mud in the bottoms of which it
may often be seen rising in bubbles, and may readily be
caught. It often rises in hot. weather from lofy, stagnant
marshes, and hence is called marsh air. It is also generated by
the combustion of bituminous coal, and forms the much-
. dreaded fire damp, or explosive gas of mines, when mixed with
air. Animals introduced into it instantly cease o breathe.
20 GASEOUS AND
This gas is also given off along with carbcnic acid during
the fermentation of compost heaps, or of other large collec-
tions of vegetable matto It is said, also, to be generally
present in well-manured soils, and is believed to contribute
in such cases to the nourishment of plants. It is, however,
very sparingly soluble in water, so that in a state of solution
it cannot enter largely into the pores of the roots, even though
it be abundantly present in the soil.
Sulphureled Hydrogen. — This is a gaseous compound of sul-
phur with hydrogen, and may be readily known by its disa-
greeable fetid odor of rotten eggs. Water absorbs about 3
times its volume, and natural solutions are found in sulphur
springs. It is colorless, inflammable, and highly poisonous
when respired. An atmosphere containing TBVffth part of this
gas killed a large dog, and one of gjhyth Part killed a horse.
Being considerably denser than common air, it maybe poured
into cavities, or holes, and by this means has been successfully
employed in destroying vermin and rats.
This gas is often produced in marshy and stagnant places
and in fish ponds, where vegetable matter is undergoing decay
in the presence of water containing gypsum or other sulphates,
and it may occasionally be detected by the sense of smell
imong the roots of the sod, in old pasture land, to which a
,op-dressing is occasionally given. As in the egg, so also in
other decaying animal substances, especially when the air is
in some measure excluded, this gas is formed. In putrefied
cow's urine, and in night soil, it is present in considerable
quantity.
Sulphurated hydrogen is also exceedingly noxious to vege-
table life, when diffused in any considerable quantity through
the space by which it is surrounded. The luxuriance
of the vegetation in the neighborhood of sulphurous springs,
however, has given us reason to believe that water impregnated
with this gas, may act in a beneficial manner when it is placed
Mthin reash of the roots of plants. It seems also to be ascer-
tba' natural or artificial waters, which have a sulphur.
IMPONDERABLE MANURES. 21
ous taste, give birth to a peculiarly luxuriant vegetation, when
they are employed in the irrigation of meadows. This gas,
however, as well as those of carbonic, nitrous and muriatic
acids, is regarded as injurious to vegetation when occurring in
excess, particularly during the absence of light.
* LIGHT AND HEAT— THEIR INFLTTENOE ON VEGETATION.
LIGHT, produced by the rays of the sun, is a most important
agent in the development of plants, the green color of their
leaves, fruit, twigs, &c., being produced by its action ; but it
is not necessary to have the direct solar beam — diffuse day-
light is sufficient, although the action is not, in this case, so
rapid and energetic, as when aided by the bright rays of the
sun. Mould, and some kinds of mushrooms, however, grow and
thrive without light ; but trees and the plants usually cultivated,
cannot long exist in a healthy state without its presence.
All green and living plants, exposed to the light, and living
upon atmospheric air, obtain most of their carbon from its
carbonic acid, (which they imbibe and decompose,) their hydro-
gen from its moisture, and their nitrogen partly fromtheammo-
nical vapor which therein exists. But in the absence of light,
oxygen is withdrawn from the air, the carbonic acid emitted,
and plants in the dark deteriorate the air in which they are
confined ; whereas, when exposed under the open canopy of
heaven to the alternations of light and darkness, sunshine and
gloom, exactly the reverse is the case. Hence we have the full-
est reason to believe that plants are nourished by the carbonic
acid of the atmosphere, which is absorbed directly by their
leaves from the surrounding air, and also by their roots, when
dissolved in rain water; and further, that the rapidity of the
decomposition bears a direct relation to the intensity of the
light.
In the tropics, for instance, vegetation is wonderfully active,
and this is due as much to the brighter sunshine, as to the
more elevated temperature of these carts. There is no difficulty
22
in obtaining in a stove nor in a conservatory, an atmosphere
as warm, and if necessary, as moist as may be desired, and the
plants of hot countries may be cultivated with a certain de-
gree of success in such a situation ; but they never exhibit the
thriving and beautiful appearance, the deep-green color, char-
acteristic of health, belonging to them in their natural state.
We may substitute artificial warmth for that of the sun, but
we cannot supply the place of its light. — Fownes.
How necessary light is to the health of plants may be infer-
red from the eagerness with which they appear to long for it.
How intensely docs the sunflower watch the daily course of
the sun ! How do the countless blossoms nightly droop, when
he retires, and the blanched plant strive to reach an open
chink through which his light may reach it ! Thus a potatr
has been observed to grow up in quest of light from the bot-
tom of a well 12 feet deep — and in a dark cellar a shoot of
20 feet in length has been met with, the extremity of which
had readied and rested at an open window.
That the warmth of the sun has comparatively little to do
with this specific action of his rays on the chemical functions
of the leaf, is illustrated by some interesting experiments of
Mr. R. Hunt, of England, on the effect of rays of light of differ-
ent colors on the growing plant. He sowed cress seed, and
exposed different portions of the soil in which the seeds were
germinating, to the action of the red, yellow, green, and blue
rays, which were transmitted by equal thicknesses of solu-
tions of these several colors. "After ten days, there was un-
der the blue fluid a crop of cress of as bright a green as any
which grew in full light, and far more abundant. The crop
was scanty under the green fluid, and of a pale-yellow, un-
healthy color. Under the yellow solution, only two or three
plants appeared, but less pale than those under the green ;
while beneath he red, a few more plants came up than under
the yellow, though they were also of an unhealthy color. The
red and blue bottles being now mutually transferred, the crop
formerly beneath the biue, in a few days, appeared blighted
IMPONDERABLE MANURES. 23
while on the patch previously exposed to the red, some addi-
tional plants sprung up." From the result of these experi-
ments, it has been recommended that a cheap blue glass be
employed for glazing hothouses, conservatories, &c., instead of
the kind in common use.
Besides the rays of heat and of light, the sunbeam contains
what have been called chemical rays, not distinguishable by
our senses, but capable of being recognised by the chemical
effects they produce. These rays appear to differ in kind, as
the rays of different colored light do. It is to the action of
these chemical rays on the leaf, and especially to those which
are associated with the blue light in the solar beam, that the
chemical influence of the sun on the functions of the leaf is
principally to be ascribed.
There are, also, some of the relations of soils to heat, which
have considerable influence upon their power of promoting
vegetation. These are the rapidity with which they absorb
heat from the air, the temperature they are capable of attain-
ing under the direct action of the sun's rays, and the length
of time during which they are able to retain this heat.
Power of Absorbing Heat. — It is an important fact, in reference
to the growth of plants, that during sunshine, when the sun's
rays beat upon it, the earth acquires a much higher tempera-
ture than the surrounding air. This temperature very often
amounts to 1 10° F., and sometimes to nearly 150°, while the
air in the shade is between 70° and 80°, only. Thus the roots
of plants are supplied with that amount of warmth which is
most favorable to their rapid growth.
Dark-colored soils, such as black and brownish-red, absorb
the heat of the sun most rapidl>, and therefore, become warm
the soonest. They also attain a higher temperature, by a few
degrees only, however, (3° to 8°,) than soils of other colors ;
and thus, under the action of the same sun, will more rapidly
promote vegetation.
Every one will understand that the above differences are
observed among such soils, onLy, as are exposed to the same
24 GASEOUS AND
sun under the same circumstances. Where th& exposure, or
aspect of the soil, is such as to give it the prolonged benefit
of the sun's rays, or shelter it from cold winds, it will prove
more propitious to vegetation than many others less favorably
situated, though darker in color and more free from superflu-
ous moisture.
Power of Retaining Heal. — Soils differ, however, in their pow-
er of retaining the heat they have thus absorbed. All hot
bodies, when exposed to the air, gradually become cool. So
do all soils ; but a sandy soil will cool more slowly than a
clay, and the latter than a soil which is rich in vegetable mat-
ter. The difference, according to Schiibler, is so great, that a
peaty soil cools as much in one hour as the same bulk of clay
in two, or of sand in three hours. This may no doubt have
considerable influence upon growing crops, inasmuch as, after
the sun goes down, the sandy soil will be three hours in cool-
ing, while the clays will cool to the same temperature in two,
and rich vegetable mould, in one hour. But on those soils
which cool the soonest, dew will first begin to be deposited ;
and it is doubtful, where the soils are equally drained, whether,
in summer weather, the greater proportion of dew deposited on
the clays and vegetable moulds may not more than compen-
sate to the parched soil, for the less prolonged duration of
the elevated temperature derived from the action of the sun's
rays. It is also to be remembered, that vegetable soils, at
least, absorb the sun's heat, more rapidly than the lighter-col-
ored, sandy soils, and thus the plants, that grow in the former,
which is sooner heated, may in reality be exposed to the high-
est influence of the sun's warmth, for, at least, as long a
period as those which are planted in the latter.
The only power we possess over these relations of soils to
heat, appears to be, that by top-dressing with charcoal, with
soot, or with dark-colored composts, we may render it more
capable of rapidly absorbing the sun's heat, and by admixture
with sand, more capable of retaining the heat which it ha."
hus obtained. — Johnston.
IMPONDERABLE MANURES. 25
MURIATIC OR HYDROOHLOEIO AOID.
PURE muriatic acid is a colorless, invisible gas, containing 1
atom of chlorine and 1 of hydrogen, having a pungent odor
and an intensely acid taste — is incombustible and incapable
of supporting combustion, but fumes in the air, and cannot be
respired without exciting violent spasms in the tongue and
throat. Water, at 40° F., absorbs 480 times its volume, and in
this state, it forms the muriatic acid of commerce, or spirits of
sails, which has commonly a straw-yellow color, caused by
the admixture of nitric and sulphuric acids with oxide of iron.
It is procured by distilling common salt with sulphuric acid
in an earthen-ware apparatus, and receiving the vapor in
water.
Muriatic acid corrodes the skin, and in its undiluted state,
is poisonous both to animals and plants. It dissolves common
pearlash, soda, magnesia, and limestone, with effervescence ;
and readily dissolves, also, and combines with, many earthy
substances which are contained in the soil. When applied to
living vegetables in the state of an exceedingly dilute solution
in water, it has been supposed upon some soils and under some
circumstances, to be favorable to vegetation. Long experi-
ence, however, on the banks of the Tyne and elsewhere, in
the neighborhood of the so-called alkali works, according
to Professor Johnston, has proved that in the state of vapor
its repeated application, even when diluted with much air, is
in many cases fatal to vegetable life. In these works, car-
bonates and sulphates of soda are manufactured from com-
mon salt, and in one of the processes, immense quantities of
muriatic acid are thrown off from the furnace.
Poured in a liquid state upon fallow land, or land preparing
for a crop, it may assist the growth of the future grain by
previously forming, with the ingredients of the soil, some of
those compounds vhich have been occasionally applied as
manures.
3
26 GASEOUS AN!
NITROGEN, OR AZOTt.
NITROGEN, when pure, is a colorless, odorless, .asteless gas,
neither combustible nor capable of supporting combustion
nor respiration. It exists in the atmosphere to the amount ot
79 per cent, of its bulk. Animals and plants die in this gas,
and a taper is instantly extinguished when introduced into it ;
the gas itself undergoing no change. It is lighter than atmos-
pheric air in the proportion of 97i to 100. It is an essential
constituent of the air we breathe, serving to temper the ardor
with which combustion would proceed and animals live in
undiluted oxygen gas. It forms a part of very many animal,
and some vegetable substances, but it is not known to enter into
the composition of any of the grea. mineral masses of which
the earth's crust is made up. In coal, alone, which is of vege-
table origin, it has been detected to the amount of 1 or 2 per-
cent. It is, therefore, much less abundant in nature than any
of the other so-called organic elements — and it exhibits much
less decided properties than any of them ; yet it performs some
of the most important functions in reference both to the growth
of plants and to the nourishment of animals. It is only slight-
ly absorbed by water, 100 volumes of which dissolve from 1-J-
to 4 volumes of gas. Spring and rain waters absorb it, as they
do oxygen, from the atmospheric air, and bear it in solution to
the roots, by which it is not unlikely that it may be conveyed
directly into the circulation of plants.
Hitherto, nitrogen has resisted all attempts at decomposition,
and must, therefore, be considered as a chemical element.
The quantity present, in all cultivated plants is very small,
compared with that of the other elements which enter into
their composition, rarely amounting to 5 per cent. Its combi-
nations with oxygen are numerous; of which nitric acid,
(aqua fortis,) is the most important. With hydrogen, it forms
ammonia, the importance oi which has already been describ-
?d on a previous page.
IMFONDEKABLE MANURES. 27
Nitrogen does not constitute an ingredient of any of the solid
rocks, if we except mineral coal, nor do we know of any other
source than the atmosphere from which it can be obtained in
very large quantity. It exists, as we nave seen, in vegetables,
and it is more largely present in animal substances; but these
organised matters must themselves have drawn this element
from a foreign source, and the atmosphere is the only one
from which we can fairly assume it to have been originally
derived.
But though the nitrogen, like the carbon of plants, may
thus be traced to the atmosphere, as its original source, it
does not follow that this element is either absorbed directly
from the air, nor in an uncombined and gaseous state. Though
the leaves of trees and herbs are continually surrounded by
nitrogen, the constitution of plants may be unfitted for ab-
sorbing it by their leaves. The nitrogen may not only require
to be in a state of combination before it can enter into the
circulation, but it may also be capable of gaining admission
only by the roots.
OXYGEN.
THE simple body known at different periods by the names
of oxygen, vital air, empyreal air, and de.phlogislicated air, when
pure, is colorless, odorless, tasteless, and incombustible, but a
powerful supporter of combustion, and its presence is essen-
tial to the existence both of animal and vegetable life ; but
produces death by over-excitement, if long breathed pure.
Combined with nitrogen, it forms about 21 per cent., by vol-
ume of the atmosphere, and is heavier than common air, in
the proportion of about 11 to 10. United with hydrogen, it
forms water, by which it is capable of being absorbed in the
ratio of 100 measures of water to 3£ to 6£ of the gas. In a
word, i: may be made to combine with every simple substance
with which we are acquainted; and the act by which the
union takes place, is called oxydation, and the bodies thus com
28 GASEOUS AND
bined, \vhate\er may be their character, arc said to be oxid-
ised.
Oxygen is the most active element in nature, and is very
extensively diffused throughout the material world, producing
change in the metals by oxidation, and in organic structures,
decomposition, or decay. It also exists largely in water, every
9 Ibs. of this liquid containing 8 Ibs of gas. Rain, spring and
river waters always contain a large proportion, which they
have derived from the atmosphere ; and this oxygen, as they
trickle through the soil, administers to the growth and nourish-
ment of plants in various ways; but in pure oxygen, plants re-
fuse to vegetate, and like animals exposed to it, speedily perish.
But the quantity of this substance which is stored up in
nature is still more remarkable. Nearly one half of the
weight of the solid rocks which compose the crust of our
globe ; of every solid substance we see arouud us ; of the houses
in which we live; of the stones on which we tread; of the
soils which we daily cultivate, and much more than one half
by weight of the bodies of all living animals and plants, con-
sist of this elementary body oxygen, known to us only in the
state of a gas. It may not appear surprising that any one
elementary substance should have been formed by the Creator
in such abundance as to constitute nearly one half by weight
of the entire crust of our planet, but it must strike one as
remarkable, that this should also be the element on the pre-
sence of which all animal life depends — and as nothing less
than wonderful, that a substance which we know only in the
state of thin air, should, by some wonderful mechanism, be
bound up and imprisoned in such vast stores in the solid moun-
tains of the earth, be destined to pervade and refresh all nature
in the form of water, and beautify and adorn the earth in the
solid parts of animals and plants ! But all nature is full of
similar wonders, and every step we advance in the study of the
art by which the principal class of mankind toil and live, we
cannot fail to mark the united skill and bounty of .he same
Great Caus°
IMPONDERABLE MANURES. 29
OXYGENATION.
OXYGENATION, which is synonymous with oxidation, is a term
used by Dundonald, in his "Treatise Showing the Intimate Con-
nection that Subsists between Agriculture and Chemistry," to
denote the formation of particular acids with their peculiar
bases, produced by the combination of pure air with inflammable
substances. These acids, as they are produced, it is known,
combine with the alkaline or calcareous matter of the vege-
tables, or other . similar matter in the soil, and form chemical
salts, which, for the most part are very soluble in water.
To this process of oxygenation, the continuance of vegetable
matter on the surface of the earth is principally to be ascribed ;
as in the case of peat mosses, morasses, swamps, &c., as well
as in most soils, but more especially such as have long been
under cultivation. The indestructible state of vegetable matters
existing under these circumstances, and their constant increase
of growth, may be referred to the insoluble compounds, pro-
duced by the action of pure air on these inflammable sub-
stances.
The process of putrefaction is always accompanied by that
of oxygenation ; but the latter may be, and is to a great extent
independent of putrefaction. The insolubility, to a certain
extent, of the system adopted by nature, is undoubtedly to be
preferred to one more completely soluble ; for it is evident, that
if putrefaction or oxygenation had possessed the power of ren-
dering all the vegetable matter soluble in water by a speedy
process, two pernicious consequences must have followed,
namely — the rains would have washed down such extracts and
such soluble matters, as fast as formed, into the rivers and
sf ings, contaminating their waters, and rendering them unfit
for the existence of fishes or for the use and sustenance of
terrestrial animals. The sea, in process of time, would thereby
receive all the vegetable and animal produce of the dry land,
and the earth would ultima!' Iv licmme barren. consisting alone
30 GASEOUS AND
of the mineral simples without any admixture of vegetable
matter. Consequently there could be no accumulation of this
substance on the surf ^e, as is the case at present to an im-
mense degree. Hence a frequent exposure of fresh surfaces to
the action of the air by promoting oxygeriation, as in the cases
of fallowing and frequently stirring the earth in cultivated
fields will increase the inso ubility of vegetable matters con-
tained in the soil.
The oxygenation of peat, and indeed the combination of pure
air or oxygen with inflammable substances, renders them less
inflammable, a process analogous to that of combustion. In
both cases, saline compounds are formed, which will not burn.
The surface of peat mosses, or the parts most exposed to the
action of the air, is capable of becoming more and more oxyge-
nated than the understratum. On this account, the upper por-
tions of peat mosses are generally thrown aside when the peat
is dug up for fuel.
WATERY VAPOR OF THE ATMOSPHERE.
THE last substance to be noticed under this general head is
the aqueous vapor of the atmosphere, without the ever-present
existence of which, no ordinary cultivated plant could thrive,
and few subsist at all. An All-bountiful Providence, therefore,
has ordained that it should be ever ready to meet the demands
of vegetable life, and that its quantity should vary with the
temperature, increase with the warmth when its presence is
most needed by the plant, and diminish in proportion as the air
becomes cooler. The quantity of vapor which the air is
capable of holding in suspension is dependent upon its tempe-
rature; that is, at high temperatures, in warm climates, or in
warm weather, it can sustain more — at low temperatures less.
Hence, when a current of comparatively warm air, loaded
with moisture, ascends to, or comes in contact with, a cold
mountain top. it is cooled dawn, and rendered incapable of
holding the whole vapor in suspension, and therefore, leave*
I-VJPOXDERABLE MAXUKES. 31
behind a portion of its watery burden in the form of a mist or
cloud. In the rills or springs subsequently formed, the aque-
ous particles which float in the midst, reappear on the plains
below, bringing nourishment at once, and a grateful relief to
the thirsty soil.
It not only rises into the atmosphere from boiling water at
212°F., but it evaporates from water in open vessels, from the
ocean, rivers, and other waters of the earth, and from the land
itself, at almost every temperature, with a rapidity proportioned
to the previous dryness of the air, and to the velocity and tem-
perature of the winds which pass over it. Even the hardest
ice is gradualy dissipated in the coldest weather, and it is stated
on good authority, that, in the intense cold of Siberia, not only
living bodies, but the very snow smokes and fills the air with
vapor.
It thus happens that the atmosphere is constantly impreg-
nated with watery vapor, which, in this gaseous state, accom-
panies the air wherever it penetrates, permeates the soil, per-
vades the leaves and pores of plants, and gains adrm'ssion into
the lungs and general vascular system of all terrestrial ani-
mals. But it is chiefly when it assumes the form of
rain, snow, hail* and dew, that the benefits arising from a
previous conversion of water into vapor are to be particularly
appreciated by the husbandman, which will be found under
their respective heads, under "Liquid Manures."
FOSSIL, SALINE AND MINERAL MANURES.
ALUM.
,4 LUM is a salt, when good, composed of about 11 per cent,
of alumina, 10 per cent, of potash, 33 of sulphuric acid, and
46 of water. It is produced in large quantities by the decom-
position of aluminous slates, or shales, on exposure to the air,
or by calcination. It is formed naturally on many parts of the
earth's surface, and is daily forming by the decomposition of
alum shales where exposed to the air. It is largely manufactured
by burning these shales, and afterwards dissolving portions of
them in water and adding solutions of common muriate or
sulphate of potash. It frequently contains ammonia, from
urine or the crude sulphate of the gas works, employed in its
manufacture.
In or prior to the year 1756, Dr. Francis Home, of Edinburgh,
the first person on record who made experiments with saline
bodies in promoting the growth of plants, found no beneficial
effects to result from the application of alum to garden mould,
the soil on which his experiments were made. Its composi-
tion, however, would lead us to expect it to exert a beneficial
influence on the growth of many plants, especially where the
less pure varieties, or the refuse of alum works can be applied
to the land at a comparatively small cost.
Where alum is found in abundance, the soil is very properly
called a " sour soil," on which but few vegetables will grow.
"his sterility is to be corrected by lime, by earthy matter
MINERAL MANURES. 33
containing magnesia, or by alkaline salts. The neutral salts,
formed by such application, will be the sulphates of lime,
magnesia, potash, soda, or of ammonia, according to the species
of alkali applied. Although no beneficial effects were found
to result from the experiments made by Dr. Home, yet they
may, with great probability, be expected to arise by the appli-
cation of alum to soils containing an excess of lime ; especially
to such as contain, besides calcareous matter, a sufficient pro-
portion of animal and vegetable remains. In this case, the
alum will be decomposed by the lime, on the principle of
superior affinity, whilst its carbonic acid will be disengaged,
and on being absorbed by the rootlets of the plants will afford
them food for their growth.
ALUMINA, OR THE EARTH OF ALUM.
ALUMINA, known also by chemists under the names of oxide
of aluminium, (10 parts of aluminium and 8 of oxygen,) argil,
and argilaceous earth, is the base of alum, just described, and
is one of the most abundant productons of nature. It forms a
large proportion of the slaty and shaly rocks, and is the prin-
cipal ingredient, also, of kaolin and all clays out of which
bricks, tiles and earthen ware are made, as well as of all
clayey soils, which increase in tenacity in proportion to the
quantity of the substance they contain. In a pure and crys-
talised state, it constitutes the corundum, ruby, and sapphire,
the two latter of which are among the hardest and most valu-
able of gems.
When pure, alumina is a white, tasteless, earthy substance,
which adheres to the tongue, and is insoluble in water, but
possesses a great affinity for it, and readily dissolves in caustic
potash or soda, as well as in most acids, particularly when
recently thrown down from a solution of alum. When heated
to redness, however, it becomes dense and hard, as in burnt clay
or fire bricks, and then, can only be dissolved with great diffi-
culty, even by the strongest acids.
2*
54 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
Although alumina exists so extensively in the soil, it contri-
butes only in a feeble degree, if at all, in a direct manner, to
the nourishment and growth of plants; but on this point chem-
ists do not agree.
Phosphate of alumina. — Notwithstanding phosphoric acid s
disseminated in some form or other throughout most clayey
soils, though very small and variable in quantity, our present
knowledge on the subject is too vague to be an object of in-
terest to the agriculturist. For, the greater part of the an-
alyses of soils hitherto published, phosphoric acid, when com-
bined with, or found in presence of alumina, has either been
altogether neglected, rudely guessed at, or simply indicated by
a rough approximation. Therefore, to what extent this ferti-
liser exists in different soils, we have no direct proof.
Silicates nf Alumina. — Silica combines with alumina, also, in
various proportions, forming silicates, which exist abundantly
in nature in the crystalline rocks, and may also, like the other
silicates be formed by art. Feldspar, mica, hornblende, and the
augites, which abound in the trap rocks, all contain much
alumina in combination with silica, and probably, upwards of
one half by weight of the trap rocks, in general, as well as of
the hornblendes, micas, and feldspars, of which so large a part
of the granitic rocks is composed, consists of silicates of
alumina. The alumina itself in these several minerals varies
from 11 to 38 per cent., but generally averages about 20 per
cent, of their entire weight.
These silicates, when they occur alone, unmixed or uncom-
bined with other silicates, decompose very slowly by the action
of the atmosphere. They disintegrate, however, and fall to
powder, when the alkaline silicates with which they are asso-
ciated, in feldspar, &c., are decomposed and removed by atmos-
pheric causes. In this way, the deposits of porcelain clay, so
common in Cornwall and in other countries, have been pro-
duced from the disintegration of the feldspathic rocks, and the
clayey soils which occur in granite districts iiave not unfre-
quently had a similar origin.
MINERAL MANURES. 35
When contained in the soil, the silicates of al umina undergo
a slow decomposition from the action of various acid sub-
stances to which they are exposed. A portion of their alumina
is dissolved and separated by plants, or is washed from the soil
by the rains; or by the waters that arise from beneath.
Sulphate of Alumina. — When alumina is digested in diluted
sulphuric acid, it readily dissolves, and forms a solution of
sulphate of alumina. This solution is characterised by a re-
remarkable and almost peculiar sweetish, astringent taste.
When evaporated to dryness, it yields a white salt, which dis-
solves in twice its weight of water, only, and when exposed to
the air, attracts moisture rapidly and spontaneously runs to
a liquid. This salt exists in some soils, especially in those of
wet, marshy and peaty lands. Comparatively but few experi-
ments have yet been made with the view of determining its
direct influence upon vegetation. — Johnston.
AMMONIAOAL SALTS.
WE have reason to believe that ammonia, in every state of
combination with acids, tends in a greater or less degree to
promote the growth of all cultivated plants. The amount
taken up by a crop from an acre of land rarely exceeds 30 Ibs.
except in such crops as turnips, rape, radishes, cabbages,
mustard, cress, &c., which often carry off upwards of 100 Ibs.
None of its salts are known to occur in nature, unmixed or
combined with other matter in sufficient quantities to be applied
directly to the soil or to plants; and only a few can be pro-
duced by artificial means at so low a price as to admit of their
being used with economy. The following, however, can be
safely recommended or adopted with the hope of success : —
Carbonate of Ammonia. — This salt is obtained in an impure
state by the distillation of horns, hoofs, and even bones. In
this impure form, it is not generally brought into the market,
but in some regions it might be afforded at so low a price as to
place it within the reach of every practical farmer. It is
36 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
supposed by some, that this carbonate is too volatile, or rises too
readily in a state of vapor, to be economically applied to the
land. In the form of a weak solution, however, put on by means
of a water cart, or in moist showery weather, simply as a top-
dressing, especially to grass lands and on light soils, it may bo
safely recommended where it can be procured at a sufficiently low-
price. — Johnston.
Nitrate of Ammonia. — If it be correct that those substances act
most powerfully as manures which are capable of yielding the
largest quantity of nitrogen to plants, the nitrate of ammonia
ought to promote vegetation in a greater degree than almost any
other saline substance we could employ. According to the ex-
periments of Sir H. Davy, however, this does not appear to be
the case, though Sprengel has found it more efficacious than the
nitrates either of potash or of soda, and acts more upon
grain crops than upon the legumes and clovers, a result that
is to be explained by the absence of sulphuric acid, which ap-
pears especially to aid in the development of the latter class of
plants.
Oxalate of Ammonia. — According to Dundonald, this salt, as
well as the oxalates of potash and of soda, highly promotes vege-
tation, and may be produced in great abundance by the addition
of alkaline salts or other saline matters to oxygenated peat, and
also to oxygenated bituminous coal, forming there with a mucila-
ginous saponaceous compound, soluble in water, the good effects of
which, on most soils, are well known.
Sal Ammoniac, or Muriate of Ammonia. — This salt, in the pure
state in which it is sold in the shops, is too high in price to be
economically employed by the practical farmer. An impure
article might be prepared, however, from tine liquor of gas
works, which might be sold at a sufficiently cheap rate to
admit of an extensive application to the land. This could be
done by mixing the waste muriatic acid, or the waste chloride
of lime with the gas liquor, and evaporating the mixture to
dryness.
MINERAL MANURES. 37
Professor Johnston cites an instance where 20 Ibs. of this salt
were applied to an acre of wheat on a heavy loam, and to winter
rye, on a tilly clay, both after potatoes, with the following
results . —
Grain.
Rye, undressed, 14 bushels
Do. dresssed, 19 do.
Increase, 5 bushels.
Wheat, undressed, 25 bushels, each 61 Iba
Do. dressed, 26.8 bushels, each 62 Ibs.
Increase, 1.8 bushels.
The increase of the experiments was not very large, but the
quantity of sal ammoniac employed was probably not great
enough to produce a decided effect. It is a valuable fact for
the farmer, however, and not uninteresting in a theoretical
ioint of view, that a part of the same wheat field, dressed with
1-J- cwt. of common salt per acre, gave a produce of 40 bushels
of grain.
Sal ammoniac is totally volatile, and is soluble in 3£ parts
of water at 60° F., and in its own weight of boiling water.
Sulphate of Ammonia. — An impure sulphate is manufactured
by adding sulphuric acid to fermented urine, or to the ammo-
niacal liquor of the gas works, and evaporating to dryness
When prepared from urine, it contains a mixture of those
phosphates which exist in urine, and which ought to render it
more valuble as a manure. The gas liquor yields a sulphate
which is blackened by coal tar, a substance, though often
injurious to vegetation, is said to "be noxious to the insects
that infest our fields. In any of these economical forms, this
salt has been found to promote vegetation ; but accurate expe-
riments are yet wanting to show in what way it acts — whether
in promoting the growth of the green parts or in filling the ear
or in both — to what kind of crops it may be applied with the
greatest advantage — and what amount of increase may be
expected from the application of a giv "i weight of the salt
38 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
It is from the rigorous determination of such points that the
practical farmer will be able to deduce the soundest practical
precepts, and at the same time to assist most in the advance-
The crystallised sulphate of ammonia is soluble in its own
weight of water. 100 Ibs. contain about 35 Ibs. of ammonia,
53 Ibs. of acid, and 12 Ibs. of water. It may be applied at the
rate of from 30 to 60 Ibs. per acre. — Johnston.
Uraie of Ammonia. — Uric acid, combined with ammonia, is a
natural secretion peculiar to the urine of certain animals, and
the excrement, of serpents and several birds of prey. The
fasces of the Boa constrictor consist of little else than urate
of ammonia. Peruvian guano, which is so largely imported
for manure, is also composed in considerable proportion of the
same salt. Hence, the immense powers of urate of ammonia,
as a fertiliser, in the growth of a large number of our culti-
vated plants.
ASHES
ASHES, or ash, as they are sometimes called, consist of the
earthy and saline matters of soils, vegetable and animal sub-
stances after they are burnt, the use of which, as a fertiliser,
may be traced back to a very early age. The Romans were
well acquainted with paring and burning, and burnt their
stubbles, a practice also among the ancient Jews. Cato recom-
mends the burning of twigs and branches of trees, and spread-
ing the ash on the land. The ancient Britons, according to Pliny,
used to burn their wheat straw and stubble, and spread the
ashes over the soil. And Conradus Heresbachius, a German
counsellor, in his " Treatise on Husbandry," published in 1570,
and afterwards translated by Barnabe Googe, Esquire, tells us
that, "in Lombardy, they like so well the use of ashes, as they
esteem it farre aboue any doung, think'ng doung not meete to
be used for the unholsomnesse thereof."
MINERAL MANURES. 39
Ashes of Anthracite Coal. — The composition cf the ash of an-
thracite will vary, of course, like that of the coal itself. The
following analyses by Professor John P. Norton, of Yale College,
were made from several pecks of ashes, obtained from a grate
in which the coal had been burned the usual way, due precau-
tion being observed not to intermingle the ash with any veg-
etable remains from the fuel employed in building the fires.
The constituents of 100 parts of the ashes of white and red-ash
coal yielded of
White ash. Red nth.
Matter insoluble in acids, 88.68 85.65
Soluble silica, 0.09 1.24
Alumina, 3.36 454
Iron, 4.03 5.83
Lime, 2.11 0.16
Magnesia, 0.19 2.01
Soda, 0.22 0.16
Potash, O.IC 0.11
Phosphoric acid, 0.20 057
Sulphuric acid, 0.86 0.43
Chlorine, 0.09 0.01
99.99 99.11
"These close and interesting analyses," says Professor Nor-
ton, "afforded us much light upon the constitution of coal ash,
and enable the chemist who has studied these subjects, to say
at once, and with confidence, that this ash is of some value
as a manure, and should by all means be so applied in cases
where it can be obtained cheaply.
"Of the white-ash, Sy^ths Ibs. in 100, were soluble in water,
and in the red-ash, 3T3/ffths Ibs. Besides this, there was a fur-
ther and larger portion soluble in acids, amounting in the white-
ash to 7Tsff87ths Ibs. in 100, and in the red-ash to 8 Ibs.
"In looking at the nature of these results, we may draw the
general conclusion, that in the ash of anthracite coal, calling
these fair specimens, we have in every 100 Ibs. from 4 to 8 Ibs.
of valuable inorganic material, of a nature suitable for adding
to any soil requiring manures."
40
Ashes of Bdumiiwus Coal. — These, like those of anthracite,
are variable in their composition, according to the mine or
locality from which the coal is obtained. In general, however,
they consist of sulphate of lime, (gypsum,) silica, and alumina,
mixed more or less with porous cinders, or half-burnt coal,
We have but one reliable analysis of the ash of bituminous
coal, and that byBerthier, of a sample taken from the mines at
St. Etienne, in France, which, after all the carbonaceous
matter had been burned away, consisted of the following ingre-
dients : —
Per cent.
Alumina, insoluble in acids, 62
Alumina, soluble, 5
Lime, 6
Magnesia, 8
Oxide of manganese, 3
Oxide and sulphurct of iron, 16
100
Such a mixture as this, no doubt, would benefit many soils
oy the alumina, as well as by the lime and magnesia they con-
tain; and judging from the composition of several other
samples, the analyses of which are given under the head of
BITUMINOUS COAL, we have reason to believe that they are sus-
ceptible of similar applications. If well burned, their ash, in
many mses, can be applied at the rate of 100 to 150 bushels to
the uciv. with good effects, as a top-dressing on grass lands
which are overgrown with moss; or it may be applied a pint
in a hill, in planting Indian corn in connection with barnyard
or other animal manure; while the admixture of cinders in the
ash of the ' less-perfectly burned coal produces not only a
fertilising effect upon the plants, but a favorable physical
change in strong clayey soils.
Ashes of Peat. — These are extensively employed in Holland
as a manure, where they are carefully preserved by house-
keepers, who burn peat, or turf, and are sold to the farmers by
the bushel. The peat, from which these ashes are made, has
remained a long time neneath the sea, and contains a large
M1NENAL MANURES.
41
proportion of saline and calcareous elements. The following
table exhibits the composition of some varieties of ashes fronr
the peat of Holland and from the heath of Luneburg, examined
by Sprengel : —
Dutch Ashes
(grey).
Lunebiirg Ashes
(reddish).
>,
». ^
- >>
£.
Producing little
a> '&
-K "5
3 "3
6 7»
effect
CO 5
fe- 3
c-
S o*
^ a-
Silica,
47.1
55.9 70.4
31.7
43.3
Alumina,
4.r>
3.5
4.1
5.1
9.7
Oxide of iron,
6.6
5.4
4.1
17.7
19.3
Do. of manganese,
10
4.3
0.2
0.5
3.5
Lime,
13.0
8.0
6.1
31.9
7.1
Magnesia,
4.9
1.6
3.9
1.0
4.6
Potash,
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
Soda,
1.0
3.9
0.4
0.1
Gypsum
Sulpuric acid,
7.2
6.4
3.4
6.2
0.2
Phosphate of lime
Phosphoric acid,
2.0
0.8
1.3
1.2
0.2
Common salt
Chlorine,
1.2 3.0
0.5
0.1
0.1
Carbonic acid,
4.1
6.4
5.5
4.4
12.0
Charred turf.
6.G
JOO.O 100.0 ! 100.0
100.0 100.0
In the most useful varieties of these ashes, it appears, from
the above analyses, that lime abounds, partly in combination
with sulphuric and phosphoric acids, forming a gypsum and
phosphate of lime, and partly with carbonic acid, forming
carbonate. These compounds of lime, therefore, may be re-
garded as the active ingredients of peat ashes.
Yet the small quantity of saline matter they contain is not to
be considered as wholly without effect. For the Dutch ashes
are often applied to the land to the extent of two tons to an
acre, a quantity which, even when the proportion of alkali does
not exceed one per cent, will contain 45 Ibs. of potash or soda,
equal to twice thiit weight of sulphates or of common salt. To
the minute quantity of saline matters present in them, there-
fore, peat ashes may owe a portion of their beneficial influence,
42 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
and to the almost total absence of such compounds from the
less valuable sorts, their inferior estimation may have in part
arisen.
In Holland, when applied to the £,rain crops, they are either
plowed in, drilled in with the seed, or applied as a top-dressing
to the young shoots in autumn or spring. Lucern, clover, and
meadow grass are dressed with it in spring at the rate of 1,500
to 1,800 Ibs. per acre, and the latter a second time with an equal
quantity after the first cutting. In Belgium, the Dutch ashes
are applied to clover, rape, potatoes, flax, and peas; but never
to barley. In Luneburg, the turf ash, which abounds in oxide
of iron, is applied at the rate of 3 or 4 tons per acre, and by
this means, the physical character of the clayey soils, as well
as their chemical constitution, is altered and improved. If
these ashes are used in manuring fields, they are harrowed in
with the seed or plowed in shallow. Clover and lucern fields
are strewed over with them in the spring.
Very often, peat ashes are mixed with burnt lime previous
to being used, the effects of which have always been benefi-
cial. With 1,000 Ibs. of ashes, an equal quantity of lirne is
mixed and applied to an acre of land. In this case, there is
no doubt but the lime, in lying in a wet state with the ashes in
the heap, decomposes the phosphate of iron, and thereby
essentially improves the ashes. It might, therefore, be possible
that those possessing much phosphate as well as of sulphate
of iron would be improved by the addition of lime; still the
phosphate of iron should be used cautiously as an excess
readily injures the plants.
Those who have an abundance of peat on their farms, may
burn it for the sake of the ashes, in high cylindrical ovens built
on purpose and furnished with a grate. This has the advan-
tage that the fresh-dug peat can be thrown on wet with that
already burning, it may also be burned in large heaps, in
which case it. must be quite dry. Care must be observed, how-
ever, that the heat be not too great, lest the ashes should lose
much of their value ; otherwise, silicates will be formed, which
MINERAL MANURES. 43
are less useful to the plants. But the burning of peat for ijie
purpose of procuring its ashes, must undt btedly appear a
very wasteful and dissipating process, when it is considered
that there is seldom -^th of its weight in ash obtained by the
combustion. This process throws into the air, then, ^ths of
the peat, which might, by other modes of preparation, be made
to contribute, in a superior degree, to the purposes of vegeta-
tion. Hence, the consuming of peat by fire, for the ashes only,
is always to bo considered as the least productive and most
uneconomical.
Ashes of Seaweed, Kelp, or Barilla. — Analysis of the water of
the ocean shows us, that in it are contained all the inorganic
ingredients which our crops take away from the soil — that it is,
in fact, a "liquid soil," from which myriads of marine vege-
tables receive the materials for their perfect development. All
of these plants which grow upon the rocks within reach of the
sea are good manures. Those that are always covered with
water are regarded as the richest, and are frequently cast on
'the shore by the action of the tide and waves. These and
other species of marine plants are collected and burnt, the resi-
duum of which is the crude soda of commerce, and is usually
called barrilla, or kelp. It is chiefly obtained from those plants
classified under the genera sahola and salicornia, on the southern
coasts of France, Spain, Portugal, and of the Western and
Canary Isles, as well as from the fuci in Holland and the nor-
thern coasts of France. At the Canary Islands, this substance is
made from the Salsola soda, which, I have observed, thrives best
on the cliffs near the ocean, and seems to be possessed with the
property of decomposing the salt water, that is conveyed to it
in the form of vapor, or spray, in separating the muriatic acid
from the soda, the latter of which, it absorbs. The seed is
sown in winter, and the period for gathering it, usually begins
about the end of July or early in August. The weeds are first
torn up by the roots and thrown into large pits dug in the
earth; and after being suffered partially to dry, they are set on
fire, and the alkali, contained in them, flowj in a liquid state
44 FOSSIL, SALINE ASD
from the bottom of the pit. This liquid, on oooling, haidens
into large stone-like masses, the form in w »ich the barrilla
usually comes to us.
As kelp, or the ash of seaweed, is a substance remarkably
complex in its composition, and contains a number of ingre-
dients with which the farmer may not be familiar, and their
enumeration would serve to perplex him, it may be regarded
as sufficient to state the proportions of such as possess only an
agricultural value. The sample from which the following is
an analysis, was taken from the coast of Ireland, as given by
the Chemico-Agricultural Society of Ulster, in 1846. 100 Ibs.
of kelp contained of
Potash, 852, or 184 Ibs. per ton.
Soda 25.82, » 578 «
Lime, 5.17
Magnesia, 8.47
Sulphuric acid, 20.17
Phosphoric acid. 5.43
Chlorine, 11.70
Silicic acid, 2.71
Other matters,.^*. Ii31
100.00
The above analysis shows that in kelp, there is a rich supply
of the inorganic ingredients required by most cultivated crops,
while the large amount of salts of potash and of soda, which
enters into their composition, indicates that it is peculiarly
adapted for the nourishment of the turnip and potato. Be-
sides the above-named constituents in kelp, the soluble por-
tion contains in variable quantity, iodide of potash or soda.
In localities accessible to the ocean, where seaweed is abun-
dant, kelp may be applied to the land in nearly the same cir-
cumstances as wood ashes, but for this purpose it would pro-
bably be better to burn the seaweed at a lower temperature
than is usually employed. By this means, being prevented
from melting, it would be obtained at once in the state of a fine
MINENAL MANURES. 45
powder, and would be richer in potash and soda. It rr ght
lead to important results of a practical nature, were a series
of precise experiments made with this finely-divided kelp as a
manure, especially in inland situations; for though the varia-
ble proportion of its constituents will always cause a degree of
uncertainty in regard to the action of the ash of marine plants.
Kelp would really be a cheap form in which the farmer can
apply potash to his land.
Ashes of Sugar Cane — Bagasse. — In sugar-growing countries,
pn advantage may be derived from the restoration of the cane
ash to the fields in which the canes have grown. After these
have been crushed in the mill, the woody or vegetable fibre
left, is called " trash." or " bagasse," which is usually employed
as fuel for boiling down the syrup. The ash of this trash,
which is not unfrequently more or less melted, if applied as a
top-dressing to the young canes, or if put into the cane holes
at the time of planting, would tend to keep up the fertility of
the soil, or at least, would check the exhaustion that would
naturally more slowly take place. If the ash happen to be
melted, and occurs in large masses, like barilla, it may be
crushed and mixed in equal parts with wood ashes, and applied
to the cane fields as above.
The inorganic or earthy portions of bagasse are essential
constituents to be returned to the soil, as will be seen from the
subjoined analysis of the ash of cane.
According to Herapath's analysis, 1,000 grains of the cane,
when burned, left 7-J- grains of ash, which was made up nearly
of the following ingredients: —
Grains.
Silica, \A
Phosphate of lime, 3.4
Oxide of iron and clay, 0.2
Carbonate of potash, 1.5
Sulphate of potash, 0.15
Carbonate of magnesia, 0.4
Sulphate of lime, 0.1
7.55
4fl IJSSIL, SALINE AMD
Analysis of the ashes of sugar cane, as given by Sten-
house • —
1
45.iv;
5
6
•l-J.no 40.4(i 46.48 50.00 45.1:1
III
26.38 .'12.20 48.73
3.76; 7.991 8.23 8.16 6.56 4.88 7.371 6.20 13,04 2.90
0.66 10.94 4.65! 7.52 6.40; 7.74 7.97 6.08 3.31 5.35
Silica
Phosphoric no .1, .
Sulphuric acid,. .
Lime, 9.16 13.20 8.91 1 5.78 5.09 4.49; 2.341 5.87 1 10.64! 11.62
Magnesia, 3.1)6 9.88! 4.50 15.61 13.01 1 11.90 3.93| 5.48| 5.63. 5.61
Potassa, 25.50 12.01' 10.63 11.93 Ul.69 16.97:32.93 31.21 10.09 7.46
Soda, i 1.39' ! 0.57 1.33 1.64 — -! 0.80 —
Ohio' potass'm,.. ! 3.27' ! 7.41 - — 10.70 11.14! 16.06
Ohio' sodium,..,. I 2.02 1.69, 9.21 3.95 3.92 7.25,17.12 7.C4J 4.29 2.27
No. 1,2, 3 were very fine full-grown canes, from Trinidad,
consisting of stalks and leaves, but without the roots ; No.
4, 5, and G were similar canes from Berbice ; No. 7, from Dema-
rara ; No. 8, full-grown canes, but with leaves, from the
island of Granada; No. 9, from Jamaica, consisting of trans-
parent canes in full bloom, grown about six miles from the
sea, and manured with cattle dung; No. 10, of transparent
canes, also from Jamaica, grown about two hundred yards
from the sea, being old ratoons, and manured with the same
kind of dung.
It would be better economy, however, if the cane trash were
kept in heaps a due time, and afterwards mixed with alkaline
salts, and then returned to the land as manure, instead of being
dissipated or thrown into the air by combustion.
Ashes of Vegetables not Woody. — The conversion into ashes
by combustion of vegetable refuse, such as husks, straw, weeds,
&c., otherwise easily reducible into manure by fermentation,
may sometimes increase their fertilising power in one or other
of the following ways: — By augmenting the tendency in the
manure to produce carbonic acid, under the combined action
of charcoal, moisture, and air; by the effect of the alkalies in
relation to some other manure, or texture in the soil ; or by
some ingredients which would be pernicious in combination,
that w<ruld be expelled in burning.
MINERAL MANURES.
47
Th6 ashes obtained oy burning the straw of oats, barley,
wheat, and rye contain a natural mixture of saline substances,
which is exceedingly valuable as a manure to almost every
crop. The proportion of the several constituents of this mix-
ture, however, is different, according as the one or the other
kind of straw is burned. Thus, 100 parts of each variety of
ash, in the samples analysed by Sprengel consisted of
Oats.
Barley.
Wheat.
Rye.
Rape.
Potash,.
15.2
3.4
O.G
1.2
16.8
1 Soda,
o.a
0.8
0.4
11.2
2.6
10.5
6.8
6.4
16.U
0.4
1.4
0.9
0.4
3.1
Silica
80.0
73.5
81.6
82.2
2.1
0.1
2.8
)
trace.
03
> 2.6
0.9
2.3
0.3
$
02
35
4.8
1.8
9.9
1 4
2.2
1.0
6.1
13.3
0.1
1.3
0.9
0.6
11.4
11.0
100
100
100
100
100
The most striking differences in the above table are the com-
paratively large quantity of potash in the oat straw ; of lime
in that of barley ; of phosphoric acid in that of wheat ; of sul-
phuric acid in that of rye; and of all the saline substances in
rape straw. These differences are not to be considered as con-
stant, nor will the numbers in any of the above columns repre-
sent correctly the composition of the ash of any variety of
straw we may happen to burn, but they may be safely de-
pended upon as showing the general composition of such
ashes, as well as the general differences which may be ex-
pected to prevail among them.
That such ashes should prove useful to vegetation might be
inferred not only from their containing many saline substances,
which are known to act beneficially when applied to the land,
but from the fact that they have actually been obtained from
vegetable substances. If inorganic matter be necessary to the
growth of wheat, then surel)- the mixture of such matters coiv
48
FOSSIL, SALINE AND
tained in the ash of wheat straw is more hkely than any other
we can apply to promote the growth of the young wheat plant.
In the middle and western states, where the straw of wheat
is often burned, in order to get rid of it, the cost of applying
the ash to the soil from which the crop is reaped, would be
comparatively trifling, and doubtless, it would enlarge the
future product; or, in reaping the wheat, the stubble might be
left of considerable length, and then set fire to on a dry, windy
day, leaving the ashes equal)" distributed over the field. Be-
sides, all the weeds and then .seed, as well as a large number
of insects and their larva?, would be destroyed, the advantages
of which are too obvious to be overlooked.
11
American 1
Chestnut.
IB
White
Hickory.
MiB
— ca
o i;
SfS
- :
JS
ll
Potash, ... .
19.23
8.46
0.10
3.03
4.56
1.41
0.50
23.84
40.76
577
1.30
17.44
1.74
1.43
0.91
15.85
7.G4
0.74
0.12
29.51
20.08
4.72
1.82
| 14.53
1.45
2.00
20.19
0.09
0.09
4.64
21.40
27.70
8.60
(ll.45
6.15
0.01
7.34 4.93
12.93 14.39
0.10 0.12
2.611 19-25
24.06 6.75
31.14 21.G7
8.00 2.24
1.40 1.61
16.40 12.70
0.60 2.44
3.20 3.60
1.60 5.80
1.70
3.40
12.13
15.58
0.05
0.47
24.39
31.56
5.44
0.85
17.23
0.93
1.86
1,45
Soda,
Chloride of sodium,
Carbonic acid,
7.81
10.11
2.48
2.72
1G.GG
9.89
1.71
5.28
1.24
Phosphate of oxide of iron,
Phosphate of magnesia,. . .
Coal,
L _ _
88.72
99.GH 98.46 100.33 109.68 100.60
111.99
Ashes of Wood. — These always consist of a mixture in varia-
ble proportions of carbonates, silicates, sulphates, and phos-
phates of potash, soda, lime, and magnesia, with certain other
substances present in smaller quantity, yet more or less neces-
sary, it may be presumed, to vegetable growth. Thus, accord-
ing to Professor Emmons, the ash of the outside wood of the
forest trees above named consisted of the ingredients as indi-
cated in the table.
MINERAL MANURES. 49
Wood ashes render clayey soils mellow and give consistency
to those that are light; they rather suit moist than dry soils,
but it is necessary that the former should be well drained.
The dose should increase with the humidity of the soil.
They require to be spread, when dry, n* weather that is not
rainy, and upon land that is not wet. They are used with ad-
vantage to almost every class of crops, but especially as a
dressing for grass, grain, millet, and Indian corn; but they are
the most perceptible upon leguminous plants, such as lucern,
clover, peas, beans, &c. As a top-dressing to grass lands, they
root out the moss and promote the growth of white clover.
Upon red clover, their effects will be more certain if previ-
ously mixed with one fourth of their weight of gypsum. In
small doses of 4 to 6 bushels to an acre, they may be applied
even to poor and thin soils, but in large and repeated doses,
their effects will be too exhausting, unless the soil be either
naturally rich in vegetable matter, or mixed from year to year,
with a sufficient quantity of animal or vegetable manure.
In so far as the immediate benefit of wood ashes is dependent
upon the soluble saline matter they contain, their effect may
be imitated by a mixture of crude potash with carbonate and
sulphate of soda, and a little common salt. If the ash con-
tain only about r5th of its weight of soluble matter, the fol-
lowing quantity of such a mixture would be nearly equal in
efficacy to the saline matter of a ton of wood ashes: —
Crude carbonate of potash, 60 Iba.
Crystallised carbonate of soda, 60 "
Sulphate of soda, 20 "
Common salt, 20 "
160
The composition of the different kinds of ash is very dis-
similar; that of the hemlock spruce, (A" ies canadensis,) for in-
stance, contains more potash and phosphate of magnesia than
that of the black birch (Betula lenla) ; while the sugar maple,
(Acer sacchirinum,) is richer in carbonic acid ard lime. The
60
FOSSIL, SALINE AND
several effects of different kinds of wood ash, when applied to
land, will therefore, vary. The different parts of the same tree
also vary in their composition, as will be seen in the following
analysis of the American white oak (Quercus alba,} made by
the same authority last referred to : —
r
•5
ft«
M r»
.; &•: i
1| |g |l
en
Sa
u"S
&t:
e o
Potash,
Soda,
13.41
0.52
9.68 9.74 0.25
5.03 6.89 2.57
1.27
4.05
2.78
0.39 0.16 0.08
0.08
4.24
0.47 0.25 0.12
0.13
0.12
0.20 0.08 0.03
trace.
Phosphate of peroxide of iron,
> 32.25
0.60
13.30 23. GO 10.10
14.15 -
8.95
19.29 17.55 29.80
30.33
30.85
43.21 34.10 54.89
47.72
0.3G
0.25 0.50 0.20
020
Pilica
0.21
0 88 0 55 0.25
065
0.80
0.30 0.60 0.25
065
5.70
7.10 5.90 1.16
1.52
100.18
100.00 99.99 100.05
100.00
It has been confirmed by experience, that, as wood ashes at-
tract acids with greater violence and sooner lose their virtue,
their operation will be more violent and sooner over. Hence, the
first crop after the land is manured with ashes is commonly very
luxuriant, and the second one after exhausts almost the whole
of their active properties. Therefore, they should be applied
in moderate quantities, say 15 to 20 bushels to an acre, as a
dressing for an annual crop of grain, barley, Indian corn, &c.,
and as they operate in a similar manner as lime, they should
not be applied to land that has been exhausted by lime nor
marl ; neither should they be applied to the same land, year
after year, nor should they immediately follow lime or marl.
On clayey soils, ashes generally produce more rapid effects
than on the lighter kinds. The action of all ashes, then, is
twofold, partly due to the soluble portions, and partly to the
insoluble. The chloride of sodium, or common salt, the car
MINERAL MANURES.
61
bonate and sulphate of potash, are soluble, and produce im-
mediate effects on the crop ; but the phosphates and »ilicates,
as well as carbonate of lime, require considerable time to dis-
solve. Hence, it has been observed that some lands are per-
manently improved by ashes, 1 and some crops immediately
benen'tted, as the leguminous plants. In those soils which
already contain much alkali, as the detritus of primitive ana
transition countries, sea shores, lands near salt springs. &c., the
soluble parts of ashes will be of little moment ; and the leached
remains may be altogether superior ; for few soils contain so
much phosphoric acid as not to be improved by an addition
as manure.
Ashes of Wood, Lixiviated, Leached, or Washed. — Where wood
ashes are washed for the manufacture of the pot and pearl ashes
of commerce, this insoluble portion collects in large quantities.
It is also present in the refuse of the soapmakers, where wood
ashes are employed for the manufacture of soft soap. The com-
position of this insoluble matter varies very much, not only
with the kind of wood from which the ash is made, but also
with the temperature it is allowed to attain in burning. The
former fact is illustrated by the following analysis, made by
Berthier, of the insoluble matter left by the ash of five differ,
ent species of wood carefully burned by himself:—
,
a
i 'is
ac
i
9
O
HJ
CO
ft.fi
02
M
Silica,
3.8 ! 2.0
5.5
130
4.6
Lime, 54.8 51.8 52.2
42.3
42.6
0.6
2.2 3.0 8.7
105
7.0
Oxide of iron,
0.1
0.5 22.3
0.1
1.5
Oxide of manefiinese,
0.6 3.5 5.5
0.4
4.5
Phosphoric acid, . . . . 1 0.8 ! 2.8 . 4.3
Carbonic acid, 39.6 39.8, 31.0
1.8
21.5
1.0
36.0
5.7
32.9
4.8
99.6 100.3 100.0 lOO.o! 99.7 100.0
1
The numbers in these several columns differ very much from
each other; but the ccnstitution of the insoluble part of the
52 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
ash he obtained, probably differed in every case from thai
which would have been left by the ash of the same Wcod
burned on the large scale, and in the open air. This is to be
inferred from the total absence of pota.sh and soda in the
leached ashes, while it is well known that common lixiviated
wood ash contains a notable quantity of both. This arises
from the high temperature at which wood is commonly burned,
causing a greater or less portion of the potash and soda to
combine with the silica, and form insoluble silicates, which
remain behind along with the lime and other earthy matter
when the ash is washed with water. It is to these silicates, as
well as to the large quantity of lime, magnesia, and phosphoric
acid it contains, that common wood ash owes the more perma-
nent effects upon the land, which it is known to have produced.
When the rains have washed out, or the crops carried off, the
more soluble part of the soil, these insoluble compounds still
remain to exercise a more slow and enduring influence upon
the after-produce.
Still, from the absence of much or all this soluble portion,
the action of leached ashes is not so apparent and energetic,
and they may therefore be applied to the land in much larger
quantity, say, at the rate of 50 to 80 bushels to the acre. Ap-
plied in this quantity, their effects have been observed to con-
tinue for fifteen years. Leached wood ashes are regarded as
the most beneficial to clayey soils, and it is stated that they es-
pecially promote the growth of oats. On Long Island, how-
ever, where the soil is light and sandy, they are employed in
the cultivation of Indian corn, spread around each hill at the
first hoeing, at the rate of 56 bushels to the acre, where about
14 cubic yards of horse dung has been applied in the hill at
the time of planting, and where one mossbunkcr, (a fish,) is
buried midway between each hill, in June or July. By this
course of manuring, an acre will yield from 60 to 80 bushels
of shelled corn, and the next season will be in tolerable condi-
tion for a crop of rye, buckwheat, or oats, without other
manure.
MINERAL MANURES. 53
Ashes of Wood from Soaper's Waste. — Formerly, in this coun-
try, all waste of soapboilers consisted of lixiviated wood ashes
and lime, the latter either caustic or combined with carbonic
acid. Therefore, they formed a superior manure, as they im-
proved vegetation by the phosphate of lime, magnesia, and
gypsum, as well as by the lime with which they were mixed.
Since, however, many soapmakers have used soda, barilla, or
common salt, instead of wood ashes, and the waste contains a
large proportion of caustic lime or its carbonate, which have
not so much value as mere burnt lime.
It is the opinion of many, that the ashes of soapboilers es-
pecially act by the potash they contain ; but this is an error;
for, in subjecting them to chemical analysis, they were found
by Sprengel to consist of the following ingredients in 100,000
parts : —
Silica, 35,000
Lime, mostly in a caustic state, 35,010
Manganese, 2,330
Alumina? 1,500
Oxide of iron, 1,700
Oxide of manganese, 1,840
Potash, combined with silica into a silicate, 500
Soda, do. do. do. do 180
Sulphuric acid, combined with lime into gypsum, 190
Phosphoric acid, combined with lime, 3,500
Common salt, 90
Carbonic acid, combined with lime and magnesia,. . .18,160
100,000
Of soapboiler's ashes, in a dry state, from 2,000 to 3,000 Ibs.,
(40 to 60 bushels,) may ordinarily be used on an acre of land.
From 3,000 Ibs., the soil would obtain about 920 Ibs. of lime;
70 Ibs. of magnesia ; 15 Ibs. of potash ; 5 Ibs. of soda ; 12 Ibs.
of gypsum; 230 Ibs. of phosphate of lime; and 3 Ibs. of com-
mon salt, by which it will be seen that they owe their fertil-
ising properties mostly to the caustic and carbonate of lime,
and the magnesia and phosphate of lime as their 15 Ibs. of
potash, 12 Ibs. of gypsum, &c., may produce a very inconsid-
54 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
enable effect, particularly us the potash is also combined with
the silica into a substance not soluble in water.
After manuring with soaper's ashes, plants of the clover
tribe will grow besi. ; but all other crops will be benefitted ;
and the fresher the ashes are, the more effective they will be.
as they then contain much caustic lirne, by which, especially
the carbonic humus, or the organic malter in the* soil, is effected
and changed into humic acid. Soils which contain very little
lime will always be best improved by them; and in this case,
they will be very useful, whether employed as a top-dressing
on meadows, or applied to hoed ciopsor grain. The effect will
be visible for six to nine years, according to the quantity used;
which, however, will only be the case when the soil is defi-
cient in vegetable or organic matter, and such other substances
of which the ashes contain but a small quantity.
Soaper's ashes may be strewn either over the crops already
growing, such as clovers, lucern, grasses, &c., or they may be
harrowed in with the seed of winter or summer crops, on which
they act partly as leached ashes, and partly as caustic lime;
they can also be used with some advantage on boggy lands
newly cleared, or on any moist land abounding in vegetable
loam.
ASPHALTUM.
ASPHALTUM is a smooth, hard, brittle, black or brown bitu-
minous substance which easily melts when heated, and if pure,
burns without residuum. Il is both in a soft and liquid state,
on the surface of Lake Asphaltites, or the Dead Sea, and hence
is sometimes called " bitumen of Judea." It occurs, also, as a
mineral production in other parts of Asia, in Europe, Cuba,
and the island of Trinidad, and some other parts of America
By chemical analysis, it contains about 32 per cent, of bitu-
minous oil; 30 of carbon, and 7 per cent, of silicates; the re-
mainder, consisting of alumina, lime, oxides of iron, and man-
MINERAL MANURES. 55
gancse, with a large per-ccntagc of water slightly impregnated
with ammonia
The Egyptians used asphaltum in embalming, under the
name of mumia. It was used by the Babylonians instead of
mortar, for cementing bricks. At present, it is employed with
lime, shells, or gravel, in making pavements and walks; mixed
with hair, it forms an impervious covering for roofs.
From the chemical ingredients as given above, we have rea-
son to suppose that asphaltum would prove to be a valuable
manure. The council of the Royal Agricultural Society of
England were lately favored with a statement of the satisfac-
tory result tried in the government gardens at Bermuda, ob-
tained by Vice Admiral, the Earl of Dundonald, on the
West-Indian Station, from manure prepared from the asphal-
tum of the great Pitch Lake, in the island of Trinidad. A
sample was placed in the hands of Professor Way, the chem-
ist of the society, with a request that he would make a chem-
ical examination of this new manure, in order that he might
determine its agricultural value.
BITTERNS, OR PAN SCALE.
THE term bitterns is used by salt manufacturers, at the sa-
lines at Onondaga, and other places, to designate the highly
deliquescent chlorides of magnesia and lime. From their very
soluble nature, they are thrown down immediately after the
commencement of the boiling of the brine, and are scooped out
in considerable quantities, by ladles, and thrown away. That
portion which adheres to the bottom and sides of the kettles,
forming a solid crust, is usually known under the name of
pan scale, the chemical ingredients of which, according to Pro-
fessor Emmons, are as follows: —
Chloride of sodium, 73.92
Chloride of lime, 7.47
Chloride of magnesia, 1,68
Sulphate of lime, 12.37
Silica, 0.20.
Organic matter, 1.50
97.14
56 FOSSIL, SALINE AN'!)
From the above analysis, it is obvious that the waste of our
salt works is a valuable fertiliser for jertain soils, and ought
to be saved.
Of this material, hundreds of thousands of bushels are heap-
ed up in the vicinity of the salt works in the state of New
York, and even in the city of Syracuse, it is used for grading
the lots and streets. As a fertiliser, it has been used with ad-
vantage in the form of a top-dressing on fields of grass and
grain. On sandy soils, where gypsum and common salt are
needed, the application of this refuse would doubtless be at-
tended with beneficial results.
BRICK DUST AND BURNT CLAY.
BRICK DUST, whether obtained from the rubbish of new build-
ings or old, or from the kilns or yards where bricks are manu-
factured or stored, or made by pounding up soft bricks, may
be used with advantage to strong clayey land, and thereby ren-
der it more open and less tenacious ; in which case, the benefit
arising from thd mechanical arrangement of the soil, alone,
would probably more than compensate for the trouble of
spreading it on the ground, and afterwards plowing or har-
rowing it in. Besides this, brick dust, long exposed to the
atmosphere, particularly that from old buildings, absorbs con-
siderable quantities of nitrogen or ammonia, in consequence
of which, it is possessed of additional fertilising properties,
and may be applied as a top-dressing to grass lands, at the
rate of 60 or 70 bushels to the acre. Brick dust has also been
used with great success in propagating the more tender green-
house plants, as Daphnes, Cape jasmines, heaths, &c. ; and it
has been remarked how much more certain and quickly cut-
tings of all sorts take root in it, than in sand, or in loamy soil,
treated in the usual way. For plants that root more easily, i*
may be mixed half and half with sandy loam.
The effect of burnt clay, as an amendment to soils, has been
higly extolled, and not without some reason, in certain local-
ities. By- burning, clay is altered in its nature, in which state
it becomes insoluble in water, loses its attraction for it, am1
resembles silicious sand.
MINLXAL MANURES. fi7
Buint clay has long been used as a manure on heavy lands
in some parts of England, and with considerable advantage.
It serves to lighten and mellow the soil for six or seven yeais
afterwards. The work of burning usually begins in May, and
continues through the summer, in heaps of from 50 to 100 cubic
yards each. Brush wood and faggots are mostly used for
fuel, and sometimes coal, where it is cheap. The quantity
required of either, however, is not great, if the work is properly
done. In forming a kiln for burning clay, let the sods be cut
of a convenient size to handle, say a foot wide and 18 inches
in length ; with these, form a parallelogram, or oblong square ;
let the walls be 2 feet thick, and trampled or beaten firmly
together, and raised at least 3 feet high. The kiln should be
so situated that the wind may blow against one of its sides ;
it may be from 4 to 6 yards long, by 3 yards wide, with aper-
tures within one yard of each end, and others at a distance of
about 5 feet from these should be left in the side walls, when
building, for the purpose of forming drain-like openings across
the kiln ; let one of these drain-like openings be made from
end to end, lengthwise the kiln. These funnels are to be
built, also, with sods; some dry turf, or peat, such as is some-
time used for fuel, is to be put into these funnels, and over it,
and between the funnels, well-dried sods, or any other combus-
tible materials are to be laid on at the depth of 2 feet over
these suds, partially dried, to the level of the walls of the kiln.
In setting these materials on fire, a powerful heat will be pro-
duced, quite capable of burning clay, without previously dry-
ing it ; care, however, will be necessary to avoid throwing it
on in too great a quantity at once, before the fire is well up,
when a large parcel may be thrown on. If piled up too loosely
the draught will be strong, and the burning too rapid ; if to*
closely, there will not be draught sufficient. The sod walls are
to be raised as the heat rises ; and as soon as it is perceived by
the strength of the smoke, and the glow of the heat, that the
mass is ignited in all its parts, the apertures may be closed,
and the kiln left to become charred. For the slower the burning
proceeds, the better, provided the clay is effectually burnt and
pulverised. Should appearances indicate a likelihood of the fire
3*
63 FOSSIL, SALINE AM)
being smothered, it will only bo necessary fo open one » r mm*
of the funnels, to renew the burning. If the land on which
the charred clay is to le applied be deficient in calcareous
matter, earth containing it. if burned, would improve it imieL.
The clay to be burned is not the upper and better portion of
the soil, but the colder and closer kinds, dug out of any pit. at
any depth below the surface, together with the scouring of
ditcher and vegetable rubbish of every description. The
heaps, or kilns, must be attended to night and day while burn-
ins, to prevent the fires going out. or burning too fiercely, in
which case, the clay becomes burnt to a kind of brick, and is
then nearly useless. Therefore, the heat should always be
slow and steady, and never, if possible, burn the clay red, but
black. When the burning is rightly managed, the clay is
converted into a blackish kind of ashes, which is the thing to
be air.ied at.
Excellent crops of turnips may be produced on indifferent
land by the use of burnt clay: and there can scarcely be a
better preparation for rape. The ashes, in England, are usually
carted on the land after harvest upon clover leas, stubble, or
fallows. Upon grass land^ they may be laid on at any time
most convenient. The quantity to be applied to arable lands
is from 40 to 50 cubic yards to the acre, and on grass lands,
from 25 to 30 yards.
Burn; clay may also be used to form a compost with earth,
sand. marl, or other manures ; and in this way, it will be found
highly benencial as a top-dressing, and in lightening the tex-
ture and improving the condition of stiff and heavy lands.
BUILDING BtJBBGH.
THE rubbish of demolished buildings has a very durable
and marked effect upon vegetation: and it is believed to be
more advantageous than pure lime. It contains, besides car-
bonate of lime, and a little lime that is still in a caustic state,
some soluble salts that have lime for their bases, as the nitrates
and muriates of lime, and also the muriates of potash and soda,
which add to the effect of the calcareous principle. The fer-
tilising effects are the most active on soils that contain bul
MI5ERAL MA5TTRES. VI
littie or no lime ; elsewhere, this material is thought to be
more injurious than useful, and renders the land more sensible
to drought.
Therefore, this rubbish is very us oful to be applied in the form
of a top-dressing on moist meadows or pastures that are not cal-
careous, but not on lands that are wet or inundated. It may be
employed with advantage, if applied either in autumn or spring,
upon winter as well as spring crops, as it promotes the forma-
tion of grain rather than straw. It may be used with or with-
out the medium of a compost, at the rate of 60 or 70 bushels
to the acre, and like other calcareous amendments, requires to
be spread in fair weather, when the ground is not wet
CLAY, UNBUHITT.
CLAY, in an agricultural sense, according to the best writers
is "a finely-divided chemical compound, consisting very nearly
of 60 per cent of silica, and 40 of alumina, with a little oxide
of iron, and from which no silicious or sandy matter can be
separated mechanically nor by d'ecantatioa." Of this clay, the
earthy part, (sand and lime.) of all known soils, is made up by
mere mechanical admixture.
COMPOSITION OF THE CLA7S OT 5KW TORS IT PEOFISSO* KXXO3S.
Places and kinds of clay.
Tertiary or Albany clay, 52.44 32-2?
Niagara clay '. " 56.24 20r76
••.00 trace, trice, trace, 5.2S
20r76 14.62 2.42 0.44 3.24
Cayuzaclay 44.2ft 28.72 16.*= 0.16 trace, trace. £44
Adirondack clay 84.63 0^4 0.60 trace. 0.11 6j2
Brick clay, near" CaldwelL, 65.60 17 j2 8.92 0.39 6.68
Reddish clay of Christian Hollow. 44,84 27.40 8.29 1 .36 2.60 16J36
Clays are highly important materials in the constitution of
soils. They are also important fertilisers, especially when they
contain magnesia, potash, and lime. The expense, however,
60 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
of carting clay may be considered as the great bar for its use
as a fertiliser, and yet its effects are most decided upon all
lands which are denominated " light."
From the investigations of Mr. Thompson and Professor Way,
" On the Absorbent Power of Soils," it has been ascertained
that a subsoil, abounding in clay, loam, or mould, has not only
the power of arresting ammonia, but of absorbing and retain-
ing " everything which can serve as a manure for plants." Pu-
trid urine, sewer water, &c., passing through these substances
become pure as well as clear. The subsoil must be clay or
loam, for sand and gravel have no such power, but allow all
solutions freely to pass through them.
COAL DUST.
FOSSIL coal is a well-known inflammable substance, formed
of the remains of antediluvian vegetables, animal juices, and
mineral or metallic matter, combined, or mechanically mixed
more or less with different kinds of earth. When reduced to
a powder, it Loses its inflammability by exposure to the air,
and becomes oxygenated, as is the case with peat. Saline
compounds are thence formed, which consist principally of
sulphate of iron, sulphate of magnesia, phosphate of lime,
phosphate of iron, oxide of iron, silica, alumina, and a propor-
tion of imcorn bined simple earths.
There are numerous varieties of coal, consumed in the
United States, the dust of which could be obtained in consid-
erable quantity from the yards where they are stored, or from
the mines whence they were brought, and doubtless could be
profitably employed as a manure. That of Pennsylvania and
Wales is anthracite, which is somewhat difficult of combus-
tion, producing little or no flame, but an intense heat, and con-
sists almost entirely of pure carbon. Other varieties, found
in Virginia, Ohio, and other parts of the world, are bitumi-
nous in their character, and contain hydrogen, as well as
carbon, and burn with a flame, and give out gas. The value,
however, in an agricultural point of view, will of course depend
upon the facility of decomposing the coal, and the chemical in-
MINERAL MANURES.
61
gradients of which it is formed. The following table shows the
analyses of coal from various parts of the United States, with
the character or color of their ash : —
Cumberland, Md
Mid-Lothian, Va.,
Portsmouth, R. I.,
1 Rattling-Run Gap., Pa.,. . .
Tioga or Blossburg, Pa.,...
Dauphin County, Pa... . . .
K! a a a a a-s^i >-3 f
SP^O. 5- 5- 5- =' -. § g.
-,5s S*dO— g. 2.'^aa> 5? § ,=?
55 < ~ P 3 "3 ' ^ i 5 • C5 ^ 5 5.
S ? ^ 5 5. 2 r/^ ^ 'V3 •§• 7i ^ s c P^
?S "S 8- i S H"? §• S" 3- S — »L 2*
§3- ^^nfftg^wltg-LS1 31 -
?(J5 S"g^ ^ oS-n^oS1 -
l|p>!^^.|l'
"!, !,£"? 3^3*
P £1 ^CL^jL^jL
1 Names and Location
of the mines
g.
<i -.1 -i
:] 3 3 S 8 2 88 S 3
S f?
-s -:
CO '—
o v\ — '
Vi O O O O O CO rfk O "*
o 2
? 3
3^^
b> o
O5 ^l Cl
•= S § 2 £ * So? S d
Hi
^
^
' '
*C -1 <l
-1 0 ~»
— O 00 *• O tOOlrf»W CT
S '
co-» a
o o o
C-T*— O W Cn OlCDOOt-T ~l
?'»
I*
O
o O_«1
Q
Cream-colored
nclining to gre;
reyish-white,lig
Dark-purple.
Dark-red.
Cream-colored
nclining to gre;
^Si's'i'i.'S1 ?• s-^3§'^s=:
• tilf'i I I I^^PI
haracter or color
ash.
.S'
pt^^-3
0
n?
2 2
22 2. 2 2 2. 222 r
§ S § o o p §o § P
Authority.
The earthy ingredients of the above-named coals consist
principally of silica, alumina, lime, and the oxides of iron and
of manganese, the proportions of which vary, like those of all
other varieties of coal. None of the Pennsylvania coals, it is
believed, contain any alkaline matter. This, however, can only
be ascertained by burning the samples employed for examina-
tion, \vliich have not been exposed to salt water, at a low tern-
t^iMhuv, ill order to avoid any supposed sublimation.
62 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
Again, the following varieties of bituminous coal, as analysed
by Dr. Jackson, were composed of the ingredients as given un-
der their respective heads: —
NEW-CASTLE COAL.
Carbon 57.5
Bitumen, 37.5
Oxide of iron, 4.5
Silica and alumina, 0.5
100.0
Specific gravity, 1.32
Weight of a cubic yard, 2,227-Jlbs.
ORRKI. COAL.
Carbon, 63.4
Bitumen, 35.3
Oxide of iron 1.0
Silica and alumina, 0.3
100.0
Specific gravity 1.279
Weight of a cubic yard. 2,158flbs.
SIDNEY (N. S.) COAL.
Carbon. 56.4
Bitumen 41.0
Oxide of iron, 2.6
100.0
FROSTBURO (MD.) COAL.
Carbon, , 77.9
Bitumen, 16.5
Sflica, 2.0
Alumina and oxide of iron, 3.6
100.0
Specific gravity, 1.321
Weight of a cubic yard, 2,229ilbs.
In these analyses we find the sum of the carbon :vnd bitu-
men taken together, to amount to 95, 98T7ff, 97f, and 94§ per
cent, respectively. These numbers, therefore, indicate their
relative values, in the main, as manuring mixtures to be applied
to the land.
MINERAL MANURES. 63
The coals most applicable for fertilising pu, poses are such
as are found at the out-crops of the seams, or beds, particularly
those which are of a soft, tender nature, and are easily acted
upon by the joint influence of moisture and air. Among these,
the bituminous coals of Virginia and Ohio stand conspicuous,
and when reduced to powder, tend to quicken the vegetation
of wheat and Indian corn in an eminent degree.
When bituminous coal is in a state capable of being ren-
dered soluble, it is soft and friable, and if rubbed between the
fingers, it appears like soot. If thrown into the fire, it will not
burn with any flame, but while consuming, emit a smell more
like that from the combustion of peat than coal. When not
found in this state in the mines, it may be oxygenated, or soft-
ened, by exposing the small refuse coals of the collieries or
yards, alternately to moisture and air. This process may be
much accelerated by previously crushing or grinding the coal
to a fine powder.
OOPROLITES.
THESE fossils, which usually occur of a conical shape, are
generally found in the ancient calcareous formations, and are
shown by Dr. Buckland, in his " Bridgewater Treatise," to be
the petrified excrements of extinct animals. They also are
represented to be found in the state of Maine, and occur in
numerous limestone formations in other parts of the United
States. They are most frequently found in layers of rock, and
are generally associated with other fossils of various composi-
tions, forms, and textures. Sometimes, however, they occur as
water-worn pebbles, coarse gravel, or in a more comminuted
state i:i 'he soil. An analysis of a sample made by Herapath
gives of
Phosphate of lime, magnesia, and iron, 53.7
Carbonate of lime, 28.4
Sulphate of lime, 0.7
Silica, 13.2
Water, 3.4
99.4
64 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
Besides the other ingredients, the above analysis indicates
that there is an equivalent of 262 per cent, of phosphoric acid,
which shows coprolites arc an invaluable manure. They are
about as rich in phosphate and carbonate of lime, as the re-
cent bones of an ox, when perfectly dried, and deprived of
their fat. The latter yield of phosphate of lime 56f per cent,
and of phosphate of magnesia 3£ per cent., which is equiva-
to 26T7o per cent, of phosphoric acid. It is to be observed,
however, that coprolites, in general, are intensely hard, so
much so, that it requires powerful machinery to grind them;
and that, even when reduced to powder, they are not suffici-
ently soluble of themselves for direct application to the soil.
They are readily dissolved by sulphuric acid, and then afford
a most excellent manure for turnips, cabbages, rape, &c-
FELDSPAR, GRANITE, AND GNEISS.
FELDSPAK, which has a peculiar pearly lustre, when pure, is
generally white; but from the admixture of other ingredients
in small proportions, it often has a red, blue, or greenish tint,
which is owing to the minute quantity of metallic oxides it
contains. It forms one of the regular components of granite,
sometimes occuring in crystals 10 inches long and 8 inches in
diameter. Several varieties of this mineral are known to
mineralogists ; but, besides the common feldspar, it is only
necessary to specify albi/e, which, in appearance, closely re-
sembles the true feldspar, after taking its place in granite
rocks, and in chemical constitution, differs from it only in con-
taining soda, while the common variety contains potash. Ac-
cording to Professor Johnston, these minerals consist repeo
lively of
Feldspar, Albite.
Hilicti, 65.21 69.09
Alumina, '. 18.13 19.22
Potash, 16.66
Soda, 11.69
100.00 100.00
MINERAL MANURES. 65
It is to be observed, however, that these mine, als do not gen-
erally occur in nature in a perfectly pure state ; for though
they do not essentially contain lime, magnesia, nor oxide of
iron, they are seldom found without a small admixture of one
or more of these substances. It is also found that while pure
feldspar contains only potash, and pure albite only soda, an
abundance of a kind of intermediate mineral occurs which
contains both potash and soda.
In these two minerals, the silica is combined with the potash,
soda, and alumina.
Feldspar consists of a silicate of alumina combined with a
silicate of potash. Albite, of the same silicate of alumina, com-
bined with a silicate of soda.
Feldspar undergoes a gradual decomposition when exposed
to the action of air, water, and the spongioles of plants, or to
the vegetable matter in the soil* The carbonic acid gas of
the soil, of the atmosphere, as well as of mineral waters, acts
upon it, so that the alkali is gradually removed, and the min-
eral crumbles into fine particles, which enter into the compo-
sition of all granitic soils. It is the principal source whence
plants obtain their potash, which exists in their juices and solid
parts, and is taken up by their rootlets entering into their
composition, and serving, at the same time, as a solvent vehicle,
by^which the organic acids are in part introduced into their
sap vessels.
The name of gr anile is given to a rock consisting of a mix-
ture more or less of quartz, mica, and feldspar. When mica
is wanting, and a mineral called hornl,ende occurs in its stead,
the rock is distinguished by the name of Syenite; and when
these minerals are blended together, and the rock is more or
less distinctly stratified in its structure, it is known under the
name of gneiss.
The minerals of which these rocks consist, are mixed toge-
ther in very variable proportions. Sometimes the quartz pre-
dominates, so as to constitute two thirds or three fourths of the
whole rock : at other times, both mica and quartz are present
66 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
in such small quantity as to form what is hen called a feldspar
rock. The mica rarely exceeds one sixth of the whole, while
the hornblende of the Syenites sometimes forms nearly one half
of the entire rock. These differences also are often overlooked
by the geologist, though they necessarily produce important
differences in the composition and agricultural characters of
the soils derived from the crystalline rocks.
Mica generally occurs disseminated through the granite or
gneiss in small, shining scales, or plates, which, when extracted
from the rock, readily split into an inconceivable number of
thin layers. It sometimes also occurs in large masses which
may be cleft into thin sheets, or plates, resembling window-
glass, and is of various colors, as white, grey, brown, and
black. It is soft, and may readily be cut with a knife. It con-
sists of silicates, though its constitution is not always so sim-
ple as that of feldspar. In some varieties, magnesia is pres-
ent, whilst in others it is almost wholly wanting, as is shown
by the following composition of two specimens from different
localities, given by Professor Johnston : —
Potash , Magnesia*
Mica. Mica.
Silica 46.10 40.00
Alumina, 31.60 12.67
Prot-oxido of iron, 8.65 19.03
Magnesia, 15.70
Potash 8.39 5.61
Oxide of manganese, 1.40 0.63
Fluoric acid, 1.13 2.10
Water, 1.00 Titanic acid, 1.63
98.26 97.37
If we neglect the last three substances, which are present
only in small quantities, and recollect that the silica is in com-
bination with all the substances which stand beneath it, we see
th<vt these varieties of mica consist of a silicate of alumina
combined in the one with silicate of iron and silicate of potash ;
and in the other with silicate of iron and silicate of magnosia.
Hornblende occurs of various colors, but thnt. which forms a
MINERAL MANURES. 67
constituent of Syenites and of the basalts is of a dark-g.-een or
brownish-black color, is often in regular crystals, and is readily
distinguished from quartz and feldspar by its color, and from
black mica, by not spliting into thin layers.
According to the last authority named above, hornblende
consists of
Silica,
Basaltic
Hornblende.
4-224
Syenitie
Hornblende,
45 C9
Alumina,
13.92
12.18
Lime,
.. .. 12.24 . . .
. . . . 13.83
Magnesia,
13.74
18.79
Prot-oxide of iron,
14.59
7.32
Oxide of manganese. . . .
.. 0.33...
.. 0.22
Fluoric acid 1 50
97.06 99.53
A comparison of these two analyses shows that the propor-
tions of magnesia and oxide of iron sometimes vary consider-
ably ; yet that the hornblendes still maintain the same general
composition. They are remarkably distinguished from felds-
par by the total absence of potash and soda, and by containing
a large proportion of lime and magnesia. From the potash
mica, they are distinguished by the same chemical differences,
and from magnesian mica, by containing lime to the amount
of ith part of their whole weight, which difference must mate-
rially affect the constitution and agricultural capabilities of
the soils formed from these minerals.
A few other minerals occasionally occur among granitic
rocks, in sufficient quantity to affect the composition of the soils
to which they give rise. Among these, are the different varieties
of tourmaline, beryl, schorl, and chlorite, the latter of which,
sometimes contains 15 or 18 per cent, of magnesia, and nearly
30 per cent, of the prot-oxide of iron.
It thus appears that a knowledge of the constitution of the
minerals of which the granhes are composed, and of the pro-
portions in which these minerals are mixed in any locality
clearly indicates what the nature of the soils formed from them
63 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
must be an indication which perfectly accords with observa-
tion. The same knowledge, also, showing that such soils never
have contained, and never can naturally include more than a
trace of lime, will satisfy the improver, who believes the pres-
ence of lime to be almost necessary in a fertile soil, as to the
first step to be taken in endeavoring to rescue a granitic soil
from a state of nature — will explain to him the reason why the
use of lime and of shell sand on such soils, should so long have
been practised with the best effects, and will encourage him
to persevere in a course of treatment, which, while suggested
by theory, is also confirmed by practice. — Johnston.
The potash of feldspar, or granitic rocks, may be liberated
to a considerable extent, first, by breaking and burning them
in a kiln, like limestone, and then slaking them by pouring on
water while hot. In this state, most, or all of the alkalies con-
tained in the rock will readily be available for the food of
plants, and all that remains to be done is simply to apply the
fragments to the soil.
GYPSUM, OR PLASTER.
GYPSUM, or sulphate of lime, is a well-known white crystal-
line compound found abundantly in large deposits in numerous
parts of the globe. It is present in many soils, particularly in
peat, and is detected in sensible proportions in lucern, sainfoin,
ray grass, red clover, and turnips, as well as in the dung of
most, if not all animals subsisting on grass. It is found, as a
natural production, under the names of anhydrite, (which occurs
in rocky masses almost free from water,) selenite, and alabaster.
The native plaster, or gypsum of commerce, contains of
Per cent.
Water, 21
Lime, 33
Sulphuric acid, 46
100
But when ca' Mned, it consists of 41-J per cent, of lime, and
MINERAL MANURES.
69
58-£ of sulphuric acid. Deprived of its water, at a low red
heat, it forms the well-known " plaster of Paris," which, when
made into a thin paste with water, chemically unites with it,
and forms, in a few minutes, a hard substance, as in plaster
casts, or moulds, cornices in rooms, &c. It is soluble in 450
parts of boiling water, or in 500 parts of cold water ; owing to
which circumstance it is often found in springs. A ton of pure
gypsum, when crushed, will yield about 25 bushels.
FIG. 3.
The use of plaster in agriculture, as such, is not old, although
it was doubtless used by the Roman farmers and early inhab-
itants of Britain, as well as by the Lombards. It was not much
applied in modern times until some years after its first discov-
ery as a manure by M. Meyer, a clergyman of Germany, in
1768. Its use spead. after this date in that country, and pene-
trated France, Switzerland, Great Britain, and the United States,
where it has been successfully employed, without interruption,
in the vicinity of Philadelphia, and elsewhere, ever since the
year 1772. And it may be worthy of repeating, that, when
Dr. Franklin wished to introduce the use of this fertiliser into
America, in order to convince his countrymen of its efficacy,
he sowed in large letters, upon a clover field, in Washington,
with powdered gypsum, the following phrase, as indicated u«
the cut above : — THIS HAS BEEN PLASTERED.
70 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
Theoretically, gypsum attracts ammonia from the atmos-
phere, and retains it for the use of vegetation, its action, as a
manure, is twofold. In the first place, it serves directly for the
food of several of oar cultivated plants; and secondly, it fixes
and retains certain soluble substances in the soil, which are
necessary to their growth and nutrition. Nor is this all. To
the same property is to be ascribed Us action of fixing ammo-
nia, when scattered over stable floois, dunghills, manure tanks,
&c., by absorbing it, and thereby preventing its escape. By
" fixing," is meant the formation of sulphate of ammonia from
its carbonate. Rain water, for instance, is supposed to bring
down with it carbonate of ammonia, which acts upon gypsum
in such a way as to abstract its sulphuric acid, and form sul-
phate of ammonia, and exchange therefor its carbonic acid, and
convert the gypsum into carbonate of lime. Thus, the carbonate
of ammonia, which is brought down by the rain, if it does not
meet with sulphuric acid in the soil, it readily becomes volatile,
and rises again into the air; whereas, the contrary is the effect
with sulphate of ammonia, and hence the meaning of the term
" fix." Supposing the gypsum to meet with a sufficient supply
of ammonia in the soil, and that it exercises its full influence,
100 Ibs. of common unburnl gypsum will fix or form sulphate
with nearly 120 Ibs. of ammonia, containing IS^lbs. of nitrogen.
One hundred weight, therefore, (112lbs.,) will form as much
sulphate as will contain 22£ Ibs. of ammonia, and if introduced
without loss into the interior of plants, it will furnish them with
18i Ibs. of nitrogen.
The sulphuric acid contained in gypsum, from well-known
principles, also acts beneficially in decomposing and bringing
into activity the humus and insoluble matter accumulated in
loams or peaty soils. Gypsum is decomposed by carbonate
and muriate of barytes, the carbonates of strontia, potash, soda,
and of ammonia, as well as by oxalic and humic acids, and
where any of the four last named occur naturally in the soil,
or are applied by artificial means, new combinations take
place, which are attended in some cases with beneficial results
MINERAL MANURES. 71
For instance, in order that gypsum may be useful as a fertil-
iser, the soil must always contain more or less humus, even if
it be only 2 or 3 per cent. If, however, it contains too much
free humic acid, it will decompose the gypsum, so that humate
of lime will be formed, and the sulphuric acid will be set free,
which may then act as a corrosive on the roots of the crops.
On this account, a soil very rich in humus must never be ma-
nured with too much gypsum, because, though the sulphuric
acid were to combine with another base contained in the soil.
it would still form therewith a salt easily soluble in water, by
which the plants would receive too much sulphuric acid at
once. If strewn over fresh dung, and plowed in with it in the
field, it will undergo a partial decomposition by the carbonate
of ammonia developed from the excrements, so much so, that
sulphate of ammonia and carbonate of lime are formed.
Some difference of opinion appears to exist among agricul-
turists whether gypsum should be used in a crude state or
burned; but, experience fully proves that the effects are the
same whether calcined or rough. In a raw state, when reduced to
powder, it docs not swell in water, but remains like sand. But
when roasted, or rather heated at a temperature just below red-
ness, and diluted with its bulk of water, it will harden, or set,
at the end of five or ten minutes; then, if we dilute it with
another equal dose of water, and as soon as the mixture begins
to harden again, we add a third dose of water of equal bulk,
and proceed thus five or six times, the mixture will still acquire
a weaker consistence. Then, if divided into clods, and left to
dry in the air, it can easily be reduced to a fine powder. In
this condition, plaster acts so much the better, as it presents
more surface to the influence of water, and is the sooner dis-
solved and taken up by the roots of plants. Indeed, it appears
that its swelling, at each addition of water, genera lly increases
its bulk ; and consequently its particles are more and more
divided, till they occupy five or six times their former volume,
by the agency of water. On the contrary, when we employ
plaster which is too much roasted, it does not even absorb a
72 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
volume of water equal to itself; nor docs it expand nor under
go any further division, in consequence of which, it does not
retain scarcely |th part as much interposed tvater as the well-
roasted plaster, and therefore presents so much the less hold
for the dissolving action. Hence, the only use of roasting plas-
ter for agriculture, consists in the minute and easy division
which results from the calcination ; and it is easy to perceive
how important it is to avoid the excess of temperature that pro-
duces the contrary effect.
By burning, gypsum loses nothing but the water of crystal-
lisation, or the water chemically bound up, as the sulphuric
acid contained in it cannot be expelled even by the most vio-
lent heat of the furnace. If left in the air, burnt gypsum will
attract from it as much water as it had previously lost, which
again becomes chemically fixed, but does not sensibly deterio-
rate its value as a manure.
From its property of being rather soluble in wat er, gypsum
generally passes into the plants in an entire state. In its ap-
plication, it is frequently strewn over the young growing
crops ; and farmers like it still better, if the plants arc yet wet
from dew, as they believe that it will then act as a better stim-
ulus upon the leaves. Still, experience has shown that it will
produce the same effect, if it is washed off the leaves by rain
water; nay it has been found that, in most cases, it will im-
prove the growth of clover best, if it be strewn over the field
before winter, and harrowed in with the seed. This phenome-
non is easily explained by the gypsum sooner finding in the soil
the water required for its solution ; and it being now distrib-
uted over the whole furrow slice, it can easier be received by
the roots of the plants. The favorable issue of manuring with
gypsum depends yet on another circumstance. It will act
beneficially only in wet, warm seasons; as in this case, the
water will not only convey it to the plants, but the heat will
assist the assimilation of the sulphuric acid contained in it;
that is, the leaves will only deoxidise the sulphuric acid by the
•assistance of the s<r ar rays, whereby they exhale the oxygen
MINERAL MANURES. 73
and retain sulphur for the formation of albumen, gluten, &c.
That this process actually takes places in leaves, is to be seen
by the gypsum acting very little in dark, wet weather, and
that, being strewn over clover, growing in the shade, it will not
exert any influence upon it at all.
Gypsum, like lime and marl, requires to be applied with dis-
cretion, and alternately with other manures. Without atten-
tion in this respect, it will not always succeed. It has general-
ly been found more useful when applied to clover, lucern,
sainfoin, beans, peas, vetches, and several of the grasses, than
in the cultivation of grain, turnips, and other green crops. In
France, its effects have been extolled, when applied to the roots
of orange trees, the olive, mulberries, and the vine. In Amer-
ica, it is employed with success in the cultivation of Indian
corn, buckwheat, and rye; and in some instances it has given
much activity to the growth of hemp.
The soils upon which gypsum operates most beneficially are
those that are light, dry, and sandy, or open, as they soonest
admit the rain water which dissolves and conveys it to the
roots of the plants; whereas, clayey soils, which are stiff' and
impervious to the rains, retain the plaster for a greater length
of time. In some cases, gypsum will not produce any effect,
on account of the soil already containing sufficient sulphate of
lime, or beitig deficient in one or more substances required for
the growth of plants; for, in order that such a simple sub-
stance as gypsum may act beneficially, the soil must possess
all the other substances requisite for the crop. Thus, in a
plant like red clover, which requires fourteen or fifteen sub-
stances to perfect its growth, if only one of these simple sub-
stances is deficient, potash for instance, it is clear that the
remaining thirteen or fourteen would be of little or no avail,
however abundant any of the others may be; for plants re-
quire only a determinate quantity of food, and an excess may
be detrimental and do no good.
Gypsum being itself calcareous, it would seem to follow that
it should not h~ employed on l-uid containing much \\n\e ; but
74 FOSSIL, SALINE A tO
experience has proved that it may be avantageously applied
to chalky and limestone soils, and particularly those which
have shortly before been enriched with marl. On land which
has been exhausted by cropping, and which contains not much
vegetable matter, it will prove of little or no avail ; but it will
do good after an application of barnyard dung, or after plow-
ing under a green crop. Plaster is sometimes used upon dry
meadows, in which leguminous grasses predominate, and con-
quently increase their forage; but its application must be alter-
nated with animal manure; otherwise, the fertility which it
produces will not be sustained, and in a few years of repeated
plastering, the product will descend lower than before. There-
fore, gypsum should not be too often repeated upon the same
soil, especially if it is moderately, or very rich, as most soils
generally require a change in manures, as well as in crops,
once in every five or six years.
Plaster may be applied to grass lands by scattering it broad-
cast over the surface, or over cultivated ground, harrowing it
in at the time of sowing the seed. It may also be applied in
the hill at the time of planting beans, peas, or Indian corn ; or
:t may be applied to the plants of the these crops at their first
or second hoeing. For grass lands, it is recommended to sow
it in the spring, even when the grass is 5 or 6 inches in height ;
and, when sown in August, after harvest, upon clover leas, a
fine aftermath may be cut, and the crops of the year following
will experience nearly the whole of its good effects.
The best time for applying plaster is in the evening or morn-
ing upon the dew, or in cairn and cloudy weather, just before
or after a slight rain ; for, if the weather be very rainy, its ef-
fects will be lessened, if not altogether destroyed. When sown
with grain, its ordinary dose is equal in bulk to that of the
seed, say 200 or 300 Ibs. to an acre ; but to grass lands, or
crops of legumes, potatoes, and Indian corn, 5 or 6 bushels to
the acre are commonly employed. Used in a compos: of earth
or dung, or combined with other manures, such as guano, rape
dust, &c.. it has been applied to turnips with marked effect.
MINENAL MANURES 75
If a little gypsum be strewn over barnyard dung, \\hile being
turned over, before using, its activity is very much increased.
IRON.
IRON, it is universally admitted, is the most extensively dis-
tributed, and the most important of all metals, being essential
to the existence of most, if not all organised beings, and indis-
pensable to man in the ordinary wants of life. Every one
knows the manifold uses to which this precious metal is applied ;
its capability of being cast in molds of any form ; of being
drawn out into wires of any desired fineness and strength ; of
being extended into sheets, or plates ; of being bent in any
direction ; of being sharpened, hardened, and softened at will.
Iron accommodates itself to all pur necessities, our desires, and
even our caprices. It is equally serviceable to agriculture,
the arts, the sciences, and to war, as the same ore fur-
nishes "the sword, the plowshare, the scythe, the pruning hook,"
the needle, the graver, the spring of a watch or of a carriage, the
hammer, the anvil, the chisel, the chain, the anchor, the steam
engine, the compass, the cannon, the mortar, and the bomb. It
is also a medicine of much virtue, and bears upon its brow its
recommendation, as such, for upwards of 2,000 years!
Iron, when pure, is of a bluish-white color, exceedingly
brilliant, very malleable, and ductile. Its fracture, in its ordi-
nary state, is fibrous and dull; but, when polished, it is capa-
ble of acquiring a brilliant surface. When rubbed, it emits a
slight smell, and it imparts to the tongue a peculiar astringent
or chalybeate taste. The ash of nearly all plants contains a
more or less appreciable quantity of oxide of iron. This may
have entered into the roots either in the state of soluble sul-
phate or carbonate, dissolved in carbonic acid, or of some oth-
er of those numerous soluble compounds of iron with organic
acids, which may be expected to be occasionally present in
the soil.
The ores and oxides *f this metal are scattered over ilu:
76 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
crust of our globe with bcnificent profusion; being found un-
der every latitude and*in every zone ; in every mineral forma-
tion, arid in every soil. Jonsidcred in a purely agricultural
point of view, the'- may be described under the following
heads : —
Oxides of Iron. — It is well known that when metallic iron is
exposed to moist air or water, it gradually rusts and becomes
covered with, or wholly changed into a crumbling ochrey
mass of a reddish-brown color. This powder is a compound
of iron and oxygen, only, containing 69^ per cent, of the form-
er, and and 30§ per cent, of the latter.
When iron is heated in the smith's forge, and then beaten on
the anvil, a scale flies off, which is of n black color, and when
crushed, gives a black powder. This also consists of iron and
oxygen, only, but the proportion of oxygen is not so great as in
the red powder above described. In both cases, the iron has
derived its oxygen from the atmosphere.
To these compounds of iron with oxygen, the name of ox-
ides is given. There are only two which are of interest to the
agriculturist, namely,
Iron. Oxygen.
Prot-oxide, (black,) 77.23 22.77
Per-oxidc, (red,) 69.34 30.66
Both of these exist abundantly in nature, and are present to
a greater or less extent in all soils. The per-oxide, however,
is by far the most abundant on the earth's surface, and the
reddish color observable in so many soils is principally due
to the presence of this oxide.
The prot-oxlde rarely occurs in the boil except in a state of
combination with some acid substances; and so strong is its
tendency to combine with more oxygen, that when exposed to
Ihe air, even in a state of combination, it rapidly absorbs this
element from the atmosphere and changes into per-oxide. At
first, it turns green and then red, by exposure to air. This
charge is observable in all chalybeate springs, in which, as
thej rise to tb.3 surface, the iron Ls generally held in solution
MINERAL MANURES. 77
in the state oft prot-oxide. After a brief exposure to the air,
more oxygen is absorbed, and a reddish pellicle is formed on
the surface, which gradually falls and coats the channel along
which the water runs, with a reddish sediment of insoluble
per-oxide.
Both oxides are insoluble in pure water, and both dissolve
in water containing acids in solution. The prot-oxide, how-
ever, dissolves in much greater quantity in the same weight
of acid, and it is the compounds of this oxide which are usu-
ally present in the soil, and which, in boggy lands, prove so
injurious to vegetation. The prot-oxide of iron abounds in the
green-sand marl of Monmouth county, New Jersey, which
often contains more than 25 per cent. On this- and the potash
it contains, its chief value as a fertiliser consists.
The per-oxide, or red oxide, possesses two properties, which,
in connection with practical agriculture, are not void of some
degree of importance. In a soil which contains much vegeta-
ble matter in a state of decay, the per-oxide is frequently de-
prived of one third of its oxygen by the carbonaceous matter,
and is thus converted into the prot-oxide, which readily dis-
solves in any of the acid substances with which it may be in
contact. In this state of combination, it is more or less soluble»
in water, and in some localities may be brought to the roots
of plants in such quantity as to prove injurious to their growth.
The red oxide of iron, like alumina, is said to have the
property of absorbing ammonia, and probably other gaseous
substances and vapors from the atmosphere and from the soil.
In that which occurs in nature, either in the soil or near the
surface of mineral veins, traces of ammonia can generally be
detected. Since, then, ammonia is so beneficial to vegetation,
the property which the per-oxide of iron possesses of retaining
this ammonia when it would otherwise escape from the soil,
or of absorbing it from the atmosphere, and thus bringing it
within the reach of plants, must also be indirectly favorable
to vegetation, when the soil contains it in any considerable
quantity.
7S FOSSIL, SALINE AND
An impoitant practical precept is also to be drawn from
these two properties of this oxide. A red, irony soil, to which
manure is added, should be frequently turned over, and shoiiH
be kept loose and pervious to the air, in order that the forma-
tion of prot-oxidc m:iy if prevented as much as possible; and
it may occasionally !>o summer fallowed with advantage, in
order, also, that the per-oxide may absorb from the air those
volatile substances which are likely to prove beneiicial to the
growth of the future crops.
Sulphurets of Iron. — Iron occurs in nature combined with sul-
phur, in two proportions, forming a sulphuret and a bi-sul-
nhuret. These are both tasteless and insoluble in water, and
consist respectively of
Iron. Sulphur,
The sulphuret, 62.77 37.23
The bi-siilphuret, 45.74 54.26
The first of these, the sulphuret, occurs occasionally in bog-
gy and marshy soils, in which salts of iron exist, or into which
they are carried by rains or springs. Tt is not itself directly
pernicious to vegetation, but when exposed to the air, it absorbs
oxygen and forms sulphate of iron, which, when present in
sufficient quantify, is particularly injurious.
The bi-sulphuret, or common iron pyrites, is exceedingly
abundant in nature. It occurs in nearly all rocky formations
and in most soils. It abounds in coal, and is the source of the
sulphurous smell which many varieties emit while burning.
It generally presents itself in masses of a yellow, gold-like
color and metallic lustre, more or less perfectly crystallised in
cubical forms, so brittle and hard as to strike fire with steel,
and of a specific gravity 4£ times greater than that of water.
When heated in close vessels, it parts with nearly one half of
its sulphur, and hence is often distilled for the sulphur it yields.
In the air, it absorbs oxygen, in some cases, as in the waste
coal heaps, with such rapidity as to heat, take fire, and burn.
By this absorption of oxygen, (oxidation,) sulphuric acid and
sulphate of iron are produced. In (he alum shales, the ir
MINERAL MANURES. 79
pyrites abound, and these are often burned for the purpose
of con\erting the sulphur and sulphuric acid for the subse-
quent manufacture of alum. Pyrites are only found in such
soils as have not long been under cultivation, or exposed to
the action of the air for a sufficient length of time to become
decomposed.
Sulphate of Iron. — Of the sulphates of iron which are known,
there is only one, the common green vitriol of the shops, that
occurs in the soil in any considerable quantity. There are
few soils, perhaps, in which its presence may not be detected,
though it is in bogs and marshy places that it is most gener-
ally and most abundantly met with. It is often exceedingly
injurious to vegetation in such localities, but it is decomposed
by quicklime, by carbonate of barytes, by dung and urine of
cattle, by magnesia, by chalk, and by all varieties of marl,
and thus its noxious effects may, in general, be entirely pre-
vented. With lime or chalk,, the acid of this substance forms
gypsum; whilst with magnesia and the alkalies, it forms Ep-
som and Glauber salts, the beneficial effects of which, on the
growth of plants, have been fully ascertained. To soils which
abound in lime, it may even be applied with a beneficial effect.
When a solution of this salt is exposed to the air, it speedily
becomes covered with a pellicle of a yellow, ochrey color,
which afterwards falls as a yellow sediment. This sediment
consists of per-oxide of iron, containing a little sulphuric acid ;
but by the separation of this oxide, the sulphuric acid is left
in excess in the solution, which becomes sour, and still more
injurious to vegetation than before. In boggy places, the wa-
ters impregnated with iron are generally more or less in this
acid state, and lime, chalk, and marl, with perfect drainage,
are 4he only available means by which such lands can be
sweetened and rendered fertile.
When iron pyrites are exposed to the air, they slowly absorb
oxygen, and are converted into suipnate of iron and sulphuric
acid ; on the other hand, the sour solution, above mentioned,
when placed in contact with vegetable natter, where the air
80 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
is excluded, par j with its oxygen to the decaying carbona-
ceous matter, and is again converted into pyrites. These two
opposite processes are both continually in progress in nature,
and often in the same locality, the one on the surface, where
air is present, the other in the subsoil, where the air is excluded.
Pyrites or the sulphate of iron, wherever either may be Had
in sufficient abundance, may be advantageously employed as
a top-dressing in connection with quicklime, in all light soils
moderately rich in humus, and deficient in per-oxide. of iron,
and will thereby contribute directly to the growth of most of
our cultivated crops.
Carbonate of Iron. — When a solution of the sulphate of iron,
above described, is mixed with one of carbonate of soda, a yel-
low powder falls, which is carbonate of iron. This carbonate
is found abundantly in nature. It is the state in which the
iron exists in the ore, (clay-iron ore,) from which this metal is
so largely extracted by smelting, and in a similar ore often
found in the subsoil of boggy places, which is distinguish-
ed by the name of "bog-iron ore." Like the carbonate of
lime, it is insoluble in water, but dissolves with considera-
ble readiness in water charged with carbonic acid. In this
state of solution, it issues from the earth in most of our chaly-
beate springs, and it is owing to the escape of the excess of
carbonic acid from the water, when it reaches the open air,
that the yellow deposit of carbonate of iron more or less spee-
dily falls. The carbonate of iron, being insoluble in water,
cannot be directly injurious to vegetation. When exposed to
the air, it gradually parts with its carbonic acid, and is con.
verted into a per-oxide, the effects of which have already been
described.
LIMB.
LIME, the most valuable and the most extensively used of all
the mineral substances ever made available in practical agri-
culture, has, and M ith much truth, been called " the basis of
VUNERAL MANURES. 81
all good husbandry." Therefore, it well deseives the most
exact and careful attention of the practical farmer to avail
himself of every species of information that will throw any
light on its uses, application, and its injurious as well as its
beneficial effects on his soils, his manures, and his crops.
This important substance, called by chemists prot-oxide of
calcium, is extensively distributed throughout this earth and its
inhabitants, combined principally with carbonic, sulphuric, phos-
phoric, fluoric, humic and silicic acids, in the form of limestone,
marble, chalk, marl, calcareous spar, stalactites, stalagmites,
gypsum, phosphorite, organic remains, &c. Notwithstanding
the immense quantities of carbonate and sulphate of Itme,
which constitute so large a proportion of the crust of our globe,
it is questioned by some, whether lime should not. be looked
upon as a characteristic of the animal rather than the mineral
kingdom of nature. For the bony or testaceous skeleton, by
which the softer portions of the animal frame are attached, is
always found to consist of lime united either with carbonic or
phosphoric acids. The bones of all vertebrated animals,
(those having back bones,) are constituted principally of phos-
phate of lime, while in the shells of the invertebrate animals,
(beetles, crabs, lobsters, oysters, &c.,) the carbonate of lime is
the prevalent component. The teeth of animals, also, mainly
consist of the phosphate of lime, which, in all cases, is associ-
ated with flouride of calcium, in a similar manner as these
substances occur in the mineral phosphorite, or native phos-
phate of lime. Indeed, it is a remarkable fact that all the
great geological formations, of which lime is a prominent in-
gredient, are found to consist of the aggregated skeletons, shells,
or casts of myriads of invertebrated animals, which had existed
at some period long before the creation of man. From the
densest and hardest limestone to the softest chalk, the entire
mass generally resolves itself ultimately into a congeries of
animal remains ; and hence, the great supply of lime in the
mineral state arises from the destruction of its animal sources.
The lime, therefore, which exists in nature, must be looked
4*
82 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
upon as being continually in a state of passage between the
organised and the inorganic kingdoms. The plants that
grow upon the soil take up, by dissolution in their juices, salts
of lime, which pass into the substance of the animal that feeds
upon them, and accumulating in its system, they afford mate-
rials for the proper development of the skeleton, the hair, the
skin, and the softer parts. When the animal dies, the blood,
muscles, and other tissues cither serve for the nutrition of
some other animal, or, being totally decomposed, its elements
return again to a mineral stale, to be, in after ages, the sub-
ject of similar alternations.
In considering the chemical nature of the ash of plants, it is
known that lime, in all cases, forms a considerable proportion
of its whole weight. Hence, the reason why lime is regarded
as a necessary foo:i of plants, and hence, also, one cause of its
beneficial influence in general agricultural practice.
The quantity of pun; lime contained in the crops produced
upon one acre, according to Professor Johnston, during a four
years' rotation, amounts, on an average, to 242 Ibs., which are
equal to about 430 Ibs. of carbonate of lime, in the state of
marl, shell sand, or limestone gravel. It is obvious, therefore,
that one of the most intelligible purposes served by lime, as a
chemical constituent of the soil, is to supply this comparative-
ly large; quantity of this substance, which in some form or other
must enter into the roots of plants.
But the different crops, which are grown in England, contain
lime in unlike proportions. Thus the average produce of an
acre of land for every 100 Ibs. of ash of the plants named in
the table below, gives the following per-centage of lime: —
Grain or roots. Straw or tops. Total.
Wheat, 23 bushels, 1.5 7.2 8.7 Ibs.
Barley, 38 bushels, 2.1 10.9 15.0
Out*, 50 bushels, 2.5 5.7 8.2
Turnips, 25 tons, 45^ 93.0 138.8
Potato<>s. 9 tons, 0.8 259.4 266.0
Red clover, 2 ton* — 120.0 126.0
Eye ttrass, 2 tons, . — 33.0 33.0
MINERAL MANURES. 83
These quantities are not constant, and wheat, especially,
contains much more lime than is above stated, when it is
grown upon land to which lime has been copiously applied.
But the very different quantities contained in the several crops,
a& above exhibited, show that one reason why lime favors the
growth of some crops more than others, is, that some actually
take up a* larger quantity of lime as food. These crops, there-
fore, require the presence of lime in greater proportion in the
soil, in order that they may be able to obtain it so readily that
no delay may occur in the performance of those functions or
in the growth of those parts to which lime is indispensable.
The prot-oxide of calcium is usually obtained by exposing
pure limestone or chalk, which are carbonates of lime, to a
red heat, and is then popularly known under the names of
stone lime, quicklime, hot lime, and caustic lime. It is also obtain-
ed in an impure state, by burning oyster shells and the shells
of other fish, which converts them into quicklime, and is com-
monly called oyster-shell lime, or simply shell lime. When stone
lime is exposed to the air, it rapidly absorbs water, and falls
to a pure-white, earthy powder, increasing two or three times
its bulk, and forms a hydrate of lime, which is usually known
under the name of air-slacked or spontaneously-slacked lime. If
11 little water be sprinkled upon a little piece of well-burned
lime, it is instantly absorbed, and the lime slakes, or quenches,
and appears quite dry ; but after a few moments, it cracks,
swells, and crumbles into a powder of hydrate, popularly
known as slaked lime, sometimes evolving sufficient heat to in-
flame gunpowder or char wood. Pure lime is soluble in 635
pnrts of water at 32°F. ; but requires, at 60,° 778 parts ; at
130,° 972 parts; at 212,° 1,270 parts for its solution. A pint
of water, at. 32,° dissolves 13± grs. ; at 60,° 112 grs. ; and at
212,° 6,70 grs. Hence the propriety of employing cold water
for the solution of lime. Clear lime water has an acrid,
slightly-caustic taste, but when boiled, it becomes white or
turbid. Exposed to the air, it absorbs carbonic acid, and be-
comes covered with a crystalline pellicle of carbonate of lime.
84 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
On breathing into clear, transparent lime \\ater, through a
glass tube, it is immediately rendered turbid, or milky, by the
carbonate of lime produced by the carbonic acid of the breath,
an excess of which acid, however, dissolves the precipitated
lime, and the water again becomes clear. It is in this way
that carbonate of lime is held in solution in the water of
almost every river and spring. If lime be perfectly dry, it has
little or no tendency to absorb carbonic acid. It requires first
to be "air-slacked," or "slaked" with water, and then the hy-
drate is decomposed, the water being expelled by the carbonic
acid, the absorption of which is very rapid, until the lime be-
comes one half saturated, when a compound is formed
known under the name of mild li?ne, but after that point, its
advancement is very slow. The term mild is also applied to
lime when it. is entirely in a state of carbonate. When strongly
heated, lime becomes phosphorescent, and emits a brilliant
light, on which account, it is sometimes employed for illumi-
nation, as in the Drummond or Gurney light.
The use oflime as an application to the soil, it is believed
by some, acts in two ways — one as a stimulant that promotes
vegetation by causing the soil with which it is mixed to exert
itself; and the other, in promoting the growth of trees and
plants by enriching the land, as a manure, and adding to the
quantity of vegetable food. By others, it is looked upon in a
chemical and medicinal point of view, acting as an alterative a
corrector, a dissolver, or a decomposer, a disengager of certain
parts of the animal, vegetable and mineral substances con-
tained in the soil, and as a retainer and a combiner with oth-
ers, but not as a substance, like dung, or decayed organic mat-
ter, fit for the immediate food and nourishment of plants.
According to Professor Johnston's views on the subject, limo
acts in two ways upon the soil. It produces a mechanical
alteration which is simple and easily understood, and is the
cause of a series of chemical changes, that are really ob-
scure, and are as yet susceptible of only partial explanation.
In the finely divided state of quicklime, or slaked lime or o.f
MINENAL MAWURtS 85
soft and crumbling chalk, it stiffens very loose soi.s, and opens
the stiffer clays ; while in the form of limestone gravel or of
shell sand, it may be employed either for opening a clay soil
or giving body and firmness to boggy land. These effects, and
their explanation, are so obvious, that it is unnecessary to
dwell upon them.
The purposes served by lime as a chemical constituent of
the soil are a . least of four distinct kinds : —
1. It supplies a kind of inorganic food which appears to be
necessary to the healthy growth of all our cultivated plants.
2. It neutralises acid substances which are naturally formed
in the soil, and decomposes or renders harmless other noxious
compounds which are not unfrequently within reach of the
roots of plants.
3. It changes the inert vegetable matter in the soil, so as
gradually to render it useful to vegetation.
4. It causes, facilitates, or enables other useful compounds,
both organic and inorganic, to be produced in the soil, or so
promotes the decomposition of existing compounds as to pre-
pare them more speedily for entering into the circulation of
plants.
The fertilising properties of lime, then, appear to arise, in a
great measure, from the force with which it attracts carbonic
acid from the atmosphere or soil to which it is exposed. This
attraction for carbonic acid is so powerful, that if lime be
placed in contact with animal or vegetable matter, they are
decomposed or dissolved with great rapidity, and reduced to
a fit state for entering the roots of plants. It is for this reason
that we see such good results from the application of lime
upon soils where green crops have been consumed on the
land, or where any of the various plants used for that purpose
have been plowed in green. It also produces equally good
effects, and for the same reason, in soils newly broken up; in
fact, in all soils rich in humus or vegetable matter.
But the chemical action of lime is not confined to the decom-
position of vegetable and other organic matter in the soil. It
86 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
appears .o be clearly established by the experiments of agn-
cultural chemists, that this substance has also the property of
setting at liberty the alkalies which are present in exceedingly
small quantities in the soil, favoring the formation of soluble
silicates, which are useful to all of our crops of grain. Lime,
however, not only acts chemically, but to a certain extent, it
is also useful by altering the mechanical nature of the soil.
For instance, it renders clayey soils less tenacious ; and it is
also stated that it makes sandy soils firmer, and loamy soils
soft, mellow, and light. Such is brielly all that is known at
present, concerning the chemical properties of lime. Chem-
istry does not, in all c:ises, explain to us how all the decom-
positions take place, nor how lime acts as a stimulus or a
manure; we only know the effects. The perfect elucidation
of the subject, the results of which would be the establish-
ment of rules to guide the practical farmer in the use of this
fertiliser, is well worthy the attention of general government
and of the highest scientific attainment.
The application of lime to the soil is of high antiquity, and
its utility, as such, has been recognised in almost every coun-
try in which agriculture has attained much eminence; and
certainly, it has been more largely and extensively used as a
fertiliser, from a very remote period than any other mineral
substance that has ever been made available in practical hus-
bandry. Cato describes with much minuteness the best means
of preparing it; and Pliny attests the use of slaked lime by
the Roman cultivators as a dressing for the soil in which fruit
trees were grown. It w;is also employed with equal success by
the Arabs in Spain. Hence it may be inferred that what has
been good in all past ages, is good at the present time.
Lime is applied to the land in several combinations, and in
a great variety of forms, some of them natural, and others
artificially prepared, the nature, composition, and application
of which, it is important that the practical farmer should, in a
measure, understand. It is chiefly employed in the state of a
carbonate, (including common limestone, marble, chalk, marl,
MINERAL MANURES. 87
shells, coral and shell sand, &c.,) bi-carbonate, chloride, cru-
nate and apo-crenatc, hydrate, nitrate, oxalate, phosphate, super-
phosphate, silicate, or of a sulphate, which, with the exception
of the latter already treated of at length, under the head of
"gypsum," are respectively as follows:—
Carbonate of Lime. — Carbonate of lime, marble, or common
limestone, consists of lime and carbonic acid, and when per
fectly pure and dry, in the following proportions: —
Per cent
Carbonic acid, 43.7
Lime, 56.3
100.0
One hundred pounds of carbonate of lime contains 43T^ Ibs.
of carbonic acid, and 56T3ff Ibs. of lime, or a ton, (2,000 Ibs.,)
of pure carbonate of lime contains 1,126 Ibs. of lime.
Limestones, however, are seldom pure. They always con-
tain a sensible quantity of other earthy matter, chiefly silica,
alumina, and oxide of iron, with a trace of phosphate of lime,
sometimes of potash and soda, and often of animal and other
organic matter. In limestones of the best quality, the foreign
earthy matter, or impurity, does not exceed 5 per cent, of the
whole, while it is often very much less. The chalk and moun-
tain limestones are generally of this kind. In those of inferior
quality, it may amount to 12 or 20 per cent, while many calca-
reous beds are met with in which the proportion of lime is so
small, that they will not burn into agricultural or ordinary
building lime, refusing to slake, or fall to powder, when
moistened with water. Of this kind are the hydraulic lime-
stones of the state of New York, which are burned for making
cement.
Chalk is another form of carbonate of lime that occurs very
abundantly in many countries, and which, from its soft, earthy
nature, has been extensively applied to the land in marry parts
of England without burning. It is usually dug up from pits to-
wards the close of autumn or beginning of winter, when full
88 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
of water, and laid upon the land in heaps. During the winter's
frost, the lumps of chalk fall to pieces, and are readily spread
over the fields in spring. The quantity laid on varies with the
quality of the soil, and of the chalk itself, and with the more or
less perfect crumbling it undergoes during the season of win-
ter, and with the purpose it is intended to serve. It gives tena-
city and closeness to gravelly soils, opens and imparts freeness
to stiff' clays, and adds firmness to such as are of a sandy
nature. If a physical improvement of this kind be required, it
is laid on at the rate of from 400 to 1,000 bushels to an acre.
But some chalks contain much more clay than others, and are
employed, therefore, in smaller proportions. For the improve-
ment of coarse, sour, marshy pasture, it is applied at the rate
of 150 to 250 bushels to an acre, and speedily brings up a sweet
and delicate herbage. It is also said to root out sorrel from
lands that are infested with this plant. These effects are pre-
cisely such as usually follow from the application of marl, and
like marl, the repetition of chalk exhausts the land, if manure
be not afterwards added to it in sufficient quantity. — Johnston.
Marl, magnesian limestone, shells, as well as shell and coral
sands, will be found described under their respective heads.
Bi-carbonale of Lime. — In this state, lime is combined with a
double proportion of carbonic acid, and to a certain extent, is
readily soluble in water. Hence, springs are often impregna-
ted with it, and the waters that gush from fissures in limestone
rocks, distribute it through the soil in their neighborhood, and
thereby sweeten the land, which is a mode nature very fre-
quently adopts in fertilising the earth. Here let it be remem-
bered that carbonate of lime, though insoluble in pure water,
is soluble to a considerable extent in that which is impregna-
ted with carbonic acid gas; and that, when it holds lime in
this way, and is exposed to the air for a length of time, or is
heated over the fire, the lime will again separate from it more
or less completely. In this manner, stalactites are formed in
?.aves; substances are petrified in lakes and running streams;
beds of marl, in some cases are produced ; drains are often
MRJERAL MANURES.
choked up with lime ; and crusts are deposited at the bottoms
of kettles and steam boilers.
When the carbonate of lime contained in marble, common
limestone, or in the shells of oysters and other shell fish, is
heated to a high temperature, in the open air, the carbonic
acid they hold in combination with other ingredients is driven
off by the heat, and the lime remains behind in a caustic state.
In burning, they are decomposed more readily when a current
of moist air is allowed to pass through the burning mass.
Hence, on a large scale, this burning is performed in kilns. A
ton, (2,000 Ibs.,) of good limestone, yields 1,126 Ibs. of lime
shells (caustic lime). The weight of these shells per bushel,
varies with the kind of limestone employed, and with the manner
in which they are burned. In some varieties of lime, a bushel
does not weigh more than 75 Ibs. ; while in others, it will
weigh nearly or quite 100 Ibs. This is a great difference, and
shows how uncertain the quantity applied to the land may be
when it is estimated by the bushel. Therefore, lime should be
both bought and applied by weight.
The following table, by Professor Johnston, exhibits the
chemical changes which a ton, (,2,240 Ibs.,) of pure limestone
undergoes, and the relative proportions in which the several
compounds exist in it after it has been burned, slaked, and then
exposed to the air, or mixed with the soil : —
Composition. '.
Lime-
stone.
After
burning.
After
slaking.
Sponta-
neously
slacked.
Exposed
to air or in
the soil.
Cwt.
11'
CwL
iu
Cwt.
IH
Cwt.
lll
Cwt.
lll
Carbonic acid,
Water, ....
8*
31
2J
11
8f
Tot;il weight,.
1
20
iH
14*
15f
20
The form of lim; kilns vary; some being constructed inside
in the shape of a hogshead, or of an egg, opened a little at
JQ FOSSIL, SALINE AND
each end, with the diameter at the bottom small, gradually
widening towards the middle, and then contracting again to-
FIG. 4.
wards the top ; while others are made in the form of a sugar
loaf, with the small end down ; others, again, are of an oblong
MINERAL MANURES. 91
oval in the ground plan, as well as at the middle an 1 top. The
first of these forms is most generally in use, and when the
sides are nearly perpendicular, it is observed that less fuel is
necessary, in consequence of the great degree of heat that
is created, above that which occurs in kilns formed in the
shape of a sugar loaf reversed. Near the bottom of large
kilns, two or more openings are made for admitting the air ne-
cessary for supplying oxygen to the fire, and for dragging out
the lime after it is burnt.
Lime kilns may be built either of stone or bricks ; but tbp
latter are considered preferable, particularly for the inside
lining, as they are better adapted to stand a high degree of
heat. They should always be situated at, or near the quarry,
and if possible, in the side of a cliff or bank ; or they may be
furnished with a "ramp," or inclined plane, of earth or stone,
for carting up the fuel and limestone to their tops.
A kiln of approved construction, suitable for burning lime
with coal or other dry, smokeless fuel is denoted by fig. 4. It
is supposed to be built on the side of a bank or cliff, of a circu-
lar form within, 32 feet high from the iron grating over the
pits, three feet in diameter at the top, arid seven feet across,
near the middle, at a point 18 feet above the grating.
The walls are designed to be built of stone, from three to six
feet thick, and lined with bricks. Below the shaft, or hollow
of the kiln, are two arches, or pits, each three feet wide and
three feet high, divided by a partition wall eighteen inches
thick, extending up the shaft 10 feet. About eighteen inches
from each arch, or pit, is an oven, say two and a half feet,
square, where coal is used for fuel, and somewhat deeper,
where wood is employed, communicating with the shaft by
narrow flues. Below the shaft, are two moveable iron grates
for dragging out the lime after it is burned. The ovens, as
well as the arches under the shaft, are provided with iron doors,
which are to be closed whenever it. is desired to stop the draft.
An iron cap, or cover, is also provided, to be placed over the
top of the kiln, ts prev it the escape of more heat than is
92 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
necessary to keep up the combustion of the fuel. This cap is
also furnished with a damper, or valve, for regulating the draft.
In a kiln like the foregoing, it is obvious that the lime
can be well burnt, with a comparatively small amount of
fuel, in winter as well as summer, and tha* ;he farmer or others
can be supplied with lime, at any time, without extinguishing
the fire. All that is necessary to be done, is, to supply the
broken limestone, or shells, and the fuel at the top of the kiln,
and rake out the burnt lime through the iron grate, or opening,
at the bottom, as fast as occasion may require. In case it may
be necessary to check the burning for a time, nothing more is
necessary than to close the iron doors at the bottom of the
kiln, and the cover, or cap, at the top, when the fire may be
kept alive for four or five days.
When the kiln is to be filled, the limestone should be broken
into pieces about the size of a man's fist, and laid in alternate
layers with the coal, usually in the proportion of three of the
former to one of the latter ; but, as limestones vary much in
their character, the proper quantity of fuel can only be regula-
ted by trial. The coal should not be placed nearer the lining
of the kiln than eight or nine inches, in order not to melt nor
burn the bricks.
The class of lime kilns in common use, in the United States,
fig. 5, are similar to that of Mr. Ward Priest, of Lisbon, New
Hampshire, described by Dr. C. T. Jackson, in his " Final Re-
port of the Geology and Mineralogy " of that state.
" The kiln holds about 35 tierces of lime. Each tierce holds
six bushels. One which I measured was two feet, four inches
high; one foot, nine inches head diameter; bilges to one foot,
ten inches. The kiln is egged-shaped, and measures 12 feet,
three inches in height, four feet in diameter at the top, six
feet, four inches in diameter at the boshes (a little below the
centre). Arch for fuel, two feet high. The walls of the kiln
are two feet thick, and are made of mica slate, lined with com-
mon bricks. It cost $150.
"Mr Pr'est says that common bri ks soon glaze over on the
MINERAL MANURES.
93
surface, aad withstand the heat sufficiently well. Four days
and three nights are required for burning a kiln cf lime, and
ten cords of wood are consumed in the operation. From two
to three men are employed. The cost of wood, cut, split, and
delivered at the kiln, is $1 per cord. The lime sells for $2 per
tierce, at the kiln."
2 ft. Brick.
Stone.
FIG. 5.
When newly-burnt lime is taken from the kiln, it has a
strong tendency to drink in and combine with water. Hence,
when exposed to the atmosphere, or is covered over with sods
in a shallow pit, it slowly absorbs moisture from the air, with-
out developing much heat, increases in weight, swells out, and
gradually falls to powder. In this case, it is said to be air-
slacked or spontaneously-slacked. In rich limes, the increase of
bulk may be from 3 to 3| times ; but in the poorer varieties, or
such as contain much foreign matter, the increase may be less
than twice their bulk.
If water be sprinkled or thrown upon the shells, or if they
be immersed in water for a short time, and then withdrawn,
they absorb the water, become hot, crack, swell, throw off much
watery vapor, and fall down in a short time to a bulky, more
or less white, and almost impalpable powder. When the
thirsty lime has thus fallen, it is said to be slaked, or quenched.
94 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
If more water be added, it is no longer drunk hi, but forms
with the lime a paste, and if sharp sand be added, a mortar.
These effects are more or less rapid and striking, according
to the quality of the lime, and the time that has been allowed
to elapse after the burning, before the water was applied. All
lime becomes difficult to slake when it has been for a long
time exposed to the air. When the slaking is rapid, as in the
rich limes, the heat produced is sufficient to kindle gunpowder
strewed upon it, and the increase of bulk is from 2 to 3£ times
that of the original lime shells. If the water be thrown on
so rapidly or in such quantity as to chill the lime or any part
of it, the powder will be gritty, will contain many little lumps
which refuse to slake, and will also be less bulky and less
minutely divided, and therefore less fitted either for agricul-
tural or lor building purposes.
It may be received as a general rule, however, that the best
mode of slacking lime for agricultural purposes, is that which
gives the shells the greatest bulk, and reduces them to the
most minute state of division. For the following reasons, the
spontaneous method is preferred by many, as it is thought to
be more economical and has a better effect on the crops to
which it is applied. First, it causes the lime to fall to the
finest powder : and secondly, it is the least expensive, requir-
ing less care and attention, and exposes the lime least to be-
come "chilled " and gritty; but when thus left to itself, the
shells should belaid up in heaps, covered with sods, and allow-
ed to remain a sufficient time to slack, in order to prevent the
surface of the heaps from being chilled, or the whole convert-
ed into mortar by large or continued falls of rain; also to ex-
clude the too free access of the air, which gradually brings
back the lime to a half state of carbonate. Hence, the lime
may be laid up in heaps, in the field in the winter, covered
with sods, and left until it has completely fallen, or until he
:ime is convenient for laying it upon the land, in spring or
summer, when preparing for the ensuing crops.
It hns already been observed that lime, from its nature, mus1
MINERAL MANURES. 96
act both as a stimulus and as a manure, while it makes the
earth exert itself in the nourishment of vegetables, in some
measure, enriches it, and adds to the vegetable food. In
some lands, the dissolving of the veget^lble food, and fitting it
for entering the roots of plants, may be most beneficial. In
others, the communicating of the power of attracting the veg-
etable food from the air, may have an equally good effect. It
will not be improper, therefore, to point out how lime is to be
applied, so that it may chiefly answer one or the other of these
purposes.
In uncultivated land, in which there is a large quantity of
vegetable substance, lime ought to be used chiefly as a stimu-
lus; and when improved land needs a recruit of vegetable
food, it ought chiefly to be used as a manure. When thus in-
tended as a stimulus, a large quantity should be applied at
once, in an unslacked or half-slacked state ; for it takes con-
siderable quantity to dissolve roots, and the other vegetable
substances in the soil, and to produce the necessary degree of
fermentation. When intended as a manure, a small quantity
applied at a time is sufficient. It is probable that it requires
only a small quantity of lime to impregnate a large quantity
of earth, and communicate to it an absorbent quality, in as
high a degree as it is capable of receiving; and it is certain
that it is in proportion to the absorbent power which it com-
municates, that the soil is enriched by it. This is not mere
conjecture. It is certain, that a small quantity of lime will
impregnate a large quantity of water, and communicate to it
all its virtues, and these in as high a degree, too, as it is capa-
ble of receiving.
The benefit to be derived from lime greatly depends, how-
ever, upon the nature and the state of the soil. Strong lands
are much improved for two or three crops, by this stimu-
lant ; but frequent repetition will not have the same good
effect, unless the land in the interim has been placed under a
clover or other green crop, by which vegetable matter will be
introduced for the lime to act upon.
96 tOSSIL, SALINE AND
The ,:eficiency of vegetable matter in light soils, is one
reason why lime does not always act upon them beneficially,
and it should therefore be used very sparingly on these soils,
with an interval of six or seven years between each liming.
Indeed, it is often as necessary to change the mode ot manur-
ing land, as it is to change the crops to be cultivated ; and it
is from not sufliciently attending to this, that arable farms
have become deteriorated, whilst the farmer fancied that he
was doing great justice to the land by liming every third or
fourth year. But let the introduction of a green crop be tried
in such a case, and the farmer will afterwards find th;it his
grain crops increase, and his land is in better heart.
Some persons think, from witnessing its first effects, that
they can always have recourse to lime with the same success;
but in this, they will assuredly be disappointed ; once in five,
six, or seven years, according to the nature of the land, is as
often as lime can be applied with advantage.
It may be proper to observe, likewise, that when lime is
applied in small quantities, as a manure, it is necessary to re-
peat the application frequently; it is probable that the soil
loses its absorbent property, communicated by the lime; for
experience proves, that if lime be frequently used, it must be
applied as a manure, and not simply as a stimulant; and to
this end, it must be compounded with earth, clay, and other
matter, to which it communicates its stimulating qualities,
whilst its fertilising effects are thereby augmented. In this
state, it will act powerfully as a manure, and be a valuable
auxiliary in the hands of the farmer.
Most varieties of subsoil strata make good compounds with
lime. Sand and lime, with peat or turf, if it can be obtained,
should be mixed for a clay soil ; and subsoil clay and lime,
for sands, gravels, loams, and peaty lands. No farmer need
complain of want of materials to make fertilising compounds,
since every sort of soil may be used for this purpose ; and not
only is immediate fertility produced thereby, but there are few
districtsyn the country, however barren, that may not be im-
MINENAL MANURES. 97
proved, or brought into a fertile state, by dressing with a well-
proportioned mixture of earth, clay, sand, and lime. Care
should be taken, however, to proportion the quantity of lime
according as the land is light or heavy, cold or warm. Light
soils have been hurt by too abundant applications of lime ;
and while one part of lirne to from 6 to 10 parts of earth may
do for light soils, one part of lime to 2, 3, or more parts of
earth, will be required for heavy soils.
The application of lime, alone, to land long under tillage, is
often found not to be beneficial ; but if the same quantity of
lime had been applied in a compound state, with sand, turf,
earth, clay, or vegetable mould, good effects would have re-
sulted. On deep loams, lime may be applied in a caustic
state, more frequently than to most other soils ; but the testi-
mony of experience is in favor of its being used in a compound
state.
Quicklime has the effect of disengaging and setting free
the ammonia from guano and from fermenting manures. It is
prudent, therefore, and a safer practice to apply the lime some
short time before or after such manures have been laid upon
the land. Where the soil is moist, and abounds in vegetable
matter, there may not be much loss should the lime and other
manures come in contact beneath its surface ; but in dry soils,
and on the surface of the land, the admixture of the two ought
to be carefully avoided. After the lime has been some time
in or on the surface of the soil, and has been converted into
a mild state, it can exercise no injurious effect upon any
kind of manure.
The most valuable variety of lime for agricultural purposes
is that obtained by burning oyster shells, and allowing it to re-
main exposed to the air a few hours, in order to allow it to
stock. Quarry lime is not so good on account of the magne-
sia which it often contains, and from its small quantity or total
want of phosphoric acid. The quantity used must depend
Upon the nature of the soil and the heat of the climate; for
whilst 80 bushels per acre are sufficient for sandy soils, lonms»
5
98
FOSSIL, SALINE AND
will require 100 and clay 150 bushels per acre. Again, in a hot
8un, like that experienced in most parts of the United States,
the quantity should not be more than half as much as in Great
Britain, where the climate is cloudy, cool, and moist. The
lime must be regularly spread, and lightly covered immediately
with a plow, or harrowed in with the seed ; but not too deeply;
for lime, as a general rule, should be kept near the surface.
Those unaccustomed to the application of lime or charcoal
to land, by sowing or spreading them upon the surface, are
often at a loss to know how thick a coat to put on in order to
dispose of a certain number of bushels to the acre. I there-
fore show at a glance, in the following table, the depth, to the
nearest 1000th part of an inch, that a given number of bush-
els will cover an acre of ground, assuming the bushel to con-
tain 2,150T4ff3o- cubic inches ; also the number of bushels neces-
sary to cover an acre of land to a required depth : —
1 !
liusltcls
per acre.
Depth.
Inch, Decimals.
Depth.
Inch. Tenths. \
Quantity per acre.
Sush. Dec.
20
. ...0.007
10 . . .
2916 937
30...
0.010
0.9
2625.243
40 .
0014
0.8
. . . 2333 ">50
50...
0.017
0.7
2041.856
60 ..
0.021
O.G
. ...1750 162
70
0024
0.5
. . 1458 469
HO. ..
. :... 0.027
0.4
1166775
90...
0031
0.3
875 081
100...
0.034
0.2
58:t.3H7
200...
0.069
0.1
291 694
300...
0.103
0.'
145 847
Crushed limestone has often been applied to the soil with suc-
cess in the crude or unburnt state, but its effects are slow and
more lasting than lime that has been burnt. It has not the
solvent activity of quicklime, however, nor the absorbing pow-
er of chalk ; nor has it the minute division of mild lime mixed
with earth, while in an impalpable powder.
In a district where fuel is scarce and limestone, or marble,
pentiful, it might be cheaply crushed into a powder, by means
MINERAL MANURES. 99
ot water power, and thus be economically prepared for im-
proving most kin'ds of soil which are deficient in lime. But no
lands in which calcareous matter naturally abounds, nor
those containing a large proportion of imperfectly decomposed
vegetable remains, such as bog roots, moss, &c., can receive
much if any immediate benefit by the use of unburnt lime,
unless it be to render clayey soils mechanically lighter and
boggy ones more firm.
The benefits derived from burning lime for -agricultural
purposes are partly chemical and partly mechanical ; for,
while in a caustic state, it acts more promptly in producing
those chemical changes which follow from mixing it with
the soil. Even, in the half-caustic state of spontaneously-
slacked lime, its effects are more rapid and more quickly seen,
than when it is entirely in a carbonate or unburnt state. But
the principal benefits arise from the minute state of division
into which the lime is brought by burning and slacking. When
the burned limestone is slacked, if it is tolerably pure, the lime
falls, or crumbles, to a powder — finer, probably than any which
could be produced by mere mechanical means — finer, certain^
than any to which the farmer could bring it, by any crushing
machine he could afford to employ.
The chief advantages to be derived from this fine state of
division of lime, are, first, it may be diffused more equally and
more universally through the soil, and thus go much further in
improving it; secondly, it more readily combines with acid
substances, in the soil, and therefore sweetens it more readily
and more quickly ; and thirdly, it comes into closer contact
with the organic substances in the soil, such as roots of grass,
straw, leaves, &c., and thus promotes more fully those chemi-
cal changes which are constantly going on in every fertile soil,
to produce which, is one of the useful purposes for which
lime is added to the land.
The above remarks are not intended to apply to such beda
of impure limestone as may be employed for the manufacture
ot cements and hydraulic mortars ; for these, when burnt and
A00 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
ground to a powder, cannot bu applied for the improvement of
land in the usual way, without combining with the water, or
moisture, in the soil, and shortly become as hard as stone.
In countries abounding in limestone, there often exist scat-
tered here and there, in the hollows and in the hillsides, banks
and heaps of sand and gravel, in which rounded particles of
limestone arc found. These are distinguished by the names
of limestone sand and gravel, and are derived from the decay or
wearing down of the limestone and other rocks by the action
of water. Such accumulations are frequent in Ireland. They
are indeed extensively diffused over the surface of that island, as
we might expect in a country abounding so much in rocks of >
mountain limestone. In the neighborhood of peat bogs, these
sands and gravels are a real blessing. They are a ready, most
useful, and largely-employed means of improvement, produc-
ing upon arable land the ordinary effects of liming ;and, when
spread upon boggy soils, alone enabling it to grow sweet her-
bage, and afford a nourishing pasture. The proportion of
carbonate of lime these sands and gravels contain is very
variable. A sample of yellow sand, examined by Professor
Johnston, contained 26 per cent, of carbonate of lime, the re-
sidue being a fine red sand, chiefly silicious; the other, a fine
gravel of a grey color, contained 40 per cent, of carbonate of
lime in the form chiefly of rounded fragments of blue lime-
stone, the residue consisting of fragments of sandstone, of
quartz, and of granite.
The application of these mixed sands to boggy land will
not only consolidate and otherwise improve the physical char-
acter of the soil, but will greatly benefit its chemical composi-
tion. The fragments of granite, containing undecomposed feld-
spar and mica, will supply potash, and perhaps magnesia, to the
growing plants, and will thus materially aid the fertilising action
on the limestone sand with which they are mixed.
Chloride of Calcium. — When common salt and slaked lime are
mixed together, the salt is decomposed in whole or in part, and
the soda of the salt is brought into the caustic state, while the
MINERAL MANURES. 101
lime is converted into chloride of calcium, a substance contain-
ing 63T373T per cent, of chlorine gas, very deliquescent, of a bitter
taste, and dissolving in about £th part of its weight of water at
60° F, The same substance may be obtained by dissolving
chalk or quicklime in muriatic acid. This solution occurs in
sea water, in the refuse of salt pans, and is allowed to flow
away in large quantities as a waste from certain chemical
works.
The effects of this salt are well known as a promoter of veg«
etable growth, and it has been recommended that the waste of
our salt works and bleacheries be employed for fertilising tne
land. But as these wastes are not conveniently to be had in all
parts of the country, it may be more economical to use com-
mon salt in connection with slaked lime. Both of these are
very soluble in water, and can therefore readily act both upon
the soil and upon the plant. Wherever common salt is useful
as a manure, this mode of applying it in connection with lime
may be safely recommended. It should be mixed with lime in
such quantity as to allow from 100 to 300 Ibs. of salt to be laid
upon each acre. The salt may be dissolved in water, and
then thrown upon the lime, where it is the custom to slake
with water ; or sea water alone may be employed instead of the
salt for slaking the lime. A mixture of 600 Ibs. of quicklime
with 200 Ibs. of common salt, it is stated, forms a powerful
dressing for an acre of wheat, and also affords considerable
benefit to the after crops of clover and oats.
From some experiments made by M. Dubuc, of Rouen, in
France, the effects of this salt was great upon potatoes, Indian
corn, and on trees and shrubs of various kinds. He thinks
that it would suit hemp, flax, and the oleaginous seeds. On-
ions and poppies, manured with it, grew to double the usual
size. From its liability to deliquesce, and consequent difficulty
of transportation, he thinks that leached ashes, charcoal, and
sawdust, or gypsum should serve as the medium for spreading
it on the land.
Chloride of Lime — This salt, known also under the names of
102 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
oxymuriate of lime, or bleaching powder, when dry, is of a pale
greyish-white color, and when of a good quality, should con-
tain from 25 to 30 per cent., by weight, of chlorine gas. It is a
compound of lime, in its slaked state, or as a hydrate and chlo-
rine mechanically mixed ; whereas, the chloride of calcium,
already described, is a perfect chemical compound, formed of
chlorine and the metallic base of lime. Chloride of lime dis-
solves only partially in water, the solution of which, when ex-
posed to the air, evolves chlorine, whilst the freed lime attracts
carbonic acid, and forms an insoluble carbonate, that collects
in the bottom of the vessel. In a dry state, it likewise parts
with its chlorine when exposed to heat, a change which also
takes place when this salt is kept in a dark place.
As chlorine is not known to form a necessary constituent
of vegetation, the effects of the chloride of lime has been much
doubled by some, while others regard its virtues similar to
those of gypsum, in lixing the ammonia brought into the soil
by rains and melted snows, and also as having a powerful in-
fluence on the germination of seeds. It would seem to be high-
ly important, however, that its favorable or neutral action upon
the soil should be established ; because, at present, large quan-
tities of the residuum of many of our factories are thrown
away, which otherwise might be used as a valuable manure.
It is believed that on hot sandy soils, if used in proper propor-
tions, it would be productive of good results. For a descrip-
tion of the use of chloride of lime as a steep for seeds, see the
article BLEACHER'S WASTE, under the head of" Liquid Manures."
Crenale and Apocrenale of Lime. — Sec CHENIC and ATOCRENIC
ACIDS, under the head of " Liquid Manures."
Gas Lime. — The refuse lime of gas works consists principally
of a mixture of carbonate of lime, with a variable quantity of
gypsum and other salts of lime containing sulphur, and a little
coal tar and free sulphur, the whole usually being slightly col-
ored by Prusian blue, the chief difference of composition aris-
ing from the kind of coal employed in the manufacture of gas.
The following table exhibits the composition of two gas limes.
MINERAL MANURES.
103
as analysed by Professor Johnston, one from Edinburgh Gas
Works, and the other from those of London. The first two col-
umns show what they contained when received from the works,
and the second two what they would have become after long
exposure to the air, after being made into compost, or tho-
roughly incorporated in the soil : — •
' Edin-
| burgh. London.
Edin-
burgh.
I
London.
Water and coal tar,
12.91
69.04
9.59
58.88
5.92
2.77
14.89
0.36
0.92
1.80
3.40
1.2<)
12.91
67.39
16.45
2.70
0.64
9.59
56.41
29.32
1.80
3.40
1.29
Hydrate of lime, (caustic,)
2.49
7.33
0.20
1.10
2.70
O.G4
Sulphite and hyposulphite of lime,
Prusian blue,
Alumina and oxide of iron,
Insoluble matter, (sand, &c.,) . ...
98.69
99.82 100.09
101.81
The most marked difference between the two samples by the
above analyses, is in the compounds called sulphite and hypo-
sulphite of lime. The latter of these substances dissolves read-
ily in water, and its presence in such widely different propor-
tions satisfactorily accounts for the very different effects which
have followed from the application of gas lime to the land it
different districts in Great Britain. The rains dissolve the hy
posulphite and the sulphuret, and carry them down in too grea
quantity to the roots of young gain ; and hence, the complaints
of some that the gas lime killed their wheat, while others found
that, when applied as a top-dressing in a similar way, it great-
ly improved their crops. Therefore, unless the composition be
satisfactorily ascertains , there will always be a degree of risk
in applying it to the grain while the crop is growing.
Gas lime, however, in no case, if possible, should be wasted,
as it would appear that it may always be safely employed with
good effects under the following circumstances : —
1. It may be used directly upon mossy land, upon naked fal-
lows, and in spring, when preparing for turnips.
104 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
2. In cot;:posts, in which the whole of the soluble salts of
lime will have a tendency to be cor.-verted into gypsum by
the action of the air ; and consequently the benefits which re-
sult from a large application of gypsum will be obtained by
laying such composts upon the land.
3. As it appears usually to contain only a small proportion of
caustic lime, it may with safety be mixed at once with barnyard
or other animal manures, though not in too large quantity. It
may also prove a valuable admixture with guano, on which its
action would ultimately be to fix rather than expel the am-
monia.
4. Strewn sparing over the young turnip plants, it is stated
that it prevents the attack of the turnip fly ; and harrowed in,
when the ground is naked, if the quantity be considerable,
slugs and wire worms disappear from its effects.
5. If applied in too large quantity, it is liable to be injurious
to crops of young grain. But grass lands, though at first
browned by its application, soon recover and repay the cost by
yielding n greener and an earlier bite in spring.
Gas lirne, fresh from the works, it is also stated, is one of the
best materials to lay under the floors of farm buildings; for it
not only serves to absorb and fix the fertilising gases in such
situations, and afterwards will form a good manure, but being
excluded from the air, it retains its disagreeable smell for a long
time, and is much disliked by vermin and rats.
Humate of Lime. — In combination with humic acid, lime ex-
ists most frequently in soils that abound in vegetable matter, in
peaty soils, for instance, to which quicklime or calcareous
marl of any kind has been added for the purpose of agricul-
tural improvement.
The humic and ulmic acids, and certain other acid substances
are always produced in greater or less abundance during the
decay of vegetable matter in the soil. If any matter be pres-
ent with which these acids can combine, such as potash, soda,
lime, or magnesia, they unite with them, and form chemical
compounds. But if, as in a mass of peat, such substances are
MINERAL MANURES. 105
not naturally present in sufficient quantity, those acids accu-
mulate in an uncombined state, and form a "sour" soil, into
which the roots of most of our cultivated crops cannot safely
descend.
When marl or quicklime is added to a soil in which these
acids exist, or in which they are gradually produced, the lime
unites with them, and forms humate and ulmate of lime. Thus,
the addition or presence of lime, by giving rise to the produc-
tion of humate of lime, not only prevents the injurious action
of this acid upon the roots of plants, but improves also the
physical condition of the soil — rendering it less retentive of
water, more friable, more open, and more permeable to the air,
to water, and to the roots of the growing crops. This is one
of the causes of the known good effects which follow from the
addition of lime to peaty and other soils that are rich in veg-
etable matter. — Johnston.
Hydrate of Lime. — It has already been stated that when quick-
lime is slaked, it combines with the water which is added to it,
and becomes converted into a milder or less caustic compound,
known among chemists by the name of " hydrate of lime." It
is in this form, it may be well to repeat, that lime is usually ap-
plied to the soil. When pure, this hydrate consists of
Per cent.
Lime, 76
Water, 24
100
Or, one ton of pure burned lime produces nearly 25 cwt. of
the slaked or hydrate. It is rare, however, that lime is suffici-
ently pure, or is so skilfully and perfectly slaked as to take up
the whole of this proportion of water, or to increase quite as
much as £th part in weight.
When the hydrate of lime, obtained by slaking, is exposed
to the open air, it gradually absorbs carbonic acid from the at-
mosphere, and tends to return to the state of a carbonate like
that in which it existed before burning. By mere exposure to
the air, however, it does not attain to this state within an as-
5*
106 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
signable time. Thus, in a wall built by the Romans 1800 yearg
ago, it was found by analysis that the proportion absorbed had
not exceeded 75 per cent, of the quantity contained in natural
limestone. In damp situations, the absorption of carbonic acid
proceeds most slowly.
Nitrate of Lime. — When common chalk or limestone is dis-
solved in nitric acid, (aquafortis,) nitrate of lime is obtained in
the solution. It contains of
Limo, 34.46
Nitric acid, 65.54
100.00
This nitrate is often produced naturally in compost heaps to
which lime has been added, and it is only in such compost
heaps that it has hitherto been applied in any quantity to the
soil. It is also found not unfrequently in the soil as well as in
the rocky formations of the crust of our globe. The celebra-
ted Mammoth Cave in Kentucky, situated in a limestone ridge,
yields an inexhaustible supply of nitrate of lime. During the
late war with Great Britain, fifty men were constantly employed
in lixiviating the earth of this cave, and in about three years,
the washed earth is said to become as strongly impregnated as
at first. Through the cave a strong current of air is continu-
ally rushing, inward in winter, and outward during the sum-
mer months. On the plaster of old walls, too, especially in
damp situations, an efflorescence of this and other rtitrates is
frequently observed over many parts of the globe. In China,
according to Davis, the old plaster of the houses is so much
esteemed as a manure, that parties will often purchase it at the
expense of a coating of new plaster.
Nitrate of lime is very soluble in water, and is deliquescent.
It is decomposed by fixed alkalies, potash forming therewith
saltpetre, (nilate of potash,) and soda, cubic, nitre (nitrate of
soda.) According to Dr. Home, it is contained in what is com-
monly called hard water, which, by his experiments, was found
to promote the growth of plants in a much higher degree than
soft, water.
MINERAL MANURES. 107
Oxcdalt of Lime. — The chemical salt called " oxalate of lime,"
when put 5, consists of a white powder, extremely insoluble in
water, but soluble in muriatic and nitric acids. It is formed
by the combination of calcareous matter with oxalic acid, and
may be exposed to a heat of 560° F. without decomposition.
Oxalate of lime forms the principal solid parts of many
lichens, especially of the Parmelia cruciata and the Variolaria
communis, which contain as much of this salt as is equivalent
to 15 or 20 per cent of pure oxalic acid. A species of parme-
lia, collected after the droughts of the sands of Persia, con-
tains 66 per cent, of this substance.
From the insolubility of oxalate of lime, it is not probable
that it can contribute, by itself, to the food of plants. It can-
not be decomposed by alkalies, on superior affinity, because
its affinity is greater with calcareous matter; but it may be
decomposed by sulphuric acid, in which gypsum will be found,
and the oxalic acid, thus disengaged, will be capable of enter-
ing into new combinations with fixed or volatile alkaline salts
or magnesia. These combinations are soluble, and when not
superacidulated, they promote vegetation in a high degree.
Phosphate of Lime. — Lime combines with phosphoric acid in
variable proportions, and forms several compounds, known
under the names of phosphates. Of these, by far the most
abundant, and certainly the most useful in agriculture, are the
earthy parts of bones, and a native mineral, called " phosphor-
ite," both of which are hereafter described under their appro-
priate heads. And it occurs, but less abundantly, in corals,
oyster shells, and in the shells of other fish ; in the teeth, horns,
nails, and hair, and other parts of animals; and in the horny
wings, and covering of numerous insect tribes. It also exists
in minute quantities in nearly all limestones, marls, and prob-
ably there are few fertile soils in which it is wholly wanting.
It likewise forms one of the ingredients in the grain, straw, stalk,
or roots of most of our cultivated crops ; and hence, is indis-
pensable to their perfect growth and maturity.
Bi-Phosphate of Lime. — When burned bones are reduced to
108 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
powder, and digested in sulphuric acid, (oil of vitrol,) diluted
with once or twice its weight of water, the acid combines with
a portion of the lime, and forms sulphate of lime, (gypsum,)
while the remainder of the lime, and the whole of the phos-
phoric acid are dissolved. The solution, therefore, contains an
acid phosphate of lime, or one in which the phosphoric acid
exists, in much larger quantity than in the earth of bones. The
true bi-phosphute, when free from water, consists of
Lime, 28.5
Phosphoric acid, .71.5
100.0
It exists in the urine of most animals, and is therefore an im-
portant constituent of liquid manures of animal origin. If the
mixture of gypsum and acid phosphate, above described, be
largely diluted with water, it will form a most valuable liquid
manure, especially for grass land, and for crops of rising grain.
In this liquid state, the phosphoric acid will diffuse itself easily
and perfectly throughout the soil, and there will speedily lose
its acid character and unite with one or other of the follow-
ing substances, almost always present in every variety of land,
potash, soda, ammonia, lime, or magnesia, which have the
property of combining with acids, and thus neutralising them,
or depriving them of their acid qualities and effects.
Or, if to the solution, before it is applied to the land, a quan-
tity of pearlash be added until it begin to turn milky, a mix-
ture of the phosphates with the sulphates of lime and of potash
will be obtained ; or, if soda be added instead of potash — or the
phosphates with the sulphates of lime and of soda; either of
which mixtures will be still more efficacious upon the land,
than the solution of the acid phosphates alone. Or to the solu-
tion of bones in the acid, the potash or soda may be added
without further dilution, and the whole then dried up by the
addition of charcoal powder, or even of vegetable mould, un-
til it is in a sufficiently dry state to be scattered with the hand
as a top-dressing, or buried in the land by means of a drill.
MINERAL MANURES. 109
Earth of Bones^or Bone Earth — These are names given to the
white, earthy skeleton that remains when the hones of animals
are burned in an open fire until everything combustible has
disappeared, and then is united with an additional quantity of
phosphoric acid. This earthy matter, (bone earth, or bone ash,)
is composed chiefly of lime and phosphoric acid, which ar
combined in the following proportions. —
Lime, 51.5
Phosphoric acid, 48.5
100.0
Another rich phosphate also occurs abundantly in nature
both in masses and in veins, when it is known by the names of
apatite, or phosphorite. In this state, when pure, it consists of .
Lime, 54.5
Phosphoric acid, 45J5
100.0
Phosphate of lime is decomposed by carbonic acid, as may
be proved by the following fact: — A gallon of carbonic-acid
water will dissolve 30 grains of bone earth out of any given
quantity acted upon. In this case, the carbonic acid not only
drives off a portion of the phosphoric acid found in solution,
and takes its place in union with the lime, but its affinity for
lime, assisted by the existing affinity of bone earth for phos-
phoric acid, induces such an interchange of elements, (one por-
tion of bone earth being decomposed, its lime uniting with car-
bonic acid, and its phosphoric acid uniting with the phosphate
of lime in another,) that the resulting compounds are a super-
phosphate of lime, which is soluble in water, and a carbonate of
lime, that is found among the sediment. Hence it is, from its
solubility in carbonic acid, and of certain other organic acids
which exist in the soil, that by means of these acids of phos-
phate of lime, it is supposed to be rendered capable of enter-
ing into the roots of plants. Wherever vegetable matter exists,
and is undergoing decay in the soil, the water makes its way
110 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
to the roots more or less laden with carbonic acid, and thus is
enabled to bear along with it not only common carbonate of
lime, as has already bee-n shown, but also such a portion of
phosphate as may aid in supplying this necessary food to the
growing plant.
Silicates of Lime. — These compounds vary in their composi-
tions, but when pure consist of
Silicic acid, 61.85
Lime, 38.15
100.00
They may be formed by a mixture of silicious sand or flint
with quicklime, which readily melts into a glassy silicate, or a
mixture of two or more silicates of lime. These silicates are
also present in large quantity in window and plate glass, and
in some of the crystalline rock (granite and trap). In feld-
spar and mica, which abound in the alkaline silicates, it is rare
that any lime can bo detected. In that variety of granite,
however, to which the name of Syenite is given by mineralo-
gists, hornblende takes the place of mica, and some varieties
of this hornblende contain from 20 to 35 per cent, of silicate of
lime. Tliis silicate is almost always present in the basaltic
and trap rocks, and sometimes, as in the augitic traps, in a pro-
portion much larger than that in which it exists in the unmixed
hornblende. Silicates of lime are also found in the ash, and
probably exist in the living stem and leaves of plants.
Like the similar compounds of potash and soda, the silicates
of lime are slowly decomposed by the united agency of the
moisture and the carbonic acid of the atmosphere. Carbonate
of lime is formed, and silica is set at liberty. This carbonate
of lime dissolves in the rains or dews which descend loaded
with carbonic acid, and the same waters take up also a portion
of the soluble silica, and diffuses both substances uniformly
through the soil in which the decomposition takes place, or
bear them from the higher grounds to the rivers and plains.
The sparing, but constant and long-continued supply of lime
MINERAL MANURES. Ill
thus afforded to soils which rest upon decayed trap, or which
are wholly made up of rotten rock, has a material influence
upon their well-known agricultural capabilities.
In those districts where the smelting of iron is carried on, the
first slag that is obtained consists in great part of silicate of
lime. This slag accumulates in large quantities, and is not un-
worthy the attention of the practical farmer, as an improver
of his fields, especially where caustic lime is distant, or expen-
sive, or where boggy and peaty soils are met with in which
vegetable matter abounds. On such land, it may be laid in
large quantity. It will decompose slowly, and while it imparts
to the soil solidity and firmness, it will supply both lime and
silica to the growing crops for a long period of time.
Sulphate of Lime. — This substance, which has already been
described under the head of GYPSUM, in an unburned state, con-
sists of sulphuric acid, 46^ per cent.; lime, 32T9ff per cent; and
water, 20f per cent. In a cnlcined or burned state, it contains
58^ per cent, of sulphuric acid, and 4H per cent, of lime.
MAGNESIA.
MAGNESIA, the prot-oxide of magnesium, when pure, is a very
light, white, odorless, tasteless powder, occuring abundantly in
nature, particularly in combination with lime, in the form of a
carbonate, and in soapstone and serpentine in the form of sili-
cates. It also enters into the composition of all our ordinary
cultivated plants, as well as into the muscles, tissues, and fluids
of most animals. It is very insoluble requiring 5,142 times its
weight of water at 60° F. ; and 36,000 times its weight of boil-
ing water to dissolve. It possesses all the properties of alka-
lies, uniting with acids, &c., but slowly absorbs carbonic acid
from the air. With tne acids, it forms salts, most of which may
be made by the direct solution of the magnesian earth, or its
hydrate or carbonate.
Magnesia, like lime, is applied to the land in various states
of chemical combination, the nature, composition, and proper-
J12 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
ties of which, together with their modes of application, are as
follows: —
Crtrbmate of Magnesia. — Carbonate of magnesia rarely oc-
curs pure in nature, but is prepared from Epsom salts, (sul-
phate of magnesia,) by precipitation, or by calcining the arti-
ficial or natural carbonate in an impure state. When pure, it
is a white, inodorous, tasteless powder, possessing similar prop-
erties as the: calcined magnesia of the shops, and consists of
Carbonic aciil, 51.7
Magnesia, , 43.3
100.0
A ton, (2,240 Ibs.,) therefore, of pure dry carbonate of mag-
nesia, contains about 1,082 Ibs., and a considerable larger pro-
portion of carbonic acid than is present in carbonate of lime.
One of the chief sources of obtaining magnesia for agricul-
tural purposes is from magnesian limestone, which abounds in
various parts of the globe, and particularly on the banks of
the Hudson, and in the county of Onondaga, in the state of New
York. Where the magnesia is in large quantity, the lime con-
taining it is decidedly injurious, and in some cases is so much
so as to render it inadmissable for agricultural purposes* It is
from these limestones that the hydraulic or water cement are
made. According to an analysis by Dr. C. T. Jackson, a sample
of cement stone, from Ulster country, New York, contained the
following ingredients : —
Water, 1.182
Silicic acid, 10.087
Carbonic acid, .. 41.200
Sulphuric acid, 0.60G
Lime, 25.087
Alumina, 3.395
Per-oxide of iron, 3.274
Magnesia, 12.890
Oxide of manganese, O.COU
Potash, , 0.709
Soda, «.!«-.>
100.000
MINERAL MANURES. 113
A sample of calciferous sandstone from the state of New
York, as analysed by Professor Emmons, gave the following
results : —
Soluble matter, silica, &c., 6.20
Alumina and per-oxide of iron, 4.50
Carbonate of lime, 58.86
Magnesia, 27.20
Water and loss, 3.24
100.00
Another sample from Onondaga, New York, as analysed by
the same chemist, consisted of the following : —
Soluble matter, silica, &c-, 3.74
Alumina and per-oxide of iron, 0.18
Carbonate of lime, 89.00
Magnesia, 4.00
Phosphate of lime, 0.03
Water and loss, 3.02
100.00
The Onondaga limestone, however, may be regarded as a
pure calcareous rock, or as pure as ordinary chalk and most
limestones which are employed for agricultural purposes.
When the carbonate of magnesia, contained in common lime-
stone, is heated to a high temperature in the open air, the car-
bonic acid it contains is driven off by the heat, and the lime
and magnesia remain behind in a caustic state. When heated
in this way, the carbonate of magnesia parts with its carbonic
acid more readily, and at a lower temperature than the carbon-
ate of lime.
The caustic or calcined magnesia contained in lime shells,
like quicklime, slakes and falls to powder when water is poured
upon it, and forms a hydrate nf magnesia. It likwise swells and
becomes hot, but not in an equal degree with pure lime. Pure
hydrate of magnesia consists of
Magnesia, 69.7
Water, 30.3
100.0
114 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
Thus it will be seen that it increases in we.ght in slaking
more than lime does — one ton of caustic magnesia augmenting
to nearly 3,200 Ibs. of hydrate.
When limestone containing magnesia is burned and after-
wards slaked, the fallen mass consists of a mixture of two
hydrates in proportions which depend upon the chemical coin-
position of the limestone employed. An important difference
in these two hydrates, is, that the aydrate of magnesia will
harden under water or in a wet soil, in about eight days —
forming a hydraulic cement. The hydrate of lime will not so
harden; but a mixture of the two will harden under water, and
form a solid mass. In the minute state of division in which
lime is applied to the soil, the particles, if it be a magnesian
lime, will, in wet soils, or in the event of rainy weather en-
suing immediately after its application, become granular and
gritty, and cohere occasionally into lumps, on which the air
will have little effect. This property is of considerable impor-
portance in connection with the further chemical changes
which slaked lime undergoes when exposed to the air, or when
buried in the soil.
Although magnesia is essential to the perfect growth of
plants, if introduced in a caustic state in a large quantity into
the soil, it appears to produce a very bad effect, and lime that
contains it in excess should therefore be avoided. Caustic or
calcined magnesia is much more injurious to vegetation than
lime, from its retaining the caustic quality longer, and not
uniting with carbonic acid so readily. It also forms a harder
mortar with water, and is more apt to cake about the stems
and roots of herbage ; but mild magnesia, provided there is a
deficiency of calcareous matter in the soil, is of service to
vegetation, being found in the ash of most plants, in all proba-
bility replacing lime.
It seems to be the result of experience, however, that mag-
nesia, in the state of carbonate, is but slighly injurious to the
land ; some deny that in this state it has any injurious effect at
all. This it is feared is doubtful ; we may infer, however, with
MINERAL MANURES. 115
some degree of probability, that it is from some property pos-
sessed by magnesia in the caustic state, and not possessed, or
at least in an equal degree, either by quicklime or by carbon-
ate of magnesia, that its evil influence is chiefly to be ascribed.
Now, there exist in the soil, and probably are exuded from
the living roots, various acid substances, both of organic and
inorganic origin, which it is one of the functions of lime, when
applied to the land, to combine with and render innoxious.
But these acid compounds unite rather with the caustic mag-
nesia, than with the lime which is already in combination with
carbonic acid — and form salts, which generally are much more
soluble in water than the compounds of lime with the same
acids. Hence the water that goes to the roots reaches them
more or less loaded with magnesian salts, and carries into the
vegetable circulation more magnesia than is consistent with
the healthy growth of the plant.
Caustic magnesia, applied to lands charged highly with rich
manure, in. a proportion not exceeding |th part of the animal
or vegetable remains, is speedily rendered mild by the car-
bonic acid with which it is supplied, as the manure decompo-
ses ; but it should never be thrown upon land where a portion
of quicklime already occupies the surface ; because, while the
quicklime is becoming mild by its more ready attraction for
carbonic acid, the magnesia retains its caustic property, and
acts as a poison to most plants.
Caustic magnesia will destroy wood}'' fibre the same as
quicklime ; and in combination with strong peat, assists in
forming a manure. If the peat equal Jth part of the weight
of the soil, and the magnesia do not exceed ^Vth) tne propor-
tion may be considered as safe. Where lands have been
injured by too large a quantity of magnesian lime, peat will be
an efficient remedy.
Chloride of Magnesium. — When calcined or carbonated mag-
nesia is dissolved in muriatic acid, and the solution evaporated
to dryness, a white mass is obtained, which is a chloride of
mngnesium and chlorine only. This compound occurs notun-
116 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
frequently in the soil, associated with chloride of calcium. *t
is met with also in the ash of plants, while in sea water, and
in that of some salt lakes, it exists in very considerable quan-
tity. Thus, 100 parts of the water of the Atlantic have been
found to contain 3£ of chloride of magnesium, while that of
the Dead Sea yields about 24 parts of this compound. Hence,
it js present in great abundance in the mother liquor of the salt
pans, and it is from the refuse chloride in this liquor that the
magnesia of the sho;>=4 as above stated, is frequently prepared.
Chloride of magnes.um, when pure, contains of
Chlorine, 73.65
Magnesium, 26.35
100.00
The chloride of magnesium has not hitherto been made the
subject of direct experiment as a fertiliser of the land. From
the fact, however, that plants require much magnesia and some
chlorine, there is reason to believe that, if cautiously applied,
it might prove beneficial in some soils, and especially to grain
crops. Its extreme solubility in water, however, suggests the
use of caution in its application. The safest method is to
dissolve it in a large proportion of water, and apply it to the
young plant by means of a water cart. In this way, the refuse
of the salt works might, in some localities, be made available
to useful purposes. The chloride of magnesium is decomposed
both by quicklime and by carbonate of lime; hence, when
applied to a soil containing lime in either of these states,
chloride of calcium and caustic or carbonated magnesia will
be produced.
Nitrate of Magnesia. — Nitrate of magnesia is formed by dis-
solving carbonate of magnesia in nitric acid, and evaporating
the solution. It attracts moisture from the air with great rapid-
ity, and runs into a liquid. It is probably formed naturally iu
soils containing magnesia, in the same way as nitrate of lime
is known to be produced in soils containing lime. No direct
experiments hr.ve yet been made as to its effects upon vegeta-
MINERAL MANURES. 117
lion ; but there can be no doubt that it would prove highly ben-
eficial, could it be procured at a sufficiently cheap rate to ad-
mit of its economical application to the land.
The nitrate of magnesia, when pure, contain-: ef
Nitric acid, 72.38
Magnesia, 27.62
100.00
Phosphate of Magnesia. — Magnesia exists in combination with
phosphoric acid, in the solids and fluids of all animals, though
not so abundantly as the phosphates of lime. In most soils,
phosphate of magnesia is probably present in minute quantity,
since in the ashes of some varieties of grain it is found in very
considerable proportion.
Its action upon vegetation has never boon tried directly, but
as it exists in urine, and in most animai manures, a portion
of their efficacy may be due to its presence. In turf ashes,
which often prove a valuable manure, it is sometimes met
with in appreciable quantity, and their beneficial operation in
such cases has been attributed in part to the agency of this
phosphate.
Phosphate of magnesia, when pure, contains of
Phosphoric acid, 63.33
Magnesia, 36.67
100.00
Silicates of Magnesia. — In combination with magnesia in dif-
ferent proportions, silica forms nearly the entire mass of those
common minerals known by the names of serpentine and talc.
In hornblende, also, and augite, silicates of magnesia exist in con-
siderable quantity. They must, therefore, be present in great-
er or less abundance in soils which are directly formed from
the decomposition of such rocks. Like the silicates of lime,
however, though more slowly than these, they will undergo
gradual decomposition by the action of the carbonic acid of
the atmosphere, and of the acids produced in the soil by veg-
utation, and by the decay of organic matter. The magnesia,
118 FOSSIL, SAL1M ANJ
like the lime, will then be gradually broug it down, in a state
of solution, from the higher grounds, or washed out of the soil,
till at length it may wholly disappear from any given spot.
Silicate of magnesia, when pure, contains of
Silicic acid, 69.08
Magnesia, 30.92
100.00
Sulphate of Magnesia. — Sulphate of magnesia, the commoiv
Epsom salts of the shops, is formed by dissolving carbonate
of magnesia in diluted sulphuric acid. It exists in nearly all
soils which are formed from, or are situated in the neighbor-
hood of rocks containing magnesia. In some, soils it is so
abundant that in dry weather it forms a white efflorescence on
the surface.
Sulphate of magnesia, when pure, contains of
Sulphuric ncicl, 32.40
Magnesia, 16.70
Water,... ...50.90
100.00
This salt has been found by Sprengel to act upon vegetation
precisely in the same way as gypsum does, and on the same
kind of plants. It must be used, however, in smaller quantity,
owing to its great solubility. Its higher price will prevent its
ever being substituted for gypsum as a top-dressing for
clover, &c., but it is worth the trial, whether barley plants, the
grain of which contains much magnesia, might not be benefit-
ted by the application of a small quantity of this sulphate —
along with such other substances as are capable of yielding
the remaining constituents which compose the inorganic mat-
ter of the grain. — Johnston.
MANGANESE.
MANGANESE is a metal, which, in nature, is very frequently
associated with iron in its various ores. It also resembles this
metal in many of its properties. Its compounds exist in plants.
MINERAL MANURES. 119
however, in much less quantity than those of iron ; but as its
oxides, like those of iron, are insoluble in pure water., this me-
tal, most likely, accidentally finds its way into the roots in a
state of a carbonate, chloride, silicate, or of a sulphate, all of
which are soluble to a greater or less degree.
Manganese combines with oxygen in at least three propor-
tions, and consequently forms as many degrees of oxyge nation.
The first, or prot-oxide, is of a light-green color, but is not
known to occur in nature in an uncombined state. The second,
or deut-oxide, exists naturally in a mineral state, when it is
black, but when finely pulverised, is of a dark-brown. The
third, or per-oxide, which is of a dark-brown or brownish-
black, also occurs abundantly in the common ores of manga-
nese, and is extensively diffused in small quantities through
nearly all soils. These oxides are all insoluble in water, but
the two former dissolve in acids, and form salts. Traces of
these two oxides are also to be detected in the ash of nearly
all plants, probably as a substitute for iron. They do not ap-
pear to be important, however, and have but little interest to
the farmer. Should they ever prove of any agricultural value,
millions of tons may be obtained in the states of Maine and
New Hampshire at a cheap rate.
MARL.
BY the term marl is generally understood an earthy mixture,
generally containing not les» than ]th part of its weight, or 20
per cent, of carbonate of lime. If the proportion of lime be
less than this, the compound is a marly clay or soil, rather
than a true or calcareous marl. When a piece of stiff or tena-
cious marl is put into water, it usually loses its coherence, and
gradually falls to powder. This is a very simple method of
distinguishing between a true marl and a stiff clay.
The application of marl to land, as a fertiliser, is of great an-
tiquity; and no one can read the accounts given of it by Theo-
phrastus, Pliny, and Columella without being struck with the
12C FOSSIL, SALINE AND
minute discrimination witli which it was applied .o paidicular
soils, and llio advantages resulting from uniting the light with
the heavy, the fat with *Ue lean, or, in other words, mixing soils
of an opposite naturr. It is thus spoken of by Columella:
" If, nevertheless, you are provided with no kind of dung, it
will be of great advantage to do with it what I remember Mar-
cus Columella, my uncle, a most learned and diligent husband-
man, was frequently wont to do, namely, to throw chalk or
marl upon such places as abound in gravel, and to lay gravel
upon such as are chalky and too dense and stiff'; and thus he
not only raised great plently of excellent grain, but made most
beautiful vineyards."
There are a great variety of substances, popularly known
under the name of marl, however, which are commonly reduced
to four kinds, namely, the clay, the stone, the shell and the pot-
ash or green-sand marls. The first of these takes its name from
its similitude in appearance to clay ; the second, from its hard-
ness, and resemblance to stone ; the third, from the shells with
which it is mixed, or rather of which it is composed ; and the
fourth from its color, and the quantity of potash it contains.
Marls, again, are of various colors, white, grey, yellow, blue,
and of various degrees of coherence, some occurring in the
form of a more or less fine, loose, sandy powder. These dif-
ferences arise in part from the kind and proportion of the
earthy matters they contain, and in part, also, from the nature
of the locality, moist or dry, in which they are found. They
vary also in their composition. Some rich marls consist in
part or in whole of broken and comminuted shells, which
clearly indicate the source of the calcareous matter they con-
tain. The clay and stone marls are very similar in their com-
position ; but the shell and green-sand marls are very different
from the other two, which renders it necessary to treat of them
under separate heads.
Clay Marls. — These have the appearance of a more or less
tenacious clay. When long exposed to the air, or are put into
water, they fa1.! down into a powder. They seem to have mucb
MINERAL MANURES. 121
the same qualities of lime ; and therefore nust operate in a
similar manner when applied to the soil, by enlarging the pas-
ture of the plants, and fitting the vegetable food for entering
their roots. These marls also communicate to the soil a power
9f attracting vegetable food from the atmosphere. Clay marls
usually contain from 68 to 80 per cent, of clay, and from 20 to
32 per cent, of calcareous matter, silicious sand, &c.
Stony Marls. — These are often richer in lime than those which
are clayey. The chief difference between them is this: The
clay marls are sooner dissolved than the stone marls, and com-
monly have a stronger power of neutralising acids and pro-
ducing salts. As they are longer in dissolving, large pieces of
stone marl are sometimes seen in lumps o* clods six or seven
years after they have been laid upon the land. This makes it
necessary to apply a very large quantity.
Clay and stony marls are well suited to light sandy soils,
which they improve and render more solid. On the contrary,
sandy marl is good for stiff soils, rendering them friable, and
more easy to work.
Shell Marl. — This marl is very different in its nature from the
two just described, being highly fertilising upon soils of every
description. It does not dissolve like them with water, but
sucks it up, and swells with it like a sponge. It is stated that
it is a much stronger attractor of acids, and requires six times
the quantity to become saturated. From this circumstance,
if it be applied in large quantity, and frequently repeated, it
is possible that it might communicate such an attractive power
to the soil as to enrich it in a very high degree.
As this kind of marl does not deprive land of its vegetable
matter like lime nor the other varieties of marl, it may be ap-
plied to soils exhausted by them; or it maybe repeated. It
dissolves sooner than the other kinds, and consequently its ef-
fects are more sudden ; and as it does not dissolve so soon as
dung, its effects will be sooner over. Its effects, however, are
not so quick as lime, but more lasting.
As calcareous marl operates in a similar manner as lime,
6
122
FOSSIL, SALlNi. AND
it follows, likewise, that limed land, exhausted by crops, can re-
ceive but little benefit from its application ; and that marled
land, exhausted by cultivation, can receive but little benefit
from the application of lime. As it exhausts the vegetable
food, the proper manure after it, is a muck compost with dung,
which contains this food in the greatest abundance. What is
said of lime, also, with respect to its application in smaller and
larger doses, may likewise be said of marl. When light barren
land is to be improved, the marl should be laid on in large
quantities, say from 1,000 to 2,000 bushels to an acre ; but
when the soil is in good condition, ]th or |th part of the quan-
tity, if applied once in six or seven years, will be attended with
good results.
The following table shows the composition of various marls
found in the United States, with the authority from which the
information was derived : —
COMPOSITION OF THE NEW-YORK MARLS, BY PROFESSOR EMMONS.
-2 Cl
localities If S| -2$ i«
•Ps I 3 S,— "2= •§
^i ojj °Jj ~£ _£_
Saratoga county, 85.62 1.24 3.92' 3.40 2.32 1 3.80
Fairmount, near Geddes, 21.24 -
Salem, Mr. Crary's Farm 83.22 1.24 0.51 2.42 7.25 trace.
Christian Hollow, 75.45 0.62 0.52 0.56 22.24 0.62
Cayuga Bridge, (plaster shales,) 22.20 8.^8 3.0041.75 4.88 1 19.30
A sample of very excellent marl, from Peterborough, New
York, analysed by Professor J. P. Norton, was composed of the
following ingredients: —
Carbonic acid, 35.00
Lime, 45.02
Magnesia, 0.66
Iron and alumina, with a little phosphoric acid, 2.69
Sand, 9.57
Organic matter, ,. 7.06
lOO.Of
MINERAL MANURES. 123
In this sample, it will be seen that the carbonate of lime
amounts to nearly 80 per cent., while the small quantities of
magnesia, iron, alumina, and especially of phosphoric acid,
add materially to the value of this marl.
Green-Sand Marl. — This mineral fertiliser, which in some
portions of the United States, has been of such immense ser-
vice as a manure and especially in restoring worn-out soils to
productiveness, is found in great abundance along the Atlantic
coast. The stratum in which this substance abounds, as the
principle ingredient, commences, as far as known, in New Jer-
sey, at the base of the Highlands of Nevesink, near Sandy
Hook, and along the sea shore from a little north of Long
Branch to Shark Inlet; thence ranging south-westward, in a
wide belt, through Shrewsbury, Marlborough, Squankum, and
other towns in Monmouth county, gradually contracting as it
runs parallel with the Delaware River, at a distance of a few
miles, to Salem. It is then prolonged across the state of Del-
aware, in a narrow strip, into the easterly part of Maryland,
where it disappears under the overlaping formations. It again
shows itself on the Potomac and throughout the tide-water re-
gion of Virginia, where the proportion of the so-called " green
marl," of New Jersey, is materially diminished.
In New Jersey, between Long Branch and Deal, the bed of
marl has been penetrated to the depth of 30 feet. The upper
two feet consist of a green clay, seemingly derived from the
disintegration of a green granular mineral, intermixed with a
large proportion of yellowish-white clay. The main bed,
which has a thickness of about 26 feet, comprises several sub-
ordinate layers; but all contain a large share of the green
grains. Beneath the whole, there is a greenish-yellow clay, in
which the grains abound, of remarkably large size, and are
associated with numerous casts of shells. In one or two other
instances, wells have also been sunk through the bed of marl,
and the depth of the green sand ascertained to be about 30
feet. Various fossil shells and other marine productions,
amounting, acceding to Professor Rogers' Geological Report,
124 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
to considerably more than 100 species, are found imbedded in
this marl.
The value of this mart, as an active fertiliser, when spread
on the surface of light sandy lands, in New Jersey, has been
amply tested for more than 90 years. Various have been the
views maintained in regard to its fertilising principles, and
much speculation has been offered, in reference to them, as is
visual on similar subjects. It is staled, however, that the prob-
lem was first solved by Mr. Henry Seybert, of Philadelphia,
who demonstrated that the green sand of New Jersey contained
a considerable amount of potash, which seems to afford a sat-
isfactory clue to its mysterious effects.
In comparing the details of the several analyses, given by
professor Rogers, in his Geological Report of New Jersey, it
will be seen that the green-sand marl, even when of the great-
est purity, is not absolutely constant, either in the nature of the
ingredients which enter into its composition, or in their relative
proportions. The per-centage of the silica varies from 43 to
52.32; that of the alumina, from 6.4 to 8.94; that of the prot-
oxide of iron, from 21.6 to 27.56 ; that of the potash, from 5.5 to
14.48 ; and that of the water, from 4.4 to 8.12. It will be found,
moreover, that in some instances, besides the above-named el-
ements, that lime enters into the constitution of the green sand,
in other cases magnesia; while, occasionally, both occur. The
amount of these however, is generally in small proportions.
The following tables will serve to show the prevailing con-
stituents of this green sand, as given by Professor Rogers: —
OREEN SAND MARL OF POKK HILL, PLATTSBUROH, BURMJJOTON COUNTT.
Color of the granules, a rich, dark olive green ; their size,
rather above the me Mum; composes 98 per cent, of the marl.
100 parrs gave of
Silica, 50.75
Alumina, 6.50
Prot-oxide of iron, 22.14
Potash, 12.96
Water, 7.50
99.85
MINERAL MANURES. 125
3RKIN SAND OF SQUANKUM.
Color, a dark oliv^ green: granules of a medium size,
composes 58.36 per cent, of the upper part of the bed, and 72.36
per cent, of the lower. 100 parts, gave of
Silica, 51.00
Alumina, 6.50
Prot-oxide of iron, 21.55
Potash, 10.50
Lime, trace.
Magnesia, 1.08
Water 9.00
99.63
tREEN SAND OF FREEHOLD, MONMOU*! COUNTY.
Color of the granules, rich green ; size, small ; composes 70
per cent, of the upper part of the bed, and 50 per cent, of the
lower. 100 parts gave of
Silica, 50.00
Alumina, 7.00
Prot-oxide of iron, 22.00
Potash, 1 1 .00
Lime, 1.00
Magnesia, trace.
Water, 9.00
100.00
The effects of green sand, applied as a manure, are strongly
set forth in the following extracts from Professor Rogers' Re-
port : —
"Mr. Woolley manured a piece of land in the proportion of
200 loads of good stable manure to the acre, applying upon
an adjacent tract of the same soil, his marl, in the ratio of
about 20 loads per acre. The crops, which were Timothy and
clover, were much heavier upon the section which had re-
ceived the marl; and there was this additional fact greatly in
favor of the fossil manure over the putrescent one, that the
soil was also entirely free from weeds, wiile the stable ma-
nure had rendered its own crop very foul.
126 FOSSIL, £4LINE AND
"This green-sand stratum, at Poplar & vamp, seems to be
almost entirely free from any sulphate of iron or other astrin-
gent material, and, as a consequence, the crops seem not to be
scorched by any extra dose, however lavishly applied.
"There can be no doubt that 20 loads of marl per acre must
be regarded as an unnecessarily bountiful dressing; but com-
puting the relative cost of the two manures, when employed in
the ratio above stated, we lind a considerable disparity in fa-
vor of the green sand. Placing the home value of farmyard
manure at $1 for each two-horse load, and that of the marl at
25 cents per load, we have the expense of manuring one acre,
$200; of marling the same, $5.
" This being an experiment, an extravagantly large dressing
of manure was employed, but not exceeding the usual average
application more than the 20 loads of marl surpassed what
was necessary
"Experience has already shown that land once amply
marled retains its fertility with little diminution for at least
10 or 12 years, if care be had not to crop it too severely ; while,
with all practicable precaution, the stable manure must be re-
newed at least three times in that interval, to maintain in the
soil a corresponding degree of vigor.
"At the Squankum pits, which are very extensive, the marl
is sold at the rate of 37-A cents the load, the purchasers having
to dig it. It is transported by wagons to a distance, in some
directions, of 20 miles, and retailed, when hauled that far, at
the rate of 10, or even 12i cents per bushel, being very profi-
tably spread upon the soil in the small proportion of 25 or
even 20 bushels to the acre."
Professor Booth, in the Report of his Geological Survey of
the State of Delaware, has given much highly interesting infor-
mation in regard to green sand. In all essential particulars, the
marl beds found in Newcastle county resembles those of New
Jersey, described by Professor Rogers.
" Practically speaking," says Professor Booth, " there are two
principal kinds of green sand, that containing lime as an esserv
MINERAL MANURES. Ii7
tial ingredient, and that consisting chiefly of green particles.
The former contains variable quantities of carbonate of lime,
the highest limit yet observed being 25 percent. The average
composition of the latter, in its natural state and selected, may
be thus expressed: —
Unselected. Selected.
Silica, 58 50
Potassa, 7 10
Prot-oxide of iron. 22 22J
Alumina, 5 7
Water, 8 10J
100 100
" The first is either cretaceous, containing finely-divided car-
bonate of lime not formed by comminuted shells, and occuring
on the canal ; or decomposed calcareous, on the western limit
of the state, from which the calcareous matter has been wholly
or partially removed, although abounding in casts of shells; or
shelly green sand, on the southern line of St. George's Hundred,
in which there is no fine calcareous matter but that of commi-
nuted shells. The second contains mere traces of lime, and
consists of green-sand particles, with variable quantities of clay
and common sand, and is either bluish green, and of the finest
quality, as found on Drawyer's and Silver Run ; or yellowish
green, containing white silicious sand, as on Drawyer's and the
Appoquinimink ; or black colored, decomposed externally,
rarely internally, and containing both white sand and argil-
laceous matter, from Silver Run to Scott's Run ; or dark colored,
and containing pyrites, as from the south-west corner of St.
George's Hundred, and along the ridge to the Deep Cut ; or,
lastly, the blue micaceo. ^ sand of the Deep Cut, rarely contain-
ing particles of green sand, although abounding with casts and
impressions of shells characteristic of the green-sand forma-
tion. We have seen that the yellow sand is the principal mem-
ber of the series, both over and underlying the green sand ; that
it is characterised by its uniformity of grain and color, and
rising to the surface, constitutes the chief and most valuable
128 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
soils of <.Yie region. We further observe that the green-sand
stratum is undulating, and varies in its depth, the average thick-
ness being about 21 feet, from which we may form a rough es-
timate of the amount contained in the whole district."
Upon the .subject of the fertilising properties of green sand,
Professor Booth makes the following highly interesting obser-
vations : —
"When it is decomposed by the ordinary processes of the
labratory, only a small quantity of silica and all the other con-
stituents being dissolved, we may regard the oxide of iron, pot-
assa, and alumina as performing the principal functions, assisted
by the presence of water. The useful action of potash or of
ashes in the soil has been long acknowledged, and hence, as
soon as it was known that the green sand contained potassa, its
utility was immediately referred to that alkali ; latterly, how-
ever, the opinion has gained ground that the prot-oxide of iron
plays an important part by acting with the organic matter in
the soil, in a manner resembling the saponih'cation of oil by
potash.
"The addition of much unleached ashes to a soil determines
the formation of salts of potassa, which, being very soluble,
are taken up in excess by growing plants, and produce such
luxuriant vegetation as to cause it, technically speaking, to
burn up. The same operation would probably occur with prot-
oxide of iron, were its salts not soon converted into more insol-
uble humate and crenate of the per-oxide.
" It might be objected by many that green sand being de-
composed with difficulty by the powerful acids of the labora-
tory, there is little probability that it can be resolved into its
constituents by the feeble action of humic or atmospheric
agents. Independently, however, of the proof of its decompo-
sition by its inducing increased fertility, and of the mode by
which nature, operating with feeble agents during a lengthened
period of time, produces great results, it may be shown that it
it is more readily decomposed than is generally admitted.
" The most economical method of applying the marl will be
MINERAL MANURES. 129
to cart it from the pits immediately into the fields to which it is
to be applied ; to throw it into heaps at convenient distances for
spreading, and then to put a small quantity of lime on each heap,
which should remain exposed to the air for a longer time. In
regard to the quantity to be applied, a variety of opinions exists;
and hence, from 50 to 1,000 bushels per acre have been tried
with and without success. A little attention to the theory of its
operation will enable us to approximate to the true proportion.
Its strong bases appear to act on the organic matter in the soil,
and to combine with it; hence, it would be useless to apply a
large quantity to a poor and light soil, for which 60 to 100 bush-
els would suffice ; but a clayey soil would be rendered looser
by it ; and as there is usually more organic matter present in
such a case, from 100 to 200 may be employed with advantage.
Where the land is already of good quality, from 200 to 500 may
be used, according to its richness and tenacity. Many persons
believe that because one kind of marl is inferior to another, a
much larger quantity will be required ; but the truth is, that the
differences, although important, are less so than is generally be-
lieved, and should not lead to the employment of quantities
greater than have just been enumerated. Notwithstanding the
effects of marl will be shown to be striking on ordinary, and
even on very poor land, yet it. is essential that the soil should
contain a fair proportion of organic matter, in order to reap
the highest benefit from it. Hence the failure of some experi-
ments made with the green sand ; for, although it stands supe-
rior to lime in requiring the presence or addition of less organic
manure, still the views offered to explain its mode of action
show the necessity of some organic materials on which to
operate, and this conclusion is strengthened by experience."
The chief value of the New-Jersey marl, when applied to
light sandy soils, is known to consist in the potash and oxide
of iron it contains. As compared with common unleaded
wood ashes, it is thought to be equal in value, measure for
measure. Visible effects are said still to be seen on farms which
were marled 30 years ago. When used as a compost, at the
6*
130 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
rate of 30 to 40 bushels of slacked lime to 300 or 400 bushels
of marl to an acre, its action is more prompt, and consequently
larger crops obtained ; but its fertilising effects, when thus ap-
plied, are believed not to be felt generally beyond a period of
15 years. Mixed with 300 Ibs. of Peruvian guano and a ton
and a half of the marl, it forms an excellent top-dressing for
an acre of grass or grain.
PHOSPHORITE, OR NATIVE PHOSPHATE OF LIME.
THIS substance, commonly called apatite by mineralogists,
occurs somewhat abundantly in various parts of the world, and
is composed chiefly of phosphate of lime, which differs but
slightly in its chemical constituents from the earth of bones.
When pure, it consists of.
Lime, 54.5
Phosphoric acid, 45.5
100.0
From the composition of this mineral, one would be led to
expect that it would exert a favorable action on vegetation,
which has been amply verified by experiments made by Spren-
gel, of Germany, and particularly by Dr. Daubeny, professor
of chemistry at Oxford, in England. From the reputed exist-
ence of an extensive bed of phosphorite near Logrosan, in the
province of Estramadura, in Spain, the latter-named gentleman
was commissioned to examine the mine, in 1843, by the Royal
Agricultural Society of England, to ascertain whether the min-
eral could not be profitably imported into that country as a
substitute for bones as a manure. The result was, that the
expense of freight, inland transportation, and other charges
would be too great to warrant the undertaking. He found that
it existed in a bed or vein six or seven feet thick, of unknown
depth, and occurred in one entire white, radiating, silky mass.
He was allowed to dig, and carry away any quantity he liked,
and accordingly obtained four mule loads of about 200 Ibs.
each, which he took to England, and made carefully-conducted
MINERAL MANURES. 131
experiments with it iii comparison with twelve other fertilisers
or manures. The result of these experiments may be found in
the London Agricultural Gazette of April 4th, 1846, in which it
will be seen that a given quantity of the phosphorite grew near-
ly as large crops of turnips and grass as the same amount of
bone manure ; and Dr. D. now says, as the Spanish phosphorite,
which appears to act so beneficially, is wholly destitute of or-
ganic matter, it seems to follow that the more valuable portion
and at least of what is applied to the land, when bones are
scattered over it, is the phosphate of lime, and not, as some
have supposed, the oil or gelatine. He found 81 per cent, of
this phosphate in the substance, which he estimates to be equiv-
alent to almost 76 per cent, of the earth of bones.
From recent discoveries, it has been ascertained that this
mineral exists in great abundance in some parts of the United
States, and bids fair to supersede the use of bones, both on ac-
count of its cheapness, and the facility with which it can be
made applicable for the purposes of manure. At Crown Point,
Lake Champlain, Essex county, New York, a mine was opened
by Professor E. Emmons, of Albany, in 1850, which turned out
to be a solid vein of phosphorite, eight feet thick, containing 92
per cent, of phosphate of lime, associated with fluorine, chlo-
rine, and the sulphurets of copper and iron.
In the summer of the same year as above, Dr. Charles T.
Jackson and Mr. Francis Alger, of Boston, discovered a valua-
ble and extensive deposit of massive phosphorite near or at
Hurdstovvn, Morris county, New Jersey, and but a few miles
from the Morris Canal. The mineral is reputed to be perfectly
pure, parcels of which have been distributed in various parts
of this country as well as in England, for the purpose of expe-
riment. In the neighborhood of the same locality, just within
the confines of Sussex county, the New-Jersey Mining and Ex-
ploring Company have opened the same or another vein of
this substance, having, it is stated, a thickness of eight feet,
extending more than two miles in length, from which it is be-
lieved in unlimited quantity of this phosphate can be supplied.
132 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
A sample of the mineral from the last-narred locality, as
analysed by Dr. Thomas Antisell, chemist to the American
Agricultural Association, in the city of New York, yielded the
following constituents in 100 parts: — •
Phosphate of lime, 93.6
Lime, 3.6
Magnesia, 0.2
Chlorine, 2.5
Fluorine, trace.
Alumina and per-oxide of iron, trace.
Loss, . 0.1
IflO.O
It may be ground to a powder and spread upon old grass
lands, or dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid and applied to
grain and turnip crops, at the rate of 1,000 to 1,200 pounds per
ncre; but, owing to its admixture with the rocks- in which it
occurs, it. is necessary to analyse each parcel of the ground
mineral, to ascertain the proportion of acid that is required for
its decomposition.
POTASH.
POTASH, or potassa, the hydrated prot-oxide of potassium, is
so called from being prepared1 for commercial purposes by
evaporating to dryness in iron pots or kettles the lixivium, or
ley, of wood ashes. When pure, the hydrate or fused potash is
highly caustic, of a white color, melting at any temperature
above redness, assuming a crystalline appearance on cooling
but bearing the most intense heat without volatilising.* It has
* A phenomenon or diffiulty occurs in this respect, which chemical authors have
in vain tried to solve. Potash and soda, it is well known, abound in the young and
herbaceous textures of trees and plants ; and yet they thrive, and sometimes grow to
gigantic dimensions in soils which contain a very small proportion of potash, and
even in the crevices of calcareous rocks where there is not the smallest trace of it.
Whence, then, do these plants and trees derive the alkali they contain ? May not
potash be a product of vegetation? May it not become volatile by some inexplica-
ble process of nature ? Is it not posssible that gaseous principles may be united in
such a manner that the result of their combination shall be unalterable by the pro-
cesses of chemists ? These are points which science, *a its present state, is not In •
condition either to ascertain or disprove.
MINERAL MANUKES. 133
a great affinity for water, uniting with that fluid, forming a solid
hydrate, which no heat hitherto employed is capable of dis-
uniting. It is highly deliquescent, rapidly attracting humidity
from the air, and requiring half its weight of water for its solu-
tion, evolving during the operation a considerable heat. It is
also soluble in alcohol, decomposing all animal substances,
whether living or dead, and rapidly attracts carbonic acid from
the air. The solution is highly alkaline, neutralising the strong-
est acids, and changes vegetable blues to green. It also rapidly
corrodes glass, containing much alkali or lead, and dissolves
silica by the agency of heat, forming therewith the silicate of
potash. In taste, it is intensely acrid, and when touched by
the fingers, has a peculiar soapy feel, owing to its dissolving
the cuticle, with which it forms a kind of soap. Potash does
not occur in nature in this caustic or uncombined state, and
as such is not known to exercise any direct influence upon
natural vegetation.
Potash is extensively distributed throughout the earth and its
inhabitants, combined principally with carbonic, crenic, apo-
crenic, citric, humic, nitric, oxalic, phosphoric silicic, sulphuric
and tartaric acids. In the mineral kingdom, it occurs abun-
dantly in mica, feldspar, lava, green sand, and in most, if not
all aluminous clays. In plants and trees, it is also abundant,
especially in the grasses and all kinds of grain. Hence, the
reason why potash is regarded as a necessary food of plants,
and why its beneficial influence is felt in general agricultural
practice. It also forms one of the constituents of the urine,
excrement, and numerous other parts of animals, as well as of
the waters of the ocean and saline springs. But the chief
source from which commercial potash is supplied, is the washed
or lixiviated ashes of trees, especially of hemlock spruce, oaks,
maples, hickories, birches, beeches, and elms, the potato haulm,
and of other trees and plants.
The quantity of potash contained in the crops of an acre,
as given in their ash, is as follows, which shows their impover-
ishing power, and the importance of supplying a comparatively
134 FOSi X, SALINE AND
large quantity of this substance, in some form or other, to en-
ter the roots of the plants : —
founds.
Wheat, 32.58
Rye, 21.39
Barley, 08.93
Oats, 21.75
Red clover, 144.00
Potatoes, 102.70
White turnip, 133.34
The use of potash, as a fertiliser, in the form of the ash of
vegetables and trees, may be traced back to a very early pe-
riod. The old Roman farmers wen: well acquainted with pair-
ing arW burning, and burnt the stubble of their grain fields in
order to enrich the succeeding crops, a practice also prevalent
among the ancient Jews. Cato recommends the burning of the
twigs and branches of trees, and spreading the ash on the land.
The ancient Britons, according to Pliny, used to burn their
wheat straw, and stubble, and spread the ashes over their
fields. Similar practices in all civilised countries have ever
since prevailed.
The p rot-oxide of potassium forms with acids the bases of
a great number of salts, the principal of which that are ap-
plied to the soil, as fertilisers, are as follows: —
Carbonate of Potash. — Impure or commercial carbonate of
potassa commonly known by the names of " potash " and
" pearlash," is chiefly obtained in Russia and North America
by lixiviating or washing the ashes of trees, especially of
oaks, hickories, maples, and elms, in the last-named country,
and evaporating the solution to dry ness. The ash, first mixed
with quicklime, is leached in barrels or conical tubs, and the
clear solution being drawn off, is evaporated by boiling in
large iron pots or kettles set in a furnace. When the fluid be-
comes black, and of the consistence of thick molasses, it is
subjected to the highest heat of a wood fire for some hours.
By this means, much of the combustible matter is burned out
As soon as the fused matter becomes quiescent, it is dipped out
MINERAL MANURES. 135
with iron ladles into iron pots, where it is left to congeal ; it is
then broken into pieces, and packed up in air-tight casks, in
which state it constitutes the potash of commerce.
Another method is, to transfer the black salts, or product of
the first evaporation, from the kettles to a large oven or fur-
nace, so constructed that the flame is made to play over the
alkaline mass, which is continually stirred by means of an iron
rod. The ignition is continued until the impurities are burned
out, and the mass changes from black to a dirty or bluish white.
The whole is then cooled, broken up, arid packed in casks as
above. This constitutes the pearlash of commerce, which is
also an impure form of the carbonate of potash. When pot-
ash or pearlash is dissolved in water, purified, and crystallised
or evaporated to dryness, it becomes refined, and is a carbonate
of potash sufficiently pure for most purposes in the art.
When pure, it consists of
Potassa, 68.09
Carbonic acid, 31.91
100.00
The American potash of commerce, when of a good quality,
consists of the following ingredients: —
v'austic potassa, 85.7
Sulphate of potassa, 15.4
Chloride of sodium, 2.0
Carbonic acid and water, 11.9
Insoluble matter, 0.2
American pearlash, in the state it is usually brought to mar-
ket, in 115 parts, consists of
Caustic potassa, 75.4
Sulphate of potassa, 8.0
Chloride of sodium, ( .4
Carbonic acid and water, 30.8
Insoluble matter,. .- 0.6
115.2
136 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
The carbonate of potash has long been known to exercise a
powerful influence on the growth of plants; and what has been
.said on the subject of "wood ashes" and "soaper's waste,"
which also contain other fertilising substances, it is to !>e under-
stood that much of their immediate effects are due to the quan-
tity of this salt they contain. When wood ashes and quick-
lime are mixed together in artificial composts, it is not unlikely
that a portion of the carbonate of potash may be rendered
caustic, and, therefore, be more lit to act upon the vegetable
matter in contact with it, by rendering it soluble in water,
and thus capable of entering the roots of plants. In the mean
time, it is proper to remark, that if pearlash be mixed, as above
prescribed, with half its weight of quicklime, and then boiled
with less than 10 or 12 times its weight of water, a part of the
potash only is rendered caustic, the lime being unable to de-
prive the pearlash of its carbonic acid, unless it be largely di-
luted. Hence, in dry composts, or mixtures of this substance
with quicklime, it is unlikely that any large portion of the pot-
ash can be at once brought to the caustic state. This fact is
really of importance in reference to the theory of the conjoined
action of quicklime and wood or pearlashes, when mixed to-
gether in artificial manures, and applied to the land.
Chloride of Potassium. — This is n compound of chlorine with
potassium, which, in taste, properties, and general appearance,
has much resemblance to common salt. U may be formed by
dissolving pearlash in dilute muriatic acid, (spirit of salt,) as
long as any effervescence appears, and afterwards evaporating
to dryness. It exists in small quantity in sea water, in the ash
of most plants, and frequently in the soil. It is not an article
of manufacture, but is occasionally extracted from kelp, and
sold to- alum makers. Could it be easily and cheaply ob-
tained, there is no doubt that it might be employed with advan-
tage as a manure, and especially in those circumstances in
which common salt has been found to promote vegetation.
The refuse of soap boilers, where soap is made from kelp,
contains a considerable quantity of this compound. This re-
MINERAL MANURES. 137
fuse might be obtained at a cheap rate, and. therefore, might
be usufully collected and applied to the land where such works
are established. — Johnston.
Citrates and Tarirates of Potash. — These salts exist in many
fruits. The citrates abound in the orange, the lemon, and the
lime. The tartrates, in the grape. When heated over a lamp,
they are decomposed, and like the oxalates, leave the potash
in the state of carbonate. In the interior of plants, both pot-
ash and soda are most frequently combined with organic acids,
(oxalic, citric, tartaric, &c.,) and the compounds thus formed
are generally what chemists call acid salts ; that is to say,
they generally have a distinctly sour taste, redden vegetable
blues, and contain much more acid than is found to exist in
certain other well-known compounds of the same acids with
potash.
The citrates and tartrates are not known to be formed in
nature, except in the living plant, and as they are too expensive
to be ever employed as manures, it is the less to be regretted
that few experiments have yet been tried with the view of as-
certaining their effect upon vegetation. — Johnston.
Crenate and Apocrenate of Potash. — See CRENIC and APOCRENIG
ACIDS, under the head of " Liquid Manures."
Nitrate of Potash. — This substance, which is commonly
known under the names of "nitre" and "saltpetre," is spon-
taneously generated in the soil and on the walls of certain
caves, owing to the action of the atmosphere, and crystallises
on the surface in various parts of the world. It is also pro-
duced artificially by exposing a mixture of calcareous soil and
animal matter to the atmosphere, when nitrate of lime is slowly
formed, and is extnvcted by lixiviation. The liquid is then de-
composed, by adding carbonate of potash, by which carbonate
of lirne is precipitated, and nitrate of potash remains in solu-
tion. This salt is also contained in several plants, particularly
in tobacco, the sunflower, beet root, and in the stalks of Indian
corn ; but it has not hitherto been found in any animal sub.
stances.
iSS FOSSIL, SALINE AND
When pure, saltpetre consists only of potash and nitric acid,
combined in the following proportions : —
Nitric acid, 53.44
Potassa, 46.56
100.00
In this state, it does not become moist on exposure to the air.
The nitrate of potash of commerce, however, more frequently
contains muriates, sulphates, or calcareous salts.
In combination with soda, saltpetre is found in deposits of
considerable thickness in the district of Arica, in Northern
Peru, from whence it is imported into this country, chiefly for
the manufacture of nitric and sulphuric acids. More recently,
its lower price has caused it to be extensively employed in
British husbandry, especially as a top-dressing for grass lands.
Like the acid itself, these nitrates of potash and soda, when
present in large quantities, are injurious to vegetation. This is
probably one cause of the barrenness of the district of Arica,
in Peru, and of other countries, where, in consequence of the
little rain that falls, the nitrous incrustations are accumulated
upon the soil. In small quantity, they appear to exercise an
important and salutary influence on the rapidity of growth,
and on the amount of produce of many of the cultivated
grasses. This salutary influence is to be ascribed, either in
whole or in part, to the constitution and nature of the nitric
acid which these salts contain.
Saltpetre, however, is very soluble, and is a transient manure,
especially when applied on very open soils. It is very service-
able in retaining moisture, and a damp spot may be observed
wherever a crystal of this salt has been laid. It has been used
at the rate of 50 to 100 Ibs. to the acre as a top-dressing to
grass, wheat, and other crops, for which it is regarded as more
beneficial than either the phosphates or guano. Its effects are
most marked on poor sandy soils, but they are not so apparent
on lands that are very rich.
Oxala/i>x of Potash. — Th^se salts exist in the common and
MINEKA1 VfANURES 139
wood soirels, and in most of the other move perfect plants in
which oxalic acid is known to exist. The salt of sorrel is the
best known of these oxalates. This salt has an agreeable acid
taste, and is not so poisonous as the uncombined oxalic acid.
When this salt is heated over a lamp, the oxalic acid it con-
tains is decomposed, and carbonate of potash is obtained. It
is supposed that a great part of the potash extracted from the
ashes of wood and of the stems of plants in general, in the
state of a carbonate, existed as an oxalate in the living tree, and
was converted into carbonate during the combustion of the
woody fibre and other organic matter. This compound, there-
fore, in all probability, performs an important part in the
changes which take place in the interior of plants, though its
direct agency in effecting their growth, when applied externally
to their roots, has not hitherto been distinctly recognised. It
is probably formed occasionally in farmyard manure, and in
decaying urine and night soil, but nothing very precise is yet
known on this subject. — Johnston.
Phosphates of Potash. — If, to a known weight of phosphoric
acid, pearlash, (carbonate of potash,) be added as long as any
effervescence appears, and the solution be then evaporated
phosphate of potash is obtained. If to the solution, before
evaporation, a second portion of phosphoric acid be added,
equal to the first, and the water be then expelled by heat, bi-
phosphate of potash will remain. One or other of these two
salts is found in the ash of nearly all plants. It may be stated
as certain that they are of the most vital importance not only
in reference to the growth of plants themselves, but also to
their nutritive qualities when eaten by animals for food.
These phosphates are occasionally, perhaps very generally,
present in the soil in minute quantities, and there is every rea-
son to believe that, could they be applied in a sufficiently eco-
nomical form, they would in many cases act in a most favor-
able manner upon vegetation. They are contained in urine and
other animal manures, and to their presence, a portion of the
efficacy of these manures is t< be ascribed. — Johnston.
140 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
Silicate of Potash. — When finely-powdered quartz, flint, or
cand is mixed with from one half to three times its weight of
dry carbonate of potash or soda, and exposed to a strong heat
in a crucible, it readily unites with the potash or soda, and
forms a glass. This glass is a silicate or a mixture of two or
more silicates of potash or soda. When pure, the silicate of
potash contains of
Silicic acid, 49.46
Potassa, 50.54
100.00
Silica combines with these alkalies in various proportions.
If it be melted with much potash, the glass obtained will be
readily soluble in water; if with little, the silicate, which is
formed, will resist the action of water for any length of time.
Window and plate glass contain much silicate of potash or
soda. A large quantity of alkali renders these varieties of
glass more fusible and more easily worked, but at the same
time makes them more susceptible of corrosion or tarnish by
the action of the air.
The insoluble silicates of potash and soda exist also in many
mineral substances. In feldspar and mica, they are present in
considerable quantity. The former, (feldspar,) contains one
third of its weight of an insoluble silicate of potash, consisting
of nearly equal weights of potash and silica. Trap rocks, or
green stone, abundant also in many parts of the world, often
consist almost entirely of silicates. Among these, however,
the silicates of potash and sod; rarely exceed 5 or 6 per cent,
of the whole rock, and somet' ,-ies they are entirely absent. In
the green-sand marl of New, Jersey, potash is combined with
silica and iron, but their • ,aon is readily destroyed by the car-
bonic acid of the so:. and air, which rapidly forms the potash
into a carbonate.
These insolubl ; silicate? of potash and soda also exist in the
tsms and leave., of nearly all plants. They are abundant in
i' ihe grasses, especially in the straw of the culti-
MINERAL MANURES. 141
vated grains, and form a large proportion of the ash which is
left when these stems are burned.
It is important to the agriculturist to understand the relation
which the carbonic acid of the atmosphere bears to these
alkaline silicates which occur in the mineral and vegetable
kingdoms. Insoluble as they are in water, they are slowly de-
composed by the united action of the moisture and carbonic
acid of th<*air, the laUer taking the potash or soda from the
silica, and forming carbonates of these bases. In consequence
of this decomposition, the rock disintegrates and crumbles
down, whilst the soluble carbonate is washed down by the rains
or mists, and is borne to the lower grounds to enrich the allu-
vial and other soils, or is carried by the rivers to the sea.
In some cases, as in the softer kinds of feldspar, this decom-
position is comparatively rapid, while in others, it is exceed-
ingly slow ; but in all cases, the rock crumbles to powder long
before the whole of the silicates are decomposed, so that the
potash and soda are always present in greater or less quantity
in granitic soils, and will thus continue to be separated from
the decaying fragments of rock for an indefinite period of time.
But the silica of the feldspar or mica, when thus deprived of
the potash with which it is combined, is capable of being dis-
solved in a small quantity by pure -water, and more largely by a
solution of carbonate of potash or soda. Hence, the same rains
or mists which dissolve the alkaline carbonates so slowly
formed, take up a portion of the silica, and convey it in a state
of solution to the soils or to the rivers. Thus, with the excep-
tion of the dews and rains, which fall directly from the heavens,
few of the supplies of water by which plants are refreshed and
fed,- ever reach their roots entirely free from silica, in a form in
which it can readily enter into their roots, and be appropriated
to their nourishment.
In the farm yard and the compost heap, where vegetable
matters are undergoing decomposition, the silicates they con-
tain undergo similar decompositions, and, by similar chemical
changes, their silica is rendered soluble, and thus fitted, wheo
142 FOSSIL, SAL.NE AND
mixed with the soil, again to minister to the wants, and aid the
growth of new races of living vegetables. — Johnston.
, Sulphate of Potash. — This compound is formed by adding
pearlash to dilute sulphuric acid, (oil of vitriol,) as long as effer-
vescence appears, and' then evaporating the solution. It is a
white saline substance, sparingly soluble in water, and has a
disagreeable bitterish taste. It exists in considerable quantity
in wood ashes and in the ash of nearly all plants, and is one of
the most abundant impurities in the common potash and pearl-
ash of the shops. This sulphate itself is not an article of exten-
sive manufacture, but exists in common alum to the amount of
upwards of 18 per cent, of its weight. When pure, it contains of
Sulphuric acid, 45.93
Potassu, 54.07
100.00
Dissolved in 100 times its weight of water, the sulphate of
potash has been found to act favorably on red clover, vetches,
beans, peas. &c., and part of the effect of wood ashes on plants
of this kind is to be attributed to the sulphate of potash they
contain. Turf ashes are also said to contain this salt in variable
quantity, and to this is ascribed a portion of their efficacy, also,
when applied to the land. The black salts which remain in
potash kettles during the manufacture of pot and pearl ashes,
consist of impure sulphates of potash, which, when applied to
bones, decompose them very rapidly. The bones may be broken
up coarsely, and then boiled in the saturated solution of these
black salts until they fall to powder, after which, the whole
mass may be composted with swamp or pond muck or mould.
COMMON SALT.
Tins useful substance, known also by the names of chloride
of sodium and muriate of soda, occurs abundantly in nature, and
when pure, is composed of chlorine and sodium, combined in
the following proportions- —
Chlorine, 60.34
Sodium,... 39.66
100.00
MINERAL. MANURES. 143
Massive rock salt, ha.s a vitreous lustre ; bu. is not so brittle
as nitre. It is nearly as hard as alum, a little harder than gyp-
sum, and softer than calcareous spar. When pure, it is usually
colorless, translucent, and even transparent. On exposure to
heat, it commonly 'decrepitates, or crackles with a noise. Ac-
cording to M. Guy Lussac, 100 parts of water at 57° F. dissolve
35rVu Parts of suit ; at 62 £°, 35f f parts ; at 140°, 37^ parts ; and
at 229i°, 40]| Parts of salt.
It is well known that common salt has been employed in all
ages and in all countries for the purposes of promoting vege-
tation ; and yet, perhaps, it would be diilicult to name any
other substance in the catalogue of modern fertilisers, the
powers of which have been subject to so much controversy,
and even doubted and denied as exercising any beneficial ef-
fects on the crops to which it has been applied. Notwithstand-
ing this, there is abundance of evidence in the writings of old
authors that it destroyed weeds and worms, and rendered grass
and herbage sweeter and more palatable to stock. Allusion is
also made to its fitness or uniitness, as a fertiliser, in Luke, xiv.
34, 35: and Virgil reprobates a salt soil. In 1653, Sir Hugh
Pratt, of England, speaks of salt as a fertiliser, and details the
result of a very successful experiment on a " patch of ground,"
at Clapham. The old English gardeners were well aware that
the brine of pickling tubs, when poured over heaps of weeds,
not only killed them, even every seed and every grub, but that
these heaps were then converted into so many parcels of most
excellent mauure, the good effects of" which, especially upon
potatoes and carrots, were very apparent and marked. It was
well known, too, that a single grain of salt placed upon an
earih worm speedily destroyed it ; that if brine were poured
upon grass land, all the earth worms were immediately eject-
ed from the spot; and that if it were sprinkled over a part
of the grass, all the deer, sheep, and horses whi.:h fed upon
it, constantly preferred that spot to any other part of the
field.
Native chloride of sodium, whether obtained from the water*
144
FOSSIL, SALINE AND
of the ocean, from saline Jakes, from salt springs, or mineral
masses, is never perfectly pure. The foreign substances pres-
ent in it vary according to its origin and qualities. These are
principally the sulphates of lime, magnesia, soda, muriates of
magnesia and potash, bitumen, oxide of iron, clay in a state
of diffusion, &c Common salt may also be detected in nearly
all soils, and is _iund in the ash of most, if not all plants, but
more especially , and in large quantity, in the ashes of marine
plants (kelp).
The following table shows the composition of various sam-
ples of Onondaga and foreign salt in 1,000 par's, as given in the
Natural History of the State of New York : —
s
. d
1
3
•| 'Is
1
1
05
•o
3
O
"3 !.=
C 5
i
a
Localities *3
c ~
v. ' <g £
"1 1
"o
3
*° • ' «
03 aj Er
•+* vj-j
«
-2
"3
*T3 'f
*2 3 §
c 2
"3
"3
1'i •§
_o
'§ |
"3.
a
o.
•o c -3
' 5
O £
1 jll
B"l
£
09
-5 a3 g
ai £ •-!
Syracuse, (solar evnp ) 991.00
2.00
—
7.00
Geddes, (soliir,) 992.50
— trace.
1.00
6.50
Inline, (table salt,).. 991.73
• 1.40
0.20
6.01
Ditto, (extra 1,'ood,). 990.34
3.50
0.38
5.78
Ditto, (by boiling,)- 97R.25
2.50
9.0(1
Ditto, (condemned,; 974.44
3.20
0.40
20.0M
Turk's Island 984 04
2.80
13 10
Liverpool, (tine,) 988.99
.
3.77
2.01
Bay salt, (St. Ube*,)- 900.00
3.00 trace. 1
23.50
4.50 9.00
Ditto. (St. Martins ). 9511.50
3.50
trace.
19.00
6.00 12.00
Ditto. (Oleron.)... . 904.25
2.00
trace. • •
19.50
4.50 10.00
Sea salt, Scotch, (com .) 935.50
28.00
15.00
17.50 4.00
Ditto. (Sunday,) 971.00
11.50
12.00
—
4.50 1.00
Cheshire, Eng., (rock,). 983.25
0.07
0.06
0.50
1.00
Ditto. (tisherv.) 980.75
075
0.25
11.25
1.00
Ditto, (common,) 983.50 0.75
0.25
14.50
1.00
!
The fertilising and injurious properties of salt, when applied
to land, and its action on various substances may be compre-
hended under the following heads: —
1. Administered in small proportions, it promotes the decom-
position both of animal and vegetable matter, a fact first made
known by Sir John Pringle and Dr. McBride. Salt, therefore.
MINERAL MANURES. 145
when applied, in moderate quantity, promotes the rapid disso-
lution of the animal and vegetable remains, existing in all cul-
tivated soils, and when employed as a manure, it is exposed to
the action of a very dilute solution of rain water and dews, and
very probably is absorbed as food by the roots of plants, and
decomposition afterwards takes place in their organs. One
thing is certain, chemical facts are at variance with the decom-
position of minute quantities of common salt by the carbonate
of ammonia, contained in rain water and dews, and its entire
fixation by this carbonate at all ; yet, this in no way diminishes
the value of salt applied as a manure.
2. Applied in large quantity, it is well known that common
salt is destructive to vegetation, and in producing complete
sterility in the soil. For, among Eastern nations, from time
immemorial, when a conquered city was condemned to desola-
tion, it was sown in large quantities about the ruins and their
vicinity, proclaiming the will of the destroyer, and announcing
that the country should remain uninhabitable, without cultiva-
tion, and devoted to eternal sterility. When applied in excess
to the apple, the cherry, the plum, apricot, poplars, beeches,
willows, and elms, their leaves usually speedily perish after
they put out, and the trees soon die. On the contrary, some
species of the oak, the mulberry, the pear, the peach, and other
trees with deep roots, do not suffer from its application ; neither
do asparagus, onions, celery, &c., which even grow more lux-
uriantly from its effects. But grapes, apples, and gooseberries
contract a salt taste, which often renders them unfit for use.
When very strong solutions of common salt and carbonate
of ammonia are mixed at low temperature, they slowly and
imperfectly decompose each other, forming bi-carbonate of
soda and muriate of ammonia, whilst a portion of the ammonia
is set free. The bi-carbonate of soda being almost insoluble
in the solution of muriate of ammonia may be separated, and
obtained pure, whilst the muriate of ammonia may be obtained
by evaporating Ihe solution, and separating it from undecom-
posed comn on salt and free ammonia. If, instead of
7
146 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
ting the two substances, a quantity of water be added, the bi-
carbonate of ammonia dissolves, and the two salts re-decompose
each other, common salt and carbonate of arnraonia being
formed. In the same way, if solutions of carbonate or bi-car-
bonate of soda be mixed with a solution of muriate of ammo-
nia, they mutually decompose each other, and form carbonate
of ammonia and common salt. This holds true, however, only
when the solutions are highly concentrated ; if dilute, no such
changes takes place.
3. Common salt renders certain soils more susceptible of ab-
sorbing moisture from the air, a property of the first import-
ance, since those soils which absorb the greatest proportion of
water from the atmosphere are always the most valuable to
the cultivator, affording him at the same time one of the best
methods of judging of the productiveness of his land. No
doubt salt keeps the soil cool as well as moist. Therefore, it is
injurious on heavy or wet undrained lands, making them
damper and colder, and thereby causing delay in vegetation.
4. When sprinkled over dunghills, or over the manure in the
barnyard, twice or three times a week, about the thickness of
barley or oat sowing, salt has a tendency to check the escape
of the carbonate of ammonia, caused by the ordinary heat of
the dung, and thereby prevent an undue fermentation, particu-
larly if incorporated with it when the manure is laid up in heaps.
It has also a tendency to destroy the small seeds that escape
from the barns and stables, as well as living insects, thus pre-
venting much mischief in being carried out into the fields.
5. Salt preserves vegetables from injury by sudden tran-
sitions in the temperature of the air ; for it is well known that
brine freezes at a temperature 4£° F. below that of common
water ; that salted soils do not freeze so readily as those con-
taining no salt ; and that it also preserves crops of turnips, cab-
bages, &c., from injury by the frost, is equally well established.
6. Salt not only acts on vegetation as a stimulant, but serves,
as has been shown, to be a direct constituent, or food, of som*
kinds of plants,
MINERAL MANURES. 147
Applied to grain crops, on light soils, at the rate of 500 or
600 Ibs. to the acre, salt increases the produce of seed, and
very much improves its weight and quality per bushel. It also
tends to protect wheat from the attacks of wireworms, mildew,
and rust. With regard to the destruction of vermin by means
of salt, it may be safely asserted that there is, perhaps, no
agricultural use of it more undoubted. The effect, too, is direct,
and the result immediately apparent. For this purpose, from
5 to 10 bushels are sufficient. The farmer need be under no
apprehension that the salt will destroy his crop, for 20 bushels
per acre may be applied to young wheat with perfect safety.
On grass lands and clover, salt has a very good effect, rend-
ering the herbage much more palatable to stock, and serves to
destroy some kinds of weeds and worms. It has been em-
ployed at the rate of 6 to 16 bushels per acre, and where the
primary object has been the destruction of old turf, even 30
or 40 bushels have been successfully applied to the same quan-
tity of land.
With potatoes, numerous experiments have been made with
salt as a manure, which have been attended with varying suc-
cess. In one instance, where ten different manures were used,
with only one exception, it proved superior to them all.
Mangold wurtzel, manured with salt mixed with farmyard
Jung, grows luxuriantly, which is obviously a suitable manure,
as the ash of this plant contains from 33 to 50 per cent, of com-
mon salt.
Applied to turnips, with barnyard manure, on a light soil, salt
is equally beneficial. The quantity to be used may vary from
1,000 to 1,200 Ibs. per acre.
In the garden, salt has been employed for numerous pur-
poses; most commonly on lawns, at the rate of 10 bushels per
acre, to prevent " uorm casts;" and on gravel walks, at the rate
of 20 to 40 bushels to the acre to kill weeds. It may be em-
ployed in horticulture, however, as a fertiliser, with decided ad-
vantage and effect. In a soil composed of the following ingre-
Irents, experimented upon by Mr. George Johnson, at Great
148 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
Tothum, in England, with various garden vegetables, the results
were given as below : —
Stones and gravel, 27-0
Vegetable fibre, !-5
Soluble matter, 3.0
Carbonates of lime and magnesia, 18.0
Oxide of iron, 4.0
Animal and vegetable matter, 1.0
Alumina, 4.5
Silica, *0.0
Loss, 1.0
100.0
WINDSOR BEANS'.
Bus!iels per ccr*.
Soil treated with 20 bushels of salt per acre, 217
Soil simple, 135
ONIONS.
Tons. cwt. qrs. Ibs
Salt 20 bushel, manure 20 tons, per acre, 3 12 3 12
Manure, .....2 10 2 19
CARROTS.
1. Soil without any manure, 13 400
2. Soil with 20 tons of manure, 22 18 0 26
3. Soil with 20 bushels of salt, 18 2 0 0
4. Soil with 20 bushels of salt, and 20 tons of manure,. 23 6 1 18
PARSNIPS.
1. Soil with 20 tons of manure, and 20 bushels of salt,. 6 15 0 0
2. Soil with 20 tons manure, 0 11 1 1
EARLY POTATOES.
Bbtt.
1. Soil simple, 308
2. Soil with 20 bushels of salt, 584
BEETS
Tons. cwt. qrt.
L Soil simple 4 10 1
2. Soil with 20 bushels of salt, 4 8 3
3. Soil with 20 tons of salt, and 20 tons of manure, 7 0 0
4. Soil with 20 tons of manure, 6 10 0
There is little doubt, but salt might be much more extensive-
ly employed by the florist than it is at present. Mr. Thomas
Hogg, of'Paddington, near London, says: "I am of the opinion
that the numerous bulbous tribes of amaryllidacese, especially
MINERAL MANURES. 149
those from the Cape of Good Hope, ixias, alliums, which in-
clude onions, garlic, shalots, &c., anemones, various species of
the lily, antholyza, colchicum, crinum, cyclamens, narcissus,
iris, gladiolus, ranunculus, scilla, and many others, should
either have salt or sea sand in the mould used for them. I in-
variably use salt as an ingredient in my composts for carna-
tions, a plant which, like wheat, requires a substantial soil, and
all the strength and heat of the summer to bring it to perfec-
tion ; and I believe I might say, without boasting, that few ex-
cel me in blooming that flower."
With regard to the mixing of salt with other manures, this more
appropriately comes under the head of "Compound and Home-
stead Manures." Common salt, however, when mixed with
quicklime, in the proportion of 100 Ibs. of salt to 300 Ibs. of
lime, decomposition takes place, and the soda of the salt is
brought into a caustic state, while the lime is converted into
chloride of calcium, and a manure is formed of a most power-
ful description. But those who try the effect of this compound,
it would be well for them to attend carefully to the following
directions, and not, as some farmers have done, use the mixture
immediately, before decomposition has taken place : — After the
salt and lime have been well incorporated together, in a dry
state, the mixture should be allowed to remain two or three
months undisturbed, and then applied at the rate of 35 to 60
bushels to the acre, either by sowing it broadcast, or mixing it
with earth, and spread it the usual way. It is important to
give the mixture time, as the decomposition proceeds very
slowly, and is not to be hastened by any simple process.
Salt, mixed with soot, is often recommended as an excellent
manure, and mentioned as an instance of the decomposition of
the former by the carbonate of ammonia contained in the lat-
ter; there is no need, however, to suppose any decomposition
to have taken place to explain the beneficial effects of such a
mixture. When plants are manured with ammoniacal salts,
they grow with increased vigor, their roots increase rapidly, a
larger supply of inorganic inaUer is required, and if this i<"
Iflt FOSSIL, SALINE AND
withheld from them, they do not flourish. When inorganic
manures are employed, plants acquire increased powers of ab-
sorbing ammonia; and wher manured with salts of ammonia,
they acquire increased powers of absorbing inorganic matter.
Hence, the best manures are those in which both classes of sub-
stances are supplied at the same time; and hence, it would be
reasonable to expect that salt and soot applied together, would
produce a more powerful effect than either alone, except in
soils rich in alkaline or ammoniacul salts.
The mixture of salt and soot, wiicn applied to certain plants,
produces the most remarkable effects, especially when trenched
into the ground prepared for carrots. Mr. G. Sinclair, of Eng-
land, found that, when the soil, unmanured, produced 23 tons
of carrots per acre, the same soil fertilised with a mixture of
only 6A- bushels of salt, with an equal quantity of soot, yielded
40 tons per acre. It has also been found that a mixture of
these substances is equally beneficial as a top-dressing for
wheat. Mr. Cartwright, an English gentleman, who experi-
mented with these fertilisers, states that, when the soil without
any addition, yielded 157 bushels of potatoes per acre, by
dressing the same land with a mixture of 30 bushels of soot
with 8 bushels of salt, caused it to produce 240 bushels per acre.
Common salt, when mixed with muriate of ammonia, (sal
ammoniac,) and applied to grass lands, is attended with the
best results. This deserves the attention of farmers, especially
as this mixture is cheap, and but little skill is required by the
person who uses it. The quantity of each, to be applied to an
acre, is about 200 Ibs.
SALTPETRE, OR NITRE.
SALTPETRE, or nitre, is described as NITRATE of POTASH, under
the head of " Potash."
SAND.
PORE sand, or silex, is the earth of flints or quartz, and in its
simple state, is incapable of retaining moisture or promoting
MINERAL MANURES. 151
vegetation ; but when clay, marl, loam, or other soil, possessing
adhesive qualities, are mingled with it, a sandy soil may be
cultivated with advantage. Or, when sand is added to stiff
clayey lands, their texture is greatly improved; but where
other materals are at hand, as lime, marl, chalk, or any othei
kind of calcareous matter, they would be far preferable
Gravelly soils are very similar in their nature to the sandy
and should be treated very nearly in the same manner. In
practice, however, much less expense is incurred, and more
benefit received, by adding clay to a sandy soil, than adding
sand to a clayey one. It would require perhaps from 6 to 10
times the quantity of sand to diminish the adhesion of the lat-
ter, than it would of clay to consolidate the former.
Sea sand forms a much more valuable manure than the va-
riety above described, wherever it can economically be ob-
tained in sufficient abundance. Its quality, however, is not
always the same ; but that which most abounds in shells, or
their fragments, is always regarded as the best.
Sea sand is useful in all sorts of soils, and may be laid on
at all reasons of the year; but, like lime, it requires to be kept
as near to the surface as possible, as it is apt tc sink deep into
the earth, especially wherever the soil is hungry or light. It
is particularly valuable for clayey lands, rendering them stiff
and adhesive, and increasing at the same time their fertility.
Sea sand may also be used with advantage in most com-
pounds, and greatly adds to the value of the compost heap. In
whatever way it is applied, it will, in fact, be found beneficial,
unless the soil be of a loose and sandy nature, requiring adhe-
sive applications or clay. The sooner the sand is applied to
the land, or the compost heap, the better it will be. When
carted directly from the shore, it contains more or less salt,
which is of itself a valuable manure, but which is chiefly lost,
if the sand be allowed to lie exposed to the action of the
weather for a considerable time.
Limestone sand and gravel, as well as those derived from the
decay or wearing down of granitic and other rocks, are not
152 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
without their \ ilue and fertilising efiects, when applied in the
manner as described above; but as they are treated of in other
parts of this work, it is needless to discourse upon them here.
GREEN SAND.
FOR a description of this substance, see GREEN-SAND MARL,
under the head of " Marl."
SILIOA, SILEX. OR SILICIO ACID.
SILICA, or the prot-oxide of silicum, which is more familiarly
known under the names of quartz, flint, rock crystal, pure
sand, or silicious earth, occurs in great abundance in nature,
and may be easily obtained by first igniting to a red heat any
of the above-named substances, and then throwing them into
water, by which means they are readily reduced to a pow-
der. It is insoluble in water and all the acids, with the excep-
tion of the hydrofluoric, by which it is dissolved. It is also
dissolved by the fixed alkalies, in consequence of which, it
seems to possess the properties of an acid, and hence has been
called silicic acid, and consists of
Oxygen, 51.96
Silicum, 48.04
100.00
In the cold, this substance is inactive, but at a white heat,
forms an exceedingly active acid, combining with bases, and
displacing most other acids, except the phosphoric and boracic.
The silicates are nearly all insoluble in pure water; glass
and common earthenware are specimens of silicates, but they
gradually decay in the presence of acids, and of carbonic acid
and water. But the compounds of silicic acid, with two or
three times its weight of carbonate of potash or soda, are solu-
ble silicates, and have been recommended as manures for grain
crops, which always contain a large amount of this acid in
their stems, leaves, and husks. Most of the minerals ar d rocks
MINERAL MANURES.
153
of .he earth are silicates, this acid forming from one quarter to
one third of its entire solid mass.
The stores of potash, soda, lime, and magnesia in the soil,
which supply plants with saline matters, are often in the form
of silicates ; these are slowly decomposed under the influence
of the carbonic acid of the air, or from decaying vegetable
matter, which converts them into soluble carbonates, whereby
they gain access to the plants.
SHALE, OR DECOMPOSED SLATE.
SHALES and slates, it is well known, may be employed, undei
favorable circumstances, as manures, as many of them readily
decompose by the action of the weather, rains, dews, and
frosts. This, however, depends much upon the mineral ingre-
dients, and the facility with which they disintegrate or decom-
pose. Those which are highly calcareous may be employed
with advantage, like those at Marcel 1 us, in the state of New
York, while those containing alkalies may be used with good
effect in composting with peat, lime, &c.
Professor Ernmons gives the analyses of the shales and slates
of the state of New York and other places agreeably to the
following table : —
o
Names and Localities g j-
l!
£.8
a
35
Prot-oxide of iron 1
and alumina.
Carbonate of lime.
Magnesia.
Phosphates.
Potash.
Sulphate of lime.
]
Hoosic roofing slate, 3.79
70.55 00.35
84.65 11.53
71.62 23.25
80.72 12.76
78.76 16.64
83.50 12.56
81.54 7.00
48.12 10.00
68.86 14.98
34.56 13.36
0.99
0.60
0.10
1.76
0.36
0.61
1.76
36.60
9.89
43.06
0.40 trace.
0.60 truce.
0.05 0.90
0.40
0.52
0.30 trace,
trace.
1.00
0.40 0.14
2.17
3.32
1.52
1.06
j
Slate from t?alem, 2.62
VVaterville, (Me.,) slatu, .... 3.4-2
Fairhaven slate, 2.7(1
Shale from Cortlandville, 3.03
Red slate, or shale, (salt group, ) 6.48
Giwn shale, (salt group,) 5.50
7*
164 FOSSIL, SALINE AND
SODA.
SODA, hydrate of soda or the prot-oxide of sodium, when
pure, resembles potassa, and like that salt, possesses alkaline
and other properties, but less powerful. It consists of a white
brittle mass, of fibrous texture, melting at any heat above red-
ness, having a most corrosive taste and action upon animal
matter, dissolving readily both in water and alcohol, attracting
carbonic acid when exposed to the atmosphere, but scarcely
any water, and falling thereby into an efflorescent carbonate.
With tallow, oils, wax, and rosin, it forms soap. It also dis-
solves hair, wool, silk, horn, alumina, silica, sulphur, and some
of the metallic sulphurets. It contains of
Water, 22.34
Sodium, 77.66
100.00
Soda is constantly found as one of the essential ingredients
in the ash of plants, performing, in the economy of vegetation,
the same functions as potash. In the animal kingdom, it occurs
abundantly as a silicate, but especially in the form of a chlo-
ride of sodium (common salt). The nitrate, (cubic nitre,)
which is an important manure, is obtained in abundance, par-
ticularly in Atacama and Taracapa, in Peru, where it is found
in immense deposits. Soda is also extracted from the ashes of
salsola and salicornia on the south coasts of France and
Spain, in Portugal and the Canary Islands, as well as from
those of the fuci of Holland and the northern coast of France.
The crude soda obtained from the former is called " barilla,"
and that resulting from the latter is known by the name of
" varac" (kelp).
Soda, like lime and potash, is applied to the land, as a fertil-
iser, in several combinations, and in a variety of forms, some
of them natural and others artificially prepared, the nature,
composition and application of which are as follows : —
Carbonatr f Soda. — Th.3 carbonate c '•' soda of commerce oc-
MINERAL MANURES. 165
curs in various states, in crystals, lumps, or in crude powder
called "soda ash." It exists in small quantities in certain min-
eral waters, and frequently occurs in slender needles upon
damp walls, produced by the action of lime upon the common
salt present in the mortar. In the province of Sukena, in Africa,
is a mineral stratum of sesqui-ca.rbons.te of soda, of such thick-
ness as to allow it to be employed as a building stone. It con-
tains 37 per cent, of soda, 38 per cent, of carbonic acid, and 2^
per cent, of sulphate of soda, the remainder being water. In
Mexico and South America, mineral carbonate of soda is also
extracted from the earth in great abundance, sometimes known
under the name of urao. But the carbonate of soda is more
frequently obtained by lixiviating the ashes of marine plants,
or by exposing the sulphate of soda in combination with lime
and sawdust to the action of strong heat. It may also be ob-
tained by dissolving common salt in water, with litharge and
chalk. Carbonate of soda, when pure, dissolves in 2 parts of
cold water, and in less than its own weight in that which is
not. When dry, it contains of
Carbonic acid, 41.42
Soda, 58.58
100.00
In a crystallised state, 100 parts are constituted as follows: —
Carbonic acid, 15.43
Soda, 21.81
Water, 62.76
100.00
The dry soda ash, or crude carbonate of soda, produced from
the decomposition of common salt, such as is commonly em-
ployed for agricultural purposes, contains of
Chloride of sodium, 13.94
Carbonate of soda, 38.59
Sulphate of soda, 14.31
Caustic soda, , 16.60
Carbonate of lime, (chalk,) 10.26
Peroxide of iron, 2.74
Soluble silica, 1.55
i-oss and impurities, 2.04
156 FOSSIL. SALINE AMD
Soda ash, applied at the rate of 100 Ibs. per acre, will be
found beneficial to barley, oats, beans, carrots, and celery, as
well as for the destruction of insects, and the restoration of the
plants by means of its application, after suffering from their
ravages. Its effects also continue to the subsequent crops.
Bi-Carbonate of Soda. — This salt is contained in solution in
the waters of many lakes, streams, and springs, in various parts
of the world. When pure, it consists of
Carbonic acid, 58.58
Soda, 41.42
100.00
There can be no doubt that the waters of such springs are
fitted to promote the fertility of pasture lands, to which they
may be applied either by artificial irrigation, or by the spon
taneous flow from their natural outlets. In such cases, the
springs may be expected to contain some alkaline or other
natural ingredients, which the soil is unable to supply to the
plants that grow upon it, either in sufficient abundance, or with
sufficient rapidity. — Johnston.
Camtic Soda. — When a solution of the common carbonate of
soda of the shops is boiled with quicklime, it is deprived of its
carbonic acid, and like the carbonate of potash, is brought into
the caustic state, in which it destroys animal and vegetable
substances, and, unless very dilute, is injurious to animal and
vegetable life. When common salt is mixed with quicklime in
compost heaps, it is deprived by the lime of a portion of its
chlorine, and is partially converted into this caustic soda. The
action of the soda, in this state, is similar to that of caustic pot-
ash. Not only does it readily supply soda to the growing plant,
to which soda is necessary, but it also acts upon certain other
substances that the plants require, so as to render them sol-
uble, and to facilitate the.r entrance into the roots. To the
presence of soda, in this caustic state, the efficacy of such com-
posts of common salt and lime in promoting vegetation, is in
part to be ascribed.
'MINERAL MANURES. 157
Chloride of Sodium. — This substance is described under the
head of COMMON SALT, which see.
Crenate and Apocrenate of Soda. — See CRENIC and APOCRENIC
ACIDS, under the head of " Liquid Manures."
Nitrate of Soda. — Nitrate of soda, which is also known by the
names of "cubic nitre," and "cubic petre," is chiefly obtained
from Peru, where immmense deposits of it occur in thick strata,
in Atacama and Taracapa. It consists of
Nitric acid,. 63.40
Soda, 36.60
100.00
and is very soluble and deliquescent, requiring but 3 parts of
water, at 60° F., for solution. It may be applied to land pre-
cisely in the same manner as saltpetre, and with similar effects.
As there is but little evidence of this salt entering into the
composition of our common cultivated crops, there is but a
slight probability of its being a direct food of the plants to
which it is usually applied. The only common exception is
that of barley, in which a minute portion of this nitrate is
found to exist. Its application, as well as that of saltpetre, to
grass, renders it much more attractive to live stock, which, if
turned into the field only partially manured with either, will
almost invariably resort to those parts of the land dressed with
these salts. This is one argument in favor of the conclusion
that they are absorbed in minute quantities by the crops to
which they are applied.
The effect of cubic nitre, as a fertiliser for heavy soils, ap-
pears to be rather more favorable than that of saltpetre. Yet,
it is stated that, in a majority of cases, both of these salts have
been found much more valuable as top-dressings for light lands
than for stiff, heavy soils. It is also a very valuable manure
for light lands, exhausted by repeated croppings, particularly
on soils that have been over manured with lime.
As nitrogen is of great advantage to the cereal grains ap-
plied in the form of, or rather in conjunction with, saline matter,
158 FOSSIL, SALINI', AND
those substances richest in this element have the mast ben-
eficial action on the crop. Hence, nitrate of soda and sulphate
and muriate of ammonia are superior in their effects to nitrate
of potash. They give a deeper green to the plants, and, year
after year, are more to be depended upon in the production of
luxuriant and healthy growth.
Applied to barley or oats, broadcast, at the rate of 140 Ibs
per acre, finely divided as possible, soon after the young plants
begin to show themselves above ground, the nitrate of soda is
attended with most excellent effects. The clover, also, which,
in many instances, is sown with barley, is benefittcd by the ap-
plication of this .salt in a marked degree.
It has been observed, too, that the effect of cubic nitre upon
young wheat plants, when applied on clayey soils, at the rate
of 140 Ibs. per acre, as well as those which are sandy, has
been excellent, not only in producing a very deep-green color,
but in showing a considerable rankness of growth.
Applied to Swedish turnips and potatoes, at the rate of
168 Ibs. per acre, this salt causes the roots or tubers to be much
finer, richer, and more productive than those growing near them
not thus dressed. But from trials made with the same propor-
tions, on mangold wurzel, carrots, spinach, cauliflowers, aspa-
ragus, and onions, but very little, if any difference will be ob-
served between those thus manured, and those which are not.
Phosphates of Soda. — When the common soda of the shops is
added to a solution of phosphoric acid in water, till efferves-
cence ceases, and the solution is evaporated to dryness, phos-
phate of soda is formed, and by the subsequent addition of as
much more phosphoric acid — ii-phosphate. When pure, the
phosphate of soda contains of
Phosphoric acid, 5IS.30
Soda, 46.70
:oo.oo
The &i-phosphate, according to Professor Johnston, consists of
Phosphoric acid, 69.54
Soda, 30.46
100.00
MINERAL MANURES. 159
These salts occur more or less abundantly in the ash of nearly
all plants ; they are occasionally also detected in the soil, and
one or other of them is almost always present in urine and
other animal manures. As we know from theory that these
compounds must be grateful to plants, we are justified in ascrib-
ing a portion of the efficacy of animal manures, in promoting
the growth of vegetables, to the presence of these phosphates,
as well as to that of the phosphates of potash. They are not
known to occur iti the mineral kingdom in any large quantity,
neither are they articles of manufacture. Hence, their direct
action upon vegetation has not hitherto been made the subject
of separate experiment.
Silicate of Soda. — See SILICATES of POTASH and SODA, under
the head of "Potash."
Sulphate of Soda. — Sulphate of soda, or Glauber's salt, is
usually manufactured from common salt by pouring upon it
diluted sulphuric acid, (oil of vitriol,) and applying heat. Mu-
riatic acid, (spirit of salt,) is given off in the form of vapor, and
sulphate of soda remains behind. It may also be prepared,
though less economically, by adding the common soda of the
shops to diluted sulphuric acid as long as any effervescence ap-
pears. When pure, in a dry state, it contains of
Sulphuric acid, 56.18
Soda, 43.82
100.00
This well-known salt is met with in variable quantify in the
ashes of nearly all plants, and is diffused in minute proportion
through most soils. The beneficial effect which it has been
observed to exercise on the growth, especially of such plants
as are known to contain a considerable portion of sulphuric
acid, is very apparent in red clover, vetches, peas, &c. And
as this salt can be obtained at a low price, in the dry state, it
has been recommended to the practical farmer as likely to be
extensively useful as a manure for certain crops and on certain
160 FOSSIL, SALINE ANi
soils. The kind of crops and soils have AS yet, in great m< as.
ure, to be determined by practical trials.
Sulphuret <>f Sodium. — When sulphate of soda is mixed with
sawdust, and heated in a furnace, the oxygen of the salt is sepa-
rated, and stilphuret of sodium is produced. By a similar
treatment, sulphate of potash is converted into sulphuret of po-
tassium. These compounds consist of sulphur and metallic
sodium or potassium only. They do not occur extensively in
nature, and are not manufactured for sale ; but there is reason
to believe that they would materially promote the vegetation of
such plants as contain much sulphur in combination with pot-
ash or soda. The sulphuret of sodium is present in variable
quantity in the refuse lime of the alkali works, and might be
expected to aid the other substances of which it chiefly con-
sists, in contributing to the more rapid growth of pulse and
clover crops.
SOOT.
THIS is a complicated and variably-mixed substance, usuall,
produced by the combustion of wood and of mineral coal. Its
composition, and consequently its effects, as a fertiliser, must
vary with the nature and quality of the fuel, and the manner
in which it is burned, as well as with the height and structure
of the chimney or apparatus in which it is collected. The
following is an analysis made in 1826, by Braconnot, which
obviously relates to the soot of a wood fire, and is, besides, be-
hind the present state of chemical knowledge. It was found
to consist, in 1,000 parts, of
Ulmic acid ? 302.0
A reddish-brown soluble substancs, containing nitro- ^9000
gen, and yielding mnmonia when heated, j
Asbolinc, 5.0
Carbonate of limp, with a trace of magnesia, (proba- ( ^ «g g
bly derived in part fiom the sides of the chimney,). >
Acetate of lime, 56.5
Sulphate of lime, (gypsum,) 50.0
Acetate of mugne.^iu, . 5J
MINERAL MANURES. ItJl
Phosphate of lime, with a trace of iron, 15.0
Chloride of potassium, 3.6
Acetate of potash, 41.0
Acetate of ammonia, 2.0
Silica, (sand,) 9.5
Charcoal powder, 38.5
Water, 125.0
1000.0
As the soot of fire wood is somewhat limited in its supply, 1
shall confine the remainder of my remarks on this subject to
that produced from mineral coal, which, with little exertion on
the part of chimney sweeps, cooks, &c., in cities and large towns,
could be obtained in considerable quantities, and sold to farm-
ers for manure.
The composition of the soot of mineral coal will vary, of
course, with the kind of coal used for fuel, and with the cir-
cumstances under which it is burned. From whatever variety
it is derived, it will contain a number of organic as well as in-
organic bodies, including a considerable proportion of the coal
ashes, which have been carried up and lodged in the chimney
by the draught. One of its most prominent ingredients is the
large amount of ammonia it contains. Besides this, it yields
the phosphates, sulphates, carbonates, and chlorides of lime,
potash, soda, iron, and of magnesia, which are the principal
inorganic ingredients, and show that soot is quite a powerful
manure.
The source of the ammonia, unquestionably is to be sought
for chiefly in the nitrogen present in the coal, if bituminous in
its character. The proportions of this ingredient vary, ac-
cording tc Professor Johnston, from }th of 1 per cent, to 2 per
cent, of the whole weight of the coal. Ammonia, however,
may also be formed from the nitrogen of the air as it passes
through the red-hot cinders of the fire.
Some kinds of mineral coal contain from $ of 1 per cent, to
3 per cent., and even more of sulphur. As this consumes and
ascends the flue, part of it, at least is expected to be found in
some form or other in the soot. From this circumstance, the
162 FOSSIL, SALINE IND
economical value of .his fertiliser to the farmer depends in a
great degree upon the sulphate of lime, (gypsum,) as well as
upon the sulphate of ammonia it contains. The properties of
these salts, however, vary ; but ihe latter often amounts to as
much as 10 per cent, of the whole weight of the soot, and may
even rise to as high as 30 per cent, of crystallised sulphate of
ammonia. The peculiar action of soot, therefore, in promoting
growth and verdure is explained chiefly by the presence of this
ingredient; while its varying value in different localities is
most probably due to the unequal proportions in which this
sulphate occurs. In very dry seasons, this ammonia causes
injury, and often diminishes the crop. Like rape dust, and sa-
line substances in general, soot seems to require moist weather,
or a soil naturally moist, to bring all its virtues out.
Soot is commonly applied, as a top-dressing, either alone, or
is compounded with some other substance, when it gives a
beautiful dark-green color to grass and grain, and on many
soils, very materially increases the yield. When employed
alone, from \'2 to 100 bushels per acre are regarded as a suf-
ficient dose, according to the quality of the soot, the nature of
the crop, and the state of fertility of the hind.
Mixed with chloride of sodium, soot has remarkable effects
on certain crops, as is noted under the head of "Common
Salt." It may also be composted with African or Patagonian
guano with excellent effects, but should never be mixed with
vood ashes, caustic potash, scda, nor lime.
SULPHUR.
SULPHUR is a substance too well known to require any de
tailed description. In an uncombined state, it occurs chiefly
in volcanic countries, particularly in Sicily, Italy, and Iceland,
where it is found native, but it may sometimes be observed in
the form of thin pellicles on the surface of stagnant waters, or
of mineral springs, which are naturally charged with sulphur-
ous vapors. In this state, it is not known materially to infill-
MINERAL MANURES. 163
ence the natural vegetation of any part of the globe. It has
been employed, however, with some advantage in Germany, as
a top-dressing, for clover and other crops, to which gyp»am is
generally applied.
Sulphur is present in combination with numerous metals
throughout the mineral kingdom, and is found in all vegetables
containing albumen, casein, and other analogous bodies. It
is insoluble in water, and at 300° F., it takes fire in the open
air, and burns with a pale-blue flame. At 600° F., it is con-
verted into vapor, which may be condensed in close vessels,
unchanged, forming the flowers of sulphur of commerce
TRAP ROCKS.
OF trap rocks, there are several varieties, the most important
of which arc distinguished by the names of "greenstone,"
" serpentine," and " basalt."
Greenstones consist of a mixture more or less intimate of
feldspar and hornblende, or feldspar and augite. They are dis-
tinguished from the granites by the absence of mica and
quartz, and by the presence of the hornblende or augite, often
in equal, and not unfrcquently in greater quantity than the
feldspar.
According to the analysis of a sample as given in the " Natu-
ral History of the State of New York," it contains of
Silica, 57.25
Alumina, 25.50
Lime, 2.75
Magnesia, ?
Soda, 8.10
Iron and manganese, 3.50
Water, 3.00
100.00
The composition, however, of greenstones is extremely va
riable ; but all< of them are known to contain alkalies and al
kaline earths ; and it is owing to this circumstance that green-
164
FOSSIL, SALINE AND
stone soils are remarkably fertile, so inucn so th? t they may
often be employed to increase the fertility of those less fav-
ored. In the vicinity of Crown Point, Lake Champlain, New
York, according to Professor Emmons, there is a trap dyke
which contains 40 to 50 per cent, of the phosphates, which, if
abundant, would well pay for crushing and employing it as a
manure.
Augile is a mineral having much resemblance to hornblende,
and, like it, occurring of various colors. In the trap rocks, it
is usually of a dark green, approaching to black. It generally
contains much lime and oxide of iron in the state of silicates.
The composition of two varieties compared with that of basal-
tic hornblende is as follows: —
1
Black augite
from Sweden.
Augite from the
lava of Vesuvius.
Basaltic
hornblende.
53.36
50.90
40.24
22.19
22.96
12.24
4.99
14.43
1374
17.38
6.25
14.59
Prot-oxide of manganese,
O.U9
5.37
".33
1".92
98.01
'.'9.91
97.06 •
The predominance of this mineral, (augite,) or of hornblende,
in the greenstone rocks, must necessarily cause a very material
difference in the nature of the soils produced from their decay,
compared with those which are formed from the granitic rocks
in which feldspar is the predominating mineral ingredient.
Basalt consists of a mixture, in variable proportions, of aug-
ite, magnetic oxide of iron, and zeolite, with or without feldspar.
In addition to augite, magnetic iron, and zeolite, many basalts
contain also a. considerable portion of certain varieties of feld-
spar, especially of one to which the name of " nepheline " has
been given.
Basalt differs in appearance from greenstone, chiefly by the
darkness of its colour, and by the minuteness of^the particles
ot which it is composed, which; in general, cannot be distin-
MINERAL MANURES. 165
guished by the naked eye. The analysis of a specimen given
in the "Natural History of the State of New York," yielded of
Silica, 46.50
Alumina, 16.75
Lime, 9.50
Magnesia, 2.25
Soda, 2.60
Iron and manganese, 20.12
Water, 2.00
97.72
Serpentine is a greenish-yellow mineral, consisting of silica in
combination with magnesia and a little iron, and occasionally
a few pounds in the hundred of lime or alumina. The distin-
guishing ingredient is the magnesia, which generally approaches
to 40 per cent, of the whole weight of the mineral. Rocks of
serpentine are generally mixed with magnetic iron ore, and
with portions of other minerals in greater or less abundance.
According to Professor Shepard, it consists of
Silica, 40.08
Magnesia, 41.40
Water, 15.67
Prot-oxide of iron, 2.70
99.85
In New York and a part of New England, however, it would
appear that the serpentine exists under different conditions.
Thus, in St. Lawrence, Jefferson, Essex, and Warren counties,
New York, it is intermixed with lime, which disintegrates more
rapidly than the serpentine. The soil, therefore, must contain
a sufficient quantity of lime. However this may be, there is
always a luxuriant growth of vegetation about the beds of this
mineral. The serpentine hills of New Englan 1 are not so pro-
ductive, however, as those of New York.
From what has been stated in the forgoing remarks, it will
be perceived how exactly the study of the composition of the
different varieties of the trap rocks explains the observed dif-
166 FOSSIL, SALINE AND MINERAL MANURES.
fercnces in the quality of the soils derived from them. When
the minenils they contain abound in lime, the soils they yield
are fertile ; when they predominate and lime is wanting, tho
soils are inferior, sometimes scarcely capable of cultivation.
The granites, it has been shown, abound in potash; and, with
the exception of the Syenites, they rarely contain lime, and
their soils are generally poor. Let them be mixed with the
trap soils, and they are enriched. This would seem fairly and
clearly to imply that the fertility of the one is mainly due to
the presence of lime, and the barrenness of the other to the
absence of this earth.
Zeolite is a term applied to a great number of minerals which
occur in the basalts, and often intermixed with the greenstone
rocks. They differ from feldspar in their greater solubility in
acids, and by generally containing lime, where the latter con-
tains potash or soda.
It may be stated, indeed, as the most important agricultural
distinction, between the granitic and the true trap rocks, that
the latter abound in lime, while in the former, it is often entirely
absent. If, in a greenstone, only one fourth of its weight con-
sist of augitc, every 20 tons of the rock may contain one ton
of lime. If in a basalt, the augite and zeolite amount to only
two thirds of its weight, every nine tons may contain a ton of
lime. The practical farmer cannot fail to conclude that a soil
formed from such rocks must possess very different agricul-
tural capabilities from the soils already described as being
formed frcm the decomposition of the granites.
VEGETABLE MANURES.
BARK OF TREES AND SHRTTBS.
npHE rind, or covering, of the woody parts of a tree, common-
ly called the " bark," is composed of three distinct layers. The
epidermis, or outermost layer, in some trees, like the plum, cher-
ry, birch, &c., is a thin, tough, membrane, when young, but
gradually becomes thicker and rougher as the tree advances in
age. That of the oak or hemlock spruce is coarser in its tex-
ture, and cracks as the tree grows older, while a new epidermis
is forming, giving it a rough or ragged surface, and is finally
pushed off to decay. The middle layer is called the paren-
chyma, and is usually comparatively tender, succulent, and of a
dark-green color. The inner or cortical layer, sometimes called
the H6er, consists of thin membranes encircling each other, which
seem to increase with the age of the tree. It is generally known
by its light color, great flexibility, toughness, and durability.
In its structure, it consists of long, minute tubes, through which
the juices, or generative sap, descend, from whence all the
woody parts of the tree originate as they are received from the
leaves.
The miaule layer of the bark, in its interstices, contains nu-
merous cells, which are filled with juices or other matter, vary-
ing in their qualities, some, as in the oak, remarkable for their
astringency, while others abound in tannin, resin, mucilage,
168 VEGETABLE MANURES.
essential oils, and alkaline or other earthy salts. Hence, the
difference in the chemical constituents of the bark of different
species of trees, which not only vary with the season of the
year and their age, but in the different parts of the same tree.
As the chief source of bark, to be applied as manure, is the
refuse of our tanneries, I give below an analysis of the ash of
hemlock spruce. (Abies canadensis,') the kind most in use in this
country, as published in the "Natural History of the State of
New York," which will very nearly show the composition of
those of the bark of other trees employed for the purpose: —
Bark of trunk. Bark of ttoigs.
Potash, 2.86 1.58
Soda, 3.47 1.33
Chloride of sodium, 0.03 0.99
Sulphuric acid, 3.48. 4.47
Carbonic acid, 24.33 24.00
Lime, 31.48 31.05
Magnesia, 0.01 0.30
Phosphate of pur-oxide of iron, 1.49 1.55
Phosphate of lime, 16.45 18.87
Phosphate of magnesia, 5.17 1.28
Organic matter, 3.48 4.10
Insoluble silica, 13.40 0.40
Coal, 152 0.48
106.87 90.40
It is obvious from the above analysis that a large supply of
inorganic matter, essential to the growth of plants, may be sup-
plied from refuse tan bark. Although it requires a long time
to undergo decomposition or putrefaction, it certainly might be
mixed with farmyard manure, at the rate of 1 bushel of tan to
4 of dung, with considerable advantage. Mr. Robert Bryson,
of Virginia, has been experimenting for several years upon
this substance with the view of rendering it available as a
manure. The plan which he adopts is, to cover a flat surface
of ground with the exhausted bark to a depth of 1 or 2 feet
Over this, he spreads a layer 2 or 3 inches thick of quicklime,
and over this again ; stratun of tan, and so on. alternately,
VEGETABLE MANURES. 169
layers of lime and bark, until the pile is completed.. He then
lets the compost, thus prepared, remain for two years, at the
end of which time, he finds himself in possession of a bed of
most valuable manure. Its effects upon the land, it is stated.
can hardly be surpassed, either for the richness of its product
or the durability of its fertility. If a layer of powdered char-
coal or plaster, (gypsum.) were spread over the top of the pile,
1 or 2 inches thick, it would doubtless retain a large share of
the ammonia and other fertilising gases as they escape from
the decomposing mass, and increase thereby the value of the
manure.
Spent tan bark, in a half-putrefied or even fresh state, when
applied as a top-dressing to grass lands, is attended with excel-
lent results; and in cases where transportation is an objection,
even its ashes or charcoal, would be valuable to the farmer
from the quantity of earthy carbonates and phosphates they
contain. When spread on a light soil, between the rows of
strawberry plants, about an inch thick, it not only keeps the
ground moist and the fruit clean, but checks the growth of
weeds, and appears to be the material, above all others, in which
this plant most delights. Doubtless from this hint, it might be
applied to other plants with favorable results.
CHARCOAL OF WOOD AND OTHER VEGETABLE MATTER.
WOOD charcoal is a well-known black, brittle substance, ob-
tained by the calcination of the trunks, roots, or branches of
trees in a place excluded from the free access of atmospheric
air, which otherwise would cause it entirely to consume.
When heated in the air, it burns with but little flame, and,
with the exception of the ash which is left, it entirely disap-
pears. By this process of burning, it is converted into a kind
of air, known among chemists by the name of carbonic acid,
which ascends as it is formed, and mingles with the atmos-
phere; but when burned in a close apartment, accumulates on
the floor, by its greater weight, forming a dense stratum, of a
8
170 VEGETABLE MANURES
depth in proportion to the quantity produced. Charcoal is in-
soluble in water, destroys the oder, color, and taste of many
substances; and hence, its use in the arts in the purification
of tainted meats and putrid waters. It also separates from
water any decayed animal matters or coloring substances
which it may hold in solution. Hence, its use in filters for
purifying and sweetening impure river or spring waters, or for
clarifying syrups and oils. In or upon the soil, charcoal, for
a time, will act in the same manner, will absorb from the air
moisture and gaseous substances, and from the rain and flowing
waters, organised matters of various kinds, any of which it
will be in a condition to yield * the plants that grow around
it, when they are such as are likely to contribute to their
growth.
The following exhibits the number of volumes of the differ-
ent gases which were absorbed in the course of 24 hours, by
one volume of charcoal, in the experiments of M. de Saus-
sure : —
Ammoniacal gas, 90.00
Muriatic acid gas, 85.00
Sulphurous acid, 65.00
Sulphurated hydrogen, 55.00
Nitrous oxide, 40.00
Carbonic acid gas, 35.00
Bi-carburetcd hydrogen, 35.00
Carbonic oxide, 9.42
Oxygen gas, 9-25
Nitrogen, 7.50
Carbureted hydi ogen, 5.00
Hydrogen gas, 1.75
Charcoal has the property also of absorbing disagreeable
odors in a very remarkable manner. Hence, animal food keeps
longer sweet when placed in contact with it; hence, also, veg-
etable substances, containing much water, such as potatoes, are
more completely preserved by the aid of a quantity of char-
coal. It exhibits, also, the still more singular property of ex-
tracting from water a portion of the saline substances it may
happen to hold in solution, and thus all iwing it to escape in »
VEGETABLE MANURES. 171
less impure) form. The decayed, (half-carbonised.) roots of
grass, which have been long subjected to irrigation, may act in
one or all of these ways on the more or less impure water by
which they are irrigated; and thus gradually arrest and col-
lect the materals whuh are fitted to promote the growth of the
coming crop.
In or near large cities, charcoal is made of green wood, by
distilling it in close iron vessels for the purpose of collecting a
strong vinegar, (pyroligneous acid,) which is thrown off by the
calcination. A fine charcoal remains in the vessels, and is
thus obtained for commercial use. On the farm and in the
forest, the production of charcoal must be done on a cheaper
and more extensive scale. It is usually prepared by cutting
pieces of wood, from 1 inch to 6 inches in diameter, in lengths
varying from 2 to 4 feet, forming them into a conical pile, and
covering them with turf, clay, or loam, to exclude the air, leaving
only two or three small holes at the bottom of the pile for light-
ing the wood, and a few others still smaller at the topv to admit
the escape of the smoke. The wood is now kindled, and the
combustion slowly allowed to proceed for eight or ten days,
more or less, until the volatile matter of the wood is driven off,
when the air holes are stopped up with earth or clay, in order
to arrest the further combustion of the pile. The whole is then
allowed to remain until the fire goes out, after which, the
heap is broken up, and the charcoal raked out and assorted for
sale or use. In cases of very high winds occurring during the
carbonisation of the wood, the air holes at the windward ape
closed with earth or clay, to prevent the too rapid burning of
the mass; but in the process of carbonisation, however, care
should be taken to let the vapors freely <. scape, especially to-
wards the end of the operation ; for when the carbonic acid gas
is re-absorbed, it greatly impairs the combustibility of the coal,
and also renders it less fit for agricultural purposes.
Charcoal varies in its qualities, according to the nature of the
substances from which it is prepared. That made from the dry
wood of the trees of this country most commonly employed
172 VEGETABLE MANURES.
for the purpose, yields the following per-centage, by weight, and
the number of pounds of dry coals in a heaped Winchester
bushel, respectively : —
Per cent. Pounds per bushd-
Pitch pine, (Pinus rigida,) 26.76 15.68
Shell-bark hickory, (Vary a alia,) 26.22 32.89
White ash, (fr'ruxinus americanaj) 25.74 28.78
American chestnut, (Castanea amm'care«,).25.29 19.94
Pign'it hickory, (Carya porcina,) 25.22 33.52
Jersey pine, (Pinus inopg,) 24.88 20.26
White elm, ( Ulm us amcricana,) 24.85 18.79
White pine, (Pinus strobu.i,) 24.35 15.42
Short-leaved yellow pine, (I'inus mitif,). ..23.75 17.52
Tliick shell-bark hickory, (Carya siUcala,) .22.90 26.78
Sassafras, (Laurus sassafras,) 22.58 22.47
Black walnut, (Julians nigra,) 22.56 22.00
Red oak, (Qucrcus rubra,) 2243 21.05
Pin oak, (Quercus paluatris.) 22.22 22.94
Tulip tree, (lAriodcndron tulipifera,) 21.81 20.15
Wild cherry, (Cerasus virrrincnsis,) 21.70 21.63
White oak, (Quercus alba^) 21.62 21.10
Big laurel, (Magnolia grandiflora,) 21.59 21.36
Sugar maple, (.?crr saccharinum,) 21.43 22.68
Dog wood, (Cornus Jlorida,) 21.00 28.94
Red-flowered maple, (Acer rubrum,) 20.64 19.47
Sweet gum, (lAquidambar styraciflua,) .... 19.69 21.73
White beech, ( Pag-us sylvcstris,) 19.02 27.26
Black birch, (Bctula lenta,) 19.40 22.52
White birch, (Bctula populifolia,) 19.00 19.15
Iron wood, (Carpinm amcricana,) 19.00 23.94
As charcoal is one of the most undecomposable substances in
organic nature, it may be kept for centuries without change,
and, therefore, is not very subject to decay. The only materials
that it will yield to plants are certain salts it contains, amongst
which is the silicate of potash. It is known, however, to pos-
sess the power of absorbing gases within its pores, particularly
ammonia and carbonic acid. And it is in virtue of this power,
in a degree, that the rootlets of plants are supplied by charcoal,
precisely as in the case of humus, with an atmosphere about
them of carbonic aci 1, which is renewed again as quickly as it
is abstracted.
VEGETABLE MANURES. 173
Charcoal may be aoi lied with advantage, in the powdered
state, in the form of a top-dressing. About 40 bushels to the
tcre, sown over grass lands, or among young plants, as t'irnips,
has been found, will produce an increased yield. The suc-
cess, however, will depend upon the state of fertility of the
soil and its wants. Wherever an increased supply of ammo-
nia, escaping from the air, the earth, or from any putrescent
matter, is desirable to be caught and retained, charcoal will
always do good. The fresh-burnt article, also, contains much
saline matter, as stated above, that will be dissolved by rains,
dews, or melted snows, and contribute to the enrichment of the
soil.
The best, and perhaps the only advisable mode of using char-
coal is, to compost the powder with night soil, urine, blood, and
other putrescent bodies, either liquid or solid. By this method,
it tends to absorb or dry up these fluids, and retain the ammo-
nia formed during their decomposition or decay. Such com-
posts, when added to the soil, retain the virtue of these bodies
much longer than when they are used alone. Besides its ab-
sorbent action, this fertiliser will loosen tough soils, and in-
crease their warmth by its black color, in consequence of an
augmented absorption of the rays of the sun. It also adds
to the tilth of stiff, clayey soils, by rendering them warmer,
more open, and dry.
It has further been shown by numerous gardeners, that char-
coal powder, kept moist with rain water, furnishes a good me-
dium, or soil, for growing many flowers, and is capable of sus-
taining vigorous vegetation, and that slips, when planted in it,
readily take root.
The question is often asked by the farmer, "Where am I to
get so much charcoal without a greater expense than will prove
profitable to my land and crops?" In most parts of the United
States, perhaps with the exception of the prairies, it can be
economically obtained from one or other of the following
sources, namely, by burning in ordinary "coal pits;" from old
"coal hearths:" from coal yards, or where charcoal has been
174 VEGETABLE MANURES.
stored ; from the refuse of various manufactories ; or from rail-
roads, where the locomotives discharge the cinders of their
furnaces.
Again, there has been some difficulty heretofore in reducing
coarse charcoal to a powdered state. This can easily be done
by means of a cast-iron bark mill, such as is used by tanners
in almost every neighborhood throughout the land ; if one of
these mills cannot be obtained, the coal may be pulverised in
the old-fashioned bark mill, which can readily be fixed up with
an old mill stone, turning around a post on a platform made of
planks or flat stones, and crushed to a powder with the aid of
a horse.
Charred Peat. — It must be obvious from the preceding re
marks, that peat, which is little else than an accumulation of
woody fibre, if reduced to charcoal, would be of eminent service
as an absorbent of blood, urine, night soil, and other feculent
matter, and consequently would form a valuable manure. Dr.
Anderson, chemist to the Highland Agricultural Society of Scot-
land, has lately tried several experiments with peat, both raw
and reduced to charcoal. He finds that the charcoal is a pow-
erful deodoriser, (having the power of removing fetid smells
from water, meats, and manures,) but not an absorber of am-
monia. The greatest amount of ammonia he found to have been
taken up by filtering putrid urine through it, was yffth of 1 per
cent. The peat, itself, when dried at 212° F., was found to ab-
sorb 2 per cent, of ammonia, while still dry to the touch. After
exposure to the air in a thin layer, for 15 days, it retained 1-J- per
cent. This shows the invaluable properties of the article un-
charred ; and if the results of that chemist are correct, we must
give up the use of peat charcoal, as an absorbent of ammonia,
and employ it only as a deodoriser. In the preparation of this
material, however, I shall limit my remarks to that "rough-
and-ready " mode of management, which is most likely to suit
the individual farmer ; but where any one may possess a peat
meadow from which he might derive an annual income from
the pule of the article after it is cha'rrd, and where extreni"
VEGETABLE MANURES. 175
economy in the cost of its production is of moment, ;ther and
very superior methods of burning it might be pointed out, as
practised in Great Britain, Ireland, and France by means of
kilns. The method, therefore, to which I shall confine my re-
marks, is as follows : —
After having collected a sufficient supply of dried peat, a
quantity is first thrown over a small heap of brush or other
dry fuel, with an aperture left on the windward side for lighting
the fire. As soon as the heap is ignited, and the lire gets good
hold, more peat is laid on, and is continued to be supplied at
regular intervals. In tending the heaps, the fire must never be
allowed to make its appearance on the outside, but must be
sufficiently covered to prevent the free access of the air to the
combustion which is gradually going on. However, if too large
a quantity be laid on at once, there will be some danger of
putting out the fire ; more particularly when the peat is moist
or wet, or the fire but recently lighted. The fire should not
continue burning many days ; for if it does, the heat will accu-
mulate from the peat with which it is supplied, so that there
will be great difficulty in extinguishing the lire in proper time.
Before putting out the fire, a quantity of the dust, or fine peat,
from which the large pieces have been sifted, or screened, may
be laid over the heap, by means of which, all the peat that
has been put on previously becomes charred, the fire being
prevented by the dust from breaking out at the surface.
The heap is next pulled down by means of large iron rakes
or hooks, and a sufficient quantity of water thrown on the fire
to extinguish it altogether. If there be much difficulty in put-
ting out the fire, the heap may be turned over, and water ap-
plied, as the process of turning proceeds. There is no use in
throwing a few buckets of water over the heap, and then allow-
ing the fire to smoulder underneath; for though the outside
may have the appearance of being charred, the fire will con-
tinue to burn in the interior, without giving off much smoke
till it breaks out on the surface, and converts the whole of the
centre of the heap-into ashes. Let it be remembered that peat
176 VEGETABLE MANURES.
charcoal is quite as combustible, and rather more so than peat
itself; so that, when the fire is nearly extinguished on the oui-
side, that which remains within will soon break out again.
When the fire is completely extinguished, the ashes will have
a black or charred appearance, quite different from the reddish
color of the heaps that are allowed to burn out of themselves.
It is preferable to have two heaps burning at the same time,
one on each side of the drying ground ; for, by adopting this
plan, the distance for removing the peat will not be so great as
it would otherwise be by having only one fire.
At the end of the burning season, all the charred peat may
be conveyed to a dry, level spot of ground, to be stored away
till wanted for use. It may be piled up in a triangular form,
resembling the roof a house, and then thatched with straw to
keep out the wet. Should the heap be placed on a wet spot, a
trench should be dug around it to carry off' the water, which
would otherwise soak into the bottom of the pile.
Charred peat, as a fertiliser, may be applied to the same pur-
poses as powdered charcoal, or other charred vegetable mat-
ter. Mixed with mould during winter, and planted the spring
following with cucumbers or melons, they grow famously, pro-
ducing a heavy crop. The vines or tops strike root freely in
pure charred peat.
Strawberries grow remarkably wjell in charred peat mixed
with the soil.
Fruit trees and grape vines, manured with this material, are
much improved by it, as it not only serves as a fertiliser, but is
also the means of keeping the ground more open or porous ;
and finer-flavored fruit may be expected.
Potatoes manured with charred peat are generally dryer and
more mealy than those grown by farmyard manure. The foli-
age and tops are more compact and firm, the tubers cleaner-
skinned, and freer from the rot.
In flower gardens, peat charcoal will be found invaluable,
inducing, as it does, quick growth, but not overluxuriant, and
consequently plenty of blossoms.
VEGETABLE MANURES. 177
For sweetening cesspools, charred peat, finely powdered, will
be found an excellent deodoriser. One pound of this material
will require ly Ibs. of water to. saturate it; and hence, its great
value as an absorber of blood, night soil, and other feculent
matter.
Charred Sato Dust, Tan Bank, and Apple Pomace. — These three
substances being similar in the size and texture of their frag-
ments, may be treated under the same head. Before attempting
to char them, they should be made thoroughly dry by spreading
them in thin layers on the ground, and exposing them several
days to a hot summer sun. They may then be formed into
conical heaps of any convenient size, and covered with sods,
loam, or clay, with one or more holes left at the bottom of the
windward side for lighting the fire, and a few others gtill small-
er at the top, to admit the escape of the smoke. The interior
of the heap is now kindled by means of a little brush, or other
dry fuel, and the combustion allowed to proceed slowly until
the volatile matter is driven oft', when the air holes should be
stopped with earth or clay, in order to arrest the further burn-
ing of the piles. They may then be allowed to remain until
cold ; or the heaps may be opened with a large iron rake, the
fire extinguished with water, and the whole treated and applied
in the same manner as the charred peat before described.
Charred Bagasse. — In sugar-growing countries, where the
planter cannot immediately obtain carbonaceous matter from
other sources to manure his cane fields, he can procure a sup-
ply by charring a portion of his bagasse. It should first be
made thoroughly dry by spreading it in thin layers on the
ground, exposed several days to a hot sun; then formed into
compact, conical heaps, of a convenient size, covered with
sods, loam, or clay, and afterwards treated in a similar manner
as the tan bark and saw dust, described above. This will prove
far more economical than the wasteful practice of burning the
trash and dissipating all its carbonaceous parts to the air by
combustion, merely for the sake of the small proportion of al.
kaline salts contained in the ash.
8*
i:3 VEGETABLE MANURES.
Charred Weeds. — As regards the charring of farm weeds, it
may not always be convenient to -emove them from the field
where they gro\v. Therefore, in cases where this process is
desirable, and will prove beneficial the most economical meth-
od of disposing of the weeds is to char them on the spot. They
should first be thoroughly dried, and then formed into large,
compact conical heaps, covered with sods, loam, or clay, and
treated in every other respect like the charring of tan bark,
saw dust, or apple pomace, as described in the preceding para-
graphs.
Paring and Burning. — It is obvious, that, in all cases, the
process of burning must waste a certain quantity of vegetable
matter, and can only be profitable where an excess of this
matter renders the soil too ran-k. It must be of eminent service,
also, in reducing to charcoal, or wood ashes, a great accumla-
tion of woody fibre already overrunning the land; for woody
matter, in general, is very slowly reduced to a state of humus,
or vegetable mould, if left to the process of natural decay; nor
is it very rapidly decomposed by caustic lime or other solvents
artificially applied.
Although paring and burning has been much recommended
by many persons, still it requires great limitations and restric-
tions. In some cases, it may be proper, while in the hands of
the unskilful, it may be attended with the most pernicious con
sequences. Mossy and peaty soils, or those covered with
rushes or a sward of coarse, unprofitable herbage, and contain-
ing a superabundance of vegetable matter, with due precaution,
may be subjected 'to this process with beneficial effects. It
may likewise be attended with advantage to strong clayey
soils, fro:ii the effect that burned or half-burned clay has in
rendering such soils more open ^d less tenacious ; in which
cases, the benefit arising fr^.-n the change in the mechanical ar-
rangement of the tilU. would probably more than compensate
for the dissipation of the volatile matter of t-73 ^v»ard. It
would prove more economical, however, when th- :. il requires
to be r&nJered more open, to calcine the clay ://A kilns, and
VEGETABLE MANURES. 179
afterwards spread it on the ground either I y itself or mixed
with lime.
The cases in which burning proves positively injurious are
those of sandy, dry, flinty soils, containing little animal or veg-
etable remains; for it decomposes those constituents which are
already below the minimum proportion, and on the presence
of which, in a limited degree, the productiveness of a soil
depends.
The most speedy way of bringing under tillage a pasture or
meadow, overrun with rushes, is, first to drain it, and then pare
off the grassy and fibrous parts of the thick turf with a hoe or
some other appropriate implement, dry it by means of the sun,
and char it precisely after the manner recommended for peat,
on a preceding page. When burned, the heaps may be spread,
as a top-dressing on the same ground from which the material
was pared ; the field may then be sown with grass seed or
some other suitable crop, and treated the usual way.
Burning without fire is a method by which quicklime is sub-
stituted in its stead. The lime, which must be in its most
caustic state, fresh from the kiln, and obtained from the best
limestone, is laid upon the vegetable surface to be consumed ;
and, before it is weakened by exposure to the air, water is
sprinkled over it, just in sufficient quantity to put it powerfully
into action. This fierce compound will not only consume the
vegetable covering, but will also affect the clay, or other upper
stratum, in a similar manner as if it had been in contact with
fire. This supersedes the trouble which attends burning ; and
in respect to poor soils that would be improved by the twc dis-
tinct operations of "burning" and "liming" by the common
mode, it would doubtless bring them on a par with those of
superior quality.
OOTTON REFUSE.
FARMERS residing in the vicinity of cotton manufactories can
obtain, without much cost, considerable quantities of rejected
cotton, and the waste from the mills, which, from- the following
180 VEGETABLE MANURES.
analysis of .he ash of the fibre, or staple, by Professor Shep-
ard, we are led to suppose would be valuable :n forming com-
posts, or might be applied directly to the soil as a manure: —
Lime and magnesia, 30.31
Potash and (soda?) 21.09
Phosphoric acid, 12.30
Sulphuric acid, 1.22
64.92
The fibre yielded but about 1 per cent, of ash ; consequently,
the principal part of the remainder consisted of about equal
weights of water and carbon, the latter being one of the chief
ingredients of all plants.
COTTON SEED.
THE seeds of cotton abound in a mild oil, and are accounted
very nutritious after the oil is expressed. A bushel of seeds
weighs 30 Ibs., and yields 2£ quarts of oil and 12£ Ibs. of fine
meal. The oil cake is very brittle, and breaks down much
more readily than linseed oil cake. Moistened with water, it
appears to be much less mucilaginous than that substance. Its
taste is not unpleasant, and it is stated that it can be employed
with success in fattening stock.
According to an anlysis of cotton seed made by the authority
last quoted above, 100 parts of the ash contained of
Lime and magnesia, 29.79
Potash and (soda ?) 19.40
Phosphoric acid, 45.35
Sulphuric acid, 1.16
95.70
Dr. Anderson, of Scotland, in the following analysis of cotton-
seed oil cake, pursued the method usually employed for linseed
cake, simply determining those constituents upon which its
feeding value is believed to depend, which were as follows:—
Water, 11.19
Oil, 9.08
Sugar, 10.70
Albuminous compounds, (nitrogen,) 24.69
VEGETABLE MANURES. 181
The cake yielded 5Tcff4ffths per cent, of ash. which contained of
Silica, 1-32
Phosphates, 2.19
Excess of phosphoric acid, 0.15
It would appear from the above information, that the pro-
duction of this cake is of considerable importance to the south-
ern planter, not only on account of its feeding properties, but
its value as a manure. In cases where the seed is not em-
ployed for expressing the oil, it should be carefully saved and
applied broadcast to the land, at the rate of 60 to 100 bushels
to the acre ; or it may be plowed under in the course of the
winter, where it will rot before spring ; or it may be thrown
into heaps, and allowed to heat ; and after the vitality is de-
stroyed, it may be plowed or drilled in, or thrown between the
hills of cotton or corn, and covered with the plow or hoe.
FLAX SKIVES AND LEAVES.
As in all other crops, in the ordinary course of practice, one
or more portions of flax is returned to the soil in manure, whilst
others go off permanently to market or are disposed of some
other way. While the flax plants are approaching maturity,
the greater part of the leaves fall off, and are left on the field
to manure the land. At a convenient time, the grower sepa-
rates the seed from the straw by " rippling," or beating it.
From the seed, the capsule, or husk, is separated by winnow-
ing, and is principally used for feeding cattle and making oil ;
the husks are employed for feeding stock in a similar manner
as hay. But the straw of flax is destined to a more important
purpose. After the separation of the seeds, the stalks are
usually steeped, or soaked, for a certain length of time in
water, a species of fermentation takes place, and the woody
matter of the straw becomes rotten, and is easily detached
from the fibre. At this stage of the process, the stalks are re-
moved from the water, and spread upon the grass to bleach.
Subsequently, by the operation of " breaking," " scutching," 01
182
VEGETABLE MANURES.
"swingling," the woody matter is separated from t.ie fibre, the
all-important part of the plant, and is converted into small
fragments called " boon," or " shives."
In the process of steeping, a large proportion of the nitro-
genous and saline compounds are dissolved, the prepared flax,
consisting of only about 20 per cent, of ligneous matter ; the
fluid, therefo're, in which the flax is steeped, as well as the
shives, should be preserved and used as manure. From care-
ful analysis in England, 100 parts of line flax stalks before
steeping, contained 3T2ff7ffths parts of ash, while 100 parts of the
same flax, after steeping, contained only TnoVns °f * Per cent-
of ash.
The following table exhibits the composition of these ashes
— the third column indicating the amount of mineral matter
separated in the water employed for steeping : —
Ci imposition —
In 4,480 Ibs.,
unsteeped.
In 3,020 Ibs.,
steeped.
1
Dissolved in
the water.
Silica
11.60
11.04
4.27
23.00
31.01
6.15
8.11
31.55
5.39
13.50
4.67
1.11
0.55
5.29
13.77
0.76
1.66
0.50
0.93
6.93
9.93
4.42
17.71
17.24
5.39
6.45
31.05
4.41
13.50
Phosphoric acid,...
Sulphuric acid,
Carbonic acid,
Pur-oxide of iron,. .
Potash,
Soda
Chloride of sodium,
Total,
146.32 ' 29.29 i 117.03
By an examination of the ingredients of the flax straw, be-,
fore steeping, according to the above analysis, and the constit-
uents of a portion of the same after undergoing that process,
a difference, or loss, will be discovered of about |ths of the
whole mineral ingredients, a loss consisting principally, as it
naturally would, of the soluble and most important constitu-
ents. Nearly all the potash, nu.gnesia, and phosphoric acid
have disappeared, whilst what is left, is little else than carbon-
ate of lime, with a small proportion of silica and oxide of iron.
VEGETABLE MANURES. 183
From recent discoveries in the preparation of fax by M.
Chevalier Claussen, it has been ascertained that, not only are
the present modes of steeping inconvenient and unnecessary,
but they are highly injurious, as they impart dark colors to the
fibre, and give it an inequality of strength, which, in the subse-
quent stages of manufacture and bleaching, are difficult to
overcome. Therefore, every possible effort should be made for
the introduction of such modifications of the" process as will
allow something to be returned to the soil, in some form or
other, as a manure.
GREEN MANURES.
GREEN manuring, or the plowing under of green crops in their
living state, attracted the early attention of civilised man, and
has been practised more or less from the time of Xenophon,
who wrote about 400 years before the commencement of our
era. He recommended green plants to be plowed into the soil,
and even that crops should be cultivated for that purpose ; for
these, he says, " enrich the earth as much as dung." The
lupin is named as an excellent manure by most of the early
writers on agriculture, and is cultivated at the present day in
Spain, Italy, ,Tuscany, and the south of France for the purpose
of being plowed into the soil.
The plowing under of green crops is directly opposed to
burning peat, or turf, in regard to intention and effect, and is
particularly serviceable where the basis of vegetable mould is
to be increased. The soil, manured I y them, receives all the
vegetable food contained in the seen sown, the quantity of
which, in peas and buckwheat is not very inconsiderable.
Some plants employed for this purpose, as peas, turnips, clover,
&c., push down their roots into the soil far below the reach of
the ordinary plow, and whatever nutriment they find there, they
suck up and bring to the surface-, in the form of green manure,
and administer it to the growth of other plants, as wheat,
barley, oats, and rye; the principle being to enrich the soil by
184 VEGETABLE MANURES.
selling a quick-growing plant to draw organic matter from the
air, and inorganic from the subsoil, and then plowing it in.
When the green crops are turned into the soil, besides enrich-
ing its staple with fertilising matter, they promote the fermen-
tation and decomposition of woody fibre buried near the sur-
face, which is a useless incurnbrance in an undecayed state, so
far as any immediate effect is concerned. In general, they
.should be plowed under, if possible, when in flower, or at the
time when the ilower is opening; for, in this stage of growth,
they contain the largest quantity of soluble matter.
For poor, light and sandy soils, these green manures do well ;
and also for poor clays, which, however, arc much improved
by having the subsoil burnt, or rather charred, with peat, spent
tan bark, saw dust, apple pomace, or any other cheap fuel.
And as green vegetable matters ferment, or sour, when under-
going decomposition, the land should be limed just before or
soon after plowing under the plants.
The vegetables grown for this purpose should possess the fol-
lowing properties in order to be cultivated with economy, and
attain the desired end : — 1st, They should flourish on poor soils ;
2d, should require but little labor of cultivation ; 3d, have cheap
seed ; 4th, be of quick and sure growth ; 5th, stand all weath-
ers and vermin ; 6th, run their roots deep; 7th, bring up such
inorganic matter from the subsoil as the succeeding crops re-
quire ; 8th, should smother weeds ; and 9th, they should pro-
duce a large quantity of herbage, that will readily decay in
the soil.
The plants best known for the above purposes, may be de-
scribed and compared as follows: —
Jerusalem Artichoke. — The Jerusalem artichoke, (Helianthus
tuber osus,) is one of the plants found by Boussingault to draw
its -nitrogen almost entirely from the air. Hence, k is recom-
mended as an ameliorating ^rop, when plowed under before
the tubers are formed.
This plant may be propagated in most parts of the United
States by sets from the roots, and will grow in any soil moder-
fEGEXABLE MANURES. 185
ately moist, especially such as are sandy and light. The sets
should be planted in early spring, and may be cultivated in a
similar manner as the common potato. As it rather prefers
shade to open culture, it thrives well in orchards ; and instead
of exhausting the land, it is stated that it will produce abun-
dantly for 10 or more years in succession, without manure, even
upon poor soils. It has further been stated, that it does not re-
quire much tilling after it has once been planted ; for it is only
necessary to draw the tops out of the ground, when ripe, the
remaining roots being sufficient to produce the next year's crop,
without resetting ; and thus they continue from year to year
until they die of old age. All these properties seem to render
this plant suitable for orchards ; the pulling up of the tops
opens the ground, while the avoidance of digging, after once
set, will spare the roots of the trees many a wound from the
plow or hoe.
Bokhara Clover. — The celebrated Bokhara or tree clover,
(Melilolus /eucantha major,} is a biennial herbaceous plant of
very striking appearance, 6 to 12 feet high, covered with spikes
of white pea-like blossoms, resembling those of some kinds of
clover, which also shed a sweet perfume. Nature increases the
woody fibre of this plant for support as it elongates its gigan-
tic stem. If, however, it is cut at a height of 2 or 3 feet, it will
be found nearly as succulent as the common red clover.
Mr. Robert Arthur, of Edinburgh, states that no plant what-
ever, within his knowledge, will produce so much weight of
vegetable matter in an equal space and time ; and were it only
for its production, as a fertiliser, it is a boon to the agricultural
world. In the economical formation of manure, he suggests
that it might be liberally supplied with other food during the
summer, to young cattle and pigs, in an open yard, profusely
bedded over with layers of turf, peat, earth, ferns, straw, weeds,
&c., and thereby save much outlay in the purchase of other
manures.
The seed of this clover may be sown in early spring, in
drills, 18 inches asunder, in any part of the United States south
i86 ^ EGETABLE MANURES.
of Pennsyhania. The plants should be kept free from weed*
when young, by scraping them out with a hoe. The crops may
be cut four or five times in the course of a season, as fodder fo;
soiling, or for the purpose of being converted into manure.
Borage (Borago oflicinalis). — This is a well-known plant in
gardens, growing to a height of about 2 feet, with round, thick,
juicy stalks, prickly to the touch, large, broad, wrinkled, hairy
leaves, and bright-blue flowers, which open from June till late
in autumn. It is much used as a fallow crop in Germany, and,
according to Lampadius, it draws from the air ten times as
much nitrogen and other organic matter as it does from the
soil; and hence is admirably adapted for enriching the land on
which it grows.
Buckwheat (Polygonum fagopyrum). — This well-known plant
stands high in the scale of green manures, as two crops may
be raised on the same ground in a year, with little labor in its
culture, and but a small outlay for seed. Its roots, however, do
not run very deep into the soil. Its ash sometimes abounds in
salts of potash and of lime, nitrogen and phosphoric acid be-
ing the most valuable ingredients with which they are com-
bined.
Buckwheat is usually sown on light, silicious and calcareous
soils, but it will grow well on lands that are either stony or
poor. The yield commonly ranges from 2 to 4 tons of stalks
and leaves to an acre, and from 20 to 40 bushels of seed. It
may be sown in the spring soon after the disappearance of
frost, for a summer crop; or immediately after the harvesting
of wheat, oats, or rye, or still later, for a crop in the fall. The
period of growth is usually about two months. For a fallow
crop, from 1-J- to 2 bushels of seed may be sown to an acre,
which should be lightly harrowed in. The plant is very lux-
uriant, and predominates over most weeds. As soon as the
blossoms begin to appear, it is ready to bury in the soil. This
is done first by passing a roller aver the field, and following
immediately after with the plow ; or it. may be mown half ivay
up th? stalks, and then plowed under with the stubble.
VEGETABLE MANURES.
187
If the land is intended for turnips, and the buckwheat is plow-
ed under in the fullness of its sap, it will become rotten, or de-
composed, in about 10 days. The ground may then be plowed
again, followed by the harrow, with a light dressing of guano,
and then sown with the turnip seed, and afterwards rolled.
But if the land be intended for wheat, the ground may lie
two or three weeks after the buckwheat is plowed in, or until
the grass or weeds begin to start ; then plow the ground a
second time, and sow the wheat the usual way ; or, if the
weather is favorable, and the season far advanced, the wheat
may be sown directly after turning under the green crop.
Red Clover. — The common broad-leaved clover, (Trifolium
prafense,) from its hardihood and adaptation to nearly all kinds
of soil; its certain and rapid growth ; abundant yield; cheap-
ness of seed, quick decay, when incorparated with the soil ; and
the great depth to which its roots penetrate the earth, is re-
garded, in the United States, as one of the best of fallow crops.
Under favorable circumstances, it will yield from 4 to 8 tons
of green herbage per acre, in the coarse of a season ; and its
roots, which sometimes run into the soil to a depth of 2 or 3
feet, are nearly equal in bulk to half the stalks and leaves.
Per cent.
Stalk, 58.12
Leaves, 23.12
Blossoms, .' . . . 19.76
100.00
In the
stalk.
In the
leaves.
In the
blossoms.
In the
whole plant.
Water,
80.88
18.00
1.00
5.87
131.04 Ibs.
73.56
'23.56
2.88
12.22
273.72 Ibs.
79.00
19.57
1.37
7.00
77.83
20.40
1.77
8.67
193.70 Ibs.
Ash calculated dry,. . . .
Inorganic matter, (ton,)
A specimen of clover, 2 feet high, gathered when in blossom,
at Albany, by Professor Emmons, on the 10th of June, yielded
in 100 parts, as indicated in the above table.
i«8 VEGETABLE MANURES.
The following analyses of the ash of red-clover hay, by
Professor Way, are given in the Journal of the Royal Agricul-
tural Society of England, one specimen grown on silicious
sand, and the other on clay : —
Orown on Grown on
siliciviis sand. clay.
Silica, 4.03 2.66
Phosphoric acid, 5.82 6.88
Sulphuric acid, 3.91 4.46
Carbonic acid, 12.92 20.94
Lime, 3:>.02 35.76
Magnesia, 1 1.91 10.53
Per-oxide of iron, 0.98 0.95
Potash, 18.44 1130
Soda, 2.79
Chlorido of sodium, 4.13 0.58
Chloride of potassium, 5.92
99.95 99.88
From the above analyses, it will be seen that the ingredi-
ents of this plant, when grown on sand and clay, are, ih most
respects, singularly alike. The greatest discrepancies occur in
the amount of potash and carbonic acid. The proportion of
sulphuric acid, however, does not truly represent the total
amount of sulphur in the plant. For, 100 Ibs. of the ash of
dry clover, grown on sand, yielded l/^ths Ibs. of sulphur ; and
100 Ibs. of that grown on clay, yielded l/^ths Ibs. Hence, fully
two thirds of the whole sulphur was dissipated in the combus-
tion, and it is fair to conclude that at least this proportion
must have existed in the form of sulphate of lime, (gypsum,)
or in some other condition than sulphuric acid.
Red clover is extensively cultivated in various parts of the
United States, not only as a superior forage or hay, but is fre-
quently turned under in the summer or fall, to enrich the
ground preparatory to a crop v>f wheat, or in the ensuing
spring for the benefit of one of Indian corn. It is thought by
some persons that the best time for plowing it in, is the rankest
and most succulent stage of its growth ; while others maintain,
from facts founded upon the results of actual experiments,
VEGETABLE MANURES. 189
that it is best to leave it to the period just preceding the de-
cline of the flower, when its extractive matter is most abundant.
Ciover is usuallj sown in this country in early spring with
wheat or other grain, or with winter wheat in the fall. If in-
tended for a fallow crop, it may be sown in February or March,
while the ground is still subject to freezing and thawing, in
order that the seed may gain admission into the soil without har-
rowing in. The quantity to be sown to an acre may vary from
10 to 15 Ibs. When sown with wheat, if the first season's
growth be luxuriant after harvesting the grain, the " clover
may be pastured in the autumn, or suffered to fall and waste on
the ground, the former being the most economical. The follow-
ing year, the early crops may be taken off for hay, and the se-
cond, after partially ripening its seeds, may be plowed in ; and
thus it carries with it, a full crop of seed for future growth. It
is usual when wheat is cultivated, to turn in the clover when in
full flower in July, and allow the ground to remain undisturbed
till the proper time for sowing the grain ; when it may be cross
plowed if necessary, or the wheat may sown directly on the
ground and harrowed in. This system gives alternate crops
of grain and clover, and with the use of such saline manures,
as may be necessary to replace those abstracted from the soil,
it will sustain the greatest fertility. With a slight dressing of
these, when the land is in good condition, the first crop of clover
may be taken off, and yet allow a sufficient growth for turning in.
"It is a common observation of intelligent farmers, that they
are never at a loss to renovate such lands as will produce even
a moderate crop of clover. Poor clayey lands have been brought
to a clover-bearing state, by sowing an early and late crop o*
oats in the same season, and feeding them off on the ground.
Poor sandy soils may be made to sustain clover, with the aid
of manure, ashes, and gypsum, combined with the free use of
the roller. This object is much facilitated by scattering dry
straw over the surface, which affords shade, increases the de-
posit of dew, and prolongs itb effects. Whenever the period
of clover-producing is attained, the improvement of the soU
190
VEGETABLE MANURES.
may be pushed with a rapidity coinmensuate with the inclina-
tion and means of the owner." — American Farm Book.
Old Grass. — One of the most common forms of green manur-
ing, practised in this country, is that of breaking up grass lands
of various ages. The large amount of vegetable matter in the
sod serves to fertilise the succeeding crop, and render the soil
capable of yielding a richer return at a smaller expense of ar-
tificial manure.
Indian Corn (Zea mays). — From its rapid and luxuriant growth,
its facility of decomposition when mixed with lime, and the
large amount of fertilsing salts contained in its ash, this plant
is highly valued for [flowing in where the soil is deficient in
humus that cannot be more economically obtained from some
other source; but, from the trailing nature of its roots, which
run not far below the surface of the ground, little or no benefit
can be expected to be derived from its drawing up salts from
any greal -depth in sour compact subsoils.
The ash of a sample of early white-flint corn plant, about 43
inches high, with the stalk just beginning to form, taken from
a field near Albany, New York, on the 19th of July, according
to Professor Emmons, yielded, in 100 parts, the following con-
stituents : —
Composition.
Leaves.
Sheaths.
~]
Roots.
5.40
4.00
1
1350
15 60
36 60
2.16
984
j
Phosphates,
21.00
7.00
4.66
068
506
1 56
0.27
1 64
034
Potash,
9.98
9.96
17.48
Soda,
34.89
4.55
32.12
804
15.82
•>
5.50
5.40
1
98.03
99.26
76.46
When used as a green manure, Indian corn may be sowp
broadcast, in June or July, at the rate of 3 or 4 bushels to an
VEGETABLE MANURES. 191
acre, and may be mown close to the ground, just as th t stalks
arc beginning to form. Then, in the operation of plowing, as
soon as a furrow is opened, it may be partially filled by one
or more persons with the newly*mown plants by, means of a
rake or the hands, and followed directly by others with a lib-
eral scattering of caustic lime. As soon as a furrow is thus
prepared, the next furrow slice will bury the green plant with
the lime, decomposition will immediately take place, and the
land will be brought into a fit condition for a crop of turnips,
winter wheat, Timothy, or rye; or, in the spring following, the
ground may be sown with wheat, oats, barley, grass seed,
pumpkins, potatoes, or another crop of Indian corn.
White Lupin (Lupinus albus). — This plant, which is at pres-
ent cultivated in the south of Europe to a limited extent for
forage and soiling, was employed as food by the ancient Ro-
mans, and, as with the inhabitants of the present day, was
plowed into the soil as a manure. In Germany, also, it has
been found to be one of those plants by which unfruitful, sandy
soils may .be most speedily brought into a productive state.
The superiority of this plant for the purpose of enriching the
soil depends upon its deep roots, which descend more than
2 feet beneath the surface ; upon its being little injured by
drought, and not liable to be attacked by insects; upon its
rapid growth ; and upon its large produce in leaves and stems.
Even in the north of Germany, it is said to yield, in 3£ to 4
months, 10 to 12 tons of green herbage. It grows in all soils
except such as are marly and calcareous, is especially partial
to such as have a ferruginous subsoil; and besides enriching,
also opens stiff clays by its strong stems and roots. It abounds
in potash, nitrogen, and phosphoric acid, and is considered the
best of green manures, being almost equal to farmyard dung.
The seeds are somewhat expensive, and about the size of peas.
They should be sown as early in the spring as the season will
admit, without injury from frost, and the plants will blossom
in 3 or 4 months, soon after which, they may be turned into
the soil, and succeeded by most of our field or garden crops.
J92 VEGETABLE MANURES.
Although rather slow to decay, its decomposition may be has-
tened, if desirable, by the addition of caustic lime.
While Mustard (Sinapis alba). — This plant, from its rapid
and sure growth, abundant yield, and richness in fertilising
salts, is highly valued when cultivated as a fallow crop. It
may be sown broadcast, in the northern and middle states, at
the rate of 2 to 3 pecks of seed to an acre, from early spring
till August, and still later at the south. It should be plowed
under just after the plant puts out flowers, and may be treated
in a similar manner as clover or buckwheat.
Oats (A vena sativa). — Of all the plants commonly cultivated
in our fields, the oat seems to have the greatest power of draw-
ing nourishment from the soil, and has been justly considered
as an exhausting crop. The roots have a very strong vegeta-
tive power, and strike quite deep into the earth, even in a soil
that is indifferently poor; and hence this plant may be cultiva-
ted with advantage to plow under to enrich the soil, but is in-
ferior to clover, lupins, or buckwheat.
The composition of the ash of the whole plant, on the 9th of
July, when the oat had attained nearly its full height, but yet
quite green, and the grain had scarcely begun to form in the
interior of the husk, according to an analysis by Professor
John P. Norton, while residing in Scotland, was as follows: —
Potash and soda, 31.31
Chloride of sodium, 8.10
Lime, 5.40
Magnesia, 4.52
Oxide of iron, 0.21
Sulphuric acid, .12.78
Phosphoric acid, .20.09
Silica, 17.05
99.46
At this period of growth, the per-centage of water contained
in the plant was 76T9ff\ per cent., and that of the ash, calculated
dry, 12j per cent. It was remarked by Professor Norton, that
the large quantity of sulphuric acid present at ihi< st;urr of
VEGETABLE MANURES. l93
growth would have diminished as the plant matured, as he had
.seldom found so much in the ash of the oat when ripe.
As the general composition of the oat is similar to that of the
other cereals, it would be rational to infer that the green plant»
buried in the soil, would serve as an excellent fertiliser for all
our cereal crops. The mode of plowing under may be similar
to that recommended in Indian corn, either with, or without the
admixture of caustic lime.
Cow Pea (Phaseolus vel multiflorus?). — The cow pea, or Yeat-
man pea, as it is sometimes called, like the pole bean and
other runners of the same kindred, grows with a long vine,
and produces an abundance of broad succulent leaves, which
draw nitrogen and carbonic acid from the air; but its slight
spindle-shaped roots do not penetrate so deeply into the soil as
the long tap roots of clover, and consequently do not bring to
the surface so great an amount of fertilising salts from the sub-
soil below. Still, it is regarded as the most valuable, and cer-
tainly the cheapest fertiliser tha.t can be employed at the south.
This plant will grow on poor, sandy land, and if sown early
in March, it will mature two good crops in the season, from two
successive plantings. It may be sown broadcast, or in drills,
at the rate of 2 or 3 bushels to the acre, or sufficiently close to
give a good and early covering to the ground, after which, it
requires little or no culture. As soon as it is in full flower, or
the pods begin to form, the vines may be cut off near the
ground, or passed over with a field roller, and plowed under in
a similar manner as clover, and suffered to decay, preparatory
to planting a crop of sweet potatoes, beans, peas, or Indian
corn.
Rape (Brassica napis). — As this plant can only be grown on
soils, which, in a measure, are already rich, it cannot be profit-
ably cultivated as a green manure, although it has the advan-
tage of growing very late in autumn as well as in the begin-
ning of spring. It also sends down deep roots, which loosen
clayey soils by their hard thick stems
In the light, soils c ' Belgium, rape is sown after early po»
9
194 VEGETABLE MANUKES.
tatoes and peas, and plowed under preparatory to a succeeding
crop of wheat or rye. The period of growth is about 5 months,
and a good crop, when in full flower, weighs 10 or 12 tons of
green herbage to an acre. The plant abounds in potash, phos-
phoric acid, and nitrogen.
Rye (Secale cereale). — Unlike the lupin and rape, rye may
be cultivated on poor light soils, although unfit for wheat, and
with some degree of profit, where it is desirable to enrich *he
land for other crops; but from the small amount of nitrcgen
and fertilising salts contained in the ash, and the trailing char-
acter of its roots, it is much less valuable to plow in as a green
manure.
Rye is often sown as a green crop, and when fed off early in
spring by sheep, the land is invigorated, and will bear excel-
lent potatoes, or other roots, the same year. But as this prac-
tice cannot be strongly recommended, it would be preferable to
sow the rye late in the summer or early in autumn, and feed it
off in the October and November following, when sheep pas-
tures begin to fail, which can be done without any detriment
to the succeeding crop the next year. By this means, the sheep
will drop their manure upon the field, and not only benefit the
crop of rye the spring following, but enrich the land for other
crops.
Sorrd (Rumex acetosella). — It does not appear that any far-
mer has cultivated, nor that any writer, except the Earl of
Dundonald, has recommended the growth of those plants to be
promoted, which seem indigenous to any particular soil, with
intention of rendering such plants of use in the future produc-
tion of grain, or the rich herbage upon which cattle feed.
"Soils not calcareous," says Dundonald, "containing much
inert vegetable matter or peat, have a tendency to produce wild
sorrel, a plant considered in general as an indication of the
want of fertility in the soil. This is certain" y correct, if the
fertility of the soil is only to be estimated by <he use or value
at market of the crop, but not as it respects vegetation itself;
for a soil of the above description often produces a most plen-
VEGETABLE MANURES. 195
tiful crop of sorrel. In this case, as it applies to the further
improvement of the land, the growth of sorrel should as much
as possible be encouraged, even by sowing the seed for this
especial purpose. The vegetation of this plant is no doubt pro-
moted in the soil by the oxalic or soreline acid, formed by the
combination of oxygen, or pure air, with the basis of the soreline
acid contained in the vegetable matter of the soil; and so long
as the vegetable matter remains in a state fit to become oxygen-
ated, it will have a tendency to promote the growth of sorrel.
It has been stated that the juice, or saft of sorrel, is a superacid-
ulated neutral salt, consisting of the vegetable alkali and the
oxalic acid. This superabundant acid is inimical to the growth
of grain, or of such vegetables or grasses as constitute the food
of most animals ; but which tendency in the soil, and injurious
consequences, are to be corrected by the application of differ-
ent substances, namely, by lime, by chalk, by magnesia, by
alkaline salts, and by paring and burning.
" Lime will combine with the acid of the sorrel, and form an
oxalite of lime, which is insoluble. As such, it should only be
applied in such small quantities as will neutralise the acid in
the soil, or the superabundant proportion of acid contained in
the sorrel ; so that the other component part of sorrel, namely,
the oxalate of potash, may not be decomposed by the superior
affinity which the oxalic acid has to lime ; in which case, the
alkali would be disengaged. No injury will arise from the ap-
plication of a superabundance of lime, provided that the soil
contain a still greater proportion of vegetable matter; in which
case, the alkali disengaged by the Hme, would act upon the
vegetable matter, and form a saline substance, similar to that
which the superabundant use of lime had decomposed.
"Ground of this description, to which lime has been applied,
will no longer have a tendency to promote the growth of sor-
rel in preference to other plants; its next spontaneous growth
will probably be chickweed, which is a certain indication of its
being in a state fit to produce grain or other crops.
"Magnesia has a greater affinity with the oxalic acid than
196 VEGETABLE MANURES.
alkalies have, so that by the addition of earths, containing mag-
nesia, to ground producing a crop of sorrel, the acid will no
only be neutralised, but the oxalate of potash, the other com-
ponent part of sorrel, will likewise be decomposed. By this
means, the alkali will be disengaged, and put into a situation to
act upon, and dissolve the inert vegetable matter contained in
the soil. The salt formed by the combination of the magnesian
earth with the oxalic acid, will, as well as the vegetable matter
dissolved by the alkali, be found to promote vegetation in a
very great degree ; hence, magnesia, by forming with the ox-
alic acid a soluble salt, has an advantage over lime, which
forms with the same acid a salt that is nearly insoluble, but
capable of being brought into action by methods previously
stated.
"By the application of alkaline salts to sorrel, there results
a salt fully nutralised, which highly promotes the vegetation,
or growth, of more valuable plants and grain."
Spurry. — (Spurgula arvensis). — It is to poor dry sandy soils
that green manuring has been found most signally beneficial;
and for such soils, no plant has been more lauded than spurry.
It may either be sown in autumn, on the wheat stubble, or after
early potatoes, and plowed under in spring, preparatory to the
annual crop; or it may be used to replace the naked fallow,
which is often hurtful to lands of so light a character. In the
latter case, the first sowing may take place in March, the
second in May, and the third in July, each crop being plowed
in to the depth of 3 or 4 inches, and the new seed then sown
and harrowed. When the third crop is plowed in, the land is
ready for a crop of winter grain.
Von Voght. of Germany, states that, by such treatment, the
worst shifting sands may be made to yield remunerative crops
of rye; that the most worthless sands are more improved by
it than those of a better natural quality ; that the green manur-
ing every other year not only nourishes sufficiently the alter-
nate crops of rye, but gradually enriches the soil; and that it
increase^ the effect of any other manure that may •• ibsequent-
VEGETABLE MANURES. 197
ly be put on. 1.3 adds, also, that spurry produces often as
much improvement, if eaten off' by cattle, as if plowed in, and
that when fed upon this plant, either green or in the slate of
hay, cows not only give more milk, but of a richer quality.
The rooty of spurry run into the soil to a depth of 15 or 18
inches ; the stalks and leaves rapidly decay ; and the ash of
the whole plant abounds in nitri^en, phosphoric acid, and
potash.
Turnip (Brassicu rapa). — In some parts of England, turnip
tops are plowed under, when green, as soon as the bulbs arc
taken off the land ; and it is stated that there is no better way
for manuring for wheat. The portion of the turnip bulbs
which are left in the ground, when they are fed off' by sheep,
when plowed under, contributes to enrich the land for a crop of
barley that is to follow.
According to Professor Way, in the Journal of the Royal
Agricultural Society of England, the mean analyses of the ash
of six specimens of turnips were as follows: —
Bulbs. Tops.
Silica, 1.81 3.99
Phosphoric acid, 9.85 6.17
Sulphuric acid, 13.12 8.43
Carbonic acid, 11.96 9.98
Lime, 9.93 28.49
Magnesia, 2.61 2.81
Per-oxide of iron, 0.4G 1.68
Potash, 3410 15.21
Soda, 7.96 2.84
Chloride of sodium, 8.13 15.30
Chloride of potassium; 5.04
99.93 99.94
From the above analyses, it will be seen that the ash of the
top differs from that of the bulb chiefly in containing less phos-
phoric and sulphuric acids, less potash, but a great deal more
lime. Neither in the top nor in tlm bulb is there much silica,
but the ash of both contains much carbonic acid, and a con-
siderable quantity of c.'ilo -i 'e of'-odi'im (common salt). Thi«
198 VEGETABLE MANURES.
circ imstance may, in part, explain the action of turnip tops in
causing purging in sheep when they are first turned upon them
to feed. Other alkaline salts, such as the phosphates of soda
and potash, and other organic salts of these bases, oxalate, tar-
trate, &,c., and which are known as purgatives, exist largely in
the leaves of the turnip.
The turnip, like most root crops, from the great development
of its gas-collecting leaves, is believed to be comparative' v in-
dependent of the soil for nourishment. Jt is stated that it may
in reality have the property of adding to, rather than taking
from, the quantity of vegetable matter in the soil, even when
entirely removed — for land has been found after several years
cropping with turnips, all the produce being carried off, abso-
lutely richer in organic matter than at lirst, the plant having
returned to the soil more than it had taken" from it. This prin-
ciple is founded upon the belief that, in the circulation of veg-
etable juices of the plants, there is a continual ejection into the
soil of matters not required in the economy of their growth;
but whether the amount thus voided much exceeds that which
is taken in by the roots, it is diliicult to decide. It is extremely
likely, however, that in broad-leaved plants of rapid growth
this result may sometimes occur.
Vetch, or Tare (Vicia saliva). — This plant is inferior in many
of its qualities to the white lupin; yet, in Southern Germany,
it is often sown on the stuble, and plowed in after it has been
touched with frost, and has begun to decay. Its period of
growth is about 3 months, but will be hastened by gypsum; its
produce 6 or more tons per acre ; its roots do not run deep ;
its decay is rapid ; and the whole plant abounds in potash,
nitrogen, and phosphoric acid.
REFUSE HAY.
BESIDES the litter from the cribs or stalls of stables, the far-
mer often has left in the spring considerable quantities of re-
fuse or damaged hay at Ihe boltom of his stacks or mows, which
can readily be converted into excellent manure by spreading
VEGETABLE MANURES. ij)9
it over his barn 3 .xrd, and there let it remain to rot and be.,ome
incorporated with the urine and dung of the animals. But the
fertilising properties of hay varies according to the species of
grass from which it is made. Thus, in the ash of three of our
most prominent artificial grasses, Timothy, (Phleum pratense,)
Kentucky blue grass, (Poa pratensis^) and the American orchard
or cock's-foot grass, (Daclylis glomerala,} we find, according to
the analyses of Professor Way, the following constituents : —
Composition.
Timothy.
Kentucky
blue grass.
Orchard
grass.
Silica,
31.0!)
32.93
26.65
Phosphoric acid,
11.29
4.86
10.02
4.2G
8.GO
3.52
402
0.40
2.09
14.94
503
582
5.30
2.7 [
2.22
Per-oxide of iron,
Potash,
0.27
24 '25
0.28
31.17
0.59
29.52
Chloride of potassium,
Chloride of sodium,.. .
0.70
5.24
11.25
1.31
17.86
3.09
99.9G
99.9G
99.96
From the above analyses, it will be observed that each of
these grasses contains a remarkably high per-centage of silica
as well as of potash ; and what is still more remarkable, not
one of them contains any soda, as such, although they contain
variable proportions of chloride of sodium (common salt).
Bog-meadow hay and that made from water grasses, gen-
erally, are not so rich in fertilising salts as that made from our
sweet artificial grasses that are grown upon a dry soil ; and
consequently bog-meadow hay is of less value to convert into
manure.
HUMITS, OR VEGETABLE MOULD— HUMIO AOID-TJLMIO AOID
THE general name of "humus" is given to the fine, dark-
brown or blackish particles of decayed vegetation, which im-
part thoir richness to all fertile soils. It is commonly called
200 VEGETABLE MANURES.
by gardeners "vegetable mould," and has also received the
names of " humin," "humic acid," humic extract," ''coal of
humus," and h".s been improperly called " ulmin," " ulmic acid,"
" geine,"" geic acid," " apotheme,"&c., &c. It is funned by the
gradual decomposition of vegetable matter ; exists more or less
in all soils; forms th chief substance of peat; and generally
consists of a mixture of several different compounds, which
are naturally produced during the decay of the several parts
of trees and plants. It is distinguished into the " mild," " sour,"
and " coaly humus."
The mild imparts a brown color to water, but does not render
it sour; gives a dark-brown solution when boiled with carbonate
of soda ; evolves ammonia when heated with caustic potash
or soda, or with slacked lime, and leaves an ash, when burned,
which contains lime and magnesia. The sour gives, with
water, a brown solution of a more or less sour taste. This
variety is less favorable Jo vegetation than the former, and in-
dicates a want of lime in the soil. The coaly humus gives
little color to water, or to a hot solution of carbonate of soda ;
leaves an ash which contains little lime; occurs generally on
the surface of very sandy soils, and is very unproductive. It
is greatly ameliorated by the addition of wood ashes or lime.
When a fertile soil, or a piece of dry peat, is boiled with a
solution of the common carbonate of soda of the shops, a
brown solution, more or less dark, is obtained, from which,
when diluted muriatic acid, (spirits of salt,) is added till the
liquid has a distinctly sour taste, brown flocks begin to fall.
This brown flocky matter is humic acid.
If, instead of a solution of carbonate of soda, one of caustic
ammonia, (the hartshorn of the shops,) be digested upon the
soil or peat by a gentle heat, a more or less dark-brown solu-
tion is obtained, which, on the addition of muriatic acid, gives
brown flocks as before, but which now consists of ulmic acid.
These two acids combine with lime, magnesia, alumina, and
oxide of iron, forming compounds, (salts,) which are respect,
lively distinguished by the names of" humates" and " ulmates."
VEGETABLE MANUKES. 201
Tney probably botn exist, ready formed, in the soil in variable
proportions, and in combination with one or more of the earthy
substances above mentioned — lime, alumina, &c. They are
produced by the decay of vegetable matter in the soil, which
decay is materially facilitated by the presence of one or other
of these substances, and by lime especially — on the principle
that the formation of acid compounds is in all such cases much
promoted by the presence of a substance with which that acid
may combine. They predispose organic substances to the for-
mation of such acids, and consequently to the decomposition
by which they are to be produced. These two acids consist
respectively of
Humic acid. Vtmic acid.
Carbon, 63 57.00
Hydrogen, C 4.75
Oxygen, 31 38.25
. 100 100.00
When exposed to the air, the humates and ulmates, contained
in the soil, undergo decomposition ; give off carbonic acid, and
are changed into carbonates. The admission of air into the
soil facilitates this decomposition, which is supposed to be
continually going forward — and it is in the form of this gas
that plants are considered by some to imbibe the largest por-
tion of that carbon for which they are indebted to the soil. —
Johnston.
The real utility of humus, irrespective of the ashes which
mould contains, arises from the following effects : — 1st. It is
constantly decaying, and thus producing carbonic acid and
water, which feed the plant and moisten the soil. 2d. During
decay, it constantly absorbs nitrogen from the air, which be-
comes converted into ammonia and nitric acid, and is thus ad-
mirably fitted to sustain vegetation. 3d. It not only imparts
valuable mechanical qualities to the soil by increasing its
warmth, porosity, and friability, but the carbonic acid produced,
as well ?is the nitric acid, by acting on the insoluble minerals
9*
202 VEGETABLE MANURES.
of the soil, tis the silicates of potash, soda, lime, and its bone
earth and other phosphates, dissolves or decomposes them,
rendering them food for plants. In this manifold way, humus
becomes of great utility to culture, but is neither the only
manure, nor competent of itself to produce fertility ; for, accu-
mulations of humus are by no means desirable ; 10 per cent, in
the soil is an abundance, and 2 to 3 per cent, is quite enough
for most plants. Potatoes, roots, corn, cotton, tobacco, cru-
ciferous plants, and wheat are most partial to this body ; they
are all plants developed by culture, and require a supply of
food by the roots as well as leaves. Grasses, clovers, and many
beans increase instead of exhaust the soil of humus; hence,
their utility in rotations.
The amount of humus in the soil is readily increased by
green fallows, by plowing in straw, prepared peat, and all veg-
etable rubbish. The greater part of the solid matter of all
putrcscent manures is humus, decayed wood, the rotten interior
of the trunk and branches, &c. — Gardner.
LEAVES OF TREES AND PLANTS— LEAF MOULD.
THE leaves of trees and plants, where they can be collected
in large quantities, may be highly useful in augmenting the
manure heaps of the farm. It has been recommended that, in
wooded countries, all the leaves which can be had at little ex-
pense, should be raked together in October or November, and
carted to the barn yard, pig sties, and sheep folds for littering
or bedding them during the winter. In due time, they become
incorporated with the dung of the animals, and also serve as
an excellent absorbent of their urine, which might otherwise
be lost.
The fertilising properties of leaves vary with the species of
trees and plants upon which they grow. Thus, the ashes of the
leaves of iron wood, or hop hornbeam, (Ostrya vi>-gi?iica,) dog
wood, (Cornus jljrida,') and of the harvest apple tree, (Pyrus
malus,) according to the analyses given in the " Natural History
VEGETABLE MANURES.
203
of the State of New York," consisted of the following ingre-
dients : —
1 -
Iron wood.
|
Dog wood. Apple tree. I
Silica,. . .-
10.50
10.40
(X22
25.33
37.48
0.08
7.37
5.90
1.90
2.85
17.25
4.8t
3.05
24.85
33.49
1.24
5.51)
6.82
0.133
2.15
5.78
15.20
O.U
16.78
36.40
0.08
13.18
11.62
0.06
2.85
Carbonic ncid,
Sulpuliric acid,
MflgllfKKl,
Pot.;i«h
Soda,
Chloride of pouhun....
Organic ni titter,
1
102.03
99.89
102.09
JYom these three analyses, it will be seen that they somewhat
\. ^emble each olher, as regards the proportions of lime, the
pnosphates, and the organic matter, as well as the carbonic
acid they contain ; but in the other constituents, the amounts
differ, as will be found the case with many other trees and
plants.
Leaf mould, or rotten leaves, is a manure so nearly adapted
for universal application, that no other exception need be made
to it than the case of a soil already too rich. It is too valu-
able to be used on common occasions, alone ; but may be mixed
with sand, perfectly-rotten dung, exhausted tan bark, or other
ingredients, according to the wants of the soil.
MALT DUST.
WHEN barley is caused to sprout by the maltster, and is after-
wards dried, the small shoots and rootlets drop off, and form
the substance known by the names of " malt dust" and " malt
combs." One hundred bushels of barley yield 4 or 5 bushels
of this dust, which, when applied to the land, serves as a
manure of great power and vivacity. It excels in stimulating
a cold soil, and answers best as a top-dressing in the spring.
204 VEGETABLE MANURES.
For wheat, from 40 to 80 bushels of this substance may be
employed to an acre ; for barley or turnips, from 30 to 60 bush-
els ; and for grass lands, from 16 to 32 bushels to an acre.
Like guano and rape dust, its portability renders this manure
of great convenience and valuo to the farmer, wherever it can
be obtained.
MOSS, OR LICHENS, FROM ROOKS AND TREES.
IN the cold and temperate parts of the globe, plants of a very
low organisation grow upon the rocks and the bark of trees,
where they form a kind of incrustation, and are commonly
known by the name of "moss." They often abound in oxa-
late of lime, which, in some cases, is equivalent to 15 or 20 per
cent, of pure oxalic acid.
Although these substances have never been employed within
my knowlege as a manure, it is possible, that, where they oc-
cur in abundance, they might be collected, and decomposed
with sulphuric acid, as suggested under the head of OXALATE
OF LIME.
OIL CAKE.
THE residue of oleaginous seeds, after expression for oil,
such as those of flax, hemp, cotton, poppy, coconut, &c., is
usually known by the name of "oil cake," and in almost every
case is useful as a manure, particularly for a succeeding crop
of the same kind. In Great Britain, the cake of linseed has
hitherto been used for this purpose in considerable quantity ;
but, for some years past, as it is relished so well, and has
proved so fattening to cattle, that have been fed upon it, this
substance is seldom applied directly to the land as a manure.
The coconut cake is also employed in Southern India, not
only for feeding cattle, but as a manure to the coconut tree
itself.
In France, and some parts of Belgium, where the poppy i.*
VEGETABLE MANURES.
205
extensively cultiva.ed for the oil yielded by its st ds, the resi-
due, or cake, is highly prized as a manure.
When flax seed is ground into a coarse powder, and digested
with a small quantity of water, with the aid of heat, and is
subjected to strong pressure, two products arc obtained — the
one, linseed oil, and the other, the oil cake, which remains in
the press. By this operation, no other substance but oil, if we
except a small quantity of water, is separated from the cake ;
and the two products, therefore, correctly represent the com-
position of the seed from which they are derived. Linseed is
known to consist principally of mucilage, or gum, sugar, oil,
and albuminous matter — the former three of which being sub-
stances devoid of nitrogen, the latter having the same constit-
uents as the flesh of animals, or the gluten of wheat. Now, as
linseed oil contains no nitrogen, it is obvious that the cake
must be richer in albuminous principles than the seed. The
mean composition of linseed cake from different countries, as
given by Professor Way, is as follows : —
I
Countries.
Nitrogen.
Oil.
Water.
Ash.
4.72
9.0C
7 GO
7.89
United Status,
4.74
4.57
11.41
13.52
7.60
8.60
6.35
727
Germany,
4.65
9.84
7.98
956
Holland,
4.65
984
798
956
5.14
11 80
883
8 '59
Italy,
5.03
11.84
9.03
7.55
Sicily,
4.72
6.80
946
8.02
From the above analyses, it would appear that the oil cake
of each of *he above-named countries, with the exception of
Russia and Italy, are on an average practically alike, in regard
to the amount of nitrogen they contain.
From the same authority last quoted, I insert below the mean
analyses of the ash of two samples of linseed, the composition
of which should exhibit no other difference from linseed cake,
than that produced by the accidental introduction into the hit-
206 VEGETABLE MANURES.
ter of a little grit, or sand, derived from the stones employed
in grinding the seed : —
Silica, 1.45
Phosphoric acid, 38-54
Sulphuric acid, 1.56
Carbouic acid, O.S22
Lime, 8.40
Magnesia, 13.11
Per-oxide of iron, O.!>0
Potash, 35.17
Soda, 1.G9
Chloride of sodium, 0.36
100.00
From an inspection of the above, it will be scon that the ash
of linseed abounds in potash and phosphoric acid, two very im-
portant items in the composition of fertilisers; and hence, to-
gether witli the nitrogen, consists the value of oil cake as a
manure.
OXALIC AOID.
OXALIC ACID, when pure, consists of colorless, odorless, trans-
parent crystals, having an intensely-acid taste, and effervesces
with the carbonates of potash and soda; but on account of its
poisonous qualities, it is unsafe to administer it as a medicine,
as half of an ounce is sufficient to destroy life in a very short
time, and a quarter of an ounce in a few days. It eflloresces
in warm dry air; fuses and sublimes at 350° P.; dissolves
readily in 8 parts of water, mixed with 4 parts of alcohol at
60°, and in its own weight of water at 212°, or twice its weight
in water that is cold.
In an uncombined state, this acid exists in the hairs of the
chick pea. In combination with potash, it is found in the wood
sorrel. (Oxalis acelosella,) as well as in the common sorrel and
other species of rumex, in which consists the acidity of these
plants. It also occurs in the leaves and roots of rhubarb, and
in the roots of tormentilla, bistort, gentian, saponaria, and in
VEGETABLE MANURES.
many others. Combined with lin.e, it forms the solid
many lichens, which incrust the sides of rocks and most <ren
not unfrequently contain more than half their weight o
of lime. It can be formed artificially by the action n . ,
acid on starch, sugar, gum, and many other organic substance ( ,
When perfectly free from water, oxalic acid contains no ^
hydrogen, but consists of
Carbon, 33.75
Oxygen, 66.25
100.00
When heated with strong sulphuric acid, it is decomposed and
resolved into equal volumes of gaseous carbonic acid and car-
bonic oxide.
Although this substance, according to Professor Johnston, is
not known to exist in the soil, nor in the waters which reach
the roots of vegetation, and -consequently is not thought to min-
ister either to their growth or nourishment, still it is found
largely in the interior of many species of plants, as stated
above. Yet, if we can rely upon the remark quoted from Dun-
donald, under the head of "SORREL." which we have no reason
to doubt, by the application of alkaline salts to the green
plants containing this acid, there results another salt, fully
neutralised, which highly promotes the vegetation, or growth,
of more valuable plants and grain.
PEAT AND SWAMP MT70K.
PEAT, or inert vegetable matter, for the. most part, is formed
by the growth of sphagnous mosses, and of the remains of
aquatic plants, or of those vegetables which generally grow
in humid or moist situations. Their nourishment and growth
are promoted by atmospheric air, by the decomposition of
water, and by the calcareous and alkaline matters held in so-
lution, and contained in most kinds of water. These substan-
ces, alone, are sufficient to account for the growth of such
VEGETABLE MANURES.
ier of C' vegetables, and the accumulation on the surface of the
in grinding1 at tough, spongy matter forming peat mosses, peat
, or hogs,
caves, rotten trunks, branches, and seeds of tre*s also
.en enter into the composition of a peat swamps ; but they
form only a small proportion of the whole mass, though they
generally attract more attention on account of the perfect pre-
servation of their forms, by which the nature of the tree may
be recognised, even when its substance is perfectly rotten,
brown, and black.
Trees of a considerable size have been frequently found at
the bottom of peat mosses, with the appearance of having been
cut down, or in part acted on by fire. Hence, it may be infer-
red, that the peat moss itself did not give birth to, nor support
the growth of, such trees ; but on the contrary, that, by the de-
struction of forests, in consequence of natural causes, fire, or
war, the trees had been thrown down, and causing a stoppage
of the waters in their passage to the sea, the growth and decay
of the aquatic vegetables, already noticed, had formed those
extensive peat mosses and fens, which, in their natural state,
are of all soils the most unproductive, but which are the most
fertile when improved.
According to Dr. Jackson, peat contains crenic acid, mostly
combined with lime, magnesia, alumina, and oxide of iron;
apocrenic acid ; humic acid; humin and ulmin. the latter be-
ing found in brown peat ; extract of humus, consisting of two
distinct substances ; vegetable fibre, disorganised in part ;
phosphoric acid, combined with earthy bases; sulphuric acid,
combined with alumina, and with oxide of iron; oxide of man-
ganese ; also a little potash and soda, sea salt, and silica. It
also contains a small proportion of phosphate of lime, a saline
ingredient which enters largely into the composition of all
cereal grains ; and phosphate of magnesia, an important salt
required for the perfect growth of all our cultivated plants.
The sulphates of iron and of alumina, also, are not unfrequent-
ly present in excess, and exert a baneful action on plants.
VEGETABLE MANURES. 209
There are, probably, other organic acids than those mentioned
above, in some kinds of peat, but such are the ones most gen-
erally present.
Peat always contains nitrogen, and will give out ammonia by
the action of hydrate of potash. This is stated by Jackson to
be owing to the presence of the highly-nitrogenised crcnic and
apocrenie acids, which he found present in all the peats he had
analysed.
When peat is exposed to the air, it blackens, and evidently
undergoes a change in its composition, a large proportion of
apocrenie acid being produced by the action of the atmos-
phere— a change analogous to that which takes place when a
yellow subsoil is exposed to the action of the air, and becomes
a black mould.
Again, the products of vegetable decomposition under water
differ essentially from those arising from exposure to the air;
and the changes which take place in a bog, by draining, and
afterwards plowing it, are probably more complicated than is
generally imagined. For, it is well known that when such a
bog, or swamp, has been thus improved, or when recently-dug
peat has been freely spread on a soil, it generally acts unfav-
orably on vegetation, and the farmer justly says it is "sour"
and worthless in that state. This acidity will be recognised
by those who have observed the stones taken from boggy
land, from which every trace of matter that the acid would
attack has been dissolved; in a piece of granite, for instance,
from which the mica and feldspar have disappeared, there will
only be left a silicious skeleton of the stone. All the oxide of
iron is also generally taken up, unless, as is sometimes the case,
the bog is already saturated with it.
A soft spongy soil, covered witR moss or coarse grass, shak-
ing as it is trodden upon, with a good black mud, or mould, un-
der the surface, are indications that peat is underneath. It is
not always found, however, in such situations, but is frequently
the case. By digging from 1 to 10 feet below the surface, if
peat exists, it will usually be found within that depth. It often
210 VEGETABLE MANURES.
occurs in low, rniry, and boggy places, that lie between hills.
It is sometimes found, also, in "interval" or "bottom" lands,
near the banks of rivers.
Good peat earth, as it lies in the ground, cuts soft and easy,
so that it may be formed into shape as it is dug. When dried,
it is tough and firm, and is not easily broken. The blacker it
is, the better the quality. When it is reddish, or pale brown,
and soft, it is less valuable.
The application of peat was recommended as a proper ma-
nure for a light, sandy soil by Dr. Francis Home, as early as
the year 1756, previous to which, an experiment was made on
such a soil, where thfe beneficial effects were not only visible
on a crop of oats, but on a crop of clover the year following.
And Mr. Nicholas Turner, in his "Essay on Draining and Im-
proving Peat Bogs," published in London in 1784, describes the
properties of peat at length, and details the modes of employ-
ing it in burning lime for the purpose of agriculture, as well
us of converting it into ashes, and applying them to the land as
a manure. The subject also has since been ably treated by the
Earl of Dundonald, Lord Meadowbank, and others. The latter
gentleman recommends a mixture of peat with farmyard dung,
for the purpose of bringing it into a state of fermentation. For
this object, dung is well adapted ; but any putrescent sub-
stance, as blood, urine, soap suds, fish, the refuse of slaughter-
houses, night soil, &c., will be absorbed, and serve equally
well ; and the more readily the mixture heats, the better it will
answer the purpose. In ordinary cases, 1 part of dung is suffi-
cient to decompose from 3 to 6 parts of peat. In the heat of
summer, it will require from 2 to 3 months to reduce fermented
peat to a state of humus, or vegetable mould. Green vegeta-
bles, also, mixed with peat, vifill accelerate the fermentation.
The directions for the conversion of peat i.ito a rich com-
post, as given by Lord Meadowbank, are very simple, and de-
scribed as follows : — " Let the peat moss," says he, " be thrown
out of the pit for some weeks or months, in order to lose its
redundant moisture. By this means, it is rendered the lighter
VEGETABLE MANURES. 211
to carry, and less compact and heavy when made up with
fresh dung for fermentation ; and, accordingly less dung is re-
quired for this purpose than if the preparation were made with
peat taken recently from the pit; the peat taken from near the
surface, or at a considerable depth, answers equally well.
Take the peat moss to a dry spot convenient for constructing
a dunghill, to serve the field to be manured ; lay the cart loads
of it in two rows, and of the dung in a row between them. The
dung thus lies nearly on an area of the future compost dung
hill, and the rows of peat should be near enough each other
that workmen, in making up the compost, may be able t-o
throw them together by the spade. In making up, let the
workmen begin at one end, and at the extremity of the row of
dung, (which should not extend quite so far at that end as the
rows of peat on each side of it do), let them lay a bottom of
peat 6 inches deep and 15 feet wide, if the ground admits of
it; then throw forward and lay on about 10 inches of dung
above the bottom of peat, then add from the side rows about
6 inches of peat, then 4 or 5 of dung, and then 6 more of peat;
then another thin layer of dung, and then cover it over with
peat at the end where it was begun, and at the two sides.
The compost should not be raised above 4 or 4£ feet high;
otherwise it is apt to press too heavily on the under parts, and
check the fermentation.
"When a beginning is thus made, the laborers will pro-
ceed working backwards, and adding to the column of com-
post, as they are furnished with the three rows of materials
directed to be laid down for them. They must take care not
to tread on the compost, nor render it too compact ; and, of con-
sequence, in proportion as the peat is wet, it should be made
up in lumps, and not much broken. In mild weather, 7 cart
loads of common farm dung, tolerably fresh made, is sufficient
for 21 cart loads of peat moss ; but in cold weather, a larger
proportion of dung is desirable. To every 28 cart loads of the
compost, when made up, it is of use to throw en above it a cart
load of ashes> either made from coal, peat, or wood ; or, if these
iil2 VEGETABLE MANURES.
cannot be had, ha'f the quantity of slacked lime may be ..sed,
the more finely powdered the better ; but these additions are
nowise essential to the general success of the compost.
" The dung to be used should either have been recently made
01 kept fresh by compression, as by the treading of cattle or
swine, or by carts passing over it ; and if there is little or no
litter in it, a smaller quantity will serve, provided any spongy
vegetable matter is added at making up the compost, as fresh
weeds, the rubbish of a stack yard, potato shaves, (parings,) saw-
ings of timber, &c. ; and as some sorts of dung, even when fresh,
are much more advanced in decomposition than others, it is ma-
terial to attend to this; for a much less proportion of such dung
as is less advanced will serve for the compost, provided care is
taken to keep the mass sufficiently open, either by a mixture of
the above-mentioned substances, or, if these are wanting, by ad-
ding the peat piece meal; that is, first making it up in the usual
proportion of 3 to 1 of dung, and then adding, after a time, an
equal quantity more or less of moss. The dung of this quality
of greatest quantity is shamble dung, with which, under the
above precautions, 6 times the quantity of peat, or more, may
be prepared. The same holds as to pigeons' dung, and other
fowl dung, and, to a certain extent, also, as to that which is
collected from towns, and made by animals that feed on grains,
refuse of distilleries, &c.
"The compost, after it is made up, gets into a general heat
sooner or later, according to the weather and the condition of
the dung ; in summer, in 10 days or sooner; in winter, not per-
haps for many weeks, if the cold is severe. It always, how-
ever, has been found to come on at last ; and in summer, it some-
times rises so high as to be mischievous, by consuming the
materials (fire-fanging). In that season, a stick should be
kept in it in different parts, to pull out and felt of, now and
then ; for, if it approaches to blood heat, it should either be
watered or turned over, and, on sucli an occasion, advantage
may be taken to mix it with a little fresh moss. The heat sub-
sides after a time, and with great variety, according to the
VEGETABLE MANURES. 213
weather, the dung, and the perfection of tho making up of the
compost, which then should be allowed to remain untouched
till within 3 weeks of using, when it should be turned over
upside down, and outside in, and all lumps broken; then it
comes into a second heat, but soon cools, and should be taken
out for use. In this state, the whole, except bits of the old de-
cayed wood, appears a black, free mass, and spreads like gar-
den mould. Use it weight for weight, as farmyard dung, and it
will be found in a course of cropping fully equal to stand the
comparison."
This compost may then be put on the land in the, same quan-
tity that farmyard manure would have been, and, consequent-
ly, by a little labor, 4 times the quantity of manure is produced
by the mixture of the. peat with the dung. It is found that lime
is not essential to the formation of this compost. The fermen-
tation excited, is sufficient to decompose the tannin and con-
vert it into soluble extract. The fibres, partially decomposed,
are reduced into vegetable mould, and the whole assumes a
uniform and rich appearance. A complete chemical change
has taken place, and the peat, from being very inflammable, is
now scarcely capable of combustion, and that only in a very
great heat. There is no better nor more economical mode of
converting peat into a rich manure.
Dr. Jackson earnestly protests against the employment of
acid peat in soils, and advises farmers to convert it into a
neutral compost by means of animal manures, capable of gen-
erating ammonia. He also recommends the mixing of lime and
wood ashes with peat after it is fermentated sufficiently to
give out ammoniacal gas by the action of alkaline matter, as
lime and potash will disengage a portion of ammonia from
some kinds of peat, saturating the noxious acids, and convert-
ing them into fertilising salts by Combining with them. Hence,
lime is generally a valuable top-dressing for rec' aimed peat
bogs, and will render them fertile.
On the subject of composting peat with lime and alkaline
salts, Dun lonald remarks : " When hot or newly-calcined lime
2 14 VEGETABLE MANXES.
is broken into pieces of a small size, and mixed with peat,
moderately humid, heat is disengaged, and that htat, by the
slaking of the lime when it is applied in too great a proportion,
is so increased, as completely to reduce the peat to charcoal,
and to dissipate, in a gaseous state, all its component parts,
excepting the ashes, part of the carbonaceous matter, and such
a portion of fixable air, (carbonic acid,) generated in the pro-
cess, as is absorbed by the lime, by which that substance is
made to return to the state of chalk. No benefit can, therefore,
arise by this method of preparing peat with lime, the object
not being to destroy and dissipate in a gaseous state, the com-
ponent parts of the peat, but to make such a combination with
the lime, and the gas generated in the process, as will, on the
application of the mixture to the ground, promote the growth
of plants.
" This object is best attained by mixing newly-made and
completely-slaked lime, with about 5 or 6 times its weight of
peat, which should be moderately humid, and not in too dry a
state. In this case, the heat generated will be moderate, and
never sufficient to convert the peat into carbonaceous matter,
nor to throw off, in the state of fixable air, the acids therein
contained. The gases thus generated will be imflammable,
and phlogisticated air, (nitrogen,) forming volatile alkali,
which will combine, as it is formed, with the oxygenated part
of the peat that remains unacted upon by the lime applied for
this especial purpose, in a small proportion. By this mode of
conducting the process, a soluble saline matter will be produced
consisting of phosphate and oxalate of ammonia, whose ben-
eficial effects on vegetation have already been described.
" Inattention or ignorance of these important facts, has, prob-
ably, in many cases, defeated the wishes of the farmer in the
application of this preparation, which is particularly recom-
mended as a top-dressing to grounds under pasture. The pro-
portion of the lime to the peat here given, should be carefully
attended to, and the mixing of the two substances together
should be performed under civer, in a shed or outhouse, con-
VEGETABLE MANURES. 216
structed for that purpose, as too much rain, or a too great ex-
posure to the air, will prevent a due action of the lime upon
the peat. The success of most operations, but more especially
of those of a chemical nature, greatly depends upon a regular
and due observance of circumstances apparently trivial.
"This preparation of lime and peat is in a peculiar manner
conducive to the growth of clovei and of the short, as they
are called, sweet kinds of pasture grasses. The soil also, by
the application of it, acquires such a predisposing tendency to
promote the growth of such grasses, as to prevent their growing
afterwards rank, coarse, or sour herbage.
" Notwithstanding that this preparation of lime and peat is
certainly, when properly made, a valuable manure, yet the ad-
vantages that may be derived, by using alkaline salts instead
of lime, are of much greater importance and general utility ;
in as much as the peat, by alkaline salts, is rendered complete-
ly soluble; whilst, by the application of lime, no greater pro-
portion of it is made capable of solution than what is equiva-
lent to the quantity of volatile alkali, which may be generated
in the process; besides which, a large proportion of the acids
contained in the vegetable matter, combines with that which is
calcareous, and forms insoluble compounds.
"From experiments made with alkaline salts and peat, it can
be asserted, that the effects of such a mixture, weight for weight,
ire equal, if not superior, to those of dung."
Frost has hardly any effect at all upon good peat; for, on
being exposed through the winter, it moulders, or crumbles, but
slightly, and consequently it is useless to attempt to improve its
quality by this means.
Where peat is abundant, and charcoal cannot be econom-
ically obtained, the farmer can find a good deodoriser by char-
ring it for manure. Full directions for performing this opera-
tion may be found under the head of CHARRED PEAT, in the
article " charcoal."
Swamp or bog muck differs from peat chiefly in being com-
posed of fine humus, or vegetable mould, produced by decayed
21(j VEGETABLE MANUKKS.
vegetables, and therefore contains more or less of the natural
food of plants. Its value, however, as a fertiliser, ,vill depend
much upon whether the swamp or bog, from which it is pro-
cured, has a running stream of water passing throjgh or from
it, as in all such cases, the soluble portions of the mud are
separated from the vegetable remains, and washed away;
whereas, the muck taken from those swamps or bog holes,
having no mode of discharging their water, except by evapo-
ration, retain most of the soluble portions of their animal and
other organic remains, and consequently is richer in nitrogen
and fertilising salts.
When a dry season occurs, t : ,• prudent farmer will be indus-
trious in removing or carting muck from evaporated swamps
or other sunken places on or near his farm, and composting it
with the dung or urine of animals, night soil, soap suds, or other
putrescent matter; or, what would be better, to lay it in his
barn yard, pig sty, or sheep fold, and let it become thoroughly
mixed with the dung and urine of his stock. When thus man-
aged, the compost is excellent, and suitable for almost any va-
riety of soil, though best for those that are sandy and light.
It is not recommended to plow under mud of any kind that
is recently dug, as it should either be composted with lime or
putrescent manures, or lie exposed to a winter's frost, which
will destroy its tenacity, and reduce it to a fine powder that
will serve as a valuable absorbent of feculent matter and urine ;
or it may be spread upon the field like ashes. But if it be
plowed into the soil, before it has undergone fermentation by
the action of salts, or has been mellowed by frost, it will remain
in lumps in the earth for years without much avail.
POMACE, UK AFPLE MURK— GRAPE SKINS AND SEEDS.
POMACE, apple murk, or the refuse of ground apples after the
cider is expressed, is believed to be very rich in mineral mat-
ter, and when left in abundance af'.er it has been fed to cows
and swine, it might doubtless bt converted into a valuable
VEGETABLE MANURES. 217
fertiliser. As it is difficult of decomposition, it rots very slow-
ly, and consequently has not hitherto been much employed as
a manure. Its decay might be hastened by using it in a com-
post with some rapidly-decaying substance, as fresh horse dung
or urine, or it may be charred after the manner recommended
under the head of CHARRED SAWDUST, &c. It may also be con-
verted into ashes, and applied to the soil with good effects.
From the laws which govern special manures, it is to be infer-
red that pomace would be beneficial to apple trees.
The skins and seeds of grapes, in wine-growing countries, may
ilso be treated in a similar manner as pomace, and applied to
:he roots of vines.
PINE STRAW.
IN those parts of the country where pine forests abound, the
straw, or leaves, may be raked together, and carted to the yards,
or folds, were animals are confined at night, or it may be used
for bedding in their stalls. Employed in this way, it absorbs
the urine, and becomes incorporated with the dung, forming
in a few weeks, an excellent manure for almost any kind of
crop that is required to be grown on light sandy soils.
In regions where marl is abundant, pine straw may be
collected, and formed into a compost heap, consisting of a
layer of leaves 1 foot thick, and then one of marl 3 inches
thick, and so on alternately, until the pile is completed. In the
course of 6 months, the straw will be sufficiently decomposed
to be applied to the land, and will serve as an excellent manure
on sandy soils.
RAPE D0ST.
WHEN the seed of rape, (Brassica napis,) is deprived of its oil,
it comes from the press in the form of hard cakes, which, when
crushed to powder, forms the rape dust so extensively employed
in Europe of late years, as a manure.
10
218 VEGETABLE MANUKEi
According to an analysis by Professor Way, 100 parts of the
ash of rape cake gave of
Silica and sand, ] 3.07
Phosphoric acid, 32.70
Carbonic acid, 2.15
Sulphuric acid, 1.62
Lime 8.62
Magnesia. 14.75
Oxide of iron, 4.50
Potash, 21.90
Chloride of potassium, 0.17
Chloride of sodium, 0.46
100.00
The entire seed of the rape, as analysed by the same author.
ity as above, contained 4T2ffVths per cent, of nitrogen; 37T854oths
of oil ; 6/o4ffths of water ; and Sethis per cent, of ash. There-
fore, a ton of rape cake will contain about 94 Ibs. of nitrogen ;
128 Ibs. of mineral matter, id of which is phosphoric acid, ^th
potash, and |th magnesia.
Rape dust is occasionally mixed with farmyard dung, and
applied to turnip crops; but its principal use in Europe has
hitherto been as a top-dressing for wheat, either harrowed in
with the seed in the fall, or applied to the young plants in the
spring, when it greatly accelerates their growth ; but if added
in too large a quantity, in immediate contact with the seed or
the young plants, on heavy, impervious soils, it often undergoes
the putrid fermentation, and proves fatal or injurious to both.
According to Professor Johnston, rape dust requires moisture
to bring out its full fertilising virtues ; hence, he recommends
its application chiefly to clayey soils, or to such as rest upon
a stiff subsoil. It is seldom applied in England, therefore, to
the barley crop, and even upon wheat, oats, and tur.iips, it will
fail to produce any decidedly good effects in a very dry season.
The quantity to be applied to an acre may vary from 700 to
1,000 Ibs.
It may be noticed as a curious fact, that the action of rape
dust is dependent upon the presence or absence of cerlain othe.T
VEGETABLE MANURES. . 219
eubstances in the soil. Common salt and sulphate of soda,
when mixed with it under certain circumstances, lessen the
effect which it would produce alone, and the same will prob-
ably happen when it is applied, without admixture, to soils in
which these saline compounds happen to be already present.
Dissolved in water, and mixed with urine, rape dust forms
one of the most, efficacious of artificial liquid manures. Hence,
it is probable that the most advantageous mode of using it on
the land, after it has been dissolved in the urine tank, is, to ap-
ply it by means of a water cart to the rows where the seed has
been already drilled, or some time before it is put in. Where
flax is to be sown, this mixture, applied a few days before the
seed is put in, so as to allow it to sink into the soil, is considered,
in Flanders, as next in value to the emptyings of privies, which,
with them, hold the first rank for producing fine crops of flax.
When a crop appears sickly, and not growing as it should do,
owing to poverty in the soil, a top-dressing of rape cake dis-
solved in water, if no urine is at hand, will generally excite the
powers of vegetation ; and it is highly probable that it may
greatly assist the effects of saltpetre or of nitrate of soda,
where these salts are applied. — Rham.
SEAWEED.
ALL plants which grow within reach of the sea are good
nanures. Those thriving upon rocks or attached to the
Bottom, on shoals, are regarded as the richest in fertilising
salts, but they cannot always be reached on account of being
covered with water. A considerable quantity of them, how-
ever, is usually driven on shore in the vicinity of the rocka
where they grow, particularly when the spring tides are high,
accompanied by heavy rains, and a high-swelling sea occurs at
the same time. At low water, the roots of the plants are ex-
posed to the falling rain and the air, become loose, and detach-
ed from their beds by tha power of the waves, and are convey-
ed far on shore by the rising tide.
220 ^ VEGETABLE MANURES.
Some kinds of seaweed are burnt for their ashes, and ap-
plied as a manure, as has already been noticed, with an analy-
sis, under the head of BARILLA, or KELP.
Marine plants are generally of a soft consistency, and soon
putrefy when buried in the soil. They are transient in their
nature, and are not very marked in their effects beyond the
first year ; but for a single crop, the yield is very productive.
They are sometimes suffered to dry before they are used ; but
this is a wasteful practice, as they contain nearly 90 per cent,
of water, which, in a great measure, is evaporated, if allowed
to ferment; for there is no fibrous matter rendered soluble by
the process, while a part of the manure is lost.
The best farmers use seaweed as fresh as it can be procured.
But where it cannot be immediately applied, a good method to
save the juices, is, to compost it in a flattened heap with dry
earth or loam, and allow it to remain until ready for use. It is
more common, however, and a better method, to haul it to the
barn yard, or pig sty, and incorporate it with the dung.
Seaweed may be applied to soil in almost any situation, and is
proper for land that has been exhausted by wood ashes or lime.
When its effects are over, the soil is in no worse condition than
before it was applied, and any other manure can follow with-
out injury therefrom. The oftener it is applied, the richer be-
comes the land, as has been confirmed by experience in several
of the maritime districts of New England, which have been
kept almost constantly under tillage, where it occurs in great
abundance, and has long been used as a manure.
Seaweed, as a fertiliser, it is stated, improves both the growth
and the flavor of most of our esculent herbs.
REFUSE OF STARCH MANUFACTORIES.
WHEN the flour of wheat, barley, oats, Indian corn, &c. a
mixed up into a dough with water, and this dough washed on a
linen cloth with pure water, a milky liquid passes through,
from which, when set aside, a white powder gradually falls.
VEGETABLE MANURES. 221
This white powder is the " starch " of wheaten 01 other flour.
When the raw potato is peeled and grated on a fine grater, and
the pulp thus produced, well washed with water, " potato starch "
is obtained in the form of a fine white powder, consisting of
rounded, glossy and shining particles.
Although starch constitutes a large proportion of the weight
of the grains and roots usually employed for its manufacture,
it is obvious, from the following table, that a large share of
their bulk is rejected, and where it can be cheaply procured in
abundance, it will serve as an excellent manure, when applied
to similar crops as those from which it is obtained : —
Starch per cent.
Wheat, 39 to 77
Rye, 50 « 61
Barley, 67 « 70
Oats, 70 « 80
Indian corn, 77 " 80
Potatoes, 13 « 15
SAW DUST— SHAVINGS— TAN BARK— WOODY FIBRE, ETO.
MERE woody fibre, in all cases, seems to require fermentation
or charring to render it nutritious to plants. Shavings of wood,
fine chips, saw dust, the young shoots of trees and shrubs,
usually require as much dung, or vegetable refuse, to bring
them into a state of fermentation, as the most obstinate kinds
of peat. They can much sooner be decomposed by the action
of caustic lime than by the process of fermentation, as they
may be speedily converted into a manure by being laid in a
pit with alternate layers of newly-burnt stone lime.
But the most profitable mode of disposing of these substances
to the farmer, is, to char them, as directed under their respective
heads in the article CHARCOAL.
STRAW AND CHAFF OF GRAIN.
T.HE straw of wheat, barley, oats, and rape contains a mix-
ture of saline substances, as is shown in the article .' SHES, ut-
222 VEGETABLE MANURES.
der their respective heads, which is exceedingly valuable as a
manure to almost every kind of crop. The same may also be
said of their chaff. But, as it is thought to be a wasteful prac-
tice to burn so large a bulk of vegetable matter, merely for its
small amount of ash, it is believed to be more economical, as
a general thing, to rot the straw and chaff in the dung pits or
barn yard, instead of dissipating all its volatile matter into the
air. Furthermore, as vegetable matter, or humus, appears to
be really essential to a fertile soil, it would seem rational to
supply that matter from this source.
It is in the form of straw that dry vegetable matter is most
abundantly employed as a manure. It is only, however, when
already in the ground in the state of stubble, that it is usually
plowed in without some previous preparation. When buried
iii the soil in the dry state, it decomposes slowly, and produces
a less sensible effect upon the succeeding crop; it is usually
fermented, therefore, more or less completely, by an admixture
of animal manure in the farm yard before it is laid upon the
land. During this fermentation, a certain unavoidable loss of
organic and generally a large loss of saline matter takes place-
It is, therefore, generally theoretically true of dry, as it is of
green, vegetable matter, that it will add most to the soil, if it be
plowed in without any previous preparation. Yet this is not the
only consideration by which the practical man must be guided.
Instead of a slow and prolonged action upon his crops, he may
require an immediate and powerful action for a shorter time;
and to obtain this, he may be justified in fermenting his straw
with the certainty even of an unavoidable loss. Thus the dis-
puted use of short and long dung becomes altogether a question
of expediency or of practical economy.
Chaff partakes of the nature of straw, but it decomposes
more slowly when buried in the soil in a dried state. It is also
difficult to bring it into a state of fermentation, even when mixed
with the liquid manure of the farm yard.
The main general difference between vegetable matter of the
same kind, and cut at the same age, wL?n applied as a mann-T
VEGETABLE MANURES. 223
in the gioon and in the dry state, consists in this: That in the
former, it decomposes more rapidly, and, therefore, acts more
speedily. The total effect upon vegetation will probably in
either case be very nearly the same. But if the dry vegetable
matter has been cut at a more advanced age of the plant, or
has been exposed to the vicissitudes of the weather while
drying, it will no longer exhibit an equal efficacy. A ton of
dry straw, when unripe, will manure more richly than a ton
of the same straw in its ripe state — not only because the sap
of the green plant contains the materials from which the sub-
stance of the grain is afterwards formed, but, because, as the
plant ripens, the stem restores to the soil a portion of the sa-
line, especially of the alkaline, matter it previously contained.
After it is cut, also, every shower of rain that falls upon the
sheaves of grain, or upon the new hay, washes out some of
the saline substances which are lodged in its pores, and thus
diminishes its value as a fertiliser of the land. These facts place
in a still stronger light the advantages which necessarily fol-
low from the use of vegetable matter in the recent state, for
manuring the soil. — Johnston.
The straw and husk of rice, according to the following analy-
ses of their ash by Professor Shephard, are by no means des-
titute of fertilising matter, and where they can cheaply be ob-
tained in abundance, in the vicinity of rice plantations, they
may be used for the bedding of animals in stables, or compost-
ed in the yards, or folds, with urine and dung : —
Chaff. ~* StraiB.
Phosphate of lime, 1.02 2.00
Phosphate of potash (nearly,) trace trace.
Silica, (nearly,) 97.55 84.75
Sulphate of potash, trace
Chloride of potassium and loss, 1.13 2.56
Carbonate of lime, 0.29 20.00
Potash from the silicate, 8.69
The chaff, or husk, contained 13T7ffths per cent, of ash, and
the straw I2?t.hs per cent.
224 VEGETABLE MANUliES.
WEEDS AND HERBACEOUS PLANTS.
ALL weeds and herbaceous plants, whether cultivated or wild
such as potato haulms, the vines of beans, peanuts, (pindars,)
squashes, or melons, and all the well-known troublesome weeds
which spring up about our cultivated fields and cleared land
as well as the ferns, (brakes,) of the woods, may be collected
and laid in the pig sties and barn yards to putrefy and decom-
pose with the urine and dung. Or they may be collected into
compact heaps, and charred after the manner of bagasse, in
the article CHARCOAL, on a preceding page. They are all rich
in fertilising salts, and hence, are valuable as a manure, how-
ever they may be applied.
It is stated that ferns, cut while the sap is in its height, and
left to rot on the ground, are a great improver of the land ; for,
if burned, when so cut, their ashes will yield nearly double
the quantity of salts that any other vegetable can do. In sev-
eral parts of the north of Europe, they are mown when green,
burnt to ashes, which are made up into balls with water, dried
in the sun, and employed in washing linen instead of soap.
From this circumstance, we may be led to conclude that these
plants would serve as an excellent manure.
ANIMAL MANURES.
BLOOD.
J8LOOD is an alkaline, liquid, of a red color in the
and generally white in the invertebral animals, which circu-
lates throughout the whole body, and carries life to every part
of it by means of innumerable vessels, ramifying from the ar-
teries and veins. Its temperature is the same as that of the
animal in which it is contained ; that is to say, in man it varies
from 96|°F. to 98§°; in fishes, 5lf°; in dogs and cats, 102£°;
in the hog, 105°; and in birds, from 102£° to 105|°. It coagu-
lates by the heat of boiling water, the strong acids, and by
alcohol, as well as spontaneously in the open air, or in close
vessels.
This fluid, by its coagulation, is divided into two parts, one
of which is liquid, transparent and yellowish, called the serum,
while the other is opaque, soft, denser, of a reddish color, and
is named the crassamentum, cruor, or clot. The blood which
circulates through the arteries, is of a bright red, but that
which returns to the heart by the veins is of a brownish red,
which, seen through the pellucid sides of these vessels, appears
bluish or black.
The crassamentum of the blood of a bullock, according to
Berzelius. is composed of 36 per cent, of fibrin, and 64 of red
coloring matter ; while the fibrin in man scarcely amounts to
17-J- per cent. And from the analyses of the same chemist and
ANIMAL MANURES.
Marcet, ],000 parts of the blood of man and of a bullock gave
the following results : —
Composition.
BKRZELIUS.
1
MARCET.
Bullock. ; Man.
Man.
Water,
905.000
79.990
6.175
2.565
1.520
4.750
905
80
4
6
4
1
900.00
80.80
4.00
C.60
1.65
0.35
O.GO
Albumen
Impure lactate and phosphate of soda,
Chloride of sodium and potassium,. . .
Loss, . ....
1 1,000.000 1,000
1
1,000
J
According to the researches of Proust, blood contains, be-
sides the above-named substances, a portion of ammonia, a
hydro-sulphuret, benzoate of soda, traces of acetic acid, slightly
modified, and of bile. Brand and Vogel have proved, that, in
vaccuo, blood gives out its own bulk of carbonic acid gas.
Vauquelin found in it a yellow fatty matter, which Chevreul
considered as being of the same nature as that of the brain.
Barruel did not find the slightest trace of urea in 10 Ibs. of
bullocks' blood, while Provost and Dumas alleged that they
found urea in the blood of a dog.
Blood, therefore, contains certain quantities of most, if not
all the principles found in animal substances, and constitutes
a manure of the most active properties. In the vicinity of large
cities or towns, it is carried off to some extent from the
slaughterhouses, and converted into a rich and fertilising com-
post. In some parts of Europe, it is dried, and in the state of
a powder, is applied with much effect as a top-dressing to many
crops.
Blood is always highly valued to compost with dried peat,
charcoal, vegetable matter, f ne earth, or loam. It has been
somewhat extensively applied to fruit trees; but the compara-
tively limited q>'a^tity that can be obtained, precludes it from
ANIMAL MANURES.
227
at .iversal use It is most generally mixed with the offal of
slaughterhouse* and with the animal dung in the pits of butch-
er shops, where a substance of great value is found for adding
to the compost heaps, or for mixing with farmyard manure. If
butchers would keep on hand a large stot k of dried pulverised
peat, or swamp muck, to absorb the blood and offal of their
slaughtered animals, it would richly pay the trouble and cost,
as it would form a manure that would readily sell at a very
high price.
BLUBBER REFUSE— TRAIN OIL.
WHEN the oil is expressed from the " blubbler," or the cellu-
lar or muscular parts of the whale, a skinny or membraneous
refuse remains, which has hitherto been employed with great
advantage, both in Europe and in this country, as a manure.
Whale blubber is composed principally of train oil and other
animal matters ; but the oil constitutes by far the largest por-
tion of the blubber; and to the presence of this oil, which
does not appear to differ materially in composition from what-
ever fish it is obtained, must be attributed the chief fertilising
value of all fish.
According to Thompson, 100 parts of train oil contained of
Parts.
Carbon, 68.78
Hydrogen, 16.10
Oxygen, 15.03
100.00
Spe-maceti oil, according to Dr. Ure, consists, in 100 parts, of
Carbon, 78.0
Hydrogen, 11-8
Oxygen, 10.2
100.0
Fish oils, therefore, are composed of exactly the same mate-
rials that constitute most if not all vegetable substances, differ-
10*
228 ANIMAL MANURES.
ing only in the proportions. Hence blubber, .is well as train
oil and other animal oils, which contain impurities, rich in
nitrogen, may be classed among the most condensed manures
that it is possible to apply to the soil.
All practical writers on the application of blubber and train
oil, and similar refuse, agree that to modify them, they must be
made into a compost with a large proportion of peat, swamp
muck, earth, coal or wood ashes, or loam, though the propor-
tions may differ under the diversiiied circumstances on which
individual experience is founded. Animal or vegetable alkalies
increase their fertilising power by converting them into soap.
But quicklime diminishes their efficacy by liberating their am-
monia, and also tends to render them insoluble. Hence, the
mixing of lime is detrimental, as it deprives the blubber of its
ammonia, and prevents fermentation.
A correspondent in the London Farmer's Magazine found that
blubber, in a crude state, as he applied it, destroyed, instead of
assisting vegetation. Twelve years' experience, however, led
him to a most successful method of using it, by mixing 9 loads
of earth with 1 load of blubber. He first made a layer of
earth 2 feet thick, building it a foot higher at the sides, 3 feet
inward, like a stone wall, to form a cavity for the blubber. Af-
ter the blubber had been laid on a foot in depth, similar layers
were repeated, one above the other, until the blubber was ex-
pended. The entire heap was then beaten down close at the
top and sides, in order to exclude the air. In this state, it fer-
mented, and the earth became impregnated with the ammonia
and other gases escaping from the blubber. When this fer-
mentation had abated, which required about 2 months, the heap
was turned over from top to bottom. The lowermost layer of
earth, which then became the uppermost, required an addition-
al covering of fresh earth, in order to prevent the escape of
ammonia by the second fermentation. After this fei mentation
had abated, the heap was again turned, fresh earth added as
before, and at the completion of the third fermentation, the
compost was ready for us*; It was not put on the soil before
ANIMAL MANURES. 229
it was from 9 to 12 months old, when it was applied both to
grass and tillage lands, at the rate of 20 to 30 ton's to an acre.
It was also used for tillage crops of wheat, beans, and potatoes,
on strong clayey soil, with remarkably good effects.
An excellent compost for almost all kinds of crops may be
made by dissolving 12 Ibs. of American potash in 4 gallons of
water, and mixing the solution with a gallon of train oil and 20
bushels of dry mould. A mixture of a few gallons, also, of im-
pure train oil with the usual quantity of bone dust, increases
the turnip crop to a considerable degree wherever it is applied.
BONE BLACK, OR ANIMAL CHARCOAL— REFUSE OF SUGAR RE-
FINERIES— ANIMALISED CARBON.
WHEN bones are charred or distilled at a red heat, in close
vesssels, they leave behind a coaly residuum, to which the names
" bone black " and " ivory black," have been applied. By this
calcination, the animal matter is arfmost entirely decomposed.
It still retains a little nitrogen, however, though seldom em-
employed in a pure state as a manure, yet it is not wholly
without effect in promoting the growth of cultivated crops. A
good article of animal charcoal contains from 80 to 85 per cent,
of phosphate of lime, besides other mineral matter.
Bone black is chiefly employed in refineries for the purpose
of removing the color from the solutions of raw sugar. Blood
is also used for clarifying the same solutions, with quicklime,
for neutralising the acid matter they contain; thus render 'rig
the sirups more capable of easy crystallisation. Consequently,
the animal charcoal, blood, lime, and the coloring and other
matters, separated from the sugar, become mixed together, and
form the refuse of sugar refineries. This refuse often contains
from ^th to ith of its weight of blood ; and hence, where it is
employed as a manure, it is considered from 4 to 6 times more
powerful than the pure animal charcoal, alone.
The value of this substance depends very much upon the
proportion of blood which it contains, and as this is in some
230 ANIMAL MANURES.
measure variable, its fertilising qualities must be variable also.
In Europe, as well as in this country, blood is used much
more sparingly than formerly, and several of the larger re-
fineries do not use it at all ; and hence, the refuse of many of
our northern establishments is doubtless less valuable at pres-
ent than it was in former years. Still, this refuse is suffi-
ciently rich in fertilising matter to be employed where more
economical manures cannot readily be obtained, provided it is
treated with sulphuric acid, after the manner of dissolving
bones and phosphate of lime, described in another part of this
work. It is then of great service in producing vigorous growth,
strong plants, and fine seeds. The quantity to be applied in a
compost, to one acre of land, in tolerable good tilth, may
vary from 150 to 200 pounds.
This refuse does not appear always to have a constant com-
position, but varies somewhat when obtained from different es-
tablishments, which is due to the adoption of different modes
of manufacture. In most j^n'neries in the United States, blood
is dispensed with, and the animal charcoal, in some cases, is
only used in one operation of refining; while in others, it is
burnt, or revivified, a second and even a third time, carrying on
two or three refinings before it is rejected as refuse. This, of
course, alters the composition to a considerable extent.
From the analyses of two samples of sugar refuse, taken
from a refinery at New York, by Dr. Antisell, chemist to the
American Agricultural Association, the following was the re-
sult:—
jvo. i. JVo. a.
Charcoal, 34.00 12
Phosphate and carbonate of lime and magnesia, 62.25 65
Sugar and organic coloring matter, with isinglass,. . . 2.35 10
Water, 1.40 12
100.00 100
No. 1 would appear to have been used frequently by the large
amount of charcoal in it, the quantity of carbon which burnt
bones alone would possess being not above that in No. 2. Hence,
it is likely it was obtained by the burning of the sugar and
. 231
coloring matters obtained by a previous refining. From this
abundance of charcoal, it would form a more valuable com-
post than No. 2, but it has less of the sugar and coloring matr
ters, which, by their ready decomposition, warm the groui.ss.
In this respect, No. 2 excels. The quantities of bone earth it:
both are almost alike, and exceed the quantity in the same
weight of bone dust or guano ; so that, when these manures
are used for the sake of phosphate of lime, the charcoal is
preferable as containing them more abundantly. No. 2 also
contains an unusually large quantity of water. Taken as a
whole, I believe it more nearly represents the average consti-
uion of refuse animal charcoal. I think it would make a
'uable manure for pear trees and orchards generally,
^e estimation in which the refuse charcoal of the sugar
:s was held, has led to the manufacture of very useful imi-
ns of it under the name of animalised carbon. A calcare-
oil, rich in vegetable matter, (an intimate mixture of peat
narl or shell sand, would answer well,) is charred in close
)ls, and is then mixed at intervals with repeated portions
jght soil as long as it disinfects it or removes its smell ; and
.his mixture is added 4 or 5 per cent, of clotted and partially-
dried blood. This animalised carbon is said to be of much
value as a manure. The main objections to it are its liability
to adulteration, and the uncertainty to which, even when skil-
fully and conscientiously prepared, its composition must be in
some measure liable. A ton of animalised carbon is sufficient
to manure au acre of turnips.
BONES AND BONE EARTBL
A BONE is a hard substance, unalterable in dry air, insoluble
ill cold water, yielding a jelly by the action of highly-condensed
steam, and leating, on calcination at a red heat, half of its
weight or more of inorganic matter called " bone earth," or
ash. The quantity of inorganic matter, however, contained in
bones, is nut constant, being less in the young than in the adult
ANIMAL MANURES.
animal, also less in the cellular than in the compact or more
solid bones, and less in those of some species of animals than
'n those of others. Thus, when deprived of their fat, and ren*
/-Vred perfectly dry, the per-centage of inorganic matter con-
ained in several kinds of bones is as follows : —
Per cent.
The lower jaw bone of an adult, 68.00
Ditto. of a child of 3 years, G2.80
A compaiM liuinan bone 58.70
A spongy human bone, 50.20
The tibia of a sheep, 48.03
The vertebrie of a haddock, 60.51
Berzelius, who examined the bones of the human subject,
found that 100 parts contained of
Per cent.
Animal matters, 33.30
Phosphate of lime, 51.04
Carbonate of lime, 11.30
Fluatc of lime, 2.00
Phosphate of magnesia, 1.16
Soda, muriate of soda, and water, 1.20
100.00
According to Dr. Thompson, the constitution of certain bones
of the sheep, ox, and of the haddock is as follows: —
lleum
of a sheep.
lleum
of an ox.
Vertebra
of a haddock.
Organic or combustible matter,
433
50.6
48.5
45.2
39.5
56.1
4.5
6.1
3.6
0.9
0.2
0.8
Soda,
0.3
0.2
0.8
0.2
0.1
1
99.8
100.3
100.8
The soda exists in bones probably in the state of common
salt, and the magnesia in that of a phosphate. An appreciable
quantity of fluoride of calcium, with traces of iron and mag-
ANIMAL MANURES. 23*
nesia, are also generally found in bones, in addition to the sub-
stances indicated in the preceding analyses.
From the above, it will be seen that the inorganic matter, or
ash, of human bones, consists in a large proportion of the phos-
phate of lime ; and it contains also a considerable amount of
the carbonate of lime, with smaller quantities of several other
ingredients. It woulfl seem, however, from the following table,
that the proportion of carbonate of lirne exists in less quantity
in the bones of carnivorous animals. Thus, for every 100 pans
of phosphate of lime there occurs in
Carbonate of lime*
Human bones about, 20.7
Bones of tho sheep, 24.1
Ditto. ox. 13.5
Ditto. fowl, 11.7
Ditto.' haddock, 0.2
Ditto. frog, 5.8
Ditto. lion, 2.6
Again, recent bones contain a variable quantity of water and
fat. That of the latter depends upon the position of the bone
in the body, and upon the condition of the animal. The pro-
portion of water depends partly upon the solidity of the bone
and partly upon its age. According to Denis, the radius of a
female,
Aged 3 years, contained 33.3 per cent, of water, with a little fat.
Aged 20 years, " 13.0 " "
Aged 78 years. " 15.4 « «
The quantity of water thus present in bones performs an im»
portant part in determining the action which bone dust is
known to exercise upon the land. The oil is sometimes ex-
tracted by boiling the bones. During this boiling, they absorb
more water, and thus, when laid upon the land, undergo a more
rapid decomposition, and exercise, in consequence, a more
immediate and apparent, and therefore, as some may think, a
more powerful and fertilising effect.
From the preceding analyses, it will be perceived that the
234 ANIMAL MASUKES.
proportions are not to be considered as constant, because it
varies not only in the different bones of the same animal, but,
.also in bones from the same part of the body of different ani-
mals 01 the same species. But the existence of such differences
must render unlike the fertilising action of the bones of differ-
ent animals, especially, if, as many think, this action depends
in any great degree upon the quantity'of phosphate of lime
which they respectively contain.
The use of bones as a manure is of great antiquity. There
is found recorded a remarkable passage of their fertilising
powers in a collection of Welsh manuscripts, recently pub-
lished, with an English translation, by the Welsh M. S. S. So-
ciety, under the title of "The lolo M. S. S." The passage to
which direct allusion is made is a very short one, but is the
more significant of truth from the fact of its being incidentally
introduced at the close of the account of " The Prison of Oeth
and Annoeth." The narrative refers to a period in history as
far back as about the middle of the first century, when Caradog,
(Caractacus, king of the Silures, inhabiting South Wales,) was
warring against the Romans, and slaughtering them most, ter-
ribly. After those wars, in which so many of the Ccosarians
had been killed, their bones, which had been left by the wolves,
ravens, and dogs, like a white sheet of snow in many places,
covered the face of the earth. Manawyddan, the son of Llyr,
caused these bones to be collected together into one huge pile
from one of the battle fields, with other bones found through-
out his dominions, so that the heap became of marvellous mag-
nitude. It then came to his mind to form a prison of these
bones, in which to confine such enemies and foreigners as
might be taken in war; and he set himself to work and con-
structed a large edifice with exceedingly strong walls of the
bones, cemented together with lime. It was of a circular form,
and of wonderful magnitude, the larger bones being placed en
the outer face of the walls, and within the inclosure were
manv smaller prison?, or cells, formed of the lesser bones.
Thi- was called the " Prison of Oeth an.! Aimo.itli," which was
A.NIMAT, MANURES. 235
demolished several times by the Csesarians. and rebuilt by the
Cymry stronger than before. " And in the course of a long
time," reads the remarkable passage before referred to. "the
bones became decayed, so that there was no strength in them,
and they were reduced to dust ; then they carried the remains
and put it on the surface of the plowed land ; and from that time,
they had astonishing crops of wheat and barley, and of every other
grain for many years."
In modern times, bones were not employed for manuring land,
unless we except occasional instances of the application of an-
ent tumuli for fertilising crops, before the year 1775, when Colo-
nel St. Leger, then residing at Warmsworth, in England, who
was the first person known to use them. The early progress
does not seem to have been very rapid, from the practice of lay-
ing them on almost unbroken, and as Professor Low informs us,
they were used in immense quantities, frequently at the rate of
60, 70, and even 100 bushels to an acre. Experience, however,
has shown that the application of so large a quantity is not fol-
lowed by a corresponding increase of crop, and a dose of 10 or
15 bushels of bone dust is held, now, by many farmers, as quite
sufficient for many soils. At the same time, the high price now
paid for them renders such an extravagant use inadmissible, and
has directed public attention to the most economical modes of
applying them to the land. Much difference of opinion exists
with regard to this point amongst practical men. Some prefer
fresh bones to dry; others .burned to unburnt; rotten or fer-
mented bones to those that are fresh, and rice versa. In shorr,
we meet with such conflicting assertions in regard to these
points, that it would seem almost impossible to form any de-
cided opinion as to the most economical method of applying
them to the land.
Again, bones contain, as has been shown, a large proportion
both of organic and of inorganic matter. On which of these
two constituents does their fertilising action most de-pendl
Some regard the phosphate of lime, or bone earth, as the only
source of the benefits so extensively derived from them ; and
236 ANIMAL MANURES.
it is by supposing the soil to be already sufficiently impregna-
ted with this phosphate, that Sprengel accounts for the little
success wh ch has attended the use of bones in Mecklenburg
and Northern Germany. Others, again, attribute the whole of
their influence to the organic part, the gelatine, which they
contain. Neither of these views is strictly correct. Plants
require a certain quantity of phosphoric acid,-lime, and mag-
nesia, which are present in the inorganic part of bones, and so
far, therefore, are capable of deriving inorganic food from bone
dust. But the organic part of bones will decompose, and
therefore will act nearly in the same way as skin, wool, hair
and horn, which substances it resembles in ultimate compo-
sition. It cannot be doubted, therefore, that a considerable
part of the effect of bones upon all crops must be due to the
gelatine which they contain.
The organic matter of bones acts like that of skin, woollen
rags, horn shavings, &c., but as bone dust contains only about
Jd of the organic matter which is present in an equal weight
of either of the above substances, its total effect, in so far as it
depends upon the organic matter, will be less in an equal pro-
portion. But as this matter contains more water than horn or
wool, it will decay more rapidly than these substances when
mixed with the soil, and will therefore be more immediate in
its action. Hence, the reason why woollen rags and horn shav-
ings must be plowed in the preceding winter, if they are to
benefit the subsequent wheat or turnip crops, while bone dust
can be beneficially applied at the sowing of the seed.
When bones are boiled, the oil will be separated, and a por-
tion of the gelatine will, at the same time, be dissolved out.
Therefore, they will be in reality rendered much less rich as a
manure. But as they at the same time take up a considerable
quantity of water, boiled bones will decompose more rapidiy
when mixed with the soil, and thus will appear to act as ben-
eficially as those unboiled. The immediate effect may indeed
be equal, or even greater, than that of unboiled bones, but the
to;al effect must be less in proportion to the quantity of organic
ANIMAL MANURES. 237
matter which has been removed by boiling. Cases, however,
may occur in which the skilful man will prefer to use boiled
bones, because they are fitted to produce more immediate effect
where, as in the pushing forward of the young turnip plant.,
such an effect is particularly required.
In so far as the efficacy of bones really depends upon their
earthy constituents, the use of phosphorite or of marl, contain-
ing phosphate of lime will, no doubt, greatly supercede them;
but in so far as it depends upon the animal matter they contain,
bones exhibit their natural fertilising action, however rich the
soil may already be in those compounds of which their earthy
or incombustible part consists.
Yet there is reason to believe, nay, it may be assumed as
certain, that the phosphate and carbonate of lime, which bones
contain so largely, are not without effect in promoting vegeta-
tion. All our cultivated plants require and contain both phos-
phoric acid and lime, and from the vegetables on which they
feed, all animals derive the entire substance of their bones.
This same phosphoric acid and lime, therefore, must exist in the
soil on which the plants grow, or they will neither thrive them-
selves nor be able properly to nourish the animals they are
destined to feed. If a soil, then, be deficient in phosphate of lime
or its constituents, it is clear that the addition of bones will
benefit the after crops not only by the animal, but by the earthy
matter, also, which they contain. And that such is the case, in
many instances, there is good reason for believing. But that
this can by no means account for the whole effect of bones,
even supposing the soil to which they are applied to be, in
every instance, deficient in phosphates, is clear from the fact
that 260 Ibs., (less than 6 bushels,) of bone dust per acre are
sufficient to supply all the phosphates contained in the crops
which are reaped during an entire four-shift rotation of turnips,
barley, clover, and wheat. Yet the quantity of bones actually
applied to the land is from 3 to 5 times the above weight, re-
peated every time the turnip crop comes round.
Still, glinting that the chief effect of bones npon the imme-
238 ANIMAL MANURE;.
diatcly succeeding crops is due to their organic part, upon what
does their prolonged good effect depend ? Some lands show the
effects of a single dressing of bones for 15 or 20 years, while
others, after the application of 2 or 2£ tons of bones have
yielded 10 to 15 successive crops of oats, and have been sen-
sibly benefited for as many as 60 years after the bones were
applied. This prolonged effect is also due, in part, to both
constituents. When not crushed to powder; the organic matter
of bones is always slow in disappearing, and slower the deeper
they are buried. In some soils, also, the process is more slow
than in other. The long-buried bones of the bear and of the
stag, which had lain in the soil for an unknown period, still
contained a sensible proportion of animal matter. So it is
with the bones used for manure, when they are not crushed too
fine. They long retain a portion of their organic matter, which
they give out more slowly, and in smaller quantity every year
that passes, yet still, in such abundance, as to contribute sensi-
bly to the nourishment, and in some degree to promote the
growth of the crops which the land is made to bear. So it
would be with the horns and hoofs of cattle, if laid on in equal
quantity, for they also decay with exceeding slowness.
Still, the inorganic part is not without its use. If the soil be
deficient in phosphates or in lime, the earthy matter of the
bones will supply these substances. I only wish to guard the
farmer against the conclusion, that, because bones often act
for so long a period, therefore the organic matter can have no
share in the influence they exercise after a limited period of
years. — Johnston.
There is great economy in reducing bones to as fine a con-
dition as possible before applying them to the field. If added
in their unprepared state, they will yield a portion of their sub-
stance to the crops; but 100 bushels will produce no more ef-
fect for a single season, when thus applied, than perhaps 5 or
6 bushels, when finely divided. If the 100 bushels, then, be
ground or decomposed, and applied to 20 acres, there will be
an equal amount of benefit accruing to each in a single season,
ANIMAL MANURES. 239
that would be otherwise derived to the land for 20 successive
years, if applied unground on a single acre.
The forme in which bones are now applied to the land are
five in number, namely, by grinding, by burning, by steaming,
by dissolving in sulphuric acid, and by fermentation.
Grinding bones to a dust or powder is an expensive operation.
Large and fresh bones are so hard and tough, that immense
power is required for breaking and reducing them sufficiently
for agricultural purposes. Costly mills of great strength, and
requiring considerable motive power, are necessary. Such an
outlay can only be justified where a large quantity of bones
is to be prepared. There are no cheap machines within my
knowlege, adequate to the objects, and adapted to the use of
the small farmer. Unless a mill is erected by some individual
or company to grind for a neighborhood, or for a more distant
market, it would be advisable to adopt one or other of the
modes described below of preparing them.
Bone dust, is usually sold by the bushel, the weight of which
varies with the degree of dryness, and the fineness to which
the bones have been reduced, say from 40 to 50 Ibs. to a bushel.
The burning of bones, at a red heat, in an open fire until every-
thing in them combustible has disappeared, is a summary mode
of preparation, but is attended with a certain loss of much of
their valuable properties, leaving, in the dried bones of the ox,
nearly half of their weight in " bone earth," or " bone ash,"
which is composed of about 80 per cent, of phosphate of lime
and 16 per cent, of the carbonate of lime, and 2 or 3 per cent,
of phosphate of magnesia, soda, and potash. All of these sub-
stances are indispensable to vegetable growth ; and, unless the
soil is previously supplied with them, bone ash cannot fail to
add greatly to the augmentation of the crops. When burned
bones are reduced to a powder, as has already been shown un-
der the head of BI-PHOSPHATE OF LIME, and digested in sulphuric
acid, diluted with once or twice its weight of water, the acid
combines with a portion of the lime, and forms sulphate of lime,
(gypsum,) while the remainder of the lime, and the whole of
240 ANIMAL MANURES.
the phosphoric acid are dissolved. The solution, therefore,
contains an acid phosphate of lime, or one in which the phos-
phoric acid exists in much larger quantity than in the bone ash.
By the above process, the bones are reduced to their finest con-
dition, and most readily yield their substance to the roots of
plants.
The steaming of bones, reducing them by a new process, has
attracted a considerable attention for a year or two past in
Scotland, as suggested by Mr. Robert Blackall, of Edinburgh,
who recommends exposing them to the action of high-pressure
steam, in an apparatus especially constructed for the purpose,
a description of which, together with a detailed process of
steaming the bones are given in the London "Farmer's Herald"
for November, 1850, as follows: —
"The boiler is circular, 6 feet long, and measures 3 feet, 4
inches in diameter. It is constructed of the ordinary boiler
plate, of -J-d of an inch thick. In the front, the man hole, or
door, is placed, 9 inches from the bottom, 13£ from the top, and
12£ inches from each side. The man hole is closed by a plate
door, secured by wedges and screw bolts in the usual manner,
upon a jointing of hempen gasket. Inside the boiler, a straight
false bottom of sheet iron, on which the bones are placed, is
fixed immediately below the man hole. Close upon the bottom
of the boiler a stop cock is placed, for the purpose of drawing
off the liquid at the conclusion of the process, if necessary.
On a level with the false bottom, is placed a gauge cock, to
show whether the water has risen or fallen to that level ; about
10 inches above, a second or a steam cock is fixed. A safety
valve on the top of the boiler indicates the pressure of steam,
and secures the boiler from explosion. The water for steaming
the bones is filled in by a water cock at the top of the boiler.
An extra steam cock is likewise placed at the top of the boiler,
for the purpose of supplying steam for any other operation, as
for steaming food, &c., when required. The boiler is set in
mason work, and lined with fire bricks, the length of the mason
work being 7 feet, 2 inches, and 5 fee" 5 inches in height, the
ANIMAL MANURES. 241
sides speading out 13 inches from the boiler. Ti.e smoke of
;ne fire passes off directly through the chimney, which is more
jian 15 feet in height.
" Early in the morning, the boiler is filled with bones, through
the man hole, and the door of the same is then fastened steam
tight To secure this, the gasket of hemp, which lies between
the two metal surfaces of the boiler and the door, is smeared
with a luting, made by moistening oatmeal with boiling water
and working it by the hand into a stiff paste ; the door is then
replaced, and screwed tight. This luting, which perhaps may
just as well be made of common flour, answers perfectly the
purpose, and is much better than white or red lead, made into
a paste with boiled linseed oil.
" When the boiler was first put into operation, only 7-J- cwt.
of bones could be packed in it, but in a short time, the man
who had charge of the boiler, becoming better accustomed to
the work, succeeded in packing 9| cwt. of bones instead of
7£ cwt. The water for generating steam is filled in the boiler
to the depth of 12 inches from the bottom, and as the space
between the true u^ttom of the boiler and the slip bottom, on
which the bones rest, is 9 inches, the water rises about 3 inches
amongst the bones. From the time of kindling the fire, it takes
about one hour to get up the steam. During 24 hours, the
steam is kept as uniformly as possible at a pressure of 25 Ibs.
to a square inch, a boiling during 22 hours having previously
been tried, but found insufficient for reducing afterwards the
bones to powder with ease. As no water can escape in the
form of steam during the boiling, one filling is sufficient. Be-
fore the withdrawing of the charge, th^ fire is removed, the
steam let off through the safety valve, and about 3 bucketsful
of the watery liquid, equivalent to about 7-J- gallons, drawn off,
in order to reduce the water to a little below the false bottom,
on which the bones rest. The man hole is then unscrewed
and the whole allowed to cool down for a short time. While
still warm, the contents of the boiler are shovelled out succes*
sively by one man, who is assisted by another, in crushing the
11
242 ANIMAL MANURES.
bone?, hv means of a wooden mallet. The reducing to powdei
is recdered so easy by this process, that it requires no longer
time for crushing the bones than for taking them out of the
boiler ; as fast as they are shovelled out, by one, they are
broken into a rough powder by the second man. It is neces-
sary to bring the bones under the action of the wooden mallet,
in successive portions when still warm; for when allowed to
become cool, they require a greater effort .0 bring them to a
powder. The steamed bones treated in this manner contain
much water, absorbed in the boiler ; thrown into a heap whilst
yet warm, they not only retain their original heat, but in a very
short time, the temperature of the heap increases very consid-
erably, and at the same time, a most disagreeable smell of pu-
trefying animal matter is given off. The fermentation of the
bones, however, which is the cause of this, and consequently
the loss of ammonia, may be prevented entirely by adding a
small dose of common salt to the steamed bones.
"Nothing can be more simple and expedient than this new
process. So soft are the bones rendered by it, that the above
charge of 9£ cwt. takes less than an hour for crushing them to
powder. The only assistance required by the man in attend-
ance is an extra man for about 1£ hours, to break the bones
with the wooden mallet, as they are shovelled out of the boiler,
and to give him the bones, whilst he is in the boiler engaged
in packing the same. As the time necessary for allowing the
boiler to cool at the end of the operation, emptying its con-
tents, crushing the bones to powder, packing the boiler with a
new charge, and getting up the steam, does not exceed 2£ or 3
hours. Five batches of steamed bones may be readily obtained
in a week.
" The changes bones have undergone, after having been sub-
mitted to the operation of steaming, are very simple, but in
order to understand them properly, let us look for a moment
to their composition. Those of animals consist of an or-
ganic and inoiganic portion. On exposure to a strong heat,
.-> an open vessel, they first turn black, on account of the or^
ANIMAL MANUilES. 243
ganic matter becoming charred, and burnt perfectly white,
after all the organic malter has been dissipated by the heat.
Bones thus treated, and subsequently washed with water, ap-
pear soft and pliable ; boiled with water, they become com-
pletely dissolved, forming with the same a thickish, sticky
liquid, which on cooling gelatinises. On account of this prop-
erty, the organic matter of bones is called ' gelatine,' and is
essentially the same substance as glue. Some of the gelatine
may be extracted by boiling the fresh bones, without treating
them first with muriatic acid, and this is the case in the above
steaming process.
" Steamed bones decompose more readily in the soil than
bones in their natural state; and for that reason they are likely
to be quicker and more powerful in their action as a manure
than the latter. They differ in their composition but slightly
from fresh bones, with the exception, that the organic matter
has undergone some change, whereby the bones are rendered
more easily available as food for plants. Long experience,
indeed, has taught some farmers to prefer bones, previously
boiled by the glue makers to those in a natural state, particu-
larly for old pastures, and it is therefore more than probable,
<hat crushed and salted bones, prepared by Mr. Blackall's pro-
cess, will be found more valuable still."
The following are the results of two analyses of bones pre-
pared by the new process by Dr. Anderson, chemist to the
Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland : —
JVo. 1. JVo. £
Water, V2.6& 13.86
Animal matter, 27.37 19.90
Bone earth, 59.97 66.24
100.00 100.00
In order to form a correct estimate of the advantage of Mr.
BlackalPs method, it is necessary to compare the composition
of these bones with that of those prepared by the ordinary
process as it is very evident that a certain proportion of the
244 ANIMAL MANURES.
gelatine, or glue, which is very soluble in boiling water, must
have been extracted by the steaming. In looking into the sub-
ject, however, Dr. Anderson was unable to find any anlysis of
bones in the state in which they are used as a manure, and he
found it necessary to analyse several specimens of agricultural
bones, of which the following are the results : — No. 1 were drill
bones, in pieces about an inch in length. No. 2, ordinary finely-
crushed bones ; and No. 3, the entire bones in the state in which
they are sold to the bone crushers by the persons who collect
them : —
Jfo. 1. JV«. 2. JVc. 3.
Water, 10.00 10.39 14.79
Animal matter, 41.88 42.60 37.02
Bone earth, 48.12 47.01 48.19
100.00 100.00 100.00
From a comparison of these analyses with the former, it is
manifest that they contain much more animal matter than the
steamed bones, the. amount averaging 40 percent.; while in the
latter, in one case, we we have only half that quantity, and in
the other about 27 per cent. Now, it must be very clear that, in
the production of a ton of steamed bones, it is not sufficient to
reckon the mere cost of steaming in addition to that of the crude
bones, but that the loss of animal matter must be taken into ac-
count. Supposing the crude bones to contain exactly 40 per cent,
oi' animal matter, a very simple calculation shows that they mu^t
lose 25 per cent., in order to yield a substance which shall con-
tain 20 per cent, of animal matter. Supposing then, that the
crude bones cost £4 per ton, the same quantity, as prepared by
Mr. Blackall's process, would cost £5 6s. 8d., independently of
the cost of steaming. It is true that the whole quantity of the
phosphate of lime will remain in the bones, but it must be re-
collected that the gelatine which is extracted is a very valuable
manure, and extremely rich in nitrogen, so much so that Bous-
singault, who has given a comparative table of the value of
manures, founded upon the amount of nitrogen they contain.
ANIMAL MANURES. 245
estii-.ates, (irrespective of the phosphate of lime,) 6 parts of
bones as equivalent to 100 of farmyard manure. Now, by Mr.
Blackall's method, the animal matter extracted must be en-
tirely lost, or it must be recovered by evaporating the conden-
sed steam, or, in the event of the quantity of water being suf-
ficiently small, by converting it into a compost. Any such
operations, howler, must, to a greater or less extent, add to
the original cost of the bones.
It is quite possible that, by the use of a proper steaming
vessel, the quantity of gelatine extracted may be reduced con-
siderably under what it was in either of the specimens analy-
sed, but it admits of question whether this very extraction may
not be connected with the softening process. It is well known,
at least, that bones, from which all or nearly all the animal
matter has been extracted by boiling in water under pressure,
are so soft that they may be reduced to fine powder by rub-
bing them between the fingers.
These are disadvantages which are likely to limit considerably
the value of Mr. Blackall's process; but it may, notwithstand-
ing, prove valuable in remote districts, where small quantities
of bones may be collected at such a distance from a bone ir.ill
as to render it unprofitable to transport them to it. The superi-
ority of steamed bones as a manure is a question which can be
properly determined only by experiment in the field, and it is
not impossible that good results may be obtained from them,
though they can never form a substitute for bones dissolved by
an acid.
Tlie dissolving of bones by sulphuric acid has been practised
for some years past by several emiment agriculturists both i»
Europe and in this country, and when applied to the soil, was
attended with beneficial results Various proportions of acid
have been tried as the proper quantity ; but, in cases where
the bones were to be completely decomposed, half of their
weight was thought to be sufficient ; while others recommend
that a complete solution should not tuke place at once, in order
that a portion of the bones might b--; left for the benefit of the
246 VNIMAL MANURES
succeeding crops; and that at the same time, a sufficient quan
tity might be rendered soluble for the wants of the first year.
The following method of dissolving bones in sulphuric acid
is given by Mr. Alex. J. Main, a practical fanner, of Whitehill,
in the "Journal of Agriculture" and the "Transactions of the
Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland," for January,
1851 : — "Get a joiner to put together a rough .box — something
like a cooler for steamed food, but higher in the sides — say 8
feet long by 3 feet or 2 feet, 6 inches high, and 3 feet wide, dove-
tailed and jointed with white lead. The box prepared, put in
the water of the preparation lirst; then the sulphuric acid, al-
lowing one half more bulk of water than acid, and one half less
weight of acid than bones; that is, to a gallon of acid, allow a
gallon and a half of water ; and to 100 Ibs. of bones, allow 50 Ibs.
of acid. To the water and acid, the bones must now be added,
(finely broken up into half-inch fragments, or less,) mixing the
whole intimately and equally. This done, cover up the box, or
tank with straw or old sacks, laid on pieces of wood ; or have
a rough wooden lid to the box ; and then allow the whole
to stand, untouched, for 48 hours. The process of manufacture
will then be complete. In anticipation of its necessity, I would
recommend a careful accumulation of the house ashes during
the year, kept in some dry place. When the operation above de-
tailed is compleled, put the ashes in a heap in a convenient
position for the tank; make then a basin at the top of the heap,
and lift the dissolved bones out of the tank, placing 'them in
the basin. Turn over the entire heap with shovels, two or
three times, till the whole is well mixed, and the preparation
will then be perfectly fit to be handled, or at least be spread,
out of a cart with shovels, and put on the soil. This process
may be attended with a little trouble at first ; but once or twice
done, the difficulty is past, and no one giving his attention to
the matter will afterwards regret his perseverance."
The following is another good method of mixing bone dust
with sulphuric acid, as given in the "London Agricultural Ga-
zett»> •" — * Lay 80 bushels of bone dust in a conical heap ; pour
ANIMAL MANURES. 34*)
on water till it begins to run off at the base; leave it for a
couple of days; then spread it abroad somewhat, leaving a
raised rim, (which should be trampled firm,) and a basin-shaped
cavity ; pour on more water till it will no longer remain in the
heap ; and then slowly pour about 1,000 Ibs. of sulphuric acid
over the heap. Turf ashes, (about 300 bushels,) may, with ad-
vantage, have been previously laid around the edge of the heap.
When the heap has somewhat subsided, mix the bone dust to-
gether again, into a conical heap ; cover it with the ashes; and
leave it for a few weeks. The whole may then be mixed with
the dry ashes, and will be ready for drilling. It will suffice for
10 to 20 acres."
Bones, it is stated, may be dissolved, also, in strong caustic ley,
such as is used by the soap boiler, and will form a paste of the
consistency of butter, which may be reduced to any thinness
of fluid required for application as a liquid manure.
The decomposition of bones by fermentation, without the aid of
sulphuric acid, is another method which has been practised
with success both in Europe and this country. The bones,
which must be fresh, are first thrown into compact heaps, and
then mixed with moist sandy loam, ashes, or earth, when they
will be gradually heated and decomposed. The decomposition
will be materially hastened by occasionally sprinkling them
with urine, and especially by mixing them with fresh horse
manure. If they have been deprived of their animal matter
however, they will not readily ferment. The presence of nitro-
gen appears to be essential to induce and carry forward fer-
mentation, and this is found only in the organic matter of the
bones. During the fermentation, putrefactive odors are given
off', that occasion a los° to the manure, which objection, in a
degree, may be remedied by covering the heap with a layer of
rich decayed turf, peat, charcoal, gypsum, or any other good
absorbent.
Mr. Miles, of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, haa
discove-ad a process for preparing bones for manure without
the use t acids; and, instead of sand ashes, or earth, he uses
248 ANIMAL MANURES.
saw dust as the material for covering up the heaps, double the
amount of heat being evolved, and the disintegration being
effected much more rapidly and effectually. He piled up the
bones into a heap, which he first moistened well with water,
and then covered it over to a depth of 2 or 3 inches with saw
dust, by means of which, not only .were the bones speedily con-
verted into a manure, but the saw dust also. By this process,
however, the decomposition of much ammonia takes place, and
escapes in a volatile state, as «t is developed, and is lost.
CORAL AND CORAL SAND.
CORAL is a general name for those marine polypifers, which
have stony or horny axes. It is of various colors, and is
composed principally of carbonate of lime, assuming some-
times the character of trees or shrubs, and at other times a
round form. Corals are the solid secretions of zoophytes, pro-
duced within the tissues of polypes, and corresponding to the
skeleton in the higher order of animals. The surface is usually
covered with radiated cells, each of which marks the position
of one of the polypes; and when alive, these polypes appear
like flowers over every part of the zoophyte.
Coral sand, which is similar in its nature to coral itself, has
been freely used in France as a manure in the "same way and
with similar effects as marl. It is preferred by the farmers in
a fresh state, probably because it contains both more saline
as well as more animal matter than after it has been exposed
for some time to the air. Payen and Boussingault, it will be
remembered, ascribe the relative manuring powers of different
substances when applied to land, by the quantity of ammonia
or nitrogen, which they severally contain, and thus, compared
with farmyard manure, attribute to coral sand the following
relative values : —
JOO IDS. of farmyard manure, contains of nitrogen, . . .0.40 Ib.
" of cor«J sand, (merl,) 0.51 "
That is to say, so far as the action of these substances is de.
ANIMAL MANURES. 249
pendent upon the nitrogen they contain, fresh coral sand is
nearly id more valuable than an equal weight of farmyard
manure.
A sample of fine infusorial sand, which is highly prized by
the local farmers on the coast of Normandy, as analysed by
Professor Johnston, consisted of the following ingredients : —
Organic matter, 5.06
Chloride of sodium, (common salt,N 1.01
Gypsum, (plaster,) _ 0.32
Chloride of calcium, 0.73
Magnesia, trace.
Carbonate of lime, 43.50
Alumina, 0.17
Oxide of iron, 1.20
Oxide of manganese, trace.
Insoluble silicious matter, 47.69
99.68
From this analysis, Professor Johnston thinks that the value
of this mealy sand does not depend solely upon the lime, (43£
per cent.,) it contains, but is derived in some measure, also,
from the 5 per cent, of organic matter, and the 2 per cent, of
soluble salts, which are present in it. It is remarkable, also,
for containing nearly half its weight, (48 per cent.,) of silicious
matter in the state of an exceedingly fine powder. Its value,
therefore, over the coarser shell sand, consists in its organic
matter and soluble salts, and in the minute state of division in
which its particles are found. This fine powdery state enables
it to be mixed more minutely with a clayey soil ; causes an
equal weight to go further ; and prevents it from opening and
rendering still lighter the more sandy soils, in the manner
coarse fragments of shells would be apt to do. In Normandy,
it is generally applied in the form of compost and is extensive-
ly mixed with farmyard manure, which it is said greatly to
jrn—ove.
It is well kn^wn that the reefs and shoals of the Keys of
Florida, as well as of the Bahama Islands, in many places, arc
11"
250 ANIMAL MANURES.
composed entirely of the fragments of broken or comminuted
coral, shells, infusoria, &c., the supply of which is inexhausti-
ble, and would subserve the purpose of manuring all the culti-
vated lands in the Atlantic states, for thousands of years. The
cost of procuring this sand, and delivering it at any of our
seaports, south of Boston or New York, would probably not
exceed $3 or $4 the hundred bushels; and if it were brought
here, as ballast, from Key West, or Nassau, New Providence, it
could be afforded for much less. This is a subject, worthy of
investigation, and experiments might be tried, on a limited scale,
by our agriculturists, both at the north and at the south.
DUNG, OR THE EXCREMENT OF ANIMALS.
OF all fertilisers, the dung, or excrement of animals, is the
most universal, as well as the most valuable to the cultivator}
and has often well been described as the farmer's "sheet
anchor." It is the earliest mentioned of all mahures ; although,
it is first noticed as being employed in Palestine for fuel
(Ezekiel, iv. 12, 15) ; and even to this day, in the barren des-
erts of the East, the dung of camals, after being dried in the
sun, is the only kind of fuel the natives possess.
The dung of animals is spoken of by all the early Greek
and Roman agricultural writers, who describe its application
and uses with a fullness and clearness that cannot be misun-
derstood. Thus, Theophrastus, who wrote in the fourth century
before our era, describes the properties which render dung ben-
eficial to vegetation, and dwells upon composts. He also re-
commends the stubble to be left long at the time of reaping, if
the straw is abundant; "and this, if burned, will enrich the
soil very much, or it may be cut and mixed with dung." And
Cato, who wrote 150 years before Christ, thus expresses his
conviction of the importance of this manure; — " Study to have
a large dunghill keep your compost carefully ; when you carry
it out in autumn scatter and pulverise it. Lay dung around the
roots of your olive trees in autumn." Again, ne advises the
ANIMAL MANURES. 261
use oi pij,jon dung for gardens, meadows, and grain lields, as
well as the dregs of olive oil. Furthermore, he recommends
the farmer carefully to preserve the dung of all descriptions
of animals. We learn also from Columella and Pliny, that the
Romans collected their manure and stored it in covered pits,
in order to check the escape of drainage by the rains, and
evaporation by the sun. They also scattered pulverised pigeon
dung over their crops, and mixed it with the surface soil by
means of the hoe (sarcle). The former of these writers ad-
vises the cultivator not to carry more dung on the field than
the laborers can cover with the soil the same day, as the expo-
sure to the sun does it much injury ; aud he enumerates as well-
known fertilisers, night soil, the excrements of birds, sheep,
cattle, the ass, the goat, and of pigs, as well as urine (especi-
ally for apple trees and vines). Varro, also, mentions many
kinds of animal manure, and is particularly minute in his enu-
meration of the dung of birds, and includes even that of black
birds and thrushes kept in aviaries.
In the year 1570, Conradus Heresbachius, a learned German,
published his " Foore Bookes of Husbandrie," translated and en-
larged by Barnabe Googe, Enquire, in which he mentions the
various kinds of manure in his days. He speaks of the dung of
poultry and pigeons in high praise ; but condemns that of ducks
and geese. Human freces, he says, when mixed with rubbish,
is good; but by itself, is too hot. Of the dung of animals, he
mentions that of the ass as first in order for fertilising effects ;
then that of sheep, goats, oxen, horses, and lastly, that of swine,
which he says " is very hurtful to come, but used in some places
for gardens." Again, he says: " The weeds growing about
willow trees, and fern, &c., you may gather and lay under your
sheep." He speaks of the practice of placing turfs and heath
clods in heaps with dung, much in the same way as Lord
Meadowbank has advised with peat. He also advises the
placing of the same turf parings in sheep folds. " This is also
to be noted," says our author, " that the doung that hath lyen a
yeer« is best for corne, for it both is of sufficient strength antl
252 ANIMAL MANURES.
breedeth less weedes ; but, upon meadowe and pasture you
must laye the newest, because it brings most grasse, in Febru-
arie, the moone increasing, for that is the best time to cause
increase of g^asse."
To enter into the present state of agriculture in all parts of
the civilised world, the enlightened farmer hardly need be told
that the basis upon which good husbandry is founded, is ma-
nures; and that, among these, above all others, animal excre-
ments are the best adapted to our varied climate, soils, and
crops. Observation of the simplest facts must have shown the
merest novice that good crops are generally insured by the
abundant application of barnyard manure. But if one has not
an abundance of this, he must make up the deficiency by some
substitute from another source.
It is well known that the nature and properties of excremen-
titious manures depend upon the species of animal from which
they are derived; upon the food on which they subsist; upon
the amount of labor or exercise to which the animals have been
subjected; upon the substances with which they are littered;
upon the length of time during which the manures have been
kept ; and especially upon the care bestowed upon their man-
agement after they are voided by the animals. Hence, there
are as many kinds of dung as there are of animals producing
it, and in some respects, all differ from each other. The dung,
for instance, of the cow, is not so rich as that of horses ; nor is
that of the horse so rich as that of fowls ; and yet, the excre-
ment of horses, cows, sheep, hogs, and geese all differ in their
texture and composition, though fed upon the same pasture.
Some animals digest their food more quickly than others, ow-
ing to a difference in the degree of mastication ; the organisa-
tion of their stomachs; and in the nature of their gastric juice.
This makes a difference in the dung produced by the same
kind of food. All animals feed on pure vegebles, or vegetable
and animal matter mixed, or on other animals that feed on veg-
etables alone. Those which feed on the latter are made up of
the same elemert* as the vegetables themselves, only under a
ANIMAL MANURES. 253
different form ; and therefore, the dung of animals that feed
upon these may still be considered as vegetables in a putrefied
state.
As the elementary composition of the dung of the different
kinds of animals is a point which is not undeserving of consid
eration in a work like the present,! have thought proper *'o treat
of them under separate heads. This, however, is believed to
be needless by some, as it requires more pains and expense to
keep these manures by themselves in the barnyard or else-
where, and use each of them by itself, than all the advantages
arising from this method of treatment above the ordinary way,
can possibly amount to. These manures may be arranged and
treated of in the following order : —
Excrement of the Ass. — The structural difference between the
horse, the ass, and the mule is so trifling, that all the essential
points of their organisation may be regarded as the same ; and
consequently, except in cases where there is a variation in their
food, their manure is very similar in character. Heresbachius, as
has already been stated, regarded the dung of the ass as first in
order among excrementitious manures; and most of the old Ro-
man writers on agriculture speak highly of its fertilising ef-
fects. Even in Spain, at the present day, it is preserved and
collected with great care, and is frequently composted with the
urine of the animals, with the leaves or spray of trees and
shrubs, employed as litter in the stalls where these animals are
kept. In many parts of the United States, also, where mules
are abundant, a similar practice prevails in littering their pens
or stalls with muck, pine straw, or other leaves of trees, which
are speedily converted thereby into an excellent manure.
Excrement of the Camel. — The dung of this animal is but little
used as a fertiliser, even in the countries where it most
abounds, as it is more valuable, when dried in the sun, to be
employed as fuel. It is similar in its nature to that of the cow,
and when applied as a manure, it is attended with about the
same effects. From its limited supply, however, it must eve*
be precluded as a fertiliser from general use.
254 ANIMAL MANtUES.
Excrement of the Cow. — Under this head, also is included the
dung of the ox and of other animals of the same species. This
substance forms by far the largest proportion of the animal
manure, which, in modern agriculture, is at the disposal of the
practical farmer. It ferments more slowly than night soil, or
the dung of the horse and sheep. In fermenting, it does not heat
much, and it gives off little unpleasant or ammoniacal odor.
Hence, it acts more slowly, though for a longer period, when
applied to the soil. The slowness of the fermentation arises
chiefly from the smaller quantity of nitrogen, or of substances
containing nitrogen, which are present in the dung, but in part,
also, from the food swallowed by the cow being less perfectly
masticated than that of man or of the horse. It is in conse-
quence of this slower fermentation, that the same evolution of
ammoniacal vapors is not perceived from the droppings of the
cow as from night soil and from horse dung. Yet, by exposure
to the air, it undergoes a sensible loss, which, in 40 days has
been found to amount to 20 per cent., or nearly ^th of the whole
solid matter that recent cow dung contains. Although the com-
paratively slow fermentation, as well as the softness of cow
dung, fits it better for treading among the straw in the open
farm yards, the serious loss which it ultimately undergoes
will satisfy the economical farmer that the more effectually he
can keep it covered up, or the sooner he can gather his mixed
dung and straw into heaps, the greater proportion of this valu-
able manure will he retain for the future enriching of his fields.
According to Boussingault, the excretions of a cow fed on
hay and raw potatoes, including the urine, in a dry and in a
moist state, contained of
Dry. Moist,
Carbon, 39.8 539
Hydrogen, 4.7 0.64
Oxygen, 35.5 451
Nitrogen, 2.6 0.36
Ash, (salts and earth,) 17.4 2.36
Water, 86.44
100.0 100.00
ANIMAL MANURES. 255
The faeces of cattle fed principally on turnips have been an-
alysed by M. Einhof, and 100 j arts evaporated to dryness yield-
ed 28^- parts of solid matter; the 71 J parts lost in drying would
consist principally of water and some ammoniacal salts. In
half a pound, or 3,840 grains, he found 45 grains of sand, and
by diffusing it through water he obtained about 600 grains of a
yellow fibrous matter, resembling that of plants, mixed with a
very considerable quantity of slimy matter. By evaporating
the faeces to dryness, and then burning them, he obtained an
ash which contained, besides the sand, the following sub-
stances : —
Parti
Lime, 12.0
Phosphate of lime, : 12J5
Magnesia, 2.0
Iron, 5.0
Alumina, with some manganese, 14.0
Silica, 52.0
Muriate and sulphate of potash, 1.2
The ingredients of which the urine and faeces of cattle are
composed, will, of course, differ slightly in different animals
of the same kind, and according to the different food upon
which they are fed ; but this difference will not, in any case, be
found very material. Fat cattle yield better manure than those
which are lean, or that from cows in milk ; because it contains
more phosphate of lime. In lean animals, the phosphates go
to nourish and build up the horns and bones, and in cows, it
passes off in their rnilk.
The dung of horned cattle is supposed by many to require a
long preparation to fit it for manure. It is the practice of many
gardeners, skilled in preparing choice composts, to keep cow
dung for a period of three years before they apply it either
alone or as an ingredient in compost mould. In the opinion of
the late Judge Peters, however, it begins to deteriorate after it
is one year old. " I have put it on," he says, " after lying sev-
eral years without any perceptible benefit. But the practice
of plowing in hot and fresh dung, has of*en been to me a sub-
256 ANIMAL MANTJRES.
jf.rt of regret. It not only produces smutty crops in parts over-
stimulated, but it cannot be equally spread or covered, so that
much straw and little grain appear in some spots; and in
others, scarcely any advantage is derived." When used in a
fresh state, it should never be used alone, except on warm arid
soils, but mixed with other substances that will easily pulver-
ise, as the dung of the sheep, the hog, the horse, the pigeon,
the hen, the duck, or some other animal manure, or with soot,
coal ashes, sand, or marl. The question, however, as to the
proper mode of applying the dung of horses and cattle more
properly belongs to the article on FARMYARD MANURES, under the
division of "Homestead Manures;" for it is usually mixed in the
farm yard with straw, offal, chaff, and various kinds of litter,
and even it contains a large proportion of fibrous vegetable
matter in itself.
Excrement <>f Deer. — This is similar in its character and ef-
fects to that of sheep; but from the limited supply in the hab-
itable parts of this country, it can never be turned to much
account.
Excrement of the Dog. — This manure, wherever it could be
obtained in sufficient abundance, has been found to be, it is
stated, the " most fertile dressing of all quadruped sorts." More
than 100 years ago, there lived a, gentleman at Dagnal, in Bed-
fordshire, England, who kept so large a number of setters and
spaniels that they afforded him a considerable quantity of dung.
In the vicinity of his house, he possessed an acre of gravelly
soil, which he manured every year with the dung of his dogs.
By this means, he was sure to raise the best crops of wheat,
barley, beans, and peas, while many of the neighboring farm-
ers failed from excessive drought and cold.
The white dung of dogs, called album Gracum, and that ot
carnivorous animals in general, have a very powerful corroding
effect upon animal substances when the putrid fermentation is
established ; that of dogs has not been examined, but it is sup-
posed to consist chiefly of the earthy part of the bones that
ure generally used as food, the organs of that animal having a
ANIMAL MANURES. 257
powei of digesting hard substances to an extent almost be-
yond credibility. Album Graecum was formerly used for in-
flammation in the throat, but is now discontinued, and chiefly
employed by leather dressers to soften leather, after the appli-
cation of lime. A man and a dog fed on the same substances,
animal and vegetable, will afford, in the different nature of the
excrements, a most notable instance of the various materials
into which the food has been transformed in passing through
the different organs of digestion.
Excrement of the Domestic Fowl. — The dung of cocks and
hens, like that of all kinds of birds, abounds in uric acid,
which constitutes the whitish and farinaceous-looking part of
their excrement. The urine of birds, let it be recollected, is
voided in a solid form along with other matter ejected from
their bowels. Their dung, therefore, is not dissimilar to tirate,
or the dried urine of quadrupeds; and the less vegetable food
they consume, the more fertilising their dung. Hence, the ex-
crement of sea fowls, which subsist mainly upon fish, produce
the richest manure that is known (guano).
The composition of the dung of the domestic fowl varies
with its food. When fed on grain, meal, or potatoes, it is much
richer than when it lives on the husk and green indigestible
parts of vegetables, which, being impurities, diminish its value.
The more insects the fowl devours, the richer its dung.
According to the analysis of M. Girardin, the excrement of
the domestic fowl consists of
Water, 72.00
Azotised vegetable matter, 16.20
Saline or mineral matter, 5.24
Insoluble matter, sand, &.C., 5.66
99.10
If exposed to moisture, especially if it is recent, this substanco
undergoes fermentation, and loses a portion of its amrnoniacal
salts. Thus, in poultry yards, it often accumulates in consider-
able quantity's, decomposes, and runs trt waste. To guard against
258 ANIMAL MANURES.
this loss, it may be composted in equal quanti;y with moist
charcoal du.st, coal ashes, gypsum, peat, or mould, and allowed
to ferment, when it will form an excellent stimulating top-
dressing for grass lands, wheat, and other kinds of grain, just
after sowing. By thus mixing it with peat, mould, &c., it di-
vides or breaks it so well that it may be more readily scattered
over the land. Hen dung i.s also good for fruit trees, particu-
larly for quince bushes. It does the most good on clayey lands,
but may be used 0:1 almost any soil. From 600 to 800 Ibs. are
sufficient to be applied to an acre of wheat or grass.
Excrement of the Duck. — The dung of ducks differs somewhat
from that of the domestic fowl, owing chiefly to the nature of
their food, and partly to the difference in the organisation of the
bird. According to Sir H. Davy, it stands next to hen dung in
the scale of manures. It may be composted with rather more
than a double quantity of peat, powdered charcoal, coal ashes,
gypsum, or mould, and applied broadcast on grass lands or
grain fields, just after sowing the seed ; or it may be incorpora-
ted with the dung of the cow, the horse, the pig, or of the sheep.
Tiie quantity to be used on an acre may vary from 500 to
1,000 Ibs.
Excrement of the Goat. — The dung of goats is a hot, dry ma-
nure, resembling that of sheep in its texture, but is less rich as
u fertiliser, owing principally to the nature of their food, as
there are few plants which they do not relish, and even they
will browse on heaths, shrubs, and plants that sheep and other
animals will reject.
According to Boussingault, 18£ parts of the excrement of a
goat are equal in fertilising effect to 100 parts of farmyard
manure. From its limited supply in this country, this manure
can never be turned to much account. Wherever it can be
had, however, it may be applied in the same winner as that of
sheep, but in somewhat larger quantity.
Excrement of the Goose. — The dung of geese, like that of most
water fowls, di tiers in some degree from birds which feed
wholly on the land, it is less rich than th<it ol ducks, pig-
ANIMAL MANURES. 259
eons, and hens, because they feed less on grain and seeds, and
derive a considerable portion of their livelihood from grass
and weeds, when allowed to run at large in pastures or fields.
Its known injurious effects upon the grass where it is dropped
arise from its being in too concentrated a state. In moist wea-
ther, however, or when rain soon after succeeds, it does little
or no injury, and even when in dry weather it kills the blades
on which it drops, it brings up the succeeding shoots with
increased vigor, which are much finer, richer, and sweeter
than before.
Goose dung is as good for grass lands as it is for gram ; but
there is some difficulty in getting it together, and spreading it
on the fields. It has been proposed to adopt the same method
with geese as is sometimes practised with sheep — keeping them
upon the land required to be manured, turning them, for in-
stance, upon a wheat field, late in autumn, and suffer them to
run over it during the winter, or until they have eaten off the
young wheat close to the ground, which they will readily do,
as they are very fond of the young blade. While thus feeding,
they would leave their dung very plentifully, and evenly
spread over the surface, and the frosts and rains would suffi-
ciently break and wash it into the soil, in consequence of which,
it may be conceived that the wheat would rise again, in the
spring, not in the least injured by the cropping, and the ground
would be greatly enriched by this excellent manure.
As it is difficult to spread goose manure thin enough, with-
out more or less injury to the crops, it may be mixed, like ne^
dung, with charcoal dust, peat, gypsum, coal ashes, or ncn
mould, with which it will ferment, and after it is washed into
the earth by the rains, it will gradually mellow the soil like
other manure. The quantity of green goose dung that may be
applied to an ordinary crop of grass or grain, may vary trom
600 to 1,200 Ibs. to an acre.
Excrement of the Guinea Fowl. — The dung of this bird, as well
us that of the peacock, from the nature of its food, and from
its internal organisation , greatly resembles that of the domes-
260 ANIMAL MANURES.
tic fowl ; f ut owing to the limited supply of this species of
manure, it can be turned to no practical account.
Excrement of the Hog. — The dung of swine is characterised
by an exceedingly unpleasant odor, which, when applied to the
land alone, it imparts to the vegetables, especially to celery and
to the root crops with which it, is manured. Even tobacco,
when manured with pig dung, according to Sprengel, is so
much tainted, that the leaves subsequently collected are unfit
for smoking. Hog dung, as the excrement of an animal that
feeds partly upon animal, but chiefly upon vegetable food, is
richer than that of any other creature which feeds upon veg-
etables only. It is of a cold saponaceous substance, so much
so, that in some countries it is substituted for soap. According
to M. Girardin, 100 parts consists of
Water, 75.00
Azotisod matter, 20.15
Saline matter, 4.85
100.00
Boussingault estimates that 63£ parts of the excrement and
urine of the pig are equivalent to 100 parts of farmyard manure.
Pig dung is an excellent manure for hemp, hops, running
beans, Indian corn, pumpkins, and other crops intended for
food. It is best to employ it in a state of a compost with other
fertilisers. A mixture of it, for instance, with urine, heightens
the virtue of farmyard manure exceedingly ; and this is a good
way to employ it. For grain fields, no method of ;ipplying it
is better ; for it does not ferment and mellow so well in the
earth, when used alone, as when mixed with the dung of cattle
and horses; and it is so rich and stimulating, that it is difficult
to spread it thin enough by itself. If employed alone, how-
ever, it is excellent for meadow and pasture lands, producing a
large, and at the same time, a sweet blade. It is also prefer-
able 10 most other kinds of dung for fruit trees and shrubs.
No dung yields its virtue so readily as this; and none loses
it so quickly by improper management. The time of applying
ANIMAL MANURKS. 261
it to the land should carefully be regarded; for the falling of a
gentle rain, just after laying it on, will wash it entirely into the
ground in a few hours; while, on the other hand, a dry windy
day will evaporate its efficacy, and the land will be but little
better than if it were sprinkled with chaff'. Therefore, the
careful farmer will not leave it spread upon the surface of his
fields in a dry time, nor will he lay on too much at once.
Being a strong manure, pig dung serves the best purpose with
mixing with it a large proportion of peat, mould, swamp or
pond muck, weeds, straw, the leaves of trees, and other veg-
etable matter that will easily decompose. It is almost incredi-
ble how large a quantity of excellent manure can be obtained
by supplying a pig yard with an abundance of the above-
named substances, or other rubbish, to be worked over by the
swine, and incorporated with their urine and dung. A half
dozen of hogs have been known to make 30 or 40 loads of ex-
cellent compost in a single year.
In some parts of Europe, as well as in this country, land is
sown with clover or peas, with the double object of feeding
them off in a green state in the field, by swine, which are al-
lowed to run loose, and of enriching the soil by the dropping
of their dung. In the Southern States of the Union, this prac-
tice prevails to a considerable extent in the cultivation of the
the cow PEA, described in a preceding page, under the division
of "Vegetable Manures."
Excrement of the Horse. — Although the horse feeds almost ex-
clusively upon vegetable food, there is a great deal of differ-
ence between the manure produced from his feeding upon the
green succulent grass of the pastures, and the dry hay and
nutrit ous grain fed to him in the s'able. The dung of the
horse, it is well known, consists of the grosser parts of his
food, mixed with the peculiar juices of his mouth and stomach.
Thus, his gastric juice differs from that of most of our other
domestic animals, in containing a larger proportion of bile>
which is secreted more rapidly directly from the liver in the
absence o' a gull bladder — an apendage that the horse, the
262 ANIMAL MANURES.
ass, and other animals of the same natural family do not pos-
sess. Hence, tho admixture of the finely-comminuted, strong,
and hearty food he devours, together with these peculiar ani-
mal juices, are the causes of the remarkable active properties
of this species of manure.
Pure horse dung is moderately warm, but hotter in its nature
than that of the cow. It heats sooner, and evolves much am-
monia, not merely because it contains less water than cow
dung, but because it is generally also richer in those organic
compounds of which nitrogen forms a constituent part. Even
when fed upon the yame food, the dung of the horse will be
richer than that of the cow, because of the greater proportion
of the food of the latter which is discharged in the large quan-
tity of urine it, is in the habit of voiding.
According to Boussingault, the dung with the urine, voided by
a horse, fed on hay and oats, contained 76' per cent, of mois-
ture, and the composition in a dry and in a wet state was found
to be as follows: —
Dry. Wet.
Carbon. 38.6 9.19
Hydrogen, 5.0 -. . 130
Oxygen, 36.4 8.66
Nitrogen, 2.7 4.13
SalU and earth, 17.3 4.13
Water, 76.17
100.0 100.00
By the above analyses, it will be seen that the fresh horse
dung, in a dry state, contains 2r7ffths percent, of nitrogen. The
same substance, on the authority last quoted above, when al-
lowed to ferment, as it does in practice, will contain only 1 per
cent, of nitrogen, and loses besides, nearly T9ffths of its weight.
This gives some idea of the waste that always attends the prac-
tice of neglecting the manures on a farm. In comparing this
substance with other manures, 73 parts of the solid excrement
of the horse are considered as equivalent to 100 parts of farm-
vard dung.
IN1MAL MANURES. 263
In the short period of 24 hours, horse dung heats and begins
o suffer loss by fermentation. Hence, the propriety of early
removing it from the stable, and mixing it as soon as possible
with some other material by which the volatile substances
given off may be absorbed and arrested. The colder and wet-
ter dung of the pig and of the cow will answer well for this
purpose, or soil rich in vegetable matter, as peat, saw dust, or
powdered charcoal, or any other absorbing substance which
can readily be obtained; or if a chemical agent be preferred,
moistened gypsum may be sprinkled among it, or diluted sul-
phuric acid. There is undoubtedly great loss experienced
from the general neglect of night soil, but in most cases, the
dung of the horse might also be rendered a source of much
greater profit than it has hitherto been.
The warmth of horse dung fits it admirably for bringing
other substances into a state of fermentation. With peat,
swamp or pond muck, saw dust, spent tan bark, weeds, the
leaves of trees, mould, and almost every kind of rubbish, it
forms an excellent compost for most kinds of crops ; and to
soils containing much inert vegetable matter, it can be applied
with much advantage. From its very hot nature, it is suitable
for making hot beds, when it is new, and for nourishing early
garden vegetables which require a considerable degree of heat
to accelerate their growth.
Great care should be observed that horse dung be not spoiled
by "fire-fanging," or burnt in the heaps, before it is used. For,
when so heated as to give it a white mouldy appearance, most
of its virtue is gone. It is difficult to give it age in an unmixed
state without tempering it with the dung of the pig, of the cow,
or with some of the substances named above, when it will be
suitable for land that is neither too light nor too stiff. But, if
buried in very cold, moist land, as soon as it comes frcm the
stable, in an unmixed state, it has been remarked that the crop
succeeded be.ter than where the ground was dressed w*n it in
" ro'ii n or fu mented state.
in order f.o prevent fermentation, or overheating, of horse ma-
364 ANIMAL WANUKtiS.
nure, the farmer can pour or sprinkle over .he heap, every few
days, a moderate quantity of soap suds, old brine, or common
suit.
Excrement of Man. — Human ordure, or "night soil," in gen-
eral, is an exceedingly rich and valuable manure; but its dis-
agreeable odor, has, in most countries, rendered its use unpop-
ular among practical men. This unpleasant smell may be in
a great measure removed by mixing it with powdered charcoal
or with half-charred peat, a rrethod which is adopted in the
manufacture of certain artificial manures. Quicklime is in
some places employed for the same purpose, but though the
smell is thus got rid of, a large portion of the volatile ammonia,
produced during the decomposition of the manure, is at the
.same time driven oft' into the atmosphere by the lime, and con-
sequently is lost. — Johnston.
In general, night soil contains about fths of its weight of
water, and when exposed to the air, undergoes a very rapid de-
composition, and gives oft' much volatile matter, consisting of
ammonia, of carbonic acid, and of sulphureted and phosphu-
reted hydrogen gases ; and iinely loses its smell. In the neigh-
borhood of many large cities, the collected night soil is allowed
thus naturally to ferment and lose its smell, and is then dried
and sold for manure, under the name of POUDRETTE, described
under its appropriate head.
Night soil is a mixture of urine and fasces, and must vary in
composition, but as such, has never been examined. The faeces
and urine separately were analysed by Berzelius, who found the
composition of the faeces to be as follows : —
Remains of food, 7.0
Bile, 0.9
Albumen, 0.9
A peculiar extractive matter, 2.7
Indeterminate animal matter, viscous matter, resin, and ) ,4 Q
an insoluble mailer, J
Baits, 1.2
Wtwr, 7&3
100.0
ANIMAL MANURES. 266
The salts had the following composition : —
Carbonate of soda, 19.4
Chloride of sodium. C3.5
Sulphate of soda, 11.8
Ammoniaco-magnusian phosphate, 11.8
Phosphate 01' lime, 23.5
100.0
Human urine is one of the most powerful of all manures.
Left to itself, it speedily undergoes putrefaction, and evolves an
abundance of amny «iiacai salts. Its composition consists of
Urea, 3.01
Uric acid, 0.10
Indeterminate animal matter, lactic acid, and lactate of > , ,~
ammrvia, i '
Mucus of f'm bladder, 0.03
Sulphate A potash, 0.37
Sulphate jf soda, 0.32
Phosphate of soda, 0.29
Chloride of sodium, 0.45
Phosphate of ammonia, 0.17
Chloro-hydrate of ammonia, 0.15
Phosphate of lime and of magnesia, 0.10
Silica, trace.
Water, 93.30
100.00
The phosphates of lime and magnesia, which it contains, are
extremely insoluble salts, and have been supposed to be held
,n solution by phosphoric acid, lactic acid, and hippuric acid,
he latter of which is now regarded as a regular constituent of
aealthy human urine.
It is difficult to give an estimate of the comparative value of
night soil ; for the urine present is nearly altogether the valuable
part, and the amount varies. It is, however, more active, (hot-
ter,) and valuable than the best horse dung, being estimated at
14, and horse dung at 10. Arthur Young increased his crop of
wheat, on a poor gravel, from 12 to 31 bushels by 160 bushels
upwards of 6 bushels more than he obtained by 60 cubic yards
12
266 ANIMAL MANURES.
of farmyard manure. According to Boussingault, when dried
in the air, it is 10 timos as fertilising as good farmyard dung. It
may be composted with arvof the ordinary manures, and should
be plowed under shallow, and near to seed time. — Gardner.
Night soil, in whatever state it is used, whether recent or fer-
mented, is capable of supplying abundant food to plants. The
Chinese formerly mixed it with id of its weight of a fat marl,
made it into cakes, and dried them by exposure to the sun.
These cakes, which are represented as having no disagreeable
smell, formed an article of commerce, sold in the neighborhood
of large cities, under the name of taffo. According to Mr. For-
une, however, the Chinese prefer to use their night soil in its
nost recent state, diluted with water, and applied directly to
their crops in the form of liquid manure.
In a fresh state, night soil is applied at the rate of 6 to 12
cart loads to the acre ; but this is an unpleasant and wasteful
application. It may be dried, and rendered inodorous by union
with charcoal, charred peat, or broken peat, coal ashes or fine
mould, and drying by exposure to the air. This forms one;
kind of poudrette. It is best treated with charcoal powder
gypsum, or very small quantiites of green vitrol, (sulphate ol
iron,) the sulphuric acid of which fixes the volatile ammonia.
Quicklime and unleached ashes are objectionable additions, as
they liberate the ammonia, and cause loss. The most econom-
ical method, so far as the soil of the farm is concerned, is to
keep pounded charcoal and a little gypsum in the privy, to be
sprinkled occasionally in the vault, so as to have it ready for
use as soon as removed. Drying night soil in the air, without
any addition, is wasteful ; for fermentation comes on rapidly,
and great loss of ammoniacal matters takes place.
Excrement of the Pigeon. — The dung of pigeons has been cei-
ebrated by all writers on agriculture for more than 2,00b years;
and it has been so highly valued by the husbandmen of the
East, that these birds have been kept in vast numbers in cotes,
or houses, principally for the sake of their manure. Kinneir,
poetical assistant to Sir John Malcolm, Ambassador to Uie
ANIMAL MANURES. 267
co'irl of Persia, states in his " Geographical Memoir of the
Persian Empire," published at London, in 1813, that the ac-
knowledged superiority of the flavor of the melons at Ispahan,
is alone to be ascribed to this rich manure. The largest of the
pigeon towers will sell for $15,000 ; and many of them yield
to the proprietors an annual income of $1,000 to $1,500 each. It
is also highly esteemed in Spain, Portugal, France, and Bel
gium, at the present day, wherever it can be obtained in suffi-
cient quantity. In the last-named country, it is used as a tqp-
dressing for young flax plants, and the yearly product of 600
pigeons will sell for nearly $20.
The effect of pigeon manure on crops is immediate, which
depends principally upon the quantity of soluble matter con-
tained in it; and this varies according to its age, and the cir-
cumstances under which it has been preserved. Thus, Sir H.
Davy found, that, in recent pigeon dung, 23 per cent, was sol-
uble, while that after fermentation, contained only 8 per cent.
The soluble matter consists of uric acid in small quantity,
urate, sulphate, a.nd especially carbonate of ammonia, common
salt, and the sulphate of potash. The insoluble portion consists
chiefly of phosphate of lime, with a little phosphate of mag-
nesia, and a variable mixture of sand or earth.
According to M. Girardin, the recent dung of pigeons con
tains of
Water, 79.00
Azotised vegetable matter, 18.11
Saline or mineral matter, 2.28
Insoluble matter, sand, &c., 0.61
130.00
When, exposed to moisture, the dung of pigeons, like guano
and the excrement of all kinds of birds, especially if recent,
undergoes fermentation, loses a portion of its ammoniacal salts,
and thereby becomes less valuable. If intended to be kept, it
should be mixed with dry vegetable mould, or made into a com-
post with dr earth and saw dust, with a portion of charcoal
268 ANIMAL MANURES.
dust, pulverised or charred peat, gypsum, or with sugar refuse
(animalised carbon). One part of recent pigeon dung, mixed
with 4 parts of dry sand, and 5 parts of pulverised peat, or veg-
etable mould, makes an excellent compost for a cold heavy soil.
For grain fields, 40 bushels of pigeon dung, mixed as above,
will be sufficient to manure an acre, but there is great care to
be observed in 'laying it on. The best way is to scatter it
broadcast over the surface, immediately after the grain is sown,
harrowing them in at the same operation. Then, the first rains
that fall will wash most of the soluble portions into the ground,
and the seed, as it softens and swells for sprouting, absorbs its
proper quota, and has the advantage of its warmth and stim-
ulating effects from the beginning.
Pigeon manure is most appropriate for moist as well as stir)
soils ; but most of its virtue is spent in one crop. When tem-
pered with other dung, it is excellent for fruit trees and vines ;
and, even, when used alone, it is superior, perhaps, to all other
manures for the hop, to which it imparts an increased size,
strength, and spirit.
As the value of pigeon dung is so great, it is advisable for
the farmer to have a pigeon house wherever it can be done
without injury to the neighboring fields of grain. The floor
of the cote should be covered 4 inches thick with pulverised
peat, or fine black mould, reduced to a powder, which, when
taken out with the dung, feathers, and sweepings (if the walls,
forms a most valuable manure.
Excrement of the Rabbit. — In countries where rabbits are ex-
tensively kept, their dung has been used with great success
as a manure, so much so, that it has been found profitable to
propagate them for the sake of their dung, and to have their
"hutches" constructed in reference to the object of accumula-
ting it without waste.
Excrement of Sea Fowls. — One of the most powerful manures
in nature, is the dung of such birds as feed on fish or animal
flesh. The arid, sterile plains of Peru have been fertilised for
ages by G :-ANO, a species of manure collected from the small
ANIMAL MANURES. 269
islands near the coast, there accumulated by the droppings,
feathers, &c., of the immense number of sea birds that con-
stantly frequent those spots. As this substance is treated of at
length under its appropriate head, a further description of it is
unnecessary here.
On the Keys of Florida, immense flocks of pelicans, flamin-
goes, and other sea birds congregate in vast numbers, and
doubtless, if special pains were taken to collect their dung be-
fore it is decomposed by the rains and scorching sun, this
guano would prove profitable to the collectors, and would be
sought after by the American farmers for manure.
At the suggestion of Sir H. Davy, a trial was made with
the dung of sea fowls, in Wales, and it produced a powerful,
though transient effect on the grass upon which it was applied.
That sagacious experimentalist very truly conjectured, how-
ever, that the rains of that climate, as well as those of all
others, materially injure this species of manure, unless where
it happens to be deposited in caverns or the fissures of rocks,
out of the reach of moisture and the sun.
Excrement of the Sheep. — The dung of sheep is regarded as
one of the best manures of this class ; and for many purposes,
it is considered better than any other. It has not that violent
heat so remarkable in the excrement of the horse, nor is it cold
and inactive like that of the cow in a recent state ; but there is
a mildness and richness in it that no other manure can ap-
proach, unless we except that of the goat. It ferments more
readily than that of the cow, but less so than that of the horse.
As the food of the sheep is more finely masticated than that
of the cow, and its dung contains a little less water, it is richer
in nitrogen, and hence, its more rapid fermentation.
According to Girardin, the simple excrement of sheep in u
recent state, contains of
Water, 6a?l
Azotised matter, 25. 16
Saline matter, 8.T
100.00
£7C ANIMAL MANURES.
In comparing this substance with other IT. mures, Boussin-
gault considers that 36 parts of the excrement of the sheep to
be equivalent in fertilising effects to 100 parts of farmyard
dung.
Although the dung of animals, in general, suits most kinds
of soils, if properly tempered with other matter, cold clays ap-
pear to receive the most benefit from that of sheep, yet it is
suited to almost every description of land, and most kinds of
crops. Those soils in which a considerable quantity of veg-%
etable matter is already present, are believed to be the most
benefitted by this manure, in consequence of the readiness with
which they absorb the volatile matters it so soon begins to
throw off.
In the management of this manure, there are practised by
farmers three ways, according to the season, the climate, and
other circumstances by which the owner of the flock has to be
govern! — one by allowing the sheep to run at will, and eat off
the crop in the field, dropping their dung evenly over the sur-
face, and at the same time treading it into the soil — another by
confining them in open folds, or yards, at night, in which they
deposit their urine and dung, and range about the pastures and
fields by day — and a third, by securing them in a barn or cov-
ered fold during most of the colder months of the year, where
all their manure is saved, and husbanded to the best advantage,
without loss or injury from wet, from drying winds, or from the
sun. By the lirst two methods, much of the virtue of the ma-
nure is lost by evaporation and the washing of rains; by the
latter, pulverised peat, swamp or pond muck, vegetable mould,
or almost any kind of earth, may be spread in the bottom of the
covered fold, where it will absorb the urine, and become incor-
porHed with the dung, forming therewith an abundance of val-
uable manure. When sheep are fed in pastures, they drop
their dung about the surface, which does comparatively but
little service *c the land ; whereas, if evenly so-altered over the
fields, and trcxllen into the soil, as in the case of feeding off a
crop of turmos or of green -ye, it decomposes more slowly than
ANIMAL MANURES. 271
when it is collected into heaps, and the ammonia and other pro-
ducts of the decomposition are al sorbed in great part bv the
soil as they are produced.
In folding sheep upon land at night, with the view of pre-
paring it for a crop of tobacco, turnips, or wheat, care should
be observed that their dung be not left long exposed to the air
and sun on the surface of the ground ; for that will exhaust
its richness with little or no value to the land. It should be
plowed in as soon as a sufficient deposit has been made, while
tne ground is moist with urine, and the manure is fresh ; for, of
all dungs, perhaps, it is the most free to lose its virtue, and in
this respect, it should not be overlooked, as it is an axiom
beyond dispute that "the fertilising power which shows itself
with the greatest promptitude, is also that which is soonest ex-
hausted."
In Belgium, it has long been the practice to house their sheep
at night under slight sheds, the ground being spread with dry
sand about 4 or 5 inches thick, laying on a little more fresh
every day. Once a week, the whole mass, including the urine
and dung, is carried to a compost heap, or is applied at once
to the soil. This mixture of sand with hot urine and dung
serves as an excellent dressing for cold stiff lands. If a light
soil is intended to be manured with this compost, instead of
sand, layers of clay, swamp or pond muck, peat, &c., may be
substituted therefor, after having been previously mellowed by
a winter's frost.
Excrement of the Turkey. — The dung of turkeys, from the
similarity of their food and internal organisation to those of
domestic fowls, is also similar in composition and character to
that of the latter birds, and may be treated and applied to the
same kinds of soil, anc o similar crops.
Although by no means an abundant manure, considerable
quantities may be saved where a large nun ber of turkeys are
kept, by causing them to roost under cover, and composting
their excrement after the manner recommended for the DOME*
TIC FOWL.
272 ANIMAL MANURES.
FEATHERS.
IN general properties, feathers resemlije nail-, cuticle, hair
wool, bristles, &c., consisting principally of inspissated albu-
men, with a very minute proportion of gelatin.
Although limited in the supply, considerable quantities of im-
perfect feathers and quills can be obtained, such as cannot be
used for beds, or for writing, pencil tubes. &c., which can be
employed for manure. From 20 to 30 bushels of old feathers,
which are generally clotted and packed, when they have long
been used in beds, may be applied to an acre of grain. It is
stated that even 10 bushels per acre of old feathers plowed under
on wheat land nearly double the produce. Covering with the
seed furrow of a grain crop, is recommended to be the best mode
of application in securing unmolested the future disposition of
the feathers in order that they may rot or decompose in the earth.
FLESH, MUSCLES, CARTILAGES, LIGAMENTS, AND TEN-
DONS OF DEAD ANIMALS.
THE fleshy, muscular, tendinous, and other textures of dead
animals, which cannot be fed with-advantage to dogs or swine,
or are not in demand for the manufacture of Prussian blue or
animal black, can be converted into a most valuable manure
by baking or charring them in a close furnace, or by mixing
them as intimately as possible with about 6 times their own
weight of peat, vegetable mould, or ordinary field earth. This
manure, when applied to the roots of most of our garden and
field plants, without coming in immediate contact with the
stalks, stimulates the vegetation in a remarkable degree. It
can also be sown broadcast with grain, and produces, when
judiciously applied, astonishing results. Mixed with twice its
bulk of dry powdered earth, its application becomes exceed-
ingly easy, and 1,500 Ibs. of the mixture are sufficient to manure
an acre.
Horses, uogs sheep, deer, and other quadrupeds, that have
X.SLMAL MANURES. 273
died accidentally or by disease, are too of. en suffered to remain
exposed to the air, er lie floating or partly immersed in water
until they are devoured by birds or beasts of prey, or are entirely
decomposed. In the mean time, noxious gases are thrown off to
the atmosphere, and the land or water where they lie receive but
little or no benefit, and often an injury therefrom. By covering a
dead animal with 6 times its bulk of dried pulverised peat, leaf
mould, charred saw dust or tan bark, swamp or pond muck, or
finely-divided soil, mixed with 1 part of quicklime, and suffer-
ing it to remain for a few months, the decomposing carcass will
impregnate the surrounding medium in which it is mixed with
soluble matters sufficient to render the compound an excellent
manure. At the time of removal, if a disagreeable effluvium
is exhaled, it may be chiefly or entirely destroyed by incor-
porating with the heap a small quantity of ground gypsum or
charcoal dust, which will absorb and retain the gases for ma-
nure. Any waste carcass may also be decomposed by inclos-
ing it in a heap of vegetable matter in a state of fermentation,
particularly in warm weather, when the temperature is high.
FISH, CRUSTACEA, ETC.
UNDER this head is included not only the ordinary fish em-
ployed as manure, but the offal, or heads, intestines, fins, and
scales of those disposed of in the markets, as well as crabs,
lobsters, muscles, and other shell fish. They all owe their fer-
tilising effects mainly to the animal matter and bone earth they
contain. The former is similar in its composition to the flesh
or blood of quadrupeds. Indeed, the chemical constituents of
sprats, and other similar fish, used for fertilising the land, are
found to be nearly identical with the entire animal.
Assuming sprats, a well-known fish, employed as manure at
cer'ain seasons, on the coasts of Sussex and Ken , in England,
to be taken as a type of the animal, the following analyses by
Professor Thomas Way, chemist to the Royal Agricultural
Society of England, will serve to show, in a degree, the com-
12*
274 ANIMAL MANURES.
position of most other species offish, applied to the same pur.
pose. In 100 parts of the entire fish, bruised in a mortar, and
then dried at a temperature of 212°F., there were found of
Parts.
Water,. G3-f>5
Oil, 18.60
Dry nitrogenous matter, 17.75
100.00
The amount of pure nitrogen obtained from the above, was
H_s3_ths per cent, which would be equivalent to lTn6Vns of the
entire fish in their natural condition. Out of 1,000 grs. of the
fish, when examined directly for sulphur, there won; found
li grs., or -jVVhs of 1 per cent.
The quantity of ash, or mineral matter, obtained by burning
the fish of two seasons was 2-p^-ths per cent., which had the
following composition : —
Sprats of 1847. Sprats of 1848.
Silica, traces 0.30
Phosphoric ncid, 43.52 40.49
Sulphuric acid, traces 1.40
Carbonic acid, —
Lime, 23.57 27.23
Magnesia, 3.01 3.42
Per-oxide of iron, 0.28 0.65
Potash, 17.23 21.89
Soda, 1.19
Chloride of potassium, 2.31
Chloride of sodium, 11.19 2.31
HX.OO 100.00
Prom the analysis of this ash, we find precisely what would
have been expected — phosphate of lime, furnished by the
bones, and potash by the muscular parts of the fish.
As a matter of practical importance to the farmer, his atten-
tion may be directed to the similarity in composition between
some of our cultivated crops and that of sprats. Wheat, for
instance, contains about 2 per cent, of nitrogen; so does the
fish. Wheat contains about Ifths per cent, of ash, of which
ANIMAL MANURES. 275
about i is phosphoric acid, and id potash. Sprats contain about
2 per cent, of ash, of which about fths are phosphoric acid, and
Ith potash. What manure, then, would be more suitable to
grow a bushel of wheat than 50 Ibs. of sprats ?
The use of fish, as a manure, is generally confined to within
certain distances of the set' shore, which is obvious, principal-
ly for the following reasor. : — It requires to be employed in
somewhat large dressings, although, weight for weight, they
ai-e at least 4 times more powerful than farmyard dung; conse-
quently, the expense of transportation, added to the original
cost, soon places them beyond the farmer's reach.
The fish usually employed in this country for manure may
be described and applied as follows: —
Alewife, or Spring Herring (Alosa tyrannus). — This species
offish occurs in great abundance along the Atlantic coast from
Maine to Virginia. They usually appear in the Chesapeake
from March till May. In the waters about New York, they ap-
pear with the shad, early in April. In New Hampshire and Mas-
sachusetts, they swarm in great profusion, a month or six weeks
later, where they are taken in seines in vast quantities, and for-
merly were employed with their congeners, the shad, as a ma-
nure. But, since the obstructions made in the rivers and
streams they were wont to frequent, in consequence of the erec-
tion of dams and mills, they are caught in less abundance, and
are now generally used for food. ,
Horse-foot or King Crab (Polyphemus occidentalis). — This
crab is common during the spring and summer all along the
coast from Maine to Florida. It is sometimes called the " sauce
pan," from the shape of its shield, which is frequently used fci
bailing out boats. They usually approach the shore at high
water, when they are frequently taken in large numbers, and
employed in feeding poultry and swine. If eaten too plenti-
fully, they are liable to cause sickness in pigs and hogs, and
sometimes are the cause of their death.
When thrown promiscuously in the pig yard, broken and
composted with swamp or pond muck, these fish add greatly to
276 ANIMAL MANURES.
the richness of the manure, and are an important source for tn«
maritime farmers to fertilise their fields.
Menhaden (Alosa menhaden). — This important fish, which
also bears the local names of " manhaden," " bony fish,'' "hard
head," "mars banker," " mossbonker," " mossbanker," "moss-
bunker," or simply "bunkeV panhagen, (Indian.) and "skip-
pangs," is found during the summer months, more or less abun-
dantly, from Maine to the Chesapeake. The sea and shoals often
literally swarm with them, where they are taken in seines or
nets, and employed as bait for halibut, mackerel, and cod.
Sometimes they are cured and packed up, like herrings, and
used for human food ; but, from their very oily nature, they are
not much resorted to for this purpose, being more extensively
and profitably applied as a manure. It is computed that a
single menhaden of ordinary size, (12 inches in length,) is
equal in richness to a shovelful of farmyard manure.
The use of this fish is well known as a manure in the vicin-
ity of the coast from Massachusetts Bay to the Chesapeake, par-
ticularly on the light lands of Long Island, Cape Cod, as well
as those of the eastern counties of New Jersey and Delaware.
They are used in various ways for growing wheat, oats, grass,
Indian corn, peaches, and other kinds of crops; and their ef-
fects in renovating worn-out lands, and enriching those that are
naturally sterile, are truly remarkable. But, from the manner
in which they are usually applied by scattering them in a crude
state broadcast over the surface, or- slightly covering them with
earth, is not only a wasteful practice, in consequence of the loss
of ammonia and other volatile constituents, but, on medical
authority, they sometimes have created pestilence and disease
from the intolerable and unhealthy stench with which thev
contaminate the atmosphere for miles around.
The most economical and advantageous mode of applying
these fish, as a manure, is to compost them in alternate layers
of dry mould, swamp or pond muck, pulverised charcoal or
peat, charred saw dust or tan bark, or any other similar absorb-
ent matter, in the same manner as recommended for BLOOD,
ANIMAL MANURES. 277
URINE, BLUBBER, and other putresccnt manures, described under
their respective heads. When thoroughly decomposed, this
compost may be spread broadcast, or disposed of in drills, or
in the hill, according to the kind of crops to which it is applied
If the fish are buried in the soil, however, in a crude state, re.
ference may be had to the nature of the subsoil in regard to
its power of absorbing and retaining the ammonia and other
soluble parts of the fish, that would be liable to be carried
downward by the rains or melted snows, with which they are
combined. It will be seen under the head of CLAY, (unburnt,)
that a subsoil, abounding in clay, loam, mould, or decomposed
vegetable matter, has the power of absorbing and retaining
everything which can serve as a manure for plants. This action, let
it be remembered, is not at all the same as in filtration, as a
subsoil composed of sand or gravel does not possess this prop-
erty, but allows most of the fertilising matter from the fish,
contained in solution, to penetrate the earth with the water from
the rains or melted snows. Thus, if the soil be deep and
loamy, the fish may be plowed under or otherwise buried to a
depth of 6 to 10 inches, with at least a foot of clayey or loamy
soil below them to secure absorption. The subsoil must be
clay or loam, for sand and gravel have no power of absorption,
and allow all solutions to pass freely through them.
When applied to Indian corn, with no other manure, from 2
to 3 fish are employed to each hill ; but when used in connec-
tion with wood ashes and stable dung, one fish is appropriated
to a hill ; say 3,630 fish, 14 cubic yards of horse dung, and 56
bushels of unleached ashes to an acre. A dressing like this,
on the Long-Island plains, will produce from 60 to 80 bushels
of shelled corn to an acre; and after the corn is removed, the
land will be suitable for a tolerable crop of buckwheat, oats,
or rye, without any additional manure.
For a wheat crop, about 10,000 of these fish may be plowed
under in a crude state to each acre of land ; or from 5,000 to
U> 6,000 may be composted as directed above, and plowed 01
harrowed in with the seed.
278 AN1M4.L MANURES.
When from 2,JOO to 3,000 menhaden are decomposed in a
compost as described in the preceding page and spread on an
acre of old grass land, the renovating effects are astonishing.
For root crops and peach trees, there is no manure that has
a better effect for a single year than these fish; but they do not
have that influence after repeating, which they have at first,
unless they are used in connection with charcoal, gypsum, bone
dust, leached ashes, guano, farmyard manure, or green-sand
marl.
Mussels (Mytilus borealis). — This species of shell fish, as
well as the Mytilus plicatula, is common all along the northern
coast of the United States, and are often found in great abun-
dance on the banks of the estuaries or creeks, whence they are
collected and fed to poultry or swine, and are used to some ex-
tent as a manure. From 10 to 20 bushels, in connection with
other fertilisers, are regarded as sufficient to manure an acre
of land.
Clams, cockles, and other kinds of shell fish, as well as crabs
and lobsters, all form excellent manures. The crust, or shells,
of the latter, is stated to contain 14 per cent, of the phosphate
of lime; the remaining portion consisting of carbonate of lime
and animal matter.
The offal offish, such as the heads, fins, scales, and intestines,
are to be obtained more or less abundantly in most of our mar-
kets, and from the places where fish are dressed and packed,
all form excellent fertilisers, and may be treated and applied in
& similar manner as the menhaden, described in the preceding
pages.
FOLDING, OR YARDING, AS A MODE OF MANURING THE SOIL.
FOLDING;, or yarding, is the practice of confining sheep, cows,
&c., at night or other times, in a sirall parcel of ground for the
purpose of enriching the soil for turnips, cabbages, tobacco,
and sor.ietimes wheat. The benefits arising from this mode of
manuring is acknowledged in many cases to be great; yet,
ANIMAL MANURES. 279
during the summer months, it cannot be otnerwise than waste-
ful, as a great part of the urine of the ar. imal is lost by evapo-
ration, as well as much of the solid excrement, which becomes
volatilised or removed by the washing of the rains.
Some farmers turn in their horned cattle with the sheep,
which answers well when the soil contains much gravel or
warm sand, and is not bad when it consists mainly of loam
But it is regarded to be more judicious to fold the cattle by
themselves on a dry gravelly or hungry soil, and the sheep
without the cattle on a soil that is stiff', heavy, and cold.
Before folding a piece of ground, it should be plowed once
or twice, in order to put it in a proper condition to receive the
urine and dung of the animals. By repeated observation, it has
been determined that, on an average, 200 sheep cannot manure
by folding, in one summer, more than 10 acres of land of a
medium quality, notwithstanding it has been stated that 100
sheep will enrich 8 acres, so as to need no other manure for
eight years.
For a crop of turnips, let half of an acre of ground be plow-
ed and fenced, in the latitude of New York, about the first of
June. Turn in every night a half dozen head of neat cattle,
and about 50 sheep. Continue to do so for three or four weeka
harrowing the surface every few days, in order to mix the ex-
crement with the soil. About the middle of July, the ground
will be sufficiently folded, and the turnips may be sown and
harrowed in, and will produce an abundant yield.
A yard for cabbages may be begun about a fortnight earlier
than for turnips, or soon after the cattle are turned out to grass.
In other respects, the time and treatment of the land, are sim-
ilar to those for turnips.
When a wheat crop is intended, the ground may be plowed
and folded in July, with frequent harrowings, up to the time of
sowing the seed in August. If the ground is very moist or wet,
let the harrowing be done in the middle of ?he day; if dry, in
Ihe morning, while moist vdth dew.
Meadow lands, which a -e cold and sour, producing bad hay.
280 ANIMAL MANURi-S.
may be greatly improved by even a moderate folding, which
will kill the ferns, (brakes,) and mosses, and destroy the lushes
or other watery grasses, without breaking up the sod. This
may be done, too, at such seasons as are unsuited for folding
plowed lands for turnips or wheat, say from September till
May, where the ground is not covered with snow. Sheep are
regarded more proper for this purpose than cattle, as their ex-
crement is hotter, and will have a more powerful effect in kill-
ing the noxious grasses and plants. Where a large field is to
be ameliorated in this manner, it is sometimes the custom to
confine the sheep at night in one part of the meadow, by means
of "hurdles,"' and as soon as that particular portion of the land
has been sufficiently folded, to change their enclosure to
another part of the Held, and thus continue until the whole is
improved.
In some places, they fold their fatting cattle in autumn, upon
the stubble fields or grass lands, where they are daily fed with
turnips, beets, potatoes, &c., which are spread upon the field.
By this means, the cattle are made to go over the entire ground,
dropping their urine and manure wherever they go, until the
whole is manured. A similar practice sometimes is also adopt-
ed in Boiling cows, where green food, such as rye, lucern, clover,
corn stalks, &c.. is scattered over the surface until the land is
sufficiently enriched.
GUANO.
GUANO, or huanu, which signifies in the Peruvian or Quichua
language " manure," is now well known to be the excrements of
various species of sea fowls, such as cranes, flamingoes, mews,
divers, &c., which resort in immense numbers to small uninhab-
ited islands or rocky promontories on the coasts of Africa and
South America, where they have remained in undisturbed pos-
session for ages, and on which their dung and exuviae have
gradually accumulated in some instances, on the coast of Peru,
•according to Humboldt, to a depth of 50 or 60 feet ; but their
ANIMAL MANURES. 281
deposits for a period of 300 years had not formed a bed more
than from -J-d to £ of an inch thick.
As regards the history of this substance, we read in all the
works relating to the ancient agriculture of the Peruvians of its
value as a fertiliser, and admire the provident use made of i*
.»y the Incas, long before that patriarchal race of monarchs
had been exterminated by their chivalrous invaders, the Span-
iards. For more than a hundred years, the early navigators to
the Pacific had noticed the guano islands, and had seen car-
goes of this deposit conveyed to the adjacent mainland, where
they must have witnessed the greater luxuriance of the her-
bage, as well as the increased weight of the crops wherever it
was applied. European and American merchants, also, who
have had opportunities ever since the declaration of Peruvian
independence, of forming establishments of their own on the
coast, as well as in the interior, could not have been ignorant
of the use made of guano by the natives, and the astonishing
effects it produced on their crops. The delay, therefore, of in-
troducing it into Europe and elsewhere, could not have occur-
red through the want of a knowledge of its value arid appli-
cability to a foreign soil.
Tt was not until the year 1806, that the true nature of this
substance, as a fertiliser, was communicated to the scientific
world, when a sample was transmitted by Humboldt on his re-
turn from South America, to Messrs. Fourcroy and Vauquelin,
of Paris, two eminent chemists, who made a most careful and
elaborate analysis of it, the results of which are published in
vol. Ivi. of the " Annales de Chimie." They found it to contain
ith of its weight of uric acid, partially saturated with am-
monia, and small quantities of sulphate and muriate of potash,
mixed with portions of quartzose and ferruginous sand. From
this circumstance, a knowledge of its value was communicated
to most of the enlightened agriculturists of Europe as well as
of the United States, but. no application was made of it in either
country before the year 1824, when the late Mr. Skinner, then
editor of the " American Farmer," received two barrels of il
282 ANIMAL M INURES.
at Baltimore, and distributed in small parcels for experiment
Governor Lloyd, of .Maryland, an intelligent and enterprising
farmer, to whom a portion was sent, pronounced it "the most
powerful manure lie had ever seen applied to Indian corn."
But no further measures were taken to introduce this manure,
with the exception of a few samples sent home by travellers in
Peru, with which experiments were made in Europe and in this
country, more as a matter of curiosity than from any other ex-
pectation, until the year 1840, when 20 barrels arrived in Eng-
land to test its qualities upon the soil. At first, it was used
with great precaution ; and notwithstanding the astonishing re-
sults of the earlier experiments, the fear that the enormous
crops which it produced might exhaust the land, deterred the
British farmers, generally, from availing themselves of so val-
uable a manure. Repeated experiments, however, having con-
vinced them that it imparts great vigor to the plants, without
injury to the soil, and that it is the cheapest as well as the most
nourishing fertiliser known, the increase of its consumption
was such, that, from a few tons employed in 1840, the whole
amount imported into that country up to the beginning of the
year 1850, was about 650,000 tons !
From this great consumption of guano in England, and the
success with which it was everywhere attended, its introduc-
tion became gradual into the United States ; and, for the last
year past, the demands for a. genuine article have been so great
by the farmers along the Atlantic coast, that their wants could
not be supplied.
Independently of the immense quantities imported from Bo-
livia and Peru, guano has been obtained from Ichaboe, a rocky
islet on the coast of Africa, from which many thousand tons
were shipped, and it has been stripped down to the very rock
itself by the emissaries of the greedy agriculturists, and again
abandoned in solitude. Considerable quantities have also been
brought from Patagonia, Chili, and the islands of the South
Sea ; but, as might have been expected from the nature of the
climates from which they were obtained, they were either found
ANIMAL MANURES. 283
>o *>e worthless, o far inferior in qualiti y to those of Bolivia
•}id Peru.
From this great and insatiable demand for g jano in England
ir.<] elsewhere, thw most wilful adulterations have been made
in that country, confined principally to the Peruvian, by mixing
'> with gypsum or sand, or, more correctly speaking, with a
sort of brownish-yellow loam, not differing much from the color
of guano itself ; but, as ready means have recently been dis-
covered for detecting these frauds, together with severe enact-
ments for punishing the perpetrators, the practice, it is hoped,
will soon become absolete.
Guano, like all kinds of animal excrement, varies materially
in its quality according to the nature of the food habitually
used. The richer and more nutritious it is, the greater will be
the fertilising properties of the manure. Hence, the dung of
the highly-fed race horse is more valuable than that of the
drudge released from the cart, and kept upon low fare. For the
very same reason, the excrementitious deposits of birds feed-
ing upon fish or flesh, afford a stronger manure than parrots
or pigeons which live on berries and grain. Again, guano is
very materially influenced by the age and climate in which it
is found. Thus, during the first year of its deposit in Bolivia
or Peru, the strata are white, and abounding in uric acid ; but
in the lower strata, which have existed, perhaps, for ages, the
color is a rusty red, as if tinged with oxide of iron. They be-
come progressively more and more solid from the surface
downward, a circumstance naturally accounted for by the
gradual accumulation of the strata, and the evaporation of the
volatile parts. In all climates subject to rains and heavy dews,
the guano exposed to their influence undergoes fermentation,
loses a portion of its ammoniacal salts by the decomposition,
and thereby is diminished in value. The excrement of the birds,
when first deposited, is rich in nitrogenous compounds. No am-
monia, as such, exists among its constituents ; but the access
of air and moisture induce a slow decomposition by which
ammonia is generated, and when the circumstances are favor-
284 ANIMAL MANURES.
able, it escapes into the atmosphere. Whenever moist, re is
abundant, these changes are most rapidly effected; wnereas,
on the other hand, a dry climate and a rapid accumulation of
the deposit are more likely to insure its preservation m a com-
paratively unchanged state.
From the preceding remarks, it is obvious that the composi-
tion, and consequently the value, of the different kinds of guano
will vary according to the age and localities from which they
are obtained. From numerous analyses and experiments made
with those sort? in most general use, their rank in the scale -of
this class of manures, together with other circumstances con-
nected with their production and application, stand in the fol
lowing order: —
Anagamos Guano. — By a subsequent table, it will be seen that
this guano contains a larger per-centage of ammonia, with a
due share of phosphates, than any other kind in the list. It is
a perfectly recent deposit, collected by hand from the rocks,
which accounts for its richness. Although it is not distinctly
known whether the composition of the dung of birds, recently
voided, is perfectly alike, we have reason to suppose, that of
sea fowls, all piscivorous and nearly allied in their habits, can-
not greatly differ. From this circumstance, it is worthy of in-
vestigation to ascertain whether the Florida guano, deposited on
the Keys by immense flocks of flamingoes, pelicans, and other
aquatic birds, cannot be collected after the manner of that from
Anagamos, and turned to profitable account.
Penman Guano. — From the large amount of ammonia and
phosphates contained in this kind of guano, together with the
almost inexhaustible supply, and the circumstances attending
its origin, collection, and importation, the farmer can more im-
plicitly rely upon it for fertilising his fields than on any other.
Being the production of a climate where rair seldom or never
fulls, its composition becomes less altered, and its character
'ess varied, except i/i color, than those varieties found further
north or south.
During the first year of deposit, the strata are white, when it
ANIMAL MANURES. 28C
is called by the natives guano bianco. In the opinion of .he
Peruvian cultivators this is the most efficacious kind, as less
quantity suffices, and the field must be more speedily and abun-
dantly watered after it is applied; otherwise, the roots of the
plants would bo destroyed.
In the deepest deposits, the uppermost strata are of a greyish
brown, which gradually become darker as they are opened
downward. In the" lower strata, the color is rusty red, as if
tinged with the oxide of iron. The beds become progressively
more and more solid from the surface downwards, a circum-
stance naturally accounted for by the gpadual deposit of the
strata and the evaporation of the fluid particles, the result, per-
haps, from an uninterrupted accumulation during many thous-
and years.
As before remarked, the wilful adulteration of guano is be-
lieved to be confined almost entirely to the Peruvian. Hence,
much precaution is necessary on the part of the farmer in
making his purchases; otherwise, he is liable to be deceived.
It is not enough to know that the "substance is of a brown
color, sufficiently dry, with a tolerably strong smell, and ap-
pearing to contain little or no gritty matter when rubbed be-
tween the fingers ;" for, if genuine, all guanos have a general
character running through them. For instance, they invariably
contain feathers and comminuted shells; water, of course; or-
ganic matter, always ; crystallised gypsum, never ; carbonate
of lime, commonly ; phosphate of lime, always ; super-phos-
phate, never; and nitrogen or ammonia, invariably. Several
of these points can only be determined by accurate analysis
which farmers in general are incapable of doing. All the rist
and uncertainty, therefore, to which the farming public is now
subjected, might be avoided if they would give up seeking for
cheap guano, buy from dealers of known character and honesty,
and insist that the purchase shall be guaranteed to be of the
same composition as a sample analysed by seme chemist of
well known accuracy and veracity.
in selecting samples fot analysis, it should always be takeo
886 ANIMAL MANURES.
from as many bags as possible. A large handful or two should
be selected from perhaps a dozen different bags, and the whole
laid on a large sheet of paper, and mixed carefully together
with the hand. From this, about a pound should be taken,and
the remainder returned into the stock. This precaution ia de-
sirable in all sorts of guano, but is quite indispensable with
the inferior kinds, which f-equently differ very much in differ-
ent parts of the same cargo.
Bolivian Guano. — Next to the Peruvian in value as a fertiliser,
stands the Bolivian, which, from the similarity of the climate
in which it is produced, being obtained only a few degrees fur-
ther south, it lias been placed in the very iirst rank of excel-
lence. Some cargoes, however, have proved to be of very in-
ferior quality, obviously having been adulterated, or had been
subject to moisture or long exposure to the wind and sun.
Chilian Guano. — Of this fertiliser, two qualities have been
imported. The one most commonly met with is of a most in-
ferior description, and scarcely deserves the name of guano;
but there is another and a very valuable variety, although rare,
which is imported from Valparaiso, and is stated to be collected
on the rocks. It is quite hard, and comes in large pale-yellow-
ish masses; and, in value, it is said to be equal to that of the
very best Peruvian.
Ichaboe Guano. — This guano, although abundant a few years
since, has now almost entirely ceased in its supply. It is de-
signated under the names of the "old" and the "new Ichaboe,"
the former being a deposit probably many centuries of age.
which hud been exposed to the sun, wind, and rain, and conse-
quently had lost a large share of its virtue, and hence inferior
in its value. Soon after its discovery, the whole of the deposit
with which the island was covered, was entirely removed. So
completely, indeed, was this done, that the last cargoes carried
away were but little better than sand, and the island was again
Abandoned to the birds. Since that time, the sea fowls returned,
rapidly formed fresh deposits, and other importations have been
made, designated under the name of the '; new Ichaboe," which
ANIMAL MANURES. 187
proved, on analysis, to be much richer than the " Id." It ap-
pears that the recent Ichaboe guano contains an amount of
ammonia not far short of double of that contained in the older
deposit, and between 3 and 4 per cent, more than the highest
per-centage hitherto observed. It approaches in composition
much nearer that of Peru, both in this respect, and in the small
amount of phosphates and larger quantity of alkaline salts
which it contains. In one other respect, also, it is remarkable
— and this is, in the considerable per-centage of carbonate of
lime, of which traces only are found in the oldest deposits, and
none at all in the Peruvian.
Patagonian Guano. — This varioty, from the high latitude in
which it is produced, and subjected as it is to frequent rains,
alternated by intense sunshine and drying winds, has usually
been purchased at higher prices than its quality justifies. Its
inferiority to Peruvian or Bolivian guanos is very marked,
especially in its amount of ammonia ; and from numerous
analyses, it has been ascertained that it contains a considerable
quantity of sand, in one case, at least 38 per cent. This guano,
it is believed, never is willfully adulterated. In fact, its quality
is so low that it will not bear it. There is said to occur among
this guano considerable quantities of crystals, composed almost
entirely of the salt called '• ammoniaco-magncsian phosphate,"
which, when pure, contains no less than 7 per cent, of ammo-
nia. These crystals, it has been stated, have been carefully
avoided by the captains of vessels, with the impression that
they were of no value.
Saldariha-Bay Guano. — This variety, like the Patagonian,
comes from a latitude and climate subject to heavy rains, al-
ternated by an intense sun, and consequently loses the greater
part of its ammonia, unless it is collected in a very recent
state. Its chief value, as a fertiliser, consists in its phosphates,
which range higher than those in any other variety hitherto
known.
The foregoing includes all the varieties of guano that have ap-
l>eared in any Quantity in trn European and American markets.
ANIMAL MANURES.
•~ I 5
§ S
I I
£*
S— i ts r~ p i~ o
LI <r. rs I ;i 'L
§§
5 S g I 153
•
Hi
L.
the average composition of
which is indicated in the ad-
joining table, by Dr. Thomas
.\ nderson, chemist to the High-
l;md and Agricultural Socjety
of Scotland. In the more com-
mon guanos, the average is de-
duced from a large number of
analyses, made by himself in
his own laboratory, or frorr
those of others in whom he
could implicitly rely.
A moment's inspection of the
table will render apparent —
much more clearly than words
can — the great difference in
the composition of the differ-
ent varieties of guano; and as
their values differ quite as
much as their composition, it
is of much importance for the
farmer to have a ready means
of estimating, from the compo-
position, their value.
Now, practically, there are
only two constituents which
require to be taken into con-
sideration in the estimate of
the commercial value of a
guano, and these are the am-
monia and the phospliates. With
the exception of the alkaline
salts, none of the other con-
stituents have any value ; and
these last, though no doubt
worth something, are too small
ANIMAL MANU. iES. 289
m quantity, and loo unimportant to deserve consideration. In
order to estimate the worth of a guano, then, we require to
know the value of ammonia and phosphate of lime; in other
words, the price at which they can be bought in the market, in
other forms than that of guano. Professor Way, of the Royal
Agricultural Society of England, has gone fully into this ques-
tion, and has deduced from a variety of considerations, that
the value of ammonia is very nearly sixpence per pound, and
that of phosphate of lime, about three farthings per pound.
Suppose, then, we wish to estimate the value of a ton (2,000 Ibs.,)
of Peruvian guano of the average composition, we calculate
from the per-centage the number of pounds of ammonia and
phosphates present in it ; and calculating 12£ cents for each of
the former, and H cents for the latter, we have the value of the
ton. Thus :
17 per cent, of ammonia is equal to 340 Ibs. in a ton ( «.,,£, cr.
of ii,000 Ibs., at 1-2'y cents, { ^^^
23.48 per cent, of phosphates is equal to 470 Ibs. in ) ~ ,,.
a ton, at 1J cents, > '
Value of a ton of Peruvian guano, $49.55
Exactly in the same manner we are enabled to find the fol-
lowing value of a ton of Saldanha-Bay guano: —
1.62 per rent, of ammonia is equal to 32.4 Ibs. in a > e Ane-
ton, at 12i cents, j » *»
56.4 per cent, of phosphates is equal to 1,128 Ibs. in ( i<- rv>
a ton, at 1£ cents, j 10>sw
Value of a ton of Sald;tnha-Bay guano, $20.97
Strictly speaking, something should be allowed for the alka-
line salts present ; but the exact value cannot be estimated
without some difficulty. It might average from $4 to $5 per
ton, which should be added to the above, thus making Peruvian
guano worth about $54 a ton.
Guano, like farmyard manure, it is hardly necessary to state,
may be applied with advantage to almost any kind of soil, as
well as to most of our cultivated crops, as it contains every ele-
13
290 ANIMAL MANURES.
merit necessary to their growth, independent of Hie quality uf
the soil— one great point being attended to— that the land be
in good tilth; for, otherwise, the tender roots of the vegetables
would meet with obstructions, and became crippled in their
growth. Poor, well-tilled soils receive the most advantage from
this fertiliser, as they are most generally delicient in some essen-
tial necessary to the growth and perfection of the plants. In
regard to the amount to be applied to an acre, this will depend
upon the variety of guano employed ; the nature and state of
fertility of the soil and climate ; the kind of crop to be raised ;
the number of applications in a season ; and whether the
guano is to be used alone or in conjunction with any other
manure.
Taking the best Peruvian guano as a standard, in a soil of
medium quality inthe Northern States, an acre of wheat, barley,
nemp, or flax will require about 250 Ib.s. mixed with 10 times its
bulk of earth, garden mould, well-rotted peat or swamp muck,
and sown broadcast, and plowed or harrowed in with the seed
just before a rain. If the soil be rather poor, 300 Ibs. will be
necessary; if good, 200 Ibs. will suffice. For oats, peas, and
rye, 200 Ibs. will be enough. Grass lands of several years'
standing may be renovated or greatly improved, by sowing
about 300 Ibs. broadcast in wet weather, soon after the young
blades begin to shoot. For turnips, potatoes, cabbages, to-
bacco, and Indian corn, 200 Ibs. may be applied broadcast to
an acre at the time of planting or putting in the seed, in con-
nection with decomposed peat, swamp or pond muck, vegetable
mould, &c., previously thoroughly plowing the land, and then
well harrowing in the guano, and afterwards raising the earth
into beds or ridges by means of a plow at suitable distances
apart for the rows or drills of the respective crops. This will
diffuse the guano equally through the soil. When the plants
are up, or are sufficiently advanced in their growth to be
cleansed or earthed up, a second dressing of 100 to 200 Ibs. of
guano may be applied in the same way as above ; that is,
spreading if 'uiiformly ovei :he surface, taking care not to scat-
ANIMAL MANURES. 29i
ter it on the leaves or stalks, and then drawing the earth con-
taining it around the plants. It is regarded as better to apply
the guano twice than all at one time, and much more advan-
tageous to work it through the soil, than to put it at the bottom
of the drills or hills. When employed in the latter manner, it
not unfrequently kills the young plants by coming in direct
contact with the roots, or overgorging them with nourishment,
and leaves those which survive with an insufficient supply in
the advanced stages of their growth.
In the Middle and Southern States, where guano is much
employed for manuring tobacco, cotton, sugar cane, and other
sourthern crops, about the same quantity may be applied as
at the north ; but experience has taught the planters that,
where the subsoil consists of clay, mould, or loam, it is prefer-
able to sow the guano broadcast in the early part of the win-
ter, and plow it under at the fnll depth, and there let it remain
and infuse its virtues throughout the soil, or furrow slices,
above, until the crops are sown or planted in the spring, when
the ground should be replowed and harrowed at the time of
putting in the seed. But, let it be remembered that, where the
subsoil contains a large share of gravel or sand, it would be a
wasteful practice thus to plow under the guano, as the dissolv-
ing rains would carry a large share of its fertilising properties
deep into the earth. A second dressing of 100 to 200 Ibs. of
guano to an acre may also be added to cotton, tobacco, sugar
cane, and other hoed crops, at the time of earthing them up, in
a similar manner as recommended for corn and potatoes in the
Northern States. For wheat, let from 200 to 250 Ibs. of guano
to an acre be scattered broadcast, just before the seed is sown,
and plowed under to a depth of 6 or 8 inches, and t -<ere remain
undisturbed, bearing in mind this important rule as regards all
fertilisers that are soluble by rains or melting snows : That there
be at least 10 inches in depth of loam, mould, or clay, directly beneath
the manure; otherwise, the most valuable parts may sink deep
into the earth as they are carried downward by the rain, and
consequently will be lost.
292 ANIMAL MANURES.
For grape vinos, the apple, pear, cherry, plum, and other
fruit trees, as well as the orange, lemon, and coffee trees, guar.o
stands unrivalled in its effecls as a manure. If the trees or
shrubs are small, and are ready to transplant, slanting holes
may be dug to receive them, of dimensions proportioned to the
depth and extent of the roots, leaving at least 10 inches of
mould at their bottoms, before the guano is put in. Then, around
the edges of the bottom of the holes, that is, near the foot of the
slanting sides, scatter from ± to 4- of a pound of guano, which
should be covered with a little light earth or mould, in order
that none of the guano may touch the roots when the vines or
trees are consigned to the ground. Then, into each hole,
about 2 quarts of water may be sprinkled, and the further
process of transplanting left till the next day. The trees may
now be planted in the position they are intended to grow, and
the holes filled up with light soil, leaving a slight depression
around each, in order to make the most of any rain that soon
after may fall. If the trees or vines have long been planted
and have attained a considerable size, the ground about their
roots may be forked or trenched in the spring, and the guano
scattered broadcast over the surface around each tree, and fol-
lowed immediately by a copious watering by hand or by a
drenching rain. By these means, a portion of the guano will
become dissolved, sink into the soil about the roots, the good
effects of which will be apparent in a very few weeks.
Guano may also be employed as a steep for seeds, or applied
directly to the plants, in their second leaf, in a diluted and liquid
form; or it may be advantageously composted with an equal
weight of common salt or soot, or with 10 times its bulk of veg-
etable mould, rotte'd peat, swamp or pond muck, or green-sand
marl, mixed with a small proportion of gypsu n or charcoal dust,
but never icith wood ashes, carbonate of soda, potash, magnesia, nor
common lime; for these will liberate the free ammonia, and thus
diminish the value and effects of the manure.
For a further account of the application of guano, the reader
i* referred tc LIQUID and SPECIAL MANURES.
ANIMAL MANURES.
293
GREAVES.
GREAVES, or "scraps," are the muscular or membraneous
matter left as refuse by the lard and tallow tri rs. They usual-
ly contain a larg 3 amount of fat, and are well adapted for fat-
tening hogs, feeding poultry, dogs, &c. They have also been
used as a manure, at the rate of about 200 Ibs. to an acre, in-
corporated with an ordinary dressing of farmyard dung, pul-
verised peat, leaf mould, swamp or pond muck, &c.
This substance is a nitrogenous manure, 100 Ibs. yielding
about 13 Ibs. of ammonia. The presence of phosphorus, sul-
phur, as well as of bone earth, renders it applicable to all staple
crops, as wheat, tobacco, Indian corn, &c. ; but the only draw-
back in the economy of using it, as a mannre, is the high price
it is held for feeding animals, or for the manufacture of soap
HAIR— WOOL— WOOLLEN WASTE— BRISTLES— HORNS—
AND HOOFS.
IN chemical composition, all of these substances are nearly
identical, and resemble that of muscular fibre, (lean meat,) or
of dried blood. Therefore, they may be treated under the same
head. When burned, they leave but a small proportion of ash>
that of wool being only 2 per cent. ; that of hair, TVoths of 1
per cent. ; and that of horns, T7ffths of 1 per cent. The organic
part, or that which burns away, according to Professor John-
ston, io indicated in the following table : —
Composition.
Hair.
Wool. Horn.
Carbon,
5 1 .53
6.(>9
17.94
23.84
50.65 51.99
7.03 ' 0.72
17.71 ! 17.28
24.6 11 24.01
Hydrogen,
Nitrogen,
Oxygen and sulphur,
10U.OC 100.00 100.00
The organic part of these substances, then-fore, is nearly the
same in composition; and hence, when equally decomposed.
294 ANIMAL MANURES.
they would doubtless produce similar effects upon young crops.
They contain a little more nitrogen than dried flesh and blood,
and rather less than dried skin ; and therefore, in so far as their
fertilising action depends upon this element, they are consid-
ered as occupying an intermediate place in the scale of
manures.
Hair and Bristles. — The hair of horned cattle, horses, and
swine has long been ranked amongst the best of dressings for
fertilising the land, as it was extensively used in England as
such, previous to the year 17-12. Ellis, in his "Modern Hus-
bandman," states that from yearly experience it was found, that
"cows' hair and and hogs' bristles are as fertile manures as
any other sort whatsoever ; for the time they last by their
yielding a quick, warm, and moist nourishment to the land they
are sown on, so that, if they are righly sown and mixed with
the earth, the roots of vegetables presently meet their assist-
ance, and then they bring on their luxurious growth. * * *
By their line, stiff, and thready parts, they are made capable
of uniting with the earth in a little time; and more so, when
their substance becomes rotted; for then, they easily incorpo-
rate with the small particles of the mould, which they stick
to, and thus last two, three, or more years before the hair or
bristles are entirely consumed.1'
Hair is composed chieily of animal matter, a small quantity
of white solid oil, and a somewhat larger proportion of a
greyish-green oil. A sample of refuse horse hair, analysed by
Professor Way, yielded of nitrogen Ilr803ffths per cent, with
^yWhs per cent, of ash. Hair burnea to ashes by others, has
giver, iron and oxide of manganese ; the phosphates of lime
and of iron ; the sulphate and carbonate of lime ; the muriate
of soda ; and a considerable portion of silica. White hair
yields magnesia, which is wanting in other colors ; and red hair
contains iron and manganese. The animal matters are chiefly
gelatine and albumen, and a substance resembling both.
Hair and bristles may be obtained in considerable quantities
from the tar.neries or butcheries, and may be applied with the
ANIMAL MANURES. 295
best advantage to light gravelly soils, to be sown with tu nips
or wheat, at the rate of 20 to 30 bushels to an acre ; but they
are well adapted for fertilising most other kinds of soil, as wel
as nearly all of our cultivated crops. They may be spreau
broadcast over the surface of the ground, and lightly covered
by plowing; or they may be composted with earth, mould,
pulverised peat, and swamp or pond muck.
Wool and Woollen Waste. — Refuse wool, " shoddy," (the
sweepings of woollen manufactories,) " premings," and "cut-
tings," (the waste of the shearing machines of cloth dressers,)
in some sections of the country, are other sources from which
the farmer can obtain more or less means for fertilising his
land. They are not so rich in nitrogen as pure wool, and the
former often contains a large proportion of dirt or dung. In
three samples of shoddy, analysed by Professor Way, the
amount of nitrogen contained in one was 5T2ffVths per cent. ; in
another, 4TVths per cent. ; and in the third, 3§ths percent. A
sample of refuse wool, also analysed by him, evidently of a
different origin to shoddy, and differing from it in containing
very little oil, yielded 3£ per cent, of nitrogen, and 47 per cent,
of earthy matter, principally clay and carbonate of lime. A
sample of premings gave 9T°ff2ffths per cent, of nitrogen, and one
of cuttings, llyWhs per cent.
It appears, then, that it is erroneous to estimate the value of
the different kinds of woollen refuse by the known composition
of pure wool itself ; for, to whatever cause the inferiority may
be due, it is obvious that they do not on an average contain
fds as much nitrogen as found in the raw material.
Again, it is worthy of attention that the cuttings and pre-
mings differ also in com"*)sition only about 2 per cent, of nitro-
gen, and therefore should bear a price accordingly.
All of the above-named substances may be applied to the
same kind of crops, the same class of soils, and in the same
manner as directed for bristles and hair; but the quantity to
be used, may vary from 40 to 100 bushels to an acre.
The conversion of the animal matter of wool into ammonia
296 ANIMAL MANURES.
may be hastened by watering it with urine, or m.xing it with
the dung heap ; but it will probably be always more advan-
tageously applied to grain than as a substitute for manures
which contain ready-formed ammonia.
Horns and Horn Piths. — Horn shavings, parings, and turn-
ings, when judiciously applied, are considered as a very pow-
erful and durable manure. They are noticed by Houghton,
Worlige, and several other old agricultural authors, all of whom
write in great praise of them. One says, that, " in the year
1694, horn shavings were then sold in London for eight shil-
lings and sixpence a quarter sack, and that five such sacks,
strewed and scattered in furrows, before the plow, at Michael-
mas, [September 29th,] will very much improve two acres of
land sown with wheat seed ; but do little or no service to hot
ground."
These substances, as they are purchased for manure, usually
occur in two'forms, the large and the small. The latter are re-
garded as the cheapest, weight for weight, because they go
much further by lying closer together, and also covering more
ground. They are generally allowed to agree best with grav-
els and dry, sandy and stony loams, because, as they are of a
spongy nature and receive and retain moisture, they will so
continue in the ground for a long time, and nourish the crops
in the driest seasons. And besides, being of a tough nature,
the hungry quality of sharp and stony gravels or sands cannot
so quickly waste their substance as they do guano, stable dungs,
and powdered manures. But let it be remembered that not so
much is to be expected from horn shavings the first year, as
they will yield afterwards, because they will not become much
rotted till the second, and even the third and fourth years after,
when they add exceedingly to the fertility of the land, with an
increased yield of crops.
Horn shavings, like hair, bristles, and wool are well adapted
for fertilising most of our staple crops. They may be applied
at the rate of 20 to 30 bushels to an acre, spread broadcast
over the surface after the first plowing is completed, when they
ANIMA. MANURES. 297
may be covered with the earth with the seed, as shallow as may
be, with a cultivator or three-snare plow.
Horn piths, in the state they are usually obtained from the
tanneries, soap works, glue factories, &c., partake much of the
nature and properties of boiled bones, and like them, may be
ground or crushed by mills, or may be reduced to a powder
by calcination or by steam. They are rich in phosphate of
lime, and may be applied to the same crops, and in similar
quantities as bone dust, described under the head of BONES.
Hoofs, Sheep Trotters, <J-c. — The hoofs of animals are stated
by one of the old authors above mentioned, to be " of the na-
ture of hair and horn for the dressing of land, if chopped to
pieces and sow^d on dry land, which makes it fruitful for three
years, and does vast service, and so on, if repeated." Ellis, in
his " Modern Husbandman," published in 174*2, says, that, ac-
cording to the old way of management, hoofs are chopped into
small pieces and scattered over the land at the rate of 15 bush-
els to an acre on the last plowing but one, and then immedi-
ately plowed in, either with or without the seed ; but, by the
new way of managing them, as he terms it, as soon as the
wheat is sown and harrowed or plowed in, he recommends that
the whole hoofs be forced into the ground erect, with a stick,
12 inches apart, so that the broad part may remain uppermost,
just covered with earth, for the rain to fill them; and then, in
time, they will rot and diffuse the best dressing to the land, by
the running over of the water, which proceeds from the putre-
faction of the hoofs, that will soak in and moisten a 11 the root?
of the plants.
INSEOT REMAINS.
INSECTS of all kinds, known under the names ot worms, snails,
grubs, slugs, bugs, beetles, &c., &c., exist more or less abun-
dantly in the ground, particularly where the soil is already rich,
and tend in many instances to increase its fertility. Their food,
most undoubtedly, must be either fresh vegetables or decaying
13*
298 ANIMAL MANURES.
or decayed vegetable matter. In the forme* case, such insects
prove extremely desti uctive ; whilst in the latter, they may be
of service to the vegetable kingdom, by rendering the decayed
or decaying vegetables, eaten by them, more soluble by the
process of digestion. In this class, are to be included the com-
mon earth worms, which are only to be found in great numbers
in ground containing a large proportion of vegetable or animal
matters. Worms of this kind feed only on rich earths ; and as
they are never found on sterile ground, their nourishment must
necessarily depend on the before-mentioned substances con-
tained in the soil.
The excrements of these worms appear on the surface in
great abundance ; particularly in moist weather, succeeding
a long drought ; or at the season of the year when the dews
fall heavily. On these occasions, the worms rise to the surface,
for the purposes of engendering, supplying themselves with
moisture, and of voiding their excrements. These excrements,
from the astonishing numbers of worms contained in rich
ground, cannot but promote vegetation, though a temporary
inconvenience may sometimes be incurred, by preventing the
cattle from freely depasturing, when the surface is too much
covered therewith.
All insects or worms in the ground, as well as those which
apparently are of disservice, as those that are known to be
noxious and destructive to the roots, stems, and leaves of veg-
etables, may be destroyed by alkaline salts and hot lime ;
which substances have the power of dissolving the continuity
or texture of organic bodies, and are particularly fatal to the
soft bodies of living insects. Insects are likewise to be destroy-
ed by neutral salts, and by saline bituminous substances. The
bodies of these insects, when dissolved by putrefaction, become,
like other animal matters, serviceable to vegetation. The sul-
phuric acid will also act in destroying insects and other ani-
mal substances, in a manner somewhat similar to alkaline salts,
with this difference only, that the one forms an acid, the other
un alkaline soap. This acid, diluted with a due proportion of
ANIMAL MANURES. 299
water, ond superacidulated vitriolic salts, may likewise be used
with a double effect, in the destruction of insects, in ground
long under cultivation, and which contains much animal and
vegetable matter, in the state of phosphate and oxalate of lime.
In this case, not only the insects will be killed, but the sul-
phuric acid will, by superior affinity, combine with the calca-
reous matter of the phosphate and oxalate of lime, whose dis-
engaged acids will form new soluble, fertilising saline, combi-
nations with the ammonia, or volatile alkali, and magnesia that
may be contained in the soil.
Sea salt is found to destroy snails, slugs, grubs, worms, &c.,
by making them void the contents of their bodies, evacuations
too powerful for them to withstand. By these means, not only
their bodies, but their evacuations soon become food for veg-
etables.— Dundonald.
IVORY TURNINGS.
IVORY dust, from the similarity of its composition to that ol
bones, wherever it can be economically obtained, is applicable
to the same purposes as a manure. A sample analysed by
Professor Norton, of Yale College, yielded, in 100 parts, the
following ingredients : —
Phosphate of lime, 56.960
Carbonate of lime, 3.875
Carbonate of magnesia, 1.453
Organic matter, 37.652
Loss, 0.060
100.000
In comparing this analysis with that of the bones of an ox,
by Thompson, it will be seen that ivory dust contains about
8i per cent, more of phosphate of lime, 1J per cent, more of
magnesia, and 2£ per cent, less of carbonate of lime, and
nearly 11 per cent, less of organic matter. According to the
analysis of M. Merat-Guillot, pure ivory contains 24 per cent,
of gelatine, 64 per cent, of phosphate of lime, and ^th of !
300 ANIMAL MANURES.
per cent, of carbonate of lime. Ivory dust or turnings, there-
fore, is more valuable as a manure than bones in any form,
whether crude, burnt, or boiled. It may be applied, however,
in the same manner, to the same kind of crops, and a similar
character of soil, but in quantity, at least 10 per cent, less, to a
given area of land.
LEATHER REFUSE.
LEATHER, it is well known, consists of organised fibrous gela-
tine, or the skins of animals, combiner with the proximate veg-
etable principle, tannin, and probably also, §pme vegetable
extractive. In whatever form it is applied, it affords a most
excellent and durable manure, as the gelatine and coagulated
albumen it contains, convert, by gradual decomposition in
moist earth, its fatty matter into ammonia, which, together
with other ingredients, proves very nutritive to plants.
This substance occurs more or less abundantly in almost
every section of the country, in the form of old boots and
shoes, curriers' and glovers' shavings, shoemakers', sadlers',
and harness makers' parings, the waste of hatters, bookbind-
ers, trunk makers, pocket-book makers, &c., &c. ; and where
these are not sold for more valuable purposes to the manufac-
turers of animal charcoal, Prussian blue, &c., they may be
collected by the farmer, at a small expense, and applied as a
manure. The most economical mode of using them is to chop
them up into small pieces, and scatter them uniformly over the
surface of the ground, at the rate of 20 to 30 bushels to an acre,
and plow them in. If kept constantly covered with moist
earth, they will impart their fertilising influence to most of our
cultivated crops for six or seven years. If desirable to expend
their virtues at once, they may be dissolved in strong solutions
of potash or sulphuric acid, and administered in the form of a
liquid manure. They are applicable to nearly every variety
of soil, but appear to be best adapted to those that are sandy
gravelly, or light.
ANIMAL MANURES. 801
NIGHT SOIL.
" B f the term ' night soil,' at London," says Arthur Young
'is to be understood the collections there made of what a
French marquis calls ' 1'espece de fumier que la politesse em-
peche de nommer;' from which trait of him one would not
have expected he should know so much of the value of it as
he really did. An Englishman says, 'tis more decent and bet-
ter to let it alone ; but as I conceive it perfectly decent and
efficient, I shall consider human ordure as the very best manure
that can be procured. But here, I shall first consider the far-
mers conduct at home, where his great object is to raise as
much manure as possible without being obliged to depend on
purchases, which are only to be made in certain situations. If
the farmer manages his necessary house in such a manner as to
suffer nothing to run off from it, and frequently throws malt
dust, saw dust, fine mould, or sand into it, he may, every year,
manure from 1 to 2 acres of land."
The history of the use of this substance, as a manure, is in-
volved in obscurity, for its very nature has predisposed every
early experimentalist to be silent as to his knowledge of its
powers; and, in the earliest of all authorities, the Bible, it is
mentioned with becoming reserve. The warmth of the climate
of the East, however, it would appear, insured a regular re-
moval or application of excrements of every kind. Thus,
amongst the Jews, the dung of the bullock, slain in sacrifices,
was directed to be burned, (Exodus, xxix. 14; Leviticus, iv. 11,
viii. 17, xvi. 37 ; Numbers, xix. 5,) and used as fuel ; as, in periods
of distress, even was human dung (Ezekiel, iv. 12, 15). Dung-
hills, also, were evidently formed, and carried away to be
spread on the surface of the earth ; and straw was spread to
increase its quantity (Daniel, ii. 5, i. i. 29; Luke, xiv. 35 ; 1 Kings,
i. 10 ; Psalms, Ixxxiii. 10 ; Jeremiah, viii. 2, xvi. 14, xxv. 33;
Zephaniah, i. 17; Isaiah, xxv. 10). And even the holy city of
Jerusalem had a gate called the "Dung Port" (Nehemiah, ii. 13,
iii. 13, 14, xii. 31.) Similar customs of the Eastern nations in
302 ANIMAL MANURES.
latter times are described by modern travellers, confirming in a
remarkable degree these notices recorded in Holy Writ.
At the present day, night soil is husbanded in almost every
part of Europe, particularly on the continent, with a jealousy
and care which proves how valuable it is considered by those
who use it. In most of the cities of a second order, and the
minor capitals, it is a source of profit, first, to the householder,
second, to the nightman, who carts it away, and thirdly, to the
farmer, who is the last purchaser, and who applies it to his
land. In some parts, Flanders in particular, instead of using it in
a dry or powdered state, they prefer to mix it with water, after
the manner of the Chinese, and thus form a rich liquid manure-
But, like the French of the present day, for the sake of easy
and convenient transport, the Dutch have dried fecal substan-
ces to powder, from time immemorial, now known under the
name of" poudrette," which has been purchased at high prices,
and employed by the farmers to apply to their crops.
For a further account of the nature, preparation, and applica-
tion of night soil, the reader is referred to the EXCREMENT OP MAN,
POUDRETTE, and LIQUID MANURES, under their respective heads
OFFAL AND REFUSE OF SLAUGHTERHOUSES.
ALL the internal parts of animals, which may be obtained
from the butcheries or slaughterhouses near all cities and the
larger class of towns, such as the liver, lungs, brain, and heart,
that are mixed more or less with blood, and the ofTiil of the en-
trails, with the emptyings of intestines, afford another valuable
source from which the farmer can often very profitally enrich
his fields.
These substances may be cut or hashed up as fine as possi-
ble, and then mixed with earth, mould, pulverised peat, or
swamp or pond muck, thoroughly dried, in the proportion of 6
times'the bulk of the animal matter, well worked over with a
shovel or hoe, and applied broadcast, a't the rate of 5 tons to
an acre, and plowed under in a similar manner as guano or
ANIMAL MANURES. 303
farmyard manure. Thus prepared, it is adapted tc all kind of
crops, and to nearly every description of soil, and gives excel-
lent results, particularly to wheat. If it cannot be applied im-
mediately after the preparation, it should be preserved in
trenches or pits ; or at any rate, piled up in heaps in the shade
and covered with earth or loam, to prevent waste from evapo-
ration or rains.
The blood of slaughterhouses, which is more or less mixed
with fecal matter, may be employed in the following man-
ner : — Some earth, free from clods, may be dried in an oven,
care being taken from time to time to stir it with a shovel or
rake. Taken hot from the oven, it may be sprinkled with the
blood, in the proportion of 4 or 5 times the quantity in bulk of
earth to one part of liquid blood, both incorporated together
with a shovel or hoe. The mixture may then be baked over,
and stirred with the rake till the dessication is complete, in
which state, it may be put up in boxes or barrels, and sheltered
from the rain, to be used when required. The earth in this
preparation is especially useful to present the blood in a suit-
able state of division, and to render its decomposition more
regular and slow. It will enable the farmer, moreover, to
know what extent of surface this mixture will cover as a ma-
nure, by recollecting that about 3,000 Ibs. of liquid blood will
give nearly 750 Ibs. of that which is coagulated and dried, a
sufficient quantity to fertilise an acre of wheat. In this state,
100 Ibs. of blood are nearly equal in effects to 300 Ibs. of
crushed bones, or three loads of good horse dung, weighing
7,200 Ibs. It is a manure considered as far superior to those
known and designated by the names of" oil cake," " poudrette,"
&c. It is inferior only to the dried and powdered flesh, des-
cribed under the head of FLESH, MUSCLES, ETC., OF DEAD ANIMALS.
, PHOSPHORIC AOID.
THE white fumes given off by phosphorus, or rather into
which it is changed, when burned in the air or in oxygen gas,
804 ANIMAL MANURES.
consist of phosphoric acid. This compound is solid and color-
less, attracts moisture from the air with great rapidity, is ex-
ceedingly soluble in water, has an intensely sour taste, and
like sulphuric aciu, is capable of corroding and destroying
animal and vegetable substances. According to Berzelius,
when pure, it consists of
Oxygen, 56
Phosphorus, 44
It does not exist in nature in a free state, and, therefore, is
not directly influential upon vegetation. It unites, however,
with potash, soda, lime, &c., to form compounds known by the
names of phosphates. In these states of combination, it is al-
most universally diffused throughout nature, and appears to be
essentially necessary to the healthy growth of all living, cer-
tainly of all cultivated vegetables.
Phosphoric acid, although forming one of the constituents of
many minerals, abounds in the animal system, being combined
with lime to form the bones and teeth, as well as existing in the
urine and other lluids ;uid solids, in union with the above-
named alkaline bases, forming phosphates of soda, potash, lime,
and of magnesia.
This acid, also, has been found in all plants, the ashes of
which have been examined by chemists, always, however, in
combination with potash, soda, magnesia, or lime. Most seeds
contain certain quantities of the phosphates formed by the
union of phosphoric acid with some one or more of the alkalies
just named. In the seeds of different kinds of grain, there is
abundance of phosphate of magnesia.
Phosphoric acid, in one or other of its combinations, plays
indeed an important part in agriculture, and is an indispensa-
ble constituent of all good land. The soil in which plants
grow furnishes them with phosphoric acid, and they in turn
yield it to animals, to be used in the formation of their bones,
and of those constituents of the brain which contain phosphorus
ANIMAL MAITJUES. 306
Much more phosphorus is thus afforded to the body than it re-
quires, when flesh, bread, fruit, and husks of grain are used for
food, and this excess in them is eliminated in the urine and the
solid excrements. We may form an idea of the quantity of
phosphate of magnesia contained in grain, when we consider
that the concretions in the coecum of horses consist of phos-
phate of magnesia and ammonia, which must have been ob-
tained from the hay and oats consumed as food. Twenty-nine
of these stones were taken after death from the rectum of a
horse belonging to a miller in Eberstadt, Germany, the total
weight of which amounted to 3 Ibs. ; and Dr. Simon describes
a similar concretion found in the horse of a carrier, which
weighed 1-J- Ibs.
It is evident, therefore, that the seeds of all the cereal grains
could not be formed without the phosphates of lime and mag-
nesia, which is one of their invariable constituents ; the plants
could not under such circumstances reach maturity.
POUDRETTE AND DEODORISED MANURES.
NIGHT soil, when dried and mixed with powdered charcoal,
vlih gypsum, with lime, with pulverised peat, or vegetable
mould, or simply avaporated to dryness in the air, is known un-
der the general name of " poudrette." As the mode or process
by which it is made is usually reserved by the patentee or
manufacturer, with the view of preventing the farmer and
others from preparing it for their own use, it has been thought
advisable to detail the following methods of manufacturing this
fertiliser, which have been derived from authentic and reliable
cources : —
Flemish Method of Manufacture. — The simple method of dry-
ing night soil, or fecal matter, has long been carried on in
Flanders, near the cities and larger class of towns, time out of
mind. At a sufficient distance from town, to avoid sending too
strong an odor into the dwellings, a series of basins are con-
structed either in masonry or potter's clay, cf considerable
806 ANIMAL MANURES.
breadth, with but little depth. Their total capacity is sufficient
to contain the emptyings of six months, at least. They consist
in number of four, five, or more, and are so arranged, one
above the other, as to be emptied one into another with the least
possible manual labor. The highest basin of the series receives
all the emptyings each night, and when it is filled nearly to
the brim, a gate is opened, which permits the liquid floating at
the surface to tlow into the second basin. Several decantations
take place successively, in tho same manner, and the liquid
drawn off deposits in the second basin the very fine solid mat-
ter which it held in suspension. When this basin is filled, the
supernatant fluid is decanted in the same manner as above, by
means of a gate into the third basin, where a new deposit takes
place, and another decantation is effected in the same manner.
Finally, at the issue of the fourth, fifth, or sixth basin, the su-
pernatant fluid flows off, as the new matter arrives, and loses
itself either in a current of water, in a cistern, or, as is more
recently practised, in Artesian wells.
As soon as the deposit is sufficiently abundant in the upper
basin, it is left to drain as much as possible by opening the
gate; and during this time, the nightly emptyings are poured
into another scries of basins, arranged by the side of those just
described. The drained matter, for a long time, maintains a
pasty consistence, in which state, it is drawn out by means of
drays, scoops, and iron ladles. It ts then spread upon a hard-
beaten surface of ground, formed like a convex causeway or
turnpike road, so that the rains cannot accumulate among it,
but speedily run oft'. From time to time, this matter is turned
over by means of shovels, in order to change the surface, and
bring the lowermost portions in contact with the air, and there-
by hasten the process of drying. This operation is continued
in each of the basins till all the fecal matter has lost sufficient
water by spontaneous evaporation to be easily reduced to
poudrette (a powder). In this state, it is preserved as much as
possible under sheds, to protect it from the rains ; or at least,
it is raised in'o heaps of ci pyramidal form, well beaten, so thai
ANIMAL MANURES. 307
the water or moisture of the atmosphere can peretrate but a
little way, but rapidly run off.
The operation above described is very simple, but is attended
with serious inconveniences and a considerable loss. The des-
sication, although irregularly effected, usually lasts from four
to six years, according as the atmospheric circumstances are
more or less favorable. During the same length of time, also,
the contact of the air and moisture keep up a constant fermen-
tation, which generate the most foul emanations through a dis-
tance of one or two miles. Besides this disgusting stench,
which fills the neighborhood, there is the disadvantage of a
total loss to agriculture of a large share of the ammonia and
other gases that should concur in the nutrition of plants.
Method of Madame Vivert Duboul. — Under the name of "alka-
lino-vegitative powder," another preparation of night soil was
ushered into notice in France, and generally adopted, under the
auspices of an agricultural lady, Madame Vivert Duboul, to
whom, in consequence, the Royal Society of Agriculture, in
1814, awarded their gold medal. This lady obtained a patent
of 15 years for her process, which consisted in promoting fer-
mentation in the most liquid portion of the excrementitious
substances, and treating them with slaked lime afterwards, so
as to form a powder, which has been found to be very superior
to poudrette upon cold, light, or moist soils. Its action is very
powerful, and it extends its influence over the soil for several
years without requiring, during that period, a repetition of the
manuring process.
Judging from the effect which lime has, when mixed with all
ammoniacal manures, there is much reason to believe that the
last-named process is not the most economical mode of using
night soil. The lime certainly dissolves, and partially decom-
poses it; but the fertilising effect of a given weight of this
substance, mixed with lime is clearly not so great as when a
similar quantity is used either by itself, or mixed with some
absorbing or deodorising matter, as gypsum, charcoal dust, or
pulverised peat.
308 ANIMAL MANURES.
A correspondent, however, in the London Agricultural Ga.
zette of May 17th, 1851, states that, "In a field of our own, con-
taining a good deal of iron and clay, my father sowed Swedish
turnips, after manuring with night soil and lime, both put on in
the same day; it was one of the best crops we ever grew, and
though very large, they were all planted for seed, and to prove
that the plan had not exhausted the manure, the crop of seed
was the heaviest I ever remember to have seen. Not to men-
tion other instances, the only good crop in our neighborhood,
last year, was on strong land, managed on the same plan. Now,
every one knows that to mix fresh lime in a manure heap, or
with a heap of guano, would be to injure it; but if, as Professor
Way has proved, clay and iron have such an affinity for am-
monia, where is the danger of placing fresh lime and manure
in contact with them, as they would be in strong soils ; may it
not be a good plan to render manure more immediately avail-
able for the crops? Does not strong land require the manure
to be so prepared, and is this not the reason? We have found
bone earth of little or no use here, and yet dissolved bones have
had the best effect on the same land. I think I have seen some-
where stated, that a farmer found bones, dissolved in acid, of
little use, unless the land had been previously limed. I believe
the kind of land was not stated ; if strong, was it not from the
raw, unprepared state of the manure, and was not lirne requir-
ed to convey away the acid, and leave the phosphate in a state
proper for the crop?"
Manufacture of Urate. — In 1818, a company was formed near
Paris, (Messrs. Donat & Co..) for the manufacture of another
kind of manure from night soil, called " urate," from the prin-
cipal ingredient of which it was composed — urine, mixed with
powdered gypsum, and sometimes chalk or dry marl. This
mixture is reported by a joint committee, including Vauquelin,
Dubois. and others, appointed to investigate it by the Royal
Agricultural Society of France, as being so powerful in its ef-
fects upon the dullest soil, that they recommended it only to be
employed by skilful and discriminating hands.
ANIMAL MANURES. 809
The method that has usuall) been adopted in manufacturing
urate, is, to collect the urine in cities and the larger class of
towns, and adding to it 'th of its weight of powdered gypsum,
allowing the whole to stand for some days, pouring off' the
liquid, and drying the powder. Notwithstanding this manure
has been highly extolled, it can contain only a small portion of
what is really valuable in urine, say not more than 3 or 4 per
cent, of dry fertilising matter, the remaining 96 or 97 per cent,
being only water. Again, the liquid portion poured olf /nust
contain most of the soluble ammoniacal and other salts, and
even where the whole is evaporated to dryness, the gypsum
does not act so rapidly in fixing the ammonia as to prevent a
considerable escape of this compound as the fermentation of
the urine proceeds.
Method of Payen. — Messrs. Payen and his associates, of Paris,
are the patentees of a method of manufacturing a manure
called " engrais animalize," or deodorised night soil, which
combines, and successfully too, the great object of driving off
the water of urine and the fecal matter by a gentle heat aftei
all their gaseous portions have been absorbed, by mixing with
a considerable quantity of recently-prepared charcoal, reduced
to the finest possible powder, than which, no known substance
has so great powers of absorption of all gaseous matters, like
those that abound in night soil, and impart such disagreeable
odors to the air wherever exposed.
The presence of the carbon in the manure thus prepared, is
valuable in two ways — gradually it combines with the oxygen
of the atmosphere, forming in the state of carbonic-acid gas
the food of plants — and, at the same time, all the gaseous mat-
ters of putrefaction with which it is saturated, are thus pre-
served, stored up, as it were, for the fut ire nourishment of the
crops. Nothing is lost, the emission of the gases from the
slow-decomposing charcoal being so gradual as to be almost,
if not entirely, imperceptible to the senses.
This manure, in appearance, somewhat resembles that of the
friable, rich, vegetable mould of an old hot bed, having a verv
£10 ANIMAL MANURES.
dark color, and is totally devoid of smell. It \vas somewhat
extensively introduced into England, a few years since, and
from some comparative experiments with bones, turf ashes, and
ordinary stable manure, made on a crop of turnips by Mr.
Beach, of Oakley Hull, near Basingstoke, satisfactory results
were obtained.
American Poudrette. — The largest establishment for the man-
ufacture of poudretto in the United States, is situated on the
banks of the Hackensack River, near the New-Jersey Railroad,
about 3 miles from the city of New York. It is denominated
"The Lodi Manufacturing Company," which was incorporated
in 1840 by the legislature of New Jersey, for 30 years, with a
capital of $75,000, with the privilege of increasing the same to
$200,000. It has been in active operation, at the proper seasons
of the year ever since. Its chief object is to remove into boats,
from the city of New York, the contents of sinks and privies,
dead animals, and other offensive matters, collected by the
scavengers, from which, by a chemical process, they remove
all the disagreeable smell emanating from them, and convert-
ing them into a light, dry, inodorous poudrette.
The establishment embraces 20 acres of land, with a wharf,
containing a drying house, in which is a vat 168 feet long, and
21 feet wide, with two large wings. There are also 14 drying
floors, with moveable roofs, about 100 feet long, and 12 feet
wide. It also has a machine house, with horse power, an of-
fice, five dwelling houses for the workmen, and tools, tubs, and
everything requisite to carry on an extensive manufacture in
this line of business.
The method by which this company manufacture their pou-
drette is stated to differ very essentially from the old Chinese
and European plan of destroying the offensive smell of the
night soil by means of ashes or caustic lime, which deteriorate
its strength. They profess to make use of vegetable substan-
ces and chemical compounds, (manures in themselves,) which,
instead of expelling, retain, or "fix," the ammonia, or fertilising
principle, of the night soil, while, pv the same time, they de*
ANIMAL MANURES. 311
compose or neutralise the effluvia, and present a dry powder,
perfectly free from smell of any kind.
The quantity of this manure requisite to fertilise an acre of
each of our common grain crops on land of medium quality,
is as follows, to be scattered broadcast, and harrowed in with
the seed : —
Buckwheat, 16 bushels.
Oats, 20 "
Rye, 28 «
Barley, 32 «
Wheat, 40 "
For Indian corn, on good sward land, or that in a fair con-
dition, 8 bushels are sufficient to manure an acre in the hill.
A handful may be sprinkled in the place where the seed has
been, or is about to be dropped, and then covered with the
hoe. On a very poor soil, however, if one application is not
enough to carry the corn through its growth, a second handful
may be spread around the plants at the last dressing, and cov-
ered with a hoe.
For potatoes, two handfuls to a hill is the quantity requisite,
unless the land has been previously manured, when only one
handful will cause the haulms, or vines, to grow vigorously,
and produce large tubers.
For cabbages, one handful to each plant is regarded as suf-
ficient, which, it is stated, will produce a better head than any
other manure.
For turnips, if the lana be poor, the poudrette must be used
liberally to secure success in producing a large bulb ; other-
wise, the leaf will be large, and the bottom small. If used in
small quantities, it is best to apply it with the seed in drills.
For melons, cucumbers, pumpkins, squashes, beans, &c.,
hills may be made the usual way, and then mix the proudrette
freely and thoroughly with the earth in the bottom of the hills
before planting.
For peas, beets, carrots, onions, and other garden vegetables
vultivated in drills, the poudrette may be sown with the seed
312 ANIMAL MANURES.
For grape vines, fruit trees, and flowering shrubs, of medium
size, half a peck of poudretto has been employed with suc-
cess in scattering it around each tree or vine, and well incor-
porating it with the soil about the roots, by means of a spado
or fork.
The use of poudrette in agriculture, in general, does not pre-
sent, in other respects, any difficulty. It powerfully stimulates
the early progress of vegetation, and greatly develops the green
parts ; but like all very active manures, it becomes too speedily
exhausted, and has often been accused of failing at the moment
of the flowering and filling out of the seed of most of our
grains. Therefore, it would be advisable for the prudent far-
mer not to rely wholly upon its virtues for fertilising his
crops, but use it in connection with guano, bone dust, or farm-
yard dung.
RESIDUUM OF PRUSSIAN BLUE.
THIS substance, which consists of the exhausted, greyish
powder, left in the crucibles in the manufacture of Prussian
blue, contains not a trace of organic matter, and cannot, there-
fore be usefully employed as a manure, otherwise than as an
amendment cabable of lightening the soil, and stimulating the
vegetative forces by means of the small proportion of carbon
and the salts of lime or potash it may retain. In this respect,
the use of this residuum may be usefully employed as a fer-
tiliser as well as an amendment of soils that are heavy and
stiff, provided the transportation is not expensive, and the
price merely nominal.
SHELLS OF OYSTERS AND OLAMS— SHELL SAND.
IN many parts of the Atlantic States, particularly in the vi-
cinity of the maritime cities and larger class of towns, or those
situated near the banks of rivers, or on canals and railroads,
leading inland from the coast, wherever they can be obtained
ANIMAL MANURES. 313
without much cost, the farmer will find a valuable manure in
procuring the shells of oysters, clams, and other shell fish, and
reducing them to a powder by burning them in kilns, or grind-
ing them in mills.
In regard to their chemical composition, shells differ from
bones in the predominance of carbonate of lime over the or-
ganised matter, which scacely amounts to i of 1 per cent, and
the phosphate of lime, which does not exceed 2 per cent. Ac-
cording to Brand, oyster shells consist of
Per cent.
Organic matter resembling glue, 0.5
Carbonate of lime, (chalk,) 98.3
Phosphate and sulphate of lime, 1.2
100.0
When ground to a powder, therefore, they form a manure re-
sembling chalk, and have been used with good effects on
\yheat, clover, turnips, and leguminous crops. When used in
a powdered state, without having been burned, if possible, they
should always be harrowed or drilled in with the seed ; for, by
thus coming into close contact with the roots of the plants, all
the volatile and earthy constituents of the decomposing shell are
absorbed more readily by the rootlets and leaves. In this way,
(hey have been found to answer an excellent purpose on light
Bandy soils. They can be crushed with the common bark mill,
or they may be ground in the same mill employed for grind-
ing bones.
But the most usual mode of preparing oyster shells for ma-
nure, is, to burn them in open kilns, similar to those employed
in making common lime. By this means, all the animal and
volatile matters are driven off', and the best description of agri-
cultural lime is formed. When thus burned, it is much milder
than stone lime, even in its- caustic state ; but, on exposure to
the air, it slacks in 10 or 15 days, and may then be used to a lim-
ited extent in composts containing night soil, animal matter, or
farmyard dung. It is beneficial to all kinds of soils deficient
14
314 AMMAL MANURES.
in lime, and is applicable to most of our cultivated crops. As
it does not deprive land so rapidly of its humus as stone lime,
it may be applied to soils exhausted by them ; or it may be re-
peated. Its effects, however, are m< so quick, but more lasting.
Lands which are wet stiff and deficient in calcareous mat-
ter may receive from 100 to 600 bushels of oyster-shell lime to
an acre: but lisjht, sandy or gravelly soils should receive much
less. For hoed crops or grain, it should be incorporated with
the soil near the surface by harrowing or otherwise ; but for
grass lands or meadows, it may be sown broadcast as a top-
dressing. It is of great service to fruit trees, particularly to
grape vines, or the apple and pear, and may be added in doses
of 4 to 8 quarts to the roots of each tree, either in connection
with or without charcoal dust, wood ashes, swamp or pond
muck, bone dust, urine, or soap suds.
In numerous localities in the United States, beds or banks of
marine shells occur in great abundance in a recent, as well as
in a fossil state, which may be collected, reduced to a powder,
and applied to the land at the rate of 100 to 120 bushels to an
acre, with excellent results. Along the seaboard, where the
Indians annually held their clam and oyster feasts from time
immemorial, there still remain immense accumulations of shells,
either entire, or in a partially-decomposed state, which would
richly repay the farmers in their vicinity for collecting and
applying to their crops as a manure.
The drift, also, which lines the shores of many parts of our
coast, is found in many instances to be composed entirely, or
in large proportion, of the fragments of broken comminuted
coral and shells. These form a calcareous sand, mixed occa-
sionally with portions of animal matter, and, when freshly
gathered, with more or less alkaline salts derived from the sea.
On the coast of France, and especially in Brittany, shell sand
is obtained in large quantity, and is in great demand. It is ap-
plied to the clayey soils and marshy grass lands with much ad-
vantage, an 1 is carried far inland for this purpose. It is there
called trez. and is laid on the fields at the rate of 10 to 15 tons
AHIMAL MANURES 315
to an acre. On the .southern coast of France, where shell sand
is met with, it is known by the name of langue. The shell sand
of Cornwall, on the coast of England, contains from 40 to 70
per cent, of carbonate of lime, with an equally variable mix-
ture of small quantities of animal matter and sea salt. The re-
maining portion is chiefly silicious sand. A specimen of tangue
from the south of France, analysed by Vitalis, and one of shell
sand from Isla, on the coast of England, analysed by Profes-
sor Johnston, were composed of the following ingredients : —
Tangut. Shell sand,
Sand, chiefly silicious, 20.3 > ,., _
Alumina and oxide of iron, 4.6 j •'
Carbonate of lime, 6C.O 34.0
Phosphate of lime, ? 0 3
Water and loss, 9.1 —
100.0 100.0
The chief value of these sands consists of the carbonate of
lime they contain. They act with more energy, when applied
as a manure, when mixed with night soil or farmyard dung.
SKINS OF ANIMALS, SCUTCH, OH GLUEMAKER'S REFUSE.
IN the yards of the gluemaker and fellmonger, a substance
accumulates to which is given the name of " scutch." It con-
sists of a general mixture of hair, small fragments of hides,
and other animal matters, with lime, occurring chiefly as car-
bonate, but partly in a caustic state. It kas a smell, which is
more or less offensive, according to the time it has lain decom-
posing, and bears a price in proportion to its age. It is com-
monly used as a manure in the state of a compost with peaty
or earthy substances ; but sometimes it is employed to increase
the powers of stable or farmyard dung. When plowed in with
seed wheat, it his been found highly serviceable to deep loamy
land, and to strcng soils which are not too wet From 30 to 40
bushels are sufficient to mature an acre of wheat on land of *
med:um quality.
316 ANIMAL MANURES.
In two samples of scutch analysed by Mr. Ogston, as pub.
lished in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng-
land, the ingredients were as follows: —
JVu. 1. JVj. °
Water, 26.48 24.30
Animal matter and salts of ammonia, 12.42 32.43
Sand, &.C., 18.00 6.10
Carbonate of lime, 33.19 29.98
Sulphate of lime, 7.25 3.79
Phosphate of lime, 0.50 1.84
Magnesia, trace 0.56
Per-oxide of iron and aluminum, . . .. 1.87 0.77
99.71 99.76
When examined for nitrogen, No. 1 gave/^ths of 1 percent.,
equivalent to lT^ths of ammonia, and No. 2 gave !T5ff7ffths per
cent, of nitrogen, equal to lTVns of ammonia. It will be seen
that the o-nly ingredients in this case, to which any monied
value can fairly be attached, are the ammonia and the phos-
phate of lime. Estimating No. 2 after the mode of determining
the value of guano, we find the following to be the result: —
1.9 per cent, of ammonia is equal to 38 Ibs. in a ton of ( ~, ~,
2,000 Ib.o., at 12J cents, { **
1.84 per cent, of phosphate of limo is equal to 36.8 Ibs. > 0 ,»
in a ton, at !£ cents, \
Value of a ton of scutch, $5.30
The skins of nearly all animals find their way ultimately into
the soil as manure, in a more or less changed state. The re-
fuse parings from the tan yards, and from the curriers' shops,
though usually employed for the manufacture of glue, are
sometimes used as a manure, and with great advantage. They
may either be plowed in sufficiently deep to prevent the escape
of volatile matter when they begin to decay, or they may be
made into a compost, by which their entire virtues will be more
effectually retained.
Skin differs considerably in its constitution from flesh and
blood. It contains, in the recent state, about 58 per cent, of
ANIMAL MANURES. 317
water, and leaves, when burned, only 1 per cent, of ash. The
combustible or organic part consists of
Carbon, 50.90
HytL ogen, -. 7.07
Nitrogen, 18.72
Oxygen, 23.22
100.00
It contains, therefore, 3| per cent, more nitrogen than flesh
or blood. So far as the fertilising action of these substances
depends upon the proportion of this constituent — glue, the par-
ings of skins, and all gelatinous substances, will consequently
exhibit a greater efficacy than flesh or blood. — Johnston.
URINE.
URINE, the fluid excrement of mammalia, is produced by the
action of the kidneys on the blood, and is a kind of caput mortu-
um which these glands throw into the bladder. In birds and
reptiles, it is solid, and is voided in their dung. All urine con-
tains the essential elements of vegetables in a state of solution ;
but the various species of urine from different animals differ
in their constituents ; and the urine of the same animal alters
when any material change is made in its food, as well as when
there is an increased flow of milk. For instance, a cow in milk,
when fed on rich food, yields less urine than one which is dry ;
and the urine varies in quantity in proportion to the amount of
milk she gives.
Urine contains the greater portion of the nitrogenised mat-
ter of the excrement of animals, and is therefore the most im-
portant part of the manure with which it is mixed. Its efficacy
as a fertiliser depends upon the quantity of solid matter which
it holds in solution, upon the nature of said matter, ?.nd espe-
cially upon the rapid changes which the organic part of it is
known to undergo. The followiig table exhibits the average
proportion of watei and of the solid organic and inorganic
318
ANIMAL MANURES.
matters contained in tho urine of man and some other animal*,
in their healthy state: —
Water,
Urine of PIT cent.
Solid orstnn-i
ic niiittiT.
~1
Bolid inor-
;;inu- mutter.
Man, . . . Hi.!)
2.1)4
0.76
Sheep, Hi.O
2.80
1.20
I lorst- M.O
2.70
3.30
Cow, (not in milk,) U.O
I pji; , !-.'()
5.00
5 00
i.'.0()
1 81)
From tin: above table, it will b<: MVII that the urine of the
cow, estimated by the quantity of solid matter it contains, is
more valuable than th;it of any other of our domestic animals,
with the exception of the pig. But the quantity voided by the
cow must, be so much greater than by the pig, that in annual
value the urine of one cow must greatly exceed that of many
pigs.
The next step to be considered is, to examine more closely
the composition of urine, the changes, which, by decomposition,
it readily undergoes, and the effect of these changes upon its
value as a manure.
Human Urine. — The rxtu-t composition of the urine of a
healthy individual, analysed in its usual state, was found by
Berzelius to be as follows : —
Urea, 3.01
Uric acid 0.10
Indeterminate animal matter, lactic acid, and lactate ) , 17
of ammonia, $
Mucus of the bladder, 0.03
Sulphate of potash, 0.37
Sulphate of soJa, 0.32
Phosphate of soda, 0.29
Ohloride of sodium, 0.45
Phosphate of ammonia, 0.17
Chloro-hydrate of ammonia, 0.15
Phosphate of lime and of magnesia, 0.10
Silica, trace.
Water, . . .93.30
100.00
A.NliWAL MAAURES. 319
From what has been stated in other parts 01 the present
work, in regard to the action upon living plants, of the several
phosphates, sulphates, and other saline compounds named in the
preceding analysis, it will be obvious that the fertilising action
of urine would be considerable, did it contain no other solid
constituents. But it is to another substanca, urea, which exists
in it in a much larger proportion than any other solid ingredient
that its immediate and marked action in promoting vegetatior
is chiefly to be ascribed. Urea, which is a white, salt-like sub-
stance, consists of
Percent.
Carbon, 20.0
Hydrogen, 6.6
Nitrogen, 46.7
Oxygen, 26.7
100.0
It is therefore, far richer in nitrogen than flesh, blood, or any
of those highly fertilising substances, of which the main effi-
cacy is believed to depend upon the large proportion of nitro-
gen they contain.
But urea possesses this further remarkable property, that,
when urine begins to ferment, as it is known to do in a few
days after it is voided, it changes entirely into carbonate of
ammonia. Of the ammonia thus formed, a portion soon begins
to escape into the air, and hence the strong ammoniacal odor
of fermenting urine. This escape of ammonia continues for a
long period, the liquid becoming weaker and weaker, and con-
sequently less valuable as a manure every day that passes
Experience has shown ".at recent urine exercises, in general,
an unfavorable action upon growing plants, and that it acts
most beneficially after fermentation has freely begun, but the
longer time we suffer to elapse after it has reached the ripe
state, the greater quantity of valuable manure we permit to go
to waste.
Urine of the Cow. — The urine of a cow, not giving milk, has
320
ANIMAL MANURES.
been analysed by Sprengel, in several states, with the follow
ing results: —
f
Composition. Freshly
voided.
Fermented for four weeks
in the open air.
No. 1. No. 2.
Water, 92.62
95.44
1.00
0.04
0.7o
0.17
0.41)
0.68
0.55
0.39
0.03
0.87
truce.
0.03
trace.
0.01
93.48
0.60
0.03
0.62
1.53
1.68
0.66
0.56
0.33
0.15
0.27
trace.
0.04
0.01
Urea, 4.00
Mucus, 0.20
Hippuric mid lactic acids, (Mil
Potash, . 0 fiG
Soda, 0.55
Sulphuric arid, 0 40
Phosphoric acid 0.07
Chlorine, 0 27
Lime 0.06
Alumina, oxide of iron, and ) ,.,,
oxide of manganese, i
Silica, 004
100.00 99.8 2 99.90
The first variety of fermented urine. No. 1, had stood four
weeks in the open air in its natual state of dilution; and the
second, No. '2, had been mixed while recent with an equal bulk
of water, which is again deducted from it in the analysis, with
the view of ascertaining how far such an admixture would tend
to retain the volatile ammonia, produced by the natural decom-
position of the urea.
An inspection of the preceding analyses shows three facts of
importance to the agriculturist, : First, that the quantity of
urea in ilie urine of the cow is considerably greater than in
that of man ; second, that, as the urine ferments, the quantity
of urea diminishes, while that of ammonia increases, owing to
a gradual decomposition of the urea, and its conversion into
carbonate of ammonia; and thirdly, that, by dilution with an
equal bulk of water, the loss of this carbonate of ammonia,
which would otherwise naturally take place, is in a consider-
able degree prevented. The quantity of ammonia retained by llus
urine, after dilution, iva* in the same circumstances nearly three times
ANIMAL MANURES. 321
as great as when it was allowed to ferment in the state in which it
came from the cow.
But even bv this dilution, the whole of the ammonia is not
saved. One nundred parts of urea form by their decomposi-
tion 56^ parts of ammonia, and as 36 parts of the urea in the
urine No. 1, had disappeared, there ought to have been in its
stead 19 parts of ammonia in addition to that which the urine
contained in its recent state, or 21 parts in all; whereas, the
table shows it to have contained only 16 parts. Even when
diluted with its own bulk of water, therefore, the urine had lost
by fermentation in the open air upwards of ith of the ammonia
produced in it during that period. This shows the necessity
of causing liquid manures to ferment in covered cisterns, or of
adopting some other means by which the above serious loss of
the most valuable constituents may be prevented. For, when
left to ferment for 5 or 6 weeks, alone, and with the addition of
an equal bulk of water, the urine of the cow loses a consider-
able proportion of volatile matter; and in these several states,
will yield in a year as follows : —
Solid matter. Yielding of ammonia.
Recent urine, 900 Iba 2-26 Ibs.
Mixed with water, after 6 weeks, 850 " 200 "
Unmixed, after 6 weeks, 530 " 30 "
Those who scrupuously collect in tanks, and preserve the
liquid manure of their stables, cow houses, and fold yards, will
see, from the great loss which it undergoes by natural fermen-
tation, the propriety of occasionally washing out their cow
houses with water, and by thus diluting the liquid of their
tanks, of preserving the immediately-operating constituents of
their liquid manure from escaping into the air. Even when
thus diluted, it is desirable to convey it to the land without
much loss of time, since even in this state, there is a constant.
blow escape, by which its value is daily diminished. Gypsum,
sulphate of iron, and sulphuric acid, are, by some, added for the
purpose of 'Mixing" the ammonia, but in addition to diluting
it, an admixture of rich vegetable soil, and especially of peat,
14*
322
ANIMAL MANURES.
will be m jch more e, onomical, and, except in so far as the
gypsum and sulphuric acid themselves act as manures, nearly
as effectual.
Urine of the Horse, Sheep, and Pig. — These have not been ex-
amined so carefully as those of man and the cow. They con-
sist essentially of the same constituents ; and the samples which
have been analysed were found to contain three most impor-
tant of these in the following proportions : —
Jforse. Sfieep. Pig.
Water, 94.0 96.0 92.6
Urea, 0.7V 2.8 5.6
Saline substances, 5.3 1.2 1.8
100.0
100.0
100.0
Some of the saline substances present in the urine, as above
stated, contain nitrogen. This is especially the case in the
urine of the horse, so that the quantity of urea above given is
not to be considered as representing the true ammonia-produ-
cing power of the urine of this animal. The urine of the pig.
if the above analysis is to be relied upon as anything like an
average result, is capable of producing more ammonia from
the same quantity than that of any other domestic animal.
From observations made by Boussingault, with every pre-
caution to insure success, it appears that the average quantity
of urine annually voided by man, the cow, and the horse,
amounts to the following : —
Pounds
of urine.
Pounds of
solid matter.
Pounds
of urea.
Pounds of
ammonia.
Man,
1,001)
67
30
17
Hurst',
1 001)
61)
1
13,OIK)
900
400
230
_ J
It may appear surprising to some that the amount of urine
voided by a horse .should not exceed that of a man, particular-
ly, when the quantity of liquid taken into the stomach of earb
ANIMAZ MANURES. 323
considered, the horse often drinking 4 or 5 gallons of water in
the 24 hours, while man seldom drinks more than 3£ Ibs. The
explanation of the cause of this difference is to be sought for
in the extent of skin and lungs in the horse, capable of giving
of Large quanties of water as insensible perspiration, while the
sa.ne functions in man seldom amounts to -J^th part of the
liquid taken. On this subject, however, observers disagree in
opinion.
It appears, also from the experiments of Boussingault, that,
when a cow is giving milk, a less amount of urine is voided.
He found that a horse, which drank 35 Ibs. of water in 24
hours, only gave 3 Ibs. of urine ; and a cow, which drank
132 Ibs. of water in the same time, gave 18 Ibs. of urine and
19 Ibs. of milk. But, besides the amount of water drunk,
many other circumstances tend to modify this amount of nitro-
genous and saline substances, contained in the urine, such as
the quantity and quality of the food, the temperature of the
air, and the amount of exercise.
The use of urine, as a fertiliser, is of great antiquity. The
ancient writers on agriculture and rural affairs advise the fre-
quent use of it, and direct that it should be old, or long kept.
Thus, Columella says: "Human urine which you have let.
grow old for six months, is well fitted for the shoots of young
trees. If you apply it to vines, or to young apple trees, there
is nothing that contributes more to make them bear an abun-
dance of fruit ; nor does this only produce a greater increase,
but it also improves both the taste and the flavor of the wine,
and of the apples;" which is confirmed by Conradus Heres-
bachius, who says in his "Foore Bookes of Husbandrie," trans-
lated by Googe, in 1578, "Man's urine, being three moneths
kept and poured upon the rootes of apple trees and vines,
bringeth greate fruitfulnesse to the trees, and yeeldethe a pleas-
ante fruite." In Holland, urine has been employed for cen-
turies, where they have found it to be one of the richest ma-
nures in the world. When used, however, in its recent and
unadulterated state, was regarded by Jethro Tull as very
324 ANIMAL MANURES.
pernicious to seed wheat. He says : " If seed be soaked in
urine, it will not grow ; or, if only sprinkled with it, it will
most of it die, unless planted presently." But urine, in its natu-
ral condition, is not so fatal to vegetation as is commonly sup-
posed. If repeatedly thrown upon plants, doubtless it would
kill them , but experience shows, that, after it has turned them
yellow or brown, if no more be applied to them, they will not
only recover, but grow much more luxuriantly than before.
The late Arthur Young, as long since as 1787, proved the ad-
vantages of urine when used as a top-dressing to potatoes.
And Mr. Hannam, the same year, found that, by the use of 32
gallons of putrid urine, mixed with about 200 Ibs. of gypsum,
and 12 bushels of bones, his turnip crop was increased more
than 2£d tons.
In its application, urine, if not mixed with solid compost, as
gypsum, charcoal dust, dried peat, swamp or pond muck, char-
red tan bark, saw dust, apple pomace, flax waste, chaff, linen
and woollen rags, soot, coal ashes, shell or coral sand, or some
other absorbent, it should be diluted with water, and applied in
the form of a liquid manure ; for if not thus diluted, it contains
too much animal matter to afford a proper fluid nutriment for
absorption by the roots of plants.
WOOLLEN RAGS.
THE use of woollen rags, as a manure, was in vogue on the
Chilton lands, in England, certainly as long ago as the year
1669. For John Worlige, who was celebrated as an agricultu-
ral author, at that time, makes mention of them in the follow-
ing words: — "In rags of all sorts, there is good vertue; they
are carried far, and laid upon land, and have in them a warm-
ing and improving temper ; one good load will go as far as a
dozen or more of cow dung."
William Ellis, in his "Modern Husbandman," published in
1742, says : " These rags are a most excellent dressing for all
chalks, chalky, sandy and gravelly loams, and such-like dry
ANIMAL MANURES. 325
earths ; and the more so, as they come from places where they
use much oil, or grease, in the woollen business ; for nothing
gives a greater fertility to the earth than those things that
abound with a nitrous o unctuous quality. For this reason
it is that some of the better sort of farmers, in our parts, fetch
their woollen rags from about Newport-Pagnel, in Northamp-
tonshire, which lies about twelve miles from their own home,
and think it good husbandry to go so far with a waggon and
five or six horses." Again, he remarks, that several of the best
husbandmen dress the dry, lean, loose and hungry soil about
Ivinghoe Common Field, and in many other places, twice in
the fallow season; "once by folding over all the land, and at
sowing time, with rags. Others dress with the fold in the sum-
mer, and with London soot in the spring time ; but nothing
comes up to the woollen rags in this soil ; because the rag be-
ing of a greasy, tough and spongy nature, it lodges and holds
water a long time, keeps the roots of the corn, (wheat,) moist
in dry land, warms them in cold weather, and causes them to
"vithstand the wash of rains, that easily carry down some of the
lighter dressings into the "hurlock," or rag. stone, to the great
loss of much of their vertue." " But I must further write,
that the most general way of using woollen rags is thus :
When your chalk, chalky loam, sandy loam, or other dry soil,
fit for the purpose, is harrowed plain, ready for sowing and
plowing in wheat seed, then apply eight sacks of chopped rags
on one broad acre, each sack containing fifty-six pounds' weight,
and each sackful to lie in one heap, at some distance from
another. When this is done, let a man fill a seed cot with
them, and sow the rags broadcast with his hand over the
ground, and so on till the surface of the acre is covered ; then
let a man directly sow his wheat seed all over the same land,
and plow both rags and wheat seed in together. * * * Thus
one acre of land is finished; and in so doing, you will experi-
ence that no manure suits those soils better than woollen rags ;
for these will, in some degree, become so many watering pots
to sue). Iry earths in the summer time ; and, in the winter, so
526 ANIMAL MANURES.
warm the roots of the wheat, as to keep off the power of frosts
and chills of vviters."
Woollen rags are also well known to the farmers of the pres-
ent day as a powerful manure. Owing to their slow decompo-
sition, the}' are not so well fitted for root culture ; turnips and
other plants of this kind, requiring more active arid readily-
soluble manure to produce a rapid growth. In a sample of
rags, analysed by Professor Way, taken in the ordinary condi-
tion of dryness, consisting of the seams and other useless parts
of old cloth garments, which, from the appearance of these
remnants, had been cut up to be manufactured into cloth, in-
cluding portions of the calico linings, together with the cotton
or linen thread used in sewing them, the per-centage of nitro-
gen amounted to lO/^-ths, which is equivalent to 12Tyaths per
cent, of ammonia.
From recent experiments in England, woollen rags are applied
with the best effects to wheat and hops. They are usually
chopped up fine, and applied at the rate of half a ton to an
acre, and arc greatly improved by thoroughly saturating them
with urine before they are used. They will last 4 of 5 years,
and during their decay, they become converted into carbonate
of ammonia, in the same manner as horn, hair, and wool.
LIQUID MANURES.
''M^'HE construction of the best and most convenient form of a
tank, and a suitable apparatus for the collection and applica-
tion of liquid manure, in the most cleanly and economical
manner, is a subject of great utility, and one which has more
or less occupied the attention of the most eminent agricultur-
ists in various ages, and in all civilised countries of the globe.
The chief faults in the arrangements heretofore made for
the purpose of collecting liquid manure appear to have been
that, the tanks, in some instances, received the urine alone
while the drainings of the barn yard and manure heaps were
allowed to escape; or that they formed a receptacle for the
rain water from the adjoining buildings, as well as the urine,
by which the liquid manure was much diluted, and consequent-
ly an increased expense in applying it ; while, in other instan-
ces, the compost heap was at too great a distance from the tank,
and hence, inconvenience was experienced in impregnating the
compost when necessary. A mode by which these disadvan-
tages would be obviated, and what appears to be an efficient
system of collecting the drainage from the stables, farm yard,
manure heaps, &c., is as follows : —
First, let a site be fixed upon for the manure tank, on the
northerly side, if convenient, and behind the buildings of th^
328
LIQUID MANURES.
yard; the tank being made of bricks, laid in cement or hy-
draulic mortar, and covered over, as indicated in the following
out. A scuttle, or "man hole," should be constructed in the
•
I'V;. f>.
top, to allow a person to niter to clear out the sediment which
is liable to collect. The size should be regulated by the stock-
usually kept in the stables or sheds. Into this tank, all the
urine from the stables, stalls, &c., should be collected, by means
of drains communicating with each, as well as with the barn
yard, which should be made a little concave in its bed, so that
no portion of the liquid manure may be allowed to escape.
A channel should be made around the compost heap, which
should be close by, so that the drainage from it may be col-
lected in the tank. All the farm buildings should have gutters,
or spouts, which should be so arranged that the water running
from them may be conveyed away by a drain, or collected in
cisterns for the purpose of irrigation, diluting the urine, or for
domestic use. Lastly, let there be a pump fixed in the tank,
by which its contents can at any time be transferred to a
liquid-manure cart, or dischargee1 on the compost heap, by the
use of a hose.
By an arrangement like the foregoing, all the urine from the
stables or stalls, and most of the wash from the dung heaps
and the yards would be effectually collected, which might either
be allowed to ferment spontaneously, the ammonia generated
LIQUID MANURts. 329
oeing converted into a sulphate, from time to time, by the ad-
dition of sulphuric acid, gypsum, or copperas, (sulphate of
iron,) or it may be diluted with water, by which means, much
of the ammonia would be retained in solution as a carbonate —
the former being the most effectual mode of securing the am-
monia in the liquid. If nothing is used to fix the ammonia, it
would be advisable to have the tank divided in the middle, al-
lowing the urine or drainings to accumulate, diluted with 3
times its bulk of water, until one division is full; this should
be allowed to ferment for 6 weeks, when it will be fit to apply
to the land as a top-dressing ; the water used to dilute it re-
taining in solution most of the ammonia generated by the de-
composition of the urea. If this arrangement be adopted, it
will be necessary that the drains should be made to commu-
nicate with either division of the tank at pleasure ; this may
be effected by making the main drain divide into two branches
near the partition in the tank, with a sluce placed in each
branch of the drain leading to the separate divisions, so that
the liquid may be discharged into either division; the pump,
also, should have a moveable pipe, or should be moveable it-
self, so that either division of the tank may be pumped out at
will.
In applying this manure, where the soil is light and not de-
ficient in organic matter, loam, or mould, it would be advisable
to administer it in a liquid form; but where the land is stiff
and clayey, its application in the form of a compost will be
found most serviceable, as it then renders the soil lighter, more
porous, and of easy cultivation. To the farmer possessing light
soils, liquid manure from the tank, with the ammonia properly
converted into a sulphate by the use of gypsum or sulphuric
acid, will be found of great value. It may be applied to the
land with a liquid-manure cart or a hand tub, denoted by the
succeeding cuts, just before the last plowing for the seed, or as
a top-dressing for the young crops ; particularly, when they are
looking yellow and s-ickly ; but let this important fact in re.
gard to the applicati n of liquid manures always be borne in
330
LIQUID
mind: That it is a waste to give it to plants before the formation
of tlieir secondary leaves, which is true in all cases. If applied
at other periods, it will have some effect, but not so much.
When applied directly to the plants, it is preferable to use it
in showery weather; for let it always be remembered, that,
during warm and dry weather, plants absorb fluids faster than
FIG. 7.
when it is cool and dull, and that they perspire most in a dry,
warm atmosphere. If the supply at the roots, therefore, is not
kept up, then they become deteriorated in quality, and the pro-
duce is considerably lessened. The practice of pouring ma-
nure water immediately around the stem of a plant should be
avoided, for two reasons ; first, the roots, which absorb most,
are in or approaching the centres of the spaces between the
drills or rows ; therefore, to be benefitted by it, the liquid should
be distributed there. Another very important matter, common
LIQUID MANU3KS.
331
in vegetable culture, should not be lost sight of; that is, by ap-
plying the liquid in a limited circle around the plants, individ-
ually, as the roots have less inducement to travel in search of
food; hence, they will be fewer in number. But if their food be
placed at a greater, yet a reasonable dist;sniv: from them, they
will seek it out by instinct, as it were, fresh roots will be emit-
ted, and they will have a much larger pasture to feed in.
When the liquid manure is to be used for watering the
plants, a portion of it is pumped out of the tank into casks,
fixed on watering carts, denoted by fig, 7 and fig. 8; and then
,32
LIQUID MANURES.
diluted with 5 or 6 times its bulk of water, and allowed to flow
gently over the surface of the hind between the plants, either
by letting it run, when clear, through a tube perforated with
hiles, or upon a plank, when thick or turbid.
V-
FIG. 11.
A portable liquid-manure cart has lately been constructed in
England, denoted by fig. 9. It is made of iron plates, securely
cemented and bolted together, and contains 200 gallons. It is
mounted on wheels, 4 feet 10 inches high, with a new pattern
half-round tire, 4£ inches wide. The tank body is fitted with
a brass outlet valve, acted upon with an iron-lever rod, with
which the driver opens and closes the valve whilst walking by
the side of the horse. The pendulum-spreading apparatus,
witli regulating slide front, is adapted to water uneven land 6
feet, broadcast. A partition, running lengthwise the inside of
the tank, prevents the surge and overflow of its contents when
upon rough land or bad roads. A simple contrivance, also,
consisting of a box trough, and four flexible India-rubber tubes,
is made to water four rows or ridges of turnips any required
width at a time; two lads, with a handle in each hand, guide
the delivering tubes in applying the liquid manure, guano
water, dissolved bones, bleacher's ley, soap suds, diluted night
soil, «fec.
Meadows just mown, or fields sown with grain, may also be
LIQUID MANURES. 333
thus watered, as the vegetative force, imparted by this liquid
manure, although of short duration, may have a great influ-
ence ; for, once covered with green young plants, the ground is
protected from drought : and, moreover, the plants themselves,
hy this means, rapidly acquire the necessary strength to resist
various adverse influences, and to draw from the soil and at-
mosphere their quota of nourishment.
Another mode of spreading this manure, as has long been
practised in Flanders, is, to take it from the tank without dilu-
ting, convey it to the fields in casks, and pour it into a tub, fig. 11,
from which it is made to flow over the ground ; or it is distrib-
uted directly from the tank in a hand cart, denoted by fig. 10.
It is a question which has not been satisfactorily determined,
whether means may not yet be devised of completely, easily, and
cheaply separating the fertilising ingredients of urine and tank
stuffs from the water in which they are dissolved. It is well
known that alum, green vitrol, (sulphate of iron.) Epsom salts,
(sulphatt. of magnesia.) and the sulphate of zinc, when mixed
with fermenting urine or tank stuff, cause a precipitate to fall
to the bottom, more or less dense, which will contain the phos-
phates and a portion of the other saline, and even of the or-
ganic constituents of the liquid. This precipitate, therefore,
when dried to a powder, may be used as a manure, either by
itself, or what is better, in admixture with other fermenting
manure; but all these substances leave most of the valuable
salts in the water behind them, and, therefore, besides their
cost, are open to the objection that they do not perform the
purpose for which they have been employed.
The method which would seem to be the most rational, and
is generally within the reach of the farmer, without' much ex-
pense in the outlay, is, to absorb the whole liquid manure by
partially-dried peat or swamp or pond muck, and thus add to its
bulk, the fertilising matter contained in it. A method which has
been extensively employed both in Ireland and Scotland, is, to
use the peat in a half-charred state, instead of using it raw.
fn local it'es where peat does not abound, charred saw dust, tan
334 LIQUID MANURES.
bark, apple pomace, or bagasse may be substituted with equal-
ly good effects. The waters of barn yards, common sewers, of
gas houses, bone boilers, glue makers, bleacheries, flannel man-
ufactories, &c.,&c.,may all be applied with the forenamed ap-
apparatus, or they may be absorbed by peat, &c., as recom-
mended in the preceding page.
BLEACHER'S WASTE.
IN the bleacheries of cotton, linen, and woollen goods, paper
mills, &c., it is usually the custom to throw away the residuum
of the stills or vats, as worthless articles ; but from various
experiments made in Great Britain and elsewhere, it has been
found that these substances, whether used in a liquid or dried
state, possess considerable agricultural value. A portion of
this lime refuse taken from the large waste heap of a bleachery,
analysed by Fromberg, after drying, consisted of
Per tent.
Organic matter and a little water, 18.57
Sulphate of soda and sulphurct of sodium, 14.23
Oxide of iron and alumina, 5.07
Carbonate of lime, 55.18
Silicious matter, 6.60
99.65
Considering the large proportion of alkaline matter, as well
as lime, it contained, it is evident that it might be used with ad-
vantage in preparing land for green crops, or as a top-dressing
for grass, and especially for clover. Mixed with a moderate
quantity of night soil, it serves 'as an excellent dressing for
turnips.
Besides the lime refuse of bleacheries, there are considerable
quantities of waste leys, containing alkalies, as well as chlo-
ride and sulphate of lime, which daily run off, that would be
valuable to the farmers in the vicinity, if collected in casks or
manure carts, and applied to young growing oats and other
crops as a liquid manure.
LIQUID MANURES. 335
BRINE REFUSE.
OLD brine, in which meat or fish has been salted, contains
more or less salt, blood, oil, scales, &c., and when saved and
composted with farmyard dung, pulverised peat, and dried
swamp or pond muck, forms an admirable manure for almost
every cultivated crop.
It may be obtained in considerable quantities at a small ex-
pense, at most of our meat markets, the packing establish-
ments of beef, pork, and fish, and generally at retail groceries,
in all of our cities and larger class of towns.
ORENIC AND APO-CRENIO ACIDS.
CRENIC acid is a comparatively new substance, found in all
soils, and in many mineral waters, and in the juices of plants.
It was first discovered in the Porla Spring, in Germany, by Ber-
zelius, and was named by him ''crenic acid," from the Greek
word signifying a fountain, or spring. It abounds more in sub-
soils than on the surface, owing to the solubility of some of its
combinations, particularly those with lime and the alkalies. It
possesses highly fertilising properties, when neutralised by
bases forming soluble salts.
Apo-crenic acid is also one of the new acids, first discovered
in the waters of Porla Spring, by Berzelius. Its name signifies
"from the crenic," as it is always found with that acid. It is
one of the constant ingredients of the organic matter, or mould,
of soils, and is an active fertilising agent, being highly charged
with nitrogen. It is found combined with per-oxide of iron,
forming bog-iron ore. Its combinations with bases are called
apo-crenates. Some of them are highly soluble ; as for instance,
apo-crenates of the alkalies, potash, soda, and ammonia; others
are difficultly soluble ; such as apo-crenates of lime, alumina,
manganese, and per-oxide of iron. Alkalies decompose all
the insoluble apo-crenates and form with the acid, fertilising
manures. — Jackson.
336 LIQUID MANURES.
GAS-HOUSE LIQUOR— GAS TAR.
THE ammoniacal liquor, (so called from the quantity of car-
bonate and acetate of ammonia it contains,) being absolved by
the water employed in purifying the gas from these salts, it is
too powerful to be applied as a manure in the liquid form with-
out being previously diluted with water. One hundred gallons,
it is stated, contain in solution 25 los. of carbonate, muriate,
and sulphuret of ammonia and other impurities. It may be
applied in this form, at the rate of 4 gallons of water to 1 gal-
lon of the gas liquor, by means of a watering cart, 250 gallons
of the latter being sufficient for an acre of grass and other
green crops.
Gas liquor may also be used in saturating composts of peat,
swamp or pond muck, saw dust, and other absorbent matter,
by means of which, it will hasten decomposition, and will add
greatly to the virtues of the compost, resembling very much
in its action the liquid manure of the farm yard.
Gas tar, or coal tar, from the amount of ammonia it contains,
like all other matter in which ammonia is present, must be rich
as a manure, whether dUuted with water and applied in a liquid
form, or is composted with peat or other absorbent matter.
As this substance is produced in rather limited quantities, and
employed very commonly as a paint for posts, fences, farm
buildings, &c., it has not been much used as a fertiliser on ac-
count of the expense attending its purchase; but wherever it
can be obtained at a small cost, it is an article well worthy of
the farmer's notice. It is composed entirely of ingredients
which enter into the composition of all plants, is gradually de-
composed in the soil, and is powerful in its effects ; hence, it
is preferable to apply it in a compost made of pulverised peat,
swamp or pond muck, loam, mould, or any of the absorbents
treated of in other parts of this work. It may be applied as a
top-dressing for most kinds of crops of grass, turnips, or grain;
or it may be employed in the hills or drills of most of our gar-
den vegetables, Indian corn and other hoed crops.
LIQUID MANURES. 337
IRRIGATION.
IRRIGATION, in a general sense, is applied to the watering of
the earth by inundation, by sprinkling its surface, or moisten
ing it by infiltration, by means of rills or streams to increase
its productiveness. The term, however, is usually confined to
the operation of causing water to flow over lands for nourish-
ing plants.
The artificial watering of the earth, chiefly to produce in-
creased crops of grass, has been in use from a very early pe-
riod. Frequent allusion is made to it in the Old Testament, and
on the veracity of historians, we are led to believe that it has
been practised by the Chinese and other oriental nations, as
well as by the Mexicans and Peruvians, from time immemorial.
In Italy, especially on the banks of the Po, the cultivators have
certainly employed this process for a period previous to the
days of Virgil, and it is still carried on with a zeal and care
worthy of the art they practise. Cato, the earliest of the Ro-
mon writers upon agriculture, (150 years before Christ,) en-
joined upon the ancient farmers "to make water meadows, if
you have water, and if you have no water, have dry meadows."
The directions of Columella, also, who wrote more than 1,800
years ago, seem to have all the freshness about them of a mod-
dern age. He was the first who noticed the inferior nutrition
afforded by the hay from water meadows. " Land," says he,
" that is naturally rich, and is in good heart, does not need to
have water let over it ; and it is better hay which nature, of its
own accord, produces in a juicy soil, than what water draws
from a soil that is overflowed. This, however, is a necessary
practice when the poverty of the soil requires it; and a mead-
ow may be formed either upon a stiff' or free soil though poor
at the time, water may be let over it ; neither a low field, with
hollows, nor a field broken with steep rising ground is proper;
the former, because it retains the water collected in the hol-
lows too long ; the latter, because it makes the water run too
quickly over it. A field, however, that has a moderate descent,
15
338 LIQUID MANURES.
may be made a meadow, wlie her it be rich, or so situated us
to be watered ; but the best situation is where the surface is
smooth, and the descent so gentle as to prevent either showers
or the rivers that overflow it, remaining too long; and, on the
other hand, to allow the wale." that comes over it quickly to
glide off; therefore, if in any part of the field intended for the
meadow, a pool of water should stand, it must be let off by
draining ; for the loss is equal either from too much water or
too little grass."
The question of extending the practice of irrigation has re.
cently received an additional impetus, in consequence of itg
having formed a prominent subject of examination at a late
meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society of England. Anoth.
er matter, and possibly of greater ultimate importance, has
also been introduced to the. notice of agriculturists, within a
short period, by Professor Way and II. S. Thompson, Esquire
iiamely, " the absorbent power of soil in fixing salts of ammo-
nia, potash," &c. The subject last mentioned appears to ac-
count, in a great measure, for a number of circumstances hith-
erto unexplained, and doubtful in reference to the sources from
whence the fertilising effects of irrigation are derived. These
experiments are interesting from their novelty, and also, in
some degree, for subverting many previous opinions which
have heretofore been considered as well established. The
practical utility of their application is beyond question.
Mr. Thompson's experiments were made in the summer of
1845, and were instituted in consequence of the then very gen-
eral endeavor ti'fit was made to prevent the escape of ammonia
from tanks, manure heaps, by means of sulphuric acid, gyp-
sum, sulphate of iron, &c., and also in consequence of observ-
ing its escape in ordinary farm practice, by casting manure
into large heaps some months before applying it to the land —
it being desirable to ascertain whether the manure might be
plowed into the soil any time during the winter without loss,
and immediately on its removal from ihe yard.
In the experiments made by Professor W;>v. it was invari-
LIQUID UANUKES. 339
ably found that the salts of ammonia became fixed in the soil
wherever clay was present, which gives scientific evidence of
the correctness of the practice <>f placing layers of clay in
manure heaps, and under cattle, fur the purpose of absorbing
und fixing the valuable con.stituentG of manure.
The whole art of irrigation may be deduced from the three
following simple rules : —
1. To free the land to be irrigated thoroughly of water, by
draining.
2. To give a sufficient supply of water during all the time
the plants are growing.
3. Never to allow the water to accumulate and remain suffi-
ciently long on the land to stagnate.
The general principles of irrigation, however, may be de-
scribed as the supplying of every portion of the surface of the
ground with an abundance of water, and taking it rapidly off
again. In many localities, the great difficulty in irrigation
arises from the want of a supply of water ; but even then, a
partial irrigation may be effected, which, although not perfect,
will have its advantages. A small rill, which is often quite dry
in summer, by judicious management, may still be made to im-
prove a considerable portion of land. Its waters may be col-
lected and allowed to accumulate in a pond or reservoir, and
let out occasionally, so that none be lost or run to waste. If
there is water only at particular seasons of the year, and at a
time when it would not be of much use to the land, it may be
thus kept in ponds, and will lose none of its qualities by expo-
sure to the air. If animal or vegetable matter, in a partial state
of decomposition, be added to this water, it will much improve
its quality, and by a propel distribution of it over the land, a
great benefit will follow.
The supply of wat^r must come from natural lakes and
streams, or from artificial wells and ponds, in which it is col-
lected in sufficient quantity to disperse itself over a given sur-
face. As it must flow over the land, or in channels through it,
the supply of water must be above the level of the land to be
340 LIQUID MANURES.
irrigated. This is one of the principal objects to be considered.
If no water can be conducted to a reservoir above the level of
the land, it cannot be self-irrigated; but there must also be a
ready declivity, or descent, for the water to"escape, and there-
fore, the land must not be so low as the natural level of the
final receptacle, whether it be a lake, river, or sea.
Along the banks of running steams, nature points out the de-
clivity. A channel that receives the water at a point higher
than that to which the stream flows, may be dug with a gentler
declivity than that of the bed of the stream, and made to con-
vey the water much higher along the sides of the valley, than
the natural banks. It may thence be distributed so as to de-
scend slowly, and water a considerable extent of ground on its
way to rejoin the stream below the fall. This is by far the
most common mode of irrigation, and the form, size, and direc-
tion of the channels are regulated by the nature of the surface
And other circumstances, which vary in almost every situation.
Let us suppose, for instance, that a river running with a rapid
current between two distant hills, as denoted in rig. 12. At the
point A, of its course, a dam is constructed, and a portion of
the water diverted into the feeders //, dug along the hill sides,
with a slight declivity. The water in these canals will flow
with less rapidity than that in the stream, but will maintain
nearly the same level as that part of the river directly abovo
the dam, at A. Thus the water may be carried over lands
which are situated considerably above the bed of the stream,
further down, and it is obvious that all the places between these
canals and the river, may be irrigated, if there be a sufficient
supply of water.
With a given quantity of water at command, it may be con-
ducted from these canals, or feeders, to smaller channels, lower
down the sides of the valley, so as to irrigate the whole equal-
ly. These lower channels, b c, b c d, should be nearly hori-
zontal, in order that the water may overflow their sides, and be
equally distributed over the land directly below them. Each
channel should have a corresponding drain below it, running
LIQUID MANURES.
341
nearly parallel, to carry off the water; otherwise it might stop
and stagnate. When the water has run 20 or more feet, ac-
GROUND PLAF — FIG. 12.
cording to the declivity over the land situated below the feed-
er, or the channel which brings the water from above the dam,
VERTICAL SECTION. — FIG. 13.
it should be collected in a drain to be carried off, unless it can
be used to irrigate lands that lie still lower down, and finally
342
LIQUID MANURES.
discharge itself into the river from whk h it was taken at a
lower point of its course.
GROUND PLAN. — FIG. 14.
Instances may occur, however, where there is not sufficient
fall, or declivity, in the river or stream in enable the water to
VERTICAL SECTION. — FIG. 15.
flow to any Considerable elevation along the sides of the val-
ley or hills. In such oases, if a f;;!l of a few feet is at com-
LIQUID MANURES. 343
mand, a portion of the stream can be elevated at a proper height
and distance to irrigate the intervening lands along the banks,
by means of a hydraulic ram.
Again, there are other instances where broad dales or glens
occur, through which descend brooks or rills, fed by living
springs on the more elevated ground, that may be made to ir-
rigate the parts of the declivity below. Or, if circumstances
warrant the expense, in situations where no such streams are
to be found, a well may be bored or sunk at or near the sum-
mit of the hill, the water raised by wind, steam, or animal pow-
er, and distributed by means of a series of horizontal chan-
nels, situated one below the other, in a manner that the second
may collect the water the first or uppermost has supplied, and
in turn becomes a feeder to the third, and so on to the fourth,
thus irrigating the lower parts of the declivity, until the last
discharges itself into a river or waste ditch, and is of no fur-
ther use.
In illustration of what is stated above, let R, fig. 14, denote
a reservoir or well, situated on elevated ground, at a convenient
point on the side of a dale or glen ; //, feeders, running hori-
zontally around the upper part of the declivity, as far as the
nature of the surface will allow ; a b c, horizontal channels,
situated one below the other, for catching the water, as it flows
over the whole length of their margins, or sides, across the ter-
races or inclined planes into the " waste ditch" w, at the lower-
most part of the glen ; R w, a " water way," having " stops,"
or gates, at the lower margin of each channel, for the expedi-
tious conveyance of the water to every part of the ground, and
also for the final discharge of what water might remain in the
channels to prevent it f ^m becoming stagnant.
With proper attention to levelling or grading the slopes, the
construction of the channels, water ways, aqueducts, gates,
hatches, waste drains, &c., the foregoing embrace the general
modes of irrigation, as practised by the most enlightened na-
tions of the present day.
Sometimes, situations occur at the foot of hills, or along the
344
LIQUID MANURES.
borders of streams, where the land is flat, or nearly level, and
the modes just described for distributing the water, cannot be
applied, for the \v;i;it <:{';>. snlncient declivity to allow the water
!o puss rapidly OV<T : he sui-fir.". In siieh cases, the whole field
GROUND PLAN. — Fit;, in.
should be laid out into broad beds, 60 or 80 feet wide, undula-
ting, as it were, like the waves of the sea. The central or
VERTICAL SECTION. — FIG. 17.
upper p-irt of these beds, or panes, should be made quite level
from end to end, through each of which a channel, or "float,"
a a, should be cut for conducting the water from the feeder f.
at the higher side of tr 3 meadow, as indicated by fig. 16.
LIQUID MANURES.
345
Prom the edge of these channels, the surface of the g,ound
should be made to slope, from 1 to 2 feet, both ways from
the centre, and ditches, or drains d d d, cut at the bottom, be-
tween the beds, parallel with the floats. These beds should
not be curved like the ridges of a plowed field, but form in-
clined planes from the centre to each side. The floats are sup-
plied by a main channel, or feeder /, at right angles to the
beds, elevated somewhat above them, and all the ditches, or
drains d d d, should be made to run into another main ditch,
or waste drain w, at the lower side of tho field, parallel to the
feeder /. By this arrangement, the course of the water will be
fi
IRRIGATION BY INUNDATION. — FIG. 18.
very regular. As soon as the " stops," or flood gates, arc opened,
it flows into floats, or upper channels, until they are full to the
brim, when they will overflow the whole of their length, and
the sloping sides of the beds covered with a thin sheet of run-
ning water, which the lower drains will collect, and carry off
in the waste drain w.
There are other cases, also, which occur along the borders
of streams, where the land is level, and too low to be irrigated
by any means, except by inundation. As a familiar instance
of this, let «, fig. 18. denote a dam thrown across a river or
brook, when1 there is a fall of four or more feet ; b b, &c., a
ditch running along the base of a hill, or the upland, ad join-
15*
346 LIQUID MAX-JRES.
ing a level, swampy piece of ground, kept constantly wet by
a number of springs, which this ditch will cut off, and give
the low, boggy ground a chance to dry; c c, &c., are lesser
ditches, running nearly at right angles with the main ditch,
b b, &c., to carry off the spring water, and aid, also, in drain-
ing the meadow, on either side. An embankment is thrown up
along the margin of the stream, to prevent its overflowing, ex-
cept at very high water. Gates are constructed at each end of
the lateral ditches, as at b l>, &c., and c c, &c., which can be
opened or closed, at pleasure. When it is required to draw off
the water from the meadow, the gates at c c, &c., are kept
open ; but when it is wished to inundate, or irigate it, they are
shut, and the gates at a and b b, &c., are opened.
Fertilising Qualities of Water. — As a general rule, there is no
water too bright, nor too full of impurities, if kept in motion,
to be useless for the purpose of irrigation, as is evinced by the
brilliant, chalky waters of the south of England, and the still
greater fertilising effects of those surcharged with organic
matter, in the Craigintinny Meadows, near Edinburgh. Hence
it is, that some of the most sagacious cultivators have come to
the conclusion that the chief advantages of irrigation are at-
tributable to the foreign substances, whether organic or inor-
ganic, with which the water is impregnated. " The surest
proofs," says Mr. Exeter, " of the good quality of water, as a
manure, are the verdure of the margin of its streams and the
growth of the strong cresses in the stream itself; and wherever
these appearances are found, though the water be perfectly
transparent, the occupier of the soil through which it flows,
may depend, in general, on having a treasure." Again, those
waters which breed the best fish are regarded by some, as the
best adapted for watering meadows, while others are of the
opinion, and among them, Sir Humphrey Davy, that most of
the benefits of irrigation may be derived from water of any
kind. The fertilising properties of spring or river water are
often owing to the crenic and apo-crenic acids they contain.
The witer of several natural springs, in Aberd. Denshire, Scot-
LIQUID MANURES. 347
land, which had been employed with great s\ recess in irriga-
ting the surface of a piece of almost worthless land, when
evaporated to dryness, left 5^th grains of solid matter to an im-
perial gallon. On analysis, by Dr. Voelckler, this solid matter
gave of
Grain*.
Alkaline salts, (chiefly comtnc n salt,) 1.14
Sulphate of lime, (containing 0.28 grains of water,) 1.66
Carbonate of lime, 0.26
Carbonate of magnesia, 0.46
Organic matter, 0.76
Silica, 0.92
5.20
The result of this analysis is very interesting. It shows,
that, what we are in the habit of considering the purest natural
spring water, containing the smallest proportions of mineral
matter, may be used with advantage for the purposes of irriga-
tion, in supplying the requisite wants of the growing herbage.
The silica, the gypsum, the lime, the magnesia, and the alkaline
salts are all the food of plants, and are required in the produc-
tion of grass.
Melted snow, or rain water, it is well known, is a true ma-
nure, containing carbonic acid, a little ammonia, and a small
amount of salts. Common river water usually contains more
or less of the constituents of vegetable and animal bodies; and
after rains, there is generally a greater proportion of these con-
stituents than at other times, which is habitually largest when
the source of the stream is in a cultivated country. Whenever
the water has flowed over or through a calcareous or limy bed,
it is generally found impregnated with carbonate of lime; and
such water tends, in that respect, to amelior ate a soil in pro-
portion, as any of the modifications of lime and charcoal
are deficient ; but where these are already in excess, wa-
ter, charged with a limy sediment, should be withheld; while
that impregnated with sand, clay plaster of Paris, or particle*
of iron, would be benefnial.
348 LIQUID MANURES.
But most, of the benefits of irrigation, as before intimated,
may be derived from any kind of water, (salt water excepted,)
provided the soil be not already overcharged with the prevail-
ing ingredients in the deposit, or sediment, left by the water;
and provided or) the other hand, that the ingredients of the
soil and the ingredients of the deposit, are not pernicious when
conbined. For instance, water containing ferruginous impreg-
nations, (particles of iron,) tends to fertilise a calcareous or
limy soil, while on a soil that does not effervesce with acids,
which is one of the tests of the presence of lime, it is injurious.
Again, calcareous waters, which are known by the earthy de-
posits they afford, when boiled, are of most benefit on silicious
or flinty soils, containing no appreciable amount of carbonate
of lime.
Quality and Preparation of the Soil. — The best soil for a water
meadow is a good gravel, though the richest herbage is some-
times found where there is scarcely any soil at all; as, on the
meadows on the river Avon, in Wiltshire, England, which con-
sist of beds of shingle and pebble stones, matted together by
the roots of the grass. From good authority, it seems essential
to the formation of a good water meadow, that the bottom be
porous, and free from stagnant water. Hence, under-draining
is often indispensable before a meadow can be established;
and a marsh or peat bog, if drained and consolidated, may
have water carried over its surface, and produce very good
effects.
If the soil is a very stiff clay, draining is indispensable
where a water meadow is to be made. It is found, also, that
the more porous the soil, the less depth of water is required,
which may not be obvious at first ; but clayey soils let the
water run over the surface without soaking into the roots,
whereas, the porous soil is soon soaked to a considerable depth.
The water, therefore, must be longer on clay than on sand or
gravel, to produce the same effect If the water is properly
applied, however, almost all kinds of soils may be converted
into fertile mea lows. On very stiff clays, a coat of sand G<"
LIQUID MANURES: 34J>
gravel, where it can-, easily be obtained, will greatly improve
the herbage. The gravel should not be plowed in, but spread
on the surface 2 or 3 inches thick. Soils, also, containing clay
in an unburnt state, on account of their aluminous salts, have
the property of fixing the ammonia contained in the water, an
important fact to be observed in regard to the distance it has
to flow before suffered to waste.
KITCHEN WASH— SOAP SUDS,
THE wash of the kitchen, soap suds, &c., are replete with the
prepared food of plants, and are excellent for watering gar-
dens, particularly for cucumbers, grape vines, fruit trees, &c.,
in hot dry weather. They should never be applied to plants
above blood heat, and if the water is greasy or oily, it should
not be made to touch the leaves.
If the garden be very wet, or is situated at too great a distance
from the house, the wash may be poured on the compost heap
in the barn yard, or it may be absorbed by a heap of dried peat,
swamp or pond muck, leaf mould, saw dust, wood shavings, &c.i
which, in the course of a summer, will be converted into a rich
manure, suitable for most of our cultivated crops.
NITRIO AOID.
NITRIC acid, or aquafortis, when pure, consists of a colorless,
corrosive liquid, possessing powerful acid properties. At a spe-
cific gravity of 1.5, it contains from 20T3ffths to 25 per cent, of
water, freezes when exposed to extreme cold, and boils at a
temperature of 248° F. It rapidly oxidises the metals, and
unites with them and with other bases, forming salts called
nitrates The nitric acid of commerce usually contains more
or less chlorine, muriatic and sulphuric acids, and sometimes
iodine.
Although nitrogen and oxygen do not unite at once, when di-
rectly brought into contact, yet they are capable of combin-
350 LIQUID MANURES.
ing under certain circumstances ; and there is no doubt but he
great, if not the only source of the nitric acid of nature, is ;he
union of the nitrogen and oxygen of the atmosphere. Rain
water, particularly that which falls after a thunder storm,
contains a certain quantity of nitrate of ammonia ; the light-
ning forming nitric acid in passing through the air, and this
uniting with the ammonia, which is always present in our at-
mosphere, produced by the decomposing animal remains of
our globe.
In warm climates, where an abundance of organic matter
and its rapid decomposition pour into the atmosphere a copious
supply of ammonia, the formation of nitric acid proceeds with
extraordinary energy, and the nitrate of ammonia being wash-
ed down by the rains into the porous limestone soils, the am-
monia is given off, while the ground becomes coated with an
efflorescence of earthy nitrates when it dries on the cessation
of the rain. A small quantity of nitrate of potash, (saltpetre,)
is also thus produced, but the nitrate of lime, of which the
crude produce of nitre principally consists, is converted into
saltpetre by means of carbonate of potash.
In regard to the existence of nitric acid, it is not known to
form a necessary constituent of any of the solid rocks of which
the crust of the globe is compssed, but is diffused almost uni-
versally through the soil which overspreads the surface. In
the hotter regions of the earth, in India, in Africa, and in South
America, in many places it accumulates in sufficient quantity
to form incrustations of considerable thickness over very large
areas, and in many more, it can be separated by washing the
soil. Even in the climates of high latitudes, it is rarely ab-
sent from the water of artificial wells, into which the rains,
after filtering through the surface, are permitted to make their
way. On the whole, nitric acid and its compounds appear to
exist, ready formed in nature, in larger quantity thin either
ammonia or any of its compounds.
In reference to ttie action of nitric acid upon vegetation, it is
known that, when, in the form of nitrates of soda, potash, &c..
LIQUID M-KURES. 351
it is spread upon the soil, it greatly promotes the growth and
luxuriance of the crop, and increases its produce; and that»
when other Circumstances are favorable to vegetation, as in
certain districts in India, the presence of an appreciable quan-
tity of these nitrates adds largely to the fertility of the soil.
The same effects are unquestionably produced by the addition
of ammonia or by its natural presence in the soil. The ben-
eficial influence of both compounds, then, being recognised,
the relative extent to which each operates upon the general
vegetation of the globe will be mainly determined by the cir-
cumstances and the quantity in which they respectively exist
or are reproduced. — Johnston.
PHOSPHORIC ACID, DILUTE.
PHOSPHORIC acid properly exists only in solution ; for, by the
process of digesting calcined bones in water, washing the re-
sidual matter with hot water, and adding ammonia thereto, it
is converted into meta-phosphoric acid, but by solution in water
and ebullition for a few minutes, it is reconverted into phos-
phoric acid, which, in this state, is a colorless, sour, corrosive
liquid, having a specific gravity of 1.064. By the application of
heat, it yields " glacial phosphoric acid," which solidifies on
cooling, and forms a colorless glass. It has so great an affinity
for water, that it combines with it under some circumstances
almost explosively. It may form three distinct compounds, or
phosphates of water, in each of which t is susceptible of forming
a series of salts.
The most common form in which phosphoric acid is applied,
as a liquid manure, is, when bone earth or the phosphate of lime
is dissolved by sulphuric acid, strong leys, or by digesting it in
water, under a high pressure of steam. As these processes
have been described at length under the head of BONES, a repe-
tition is unnecessary here. When applied to crops in this
form, the same apparatus may be employed as with urine,
guano water, or ai v other kind of liquid manure.
359 LIQUID MANURES
SULFHTTRIC ACID.
StTLpmraic acid, or oil of vitrol, when pure, has an oily ap«
pearance, is transparent, colorless, inodorous, and extremely
acid and corrosive, having a specific gravity of 1.845. It ab-
sorbs water rapidly from the atmosphere, and combines with
it in all proportions; 1 part of water mixed with 5 parts of acid
raises the temperature from 50° to 300° F. One part of ice and
1 of acid cause the temperature to increase to 212°, but 4 parts
of ice and 1 part of acid cause it to fall below zero! Strong
sulphuric acid freezes at 15°; but when diluted with water, so
as to have a specWic gravity of 1.78, it crystallises in large
crystals, (if the mixture be kept cool,) and will remain in that
state when the temperature does not increase above 44° F.
The sulphuric acid met with in the shops is an exceedingly
sour, corrosive liquid, which decomposes, chars, and destroys
all animal and vegetable substances, and, except when very
dilute, is destructive to life in every form. It is rarely met
with in nature in an uncombined state, though, according to
Boussingauit, some of the streams which issue from the vol-
canic regions of the Andes are rendered sour by the presence
of a quantity of this acid. It combines with potash, soda, lime,
magnesia, &c., and forms sulphates, which exist abundantly in
nature, and have often been beneficially and profitably em-
ployed as manures. Where the soil contains lime or magnesia,
the acid may often be applied directly to the land, in a very di-
lute state, with advantage to clover and other similar crops,
say at the rate of 500 parts of water to 1 part of the acid ; but
is not better in its effects than gypsum, and is much more ex-
pensive, as well as more difficult to manage. The chief use
in agriculture to which sulphuric acid is now applied, is to
dissolve bones, or phosphate of lime, but it is far inferior for
this purpose to muriatic acid. One hundred pounds of good
sulphuric acid will dissolve 200 Ibs. of fine bone dust, convert,
ing it. in part, into a sulphate of lime, (gypsum,) and in'o a
super-phosphate of lime, which is soluble, as described in the
LIQUID MANURES. 353
article on BONES, under the head of " Animal Manures." This
solution may be applied to the land as a top-dressing, by any
of the appafatus described at the commencement of the sub-
ject of liquid manures.
WATER.
WATER, when pure, is a perfectly colorless transparent fluid,
destitute both of taste and smell, evaporates without residue,
or even without leaving a stain behind, and >s incapable of
putrefaction ; but in an ordinary state, it contains a small quan-
tity of organic as well as of mineral matter, which more or
less speedly undergoes decomposition, even when confined in
close vessels. It is more universally diffused throughout nature
than any other chemical compound with which we are ac-
quainted, performs most important functions in reference to
animal and vegetable lite, and possesses properties by which
it is wonderfully adapted to the existing condition of things.
We are familiar with water in three several states of cohe-
sion— in the solid or congealed form, as. ice, hail, frost, and
snow — in the fluid state, as water, rain, dew — and in the gaseous
state, as in atmospheric vapor, fog, clouds, and steam. If agi-
tated, at 32° F., it solidifies, and continues solid at all tempera-
tures below that point ; but if preserved quiescent, it may be
cooled much lower without freezing ; if it be then touched or
shaken, a portion of it is immediately converted into spiculse
of ice, and the temperature of the whole is raised to 32°. It
evaporates at all temperatures, but at 212°, near the level of
the sea, this takes place so rapidly, that it boils, and is con-
verted into vapor, (steam,) the bulk of which is about 1,700
times greater than that of water at 62°. It also changes its
volume with the temperature, its greatest density being at about
39°, and its specific gravity decreases from this point either
way. One cubic inch of perfectly pure water at 62° F., the
barometer standing at 30 inches near the level of the sea,
weighs aSS^Vhs grains; by which, it will be ioen that it is
354 LIQUID MANURES.
815 times heavier than atmospheric air. Its spec ific gravity in
1, being made the standard by which the dens-ities of other
bodies are compared. The specific gravity of frozen water,
(ice,) is 0.92 ; in other words, a cubic foot of solid ice weighs
920 ounces avoirdupois, while a cubic foot of water, at 62° F.>
would weigh 1,000 ounces.
Water, or the prot-oxide of hydrogen, consists of hydrogen
and oxygen combined, in the proportions of 2 volumes of the
former gas to 1 volume of the latter; and by weight of 1 part
of hydrogen united to 8 parts of oxygen, or of
Per cent.
Hydrofoil, 11.1
Oxygen, 88.9
1000
Water enters largely into the constitution of all living am-
mals and plants, and upwards of -J of the weight of all the
newly-gathered vegetable substances collected or cultivated for
the use of man. Not only does it enter thus largely into the
constitution of rill animals and plants, but in the existing
economy of nature its presence in large quantities is absolute-
ly necessary to the persistence of animal and vegetable life.
In the midst of abundant springs and showers, plants shoot
forth with an amazing rapidity, while they wither, droop, and
die when water is withheld. How much the manifestation of
life is dependent upon its presence is beautifully illustrated by
some of the humbler tribes of plants. Certain mosses can be
kept long in the herbarium, and yet will revive again when the
dried specimens are immersed in water. At Manilla, a species
of lycopodium grows upon the rocks, which, though kept for
years in a dried state, revives and expands its foliage when
placed in water. The Spaniards call it " triste de corazon"
(sorrow of the heart). Thus life lingers as it were, unwilling
to depart, and rejoicing to display itself again, when the mois-
ture returns.
Those properties of water, however, which are in a high de-
gree interesting in themselves, and important to the practical
LIQUID MANURES. 3fi5
agriculturist, are as follows. — 1. Its solvent power; 2. Its afhn
'ity for certain substances with which it combines ; 3. The de-
gree of affinity by which its own elements are held together;
4. Its disintegrating power on rocks and soils.
When pure bailed water is exposed to the air, it gradually
absorbs a quantity of the several gases of which the atmos-
phere is composed, and acquires more or less of a sparkling
appearance and an agreeable taste. The air which it thus ab-
sorbs amounts to about ^gth of its own bulk, and is entirely
expelled by boiling. When thus expelled, this air, like that
obtained from snow, is found on examination to contain the
oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic acid in proportions very differ-
ent from those in which they exist in the atmosphere. In the
latter, oxgen is present to the amount of only 21 per cent, by
volume, while the air absorbed by water contains 30 to 32 per
cent, of the same gas. In like manner, the mean quantity of
carbonic acid in the air does not exceed -n^^ths parts, (Tf ffths
of 1 per cent.,) of its bulk, while that expelled from water,
which has been long exposed to the air, varies from T(JVVot'hs
to TzrWths Parts OroVtns to TTftns °f * Per cent).
Thus, when water falls in rain, or trickles along the surface
of the land, it absorbs these gaseous substances, carries them
with it wherever it goes, conveys them to the roots, and into
the circulation of plants, and thus makes them all minister to
the growth and nourishment of living vegetables.
Again, water possesses the power of dissolving many solid
substances. If sugar or salt be mixed with it in certain quan-
tities, they speedily disappear. In like manner, many other
bodies, both simple and compound, are taken up by this liquid
in greater or less quantity, and can only be recovered by driv-
ing off the water, through the aid of heat. Hence, it happens
that the water of rivers and springs is never pure, but holds in
solution more or less of certain solid substances. Even rain
water, washing and purifying the atmosphere as it descends,
brings down portions of solid matter which had previously
risen into the air in the form of vapor, and as it afterwards
856 LIQUID MANURES.
flows along or sinks into the surface of the soil, i. meets with
and dissolves other solid substances, the greater portion of
which, in certain soils, it carries with it wherever it enters. In
this way, solid substances are conveyed to the roots of plants
in a fluid form, which enables them to ascend with the sap ;
and the supply of these naturally solid substances is constantly
renewed, by the successive passage of new portions of flow-
ing water.
Nor is it merely earthy and saline substances which the
water dissolves, as it thus percolates through the soil. It takes
up also substances of organic origin, especially portions of
decayed animal and vegetable matter, such as are supposed to
be capable of ministering to the growth of plants, and brings
thorn within reach of the roots. This solvent power of water
over solid substances is increased by an elevation of tempera-
1 ture. Warm water, for instance, will dissolve Epsom salts,
(sulphate of magnesia,) or oxalic acid in much larger quantity
than cold water will, and the same is true of nearly all solid
substances, (lime excepted,) which this fluid is capable of hold-
ing in solution. To this increased solvent power of the water
they absorb, is ascribed, among other causes, the peculiar char-
acter of the vegetable productions, as well as their extraordi-
nary luxuriance in many tropical countries.
But the affinity which water exhibits for many solid sub-
stances is little less important and remarkable. When newly-
burned lime is thrown into a limited quantity of water, the
latter is absorbed, while the lime heats, cracks, swells, and
finally falls to a white powder. When thus perfectly slaked,
it is found to be -J-d heavier than before — every 3 tons having ab-
sorbed about 1 ton of water. This water is retained in a solid
form, more solid than water is when in the state of ice, and it
cannot be entirely separated from the lime without the appli-
cation of a red heat. When the farmer lays upon his land,
therefore, 4 tons of slaked lime, he mixes with his soil 1 ton
of water, which the lime afterwards gradually gives up, either
in whole or in part, as it combines uith other substances.
L 'JW MANURES. 357
For clay, also, water has a considerable affinity, though by
no means equal to that which it displays for quicklime. Hence,
even in well-drained clay lands, the hottest summer does not
entirely rob it of its water. It cracks, contracts, and becomes
hard, yet still retains water enough to keep its wheat crops
green and flourishing, when the herbage on lighter soils is
drooping or burned up.
A similar affinity for water is one source of the advantages
which are known to follow from the admixture of a certain
amount of vegetable matter with the soil ; though, as in the
case of charcoal, its porosity is probably more influential in
retaining moisture near the roots of the plants. The degree
of affinity by which the elements of water are held together,
exercises a material influence on the growth and production
of all vegetable substances. By burning a jet of hydrogen
gas in the air, water is formed, by the union of the hydrogen
with the oxygen of the atmosphere, for which it manifests on
many occasions an apparently powerful affinity. But if into
a vessel of water, a piece of iron or zinc be put, and then sul-
phuric acid added, the water is decomposed, and the hydrogen
set free, while the metal combines with the oxygen.
So in the interior of plants and animals, water undergoes con-
tinual ofe-composition and re-composition. In its fluid state, it
finds its way and exists in every vessel and in every tissue. And
so slight, it would appear, in such situations, is the hold which
its elements have upon each other; or so strong their tendency
to combine with other substances, that they are ready to sepa-
rate from each other at every impulse, yielding now oxygen to
one, and hydrogen to another, as th<_ production of the several
compounds with which each organ is destined to elaborate re-
spectively demands. Yet, with the same readiness c^o they
again re-attach themselves and cling together, when new meta-
morphoses require it. It is in the form of water, indeed, that
nature introduces the greater portion of the oxygen and hydre-
gen which perform so important a part in the numerous and
diversified changes which *ske place in the interior of plants
358 LIQUID MANURES.
and animals. Few things are really more wonderful in chc til-
cal physiology, than the vast variety of transmutations which
are continually going on, through the agency of the elements
of water.
In freezing, it is well known that water expands very con-
siderably, and exerts therein so great a force as to burst the
strongest vessels in which it is contained. It is thus that the
surfaces of the hardest rocks are gradually disintegrated, or
crumbled into soils fit for vegetable life; the water percolating
into the minute crevices and fissures during the warmer months,
and, when frozen in winter, breaking down by repeated and in-
creasing expansive efforts of succeeding years, the substance
of masses which would otherwise appear from compactness
and hardness, suited to withstand the severest effects of time
and climate. In like manner, in countries where the ground is
bound up in frost or ice any considerable portion of the year,
as in the Canadas and the northern parts of the United States,
the frosts of winter penetrate to a depth of 12 inches to 4 feet,
causing the earth to expand, and even in some instances to
crack or burst for miles ; and, in thawing in the spring, it
heaves up the surface of the earth, renders the soil mellow and
light, and almost ready to sow wheat and other grain, as soon
as the frost is out — actually aiding and preparing the land for
the succeeding crops, and making the work of the plowman
easier than it would have been had not the freezing occured.
Thus it is that Nature sometimes is far kinder to short-sighted
man than he is usually aware ; and that, while she is binding
up the earth in icy chains, as it were, she is preparing it the
better for use during the congenial influences of spring and
the summer's sun.
Such, then, are a few of the well-ascertained fac.s with re-
gard to the influence of water on vegetation — uses which are
so valuable to the farmer when properly understood. In all
his operations, this mineral fluid will be found to benefit his
arrangements; and in a due and regular supply of it to his
crops consists, in fact, the success of most of his efforts.
L ^UID MANURES. 359
Water, as a fertiliser, it will be seen then, exists i i several
varieties of form, and in numerous combinations with other
substances, some of them natural, while others are artificially
prepared, the most important of which to the practical agricul-
turist may be described and treated of as follows: —
Aqueous Vapor of the Atmosphere. — This has already been des-
cribed in the article WATERY VAPOR OF THE ATMOSPHERE, under
the head of "Gaseous and Imponderable Manures."
Brewer's and Distiller's Steep Water. — It is well known to
makers of malt, whether for the purpose's of brewing or of
distilling, that the water in which barley is steeped, preparatory
to its being made to sprout, extracts a considerable quantity
of matter from the grain, and often becomes very dark in color.
A sample of this steep, obtained from a maltster of Edinburgh,
and examined under the direction of the Agricultural Chemis-
try Society of Scotland, on evaporating to dryness, left a resi-
duum amounting to 413|ths grains in an imperial gallon. On
analysing this solid matter, it was found to consist of
Grains in a gallon. Per cent.
Organic matter, gum, sugar, protein compounds, &.C., 106.40 40.23
Alkalies and alkaline sulphates and chlorides, 198.84 48.07
Phosphoric acid in the state of alkaline phosphates,.. 8.52 2.06
Phosphate of lime and magnesia, 23.20 5.61
Carbonate of lime, 15.30 3.48
Loss, 1.28 0.55
413.60 100.00
Thus it appears that the steep water of barley contains much
valuable matter of a kind likely to promote the growth of
plants. The organic matter is capable of supplying organic
food — the inorganic matter, alkaline salts, and phosphates are
in a state in which they can readily make their way into the
young roots of oats and wheat. Therefore, it ought not to be
allowed to run to waste, as its value is of too much importance
to the fanners in the neighborhood, who can collect it at a small
cost, and apply it in the form of a liquid manure, or absorb it
MJ peat. &c., and employ it as a top-dressing to their land.
860 LIQUID MANURES.
It w 11 be understood that the preceding inalysis can show
only the kind of substances which barley-stt-ep water is likely
to contain. The proportion will vary with the sample of the
grain, with the purity of the water, perhaps, and with the
length of time during which the barley has been steeped.
The steep water of Indian corn, wheat, rye, &c., employed
in our breweries and distilleries, doubtless would be attended
with marked effects were it applied to our grass and grain
crops as a liquid manure.
Dung water. — The rich water which runs from the compost
heap or dunghill, or that which collects in the hollows of the
barn yard, instead of being suffered to soak into the earth or
evaporate by the sun or drying winds, should be taken up by
a " mulch," or some other absorbent material ; or it may be
conveyed to the garden or field in a liquid-manure cart, and ap-
plied to the land as directed in the iirst article on "Liquid Ma-
nures." This water, when properly diluted, is excellent to
apply to cucumber, squash and other vines of a similar nature,
which will not only add much to their luxuriance, but destroy,
or drive away the striped bug. Green cow dung may also be
diluted with water, and applied to the vines with equally good
effects.
Flax Water. — By an examination of the article on FLAX
SHIVES AND LEAVES, under the head of "Vegetable Manures,"
it will be seen that the ingredients of a sample of flax straw,
before steeping, and the constituents of a portion of the same
after undergoing that process, a difference, or loss, is manifest
of about fths of the whole mineral ingredients of this portion
of the plant.
Therefore it is needless to repeat the importance of preserv-
ing the steep water of flax, and applying it as far as it is profit-
able as a liquid manure.
Guano Water. — Peruvian guano is unquestionably the best
possible manure for all plants that require manure at all, pro-
vided the soil is kept open by digging in leaves, vegetable rub-
bish, &c., from time to time. If the weather be dry, the best
LIQUID MANURES. 361
way of using it, is, to dilute it with water, and apply the solu-
tion thus obtained. A quart of the best guano may be dis-
solved in a barrel of water, and applied in quantity as circum-
stances may require, by means of a liquid-manure cart. In
this state of dilution, it can do no harm to the plants, not even
to the more delicate kinds of flowers.
Lake, River and Spring Water. — The water of lakes, ponds,
rivers, springs, or wells is more or less impure, according to the
nature of the rocks or soil into which it comes in contact. It
originates from the clouds, and as it falls in the form of rain,
it trickles along the surface of the earth, absorbs mineral and
gaseous substances, and usually carries more or less of them
with it wherever it goes. Thus it happens that the water of
lakes, rivers, and springs is never pure, but holds in solution a
greater or less abundance of certain solid substances.
River water is tisually less pure than good spring water ; and
well water less so than either of the preceding. Lake water
aad marsh water resemble river water, but contain more or-
ganic matter in a state of decomposition.
Potato Water from Starch Manufactories. — The first washings
of the pulp of the potato, in the manufacture of starch, or the
water in which the potatoes are grated, is very rich in saline
matter, and in substances, (protein compounds,) capable of
yielding nitrogen to the growing plants ; and hence, is capable
of useful application as a manure.
Being derived from the potato, one would naturally sup-
pose that this liquor would espec.ally promote the growth of
the potato crop. This idea was tested in Scotland on the
potato in 1843. The liquor was run into drills, and potatoes
afterwards planted in these drills without any other manure.
The crop is stated to have come up well, and was equal in its
yield to those of other parts of the field to which the ordinary
kinds of manure had been applied. It may also be employed
to water or irrigate grass and other herbage in the form of
liquid manure.
Rain Water, Dew, Melted Snmr Hail, tf-c. — Rain is a very pure
16
362 LIQUID MANURES.
kind of natural water, but contains minute quantities of air
carbonic and nitric acids, carbonate of ammonif , &c.
The rain which falls upon the earth, it seems almost unne-
cessary to repeat, is due to the condensation cf the aqueous
vapor previously existing in the atmosphere, and which is sup-
plied in great part by evaporation from the surface of the sea.
This water, as is well known, is fresh and nearly pure, the
saline constituents of the ocean having no sensible degree of
volatility at the temperature at which vapor is usually raised.
It has been proved by a variety of experiments that a some-
what greater quantity of rain falls at the surface of the ground
on valleys or plains, or near the level of the lakes or seas, than
on elevated positions in the vicinity, as the tops of mountains,
hills, &c., which may be partly owing to the vapor, contained
in the lower region of the atmosphere, being more dense, and
joining the drops by the attraction of cohesion in their descent.
This is a wise provision of Nature, as the action of the sun's
heat is proportionably greater in valleys than on the summits
of hills, and a happy equilibrium is maintained between heal
and rain on all parts of the surface of the earth. Were it
otherwise, an increased evaporation would necessarily occur
on mountains and hills, and consequently an increased depres-
sion of temperature, and more of the fine earth or mould would
be washed down into the valleys or hollows, or perhaps into
rivers and the sea itself, and deeper channels and gulleys would
be made in the soil by the running water, thereby causing
great inconvenience and loss. The gentlest rains are gen-
erally most conducive to the growth of plants and the fruitful-
ness of the soil, as all parts are more uniformly soaked ; but
it is due to the frequent rains that the earth is rendered fruitful,
as 1o some soils, like stiff clays and loose sands, they are more
needful than to others. The former imbibe the water more
slowly — the latter part with it too speedily. Cloudy weather,
before rain, also, helps predispose the earth, and its vegetation
receives the greater advantage of the water that falls.
The deposition of water from the atmosphere during the
LIQUID MANURES. 363
night upon the ground, the leaves of trees and plants, the bl.ides
of grass, and other objects near the surface of the earth is
called liw. This substance, so celebrated through all times
and in every tongue for its sweet influence, presents the most
beautiful and striking illustration of the agency of water in
the economy of nature, and exhibits one of those wise and
bountiful adaptations, by which the whole system of things,
animate and inanimate, is fitted and bound together.
All bodies on the surface of the earth radiate, or throw out
rays of heat, in straight lines — every warmer body to every
colder ; and the entire surface is itself continually sending
rays upwards through the clear air into free space. Thus, on
the earth's surface, all bodies strive, as it were, for an equal
temperature, (an equilibrium of heat,) while the surface as a
whole tends gradually towards a cooler state. But while the
sun shines, this cooling will not take place ; for the earth then
receives in general more heat than it gives off', and if the clear
sky be shut out by a canopy of clouds, these will arrest, and
again throw back a portion of the heat, and prevent it from
being so speedily dissipated. At night, then, when the sun is
absent, the earth will cool the most ; on clear nights, also, more
titan when it is cloudy, and when clouds only partially obscure
the sky, those parts will become eoolest which look towards
the clearest portions of the heavens.
Now when the surface cools, the air in contact with it must
cool also; and like the warm currents on the mountain side,
must forsake a portion of the watery vapor it has hitherto re-
tained. This water, like the floating mist on the hills, descends
in particles almost infinitely minute, which collect on every
leaflet, and suspend themselves from every blade of grass in
drops of" pearly dew." And mark here a beautiful adaptation:
Different substances are endowed with the property of radia-
ting their heat, and of thus becoming cool with different de-
grees of rapidity, and those substances which in the air be-
come cool first, also attract first and most abundantly the
particles of falling dew. Thus, in the cool of a summer's
364 LIQUID MAN'JllES.
evening, the grass plot is wet, while the gravel walk is dry
and the thirsty pasture and every green leaf are drinking in
the descending moisture, while the naked land and the barren
highway are still unconscious of its fall. How beautiful is the
contrivance by which water is thus evaporated or distilled, as
it were, into the atmosphere — largely perhaps from some par-
ticular spots, then diffused equably through the wide and rest-
less air, and afterwards precipitated again in refreshing show-
ers or in long mysterious dews! But how much more beauti-
ful the contrivance, one might say the instinctive tendency, by
which the dew selects the objects on which it delights to fall —
descending first on every living plant, copiously ministering to
the wants of each, and expending its superfluity only on the
unproductive waste.
Dew does not fall, then, from the atmosphere like rain as
was formerly supposed, but forms in very different quantities;
thus, on metals, it is sparingly deposited ; on glass, it forms
abundantly, as it does also on straw, grass, cloth, paper, and
other similar substances. Animal substances are among those
which attract dew in the greatest quantity. The temperature
of grass covered with dew is always lower than that of the
surrounding air. This important agent, in the promotion of
vegetable life, has been supposed by some to rise from the
ground, while the phrase "falling dew." common in all lan-
guages, would seem to imply an almost universal belief that
dew falls from the air, similar to the finest rain or mist. These
general impressions have, however, been demonstated to be in-
correct, by the experiments of Dr. Wells, whose explanation of
the causes operating in the production of dew is as simple as
it is satisfactory. When substances, lot perfectly transparent,
are exposed to the sun, they gain more or less heat; but when
the sun goes down, they part with their heat, and become cold.
The surrounding air, however, with its invisible vapor, or mois-
ture, being transparent, does not radiate, or shoot off its heat,
and consequently remains comparatively warmer than bodies
not transparent. Hence, grass, leaves, wood, or stone, by grow.
LIQUID MANURES. 365
ing cold in the absence of the sun, have moisture to settle on
them precisely for the same reason that it is deposited on the
outside of a pitcher or glass containing very cold water. The
dew, therefore, is a deposit from that portion of vapor which
enters into the composition of common air, and which is swept
in contact with substances at or near the surface of the earth,
like breath thrown upon the blade of a knife or other polished
surface. When the sky is clear, as in starry and moonlight
nights, then do grass, leaves, and other objects, throw off their
heat most rapidly, and become cooler than the air immediately
above them, and the colder they get, the more dew is condensed
upon them. Different substances part with their heat more or
less rapidly, and this explains the cause why different propor-
tions of dew are observed on objects similiarly exposed to the
atmosphere. A gravel walk will have little or no dew upon it,
whilst the grass on each side will be reeking wet ; because the
grass does not only radiate its heat more rapidly than the walk,
but does not derive warmth from below to compensate for the
loss. Besides, the moisture falling upon the gravel walk is ab-
sorbed more rapidly than the dew deposited upon plants.
The composition of dew is similar in its character to that of
rain; and, although attributed to a modern discovery, its fertil-
ising influence has been known to be owing in part to the ni-
trogen it contains, certainly for more than 100 years, as Ellis,
says in his "Modern Husbandman," published in 1742, in dis-
coursing on the advantages of getting heavy land into a loose
hollow condition, that it -gives the plow share an easy en-
trance, bringing the surly glebe into such a porous fine body,
as obliges it to receive and lodge great quantities of the most
fertile dressing in the world, the nitrous dews."
Snow is nothing more nor less than the union of a great num-
ber of minute frozen particles of watery vapor floating in mid
air, which collect together in their descent, and before they
reach the surface of the earth, are converted into flnkes. When
clouds are formed at an elevation where the temperature is be-
low 32C F,. the nar'ioles of moisture become concealed, and fall
366 LIQUID MANURES
downward in the form of snow or hail. It often happens, how-
ever, that the temperature of the lower regions of the atmos-
phere is somewhat higher than the freezing point, and the snow
again dissolves before it reaches the earth, and accumulates
into drops of ruin.
One of the chief uses ol this substance, is, to .screen the
plants and herbage from winter's chilling blasts ; for snow,
from its lightness, is a poor conductor of heat, which does not
readily pass through it nor into it from any body contiguous.
There is an old and true saying: '-In northern countries, snow
is sent by Providence as a great coat to the earth." The great
scene of Nature's operations, during winter, is below the surface
of the ground, where she is preparing the germs and roots
about to shoot forth, elaborating juices and consolidating parts
previous to the active vegetation of spring. Were the ground
to be left bare, in cold climates, it would be hard frozen to a
considerable depth ; vegetable lite would either be suspended
or destroyed, and the spring would be far advanced before the
earth could be thawed. Hence, to prevent these ill effects, a
soft and warm covering of snow has been provided to prevent
the internal warmth of the earth from being dissipated, the
offspring of the very cold which is to be guarded against, there-
by making the evil work its own remedy. The plants being
thus sheltered, shoot forth with renewed vigor in the spring;
and cherished by the genial warmth of the sun, put forth with
increased luxuriance.
Ammonia, and other fertilising substances, are also contained
in snow, even when taken from the glaciers of Mont Blanc,
which likewise cherish vegetation by their invigorating in
fluence.
The water produced from hail is similar in its composition to
rain, this substance being produced only during violent winds,
which carry a great deal of moisture into the colder regions of
the atmosphere, where it becomes solidified, and is precipitated
to the earth in the form of grains or masses of ice of greater of
less size. It is altogether ditferer t from snow, in occurring dur
LIQUID MANURES. 367
ing the holiest months of summer, and in partaking of the char-
acter of ice, formed on the surface of the earth.
Sea Water, Salt Springs, cf-c. — The chief characteristic of
this clsss of waters is their saltness. The density of sea water
is about 1.0274, as compared with distilled water, and it freezes
at 28^° F. ; the average amount, of saline matter it contains is
about 3i per cent. According to the analysis by Schweitzer,
the water of the English Channel contained of
Per cent.
Pure water, ." 90.474
Chloride of sodium, 2.706
Chloride of potassium 0.077
Chloride of maguesiua 0.367
Bromide of magnesium, 0.003
Sulphate of lime, 0.141
Sulphate of magnesia, 0.229
Carbonate of lime.... 0.003
100.000
In addition to the above, it may be remarked that traces of
iodine and hydriodic acid have been detected in sea water,
which are of no appreciable account either in agriculture or
in the arts.
Farmers and others residing in the vicinity of the sea, may
avail themselves of their situations, and procure the water of
the ocean either to mix with dung, or for applying directly to
certain species of plants ; or it may be raised by steam, horse
power, or wind to such a height as will allow it to flow inland
over a level country through small open canals or earthen or
metallic pipes to a considerable distance interior, each farmer
or proprietor receiving a r-upply as it passes along.
Sea water, when empuyed as a manure, is usually applied
by sprinkling it over compost heaps containing lime, or it is
used in slaking quicklime, in both of which cases, it greatly
improves the fertilising effects. The principal plants to which
it may be directly applied, without injury, are asparagus and
lowland rice Both of these it is well known are cultivated in
beds or fiel.' subject to inundations from the salt water tides.
368
LIQUID MANURES.
In many parts of the world, salt springs abound, the waters
of which resemble those of the ocean, and may be employed
in their vicinity with beneficial results, when composted with
lime and dung, or they may be applied to asparagus in a liquid
state. Several of Hit; waters of these; springs or wells of the
state of New York have been analysed by Professor Lewis
Beck, of Albany, which gave the following ingredients as pub-
lished in the " Natural IIi<torv " of this stale : —
_ . ^ '~
Composition. d.H ~ 5
?1 ££.
IS C 5 7.
— 2
Wt-11 at
Montezuma.
Carbonic acid. 0.06 0.07
0.09
0.04
".17
4 7-'
0.08
O.Oii
0.18
1.00
1.40
Oxide of iron and silica, wiih J 004 0().>
a trace of carbonate of lime, i
Carbonate of lime, 0.10 0.14
Chloride of macne^imn. 0.7'' 0 4(i
L04
853.41
Chloride of calcium, iJ-03 ().ri:l
Chlorid.- of sodium. .. . KilMiG 13i3i)
Water, with a trace of organic ( siil '19 80040
Total amount in 1,000 grains f 13^55 H9 33
1415.50 101.20
Sewer Water. — The sewers of most of our large cities re-
ceive, besides a considerable portion of the solid and liquid
excrements of the population, the soap suds and other waste of
ihe houses, as well as the waste liquors of various kinds of
manufactories, which could be turned to profitable account if
collected by absorbent materials, and employed by the farm-
ers in the vicinity to manure their fields.
In order to show what a loss agriculture sustains by the
present arrangement of sewerage in most of our cities and
larger class of towns, I give below the analysis of a specimen
of London sewer water, made by Professor Way, chemist to
the Royal Agricultural Society of England. The liquid was
tetid, and offensive to the smell, t nd of a dirty black color,
giving off sulphureted hydrogen gas in sensible quantity.
LIQUID MANURES. 369
The matter in suspension and that in solution were separately
analysed. An imperial gallon contained 109 grains of sub-
stances in solution, and 100-,7ffths grains of matter insoluble.
The latter consisted partly of sand and the dust of the granite
or other paving. The organic portion contained the cells of
different vegetables, hair, fragments of paper, &c. The com-
position of the liquid and solid matter, contained in an imperial
gallon, consisted of
Grains of Grains of
matter soluble, ntatter insoluble.
Organic mailer and salts of ammonia, 57.'.i'i 23.00
Sand, detritus, &c., from the street* 0.78 44.50
Soluble silica, 1.16 12.09
Phosphoric acid. 2.53 164
Sulphuric uci.l, 0.'J8 3.63
Carbonic acid, 10.58 1.99
Lime, 7.40 8.37
Magnesia, 0.07 trace.
Per-oxide of iron and alumina, trace 2.G6
Potash,. 2.60 0.72
Chloride of sodium, 27.27 2.10
109.00 100.70
The amount of ammonia in a soluble state was 15-jWhs
grains ; that to be formed from the insoluble matter, 2^ths
grains to an imperial gallon. Other samples of sewer water,
analysed by the same chemist, yielded more than double the
above-named ingredients.
16*
COMPOSITE AND HOMESTEAD MANURES.
BARNYARD MANURE— ITS MANAGEMENT.
•-£ Y the term *' barnyard or farmyard manure" is meant the
dunir of cattle and horses which is dropped or thrown into the
burn yard, and mixed more or less with other vegetable and
animal matter, and there allowed to remain for some time, in
heaps or otherwise, to ferment and decompose before it is used.
Straw, litter, and various kinds of hard, fibrous substances .ire
carried out of the stables into the yards with the dung, arid
often the refuse of vegetables or animals are mixed or com-
posted with it, as well as peat, swamp or pond muck, weeds, tne
leaves of trees, sods, loam, road scrapings, &c., &c.
In the management of cattle and horses, at least three gen-
eral methods appear to have been adopted, in reference to
economy of feeding and husbanding their manure. One class
of farmers keep them in stables, supply them with hay and roots,
and use their straw, if they have any, for litter ; whilst another
class consume the whole produce of hay and straw from their
farms in feeding and maintaining their animals, causing them to
stand on a platform, sufficiently inclined or open to allow them
to be kept clean and dry, without any bedding of hay or straw;
whereas, a third class allow their cattle to remain in open
yards or sheds during a large portion or all of the year, giving
them litter or not, according to the climate or season, and the
HOMESTEAD MANURES. 371
peculiar custom which in the neighborhood may prevail. The
second method admits a greater number of cattle to be main-
tained, and a greater quantity of real dung to be procured, than
when a less number of well-littered stock are kept, or where
the cattle are allowed *o rest at night or other times in an open
fold or yard.
Food, it is well known, in its passage through the bodies of
animals, becomes mixed with anirnalised matter, and conse-
quently is more rich and more valuable, weight for weight,
as a manure, than dung procured by littering cattle, although
there must necessarily be much less in bulk or quantity,
from the large proportion of the digesting food which goes
off' by breathing and insensible perspiration ; beside which,
without the utmost care, it is extremely difficult to prevent the
urine and the valuable juices of the dung from sinking through
the floors of cow houses and stables, or the soil of farm yards.
Could these inconveniences be effectually provided against by a
proper flooring of clay, clalk, or gypsum, a preference appears
due to the consumption of the whole of the produce by cat-
tle, provided that attention be paid to mixing daily a sufficient
quantity of peat or other absorbents with the dung and urine, so
as completely to take up whatever may remain of these matters
in a fluid state. By this process, there cuu be no doubt that a
greater quantity, and a still more valuable dung may be ob-
tained than by the other practice of keeping a less number of
cattle, and littering them with straw.
Those are not to be considered as theoretical statements, but
the result of actual experiments, attentively made in Europe
and elsewhere. The quantity of manure made in the same
given time was much greater than if litter had been used ; and
the manure procured was infinitely more rich and valuable.
These experiments were not conlined to the dung and urine of
cattle, but the chamber slops of the family were carefully pre-
served, and mixed also with a due proportion of oxygenated
peat, which was found to produce a greater effect in dissolving
the peat tlii'H iht; urine from the cattle.
372 COMPOSITE AND
Many farmers differ : i opinion as to the propriety or the ad-
vantages which attend jsing long or fresh dung, or that which
is completely rotted. This disputed point seems capable of
adjustment. Were the views of the farmer to promote only
the next immediate crop of grass or grain, the dung, when ap-
plied, should be fully and completely rotted ; but if his inten-
tions extend to subsequent crops, or the soil be of a nature to-
receive benefit by the fermentation and heat produced by the
application of fresh dung, preference should undoubtedly be
given to dung in a long state, provided it is immediately plowed
in, and totally covered, which is not easily accomplished with
dung of this description. Long dung is always to be preferred
in the culture of potatoes ; for that completely rotted frequently
causes this crop to be watery and worm eaten. Many farmers
only apply coarse straw or litter; whence it might be imagined,
that the benefit arising from such an application, must be more
dependent on the straw mechanically keeping the ground open
or loose, than in contributing, by much if any part of its own
substance, to the growth of the potatoes, which cannot well be
supposed ; as the straw, in digging up the tubers, is generally
found in an undecayed state. It is highly probable, that the
atmospheric air contained in the intervals of the soil, thus
made by the straw, may suffer a degree of separation, or de-
composition in its imprisoned state, as it were, by which means
the pure air or oxygen may combine wiih the straw and in-
flammable or vegetable matter in the soil ; whilst the nitrogen
or ammonia will contribute to the growth of the plants. This
explanation of the beneficial effects arising to vegetation by
stagnated air, will also account for the benefit that plants of a
certain construction of stem and leaf, and which very much
overshadow and cover the ground, ultimately receive, by pre-
venting a free circulation of air. The application )f long or
short dung to ground must appear too material to the practical
farmer to be overlooked. The preference, in many cases, is
undoubtedly to be given tc such dung as has most completely
undergone the putrefactive process. Under th is head, it is
HOMESTEAD MANURES. 373
necessary to notice, that dung and urine newly voided, (unless
when animals are diseased,) are not in a putrescent stale. The
time of retention in the body of animals is of too short a con-
tinuance to allow that effect to take place. Such excrements
are in a state advancing towards putridity, or in a small de-
gree only putrid ; a process which, to a certain extent, is ne-
cessary to stimulate the intestines to discharge the faeces.
In the management of dunghills and farmyard manure, three
things should always be kept in view, namely — the promotion
of putrefaction, or decomposition, in order to convert the nitro-
gen into ammonia — the prevention of the volatile parts from
escaping into the air — and the washing away of the fertilising
salts contained in the manure by means of rains or melting
snows. For, in the way a common dung heap is made, we
have, in fact, exactly the conditions necessary to occasion the
loss of its most valuable constituents. It is exposed to a more
or less free current of air, which facilitates the volatilisation of
the ammonia as it is formed ; and it is exposed to the falling
rain, which washes out the soluble salts, and what ammonia
the winds have spared, into the adjacent soil.
In order to promote decomposition, the situation of the dung-
hill or barn yard should be comparatively dry, and the dung
laid together as thick as circumstances will allow. Decompo-
sition, however, cannot be hastened without water ; but the
quantity that unavoidably becomes mixed with it from rains,
&c., with the natural moisture of the dung, is usually sufficient
for the purpose. Too much water prevents that fermentation
which carries on the process of decomposition most quickly.
If there is any part of a dunghill saturated with water, it will
be observed that the straw or other fibrous matter contained
in it, for a long time after, will remain quite sound, while in
other parts that are dry, it will be comepletely rotten. There-
fore, to promote putrefaction, the dung should be laid thick *.
together, by means of which, heat is sooner generated and the
natural moisture is the better preserved, which prevents the
aung from being burned.
374 COMPOSITE AND
When the natural moisture of the dung is exhaled, a J the
heap is afterwards covered, the heat is in danger of rising to
such a height as to cause it to burn, which should be carefully
guarded against ; for, when the dung is thus burned, its virtues
are exhausted, and it is rendered thereby almost useless. Dung,
which in this state is white and dry, in common parlance, is
said to be " fire-fanged." To prevent it from being reduced to
this condition, when it is carried out of the stable or cow
house, particularly if it contain much straw, it must not be laid
in heaps, which causes it to dry too fast, but carefully incorpo-
rate it in the compost heap, or spread it upon the top of the
dunghill. This will prevent the moisture from being carried
off by the wind, and the heat from being raised to such a height
as to burn the dung.
In order to prevent the soluble parts of farmyard manure
from being conveyed away, no more foreign water should be
allowed to run into it than can be helped ; and the situation
of the dunghill or barn yard, if possible, should be high at the
sides, with a hollow in the middle. For, when foreign water
is suffered to run into a dunghill, the fermentation is not only
checked, but, it is often necessary to allow the water a passage
from it. and mucil of the soluble parts of the manure is car-
ried away. When the bottom of the yard is quite level, or
consists of an inclined plain, the rain, which sometimes falls
in heavy showers, easily h'nds its way off. This, it is obvious,
is prevented by making the site of the dunghill or barn yard
high at the edges, with a hollow in the middle. The bottom of
this basin, let it be remembered, must be impervious to wet
An excellent way to. prevent the volatile parts of the dung
from being exhaled by the sun, or carried off by the wind, is,
to cover the heap with a layer of tenacious clay, loam, marl,
peat, swamp or pond muck, mixed more or less with gypsum
or powdered charcoal, which will " fix" the amm nia produced
by the nitrogen present in the manure, and thereby prevent
its escape. When thus covered, fermentation, or decomposi-
tion, M U progress more slowly and more uni!<rinly, and con-
HOMESTEAD MANURES. 876
sequently the ammonia will be more gradually evolved and
retained.
Another method which has been recommended, and prac-
tised to a limited extent, is, to preserve the manure under cover
by erecting a roof over the barn yard or dung pit, which, it
must be conceded, would retain the natural moisture in the
manure, promote decomposition, and prevent loss from exhala-
tion from the wind or sun, and from the washings of rains.
But this method is so expensive that only a few will adopt it,
unless the benefits are more obvious than the assertions of those
wno recommend it. And besides the expense, it must likewise
be attended with more or less inconvenience ; for instance, in
some situations, it would be difficult to prevent too much water
from running into the pit, and quite as difficult to carry out the
dung.
In all cases, however, where this plan is adopted, tht dung
pit or barn yard should have a firm water-proof bottom, roofed
over sufficiently to ward off the sun, rain, and snows, and be
amply ventilated at the sides, in order to afford fresh air to the
stock. For, it has been found by experiments, that, animals
thrive quite as well under cover, thus ventilated, resting on
their own excrement, muck, straw, &c., as when confined in a
yard or fold in the open air.
The size and construction of a " stercorary," or covered barn
yard, may vary, according to the number of cattle it is 'to con-
tain, and the taste and means of the owner. As a general rule,
the space allotted to each animal should not contain less than
70 square feet, with a bed of littei and muck 3 fe'et deep. The
plan I would prefer to adopt is shown by figs. 19 and 20, be-
ing 20 feet wide, and allowing 7 feet in length for each pair of
animals. First, a pit may be dug, 20 feet wide, varying in
length, according to the number of the herd, and from 2 fret
to 2$ feet deep, the bottom of which may be covered with
small stones, laid in mortar or cement, similar to tliose used
in paving streets. Next, a row of posts, 10 or 12 feet long ana
8 inches in diameter, may be set in the ground, 10 feet a pun.
376
COMPOSITE AND
on each side of the pit, with their top ends rising 8 feet above
the pavement, or about 6 feet above the surface of the ground,
for the purpose of supporting the roof. Then, a water-tight
wall or curb may be constructed entirely around the sides and
ends of the pit, formed of masonry or wood work, rising about
3 feet above the pavement, or 1 foot above the ground, with the
exception of the gateways, which should be left a little higher
than the surface, in order to admit the free passage of animals
and carts. To the top of each row of posts, there should be
spiked or framed, a plate of wood, 6 by 8 inches, just 20 feet
apart, from outside to outside, for supporting the end^ of the
FIG. 19.
rafters. The pitch of the roof may be 7 feet, requiring rafters
4 by 6 inches, and 12£ feet in length, a pair of which should
be spiked to the plates, once in every 10 feet. To the top
of the rafters, there should be confined a ridge pole, 3 by 3
inches; and one small purlin on each side of the roof. The
latter may be covered with rough boards, 13 feet in length, with
their ends projecting 6 inches at the eaves, and the cracks cov-
ered with battens 3 inches in width. The gable ends should
also be covered with boards, which may be perforated with
holes for the passage1 of pigeons into and out of cotes hull:
HOMESTEAD MANURES.
377
for their use. The roof should likewise be provided with sad-
dle boards on the top, weather boards at the gable ends, and
gutters at the eaves, for the better security of the manure from
washing by rains.
At each end of the stercorary, there should be a gate suf-
ficiently wide to admit the passage of a cart load of muck or
manure ; and around the remainder of the ends and the sides,
narrow strips of plank or rails should be nailed to the posts,
so as to form a substantial barrier, or fence, in order to keep
the cattle within. The whole building may be covered with
coal tar, paint, or any other material ; or it may be otherwise
preserved and ornamented, in such a manner as the caprice or
ingenuity of the owner may invent or devise.
FIG. 20.
On the sunny side of the stercorary. about 5 feet from the
posts, fruit trees may be planted, which will not only prove or-
namental, but afford both fruit and shade.
If the system of soiling, or stall-feeding, is wished to be pur-
sued, racks and mangers can be constructed at the sides of the
inclosure, and the cattle can be confined the principal part of
the day, as well as at night, and thus effect a saving of almost
a double quantity of manure. The pit, when empty, should be
filled with dried peat, muck, or swamp mud, and littered with
straw, refuse hay, weeds, or fallen leaves. As ihcso substances
become decomposed and mixed with tin; uriii'' ;md < xci-emcnl
378 COMPOSITE AND
of the animals, more may be added, from lime to time, in a dry
or pulverised state, with occasionally a sp -inkling of powdered
plaster, or charcoal dust, but never of ii»od ashes nor caustic lime.
Those who are unable to incur the expense of a sterco'-ary
like the foregoing, can form a pit 3 feet deep with a dry bot-
tom, which may be covered by a roof of rough poles, supported
by posts set in the ground, thatched with straw, refuse hay,
corn stalks, or the boughs of trees.
With proper management, in the course of a year, if kept un-
der cover, a consolidated mass of manure, 3 or 4 feet in thickness,
may be accumulated, which will cut out like a good dung heap,
and be fit to apply to the land at once; whereas, in open yards,
a great proportion of the fertilising salts wash out by rains,
and evaporate by the sun. There is economy and comfort, also,
in keeping everything dry ; and besides, it does away with the
necessity of removing the manure into heaps, and the expense
of water carts and tanks; for the liquid portions of the manure
are just sufficient to moisten and decompose the muck, straw,
weeds, and other absorbent materials, with which they are
mixed. By this means, the whole of the excrement may be
applied to the land, and experience has shown that the crops
will grow better than when the manure has been washed.
CHIP DUNG— SCRAPINGS OF BACK YARDS
IN many parts of the country, where wood is much used as
fuel, fragments of bark, chips, saw dust, &c., accumulate in
considerable quantities, and, while undergoing the process of
decomposition, absorb or become mixed with more or less ni-
trogen and other fertilising matter, and form an excellent ma-
nure for all kinds of soil.
In some parts of New England, this substance and the
scrapings of back yards are collected and applied in the hill for
manuring the white bean. It is also used as a top-dressing for
old grass lands, at the rate of 2,000 to 3.000 bushels to the acre,
for which it answer? un admir.uiie :>u 'i'o;<'.
HOMESTEAD MANURES. 379
LOAM, ROAD SCRAPINGS, GARDEN RUBBISH, ETO.
THE ditches and hollows along road sides, as well as those in
the neighborhood of farm buildings, and the holes and hollows
at the foot of hills are generally partially or entirely filled with
rich loam, which will amply compensate the farmer, if he will
cart it to his barn or pig yards, where it will soon become
mixed with the urine and dung of the animals, and thereby
form an excellent manure for almost all kind of crops.
Road scrapings, also, which consist of the dung dropped by
horses and teams in the high ways, and washed into the ditches
and hollows by rains and melted snows, as well as the leaves
and rubbish scraped out of the paths or alleys of gardens, and
the sods or turf of road sides, or the corners of fields are ex-
cellent materials for making composts; and if they are rich
in animal or vegetable matter, they may be collected into
heaps, allowed to ferment and rot, and applied as a top-dress-
ing to grass lands, at the rate of 3,000 bushels to an acre.
MUD.
MUD is a well-known black or dark-colored sediment, found
at the bottom of ponds, rivers, ditches, and sunken places, and
diners from " muck," (which is understood to mean a mass of
decaying or putrified matter in a moist state,) in consisting
chiefly of a fine vegetable mould, mixed with the substance of
perished vegetables ; and, therefore, contains much of the
natural food of plants. There are several varieties of mud,
which may be classified and described as follows : —
Dock Mud. — The richest mud, perhaps, that can be found, is
that which is taken from docks, and from the sides of wharves
in cities and populous towns. For it has been greatly enriched
by the scouring of foul streets, and from common sewers, as
well as from an unknown quantity of animal and vegetable
substances, accidentally or intentionally thrown into the place-?
where it is found
380 COMPOS TE AND
When newly taken out, this mud may be spread upon grass
lands as a top-dressing, at the rate of 2,000 bushels to an acre ;
but if it is to be plowed into the soil, it should first lie exposed
to the frost of one winter, or it may be worked over by the an-
imals in the barn or pig yards a few weeks before it is used.
This will destroy its tenacity, and reduce i. to a fine powder,
after which, it may be spread or applied like ashes. But if it
be plowed into the soil before it has been mellowed by frost,
it will often remain in lumps or clods for some months, and
consequently be of little advantage to the crops.
River and Pond Mud. — In ponds and rivers, the mud, or sedi-
ment, is often made up of fine dust, together with a rich vari-
ety of other substances which have been wafted in the air, and
have fallen into the water, and with the most subtile particles
of the neighboring soils that have been washed down into
them by rains. The mud supposed to be the richest is that
which is at or near the margins, and which has been alter-
nately flooded and fermented in consequence of the rise and
fall of the waters.
In rivers, brooks, and in long ditches, which have currents,
there is a greater proportion of soil in the mud which has
been brought down from the sort mellow lands adjacent ; and
in some cases from beds of marl that are often found on the
banks of rivers, and which easily dissolve, and are washed
away by rains.
Some ponds are partially or totally dried up at certain sea-
sons of the year, and most ponds and rivers are so diminished
in hot, dry summers by copious evaporation as to leave part
of their beds uncovered, which are generally found to contain
a rich mud, extending in some cases to a considerable depth,
especially where there has been no rapid current to carry it
away. This mud, although taken from fresh water, has often
been found to be a valuable manure, especially for dry sandy
and gravelly soils. A sample of mud, however, taken from a
pond by Col. Robert W. Williams, of Tallahasse, in Florida,
from which the water haJ been evaporated, and analysed by
HCMESTEAI MANURES. 381
Dr. Thomas Antisell, of Now York, gave the following re-
suits : —
Per cent.
Moisture, 6.75
Vegetable matter, 17.15
Silica and fine white sand, 06.40
Alumina, 7.75
Carbonate of lime, 0.93
Magnesia, 0.53
Saline matter, soluble in water, as common salt and ) n ,n
sulphate of lime, j u-4a
100.00
When dry, this mud consisted of a dark-colored substance,
readily crumbling under the finger, and containing a small
quantity of undecomposed rootlets scattered throughout. Not-
withstanding fds of its weight were composed of fine white
silicious sand, darkened by vegetable matter, it is stated by
Col. Williams that he has used i't with considerable advantage
as an absorbent in his cattle yards and pens, and also as a
foundation to his compost heaps. It derives its fertilising prin-
ciples from the vegetable and some other matters of value,
which amount in the aggregate to about 19 per cent. It would
otherwise be serviceable to stiff clayey lands in rendering them
more porous, but to light sandy soils in which silica abounds,
it would be of no avail.
The mud from frog ponds, or "sink holes," as they are some-
times called, which have no visible outlets, is oftentimes very
rich in fertilising salts, derived from the excrement and exuviae
of the frogs and other reptues that have been bred, lived, and
died in these places.
When a dry autumn happens, the prudent farmer will be in-
dustrious in carting the mud from these evaporated ponds or
other sunken places on his farm, and lay it upon his light soils,
more especially upon high gravelly knolls. But the best
method of managing all sorts of mud, were it not for increasing
the labor, would be to bring it to the farm and pig yards, and
let it be thoroughly mixed with the dung and urine of the ani-
383 COMPOSITE AND
mals. When thus managed, the compost is excellent, and is
adapted to almost every class of soils, though best for light
ones. Perhaps the advantage of it would be sufficiently great
to pay for the increased expense of twice carting; for it will
absorb the urine of the cattle, and retain it better than straw
or refuse hay.
Salt-Marsh and Sea Mud. — But with respect to using mud as
a manure, the maritime farmers have the advantage over all
others. For the sea ooze, or slimy matter, which occurs on the
flats or in the creeks and harbors along the sea shore, possesses
most, if not all, the virtues of fresh-water mud, with the addi-
tion of the common salt it contains, which is one of the most
important ingredients in the best of manures. It abounds, also,
more than any other mud, perhaps, with putrid animal sub-
stances, some of which are contained in the sea itself; and in-
numerable are the fishes and fowls that have perished upon
these flats, from time immemorial, and the component parts of
their remains have been sealed down by the supervenient slime.
Mud taken from flats and the borders of creeks, where there
are an abundance of shell fish, or even where they have for-
merly lived, is better for manure than that which appears to be
more unmixed. The fragments or remains that exist among
it are a valuable part of its composition ; and if it abound
much in mussels or shells, it becomes a general manure, fit to
be applied to almost every kind of soil.
The mud, also, taken from the ditches in salt marshes, as
well as that cut or excavated from the marsh itself, are other
sources from which the farmer often times can obtain an abun-
dance of materials lor fertilising his land. Salt mud, of all
kinds, may be taken up at any season of the year, and if it
does not contain much vegetable remains, it may be employed
as a top-dressing for grass lands, at once, without any further
preparation ; but if it is to be applied to tillage or hoed crops,
it should be composted in the farm yards, or exposed for one
winter to the action of frost. The quantity, to be appropriated
to an acre may vary from 2,000 to 3,000 bushels. If it contaip
HOMESTEAD MANURES. 383
much vegetable matter, it may be composted with uicklime.
and applied to the soil or to the crops after an interval of a few
weeks, or as soon as it is sufficiently decomposed.
PIGYARD MANURE.
IN the construction of a piggery, three important requisites
are to be observed, namely, convenience, cleanliness, and econ-
omy or facility of making manure. In the selection of a site
for such an establishment, it should be located, if possible, on
a gentle declivity, in order that one side of the yard may be
kept free from moisture or excess of water from rains or melt-
ing snows. On the lower side of the yard, a shed may be
erected for a day sty, or " eating house," facing a northerly
point of the horizon, with the roof sloping towards the south,
so that the rain may not run into the yard among the manure;
and directly opposite, on the other side of the yard, another
shed may be built, facing the south, for a night sty, or " lodging
house," with the roof leaned back from the yard towards the
north, in order to prevent the rain, as much as possible, from
running into the manure.
The yard should be well paved, so that nothing can soak into
the ground, in order that the dung, urine, and water from the
clouds may mix with whatever may be thrown in, and would
thus form one grand slope, the lower side and ends of which
should have a tight wall or barrier, to prevent the loss of ma-
nure from the washing of rains, &c.
Thus, in fig. 21 and fig. 22, A, A, denote the " lodging house,"
12 feet by 20 feet; s, s, &c., the sleeping apartments, 5 feet by
5 feet each; d, a door leading into the walk, or passage way A,
through which a person can enter to examine the hogs, change
their litter, &c.; e, a door for the egress of the hogs from their
lodgings into the pasture, eating apartment, or yard ; c, a
wooden platform, or bridge, leading from the more elevated
ground into the "eating house," for the convenience of carry-
ing in food ; d, a door leading into the walk, or pnssnge way h.
384
COMPOSITE ANT>
communicating with the spouts of the troughs ; t, l, &c., he
troughs, near which is a grated or latticed floor, sufficiently
open to be kept dry, sweet, and clean, and allowing all the ex-
crement and filth to fall into the yard beneath ; e, a door for
the egress of the hogs from their eating apartment into the
pasture, lodging apartments, or yard, over a bridge or inclined
FIG. 21.
plane, to the mure elevated ground ; y, the yard, with a paved
bottom sloping from the lodging house to the wall w, under the
lower side of the eating house ; P, a pasture, orchard, or pad-
dock, communicating with the eating and lodging apartments,
or with the yard.
p F .e.
y
h
d
FIG. 22.
Whatever be the mode of construction of the sty, it should
have one part close and warm, with a tight roof over it; and
the other part, containing their troughs, more or less open tc
let in the light and air; for swine will not bear to be wholly
excluded from the weather and sunshine ; and it is equally
hurtful to them to be constantly exposed to the wet and cold,
as well as to the intense heat from the sun. They should be
HOMESTEAD MANURES. 385
allowed to run at large in a pasture, paddock, or orchard dur-
ing a portion of the year. To prepare a pasture for them, let
the ground be broken up, tilled, and manured, and then laid
down with clover. For swine are more fond of this grass than
of any other. Let the quantity of land be so proportioned to
the number of hogs, that they may keep the grass from run-
ning to seed. For this will prevent waste ; and the shorter the
feed, the sweeter the herbage, and the more tender and agree-
able to their taste. One acre of rich land is considered suffi-
cient to support 20 or more swine through the summer, say
from the first of May till the last of October.
It should also be remembered, that the pasturing with swine
will enrich the land more than by pasturing or soiling with
other stock, and by this means, the profit of the farmer will be
increased. When it can with convenience be so ordered, it
is an excellent plan to make a hog pasture of an orchard. For,
the shade of the trees will be very grateful and comfortable
to them in summer ; their dung is allowed to be one of the best
of manures for the apple ; and besides, they will keep the
ground around the roots very light and loose, and they will
destroy many insects that infest the trees or their fruit. It will
also be of great advantage to a hog pasture to have plenty of
water in it during the summer ; and that which is running
is best, as it will afford the swine the most wholesome drink
and at the same time will serve as well as any other for them
to wallow in; and it will keep them clean, which is no small
advantage. But the most dirty puddle is better than none, as
they can cool themselves in it in hot weather, which is very
refreshing to them, and conducive to health.
A piggery constructed according to the foregoing plan will
form a safe and economical receptacle for the dung and urine
of the animals, together with whatever may be thrown in
among them. The refuse of the garden, or other waste matter,
as bean stalks, the cods of beans and peas, weeds, dried plants,
as well as dried peat, swamp or pond muck, loam, and other
earthy materials, thrown in from time to tim?, will please the
17
386 COMPOSITE AND HOMESTEAD MANURES.
hogs, which they will work over, and produce a quantity of
manure many times greater than naturally would be made
from the same number of swine. This may be cleared away
as often as may be necessary, aru' used as an excellent dress-
ing for the land, as there may be occasion, throwing in fresh
matter in return.
SEWERAGE.
THE nature and properties of this substance are similar to
DOCK MUD, described in a preceding page.
STREET MANURE.
THIS consists of a mixture of animal, vegetable and earthy
matters, accumulated from the dung and urine of horses and
other animals, the dtbris of the pave stones, the rubbish of old
buildings, the garbage and sweepings of dwellings, stores,
warehouses, soot, coal ashes, &.c., &c. Therefore, it necessarily
must vary in its fertilising ingredients according to the part of
the city or town from which it is taken, and the circumstances
under which it is accumulated.
The manure, for instance, collected in the lower part of the
city of New York, where the streets have been paved for a
number of years, and where the manure is derived principally
from the excrement of horses, the sweepings of stores and
warehouses, the ashes and soot of coal, and the fine-worn par-
ticles of the pave is far richer in fertilising ingredients than
that taken from the more recently graded street's in the upper
parts of the same city, where it often consists of little else
than fine particles of common earth or ordinary sand, that had
been employed in grading the streets.
Street manure is often used to lighten stiff lands, but it is
found to have excellent effects on the loamy and sandy soils
of Long Island, when applied at the rate of 10 to 20 cords to
an acre, and appears to be fitted for almost any kind of field
or garden crop. It may be employed as a top-dressing, or may
be buried in the soil
SPECIAL MANURES.
SPECIAL MANITRES— THEIR RATIONALE AND APPLICATION.
Ji Y the term " special manures," is meant those substances,
which, when applied to a soil, tend to promote the growth and
perfection of plants, in supplying them with such nutriment as
that soil may be deficient, and, on the removal of crops, or ro-
tation of crops, to leave it in the same normal state of fertility
as it was previous to the application of the manure or the sow-
ing of the seed.
It has long been known that plants, besides the organic mat-
ter of which their bulk is composed, contain a small per-cent-
age of mineral matter, that remains as an ash when the veg-
etable part of the plant is burned. From the constant and
universal existence of this mineral matter in all plants, it is
now conceded by all intelligent agriculturists, that it is essen-
tial to their growth, and has convinced them of the truth of the
following axiom : —
That the theory of manures consists in applying to the soil those
inorganic constituents which are contained in the ashes of the plants
intended to be cultivated ; and that nitrogen or nitrogenous substan-
ces, in the form of nitrates or ammonia and its salts, is indispensable
to insure permanent fertility, assimilation, and perfect growth.
For, careful experiments have demonstrated the fact, that,
whilst differen' plants, and oven the several parts of the same
388 SPECIAL MANURES.
plant, afford, when burned, variable proportions of ash, in the
same parts of the same species, the quantity of ash does not
vary to any extent, or at all events, that the difference is by no
means so great as that occurring in different plants or other
parts of the same plant. Thus, for instance, in two samples of
wheat, the quantity of ash 3rielded by the straw, the grain, and
the chaff of each might be somewhat dissimilar, but the differ-
ences would be trifling as compared with those which would
be found to exist between the ash of these parts in wheat and
that of the corresponding parts of barley.
Furthermore, not only has the quantity of inorganic matter
been found to be nearly constant in the same plant, but its
quality, or chemical composition, although widely varying in
different plants, has been proved to be exceedingly similar for
the same part of the same species of plants.
The ashes of all our cultivated crops always contain the fol-
lowing chemical ingredients; —
Silica,
Phosphoric acid,
Sulphuric acid,
Li mo,
Magnesia,
Oxide of iron,
Potash,
Soda,
Chlorine.
In addition to the above-named substances, the ashes of plants
frequently contain carbonic acid united with bases, sometimes
the oxide of manganese, and according to some authors, alu-
mina; but on the latter point, chemists do not agree. It is cer-
tain that the substances stated to be alumina by the older an-
alysts, and found in the course of their analyses of the ashes
of plants, was in reality nothing but the phosphate of lime.
The opinion that potash, in many cases soda, lime, magnesia,
pnosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, iron, and alkaline silicates are
ingredients of a fertile soil, when applied for the production
of the cereals, or that these substances, alone, with certain con-
stituents, which exist more or less abundantly in the a
SPECIAL MANUKES. 389
phere. constitute the food of plants, and are as essential to them
as bread and meat is to man, or ha^ and grain to horses, is not
the expression of a mere theory, but of a natural law, or uni-
versal fact. For, to such persons as thoroughly understand the
scope and bearing of such a law of nature, another indisputable
axiom is apparent as a matter of course :
That a man must be reduced to poverty, who consumes his capital
instead of the interest, which coincides with the familiar truth,
that " a purse of money becomes empty when the money is
taken out of it, and not returned." Plants, therefore, must ob-
tain from a soil, or the manures applied to it, as well as from
the atmosphere, a certain number of elements, if they are to
be developed and to thrive upon that soil.
The volatile parts of plants thrown off by combustion or de-
composition consist of
Carbon,
Hydrogen,
Oxygen,
Nitrogen,
Phosphorus,
Water.
Their carbon is probably derived from the atmosphere, which
always contains carbonic acid ; from water, which reaches the
plant in the form of rain, dew, frost, snow, &c., as, in their de-
scent from the clouds to the earth, the rain drops and snow
flakes always brings down portions of the carbonic acid of
the atmosphere ; from the seed after it is sown, which also con
tains carbon in itself; and lastly, from the soil and manure
in which it is grown, in the form of carbonate of lime, mag-
nesia, and the alkalies — in the form of decaying vegetable and
animal matter, as well as of free carbonic acid.
The hydrogen of plants is probably derived from the atmos-
phere, which always contains more or less watery vapor ; from
water, which is conveyed to the plants in numerous ways; from
the seed, after it is sown, which contains hydrogen in itself;
and from the soil and manure, which contain many minerals
that hold water of crystallisation or in a state of chemical com-
bination.
390 SPECIAL HAXURES.
The oxygen of plants is probably derived from the atmos-
phere, in a free state, in combination with carbon, as carbonic
acid, and in combination with hydrogen, as water; from water;
from the seed after sowing ; and from the soil and manure in
which they grow.
The nitrogen of the plants is probably derived from the at-
mosphere, which contains it in a free state, as well as a small
proportion of the carbonate of ammonia; from water, which
always contains more or less both of carbonate and nitrate of
ammonia, derived from the atmosphere ; from the seed after it
is sown ; and from the soil and manure, which often, if not al-
ways, contain ammonia, that they have absorbed from the
atmosphere, and also ammonia, which has been derived from
decomposition of nitrogenous substances, as the breath, efflu-
via, and excrements of animals, as well as other decaying veg-
etable and animal remains, which are more or less dispersed
over the surface of the globe.
The sulphur and phosphorus of the plants are also probably
derived from the atmosphere, which contains traces of sulphur-
eted and phosphoretcd hydrogen ; from water, which indi-
rectly supplies sulphur, by decomposing the sulphurets of the
metals; from the seed after sowing, which also contains both
sulphur and phosphorus; and lastly, from the soil and ma-
nures, which usually, if not always, contain sulphur in the
form of sulphates and sulphurets, and phosphorus, in the form
of phosphates.
The amount of inorganic matter, in pounds and hundredths
of a pound, removed from the soil of an acre by the staple
crops of the United States, is denoted in the following tables,
deduced principally from the labors of Professors Way and
Ogston, of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, Mr.
John C. Morton, editor of the London "Agricultural Gazette,"
and of the "Cyclopedia of Agriculture," Professor J. F. W.
Johnston, of England, Professor Emmons, in the " Natural His-
tory of the State of New York," and of Professor Shephard, o'
the University of South Carolina : —
SPECIAL MANURKS.
391
t-. >•>
o .
il
?!
~
«l
tf a
n fee
2
/^ bo
o ^
o a
So
o
to O
¥ ^
MH pg
QJ -j
32 —3
,5, -S
Is
11
gi
g 3
A
fi
•mnissruiod
jo epuojqo
S 1 1
1
18
c5
ll
s
co'
OO
3
o'
•uiuipos
jo epuoiqo
II !
1
0?
IS
o
11
CO
ED
o o
o ~
O IO
§ ^
•eunowo
^1 1
1
».».
•>.
».».
ev.
C-C-.
- 1
- •§
O 00
00 <^ H
S
s
o
0
§ =
o
0
Sg
s §
T3pOg
^10-
c>
« 1
o'si
e>.-H
of a
3
M^s
SI
Ol 00
OO
8s
S | i =
CO W
qsBjOJ
CO
05 si
S 2?5
a
•UO.Il JO
opixo-.ioj
£00
o
-S
st
§2
o si
S °^
SI C -^-
0 g
~- 0"
OO
B-r-o
[~
si in J^
= = 2
S2
§ ^
nisauSBjv
=('^' | C
coo
=1
-r f | x 5
.000
cc
cr. si
§5 io
s§
3 'S
'OIUIT
5 -4 1-'
CD
o in
to
C»ci
,<j _S
"~*
r^
*"*
" -c
c
•ppe ounqd[ng
1 1 2
i
«co
s<
^5
00
0
o'rf
a
•sajBqdsoqd
^^
B-
o
iqi-reg
•piOB otjoqdsoqj
^ c; "»
o
ot o
3
§53
1
gs
00 (0
CO c^~
•o^
s»
o
0
SS
?>
55 g
55 g
•BOJIM
S-|
o
000
o
si
o
slo
-r ro
2 —
•OJOTJ jod spunod
,;Sg
g
II
s
11 1
3S
O I
nnonpo-ij si of «f
=5'
-.TT
in
sfco rf
cfc-r
m £
u
^
O
§
I
6< H
OJ 43
' — u
"o
H
o
«
"3
g
rt a
° 0
H
"S 03
rt —
W °
1
H fc
rt -o
it
5
3
>a
e-
a%
'5 £
•3 g
'a g
C555
Uaa
w J
Oco
I
392
SPECIAL MANURES.
S ^
3 S
£g
as S8 "3 — "3 "2 "^
Prof Eminons.
Also contiiin-
ed 1 83 Ibs. of
or^iinic matter
mid magnesia in
the stalks.
Morton and
Prof. Johnston.
£ £E § llj
jo opuouo
| 1 1 I I! " \ 1 1 j
-r
d
«9p
1'
SJ
II
1
1 ! 1
1
•mnipos
jo opuomo
1— — i-
,.^
~
1 1 I
1
— i OOJ O t-- ^"«
„; co o< T. s'. o ^ — •_ o ^
CO -J
-T O
on
S
1 1 I
I
•upog
c* ** o; o ^f ^P co QO
^ — 1- O SI — < "A O •*
^•^Ot^cico* UJtNO
o •*'
|
S<5<§{
33
•UO.Il JO
9pixo-48<f
mt-at-o oo s> •* |£<
gJCltoOUOf- CiCDtO ICO
O C".
1
I- O Ci
co d ».o
1
^2 -r d i-< irf a» °" — si nf
S
u ^
CO
S
OHO
OOi-i
S
« °fc" °
-.,«*.,,
,5 W 0 S S§ S 0 « ?» §»
82
-
cidto
s
2
•O-.OOOrt^OOO 0
•auitq
^2§SS5 S2g?
1-
ri
O 1-H
„' dd-i
.aoo^-,0^000
•pioo ounqd[ng
"^ CO CO M O i^- fj( 51
^{•-CCC*3d*T (^ — t— (
,Q C* 0* t-' X: -0 ^ n 0 C
^s
S ,««
ct low
5
,*££
||lp|v-p^ 1
32
3
~^.
•pp« ououdsoqj
to
"c-c^o^c-c^-^-c-c^*1-
— '
q
^^
OO'-H
to
•»n
•S-SSS §SS
ss
S
OOO 1O
CO *-«
i
•-* C3 OD C(
g
rt-H
•o.rai; j,»I gpnnod
ui piipojj
ll
1
§§
Ssf
8
1
OOO
i
i
1
r
PLANTS OR PARTS or
PLANTS.
c :::.:::.:
3
f-
1 Broom Oorn.
I Brush and seeds,
i Stalks,
1
IRice (lowland).
Grain,
i Husks,
Straw,
Indian Oorn (Fli
Kernels,
Tiissels,
Stalks,
Sheaths,
Leaves,
Silks
Husks,
<>*s,
Pith of cobs,
SPECIAL MAI- fRES.
393
CDC;
So
OtN
sss
82
•ft
??3
3 5
•o S
25
cx,
H:I
~ 3:2.2 .
of
sss
0 | L-i
r- tO— I O
o o o
•^ o -^
•»!-< O
O O O | O
o' si in x
sss §
3 i I
17*
394
SfECIAL MANURES.
i
^
^
H M
j
3)
>
q
i?
!?
!
P ^
,
S
-*
•*•
01 -
S s
-
,2
O*
i
o
SJ
s a
E
12
§
£^
w
B o
i
i
CO
0
i
o
f
i
•°5 •<
4
£
BH
£
•uinissujod
jo op'i.io[i|0
1" 1
~
a
8*8
"C CO O
1
1
1
1
•uinipos
;o opuomo
5 1 1
1
3
ci
"P
1
1
si?
Ss<
•5
1
-MOnO
S" I
„
r.
,.,-,.
,.
-
,.,.
^
•BpOg
—
-
1
1 1 1
1
1
II
i
-83
=
ISi
i
R
i- tp
00 S
— <
•qsBjOd
£00—"
O
gj
^i-jj
x>
?5
r. 11
5^
— •<
2
o
o
•uo.it jo
4»- i
2^8
1
R.
S-'fi
"
opixo-j.ij
3 1
— < — — <
"
t^. fjl
S
03
S
3
?!-?.
S
g
CO —
'": ~
o
«isa BW
s0"*
O
O)
00 55"
S
uu
S
•31UI1
iP
to
[•;
|| S
30
o
11
tj
1
T'^S
8
$
SS§
S
S
'-.'!
?5
ppsounu ing
£0=5
0
>o
0)00«
2
S
S
•s#|Eiidsoqd
*~.^
p*
OH
G~ c^ C-.
,.
3...
0- '
•plOB ouoqdsonjj
jii
s?
S
g§2
1
OJ
§
CO ^
S
°*
<N
£3
»«
2
a
SSi
S
S
c22
n
i
!!!&
— 1
£2
££2
2
00 00
s
•OJDB .ti)d spunod
ui pnpojj
Ip
1
o"
Us
!
•v
II
o
k.
£
O
OS
2 g
H "*
Cotton.
"3
3
H
ugar Cane.
o : :
W : :
f
<u
c
m
2
1
w
C of
o
a.
•3" O
a> O
,4>>
J2
1
ft) li
111
0
it*
'K
SPECIAL MANURES.
395
Prof. Emmons.
i
:
[
*
t
5
i ,
i
5
Prof. Emmons.
a o^i
!S
j
S
3
( — '
5 a
5,) meadow bar-
I
*-
~~
„
*.„
B .
*• st I
8
et
~
1
'1
—
•5 "w
-
i-
T
ri
,-^
§
- gr
-.
a
..
rf
K
o
-'
it
c-3
S
g§
OC U3
r2
%
S
coo
°°' ' °"S
X
||
1
51
u
o-. oi
g ' GgM
-. '
3
ca
2
ii
o
o
t-;
r5S
ft
S3
^ ?2 J?
S
5
S =
3
O r»>
P
gfi
%
S"
$. g£
i
g§
st
5 *"
-
-a
S
.^^
°" rfol
Sj
to
-
-
gg
^
o S
1
O Cl
1
ll
1: p
«
S3
§
§
O
ss
CO-
ei
ll
$
ii
i
'.o -r
25 ou
IT" 00 OO
« £§'
t-j
00
S
o
P5
5
•S 5
~
o'os
1
cn'o'
(O SO O
1
i
tD
II
CO
B *•
S
^^
».
p
^. c--^.
*^
,.
A
i
^
HtK
c-
1^2
s
^^
£si
1
ES
s
,.
ii.
1
1-
m
1
or-
to
S3 2
S ! O O
00 ' ^^ tjl
s
C)
cc
i
gli
i
H
is P
S-
SH'"
5
o o
II
i ' P
of |sf
a
£
sf
o
g
g
irf
OOD
i=g.
ou
cT
IB
1
I
(2
i 1
1 Potato.
Tubei-s,
Tops,
a
o
EH
1 Sweet Potato.
1 Tubers.
Leaves and stems,
' Total,
White Turnip.
Htilbs
Tops,
1
1 Drum-head Cabbage.
Whole plant,
1 Timothy.
Whole plant,
i
1 Meadow Hay.*
First crop,
i Second crop
03
1* Composed principally (
ley grass, (Hordcum pratcn
1
396 SPECIA-L MANURES.
From an inspection of the preceding tables, it will be obvi-
ous why it is that so much manure is required for the growth
of some of our cultivated plants, a heavy crop of potatoes, for
instance, by whieli the alkaline and earthy bases, as well as
phosphoric and sulphuric acids, are largely abstracted from the
soil, and which, it is evident, must be replaced, if the land is
to be retained in its fertility. In a like manner, these tables
may be made serviceable to the farmer by showing him how
many pounds of inorganic or mineral matter has been drawn
from an acre of land by each crop cultivated upon it. He
should not rest satisfied, however, with calculations made on
average crops, but apply them to individual cases on his own
farm.
In order to make an economical and judicious use of manure,
as especially applied to crops, three things are requisite to be
known:
1. The amount of inorganic or mineral ingredients abstracted
from an acre by an average yield of the class of plants designed
to be grown, as determined by chemical analysis
2. Accurate analyses to be made of the soil and subsoil, tak-
en from several parts of the field on which the crop is to be
planted or sown, so that one may be enabled to determine in
what ingredients the soil is deficient, and what quantity of such
ingredients is necessary to be added, in the form of a manure,
to produce an average yield of the crop or rotation of crops
intended to be cultivated.
3. The amount of fertilising matter contained in a given
quantity of the class of manures purposed to be employed,
determined by chemical analysis, and the quantity of such
manure that experience has pointed out as producing the most
economical and satisfactory results.
It must always be borne in mind, however, that the replace-
ment of mineral food, in the form of manure, must not be made
exactly in the form and quantity of the ingredients expressed
in the analysis. For, in the present state of science, it would
be premature to specify the exact manner in which the alkalies
SPECIAL MANURES. 39*7
and acids are combined in the plant. In the s .atements in the
tables deduced from chemical analysis, they are given sepa-
rately, though they never so exist in the natvral state of the
crops. Hence, the chemistry of Nature and of art are so differ-
ent, that a relationship can hardly be said to exist between
them; and in the processes of combustion and decomposition
Nature holds in scorn the attempts of man to follow her steps
by his utmost investigations, into the operations of the grand
laboratory of the universe. It has been said that the highest
excellence of art is to imitate the beautiful productions of Na-
ture ; but the chemist can only watch and slowly understand
the wonderful modes of her operations ; he can reduce the
materials, but not combine them ; and after the most minute
investigations, he remains comparatively in ignorance of the
ivondrous powers and means by which the vast variety of or-
ganic substances is produced. Recombination of the elements
exceeds the power of short-sighted. man. Sugar, for instance,
is a combination of charcoal and water, but the chemist cannot
form sugar from these elements, because he is unable to com-
mand the circumstances under which the materials come into
contact in the growth and maturity of the sugar cane.
Again, in examining the ash of different samples of wheat,
we find that there is an entire absence of some substances, or
that there are deviations in the proportions of the several in-
gredients, which, although they do not destroy the principle of
uniformity of composition upon which the whole interest of the
subject depends, but tend very materially to interfere with its
simplicity. If wheat, then, requires certain inorganic or min-
eral substances for its growth and perfection, why, it may be
asked, should it not always take up these bodies in the same
proportion and to the same amount? Why should one sample,
of wheat give an ash containing 40, and another an ash con-
taining 50 per cent, of phosphoric acid ? Why should the pot-
ash differ in two samples from 27 to 37 per cent. ? One. cer-
tainly, would not expect to find such an amount of difference
»n th;> composition of the ash of tl e same kind of plants; o>\ at
398 SPECIAL MANURES.
all events, he would naturally have looked for some evident
connection between the mineral matter and the variety of the
particular sample, which would appear, in the case of wheat
grain, to be absolutely without influence on the composition
of the ash.
On the other hand, the character of the soil does not much
affect the compositon of the ash; that is to say, the predomi-
nance of any particular substance in the soil does not cause it
to be present in greater amount in the ash. In one sample, for
instance, grown on magnesian limestone, the quantity of mag
nesia will be but a very little above the average, and by no
means so great as in several other specimens. Nor does the
ash of samples of wheat grown on chalk contain more lime
than when it has been the produce of a clayey or sandy soil.
It is a curious fact, too, that the larger the crop in any instance,
the smaller, in general, is the per-centage of ash in the grain.
In assigning a cause for this want of correspondence in the
composition of the ash of the same kind of plants, the follow-
ing arguments have been offered as affording a clue to it: —
" The grain of wheat is not homogeneous, but consists of tw .
mechanically distinct parts — the skin, or bran, and the flour;
and these two, again, are not themselves elementary vegetable
principles — the flour contains starch and gluten, sugar and
gum — the bran, woody fibre and nitrogenised bodies allied to
gluten. Now, it is quite possible that each one of these bodies
has an ash peculiar to itself, both in quantity and composition ;
and accordingly, as they exist, to a greater or less extent in the
grain, so will its mineral composition differ. As the bran con-
tains more mineral matter than the flour, a thick-skinned wheat
will give a greater quantity of ash than one having less bran.
And again, if gluten and starch have a different mineral con-
stitution, the flour of two wheats will be influenced in respect
to its ash by the relative proportion of gluten and starch which
it contains."
Thus it will be seen that we are comparatively in the dark
as to the best form in which to present the inorganic const it-
SPECIAL MANURES. 399
uents of a plant as food to that plant ; and to what extent that
food must be modified to meet the continued warmth of the sun
of the south, or of the cold short summers of the north, as well
as the great local differences in the quantity of rain, or in the va-
riations in our soil. It is obvious that the same manure will not
be equally adapted, as to quantity and the mode of applying it, to
Louisiana and Texas and to Canada and New England ; for a dif-
ference certainly must be made in the solubility and stimulating
natur <cf the ingredients of a manure intended to be used in each
of thewj sections. And lastly, we are in want of more minute in-
formal J OB — more actual -\nd well-tried experiments — than we at
present possess, as to the influence of special manures upon the
nature c the constituents >f all our cultivated plants. It is to be
regrettec therefore, that ihe limited knowledge I have at my dis-
posal presents me from entering into the subject at length ; but
all that I <8m do for the present, is, to offer the following remarks
and formula, or recipes, as applicable to several of our staple
crops, some af which are based upon strictly scientific principles,
while others have been derived from experience, or have proved
satisfactory ir their results, without the aid of modern science or
speciality of design : —
METHODS OF SUPPLYING- THE INGREDIENTS TO THE LAND
FOR THE FOOD OF A WHEAT CROP.
From the investigations of Professors Way and Ogston, of
the Royal Agricultural Society of England, it seems that silicia,
the first named substance in the tables, constitutes, on an average,
out of 28 samples of wheat, only S^ths per cent of ash, varying
between the limits of l^ths and 9T75'jths per cent.'
Phosphoric acid, the next body in the tables, is certainly the
most important of all the mineral ingredients of wheat, both
on account of the large proportion of it which exists in the
ash, and the very limited extent to which it usually is present
in soils. The ash of the grain of wheat contains a quantity
400 SPEC/AL MANURES.
of this substance, varying between 35 and 50 per cent, of its
weight. The largest amount removed in any crop examined
by the chemists before mentioned, was 22 Ibs., 5 oz.
Sulphuric acid is generally present in the ash of wheat,
though in small proportion. It does not exceed in any in-
stance 2 per cent., and is usually much less than this, the mean
quantity in the ash of the grain being fWhs of 1 per cent,
and the largest amount removed by an acre of wheat only
about i Ib.
Carbonic acid is an ingredient of the ashes of many plants ;
but in the composition of the ashes of the grain of wheat, it is
seldom met with. The presence of this acid in an ash indi-
cates the existence of organic acids combined with lime, &c.,
in the plant.
Lime is the next ingredient under consideration. The mean
quantity in the ash of the grain of wheat is S^-^ths per cent,
varying between 1-J- and 8 per cent. The largest amount re-
moved from an acre was rather more than 3^ Ibs.
Magnesia is a highly important constituent in the ash of the
grain of wheat, varying between 9 and 14 per cent. The larg-
est quantity of this substance in any crop examined was G Ibs.,
13 oz. to an acre.
Per-oxide of iron exists to a small extent in the ash of the
grain of wheat, its quantity varying between ^th of 1 per cent
and 3i per cent. The average proportion is yVVths of 1 per
cent , and the largest amount removed from an acre by the
grain, 1 Ib., 6 oz.
Next to phosphoric acid, is potash, the most considerable and
important of all the substances which exist in the ash of wheat.
In quantity, it varies between 27 and 37 per cent, the mean
of 26 samples being Sloths per cent. The largest quantity
removed by the grain of an acre was 14 Ibs.
Soda is an alkali scarcely ever entirely absent from wheat
but present only in small quantity. When compared with
potash, it usually varies between 1 and 5 per cent, but in one
instance, it reached as high as 9 per cent.
SPECIAL MANURES. 401
With regard to the conjecture that one alkali may be substituted
for another, s-uch an opinion certainly cannot be subst;u*ittted by
facts. At all events, it does not appear to be of usual occurrence,
If it be indifferent to the plant, whether the alkali furnished it
be potash, why should the quantity of the latter seldom ex-
ceed £th part of the former ? Again, in guano, we always have
an abundance of chloride of sodium, (common salt,) and other
salts of soda, and yet, in cases where guano has been applied
as a manure for wheat, the proportion of soda did not exceed
tho mean, which is 2T762ffths per cent.
Chlorine, in combination with sodium, (as common salt,) was
found by Professors Way and Ogston to be present only in
some two or three instances, and then in very minute quantity ;
and it is remarkable that, in the cases where it occurred, an un-
usually large proportion of oxide of iron was also present, as
if the same circumstances had led to the peculiarity in both
intances.
The absence of soda in any quantity, either as soda or as
common salt, both from the grain and straw, would seem in-
Compatible with the belief that common salt is a natural ma-
nure for wheat ; or rather, perhaps, it might be adduced as an
argument in favor of the theory which supposes the existence
of two distinct classes of manures — one serving as the food of
plants — the other assisting in preparing that food, or in effect-
ing some other desirable object in the amelioration of the soil.
In the first of these suppositions, common suit certainly can
have but little or no influence at all on wheat — it cannot serve
as food for the crop, because it is not required ; and the little
eoda existing in the ash, if essential, is always abundantly sup-
plied by the soil. Common salt probably owes its eincacy in
oart to the power which it possesses of absorbing and retain-
ing moisture— a tendency which would insure a certain, though
small supply of moisture to the roots in the diyest seasons. It
is also poisonous to the wire worm, and other depredators of
the crop.
From the pr>ced\ng observ uions, it may fair'iy be concluded,
402 SPECIAL MANURES.
that in whole numbers an average crop of wheat would remove
from the soil of an acre, in straw, chaff, and grain,
lb» ,
Silica, 84
Phosphoric acid, 20
Sulphuric acid, 4
Lime, • • • 8
Magnesia, 6
Per-oxide of iron, 1
Potash,... 23
Soda, H
Azotised matter, 386
Carbonised substances, as starch, 1,758
Of these substances, four may be considered as non-essentiala
in a practical point of view, namely, lime, per-oxide of iron,
soda, and carbonised matter, all of which, if the plant requires
them, it may readily obtain from almost any soil, with the ex-
ception of the latter, which, in part, may be derived from the
atmosphere • and, unless the soil is purely calcareous, the silica
may be dispensed with, as it would always exist in sufficient
quantity in the soil. In order to supply the other ingredients
we must employ a salt of potash, and one of magnesia, a phos-
phate and a sulphate of lime, and a due proportion of nitrogen
-•r ammonia, in a state capable of being assimilated by the
plants, purely calcareous soils excepted, which would require
a» alkaline silicate. The silica and potash can be most eco-
nomically supplied Vy means of unleached wood ashes., the
ashes of wood from soaper's waste, the silicate of potash, as it
is manufactured for agricultural purposes, and by New-Jersey
green-sand marl ; the phosphoric acid, by horn shavings, ivory
dust, the various formt of bone manure, either calcined or un-
burned, or by the new miweral phosphorite ; the sulphuric acid,
oy gypsum, the sulpha; es of potash, and magnesia, or sulphatea
bones (bones dissolved in sulphuric acid) ; the magnesia, if it
does not already exist in sufficiency in the soil, by magnesian
lime or marls, or sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salts) ; and the
azotised matter from nitrogen or ammonia, in their various
forms, as the nitrate of lime ind of soda, gas lime, the ammo
SPECIAL MANURES. 403
niacal liquor of gas works, bituminous coal dust, and from many
of the animal and homestead manures treated of in other parts of
the present work.
The next grand object to be attained, is to substitute for guano
or farmyard manure, both of which contain the universal food of
plants, their elements, from the above-named sources, retaining at
the same time their full efficacy ; but this can only be done when
we shall have learned, what as yet, we know but imperfectly — that
is, how to give an arificial mixture of the individual ingredients
the mechanical form and chemical qualities essential to their recep-
tion, and to their nutritive action on the plant ; for, without this
form, they cannot perfectly supply the place of Peruvian guano>
nor of farm yard manure.
Considering this subject, then, in its various bearings, the fol-
lowing formulae, or recipes, are offered, together with such direc-
tions and explanatory remarks as may be necessary for afford-
ing the requisite nutriment to an acre of wheat, the land ueing
of fair quality, and in good condition as regards its aspect to
the sun, state of tilth, drainage, &., &c.
RECIPE No. 1.
(To be applied as a top-dressing.)
Us.
Take of Silicate of soda, '-J24
Bones, crushed or broken, 112
Oil of vitriol, (sulphuric acid,) 56
Sulphate of magnesia, 40
• Carbonate of potash, 35
The bones should be dissolved in the oil of vitriol, previously
diluted with an equal measure of water. When they become
thoroughly broken down, the sulphate of magnesia and car-
bonate of potash should be added, and the whole well stirred,
and left at rest for 24 hours. ^At the end of this time, the mix-
ture would probably be found sufficiently dry, when broken
up, to be distributed on the land; or, it might otherwise be
mixed with ashes or mould, in order to obtain a proper con-
dition to be sown. Two thirds of the silicate of soda, and id'
404 SPECIAL MANURES.
of the last-named mixture may be applied as a top dressing to the
young wheat plants very early in the spring ; but the remainder
of both should be reserved, and applied as late as practicable, in
order that they may be at the command of the plants as the ears
fill, and as the straw and chaff strengthen.
In many soils, such as stiiT silieious clays, and in all local-
ities where the soil is formed from granitic or other primitive
rocks, the addition of silicates would be an unnecessary outlay of
money ; but the other mixture is comparatively cheap, and would
in many cases more than remunerate the farmer, if not in the
crop of wheat which would follow, at least at some other period
of rotation.
RECIPE No. 2.
(To be applied as a top-dressing.)
Ibt.
Take of Bonedust, 200
Magnesian lime, (air-slacked,) 100
Wood ashes, (uuleached,) 900
Mix the three substances well together with an equal measurc
of coal ashes, powdered charcoal, fine loam, or common dry
earth, and sow uniformly over the field of young wheat in the
spring. In place of the unleached ashes, 400 Ibs. of leached may
be employed, or if more economical, 400 Ibs. of New-Jersey
green-sand marl.
RECIPE No. 8.
(To be applied to a neich/-ploiced grass sward or c clover ley.)
Ibs.
Take of Peruvian guano, 200
Gypsum, ground or burnt, 100
Common salt, 200
Mix the three well together with an equal quantity, by meas-
ure, of coal ashes, fine loam, or common dry earth. If more
convenient to the farmer, a bushel of powdered charcoal may
be substituted for the gypsum, the whole to be uniformly scat-
tered over the suiface of the field, just before plowing under or
harrowing ir the wheat seed. The spring and summer follow.
SPECIAL MANURES. 405
ing, a top-dressing may be added to the growing crops, prepared
agreeably to Receipes No. 1 or No. 2.
RECIPE No. 4.
To 'be applied to land not in grass, and somewhat worn.)
iis.
Take of Peruvian guano, 300
Gypsum, ground or burnt, 150
Common salt, 100
Incorporate tlie three ingredients well together 2i cords of
mould, or swamp or pond mack, to be lightly plowed in previous
to sowing the seed, after which the young wheat plants should be
top-dressed as directed in Recipe No. 3.
RECIPE No. 5.
(To be plowed in previous to towing the seed.)
Its.
Take of Peruvian guano, 100
Gypsum, ground or burnt, 100
Common salt, 100
First mix the gypsum and salt well together with 10 bushels
of «nleached ashes, or with 20 bushels that are leached, and 5
cords of mould direct from the woods ; let them remain in a
heap for 2 or 3 weeks ; then incorporate the guano with the
mixture, and spread it upon a field in tolerable condition, and
lightly plow it in before sowing the wheat seed. If more con-
venient or economical to the farmer, 1,000 Ibs. of New-Jersey
green-sand marl may be substituted for the ashes ; or instead
of the gypsum, a bushel of powdered charcoal may be used.
RECIPE No. 6.
(To be plowed in previous to sowing :he seed.)
Ibs.
Take of Peruvian guano, 100
Bonedust, 100
Gypsum, powdered or burnt, , 100
Common salt, MO
Soot, 100
Mix the whole well together with 20 bushel? of leached ashes?
and a cord of dried river or pond mud, and lightly plow it ii>
406 SPECIAL MANURES.
previous to sowing the seed. If more convenient, a busliel of
powdered charcoal may be applied instead of the gypsum ; or,
for the leached ashes l,0001bs. of New Jersey green-sand irarl
may be used.
RECIPE No. 7.
(To be plowed in previous to sowing the feed.)
lit
Take of Peruvian guano, IOC
Boned ust, 100
Gypsum, ground or burnt, 200
Salt bitterns, powdered, 100
Mix them well with a cord of dried river or pond mud, anu
lightly plow it under just before sowing the seed.
RECIPE No. 8.
(To prepare wheat seed for an acre — a remedy for smut.)
Take of Seed wheat, 1J to 2 bush.
Common salt, i pint.
Caustic lime, 1 quart.
On the evening previous to sowing, put the wheat into a tub
of a convenient size ; pour on a sufficient quantity of rain
water to cover the wheat 2 or more inches deep ; immediately
stir it with a large spatula or spade, and skim off the seeds of
weeds and light kernels of wheat as long as they rise to the
surface ; after which, the wheat should be carefully turned
out on the floor or some other suitable place, in order that the
water may be drained off. When this is done, pour another
or fresh parcel of clean water into the tub with the salt and
lime, which, by stirring, will soon dissolve ; then gradually
stir into the liquid the wheat seed with the spatula or spade,
and in this condition let all remain till the next morning, (say
12 hours,) when the watery part should be poured off, and the
wheat spread on the floor to drain dry, and immediately after
sown. If the kernels do not appear of a whitish color, or
coated with the lime, more of that material may be sifted upon
them, and the wheat stirred or worked over with a spade or a
hoe until sufficiently covered with it
SPECIAL MANURES. 407
Another remedy for the smut in wheat, is, after it is cleaned,
to form a brine by a mixture of salt and barnyard water,
strong enough to bear up an egg, in which the wheat seed
should be soaked from 12 to 24 hours ; then drain off the brine,
spread the wheat on the barn floor, scatter over it air-slacked
lime, and work the heap over with a shovel or hoe, until each
grain is covered with a white coat. The seed may then be
sown.
In either of the two last-named methods, no more seed should
be prepared than can be sown the same day ; otherwise, it
would heat and spoil.
RECIPE No. 9.
(j3 remedy for slug-* on toUHat.)
bushel*.
Take of Common salt, 1J
Wood ashes, (unleached,) 6
Mix and sow broadcast on the young wheat in the spring.
METHODS OF SUPPLYING THE REQUISITE INGREDIENTS
TO AN ACRE OF RYE.
THIS crop is generally consigned by the farmer to the poorer
class of soils of his fields, with the impression that it will grow
almost anywhere, in consequence of its sometimes producing
a fair yield on thin, light, sandy lands ; but rye, like all other
grain-bearing plants, depends upon the earth, not to the atmos-
phere, for most of its nutriment after the kernel begins to
form ; and if that nutriment does not already exist in the soil,
it must be artificially supplied. Yet, such soils as are dry and
musky, and consist of chalky, sandy or gravelly loams, which are
not able to maintain a crop of wheat, will produce a good crop
of rye.
Thus, by inspecting the tables, it will be seen that the pro-
portions of lime, potash, and phosphoric acid are not compara-
tively large, but that, from the great quantity of straw in a rye
crop, a considerable proportion of other ingredients are taken
408 SPECIAL MANURES.
away from the soil. Therefore, set it down as an established
principle, that rye cannot be grown except on a fertile soil, or
a poor one that has been manured. The amount of azotised
matter taken up by an acre of rye is estimated to be 243 Ibs. ;
that of carbonised substances, l,9i)4 Ibs.
The following methods of manuring an acre of this crop
have been adopted in various places, and have been attended
with satisfactory results: —
RECIPE No. 10.
(To lie plowed or harrowed in with the seed.)
Ibs.
Take of Peruvian guano, 900
New -Jersey green-sand marl, 1,000
r ,.-:;> 1 1 "ii salt, 50
Charcoal dust, 100
Mix the whole well together with double their bulk of fine
mould or dried mud, and scatter it broadcast over the field, and
lightly plow or harrow it in with the seed. If the green-sand
marl cannot conveniently be obtained, 10 bushels of ?mleached
Wood ashes, or 20 bushels of leached may be applied as a top-
dressing after harrowing in the seed.
RECIPE No. 11.
(To be plowed and harrowed in at the time of sowing,}
lb».
Take of Bonedust, 100
Common salt, 50
Gypsum, ground or burnt, 100
Cubic nitre, 100
Incorporate the bone dust and salt with 8 bushels of unleached
wood ashes, and lightly plow them in previous to sowing ; then
mix the gypsum and nitre with two bushels of ashes, sow it broad-
cast, as a top-dressing, and harrow it in with the seed.
RECIPE No. 12.
(To be plowed in previous to sowing the teed.)
Ibs.
Take of Menhaden, 1,000
Gypsum, ground or burnt, 100
Green-sand marl, — 600
Incorporate thorn with a cord of rich loam, dried peat,
SPECIAL MANURES.
swamp or pond muck, and, either plow in the mixture at
•16 or 20 days before sowing the seed, or let it lie in a heap for
the same length of time, and then spread it broadcast on the
field, and plow it in a day or two before sowing.
RECIPE No. 13.
(To prepare seed rye for an acre.)
Us.
Take of Saltpetre, 3
Air-slaked lime, (powdered,) 10
Put the saltpetre into 3 quarts of scalding water, and stir it
till dissolved, which will require less than 15 minutes ; let it
remain until it is cold ; sprinkle it over from 1 to 2 bushels of
rye, in a tub of a suitable size ; directly after, pour over as
much barnyard water, (an infusion of cow dung,) as will lie
above the seed 4 inches deep ; let it soak 4 hours ; then drain
off the liquor ; gradually stir in the lime until the kernels are
veil coated, and immediately sow.
METHOD OF SUPPLYING THE REQUISITE INGREDIENTS
TO AN ACRE OF OATS.
It will be seen from the tables that, in total inorganic ingre-
dients, oats abstract comparatively a large quantity from the
soil. The amount of phosphoric acid, however, is rather
smaller than that of wheat and barley, but in alkalies they are
nearly as rich. They also require less azotized matter as well as
carbonized substances to perfect their growth, the amount of
the former being about 298 Ibs. to an acre, and that of the latter,
1,675 Ibs.
A manure, or amendment, which has been found congenial
to this crop may be prepared and applied agreeably to the fol-
lowing directions . —
RECIPE No. 14.
(To lie plowed in previous to sowing the seed.)
Ibi
Take of Bonedust, 100
Gypsum, ground or burnt, 1 W
Comma; salt, , 50
18
SPECIAL MANURES.
Incorporate the whole well together with 10 bushels of UH-
leached wood ashes ; spread the mixture b ;oadcast over the
field, and harrow it in with the seed. If more "-onveninent,
500 Ibs. of New-Jersey green-sand marl may be sul Uituted for
the wood ashe«-
METHODS OF SUPPLYING- THE REQUISITE INGREDIENTS
TO AN ACRE OF BARLEY.
BY comparing the results in the tables, it will be seen that a
crop of barley removes more mineral matter from the soil than
a corresponding crop of wheat, with the exception of silica,
phosphoric acid, and magnesia, the potash and soda being
about the same. The amount of azotised matter taken up by the
crop is also rather more than that of wheat, and the carbonised
substances require more than double, the quantity of azotised
matter removed by an acre of barley being 397 Ibs., and that
of the carbonised substances 3,726 Ibs.
In Great Britain, it appears that the proper place for a crop
of barley, in a course of rotation, is after turnips, and before
rye grass and clover; and any departure from this mode upon
such soils as are especially adapted for its growth, (that is a
•andy or gravelly loam,) is thought to be bad economy. On
light soils, where the previous crop of turnips has been grown
solely by the aid of special manures, such as guano, bones, or
Buper-phosphate of lime, the practice has, for a long time, been
to consume either the whole or a portion of the crop on the
field, as a preparation for barley and grass seed ; and it is one
which serves the purpose so fully in that country, as yet, that
no other mode has been pointed out by which the light-land
farmer can keep up the fertility of his soil so easily and at so
small an expense ; but in the United States, where the turnip
is usually considered a precarious crop, in consequence of the
fly. with a different climate, as well as a different system of econ-
omy to be pursued, barley necessarily has to occupy a different
place in a course of rotation.
SPECIAL MANURES. 411
Farmyard manure was long held in high repute for its pecu-
liar adaptation to the barley crop, before folding and artificial
manures were in vogue ; and the Scottish farmers long ago re-
corded their opinion of its merits in the pithy proverb : "Dirt
makes here grow." The practice of dunging for barley direct-
ly from the barnyard is n.^w nearly absolete.
Pigeon dung, however, ii countries where these birds abound,
is still used at the rate of about 20 bushels to the acre, sowed
and harrowed in with the seed.
Guano, also, has frequently been applied to this crop, and in
many cases with the best possible results. Its action, however,
has, in general, been found too forcing — increasing the bulk
of straw to such an extent as to endanger the quality of the
grain, and the safety of the succeeding crops of clover and rye
grass. On naturally weak soils, when sown with barley, it has
been found to encourage an inordinate premature growth, which,
however, ceases when the ear is about half filled. When this
occurs, " whitening " takes place before ripening ; the straw
becomes soft and feeble, and the grain proves husky and shriv-
elled. But on good hard land, which will carry a bulky crop,
without being laid, (lodged,) guano may be used with great
advantage.
The manures suitable for an acre of barley may be compounded
agreeably to the following directions : —
EECIPE No. 15.
(To 'be applied to land previously cultivated with potatoes, wheat or Indian
corn.}
Us.
Take of Peruvian Guano, 100
Nitrate of soda, 50
Epsom salts, 50
Common salt, 200
The guano should be harrowed or lightly plowed in with the
seed, which may be done without damage to its vitality, and the
saline substance can afterwards be applied as a top-dressing, with
most effect when the plants have made some little progress above
ground.
412 S1ECIAL MANURES.
RECIPE No. 16.
(To be harrowed in with the seed.)
a*
Take of Peruvian guano, , . . , ,8tt
Bonedust, 10u
Gypsum, ground or burnt, 3Q&
Common salt, 108
Incorporate the bonedust and salt well together with fi
els of wnleached wood ashes, or with 10 that have been leached^
into one heap, and the guano and gypsum with 10 bushels of
mould or common earth into another heap ; then, mix the whole,
and apply it broadcast on the field, and harrow it in immedi-
ately with the seed. If more convenient to the farmer, instead
of the ashes, 500 Ibs. of New- Jersey green-sand marl may
be used.
RECIPE No. 17.
(To be plowed in before sowing the teed.)
U>8.
Take of Menhaden, 8,000
Gypsum, ground or burnt, 100
Common salt, 100
Incorporate the whole well together with 6 bushels of un*
leached wood ashes, or 10 bushels of leached, and 2 cords of
swamp or pond muck, and lightly plow the mixture into the
land a few days before sowing the seed. If more economical,
500 Ibs. of New-Jersey green-sand marl may be employed in-
stead of the ashes.
RECIPE No. 18.
(To prepare seed barley for an acre.)
Take of Barley, 1J to 3 bush.
Common salt, 1 pint.
Caustic lime, 1 quart.
If the kernels of the barley are thick-skinned, proceed precisely
as directed in Recipe No. 8 ; but if it be of a thin-skinned variety,
one half of the time as therein given will be sufficient for it to
steep.
SPECIAL MANURES. 413
METHODS OF SUPPLYING THE REQUISITE INGREDIENTS
TO AN /.ORE OF INDIAN CORN.
BY an inspection of the tables, it will be seen that Indian corn
may be ranked among the most exhausting crops. It is evident
that poor, thin soils will scarcely remunerate the farmer for
its cultivation ; and that, unlike other cereals, there is but little
danger of using too much manure in its product; nor is it liable
to run to foliage, and thereby fail to produce grain ; neither will
it lodge, or fall down, by its own excessive disproportion of or-
ganic to the inorganic matter of which it is composed.
There is one remarkable feature in regard to the amount of
mineral matter extracted from the soil by this crop, which it is
hoped, will dispel the popular notion that phosphate of lime,
(bone earth,) is sufficient to supply the food of a corn crop;
or in other words, that bonedust or phosphorite will furnish
the necessary elements of the whole plant without the aid of
much, if any other manure. But, in order to perfect the crop,
it is as necessary that the stalks, silks, and tassels be supplied
with their appropriate food, as the kernel ; for it is not to be
doubted but that the grain itself depends upon the full develop-
ment of all the parts which precede it. Supply them with
matter suitable for their increase and perfection, and the grain
will also be supplied. For, it must not be forgotten that these,
or similar parts of plants, very frequently contain elements
which are not found, except in very small proportions in the
seed or grain ; yet it is obvious that, in some way or other,
these elements are quite essential to their perfection.
Those who desire to raise large crops of this grain, may be
guided by the following directions : —
RECIPE No. 19.
(To be plowed or harrowed in previous to planting the seed.)
Ibs.
Take of Peruvian guano, 400
Gypsum, ground or burnt, 100
Incorporate them well together with 2 cords of rich mould,
414 ST/.CIAL MANURES.
road scrapings, or decomposed peat ; scatter them broadcast
over the field, and lightly plow or harrow them in, as fast as
the mixture is spread, just before planting the seed. Then, at
the first or second hoeing, scatter close to the plants, i pint of
unleached wood ashes, or a pint leached, to every four hills,
(6 or 10 bushels,) previous to drawing up the earth.
RECIPE No. 20.
(To be applied to an acre, of light sandy land.)
Taki of Half-decomposed stable dung, 3 cords.
Gypsum, 100 Ibs.
Mix them well together, and apply about 5| pints in each
hill at the time of planting the seed ; then, just previous to the
first hoeing, or weeding, scatter broadcast between the hills, 10
bushels of wnleached wood ashes, or 20 bushels leached, and at
the second hoeing, or moulding, bury midway between each
hill 1 menhaden, or some other kind offish of a corresponding
weight.
RECIPE No. 21.
(To be applied •» the hill with the seed.)
Take of American vr-idrette, 10 bush.
w^nedust, 900 Ibs.
Incorporate them well together, and sprinkle the mixture in
the places where the seed has been, or is about to be dropped,
at the rate of a pint to every 4 hills. If the land is light, and
naturally rather poor, i pint of leached ashes may be buried
around every 4 hills at the moulding, or second hoeing.
RECIPE No. 22.
(To prepare a tteep for an acre of seed corn.)
Ibs.
Take of Saltpetre, 1
Copperas, (sulphate of iron,) 8
Dissolve each of them in separate vessels, in 6 quarts of
water (rain water is best) ; p Jt 8 quarts of shelled seed, (eight-
rowed yellow,) into a tub of a convenient size, over which pour
SPECIAL MANURES'. 416
the two liquids ; stir the whole well together, and allow it to
remain for 24 to 36 hours just before planting. Seed prepared
in this manner will be less liable to the attacks of birds and
worms, and will give the young plants an early start, a vigor-
ous growth, and an early maturity of the whole crop. ^
RECIPE No. 23.
(To make a soak for seed corn.)
Take of Saltpetre, 2 Ibs.
Flour of sulphur, i "
Tar, Ipint.
Inclose the sulphur in a bag, which, together with the sail,
petre, put into 10 gallons of hot water ; pour this over the corn
in a tub, and allow it to soak for 6 to 12 hours. Then, stir and
dissolve the tar in 2 gallons of boiling water ; drain the other
liquid from as much of the seed corn as you wish to plant in
a day; stir it around in the tar water until it becomes well
coated with the tar ; drain off the tar water, and dry the corn
by rolling it in a mixture of equal parts of powdered gypsum
and wood ashes. No more seed should be taken from the solu-
tion of sulphur and saltpetre than can be planted in a day.
The germinating power of the corn will not be injured for
several days, if kept constantly covered with the steep.
METHODS OP SUPPLYING THE REQUISITE INGREDIENTS
TO AN ACRE OF POTATOES.
FROM an inspection of the tables, it will be apparent why it
is, as is found to be the case in practice, that so much manure
is required for a heavy crop of potatoes. The alkaline and
earthy bases, and both phosphoric and sulphuric acids are ab-
stracted largely from the soil by this crop, and must be re-
placed, if the land is to be retained in its fertility. More than
one half of the amount of ash produced by the entire plant
consists of potash and soda, and it is evident that it requires
the use of such substances for manuring the crop as are rich
m these elements.
416 SPECIAL MANURES.
The amount of azotised matter required for an acre of pota-
toes, as far as ascertained, is 615 Ibs. ; and that of carbon sed
substances, 4,000 Ibs.
The modes of manuring, which have been practised with
success in the cultivation of the potato, are conformable to the
following dirsctions : —
RECIPE No. 24.
(To be applied in the hill at the time of planting.)
Take of Horse dung, unfermented, 6 cords.
Gypsum, ground or burnt, 3 bush.
Wood ashes, (unleached,) 10 "
Common salt, 100 Ibs.
First mix well together the ashes, gypsum, and salt; then
incorporate them with the horse dung, and apply nearly half a
peck to each hill with the potatoes at the time of planting. If
more convenient to the farmer, instead of the unleached ashes
20 bushels of leached ones, or 1,000 Ibs. of New-Jersey green-
sand marl may be used.
RECIPE No. 25.
(To be applied in the hill at the time of planting-.")
Take of Long barnyard manure, 6 cords.
Gypsum, ground or burnt, 3 biinh.
Wood ashes, (imleach«J,) 15 "
Common sail, 100 Ibs.
Mix and apply as in Recipe No. 24. For the wood ashes,
],500 Ibs. of green-sand marl may be substituted.
RECIPE No. 26.
(To be applied to an acre of newly-broken sod.)
bushel*.
Take of Bonedust, 11
Gypsum, ground or burnt, 3
Oyster-shell lime, 3
"Wood ashes, (unleached,) 24
Mix the whole well together, and apply about 3^ pints to
each hill, on top of the potatoes at the time of planting. If
more convenient, 48 bushels of leached ashes, or 2,400 Ibs. of
green sand marl i jay be substituted for the ashes unleached.
SPECIAL MANURES. 41T
CONCLUDING REMARKS.
THE preceding recipes and directions will sum'ce to show the
manner in which the analyses of 'he ashes of plants may be
made serviceable to the farmer by instructing him what mate-
rials he has abstracted from the soil of various crops that he
may have cultivated upon it. He should not rest satisfied,
however, with calculations made on individual varieties of
plants, and what may be considered as more than an average
yield, but apply them to actual causes on his own farm, making
use of such manures, and in such quantities, as will best suit
his economy or convenience, in affording. a due proportion of
organic and inorganic food to his crops, without impoverishing
the normal fertility of the soil. For, it is assumed in most of
the foregoing recipes that the land is in good heart at the onset,
and that the quantities of manures or fertilisers recommended
will chiefly be abstracted by the respective crops succeeding.
A proper regard should also be paid to the rotations, and due
care observed that allowances be made for the excess of min-
eral matter not removed by the preceding harvest, always
bearing In mind that those parts of the plants which are left
to decay on the field, will return their quota of mineral ingre-
dients to the soil, and consequently will not have to be supplied
by other means.
It is to be regretted that the recipes and directions cannot be
extended to all of our cultivated plants, garden vegetables,
fruits, and trees, but owing to the limited space allotted to this
treatise, I am compelled to suspend operations for the present,
and leave the task to the inquiring and intelligent agriculturist
to study and perform for himself. In order to aid him in his
operations in calculating the approximate amount of chemical
ingredients that certain manures or fertilisers will impart to
his crops, the following list of substances is offered as affording
the chief ingredients that the plants will require : —
100 Ibs. of common farmyard manure, in its ordinary state,
contains about 3f Ibs. of potash, and 3J Ibs. of phosphoric acid-
IP*
41$ SPECIAL MANURES.
100 Ibs. of good Peruvian guano will yield about 17 Ibs. of
ammonia; 10 Ibs. of phosphoric acid; and 8 Ibs. of alkaline
salts.
100 Ibs. of American unleached wood ashes contain about
7 Ibs. of phosphoric acid ; 3 Ibs. 01 sulphuric acid ; 12 Ibs. of
potash ; 9 Ibs, of soda ; 25 Ibs. of lime, and 6 Ibs. of magnesia.
100 Ibs. of leached or washed ashes are estimated to contain
about one half as much potash, magnesia, and soda as those
which have not been leached, and nearly as much lime, and
sulphuric and phosphoric acids.
100 Ibs. of gypsum, (plaster,) contain 46 Ibs. of sulphuric
acid, and 64 Ibs. of lime.
100 Ibs. of New-Jersey green-sand marl contain about 6 Ibs.
of potash, and 24 Ibs. of prot-oxide of iron.
100 Ibs. of common salt contain about 39 Ibs. of sodium.
100 Ibs. of salt bitterns contain 28 Ibs. of sodium; 5 Ibs. of
sulphuric acid ; and 8 Ibs. of lime.
100 Ibs. of bonedust contain about 25 Ibs. of phosphoric acid.
100 Ibs. of phosphorite, or native phosphate of lime, Contain
about 40 Ibs. of phosphoric acid.
ROTATION OF CROPS.
THE experience of husbandmen, from the earliest times, haa
shown that the same kinds of plants, with some exceptions,
cannot be cultivated advantageously in continued succession
on the same soil. The same or similar species have a tendency
to grow feebly, degenerate, or become more subject to diseases,
when cultivated consecutively upon the same ground ; and
hence the rule which forms the basis of a system of regular
alternation of crops is, that plants of the same or allied species
are not to be grown in immediate succession ; and furthermore,
the same rule would imply that similar kinds of crops should
recur at as distant intervals of the course as circumstances will
allow.
As no particular sys ems of rotation have as yet been estab-
SPECIAL MANURES.
419
.ished in the Uni-
ted States, those in
the following ta-
bles are offered for
the consideration of
the cultivator, until
better ones can be
found. It is to be
understood, how-
ever, that they are
adapted only to
strong virgin soils,
or to older ones,
maintained in good
tilth by the aid of
manures.
When tobacco,
hemp, cotton, or
sugar cane is to be
cultivated, a place
should be assigned
for it, according as
it is raised as a
green crop, for its
fibre, or for its
seeds. Thus, in the
following tables,
cotton or hemp,
cultivated for their
seeds, may take the
place of wheat or
Indian corn ; and
tobacco may fol-
low either by again
restoring the s~>il
\viih manure.
1 11
S "3 g
00 0
T3
q
a
M
c
j= 33
^
c
•— o
3
£ 5
^5 o
•°
£
a
o .
2
1 g
^ d 4
O !>.
5 ^
o E d
* £
J= 5
S
Si
•gjg
~ 3
i . s
Hi I
If
^ 5
o> g
a a o
0 &•«' 5
C3 >.
O O
® c. x
t_ ~
o
3'5 5
^o o
K
P5 &-i
"o ^
i, £3
>.!«
3 *
a °£
f -^
X D -
to £.2
*3
It la =s.
-g g ^ -g* « -g
^T^ !>,3 S>>S
>,-« K H PH H
^1
iT*"
II
L E i- S i- P
B^
• s
O o ^ O ® O
O .-a
M
4 ^1 4
||
>. i_
1 !-
1^
III
ax, It ta cot
mat to BOW
«3
I ^3 „;
"2 •' 'S 2 fe 3
_§ £
•2 S.2-
| ||
to g 5 | .& ° o
«* O
fa
1 ill
X*
« 5TT3.S-
"3 "5 c 6
\
§ S«8
02 S5' g
O m S 3
5 H
rt
*-M
1
>H
Sf ®o "
!a
2
EH o *< £
•
E
o °
420
SPECIAL MANURES.
r
"2 ?8
c
S ,-
c
O P il
o
E-
c?£
O
w»
.e
rt e 2 3 •*
i a
"O CO
c
lis g.i
~oo cdH
2-3
«"H ^~
s .§• i s
g ^ g 3 2m
£•
.§• .*
j=
K
C § "c 0 ^ ^
1
| 0 |
» « JS "2
QJ
D ®
>> >:
cs °
Cj
a (4
•° • rf •^¥^
S ,
'c' • '?
Seventh
a 3 § d a a-
1"! 1 =^ o
Potatoe
1 £>f S
a JH 1
5
X
53
1 « i 83
3 J"| 5 5
Cu ^H w p.
Oats or
uckwheat.
III
ill
-"
to
CS ot
I
i * &
I 1 ! 1
If
11
0 ea
£
•S 3 o * o i.2-
•0 o?
1*
S
O
| 0 ||| i|
S.S
0 ?
ea
•s
l.|
c
fea
c
Kf-
o
o
I"2
.1 Second.
5 —
s> C
o
.s-
1
5
1
SSs
ri O
Is
•o o
ill
£
a o S
5°
M°°
SPECIAL MANURES.
4
1
d
1
i
9
f
o
*3^"X 3 3}
O.g § >•
i
s
H
fa
En
fa
O
PH « u y
02
IU
i
•
£ «•«
J
J
-J-
•S
~jg
*• a
S» |
fa
£• S
1
.2
§ •**
p
3 3H
o
0 ®
<3
!Q
ex
5
pa ^n
,.
(3
Otfl
03
O
O
1"
.SP
Wheat or In-
dian Corn.
Potatoes.
Rye and Tur-
nips, Wheat, or
Indian Corn.
Rape and Tur-
nips.
' 0?^
a Sf
OH
o|
« 3
re to be sown in
"S
s
H3-
8
o
rf
1
|.| ||
If
g
3
S
a
?,i ^3
-T °
1 a>
02
O
«*H
(2
&
_g 0>
33
"s s-
* |
Wheat or
Indian Corn.
c o,
3-3
®3
1-1
* |
o o c
^ O <u
05 rt C
<D 3 0
J5.S 3
*3
ted with any
avesting the <
u S
^ ?
*s
•d -
O i.
rC
"trt ^
a
*j c3
•s0
oj 3 .B* »
a ^
fa
>l!
K
gj
•c.2
— 0.3 o
1 «
"*5
^5
5
M
8,
1.13 .
,
OJ
P
Fourth.
Carrots, o
Barley an
Turnips
O 3 2
oTaf 3
IM
c
i|
O
a
•2 'o "3 «
OCL, ^ q O.
tierever tm
>> s
•« « ^ i . *
"2
S
^T3.S-
0*
g
O
|S|
a
H
ll ^5;?
g
•o S
c
a
02
g
s
« c 3
^6
Jft 1 1
jj
v
a
ID
.
.2
I
1
N
*
422 SPECIAL MANURES.
By the preceding tables, there is exhibited, at one view, the
crops that may succeed each other for ten consecutive years on
three general classes of soil. For instance, to commence with
flax, clover, or carrots, in the first table, wheat, Indian corn,
oats, or barley and turnips may be cultivated the second year ;
rye and turnips may be cultivated after wheat or Indian corn
the third year ; rye, carrots, or barley and turnips after oats,
the th'rd year; and rye or carrots after barley arid turnips the
third year. Rye, or barley and turnips may be cultivated after
rye and turnips the fourth year; and potatoes after rye, car-
rots, barley and turnips, and rye or carrots the fourth year.
In like manner, proceed in the other tables, continuing hori-
zontally in a direct line across the tables until the tenth year i*
"cached, when the course of rotation is commenced anew, &c
All the Hooks on this Catalogue sent ly Mail, to any part of the
free of postage, upon receipt of Price.
CATALOGUE OF BOOKS
ON
AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE,
PUBLISHED BY
-A., o. ivdcoor^E &c ao.,
(Late C. M. Saxton &? Co.,)
Wo. 140 FULTON STREET, NEW YORK.
SUITABLE FOR
SCHOOL, TOWN, AGRICULTURAL, & PRIVATE LIBRARIES,
AMERICAN FARMER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA, - $4 00
As A BOOK OF REFERENCE FOR THE FARMER OR GARDENER, THIS
Work is superior to auy other. It contains Reliable Information for the Cultivation of
every variety of Field and Garden Crops, the use of all kinds of Manures, descriptions
and figures of American insects ; and is, indeed, an Agricultural Library in itself, con-
taining tmelre hundred pig>:*, octavo, and is illustrated by numerous engravings of
Grasses, Grains, Animals, Implements, Insects, &c., &c. By GOUVERXECR EMERSON OF
PENNSYLVANIA.
AMERICAN WEEDS AND USEFUL PLANTS, 1 50
AN ILLUSTRATED EDITION OF AGRICULTURAL BOTANY ; An Enu*
monition and Description of Weeds and Useful Plants which merit the notice or
require the attention of American Agriculturists. By WM. DAKU.VGTON, M. D. Re-
vised, with Additions, by GKORGB THUR'BER, Prof, of Mat. Med. and Botany in the New-
York College of Pharmacy. Illustrated with nearly 300 Figures, drawn expressly for
this work.
ALLEN'S (R. L.) AMERICAN FARM BOOK, 1 00
OR A COMPEND OF AMERICAN AGRICULTURE ; being a Practical
Treatise on Soils, Manures, Draining, Irrigation, Grasses. Grain, Roots, Fruits, Cotton,
Tobacco, Sugar Cane, Rice, and every Staple Product of the United States ; with the
best methods of Planting, Cultivating and Preparation for Market. Illustrated with more
than 100 engravings.
ALLEN'S (R. L.) DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS, 75
BEING A HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION OF THE HORSE, MULE, CATTLE,
Sheep, Swine, Poultry and Farm Dogs, with Directions fur their Management, Breeding,
Crossing, Rearing, Feeding, and Preparation for a Profitable Market ; also, their
Diseases and Remedies, together with full Directions for the Management of the Dairy,
and the comparative Economy and Advantages of Working Animals, — the Horse, Mule>
Oxen, &c.
ALLEN'S (L. F.) RURAL ARCHITECTURE, ..... 1 26
BEING A COMPLETE DESCRIPTION OF FARM HOUSES, COTTAGES AND
Out Buildings, comprising Wood Houses, Workshops, Tool Houses, Carriage and Wagon
Houses, Stables, Smoke and Ash Houses, Ice Houses, Apiaries or Bee Houses, Poultry
Houses, Rubbitry, Dovecote, Piggery. Barns and Sheds for Cattle, &c., &c. ; together
with Lawns, Pleasure Grounds and Parks ; the Flower, Fruit and Vegetable Garden ;
also, the best method of conducting water into Cattle Yards and Houses. Beautifully
illustrated.
ALLEN (J, FISK) ON THE CULTURE OF THE GRAPE, * - 1 00
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE CULTURE AND TREATMENT OF THE
Grape Vine, embracing its History, with Directions for its Treatment in the United
States of America, in the Open Air and under Glass Structures, with and without
Artificial Heat,
2 BOOKS published by A. 0. MOORE *fc Co.
AMERICA!* ARCHITECT, 6 00
COMPRISING ORIGINAL DESIGNS OF CHEAP COUNTRY AND VILLAGE
Residences, with Details,! Specifications, Plans a:r.l Direct ions, and an Estimate of the Cost
of each Design. By Jou.v \V. Rrreii, Architect. First ;tad Second Series. 4to, bound in
1 vol.
AMERICAN FLORIST'S GUIDE, - 75
COMPRISING THE AMERICAN ROSE CULTURIST, AND EVERY LADY
her own Flower Gardener.
BARRY'S FRUIT GARDEN, - 1 25
A TREATISE, INTENDED TO EXPLAIN AND ILLUSTRATE THE PHYSI-
ology of Fruit Trees, the Theory and Practice of all Operations connected with the
Propagation, Transplanting, Pruning and Training of Orchard and Garden Trees, as
Standards, Dwarfs, Pyramids, Kspulicr, &c. The Laying out and Arranging different
kinds of Orchards and Gardens, the selection of suitable varieties for different purposes
and localities, Gathering and Preserving Fruits, Treatment of Diseases, Destruction of
Insects, Description and Uses of Implements, &c. Illustrated with upwards of 150
Figures. By P. BARRY, of the Mount Hope Nurseries, Rochester, N. Y.
JEMENTS (C. N.) RABBIT FANCIER, 50
A TREATISE ON THE BREEDING, HEARING, FEEDING AND GENERAL
Management of Rabbits, with Remarks upon their Diseases and Remedies, to which are
added Full Directions for the Construction of Hutches, Rabbitries, &c., together with
Recipes for Cooking and Dressing for the Table. Beautifully illustrated.
BLAKE'S (REV. JOHN L.) FARMER AT HOME, - - - - 1 25
A FAMILY TEXT BOOK FOR THE COUNTRY ; being a Cyclopedia
of Agricultural Implements and Productions, and of tho more important topics in
Domestic Economy, Science and Literature, adapted to Rural I/ife. By Rev. Jou.v L.
BLAKE, D. D.
BOUSSINGAULT'S (J. B.) RURAL ECONOMY, - 1 25
OR, CHEMISTRY APPLIED TO AGRICULTURE ; PRESENTING- DISTINCTLY
and in a Simple Manner the Principles of Farm Management, the Preservation and Use of
Manures, the Nutrition and Food of Animals, and the General Economy of Agriculture,
The work is the fruit of a long life of study and experiment, and its perusal will aid tho
farmer greatly in obtaining a practical and scientific knowledge of his profession.
BROWNE'S AMERICAN BIRD FANCIER, 25
THE BREEDING, REARING, FEEDING, MANAGEMENT AND PKCULI-
arities of Cage and House Birds. Illustrated with engravings.
BROWNE'S AMERICAN POULTRY YARD, 1 00
COMPRISING THE ORIGIN, HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION OF THE
Different Breeds of Domestic Poultry, with Complete Directions for their Breeding,
Crossing, Rearing, Fattening and Preparation for Market ; including specific directions
for Caponizing Fowls, and for the Treatment of the Principal Diseases to which they are
subject, drawn from authentic sources and personal observation. Illustrated with
numerous engravings.
BROWNE'S (D. JAY) FIELD BOOK OF MANURES, - - - - 1 25
OR, AMERICAN MUCK BOOK ; Treating of the Nature, Properties,
Sources, History and Operations of all the Principal Fertilizers and Manures in Common
Use, with specilic directions for their Preservation and Application to the Soil and to
Crops ; drawn from authentic sources, actual experience and personal observation, aa
combined with the Leading Principles of Practical and Scientific Agriculture.
BRIDGEMAN'S (THOS.) YOUNG GARDENERS ASSISTANT, - - 1 50
IN THREE PARTS ; Containing Catalogues of Garden and Flower
Seed, with Practical Directions under each head for tho Cultivation of Cu nary Vege-
tables, Flowers, Fruit Trees, tho Grape Vine, &c. ; to which is added a Calendar to each
part, showing the work necessary to be done in the various departments each mouth
of the year. One volume octavo.
BRIDGEMAN'S KITCHEN GARDENER'S INSTRUCTOR, .'* Cloth, 50
" " " " Cloth, 60
Books published by A. O. MOORE & Co. 3
BRIDGEHAN'S FLORIST'S GUIDE, X Cloth, 50
" Cloth, 60
BRIDGEMAN'S FRUIT CTTLTrVATOR'S MANUAL, - - X Cloth, 50
" " " " Cloth, 60
BRECK'S BOOK OF FLOWERS, - 1 00
IN WHICH ARE DESCRIBED ALL THE "VARIOUS HARDY HERBACEOUS
Perennial?, Annuals, Shrubs, Plants and Evergreen Trees, with Directions for their
Cultivation.
BUIST'S (ROBERT) AMERICAN FLOWER GARDEN DIRECTORY, 1 25
CONTAINING PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS FOR THE CULTURE OP PLANTS,
in the Flower Garden, Hothouse, Greenhouse, Rooms or Parlor Windows, for every
month in the Year ; with a Description of the Plants most desirable in each, the naturo
of the Soil and situation best adapted to their Growth, the Proper Season for Trans-
Grape Vine.
BUIST'S (ROBERT) FAMILY KITCHEN GARDENER, ... 75
CONTAINING PLAIN AND ACCURATE DESCRIPTIONS OF ALL THE
Different Species and Varieties of Culinary Vegetables, with their Botanical, English,
French and German names, alphabetically arranged, with the Best Mode of Cultivat-
ing them in the Garden or under Glass ; also Descriptions and Character of the most
Select Fruits, their Management, Propagation, &c. By ROBERT BUIST, author of the
"American Flower Garden Directory," &c.
CHINESE SUGAR CANE AND SUGAR-MAKING, .... 25
ITS HISTORY, CULTURE AND ADAPTATION TO THE SOIL, CLIMATE,
and Economy of the United States, with an Account of Various Processes of Manu-
facturing Sugar. Drawn from authentic sources, by CHARLES F. STAXSBCRY, A. M., late
Commissioner at the Exhibition of all Nations at London.
CHORLTON'S GRAPE-GROWER'S GUIDE, 60
INTENDED ESPECIALLY FOR THE AMERICAN CLIMATE. Being a
Practical Treatise on the Cultivation of the Grape Vine in each department of Hot-
house, Cold Grapery, Retarding House and Out-door Culture. With Plans for the con-
struction of the Requisite Buildings, and giving the best methods for Heating the same.
Every department being fully illustrated. By WILLIAM CIIORLTON.
COBBETrS AMERICAN GARDENER, 50
A TREATISE ON THE SITUATION, SOIL AND LAYING-OUT OF GARDENS,
and the Making and Managing of Hotbeds and Greenhouses, and on the Propagation
and Cultivation of the several sorts of Vegetables, Herbs, Fruits and Flowers.
COTTAGE AND FARM BEE-KEEPER, 50
A PRACTICAL WORK, by a Country Curate
COLE'S AMERICAN FRUIT BOOK, 60
CONTAINING DIRECTIONS FOR RAISING, PROPAGATING AND MANAG-
iug Fruit Trees, Shrubs and Plants ; with a Description of the Best Varieties of Fruit,
including New and Valuable Kinds.
COLE'S AMERICAN VETERINARIAN, 50
CONTAINING DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS, THEIR CAUSES, SYMP-
toms and Rem-.vlius ; with Rules for Restoring and Preserving Health by good manage-
ment ; also fur Training and Breeding.
DADD'S AMERICAN CATTLE DOCTOR, 1 00
CONTAINING THE NECESSARY INFORMATION FOR PRESERVING THE
Health and Curing the Diseases of Oxen, Cows, Sheep and Swine, with a Great Variety
of Original R-jcipos and Valuable Information in reference to Farm and Dairy Manage-
ment, whereby every Man can bo his own Cattle Doctor. The principles taught in this
work are, that all Medication shall be subservient to Naturo — that all Medicines must be
sanative in their operation, and administered with a view of aiding the vital powers,
instead of depressing, as heretofore, with the lancet or by poison. By G. II. DADD, M. D.,
Veterinary practitioner.
4 JJooks published by A. 0. MOORE & Co.
DADD'S MODERN HOESE DOCTOE 1 00
AN AMERICAN HOOK FOR AMERICAN FARMERS ; Containing Practi-
cal Observations on the Causes, Nature and Treatment of Disease and Lameness of
Horses, embracing the .Must Recent and Approved Methods, according to an enlightened
system of Veterinary Practice, for the Preservation and Restoration of Health. With
illustrations.
DADD'S ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HOESE, Plain, . 2 00
" " " " " Colored Plates, 4 00
WITH ANATOMICAL AND QUESTIONAL ILLUSTRATIONS ; Containing,
also, a Series of Examinations on Kquiuc Anatomy and Philosophy, with Instructions iii
reference to Dissection and tlte mode of making Anatomical Preparations ; to which is
added a Glossary of Veterinary Technicalities, Toxicological Chart, and Dictionary of
Veterinary Science.
DANA'S MUCK MANUAL, FOE THE USE OF FAEMEES, - - 1 00
A TREATISE ox THE PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS
and Chemistry of Manures ; including, also, the subject of Composts, Artificial Manures
and Irrigation. A new edition, with a Chapter on Bones and Superphosphates.
DANA'S PEIZE ESSAY ON MANUEES, 25
SUBMITTED TO THE TRUSTEES OP THE MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY FOR
Promoting Agriculture, fur their Premium. P>y SAMVEL II. DANA.
DOMESTIC AND OENAMENTAL POULTEY, Plain Plates, ... 1 00
" " " Colored Plates, . - 2 00
A TREATISE ON THE HISTORY AND MANAGEMENT OF ORNAMENTAL,
and Domestic Poultry. l!y Rev. EDMUND SAUL DUCON, A. Jr., with large additions by
J. J. KERB, M. D. Illustrated with sixty -live- Original Portraits, engraved expressly for
this work. Fourth edition, revised.
DOWNING'S (A. J.) LANDSCAPE GAEDENING, 3 50
REVISED, ENLARGED AND NEWLY ILLUSTRATED, BY HENRY WIN-
throp Sargent. This Great Work, which has accomplished so much in elevating the
American Taste for Rural Improvements, is now rendered doubly interesting and
valuable by the experience of all the Prominent Cultivators of Ornamental Trees in the
United States, and by the descriptions of American Places, Private Residences, Central
Park, New York, Llewellyn Park, New Jersey, and a full account of the Newer Decidu-
ous and Evergreen Trees and Shrubs. The illustrations of this edition consist of seven
superb steel plate engravings, by SMII.IJK, HIXSIIEI.WOOD, Durum and others; besides one
hundred m</rai-uiyx un vxiwl and stone, of the best American Residences and Parks, with
Portraits of many New or Remarkable Trees and Shrubs.
DOWNING'S (A. J.) EUEAL ESSAYS, 3 00
ON HORTICULTURE, LANDSCAPE GARDENING. RURAL ARCHITECTURE,
EASTWOOD (B.) ON THE CULTIVATION OF THE CBANBEEEY, 50
WITH A DESCRIPTION OF THE BEST VARIETIES. BY B. EASTWOOD,
" Septimus,'1 of the New York Tribune. Illustrated.
ELLIOTT'S WESTEEN FKUIT BOOK, 1 25
A NEW EDITION OF T;IIS WORK, THOROUGHLY REVISED. Em-
bracing all the New and Valuable Fruits, with the Latest Improvements in their Cultiva-
tion, up to January, 185'). especially adapted to Ilie wants of Western Fruit Growers ;
full of excellent illustrations. 1'v F. K. F.M.IOTT, Poinolo^ist, l.ite of Cleveland, Ohio, now
of St. Louis.
EVEEY LADY HEE OWN FLOWEE GAEDENEB, .... 50
ADDRESSED TO THE INDUSTRIOUS AND ECONOMICAL ONLY ; containing
simple and practical Directions for Cultivating Plants and Flowers ; also. Hints for the
Management of Flowers in Rooms, with brief Botanical Descriptions of Plants autl
Flowers. The whole in plain and simple language. By IOUI-A Jouxsox.
Books published by A. O. MOOKE & Co.
FARM DRAINAGE, 1 00
THE PRINCIPLES, PROCESSES AND EFFECTS OF DRAINING LAND,
with Stones, Wool, Drain-plows, Open Ditches, and especially with Tiles; including
Tables of Rainfall, Evaporation, Filtration, Excavation, capacity of Pipes, cost and num-
ber to the acre. With more than 100 illustrations. By the Hon. HEXRY F. FRENCH, of
New Hampshire.
FESSENDEN'S (T. G.) AMERICAN KITCHEN GARDENER, - - 50
CONTAINING DIRECTIONS FOR THE CULTIVATION OF VEGETABLES AND
Garden Fruits. Cloth.
FESSENDEN'S COMPLETE FARMER AND AMERICAN GARDENER, 1 25
RURAL ECONOMIST AND NEW AMERICAN GARDENER ; Containing
a Compendious Epitome of the most Important Branches of Agriculture and Rural
Kconomy ; with Practical Directions on the Cultivation of Fruits aud Vegetables, includ-
ing Landscape and Ornamental Gardening. By TIIOJUS G. FESSENDEX. 2vols.ini.
FIELD'S PEAR CULTURE, 1 00
THE PEAR GARDEN ; or, a Treatise on the Propagation and
Cultivation of the Pear Tree, with Instructions for its Management from the Seedling to
the Bearing Tree. By THOMAS W. FIELD.
FISH CULTURE, - - - - 1 00
A TREATISE ON THE ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION OF FISH, AND THE
Construction of Ponds, with the Description and Habits of such kinds of Fish as are most
suitable for Pisciculture, liy TIIKODATVS GARUCK, M. D. , Vice-Prcsident of the Cleveland
Academy of Nat. Science.
FLINT ON GRASSES, - - - - 1 25
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS ; Com-
prising their Natural History, Comparative Nutritive Value, Methods of Cultivation, Cut-
ting, Curing and the Management of Grass Lands. By CHARLES L. FLLNT, A. M. , Secre-
tary of the Mass, buxti: Board of Agriculture.
GUENON ON MILCH COWS, 60
A TREATISE ON MILCH Cows, whereby the Quality and Quantity of
Milk Which any Cow will give mny be accurately determined by observing Natural
Marks or External Indications alone ; the length of time she will continue to give Milk,
&c., &c. By M. FRAXCH GUEXOX, of Libourne, Franco. Translated by NICHOLAS P.
eatly done up in paper
covers, 37 cts.
HERBERT'S HINTS TO HORSE-KEEPERS, 1 25
COMPLETE MANUAL FOR HORSEMEN ; Embracing :
How TO BREKD A HORSE. How TO PHYSIC A HORSE.
How TO BUY A HORSK. (ALLOPATHY AXD HOMOEOPATHY.
How TO BREAK A HORSE. How TO GROOM A IIORSK.
How TO USE A HORSE. How TO DRIVE A HoRS'i:.
How TO FEED A HORSE. . How TO RIDK A HORSE.
And Chanters on Mules and Ponies. By the late HEXRY WILLIAM HERHERT (FRAXK
FORRE.-JTER) ; with additions, including RAREY'S METHOD OF HORSK TAMING, and BAUCIIER'S
SYSTEM OF HORSEMANSHIP ; also, giving directions for the Selection aud Care of Carriages
and Harness of every description, from the City " Turn Out" to the Farmer's " Gear,"
and a Biography of the eccentric Author. Jlluttrate.l throughout.
HOOPER'S DOS AND GUN, 50
A FEW LOOSE CHAPTERS ON SHOOTING, among which will be
found Boim Anecdotes and Incidents ; also Instructions for Dog Breaking, and interest-
ing letters from Sportsmen. By A BAD SHOT. •»
HYDE'S CHINESE SUGAR CANE, 25
CONTAINING ITS HISTORY, MODE OF CULTURE, MANUFACTURE OF
tho Sugar, &e. ; with Reports of its success in- different parts of the United States.
6 JSooks published by A. O. MOORE & Co.
JOHNSTON'S (JAMES F. W.) AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, - 1 25
LECTURES ON THE APPLICATION OF CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY TO
Agriculture. Now Kdition, with an Appendix, containing the Author's Experiments in
Practical Agriculture.
JOHNSTON'S (J. F. W.) ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURAL CHEM-
ISTRY AND GEOLOGY, 1 00
WITH A COMPLETE ANALYTICAL AND ALPHABETICAL INDEX, and an
American Preface. By Hon. SIMON BROWN, Editor of the " New England Farmer."
JOHNSTON'S (J. F. W.) CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURAL CHEM-
ISTRY AND GEOLOGY, 25
BY JAMES F. W. JOHNSTON, Honorary Member of the Royal
Agricultural Society of England, and author of " Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry
and Geology.-' With an Introduction by JOHN PITKIN NORTON' , M. A., late Professor of
Scientific Agriculture in Yale College. With Notes and Additions by the Author, pre-
pared expressly for this edition, and an Appendix compiled by the Superintendent of
Education in Nova Scotia. Adapted to the use of Schools.
LANGSTROTH (REV. L. L.) ON THE HIVE AND HONEY BEE, - 1 25
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE HIVE AND HONEY BEE, Third
edition, enlarged and illustrated with numerous engravings. This Work is, without a
doubt, the best work on the Bee published in any language, whether wo consider its
scientific accuracy, the practical instructions it contains, or the beauty and completeness
of its illustrations.
LEUCHARS' HOW TO BUILD AND VENTILATE HOTHOUSES, - 1 25
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE CONSTRUCTION, HEATING AND
Ventilation of Hothouses, including Conservatories, Greenhouses, Graperies and other
kinds of Horticultural Structures ; with Practical Directions for their Management, in
regard to Light, Heat and Air. Illustrated with numerous engravings. By P. B.
LEUCHARS, Garden Architect.
LIEBIG'S (JUSTUS) FAMILIAR LECTURES ON CHEMISTRY, - 50
AND ITS RELATION TO COMMERCE, PHYSIOLOGY, and AGRICULTURE.
Edited by JOHN GARDEN™, M. !).,
LINSLEY'S MORGAN HORSES, -
A PREMIUM ESSAY ON THE ORIGIN, HISTORY, AND CHARACTERISTICS
MOORE'S RURAL HAND BOOKS, 1 25
FIRST SERIES, containing Treatises on —
Tire HORSE, THE PESTS OF THE FARM,
THE HOG, DOMESTIC FOWLS, and
THE HONEY BEE, THE Cow.
SECOND SERIES, containing — 1 25
EvmY LADY HER OWN FLOWER GARDEXKK, ESSAY ON MANURES,
EIJ-JIENTS OF AGRICULTURE, AMERICAN KITCHEN GARDENER,
BIRD FANCIER, AMERICAN ROSE CULTURIST.
THIRD SERIES, containing — 1 25
MILES os THE HORSE'S FOOT, VINE-DRESSER'S MANUAL,
THE RABBIT FANCIER, BEE-KEEPER'S CHART,
WEEKS ON BEES, CHEMISTRY MAKE EASY.
FOURTH SERIES, containing — - 1 25
PE*SOZ ON THE VISE, HOOPER'S Poo. AND GCN,
Lnaac's FAMILIAR LETTERS, SKILLFUL HOUSEWIFE,
BROWNE'* MEMOIRS OF INDMN CORN.
Jlooks published by A. O. MOORE & Co.
MINER'S BEE-KEEPER'S MANUAL, .... - - 1 00
BEING A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE HISTORY AND DOMESTIC
Economy of the Honey Bue, embracing a Full Illustration of the whole subject, with
the Most Approved Methods of Managing this Insect, through every branch of its
Culture ; the result of many years' experience. Illustrated with many engravings
By T. B. MIXER.
MILES OH THE HORSE'S FOOT AND HOW TO KEEP IT SOUND, 50
WITH CUTS, ILLUSTRATING THE ANATOMY OF THE FOOT, and contain-
ing valuable Hints on Shoeing ami Stable Management, in Health and in Disease, By
WM. MILES.
MLLBURN ON THE COW AND DAIRY HUSBANDRY, ... 25
By M. M. MILBURN, and revised by II . 1). RICHARDSON and AMBROSE
STEVENS. With illustrations.
MUNN'S (B.) PRACTICAL LAND DRAINER, 50
BEING A TREATISE ox DRAINING LAND, in which the Most Ap-
proved Systems of Drainage are Explained, and their Differences and Comparative
Merits Discussed ; with fall Directions for the Cutting and Making of Drains, with
Remark? unon the various materials of which they may be constructed. With many
illustrations. By B. MUNN, Landscape Gardener.
WASH'S (J. A.) PROGRESSIVE FARMER, 60
A SCIENTIFIC TREATISE ON AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, THE GE-
ology of Agriculture, on Plants and Animals, Manures and Soils, applied to Practical
Agriculture ; with a Catechism of .Scientific and Practical Agriculture. By J. A. NASH.
NELLL'S PRACTICAL FRUIT, FLOWER AND KITCHEN GARDEN-
ER'S COMPANION, 1 00
WITH A CALENDAR. By PATRICK NEILL, Secretary of the Royal
Caledonian Horticultural Society. Adapted to the United States from the fourth
edition, revised and improved by the Author. Kdited by G. EMERSON, M. D., Editor of
" The American Fanner's Encyclopedia." With Xotes and Additions by R. G. PARDEB,
author of " Manual of the Strawberry Culture." With illustrations.
NORTON'S (JOHN P.) ELEMENTS OF SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE, 60
OR, THE CONNECTION BETWEEN SCIENCE AND THK ART OF PRACTICAL
Farming. Prize Essay of the New York State Agricultural Society. By JOHN P. NOR-
TON, M. A., Professor of Scientific Agriculture in Yale College. Adapted to the use of
Schools.
OLCOTT'S SORGHO AND IMPHEE, THE CHINESE AND AFRICAN
SUGAR CANES, 1 00
A COMPLETE TREATISE UPON THEIR ORIGIN AND VARIETIES, CULTURE
and Uses, their value as a Forage Crop, and Directions for making Sugar, Molasses,
Alcohol, Sparkling and Still Wines, Beer, Cider, Vinegar, Paper, Starch and Dye Stuffs.
Fully illustrated with Drawings of Approved Machinery ; with an Appendix by LEONARD
WRAY, of Caffraria, and a Description of his Patented Process of Crystallizing the Juice
of the Imphee ; with the latest American Experiments. By HENRY S. OLCOTT.
PARDEE (R. G.) ON STRAWBERRY CULTURE, ...... 60
A COMPLETE MANUAL FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE STRAWBERRY ;
with a Description of the Best Varieties.
Also notices of the Raspberry, Blackberry, Currant, Gooseberry and Grape ; with
Directions for their Cultivation, and the Selection of the Best Varieties. " Every process
here recommended has been proved, the plans of others tried, and the result is here
given." With a Valuable Appendix, containing the observations and experience of some
of the most successful cultivators of these fruits in our country.
PEDDERS' (JAMES) FARMERS' LAND MEASURER, .... 50
OR POCKET COMPANION ; Showing at one view the Contents of
any Piece of Land, from Dimensions taken in Yards. With a Set of Useful Agricultural
Tables.
8 Bouka published by A. O. MOORE & Co.
PEESOZ' CULTURE OF THE VINE, 25
A NEW PROCESS FOR THE CULTURE OF THE VINE, by PERSOZ, Pro-
fessor of the Faculty of SLMOLICUS of Strasbourg ; Directing Professor of ttio School of Phar-
macy of the same city. Translated by J. O'C. BARCLAY, Surgeon U. S. N.
PHELPS' BEE KEEPER'S CHART, 25
BEING A BRIEF PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE INSTINCT, HABITS AND
Management of the Honey Bee, in all its various branches, the result of many years'
practical experience, whereby the author has been enabled to divest the subject of
much that has been considered mysterious and difficult to overcome, and render it
more sure, profitable and interesting to every one, than it has heretofore been. By E.
W. PHELPS.
QUINSY'S MYSTERIES OF BEE-KEEPING EXPLAINED, - - 1 00
BEING A COMPLETE ANALYSIS OF THE AVuoLE SUBJECT, Consisting
of the Natural History of Bees ; Directions for obtaining the Greatest Amount of Pure
Surplus Honey with the least possible expense ; Remedies for Losses Given, and the
Science of Luck fully illustrated ; the result of more than twenty years' experience in
extensive Apiaries. By M.QtriXBY.
RANDALL'S (H, S.) SHEEP HUSBANDRY, 1 25
WITH AN ACCOUNT OF THE DIFFERENT BREEDS, and general direc-
tions in regard to Summer and Winter Management, Breeding and the Treatment of
Diseases, with Portraits and other engravings. By HENRY S. RANDALL,
REEMELLN'S (CHAS.) VINE DRESSER'S MANUAL, ... 50
AN ILLUSTRATED TREATISE ON VINEYARDS AND WINE-MAKING,
containing full Instructions as to Location and Soil, Preparation of Ground, Selection and
Propagation of Vines, the Treatment of Young Vineyards, Trimming and Training tba
Vines, Manures and the Slaking of Wine.
RICHARDSON ON HOGS, 25
THEIR ORIGIN, VARIETIES AND MANAGEMENT, with a View to Profit
RICHARDSON ON THE HIVE AND THE HONEY BEE, - 25
WITH PLAIN DIRECTIONS FOR OBTAINING A CONSIDERABLE ANNUAL
Income from this branch of Rural Economy ; also, an Account of the Diseases of Bees
and their Remedies, and Remarks as to their Enemies, and the best mode of protecting
the Hives from their attacks. By H. I). RICHARDSON. With illustrations.
RICHARDSON ON DOMESTIC FOWLS, 25
THEIR NATURAL HISTORY, BREEDING, REARING, AND GENERAL
Management. By H. I). RICHARDSON. With illustrations.
RICHARDSON ON THE HORSE, 25
THEIR ORIGIN AND VARIETIES ; WITH PLAIN DIRECTIONS AS TO THE
Breeding, Rearing and General Management, with Instructions as to the Treatment of
Disease. Handsomely illustrated^ By H. 1). RICHARDSON.
RICHARDSON ON THE PESTS OF THE FARM, .... 25
WITH INSTRUCTIONS FOR THEIR EXTIRPATION ; being a Manual of
Plain Directions for the Certain Destruction of every description of Vermin. With
numerous illustrations on Wood.
RICHARDSON ON DOGS ; THEIR ORIGIN AND VARIETIES, - 50
DIRECTIONS AS TO THEIR GENERAL MANAGEMENT. With numerous
Original Anecdotes. Also, Complete Instructions as to Treatment under Disease. By H.
D. RICHARDSON. Illustrated with numerous wood engravings.
This is not only a cheap, but one of the best works ever published on the Dog.
SCHENCK'S GARDENER'S TEXT BOOK, 50
CONTAINING DIRECTIONS FOR THE FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT
of thfl Kitchen Garden . (lie Culture and Use of Vegetables, Fruits and Medicinal I!?.-!*.
Books published by A. O. MOORE & Co.
SHEPHERD'S OWN BOOK, 2 00
WITH AN ACCOUNT OF THE DIFFERENT BREEDS, DISEASES AND MAN-
agement of Shocp, and General Directions in regard to Summer and Winter Management,
Breeding and the Treatment of Diseases ; with illustrative engravings by YOUATT &
RANDALL ; embracing Skinner's Notes on the Breed and Management of Sheep in the
United States, and on the Culture of Fine Wool.
STEWART'S STABLE BOOK, 1 00
A TREATISE ON THE MANAGEMENT OF HORSES, IN RELATION TO
Stabling, Grooming, Feeding, Watering and Working, Construction of Stables, Ventila-
tion, Appendages of Stables, Management of the Feet, and of Diseased and Defective
Horses. By JOHN- STEWART, Veterinary Surgeon. Witli Notes and Additions, adapting
it to American Food and Climate. By A. B. ALLEN, Editor of the American Agriculturist.
STRAY LEAVES FROM THE BOOK OF NATURE, - - - - 1 00
Bv M. SCHKLE DE VERE, OF THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA.
CONTEXTS : I. ONLY A PKBBLE.
II. NATURE IN MOTION'.
III. THE OCEAN AND ITS LJFB.
IV. A CHAT ABOUT PLAXTS.
V. YOUNGER YEARS OF A PLANT,
VI. LATER YEARS OF A PLANT.
VLT. PLANT MUMMIES.
VIII. UNKNOWN TONGUES.
IX. A TRIP TO THE MOON.
STEPHENS' (HENRY) BOOK OF THE FARM, 4 00
A COMPLETE GUIDE TO THE FARMER, STEWARD, PLOWMAN, CATTLE-
SKILLFUL HOUSEWIFE, 50
OR COMPLETE GUIDE TO DOMESTIC COOKERY, TASTE, COMFORT, AND
Economy, embracing 059 Recipes pertaining to House-hold Duties, the Care of Health ,
Gardening, Birds, Education of Children, >^e.. &c. By Mrs. L. G. AUELL.
SKINNER'S ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE, 25
ADAPTED TO THE USE OF AMERICAN FARMERS. BY F. G. SKINXER
SMITH'S (C. H. J.) LANDSCAPE GARDENING, PARKS AND
PLEASURE GROUNDS, 1 25
WITH PRACTICAL NOTES ON COUNTRY RESIDENCES, VILLAS, PUBLIC
Parks and Gardens. By CIIARI.KS II. J. SMITH, Landscape Gardener and Garden Arthi
tect. With Notes and Additions by LEWIS F. AI.LKN, author of" Rural Architecture.''
THAER'S (ALBERT D.) AGRICULTURE, 2 00
THE PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE, BY ALBERT D. THAER ; Trans-
lated by WILLIAM SHAW and CUTIIDERT W. JOHNSON, Ksq., F. R. S. With a Memoir of
the Author. 1 vol. 8vo.
This work is regarded, by those who. arc competent to judge, as one of the most
valuable works that has ever appeared on the subject of Agriculture. At the same time
that it is eminently practical, it is philosophical, and, even to the general reader, re-
markably entertaining.
THOMAS' (J. J.) FARM IMPLEMENTS, 1 00
AND THK PRINCIPLES OF THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND USE ; AN ELE
mentary and familiar Treatise on Mechanics and Natural Philosophy, as applied to this
ordinary p.-uetL- s of Agriculture. With 200 illustrations.
THOMPSON (R. D.) ON THE FOOD OF ANIMALS, - - - 75
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES ox THE FOOD OF ANIMALS AND THE
Fattening of Cattle ; with Remarks on the Food of Man. Based upon Experiments under-
taken by order of thn British Government, by KODKRT PUNDAS TIIOMI'SOX. M. D.,
I/ecturer on Practical Chemistry, University of Glasgow.
10 JJooks published by A. O. MOORE & Co.
THE EOSE CULTURIST, 50
BEING A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE PROPAGATION, CULTIVATION,
and Management of tho Rose in all seasons ; with a List of Choice and Approved Varie-
ties, adapted to the Climate of the United States ; to which is added full directions for
the Treatment of the Dahlia. Illustrated by engravings.
TOPHAM'S CHEMISTRY MADE EASY, 25
FOR THE USE OK FARMERS. By J. TOPHAM.
TURNER'S COTTON PLANTER'S MANUAL, 1 00
BEING A COMPILATION OK FACTS FROM THE BEST AUTHORITIES ON
the Culture of Cotton, its Natural History, Chemical Analysis, Trade and Consumption,
and embracing a History of Cotton and the Cotton Giu. By J. A. TURNER.
WARDER'S (J. A.) HEDGES AND EVERGREENS, - - - - 1 00
A COMPLETE MANUAL FOR THE CULTIVATION, PRUNING AND MAN-
agement of all Hants suitable for American Hedging, especially tho Maclura or Osage
Orange. Fully illustrated with engravings of plants, implements and processes. To
which is added a Treatise on Evergreens, their different Varieties, their propagation,
transplanting and Culture in tho United States.
WARING' S ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE, ..... 75
A BOOK FOR YOUNG FARMERS, WITH QUESTIONS FOR THE USE OF
Schools.
WEEKS (JOHN M.) ON BEES-A MANUAL, 50
OR, AN EASY METHOD OF MANAGING BEES IN THE MOST PROFIT-
able manner to their Owner ; with Infallible Rules to Prevent their Destruction by tho
Moth. With an Appendix, by WOOSTER A. FI.AXI>I:IW.
WHITE'S (W. N.) GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH, .... 1 25
OR, THE KITCHEN AND FRUIT GARDEN. WITH THE BEST METHODS
for their Cultivation ; together with Hints upon landscape and Flower Gardening ; con-
taining Modes of Culture and Descriptions of the Species and Varieties of the Culinary
Vegetables, Fruit Trees and Fruits, and a Select List of Ornamental Trees and Plants,
Adapted to the States of the Union South of Pennsylvania, with Gardening Calendars for
the same. By WM. X. WHITE, of Athens, Georgia.
YOUATT AND MARTIN ON CATTLE, 1 25
BEING A TREATISE ON THEIR BREEDS, MANAGEMENT, AND DISEASES,
comprising a Full History of the Various Races ; their Origin, Breeding and Merits ;
their capacity for Beef and Milk. By W. YOUATT and W. C. L. MARTIN. Tho whole form-
inga Complete Guide for the Farmer, the Amateur and the Veterinary Surgeon, with 100
illustrations. Edited by AMIIROSE STEVENS.
YOUATT ON THE HORSE, 1 25
YOUATT ON THE STRUCTURE AND DISEASES OF THE HORSE, with
their Remedies ; also, Practical Rules for Buyers, Breeders, Smiths, &c. Edited by W.
C. Spooner, M.R.C.V.S. With an Account of the Breeds in the United States, by HKNRY
S. RANDALL.
YOUATT ON SHEEP, 75
THEIR BREED, MANAGEMENT AND DISEASES, with Illustrative En-
gravings ; to which are added Remarks on the Breeds and Management of Sheep iu tho
United States, and on the Culture of Fine Wool in Silesia. By WM. YODATT.
YOUATT AND MARTIN ON THE HOG, 75
A TREATISE ON THE BREEDS, MANAGEMENT, AND MEDICAL TREAT-
ment of Swine, with Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams. By WM.
YOUATT, V. S.,and W. C. L. MARTIN. Edited by AMBROSE STEVENS. Illustrated with
engravings drawn from life.
Books published by A. O. MOOKK & Co. 11
Moore's Hand Books of Rural and Domestic Economy,
ALL ARRANGED AND ADAPTED TO THE USE OF AMERICAN FARMERS.
Pice 35 Cents Each.
HOGS,
THEIR ORIGIN, VARIETIES AND MANAGEMENT, with a View to Pro-
fit and Treatment under Disease ; also, Plain Directions relative to tlie Most Approved
Modes of Preserving their Flesh. By H. I). RICHARDSON. With illustrations
THE HIVE AND THE HONEY BEE,
WITH PLAIN DIRECTIONS FOR OBTAINING A CONSIDERABLE ANNUAL
Income from this branch of Rural Economy ; also, an Account of the Diseases of Bees
and their Remedies, and Remarks as to their Enemies, and the best mode of protecting
the Hives from their attacks. By H. D. RICHARDSON. With illustrations.
DOMESTIC FOWLS,
THEIR NATURAL HISTORY, BREEDING, BEARING AND GENERAL
Management. By H. D. RICHARDSON. With illustrations.
THE HORSE,
THEIR ORIGIN AND VARIETIES ; WITH PLAIN DIRECTIONS AS TO THE
Breeding, Rearing and General Management ; with instructions as to the Treatment of
Disease Handsomely illustrated. By II. D. RICHARDSON.
THE ROSE,
THE AMERICAN KOSE CULTURIST ; being a Practical Treatise on the
Propagation, Cultivation and Management in all Seasons, &c. ; with full directions for
the treatment of the Dahlia.
THE PESTS OF THE FARM,
WITH INSTRUCTIONS FOR THEIR EXTIRPATION ; being a Manual of
Plain Directions for the Certain Destruction of every description of Vermin. With
numerous illustrations on wood.
AN ESSAY ON MANURES,
SUBMITTED TO THE TRUSTEES OF THE MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY FOR
Promoting Agriculture, for their Premium. By SAMUEL H. OANA.
THE AMERICAN BIRD FANCIER,
CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO THE BREEDING, BEARING, FEED-
ing, Management and Peculiarities of Caga and House Birds. Illustrated with Engrav-
ings. By D. JAY BROWNE.
CHEMISTRY MADE EASY,
FOR THE USE OF FARMERS. BY J. TOPHAM.
ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE,
TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH, and Adapted to the use of American
Farmers. By F. G. SKINNER.
THE HORSE'S FOOT, AND HOW TO KT?RP IT SOUND,
WITH CUTS, illustrating the Anatomy of the Foot, and containing
valuable Hints on .Shoeing and Stable Management, both in Health and Disease. By War.
MILES.
THE SKILLFUL HOUSEWIFE,
OR, COMPLETE GUIDE TO DOMESTIC COOKERY, TASTE, COMFORT AND
Economy, embracing 650 Recipes pertaining to Household Duties, the Caro of Health,
Gardening, Birds, Education of Children, &c., &c. By Mrs. L. G. ABBLL.
THE AMERICAN KITCHEN GARDENER,
CONTAINING DIRECTIONS FOR THE CULTIVATION OF VEGETABLES and
Garden Fruits. By T. G. FESSENDEN.
Books intUished l»j A. O. MOOUE & Co.
CHINESE SUGAR CANE AND SUGAR-MAKING,
ITS HISTORY, CULTURE AND ADAPTATION TO THE SOIL, CLIMATE
and Economy of tin; I'uited States, with a:i Account of Various Processes of Manufactur-
ing Sugar. Drawn from authentic sources by CIIAUI.ES F. STASSBURY, A. M., late Conl-
PERSOZ' CULTURE OF THE VINE,
A NEW PROCESS FOR THE CULTURE OP THE VINE, BY PERSOZ, Pro-
fessor of tlie Faculty of Sciences of Strasbourg ; Directing Professor of t.ho School of
Pharmacy of the same city. Translated by J. O'C. BARCLAY, Surgeon, U. S. N.
THE BEE-KEEPER'S CHART,
BEING A BRIEF, PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE INSTINCT, HABITS and
Management of the Hon. >y Bee, in all its various branches, the result of many years'
practical experience, whereby the, author has been enabled to divest the subject of
much that has been considered mysterious and difficult to overcome, and render it
Inore sure, profitable and interesting to every one, than it has heretofore been. By E.
W. PlIEI.PS.
EVERY LADY HER OWN GARDENER,
ADDRESSED TO THE INDUSTRIOUS AND ECONOMICAL ONLY; containing
Simple and Practical Directions for Cultivating Plants and Flowers ; also, Hints for tho
Management of Mowers in Rooms, with Uriel' Botanical Descriptions of Plants and
Flowers. The whole in Plain and simple language. By LOUISA Jonxsox.
THE COW; DAIRY HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE BREEDING,
BY M. M. MiLiu-RN, AND REVISED BY H. D. RICHARDSON AND
.\Mi:i:a<K STKVKXS. With illustrations.
WILSON ON THE CULTURE OF FLAX,
ITS TREATMENT, AGRICULTURAL AND TECHNICAL ; delivered before
the Xew York State Agricultural Society, at tho Annual Fair at Saratoga, in September
last, by JOHN WILKOX, late President of tho Koyal Agricultural College at Cirencoster
England.
WEEKS ON BEES ; A MANUAL,
OR, AN EASY METHOD OF MANAGING BEES IN THE MOST PROFITABLE
manner to their owner, with Infallible Rules to Prevent their Destruction by tho Moth ;
with an Appendix by WOOSTKK A. FI.AMIKKS.
REEMELIN'S (GHAS.) VINE DRESSERS' MANUAL,
CONTAINING FULL INSTRUCTIONS as to LOCATION and SOIL ; Prepara-
tion of Ground ; Selection and Propagation of Vines ; The Treatment of a Young Vino-
yard ; Trimming and Training the Vines ; Manures and tho Making of Wine. Every
department illustrated.
HYDE'S CHINESE SUGAR CANE,
CONTAINING ITS HISTORY, MODE OF CULTURE, MANUFACTURE of the
Sugar, &c. ; with Reports of its success in different parts of the United States.
BEMENT'S (C. M.) RABBIT FANCIER,
A TREATISE ON THE BREEDING, REARING, FEEDING, AND GENERAL
Management of Rabbits, with Remarks upon their Diseases and Remedies ; to which
are added Full Directions for the Construction of Hutches, Rabbitries, &c., together with
Recipes for cooking and dressing for the table.
KICHARDSON ON DOGS ; THEIR ORIGIN AND VARIETIES,
DIRECTIONS AS TO THEIR GENERAL MANAGEMENT. With numerous
Original Anecdotes : also, Complete Instructions as to Treatment under Disease. By H.
D. RICHARDSON. Illustrated with numerous wood engravings.
This is not only a cheap, but one of tin- best works ever published on tho Dog.
LIEBIG'S (JUSTUS) FAMILIAR LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY,
AND ITS RELATION TO COMMERCE. PHYSIOLOGY, AND AGRICULTURE.
Edited by .loiiv <;.u:m:M-:r<. M. l>.
THE DOG AND GUN, *
A FEW LOOSK CHAPTERS ON SHOOTING, among which will be found
some Anecdotes and Incident? ; also. Instructions for Dog Breaking, and interesting let
ters from Sport.- UK".!. Jty A B.io SHOT.
0
SECT JAN
PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE
CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY
Agric Browne, D. J
Soil The field book of manures
B
BioMed
11
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11