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LIBRARY  OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 

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January 
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Field  Museum 
of  Natural  History 
Bulletin 


January  1975 
Vol.  46,  No.  1 


Editor/Designer:  David  M.  Walsten 
Staff  Writer:  Madge  Jacobs 
Production:  Oscar  Anderson 


10 


BRACHIOSAURUS:  The  Biggest  Dinosaur 
of  Them  All 

By  David  Young 

OUR   ENVIRONMENT 


12  FIELD   BRIEFS 

14  THE  SCULPTOR  WHO  COLLECTED 

BUTTERFLIES 

By  David  M.  Walsten 
19  ASCENT  OF  MAN 


back        JANUARY  AT  FIELD  MUSEUM 
cover      Calendar  of  Coming  Events 


Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 

Founded  1893 

Director:  E.  Leland  Webber 


Board  of  Trustees 

Blaine  J.  Yarrington, 

President 
Gordon  Bent 
Harry  O.  Bercher 
Bowen  Blair 
Stanton  R.  Cook 
William  R.  Dickinson,  Jr. 
Thomas  E.  Donnelley  II 
Mrs.  Thomas  E.  Donnelley  II 
Marshall  Field 
Nicholas  Galitzine 
Paul  W.  Goodrich 
Remick  McDowell 
Hugo  J.  Melvoin 
J.  Roscoe  Miller 
William  H.  Mitchell 
Charles  F.  Murphy,  jr. 
Harry  M.  Oliver,  Jr. 
John  T.  Pirie,  Jr. 
John  S.  Runnells 
William  L.  Searle 


Edward  Byron  Smith 
Mrs.  Hermon  Dunlap  Smith 
Robert  H.  Strotz 
John  W.  Sullivan 
William  G.  Swartchild,  Jr. 
E.  Leland  Webber 
Julian  B.  Wilkins 

Life  Trustees 

William  McCormick  Blair 
Joseph  N.  Field 
Clifford  C.  Gregg 
Samuel  Insull,  Jr. 
William  V.  Kahler 
Hughston  M.  McBain 
James  L  Palmer 
John  G.  Searle 
John  M.  Simpson 
Louis  Ware 
J.  Howard  Wood 


COVER 

Field  Museum  paleontologists  at  camp  in  northwestern 
Colorado.  Assistant  curator  Elmer  S.  Riggs  (left)  and 
geology  preparator  H.  W.  Menke  (center,  washing  cooking 
utensils)  are  on  their  way  to  discover  the  remains  of 
Brachiosaurus,  which  was  to  be  recognized  as  the  largest 
of  all  dinosaurs.  Black  tent  by  wagon  is  photographer's 
dark  room.  See  story,  p.  3. 


Photos 

Pages  9,  12  (top),  D.  Walsten;  12  (bottom), 
bottom)  D.  Walsten. 


M.  Jacobs;  16,  18  (top, 


Field  Museum  of  Natural  History  Bulletin  is  published  monthly, 
except  combined  July/August  issue,  by  Field  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  Roosevelt  Road  at  Lake  Shore  Drive,  Chicago,  Illinois  60605. 
Subscriptions:  $6  a  year;  $3  a  year  for  schools.  Members  of  the 
Museum  subscribe  through  Museum  membership.  Opinions 
expressed  by  authors  are  their  own  and  do  not  necessarily  reflect  the 
policy  of  Field  Museum.  Unsolicited  manuscripts  are  welcome. 
Postmaster:  Please  send  form  3579  to  Field  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  Roosevelt  Road  at  Lake  Shore  Drive,  Chicago,  Illinois  60605. 
ISSN:  0015-0703.  Second  class  postage  paid  at  Chicago,  III. 


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V'4&~  48 


IV 


I  / 


BRACHIOSAURUS 


the  biggest 
dinosaur 
of  them  all 


by  David  Young 

"Riggs  Hill?"  asked  the  nice  little 
lady  in  purple-flowered  dress  sitting  be- 
hind the  reception  desk  in  the  Grand 
Junction,  Colorado,  museum.  "Does  he 
work  here?" 

"No,  Madame,"  I  replied.  "Riggs 
Hill  is  a  place." 

The  receptionist  looked  somewhat 
nonplussed  and  shuffled  through  some 
official-looking  rosters  to  gain  a  second 
to  think.  "I've  never  heard  of  it,"  she 
said  finally.  "Where  is  it?" 

"That's  what  I  want  to  know,"  I  re- 
plied. 

"What  is  it?" 

"They  dug  up  the  Brachiosaurus 
there  a  long  time  ago." 

"A  what?" 

"A  dinosaur." 

"Oh,"  she  said  with  a  smile  of  rec- 
ognition. "Then  you'll  have  to  talk  to 
the  paleontologist." 

The  paleontologist,  a  young  former 
Harvard  University  fossil  preparator 
named  Lance  Erikson,  was  at  that  mo- 
ment lecturing  a  group  of  visiting  school 
children  on  the  lifestyle  of  a  thirty-foot 


At  right,  H.  W.  Menke,  geology  preparator  at 
Field  Museum  from  about  7898  to  1904, 
poses  with  the  675-pound  femur  of  Brachio- 
saurus. Date  of  photo  about  7907.  Several 
months  earlier  Menke  had  assisted  in  exca- 
vating the  fossil  from  its  bed  in  the  Grand 
River  Valley  of  northwestern  Colorado. 


David  Young  is  a  reporter  for  the  Chicago 
Tribune 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


dinosaur  mounted  behind  him.  Yes,  he 
knew  where  Riggs  Hill  was  located;  and, 
yes,  he  would  take  me  there. 

"You  know,"  Erikson  said,  "that's 
where  they  found  the  Brachiosaurus." 

A  thousand  miles  to  the  east  of  Grand 
Junction  stands  Chicago's  Field  Museum 
— an  imposing  neoclassical  structure 
which  has  a  main  exhibition  hall  (Stanley 
Field  Hall)  large  enough  to  hold  the 
entire  Grand  Junction  museum. 

"Brachiosaurus?"  said  John  Bolt,  Field 
Museum's  assistant  curator  of  fossil  rep- 
tiles and  amphibians,  as  he  led  me  to  a 
ground  floor  storage  room  where  the 
creature's  bones  were  hidden  from  pub- 
lic view.  "It's  right  here!" 

And  it  was;  there  in  the  dimly  lighted 
temporary  storage  room  reposed  the 
mortal  remains  of  mosasaurs,  mastodons, 
and  fossil  mammals,  many  still  encased 
in  the  protective  plaster  jackets  placed 
on  them  years  ago  as  they  were  dug 
from  the  rocks.  Among  them  were  the 
bones  of  the  Brachiosaurus  taken  from 
Riggs  Hill  in  1900. 

Such  is  the  fate  of  poor  Brachio- 
saurus. He  was  the  largest  animal  known 
to  have  walked  the  face  of  the  earth, 
and  one  of  the  most  anonymous. 

Many  of  the  thousands  of  visitors 
who  each  day  pour  through  Field  Mu- 
seum stop  to  marvel  at  the  huge  Bronto- 


Brachiosaurus  restoration  (from  Abel). 


saurus  mounted  on  the  second  floor  in 
Hall  38.  It  is  the  epitome  of  the  dino- 
saurs, the  "Thunder  Lizard,"  the  behe- 
moth of  behemoths,  the  creature  in  the 
old  Sinclair  Oil  advertisements,  and  the 
monster  which  chased  the  heroes 
through  the  swamp  after  King  Kong 
abducted  the  maiden. 

But  unknown  to  those  visitors  who 
stand  and  gape  at  Brontosaurus  (which 
by  an  error  in  classification  is  not  really 
Brontosaurus  but  Apatosaurus)?  that 
ground-floor  storage  room  hides  the 
bones  of  a  creature  even  larger.  They 
belong  to  Brachiosaurus. 

Admittedly,  the  creature's  bones  are 
not  much  to  look  at — a  total  of  less  than 
twenty,  including  seven  presacral  and 
two  caudal  vertebrae,  a  sacrum,  four 
ribs,  a  right  coracoid,  part  of  the  pelvis, 
a  humerus,  and  a  femur.  There  are  not 
even  enough  of  them  to  be  reassembled 
into  an  exhibit.  But  the  dimensions  of 
the  Brachiosaurus  as  told  by  those  bones 
are  staggering. 

For  example,  Ziggy,  the  huge  Indian 
elephant  in  Brookfield  Zoo,  weighs  ap- 
proximately seven  tons.  The  weight  of 
Brontosaurus  in  life  has  been  calculated 
at  thirty  to  thirty-five  tons.  A  Brachio- 
saurus has  been  calculated  to  weigh 
more  than  twice  that — in  the  flesh!2 

A  healthy  adult  giraffe,  the  tallest 
living  animal,  stands  seventeen  feet  high. 
The  only  mounted  Brachiosaurus  skele- 
ton in  existence,  in  the  Berlin  Museum, 
stands  forty  feet  tall.  But  Brigham  Young 
University  paleontologist  James  A.  Jen- 
sen recently  discovered  near  Grand  Junc- 
tion, Colorado,   nine  cervical  vertebrae 

1.  Marsh  in  1879  named  Brontosaurus  from 
some  bones  found  at  Como  Bluff,  Wyo.,  but 
the  bones  later  turned  out  to  be  from  a  genus 
previously  named  Apatosaurus.  Even  though 
in  error,  the  name  Brontosaurus,  which 
means  "thunder  lizard,"  caught  the  public 
imagination  and  has  been  popularly  used 
ever  since. 

2.  Edwin  H.  Colbert  of  the  American  Museum 
of  Natural  History  in  1962  calculated  the 
weight  of  14  different  dinosaurs  based  on 
body  volume  and  specific  gravity.  He  esti- 
mated Brontosaurus'  weight  at  a  maximum  of 
35.8  tons;  but  Brachiosaurus,  according  to  his 
calculations,  tipped  the  scales  at  an  amazing 
85.63  tons.  (American  Museum  Novitates,  No. 
2076, 1972.) 


which  he  calculates  belonged  to  a  crea- 
ture with  a  neck  forty  feet  long.  It  is 
too  early  to  tell,  however,  whether  Jen- 
sen's sauropod  (the  family  of  long- 
necked  dinosaurs  that  includes  Bronto- 
saurus, Brachiosaurus,  and  Diplodocus) 
is  a  Brachiosaurus  or  an  entirely  new 
genus. 

So  why  is  the  Brontosaurus  so  well 
known  and  the  gigantic  Brachiosaurus 
so  anonymous?  For  the  answer,  it  is 
necessary  to  go  back  nearly  a  century  to 
America's  Wild  West — of  all  places. 

In  1877,  Chicago  was  still  rebuilding 
from  its  famous  fire  of  six  years  earlier, 
and  the  major  topic  of  conversation  was 
still  the  Sioux  Indian  War  in  which  Col. 


Drawing  of  the  reconstructed  Brachiosaurus  i 
in  the  Berlin  Museum.  The  only  complete 
reconstruction  of  this  dinosaur,  it  stands  40 
feet  high.  The  skeleton  was  excavated  by 
German  paleontologists  in  Tendaguru,  in 
present-day  Tanzania,  during  a  four-year  ex- 
pedition that  ended  in  1912.  For  comparison, 
H.  W.  Menke  is  shown  with  the  Field  Mu- 
seum femur.  At  214  cm.  long,  the  femur  of 
the  Tendaguru  Brachiosaurus  is  11  cm.  (about 
4.3  inches)  longer  than  that  of  the  Colorado 
Brachiosaurus. 


January  1975 


George  Armstrong  Custer  and  his  com- 
mand had  been  massacred  the  year  be- 
fore at  the  Little  Bighorn. 

From  Como  Bluff,  Wyoming,  an 
obscure  way  station  along  the  new 
Union  Pacific  Railroad,  a  couple  of  rail- 
road employees  wrote  a  letter  to  a 
wealthy  eastern  scientist,  telling  him  of 
some  large  bones  which  they  had  seen 
weathering  out  of  the  nearby  bluffs.  The 
scientist,  Othniel  Charles  Marsh,  was  in- 
terested. He  was  already  engaged  in  a 
bitter  scientific  rivalry  with  another  east- 
ern scientist  of  considerable  means,  Ed- 
ward Drinker  Cope. 

An  assistant  sent  by  Marsh  to 
Wyoming  to  investigate  wrote  back  that 
the  railroad  employees  were  not  lying; 
there  were  dinosaur  bones  "everywhere." 
Thus  began  a  scientific  war  between 
Marsh  and  Cope  that  resulted  in  a 
pitched  battle  to  see  who  would  dig  at 
Como  Bluff. 

What  the  rival  scientists  dug  out 
of  those  remote  quarries  was  literally 
tons    of    bones,    many    belonging    to    a 


O 


species  of  sauropod  dinosaur  which 
Marsh  in  1879  named  Brontosaurus. 

As  the  exploits  of  Marsh  and  Cope 
and  the  discoveries  of  those  dinosaurs  ap- 
peared in  the  press,  the  name  Bronto- 
saurus captured  the  public  imagination. 
Before  the  century  had  ended,  other 
scientists  and  museums  entered  the  great 
dinosaur  hunt.  An  expedition  from  the 
American  Museum  of  Natural  History  in 
New  York  discovered  a  shepherd's  cabin 
near  Medicine  Bow,  Wyoming,  made 
entirely  from  dinosaur  bones.  The  quarry 
there  ultimately  yielded  a  Brontosaurus 
skeleton  which  now  resides  in  that  mu- 
seum. 

And  steel  millionaire  Andrew  Car- 
negie financed  an  expedition  to  Split 
Mountain,  Utah,  which  discovered  a  rich 
digging  ground  that  produced  more  tons 
of  sauropod  bones  for  his  new  museum 
in  Pittsburgh.  The  site  of  those  diggings 
is  now  Dinosaur  National  Monument. 

The  Field  Museum,  founded  in  1893, 
somewhat  belatedly  joined  the  race  for 
the   dinosaurs.    Paleontologist    Elmer   S. 


'Q>/ 


rO/ 


Q, 


Riggs  explained  it  to  an  interviewer  just 
before  his  retirement  in  1942: 

"New  departments  were  being 
formed  in  other  museums  on  the  strength 
of  new  interest  in  these  gigantic  reptiles. 
The  name  dinosaur  was  for  the  first  time 
becoming  a  household  word.  The  Amer- 
ican press  was  quick  to  herald  through- 
out the  country  reports  of  each  new  dis- 
covery," he  said. 

Chicago  didn't  have  a  Brontosaurus, 
so  Riggs  wrote  persons  in  several  towns 
along  the  Denver  &  Rio  Grande  Railroad 
asking  if  any  fossil  bones  had  been  found 
nearby.  He  chose  the  area  traversed  by 
that  railroad  because  it  bisected  what 
is  known  geologically  as  the  Morrison 
Formation — a  massive  deposit  covering 
large  portions  of  Colorado,  Wyoming, 
and  Utah.  The  formation,  which  is  prob- 
ably the  richest  dinosaur-fossil  digging 
ground  in  the  world,  was  laid  down 
some  140  million  years  ago  at  the  end  of 
the  Jurassic  geological  period.  At  that 
time  the  western  part  of  the  continent 
was  not  the  mountainous  region  it  is 
today,  but  rather  a  low-lying  flood  plain 
crossed  by  meandering  rivers,  lakes,  and 
swamps.  The  mire  of  the  swamps  and 
sandbars  in  the  rivers  entombed  the  car- 
casses and  bones  of  dinosaurs,  enabling 
them  to  become  fossilized. 

Riggs  chose  well.  A  museum  official 
in  Grand  Junction  wrote  back  that  some 
fossil  fragments  had  been  found  in  a  hill 
a  few  miles  from  town.  The  next  spring, 
Riggs  organized  an  expedition  and 
headed  west.  And  in  the  ash-gray  Mor- 
rison strata  on  that  small  hill  he  found 
the  first  evidence  of  his  dinosaur.  He 
realized  almost  immediately  that  it  was 
a  huge  creature,  but  it  was  to  be  several 
years  before  he  found  out  just  how  huge. 

For  on  that  windswept  hill  parched 
by  the  summer's  heat,  Riggs  had  found 
something  new,  something  unknown  to 
science.  He  found  what  was  to  be  the 
type  specimen    of  Brachiosaurus.  He  had  >- 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


Above:  Fording  streams  is  all  in  a  day's 
work  for  Elmer  Riggs  and  assistants  as 
they  make  their  way  to  the  fossil  beds. 
Left:  Expedition  assistant  poses  with  the 
Brachiosaurus  humerus,  which  at  204 
cm.,  was  7  cm.  longer  than  the  femur. 
Below:  Preparator  Menke  coats  the 
Brachiosaurus  bones  with  protective 
plaster  prior  to  the  long  haul  back  to 
Chicago.  Page  7,  top:  Menke,  with  clay 
pipe,  and  Riggs  take  a  breafc  from  bone- 
digging  and  enjoy  the  comforts  of  life. 
Hanging  from  the  ridge-pole  are  partly 
eaten  haunches  of  antelope,  shot  by  an 
expedition  member.  Page  7,  bottom: 
Back  at  the  Museum,  Menke  and  Riggs 
work  on  bones  collected  during  the  trip. 
The  femur,  behind  Menke,  is  still  en- 
cased in  its  plaster  jacket. 


also  found  what  is  still  the  largest 
creature  known  to  have  walked  the 
earth. 

Although  Riggs  realized  at  Grand 
junction  that  he  had  uncovered  an  ex- 
ceptionally large  sauropod — not  the 
Brontosaurus  he  had  been  looking  for — 
it  wasn't  until  he  got  the  bones  back  to 
Chicago  and  free  from  the  rocky  matrix 
that  he  realized  its  true  proportions. 

It  was  the  upper  leg  bones  which 
impressed  Riggs  the  most.  The  humerus 
(upper  foreleg)  of  the  animal  was,  at 
2.04  meters  (about  six  feet,  eight  inches), 
actually  larger  than  the  2.03-meter  femur 
(upper  hind  leg) — an  unheard-of  char- 
acteristic in  sauroped  dinosaurs.  Most 
sauropods,  like  Brontosaurus,  have  a 
back  which  reaches  its  highest  point  at 
the  hips,  then  slopes  downward  to  the 
shoulders.  But  Brachiosaurus,  much  like 
a  modern  giraffe,  was  taller  at  the 
shoulder. 

Could  there  have  been  a  mistake? 
He  rechecked  the  bones  and  finally  con- 
cluded he  had  found  a  new  animal.  He 
named  it  Brachiosaurus  altithorax,3  and 
in  1903  published  his  findings  in  the 
American  journal  of  Science.  Among  his 
conclusions: 

"The  length  of  the  humerus  and 
femur,  together  with  the  immense  size 
of  the  thorax,  at  once  establishes  the  fact 
that  this  is  the  largest  and  longest  limbed 
of  all  known  land  animals." 

3.  Pronounced  brack-  ee-o-sawrus.  The  name 
derives  from  the  Greek  brachion  ("arm")  and 
sauros  ("lizard"). 


i  *     -.J!*?.-* 


f 


But  with  approximately  twenty 
bones  to  work  with,  Riggs  was  unable  to 
determine  exactly  what  the  creature 
must  have  looke'd  like  in  life,  except  to 
assume  it  must  have  looked  something 
like  the  rest  of  the  more  famous 
sauropods. 

Brachiosaurus  is,  after  all,  a  very 
close  relative  of  Brontosaurus,  and  both 
are  sometimes  placed  in  the  same  family. 

Since  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
whip  up  public  enthusiasm  for  a  few 
large  bones  with  the  tongue-twisting 
name  Brachiosaurus  altithorax,  Bronto- 
saurus remained,  as  it  is  today,  the  most 
famous  of  the  dinosaurs — more  than  any 
other  the  symbol  of  those  great  reptiles 
which  once  ruled  the  earth. 

In  fact,  Brachiosaurus  remained 
something  of  a  mystery  until  a  decade 
later  when  a  German  expedition  dis- 
covered a  fairly  complete  skeleton  in  the 
Tendaguru  fossil  beds  of  East  Africa,  now 
Tanzania — the  skeleton,  forty  feet  tall, 
now  stands  in  the  Berlin  Museum.  Since 
then,  various  fragmentary  remains  identi- 
fied as  Brachiosaurus  have  been  found 
in  Europe,  Africa, and  the  western  United 
States.  ► 


"y"""" 


»i 


!»>r 


Today,  paleontologists  have  a  fairly 
good  idea  of  what  the  creature  looked 
like  in  life.  It  had  the  long  neck  of  a 
giraffe,  only  more  massive;  the  bulky 
body  and  pillar-like  legs  of  an  elephant; 
a  tail  relatively  shorter  than  most  of  its 
sauropod  cousins;  and  perched  atop  that 
long  neck  was  a  comparatively  tiny  head 
containing  a  brain  no  larger  than  a  man's 
fist,  nostrils  elevated  in  a  crest  on  top 
of  the  head,  and  a  set  of  weak,  peg-like 
teeth. 

But  if  paleontologists  agree  on  what 
Brachiosaurus  looked  like,  they  have 
been  unable  to  agree  entirely  on  a 
number  of  other  puzzling  aspects  of  the 
beast.  Paleontology  is  a  science  which 
reconstructs  the  past  using  whatever 
evidence  is  available.  The  men  who 
study  dinosaurs  must  by  necessity  rely 
heavily  on  the  bones  of  the  creatures 
they  find  buried  in  rock.  Bones  can  tell 
a  paleontologist  much  about  an  extinct 
creature — how  he  looked  and  walked, 
for  example — but  they  reveal  little  about 
such  things  as  internal  organs,  skin,  and 
physiology.  Other  fossils  found  in  the 
same  strata  can  give  paleontologists  a 
good  idea  of  the  other  animals  and  plant 
life  (the  flora  and  fauna)  inhabiting  the 
world  at  the  time  and  even  the  environ- 
ment in  which  the  beast  lived.  Even 
animals  living  today  can  give  some  clues 


as  to  the  lifestyle  of  their  extinct  an- 
cestors (the  dinosaurs'  closest  living 
relatives  are  the  crocodilians),  and  living 
animals  occupying  similar  niches  in  the 
contemporary  environment  as  creatures 
long  dead  can  provide  further  insights. 
Elephants  and  sauropods  are  often  com- 
pared because  they  represent  the  largest 
herbivores  living  in  their  respective  times. 

Despite  all  this,  many  questions 
remain  regarding  the  way  of  life  of 
Brachiosaurus  and  other  sauropods. 

The  small  mouth  and  weak  teeth  of 
Brachiosaurus,  for  example,  immediately 
raise  the  question  of  how  so  large  an 
animal  could  eat  enough  to  stay  alive. 
Obviously,  the  small  mouth  was  a  prob- 
lem to  everyone  but  Brachiosaurus,  for 
it  lived  and  flourished  for  millions  of 
years  over  large  parts  of  the  globe. 

One  theory  is  that  because  the 
sauropods  were  reptiles,  their  metabolic 
rates  and  energy  requirements  may  have 
been  less  than  those  of  living  mammals 
and  they  did  not  require  as  much  food 
per  unit  of  body  weight.'* 

Another  is  that  the  sauropods  were 
forced  to  eat  almost  continuously  to  stay 
alive  and  grow  to  such  size. 

What  they  ate  is  still  another  prob- 
lem. Some  paleontologists  believe  that 
the  sauropods  lived  on  some  sort  of  soft 
water  plants   which   would   present   no 


problems  to  their  teeth,5  but  lames  Jensen 
thinks  that  Brachiosaurus  browsed  on  the 
tops  of  trees.6 

The  very  size  of  the  Brachiosaurus 
has  also  caused  some  academic  con- 
sternation. For  many  years,  many  pale- 
ontologists argued  that  the  weight  limit 
for  a  four-legged  animal  (tetrapod)  was 
about  fifty  tons.  They  reasoned  that 
bone,  ligament,  and  muscle  simply  could 
not  support  a  land  animal  any  larger. 

But  in  1962,  Edwin  H.  Colbert  of  the 
American  Museum  of  Natural  History  in 
New  York  calculated  the  weight  of 
Brachiosaurus,   based   on    body  volume 


4.  W.  E.  Swinton,  The  Dinosaurs,  John  Wiley 
&Sons,  1970,  p.  192. 

5.  Bjorn  Kurten,  The  Age  of  the  Dinosaurs, 
McGraw-Hill  Book  Co.,  1968,  pp.  92-93.  See 
also  Colbert,  op.  cit,  p.  12.  There  are  a  num- 
ber of  pitfalls  in  speculating  on  the  diet  of 
dinosaurs.  As  Kurten  points  out  (pp.  112-13), 
the  diet  of  duck-billed  dinosaurs,  Hadrosaurs, 
was  assumed  to  be  aquatic  plants  because  the 
animals'  skeletal  structure  indicated  a  semi- 
aquatic  life.  In  1922,  however,  a  German 
paleontologist  published  a  list  of  the  stomach 
contents  found  preserved  in  a  Hadrosaur 
fossil,  showing  that  the  animal  ate  conifer 
needles,  twigs,  seeds,  and  fruits  from  land 
plants.  See  also  John  H.  Ostrom,  "A  Recon- 
sideration of  the  Paleoecology  of  Hadrosau- 
rian  Dinosaurs,"  American  journal  of  Science, 
1964,  Vol.  262,  pp.  975-97. 

6.  Interview  with  Jensen  author,  May,  1974. 


Brontosaurus  (more  properly  Apatosaurus)  restoration,  a  mural,  by 
Charles  R.  Knight.  The  25-foot  painting,  with  28  other  Knight  murals 
of  prehistoric  life,  is  on  view  in  Field  Museum's  Hall  38.   Directly 


opposite  the  mural  is  a  15-foot  high  reconstruction  of  a  Bronto- 
saurus skeleton,  discovered  by  Elmer  Riggs  near  Grand  Junction, 
Colo.,  in  1901. 


January  1975 


and  specific  gravity,  at  more  than  85 
tons.7  Colbert  argued  that  Brachiosaurus 
must,  therefore,  have  been  a  semiaquatic 
creature  living  in  swamps  or  lakes  where 
the  water  could  help  support  its  massive 
body.8  After  all,  the  whales,  the  only 
animals  ever  to  exceed  Brachiosaurus  in 
size,  spend  all  of  their  lives  in  water. 
Brachiosaurus'  long  neck  and  nostrils 
elevated  above  its  head,  many  paleon- 
tologists argue,  are  characteristics  which 
would  enable  it  to  wade  along  the  lake 
and  swamp  bottoms  with  its  head  still 
above  water. 

Colbert  has  often  painted  the 
sauropods  as  sluggish  swamp-dwellers 
living  in  steaming  jungles  where  they 
could  feed  on  aquatic  plants  with  little 
to  fear  from  predaceous  dinosaurs 
ashore. 

Such  a  life  would  mean  that  the 
giants  would  have  to  go  ashore  in- 
frequently perhaps  only  to  lay  their 
eggs  and  migrate  to  new  feeding  grounds. 

However,  a  number  of  paleontolo- 
gists believe  that  Brachiosaurus  spent 
most  of  its  life  on  land,  feeding  from  the 
tops  of  trees  in  the  same  way  a  giraffe 
does  today.  Why  else  would  the  animal 
reach  such  a  great  height?  These  paleon- 
tologists claim  that  the  structure  of  the 
creature's  vertebral  column  indicates, 
Brachiosaurus  could  not  easily  lower  its 
head  for  ground  feeding. 

Jensen,  one  of  the  proponents  of 
this  view,  believes  that  Brachiosaurus 
lived  on  gently  rolling  uplands  not  far 
from  the  flood  plains  inhabited  by 
semiaquatic  sauropods  like  Brontosaurus. 
Since  upland  environments  are  not  con- 
ducive to  fossilization,  this  would  ex- 
plain the  relative  scarcity  of  Brachiosaurus 
fossils,  Jensen  reasons.9 

Its  great  size  would  protect  it  from 


the  predators  of  the  time.  Some  of  these 
creatures  were  awesome  in  their  own 
right.  Antrodemus  ( Attosaurus)™  was  a 
thirty-foot  reptile  with  a  gaping  mouth 
armed  with  serrated  teeth.  But  Colbert 
calculated  that  Antrodemus-weighed  only 
about  two  tons.  For  one  of  them  to 
bring  down  a  full-grown  Brachiosaurus 
would  be  roughly  equivalent  to  a  lion 
killing  a  six-ton  elephant.  Modern 
carnivores — even  the  crocodile — gener- 
ally do  not  attack  prey  considerably 
larger  than  themselves.  In  other  words, 
their  prey  must  be  manageable.  If 
Antrodemus  ate  Brachiosaurus,  it  may 
have  confined  itself  to  younger  animals 
which  had  not  yet  grown  to  such  great 
size. 

Ironically,  Riggs  was  one  of  the 
early  proponents  of  the  theory  that 
Brachiosaurus  was  a  land  dweller — a 
theory  which  he  argued  in  several 
scientific  papers  in  the  early  1900s."  He 
also  argued  that  the  feet  and  limbs  of  all 
sauropods  indicated  the  entire  group  was 
terrestrial: 

".  .  .  but  the  length  and  slenderness 
of  the  limb,  the  deep  thorax,  and  broad 
sacrum,  the  expanded  ilium,  and  the  ab- 
breviated tail  of  Brachiosaurus  all  point 
to  a  great  agility  and  much  better  adap- 
tation to  terrestrial  habits  than  is  found 
in  any  other  representative  of  the 
sauropods." 

Unfortunately,  Riggs'  observations 
were  based  on  a  single  incomplete 
Brachiosaurus  skeleton  a  decade  before 
the  German  discoveries  in  Africa.  And 
his  arguments  failed  to  sway  paleontol- 
ogist W.  E.  Swinton: 

"From  this  view  there  seems  little 
good  evidence  to  counter  the  over- 
whelming array  of  adaptations  for  a 
water  habitat."12 


Whatever  its  lifestyle,  Brachiosaurus 
apparently  became  extinct  around  the 
close  of  the  Jurassic  about  140  million 
years  ago.  While  other  types  of  dino- 
saurs, even  some  sauropods,  survived 
the  Jurassic  and  lived  on  into  the 
Cretaceous,  there  is  no  evidence  that 
Brachiosaurus  was  among  them.  Of 
course,  all  dinosaurs  are  believed  to  have 
become  extinct  65  million  years  later 
at  the  end  of  the  Cretaceous.13 

Why  did  Brachiosaurus  disappear  so 
much  sooner  than  its  dinosaurian  rel- 
atives? There  has  been  a  veritable  host 
of  reasons  given  for  why  the  dinosaurs 
became  extinct — everything  from  cosmic 
disturbances  to  racial  old  age.  Whatever 
the  causes  of  the  extinction  of  such  well 
known  dinosaurs  as  Tyrannosaurus  and 
Triceratops  about  70  million  years  ago, 
Brachiosaurus  was  dead  and  fossilizing 
long  before  they  even  evolved. 

The  most  common  explanation  for 
the  extinction  of  Brachiosaurus  (and 
other  sauropods)  is  that  its  environment 
changed  and  it  was  unable  to  adapt  to  a 
new  one.  Possibly  the  low-lying  plains 
on  which  it  lived  rose  slowly  during  the 
late  Jurassic  and  early  Cretaceous,  drain- 
ing the  swamps  and  lakes,  changing  the 
course  of  rivers,  and  altering  the  environ- 
ment upon  which  the  huge  creature  was 
dependent.  There  is  no  way  to  know  for 
sure. 

So  the  Brachiosaurus  remains  a 
puzzle,  as  much  so  in  life  as  in  death — 
tons  of  massive  bones  to  titillate  the 
public  imagination  as  well  as  scientific 
curiosity.  In  some  ways,  we  are  no  closer 
to  solving  the  riddle  of  the  giant  among 
the  dinosaurs  than  when  Chicagoan 
Elmer  S.  Riggs  first  discovered  its  exis- 
tence on  that  lonely  hillside  in  Colorado 
seventy-five  years  ago.  □ 


7.  Colbert,  op  cit. 

8.  Interview  with  Colbert  by  the  author  in 
June,  1974.  See  also  Colbert,  Dinosaurs:  Their 
Discovery  and  Their  World,  pp.  91-105;  and 
The  Dinosaur  Book,  McGraw  Hill  Book  Co., 
1945,  pp.  94-95.  Further  discussion  of  the 
semiaquatic  theory  is  in  Alfred  S.  Romer's 
Vertebrate  Paleontology,  3d  ed.,  University  of 
Chicago  Press,  1966,  pp.  153-56. 

9.  Jensen  interview;  see  6,  above. 

10.  Antrodemus  is  popularly,  but  erroneously, 


known  as  Allosaurus  from  Allosaurus  fragilis 
in  1877.  See  Swinton,  op.  cit.,  pp.  147-49. 

11.  Elmer  S.  Riggs,  "The  Dinosaur  Beds  of  the 
Grand  River  Valley  of  Colorado,"  Field  Col- 
umbian Museum  Publication  #60,  Geologi- 
cal Series,  Vol.  1,  No.  9, 1901,  pp.  267-74;  and 
"Structure  and  Relationship  of  Opisthocoelian 
Dinosaurs,"  Field  Columbian  Museum  Publi- 
cation #94,  Geological  Series,  Vol.  II,  No.  6, 
1904,  pp.  229-47. 

12.  Swinton,  op.  cit.,  p.  188. 


13.  Brachiosaurus  may  have  survived  into  the 
Cretaceous  period.  However,  there  is  a  scar- 
city of  lower  Cretaceous  fossil  strata  in  the 
United  States  and  no  evidence  of  Brachio- 
saurus in  later  deposits.  John  Bolt,  Field  Mu- 
seum assistant  curator  of  fossil  reptiles  and 
amphibians,  points  out  that  there  may  be  a 
similarity  in  the  problem  of  dinosaur  extinc- 
tion at  the  end  of  the  Cretaceous:  that  some 
dinosaurs  may  have  survived  into  the  Ceno- 
zoic.  No  proof  of  this  has  yet  been  published. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


our  environment 


Electric  Power  from  Waves 

Man's  utilization  of  moving  water  as  an 
energy  source  has  until  now  been  con- 
fined to  rivers  and  streams,  but  imagina- 
tive engineers  have  long  dreamed  of  har- 
nessing the  enormous  energy  present  in 
ocean  waves  and  tides. 

The  work  of  a  thirty-five-year-old  Univer- 
sity of  Edinburgh  scientist,  Stephen  Salter, 
suggests  that  Britain  could,  indeed,  be  de- 
riving much  of  its  electric  power  from  ocean 
waves  by  1985  or  1990.  The  British  Depart- 
ment of  Trade  and  Industry  has  been  suffi- 
ciently impressed  with  Salter's  work  to  grant 
him  $140,000  for  further  development  of  his 
project. 

Salter's  studies  indicate  that  the  most 
promising  location  for  the  first  wave-catch- 
ing generator  is  off  Scotland's  northwest 
coast,  about  ten  miles  west  of  the  Hebrides. 
The  floating  generator  would  be  somewhat 
larger  than  a  supertanker  and  constructed 
of  concrete  and  steel.  Twenty  to  forty  vanes, 
rotated  by  the  waves,  would  turn  the  gen- 
erator, thus  producing  electricity.  All  of 
Europe's  electrical  needs,  says  Salter,  could 
be  provided  by  such  generators  placed  at 
100-mile    intervals    along    Europe's    coast. 

Harming  Eagles  Is  Serious  Crime 

The  killing,  or  even  the  harassment,  of 
bald  eagles  is  viewed  by  the  federal  gov- 
ernment as  a  serious  offense — serious  enough 
to  earn  the  offender  one  year  in  prison  and 
a  fine  of  $  5,000.  The  Bald  Eagle  Protection 
Act,  amended  in  1962  to  include  protec- 
tion for  the  golden  eagle,  provides  for  fines 
up  to  $10,000  and  two  years'  imprisonment 
for  second  offenders. 

The  act  also  provides  that  persons  who 
give  information  leading  to  conviction  of 
offenders  may  receive  one-half  of  any  fine, 
but  not  exceeding  $2,500.  Individuals  with 
information  which  might  lead  to  convic- 
tion of  a  violation  of  the  act  should  con- 
tact the  nearest  state  conservation  officer 
or  U.S.  Agent. 

Each  fall,  dozens  of  eagles  are  shot  and 
killed  or  crippled  by  hunters  who  fail  to 
exercise  the  'responsibility  that  goes  with 
carrying  a  gun.  To  make  matters  worse, 
many  eagles  are  caught  in  steel  traps,  elec- 
trocuted on  power  lines,  and  poisoned  in- 
tentionally   or   through    pesticide    pollution. 

To  avoid  the  accidental  trapping  of  eagles, 
animal  trappers  should  make  their  sets  in 
ways  that  obscure  visibility  from  the  air. 
While  hunting,  eagles  rely  mainly  on  their 
keen  sight.  If  birds  can't  see  the  bait,  they 


won't  be  attracted  to  traps.  Birds  of  prey 
are  most  often  caught  in  exposed  upland 
sets  for  foxes  or  raccoons  that  are  baited 
with  animal  carcasses.  Many  accidents  could 
be  avoided  by  using  scents,  by  burying  baits, 
or  by  setting  traps  in  areas  of  reduced  over- 
head visibility:  under  overhanging  banks, 
rock  outcrops,  or  stumps. 

Each  year,  the  U.S.  Fish  and  Wildlife  Ser- 
vice, along  with  other  federal  or  state  agen- 
cies, universities,  and  private  organizations, 
conducts  a  bald  eagle  nest  survey  to  mea- 
sure reproductive  success.  According  to 
some  wildlife  biologists,  these  eagles  should 
reproduce  an  average  of  about  .67  young 
per  adult  pair  each  year  to  maintain  num- 
bers and  ensure  survival  of  the  species.  Re- 
ported nesting  success  in  1974  ranged  from 
.33  to  .94  in  the  Great  Lakes  states.  Although 
annual  ups  and  downs  are  expected — and  it 
may  take  years  to  see  trends  clearly — gen- 
erally low  production  has  been  documented 
in  breeding  areas  adjacent  to  the  Great 
Lakes,  while  production  figures  from  inland 
areas  indicate  a  stable  population.  Low  pro- 
duction in  the  Great  Lakes  area  is  generally 
attributed  to  the  concentration  of  chlori- 
nated hydrocarbon  pesticides,  such  as  DDT, 
in  fish  eaten  by  the  eagles. 

NRA  Opposes 

Steel  Shotgun  Ammo 

In  the  November,  1974,  Bulletin  (p.  8), 
the  field-testing  of  steel  shotgun  ammunition 
by  the  U.S.  Fish  and  Wildlife  Service  was  re- 
ported. The  new  ammunition  was  proposed 
by  the  federal  agency  as  a  possible  alternative 
to  lead  pellets,  which  have  been  responsible 
for  the  death — by  lead  poisoning — of  tens  of 
thousands  of  ducks  and  geese  each  year.  The 
National  Rifle  Association,  however,  has  now 
gone  on  record  against  the  use  of  steel,  charg- 
ing that  the  agency's  environmental  statement 
on  the  new  ammunition  is  not  supported  by 
reliable,  probative,  or  substantial  evidence. 

Moose  Shot  in  Iowa 

A  Gilman,  Iowa,  farmer  was  charged  re- 
cently with  illegal  possession  of  a  protected 
animal,  after  a  rack  of  moose  horns,  frozen 
meat,  and  a  moose  hide  were  discovered  on 
his  property.  Conservation  officers  believe 
that  the  moose  was  one  that  had  been  ob- 
served frequently  during  the  past  year  along 
the  Minnesota-Iowa  border.  "We  had  only 
one  moose  in  Iowa,"  remarked  state  con- 
servation official  Mike  Runyan,  "now  we  don't 
have  any." 


Riper  Squash  from  Warmer  Soil 

Industrial  waste  heat  may  be  beneficial  in 
farm  crop  cultivation,  according  to  a  five- 
year  study  conducted  by  the  Eugene,  Ore- 
gon, Water  and  Electric  Board.  The  project 
was  partly  funded  by  the  Environmental 
Protection  Agency.  It  was  conducted  on  170 
acres  of  land  supporting  orchards  and  row 
crops. 

Thermal  water  ranging  from  80  to  100 
degrees  Fahrenheit  was  pumped  from  a  pulp 
and  paper  mill  on  the  MacKenzie  River, 
about  2.5  miles  from  the  project  site.  The 
warm  water  was  used  for  research  on  frost 
protection,  undersoil  heating,  greenhouse 
applications,  cooling  of  crop  plants,  humid- 
ity control  irrigation,  and  production  of  two 
crops  per  year. 

"Results  of  the  study,"  reports  Norbert  A. 
Jaworski,  project  director,  "indicate  that  the 
greatest  potential  agricultural  uses  of  waste 
heat  are  in  the  area  of  underground  soil 
heating." 

Tomatoes,  sweetcorn,  asparagus,  rhodo- 
dendrons, cantaloupes,  and  squash  all  grew 
faster  with  soil  heating.  There  was  no  signif- 
icant change  in  the  level  of  mold  and  bac- 
teria. 

Native  Wolf  Shot  in  Michigan 

The  first  reported  shooting  of  a  native 
timber  wolf  in  Michigan  since  the  mid-1960s 
occurred  in  November.  The  news  was  a  sur- 
prise to  Michigan  Department  of  Natural  Re- 
sources biologists,  who  believed  that  native 
wolves  had  long  since  disappeared  from  their 
state.  The  wolf  was  shot  about  30  miles  northi 
of  Menominee,  in  the  Upper  Peninsula.  The 
hunter  who  killed  the  76-pound  male  wolf 
had  mistaken  it  for  a  large  coyote,  and  imme- 
diately reported  the  incident  to  conservation 
officials.  The  timber  wolf  is  protected  under 
the  1973  Endangered  Species  Act,  and  a  heavy 
penalty  may  be  imposed  for  killing  the  animal. 
The  coyote  is  not  so  protected.  Since  the 
killing  was  apparently  inadvertent,  no  charges 
were  filed  against  the  hunter.  The  wolf  was 
missing  two  toes,  suggesting  that  it  had  once 
been  caught  in  a  trap,  and  several  teeth  were 
broken. 

Early  in  1974,  two  male  wolves  and  two 
females  that  had  been  caught  in  northern 
Minnesota  were  released  near  the  Huron 
Mountains  in  the  Upper  Peninsula  in  an  at- 
tempt to  restore  the  species  to  that  area. 
Both  males  and  one  female  were  subse- 
quently killed,  however,  so  only  a  female 
remained  of  the  original  foursome.  (See  July/ 
August  Bulletin,  p.  15.) 


January  1975 


Polluted  Fish  Taste  that  Way 

If  you  want  to  catch  fish  that  are  most 
suitable  to  the  palate,  do  your  angling  in 
clear,  unpolluted  waters.  That  is  the  advice 
of  food  scientists  at  the  University  of  Wiscon- 
sin-Madison. H.  E.  Calbert,  S.  E.  Dunnick, 
and  R.  C.  Lindsay  report  that  industrial  wastes 
entering  a  stream  in  north  central  Wisconsin 
created  unpleasant  flavors  in  walleyes.  Fish 
caught  above  the  discharge  points  had  no 
detectable  off-flavors,  but  those  caught  down- 
stream of  the  discharge  were  noticeably  af- 
fected by  pollutants. 

"Petroleum-like  and  chemical  flavors  are 
the  predominant  ones  identified,"  reported 
the  researchers.  Metallic  and  "earthy"  flavors 
were  also  noted.  Fish  size  made  no  apparent 
effect  on  flavor  or  acceptibility  ratings,  but 
older  fish  had  more  pronounced  flavors. 

"The  next  step,"  said  Calbert,  Dunnick, 
and  Lindsay,  "is  to  identify  the  flavor-causing 
agents  so  that  water  quality  improvement 
programs  can  be  set  up  to  remove  the  com- 
pounds that  cause  the  off-flavors." 

Minnesota's  Natural 
Iron  Ore  Nears  Depletion 

The  mining  of  Minnesota's  natural  iron 
ore  will  all  be  over  in  another  five  to  eight 
years,  says  Minnesota  state  revenue  com- 
missioner Arthur  Roemer.  Currently  about 
18  million  tons  of  natural  ore  are  being 
mined  annually;  geologists  estimate  that 
about  85  million  tons  remain. 

Natural  ore  is  so-called  because  it  can 
often  be  shipped  directly  to  steel  mills  in 
its  natural  state.  Low  grade  ore  such  as 
taconite,  on  the  other  hand,  must  be  sub- 
stantially refined  before  shipment. 


"At  the  present  rate  of  mining,"  says 
Roemer,  "iron  ore  will  be  gone  in  five 
years."  He  added  that  increased  production 
of  taconite  will  probably  mean  a  reduction 
in  the  amount  of  natural  ore  that  is  mined, 
thus  extending  the  supply  to  eight  years  or 
so.  Since  the  Minnesota  ore  deposits  were 
first  mined  in  1884,  about  2.7  billion  tons 
of  natural  ore  have  been  extracted. 

Two  decades  ago  the  Minnesota  mines 
were  producing  about  22  percent  of  the 
world's  iron  ore  total;  today  they  produce 
less  than  7  percent.  This  is  the  consequence 
of  new  ore  deposits  being  discovered,  and  of 
production  costs  being  lowered  in  other 
states — notably  Wisconsin,  Michigan,  Mis- 
souri, Pennsylvania,  and  Wyoming — and  in 
other  regions  of  the  world.  Iron  ore  produc- 
tion has  increased  in  Australia,  Brazil,  India, 
Liberia,  Peru,  Venezuela,  as  well  as  in  Quebec 
and  Labrador. 

Taconite  production  in  Minnesota  dur- 
ing 1973  was  over  40,000,000  tons— more 
than  double  the  1964  production.  Engineers 
estimate  that  annual  production  of  this  low 
grade  ore  will  eventually  peak  at  about 
65,000,000  tons. 

DDT — Containing  Drug 
Registered  for  Medical  Use 

Topocide,  a  pesticide  product  containing 
DDT,  has  been  registered  by  the  Environ- 
mental Protection  Agency  for  use  against 
human  crab  lice,  scabies,  and  head  lice.  The 
EPA  order  of  June,  1972,  specified  that  those 
uses  of  DDT  intended  for  public  health  dis- 
ease control,  health  quarantine,  and  pre- 
scription drugs  were  essential  and  did  not 
present  an  unreasonable  risk  to  health  or 
the  environment. 


RECENT  AND  PROJECTED  FUTURE  SHIPMENTS  OF  IRON  ORE  FROM  MINNESOTA 

FIGURES  PLOTTED  ARE  5-YR   AVERAGES 
FOR  PERIOD  ENDING  IN  YEARS  SHOWN 


70   4 

60 
50 
40 
30 
20 
10 
0 


- 

fc- 

\". 

•^_ 

^^ 

—  t 

S*i 

N 

\    ***■ 

~y^- 

__ 

*"\ 

"""-■^ 

TOTAL 
SHIPMENTS 


TACONITE  AND 
SEMI-TACONITE 


NATURAL 
IRON  ORE 


Pubncation  cost  of  this  section 
on  Our  Environment  has  been 
underwritten,  in  part,  by  the 
Ray  A.  Kroc  Environmental  Ed- 
ucation Fund. 


The  above  graph  was  charted  by  The  Iron  Mining  Industry  of  Minnesota,  an  association  of 
Minnesota's  ten  largest  iron  producers.  It  varies  slightly  from  The  Minnesota  revenue  depart- 
ment's current  and  projected  production  figures  for  natural  ore. 


Our  Thanks  to  EPA 

No  one  can  say  that  the  Environmental 
Protection  Agency  (EPA)  has  not  been  ac- 
tive as  watchdog  of  our  environment.  Since 
the  agency  was  formed  in  December,  1970, 
it  has  taken  more  than  4,000  enforcement 
actions  against  violators  of  water,  air,  and 
pesticide   laws. 

Among  the  more  significant  EPA  rulings 
enforced  since  1973  are  the  following: 

•  The  first  large-scale  vehicle  recall  (against 
Chrysler  Corporation:  825,000  autos,  1,000 
trucks). 

•  The  first  criminal  fine  levied  in  an  auto 
emissions  tampering  case. 

•  The  first  enforcement  actions  under  Ocean 
Dumping  Act. 

•  Initiated  EPA-administered  pesticide  civil 
case  program  (336  cases  to  March  1974,  in- 
volving civil  penalties  of  $690,155.) 

•  Requested  court  action  against  major  pol- 
luters in  Washington,  D.C.  area  (major  cleanup 
agreement  reached). 

•  Began  full  implementation  of  pesticides 
"stop  sale,  use,  or  removal"  program. 

•  Provided  massive  legal  support  crucial  to 
major  pesticide  cancellation  proceedings 
(DDT,  Aldrin/Dieldrin). 

•  In  cooperation  with  state  agencies,  iden- 
tified and  investigated  major  air  pollutant 
emission  sources — 18,000  to  20,000  of  which 
account  for  85  percent  of  stationary  air  pol- 
lutant sources  in  the  country  (15,000  major 
emitters  identified  and  investigated). 

•  Obtained  federal  district  court  injunction 
against  Reserve  Mining  Company,  the  larg- 
est polluter  of  Lake  Superior. 

•  Obtained  registration  of  3,500  pesticide- 
producing  establishments  nationwide  and 
inspected  most  of  them. 

•  Initiated  more  than  2,000  enforcement  ac- 
tions on  pesticides  through  March,  1974, 
including  680  warning  notices,  stop  sale, 
use,  or  removal  orders,  detained  mis- 
branded,  ineffective,  or  otherwise  unlawful 
import  shipments  in  149  cases,  requested 
formal  recall  of  products  in  38  instances. 
Criminal  prosecution  was  requested  in  226 
cases. 

•  Following  EPA's  April  1974  suspension  of 
pesticide  products  containing  vinyl  chloride, 
formal  recalls  requested  by  EPA's  pesticide 
enforcement  division,  with  subsequent  re- 
moval of  more  than  50,000  units  contain- 
ing vinyl  chloride — covering  a  wide  variety 
of  products — from  the  market. 

•  Initiated  567  enforcement  actions,  includ- 
ing 440  oil-spill  cases.  Criminal  fines  and 
civil  penalties  resulting  from  these  prose- 
cutions total  more  than  $165,000. 


Eield  Museum  Bulletin 


field  briefs 


Stanley  Roseman 


M«1 


John  White 


Museum  Animals  Make  Good  Models 

Stanley  Roseman  (left),  a  New  York  City 
artist  whose  commissions  have  included 
portraits  of  composer  Virgil  Thompson  and 
stage  luminaries  Helen  Hayes  and  Ethel 
Merman,  has  discovered  a  new  realm  of 
portraiture  at.  Field  Museum.  He  recently 
spent  several  days  at  the  Museum  doing  oil 
paintings  and  sketches  of  animals.  Here 
Roseman  is  working  on  a  study  of  a  Marco 
Polo's  sheep  (Ovis  poli)  in  Hall  17.  Normally 
he  has  to  contend  with  the  restlessness  of 
human  subjects,  so  it  was  a  pleasant  change, 
he  remarked,  to  work  from  such  patient, 
cooperative  models. 

Roseman  is  one  of  a  great  many  artists — 
student  and  professional — who  have  experi- 
enced the  unique  opportunity  of  drawing, 
painting,  or  sculpting  the  Museum's  life- 
like exhibits. 

Indian  Crafts  Techniques 

John  White,  coordinator  of  Field  Museum's 
Native  American  Program,  demonstrates 
Eastern  and  Southeastern  Woodland  Indian 
crafts  techniques,  on  the  Museum's  main 
floor,  on  Fridays  until  June.  At  left,  below, 
he  demonstrates  pottery  techniques  that 
have  been  handed  down  in  his  family  from 
generation  to  generation. 

Museum  Staff  Notes 

Department  of  Anthropology 

James  VanStone  completed  his  term  as 
department  chairman  on  January  1,  and  has 
resumed  his  position  as  curator,  North 
American  archaeology  and  ethnology.  Phil- 
lip Lewis,  curator  of  primitive  art  and 
Melanesian  ethnology,  is  serving  as  acting 
department  chairman. 

Department  of  Geology 

Rainer  Zangerl  retired  as  department 
chairman  on  December  1.  He  had  served  in 
that  post  since  1962  and  had  been  with 
Field  Museum  since  1945.  Zangerl's  ini- 
tial appointment  was  as  curator  of  fossil 
reptiles  and  amphibians.  Although  retired, 
Zangerl  expects  to  continue  an  active  re- 
search program  at  the  museum.  Edward  Ol- 
sen,  curator  of  mineralogy,  is  serving  as 
acting  chairman. 

Department  of  Zoology 

Rupert  Wenzel  has  been  appointed  to 
another  four-year  term  as  department  chair- 


12  January  1975 


Rainer  Zangerl 


Philip  Hershkovitz 


man.  John  Kethley,  who  joined  Field  Mu- 
seum as  assistant  curator  of  insects  in  1970, 
has  been  named  head  of  the  Division  of 
Insects.  Henry  Dybas,  who  held  the  post, 
has  resumed  his  position  as  curator  of  in- 
sects. Philip  Hershkovitz,  research  curator  of 
mammals  since  1962,  retired  October  31. 
He  had  been  with  the  Museum  since  1947. 

Department  of  Education 

Elizabeth  Deis  has  recently  rejoined 
Field  Museum  as  an  instructor  in  the  Ray- 
mond Foundation,  replacing  Julie  Castrop, 
who  was  appointed  assistant  to  Carolyn 
Blackmon,  coordinator  of  special  education 
services.  Previously,  Mrs.  Deis  had  been  a 
Field  Museum  volunteer  and  served  as  an 
assistant  in  the  Division  of  Mammals.  She  is 
a  native  of  Evanston,  received  her  BA  in 
zoology  from  Mount  Holyoke  College  and 
an  M.S.  from   the   University  of  Chicago. 

Lorain  Stephens  is  also  back  on  the  De- 
partment of  Education  staff  after  an  absence 
of  several  years.  She  formerly  was  an  instruc- 
tor in  zoology  and,  at  a  later  time,  served 
as  a  Raymond  Foundation  volunteer.  Mrs. 
Stephens'  new  responsibility  is  a  dual  one: 
coordinator  of  both  the  Ray  A.  Kroc  Envi- 
ronmental Education  Program  and  of  the 
Man  in  His  Environment  education  program. 


Huge  Coal  Age  Fossil  Collection 
Donated  by  Museum  Member 

An  important  collection  of  thousands  of 
coal  age  fossils  taken  from  strip  mines  in 
Will,  Grundy,  and  Kankakee  counties  has 
been  given  to  the  Museum's  Department  of 
Geology  by  a  long-term  Museum  member, 
Jerry  Herdina  of  Berwyn. 

Herdina,  a  retired  construction  engineer 
for  whom  geology  is  a  hobby,  collected  the 
specimens  between  1928  and  1973.  Included 
are  fossil  insects,  spiders,  amphibians, 
shrimps,  jellyfish,  scorpions,  and  many  oth- 
ers. Herdina  ovalis  (a  small,  short-winged 
insect)  and  Paleocadmus  herdinae  (a  cepha- 
lopod)  have  been  named  for  Herdina. 

Strotz  Named  Trustee 

The  newest  member  of  Field  Museum's 
Board  of  Trustees  is  Robert  H.  Strotz,  presi- 
dent of  Northwestern  University  since  1970. 
His  appointment  became  effective  November 
18. 

Dr.  Strotz  joined  the  Northwestern  faculty 
in   1947  as  an    instructor   in    economics.    In 


Robert  H.  Strotz 

1958  he  was  named  professor  and  in  1966 
he  became  dean  of  the  College  of  Arts  and 
Sciences,  a  position  he  held  until  being 
elected  president. 


Letters 


In  the  May,  1974,  Bulletin,  in  the  article 
"Return  of  the  Buffalo"  the  number  of  those 
animals  living  in  North  America  today  is 
given  as  "about  45,000,"  a  figure  provided 
the  Bulletin  by  the  National  Buffalo  Associa- 
tion. The  following  letter  disputes  that  fig- 


Sirs: 

...  I  took  a  census  of  living  bison  in  North 
America  in  the  early  1970s.  As  of  January  1, 
1972,  there  were  30,100.  Projecting  the  in- 
crease between  Henry  H.  Collins'  census  of 
1951  which  reported  23,154  and  my  1972 
figures,  there  were  on  January  first  of  this 
year  approximately  36,000  buffalo  in  the 
U.S.  and  Canada. 

My  census  is  detailed  in  The  Buffalo  Book, 
recently  published  by  Swallow  Press  in  Chi- 
cago. The  book  includes  a  list  of  all  known 
surveys  taken  from  1888  to  present  day. 

David  Dary 
Lawrence,  Kansas 

Mr.  Dary's  374-page  study  of  the  buffalo, 
published  in  August,  1974,  is  the  definitive 
work  on  the  subject. — Ed. 


John  Kethley 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


Herman  F.  Strecker  in  his  study,  Reading,  Pennsylvania,  about  1895.  Behind  him  are  insect  storage  cabinets. 

The  Sculptor  Who  Collected  Butterflies 


by  David  M.  Walsten 


Sculptor  by  day,  lepidopterist  by 
night,  Herman  F.  Strecker  is  unique  in 
the  history  of  science.  By  the  time  he 
died  in  1901  at  the  age  of  65,  Strecker 
had  assembled,  catalogued,  and  recorded 
— in  his  "free"  time — one  of  the  largest 
and  most  important  collections  of  macro- 
lepidoptera*  in  the  world;  in  the  New 
World  it  was  unsurpassed.  In  1908  Field 
Museum  acquired  this  superb  collection 
—50,172  specimens— for  $15,000.  It  com- 


'Macrolepidoptera  includes  all  the  butter- 
flies and  the  majority  of  moths — excluding 
only  those  species  with  very  small  wing- 
spread. 


prised  a  jewellike  nucleus  for  the  Mu- 
seum's enormous  insect  collection,  which 
today  numbers  several  million  specimens. 

Together  with  the  insects,  the  Mu- 
seum also  acquired  from  Strecker's 
widow  a  collection  of  several  thousand 
letters  between  Strecker  and  other  lead- 
ing naturalists  of  the  day.  Spanning  more 
than  four  decades,  the  letters  are  col- 
lectively a  valuable  document  on  the 
state  of  natural  history  in  the  latter  half 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  Many  of  them, 
sent  by  collectors  in  the  field,  provide 
historical  information  on  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Old  West. 

The  insect  collection  is  about  evenly 


divided  between  butterflies  and  moths; 
14,217  species  and  varieties  are  repre- 
sented. It  also  includes  251  new  species 
that  were  first  described  by  Strecker  and 
337  type  specimens  (individuals  on  which 
the  initial  description  of  a  species,  genus, 
or  other  taxonomic  unit  is  based). 
Strecker  obtained  specimens  from  all 
over  the  world  by  trade,  purchase,  and 
gift.  He  caught  many  specimens  in  the 
field     himself,     particularly    in     eastern 


The  editor  wishes  to  give  special  thanks  to 
Wayne  E.  Homan,  of  Reading,  Pa.,  for  photos 
and  background  information  on  Herman 
Strecker. 


Januarv  1975 


United  States,  in  the  West  Indies,  Mexico, 
and  Central  America. 

Strecker  was  born  in  Philadelphia  in 
1836,  the  son  of  a  recently  emigrated 
sculptor  from  Stuttgart,  Germany.  In  1846 
the  family  moved  to  Reading,  Pennsyl- 
vania, where  Strecker  was  to  spend  the 
rest  of  his  life.  At  the  age  of  11,  he  be- 
came an  apprentice  in  his  father's  marble 
works,  and  later  as  a  sculptor,  he  created 
a  number  of  notable  monuments  that 
are  still  to  be  seen  in  Reading,  among 
them  a  soldiers'  memorial  and  a  28-foot- 
high  "Crucifixion"  and  "Angel  of  Resur- 
rection." 

As  a  boy,  Strecker's  interest  in  nat- 
ural science  was  already  so  intense  that 
he  often  traveled  to  view  the  collections 
at  Philadelphia's  academy  of  arts  and 
sciences.  By  the  time  he  was  19,  his  in- 
terest had  focused  on  butterflies  and 
moths.  In  later  years  Strecker  would  often 
catch  the  train  on  Saturday  nights,  after 
work,  travel  to  Philadelphia  or  New  York, 
and  spend  all  day  Sunday  studying  works 
on  Lepidoptera  in  the  libraries;  early 
Monday  he  would  return  to  Reading. 

In  1872,  Strecker  began  work  on  his 
monumental  Lepidoptera  Rhopaloceres 
and  Heteroceres,  Indigenous  and  Exotic, 
which  he  illustrated  with  fifteen  colored 
plates  and  hundreds  of  line  drawings. 
Supplements  to  the  work  were  issued 
in  1898,  1899,  and  1900.  Illustrating  the 
work  was  a  giant  project  in  itself.  Strecker 
saved  his  money  to  buy  an  expensive 
lithograph  stone,  painstakingly  engraved 
an  illustration  on  it,  then  sent  the  stone 
to  Philadelphia  for  300  reproductions  to 
be  made.  The  stone  was  then  returned 
to  Reading.  Strecker  shaved  off  the  old 
engraving  and  drew  another,  and  again 
sent  the  stone  off  to  Philadelphia.  After 
six  years  the  book  was  done.  In  1878 
Strecker  also  published  a  Synonymical 
Catalogue  of  North  American  Butterflies, 
which  for  years  was  the  standard  work 
on  the  subject. 

In  the  July,  1890,  The  Museum,  Ed- 
win A.  Barber  described  Strecker's  re- 
markable routine: 


Two  of  Strecker's  most  ambitious  sculptures,  "Angel  of  Resurrection"  and  "Crucifixion,"  may 
still  be  seen  in  Reading's  Charles  Evans  Cemetery. 


By  night  has  been  accomplished 
all  the  enormous  labor  and  cor- 
respondence required  to  form 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


M,*~t.Stwlui-Dtl 


1 PAPILIO  EURYMEDON  S.l  P.MARCHANDII  $.  3  COLIAS  DIMERA  ?. 
4C.^.SEMPERI?.f  CHIONOBAS  UHLERI  <J.6  2ATYRUS  RIDINGSI1  ?. 
7  S.  STHENELE  <f .  8  S.  var.  HOFPMANI  2. 


A  page  irom  Strecker's  Lepidoptera  Rhopalo- 
ceres  and  Heteroceres,  Indigenous  and  Exotic, 
which  he  illustrated  himself. 


his  collection,  as  well  as  the 
writing  of  his  works  and  draw- 
ing and  lithographing  the  nu- 
merous plates  which  illustrate 
them.  It  is  by  rigid  systematizing 
that  he  has  accomplished  so 
much;  no  time  is  lost;  every 
minute  must  count.  Arising  at  6 
a.m.,  he  is  at  his  business  an 
hour  later;  at  1:30  he  dines; 
from  2  to  6  p.m.  again  at  pencil 
or  chisel;  then  comes  the  eve- 
ning and  night  hours,  which,  up 
to  midnight,  are  devoted  to  his 
favorite  science;  then  supper, 
followed  by  a  pipe  or  segar,  and 
a  half  hour's  reading  of  a  primer 
or  tract,  a  newspaper  or  a  novel, 
or  anything  else  unscientific.  He 
retires  at  about  12:30,  for  the 
night,  this  having  been  the  rou- 
tine for  over  a  quarter  of  a  cen- 
tury. 


Oddly  enough,  the  Strecker  collec- 
tion remained  in  the  custody  of  a  Read- 
ing-area native  even  after  its  acquisition 
by  Field  Museum.  William  J.  Gerhard, 
who  retired  as  Field  Museum's  curator 
of  insects  in  1950  and  died  in  1958,  was 
himself  born  (1873)  and  raised  near  Read- 
ing and,  like  Strecker,  spent  many  days 
as  a  youth  in  the  museums  of  Philadel- 
phia, studying  the  wonderful  collections. 
Gerhard  assumed  charge  of  the  then 
newly  created  Division  of  Entomology 
in  1901.  In  1908  he  returned  to  Reading 
for  three  months  to  prepare  the  Strecker 
collection  for  shipment.  In  Entomological 
News,  July,  1909,  Gerhard  recalled  the 
special  care  with  which  the  insects  were 
readied  for  the  long  train  ride  to  Chicago: 

A  large  amount  of  work  of  a 
preparatory  nature  was,  of 
course,  necessary  before  any  of 
the  material  could  be  packed. 
The  first  step  .  . .  was  to  number 
the  cabinets  and  drawers.  But 
much  more  essential  was  it  to 
preserve  the  original  arrange- 
ment of  the  specimens  in  the 
drawers,  ...  it  would  not  have 
been  well  to  disturb  the  spec- 
imens by  transferring  them  into 
cotton  lined  drawers,  or  to  ar- 


January  1975 


range  them  shingle-like,  as  is 
frequently  done  with  small 
lots.   .   .   . 

To  lessen  the  possibility  of  an 
insect  becoming  loose  and  roll- 
ing around,  while  the  drawer 
was  being  handled,  every  pin 
was  tested  and  forced  more 
deeply  into  the  cork  or  wood, 
. . .  Those  insects  that  were  not 
held  firmly  were  made  secure 
by  means  of  a  pin  inserted  on 
each  side  of  the  body  of  the 
insect.  When  this  method  was 
not  possible,  the  desired  sta- 
bility was  obtained  by  placing 
pins  in  front  of  the  costal  edge 
of  the  forewings  ...  a  few  of  the 


very  large  species  were  shelved, 
that  is,  their  wings  were  sup- 
ported by  strips  of  cardboard. 

On  account  of  the  inconve- 
nience of  using  the  narrow  stair- 
way leading  to  the  third  story 
room  in  which  the  collection 
was  contained,  everything  was 
carried  to  one  of  the  windows 
and  lowered  to  the  ground  by 
means  of  a  block  and  tackle; . .  . 
15  bales  of  excelsior  and  139 
shipping  cases  were  required 
for  packing  the  drawers,  be- 
sides the  boxes  used  for  the 
books  and  correspondence.  The 
weight  of  the  packed  insects 
was   over   14,000   pounds,    the 


books,  cabinets,  etc.,  over  5,000 
pounds. 

On  placing  the  collection  in  the 
freight  car,  .  .  .  the  only  precau- 
tion was  to  arrange  the  boxes, 
right-side-up,  in  such  a  way  that 
there  could  be  no  lateral  mo- 
tion. To  prevent  them  from 
shifting  backward  and  forward, 
heavy  braces  were  fastened  to 
the  interior  of  the  car.  Since  in- 
sects, which  are  classified  as 
stuffed  animals,  are  scheduled 
at  three  times  the  regular  first 
class  rate,  it  is  not  surprising, 
perhaps,  that  the  railroad  offi- 
cials were  inclined  to  display 
some  interest  in  the  shipment.  >■ 


William  I.  Gerhard,  a  Field  Museum  curator  and  emeritus  curator  lor  some  57  years,  spent  three  months  in  Reading  preparing  the  Strecker 
moths  and  butterflies  for  shipment  to  Chicago.  Here,  in  his  later  years,  he  continues  to  work  with  the  collection. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


Mike  Prokop,  custodian  of  collections,  Division  ot 
Insects,  holds  a  drawer  of  Strecker  moths,  including 
the  enormous  Thysania  (Erebus)  agrippina,  a  noctuid 
moth  of  Central  and  South  America.  The  specimen  at 
top,  the  largest  in  the  entire  Strecker  collection, 
measures  11  Vt  inches  across. 


Mike  Prokop  holds  a  drawer  of  gynandromorph  tiger 
swallowtials  (Papilio  glaucus,),  among  the  rarest  and 
most  interesting  in  the  Strecker  collection.  The  male 
of  this  species,  common  in  northeastern  United  States, 
is  normally  yellow  with  black  stripes,  the  female 
mostly  black.  These  specimens  exhibit  genetic  defects 
in  which  a  single  individual  shows  characters  of  both 
sexes. 


How  needless  was  the  fear  or 
doubt  concerning  the  safe  ar- 
rival of  the  collection!  Not  one 
of  the  800  glass  covers  was 
broken;  but  one  insect  .  .  .  was 
loose  in  all  of  the  drawers.  De- 
spite the  frequent  handling  and 
the  900  mile  ride  to  which  the 
insects  were  subjected,  the  only 
signs  to  indicate  that  the  collec- 
tion had  ever  been  moved,  were 
five  or  six  detached  bodies  and 
here  and  there  a  broken  an- 
tenna. 

For  the  rest  of  Gerhard's  life,  a  spe- 
cial project  of  his  was  studying  and  main- 
taining the  Strecker  collection.  He  metic- 
ulously transferred  each  insect  from  the 
original  Strecker  cases  to  vermin-proof 
drawers  stored  in  vaultlike  steel  cabinets. 
Thanks  to  the  special  care  always  ac- 
corded the  collection,  the  fragile  spec- 
imens appear  today  as  perfect  and  as 
brilliant  as  in  life — belying  the  fact  that 
many  were  collected  over  a  century  ago. 
Three  of  the  Strecker  butterflies,  repro- 
duced in  color,  are  to  be  seen  in  the 
appointment  calendar  section  of  the 
December,  1974,  Bulletin.  □ 


January  1975 


"Ascent  of  Man'* 


THIRTEEN  REMARKABLE  FILMS,  pro- 
duced by  Time-Life  Inc.,  and  dealing 
with  the  history  of  science,  will  be 
shown  at  Field  Museum,  in  the  Lecture 
Hall,  on  Fridays  and  Sundays  at  2  p.m., 
from  January  24  through  April  20.  Each 
hour-long  film  is  concerned  with  a  spe- 
cific area  of  science,  including  the  re- 
lationship of  the  humanities  to  the  sci- 
ences throughout  history,  the  effect  of 
political  and  social  developments  on 
scientific  discovery,  mankind's  attempts 
to  understand  and  alter  the  natural 
world,  and  the  benefits  and  detriments 
of  science. 

The  films  were  written  and  narrated 
by  the  late  Dr.  Jacob  Bronowski,  a 
British  scientist  who,  for  a  decade,  was 
a  resident  fellow  of  the  Salk  Institute 
for  Biological  Studies,  at  La  Jolla,  Cali- 
fornia. For  British  television  he  wrote 
and  narrated  many  programs  that  ex- 
plore the  complexities  of  science  in 
terms  that  the  average  viewer  enjoys 
and   understands. 

"Among  the  multitude  of  animals 
which  scamper,  fly,  burrow,  and  swim 
around  us,"  observed  Bronowski,  "man 
is  the  only  one  who  is  not  locked  into 
his  environment.  His  imagination,  his 
reason,  his  emotional  subtlety  and 
toughness,  make  it  possible  for  him  not 
to  accept  the  environment  but  to  change 
it.  And  that  series  of  inventions,  by 
which  man  from  age  to  age  has  remade 
his  environment,  is  a  different  kind  of 
evolution.  I  call  that  brilliant  sequence 
of  peaks  THE  ASCENT  OF  MAN." 


Lower  Than  the  Angels  (Anatomy  and  In- 
tellect). Jan.  24,  26.  A  multitude  of  evolu- 
tionary changes — anatomical  and  intellec- 
tual— gives  rise  to  man's  superiority  among 
the  animals.  New  computer  techniques  il- 
lustrate man's  evolution,  while  x-ray  and 
slow-motion  photography  of  an  Olympic 
athlete  in  action  show  the  complex  inter- 
weaving of  mind  and  body. 


The  Harvest  of  the  Seasons  (Agriculture). 
Jan.  31,  Feb.  2.  Man  domesticates  plant  and 
animal  life.  With  the  Neolithic  cultivators 
come  the  nomads  and  the  roots  of  warfare. 
Cameras  capture  the  unique  lifestyle  of  the 
Bakhtiari  tribe  of  Central  Iran  and  there 
recreate  the  war  games  of  Genghis  Khan. 

The  Grain  in  the  Stone  (Architecture).  Feb. 
7,  9.  Man  splits  a  stone  and  reassembles 
the  pieces  to  build  a  wall,  a  cathedral,  a 
city.  From  the  Greek  temples  of  Paestum 
and  the  cathedrals  of  medieval  France  to 
modern  Los  Angeles,  this  film  expresses 
man's  faith  and  fancy  as  architect  and 
builder. 

The  Hidden  Structure  (Chemistry).  Feb.  14, 
16.  The  Shang  bronze  craftsmen  of  China 
and  the  Samurai  swordsmiths  of  Japan  are 
the  starting  point  for  this  journey,  which 
leads  from  the  beginnings  of  chemistry  to 
Dalton's  atomic  theory  and  our  knowledge 
of  the  elements. 

Music  of  the  Spheres  (Mathematics).  Feb. 
21,  23.  This  film  traces  the  evolution  of 
mathematics  and  explores  the  relationship 
of  numbers  to  musical  harmony,  early  as- 
tronomy and  perspective  in  painting.  It 
follows  the  spread  of  Greek  ideas  through 
the  courts  and  bazaars  of  the  Islamic  em- 
pire to  Moorish  Spain  and  Renaissance 
Europe. 

The  Starry  Messenger  (Astronomy).  Feb.  28, 
Mar.  2.  Here  is  the  story  of  man's  early  at- 
tempts to  map  the  forces  which  move  the 
planets.  Dr.  Bronowski  traces  the  origins  of 
the  scientific  revolution  through  the  conflict 
between  fact  and  religious  dogma,  culmi- 
nating in  the  trial  of  Galileo. 

The  Majestic  Clockwork  (Physics).  Mar.  7,  9. 
In  the  evolution  of  physics,  the  contribu- 
tions of  Newton  and  Einstein  occupy  center 
stage.  This  film  explores  the  revolution  that 
ensued  when  Einstein's  theory  of  relativity 
upset  Newton's  elegant  description  of  the 
universe. 

The  Drive  for  Power  (Industrial  Revolution). 
Mar.  14,  16.  Industrial  and  political  revolu- 
tions altered  man's  concept  of  power  during 
the  18th  century.  Dr.  Bronowski  shows  why 
these  developments  were  as  significant  as 
the  Renaissance  in  man's  progress. 


The  Ladder  of  Creation  (Theory  of  Evolu- 
tion). Mar.  21,  23.  This  film  journeys  from  the 
valleys  and  waterfalls  of  Wales  to  the 
jungles  of  the  Amazon  to  explore  the  con- 
troversy swirling  around  a  startling  new 
theory  of  evolution  developed  simultane- 
ously by  Alfred  Wallace  and  Charles   Dar- 


World  Within  World  (Atomic  Energy).  Mar. 
28,  30.  Commencing  with  a  visit  to  an  ancient 
Polish  salt  mine,  Dr.  Bronowski  looks  at 
the  world  inside  the  atom.  He  traces  the 
history  of  the  men  and  ideas  that  have 
made  20th  century  physics  "the  greatest 
achievement  of  the  human  imagination." 

Knowledge  or  Certainty  (Science  and  Hu- 
manism). Apr.  4,  6.  Dr.  Bronowski  offers  his 
personal  view  of  the  moral  dilemma  that 
confronts  today's  scientists.  He  contrasts 
humanist  traditions  with  the  inhumanities 
of  the  Nazis,  the  harnessing  of  nuclear  en- 
ergy with  the  development  of  the  atomic 
bomb. 

Generation  Upon  Generation  (Genetics). 
Apr.  11,  13.  This  film  examines  the  complex 
code  of  human  inheritance — from  the  ex- 
periments of  pioneer  geneticist  Gregor 
Mendel  to  the  discoveries  of  today's  so- 
phisticated laboratories. 

The  Long  Childhood  (The  Future).  Apr.  18,  20. 
In  this  closing  film,  Dr.  Bronowski  draws 
together  the  many  threads  of  the  series  as 
he  takes  stock  of  man's  complex  and  some- 
times precarious  ascent. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


ILLINOIS  NATURAL  HISTORY 
SURVEY  LIB  Rl*  196 
NATURAL  RESOURCES  BUILDING 
URBANA  ILL  61801 


JANUARY  at  Field'Museum 


SPECIAL  PROGRAMS 

Continuing: 

Craft  Demonstrations  and  Discussions 

"Use  of  Natural  Materials  in  the  Crafts  of  Native  North  America, 
Africa,  and  Modern  America,"  10:00  a.m.  to  12:00  noon,  Mondays, 
Tuesdays,  and  Wednesdays.  Entrance  to  Hall  27. 

"Traditions  of  Native  North  America,"  10:00  a.m.  to  12:00  noon 
and  2:00  to  5:00  p.m.,  Fridays.  Hall  4. 

Begins  January  6: 

Weaving  demonstration  by  members  of  the  North  Shore  Weavers' 
Guild  from  10:00  a.m.  to  12:00  noon  on  Mondays,  Wednesdays, 
and  Fridays.  Spinning  also  shown  on  the  first  and  third  Mondays  of 
each   month.  South   Lounge. 

"Ascent  of  Man,"  free  film  series  presented  at  2:00  p.m.  Fridays  and 
Sundays  through  April  20.  All  programs  will  be  in  the  Lecture  Hall 
with  the  exception  of  February  9  and  16,  which  will  be  in  the 
North  Meeting  Room. 

The  one-hour  films  cover  a  time  span  of  more  than  two  million 
years  in  exploring  scientific  discoveries  that  have  shaped  human 
history. 


COMING  IN   FEBRUARY 


January  24  and  26: 
January  31  and  February  2: 


'Lower  than  the  Angels" 
Harvest  of  the  Seasons" 


CHILDREN'S  PROGRAM 


Continuing: 


Winter  Journey  for  Children,  "Cats,  the  Graceful  Hunters," 
focuses  on  the  differences  and  similarities  of  these  creatures,  from 
the  domestic  variety  to  its  larger  relatives  (lion,  tiger,  etc.)  All  boys 
and  girls  who  can  read  and  write  may  participate  in  the  free,  self- 
guided  tour  of  Museum  exhibits.  Journey  sheets  in  English  and 
Spanish  available  at  entrances.  Through  February  28. 


Begins  February  8: 


Ray  A.  Kroc  Environmental  Education  Program  offers  a  Winter 
Botany  Course,  featuring  a  9:00  to  11:00  a.m.  workshop  on  Satur- 
day, February  8,  followed  by  field  trips  on  Saturday,  February  15 
and  22. 

A  non-refundable  fee  of  $15  for  non-members  and  $12  for  Mem- 
bers includes  class  session,  field  transportation,  and  lunch  on  field 
trips.  Classes  limited  to  25  adults.  For  reservations  mail  checks 
payable  to  Field  Museum,  with  name,  address,  and  phone  number, 
to  Environmental  Programs,  Field  Museum,  Roosevelt  Road  at  Lake 
Shore  Drive,  Chicago  60605. 

Sunday,  February  9  and  16: 

30th    Chicago   International    Exhibition   of   Nature    Photography,   a 

slide  show  featuring  winning  and  accepted  color  transparencies, 
2:00  p.m.  in  Lecture  Hall. 

Continuing: 

"Ascent  of  Man"  film  series,  2:00  p.m.  Fridays  and  Sundays.  All 
programs  will  be  in  the  Lecture  Hall  with  the  exception  of 
February  9  and  16,  which  will   be   in   the  North   Meeting   Room. 


February  7  and  9: 
February  14  and  16: 
February  21  and  23: 
February  28  and  March  2: 


"Grain  in  the  Stone" 
"The  Hidden  Structure" 
"Music  of  the  Spheres" 
"The  Starry  Messenger" 


Free  Ayer  Adult  Illustrated  Lecture  Series,  "Expeditions  Unlimited 
1975,"  presented  by  Field  Museum  curators  at  7:30  p.m.  Fridays  and 
2:30  p.m.  Saturdays  in  Lecture  Hall. 

Seating  is  limited  to  225  persons.  For  reservations  call  Field 
Museum,  922-9410,  Ext.  230.  Museum  cafeteria  is  open  until  7:30 
p.m.  Fridays. 

February  21   and  22:   "The  Changing   Alaska   Eskimo   Culture,"   by 

James  W.  VanStone. 
February  28  and  March  1:  "Natural  History  of  Deep  Sea  Fishes,"  by 

Robert  Johnson. 

Craft  demonstrations  and  discussions. 


Weaving  demonstrations. 


Jan. 

8, 

7:00  p.m 
7:30  p.m 

Jan 

10, 

8:00  p.m 

Ian. 

12, 

2:00  p.m 

Jan 

14, 

7:30  p.m 

MEETINGS 

Chicago  Mountaineering  Club 

Windy  City  Grotto,  National 

Speleological  Society 

Chicago  Anthropological  Society 

Chicago  Shell  Club 

Nature  Camera  Club  of  Chicago 


MUSEUM  HOURS 

Open  9:00  a.m.  to  4:00  p.m.  Monday  through  Thursday,  9:00  a.m.  to  9:00 
p.m.  Friday,  and  9:00  a.m.  to  5:00  p.m.  Saturday  and  Sunday.  Closed  New 
Year's  Day. 

The  Museum  Library  is  open  9:00  a.m.  to  4:00  p.m.  Monday  through  Friday. 
Please  obtain  pass  at  reception  desk,  main  fldor  north. 

Museum  telephone:  922-1410 


Ob 

February 
1975 


Field  Museum  of  Natural  History  Bulletin 


Field  Museum 
of  Natural  History 
Bulletin 


February  1975 
Vol.  46,  No.  2 


Editor/ Designer:  David  M.  Walsten 
Staff  Writer:  Madge  Jacobs 
Production:  Oscar  Anderson 


13 
14 
16 


WOLF  ROAD  PRAIRIE 
by  Philip  Hanson 

TUTMOSISIII:  HISTORY'S 
FIRST  MALE  CHAUVINIST? 
by  Frederick  R.  Schram 

FIELD  BRIEFS 

OUR  ENVIRONMENT 

OAK  PARK'S  OUTDOOR  NATURE 
MUSEUM:  AUSTIN  GARDENS 
by  Joyce  Marshall  Brukoff 


18  EDWARD  E.  AYER  ILLUSTRATED 

LECTURE  SERIES 


19 


CAPITAL  CAMPAIGN 


back 


FEBRUARY  AT  FIELD  MUSEUM 


cover       Calendar  of  Coming  Events 


Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 

Established  1893 

Director:  E.  Leland  Webber 


Board  of  Trustees 

Blaine  J.  Yarrington, 

President 
Cordon  Bent 
Harry  O.  Bercher 
Bowen  Blair 
Stanton  R.  Cook 
William  R.  Dickson,  Jr. 
Thomas  E.  Donnelley  II 
Mrs.  Thomas  E.  Donnelley  II 
Marshall  Field 
Nicholas  Galitzine 
Paul  W.  Goodrich 
Remick  McDowell 
Hugo  J.  Melvoin 
William  H.  Mitchell 
Charles  F.  Murphy,  Jr. 
Harry  M.  Oliver,  Jr. 
John  T.  Pirie,  Jr. 
John  S.  Runnells 
William  L.  Searle 


Edward  Byron  Smith 

Mrs.  Hermon  Dunlap  Smith 

Robert  H.  Strotz 

John  W.  Sullivan 

William  C.  Swartchild,  Jr. 

E.  Leland  Webber 

Julian  B.  Wilkins 

Life  Trustees 

William  McCormick  Blair 
Joseph  N.  Field 
Cifford  C.  Gregg 
Samuel  Insull,  Jr. 
William  V.  Kahler 
Hughston  M.  McBain 
J.  Roscoe  Miller 
James  L.  Palmer 
John  C.  Searle 
John  M.  Simpson 
Louis  Ware 
J.  Howard  Wood 


COVER 

An  early  20th-century  rubbing  of  a  stone 
engraving  traced  from  a  painting  by  Feng 
T'ien,  mid-Ch'ing  dynasty  (1644-1912).  It 
represents  Bodhidharma,  founder  of  Ch'an 
(Zen)  Buddhism  in  China,  shown  crossing 
the  Yangtze  on  a  reed.  Provenience  of  stone: 
Confucius  temple,  Hsi-an.  Silk  screen  prints 
of  this  and  several  other  rubbings  in  the 
Field  Museum  collection  are  available  at  the 
Museum  gift  shop.  Catalogue  No.  244821. 


Photos 

Page  3:  Philip  Hanson;  p.  4:  Darrel  Murray; 
pp.  5,  6,  7  (all  photos):  Philip  Hanson;  p.  S.- 
Frederick Schram;  pp.  10,  17:  courtesy  of 
the  Oriental  Institute,  University  of  Chicago; 
p.  12:  Field  Museum;  p.  13  (top):  Brian 
Posey,  (bottom):  David  Moore. 


Field  Museum  of  Natural  History  Bulletin  is  published  monthly, 
except  combined  July/August  issue,  by  Field  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  Roosevelt  Road  at  Lake  Shore  Drive,  Chicago,  Illinois  60605. 
Subscriptions:  56  a  year;  $3  a  year  for  schools.  Members  of  the 
Museum  subscribe  through  Museum  membership.  Opinions 
expressed  by  authors  are  their  own  and  do  not  necessarily  reflect  the 
policy  of  Field  Museum.  Unsolicited  manuscripts  are  welcome. 
Postmaster:  Please  send  form  3579  to  Field  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  Roosevelt  Road  at  Lake  Shore  Drive,  Chicago,  Illinois  60605. 
ISSN:  0015-0703.  Second  class  postage  paid  at  Chicago,  III. 


Wolf  Road  Prairie 


by  Philip  Hanson 


Fifteen  miles  west  of  the  Chicago  Loop,  in  the 
suburb  of  Westchester,  is  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable tracts  of  land  in  the  Midwest.  At  a 
glance  from  the  car  window  it  may  appear  to  be  merely 
a  great,  vacant  field  that  lies  patiently  awaiting  the  de- 
veloper's bulldozer.  Curiously,  that  nearly  happened  a 
half  century  ago,  before  the  great  Crash,  and  if  you  get 
out  of  your  car  and  start  walking  through  the  tall  grasses 
you  will  come  upon  block-long  stretches  of  concrete 
sidewalks,  nearly  overgrown  now  and  hidden  by  the 
flourishing  plants. 

Philip  Hanson  is  a  researcher/assistant  lor  the 
Department  of  Education. 


This  eighty-acre  tract,  commonly  called  Wolf  Road 
Prairie,  is  located  northwest  of  the  intersection  of  31st 
Street  and  Wolf  Road.  Except  for  the  ancient,  cracked 
sidewalks  that  enclose  what  was  to  have  been  eight  city 
blocks,  this  corner  of  land  with  its  wealth  of  prairie 
growth,  is  much  as  it  was  two  hundred  years  ago.  For 
that  matter,  it  probably  has  not  changed  substantially  in 
the  last  few  thousand  years.  It  is  that  rare  entity:  native 
prairie.  The  only  incursion  into  its  tranquillity  are  those 
wobbly  concrete  paths,  laid  down  during  the  boom  of 
the  twenties.  Had  it  not  been  for  the  Depression,  the 
area  would  now  be  just  another  subdivision,  dotted  with 
homes. 

In    former    times — before   the    European    settlers   ar- 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


rived — a  vast  ocean  of  prairie  stretched  all  the  way  from 
the  Rockies  to  the  Great  Lakes.  At  the  Rockies'  eastern 
slope  the  annual  rainfall  was  but  20  inches;  as  a  result, 
prairie  grasses  and  other  herbs  in  that  region  did  not 
grow  very  tall.  Eastward,  across  the  plains,  the  rainfall 
gradually  increased,  and  the  prairies  of  what  is  now  Illi- 
nois received  about  35  inches  of  rainfall  annually.  Here 
the  prairie  grasses  could  shoot  up  to  eight  or  ten  feet  by 
the  end  of  a  favorable  season. 

The  early  settlers  that  came  to  Illinois  from  the 
east  and  the  north  had  encountered  nothing  but  forest 
since  they  first  landed  on  the  continent,  and  their  meth- 
ods of  hunting  and  foraging  were  adapted  to  a  woodland 
environment.  They  were  thus  ill-prepared  for  the  vast 
stretches  of  prairie,  with  grasses  so  tall  they  could  hide 
a  man  on  horseback  or  an  entire  herd  of  cattle. 

Settlers  knew  from  experience  that  soils  fertile 
enough  to  support  a  luxuriant  growth  of  forest  could 
also  support  farm  crops.  But  they  viewed  prairies  and 
prairie  soils  with  suspicion.  They  reasoned  that  any  soil 
that  did  not  seem  to  grow  shrubs — let  alone  trees — would 
not  be  fertile  enough  for  crops.  Even  if  it  had  been  fertile, 
the  soil  was  virtually  clotted  with  roots  of  the  prairie 
plants,  so  that  breaking  the  sod  with  the  crude  plows  of 
that  time  was  almost  impossible. 

In  the  late  1830s,  however,  |ohn  Deere  perfected 
his  revolutionary  plow  that  was  able  to  turn  over  the 
tough  and  sticky  sod.  There  was  also  a  growing  realiza- 
tion that  the  prairie  was  not  infertile  at  all  but  had,  in 
fact,  among  the  richest  of  all  soils.  The  death  knell  was 
thus  sounded  for  the  prairies.  In  a  very  short  space  of 
time,  this  unique,  highly  developed  community  of  plants 
and  animals  was  surveyed,  sectioned,  plowed  under,  and 
planted  to  corn,  wheat,  oats,  and  beans.  A  community 
that  had  been  evolving  for  ten  thousand  years — since  the 
retreat  of  the  last  glacier — was  virtually  wiped  out  in 
little  more  than  a  century. 

Today  all  that  remains  of  the  millions  of  acres  of 
prairies  that  gave  Illinois  its  nickname — "the  Prairie 
State" — is  a  few  thousand  acres  scattered  piecemeal 
across  the  state.  Fifteen  hundred  acres  of  prairie — the 
largest  single  segment  of  such  native  prairie — have  been 
preserved  at  Goose  Lake  Prairie  State  Park,  in  Grundy  Coun- 
ty. Gensburg-Markham  Prairie,  in  Markham,  just  south  of 
Chicago,  is  a  tract  of  some  one  hundred  twenty  acres; 
Woodworth  Prairie,  near  Glenview,  is  a  mere  five  acres; 
near  Waukegan  there  are  about  200  additional  acres. 

The  size  of  a  prairie  is  important  to  its  preservation. 
The  larger  the  tract,  the  greater  the  potential  variety  of 
native  plant  and  animal  species.  The  greater  the  number 
and  diversity  of  species,  the  more  the  prairie  remnant  is 
able  to  function  like  native  prairie  ecosystems  of  the  past. 
In  the  Chicago  area  there- are  few  tracts  of  prairie  re- 
maining. Those  that  have  not  been  saved  by  the  action 

1  A  sidewalk,  laid  down  hall  a  century  ago  in  Wolf  Road  Prairie, 
is  nearly  obscured  by  a  profusion  of  prairie  plants.  The  walk- 
way, however,  provides  easy  access  for  viewers,  who  can  thus 
avoid  trampling  and  destroying  the  precious  growth. 


February  1975 


of  a  community  or  by  some  other  en- 
vironment-conscious group  are  on  the 
verge  of  being  destroyed  as  suburban 
areas  proliferate.  Wolf  Road  Prairie  is 
an  excellent  example  of  such  a  threat- 
ened area. 

In  recent  years,  whenever  a  natu- 
ralist would  come  upon  a  few  prairie 
species  growing  along  an  old  railroad 
right-of-way  or  an  old  fence,  it  has 
been  considered  a  lucky  find.  But  when 
we  have  in  our  midst  today  an  80-acre 
prairie  with  more  than  130  plant  spe- 
cies, it  is  a  minor  miracle.  Even  rarer  is 
to  have  a  good  prairie  in  the  midst  of  a 
metropolitan  area  with  nearly  seven  mil- 
lion people. 

Long  before  Wolf  Road  Prairie's 
near-destruction  in  the  1920s,  the  land 
had  come  perilously  close  to  conver- 
sion to  farmland.  In  the  mid-nineteenth 
century,  the  western  part  of  Cook  County 
was  first  opened  to  settlement.  At  that 
time,  most  land  could  be  bought  from 
the  federal  government  for  a  dollar  or 
two  per  acre.  Chicago  was  growing 
rapidly  and  most  of  the  land  surround- 
ing the  city  was  being  made  into  crop- 


land. But  Wolf  Road  Prairie  somehow 
escaped  this  fate.  County  records  of 
ownership  and  other  documents  rele- 
vant to  disposition  of  this  land  went  up 
in  smoke  with  the  great  Chicago  fire  of 
1871.  So  the  only  records  we  have  to- 
day concerning  this  property  date  from 
no  earlier  than  1871 — some  forty  years 
after  permanent  settlers  first  came  to  the 
region. 

A  possible  explanation  for  the  land 
remaining  in  its  natural  state  may  be 
that  much  of  it  was  too  wet  for  cultiva- 
tion. Its  proximity  to  Salt  Creek — sev- 
eral hundred  yards  distant — probably 
exposed  it  to  occasional  flooding.  Per- 
haps the  only  use  this  area  was  put  to 
was  as  grazing  land.  Prairies  can  toler- 
ate light  grazing,  then  become  reestab- 
lished after  the  animals  leave. 

The  second  time  that  Wolf  Road 
Prairie  was  nearly  obliterated  was  dur- 
ing the  economic  boom  of  the  twenties, 
when  speculation  in  suburban  land 
reached  a  peak.  Money  was  flowing 
freely  and  city-dwellers  were  quite 
ready  to  escape  to  a  new  home  in  the 
country.  Samuel  Insull,  the  utilities  mag- 


nate, was  developing  new  markets  for 
his  electrical  power  by  extending  ele- 
vated lines  to  the  suburbs.  One  of  these 
terminated  in  Westchester.  He  and  other 
real  estate  speculators  bought  land  from 
farmers  near  these  "el"  lines  in  tracts 
of  40,  80,  or  160  acres.  The  land  was 
quickly  surveyed,  platted  into  lots,  and 
readied  for  the  construction  of  new  sub- 
divisions. 

The  land  that  makes  up  Wolf  Road 
Prairie  was  purchased  by  one  Charles 
Hough  in  October,  1924.  Within  a  year, 
a  plan  for  developing  the  area  had  been 
drawn  up  and  a  plat  showing  the  loca- 
tion of  streets,  alleys,  lots,  and  side- 
walks was  filed  with  the  Cook  County 
recorder  of  deeds.  A  short  time  later, 
the  sidewalks  that  now  surround  eight 
blocks  at  the  corner  of  31st  and  Wolf 
Road  (about  half  the  total  prairie  area) 
had  been  constructed.  It  seemed  at  that 
time  that  a  piece  of  history  that  had 
survived  thousands  of  freezing  winters 
and  hundreds  of  prairie  fires  was  about 
to  be  lost  forever  and  transmuted  into 
the  yards  and  alleys  of  a  new  subdivi- 
sion. Seven-foot-tall  stands  of  big  blue- 


False  dragonhead  (Physostegia  virginiana) 


Blazing  stars   (Liatris  spicata  and  L.   aspcra) 
amidst  prairie  grass 


Button  blazing  star  (Liatris  aspera) 


4      E^*'^ 

INS 

w.  1 

r^ 

ft9 

p* 

Field  Museum  Bulletin 


stem  grass  would  soon  give  way  to  trim,  cropped  lawns 
of  bluegrass. 

In  the  meantime,  lots  in  this  subdivision  were  being 
sold.  Some  people  bought  only  one  or  two  lots  and 
some  speculators  bought  scores  of  lots.  The  end  result 
was  that  nearly  six  hundred  lots  became  divided  among 
one  hundred  separate  owners. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  1920s,  signs  of  the  impending 
depression  began  to  loom.  In  1927  the  real  estate  market 
slumped.  The  final  blow  was  the  crash  of  1929,  when 
most  of  this  development  came  to  an  absolute  halt. 

Development  of  Wolf  Road  Prairie  also  stopped, 
the  only  "improvement"  upon  the  land  being  the  pour- 
ing of  the  concrete  sidewalks.  It  is  probable  that  the  de- 
veloper went  into  bankruptcy.  The  lot  owners  were  stuck 
with  land  which,  as  far  as  they  were  concerned,  could  not 
be  developed.  The  lots  which  were  25  or  33  feet  by  120 
feet  had  no  sewer  systems,  and  a  septic  tank  could  not 
be  installed  unless  the  property  concerned  was  at  least 
half  a  city  block  in  size.  It  was  these  unusual  circum- 
stances that  prevented  the  prairie  from  being  destroyed. 

The  original  beauty  and  grandeur  of  the  prairie  is 
known  to  us  only  through  the  accounts  of  early  settlers. 
One  such  account,  dated  1855,  tells  of  a  man  riding  in 
a  wagon  across  the  wet  prairies  just  south  of  Chicago. 
The  grass  was  so  tall  that  he  lost  his  way,  and  wandered 
aimlessly  for  hours.  Finally  he  came  to  a  small  rise  from 
which  he  could  see  the  elevation  of  Blue  Island,  the  hill 
upon  which  that  suburb  was  later  built. 

Plants  that  were  as  common  to  the  prairies  then  as 
dandelion  and  chickory  are  to  the  roadsides  today,  can 
now  be  found  together  only  in  places  such  as  Wolf  Road 
Prairie.  In  springtime  the  prairie  is  a  fresh  green  accen- 
tuated with  the  deep  blue  of  prairie  violet,  the  rich  gold 
of  the  hoary  puccoon,  and  red  of  Indian  paintbrush. 

As  the  growing  season  progresses  and  plants  grow 
taller,  there  is  greater  competition  for  sunlight.  Plants 
that  remained  close  to  the  ground  in  the  spring  are 
now  shaded  out  and  replaced  by  plants  that  grow  and 
flower  at  greater  heights.  At  this  time  of  year — July  and 
August — the  most  spectacular  display  of  prairie  flowers 
appears.  Plants  such  as  Turks  cap  and  the  prairrfe  lilies 
lend  their  fiery  orange  to  the  bright  green  landscape.  In 
midsummer,  great  patches  of  prairie  turn  reddish-purple 
when  the  marsh  blazing  star  and  the  button  blazing  star 
send  up  flower  stalks  three  to  five  feet  tall.  In  the  low, 
wet  areas  of  the  prairie's  central  section  the  rare  white 
fringed  orchid  and  the  white  ladies'  tresses  orchid  grow. 

In  the  fall,  the  asters  make  their  appearance.  These 
are  followed  shortly  by  the  bright  blues  of  the  prairie 
gentian  and  the  closed  gentian.  With  the  arrival  of  these 
flowers,  the  end  of  the  prairie's  growing  season  is  at 
hand.  Most  of  the  plants  have  finished  their  job  of  making 
seed  for  next  year's  colorful  array.  Still  other  plants  have 
spent  the  spring,  summer,  and  fall  storing  food  in  their 

Top:  Wild  rose  (Rosa  Carolina);  bottom:  closed  gentian  (Centi- 
ana  andrewsii) 


February  1975 


underground  parts  so  that  when  fa- 
vorable conditions  arrive  with  spring  they 
can  immediately  begin  to  grow  and 
make  full  use  of  the  weather. 

Unique  to  Wolf  Road  Prairie  today 
is  a  cluster  of  burr  oaks.  It  was  these 
trees  that  formed  groves  scattered  here 
and  there  across  the  ocean  of  prairie. 
Their  tough,  thick,  corky  bark  protected 
the  trees  from  the  fires  that  frequently 
raged  across  miles  and  miles  of  prairie 
in  the  spring  and  fall.  When  the  prairie 
was  first  settled,  these  groves  provided 
wood  for  fuel  and  lumber  for  buildings. 
The  groves  were  usually  the  first  areas 
settled.  Many  present-day  communities, 
such  as  Downer's  Grove,  Elk  Grove,  and 
Long  Grove,  are  named  for  clusters  of 
such  trees. 

Wolf  Road  Prairie,  in  a  sense,  is  a 
fragile  bridge  with  the  past.  It  gives  us 
a  view,  in  miniature,  of  what  was  once 
a  great  panorama,  and  is  accessible  to 
almost  seven  million  residents  of  north- 
eastern  Illinois  and   northwestern    Indi- 


ana. The  sidewalks  are  fractured  re- 
minders of  someone's  attempt,  long  ago, 
to  "improve"  the  land.  But  today  these 
concrete  paths  serve  the  very  useful 
function  of  allowing  us  to  visit  the 
prairie  and  get  into  intimate  contact 
with  it  without  trampling  and  destroy- 
ing the  plant  life.  The  area  is  thus  a 
ready-made  nature  study  area.  Local  bi- 
ologists and  naturalists  acclaim  the  high 
quality  of  Wolf  Road  Prairie.  The  Illi- 
nois Nature  Preserves  Commission  ob- 
serves that  it  is  "of  nature  preserve 
quality."  The  Northwestern  Illinois  Plan- 
ning Commission  has  gone  on  record 
that  this  prairie  "qualifies  as  first  pri- 
ority open  space."  Clearly,  Wolf  Road 
Prairie  must  be  preserved. 

Not  too  many  years  ago,  just  a  few 
miles  northwest  of  Wolf  Road  Prairie,  in 
Elmhurst,  there  was  another  prairie  rem- 
nant, considered  by  ecologists  as  the 
finest  example  of  black  soil  prairie  in 
the  state.  But  that  precious  land  was 
bulldozed  over  and  buried  beneath  the 


Tri-State  Tollway,  Interstate  294.  No 
amount  of  citizen  action  will  ever  bring 
that  prairie  back  to  life;  it  is  dead  and 
gone.  Now,  before  it  is  too  late,  com- 
munity and  legislative  action  can  save 
Wolf  Road  Prairie  from  a  similar  fate. 

It  is  essential  that  the  prairie  be 
acquired  in  its  entirety  from  the  scores 
of  individuals  who  still  have  ownership 
in  the  many  tracts  that  comprise  it. 
Only  as  a  single,  unbroken  tract  can  it 
be  maintained  and  managed  in  its  native 
state,  and  properly  utilized  as  a  natural 
resource. 

In  its  series  of  Ray  A.  Kroc  Environ- 
mental Programs,  Field  Museum  will 
sponsor  tours  of  the  Wolf  Road  Prairie 
on  May  31  and  )une  4.  On  Saturdays, 
during  the  summer,  the  Save  the  Prairie 
Society  will  provide  guided  tours  of 
the  area.  □ 

The  dedicated  group  now  struggling  to 
save  Woll  Road  Prairie  is  Save  The  Prairie 
Society,  678  Robinhood  Lane,  LaCrange  Park, 
III.  60525. 


Prairie  gentian  (Centiana  puberla) 


Indian  plantain  (Cacalia  tuberosa) 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


Festival  Hall  ol  Tulmosis  III,  a  special  chapel 
built  within  the  confines  ol  the  Temple  ol 
Karnak 


by  Frederick  R.  Schram 


Tutmosis  HI: 

History's  First  Male  Chauvinist? 


In  Cerda  Frank's  "  'Pharaoh'  Hat- 
shepsut,  History's  First  Liberated 
Woman,"  (Sept.,  1974,  Bulletin),  we 
learned  the  intriguing  story  of  ancient 
Egypt's  Queen  Hatshepsut;  but  the 
events  surrounding  the  life  of  her 
nephew-stepson-son-in-law  (and  possi- 
ble husband),  Tutmosis  III,  are  equally 
remarkable.  He  might  even  be  described 
as  history's  first  male  chauvinist. 

Tutmosis  III  occupied  the  throne  of 
Egypt  from  1490  to  1436  B.C.;  but  his 

Frederick  R.  Schram,  who  has  had  a  lifelong 
interest  in  Egyptology,  is  a  research  associate 
in  the  Department  of  Geology  at  Field  Mu- 
seum, and  an  associate  professor  of  zoology 
at  Eastern  Illinois  University. 


first  twenty-one  or  twenty-two  years  on 
the  throne  were  largely  overshad- 
owed by  Hatshepsut,  his  coregent,  with 
whom  he  nominally  shared  power. 
Though  Tutmosis  Ill's  ascent  to  the  throne 
was  initially  quite  promising,  two  dec- 
ades were  to  pass  before  he  was  able 
to  fully  assert  himself.  The  circumstances 
surrounding  his  accession  are  best  appre- 
ciated if  one  understands  the  manner  of 
inheritance  in  ancient  Egypt  and  if  one 
studies  the  genealogy  of  the  XVIIIth  dy- 
nasty, Tutmosis'  family. 

Inheritance  of  property  and  title  in 
ancient  Egypt  was  matrilineal.  The  oldest 
surviving  daughter  of  a  house  inherited 
all.   Although   a  woman's   husband   ob- 


tained complete  control  of  the  estate 
with  marriage,  he  retained  this  control 
only  as  long  as  his  wife  lived.  Upon  her 
death,  all  rights  passed  to  the  wife's  old- 
est daughter.  Such  a  restriction  did  not 
inhibit  the  ancient  Egyptians,  however, 
since  a  widower  could,  and  frequently 
did,  then  marry  his  daughter.  Or  a  father 
wishing  to  ensure  his  son's  future  could 
marry  his  son  to  his  daughter:  a  brother- 
sister  marriage.  It  was  also  acceptable 
for  a  boy  to  marry  his  father's  wife, 
close  cousin,  or  half-sister.  Under  such 
circumstances  family  lineages  and  inter- 
relationships could  become  impossibly 
confused,  especially  if  viewed  thirty 
centuries  later. 


February  1975 


The  XVI Nth  dynasty  initiated  what 
is  called  the  New  Kingdom  period  of 
Egyptian  history.  Ahmosis  I  was  the 
founder  of  the  dynasty.  He  expelled  the 
Hyksos,  or  "shepherd  kings,"  who  were 
foreigners — apparently  from  Palestine — 
and  who  had  invaded  Egypt  during  a 
dark  age  and  then  controlled  a  large 
part  of  the  country.  Ahmosis'  son  and 
successor,  Amenhotep  I,  began  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  empire  by  initiating  con- 
quests beyond  Egypt's  traditional  bor- 
ders. Amenhotep's  legitimate  heir  was 
a  daughter,  Ahmose.  Amenhotep  had 
a  brother-in-law,  Tutmosis,  a  military 
man  who  married  Ahmose,  then  suc- 
ceeded as  Tutmosis  I.  The  only  heir  of 
Ahmose  and  Tutmosis  I  was  a  daughter, 
who  eventually  became  the  great  Queen 
Hatshepsut.  Hatshepsut  was  married  to 
Tutmosis  II,  a  son  of  Tutmosis  I  by  a 
princess  of  his  harem.  Hatshepsut  and 
Tutmosis  II  also  had  only  daughters; 
one  of  these — Meryetre — survived  to 
marriageable  age. 

Tutmosis  II  had  several  children  by 
minor  wives  or  concubines  of  his  harem. 
One  of  these  was  a  boy,  also  named 
Tutmosis.  This  young  Prince  Tutmosis 
had  been  shuffled  off  at  an  early  age  to 
serve  as  a  junior  priest  in  the  Temple  of 
Amun  (the  chief  god  of  Egypt)  at  Karnak, 
in  Thebes,  the  capital  city.  Prince  Tut- 
mosis was  not  destined  to  sink  into  the 
obscurity  of  a  temple  acolyte.  He  became 
his  father's  successor-designate  in  a  rather 
startling  manner.  We  learn  this  story 
from  a  propaganda  stela  from  late  in 
the  reign  of  Tutmosis  III. 

During  a  festival  in  the  Temple  of 
Karnak,  Tutmosis  II  was  offering  sacrifice 
to  Amun.  As  part  of  the  ceremonials,  the 
image  of  the  god  was  carried  about  the 
sacred  precincts.  A  dramatic  coup  d'etat 
took  place.  As  the  god,  carried  by  the 
priests,  passed  around  the  hall  outside 
the  holy-of-holies  of  the  temple,  the 
procession  passed  in  front  of  Prince  Tut- 
mosis. According  to  accounts,  the  priests 
were  forced  to  falter  before  the  prostrate 
young  apprentice,  and  the  god  indicated 
that  the  junior  Tutmosis  was  to  rise.  The 
god  Amun  then  placed  the  boy  in  the 
exact  spot  in  which  the  pharoah  himself 
had  stood  during  the  ritual  a  few  mo- 
ments before.  Whether  this  all  happened 
with  the  cooperation  of  King  Tutmosis  II, 
or  whether  it  was  an  act  of  conspiracy 


against  him  and  Queen  Hatshepsut  (who 
seems  to  have  acquired  great  power  even 
at  that  date)  we  do  not  know.  Thus,  we 
have  the  picture  of  the  king,  Tutmosis  II, 
offering  a  sacrifice  to  the  chief  god,  and 
shortly  thereafter  the  god  Amun  placing 
someone  else  in  the  place  of  the  king. 
To  comprehend  the  radical  nature 
of  this  incident  we  must  remember  that 
Prince  Tutmosis  had  only  a  small  claim 
to  the  throne.  His  mother  was  a  concu- 
bine named  Ese,  a  minor  wife  of  the 
harem.  His  father,  Tutmosis  II  (who  was 
the  son  of  a  princess  and  Tutmosis  I), 
had  no  claim  to  the  throne,  except  by 
marriage.  What  the  actual  role  of  Prince 
Tutmosis  was  in  planning  the  coup  that 
took  place  in  the  Temple  of  Karnak,  and 
in  carrying  it  out  we  may  never  know. 
But  in  view  of  what  we  know  of  Tutmosis 
Ill's  character  as  pharoah,  we  might  sur- 
mise that  it  was  something  more  than 
completely  passive.  The  young  prince 
could  perceive  his  lack  of  family  posi- 
tion and  separation  from  all  sources 
of  power  and  he  may  have  felt  that  he 
had  nothing  to  lose.  Logically  he  might 
have  sought  an  alliance  with  the  chief 
priests  of  Amun,  who  had  been  jockeying 
for  position  and  power. 


But  whatever  forces  had  been  mar- 
shalled on  the  side  of  the  prince,  they 
were  insufficient  to  overcome  those  al- 
lied with  Queen  Hatshepsut.  We  may 
assume  that  upon  the  death  of  Tutmosis 
II,  Tutmosis  and  Hatshepsut  were  mar- 
ried in  order  to  solidify  Tutmosis  Ill's 
"divine"  claim  to  the  throne,  although 
there  is  no  record  of  this  marriage.  Both 
Hatshepsut  and  Tutmosis  III  date  the 
beginning  of  their  reigns  with  the  death 
of  Tutmosis  II.  But  at  this  point  in  history, 
as  we  noted  in  Mrs.  Frank's  essay  on 
Hatshepsut,  Tutmosis  III  virtually  disap- 
peared for  twenty-one  years  while  Hat- 
shepsut ruled  alone,  although  he  appar- 
ently studied  tactics  and  conducted  two 
campaigns  later  in  her  reign. 

In  1469  B.C.,  or  thereabouts,  Hat- 
shepsut died.  Her  glorious  reign  of  peace 
had  been  marred  in  its  last  years  by  grow- 
ing unrest  and  rebellion  in  Palestine  and 
Syria — lands  conquered  by  her  father, 
Tutmosis  I.  The  "peace  party"  of  Hat- 
shepsut had  concentrated  all  its  efforts 
on  expanding  trade  and  in  diplomatic 
activities.  Some  Egyptologists  have  spec- 
ulated that  Hatshepsut  may  have  been 
assassinated  as  one  step  toward  returning 
the  "war  party"  to  power  and  in  institut- 


THE  EGYPTIAN  EMPIRE 
UNDER  TUTMOSIS  III 


Nile  River 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


ing  a  more  aggressive  imperial  policy. 
At  any  rate,  after  two  decades  of  seclu- 
sion, Tutmosis  III  ruled  alone. 

Upon  assuming  sole  regency  he  be- 
gan to  obliterate  the  memory  of  Hat- 
shepsut.  He  ordered  his  agents  to  efface 
her  name  and  image  from  every  mon- 
ument and  building  in  the  land.  The 
history  of  Egyptian  purges  are  hard  to 
trace,  since  they  often  extended  through 
several  dynasties  and  hundreds  of  years, 
and  monuments  were  sometimes 
usurped  by  a  whole  succession  of  pha- 
roahs.  Fortunately  for  history,  they  were 
not  entirely  successful.  One  of  the  build- 
ings attacked  was  the  magnificent  and 
justly  famous  funerary  temple  of  Hat- 
shepsut  at  Deir  el  Bahri  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Nile,  directly  across  from 
the  Temple  of  Karnak.  Every  statue  of 
the  queen  there  was  torn  down  and 
every  image  on  the  wall  reliefs  was 
chiseled  out  until  only  outlines  of  the 
portraits  remained.  Tutmosis  even 
ordered  the  bases  of  the  obelisks  Hat- 
shepsut  erected  in  the  Temple  of  Karnak 
to  be  bricked  up  out  of  sight  in  order  to 
cover  her  name.  Twenty  years  of  frus- 
tration and  abuse  were  vent  in  this  one 
colossal  purge.  Tutmosis  III  never  offi- 
cially acknowledged   his  years  of  core- 


gency  with  Hatshepsut,  and  neither  Tut- 
mosis nor  Hatshepsut  seems  to  have  been 
eager  to  advertise  their  marriage,  which 
may  have  occurred. 

Tutmosis  Ill's  energies  and  talents, 
which  had  been  subdued  during  Hat- 
shepsut's  reign,  suddenly  burst  forth  with 
the  organtzalion  of  an  expeditionary  army 
for  a  Syrian  campaign,  the  first  such 
Egyptian  force  since  the  minor  campaigns 
of  Tutmosis  II.  The  ancient  mideast  em- 
pires were  not  empires  in  our  modern 
conception  of  the  term.  These  empires 
were  more  like  "spheres  of  influence," 
with  the  "conquered"  states  being  re- 
stricted in  trading  rights  and  required  to 
pay  yearly  tribute  to  the  conquering  na- 
tion. Thus,  rebellions  in  such  empires 
were  not  so  much  movements  toward 
political  independence  as  attempts  at 
economic  freedom. 

The  princes  of  Palestine  and  Syria 
had  formed  a  confederation  against  the 
pharoah  under  the  leadership  of  the  ruler 
of  the  city  of  Kadesh,  on  the  Orontes 
River  in  Syria.  Even  in  those  ancient  times 
the  Palestine  territory  was  in  dispute.  The 
confederacy  amassed  their  forces  at  the 
city  of  Megiddo  (just  southwest  of 
present-day  Nazareth).  In  the  twenty- 
third  year  of  his  reign  (Egyptians  had  no 


calendar  dates  as  we  have,  but  started 
counting  the  years  anew  with  the  begin- 
ning of  each  pharoah's  reign),  Tutmosis 
marched  into  Palestine,  captured  what 
is  today  Gaza,  and  laid  seige  to  Megiddo. 
After  seven  months  the  princes  capit- 
ulated and  sued  for  peace,  and,  as  -one 
of  the  propaganda  stelae  of  Tutmosis 
tells  us,  they  dragged  themselves  before 
his  majesty,  kissed  the  ground  before 
him,  and  implored  breath  for  their  nos- 
trils. 

The  tribute  paid  was  truly  stagger- 
ing: immense  quantities  of  gold  and  sil- 
ver, ebony,  great  herds  of  cattle,  and  all 
the  grain  from  the  surrounding  region. 
After  receiving  all  this,  Tutmosis  and  his 
army  returned  to  Egypt.  But  from  the 
years  23  to  39  he  found  it  necessary  to 
wage  fourteen  separate  campaigns 
against  the  recalcitrant  Syrians.  In  the 
year  30  he  destroyed  Kadesh  itself,  and 
in  the  year  33  he  chased  his  enemies 
across  the  Euphrates  River  at  Carcamesh 
(on  the  border  of  modern  Syria  and  Tur- 
key). He  then  proceeded  into  northern 
Mesopotamia,  giving  the  Egyptian  em- 
pire the  greatest  extent  it  was  to  ever 
have.  He  had  to  continue  to  show  his 
royal  presence  in  Syria  until  the  year  42 
of  his  reign. 


Festival  Hall  of  Tutmosis 
III,  interior  view,  looking 
northeast 


February  1975 


^r    -     S^-' 


Re//'e/  of  Tutmosis  III  at  the  Temple  ol  Amun.  The  king  is  shown  smiting  captives  before  Amun. 


Not  all  of  Tutmosis'  military  activity 
was  confined  to  Syria.  He  also  pressed 
his  armies  south  into  Nubia  and  went 
as  far  as  the  fourth  cataract  of  the  Nile, 
deep  inside  what  is  modern  Sudan.  There, 
in  the  year  47,  he  erected  a  monument 
stela  commemorating  his  great  conquests 
in  Syria — undoubtedly  in  order  to  deter 
any  potential  Nubian  rebels. 

These  great  military  conquests 
brought  vast  amounts  of  wealth  and  trib- 
ute flowing  into  the  Land  of  the  Nile. 
Unprecedented  prosperity  was  afloat. 
Impressive  building  programs  were  un- 
dertaken. Records  of  Tutmosis'  victories 
were  carved  on  the  walls  of  these  build- 
ings, especially  in  Thebes  at  Amun's  Tem- 
ple of  Karnak.  Tutmosis  never  seemed 
to  tire  of  trumpeting  his  conquests.  And 
perhaps  in  this  he  was  also  trying  to  out- 
shine the  recorded  peacetime  accom- 
plishments of  Hatshepsut. 

His  devotion  to  the  architectural 
enrichment  of  the  Temple  of  Amun   is 


understandable,  since  that  was  in  a  real 
sense  where  it  all  began.  Carvings  of  wall 
reliefs  executed  under  Tutmosis'  direc- 
tion abound  everywhere.  He  erected  sev- 
eral great  obelisks  there;  one  of  these 
is  now  in  New  York's  Central  Park,  an- 
other in  London,  and  a  third  in  Istanbul. 
He  also  built  a  great  "festival  hall"  to 
the  east  of  the  main  temple.  One  cannot 
but  wonder  how  many  times,  after  offer- 
ing sacrifice  to  Amun,  did  Tutmosis  gaze 
upon  the  spot  where  he  had  once  stood 
as  a  young  prince  and  the  god  had  desig- 
nated him  to  succeed  his  father.  And 
how  many  times,  when  he  walked  past 
her  obelisks,  did  he  shudder  at  the 
thought  of  those  bitter  years  in  the  shad- 
ow of  Hatshepsut? 

After  Hatshepsut's  death,  Tutmosis 
had  to  marry  her  daughter  by  Tutmosis  II, 
Hatshepsut-Meryetre,  in  order  to  main- 
tain his  control  of  the  throne.  A  son  born 
to  this  marriage  eventually  succeeded 
his  father  as  Amenhotep  II.  Tutmosis  Ill's 


days  ended  peacefully  enough.  He  did 
not  personally  partake  in  any  more  mil- 
itary campaigns  in  the  last  years  of  his 
life.  That  sort  of  activity  was  undoubtedly 
left  to  his  son,  Amenhotep,  who  Tutmosis 
made  coregent.  After  such  an  eventful 
career,  filled  as  it  was  with  such  reckless 
gambles,  great  frustrations,  and  stunning 
victories,  Tutmosis  spent  the  last  years 
of  his  reign  enjoying  the  fruits  of  his 
efforts. 

Or  did  he?  Such  a  dynamic,  forceful 
character  may  have  found  the  infirmities 
of  old  age  the  supreme  frustration.  He 
died  in  the  year  54  of  his  reign,  some- 
thing in  excess  of  60  years  of  age,  per- 
haps approaching  70. 

Force  of  personality  was  the  chief 
character  trait  of  Tutmosis  III — "charis- 
ma," as  we  would  call  it  today.  Charisma 
to  achieve  the  succession,  charisma  to 
stamp  out  the  "peace  party"  and  Hat- 
shepsut's memory,  charisma  to  lead  his 
armies  again  and  again  to  victory,  charis- 
ma to  launch  mammoth  building  pro- 
grams. A  measure  of  Tutmosis'  dominant 
personality  is  noted  in  the  following 
poem  of  praise  carved  on  a  stela  by  the 
priests  of  Amun  in  the  Temple  of  Karnak. 
This  song  is  uttered  in  words  from  the 
mouth  of  the  god  Amun  himself.  It  gives 
a  hint  of  the  impression  Tutmosis  III 
must  have  made  on  his  peers.  How  much 
more  glorious  and  compelling,  in  the 
eyes  of  his  contemporaries,  were  the 
feats  of  a  conqueror  like  Tutmosis  III, 
than  the  "peaceful  coexistence"  of  Queen 
Hatshepsut. 


/  have  come.  I  have  let  you  smite  the 

princes  ol  Zahi. 
I  have  hurled  them  beneath  your  feel 

among  their  mountains. 
I  have  made  them  see  your  majesty  as 

a  lord  oi  radiance, 
So  that  you  have  blazed  in  their  laces 

as  my  image. 

I  have  come.  I  have  let  you  smite  the 

Asiatics. 
You  have  made  captive  the, heads  ol 

the  Asiatics  ol  Relenu. 
I  have  made  them  see  your  majesty 

adorned  with  your  ornaments, 
When   you   received   the  weapons  of 

war  on  your  chariot. 

I  have  come.  I  have  let  you  smite  the 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


-  a 


_^1    . -Mil    ( 


fertiEisi 


IsrtfS    >Lf, 


Sandstone  figure  of  the  scribe  Amenhotep,  of  the  same  period  (dynasty  XVIII)  as  Tutmosis 
III;  on  view  in  Hall  I,  Case  40.  Catalogue  No.  88906.  About  I6V2  inches  high.  The  skin  is 
painted  red.  the  hair  black,  and  the  costume  white. 

The  inscription  reads:  "The  scribe  Amenhotep,  he  says:  'I  praise  my  lord,  the  lord  of  the 
gods,  Amun,  lord  of  thrones  of  the  two  lands  (Karnak),  Harakhte,  god  great  in  deeds,  sole  one, 
without  his  equal,  with  beautiful  rays,  with  sparkling  graciousness,  my  son,  lord  of  dawnings. 
Thou  art  verily  breath  to  the  nostrils.  I  have  come  unto  thee  that  I  may  praise  thy  beauty, 
when  thou  dawnest  in  the  east  of  the  sky  (and)  until  the  setting  of  the  sun  in  the  Manu 
Mountains.  Let  me  be  in  the  retinue  of  thy  spirit,  my  mouth  provided  with  viands  which 
have  been  offered  on  thy  altars.'  (Said)  by  the  scribe  of  the  steward  of  the  high  priest, 
Amenhotep." 


Land  of  the  East. 
You  have  trampled  those  in  the  district 

of  Cod's  Land. 
I  have  made  them  see  your  majesty  as 

a  circling  star, 
When  it  scatters  its  flame  in  fire  and 

gives  forth  its  dew. 

I  have  come.  I  have  let  you  smite  the 

Land  of  the  West. 
Crete  and  Cyprus  are  in  terror. 
I  have  made  them  see  your  majesty  as 

a  young  bull, 
Firm  of  heart  and  horned. 

I  have  come.  I  have  let  you  smite  those 
in  the  marshes. 

The  lands  of  the  Mitanni  tremble  in 
fear  of  you. 

I  have  made  them  see  your  majesty  as 
a  crocodile, 

Lord  of  fear  in  the  water  and  unap- 
proachable. 

I  have  come.  I  have  let  you  smite  those 

in  the  isles. 
Those  in  the  midst  of  the  great  sea  hear 

your  cry  of  war. 
I  have  made  them  see  your  majesty  as 

an  avenger, 
Rising  upon  the  back  of  his  victims. 

I  have  come.  I  have  let  you  smite  the 

Libyans. 
The  isles  of  the  Utentiu  belong  to  the 

might  of  your  prowess. 
I  have  made  them  see  your  majesty  as 

a  fierce  lion, 
While  you  made  corpses  of  them  in 

their  valley. 

I  have  come.  I  have  let  you  smite  the 

corners  of  the  lands. 
The  circle  of  the  Ocean  is  caught  in 

your  fist. 
I  have  made  them  see  your  majesty  as 

a  soaring  hawk, 
Seizing  all  that  which  he  desires. 

I  have  come.  I  have  let  you  smite  those 

who  are  on  your  borders. 
You  have  made  the  Nomads  prisoners. 
I  have  made  them  see  your  majesty  as 

the  southern  jackal, 
Swift  and  stealthy  as  he  crosses  the  Two 

Lands. 

I  have  come.  I  have  let  you  smite  the 

Troglodytes  of  Nubia. 
As  far  as  the  Land  of  Chah  in  your  fist. 
I  have  made  them  see  your  majesty  as 

two  brothers, 
For  whom  I  united  the  strength  of  their 

arms.  Q 


February  1975 


field  briefs 


"Lizards,  Snakes,  Toads,  and  Salaman- 
ders" was  the  title  of  a  recent  all-day  pro- 
gram for  youngsters  at  Field  Museum.  Spon- 
sored in  cooperation  with  Lincoln  Park  Zoo, 
the  program  featured  live-animal  demonstra- 
tions and  films. 

Upper  left,  leannie  Gabor  of  the  Zoo 
docent  staff  introduces  a  youngster  to  an 
iguana,  from  tropical  America.  Lower  left, 
Lincoln  Park  Zoo's  Lorraine  Smith  tries  to 
coax  her  audience  into  petting  the  friendly 
boa.  (The  upper  photo  was  taken  by  Brian 
Posey,  the  lower  photo  by  David  Moore; 
both  14-year-old  boys  are  Field  Museum 
members.) 


Canadian  Wilderness  Trip 

Eight  days  and  seven  nights  in  Ontario's 
Quetico  Provincial  Park  (bordering  Minne- 
sota) are  in  store  for  30  lucky  young  people. 
The  )uly  canoe  trip  will  explore  one  of 
Earth's  last  remaining  primitive  wilderness 
areas.  It  will  be  co-sponsored  by  Field 
Museum  and  the  Voyageur  Wilderness  Pro- 
gramme, of  Canada,  and  is  open  to  persons 
14   to  22   (members   or   members'   children). 

Led  by  two  naturalist  guides  and  four 
adult  counselors,  the  group  will  leave  Field 
Museum  on  the  evening  of  July  1  and  be 
back  in  Chicago  on  the  morning  of  )uly  11. 
The  trip  fee  of  $180  will  include  transporta- 
tion, complete  outfitting,  lodge  meals,  and 
insurance.  Applicants  will  be  required  to 
submit  a  parent's  statement  of  swimming 
ability  and  medical  disabilities,  provide  a 
teacher's  name  as  reference,  and  come  to 
the  Museum  for  an  interview;  the  applicant 
should  also  be  able  to  demonstrate  "en- 
thusiasm for  a  taste  of  wilderness."  The 
group  leaders  hope  to  choose  an  equal 
balance  between  boys  and  girls.  Preference 
will  be  given  to  those  who  apply  first,  but 
acceptance  is  at  the  discretion  of  the  Mu- 
seum. Upon  acceptance,  applicants  will  be 
required  to  make  a  $50  deposit;  the  balance 
must  be  paid  by  May  15.  For  further  infor- 
mation call  Field  Museum,  922-9410,  Ext.  352. 


"Amber"  lewelry  Recalled 

To  the  chagrin  of  Field  Museum  staff, 
it  has  been  shown  by  laboratory  analysis  at 
the  Museum  that  some  African  "amber" 
jewelry,  acquired  in  conjunction  with  last 
year's  Contemporary  African  Arts  Festival, 
does  not  contain  true  amber.  The  Museum 
suggests  that  anyone  who  has  bought  such 
jewelry  at  the  Museum  return  it  for  authen- 
tication by  laboratory  analysis.  Any  article 
that  does  not  pass  will  be  replaced  or  full 
refund  will  be  made  to  the  purchaser.  The 
disclosure  came  as  a  shock  to  buyers  for  the 
festival,  who  made  every  effort  to  establish 
the  authenticity  of  merchandise. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


13 


our  environment 


Nuisance  Species  Banned  in  West 

A  number  of  undesirable  wildlife  spe- 
cies have  been  banned  from  importation 
into  several  western  states  by  recent  action 
of  the  Colorado  River  Wildlife  Council,  an 
association  of  state  wildlife  agencies  in  Cali- 
fornia, Arizona,  Utah,  Nevada,  Wyoming, 
New  Mexico,  and  Colorado. 

More  than  26  species  of  fish,  amphib- 
ians, and  reptiles  determined  to  be  unde- 
sirable to  native  wildlife  are  now  illegal  for 
importation  into  or  transportation  or  pos- 
session in  those  seven  western  states.  Out- 
lawed fish  include  lamprey,  freshwater  sting- 
ray and  shark,  bowfin,  gar,  gizzard  shad, 
European  whitefish,  banded  tetra,  piranha, 
candiru,  white  perch,  drum,  grass  carp,  pike 
top  minnow,  snakehead,  walking  catfish, 
and  tiger  fish.  Amphibians  and  reptiles  that 
have  been  banned  include  marine  toad, 
African  clawed  frog,  crocodile,  alligator  and 
caiman,  snapping  turtle,  cobra,  viper,  non- 
native  rattlesnakes  and  coral  snake,  and  the 
boomslang. 

Giant  Cache  of  Contraband  Ivory 

A  giant  cache  of  contraband  elephant 
tusks  has  recently  been  discovered  in  a 
Nairobi,  Kenya,  warehouse.  Packing  cases, 
ready  for  shipment  to  overseas  markets,  were 
found  to  contain  800  of  the  ivory  tusks. 
Their  market  value  was  put  at  $1.5  million. 

Private  trade  in  ivory  has  long  been  il- 
legal, and  the  governments  of  Kenya  and 
other  East  African  nations  are  constantly 
seeking  out  violators.  Nevertheless,  large 
amounts  of  the  commodity  continue  to  be 
sumggled  to  Europe  and  Asia. 

Freighters  Pose  Health  Threat 

Sewage  discharged  into  the  Great  Lakes 
by  vessels  arriving  from  ports  where  com- 
municable diseases  are  epidemic  may  be 
creating  a  potential  health  hazard. 

This  conclusion  resulted  from  an  inquiry 
made  by  the  International  Joint  Commis- 
sion, Great  Lakes  Regional  Office  following 
the  1973  cholera  epidemic  in  Naples. 

The  commission  concluded  that  al- 
though incidents  of  communicable  diseases 
introduced  by  vessel  waters  have  not  oc- 
curred recently,  "there  is  no  question  that 
raw  sewage  and  other  vessel  wastes  continue 
to  be  dumped  into  the  Great  Lakes  by 
ships  which  have  earlier  left  ports  in  in- 
fected  areas." 

The  commission  reported  the  absence 
of  communicable  disease  outbreaks  in  and 
around  the  Great  Lakes  is  due  mostly  to  the 
"relatively  high  level  of  treatment  of  muni- 


cipal water  supplies."  But,  it  states,  "health 
agency  officials  cannot  provide  assurances 
that  there  is  no  need  to  be  concerned  with 
the   potential    hazard   from   vessel   wastes." 

According  to  the  l|C,  there  is  no  single 
agency  in  either  the  Canadian  or  U.S.  govern- 
ment with  clear-cut  authority  and  responsi- 
bility to  deal  with  vessel  wastes  problems. 
It  recommends  the  U.S.  and  Canadian  gov- 
ernments adopt  compatible  vessel  waste 
regulations  and  procedures  to  assure  "ad- 
equacy of  sewage  handling,  treatment  and 
disposal  procedures  and  adequate  surveil- 
lance of  these  procedures,  especially  as  they 
are  applied  to  vessels  from  high  risk  areas." 


Federal  Incentive  for  Auto  Bans 

The  federal  government  has  offered 
cities  a  $15  million  "carrot"  to  persuade  them 
lo   ban   autos   from   their  downtown   areas. 

According  to  Frank  C.  Herringer,  ad- 
ministrator of  the  Urban  Mass  Transporta- 
tion Administration,  $15  million  in  technical 
studies  grant,  which  do  not  require  local 
matching  funds,  will  be  made  available  to 
cities  willing  to  experiment  with  banning 
autos  in  all  or  part  of  their  downtown  areas 
or  by  instituting  "congestion  pricing,"  in 
which  motorists  are  charged  fees  to  enter 
crowded  areas.  Additional  federal  funds  will 
be  made  available  to  help  purchase  buses 
for  inside  the  auto-free  zones. 

Herringer  predicted  "we  could  well  see 
a  federal  requirement  that  cities  at  least  con- 
sider auto-free  zones"  as  a  prerequisite  to 
applying  for  federal  transportation  grants; 
he  indicated  that  the  government  would 
favor  cities  which  adopt  such  an  approach. 

Feds  Raid  Feather  Shops 

In  a  series  of  raids  in  eleven  states, 
U.S.  Fish  and,  Wildlife  Service  agents  have 
recently  seized  thousands  of  eagle  and  mi- 
gratory bird  feathers,  dozens  of  eagle  and 
migratory  bird  carcasses,  and  hundreds  of 
American  Indian  curios  made  with  parts  of 
federally  protected  birds.  More  than  sixty 
persons  were  either  arrested  or  issued  sum- 
monses for  trafficking  in  eagles  and  migra- 
tory birds.  Most  of  those  cited  were  selling 
prohibited  items  to  tourists  and  collectors, 
in  violation  of  federal  laws  forbidding  all  com- 
mercial activities  involving  eagles  and  migra- 
tory birds. 

The  searches  and  seizures  took  place 
in  homes,  curio  shops,  taxidermy  busi- 
nesses, pawn  shops,  and  other  business  es- 
tablishments in  Indiana,  Illinois,  Wisconsin, 
Minnesota,  South  Dakota,  Colorado,  Mon- 
tana, Wyoming,  Idaho,  Oregon,  and  Wash- 
ington.    Manufactured     articles     seized     in- 


cluded mounted  birds,  headdresses,  pipes, 
necklaces,  dolls,  spears,  bustles,  and  hun- 
dreds of  other  feather-decorated  curios. 
Over  two  dozen  species  of  protected  birds, 
including  the  bald  and  golden  eagles,  were 
involved.  Some  of  the  feathers  seized  had 
been  trimmed  or  otherwise  altered  lo  dis- 
guise their  true  identity  and  to  make  them 
look   old. 

As  the  popularity  of  American  Indian 
articles  has  increased  in  recent  years,  a 
lucrative  market  has  developed  for  the 
eagle  and  migratory  bird  parts  and  feathers 
used  to  decorate  Indian  curios.  Eagle  car- 
casses currently  sell  on  the  black  market 
lor  $175;  hawk  carcasses  bring  up  to  $45. 
Wing  and  tail  feathers  of  these  birds  are 
used  to  make  warbonnets  and  to  decorate 
wearing  apparel  and  other  articles.  Most 
bonnets  and  headdresses  sell  in  the  $400 
to  $700  price  range,  but  some  have  been 
offered  for  sale  for  as  much  as  $1,500.  It 
takes  the  feathers  of  as  many  as  ten  eagles 
to  make  some  types  of  bonnets.  While  fed- 
eral law  expressly  prohibits  commercial  ac- 
tivities involving  eagles  and  migratory  birds, 
the  U.S.  Fish  and  Wildlife  Service  issues 
eagle  parts  or  feathers  free  to  Indians  by 
special  permit  for  bona  fide  religious  cere- 
monies. The  Department  of  the  Interior 
maintains  a  repository  where  the  remains 
of  eagles  that  are  killed  by  accident  or  die 
naturally  are  stored  for  such  free  distribu- 
tion. 

The  Bald  Eagle  Protection  Act  carries  a 
maximum  criminal  penalty  of  a  $5,000  fine 
and  one  year  in  jail  for  first  offenses.  The 
Migratory  Bird  Treaty  Act  provides  for 
$2,000  fine  and  two  years  in  jail  for  per- 
sons convicted  of  selling  protected  birds. 

No  III  Effects  in  Asbestos-Fed  Rats 

There  is  no  evidence  that  asbestos  fi- 
bers entering  the  body  through  the  gastro- 
intestinal tract  cause  cancer,  according  to 
long-term  studies  by  three  laboratories.  Find- 
ings of  this  research  were  reported  in  the 
December,  1974,  Archives  of  Environmental 
Health,  published  by  the  American  Medical 
Association.  The  report  comes  in  the  midst 
of  heated  controversy  over  the  dumping 
of  asbestos-loaded  taconite  tailings  into 
Lake  Superior  by  the  Reserve  Mining  Co. 
(See  September,  1974,  Bulletin.) 

Laboratories  which  conducted  the  re- 
search are  at  the  Medical  University  of 
South  Carolina,  at  Charleston;  St.  James 
Hospital  in. Leeds,  England;  and  the  Insti- 
tute of  Occupational  Medicine,  Edinburgh, 
Scotland. 

The  Archives  reports: 

"Ingestion  of  asbestos  fibers  has  un- 
doubtedly been  in  progress  in  some  coun- 


February  1975 


Publication  cost  of  this  section  on 
Our  Environment  has  been  under- 
written, in  part,  by  the  Ray  A.  Kroc 
Environmental  Education  Fund. 


tries  for  centuries,  inasmuch  as  fibers  of 
submicronic  dimensions  occur  naturally  in 
river  water  as  it  erodes  sepentine  and  am- 
phibole  outcroppings. 

"Increased  industrial  applications  of 
mineral  fibers  may  have  accelerated  this 
ingestion  somewhat.  Nevertheless,  the  world 
literature  does  not  suggest  that  an  alarming 
increase  in  gastrointestinal  inflammatory  dis- 
ease or  cancer  has  occurred,  or  that  the  in- 
cidence is  higher  in  regions  where  asbestos 
fibers  are  present  in  natural  waters." 

In  one  experiment,  ground  laboratory 
chow  was  mixed  with  ball-milled  chrysolite 
asbestos  of  all  fiber  lengths  and  diameters 
and  fed  to  rats  for  21  months.  In  another, 
taconite  and  amosite  tailings  were  ground 
up  and  injected  in  aqueous  suspension.  In 
a  third,  oleomargarine  with  20  percent  taco- 
nite or  10  percent  amosite,  and  butter  con- 
taining asbestos  were  fed  to  the  rats. 

A  few  animals  from  each  experiment 
were  killed  within  six  months;  the  rest 
were  allowed  to  live  until  they  became  dis- 
eased or  until  they  died  natural  deaths.  In 
none  of  the  experiments  were  any  cancerous 
lesions  observed,  nor  did  there  appear  to 
be  any  penetration  of  the  gastrointestinal 
mucosa  by  asbestos  fibers. 


UN  Confers  on  Mediterranean  Pollution 

One  of  the  world's  dirtiest  waterways — 
the  Mediterranean  Sea — may  have  cleaner 
days  ahead,  thanks  to  a  recent  conference 
of  the  fledgling  United  Nations  Environmen- 
tal Program,  held  at  Barcelona,  Spain,  Jan. 
28-Feb.  4.  Maurice  F.  Strong,  executive  di- 
rector of  the  UNEP,  has  said  that  condition 
of  this  sea  "allows  no  delay  if  further  de- 
terioration is  to  be  halted." 

The  conferees — primarily  representing 
nations  bordering  the  Mediterranean — dis- 
cussed research  and  monitoring  programs 
and  joint  action  to  be  taken  in  emergencies. 
They  also  considered  interlocking  agree- 
ments on  the  dumping  of  land  wastes  into 
the  Mediterranean,  pollution  from  ships,  pol- 
lution from  exploration  and  exploitation  of 
the  seabed. 


U.S.-Russ  Pact  on  Endangered  Plants 


Trees,  vines,  grains,  and  other  plants 
will  be  grown  jointly  by  the  United  States 
and  the  U.S.S.R.,  under  a  recent  agreement 
to  help  preserve  endangered  plant  species. 
Under  the  agreement,  detailed  information 
will  be  exchanged  on  such  species  of  the 
two  countries,  including  reports  on  what  is 
being   done    to    preserve    them.    Seeds    and 


seedlings  will  also  be  exchanged.  In  both 
countries  there  are  currently  about  500  en- 
dangered plant  species. 

"A  plant  that  doesn't  grow  well  in  one 
country  may  often  hold  and  flourish  in  the 
other  country,"  observed  Howard  S.  Irwin, 
president  of  the  New  York  Botanical  Garden. 

"One  of  the  most  important  things 
about  the  agreement,"  he  continued,  "is 
that  the  two  countries  will  be  preserving 
the  genes  of  wild  plants  for  possible  use  in 
the  future  all  over  the  world." 

Solar  Heater  for  Housing  Project 

A  forty-unit  housing  project  for  the 
elderly,  using  solar  energy  for  half  its  heat- 
ing needs,  will  soon  be  constructed  near 
New  Haven,  Conn.  Completion  of  the  $1 
million  state  facility  is  expected  in  1976.  A 
federal  grant  of  $130,700  has  been  awarded 
to  underwrite  designing  costs  for  the  solar 
energy   installation. 

All  forty  living  units  will  have  heat 
drawn  from  conventional  oil-fired  or  gas- 
fired  furnaces,  but  in  the  case  of  twenty 
units,  the  conventional  system  will  be  there 
only  as  a  back-up  for  solar  heaters.  The 
solar  collectors  will  consist  essentially  of  flat, 
black-painted,  glass-covered  boxes,  which 
will  trap  the  sun's  heat.  Liquid  circulated 
through  pipes  in  the  boxes  will  carry  off  the 
heat  and  store  it  in  large  tanks;  from  the 
tanks  the  hot  liquid  will  be  drawn  off  as 
needed  for  heating  the  twenty  units.  Cur- 
rently, there  are  believed  to  be  less  than  100 
installations  in  the  United  States  which  de- 
pend wholly  or  partly  on  solar  heaters. 

Chimps  Can  Teach  Mothers 

Human  mothers  can  learn  a  thing  or  two 
from  their  chimpanzee  counterparts,  says 
Jane  Coodall,  noted  primate  ethologist,  "We 
do  so  many  things  today  that  are  biologi- 
cally incorrect  and  go  against  traditional 
baby  primate  needs."  She  cited  the  com- 
mon practices  of  allowing  infants  to  feed 
themselves  from  propped-up  bottles,  ignor- 
ing children  in  play  pens,  and  letting  infants 
sleep  in  cribs  away  from  their  mothers. 
Studies  with  chimpanzees  show  that  such 
isolation  results  in  behavioral  differences 
that  may  be  observed  years  later,  Dr.  Good- 
all  said. 


Michigan's  Last  Wolf? 

The  lone  survivor  of  last  spring's  timber 
wolf  transplant  from  Minnesota  to  Michigan 
was  found  dead  near  Champion,  Michigan, 
on  November  19.  The  wolf's  death  raised 
serious  questions  among  research  biologists 


as  to  the  eastern  timber  wolf's  ability  to 
survive  competition  with  people  in  its  for- 
mer range. 

The  young  female's  unmoving  radio 
signal  was  picked  up  in  that  area  on  No- 
vember 17  from  an  airplane  carrying  re- 
search biologists  from  Northern  Michigan 
University.  They  had  been  monitoring  the 
wolf  transplant  periodically  since  March. 

Following  a  lead  from  a  local  hunter, 
a  Michigan  conservation  officer  located  the 
wolf  in  a  densely  wooded  area.  She  had 
been  shot  in  the  leg  and  the  head.  The 
radio  collar  and  one  ear,  which  carried  a 
Minnesota  tag,  had  been  removed.  The 
dead  wolf  was  positively  identified  from  a 
Michigan  ear  tag  which  was  hidden  on  the 
other  ear.  The  radio  collar,  which  had 
been  shot  off  the  dead  animal  and  was  no 
longer  transmitting,  and  the  ear  tag  were 
later  turned  over  to  investigators  by  the 
occupant  of  a  hunting  cabin  not  far  from 
where  the  wolf's  body  was  discovered. 

Although  the  project  was  a  failure  in 
terms  of  wolf  survival — all  four  of  the  trans- 
planted wolves  were  shot,  trapped,  or  run 
over  within  seven  months  of  their  release — 
the  money  and  man-hours  that  went  into 
the  project  were  not  all  spent  in  vain.  David 
Mech,  U.S.  Fish  and  Wildlife  Service  biolo- 
gist, reports  that  evidence  now  indicates 
transplanted  wolves  are  capable  of  main- 
taining pack  identity,  establishing  terri- 
tories, and  searching  for  food  successfully 
when  introduced   into  new  areas. 

Shortly  after  the  recently  killed  female 
was  captured  last  March,  biologists  sus- 
pected that  she  would  be  a  loner,  despite 
the  fact  that  she  was  captured  in  close 
proximity  to  the  other  wolves.  Even  while 
penned  before  transport  to  Michigan,  she 
remained  separate  from  the  older  female 
and  two  males  which  were  displaying  close- 
knit  pack  behavior. 

After  their  release  on  Michigan's  Upper 
Peninsula,  the  three-wolf  pack  traveled  over 
150  miles  before  establishing  a  territory  and 
settling  into  a  pattern  of  local  movements. 
The  lone  female  stayed  close  to  the  re- 
lease point  in  the  Huron  Mountains,  sur- 
viving longer  than  any  of  the  others  and 
gaining  six  pounds  before  she  was  killed. 
Ironically,  an  extremely  rare  native  male 
wolf  was  reportedly  shot  the  same  day  not 
far  away.   (See  January,  1975  Bulletin.) 

In  light  of  recent  discouraging  devel- 
opments, biologists  are  assessing  the  ad- 
visability of  continued  transplant  efforts.  But 
one  question  remains  unanswered:  Can  a 
viable  population  of  the  endangered  eastern 
timber  wolf  be  reestablished  in  northern 
Michigan?  Researchers  hope  that  increasing 
public  sensitivity  to  the  wolf's  survival  needs 
may  enable  them  to  succeed. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


Oak  Park's 
Outdoor 
Nature 
Museum: 

Austin 
Gardens 


by  Joyce  Marshall  Brukoff 


Ray  Pawley  (left),  curator  of  birds  at  Brookfield  Zoo,  and  Dopninick  Meo,  director  of  the  Qak  Park-River 
Forest  Community  Chest,  make  friends  with  a  leathered  resident  (Muscovy  duck)  of  Austin  Gardens. 


Preservation  of  plants  and  animals 
in  a  natural  setting  becomes  akin  to  the 
preservation  of  artifacts  in  a  museum 
when  we  watch  the  environment  of 
many  species  crumbling  before  the  en- 
croaching machinery  of  civilization.  With 
this  in  mind,  the  efforts  of  governmental, 
civic,  and  private  agencies  become  vital 
to  the  survival  of  many  species  through 


Joyce  Marshall  Brukoff  is  an  Evanston  writer 
with  a  special  interest  in  environmental  af- 
fairs. 


preserves  and  covenants  instituted  to 
protect  some  of  the  remaining  wild  areas 
supportive  of  life  other  than  human. 

Many  of  the  larger  preserves  have 
been  given  well-deserved  publicity,  and 
the  various  organizations  working  to  save 
our  wilderness  have  received  increased 
public  and  government  support.  Less 
noticeable  and  often  unheeded  are  the 
smaller  battles  waged  in  urban  and  coun- 
try locations  to  save  postage-stamp  rem- 
nants of  nature.  Some  of  these  efforts 
should  be  counted  as  larger  in  impor- 
tance than  their  physical  limitations  im- 


ply, serving  as  they  often  do  a  segment 
of  urban  population  and  land  which  is 
starved  for  the  blue  of  a  delicate  mer- 
tensia  blossom  or  the  flashing  wing  of 
a  purple  martin. 

One  such  project  is  Austin  Gardens 
of  Oak  Park,  a  suburb  on  the  western 
edge  of  Chicago.  Located  in  the  heart 
of  town,  a"t  the  juncture  of  Forest  and 
Ontario  Streets,  Austin  Gardens  is  a 
wooded  sanctuary  for  plants,  land  birds, 
and  waterfowl  which  are  largely  indig- 
enous to  the  original  Illinois  prairie.  How 
Austin  Gardens  came  to  be  is  the  story 


16 


February  1975 


of  one  town  and  its  concerned  citizens. 
Their  concerted  effort  to  create  their  own 
nature  preserve  was  completely  unsub- 
sidized  by  state  or  federal  moneys,  and 
was  formed  without  the  aid  of  any  large 
conservation  organizations. 

The  square  block  area  was  originally 
bequeathed  to  Oak  Park's  Park  District 
by  the  late  Henry  Austin,  with  funds 
for  partial  development  made  available 
through  a  trust  fund.  Instead  of  develop- 
ing as  a  typical  urban  park  with  flower 
beds  and  large  tracts  of  grass,  the  park 
evolved  as  a  wildflower  patch  and,  later, 
into  a  bird  sanctuary.  Now  a  waterfowl 
pond  is  being  created  under  the  guidance 
of  Dominick  Meo,  director  of  the  Oak 
Park-River  Forest  Community  Chest,  and 
Ray  Pawley,  curator  of  birds  at  Brook- 
field  Zoo. 

Meo,  who  contributes  hours  of  vol- 
unteer time  to  the  project,  originally 
drew  the  interest  of  the  park  board  when 
he  outlined  his  plans  for  building  bird 
shelters  to  protect  as  many  as  fifteen 
different  species  of  birds  during  the  win- 
ter. The  wildflower  area  was  already 
growing   from    a    modest   beginning    in 


1970,  when  Elizabeth  Walsh  and  Julia 
Sears  of  the  Oak  Park  League  of  Women 
Voters  spearheaded  the  effort; 

Agreement  with  the  park  district  was 
achieved,  and  it  assumed  responsibility 
for  development  of  a  nature  study  pro- 
gram. Everything  else  was  derived  from 
the  time  and  money  of  volunteers.  The 
garden's  wildflowers  began  with  a  few 
plants  in  1970.  Water  was  brought  in 
plastic  jugs  from  various  ladies'  homes 
to  sustain  the  delicate  group  of  plantings 
until  they  gained  a  foothold  over  Eurasian 
weeds. 

Now,  more  than  100  varieties  of 
wildflowers  and  ferns  may  be  seen  in 
Austin  Gardens  from  early  spring  through 
November.  They  include:  mertensia,  red 
and  white  trillium,  swamp  buttercup, 
wild  phlox,  bellwort,  celandine  poppies, 
shooting  star,  spotted  dead  nettle,  blood- 
root,  white  baneberry,  hepatica,  dentaria, 
ginger,  and  many  more.  A  "flower 
watcher"  would  have  to  travel  hundreds 
of  miles  to  see  the  numerous  species  that 
have  been  gathered  together  in  this 
square  city  block. 

The   bird   and  waterfowl   sanctuary 


took  more  than  earthly  toil  from  a  group 
of  devoted  ladies.  Local  architects  con- 
tributed plans.  Funds  were  raised  locally 
to  cover  the  entire  cost  of  construction 
and  maintenance,  which  responsibility 
rested  completely  outside  the  sphere  of 
local  government.  A  local  artist  created 
a  bird  poster  and  a  patch  which  was  sold 
by  everybody  from  the  Boy  Scouts  to 
the  Rotarians;  even  local  banks  had  do- 
nation boxes  to  attract  contributions.  In 
1972,  the  first  bird  house  was  run  up  on 
a  25-foot  pole,  and  Governor  Ogilvie 
stopped  by  to  officially  open  the  gardens. 
National  Geographic  magazine  took  note 
of  the  effort  in  a  special  editorial  for 
children,  and  publicity  grew  as  the  plan 
developed. 

Meo,  the  man  who  started  it  all, 
commented,  "It  may  be  less  than  a  block 
in  size,  but  it  seems  much  bigger  when 
you  have  watched  the  people  of  this 
town  work  so  very  hard  to  implement 
the  plan  for  a  working  nature  preserve 
at  Austin  Gardens.  We  are  all  very 
proud." 

And  well  they  should  be  proud.  Ac- 
cording  to    Ray    Pawley,    the   following  >- 


Elizabeth  Walsh  (left)  and  Julia  Sears  Babooska  tend  Austin  Garden's  expansive  carpet  of  wildflowers. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin  17 


birds  have  been  seen  in  appreciable 
numbers  at  Austin  Gardens  during  the 
first  few  seasons:  resident  birds — mourn- 
ing dove,  cardinal,  bluejay,  crow,  black- 
capped  chickadee,  nuthatch,  starling, 
rock  dove,  tufted  titmouse,  woodpecker, 
goldfinch,  white-throated  and  Henslow's 
sparrow;  of  nonresidents — cuckoo,  night- 
hawk,  ruby-throated  humingbird,  wren, 
brown  thrasher,  thrush,  robin,  cedar  wax- 
wing,  red-winged  blackbird,  Baltimore 
oriole,  tanager,  purple  martin,  owl,  red- 
start, cowbird,  and  junco.  The  various 
genera  have  not  been  broken  down  into 
specific  forms  in  most  cases,  because  of 
the  indefinite  locality  status  of  many 
groups.  Therefore,  the  list  is  a  conserva- 
tive one,  which  includes  numerous  spe- 
cies within  several  of  the  above-named 
families,  such  as  warbler,  thrush,  and 
sparrow. 

The  pond  was  completed  in  Decem- 
ber, 1974.  The  water  is  constantly  mov- 
ing around  a  small  island,  and  the  area 
is  surrounded  by  a  solid  redwood  fence, 
broken  in  a  few  spots  with  wrought  iron 
framed  viewing  areas.  A  feeder  on  the 


island  is  stocked  with  food  twice  a  week. 
For  the  twelve  mallard  ducks  which  pilot 
the  project,  this  is  65  pounds  of  food 
each  time  the  feeder  is  stocked. 

According  to  Pawley,  the  mallard 
ducks  were  placed  in  the  pond  area  first 
in  order  to  establish  the  pond  and  lure 
other  waterfowl  to  Austin  Gardens.  "The 
park  lies  along  a  heavy  migratory  path," 
he  said,  "and  we  anticipate  attracting 
the  more  shy  Canada  geese  when  the 
mallards  have  become  established."  Paw- 
ley  has  been  working  with  Meo  and 
others  on  a  voluntary  basis  for  the  past 
three  years,  aided  in  the  bird  feeder 
project  by  local  ornithologist  Isobel 
Wasson. 

"We  expect  the  pond  to  take  a  while 
to  catch  on  with  geese,"  he  continued. 
"At  present,  no  domestic  species  nor- 
mally are  resident  in  the  area.  Canada 
geese  are  more  hesitant  than  the  mal- 
lards in  accepting  a  new  locale.  They 
have  a  greater  problem  in  landing  and 
lifting  off  in  a  water  area  and  are  gen- 
erally much  more  conservative  in  their 
behavior  patterns." 


The  location  of  the  sanctuary  is 
unique,  just  half  a  block  from  busy  Lake 
Street  and  right  next  to  the  giant  new 
Village  Mall  shopping  center,  which 
opened  in  November.  Landscaping  has 
been  creatively  designed  to  buffer  the 
park  from  these  activity  areas.  Children 
and  adults  attend  nature  study  programs 
developed  by  the  park  district  in  a  pool 
of  quiet  that  seems  miles  away  from  the 
center  of  town. 

Certainly  this  is  an  admirable  illus- 
tration of  creative  and  dedicated  plan- 
ning which  changed  what  might  have 
been  just  another  urban  green  space  into 
a  shaded  sanctuary  for  animals,  plants — 
and  humans.  The  environment  in  the 
shadows  of  our  cities  needs  to  be  as 
thoughtfully  cared  for  as  does  the  stretch 
of  Sierra  wilderness.  There  is  a  simple 
lesson  to  be  learned  here.  If  each  com- 
munity of  similar  size  in  the  United  States 
were  to  establish  its  own  "postage- 
stamp"  wildlife  haven,  the  total  outlook 
for  many  plant  and  animal  species  that 
now  seem  threatened,  could  be  much 
improved.  □ 


Edward  E.  Ayer  Illustrated  Lecture  Series 


The  theme  for  this  season's  Friday  and 
Saturday  Ayer  illustrated  lecture  series  is 
"Expeditions  Unlimited  1974-75."  Field 
Museum  curators  will  present  slides  or 
films  to  illustrate  their  presentations.  The 
Friday  programs  will  begin  at  7:30  p.m.; 
the  Saturday  programs  will  begin  at  2:30 
p.m.  All  programs  will  be  given  in  the 
ground  floor  lecture  hall.  Attendance  — 
which  is  free — is  limited  to  225  persons. 
To  accommodate  those  who  attend  Fri- 
day evening  programs  the  cafeteria  will 
remain  open  on  those  dates  until  7:30. 
Reservations  are  not  necessary. 


February  21,  22  "The    Changing    Alaska 
Eskimo  Culture" 

Speaker:  James  VanStone, 
curator,  North  American 
archaeology  and  ethnol- 
ogy 


March  21,22 


February  28, 
March  1 


March  7,8 


"Natural  History  of  Deep 
Sea  Fishes" 

Speaker:  Robert  John- 
son, assistant  curator, 
fishes 

"The  Tunguska  Explo- 
sion: Meteorite,  Comet, 
or  Black  Hole?" 

Speaker:  Edward  Olsen, 
acting  chairman,  Depart- 
ment of  Geology,  and 
curator,  mineralogy 


March  14, 15       "Wet  Snails  in  Dry  Des- 
erts" 

Speaker:     Alan     Solem, 
curator,   invertebrates 


March  28,  29 


April  4,5 


April  11,12 


"Veracruz,  Mexico: 
Green  Grow  the  Lilacs" 

Speaker:  Lorin  Nevling, 
chairman  and  curator, 
Department  of  Botany 

"Frog  Ecology  in  the 
Congo" 

Speaker:  Robert  Inger, 
assistant  director,  Sci- 
ence and  Education 

"Collecting  Mosses  in 
Southern  Chile" 

Speaker:  John  Engel, 
Richards  visiting  assistant 
curator,  bryology 

"Ancient  Ecuador:  Cul- 
ture, Clay,  and  Creativity" 

Speaker:  Donald  Collier, 
curator,  Middle  and 
South  American  archae- 
ology and  ethnology 


18 


February  1975 


OVER  THE  TOP! 
OVER  THE  TOP! 
OVER  THE  TOP! 


i 


% 

ra 


It  has  been  the  story  of  dimes  and 
quarters  from  school  children  to  multi- 
thousand-dollar  gifts  from  individuals 
and  corporations,  but  every  cent  has 
been  equally  important  in  paving  the  way 
to  a  successful  climax  for  Field  Museum's 
Capital  Campaign  drive.  The  three-year 
effort  realized  a  final  total  of  $12,623,925 
in  gifts  and  pledges  as  1974 — and  the 
campaign — came  to  a  happy  conclusion. 
When  the  campaign  reached  the 
$12,500,000  mark  it  qualified  for  a 
matching  fund  from  the  Chicago  Park 
District  Bonding  Authority,  resulting  in 
a  total  amount  of  more  than  $25,000,000. 
In  December,  the  campaign's  final 
month,  185  gifts  were  received — from 
members,    Museum    staff,    foundations, 


and  corporations.  Notable  among  the 
latter  two  categories  were  FMC  Founda- 
tion; Chicago  Community  Trust;  Borg 
Warner  Foundation;  Frederick  Henry 
Prince  Trust;  and  Mark  Morton  Memorial 
Fund,  whose  collective  generosity  was 
instrumental  in  putting  the  campaign 
over  the  top. 

Sharing  a  large  measure  of  respon- 
sibility for  the  campaign's  success  were 
four  Museum  trustees:  Nicholas  Calit- 
zine  (general  chairman),  Marshall  Field 
(vice  chairman),  Blaine  ).  Yarrington 
(corporations  and  foundations  chairman), 
and  William  H.  Mitchell  (co-chairman 
with  Mr.  Field  for  individual  gifts). 
The  Capital  Campaign  is  now  a  closed 


%nl^ 


chapter,  but  the  Museum's  need  for 
dedicated  support  is  a  continuing  one, 
and  we  must  build  on  the  campaign's 
signal  success  to  maintain  and  strengthen 
the  Museum's  resources  as  an  educa- 
tional and  research  institution.  Like  all 
institutions  that  depend  upon  members 
for  their  support,  Field  Museum  has  little 
insulation  against  inflation  and  other 
effects  of  a  troubled  economy.  The  re- 
markable success  of  the  Capital  Cam- 
paign, however,  demonstrates  what  Field 
Museum  means  to  its  members  and  the 
leadership  role  to  which  it  is  predicated. 
With  your  support,  we  look  forward 
with  cautious  optimism  to  the  years 
ahead  and  what  they  will  bring. 


William  H.  Mitchell 


Marshall  Field 


Blaine  I.  Yarrington 


Nicholas  Galitzine 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


ILLINOIS  NATURAL  HISTORY 
SURVEY  LIB  RM  196 
NATURAL  RESOURCES  BUILDING 
URBANA  ILL  61801 


FEBRUARY  at  Field  Museum 


SPECIAL  PROGRAMS 


Continuing 


Craft  Demonstrations  and  Discussions 

"Resourceful  People:  The  Use  of  Available  Materials  in  Different 
Cultures,"  10:00  a.m.  to  12:00  noon,  Mondays,  Wednesdays,  and  Fri- 
days. Entrance  to  Hall  27. 

"Traditions  of  Native  North  America,"  10:00  a.m.  to  12:00  noon  and 
2:00  to  5:00  p.m.,  Fridays.  Hall  4. 

Weaving  demonstration  by  members  of  the  North  Shore  Weavers' 
Guild  from  10:00  a.m.  to  12:00  noon  on  Mondays,  Wednesdays,  and 
Fridays.  Spinning  also  shown  on  the  first  and  third  Mondays  of  each 
month.  South  Lounge. 

FILMS 


Free  film  series,  "Ascent  of  Man,"  presented  at  2:00  p.m.  Fridays 
and  Sundays  through  April  20.  All  programs  will  be  in  the  Lecture 
Hall  with  the  exception  of  February  9  and  16,  which  will  be  in  the 
North  Meeting  Room. 

The  one-hour  films  cover  a  time  span  of  more  than  two  million  years 
in  exploring  scientific  discoveries  that  have  shaped  human  history. 


Feb.  2: 
Feb.  7  and  9: 
Feb.  14  and  16: 
Feb.  21  and  23: 
Feb.  28: 


"Harvest  of  the  Seasons" 
"Grain  in  the  Stone" 
"The  Hidden  Structure" 
"Music  of  the  Spheres" 
"The  Starry  Messenger" 


Sunday,  February  9  and  16: 

30th  Chicago  International  Exhibition  of  Nature  Photography,  a  slide 
show  featuring  winning  and  accepted  color  transparencies,  2:00  p.m. 
in  Lecture  Hall. 

Free  Ayer  Adult  Illustrated  Lecture  Series,  "Expeditions  Unlimited 
1975,"  presented  by  Field  Museum  curators  at  7:30  p.m.  Fridays  and 
2:30  p.m.  Saturdays  in  Lecture  Hall. 

Seating  is  limited  to  225  persons.  Museum  cafeteria  is  open  until 
7:30  p.m.  Fridays. 

Feb.  21  and  22:      "The  Changing  Alaska  Eskimo  Culture," 
by  James  W.  VanStone 

Feb.  28:  "Natural  History  of  Deep  Sea  Fishes," 

by  Robert  lohnson 


CHILDREN'S  PROGRAM 

Through  February  28: 

Winter  Journey  for  Children,  "Cats,  the  Graceful  Hunters,"  focuses 
on  the  differences  and  similarities  of  these  creatures,  from  the  do- 
mestic variety  to  its  larger  relatives  (lion,  tiger,  etc.).  All  boys  and 
girls  who  can  read  and  write  may  participate  in  the  free,  self-guided 
tour  of  Museum  exhibits.  Journey  sheets  in  English  and  Spanish 
available  at  entrances. 


MEETINGS 


Feb.  5,  7:00  p.m., 
Feb.  9,  2:00  p.m., 
Feb.  11,  7:30  p.m., 
8:00  p.m., 

Feb.  12,  7:00  p.m., 
Feb.  14,  8:00  p.m., 


Begins  March  1 : 


Chicago  Mountaineering  Club 
Chicago  Shell  Club 
Nature  Camera  Club  of  Chicago 
Windy  City  Grotto,  National 
Speleological  Society 
Chicago  Ornithological  Society 
Chicago  Anthropological  Society 

COMING  IN  MARCH 


Spring  Journey  for  Children,  "People  of  the  Salmon  and  Cedar,"  a 
free,  self-guided  tour,  routes  youngsters  to  Museum  exhibits  relating 
to  the  Northwest  Coast  tribes. 

Free  film  series,  "Ascent  of  Man,"  presented  at  2:00  p.m.  Fridays  and 
Sundays  in  the  Lecture  Hall. 


Mar.  2 

Mar.  7  and  9: 
Mar.  14  and  16 
Mar.  21  and  23 
Mar.  28  and  30 

March  8  and  15: 


"The  Starry  Messenger" 
"The  Majestic  Clockwork" 
"The  Drive  for  Power" 
"The  Ladder  of  Creation" 
"World  Within  World" 


Ray  A.  Kroc  Environmental  Education  Program  presents  a  two-session 
course,  "How  to  Identify  Fossils  and  Rocks,"  from  10:00  a.m.  to 
12:00  noon. 

A  non-refundable  fee  of  $4  for  members  and  $6  for  non-members 
covers  cost  of  classes,  which  are  limited  to  25  persons,  age  16  or 
older.  For  reservations  mail  checks  payable  to  Field  Museum,  with 
name,  address,  and  phone  number,  to  Environmental  Programs, 
Field  Museum,  Roosevelt  Road  at  Lake  Shore  Drive,  Chicago  60605. 

Free  Ayer  Adult  Illustrated  Lecture  Series,  "Expeditions  Unlimited 
1975,"  presented  at  7:30  p.m.  Fridays  and  2:30  p.m.  Saturdays  in  the 
Lecture  Hall. 

Mar.  1 :  "Natural  History  of  Deep  Sea  Fishes," 

by  Robert  Johnson 
Mar.  7  and  8:         "The  Tunguska  Explosion:  Meteorite,  Comet, 

or  Black  Hole?,"  by  Edward  Olsen 
Mar.  14  and  15:     "Wet  Snails  in  Dry  Deserts," 

by  Alan  Solem 
Mar.  21  and  22:     "Veracruz,  Mexico:  Green  Grow  the  Lilacs," 

by  Lorin  I.  Nevling,  Jr. 
Mar.  28  and  29:     "Frog  Ecology  in  the  Congo," 

by  Robert  F.  Inger 

Seating  is  limited  to  225  persons.  Museum  cafeteria  is  open  until 
7:30  p.m.  Fridays. 

Craft  demonstrations  and  discussions 

Weaving  demonstrations 

MUSEUM  HOURS 

Open  9:00  a.m.  to  4:00  p.m.  Monday  through  Thursday,  9:00  a.m.  to  9:00  p.m. 
Friday,  and  9:00  a.m.  to  5:00  p.m.  Saturday  and  Sunday. 

The  Museum  Library  is  open  9:00  a.m.  to  4:00  p.m.  Monday  through  Friday. 
Please  obtain  pass  at  reception  desk,  main  floor  north. 

Museum  telephone:  922-9410 


March 
1975 


Field  Museum  of  Natural  History  Bulletin 


Field  Museum 
of  Natural  History 
Bulletin 


3  ON  THE  ROAD  TO  AMADIYAH 

by  Elliott  Miller 

7  FIELD  BRIEFS 


March  1975 
Vol.  46,  No.  3 


LETTERS 


Editor/Designer:  David  M.  Walsten 
Staff  Writer:  Madge  Jacobs 
Production:  Oscar  Anderson 


10 


RAY  A.  KROC  ENVIRONMENTAL 
EDUCATION  PROGRAM 


THE  30TH  CHICAGO  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION 
OF  NATURE  PHOTOGRAPHY 


12  THE  AMATEUR  FOSSIL-HUNTERS: 

PALEONTOLOGY'S  UNSUNG  HEROES 
by  Eugene  S.  Richardson,  Jr. 

17  JERRY  HERDINA  1905-1974 
by  Eugene  S.  Richardson,  Jr. 

18  A  TASTE  OF  SPRING: 
Wednesday  Evening  Lecture  Series 


19 


MEMBERS'CHILDREN'S  WORKSHOPS 


Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 

Established  1893 

Director:  E.  Leland  Webber 


Board  of  Trustees 

Blaine  J.  Yarrington 

President 
Gordon  Bent 
Harry  O.  Bercher 
Bowen  Blair 
Stanton  R.  Cook 
William  R.  Dickson,  Jr. 
Thomas  E.  Donnelly  II 
Mrs.  Thomas  E.  Donnelley  II 
Marshall  Field 
Nicholas  Galitzine 
Paul  W.  Goodrich 
Remick  McDowell 
Hugo  J.  Melvoin 
William  H.  Mitchell 
Charles  F.  Murphy,  Jr. 
John  S.  Runnells 
William  L.  Searle 
Edward  Byron  Smith. 
Mrs.  Hermon  Dunlap  Smith 


Robert  H.  Strotz 
John  W.  Sullivan 
William  G.  Swartchild, 
E.  Leland  Webber 
Julian  B.  Wilkins 


Life  Trustees 

William  McCormick  Blair 
Joseph  N.  Field 
Clifford  C.  Gregg 
Samuel  Insull,  Jr. 
William  V.  Kahler 
Hughston  M.  McBain 
J.  Roscoe  Miller 
James  L.  Palmer 
John  T.  Pirie,  Jr. 
John  G.  Searle 
John  M.  Simpson 
Louis  Ware 
J.  Howard  Wood 


back        MARCH  AND  APRIL  AT  FIELD  MUSEUM 
cover       Calendar  of  Coming  Events 

COVER 

Phlogiotis  helvelloides,  a  jelly  fungus  which  grows  on  rotting 
wood  in  moist  conifer  forests.  It  grows  from  about  1  to  3 
inches  tall.  The  photograph  is  by  Larry  C.  Moon  of  Spokane, 
Washington,  and  won  the  Myrtle  A.  Walgreen  Award  in  the 
30th  Chicago  International  Exhibition  of  Nature  Photo- 
graphy, held  in  February  at  Field  Museum.  See  pp.  10-11. 


Photo  Credits 

Pages  3,  4,  5:  Henry  Field;  p.  6  (bottom):  Elliott  Miller;  p.  7: 
John  Bayalis;  p.  1  0:  Diane  Lynne  Payton;  p.  1 1 :  Roy  E. 
Barker;  pp.  13,  14,  17  (bottom):  D.  Walsten. 


Field  Museum  ol  Natural  History  Bulletin  is  published  monthly, 
except  combined  July/August  issue,  by  Field  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  Roosevelt  Road  at  Lake  Shore  Drive,  Chicago,  Illinois  60605. 
Subscriptions:  $6  a  year;  $3  a  year  for  schools.  Members  of  the 
Museum  subscribe  through  Museum  membership.  Opinions 
expressed  by  authors  are  their  own  and  do  not  necessarily  reflect  the 
policy  of  Field  Museum.  Unsolicited  manuscripts  are  welcome. 
Postmaster:  Please  send  form  3579  to  Field  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  Roosevelt  Road  at  Lake  Shore  Drive,  Chicago,  Illinois  60605. 
ISSN:  0015-0703.  Second  class  postage  paid  at  Chicago,  III. 


cm  roc  uoao 
zo  AfiiAOiyAn 


by  Elliott  Miller 


Among  the  ethnic  groups  that  emigrated  to  Israel 
after  its  founding  in  1948  was  a  tiny  group  of 
Jews  from  Iraq's  northern  province  of  Mosul.*  In 
1934,  Henry  Field,  then  Field  Museum's  curator 
of  physical  anthropology,  photographed  many  of  these 
Jews,  particularly  in  the  agrarian  village  of  Sandor,  as 
part  of  his  study  of  the  peoples  of  Kurdistan— an  area 
about  the  size  of  Alabama  that  ranged  over  eastern 
Turkey,  northern  Iran  and  Iraq.  Sandor  was  located  at 
the  southern  foot  of  the  Iraqi-Kurdish  mountain  range, 
on  the  road  to  the  city  of  Amadiyah. 

Field  also  photographed  Muslims,  Orthodox  Chris- 
tian Nestorians  and  Armenians,  Catholic  Chaldeans  and 
Jacobites,  and  Yezidis,  the  so-called  "Devil-worship- 
pers." These,  together  with  several  hundred  photos 
taken  in  the  1920s  by  Anne  Fisher— an  acquaintance  of 
Field's  — number  about  4,700.  Fisher  had  photographed 
various  peoples  and  regions  of  Iraq  for  an  essay,  "Your 
Beautiful  Iraq,"  for  Iraq's  King  Faisal.  Together,  the  two 
collections  comprise  an  important  record  of  physical 
types  indigenous  to  Kurdistan  of  that  period. 

The  bulk  of  the  Field  photos  are  front,  back,  and 
profile  views  which  were  to  have  been  used  in 
anthropometric  studies;  but  most  of  Fisher's  work  as 
well  as  a  large  number  of  Field's  photographs  depict 
casual  scenes  of  daily  life  in  the  village.  Many  of  them, 
like  genre  paintings,  evoke  a  distant,  historic  charm, 
now  vanished  from  that  corner  of  the  earth. 

According  to  their  own  oral  traditions,  the 
Sandorites  and  other  Kurdish  Jews  are  the  descendants 
of  the  Lost  Tribes  of  Israel  —those  taken  into  exile  by  the 
Assyrians  in  722  B.C.  If  remnants  of  the  Lost  Tribes  did 
in  fact  survive  today,  it  is  most  likely  that  they  would  be 


*Abou(    78,000  to  20,000  Kurdish  lews  emigrated  to    Israel 
during  the  first  halt  of  the  twentieth  century. 


Elliott  Miller  is  a  research  associate  at  the  Spertus  Museum  of 
ludaica,  in  Chicago,  and  a  specialist  in  archaeology  of  the 
Near  East.  He  recently  served  as  an  intern  in  anthropology  in  a 
program  offered  jointly  by  Field  Museum's  Department  of 
Anthropology  and  the  University  of  Chicago. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


The  village  of  Sandor  as  it  appeared  in  1934 


Many  of  Sandor's  male  inhabitants  posed  for 
Henry  Field's  camera  in  front,  profile,  and 
back  views.  The  closely  shaven  head  and  the 
sidelocks  were  characteristic  of  Kurdistan 
lews. 


found  in  Kurdistan.  Sandor  was  located 
just  north  of  the  ruins  of  Nineveh,  capital 
of  ancient  Assyria.  ".  .  the  king  of 
Assyria  carried  Israel  away  unto  Assyria, 
and  put  them  in  Halah,  and  Habor,  on 
the  river  of  Gozan  .  ."  (II  Kings  18:11). 
In  those  days  both  Assyrians  and 
Israelites— exiled  in  Mesopotamia  — 
spoke  dialects  of  Aramaic,  the  lingua 
franca  of  the  Near  East.  In  most  places 
the  language  was  replaced  by  Arabic 
during  the  spread  of  Islam  in  the  8th 
century  A.D.;  but  in  geographically 
isolated  Kurdistan ,  Aramaic  was  able  to 
survive— even  into  the  20th  century. 

An  unbroken  heritage  of  Sandor, 
which  dates  back  to  pre-lslamic  times, 
was  its  dependency  on  the  soil.  Indeed, 
the  great  majority  of  the  villagers  relied 
upon  agriculture  for  their  livelihood.  In 
this  respect  Sandor  was  most  unusual,  for 
during  the  Middle  Ages,  Jews  in  Christian 
and  Islamic  countries  generally  turned  to 
commerce  and  the  trades;  but  because  of 
their  geographic  insularity,  the  Kurdish 
Jews  remained  close  to  the  land,  as  had 
their  forefathers  They  raised  beans  and 
other  vegetables,  melons,  pomegranates, 
grapes,  and  figs;  and  took  them  to 
larger  towns,  such  as  Mosul,  to  be  sold  at 
market;  or  the  produce  was  taken  from 
village  to  village  to  be  sold  or  traded. 


Sandor,  a  community  of  about  70 
families  comprising  perhaps  300  individ- 
uals, was  unique  in  that  it  was  mostly 
Jewish.  In  other  Kurdish  communities, 
such  as  Amadiyah  or  Zacho,  Jews  existed 
as  minorities  or  they  occurred  in  small 
numbers  in  agricultural  settlements.  Prior 
to  the  late  1930s  a  few  Muslim  families 
had  lived  in  Sandor,  but  their  land  was 
then  bought  by  the  Jewish  residents  and 
the  Muslims  moved  out  of  the  village. 

This  land  acquisition  illustrates  still 
another  unusual  feature  of  Sandor:  its 
inhabitants  were  free  landholders.  Else- 
where in  Kurdistan,  Jewish  farmers  were 
usually  sharecroppers;  or,  more  correct- 
ly, they  were  serfs  on  land  that  was 
owned  by  the  local  agha,  or  Kurdish 
tribal  chief.  In  return  for  the  agha's 
protection  against  raids  by  hostile  tribes, 
the  Jews  were  obliged  to  work  in  his  field, 
sometimes  for  pay,  sometimes  gratis. 
Sandor,  on  the  other  hand,  annually  gave 
the  agha  of  Amadiyah  a  symbolic  gift 
only,  such  as  a  finely  woven  shirt.  This 
gift  was  in  lieu  of  the  land  tax  to  which 
the  agha  was  traditionally  entitled  from 
everyone  within  his  domain.  It  was  only 
after  the  unrest  caused  in  1941  by  Rashid 
AM,  then  Iraq's  pro-Axis  head  of  state, 
that  the  Sandorites  bribed  a  government 
official  so  they  could  bear  British  arms 


March  1975 


for  self-defense.  We  have  no  evidence 
that  Sandor  was  ever  owned  or  con- 
trolled by  an  agha. 

The  independence  of  Sandor  as  a 
Jewish  village  was  reflected  in  its 
political  structure.  It  had  a  Jewish 
mayor— generally  a  hakham,  or  wise 
man,  who  was  responsible  for  keeping 
law  and  order  in  the  community.  This 
was  customarily  done  by  means  of  group 
sanction— a  particularly  effective  method 
of  punishment  in  small  communities.  An 
example  of  such  group  sanction  in 
Sandor  was  the  manner  of  dealing  with 
those  who  continually  transgressed  the 
Sabbath.  The  offender  was  threatened 
with  herem,  or  temporary  excommunica- 
tion. While  in  herem  the  offender  could 
not  attend  the  synagogue;  nor  could  he 
speak  to  others,  or  they  to  him.  When  he 


A  Sandor  hakham,  inside  the  village  syna- 
gogue, holds  a  silver-embossed  tik,  which 
contains  the  torah,  the  village's  most  precious 
possession. 


had  finally  repented,  the  offender  was 
made  to  lie  prostrate  across  the  threshold 
of  the  synagogue  to  allow  other  members 
of  the  congregation  to  step  over  him. 
Only  after  this  could  he  resume  his 
normal  role  in  the  community. 

In  1951  the  entire  population  of 
Sandor  immigrated  to  Israel.  In  the 
quarter-century  since  that  exodus,  the 
process  of  acculturation  and  integration 
into  the  new  Israeli  society  had  modified 
customs  and  traditions  which  remained 
unchanged  for  hundreds  of  years.  Last 
summer  I  visited  Israel  to  observe  how 
this  tiny  group  of  immigrants  had 
withstood  the  rigors  of  "transplantation," 
and  in  what  ways  they  were  being 
acculturated.  I  carried  with  me  a  number 
of  the  photos  that  had  been  taken  of  the 
original  village  and  its  residents  four 
decades  earlier  by  Henry  Field.  The 
response  elicited  by  these  photos  when  I 
showed  them  to  the  villagers  was  not  to 
be  believed!  Many  of  the  photos  showed 
mothers,   fathers,    brothers,   and    sisters 


Sandor  villagers  in  typical  dress.  Their  dress  was  indistinguishable  from  that  of  other  Kurdish  peoples. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin  5 


long  since  deceased.  Frequently  the 
viewer  would  clutch  the  photo  with 
trembling  hands  and  kiss  it  fervently. 
Needless  to  say,  I  returned  to  Chicago 
minus  many  old  photos. 

The  Jews  of  Kurdistan  are  not  the 
only  ethnic  group  of  that  region  to 
uproot  itself  and  move  to  another  part  of 
the  globe.  Many  Kurdish  Chaldeans  and 
Nestorians,  for  example,  also  left  their 
homeland;  and  Chicago  is  now  home  for 
a  large  and  growing  population  of 
Kurdish  "Assyrians,"  as  they  choose  to  be 
called.  These  people  traditionally  regard 
themselves  as  descendants  of  the  ancient 
Assyrians— a  claim  disputed  by  most 
scholars. 

Currently  I  am  working  with  these 
Chicago  Assyrians,  who  live  on  the  far 
North  Side,  as  I  did  last  year  with  the 
Jews  who  emigrated  to  Israel— inter- 
viewing them  and  recording  aspects  of 
their  lives  that  have  undergone  cultural 
change.  One  of  these  Assyrians  was  a 
qa'im-maqam,  or  Iraqi  district  governor, 
whose  district  included  Sandor.  The 
personal  accounts  of  this  man  relate 
interestingly  to  accounts  which  I  had 
collected  earlier  from  my  Israeli  in- 
formants. 

Other  Kurdish  communities,  too,  are 
rapidly  disappearing;  whether  through 
assimilation— as  in  the  case  of  the 
Mandeans;  through  genocide— practiced 
early  in  the  century  against  the  Armeni- 
ans by  the  Turks;  or  by  the  process  of 
emigration,  as  with  the  Jews  and  Chalde- 
ans. For  other  anthropologists  concerned 
with  cultural  change,  the  4,700  Fisher 
and  Field  photos  will  continue  to  be  an 
invaluable  facility,  as  they  have  been  for 
my  studies.  They  give  a  penetrating, 
backward  glimpse  into  cultures  that  have 
already  largely  vanished  into  history.    □ 


•<  Top:  Field  Museum  curator  Henry  Field 
(center),  takes  his  ease  on  a  Fuphrates  boat 
during  his  7934  visit  to  the  Near  Fast. 
Bottom:  Hakham  Moshe  Sandor i  ben  Ivadia, 
the  scribe  and  schoolteacher  of  Sandor,  and 
one  of  the  author's  informants.  Superstition 
was  an  important  element  in  Kurdish  daily 
life,  and  for  centuries  the  Hakham  was  the 
village's  main  practitioner  of  the  occult  arts. 
He  wrote  amulets  — cabalistic  formulae  on 
parchment  which  were  worn  in  silver  cases. 
Such  amulets  were  thought  to  protect  one 
against  the  evil  eye  and  against  disease.  Fven 
today,  in  Israel,  Hakham  Moshe  still  writes 
these  amulets  for  those  who  believe  in  their 
power.  His  main  occupation,  however,  is 
making  torahs,  to  be  placed  in  synagogues. 


March  1975 


field  briefs 


Hollow  ceramic  figurine  of  man  with  painting 
on  face  and  body.  Ht.  1VA".  Circa  600  B.C. 
On  view  in  an  exhibition  of  ancient  Ecuador- 
ian pottery  and  artifacts,  opening  April  18  in 
Hall  9. 


Former  Curator  Knighted 

J.  Eric  Thompson,  a  research  associate  in  the 
Department  of  Anthropology  and  formerly 
assistant  curator  of  middle  and  South  Amer- 
ican archaeology,  has  recently  been  made  a 
knight  of  the  British  Empire  by  Queen 
Elizabeth  II.  Sir  Eric  is  one  of  the  greatest 
living  Maya  scholars  and  is  the  author  of 
many  research  monographs  and  books  pub- 
lished by  Field  Museum,  the  Carnegie 
Institution  of  Washington,  and  the  University 
of  Oklahoma  Press.  His  most  widely  read 
works  are  Maya  Hieroglyphic  Writing,  an 
Introduction,  The  Rise  and  Fall  of  Maya 
Civilization,  Maya  History  and  Religion,  and 
The  Civilization  of  the  Mayas;  the  latter  work 
was  first  published  by  Field  Museum  in  1927. 
Sir  Eric  lives  and  continues  to  write  in 
Essex,  England,  not  far  from  Cambridge.  He 
was  last  at  Field  Museum  in  1967,  when  the 
Women's  Board  honored  him  with  a  luncheon 
in  celebration  of  the  fortieth  anniversary  of 
the  first  printing  of  The  Civilization  of  the 
Mayas. 

Grove  Named  Texas  Museum  Director 

Sam  Grove,  a  member  of  the  Department  of 
Exhibition  staff  since  1947,  resigned  February 
1  to  accept  a  position  as  director  of  the 
Museum  of  the  Southwest,  in  Midland,  Texas. 
Grove's  most  recent  post  at  Field  Museum  was 
as  senior  scientific  illustrator. 

Gentry  Named  Associate  Curator 

Johnnie  L.  Gentry,  Jr.,  who  joined  Field 
Museum's  Department  of  Botany  in  1969,  has 
been  named  associate  curator,  vascular 
plants.  Gentry's  main  areas  of  research 
currently  include  the  Solanaceae  (tomatoes 
and  allies)  and  Boraginaceae  (borage  and 
allies),  particularly  of  Central  America.  Dr. 
Gentry  is  also  community  professor  of 
environmental  science  at  Governors  State 
University,  Park  Forest  South. 

Ancient  Ecuador  Pottery  Exhibition 
Opens  April  18 

"Ancient  Ecuador:  Culture,  Clay,  and  Cre- 
ativity"—an  exhibition  of  pottery  and  artifacts 
dating  from  3000-300  B.C.,  opens  April  18  in 
Hall  9.  The  collection  contains  material 
revealing  various  aspects  of  the  lives  of  these 
people  and  includes  the  oldest  known 
developed  ceramics  in  the  Western  Hemi- 
sphere, never  previously  exhibited.  Most 
beautiful  are  the  pottery  sculptures  depicting 
humans  and  animals.  Label  copy  for  the 
display  is  in  Spanish  and  English.  Following  its 
closing  at  Field  Museum  on  August  5,  1975, 
the  exhibition  will  travel  to  other  United 
States  museums  and  to  Quito  and  Guayaquil, 
Ecuador. 


African  Arts  and  Crafts  Presentation 

Through  the  end  of  June,  Phillip  Cotton,  crafts 
instructor  for  the  Department  of  Education, 
will  be  giving  presentations  of  African  arts  and 
crafts.  Using  Harris  Extension  learning  materi- 
als, he  will  show  slides  and  demonstrate 
musical  instruments  and  weaving  techniques. 
Children  will  have  the  opportunity  to  sit  down 
and  try  weaving  for  themselves.  Presentations 
are  on  Mondays,  Wednesdays,  and  Fridays,  10 
am    until  noon,  in  Hall  27. 

Federal  Grants  in  1974 

Federal  grants  to  Field  Museum's  scientific 
staff  in  1974  totalled  $253,818.  The  funds, 
earmarked  for  specific  research,  were  pro- 
vided by  the  National  Science  Foundation, 
National  Aeronautics  and  Space  Admin- 
istration, the  U.S.  Department  of  Interior,  and 
the  National  Endowment  for  the  Arts.  Among 
the  projects  funded  are  floristic  field  work  in 
Central  America;  the  floras  of  Guatemala, 
Costa  Rica,  and  Veracruz;  and  the  study  of 
endangered  land  snail  species  of  the  Pacific 
islands. 


LETTERS 


Sirs: 

The  article  by  David  Young  in  the  January 
Bulletin  repeats  the  usual  belief  that  Brachio- 
saurus  was  the  largest  dinosaur.  In  1969  I 
pointed  out  [Copeia,  pp.  624-626)  that  the 
sauropod  Antarctosaurus  giganteus,  known 
from  the  late  Cretaceous  of  Argentina,  may 
have  been  as  large.  Its  femur,  2.31  meters 
long,  is  the  longest  known  limb  bone  of  a 
vertebrate.  Other  bones  are  both  longer  and 
shorter  than  the  corresponding  ones  of 
Brachiosaurus. 

A  better  comparison  would  use  the  sum 
of  the  minimum  cross-sectional  areas  of  the 
limb  bones,  for  these  carried  the  weight.  A 
visitor  to  the  Museo  de  La  Plata  (La  Plata, 
Argentina)  could  perhaps  make  the  appropri- 
ate measurements  for  Antarctosaurus.  The 
largest  known  specimen  of  Brachiosaurus,  if  it 
still  survives,  came  from  Madagascar  and  it  is 
the  Geologisch-Palaontologisches  Institut  of 
Humboldt  University,  East  Berlin.  It  too  is 
inadequately  described. 

However,  there  are  few  specimens  known 
of  each  genus,  and  which  genus  has  the 
largest  known  specimen  may  be  as  much  a 
result  of  the  chances  of  sampling  as  of  the  size 
each  reached  in  life. 


Leigh  Van  Valen 
Department  of  Biology 
The  University  of  Chicago 
Chicago,  Illinois 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


"Man  Uses  the  Land" 

The  Ray  A.  Kroc  Environmental  Education  Program 


April  5  through  June  14 

Farms  or  factories?  Prairies  or  parking 
lots?  Recreation  or  preservation?  How 
shall  we  use  the  land? 

The  Ray  A.  Kroc  Environmental  Educa- 
tion Program  for  Spring,  1975,  will  focus 
on  land  use  in  the  Chicago  region. 
Programs  will  explore  areas  of  current 
concern,  innovative  experiments,  and 
future  problems.  Activities  include  field 
trips  for  adults,  one-day  workshop-field 
trip  combinations  for  families,  a  series 
combining  field  trips  and  a  workshop  for 
teachers,  and  two  courses  for  photo- 
graphers. 


ADULT  FIELD  TRIPS 

All  adult  field  trips  will  leave  Field 
Museum  north  parking  lot  at  9:00  a.m. 
regardless  of  weather.  Reservations  will 
be  confirmed  in  order  of  receipt  of 
coupon  and  payment  by  mail  only.  A 
nonrefundable  fee,  $5.00  for  members 
and  $5.00  for  nonmembers,  to  cover 
lunch  and  transportation,  holds  advance 
reservation.  Each  trip  is  offered  on 
Saturday  and  repeated  on  Wednesday. 
Saturday  adult  trips  are  limited  to  three 
trips  per  person.  There  is  no  limit  on 
Wednesday  trips. 

Energy,  Residence,  and 
Recreation  Systems 

Lakeshore  priorities  for  energy,  recrea- 
tion, and  community  living  will  be 
explored.  Indiana  Dunes  National  Lake- 
shore  and  Northern  Indiana  Public 
Service  Company.  Leader:  Matthew  H. 
Nitecki,  Field  Museum. 

Saturday,  April  79;  Wednesday,  April  23 


Looking  at  Landscapes 

Preserving  natural  communities  becomes 
more  difficult  as  suburbia  grows.  Morton 
Arboretum  and  George  Williams  College. 
Leaders:  Richard  Wason  and  George 
Ware,  Morton  Arboretum. 

Saturday,  May  3;  Wednesday,  May  7 


Farm  Futures 

Life  on  suburban  farms  caught  in  the 
rural  and  urban  interface.  Kane  County 
Farms.  Leader:  Phil  Farris,  University  of 
Illinois  Cooperative  Extension  Service. 

Saturday,  May  10;  Wednesday,  May  14 

Guarding  the  Future 

Forest  preserves  try  to  balance  the  often 
conflicting  needs  for  recreation  and 
preservation.  Crabtree  Nature  Center. 
Leader:  Charles  Westcott,  Cook  County 
Forest  Preserve. 

Saturday,  May  17;  Wednesday,  May  21 
Challenging  Changes 

Garbage  plus  gravel  makes  a  ski  hill  and 
an  abandoned  railroad  right-of-way  be- 
comes a  nature  trail.  Illinois  Prairie  Path 
and  Blackwell  Preserve.  Leaders:  Dan 
Griffin,  DuPage  Forest  Preserve,  and 
Bobbie  Lively,  Prairie  Path. 

Saturday,  May  24;  Wednesday,  May  28 

Creating  Diversity 

A  native  prairie  is  threatened  by  develop- 
ment, and  an  overused  forest  preserve  is 
transformed  into  an  environmental  edu- 
cation center.  Wolf  Road  Prairie  and 
Fullersburg  Woods  Nature  Preserve. 
Leaders:  Phil  Hanson,  Field  Museum  and 
Save  the  Prairie  Society,  and  Wayne 
Lampa,  DuPage  Forest  Preserve. 

Saturday,  May  31;  Wednesday,  June  4 

ADULT  COURSES 

Each  course  will  consist  of  four  lectures 
and  two  field  trips.  A  nonrefundable  fee, 
$14.00    for    members    and    $18.00    for 


nonmembers,  holds  advance  reservation 
and  covers  all  expenses  except  film.  Field 
Museum,  North  Meeting  Room  2nd  floor, 
at  9:30  a.m. 


Nature  Photography 

First  session  in  a  series  of  six,  to  be 
continued  on  successive  Saturdays,  April 
12,  19,  26;  and  May  3,  and  10.  The  course 
will  cover  basic  problems  of  nature 
photography;  exposure,  focus,  film  light- 
ing, close-ups,  composition,  and  trouble 
shooting.  It  is  designed  for  amateur 
photographers  who  have  some  knowl- 
edge of  photography  and  have  access  to 
the  use  of  a  single  lens  reflex  camera.  The 
course  is  limited  to  40.  Project  director: 
William  Burger,  Field  Museum. 

Saturday,  April  5 

Landscape  Photography 

First  session  in  a  series  of  six,  to  be 
continued  on  successive  Saturdays,  May 
17,  24,  31;  June  7,  and  14.  An  aesthetic 
approach  to  nature.  Landscape  as  visual 
environment;  landscape  in  art;  land- 
scape photography  in  practice.  Partici- 
pants must  be  seriously  interested  in 
scenic  photography,  be  proficient'  in 
color,  and.  have  a  full-frame  35mm  or 
larger  format  camera.  The  course  is 
limited  to  25.  Leader:  Charles  F.  Davis, 
landscape  photographer. 

Saturday,  May  10 


March  1975 


PROGRAMS  FOR  TEACHERS 

An  Introduction  to  Community  Ecology 

A  series,  consisting  of  four  field  trips  and 
a  museum  workshop,  will  explore  com- 
munities reflecting  both  urban  and 
natural  ecology.  Resource  materials, 
field  techniques,  and  ideas  for  organizing 
and  conducting  school  field  trips  will  be 
presented.  Teachers  may  enroll  in  in- 
dividual trips  or  the  entire  series.  Limited 
to  30  per  trip.  A  nonrefundable  fee  for 
the  entire  series,  $22.00  for  members  and 
$27.00  for  nonmembers,  holds  advance 
reservation  and  covers  lunch  and  trans- 
portation for  field  trips.  See  following 
descriptions  for  individual  program  fees. 
Leader:  Jim  Bland,  Field  Museum. 

The  Dunes 

Ecological  succession,  field  techniques 
and  National  Park  facilities  will  be 
stressed.  Nonrefundable  fee  of  $5.00  for 
members,  $6.00  for  nonmembers.  Trip 
leaves  the  Field  Museum  north  parking 
lot  at  9:00  a.m.  regardless  of  weather. 
Indiana  Dunes  National  Lakeshore.  Lead- 
ers: Indiana  Dunes  National  Lakeshore 
Staff. 

Saturday,  April  79 

The  Vacant  Lot 

Explore  the  kind  of  community  most 
accessible  to  the  urban  school.  Non- 
refundable fee  of  $5.00  for  members, 
$6.00  for  nonmembers.  Trip  leaves  field 
Museum  north  parking  lot  at  9:00  a.m. 
regardless  of  weather. 

Saturday,  April  26 


The  Stream 

Participants  will  get  their  feet  wet 
observing  the  varied  character  of  Saw 
Mill  Creek.  A  rigorous  trip  with  climbing 
and  hiking.  Nonrefundable  fee  of  $5.00 
for  members,  $6.00  for  nonmembers.  The 
trip  leaves  Field  Museum  north  parking 
lot  at  9:00  a.m.  regardless  of  weather. 

Saturday,  May  10 


The  Lake 

A  slide  presentation  on  the  history  and 
problems  of  Lake  Michigan  will  be 
followed  by  dipping  a  net  into  Burnham 
Harbor.  A  nonrefundable  fee  of  $2.00  for 
members  and  $3.00  for  nonmembers. 
Participants  will  meet  at  Field  Museum 
north  door  desk  at  10:00  a.m. 

Saturday,  May  17 


The  Prairie 

An  opportunity  to  explore  Wolf  Road 
Prairie,  endangered  remnant  of  the 
prairie  that  once  covered  two-thirds  of 
Illinois.  A  nonrefundable  fee  of  $5.00  for 
members,  $6.00  for  nonmembers.  The 
trip  leaves  Field  Museum  north  parking 
lot  at  9:00  a.m.  regardless  of  weather. 
Leaders:  Save  the  Prairie  Society 
members. 

Saturday,  May  24 

FAMILY  FIELD  TRIPS 

Trips  leave  Field  Museum  North  Parking 
Lot  at  9:00  a.m.  regardless  of  weather.  A 
nonrefundable  fee  of  $5.00  per  adult 
member,  $6.00  per  adult  nonmember  and 
$3.00  per  child,  holds  advance  reserva- 
tion and  covers  lunch  and  transportation 
Reservations  are  limited  to  40  and  will  be 
confirmed  on  receipt  of  check.  Children 
must  be  accompanied  by  adult(s)  for 
these  family  programs. 

The  Farm 

A  visit  to  an  operating  hog  farm  and  dairy 
farm  and  an  opportunity  to  talk  to 
farmers  about  their  lives  and  problems. 
Minimum  age:  6.  Leader:  Phil  Farris, 
University  of  Illinois  Cooperative  Ex- 
tension Service. 

Saturday,  May  17;  Saturday,  May  24 

The  Forest 

Explore  a  pond,  a  forest,  and  other 
ecological  communities  in  Palos  Park. 
Minimum  age:  6.  Leaders:  Harry  Nelson, 
Roosevelt  University,  and  John  Wagner, 
Kendall  College. 

Saturday,  May  31;  Saturday,  lune  7 


FAMILY  MINI-COURSES 

A  workshop  in  the  museum  plus  a  field 
trip.  Children  must  be  accompanied  by 
adult(s).  A  nonrefundable  fee  of  $5.00 
per  adult  member,  $6.00  per  adult 
nonmember  and  $3.00  per  child  to  cover 
lunch  and  transportation,  holds  advance 
reservation.  Reservations  will  be  con- 
firmed in  order  of  receipt  of  check. 
Limited  to  40. 

Here  Today,  Gone  Tomorrow? 

An  introductory  museum  program  in  the 
morning  is  followed  by  a  trip  to  Lincoln 
Park  Zoo  in  the  afternoon  to  see 
endangered  animals.  Minimum  age:  8. 
Meet  at  Field  Museum  north  door  desk  at 
10:00  a.m.  Leaders:  Betty  Deis,  Field 
Museum,  and  Saul  Kitchener,  Lincoln 
Park  Zoo. 

Saturday,  April  12;  Saturday,  April  19 

Energy:  Planning  for  the  Future 

Family  use  of  energy  will  be  explored  in  a 
museum  workshop.  Field  trip  to  Beth- 
lehem Steel  Plant.  Minimum  age:  14. 
Meet  at  the  Field  Museum  north  parking 
lot  at  8:00  a.m.  Leader:  Katherine 
Krueger,  Field  Museum. 

Wednesday,  April  23 


This  program  is  made  possible  by  the  Ray 
A.  Kroc  Environmental  Fund,  established 
at  Field  Museum  by  his  friends  to  honor 
Mr.  Kroc,  Chairman  of  McDonald's 
Corporation,  on  his  70th  birthday.  Other 
events  of  this  program  will  be  presented 
in  coming  months  and  years. 


For     further     information     call     Lorain 
Stephens,  922-9410,  ext.  360  or  361. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


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30TH  CHICAGO 
INTERNATIONAL 
EXHIBITION 
OF  NATURE 
PHOTOGRAPHY 


The  Nature  Camera  Club  of  Chicago 
and  Field  Museum  have  again  sponsored 
one  of  the  most  important  and  widely 
acclaimed  exhibitions  in  the  world 
of  photography:  the  thirtieth  annual 
Chicago  International  Exhibition  of 
Nature  Photography. 

The  competition  annually  draws 
color  slides  from  virtually  every  corner  of 
the  world.  This  year  more  than  3,000 
entries  were  submitted  by  740  amateur 
nature  photographers.  About  600  slides 
were  selected  by  the  judges  for  public 
viewing  Feb/uary  9-16. 

The    photo    reproduced    on    this 


month's  Bulletin  cover,  "Phlogiotis  hel- 
vel hides, " by  Larry  C.  Moon,  of  Spokane, 
Washington,  was  recipient  of  the  Myrtle 
R.  Walgreen  Award  for  the  best  illustra- 
tion of  plant  habitat.  The  two  photos 
shown  on  this  and  the  facing  page  were 
among  those  receiving  honorable  men- 
tion. "Coming  in  for  the  Pollen"  (repro- 
duced on  p.  10),  by  Diane  Lynne  Payton, 
of  Lewiston,  New  York,  was  one  of  eighty 
attempts  by  Miss  Payton  to  capture  on 
film  the  bee  about  to  alight  on  the 
flower.  "Early  Morning  Mists"  (above)  is 
by  Roy  E.  Barker,  of  Santa  Fe,  New 
Mexico. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


The  Amateur 
Fossil-Hunters 

Paleontology's 
Unsung  Heroes 

by  Eugene  S.  Richardson,  Jr. 

Sometimes,  when  professional 
paleontologists  gather  in  safe  little 
knots  at  a  geological  convention, 
they  assure  each  other  that  they 
are  the  ones  who  have  been  entirely  re- 
sponsible for  the  progress  of  paleontolo- 
gy. But  this  oversimplifies.  There  are  two 
kinds  of  paleontologists;  those  who  make 
a  living  at  it,  and  those  who  make  a  hob- 
by of  it.  Both  kinds,  let  me  add,  pursue 
paleontology  because  they  enjoy  it. 

Many  an  amateur,  over  the  past 
century  and  more  of  American  science, 
has  given  great  assistance  to  the  study  of 
prehistoric  life.  They  have  discovered 
rare  specimens;  they  have  prepared  and 
catalogued  and  preserved;  they  have 
loaned  or  donated  their  specimens  for 
study.  In  show  business,  such  valuable 
auxiliaries  are  called  "angels."  I  am  on 
the  side  of  the  angels.  Let  me  tell  you 
about  a  few  of  them. 

There  is  no  catalog  or  monograph  on 
these  generally  unsung  people.  No  one 
can  say  who  are  the  Grand  Champion 
Amateur  Collectors.  One  who  must  merit 
some  such  title  is: 

Ralph  Dupuy  Lacoe 
1 826-1 901 

The  family  name  was  originally 
Lecoq,  from  the  north  of  France.  When 
Ralph's  father  came  to  settle  in  the 
anthracite  country  of  northeastern  Penn- 
sylvania, and  to  set  himself  up  as  a 
carpenter  there,  the  name  somehow 
changed  its  form.  He  married  the 
daughter  of  another  French  family, 
Dupuy,  who,  fleeing  an  insurrection  of 
slaves  on  the  West  Indian  island  of 
Hispaniola,  had  settled  on  forested  land 


Eugene  S.  Richardson,  \r.,  is  curator  of  fossil 
invertebrates. 


nearby.  Ralph,  the  youngest  Lacoe  son, 
attended  a  country  school  and  learned 
carpentry  from  his  father.  For  Ralph's 
later  intellectual  interests  his  biographer 
gives  credit  to  his  mother  rather  than  to 
his  schoolteacher— justly,  I'm  sure. 

While  making  his  way  up  in  the 
world  as  a  carpenter,  young  Lacoe  cut 
timber  on  his  grandfather  Dupuy's  land 
and  filled  orders  for  railroad  ties  as  the 
country  developed.  He  invested  the 
income  from  the  railroad  ties  in  coal 
lands  in  the  developing  Lackawanna 
anthracite  field.  He  knew  how  to 
recognize  which  tracts  would  have  coal 
under  them.  Soon,  he  branched  out  into 
other  enterprises:  trading  in  real  estate, 
manufacturing,  banking.  But  by  the  time 
he  was  41,  just  after  the  Civil  War,  his 
health  broke  from  overwork  and  he  took 
a  vacation  to  Florida. 

While  recuperating,  Lacoe  collected 
shells  on  the  Florida  shore,  and  for  the 
first  time  he  became  interested  in  natural 
history  as  a  hobby.  His  health  never 
returned,  and  he  gradually  lost  his 
hearing,  which  rather  cut  him  off  from 
normal  relations  with  other  people.  But 
he  lived  another  35  years,  attributing  his 
long  life  to  his  happy  outdoor  pursuit  of 
fossils.  For  on  his  return  to  Pittston, 
where  there  were  no  seashells  to  pick  up, 
he  began  to  collect  local  fossils,  princi- 
pally the  plants  associated  with  the  coal. 

Soon,  he  was  not  only  collecting  but 
also  studying  what  he  had,  and  in  time  he 
built  up  one  of  the  four  or  five  finest 
paleontological  libraries  in  the  country. 
In  order  to  use  this  library  best,  he 
learned  French  and  German.  Studying  his 
fossil  plants  and  their  geologic  occur- 
rence, Lacoe  corresponded  with  J. P. 
Lesley,  the  state  geologist,  and  with  Leo 
Lesquereux,  the  great  paleobotanist,.  of 
Columbus,  Ohio,  who  became  his  close 
friend.  From  the  home  town  area,  his 
collecting  trips  expanded.  Before  long, 
he  was  adding  Mississippian  and  De- 
vonian plants  as  well  as  Pennsylvanian, 
and  was  going  as  far  afield  as  the 
southern  and  midwestern  states.  Always 
he  met  local  collectors,  and  with 
increasing  frequency  he  bought  speci- 
mens from  them,  or  even  hired  them  to 
collect  for  him  after  he  went  back  home. 
His  travels  widened.  He  went  to  Europe, 
where  he  traded  some  of  his  Penn- 
sylvanian plants  for  local  fossils— and 
again  bought  specimens.  He  went  to  the 


Rocky  Mountain  states  and  expanded  his 
collecting  to  include  younger  fossil 
plants  — Permian,  Mesozoic,  and  Tertiary. 
Occasional  animal  fossils  were  associated 
with  the  fossil  plants,  and  soon  Lacoe 
was  particularly  interested  in  acquiring 
fossil  insects  and  myriapods  (an  inverte- 
brate group  that  includes  centipedes  and 
millipedes),  and  somewhat  later,  crus- 
taceans, fishes,  and  molluscs  as  well. 

Many  years  later,  Professor  Charles 
Schuchert  wrote: 

Until  recently,  but  one  locality  in 
the  United  States  yielded  specimens 
of  Paleozoic  insects  in  numbers 
sufficient  to  warrant  collectors  to 
look  for  these  rarest  of  fossils.  This 
locality  is  along  Mazon  Creek,  in 
Grundy  County,  Illinois.  Mr.  Daniels 
tells  the  present  writer  that  about 
one  insect  is  found  to  every  thou- 
sand concretions,  and  were  it  not  for 
the  splendid  plants  and  the  rare 
invertebrates  found  inside  the  other 
999  nodules  no  collecting  at  all 
could  be  done.  For  many  years  Mr. 
Lacoe  offered  a  premium  for  every 
nodule  containing  an  insect,  arach- 
nid, or  myriapod,  and  eventually  he 
was  enabled  to  assemble  70  insect- 
bearing  concretions. 

Crown  of  a  crinoid,  Taxocrinus  colletti, 
collected  near  Crawfordsville  (Montgomery 
County),  Indiana. 


March  1975 


In  the  plant-bearing  shales  of  the 
anthracite  and  bituminous  regions, 
Mr.  Lacoe  occasionally  secured  a 
single  insect  wing,  and  when  the 
finds  became  sufficient  to  warrant 
digging  for  them  he  would  specially 
detail  a  collector  to  examine  the 
shales  of  a  given  locality.  Rarely  did 
such  work  yield  more  than  a  few 
insect  wings  each  day,  but  after  long 
perseverance  about  625  specimens 
were  collected. 

Lacoe's  collection  was  his  chief 
interest,  but  it  generated  another  interest, 
science.  With  his  extensive  library  and 
his  correspondence,  he  had  already 
become  as  knowledgeable  in  his  chosen 
field  as  any  professional.  Now  he 
perceived  the  value  of  this  collection  to 
the  broader  community.  Professor  Rollin 
Chamberlin  has  written: 

Realizing  the  very  great  handicap 
to  the  progress  of  paleontology  due 
to  the  enormous  labor  and  expense 
of  discovering,  exhuming,  and  in- 
telligently preparing  the  fundamen- 
tal materials  from  which  the  paleon- 
tologist must  work  out  his  results,  he 
chose  for  his  first  service  to  science 
the  task  of  securing  this  material  and 
properly  placing  it  in  the  hands  of 
paleontologists. 

He  sent  specimens  to  specialists  for 
study  — plants  to  Lesquereux,  millipedes 
and  insects  to  Samuel  H.  Scudder  at 
Harvard,  amphibians  and  reptiles  to 
Edward  Drinker  Cope  in  Philadelphia, 
molluscs  and  brachiopods  to  James  Hall 
of  Albany,  crustaceans  to  Alpheus  Pack- 
ard at  Harvard.  These  eminent  scholars 
studied  Lacoe's  specimens,  described 
new  species,  and  returned  the  specimens. 
Before  his  death,  his  collection  included 
575  types— specimens  described  or  illus- 
trated in  the  published  literature  of 
paleontology.  Not  infrequently,  Lacoe 
provided  a  subsidy  for  the  work,  and  paid 
for  handsome  illustrations. 

Although  he  gave  a  large  number  of 
specimens  to  the  State  of  Pennsylvania, 
forming  the  most  important  part  of  the 
study  collection  of  the  state  geological 
survey,  his  collection  continued  to  grow. 
By  1891,  it  filled  the  entire  upper  floor  of 
his  National  Bank  building  in  Pittston,  a 
first-rate  scientific  resource,  though  little 
known  to  his  neighbors.  But  the  Pittston 
Bank  building  was  not  fireproof,  and  this 
worried  Lacoe.  Here  was  his  collection, 


perched  above  a  lot  of  inflammable 
dollar  bills.  He  decided  to  transfer  his 
records  and  his  specimens  to  the  United 
States  National  Museum,  in  Washington. 

In  1895,  Lacoe  sent  315  boxes  of 
labeled  and  catalogued  plant  and  fish 
fossils  to  Washington,  followed  four 
years  later  by  his  fossil  insects,  myria- 
pods,  and  crustaceans.  A  few  months 
later,  still  making  plans  to  collect  more 
fossils,  he  died.  His  collection  remains 
one  of  the  acknowledged  treasures  of  the 
United  States  National  Museum. 

Lacoe  became  a  collector  because 
at  the  time  his  interest  was  sparked  he 
lived  within  ready  reach  of  collectible 
fossils;  he  became  an  important  collector 
because  of  his  intellectual  qualities  and 
his  financial  resources— and,  if  you  will, 
because  of  a  sense  of  mission. 

Other  areas  have  inspired  collectors 
by  the  ready  availability  and  elegant 
preservation  of  the  local  fossils.  In  the 
United  States,  such  areas  are  too 
numerous  to  list.  A  few  examples  must 
serve. 

The  Crawfordsville  Collectors 

The  pleasant  town  of  Crawfordsville, 
Indiana,  is  built  upon  a  dark  blue-gray 
mudstone  of  Mississippian  age,  firm 
enough  to  stand  as  cliffs  or  steep  banks 
where  Sugar  Creek,  Indian  Creek,  and 
their  tributaries  have  cut  deep  valleys. 


Occasional  beds  of  limestone,  some  of 
them  several  feet  thick,  are  composed 
almost  entirely  of  the  stem  plates  of 
crinoids,  (a  class  of  marine  invertebrates 
commonly  called  sea  lilies),  and  in  the 
mudstone  itself  are  found  countless 
specimens  of  the  intact  crowns  of 
crinoids.  Crawfordsville  may  be  a  county 
seat  (Montgomery  County)  and  an 
educational,  industrial,  and  business  cen- 
ter, but  to  paleontologists  it  is  known  for 
crinoid  crowns.  They  were  being  col- 
lected as  early  as  1836— by  Edmund  O. 
Hovey,  one  of  the  two  instructors  at 
newly  established  Wabash  College. 
Hovey  counts  as  a  professional;  let  us 
ignore  him.  But  it  is  of  record  that  in  1842 
his  9-year-old  son,  Horace,  surely  not  a 
professional,  responded  to  an  advertise- 
ment of  a  New  York  collector  by  shipping 
east  a  bushel  of  crinoid  stem  plates,  for 
which  he  was  paid  $5.  I  know  of  no  other 
instance  of  anyone  expressing  a  desire 
for  a  bushel  of  crinoid  stems.  Other  early 
collectors  of  Crawfordsville  crinoids 
included  Orlando  Corey,  a  locksmith; 
Daniel  Bassett,  a  minister;  and  a  host  of 
little  boys  and  young  teenagers.  One  of 
the  boys,  Charles  Beachler,  printed  by 
hand  a  small  book  on  the  Crawfordsville 
crinoids  when  he  was  15  years  old. 
Complete  with  misprints,  this  little  book 
powerfully  evokes  the  picture  of  an 
earnest  lad  diligently  setting  type  in  the 
shop  of   a   friendly   job   printer.   Young 


Opening  pages  of 
History  of  the  Cri- 
noid Beds  of  Craw- 
fordsville, Indiana, 
1836-1886,  written 
by  Charles  Beachler 
at  the  age  of  fifteen 
and  published  by 
him  in  1886.  He 
handset  the  type 
and  printed  the  en- 
tire booklet  him- 
self. 


««iJ>  sectw° 

29  towrvsWP  V* 

They  "»re  d1!.    o    HOVE* 
'.835    Hp    nt         encrt**1 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


13 


Charles  sent  out  the  whole  edition,  free, 
to  paleontologists;  in  the  Field  Museum 
library  is  the  copy  that  he  sent  to  James 
Hall,  with  Hall's  notation  that  he  had 
acknowledged  it.  The  following  year, 
Charles  turned  out  a  second  edition, 
somewhat  enlarged  and  with  different 
misprints,  for  which  he  asked  ten  cents. 
Charles  Beachler  was  certainly  an  ama- 
teur at  this  early  period.  For  a  while  he 
collected  crinoids  for  Frank  Springer,  a 
collector  who  hired  him,  and  for  one 
season  he  was  an  assistant  on  the 
Geological  Survey  of  Georgia.  He  would 
have  gone  on  to  a  professional  career, 
but  he  died  at  the  age  of  23. 


The  important  point  that  I  would 
make  about  the  group  of  amateurs  in 
Crawfordsville  is  not  so  much  that  they 
collected,  preserved,  and  distributed  the 
elegant  fossil  crinoids  from  their  blue- 
gray  mudstone,  important  though  that 
is,  but  that  there  was  a  climate  of 
common  interest  in  which  a  small  boy 
could  discover,  develop,  and  pursue 
paleontology  to  the  point  where  it  would 
become  his  career.  The  three  small 
papers  published  by  Charles  Beachler  in 
his  short  life— not  counting  those  little 
hand-printed  books— were  good  papers, 
still  referred  to,  and  presaged  a  distin- 
guished career  that  didn't  come  about. 


The  Cincinnati  Collectors 

Even  more  than  Crawfordsville,  Cin- 
cinnati has  long  been  a  spawning  ground 
for  paleontologists,  most  of  whom  began 
as  youngsters  to  collect  the  elegantly 
preserved  brachiopods,  bryozoans,  and 
other  Late  Ordovician  fossils  from  the 
limestones  and  shales  abundantly  ex- 
posed in  and  near  the  city.  The  names  of 
E.  O.  Ulrich,  Charles  Schuchert,  R.  S. 
Bassler,  S.  A.  Miller,  Nathaniel  Shaler, 
E.  W.  Claypole,  Carl  Rominger,  John 
Nickles,  John  Locke,  August  Foerste,  U. 
P.  James,  and  J.  S.  Newberry  are  well 
known,  and  include  some  of  the  nation's 
most  renowned  paleontologists.  At  the 
present  time,  there  is  an  organization  of 
amateur  collectors  in  Cincinnati,  known 
as  the  "Dry  Dredgers";  the  members 
maintain  a  close  working  relation  with 
Professor  Kenneth  Caster  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Cincinnati,  and  have  been 
responsible  for  several  significant  dis- 
coveries. For  many  years,  the  Cincinnati 
Society  of  Natural  History  and  its 
museum  have  played  a  similar  role  in  the 
liaison  of  amateur  and  professional. 
Among  the  specimens  in  the  Field 
Museum  are  a  few  hundred  Ordovician 
fossils  accompanied  by  labels  printed 
"QCNH  Society."  These  came  from  the 
personal  collection  of  Charles  L.  Faber, 
another  Cincinnati  collector.  Tentatively, 
I  suppose  that  the  cryptic  initials  mean 
"Queen  City  Natural  History"  Society, 
Queen  City  being  an  alternative  name  for 
Cincinnati,  but  I  have  found  no  record  of 
such  a  society.  Perhaps  Faber  was  the 
only  member.  Samuel  A.  Miller,  a  lawyer, 
was  one  of  the  group  I  have  mentioned 
who  retained  his  amateur  status,  though 
he  published  numerous  papers  describing 
his  fossils.  Toward  the  end  of  his  life 
Miller  unfortunately  fell  prey  to  a  disease 
that  required  alcoholic  medication.  In 
that  period,  other  collectors  found  that 
they  could  trade  fifths  or  pints  for  fossils, 
and  Miller's  collection  was  dissipated  in 
several  directions. 


Three  specimens  of  Aesiocrinus  magnif  icus  in 
the  Field  Museum  collection.  William  Gurley 
traded  a  "petrified  frog"  for  specimens  of  this 
crinoid. 


March  1975 


Frank  Springer.  Bronze  bust  by  C.  Scarpitta, 
presented  to  the  state  of  New  Mexico  by 
friends  of  Springer. 


The  Richmond  Collectors 

Richmond,  Indiana,  like  Cincinnati, 
is  built  on  highly  fossiliferous  Late 
Ordovician  rocks,  and  many  collectors 
have  dwelt  there.  Among  the  specimens 
at  Field  Museum  are  several  hundred  of 
these  Richmond  fossils,  marked  in  deli- 
cately inked  numbers  on  tiny  white  paper 
rectangles  pasted  to  the  specimens.  This 
was  the  collection  of  Mary  P.  Haines, 
wife  of  Joshua  Haines,  of  Richmond,  and 
each  number  corresponds  to  a  precisely 
written  entry  in  a  catalog  that  still  exists, 
a  hundred  years  after  it  was  made.  Mary 
Haines  was  a  Quaker  housewife  unknown 
to  history,  but  a  woman  of  broad 
interests.  Packed  in  a  small  box  with 
some  of  her  daughter's  German  lessons 
are  several  letters  from  her  friends, 
including  one  from  a  lady  in  California 
which  enclosed  a  fern  still  sound  enough 


to  be  transferred  to  the  Museum's 
herbarium.  I  like  to  think  of  the  Haines 
Collection  as  an  example  of  a  collection 
made  and  treasured  for  its  own  sake, 
forming  perhaps  a  window  to  a  wider 
world  for  a  quiet  lady  in  a  quiet 
community. 

Frank  Springer 
1848-1928 

In  contrast  to  Mrs.  Haines,  let  me 
refer  briefly  to  a  man  who  wrote  58  books 
and  scholarly  papers  on  fossil  crinoids. 
Forty-seven  years  later,  these  are  still 
fundamental  references  in  the  study  of 
crinoids,  and  it  is  always  something  of  a 
surprise  to  remember  that  their  author, 
Frank  Springer,  was  a  lawyer.  To  be  sure, 
he  was  a  paleontologist  too,  though  in  no 
sense  a  professional. 

Frank  Springer  was  born  about  thirty 
miles  from  Burlington,  Iowa,  which  even 
then,  in  1848,  was  known  for  its 
abundant  and  beautiful  Mississippian 
crinoids.  He  collected  them  as  a  boy,  but 
his  education  was  directed  toward  the 
Law,  a  profession  that  he  followed  with 
distinction.  Soon  after  joining  the  Iowa 
bar,  he  moved  to  New  Mexico  — "to  grow 
up  with  the  country,"  as  he  said.  But  he 
returned  each  summer  to  Burlington  and 
its  crinoids.  Like  Ralph  Lacoe,  Springer 
attributed  his  long  life  to  the  outdoor 
recreation  and  the  pleasurable  relaxation 
of  collecting,  an  important  matter  since 
he  was  troubled  with  repeated  heart 
attacks  in  his  last  twenty  years.  Again  like 
Lacoe,  Springer  employed  collectors  to 
increase  his  collection,  and  among  these 
was  teenage  Charles  Beachler  of  Craw- 
fordsville,  the  lad  who  had  printed  the 
little  books.  And— again  like  Lacoe  — 
when  the  collection  had  become  large 
and  obviously  important,  Springer  gave  it 
to  the  United  States  National  Museum, 
where  it  arrived  in  1911,  the  100,000 
specimens  having  travelled  across  the 
country  in  a  specially  cushioned  boxcar. 
The  Springer  Collection,  supported  by  an 
endowment  donated  by  Springer,  is 
another  of  the  chief  paleontological 
treasures  in  the  possession  of  the  nation. 

One  would  not,  surely,  apply  the 
term  "amateur"  to  one  who  published 
sixteen  important  papers  on  fossils,  who 
became  the  first  curator  of  the  Illinois 
State  Museum,  the  second  state  geologist 
of  Illinois  (both  in  1893);  and  curator  of 
the  University  of  Chicago's  Walker 
Museum  (1900).  But  even  professionals 


begin  as  youngsters.  One  whose  early 
years  were  devoted  with  unusual  vigor  to 
paleontology  as  a  hobby  was: 

William  Frank  Eugene  Gurley 
1854-1943 

Gurley  was  born  in  upstate  New 
York,  the  son  of  a  printer  named  Reed, 
who  died  a  year  later.  When  his  mother 
remarried,  William  was  given  the  name 
of  his  stepfather,  a  blacksmith.  He  was 
nine  years  old  when  the  family  moved  to 
"the  far  west,"  first  to  Michigan,  then  to 
Danville,  Illinois,  in  search  of  better 
economic  conditions.  In  time,  young 
Gurley  became  one  of  Danville's  leading 
citizens. 

As  a  youngster,  he  collected  stamps, 
embossed  trade  marks,  Indian  artifacts, 
and  other  curios,  which  he  carefully 
arranged  in  his  always  well-documented 
"cabinet."  The  collecting  and  minute 
study  of  his  treasures  were  almost 
terminated  when  he  was  seven  years  old: 
a  severe  attack  of  measles  left  him 
completely  blind  for  several  months.  His 
eyes  remained  weak,  and  he  was 
completely  blind  for  his  last  twenty-five 
years. 

The  black  shale  that  caps  the 
Danville  coal  is  exposed  where  the 
Vermilion  River  cuts  through  bedrock  at 
Danville.  The  young  collector,  with  the 
measles  safely  behind  him,  was  attracted 
by  the  gleaming  golden  pyritized  fossils 
in  the  velvety  black  rock.  They  were  so 
handsome  that  Gurley  soon  built  up  a 
lively  system  of  exchange  with  other 
collectors.  He  accepted  in  exchange  not 
only  fossils  from  other  localities,  but 
minerals,  artifacts,  and  other  attractive 
items,  including,  from  seafarers  in  New 
Bedford,  barrels  of  shells  from  far  exotic 
places.  Receiving  fossils  in  exchange  for 
shells,  Gurley  then  exchanged  those 
fossils  by  mail  with  a  rapidly  widening 
list  of  far-flung  paleontologists  and  even 
institutions.  Some  sort  of  a  high  spot  was 
reached  when  he  traded  a  collection  with 
the  Imperial  Royal  Geological  Society  of 
Austria.  As  usual,  he  sent  his  part  of  the 
exchange  first,  leaving  his  correspondent 
to  reply  with  items  of  equal  value.  So 
pleased  were  the  Austrians  that  at  the 
next  annual  meeting  this  sixteen-year-old 
from  Danville  was  elected  a  correspond- 
ing member,  with  a  handsome  engraved 
certificate  as  witness  thereunto.  This  was 
no  light  matter;  at  that  time  the  only 
other  Americans  on  the  roll   of  corres- 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


15 


ponding  members  of  the  Imperial  Royal 
Geological  Society  were  Louis  Agassiz, 
James  Hall,  Ferdinand  Hayden,  and 
Amos  Worthen.  In  1873  his  amateur 
standing  begins  to  crack;  in  that  year  he 
registered  at  Cornell,  to  study  geology. 
Also  in  1873,  this  Illinois  freshman  was 
one  of  the  group  of  founders  of  the  Swiss 
Paleontological  Society. 

So  far  as  Paleontology  is  concerned, 
he  remained  an  amateur  even  after 
graduation.  In  1876  he  joined  the  gold 
rush  to  Colorado,  roaming  the  mountains 
with  a  donkey  to  carry  his  packsack. 
Between  episodes  of  panning  or  digging 
for  gold,  he  worked  as  a  weighmaster,  a 
road  builder,  a  carpenter,  a  printer.  He 
returned  to  Danville  with  little  gold  but 
many  fossils,  and  there  he  went  to  work 
as  a  civil  engineer,  becoming  city  enginer 
of  Danville.  Still  building  up  his  fossil 
collection,  he  laid  out  railroad  lines  in 
Illinois  and  Indiana  (and  held  lifetime 
passes  on  those  lines),  bought  and  sold 
real  estate  and  insurance  and  mortgages. 
Shortly  after  Curley  returned  from  Colo- 
rado, his  first  publication  appeared,  a 
description  of  some  brachiopod  anatomy 
in  the  Proceedings  of  the  American 
Philosophical  Society.  Having  been  a 
printer  in  Colorado,  he  was  properly 
disgusted  by  a  misprint  in  this  publica- 
tion, where  his  name  as  author  appeared 
as  "Ginley."  For  some  years  thereafter, 
his  publications,  written  in  collaboration 
with  the  Cincinnati  lawyer,  Samuel 
Miller,  were  privately  printed  so  that  he 
could  keep  an  eye  on  the  typesetting. 

Having  made  a  fortune  from  his 
engineering  and  associated  interests, 
Gurley  was  able  to  give  more  and  more 
time  to  building  up  his  fossil  collection, 
and  he  could  afford  to  accept  the  less 
remunerative  geological  offices  that  he 
later  held.  Let  me  climax  his  amateur 
period  with  the  tale  of  how  he  managed 
to  acquire  certain  elegant  Pennsylvanian 
crinoids: 

When  a  new  road  was  being  built  in 
Saint  Louis,  the  horse-drawn  grading 
equipment  cut  into  a  gray  micaceous 
siltstone  containing  some  elegant  intact 
specimens  of  Aesiocrinus  magnificus 
(the  name  was  given  to  it  later  by  Miller 
and  Gurley— carefully  printed).  Gurley 
heard  of  this  find,  and  had  to  have  the 
crinoids.  He  approached  the  city  engi- 
neer of  Saint  Louis,  who  had  glaumed 
onto  the  specimens.  No;  they  were  not 


for  sale.  No;  the  city  engineer  of  Danville 
had  nothing  adequate  to  offer  in 
exchange.  Oh,  well,  there  was  one 
thing— the  city  engineer  of  Saint  Louis 
recalled  a  picture  and  description  of  a 
soapstone  Indian  pipe  in  the  shape  of  a 
frog  that  had  been  illustrated  in  a  report 
of  the  Indiana  Geological  Survey.  If 
Gurley  could  get  that  pipe  for  him,  the 
Saint  Louis  man  would  trade.  Striking 
while  the  iron  was  hot,  Gurley  immedi- 
ately posted  a  performance  bond  for 
$5,000  and  promised  the  pipe.  Then  he 
set  to  work  to  find  out  where  it  was,  and 
laid  his  plans.  The  pipe  was  owned  by  a 
farmer  somewhere  in  Indiana.  One  hot 
summer  day,  Gurley  headed  east  from 
Danville  by  train  with  a  heavy  suitcase. 
At  a  stable  near  the  depot  in  a 
small  Indiana  town,  he  hired  a  horse  and 
buggy  and  headed  for  that  farm,  where 
he  tapped  on  the  back  door.  "Howdy," 
says  he;  "A  mighty  hot  day.  I'm  looking 
for  Silas  Brown's  place."  This,  as  he  well 
knew,  was  four  miles  away,  down  the 
road  he  had  come.  "Dear  me;  I  must 
have  made  the  wrong  turn.  Mind  if  I 
water  my  horse?"  He  led  the  horse  to 
water  and  had  a  nice  cold  glass  of 
buttermilk  in  the  kitchen  himself.  "My, 
those  are  right  pretty  seashells  on  your 
table.  Mind  if  I  look  at  them?"  And 
conversation  followed.  Among  the  trea- 
sures of  the  household,  it  turned  out,  was 
a  "petrified  frog"  that  some  Indians  had 
hollowed  out  for  a  pipe,  but  the  farmer 
and  his  wife  really  preferred  their 
seashells.  It  just  happened  that  Gurley 
liked  seashells  too,  and  he  just  happened 
to  have  some  of  his  best  ones  out  in  the 
buggy.  An  hour  later  the  farmer  had 
persuaded  Gurley  to  accept  the  petrified 
frog  in  exchange  for  the  shells.  The  horse 
had  had  a  good  rest,  and  cheerfully 
pulled  the  buggy  back  to  the  livery 
stable.  Back  to  Danville  by  train,  on  to 
Saint  Louis  by  the  first  connection,  back 
home  the  next  day,  and  the  crinoids  were 
safe  in  the  Gurley  collection. 

Years  later,  when  Gurley  was  given 
charge  of  the  University  of  Chicago  fossil 
collection,  he  generously  made  it  possible 
for  the  University  to  acquire  his  own 
collection.  To  this  day,  we  can  show  you 
the  Saint  Louis  crinoids  and  the  pyritized 
shells  from  the  black  shale  of  the 
Vermilion  River,  now  housed  in  Field 
Museum. 

Today,  more  than  ever,  fossil   col- 


lecting is  a  popular  hobby  and  a  serious 
preoccupation  of  many  people.  In  the 
Chicago  area  the  name  of  fossil  collectors 
is  legion,  most  of  them  concentrating 
their  efforts  on  the  Coal-age  fossils  from 
the  Illinois  strip  mines. 

It  is  only  because  the  amateurs 
devote  thousands  of  man-hours  to  the 
job  that  some  of  the  very  rare  fossil 
species  have  been  found.  And,  signifi- 
cantly, it  is  only  because  of  their 
generous  cooperation  in  lending  or 
donating  specimens  for  study  by  trained 
paleontologists  that  these  species  can 
ever  be  made  known  to  science. 

It  is  a  long  tradition,  this  hobby  and 
this  symbiotic  relation  of  amateur  and 
professional.  A  collector  collects— and 
this  may  go  no  farther  than  sending  a  keg 
of  crinoid  stems  to  New  York.  A  true 
amateur,  a  lover  of  his  subject,  goes 
farther.  He  labels  and  catalogs  his 
collection,  like  Mary  Haines  of  Rich- 
mond. He  studies  it  and  reads  all  he  can 
find  on  the  matter,  as  did  the  young 
William  Gurley  and  Charles  Beachler.  He 
may  become  a  first-rate  scholar,  like 
Lacoe,  or  Springer,  or  Gurley.  And, 
knowing  the  worth  of  his  collection,  he 
makes  provision  for  its  continued  exis- 
tence and  care  beyond  his  own  time,  z 

William  Gurley 


March  1975 


JERRY  HERDINA    1905 1974 


For  years  — ever  since  1928,  when  the 
first  strip  mines  were  opened  for  coal 
in  Will  and  Grundy  counties,  Illinois- 
collectors  of  the  Coal  Age  fossils  thrown  up  in 
the  spoil  heaps  have  observed  a  tall,  slim 
figure  strolling  alone  across  the  tortured 
landscape.  Occasionally  he  would  stoop  and 
pick  up  a  red,  hamburger-shaped  ironstone 
concretion  and  stow  it  in  his  collecting  bag. 
This  was  Jerry  Herdina,  dean  of  the  Chicago- 
area  fossil  collectors.  Jerry  was  a  "loner," 
usually  collecting  by  himself,  or  with  his  niece 
and  her  husband,  the  Lambert  Schriners.  But 
many  other  collectors  have  pleasant  recollec- 
tions of  a  chance  meeting  in  the  hills  and  a 
subsequent  conversation  about  fossils. 

Jerry,  a  lifelong  friend  of  the  Museum, 
died  on  November  25,  1974,  two  months  short 
of  his  seventieth  birthday.  One  of  his  last  acts 
was  to  give  his  entire  collection  of  fossils  to 
the  Museum.  It  is  a  collection  already  well 
known  to  scholars  in  this  country  and  Europe. 
All  but  a  few  hundred  of  the  14,191  specimens 
are  Pennsylvanian  fossils  from  the  strip  mines, 
an  area  of  particular  research  interest  to  the 
Museum. 

I  frequently  borrowed  specimens  from 
Jerry  for  study.  In  a  letter  to  me  in  April,  1958, 
he  said,  "I  hope  that  this  is  only  the  first  of 
many  loans  of  specimens.  We  hope  to  get  out 
in  the  field  soon  and  do  some  more  intensive 
hunting.  It  is  our  ambition  to  build  up  a 
collection  of  which  we  may  be  proud."  In  this, 
Jerry  and  the  Schriners  succeeded  notably. 
And  now  that  the  collection  is  housed  here,  it 
is  one  of  which  the  Museum  is  proud. 

His  parents  were  Joseph  Hrdina,  a 
cabinetmaker,  and  Marie  Benes,  his  wife,  who 
came  to  Chicago  directly  from  Bohemia  early 
in  this  century.  They  lived  first  at  25th  and 
Whipple,  where  Jerry  was  born  on  Jan.  25, 
1905.  In  a  few  years,  the  family  moved  to  a 
large  frame  house  on  21st  Place  near  Karlov, 

Eugene  S.  Richardson,  jr.,  is  curator  of  fossil 
invertebrates. 


by  Eugene  S.  Richardson,  Jr. 

in  the  same  neighborhood.  Jerry  continued  to 
live  there  for  about  fifty  years,  long  after  the 
death  of  his  parents,  and  it  was  there  that  I 
first  saw  his  collection,  in  1955.  As  a  boy,  Jerry 
walked  a  few  blocks  to  the  Daniel  J.  Corkery 
Grade  School,  and  later  to  the  Carter  H. 
Harrison  High  School.  In  one  of  his  school- 
books,  a  Spanish  grammar,  his  name  is  still 
spelled  Hrdina,  the  correct  Bohemian  form; 
he  was  in  his  early  teens  when  his  father 
added  the  vowel  as  a  concession  to  neighbors 
who  expected  one. 

In  his  formative  years,  Jerry's  interests 
were  broad,  embracing  many  aspects  of 
nature.  This  interest  brought  him  often  to 
the  Museum,  and  later  to  the  Aquarium  and 
Planetarium.  He  had  a  speaking  knowledge  of 
Spanish  and  Czech,  and  a  scholar's  interest  in 
the  local  history  of  Illinois  and  Utah.  Upon 
graduation  from  the  University  of  Illinois  at 
Urbana  shortly  before  the  depression,  he  went 
to  work  for  the  Ryerson  Steel  Company  in 
Chicago  as  an  engineer.  The  steelwork  for 
many  bridges  and  tall  buildings  in  the  Chicago 
area,  including  that  for  Marina  City,  was 
fabricated  from  his  calculations.  Jerry  never 
married,  and  devoted  his  off-hours  to  the 
meticulous  care  of  his  house  and  garden,  to 
accumulating  a  notable  reference  library,  and 
most  particularly  to  collecting  fossils  in  the 
strip  mines.  It  was  his  quiet  boast,  too,  that  he 
had  attended  every  Members'  Night  at  Field 
Museum. 

In  1969  Jerry  moved  to  Berwyn,  and  it  is 
the  immaculate  basement  of  the  yellow-brick 
two-flat  that  is  particularly  remembered  by 
paleontologists  from  Chicago,  Harvard,  Cal 
Tech,  and  European  universities.  The  speci- 
mens were  all  in  uniform  white  pasteboard 
boxes  on  steel  shelves,  arranged  by  species 
and  locality.  It  was  easy  to  find  them. 


Such  a  large  and  carefully  assembled 
collection  naturally  included  some  unique 
specimens.  In  the  slow  grinding  of  the  mills  of 
science,  some  of  these  have  been  put  on 
record.  Two  of  them,  important  species  new 
to  science,  were  named  for  Jerry  Herdina 
during  his  lifetime.  Herdina  mirificus,  a 
short-winged  insect;  and  Paleocadmus  her- 
dinae,  a  nautilus-like  creature,  embody  his 
name  in  theirs  in  acknowledgement  of  the 
significance  of  his  collection. 

His  name  also  appears  on  the  map  of  the 
United  States.  For  years,  Jerry  spent  his  annual 
vacation  in  southern  Utah,  prowling  about  the 
country  that  has  now  become  Arches  ana 
Capitol  Reef  national  monuments,  and  Can- 
yonlands  National  Park.  He  wandered  far  from 
the  established  trails,  charting  the  way  to 
wonders  unknown  even  to  the  rangers,  and 
recorded  their  unspoiled  beauty  in  hundreds 
of  sharp,  brilliant,  and  impeccably  composed 
color  slides.  Today,  a  portion  of  Arches 
National  Monument  is  marked  "Herdina  Park" 
on  the  National  Park  Service  map  in  tribute  to 
his  volunteer  trailblazing. 

After  Jerry's  death,  his  sister,  Mrs.  Helen 
Poncar,  gave  the  Museum,  in  his  memory,  all 
of  his  books  and  color  slides.  Many  of  the 
books  have  found  a  place  in  the  general 
library,  but  most  significantly  a  large  number 
form  the  nucleus  of  a  new  library  in  the 
Museum's  Department  of  Education.  The 
3,539  color  slides,  all  carefully  numbered  and 
catalogued,  will  also  be  maintained  in 
Education  as  a  valued  resource  for  programs 
in  ecology,  geology,  and  paleontology. 

Jerry's  many  friends  on  the  Museum  staff 
will  long  remember  his  friendly  interest  in 
their  work;  and  his  books,  pictures,  and  fossils 
will  long  continue  to  be  actively  used,  as  he 
meant  they  should  be.  □ 


Herdina  mirificus,  a  short- 
winged  insect  discovered 
by  Herdina  and  named  for 
him. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


cpflagte 


CLIP  COUPON   AND    RETURN   TODAY! 

field  museum's 
Wednesday  evening 
slide  lectures 

March  12  program: 

A  Short  Journey  Through 

the  Long  Egyptian  Past 

No.  of  persons  attending 


March  19  program: 

How  Flowers  Pay  Their  Way 

No.  of  persons  attending 


April  2  program: 
Showers  from  Outer  Space 
No.  of  persons  attending — 


Member's  Name 


Street 


City 


State 


Zip 


(daytime) 


(evening) 


Amount  enclosed:  $- 


All  reservations  will  be  confirmed. 


For  further  information  call  Dorothy  Roder, 
Field  Museum,  922-9410,  ext  206  or  219. 


of§pring 


In  anticipation  of  warmer  weather  and  longer  days,  Field  Museum  proudly  presents 
A  TASTE  OF  SPRING  —  a  series  of  three  Wednesday  evening  slide-lectures  designed 
to  give  members  an  opportunity  to  meet  informally  with  curators  in  a  dinner-table 
atmosphere.  The  tickets  are  $7.00  each.  Make  your  reservations  now  for: 


* 


Frederick  R.  Schram,  associate  professor  of  zoology  at  Eastern  Illinois  University 
and  research  associate  in  Field  Museum's  Department  of  Geology,  takes  us  on  "A  Short 
Journey  through  the  Long  Egyptian  Past."  The  monument  of  man  in  the  Nile  Valley 
extends  from  before  three  thousand  B.C.  to  the  present  and  covers  the  panorama  of 
polytheism,  Christianity,  and  Islam.  It  encompasses  the  great  pyramids  and  the  Aswan 
High  Dam.  An  appreciation  of  Egypt's  rich  heritage  is  helpful  in  understanding  current 
events  in  the  Middle  East. 


* 


•The  many  flowers  that  adorn  our  Spring  woodlands  are  a  delight  to  the  eye,  but 
for  the  plants  that  bear  them  they  are  not  merely  cosmetics.  William  Burger,  associate 
curator  of  botany,  shows  us  "How  Flowers  Pay  Their  Way."  We'll  see  that  flowers  are 
an  energy  investment  for  the  plant  and  must  produce  dividends.  We'll  take  a  deeper 
look  at  their  form  and  function  and  discover  how  they  go  about  getting  results.  A  great 
many  flowers  representing  many  different  families  will  be  discussed;  Dr.  Burger  will 
also  explain  a  variety  of  pollination  strategies. 


*. 


'Edward  Olsen,  curator  of  mineralogy,  will  show  us  how  each  day  the  good  old 
Earth  is  bombarded  by  millions  of  meteors,  of  which  only  a  few  hundred  a  year  make 
it  through  to  the  surface  before  burning  up  completely— these  are  the  meteorites. 
Spring  is  the  time  of  the  year  when  meteorite  falls  are  at  their  peak  abundance.  The 
oldest  solid  objects  of  the  solar  system,  they  carry  the  story  of  their  long  and  varied 
history  within  them.  The  program  will  revolve  around  aspects  of  meteorite  falls,  what 
we  have  learned  from  them,  recent  missions  of  satellites  to  other  planets,  and  aspects 
of  current  lunar  research. 


The  three  above  programs  are  scheduled  for  6:30  p.m.  for  these  Wednesday  evenings: 
March  12,  19,  and  April  2.  Reservations  will  be  accepted  on  a  first  come,  first  served 
basis.  Applications  should  be  accompanied  by  full  payment  of  $7.00  per  person, 
covering  dinner  and  the  program.  Children  twelve  years  of  age  and  older  are  invited; 
guests  of  members  are  also  welcome. 


18 


March  1975 


lieiiBeftS'Gttts&DfteNS  wo^te  shops 


The  highly  popular  series  of  Saturday  Workshops  for  children 
and  grandchildren  of  Museum  Members  will  again  be  offered 
during  April  by  Field  Museum's  Department  of  Education.  These 
workshops  are  designed  to  stimulate  and  develop  interest  in 
the  natural  sciences  by  providing  the  children  with  an  oppor- 
tunity to  meet  Museum  staff  members  and  work  with  materials 
and  specimens  from  the  scientific  collections.  Creativity  is  en- 
couraged in  the  making  of  "take  home"  items.  Workshop 
themes  are  geared  to  different  age  levels  and  interests. 

Each  workshop  is  presented  just  once  and  each  lasts  about 
one  hour  and  fifteen  minutes.  The  morning  programs,  for  chil- 
dren ages  7-9,  begin  at  10:30  a.m.;  the  afternoon  programs,  for 
children  ages  10-13,  begin  at  1:30  p.m.   Attendance  at  each 


session  is  limited  to  20,  so  that  each  youngster  can  have  a  close 
working  relationship  with  the  Museum  instructor. 

•  Children  may  register  for  one  workshop  only;  this  is  to 
allow  us  to  accommodate  as  many  children  as  possible.  To 
make  your  reservation,  call  922-9410,  Ext.  219  and  ask  for  Miss 
Mary  Lee.  Reservations  will  be  accepted  until  all  openings  are 
filled.  Reservations  will  be  confirmed  by  phone  at  the  time  they 
are  made. 

All  participants  are  requested  to  meet  at  the  North  Door 
Information  Booth  at  least  fifteen  minutes  before  the  scheduled 
starting  time  to  check  in  and  meet  the  Museum  instructor. 

We  hope  to  offer  more  workshops  later  in  the  year,  and 
we  welcome  your  suggestions  as  to  themes  and  age  levels  you 
would  like  to  see  covered. 


Choose  Your  Totem! 

Draw  the  head  of  your  favorite  animal 
on  a  paper  bag.  Wear  the  bag  as  a  mask 
as  you  tell  the  group  why  you  chose  this 
particular  animal.  The  afternoon  program 
will  emphasize  stylized  animal  designs. 

April  5:  10:30  session  for  ages  7-9 

1:30  session  for  ages  10-13 
Leader:  Harriet  Smith 


Let's  Look  at  Insects 

An  introduction  to  the  great  variety  of 
insects  with  a  chance  to  look  closely  at 
some  familiar  ones  and  some  strange 
ones,  too.  Design  your  own  "insect" 
from  Museum  raw  materials. 
April  12:  10:30,  ages  7-9 
Leader:  Betty  Deis 


Start  an  Insect  Collection 

A  look  at  various  insect  groups,  plus  your 
own  beetle  to  pin  "museum  style,"  iden- 
tify, and  take  home  with  you. 
April  12:  1:30,  ages  10-13 
Leader:  Betty  Deis 


Aluminum  Zoo 

Create  your  own  "zoo"  of  African  an- 
imals in   mini-plaques  after  the  fashion 
of  a  West  African  artist. 
April  19:  10:30,  ages  7-9 
Leader:  Edith  Fleming 


Chinese  Paper  Cuttings  and  Rubbings 

Learn  the  Chinese  techniques  of  cutting 
paper  designs  free  hand  and  using  the 
designs  to  produce  rubbings. 
April  19:  1:30,  ages  10-13 
Leader:  Edith  Fleming 


Chinese  paper  cutout 


Gem  Stone  and  Wire  Crafts 

Learn  to  design  and  shape  a  wire  figure 
suitable  for  a  small  polished  ge'm.  Iden- 
tify   your    gem    by    comparing    it    with 
stones  exhibited  in  the  Gem  Room. 
April  26:  10:30,  ages  7-9 


Paleo-Detective  Art 

Reconstruct  the  appearance  and  natural 
setting  of  prehistoric  animals  by  close 
observation  of  fossil  skeletons. 
April  26:  1:30,  ages  10-13 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


19 


ILLINOIS  NATURAL  HISTORY 
SURVEY  LIB  RM  196 
NATURAL  RESOURCES  BUILDING 
URBANA  ILL  61801 


MARCH  and  APRIL  at  Field  Museum 


SPECIAL  PROGRAMS 


Continuing: 


Craft  Demonstrations  and  Discussions 

"African  Patterns,"  10:00  a.m.  to  12:00  noon,  Mondays,  Wednesdays,  and 
Fridays.  Entrance  to  Hall  27. 

"The  Ways  of  Our  Ancestors:  Traditions  of  Native  North  America,"  10:00 
a.m.  to  12:00  noon  and  2:00  to  5:00  p.m.  Fridays.  Hall  4. 

Weaving  demonstration  by  members  of  the  North  Shore  Weavers'  Guild 
from  10:00  a.m.  to  12:00  noon  on  Mondays,  Wednesdays,  and  Fridays. 
Spinning  also  shown  on  the  first  and  third  Mondays  of  each  month.  South 
Lounge. 

Saturday  Discovery  Programs 

A  series  of  tours,  demonstrations,  and  participatory  activities  offered  by 
Museum  volunteers  between  11:00  a.m.  and  3:00  p.m.  includes  Ancient 
Egypt,  Prehistoric  Man,  Reptiles,  Jewelry  in  Other  Cultures,  and  Northwest 
Coast  Art.  For  information  on  time,  place,  and  topic  inquire  at  Museum 
entrances. 


FILMS  AND  LECTURES 

"Ascent   of  Man,"   free   film    series,    presented    at   2:00    p.m.    Fridays   and 
Sundays  through  April  20  in  the  Lecture  Hall. 

The  one-hour  films  cover  a  time  span  of  more  than  two  million  years  in 
exploring  scientific  discoveries  that  have  shaped  human  history. 


Mar.  2: 
Mar.  7  and  9: 
Mar.  14  and  16 
Mar.  21  and  23 
Mar.  28  and  30 


"The  Starry  Messenger" 
"The  Majestic  Clockwork" 
"The  Drive  for  Power" 
"The  Ladder  of  Creation" 
"World  Within  World" 


Free  Ayer  Adult  Illustrated  Lecture  Series,  "Expeditions  Unlimited  1975," 
presented  by  Field  Museum  curators  at  7:30  p.m.  Fridays  and  2:30  p.m. 
Saturdays  in  Lecture  Hall.  Seating  is  limited  to  225  persons.  Museum 
cafeteria  is  open  until  7:30  p.m.  Fridays. 

Mar.  1:  "Natural  History  of  Deep  Sea  Fishes,"  by  Robert  Johnson 

Mar.  7  and  8:         "The  Tunguska  Explosion:  Meteorite,  Comet,  or 
Black  Hole?,"  by   Edward  Olsen 

Mar.  14  and  15:     "Wet  Snails  in  Dry  Deserts,"  by  Alan  Solem 

Mar.  21  and  22:     "Veracruz,  Mexico:  Green  Grow  the  Lilacs," 
by  Lorin  I.  Nevling,  )r. 

Mar.  28  and  29:     "Frog  Ecology  in  the  Congo,"  by  Robert  F.  Inger 


CHILDREN'S  PROGRAM 

Begins  March  1 : 

Spring  Journey  for  Children,  "People  of  the  Salmon  and  Cedar,"  a  free, 
self-guided  tour,  routes  youngsters  to  Museum  exhibits  relating  to  the 
Northwest  Coast  tribes.  All  boys  and  girls  who  can  read  and  write  may 
participate  in  the  program.  Journey  sheets  in  English  and  Spanish  available 
at  entrances.  Through  May  31. 


Mar.  7,  8:00  p.m., 
Mar.  9,  2:00  p.m., 
Mar.  11,7:30  p.m., 
Mar.  11,8:00  p.m., 
Mar.  12,  7:00  p.m., 
Mar.  13,  7:00  p.m., 


MEETINGS 

Chicago  Anthropological  Society 
Chicago  Shell  Club 
Nature  Camera  Club  of  Chicago 
Chicagoland  Glider  Council 
Chicago  Ornithological  Society 
Chicago  Mountaineering  Club 


COMING  IN  APRIL 


"Ascent  of  Man,"  free  film  series,  shown  at  2:00  p.m.  Fridays  and  Sundays 
in  the  Lecture  Hall. 

April  4  and  6:        "Knowledge  or  Uncertainty" 
April  11  and  13:    "Generation  upon  Generation" 
April  18  and  20:    "The  Long  Childhood" 

Free  Ayer  Adult  Illustrated  Lecture  Series,  "Expeditions  Unlimited  1975," 
offered  at  7:30  p.m.  Fridays  and  2:30  p.m.  Saturdays  in  the  Lecture  Hall. 

April  4  and  5:         "Collecting  Mosses  in  Southern  Chile,"  by  John  Engel 

April  11  and  12:    "Ancient  Ecuador:  Culture,  Clay,  and  Creativity," 
by  Donald  Collier 

Begins  April  5: 

Field  Museum's  Ray  A.  Kroc  Environmental  Education  Program  series,  "Man 
Uses  the  Land."  (See  p.  8  ) 

Saturday,  April  12 

Programs  by  leading  performing  arts  groups,  including  the. Chicago  Brass 
Quintet,  Dance  Medium,  and  the  Indian  Trio,  10:30  a.m.  to  1:30  p.m., 
Stanley  Field  Hall.  Sponsored  by  Young  Audiences  of  Chicago. 

Ooens  Aoril  18 

"Ancient  Ecuador:  Culture,  Clay,  and  Creativity,"  an  exhibition  of  pottery, 
jewelry,  and' tools  dating  from  3000-300  B.C.  Hall  9. 

April  19  to  27: 

Spring  Holiday  Programs  include: 

Films  at  11 :00  a.m.  and  1 :00  p.m.  daily,  Hall  27'Studio. 

"African  Patterns,"  craft  demonstration  and  discussion,  10:00  a.m.  to  12:00 
noon  and  1:00  to  3:00  p.m.,  April  21,  23,  and  25,  entrance  to  Hall  27. 

"The  Ways  of  Our  Ancestors:  Traditions  of  Native  North  America,"  craft 
demonstration  and  discussion,  10:00  a.m.  to  12:00  noon  and  2:00  to  5:00 
p.m.,  Monday,  April  21,  and  Friday,  April  25,  Hall  4. 

"Fingertrips,"  a  guessing  game  exploring  the  sense  of  touch,  1:00  to  4:30 
p.m.,  April  22,  23,  and  24,  South  Lounge. 

"Environmental  Awareness,"  a  film-discussion  program  on  endangered 
species,  10:30  to  11:15  a.m.,  April  22  and  24,  Lecture  Hall. 

Craft  demonstrations  and  discussions 

Saturday  Discovery  Programs 

Weaving  demonstrations 


MUSEUM   HOURS 


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April 
1975 

\.0S 


Field  Museum  of  Natural  History  Bulletin 


' 


Field  Museum 
of  Natural  History 
Bulletin 


April  1975 
Vol.  46,  No.  4 


8 


THE  CALORIE-COUNTER'S  GUIDE 
TO  THE  ENERGY  CRISIS 
by  Edward  Olsen 

ANCIENT  ECUADOR:  CULTURE,  CLAY, 
AND  CREATIVITY,  3000-500  B.C. 
by  Donald  Collier 


Editor/Designer:  David  M.  Walsten 
Production:  Oscar  Anderson 


14  OUR  ENVIRONMENT 

16  A  LOST  KINGDOM  MISLAID:  A  SHORT 

REPORT  ON  THE  SEARCH  FOR  SRIVIJAYA 
by  Bennet  Bronson 


22 


FIELD  BRIEFS 


back 
cover 


APRIL  and  MAY  AT  FIELD  MUSEUM 
Calendar  of  Coming  Events 


COVER 

Pottery  figurine  of  a  Chorrera  woman 
with  geometric  body  painting.  Ca.  800 
B.C.  One  of  600  pots,  figurines,  tools,  and 
other  artifacts  from  ancient  Ecuador,  on 
exhibit  in  Field  Museum's  Hall  9,  April  18 
to  August  5.  See  page  8  . 


Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 

Founded  1893 

Director:  E.  Leland  Webber 


Board  of  Trustees 

Blaine  J.  Yarrington, 

President 
Gordon  Bent 
Harry  O.  Bercher 
Bowen  Blair 
Stanton  R.  Cook 
William  R.  Dickinson,  Jr. 
Thomas  E.  Donnelly  II 
Mrs." Thomas  E.  Donnelley  II 
Marshall  Field 
Nicholas  Galitzine 
Paul  W.  Goodrich 
Remick  McDowell 
Hugo  ).  Melvoin 
William  H.  Mitchell 
Charles  F.  Murphy,  |  r. 
John  S.  Runnells 
William  L.  Searle 
Edward  Byron  Smith 
Mrs.  Hermon  Dunlap  Smith 


Robert  H.  Strotz 
John  W.  Sullivan 
William  G.  Swartchild,  Jr. 
E.  Leland  Webber 
Julian  B.  Wilkins 

Life  Trustees 

William  McCormick  Blair 
Joseph  N.  Field 
Clifford  C.  Gregg 
Samuel  Insull,  Jr. 
William  V.  Kahler 
Hughston  M.  McBain 
J.  Roscoe  Miller 
James  L.  Palmer 
John  T.  Pirie,  Jr. 
John  G.  Searle 
John  M.  Simpson 
Louis  Ware 
J.  Howard  Wood 


Photo  Credits 

Cover:  John  Bayalis;  p.  16:  Bennet  Bronson;  p.  18  (bottom): 
Jan  Wisseman;  p.  18  (top):  Bennet  Bronson;p.  19:  Jan 
Wisseman;  p.  20:  Bennet  Bronson;  p.  22:  Charles  F.  Davis; 
p.  23:  Nickerson  Photo  Co. 


Field  Museum  ol  Natural  History  Bulletin  is  published  monthly, 
except  combined  July/August  issue,  by  Field  Museum  of  Natural 
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'Museum  subscribe  through  Museum  membership.  Opinions 
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ISSN:  0015-0703.  Second  class  postage  paid  at  Chicago,  III. 


A  Calorie-Counter's  Guide 
to  the  Energy  Crisis 


by  Edward  Olsen 


Calorie-counting  has  become  a  habit  for  many  Americans 
who  are  concerned  about  spreading  waistlines  and 
clothing  that  used  to  fit,  but  just  won't  quite  squeeze  on 
anymore.  Although  we  are  accustomed  to  the  notion  of 
counting  calories,  few  are  aware  that  calorie-counting  is  going  to 
concern  all  of  us  during  the  next  decade,  whether  we  are 
overweight  or  underweight.  We  are  going  to  have  to  start 
considering  the  calories  that  enter  into  all  aspects  of  our  lives, 
other  than  simply  the  food  calories  we  eat.  A  calorie  is  a  measure 
of  energy  of  any  kind,  and  energy— or  the  lack  of  it  — is  going  to 
affect  our  lives  as  it  has  not  since  the  beginnings  of  this  country. 
The  phrase  "energy  crisis"  has  been  bandied  about  during 
the  past  two  years  in  the  press,  by  politicans,  and  by  individuals 
in  governmental  as  well  as  private  sectors.  Confusing,  sometimes 
conflicting,  claims  are  made  for  the  seriousness  of  this  crisis,  or 
even  of  its  existence  at  all.  Although  some  Americans  feel  a 
gnawing  distress  over  the  nature  of  this  issue,  it  is  clear  that  most 
Americans  do  not  take  it  seriously. 

The  standard  sources  of  information  for  most  Americans  are 
newspapers,  radio,  and  television;  but  by  their  very  nature,  these 
media  cannot  present  much  more  than  piecemeal  aspects  of  this 
whole  complicated  issue.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this  article,  and 
other  articles  to  appear  in  subsequent  issues  of  the  Bulletin,  to 
present  some  details  on  this  problem  in  more  depth  than  the 
popular  media  are  able  to  offer.  Most  of  what  will  be  said  here 
has  been  gleaned  from  reports  issued  by  governmental  agencies, 
industry,  and  private  research  groups. 

First,  let's  start  with  a  few  definitions.  What  is  energy?  We  all 
know  what  is  meant  by  an  "energetic  person,"  but  getting  it 

Edward  Olsen  is  curator  of  mineralogy. 


down  to  a  quantitative  matter  is  something  else.  In  the  simplest 
terms,  energy  and  the  notion  of  work  are  equivalent,  because  we 
measure  energy  by  the  amount  of  work  required  to  create  it,  or  to 
alter  it.  For  example,  if  someone  left  a  parked  car  on  top  of  a 
slope  and  forgot  to  set  the  brakes,  the  car  would  start  slowly 
rolling  downhill.  The  rolling  car  possesses  energy.  One  way  to 
stop  it,  if  it's  not  yet  going  too  fast,  is  to  get  in  front  of  it  and  push 
in  the  opposite  direction,  gradually  slow  it  to  a  halt  and  hold  it 
until  someone  can  get  in  and  set  the  brake.  In  stopping  it  this 
way,  one  applies  a  force  over  a  distance.  A  force  applied  over  a 
distance  is  exactly  the  physical  definition  of  work. 

As  another  example,  imagine  a  man,  without  tools,  on  a 
tropical  island,  who  wants  to  break  open  an  especially  hard 
coconut.  He  picks  up  a  heavy  boulder  and  drops  it  on  the 
coconut,  with  no  success.  It  occurs  to  him,  that  if  he  could  drop 
the  boulder  from  a  greater  height  it  would  have  enough  energy  to 
break  open  the  coconut.  He  could  climb  a  tree  with  the  boulder 
tucked  under  his  arm  and  drop  it  from  there,  but  that  would  be 
stupid.  Instead,  he  throws  a  long  vine  over  a  high  branch,  ties  the 
boulder  to  one  end  and  starts  pulling  on  the  loose  end  of  the 
vine.  By  giving  a  series  of  short  pulls,  one  after  another,  he 
gradually  raises  the  boulder  up  many  yards  into  the  air.  He  has 
provided  a  force  (lifting  the  boulder)  over  a  distance  of  many 
yards  by  the  series  of  shorter  pulls  all  added  together.  Thus,  he'd 
done  more  work  than  he  did  originally  by  simply  raising  the 
boulder  a  few  feet  by  hand.  He  let's  go  the  vine. 


Numerical  examples  used  in  this  article  are  derived  primarily  from 
studies  made  in  1973-74,  and  may  not  coincide  with  figures  that  have 
appeared  since  then  in  the  media. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


The  work  he  put  into  the  system  is 
now  translated  into  the  energy  of  the  fall 
of  the  boulder,  which  hits  the  coconut 
and  breaks  it  open.  More  work  meant 
more  energy.  It's  interesting  to  note  here, 
that  in  order  for  the  man  to  do  this  at  all, 
he  had  to  have  eaten  enough  food  to  give 
his  body  the  energy  to  do  the  work.  The 
food  itself  originally  came  from,  say,  the 
meat  of  some  animal,  which  ate  enough 
grass  to  get  its  energy  to  live  and  grow. 
The  grass,  in  turn,  received  its  energy 
from  complicated  processes  of  turning 
soil  nutrients,  air,  and  the  sun's  energy 
into  leafy  matter. 

The  point  to  be  made  here  is  that 
energy  moves  from  place  to  place,  from 
one  form  to  another  form,  but  is  not 
destroyed,  only  changed  in  its  manner  of 
expression.  It  took  men  in  the  sciences 
many  centuries  to  realize  this,  but  the 
idea  was  actually  formulated  less  than 
150  years  ago.  It  is  called  the  Law  of 
Conservation  of  Energy.  Energy  can 
change  the  forms  in  which  it  expresses 
itself,  but  it  is  never  lost.  This  idea 
marked  a  major  turning  point  in  scien- 
tific thinking.  In  recent  years,  the 
outspoken  environmentalist,  Barry  Com- 
moner, popularized  the  idea  with  the 
phrase,  "There  is  no  free  lunch."  That  is, 
you  do  not  get  something  for  nothing. 
You  can't  create  work  (energy)  without 
expending  it,  because  in  the  end  it  must 
all  balance  out.  It  is,  what  some 
sophisticates  call,  "a  zero-sum  game." 

In  defining  a  method  for  measuring 
energy,  many  terminologies  have  arisen 
over  the  past  hundred  years.  Because  the 
word  calorie  is  familiar  to  most  people 
we  will  use  that  word  here.  The  calorie  is 
the  amount  of  energy  (work)  involved  in 
raising  the  temperature  of  one  thousand 
grams  of  water  by  one  degree  on  the 
Centigrade  temperature  scale.  This  is  also 
called  the  kilogram-calorie  or  the  large 
calorie.  To  give  you  an  idea  of  what  this 
unit  is  worth  in  everyday  terms,  it  takes 
about  590  such  calories  to  completely 
boil  away  a  quart  of  water.  It  is  the 
calorie  we  are  already  used  to  when  we 
speak  of  food  calories.  Thus,  a  cup  of 
sugar  has  770  calories,  which  is  energy 
equivalent  to  boiling  away  about  1.3 
quarts  of  water. 

In  discussions  of  energy  in  the 
United  States  you  will  often  see  reference 
to  the  BTU,  the  British  Thermal  Unit.  This 
unit  of  energy  is  equal  to  approximately 


V*  of  a  calorie,  or  saying  it  the  other  way 
around,  one  calorie  is  equal  to  about  4 
BTUs.  The  BTU  is  a  unit  that  will  be 
eventually  phased  out  as  the  United 
States  goes  on  the  metric  system.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  it  is  no  longer  an  official 
energy  unit  in  Britain,  where  it  originated. 
Having  a  feeling  now  for  some  of  the 
concepts  and  terminology  used  in  refer- 
ence to  energy  and  work,  we  can  look  at 
some  of  the  problems  that  have  arisen 
concerning  the  forms  in  which  it  occurs, 
and  our  patterns  of  use. 

Patterns  of  Energy  Use  in  America 

Americans  have  been  called  "energy 
hogs."  To  a  large  extent,  this  is  true.  The 
energy  we  use  comes  from  a  long  list  of 
sources,  of  which  only  a  few  are  major 
ones,  namely,  the  fossil  fuels:  petroleum, 
natural  gas,  and  coal.  These  together 
have  provided  95%  of  our  energy  over 
the  past  several  decades.  During  the  past 
year  we  used  18,185,000,000,000,000 
calories!  Going  back  to  our  water-boiling 
example,  this  is  enough  energy  to  boil 
away  about  9  trillion  gallons  of  water.  In 


terms  of  our  population,  it  means  about 
82  million  calories  for  every  man, 
woman,  and  child  in  the  country.  This 
does  not  take  account  of  the  food 
calories  eaten  by  our  population,  which 
add  up  to  about  160  quadrillion  calories, 
bringing  our  grant  total  of  energy  to 
18,185,000,000,000,000  calories.  Perhaps 
more  important  is  the  fact  that  we  have 
been  gobbling  energy  at  an  ever-greater 
rate,  year  by  year.  Annually,  energy 
demands  rise  about  5%  from  the 
previous  year,  which  means  that  the 
above  number  will  be  twice  as  large  a 
mere  fifteen  years  from  now:  1990.  The 
United  States,  with  only  6%  of  the 
world's  population,  uses  close  to  30%  of 
the  world's  present  energy! 

This  statement  is  frequently  made 
with  a  strong  hint  that  this  level  of  energy 
consumption  is  not  only  inequitable  but 
downright  immoral.  On  the  other  hand, 
we  have  seen  in  our  definition  of  calorie, 
that  energy  and  work  are  directly  related 
to  each  other.  Work  makes  foods, 
products,  and  services.  There  is  a  direct 
relationship  between  the  gross  national 
product,   CNP,    (the  sum   of   all   crops, 


Figure  1 


1,000 


800 


=    600 

T3 


C 

o 

=    400 

n 

a. 

z 
o 

j»    200 

i/5 
•o 


c 
D 


/   * 

- 

/.' 

••" 

GNP 
\ 

\ 

energy  co 

isumption 

4 ••• 

'•••  •••  *"* 

20 


m 

CD 

n 
o 

3 

c 

3 


10     3 

c 

In 


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C 


o 

3 


0     & 


1920 


1930 


1940  1950  1960 


1970  1980 


April  1975 


goods,  and  services)  and  energy  con- 
sumption (Fig.  7).  As  the  United  States 
energy  use  has  soared  during  the  past 
decade  from  10  quadrillion  calories  to  18 
quadrillion  calories,  the  GNP  has  gone 
from  $581  billion  to  $821  billion  (relative 
to  1958  dollars).  Although  it  is  clear  that 
the  people  of  the  United  States  are  the 
first  recipients  of  a  better  standard  of 
living  from  this  expenditure  of  work 
(energy),  it  is  also  clear  that  exported 
food  surpluses  and  goods  for  export  have 
added  to  the  material  lot  of  numerous 
nations  throughout  the  world.  Thus,  the 
"calories  per  person"  figure  for  the 
United  States  alone  does  not  give  the 
whole  story. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  if  one  takes  the 
GNP  figures  for  all  the  nations  of  the 
world  together,  the  United  States  GNP 
comprises  approximately  30%  of  the 
total.  Thus,  using  30%  of  the  world's 
energy  (work),  it  produces  foods,  goods, 
and  services  in  proportion  to  its  energy 
use.  The  image  of  the  great  giant,  lolling 
like  a  parasite,  gulping  the  energy  of  the 
world  to  the  detriment  of  all  others,  is  far 
from  accurate.  It  is,  perhaps,  the  only 
bright  spot  in  the  entire  situation.  Now 
let's  look  at  a  breakdown  of  how  we 
Americans  use  this  energy. 

In  Table  1  we  see  a  fairly  even 
distribution  of  calories  between  the  four 
main  sectors  of  our  country's  economy  in 
1972  (the  last  year  for  which  the  most 
complete  figures  are  available).  Compar- 
ing these  figures  to  a  mere  five  years 
earlier,  1967,  we  see  that  industry 
(including  agriculture)  has  actually  de- 
clined in  its  percentage  use  of  energy, 
while  electrical  use  has  increased  re- 
latively. More  informative  are  the  per- 
centage increases  shown  in  the  right 
hand  column.  Both  transportation  and 
electrical  use  have  made  monstrous 
leaps  compared  to  industrial,  commer- 
cial, and  household  use. 

Increased  production  of  electricity, 
of  course,  is  not  an  independent  figure. 
Obviously,  electrical  energy  is  fed  into 
households,  commercial  establishments, 
and  industry.  Such  industries  as  steel 
have  gradually  gone  to  the  use  of  electric 
hearths.  Commercial  establshments  have 
increased  lighting,  often  leaving  giant 
shopping  center  parking  lots  fully  lit  all 
night  long.  Households  have  increased 
their  uses  of  electrical  appliances  enor- 
mously, especially  air-conditioning, 
which  gobbles  energy  at  a  huge  rate  at 


TABLE  1 

CALORIE  CONSUMPTION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

1967  1972 

Calories  Percent  Calories  Percent    Increase  from 

(in  quadrillions)    of  total    (in  quadrillions)    of  total    1967  to  1972 


Household  and 

Commercial  Uses 

3.8 

25.9% 

4.3 

Transportation 

3.1 

21.3% 

4.0 

Industry 

4.5 

31.0% 

5.2 

Electrical 

3.2 

21.8% 

4.6 

Total 

14.6 

18.1 

23.7% 


21.9% 


28.7% 


25.7% 


13% 


29% 


16% 


44% 


quite  low  efficiency.  We  fill  our  lives 
with  labor-saving  devices  and  then  count 
food  calories  to  take  off  the  weight 
which  we  have  gained  by  too  little 
physical  activity— certainly  a  paradox. 
And,  as  we  know  too  well  by  now,  the 
increase  in  the  transportation  figure 
reflects  mainly  the  use  of  private 
automobiles.  Some  of  the  transportation 
increase  is  due  to  industrial  and  com- 
mercial increases,  of  course.  Private 
automobiles,  however,  account  for  nearly 
40%  of  the  transportation  energy  con- 
sumed in  the  country,  and  it  has  been 
said  that  over  half  of  this  is  consumed 
within  20  miles  of  our  homes:  short  runs 
to  the  store,  to  mail  a  letter,  etc. 
Someone  once  quipped  that  the  average 
American  would  drive  to  the  bathroom  if 
he  could  do  so. 

Although  there  is,  at  present,  no 
absolute  shortage  of  energy  in  the  world, 
there  are  political  and  economic  factors 
that  are  acting  to  put  stress  on  the 
consumption  pattern  by  Americans,  the 
largest  single  group  of  energy  consumers 
in  the  world.  We  may  resent  this,  but,  as 
we  shall  see,  it  may  be  a  blessing  in 
disguise.  It  is  not  our  purpose  here  to 
dwell  too  much  on  the  economic  and 
political  factors,  but  to  look  mostly  at 
physical  energy  resources  and  options  in 
some  detail.  For  each  energy  source 
there  is  a  complex  interaction  of  physical 
(often  geological)  factors,  business  fac- 
tors, governmental  policies,  and  environ- 
mental and  social  concerns. 


Petroleum 

Oil  is  an  extremely  versatile  re- 
source. It  can  be  used  for  fuel,  to  make 
an  endless  list  of  synthetic  products  — 
notably  nylon,  dacron,  and  all  of  the 
many  plastics  —  and  could  ultimately  be 
converted  into  edible  foodstuffs.  Petro- 
leum production  and  consumption  have 
been  increasing  annually  for  the  past  30 
years  (Fig.  2).  We  currently  obtain  about 
46%  of  our  annual  energy  from  petro- 
leum, or  about  8  quadrillion  calories. 
This  amounts  to  about  16  million  barrels 
each  day,  of  which  we  must  import  6 
million  per  day,  the  remainder  being 
provided  by  domestic  sources.  Our 
concern  here  is  with  domestic  petroleum 
resources  only.  The  prognosis  is  not 
good. 

Until  1948  the  United  States  was  an 
exporter  of  oil.  After  that  we  became  an 
importer,  to  a  gradually  increasing 
extent.  Until  1968  we  could  have  gotten 
along  without  importing,  because  of 
some  unused  capacity,  that  is,  proven  oil 
wells  not  in  production  for  one  reason  or 
another.  Since  1967  our  reserves  have 
been  declining  steadily. 

In  the  oil  industry  there  are  several 
keynote  figures  to  watch,  but  the 
simplest  one  to  understand  is  what  is 
called  the  F/P  ratio,  the  finding-to- 
production  ratio.  This  means,  for  exam- 
ple, that  if  one  finds,  say,  a  32  million- 
barrel  oil  field  at  the  same  time  the 
industry  is  producing  16  million  barrels, 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


Figure  2 
Petroleum  Consumption  in  the  United  States  1920-75 


o 

re 
u 

o 


a 


9 

8 

7 

6 

5 
,\ 

/ 

i 

3 

2 

y 

^ 

1 

1920 


1930 


1940 


1950 


1960 


1970    1975 


then  the  F/P  ratio  is  32/16  =  2,  and  all  is 
rosy.  When,  however,  the  ratio  reaches 
one  it  means  you  are  only  finding  enough 
to  just  replace  what  is  being  consumed. 
When  the  number  decreases  to  less  than 
one,  it  means  you  are  consuming  more 
than  is  being  found,  and  that  you  are  on 
the  road  to  running  out.  Fig.  3  is  a 
charting  of  the  F/P  ratio  for  the  United 
States  from    1946  to  the  present.    It   is 


clearly  a  declining  number,  dropping 
below  one  for  most  of  the  years  since 
1961.  The  large  jump  for  1970  represents 
the  oil  finds  at  Prudhoe  Bay,  Alaska. 
Immediately  after  that,  however,  the 
ratio  plunged  to  below  one,  where  it  is 
today. 

Domestic  oil  production  peaked  in 
1970  at  4.1  billion  barrels,  but  despite  a 
6%    increase    in    demand,    each    year's 


Figure  3 

(Source:  R.  L.  Major,  Illinois  Geological  Survey) 


1 

o 

rr 
o. 


\ 

1 

1 

A 

j 

1 

XI 

^ 

1946 


1950 


1954 


1958 


1962 


1966 


1970 


production  since  then  has  declined 
several  percent.  When  the  Alaskan  fields 
actually  come  into  production,  smaller 
imports  will  be  required  for  a  time.  But 
even  these  new  fields  are  not  infinite  and 
it  will  take  at  least  seven  years  to  get 
them  into  full  production. 

From  time  to  time  one  hears  con- 
sumer advocates  make  the  statement 
that  in  any  given  oil  field  over  half  the  oil 
that  was  there  originally  is  still  down 
there.  This  is  true.  Most  fields  yield 
between  35%  to  40%  of  the  oil  in  them. 
The  implication  by  these  individuals  is 
that  there  is  some  sort  of  industrial 
skulduggery  taking  place  to  withhold 
part  of  the  known  oil  reserves  in  order  to 
drive  up  the  price;  but  such  is  not  the 
case.  In  order  to  understand  this,  it  is 
necessary  to  look  at  just  how  oil  is 
produced. 

In  the  average  field  the  oil  consists 
of  a  mixture  of  many  different  chemical 
compounds,  most  of  them  known  gen- 
erally as  the  paraffins.  These  range  from 
the  light  paraffins,  such  as  methane, 
which  is  a  gas,  to  intermediate  paraffins, 
which  are  liquids,  to  the  heavy  paraffins, 
which  are  thick,  gummy,  and  tarry.  The 
oil  is  located  in  the  small  interstitial 
spaces  between  mineral  grains,  such  as 
the  grains  of  sand  in  sandstone.  The  oil  is 
held  under  pressure  due  to  the  load  of 
overlying  and  surrounding  rock  forma- 
tions. The  pressurized  liquid  protion  is 
charged  with  bubbles  of  the  gaseous 
compounds,  much  like  a  soft  drink  is 
charged  with  carbon  dioxide  gas  bubbles. 
When  a  drill  hole  intersects  the  oil- 
bearing  layers,  there  is  a  pressure  release, 
as  when  opening  a  soft  drink  bottle,  and 
the  gaseous  bubbles  tend  to  move 
toward  the  opening.  If  a  pump  is  put  on 
the  hole  the  bubbles  move  upward, 
pushing  along  the  liquids  with  them,  and 
you  then  have  a  production  situation. 
Finally,  a  stage  comes  at  which  the 
gaseous  compounds  have  been  com- 
pletely drawn  off.  This  happens,  on  the 
average,  when  more  than  half  of  the 
liquid  paraffins  are  still  left,  along  with 
the  tarry  ones.  Pumping  "unbubbly"  oils 
thousands  of  feet  up  to  the  surface 
simply  can't  be  done.  It's  too  heavy. 

There  are  two  things,  however,  that 
can  be  done.  A  second  drill  hole  is  put 
into  the  same  layer  at  a  moderate 
distance  from  the  production  well. 
Through  the  second  well  it  is  possible  to 


April  1975 


inject  gases  (even  air)  to  push  the  liquids 
toward  the  production  well,  or,  what  is 
usually  done,  water  is  force-pumped 
down  the  second  hole  to  push  the  oil 
toward  the  production  well.  Since  oil  and 
water  do  not  mix,  the  water  floats  the  oil 
ahead  of  it  to  where  it  can  be  pumped, 
because  there  is  now  a  pressure  from 
below  pushing  it.  This  process  is  called 
"water  flooding,"  or  secondary  recovery. 
But  even  after  secondary  recovery,  as 
much  as  60%  of  the  oil  remains  down 
there.  It  cannot  be  pushed  or  pumped, 
because  its  passage  is  blocked  by  the 
tarry  paraffins  that  have  been  there  all 
along,  clogging  at  least  60%  of  the  pore 
space.  In  virtually  all  domestic  oil  fields 
secondary  recovery  has  been  employed 


been  recovered  by  this  process.  Even, 
however,  were  we  to  decide  to  embark 
on  a  major  tertiary  recovery  program  for 
all  domestic  oil  fields,  it  would  require 
at  least  a  decade  to  build  the  productive 
capacity  to  make  the  necessary  chem- 
icals required  to  do  the  job.  This  doesn't 
help  us  in  the  short  run.  Since  1972  the 
ability  to  significantly  increase  annual 
output  from  proved  reserves  is  virtually 
nonexistent,  and  any  significant  improve- 
ment before  1985  is  an  unrealistic  hope. 

Domestic  Petroleum  Reserves 

In  an  article  such  as  this,  it  is 
impossible  to  go  into  details  of  the 
question  of  what  actually  constitutes  a 


TABLE  2 

MAXIMUM  RECOVERABLE  OIL*  AND  GAS 
RESERVES  FOR  THE  FIFTY  STATES  (ESTIMATED) 


Source  of  Estimate  Oil  Natural  Gas 

(in  billions  of  barrels)  (in  trillions  of  cubic  feet) 


( 


U.S.  Geological  Survey  400 

Mobil  Oil  Corp.  88 

M.  K.  Hubbert  131 

•Includes  crude  oil  and  natural  gas  liquids 


2,000 

443 

1,126 


already  and  is  figured  into  our  knowledge 
of  our  reserves. 

Beyond  this  stage,  further  recovery 
becomes  difficult.  It  involves  the  use  of 
highly    complicated    chemicals,    called 
emulsifiers   and   surfactants.    These    are 
able  to  break  up  the  tarry  paraffins  into 
tiny  globules,  which  are  then  capable  of 
moving  through  the  small  pore  spaces; 
they   can   thus   be    pumped    out    under 
injected    gas   or    water    pressure.    Most 
petroleum  companies  have  devoted  years 
of  research  to  this  process,  called  tertiary 
recovery.    At    present    there    is    only    a 
miniscule  productive  capability  to  pro- 
duce the  chemicals  needed  for  tertiary 
recovery,  and  it  is  an  expensive  process. 
In  test  cases,  however,  yields  of  more 
than  95%  of  the  total  original  oil  have 


reserve  of  petroleum,  or  any  mineral 
resource,  for  that  matter.  Only  a  few 
words  can  be  said  about  the  concept. 

Consider  this:  let's  suppose  we  know 
that  a  certain  oil  field  has  100  million 
barrels  of  oil  in  it.  We  know  that  with 
secondary  recovery  we  can  only  hope  to 
draw,  say,  40%  of  this,  or  40  million 
barrels.  So  that  is  our  reserve  for  that 
field;  a  clear-cut  case. 

Take  another  case:  suppose  there  is 
a  10,000-barrel  oil  occurrence  at,  say, 
8,000  feet  underground.  For  such  a  small 
field  we  must  consider  the  price  of  the  oil 
and  what  it  costs  to  recover  it.  Also,  we 
must  consider  how  much  energy  it  takes 
to  recover  this  much  energy.  10,000 
barrels  of  oil  contain  14  billion  calories. 
With   40%   recovery  we  can   count  on 


obtaining  only  5.6  billion  calories.  We 
must  then  consider  the  number  of 
calories  (work)  spent  in  drilling  at  least 
two  8,000-foot  holes  (for  secondary 
recovery),  the  human  work  involved, 
pumping  (oil  up,  water  down),  and 
transportation  of  this  oil  to  a  refinery.  If 
that  total  expenditure  of  energy  exceeds, 
or  comes  close  to,  the  5.6  billion  calorie 
figure,  then  there  will  be  no  time  when 
the  extraction  of  this  pocket  of  oil  can 
ever  be  justified,  unless  we  want  the  oil 
for  some  use  other  than  as  an  energy 
resource,  say,  to  manufacture  plastics. 

The  question  is,  then,  does  one 
include  that  10,000  barrels  into  a 
national  estimate  of  domestic  oil  re- 
serves? The  answer  is  clearly,  "No."  If 
there  were  ten  thousand  separate  such 
small  occurrences,  it  would  mean  100 
million  barrels  that  could  not  reasonably 
be  counted  into  the  reserve  picture. 
Thus,  the  question  of  reserves,  which  has 
emerged  in  the  press  with  often  conflict- 
ing claims  by  different  "authorities,"  is 
not  a  question  that  is  easy  to  answer. 

At  the  present  time,  estimates  of 
domestic  reserves  are  available  from 
many  sources,  from  which  we  will  use 
three  here:  (1)  the  United  States  Geo- 
logical Survey  official  estimate;  (2)  the 
estimates  of  the  oil  industry  itself, 
exemplified  in  this  article  by  the  Mobil 
Oil  Corp.;  (3)  the  estimates  of  Dr.  M.K. 
Hubbert,  currently  employed  by  the  U.S. 
Geological  Survey,  but  differing  from  the 
Survey's  estimates.  The  results  are  shown 
in  Table  2.  It  is  clear  from  this  table  that 
even  the  experts  disagree.  It  is,  however, 
possible  to  select  from  among  these 
figures.  The  method  of  reserve  analy- 
sis by  the  U.S.  Geological  Survey  is 
clearly  the  most  optimistic.  Although  it  is 
not  possible  here  to  show  in  detail  how 
that  agency  arrived  at  its  rosy  figure, 
careful  examination  over  the  past  few 
years  has  indicated  the  estimate  is 
probably  the  least  reliable  of  the  three. 
(There  are  rumors  this  estimate  may  be 
soon  revised  downward.)  Mobil  Oil 
Corporation's  estimate  is  a  somewhat 
more  complicated  variant  on  the  U.S. 
Geological  Survey  method  of  analysis. 
Hubbert's  extremely  logical  estimate,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  based  on  careful 
mathematical  principles.  I  find  this 
estimate  the  most  convincing,  and,  as  we 
shall  see,  it  has  demonstrated  a  high 
degree  of  success  in  its  predictions. 

(Continued  on  p.  20) 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


ANCIENT  ECUADOR:  Culture,  Clay, 
and  Creativity  3000-300  B.C 


by  Donald  Collier 


On  April  18,  Field 
Museum  will  open  a 
major  special 
exhibition  of  600 
objects  revealing  the 
art  and  life  of  the  first 
settled  peoples  on  the 
coast  of  Ecuador. 


The  exhibition  is  exciting  because  it 
presents  the  earliest  known  ceramics 
(3100  B.C.)  in  the  Western  Hemisphere. 
These  ancient  pots  are  surprisingly 
sophisticated.  This  is  the  first  such 
exhibition  ever  undertaken;  in  fact,  most 
of  the  information  and  objects  have  been 
known  for  less  than  twenty  years.  This 
material  has  never  before  been  presented 
to  the  public  in  Ecuador  or  elsewhere. 

The  exhibition  is  arresting  also  for 
its  rich  and  varied  art,  mainly  in  the  form 
of  ceramic  sculpture  and  effigy  vessels 
depicting  plants,  animals,  and  men.  The 
plants  and  animals  are  so  carefully 
observed  and  realistically  depicted  that 
botanists  and  zoologists  of  Field  Museum 
were  able  in  most  cases  to  determine  the 
genus  and  often  the  species  of  the  fruits, 
vegetables,  mammals,  birds,  fish,  and 
reptiles  shown.  In  some  cases  the  life 
habits  of  a  creature  are  suggested,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  laughing  falcon  killing  a 
gorgeously  depicted  fer-de-lance.  Snakes 
are  this  falcon's  principal  prey. 

This  art  is  beguiling  to  children  — 
the  exhibition  is  a  veritable  ancient 
zoo— and  aesthetically  exciting  to  adults. 
The  collection  sheds  a  revealing  light  on 
the  natural  environment  of  coastal 
Ecuador  during  the  period  5,000  to  3,000 
years  ago  and  on  the  relation  of  the 
ancient  Ecuadorians  to  their  surround- 
ings. Information  on  food,  housing, 
personal  adornment,  ideas  about  the 
supernatural,  curing  of  disease,  and  the 


Donald  Collier  is  curator  of  South  and 
Central  American  archaeology  and 
ethnology. 


use  of  hallucinogenic  drugs— all  are 
revealed  in  this  art. 

The  potters  of  the  Chorrera  period 
(1000-300  B.C.)  were  particularly  attract- 
ed to  the  whistling  vessel.  This  bottle  has 
a  tall  tubular  spout,  loop  handle,  and  one 
or  two  whistles  that  are  sounded  by  an  air 
stream  activated  when  liquid  is  poured 
into  or  out  of  the  bottle.  The  two  whistles 
may  occur  in  unison,  pitched  slightly 
apart  to  produce  musical  beats,  or  in 
thirds  or  fifths.  Two  of  the  three  whistling 
bottles  illustrated  here  are  outstanding 
examples  of  the  Chorrera  potter's  art.  The 
first,  a  supremely  elegant  globular  bottle 
with  a  tall  spout,  shows  two  characteristic 
Chorrera  decorative  techniques:  negative 
or  resist  painting  (multiple  discs)  and 
iridescent  painting  (pinkish  iridescence 
in  geometric  bands).  The  other,  depicting 
a  seating  man,  is  a  true  tour  de  force 
unequaled  by  any  other  piece  of  pottery 
from  South  America  of  whatever  period. 
His  ten  clearly-shown  deformities,  in- 
juries, and  diseases  surpass  the  physical 
afflications  of  Job.  Of  particular  interest 
is  the  overall  patterned  use  of  rocker 
stamping  to  depict  a  skin  disease.  The 
superb  technical  and  aesthetic  excellence 
of  this  piece  and  the  many  symptoms 
shown  suggest  that  it  may  have  been 
commissioned  about  600  B.C.  by  a 
shaman,  the  village  healer,  for  use  in 
curing  rituals. 

The  exhibition  demonstrates  the 
significant  fact  that  intensive  farming, 
permanent  villages,  and  developed 
ceramics  were  at  least  1,000  years  older 
in  Ecuador  than  in  Peru  and  Mexico.  This 
stage  of  development  is  called  the 
Formative  by  archaeologists.  Scholars 
have  generally  believed  the  stage  evolved 
first  in  Mexico  and  Peru  and  spread  from 
there  to  Central  American  and  northern 
South    America.    The    new    information 


from  Ecuador  calls  for  basic  revisions  of 
the  accepted  theories  on  the  origins  of 
New  World  Civilizations.  We  see  an 
active  trade  moving  outward  from  Ecua- 
dor between  1800  and  800  B.C.,  which 
stimulated  the  spread  of  Ecuadorian 
technology,  art  motifs,  and  ideas  to  Peru 
and  the  Pacific  coasts  of  Guatemala  and 
Mexico. 

The  origins  of  the  Formative 
cultures  of  Ecuador  are  still  partially 
obscure,  but  there  is  a  very  high 
probability  that  they  were  indigenous  to 
northern  South  America.  The  exhibition 
presents  the  theory  that  the  first  intensive 
agriculture,  large  villages,  and  pottery  in 
the  New  World  developed  in  the  tropical 
forest  east  of  the  Andes,  perhaps  as  early 
as  5000  B.C.,  and  spread  over  the 
mountains  to  the  coast  of  Ecuador, 
where  we  find  them  well  established 
before  3000  B.C.  By  then  the  coastal 
dwellers  were  growing  corn,  squash, 
gourds,  and  manioc  and  living  in  villages 
with  2,000  inhabitants. 

Ninety  percent  of  the  material  in 
the  exhibition  has  been  borrowed  from 
private  and  museum  collections  in 
Ecuador.  A  printed  catalogue  with  600 
illustrations  and  a  text  by  Dr.  Donald  W. 
Lathrap  of  the  University  of  Illinois, 
Urbana,  will  supplement  the  exhibition. 
The  exhibit  labels  and  most  of  the 
catalogue  are  in  Spanish  and  English. 
After  it  closes  at  Field  Museum  on 
August  5,  the  exhibit  will  travel  to  New 
York,  Minneapolis,  Urbana,  and  Kansas 
City,  and  finally  will  be  shown  in  the 
Ecuadorian  cities  of  Quito  and  Guaya- 
quil. 

The  exhibition  and  catalogue 
have  been  made  possible  by  generous 
grants  from  the  National  Endowment  for 
the  Humanities,  the  Illinois  Arts  Council, 
and  private  donors. 


April  1975 


Valdivia  pottery  jar  with  modeled  corn 
ears  and  incised  motif  of  corn  leaves.  Ca. 
2000  B.C. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin  9 


Chorrera  jar  depicting  a  cebus  monkey 
scratching  itself.  Ca.  500  B.C. 


Large  Chorrera  jar  with  modeled  crab  on  >■ 
the  top  and  a  painted  incised  harpy  eagle 
design  on  the  shoulder.  Ca.  800  B.C. 


10  April  1975 


-<  Chorrera  whistling  bottle  showing  a  dog. 
Ca.  800  B.C. 


Whistling  bottle  depicting  a  man  whose 
ten  clearly-shown  deformities  and  dis- 
eases surpass  the  physical  afflictions  of 
job.  This  supreme  example  of  the 
Chorrera  potter's  art  may  have  been 
commissioned  by  a  shaman  for  use  in 
curing  rituals.  Ca.  600  B.C. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


Pottery  figurine  of  a  Valdivia  woman.  Ca. 
2300  B.C. 


Chorrera  whistling  bottle  with  negative  >- 
painting  and  iridescent  painting  in  broad 
bands.  Ca.  600  B.C. 


12  April  1975 


<  Valdivia  jar  with  pie-crust  rim;  the  oldest 
known  pottery  in  the  Western  Hemi- 
sphere. Ca.  3100  B.C. 


Chorrera    acrobat    performing    a    back 
bend.  Ca.  900  B.C. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin  13 


our  environment 


Illinois  Bald  Eagles  on  Increase 


Bald  eagles  were  not  an  uncommon  sight  in 
Illinois  this  winter,  and  eagle-watchers  are 
sounding  notes  of  optimism  in  the  encourag- 
ing ratio  of  immatures  to  adults  observed.  The 
count  by  U.S.  Fish  and  Wildlife  personnel 
along  the  Mississippi  from  Dubuque,  Iowa,  to 
Rock  Island,  III.,  recently  was  135  bald  eagles, 
with  a  ratio  of  two  adults  to  each  immature 
bird.  The  same  ratio  was  seen  in  the 
Mississippi  River  backwater  areas  from  Belle- 
vue,  Iowa,  five  to  six  miles  downstream, 
where  90  eagles  were  counted.  In  Crab 
Orchard  National  Wildlife  Refuge,  in  south- 
ernmost Illinois,  23  bald  eagles  were  reported 
in  approximately  the  same  ratio. 

At  Horseshoe  Lake  48  were  observed, 
including  18  immatures,  and  15  were  seen  at 
Union  County  Conservation  Area,  with  8 
immatures. 

At  Chautauqua  National  Wildlife  Refuge, 
in  west  central  Illinois,  34  bald  eagles  were 
seen  — half  of  them  adults,  half  immatures. 
The  improved  adult: immature  ratio  of  late  is 
attributed  to  the  ban  on  DDT. 

Illinois  residents  also  saw  more  of  the 
pileated  woodpecker  this  past  winter;  51  were 
seen  in  Union  County  during  the  Audubon 
Yule  bird  count  and  15  were  counted  at 
Horseshoe  Lake.  Unusual  sightings  included 
the  snowy  owl  in  Brown  County,  rock  wren 
(the  third  reported  sighting  in  the  state),  black 
and  white  warbler  (first  ever  seen  in  Illinois  in 
winter),  vesper  and  Lincoln's  sparrows,  pine 
warbler,  and  Virginia  rail. 


Peregrine  Falcons  Reintroduced 

The  endangered  peregrine  falcon,  killed  off  in 
the  wild  by  DDT  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
by  the  1960s,  will  be  returned  to  several 
Atlantic  coast  sites  this  spring  by  the  U.S.  Fish 
and  Wildlife  Service.  A  number  of  falcons 
bred  in  captivity  at  Cornell  University  by 
ornithologist  Tom  Cade  will  be  released  in  a 
cooperative  venture  involving  the  U.  S.  Army 
Material  Command,  the  National  Audubon 
Society,  the  Peregrine  Fund  of  Cornell 
University's  Laboratory  of  Ornithology,  the 
U.  S.  Forest  Service,  and  the  U.  S.  Fish  and 
Wildlife  Service. 

The  experimental  reintroductions  will 
first  take  place  in  New  England,  New  York 
State,  and  in  the  Chesapeake  Bay  area. 
Subsequent  releases  each  spring  thereafter  are 
planned  for  the  East  Coast  now  that  Cornell 
University  has  developed  a  successful  captive 
breeding  program     In   1974,  the  university's 


ornithology  lab  produced  23  young  peregrines, 
29  prairie  falcons,  7  lanners,  and  2  gyrfalcons. 

A  western  breeding  facility  for  peregrine 
falcons  has  also  been  established  under  the 
direction  of  Cornell's  raptor  staff  at  a  research 
site  in  Colorado  in  cooperation  with  the 
Colorado  Divison  of  Wildlife.  Young  pere- 
grines raised  there  are  scheduled  to  be 
returned  to  western  wild  lands  in  the  near 
future. 

The  upcoming  trial  releases  on  the  East 
Coast  will  concentrate  on  an  adaptation  of  the 
falconer's  technique  of  "hacking."  A  week 
before  nestlings  reach  the  flying  stage,  groups 
of  four  to  six  will  be  placed  in  protective 
enclosures  at  suitable  eyries  — either  natural 
cliff  sites  or  on  manmade  structures.  As  soon 
as  the  birds  are  capable  of  sustained  flight, 
they  will  be  released  from  the  enclosure  and 
allowed  to  fly  free.  Having  learned  to 
associate  the  hacking  station  with  food,  they 
will  return  to  it  for  their  meals  until  they  are 
able  to  sustain  themselves  by  their  own 
hunting  efforts,  normally  three  to  four  weeks 
after  first  flying. 

Only  after  a  large  number  of  banded  and 
color-marked  falcons  have  been  hacked  in 
this  way  will  it  be  known  how  successful  they 
will  be  in  surviving  to  breeding  age  and 
whether  they  will  return  and  breed  in  the 
areas  where  they  were  originally  hacked.  The 
working  hypothesis  is  that  these  young  birds 
will  develop  a  lasting  fixation  to  the  site,  or  at 
least  to  the  immediate  area  where  they  are 
hacked,  and  that  survivors  will  return  to  the 
same  places  to  breed  at  the  age  of  two  or 
three  years. 

The  peregrine  falcon  resembles  a 
medium-sized  hawk  with  long,  pointed  wings 
and  long  tail.  It  is  known  for  quick,  deeo 
beats.  The  adult  is  slate  blue-grey  above  and 
its  wing,  tail,  and  flanks  are  barred  with  black. 
It  has  a  white  throat  with  black  streaks  on 
each  side  of  its  face. 

Currently  the  bird  is  wiped  out  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  in  the  United  States,  in 
Ontario,  southern  Quebec,  and  the  Maritimes. 
Local  declines  have  also  been  reported  from 
the  western  United  States,  the  Yukon  territory 
and  interior  Alaska.  The  bird's  status  in  the 
eastern  Canadian  boreal  forest  is  unclear  but 
evidently  it  is  not  numerous  there. 

The  number  of  known  eyries  with  adults 
present  is  currently  estimated  at  no  more  than 
50  in  the  United  States  south  of  Canada.  A  few 
hundred  pairs  of  the  Arctic  subspecies 
peregrine  still  breed  in  northern  Alaska  and 
the  moist  subarctic  forests  of  Canada  and 
Creenland  principally  along  major  rivers. 

The  primary  reason  for  the  peregrine's 
decline  is  DDT.  Falcon  eggshell  thickness  has 
been  reduced  15  to  20  percent  since  1947.  All 


field  and  laboratory  evidence  points  con- 
clusively to  the  cumulative  effects  of  chlori- 
nated pesticides  and  their  breakdown  products 
obtained  by  the  falcons  from  their  prey.  The 
major  culprit  has  been  DDT  and  its  derivative 
DDE,  which  have  increased  adult  mortality, 
affected  the  peregrine's  reproductive  mech- 
anisms, and  caused  eggs  to  become  thin- 
shelled  or  otherwise  nonviable.  Habitat 
destruction  and  other  human  disturbances 
have  also  been  factors  in  the  bird's  decline. 
DDT  levels  in  the  East  have  been  declining, 
thus  offering  hope  that  the  transplants  will 
work  permanently. 

Audubon's  Declining  Bird 
List  Grows  Longer 

The  National  Audubon  Society's  "blue  list,"  its 
"early  warning"  indicator  of  bird  species 
apparently  headed  for  trouble,  is  growing 
longer.  Newcomers  to  the  list  this  year  include 
the  canvasback  duck,  a  prized  game  bird  on 
which  the  hunting  season  is  now  completely 
closed,  and  the  purple  martin,  an  insect-eater 
which  can  sometimes  be  persuaded  to  move 
into  multi-unit  bird  houses.  In  all  there  are  51 
species  on  the  1975  blue  list,  five  more  than 
last  year.  Nine  new  species  were  added,  but 
four  others  were  dropped. 

The  blue  list,  published  in  Audubon's 
ornithological  journal,  American  Birds,  is 
intended  "to  give  early  warning  of  potentially 
dangerous,  apparently  noncyclical  population 
declines,"  and  does  not  include  the  49  U.S. 
birds  already  on  the  endangered  species  list 
maintained  by  the  Department  of  Interior.  By 
the  time  a  bird  reaches  "endangered  status  it 
may  be  so  closed  to  extinction  it  may  be 
difficult  or  even  impossible  to  save  it.  The 
idea  of  the  early  warning  list  is  to  help  spot 
trouble  earlier  so  there  will  be  a  better  chance 
of  doing  something  about  it. 

Besides  the  canvasback  and  purple 
martin,  the  additions  to  this  year's  blue  list 
are:  reddish  egret,  mountain  quail,  upland 
plover,  common  nighthawk,  Lewis'  wood- 
pecker, hairy  woodpecker,  and  lesser  gold- 
finch. Included  in  1974  but  deleted  this  year 
were  the  limpkin,  Franklin's  gull,  gray  vireo, 
and  common  yellowthroat.  American  Birds 
noted,  however,  that  "de-listing  in  these 
instances  is  more  a  case  of  increased 
information  or  corrected  misinformation  than 
any  real  population  increases  in  the  species." 

"One  of  the  important  functions  of  the 
list,"  observes  the  journal,  "is  to  alert 
observers  everywhere  to  pay  special  attention 
to  these  species  and  report  all  observations  (or 
lack  or  them),  so  that  more  accurate 
evaluations  may  be  made." 


April  1975 


About  the  canvasback,  American  Birds 
says:  "Although  far  from  being  a  rare  bird,  this 
species  has  suffered  serious  decline  in  recent 
years  and  should  be  watched  carefully."  As  to 
the  purple  martin,  it  is  noted  that  declines 
have  been  "especially  marked"  in  the  Pacific 
Northwest,  the  Appalachians,  the  Middle 
Pacific,  and  Southern  Pacific  regions. 

Blue-listing  a  species  does  not  necessarily 
mean  it  is  declining  throughout  its  range; 
trouble  in  part  of  its  range  may  indicate  more 
widespread  trouble  is  on  the  way.  The  hairy 
woodpecker  was  included  on  the  basis  of 
three  reporters  in  Florida  and  the  Central 
Southern  Region.  The  nighthawk  was  added 
on  adverse  reports  from  the  Hudson-St. 
Lawrence  and  two  areas  in  the  Middle 
Atlantic  region. 

Largest  category  on  the  list  is  the  birds  of 
prey,  of  which  14  species  are  included:  the 
sharp-shinned,  Cooper's,  red-shouldered, 
Swainson's,  ferruginous,  Harris',  and  marsh 
hawks;  osprey,  caracara,  prairie  falcon, 
merlin,  kestrel,  and  the  barn  and  burrowing 
owls. 


Pacific  Walrus  Hunting  to  Resume? 

A  proposal  to  waive  the  moratorium  and 
implement  regulations  on  the  taking  of  Pacific 
walrus  in  the  State  of  Alaska  has  been 
published  in  the  Federal  Register  by  the  U.S. 
Fish  and  Wildlife  Service.  Under  the  provisions 
of  the  proposed  waiver  and  regulations, 
management  of  walrus  would  be  returned  to 
the  State  of  Alaska. 

The  principal  effect  of  the  proposal 
would  be  to  allow  once  more  the  regulated 
sport  hunting  of  walrus  by  all  citizens,  not  just 
Alaska  natives.  This  activity  is  expected  to  add 
fewer  than  50  animals  a  year  to  the  current 
average  annual  harvest  of  about  1,650  walrus, 
all  now  taken  by  Alaska  natives  for  sub- 
sistence and  their  cottage  industries.  No 
return  to  commercial  hunting  will  be  allowed. 

The  primary  biological  factor  behind  the 
proposal  is  the  fact  that  the  Pacific  walrus 
population  in  and  near  Alaska  is  approaching 
its  optimum  sustainable  level,  to  maintain  a 
balance  with  its  environment. 

Before  large-scale  exploitation  by  whalers 
of  European  descent  which  began  in  about 
1868,  the  Pacific  walrus  was  estimated  to 
number  about  200,000  animals.  The  popula- 
tion may  have  fallen  to  a  low  of  40,000  to 
50,000  in  the  1950  to  1956  period  according  to 
the  best  data  available.  Beginning  in  1960, 
aerial  surveys  of  walruses  were  taken  and  the 
total  population  was  estimated  to  range  from 
73,000  to  117,000  that  year.  The  1972  surveys 


provided  a  median  estimate  of  135,000 
walruses,  and  a  range  of  93,000  to  178,000. 
More  recent  studies  indicate  that  the  popula- 
tion is  still  increasing  and  is  approaching  its 
optimum  sustainable  level. 


Federal  Study  of 
Endangered  Butterflies 

Forty-one  species  of  possibly  endangered  or 
threatened  butterflies  are  to  be  the  subject  of 
intensive  studies  by  the  federal  government, 
twenty-six  states,  Cuba,  Canada,  and  Mexico. 
Most  of  the  butterflies  under  consideration  in 
the  study  owe  their  reduced  populations  to 
two  related  problems  — dependence  on  one 
primary  food  and  land  development.  One  of 
these  insects  is  the  Apache  silverspot,  a 
strikingly  beautiful  butterfly  with  a  cinnamon 
brown  top  and  silver  spots  underneath;  it 
occurs  in  the  Owens  Valley  and  Mono  Lake 
areas  of  California.  It  thrives  on  a  type  of 
violet  which  requires  moist  growing  condi- 
tions. As  the  demand  for  water  by  nearby  Los 
Angeles  grows,  drainage  of  water  from  Owens 
Valley  wiJI  probably  dry  up  the  marsh  areas 
where  the  delicate  violet  grows,  thereby 
reducing  the  Apache  silverspot  population. 

A  Florida  butterfly,  the  atala,  which 
sports  a  velvety  black  and  iridescent  blue 
upper  portion  and  orange  and  gold  markings 
underneath,  occurs  only  in  the  united  States, 
even  though  it  is  a  member  of  a  group  of 
tropical  butterflies.  In  its  caterpillar  stage,  the 
atala  depends  on  the  coontie,  a  primitive 
plant  related  to  the  sego  palm.  Current  land 
development  in  Florida  has  destroyed  several 
areas  where  coontie  was  available  and  now 
the  atala  appears  only  sporadically  and 
unpredictably. 

It  is  believed  that  butterfly  collectors 
have  not  contributed  to  declining  populations 
because  collection  usually  takes  place  at  a 
time  of  year  after  most  females  have  laid  their 
eggs  and  because  males  are  most  frequently 
the  gender  caught.  Interestingly,  the  male 
butterfly  is  more  frequently  caught  by 
amateur  collectors  because  of  its  flamboyant 
tendency  to  flit  about  open  meadows  and 
marshes  "looking  for  the  action"  while  the 
female  of  the  species  maintains  a  somewhat 
more  sedate  posture  nearer  the  ground. 

This  is  the  first  attempt  by  the  federal 
government  to  study  butterflies  that  appear  to 
be  threatened  or  endangered.  Several  states 
have  developed  their  own  endangered  species 
lists  — some  of  which  include  butterflies— but 
the  newly  proposed  study  may  result  in  the 
first  national  list  of  threatened  and  en- 
dangered butterflies. 


Airline  Fined  for  Animal  Deaths 


A  major  international  airline  has  been  fined 
more  than  $2,000  for  inhumane  transportation 
of  wildlife,  which  resulted  in  the  deaths  of  151 
animals  in  shipments  totalling  168.  Seizures 
were  made  at  Chicago's  O'Hare  International 
Airport  by  federal  agents  under  the  authority 
of  the  Lacey  Act,  which  provides  for  penalties 
for  the  importation  of  birds  and  animals  into 
the  United  states  under  inhumane  or 
unhealthful  conditions.  Chicago  is  one  of  the 
country's  nine  designated  ports  of  entry. 

The  first  offense  involved  79  tree  shrews, 
of  which  67  died  from  lack  of  water.  For 
inhumane  treatment,  the  airline  was  fined 
$920.  In  the  second  offense,  lack  of  heat  in  a 
cargo  plane  caused  14  bushbabies  (lemurs),  40 
land  crabs,  and  30  skinks  (lizards)  to  freeze  to 
death.  A  fine  of  $1,090  was  assessed  for 
inadequate  shipping  conditions. 


World  Honeybee  Population  Drops 

The  world's  honeybee  population  is  dropping, 
and  this  could  have  an  effect  on  man's  food 
supply,  says  John  Harbo,  a  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture  entomologist. 

"Man  is  at  a  point  right  now  that  anything 
that  gets  in  his  way  ought  to  be  sprayed  and 
killed,"  said  Harbo,  research  leader  of  the 
department's  bee-breeding  and  stock  center 
laboratory  at  Baton  Rouge,  La. 

Harbo  says  that  the  bee  shortage  is  not 
yet  critical,  even  though  the  bees  have  been 
sorely  affected  by  insecticides  and  herbicides 
and  by  physical  intrusions  into  their  habitat. 

"This  isn't  something  sudden.  It's  been 
happening  for  years,"  observed  Harbo.  "We're 
not  going  to  run  out  of  bees." 

Some  scientists  are  concerned  about  the 
effect  that  a  drop  in  the  world's  bee 
population  could  have  on  food  production. 
The  successful  growth  of  many  fruits  and 
other  crops  depends  on  cross-pollination  by 
bees  as  they  go  from  one  flower  to  another. 

One  index  of  the  reduction  in  bee 
numbers  may  be  the  recent,  sharp  increase  in 
the  price  of  bees.  A  queen  bee  today  brings 
about  $5.50— about  double  the  price  of  a  few 
years  ago. 

Farmers  with  crops  that  need  pollination 
often  employ  a  beekeeper  who  brings  in  his 
own  bees.  The  number  of  such  tended 
colonies,  according  to  one  report,  has 
recently  dropped  more  than  10  percent.  The 
same  report  estimates  that  a  worldwide 
decrease  of  almost  200  million  has  occurred. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


A  Lost  Kingdom  Mislaid 


a  short  report 
on  the  search 


for  Srivijaya 


by    Bennet   Branson 

The  dawn  of  civilization  came  late  to 
Southeast  Asia  but  when  it  did  it  came 
with  special  splendor:  great  temples 
rising  from  rain  forests  and  rice-filled 
plains;  sculpture  equal  to  the  world's 
best  for  delicacy  and  power;  harsh 
monarchs  ordaining  majestic  monu- 
ments and  cities;  traders  pouring  in  from 
Arabia,  Persia,  India,  China,  lured  by  an 
awesome  wealth  of  spices,  dyes, 
incenses,  gold. 

Formerly,  at  about  the  time  of 
Christ,  there  had  been  nothing  here.  The 
plains  and  islands  of  Southeast  Asia  held 
no  more  than  a  scattering  of  villages 
whose  people  were  scientifically  ad- 
vanced for  their  day  but,  as  far  as  we  know 
now,  no  more  given  to  creating  states 
and  founding  cities  than  were  the 
ancient  Patagonians  or  Englishmen.  Yet  a 
few  short  centuries  later  all  was  changed. 
By  AD.  200  the  first  proto-states  of 
Southeast  Asia  had  come  into  being,  by 
700  most  of  the  flatter  and  more  fertile 
parts  of  the  region   had  filled   up  with 

■<Head  of  the  Sarangwaty  Bodhisattva. 
Found  during  the  excavation  of  a  pond 
during  the  early  1960s,  it  dates  to  the  7th 
or  8th  centuries  A.D.  This  is  the  first 
published  photograph. 

Bennet  Bronson  is  assistant  curator, 
Asiatic  archaeology  and  ethnology 


16 


April  1975 


political  units  of  unquestionable  civi- 
lizedness.  The  ruins  these  left  behind  are 
famous,  impressive  even  when  compared 
with  those  of  Egypt  or  Greece.  Their 
names,  some  still  uncertain,  roll  smoothly 
off  the  tongue— Champa,  Chenla,  Dvar- 
avati,  Sailendra,  Srivijaya,  Pyu,  Angkor. 

Why  this  sudden  flowering?  What 
sustained  these  crocus-states  after  their 
first  bloom?  How  did  they  work,  worship, 
philosophize,  survive?  And  why  did  they 
eventually,  one  by  one  and  with  none  of 
the  drama  that  hints  at  a  region-wide 
catastrophe,  decline  and  disappear?  We 
cannot  yet  guess  at  the  answers  to  such 
questions.  While  archeologists  elsewhere 
may  have  been  digging  for  upwards  of  a 
century,  we  in  Southeast  Asia  have 
hardly  begun.  We  have  not  even  man- 
aged yet  to  frame  the  questions  properly. 
Yet  it  is  a  question  of  this  kind,  a  big  one 
involving  the  origins  and  nature  of  a 
specific  ancient  state,  that  I  wish  to 
discuss  here.  The  state  was  called 
Srivijaya.  Its  location  and  its  very 
existence  have  caused  much  controversy. 

Srivijaya  is  a  famous  place  in  the 
history  books:  A  number  of  stone 
inscriptions  mention  it,  as  do  many 
Chinese  and  Arab  chroniclers  of  the 
period  AD.  700-1400.  These  imply  that 
Srivijaya  was  a  great  power  in  its  day,  a 
center  of  wealth  and  learning  whose 
navies  swept  the  Southeast  Asian  seas  for 
more  than  a  half-millenium.  But  for  all 
this  literary  prominence,  the  physical 
remains  of  Srivijaya  turn  out  to  be 
remarkably  hard  to  find.  Another  unsuc- 
cessful attempt  to  discover  these  remains 
has  just  been  made  by  a  joint  Indonesian- 
American  team  sponsored  by  the  Indo- 
nesian Archeological  Institute,  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania  Museum,  and 
Field  Museum.  The  attempt  was  well- 
planned  and  carefully  executed,  yet  no 
sign  of  Srivijaya  was  found.  Does  this 
mean  that  the  team  looked  in  the  wrong 
place?  That  we  looked  for  the  wrong 
thing?  Or  that  Srivijaya  did  not  exist, 
being  just  a  figment  of  the  imagination  of 
ancient  Chinese  writers  and  modern 
Western  historians?  Before  attempting  an 
answer,  let  us  go  over  the  evidence  and 
the  attempt  in  greater  detail. 

Srivijaya  is  supposed  by  most 
experts  to  have  been  located  somewhere 
on  the  swampy  east  coast  of  Sumatra,  the 
large  island  at  the  western  end  of  the 
modern  nation  of  Indonesia.  One  of  the 


main  reasons  for  picking  Sumatra  is  the 
island's  strategic  location.  It  lies  on  and 
along  any  possible  sea  route  between 
China  and  the  other  great  nations  of 
antiquity  in  India,  the  Middle  East,  and 
the  Mediterranean.  Chinese  sources 
record  that  this  route  was  in  use  by  AD. 
100,  when  Roman  merchants  began  to 
arrive  at  the  ports  of  the  South  China 
coast.  Sumatra  also  lies  across  another 
major  trade  route,  that  connecting  the 
Asian  mainland  with  the  Moluccas— the 
Spice  Islands  of  legend— at  the  far 
eastern  end  of  Indonesia.  Since  spices 
grown  only  in  the  Moluccas— cloves, 
nutmeg,  and  mace— were  known  to  the 
ancient  Romans,  Indians,  and  Chinese, 
we  may  be  certain  that  this  route  as  well 
was  used  at  an  early  period.  There  is  even 
some  evidence  that  Sumatra,  besides 
being  at  a  major  crossroad  for  foreign 
trade,  had  itself  a  number  of  commod- 
ities to  offer  to  world  commerce: 
industrial  resins,  incenses,  perhaps  pep- 
per, exotic  materials  such  as  horn 
of  the  rhinoceros  and  hornbill,  and 
moderate  amounts  of  gold. 

It  therefore  makes  sense  that  a 
trade-  (and  piracy-)  oriented  nation  such 
as  Srivijaya  is  said  to  have  been  would 
have  grown  up  on  the  Sumatran  coast. 
Another  reason  why  this  makes  sense  is 
that  the  whole  vicinity  is  otherwise  in  a 
political  vacuum.  While  important 
ancient  civilizations  are  known  to  have 
begun  to  appear  on  the  Southeast  Asian 
mainland  (in  Vietnam  and  Thailand)  as 
early  as  AD.  100  or  200  and  further  out  in 
the  islands  (in  Java)  by  AD.  600-700,  the 
area  in  between  has  produced  very  little 
evidence  of  organized  political  centers 
earlier  than  A.D.  1400.  Knowing  that 
politics  abhors  a  vacuum  at  least  as 
much  as  nature  does,  are  we  then  to 
assume  that  this  central,  strategic  loca- 
tion remained  out  of  the  control  of  any 
state  for  800  years  after  states  appeared 
in  the  region  surrounding  it?  Even  if  there 
were  no  direct  evidence  we  would  have 
to  assume  the  existence  of  a  Srivijaya. 

Some  direct  evidence  does  exist, 
however.  Chinese  writers  between  A.D. 
700  and  1400  persistently  mention  a 
place  named  Shih-li-fo-shih,  or  San-fo- 
ch'i,  which  seems  to  have  been  a  naval 
power  of  some  importance  and  which 
sent  occasional  tribute  missions  to  the 
Chinese  Emperor.  Early  Arab  writers 
describe  a  fabulous  land  called  Zabag  or 


Sribuze.  And  no  fewer  than  six  inscrip- 
tions, all  dating  from  the  early  11th 
century,  have  been  found  in  South  India 
which  mention  a  king  of  Srivijaya.  None 
of  these  sources  is  very  definite  about 
Srivijaya's  location.  But  it  seems  clear 
that  it  was  on  an  island,  close  to  the  sea, 
somewhere  on  the  route  between  China 
and  India. 

Why  then  should  Srivijaya  be 
sought  on  Sumatra  rather  than,  say,  on 
the  Malay  Peninsula  or  Borneo?  Partly 
because  — the  traditional  thinking  runs 
—  Sumatra  is  in  the  strategic  position 
discussed  earlier.  However,  there  is 
another  traditional  argument  as  well,  and 
this  one  has  seemed  nearly  decisive  to 
several  generations  of  historians.  Sumatra 
has  produced  almost  all  the  known 
inscriptions,  stone  slabs  with  writing  in  a 
South  Indian  alphabet,  that  are  earlier 
than  A.D.  1000  and  that  mention  the 
word  "Srivijaya."  Aside  from  one  example 
found  at  Ligor  in  southern  Thailand,  all 
the  rest  (there  are  a  total  of  six,  plus 
fragments  of  two  others)  come  from 
southern  Sumatra  and  the  nearby  island 
of  Bangka.  Three  of  these  were  dis- 
covered in  outlying  areas,  while  the  other 
three  complete  inscriptions  and  two 
fragments  all  turned  up  in  the  immediate 
neighborhood  of  the  city  of  Palembang. 
These  all  mention  the  name  of  Srivijaya, 
were  erected  by  that  nation's  king,  and 
contain  actual  dates  ranging  between 
A.D.  682  and  686.  Since  the  same  vicinity 
has  produced  almost  all  the  pre-1000 
statues  and  other  artwork  known  from 
Sumatra  or  Malaya,  it  has  seemed  certain 
to  nearly  everyone  that  modern  Palem- 
bang and  ancient  Srivijaya  are  one  and 
the  same. 

This  at  any  rate  was  one  of  the 
notions  we  set  out  to  check  when  we  first 
began  work  in  Sumatra,  through  exten- 
sive exploration  in  the  summer  of  1973 
and  excavations  at  Palembang  in  1974. 
During  earlier  visits  to  Palembang  we  had 
become  convinced  that  it  contained  an 
ancient  city  of  some  kind,  since  the 
empty  ground  just  east  of  the  modern 
city  was  littered  with  potsherds  and  other 
early  debris.  We  were  naturally  quite 
aware  that  this  ancient  city  might  not  be 
the  Srivijaya  of  the  chroniclers  and 
historians.  Looking  for  things  with  proper 
names  is  in  fact  generally  a  mistake  in 
archeology,  as  is  shown  by  innumerable 
disastrous   attempts   to   find    Solomon's 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


Temple,  Noah's  Ark,  and  Benjamin 
Franklin's  false  teeth.  For  every  Schlie- 
mann  who  succeeds  in  locating  his  Troy 
there  have  been  countless  persons  who 
have  wasted  time  and  money  (and  done 
irreparable  damage  to  sites)  because  they 
focused  on  a  problem  too  narrow  and 
particularistic,  not  to  say  trivial.  But  on 
the  other  hand  we  did  not  greatly  care 
whether  the  Palembang  site  turned  out  to 
be  Srivijaya  itself.  What  interested  us  was 
the  general  problem  of  the  early  history 
of  urbanization  in  a  part  of  the  world 
where  no  previous  research  had  been 
done.  Since  the  Palembang  sites  appeared 
to  be  (1)  a  city  and  (2)  at  least  as  early  as 
the  7th  century  inscriptions— which  is 
very  early  indeed  for  a  locatable  city  in 
island  Southeast  Asia— we  felt  that 
anything  we  found  would  be  satisfactory. 
If  by  an  improbable  stroke  of  luck  we 
could  show  one  of  the  sites  to  be 
Srivijaya,  that  would  be  so  much  icing  on 
the  cake. 

So  in  July  of  1974  we  began 
digging.  Our  basic  work  force  consisted 
of  fifteen  local  laborers  and  nine  staff 
members,  of  whom  three  were  foreigners 
and  six  were  Indonesian  archeologists 
from  a  university,  a  museum,  and  the 
national  archeological  institute.  Having 
such  a  relatively  large  staff  made  it 
possible  for  us  to  continue  with  exploring 
while  we  excavated  and,  indeed,  for 
some  of  us  to  go  off  later  and  do  an 
entirely  separate  excavation  in  a  pre- 
historic cave  several  hundred  miles 
away.  The  initial  exploring  yielded 
dividends,  however.  As  they  walked  over 
most  of  the  empty  fields  in  and  around 
Palembang,  the  exploring  teams  made  a 
series  of  good  maps  and  located  several 
new  sites,  at  several  of  which  we  later 
excavated . 

By  September,  when  we  stopped 
excavating,  we  had  dug  at  four  different 
locations  around  the  modern  city,  which 
we  called  Geding  Suro,  Air  Bersih,  Sarang 
Waty,  and  Bukit  Seguntang.  All  of  these 
looked  like  good  places  to  dig,  because 
early  statues  or   inscriptions   had   been 

Top:  view  of  Palembang  near  the  Musi 
River.  Park  of  the  city  is  still  built  on 
pilings  over  the  water. 

Bottom:  Beginning  a  testpit  at  Ceding 
Suro,  Palembang.  Two  of  the  small  boys 
later  became  unofficial  project  em- 
ployees. 


18  April  1975 


found  there  in  the  past  and  because  the 
ground  there  was  littered  with  the  debris 
of  former  inhabitation,  mostly  potsherds 
and  brick  fragments,  showing  that  those 
locations  had  once  held  not  only  shrines 
but  also  homes.  The  excavations  pro- 
duced still  more  residential  debris: 
sherds,  bricks,  animal  bones,  bits  of 
roofing  tile,  and  a  small  number  of 
corroded  pieces  of  bronze  and  iron  tools. 
They  produced  little  except  one  or  two 
fragments  of  decorated  baked  clay 
(originally  architectural  ornaments)  and 
a  cache  of  tiny  tablets  of  unbaked 
clay— very  soft  and  difficult  to  excavate 
—  impressed  with  miniature  inscriptions 
of  Buddhist  prayers.  We  found  no 
stone-cut  inscriptions  and  no  statues,  but 
then  we  did  not  expect  to— archeologists 
make  such  major  finds  as  these  very 
rarely,  and  then  only  after  digging  on  a 
scale  much  larger  than  we  wished  or 
could  afford. 

The  usual  way  that  an  archeologist 
finds  major  works  of  art  is  for  someone  to 
show  them  to  him.  We  did  locate  one  in 
this  way,  a  statue  which  had  been  dug  up 
ten  years  before  and  kept  in  the  finder's 
living-room.  As  those  familiar  with  Asian 
art  history  will  know,  it  is  a  figure  of  a 
Bodhisattva,  an  incarnated  Buddha,  exe- 
cuted in  a  style  usually  seen  on 
representations  of  the  Hindu  god  Vishnu 
and  dated  to  somewhere  between  A.D. 
600  and  800.  Statues  of  this  age  and 
quality  are  quite  uncommon  in  Southeast 
Asia.  Hence,  the  Bodhisattva  is  a 
discovery  of  some  importance,  though 
not,  strictly  speaking,  discovered  by  us. 

Hovvever,  the  importance  of  the 
Bodhisattva  pales  beside  another  dis- 
covery. Not  one  of  the  smaller  artifacts 
we  found,  including  several  tens  of 
thousands  of  potsherds,  were  much  older 
than  A.D.  1300.  How  do  we  known  this? 
Because  all  the  sites  we  excavated 
produced  large  numbers  of  stoneware 
and  porcelain  sherds  imported  from 
China,  Thailand,  and  Vietnam.  And  such 
"export  ceramics,"  unlike  most  of  the 
other  artifacts  one  tends  to  find  in 
Sumatra,  can  be  accurately  dated  through 
comparisons  with  museum  collections. 
We  found  more  than  3,000  fragments  of 
imported  wares,  and  not  one  of  these 
turned  out  to  be  older  than  the  Yuan 
Dynasty  in  China  (1279-1368),  even 
though  ceramics  of  Sung  (960-1279)  and 
T'ang  (618-907)  date  are  often  found  at 
other  Indonesian  sites.  Further,  in  many 


of  our  trenches,  the  deepest  (and  thus 
oldest)  deposits  proved  to  contain  ce- 
ramics of  the  14th  or  15th  centuries. 

The  presence  of  so  much  imported 
stoneware  and  porcelain  also  made  it 
possible  to  gain  a  rough  idea  of  the  dates 
for  locally-made  earthenware  sherds. 
Because  the  imports  appeared  in  the 
same  soil  layers  as  the  local  pottery,  we 
could  draw  up  tables  showing  that  no 
kind  of  local  sherd  was  regularly  found  in 
deeper  layers  than  at  least  some  kinds  of 
imported  sherds,  and  it  followed  from 
this  that  no  local  pottery  was  much  older 
than  the  earliest  imports.  We  sorted 
carefully  through  finds  from  26  separate 
trenches  in  four  locations  as  well  as 
through  finds  collected  from  the  surface 
at  twenty  locations  more.  But  in  none  did 
we  find  a  single  sherd  which  we  could 
not  recognize  as  being  closely  similar  to 
sherds  found  in  association  with  post- 
Yuan  imported  ceramics.  We  concluded 
from  this  that  the  Palembang  area 
contains  few  if  any  sherds,  whether 
porcelain  or  earthenware,  which  were 
made  before  A.D.  1300. 

Why  is  this  an  important  dis- 
covery? Because  Palembang  has  been 
supposed  by  almost  everyone  to  be  700 
years  older  than  this.  Setting  aside  the 
question  of  whether  it  really  is  Srivijaya, 
Palembang  has  in  any  case  produced 
numerous  objects  dating  to  the  period 
700-1000,  including  four  major  and  thirty 
minor  inscriptions  and  nearly  twenty 
statues.  How  can  these  objects  be  so 
early  and  the  potsherds  so  late?  Did  we 
manage  to  miss  the  earlier  pottery 
completely?  Or  did  the  early  Palem- 
bangers  for  some  reason  not  use  pots? 

The  second  of  these  alternatives  is 
possible  but  seems  a  bit  unlikely.  It 
would  make  early  Palembang  almost 
unique  among  complex,  "civilized"  hu- 
man societies,  all  of  which  since  about 
4000  B.C.  (with  the  possible  exception  of 
the  Dark-Age  Irish)  appear  to  have  been 
interested  in  containers  of  fired  clay. 
While  it  is  true  that  pottery-using  is  not 
important  in  the  mountainous  areas  of 
present-day  Sumatra,  one  finds  it  hard  to 
believe  that  the  makers  of  the  Palembang 
statues  and  inscriptions  had  no  interest 
in  either  local  earthenware  pots  or  the 
highly  prestigious  porcelains  which  the 
Southeast  Asians  had  been  importing 
from  China  for  all  those  years. 

The  first  alternative,  that  we 
simply    missed    the    earlier    potsherds, 


seems  to  us  equally  unlikely.  We  walked 
over  a  large  part  of  the  Palembang  area, 
including  every  place  where  early  statues 
or  inscriptions  are  known  to  have  been 
found.  We  dug  at  the  three  of  those 
places  which  produced  the  bulk  of  the 
statues  and  inscriptions.  And  much  of 
the  area  in  question  is  well  above  the 
flood-level  of  the  local  rivers,  making  it 
impossible  for  all  the  sherds  to  have  been 
deeply  buried  or  washed  away.  If  those 
pre-1000  sherds  exist  they  should  be  easy 
to  find.  Considering  that  even  a  modest 
town  that  lasts  for  a  century  can  be 
expected  to  generate  many  thousands  of 
tons  of  broken  pottery  and  other  non- 
biodegradable debris,  the  refuse  of  an 
imperial  capital  lasting  (like  Srivijaya) 
for  five  hundred  years  should  stand  out 
very  obviously  indeed  — it  should  pave 
the  earth's  surface  for  several  miles 
around.  Yet  we  found  nothing  really  old 
except  inscriptions  and  statues.  Although 
we  managed  to  locate  one  city,  one 
town,  one  monastic  community  and 
several  dispersed  villages,  none  of  these 
settlements  can  be  older  than  the  14th 
century.  None  was  inhabited  by  the 
people  who  made  the  statues  and  wrote 
the  inscriptions. 

So  we  are  forced  to  look  for  a 
third  possible  explanation  for  this  situa- 
tion of  early  statues  and  late  pots.  The 
only  one  that  occurs  to  us  is  redeposition, 
that  the  statues  and  inscriptions  were 
originally  set  up  somewhere  else  and 
then,  much  later,  moved  to  Palembang. 
It  is  a  complicated  explanation,  and  the 
good  scientist  prefers  his  explanations  to 
be  as  simple  as  possible.  But  it  has  a  good 
deal  of  plausibility.  We  know  that  at  least 
some  of  the  statues-and-inscriptions  were 
not  in  their  original  positions  when 
discovered  in  the  1890s  and  1920s— one 
8th  century  statue  was  discovered  lying 
on  a  16th  century  surface,  and  a  whole 
group  of  7th  century  inscriptions  appears 
to  have  been  found  buried  next  to  the 
grave  of  a  17th  century  king.  That  all  of 
these  objects  were  moved  several  cen- 
turies ago  cannot  be  proved.  However,  it 
fits  well  with  what  we  know  about  the 
attitudes  of  more  recent  Southeast 
Asians  toward  early  monuments.  The 
Thais,  Cambodians,  and  Javanese  tend  to 
regard  such  objects  as  sacred  or  imbued 
with  mystical  (or  magical)  power;  they 
often  collect  them,  care  for  them,  and 
take  them  along  if  their  towns  or  villages 
have   to   be    moved.    Numerous    Indian 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


19 


inscriptions  are  known  to  have  been 
transported  from  one  place  to  another 
during  the  pre-European  period;  in 
Thailand  and  Laos  famous  statues  have 
even  had  wars  fought  over  them.  Why 
the  inhabitants  of  Palembang  during  the 
14th-17th  centuries  should  have  wanted 
to  collect  monuments  is  not  yet  clear, 
nor  is  the  place  the  monuments  originally 
came  from.  But  as  of  now  it  seems  they 
did  collect  them.  We  may  have  stumbled 
into  that  old  joke  of  archeologists, 
excavating  in  a  museum. 

What  all  this  means  in  terms  of 
the  Srivijaya  problem  is  also  unclear. 
Beyond  doubt,  we  feel,  Srivijaya  was 
somewhere  else.  We  even  think  it 
unlikely  that  Srivijaya  was  anywhere 
nearby— certainly  not  at  any  spot  along 
the  banks  of  the  Musi,  the  main  river  that 
flows  through  Palembang  and  gives  it 
access  to  the  sea.  But  this  leaves 
unexplored  a  tremendous  area  of  the 
Sumatran  coast,  much  of  it  covered  by 
almost  impassible  mangrove  swamp. 
Perhaps  it  might  be  felt  that  mangrove 
swamp  is  not  such  a  suitable  place  for  an 
ancient  city;  on  the  other  hand,  we 
should  not  be  too  narrowminded  in  our 
notions  of  what  such  a  city  could  be  like. 
Sizeable  kingdoms,  like  Bonny,  Brass, 
and  Calabar,  existed  in  the  swamps  of  the 
Niger  Delta  in  West  Africa  during  slaving 
days,  and  early  travellers  in  Southeast 
Asia  reported  several  cities  (for  instance, 
Brunei  and  Banjermasin  in  Borneo,  Bang- 
kok in  Thailand,  and  Palembang  itself) 
which  were  built  wholly  or  partly  on  rafts 
and  piles  over  the  water.  There  is  not 
even  any  real  reason  why  a  "city," 
understood  as  a  major  administrative  and 
economic  center  of  a  political  unit, 
should  be  fixed  permanently  in  one 
place.  One  can  imagine  that  the  capital 
of  Srivijaya  might  have  been  figuratively 
and  literally  a  floating  city,  moved  from 
place  to  place  among  the  islands  of  the 
Southeast  Asian  archipelago  in  response 
to  economic  opportunities,  dynastic 
intrigues,  military  problems,  and  admin- 
istrators' whims. 

As  for  the  larger  question,  the 
origins  and  nature  of  early  Southeast 
Asian  cities  in  general,  the  Palembang 
excavations  leave  us  no  further  forward 
than  we  were  before.  We  may  in  fact 
have  gone  back  a  step,  since  now  we 
know  that  no  urban-sized  site  yet 
discovered  in  Sumatra  goes  back  beyond 


AD.  1000.  The  same  is  true  for  the 
southern  Malay  Peninsula,  Borneo,  the 
Philippines,  Eastern  Indonesia,  and  in- 
deed for  Java,  despite  that  island's 
richness  in  early  temples  and  other 
monuments.  What  it  all  comes  down  to  is 
that  we  have  not  located  a  single  city 
earlier  than  A.D.  1000  anywhere  in 
Southeast  Asia  south  of  the  Thai- 
Malaysian  border,  and  this  makes  any 
discussion  of  urban  origins  rather  uncom- 
fortably abstract.  While  the  cities  are 
undoubtedly  there,  we  have  still  to  find 
them.  Historical  records,  aerial  photo- 
graphy and  perhaps  even  electronic 
gadgetry  may  be  useful.  One  suspects, 
however,  that  most  of  the  cities  will  be 
found  using  that  most  important  of 
archeological  equipment,  archeologists' 
eyes  and  feet.  □ 


CALORIE-COUNTER'S  GUIDE 

(Cont'd  from  p.  7) 

Perhaps  more  important  than  the  _ 
estimates  in  terms  of  billions  of  barrels,  is 
what  each  estimate  means  in  terms  of 
how  long  domestic  supplies  will  last  — 
taking  into  consideration  current  Amer- 
ican use  patterns.  Petroleum  consump- 
tion has  been  increasing  at  about  6%  per 
year,  as  opposed  to  overall  energy 
consumption,  which,  as  mentioned  ear- 
lier, is  increasing  at  an  average  of  5%  per 
year.  If  we  assume  a  6%  annual  increase, 
and  start  our  computation  at  our  present 
consumption  level  of  16  million  barrels 
per  day,  then  the  U.S.  Geological  Survey 
estimate  gives  us  27  years  of  supply  (to 
the  year  2002;  the  Hubbert  estimate  is  14 
years  (year  1989),  and  the  Mobil  estimate 
gives  us  only  11  years  (year  1986)r  In 
terms  of  the  people,  it  means— taking  the 
most  optimistic  view— that  our  children 
will  be  left  to  face  a  difficult  time  in  their 
adult  years  due  to  our  present  use 
pattern,  if  it  continues  as  it  has. 

Although  many  of  us  would  like  to 
think  that  by  some  stroke  of  luck  huge 
new  domestic  reserves  will  be  found, 
these  hard  figures  tell  us  that  this  is  not  at 
all  likely.  If  we  wish  to  merrily  roll  along 
with  our  current  use  patterns,  either  our 
children  will  pay  for  it  with  lowered 
standards  of  living,  or  we  must  make  up 
the  difference  by  importing  foreign  oil. 
E  ronomic  considerations,  mainly  balance 


of  payments,  make  this  course  impos- 
sible for  very  much  longer,  for  by  the 
year  1980  we  will  have  to  be  importing  14 
million  barrels  each  day.  At  current 
prices  this  would  be  over  $50  billion  per 
year.  Aside  from  economic  factors,  such 
extreme  dependence  on  foreign  sources 
makes  the  United  States  vulnerable  both 
politically  and  militarily.  So  as  far  as 
petroleum  is  concerned,  "Project  Inde- 
pendence by  1980"  is  a  hollow  political 
slogan. 

In  addition,  some  of  the  possible 
exporting  countries,  such  as  Canada, 
Venezuela,  and  the  USSR,  can  easily 
profit  from  a  view  of  our  history;  by 
r.educing  or  eliminating  their  exports, 
they  can  achieve  their  own  petroleum 
independence. 

The  Question  of  Blame 

Whenever  some  unpleasant  situation 
arises  there  is  always  the  question  of 
whom  to  blame.  In  the  case  of  petroleum, 
blame  has  been  variously  put  on  the 
government,  the  oil  industry,  and  the 
consuming  public.  The  truth  of  the 
matter  is,  all  three  of  these  are  to  blame 
and,  at  the  same  time,  none  is  to  blame. 
It  is  a  complex  of  tax  and  legal  policies, 
economics,  judgments,  misjudgments, 
and  certain  innate  features  of  human 
nature.  Although  it  is  not  possible  to  go 
into  these  aspects  here,  the  upshot  has 
been  that  for  three  decades  or  more, 
petroleum  energy  has  been  cheap, 
relative  to  the  buying  power  of  the 
average  American.  Thus,  its  use  was  both 
tacitly  encouraged  and  overtly  pushed. 
The  efficiencies  of  petroleum-consuming 
equipment  was  not  a  major  considera- 
tion. For  two  decades  the  overall  miles- 
per-gallon  performance  of  American 
vehicles  has  dropped  steadily.  At  the 
present  time  it  now  takes  2,000  calories 
to  move  one  person  one  mile  by  auto.  By 
contrast,  the  figure  for  a  bicycle  is  only 
50  calories.  Heavy  industry,  on  the  other 
hand,  has  generally  attempted  to  keep 
efficiencies  as  high  as  possible,  although 
even  there  it  has  been  often  more 
economical  to  continue  use  of  lower 
efficiency  machinery  rather  than  under- 
go the  higher  cost  of  purchase  and 
installation  of  newer,  more  efficient 
equipment  that  might  become  available. 
In  general,  at  least  50%  of  the  calories 
used  are  lost  due  to  inefficiencies  of 
various  kinds,  some  unavoidable. 


April  1975 


During  the  past  decade,  we  have 
finally  come  to  realize  the  degradation 
we  have  been  imposing  on  our  physical 
environment.  The  increased  use  of 
electricity  has  meant  increased  burning 
of  fossil  fuels  in  electrical  generating 
plants.  Until  the  mid-1960s  most  such 
plants  burned  coal.  The  inherent  sulfur 
content  of  most  coal  created  a  major 
health  hazard  by  adding  noxious  sulfur 
dioxide  to  the  air.  As  a  result,  many  of 
the  generating  plants  went  to  the  burning 
of  oil  or  natural  gas.  In  this  regard,  in  the 
petroleum  industry  crude  oil  is  referred 
to  as  "sweet  crude,"  meaning  low  in 
sulfur,  and  "sour  crude"  (high  sulfur). 
The  high  demand  for  sweet  crude  has 
decreased  its  supply  faster  relative  to  the 
total  supply.  But  oil  is  such  a  versatile 
substance,  it  is  a  shame  to  use  it  for 
burning,  and  other  methods  of  clean 
electrical  generation  are  clearly  required. 
These  will  be  discussed  in  a  future 
article. 

Natural  Gas 

Since  natural  gas  (mainly  made  up 
of  the  light  paraffin,  methane)  is  most 
often  tied  to  the  exploration  and 
production  of  oil,  the  same  factors  that 
affect  domestic  petroleum  apply  here 
also.  One  additional  aspect,  however, 
has  played  a  major  role  in  the  now 
serious  shortage  of  gas.  Since  the  mid- 
1950s,  governmental  regulations  have 
fixed  the  price  on  interstate  sales  of 
natural  gas  at  the  production  sites.  The 
result  has  been  severalfold: 

(1)  There  is  no  incentive  to 
put  major  expenditures  into  the  explora- 
tion for  gas  per  se.  (2)  When  an  expensive 
oil  exploration  program  turns  out  to  yield 
a  field  that  has  too  little  oil  to  pay  for 
the  cost  of  exploration,  but  does. have 
abundant  natural  gas,  the  fixed  price 
forces  the  producer  to  seek  a  market  for 
as  much  of  the  gas  as  he  can  sell.  Since 
he  is  fixed  in  the  unit  price  he  can 
charge,  he  tries  to  sell  as  large  a  volume 
as  he  can  to  pay  off  his  exploration  and 
development  costs.  One  solution  to  this 
problem  is  to  convince  various  industries 
to  convert  to  gas  for  all  their  energy 
needs,  and  provide  lower  rates  to  big 
users.  (3)  The  fixed  price  policy  has 
discouraged  the  collection  of  natural  gas 
from  smaller  fields  or  inconveniently 
located  larger  fields  that  are  producing 


Figure  4 

(Source:  R.  L.  Major,  Illinois  Geological  Survey) 


4 

o 

l/l 

2 

to 

z 

•2    i 

o 

a. 

— 

LL 

1946 


1950 


1954 


1958 


1962 


1966 


1970 


oil.  In  these  cases  the  gas  is  "flared  off," 
that  is,  burned  in  the  field.  In  some  fields 
such  fires  have  burned  for  years  to  get  rid 
of  an  unprofitable  product.  As  one 
petroleum  geologist  put  it,  gas  is  like  the 
sawdust  that  is  a  natural  result  of  running 
a  lumbermill.  If  one  can  sell  the  sawdust 
conveniently  (at  a  fixed  price)  then  that 
is  done.  If  there  is  any  problem  with 
selling  it,  there  is  little  incentive  to 
overcome  the  problem. 

Fig.  4  shows  a  charting  of  the  F/P 
ratio  for  natural  gas.  Comparison  with 
Fig.  3  shows  it  is  similar  in  trend  to  the 
ratio  for  oil.  Since  1967  it  has  fallen 
below  one,  again  with  the  exception  of 
the  1970  peak  when  finds  were  made  in 
Alaska.  Table  2  shows  the  estimates  of 
natural  gas  supplies.  Once  again  we  see 
that  the  maximum  estimate  of  the  U.S. 
Geological  Survey  is  the  most  optimistic. 
Again  the  Hubbert  figure  seems  the  most 
reasonable. 

Domestic  Petroleum  Outlook 
for  the  Near  Future 

In  1956  (19  years  ago),  Hubbert 
predicted  that  domestic  oil  production 
would  peak  between  1966  and  1971.  He 
was  correct  with  his  method  of  analysis; 
the  peak  did  come  in  November,  1970, 
and  production  has  been  declining  since. 
Hubbert  also  predicted  that  natural  gas 
would  peak  in  1974-75,  which  is  proving 
to  be  true  at  the  time  of  this  writing. 
Clearly,  his  method  of  analysis  has 
something  going  for  it.  At  the  present 


time  the  United  States  domestic  petro- 
leum reserve  (excluding  Alaska  reserves) 
is  down  to  about  nine  years. 

During  this  interval  it  is  possible 
great  strides  could  be  made  in  establish- 
ing tertiary  recovery,  as  well  as  in 
discovering  alternate  energy  sources.  In 
the  meantime,  great  hopes  have  been 
attached  to  possible  large  discoveries 
offshore  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  Explora- 
tory work,  upwards  of  $200  million 
worth,  resulted  in  65  drill  sites  in  what 
are  considered  the  most  promising  areas 
of  the  eastern  continental  shelf.  But 
of  these,  62  were  dry  holes.  The  oil 
showings  in  the  remaining  three  were  too 
small  to  warrant  any  production.  For  the 
short  term,  which  is  our  major  problem, 
the  prognosis  is  very  poor.  Even  if  major 
new  offshore  fields  were  found,  it  takes 
up  to  seven  years  to  develop  them  into 
production. 

As  we  shall  see  in  subsequent 
articles,  prospects  for  alternative  energy 
sources  are  indeed  numerous.  And,  as 
stated  earlier,  there  is  no  absolute 
shortage  of  petroleum  at  present,  though 
for  a  decade  at  least  we  will  have  to 
change  our  energy-consuming  patterns. 
We  are  fortunate  that  because  of  a 
combination  of  political  events,  eco- 
nomic conditions,  and  social  and  en- 
vironmental events,  we  have  received  an 
early  warning.  There  is  an  energy  crisis, 
not  one  that  is  going  to  destroy  us,  but 
one  which  will  give  us  pause  to  think  and 
find  solutions  before  a  disastrous  state 
does  arrive.  □ 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


field  briefs 


Marshland  scene  by  Charles  F.  Davis;  see  "Nature  Photography  Course,"  below. 


Conference  on  Lake  Michigan  Status 

The  "State  of  the  Lake"  will  be  the  topic 
addressed  at  an  all-day  conference  at 
Field  Museum  on  Wednesday,  April  26. 
The  Lake  Michigan  Federation  is  sponsor- 
ing the  event  to  draw  attention  to  the 
problems  of  the  lake. 

Toxic  substances,  pollution  from 
dredging  spoils,  and  transfer  of  pollutants 
from  the  atmosphere  to  the  lake  will  be 
the  primary  technical  topics  discussed  in 
the  meeting  room  sessions.  Additionally, 
visual  aids,  general  information,  and 
talks  will  be  presented  in  the  lecture 
room  for  the  public  and  museum  guests 
who  do  not  prefer  technical  topics. 

Environmental  enforcement  officials 


and  public  officials  will  involved  in  the 
program.  The  technical  experts  will 
discuss  their  research  on  toxic  -sub- 
stances, polychlorinated  biphenyls 
(PCBs)  in  particular;  atmospheric  pol- 
lutants transfer  to  the  lake;  and  pollution 
from  dredge  spoils  before  a  panel  of 
officials  who  will  then  question  the 
experts.  The  program  will  began  at  9  a.m. 
and  conclude  about  4  p.m. 

The  "State  of  the  Lake"  conference 
will  be  part  of  a  week-long  series  of 
events  around  the  lake  to  draw  attention 
to  lake  problems  and  to  celebrate  the 
fifth  birthday  of  Lake  Michigan  Federa- 
tion. The  Federation  is  a  private  non- 
profit environmental  coalition  of  organi- 
zations in  the  four  Lake  Michigan  states. 


The  goal  of  the  organization  is  to 
promote  citizen  participation  in  formula- 
tion of  public  policy  decisions  affecting 
the  lake  and  its  shorelands. 


Nature  Photography  Course 

An  aesthetic  approach  to  nature,  via  the 
camera  lens,  will  be  presented  by  Field 
Museum  in  a  series  of  six  sessions. 
Charles  F.  Davis,  eminent  Oak  Park 
photographer  and  teacher,  is  guest 
lecturer.  The  sessions  — limited  to  25 
persons— will  be  given  on  successive 
Saturdays:  May  10,  17,  24,  31;  June  7  and 
14.  Participants  must  be  seriously  inter- 


April  1975 


ested  in  scenic  photography,  be  profi- 
cient in  color  work,  and  have  a  full-frame 
35  mm  or  larger  format  camera. 


One-Day  Program  on  Raptors 

A  special  program  on  raptors  (birds  of 
prey)  will  be  offered  on  Thursday,  May 
17,  at  Field  Museum  for  junior  high  and 
senior  high  school  students.  It  is  to  be 
sponsored  jointly  by  the  Museum  and  the 
Lincoln  Park  Zoological  Society.  The 
program  will  open  at  10  a.m.,  in  the 
Lecture  Hall,  with  a  film  on  the  red-tailed 
hawk,  a  discussion,  and  a  live  animal 
demonstration.  At  1  p.m.  the  program 
will  offer  "birding  workshops,"  a  museum 
tour  of  bird  of  prey  exhibits,  and  a 
discussion  with  naturalists  who  have 
recently  returned  from  Guyana,  where 
they  studied  and  filmed  the  harpy  eagle. 
Portions  of  this  rare  film  will  also  be 
shown.  Bob  Hinckley,  Lincoln  Park  Zoo's 
curator  of  birds,  will  be  a  featured 
speaker.  Those  who  wish  to  register  for 
the  morning  workshop  or  who  wish  to 
have  a  registration  form  for  the  afternoon 
workshop  should  call  922-9410,  ext.  352. 
Cost  of  the  program  is  $1.00,  to  be  paid  at 
the  Lecture  Hall  on  arrival. 


Jory  Graham  New  PR  Head 

Field  Museum's  new  public  relations 
counsel  is  Jory  Graham,  well-known 
Chicago  journalist  and  author.  Most 
recently,  Ms.  Graham  has  been  a 
columnist  for  the  Chicago  Sun-Times  and 
a  contributing  editor  for  The  Chicagoan. 
She  is  author  of  five  books,  including 
Chicago:  An  Extraordinary  Guide  (1968), 
a  Chicago-area  best-seller  now  in  its 
fourth  printing,  and  Instant  Chicago- 
How  to  Cope  (1973).  She  is  currently 
revising  the  former,  scheduled  for  publi- 
cation early  next  year.  As  public  relations 
counsel  Ms.  Graham  succeeds  G.  Henry 
Ottery,  who  resigned. 


Development  Office 

Names  Cliff  Buzard 

The  new  associate  development  officer 
for  Field  Museum  is  Clifford  Buzard,  who 
most  recently  served  as  director  of 
communication's  at  Rush-Presbyterian-St. 
Luke's  Medical  Center,  in  Chicago.  Mr. 
Buzard  is  a  thirty-year  Chicagoan  and  a 
graduate  of  Northwestern  University's 
Medill  School  of  Journalism.  Hesucceeds 
Kent  Buell,  who  resigned  to  accept 
another  position. 


Harold  Haydon  [left),  Chicago  Sun-Times  art  critic,  discusses  the  exhibit  of  ancient 
Ecuadorian  artifacts,  opening  April  18,  with  Donald  Collier,  curator  of  Middle  and 
South  American  archaeology  and  ethnology. 


Don't  Forget  Members'  Nights! 

Mark  a  red  circle  on  May  1  or  2  (Thursday  and 
Friday)  so  that  you  will  remember  to  attend 
Field  Museum's  Members'  Night  — on  either  of 
those  nights.  Open  house  will  be  from  6:00  to 
10:00,  with  many  special  activities  featured, 
in  addition  to  refreshments  and  live  enter- 
tainment in  Stanley  Field  Hall.  Duplicate 
programs  will  be  offered  on  both  evenings. 


Buffet  Opens  Ecuador  Exhibit 

A  gala  buffet  supper  to  inaugurate  the 
opening  of  a  new  exhibit  "Ancient 
Ecuador:  Culture,  Clay,  and  Creativity 
3000-300  B.C."  will  be  held  at  Field 
Museum  on  Thursday  evening,  April  17. 
The  event  is  sponsored  by  the  Women's 
Board  of  Field  Museum  and  is  open  to 
nonmembers  as  well  as  members.  Re- 
servations may  be  made  by  sending  in 
the  coupon  below  (or  facsimile  thereof) 
with  a  check  for  the  appropriate  amount. 
For  details  of  the  exhibit,  open  to  the 
public  on  April  18,  see  p.  8. 


Field  Museum 

Ecuador  Preview  Supper 

April  17,  1975 


Name 


Street 


City. 


State. 


Zip. 


MEMBERS: 

No.  of  tickets  ($18.50ea.) 

Check  enclosed  for  $   


(Price  includes  food  and  beverages) 

NONMEMBERS: 

No.  of  tickets  ($22.50  ea.)  

Check  enclosed  for  $   


(Price  includes  food  and  beverages) 

D  I  wish  to  become  a  member  of  Field 

Museum 
D  Check  enclosed  for  Life  Membership 

($500) 
D  Check  enclosed  for  Annual  Family 

Membership  ($15). 
I  am  unable  to  attend  the  supper  but 
wish  to  contribute  $ . 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


ILLINOIS  NATURAL  HISTORY 
SURVEY  LIB  RM  196 
NATURAL  RESOURCES  BUILDING 
URBANA  ILL  61801 


APRIL  and  MAY  at  Field  Museum 


SPECIAL  PROGRAMS 


Continuing: 


Craft  Demonstrations  and  Discussions 

"African  Patterns,"  10:00  a.m.  to  12:00  noon,  Mondays,  Wednesdays,  and 
Fridays.  Entrance  to  Hall  27. 

"The  Ways  of  Our  Ancestors:  Traditions  of  Native  North  America,"  10:00 
a.m.  to  12:00  noon  and  2:00  to  5:00  p.m.  Fridays.  Hall  4. 

Weaving  demonstration  by  members  of  the  North  Shore  Weavers'  Guild 
from  10:00  a.m.  to  12:00  noon  on  Mondays,  Wednesdays,  and  Fridays. 
Spinning  also  shown  on  the  first  and  third  Mondays  of  each  month.  South 
Lounge. 

Saturday  Discovery  Programs 

A  series  of  tours,  demonstrations,  and  participatory  activities  offered  by 
Museum  volunteers  between  11:00  a.m.  and  3:00  p.m.  includes  Ancient 
Egypt,  Prehistoric  Man,  Reptiles,  Jewelry  in  Other  Cultures,  and  Northwest 
Coast  Art.  For  information  on  time,  place,  and  topic  inquire  at  Museum 
entrances. 


Begins  April  5: 

Field  Museum's  Ray  A.  Kroc  Environmental  Education  Program  series,    AUin 
Uses  the  Land." 

Adult  Field  Trips:  April   19,  "Energy,  Residence,  and  Recreation  Sys- 

tems." Lakeshore  priorities  for  energy,  recreation, 
and  community  living  will  be  explored.  (Completely 
booked.) ' 
April  23,  above  program  repeated. 

Adult  Courses:  April  5,  "Nature  Photography."  The  first  of  six  Sat- 

urday programs  (one  course)   on  basics  of  nature 
photography. 

Programs  for  Teachers:  April  19,  "The  Dunes."  Field  trip  stressing  ecolog- 
ical succession,  field  techniques,  and  national  park 
facilities. 

April  26,  "The  Vacant  Lot."  Explores  the  kind   of 
community  most  accessible  to  the  urban  school. 


Family  Mini-courses: 


April  12.  "Here  Today,  Gone  Tomorrow?"  Introduc- 
tory museum  program  in  morning:  afternoon  trip 
to  Lincoln  Park  Zoo. 
April  19,  above  program  repeated. 
April  23,  "Energy:  Planning  for  the  Future."  Family 
use  of  energy  explored;  trip  to  Bethlehem  Steel 
plant. 


Saturday,  April  12 

Programs  by  leading  performing  arts  groups,  including  The  Chicago  Brass 
Quintet,  Dance  Medium,  and  The  Indian  Trio,  10:30  a.m.  to  1:30  p.m., 
Stanley  Field  Hall.  Sponsored  by  Young  Audiences  of  Chicago. 


Opens  April  18 

"Ancient  Ecuador:  Culture,  Clay,  and  Creativity,"  an  exhibition  of  pottery, 
jewelry,  and  tools  dating  from  3000-300  B.C.  Hall  9. 


April  19  to  27: 

Spring  Holiday  Programs  include: 

Films  at  11 :00  a.m.  and  1 :00  p.m.  daily,  Hall  27  Studio. 

"Fingertrips,"  a  guessing  game  exploring  the  sense  of  touch,  1:00  to  4:30 
p.m.,  April  22,  23,  and  24,  South  Lounge. 

"Environmental    Awareness,"    a    film-discussion    program    on    endangered 
species.  10:30  to  11:15  a.m.,  April  22  and  24,  Lecture  Hall. 


FILMS  AND   LECTURES 

"Ascent  of  Man,"  free  film  series,  presented  at  2:00  p.m.  Fridays  and 
Sundays  through  April  20  in  the  Lecture  Hall. 

The  one-hour  films  cover  a  time  span  of  more  than  two  million  years  in 
exploring  scientific  discoveries  that  have  shaped   human   history. 
April  4  and  6:        "Knowledge  or  Uncertainty" 
April  11  and  13:    "Generation  upon  Generation" 
April  18  and  20:    "The  Long  Childhood" 

Free  Ayer  Adult  Illustrated  Lecture  Series,  "Expeditions  Unlimited  1975," 
presented  by  Field  Museum  curators  at  7:30  p.m.  Fridays  and  2:30  p.m. 
Saturdays  in  Lecture  Hall.  Seating  is  limited  to  225  persons.  Museum 
cafeteria  is  open  until  7:30  p.m.  Fridays. 

April  4  and  5:        "Collecting  Mosses  in  Southern  Chile,"  by  John  Engel 
April  11  and  12:    "Ancient  EcuadoY:  Culture,  Clay,  and  Creativity," 
by  Donald  Collier 

CHILDREN'S  PROGRAM 

Continuing: 

Spring  Journey  for  Children,  "People  of  the  Salmon  and  Cedar,"  a  free, 
self-guided  tour,  routes  youngsters  to  Museum  exhibits  relating  to  the 
Northwest  Coast  tribes.  All  boys  and  girls  who  can  read  and  write  may 
participate  in  the  program.  Journey  sheets  in  English  and  Spanish  available 
at  entrances.  Through  May  31. 

MEETINGS 

April  4,  8:00  p.m.,  Chicago  Anthropological  Society 

April  8,  7:00  p.m..  Nature  Camera  Club  of  Chicago 

April  8,  8:00  p.m.,  Chicago  Glider  Club  Council 

April  9,  7:00  p.m.,  Chicago  Ornithological  Society 

April  9,  7:30  p.m.,  Windy  City  Grotto,  National  Speleological  Society 

April  10,  8:00  p.m.,  Chicago  Mountaineering  Club 

April  20,  2:00  p.m.,  Chicago  Shell  Club 

COMING  IN  MAY 
May  1  and  2,  Field  Museum's  Members'  Nights,  6:00  to  10:00  p.m. 
May  3,  Lelooska  Carvers  perform 

Field  Museum's  Ray  A.  Kroc  Environmental  Education  Program  series. 
"Man  Uses  the  Land,"  continues. 

Adult  Field  Trips:  May  3,  7,  "looking  at  Landscapes,"  preserving  natural 
communities  becomes  more  difficult  as  surburbia  grows.  May  10,  14,  "Farm 
Futures,"  life  on  suburban  farms  caught  in  the  rural  and  urban  interface. 
May  17,  21,  "Guarding  the  Future,"  Forest  preserves  try  to  balance  the 
often  conflicting  needs  for  recreation  and  preservation.  May  24,  28.  "Chal- 
lenging Changes,"  garbage  plus  gravel  makes  a  ski  hill  and  an  abandoned 
railroad  right-of-way  becomes  a  nature  trail.  May  31,  "Creating  Diversity," 
a  native  prairie  is  threatened  by  development,  and  an  overused  forest 
preserve  is  transformed  into  an  environmental  education  center. 
Adult  Courses:  May  10,  "Landscape  Photography,"  first  session  in  series 
of  six. 

Programs  for  Teachers:  May  10,  "The  Stream,"  the  varied  character  of  Saw 
Mill  Creek  is  observed.  May  17,  "The  Lake,"  a  slide  presentation  on  history 
and  problems  of  Lake  Michigan,  followed  by  dipping  net  into  Burnham 
Harbor.  May  24,  "The  Prairie,"  an  opportunity  to  explore  Wolf  Road  Prairie, 
an  endangered  prairie  remnant. 

Family  Field  Trips:  May  17,  24,  "The  Farm,"  a  visit  to  hog  farm  and  a  dairy 
farm.  May  31,  "The  Forest,"  explore  a  pond,  a  forest,  and  other  ecological 
communities  in  Palos  Park. 

Craft  demonstrations  and  discussions 
Saturday  Discovery  Programs 
Weaving  demonstrations 

MUSEUM  HOURS 

Open  9:00  a.m.  to  5:00  p.m.  Saturday  through  Thursday  and  9:00  a.m.  to  9:00  p.m. 

Friday. 

The  Museum  Library  is  open  9:00  a.m.  to  4:00  p.m.  Monday  through  Friday.  Please 

obtain  pass  at  reception  desk,  main  floor  north. 

Museum  telephone:  922-9410 


May 
1975 


Field  Museum  of  Natural  History  Bulletin 


! 


Field  Museum 
of  Natural  History 
Bulletin 


STALKING  THE  SIBERIAN  GROUND  SQUIRREL 
by  Nancy  Nadler 


8         OUR  ENVIRONMENT 


May  1975 
Vol.  46,  No.  5 


VOLUNTEERS 


Editor/Designer:  David  M.  Walsten 
Production:  Oscar  Anderson 


10         MEMBERS' NIGHTS 

12         CHICAGO'S  RARE  WILDFLOWERS 
by  Floyd  Swink 


16  BOOKS:  Review  of  Plants  of  the  Chicago  Region 
by  Floyd  Swink 

17  SCANNING  ELECTRON  MICROSCOPE  WORKSHOP 

18  FIELD  BRIEFS 


back      MAY  AND  JUNE  AT  FIELD  MUSEUM 
cover     Calendar  of  Coming  Events 


Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 

Founded  1893 

Director:  E.  Leland  Webber 


Board  of  Trustees 

Blaine  J.  Yarrington, 

President 
Cordon  Bent 
Harry  O.  Bercher 
Bowen  Biair 
Stanton  R.  Cook 
William  R.  Dickinson,  Jr. 
Thomas  E.  Donnelley  II 
Mrs.  Thomas  E.  Donnelley  II 
Marshall  Field 
Nicholas  Calitzine 
Paul  W.  Goodrich 
Remick  McDowell 
Hugo  J.  Melvoin 
William  H.  Mitchell 
Charles  F.  Murphy,  Jr. 
John  S   Runnells 
William  L   Searle 
Edward  Byron  Smith 


Mrs.  Hermon  Dunlap  Smith 
Robert  H.  Strotz 
John  W.  Sullivan 
William  G.  Swartchild,  Jr. 
E.  Leland  Webber 
Julian  B.  Wilkins 

Life  Trustees 

William  McCormick  Blair 
Joseph  N.  Field 
Clifford  C.  Gregg 
Samule  Insull,  Jr. 
William  V.  Kahler 
Hughston  M.  McBain 
J.  Roscoe  Miller 
James  L.  Palmer 
John  T.  Pirie,  Jr. 
John  G.  Searle 
John  M.  Simpson 
Louis  Ware 
J.  Howard  Wood 


COVER 

Two  new  species  of  tanager  (shown  Vi  natural  size), 
discovered  in  1973  in  Peru,  that  have  been  recently  named 
and  described  by  Emmet  R.  Blake,  emeritus  curator  of  birds 
at  Field  Museum,  and  Peter  Hocking,  a  United  States 
missionary  stationed  in  Peru.  The  watercolor  painting, 
reproduced  courtesy  of  The  W/7son  Bulletin,  is  by  John 
O'Neill,  an  ornithologist  and  distinguished  bird  painter  of 
Louisiana  State  University,  Baton  Rouge,  La. 

The  tanagers  were  collected  by  Peter  Hocking  and  his 
Peruvian  assistant,  Manuel  Villar.  The  smaller  tanager,  at 
the  top,  has  been  named  rufous-browed  hemispingus 
{Hemispingus  rufosuperciliaris);  the  larger  tanager  has 
been  named  golden-backed  mountain-tanager  {Buthraupis 
aureodorsalis).  Both  species  were  found  in  the  temperate 
zone  of  central  Peru  in  the  Acomayo-Carpish  Ridge  region 
of  Depto  Huanuco.  Specimens  of  the  former  were 
cojlected  at  8,500  to  10,000  feet  elevation;  those  of  the 
latter  were  found  at  10,500  to  11,500  feet.  The  original 
description  of  the  new  species  appeared  in  the  December, 
1974,  Wilson  Bulletin,  published  by  the  Wilson  Ornitho- 
logical Society. 

Photo  Credits 

Pages  3-7,  Nancy  Nadler;  12:  Clarence  Swink;  13: 
Albert  Witt;  14:  Kitty  Kohout;  15:  Ray  Schulenberg; 
17:  Fred  Huysmans;  18,  19:  Oregon  Museum  of 
Science  and  Industry. 

Field  Museum  ot  Natural  History  Bulletin  is  published  monthly, 
except  combined  July/August  issue,  by  Field  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  Roosevelt  Road  at  Lake  Shore  Drive,  Chicago,  Illinois  60605. 
Subscriptions:  $6  a  year;  S3  a  year  for  schools.  Members  of  the 
Museum  subscribe  through  Museum  membership.  Opinions 
expressed  by  authors  are  their  own  and  do  not  necessarily  reflect  the 
policy  of  Field  Museum.  Unsolicited  manuscripts  are  welcome. 
Postmaster:  Please  send  form  3579  to  Field  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  Roosevelt  Road  at  Lake  Shore  Drive,  Chicago,  Illinois  60605. 
ISSN:  0015-0703.  Second  class  postage  paid  at  Chicago,  III. 


The  author's 

watchful  waiting 

pays  off:  a  ground 

squirrel  pops  out 

of  its  hole. 


s 


talking  the  Siberian  Ground  Squirrel 


a 


I 


see  one!"  yelled  Robert,  our  nine-year-old  son,  as  we 
settled  into  our  Leningrad  hotel  room.  He  clambered 
stealthily  onto  the  desk  and  with  all  the  aplomb  of  a 
seasoned  collector,  swirled  his  insect  net  to  snag  a  cockroach 
from  the  upper  fringe  of  the  window  curtain. 

Before  leaving  Chicago,  in  June,  1973,  Robert  and  I  had  been 
briefed  by  Field  Museum  entomologists  on  how  to  catch  and 
preserve  insects.  While  not  tangential  to  the  purpose  of  the  trip, 
our  insect-collecting  might  prove  of  value,  since  the  insect  fauna 
of  Siberia-where  we  were  to  spend  most  of  the  summer  — is  not 
well  represented  in  United  States  collections.  We  were  to  bring 
back  what  insects  we  could  to  the  Museum.  Now  we  had  our  first 
acquisition:  a  droopy-antennaed  cockroach,  seemingly  no 
different  from  the  common  American  variety.  But  perhaps  it  was 
a  rare  mutant  of  some  kind;  young  Robert's  zeal  was  not  to  be 
dampened. 

The  main  purpose  of  the  trip,  however,  was  to  continue  our 
comparative    study    of    Asian    and    North    American    ground 

Nancy  [Mrs.  Charles  F.)  Nadler  is  secretary  of  the  Women's  Board  of 
Field  Museum  and  is  a  charter  member  of  the  group. 


by  Nancy  Nadler 

squirrels.  We  would  look  for  certain  differences  in  chromosomes, 
proteins,  and  skull  structure  that  may  have  separately  evolved  in 
squirrel  species  of  the  two  regions  since  Asia  and  North  America 
became  separate  land  masses  nearly  13,000  years  ago. 

The  ground  squirrel  study  is  of  special  interest  to  Soviet  and 
American  scientists  because  it  is  one  of  the  few  zoogeographic 
models  in  which  related  species  can  be  compared  with  respect  to 
their  evolutionary  divergence  over  a  known  period  of  time.  The 
research  was  the  first  to  be  sponsored  by  the  United  States 
National  Academy  of  Science  and  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of 
the  U.S.S.R.,  with  scientists  of  both  countries  collaborating. 

The  Soviet  Academy  had  again  invited  my  husband,  Charles  F. 
Nadler,  and  Robert  S.  Hoffman  for  another  summer's  work  with 
Nikolai  N.  Vorontsov,  at  the  Institute  of  Cytology  and  Genetics, 
Siberian  Branch  Academy  of  Sciences  of  the  U.S.S.R.  at 
Novosibirsk.  Dr.  Nadler  is  a  Field  Museum  research  associate  in 
mammalogy  and  an  associate  professor  of  medicine  at 
Northwestern  University's  School  of  Medicine;  Dr.  Hoffman  is 
professor  of  systematics  and  ecology  at  the  University  of  Kansas. 

In  addition  to  our  nine-year-old  entomologist,  Robert,  my 
husband  and  I  were  accompanied  by  Charles,  Jr.,  sixteen;  and 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


Charles  Nadler  {left)  and  colleague  draw  blood  sample  horn  anesthetized  squirrel. 


Tissue  samples  had  to  be  examined  in  the  Held  as  well  as  in 
the  laboratory. 


our  fourteen-year-old  daughter,  Carrie. 
Charles  Jr.  assisted  in  the  work  by 
analyzing  blood  proteins  of  captured 
squirrels.  The  Hoffmans  were  accom- 
panied by  three  of  their  children. 
Sixteen-year-old  John  Hoffman  measured 
skulls.  Both  boys  were  trained  in  their 
respective  assignments  before  leaving 
the  United  States. 

We  remained  in  Leningrad  for  several 
days,  measuring  squirrel  skulls  in  the 
Leningrad  Museum's  collection.  Then  off 
to  Siberia  for  weeks  of  hard  work. 

As  reported  in  the  June,  1972,  Bulletin 
("Expedition  into  the  USSR,"  p.  9),  our 
first  summer  in  the  Soviet  Union  was 
spent  in  Akademgorodok,  a  "science 
town"  on  the  outskirts  of  Novosibirsk, 
Siberia,  and  on  field  trips  to  the  Altai 
Mountains  and  the  Buryat  Republic. 


The  scientific  goals  for  our  second  trip 


were  essentially  three: 

•  To  measure  ground  squirrel  specimens 
in  Soviet  collections. 

•  To  determine,  by  histological  tech- 
niques, the  distinctive  banding  patterns 
of  chromosomes,  particularly  of  the 
long-tailed  ground  squirrel.  These,  tech- 
niques make  possible  an  evaluation  of 
chromosomal  homology  and  a  determin- 
ation of  ancestry  relationships  that  had 
not  been  possible  with  techniques  used 
earlier. 

•  To  compare  protein  and  enzyme 
electrophoresis  patterns  in  Eurasian  and 
North  American  ground  squirrels  of  the 
genus  Spermophilus.  These  data  provide 
a  means  for  evaluating  genetic  similarity 
between  related  species. 

Most  of  the  summer's  laboratory  work 
was  done  in  Akademgorodok 's  Cytology 
and  Genetics  Institute.  Many  long  days 
were  spent  standardizing  laboratory 
methods,  comparing  one  another's  find- 


ings, and  jointly  writing  up  the  results  of 
the  research. 

As  part  of  the  cooperative  arrange- 
ment, a  one-bedroom  apartment  was 
provided  in  Akademgorodok  for  each  of 
the  two  American  families.  As  for  myself, 
many  hours  were  spent  shopping— a 
time-consuming  task  that  would  try  the 
patience  of  any  housewife  accustomed 
to  the  efficiencies  of  the  American 
supermarket.  In  the  Russian  market  I 
would  queue  up  with  the  other  women 
and  await  my  turn  for  service.  The 
customer  would  say  how  much  she 
wanted— of  butter,  for  example;  it  would 
be  weighed  and  put  aside.  Then  one 
entered  the  cashier's  line,  paid  for  the 
butter,  got  back  in  line  at  the  butter 
counter,  handed  the  clerk  the  receipt, 
and  was  then  given  the  butter.  In  the 
cereal  line  the  same  routine  was 
repeated;  and  so  on,  for  other  items. 
There  was  no  such  thing  as  packaging,  as 


May  ;<r5 


American  shoppers  know  it.  Butter  and 
cereal  would  be  wrapped  loosely  in  a  flat 
sheet  of  paper,  while  other  items,  such  as 
eggs  and  potatoes  that  required  no 
wrapping,  would  be  put  in  the  string  bag 
that  every  shopper  carried  to  the  market. 
As  the  weeks  wore  on,  I  gradually 
accepted  the  time-consuming  routine, 
but  learned  to  do  my  shopping  when  the 
lines  would  not  be  too  long.  After  the 
second  week,  Mrs.  Hoffman  and  I 
discovered  the  farmers'  market,  where 
farmers  came  in  from  the  country  to  sell 
potatoes,  carrots,  berries,  and  flowers. 
Ice  cream  was  sold  at  stands  on  the 
street,  as  were  rolls  stuffed  with  fried 
meat. 

On  weekends,  together  with  Dr.  Vor- 
ontsov,  his  wife  Elena,  and  daughter 
Masha,  we  all  took  excursions  into  the 
country.  One  beautiful  warm  Sunday  was 
spent  boating,  picnicking,  and  swimming 
on  the  Ob  Reservoir.  Robert  and  I  were 
never  without  our  butterfly  net  and  we 
collected  insects  on  every  outing  as  well 
as  in  the  forest-steppe  habitat  around 
Akademgorodok.  We  were  free  to  wander 
alone  wherever  we  wanted,  and  fre- 
quently hiked  over  the  network  of  trails 
surrounding  the  town. 

A  highlight  of  the  summer  was  a 
collecting  trip  to  Yakutsk  Autonomous 
Soviet  Socialist  Republic.  After  a  five- 
hour  flight  from  Novosibirsk  we  arrived 
at  the  republic's  capital— also  called 
Yakutsk— a  city  of  some  100,000  located 
at  a  latitude  just  north  of  that  of 
Anchorage,  Alaska.  About  one-fourth  of 
the  more  than  one  million  square  miles 
of  the  republic  lies  within  the  Arctic 
Circle.  It  is  a  largely  forested  area,  with 
forests,  mineral  wealth,  water  resources, 
and  gas  and  oil  reserves  as  yet  largely 
untapped. 

At  the  Yakutsk  airport  we  were  met  by 
Prof.  IP.  Sherbakov,  who  led  us  on  a  tour 
of  the  Yakutsk  Biological  Institute.  There, 
research  problems  are  largely  related  to 
the  local  flora  and  fauna;  studies  of 
forest  resources,  and  fur-bearing  mam- 
mals and  fishes  are  given  special  atten- 
tion. The  institute's  laboratories  are 
modern,  well-equipped,  and  the  projects 
sophisticated. 

On  the  evening  of  our  arrival,  we 
strolled  through  Yakutsk's  older,  unpaved 
streets  to  view  the  picturesque  early  log 
buildings  and  houses  with  their  ornately 
carved  window  borders.  We  also  visited 


ffl. 


Water  was  poured  down  a  squirrel  hole,  then  we  stood  tensely  by,  waiting  for  the  animal  to  pop 
out— a  method  requiring  a  lot  of  water,  a  quick  eye,  and  an  even  quicker  hand. 


\                                                     Arctic  Ocean 

4^       % 

o                    v~ 

SIBERIA 

C              Lena  R  iver 

Yakutsk 

Novosibirsk 

*"**■*,  J      ^                  6 

Akademgorodok                                          ^-v. 

RUSSIAN  SOVIET  FEDERATED  SOCIALIST  REPUBLIC 

^vx 

**"                                       MONGOLIA 

CHINA      ^H        / 

Field  Museum  Bulletin  5 


The  author  (left)  with  husband  and  children  in  Red  Square,  Moscov 


The  flower  beds  outside  our  apartment  in  Akademgorodok  were  a  good  source  of  butterflies  for 
son  Robert. 


the  remains  of  the  old  wooden  fort  of  the 
early  fur-trading  community,  a  striking 
contrast  to  the  modern  construction  now 
underway  in  the  city. 

Yakutsk,  founded  in  1632,  is  situated  in 
the  taiga,  or  coniferous  forest,  adjacent 
to  the  Lena  River— the  Soviet  Union's 
second  largest  waterway.  Dubiously,  the 
region  boasts  a  temperature  range  of 
nearly  200  degrees:  -94°F.  in  winter  and 
100°  in  summer.  Permafrost  underlying 
the  city  thaws  to  just  three  feet  below  the 
surface  during  the  summer,  creating 
special  problems  for  builders.  All  large, 
multistory  buildings  are  built  today  on 
piles  sunk  well  into  the  permanently 
frozen  earth.  An  airspace  between  the 
elevated  bottom  of  the  building  and  the 
ground  prevents  building  heat  from 
melting  the  permafrost,  for  this  would 
allow  the  structure  to  shift  disastrously  or 
sink. 

On  our  second  day  in  Yakutsk  we 
traveled  into  the  nearby  taiga  on  the 
institute  bus  to  collect  ground  squirrels 
[Spermophilus  undulatus  jacutensis)  in 
some  areas  of  relict  steppe.  Isolated  far 
from  the  main  distribution  of  the  species, 
these  animals  were  of  special  interest  as 
a  model  for  the  effect  of  prolonged 
geographic  isolation  on  chromosomal, 
protein,  and  cranial  characteristics.  In 
squirrels  captured  there  we  found  mod- 
erate changes  in  proteins  and  skulls,  but 
none  in  chromosomes.  Our  method  of 
capture  was  simple  but  effective:  water 
was  poured  down  a  squirrel  hole,  then  we 
we  stood  tensely  by,  waiting  for  the 
animal  to  pop  out— a  method  requiring  a 
lot  of  water,  a  quick  eye,  and  an  even 
quicker  hand— to  say  nothing  of  bite- 
proof  gauntlets.  In  this  way  we  managed 
to  gather  a  good  selection  of  ground 
squirrels. 

That  night  we  boarded  a  small  ship  and 
headed  north  down  the  Lena,  which  at 
this  point  is  about  half  a  mile  wide.  In  the 
summer  the  river  provides  a  vital  route 
to  the  Arctic  Ocean.  In  the  winter,  its 
thick  frozen  surface  is  used  by  tractor 
trains.  Thanks  to  this  year-round  facility, 
towns  and  villages  have  sprung  up  along 
its  length.  In  summer  a  hydrofoil  boat 
skims  back  and  forth,  providing  a  "Lena 
rapid-transit"  service  to  Yakutsk. 

Awakened  in  the  morning  by  the 
abrupt  silence  of  the  ship's  engines,  we 
peered  out  to  find  ourselves  anchored 
next  to  a  peninsula;  we  learned  that  we 


6  May  1973 


were  about  forty  miles  north  of  Yakutsk. 
Here  we  remained  for  four  days,  collect- 
ing a  large  sample  of  ground  squirrels 
from  another  relict-steppe  locality. 
Robert,  of  course,  did  his  own  thing  — in- 
dustriously collecting  insects  for  Field 
Museum. 

Cooking  was  done  in  large  buckets 
over  an  open  fire  on  the  bank  of  the  river. 
While  the  men  trapped  squirrels,  the 
children  passed  the  time  swimming  and 
fishing.  The  grassy,  willow-covered  pen- 
insula was  cultivated  by  nearby  villagers; 
interestingly,  their  farming  methods 
resembled  those  of  homesteaders  in 
19th-century  America.  Shaggy  Yakut 
horses  pulled  sleds  carrying  redolent, 
freshly  cut  hay,  which  was  then  tossed 
onto  haystacks  with  wooden  pitchforks. 

After  a  successful  collecting  trip,  we 
chugged  back  to  Yakutsk  on  our  little 
ship,  enjoying  the  panorama  of  vast 
unspoiled  Siberian  larch  forest.  Back  in 
Akademgorodok  we  spent  our  final  ten 
days  doing  laboratory  studies  of  the 
specimens  we  had  collected. 


On  the  basis  of  the  summer's  work,  the 
scientists  drew  several  main  conclusions: 

•  The  Arctic  ground  squirrel  {Spermo- 
philus  parryii),  the  species  with  the  most 
continuous  distribution  in  the  territory 
adjacent  to  the  Bering  Strait,  displayed 
the  greatest  degree  of  skull,  chromo- 
somal, and  biochemical  similarity.  The 
data  we  obtained  support  the  view  that 
Asian  and  Alaskan  Arctic  ground 
squirrels  are  still  a  single  species  after 
geographic  isolation  for  12,800  years. 

•  The  long-tailed  ground  squirrel  of 
Siberia  (S.  undulatus)  and  the  Columbian 
ground  squirrel  (5.  columbianus),  the 
pair  of  species  with  a  more  remote 
transberingian  (and  hence  longer  period 
of)  isolation,  underwent  greater  cranial 
and  genie  divergence  than  Asian  and 
North  American  S.  parryii,  although  they 
retained  indistinguishable  chromosome 
complements  after  100,000  years. 

•  The  long-tailed  ground  squirrel  group 
that  included  S.  parryii,  S.  undulatus,  and 
S.  columbianus  shared  many  skull  and 
biochemical  similarities  with  the  North 
American  "big-eared"  ground  squirrel 
group  despite  chromosomal  differentia- 
tion within  the  latter  group. 

•  The  greatest  chromosomal,  biochem- 
ical    and     skull     divergence     occurred 


On  the  Lena 

River,  40  miles 

north  of 

Yakutsk.  For 

four  days  we 

collected 

squirrels  not  far 

from  where  the 

ship  was 

moored.  We 

spent  the  nights 

aboard  ship. 


between  certain  Eurasian  species  of  the 
subgenera  Colobotis  and  Spermophilus 
and  North  American  "big-eared"  and 
"small-eared"  species  groups. 

•  Although  comparisons  between  dif- 
ferent sets  of  characters  are  difficult  to 
correlate,  evolutionary  change  in  the 
ground  squirrels  we  studied  was  greater 
for  skull  and  biochemical  characters  than 
for  chromosomes  within  a  given  time  of 
geographic  isolation. 

•  Finally,  the  concept  of  a  Eurasian 
North  American  biogeographic  region  is 


strengthened  by  the  demonstration  ot 
close  affinities  among  the  many  char- 
acters studied  in  Eurasian  and  North 
American  populations  of  5.  parryii,  in 
Siberian  S.  undulatus,  and  in  North 
American  S.  columbianus. 

Future  joint  studies  with  Dr.  Vorontsov 
and  his  Soviet  colleagues  will  compare 
similar  types  of  data  from  other  Asian 
and  North  American  mammals  including 
various  genera  of  mice,  wild  sheep,  and 
possibly  human  populations  living  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  Bering  Strait. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


our  environment 


Federal  Aid  for  Indiana  Bat 

The  Indiana  bat's  chances  for  survival  in 
the  east  central  United  States  have 
recently  been  improved  by  the  establish- 
ment of  a  team  of  experts  who  will  give 
priority  to  restoring  populations  of  this 
animal  to  their  former  healthy  state.  This 
bat  is  one  of  ten  endangered  species  that 
have  been  selected  by  the  U.S.  Fish  and 
Wildlife  Service  for  priority  treatment. 

"Recovery  teams"  are  being  established 
for  the  American  alligator,  red  wolf, 
eastern  timber  wolf,  Delmarva  fox  squir- 
rel, Kirtland's  warbler,  dusky  seaside 
sparrow,  Mississippi  sandhill  crane,  Ever- 
glade kite,  and  blue  pike.  These  are  the 
first  of  an  anticipated  fifty  such  teams 
that  will  begin  work  on  or  after  July  1, 
1975,  to  rehabilitate  endangered  species 
populations.  There  are  currently  109 
animals  listed  as  endangered  in  the 
United  States. 

The  primary  objective  of  the  Indiana 
bat  recovery  team  is  to  coordinate  action 
to  restore  Indiana  bat  populations  to  a 
healthy  balance  in  the  wild  after  drawing 
up  a  detailed  recovery  plan  which  will 
schedule  specific  actions  needed. 

The  Indiana  bat  (Myotis  sodalis)  is  a 
medium-sized,  grey-colored  bat.  The 
original  range  of  the  species  extended 
from  eastern  Oklahoma  to  Vermont  and 
as  far  south  as  Florida.  Distribution  is 
associated  with  limestone  caves.  The 
species  may  still  be  found  over  much  of 
the  same  region,  but  in  reduced  numbers, 
and  there  is  evidence  that  many  pre- 
viously occupied  caves  have  been 
abandoned. 

The  primary  reason  for  the  decline  of 
this  bat,  as  well  as  for  a  number  of  other 
bat  species,  is  disturbances  of  caves  by 
man.  Many  thousands  of  bats  have  been 
killed  outright  by  vandals,  and  other 
colonies  have  been  disrupted  by  cave 
explorers  or  scientists.  If  people  disturb 
hibernating  bats  in  the  winter,  their 
temperature  rises  and  thus  the  demand 
on  their  body  fat  rises.  In  many  cases, 
because  of  disturbances,  the  bat  has 
insufficient  fat  to  sustain  it  through  the 
remainder  of  the  winter.  In  order  to 
protect  the  Indiana  bat,  several  roosting 
sites  have  been  purchased  by  conserva- 
tion agencies  or  barred  from  public 
access. 

There  is  little  question  that  this  bat  and 
its  habitat  are  threatened  by  a  number  of 


man-induced  factors,  and  conservation 
measures  are  fully  warranted.  Moreover, 
the  problems  of  the  Indiana  bat  exem- 
plify the  plight  of  many  other  species 
which  depend  on  restricted  habitats  that 
are  being  increasingly  subjected  to 
detrimental  influences  of  man. 


Do  I  Hunt  What? 

As  state  and  federal  conservation  offices 
seek  information  on  the  population 
status  of  various  animal  species,  one  of 
the  techniques  used  is  the  telephone 
survey.  Since  1967,  some  20,000  phone 
calls  have  been  made  by  the  South- 
eastern Cooperative  Fish  and  Came 
Statistics  Project  as  they  attempt  to 
assess  the  status  of  the  mourning  dove  in 
the  southeastern  states.  A  great  deal  of 
valuable  data  has  thus  been  gained  for 
the  project,  but  the  survey  has  also 
elicited  responses  which,  for  one  reason 
or  another,  seemed  deserving  of  notice. 
The  girls  who  did  the  surveying  would 
introduce  the  project  with  something 
like: 

"We  are  calling  from  Raleigh,  N.C.,  to 
conduct  a  study  of  mourning  dove 
hunting  for  the  game  and  fish  depart- 
ments of  several  southeastern  states. 
Would  you  mind  answering  a  few 
questions  for  us?" 

A  Tennessee  hunter  replied  that  he 
would  not  give  any  information  to 
anyone  from  North  Carolina.  Other 
responses  included  the  following: 

"Whose  husband  died  last  season?" 

"Daddy,  it's  important.  It's  a  woman." 
"You  have  the  wrong  number.  We  don't 
have  any  of  that  kinda  stuff  around 
here." 

"Hunt  doves?  Yeah,  I'll  hunt  doves 
with  you." 

"It's  just  me  and  my  man  living  here 
and  we're  too  old  to  do  anything.  He'll  be 
93  come  April  5th  and  I'm  86.  And  I  still 
do  all  my  own  wash." 

"Yeah,  he  went  hunting,  but  not  in  the 
morning." 

"My  ex-husband  used  to  hunt  them, 
but  he  doesn't  live  here  anymore,  thank 
goodness." 

"No,  nobody  in  this  house  hunts 
doves.  Nobody  in  this  house  does 
anything." 

"Nope,  nobody  hunts  no  doves  'round 
here.  I  kilt  one,  but  he  wuz  in  the  corn 


stack  eating  the  corn,  and  I  kilt  him  with 

a  ear  o'  corn." 

"Am  I  on  Candid  Camera?" 

"I'm  sorry,  he's  on  the  commode." 

"He  just  carried  the  slop  out  to  the 

hogs— call  back." 

"I'm  not  interested   in   door  openers. 

What  in  the  world  are  door  openers?" 
"Are  you  calling  from  the  funny  farm?  I 

may  have  hit  a  few  with  my  car  or  my 

tennis  racket.  Do  they  count?" 

"No,    my    husband    couldn't    hit    the 

broad  side  of  a  barn  if  he  was  laying  on 

it." 

Grand  Canyon  View  Threatened 

The  future  of  the  Grand  Canyon  looks 
"hazy,"  according  to  biologists  reporting 
the  first  signs  of  an  air  pollution  problem 
for  one  of  America's  most  famous 
national  park  areas. 

Monitoring  devices  on  the  rim  of  the 
canyon  show  a  definite  increase  in 
particles  during  the  past  three  years. 
Although  the  canyon  is  still  relatively 
unpolluted,  its  magnificent  vistas  are  not 
as  distinct  as  they  once  were. 

Particulates  are  carried  by  wind  hun- 
dreds of  miles  from  Los  Angeles  and 
other  cities.  However,  greater  dangers  to 
the  park  are  posed  by  pollution  from 
energy  development  in  the  Southwest. 
Within  a  100-mile  radius  of  the  canyon, 
there  are  six  huge  coal-burning  power 
plants  either  in  use  or  under  construc- 
tion. Some  100,000  tons  of  coal  soon  will 
be  burned  each  day  by  the  plants  to 
produce  power  for  Phoenix,  Los  Angeles, 
and  other  cities.  Just  north  of  the  canyon 
is  the  Navajo  plant  at  Lake  Powell,  the 
world's  largest  power  plant,  which  even- 
tually will  burn  almost  a  fourth  of  those 
100,000  tons— using  coal  from  Black 
Mesa  strip  mine  in  Arizona. 

Even  if  these  plants  could  achieve 
federal  air  quality  standards,  which 
many  observers  doubt,  the  small  percent- 
age of  total  pollutants  that  escapes 
would  spread  a  distressing  mass  of 
contaminants  over  the  national  park 
area. 


MUSEUM  VOLUNTEERS  HONORED 


One  hundred  ninety-eight  Field  Museum 
volunteers,  with  a  total  of  28,185  hours 
of  service  to  the  Museum  in  1974,  were 
honored  at  a  reception  in  Stanley  Field  Hall 
on  March  13. 

The  evening  program  included  a  buffet 
supper  and  dancing  to  music  provided  by  the 
Stanley  Field  Hall  Preservation  Ensemble— an 
instrumental  group  consisting  of  Field  Muse- 
um personnel.  Museum  Pro  Musica,  a  three- 
member  amateur  ensemble,  performed  on  the 
recorder.  Cliff  Abrams,  of  the  Department  of 
Fxhibition,  played  the  bagpipes  and  Lennie 


Carrion,  Field  Museum  chief  engineer,  per- 
formed feats  of  magic  and  legerdemain.  Hy 
Marx,  curator  of  reptiles  and  amphibians,  and 
Julie  Castrop,  of  the  Department  of  Education, 
coordinated  the  entertainment.  Ed  Olsen, 
curator  of  mineralogy,  was  master  of 
ceremonies. 

As  a  memento,  Museum  Director  E.  Leland 
Webber  presented  each  volunteer  with  a  chip 
of  Georgian  marble  removed  from  the 
building  structure  during  the  Museum's 
rehabilitation  program. 

Volunteers  who  contributed  the  most  hours 


during  1974  were  Jim  Swartchild  (Anthro- 
pology), 1,237  hours;  Alice  Schneider  (Anthro- 
pology), 1,168;  Sol  Curewitz  (Anthropology), 
952;  Walter  Mockler  (Geology),  872;  John 
O'Brien  (Education),  851;  Louva  Calhoun 
(Anthropology),  722  hours;  Charles  Henry 
(Geology),  686;  Blair  Winter  (Zoology),  662; 
Col.  ME.  Rada  (Anthropology),  620;  Maude 
Wahlman  (Anthropology),  574;  Bruce  Jayne, 
(Zoology),  417;  Phillip  Hershkovitz  (Zoology), 
400;  Claxton  Howard  (Library),  350;  Alyce 
DeBlase  (Zoology),  310;  Jason  Weil  (Exhibi- 
tion), 308  hours. 


Other  volunteers  included: 


Anthropology 

Jean  Armour 
Carol  Bendell 
David  Berglund 
Susan  Birnkrant 
Royal  Buscombe 
Georgette  D  Angelo 
Carol  Dodds 
Eleanor  G.  Dugdale 
Bonnie  Elber 
Natalie  Firnhaber 
Frances  T.  Freeman 
Peter  Gayford 
Susan  Hiestand 
Deborah  Idaka 
Frederica  Irvin 
Bridget  Jennings 
Palmira  Johnson 
Adria  Katz 
Janet  H.  Kelley 
John  Kolar 
Anne  Leonard 
Elizabeth  Lilly 
Sandra  Moss 
Henry  Moy 
Irene  Q.  Mullen 
Anna  Nadolski 
Herta  Newton 
Noreen  Rodman 
Hilde  Sachs 
Elizabeth  Searle 
Alice  Seeburg 
Gertrude  Silberman 
Joanne  Silver 
Marwita  Stone 
Beatrice  Swartchild 
David  Wend 
Jan  Wisseman 


Reeva  Wolfson 
Eva  Ziemba 

Botany 

Jean  Boehme 
Barbara  Boyd 
Jeane  P.  Cole 
Karen  Engel 
Genevieve  J.  Kline 
Linda  Ramsden 

Bulletin 

Joyce  Brukoff 

Education 

Sydney  Allport 
Marvin  Benjamin 
Phoebe  Bentley 
Leslie  Beverly 
Jean  Bolton 
Betty  Bondy 
Mary  Brock 
Linn  Buss 
Kathleen  Carson 
Theresa  Cartmell 
Jean  Carton 
Ruby  Clark 
Patience  Cook 
VeltaCukers 
BarbCurcic 
Mary  Agnes  Curran 
Lynn  Davis 
Sharon  DeBerry 
Joseph  de  Cristofaro 
Alice  Eckley 
Anne  Ekman 
Lee  Erdman 
Luis  Estevez 


Gerda  Frank 
Grace  Fuller 
Nancy  Gerson 
Helen  Gornstein 
Karen  Grossman 
Miguel  A.  Guzman 
Lois  Hewitt 
Peter  Hewitt 
Audrey  Hiller 
Hazel  Huggins 
Ellen  Hyndman 
John  Johnston 
Julia  Jordan 
Myrette  Katz 
Marian  Keith 
Michael  Kilgore 
Janet  G.  Klauber 
Paula  Klein 
Laurie  Kosky 
Dorine  Kroll 
Alfreda  Leisz 
Susan  Lynch 
Edna  MacQuilkin 
Dorothy  Magos 
Melba  H.  Mayo 
Bettie  McClelland 
Carol  Mudloff 
Tom  Mudloff 
Natalie  Newberger 
Bernice  Nordenberg 
Noriko  Okamoto 
George  Olson 
Hazel  Pensock 
Ann  Prewitt 
Eleanor  Quackenbush 
Yvonne  Robins 
Anne  Ross 
Bonita  Samuelson 
Susie  Saulter 


Laura  Seidman 
Ann  Shanower 
Phyllis  Sidwell 
Bradford  Sidwell 
Irene  Spensley 
George  L.  Speros 
Lorain  Stephens 
Hazel  Turner 
Jean  Von  Blohn 
Phyllis  Wiley 
Barbara  Wroblicky 

Exhibition 

Dylan  Berger 
Jeff  Jacobs 

Geology 

Jeffrey  Albiniak 
Rudy  Chavez 
Lucy  Davis 
Terrence  Frest 
Gertrude  M.  Hannen 
Robert  Hicks 
Linda  Horn 
William  Krueger 
Margaret  S  Litten 
Ruth  Loucks 
China  Oughton 
Samuel  Silverstein 
Eric  Slusser 
Patricia  Talbot 
Earle  E.  Wilson 
Barbara  Wolfson 
Robert  Zanon 

Library 

Arden  Fredrick 


Helen  Pfeifer 
Marie  L.  Rosenthal 


Membership 

Karen  K.  Morris 

Publications 

Carrie  F.  Anderson 
Idessie  Bowens 

Zoology 

Barbara  Brown 
Dorothy  Brunken 
Alice  Burke 
Jean  W  Cameron 
Stanley  Dvorak 
Millie  Dybas 
Robert  Elmore 
Betty  Lou  Girardi 
Richard  F.  Cuetzlaff 
Mark  Hershkovitz 
Michael  Hershkovitz 
Barbara  Hoff 
Julie  Hurvis 
Dorothy  Karall 
Elizabeth  Liebman 
Millicent  Marks 
Margot  T.  Merrick 
LeMoyne  Mueller 
Keelin  Murphey 
Daniel  Polikoff 
Alan  Resetar 
Pat  Rogers 


Field  Museum  bulletin 


Members'  Ni£l)ts 


Members'  Nights  at  Field  Museum 
are  the  most  festive,  exciting,  and 
interesting  events  on  the  Museum's 
calendar.  All  members,  and  their  families 
and  friends  are  cordially  invited  by  the 
Museum  staff  to  visit  on  those  very 
special  evenings— May  1  and  2.  Guests 
will  have  a  once-a-year  opportunity  to 
view  and  take  part  in  behind-the-scenes 
activities  in  the  scientific,  education,  and 
exhibition  departments.  Programs  for  the 
two  nights  will  be  identical. 

There  will  be  games  and  craft 
participation  for  youngsters,  tours, 
film  and  slide  shows,  the  popular 
"Anthropology  Game"  — now  in  its  third 
year,  and  taxidermy  demonstrations. 
Guests  will  also  have  the  opportunity  to 
test  their  "environmental  IQ,"  and  to 
meet  and  chat  with  curators  and  other 
museum  personnel. 

At  various  locations  on  the  Museum's 
six  floors,  staff  members  will  also 
give  demonstrations  and/or  lectures  on 
snakes  and  dinosaurs,  weaving  tech- 
niques, African  art,  Chinese  folk  design, 
the  coelacanth— a  "living"  fossil,  insect 
collecting,  pottery  restoration,  mush- 
room collecting,  the  collecting  and 
preservation  of  flowering  plants,  the 
study  of  rocks  through  the  microscope,  a 
slide  show  and  exhibition  of  newly 
excavated  materials  from  Field  Museum's 
National  Science  Foundation  Summer 
Anthropology/  Program— and  many, 
many  more. 

In  Stanley  Field  Hall  the  Lelooska 
Carvers— a  family  of  Native  Amer- 
icans—will give  exciting  dramatizations 
of  Indian  legends  and  demonstrate 
woodcarving  and  silversmithing  tech- 
niques, of  which  they  are  consummate 
masters.  (For  more  information  on  the 
Lelooskas,  see  p.  18.)  In  Hall  9,  also  on 
the  first  floor,  guests  can  view  the  newly 
opened  exhibition  of  ancient  Ecuadorian 


10  May  1975 


Thursday,  May  l;    Friday,  May  2:    6-10 p.rp. 


pottery,  including  more  than  600  clay 
artifacts  — many  of  them  exquisitely  fash- 
ioned works  of  art.  It  is  the  first 
exhibition— anywhere— of  this  remark- 
able collection. 

For  those  who  wish  a  complete 
meal— or  just  a  cup  of  coffee— the 
Museum  cafeteria  will  be  open  from  6:00 
to  8:00  p.m. 

Free  parking  will  be  available  in  the 
Museum's  lot  just  north  of  the  north 
entrance  and  in  Soldier  Field  lots  just 
south  and  east  of  the  Museum.  Or,  ride 
the  free  round-trip  charter  bus  marked 
Field  Museum,  leaving  every  30  minutes 
from  the  southwest  corner  of  State  and 
Jackson,  stopping  at  the  southwest 
corner  of  Michigan  and  Jackson,  and  the 
southeast  corner  of  Michigan  and  Balbo; 
the  bus  will  operate  from  6:00  until 
Museum  closing. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


Lakeside  daisy  (Actinea  herbacea) 


Chicago's  Rare  Wildf  lowers 


by  Floyd  Swink 


How  many  species  of  flowering  plants  (native  and  intro- 
duced) are  to  be  found  in  the  Chicago  area?.  Well  over 
2,000.  A  good  number  of  these  are  rare  and  localized,  a 
fact  that  is  in  part  explained  by  the  variety  of  dissimilar 
geographic  or  geologic  features  within  a  relatively  small  area: 
the  proximity  of  a  great  body  of  fresh  water,  high  sand  dunes 
along  Lake  Michigan,  regions  of  rich  corn-belt  soil,  sandy  soils 
(as  in  the  Kankakee  River  valley),  and  the  occurrence  of  Niagaran 
dolomitic  limestone  near  (or  even  at)  the  earth's  surface. 

Add  to  this  the  great  modification  of  this  area  by  man,  and  the 
impact  of  a  very  dense  concentration  of  human  population,  it  is 
easier  to  understand  that  many  of  these  plant  species  have 
become  even  rarer. 

"Rarity"  of  a  species  is  used  here  only  with  respect  to  local 
occurrence,  as  most  of  the  species  under  discussion  are  not  so 
rare  in  other  parts  of  their  distribution  range.  The  twelve  species 
treated  here  are,  of  course,  only  a  small  sampling  of  the  rarities 
eligible  for  discussion,  but  have  been  selected  because  of  their 
exceptiona'  u°auty  or  for  some  other  special  attribute. 


Lakeside  daisy,  or  four-nerved  starflower  {Actinea  herbacea). 
This  attractive  yellow -flowered  member  of  the  composite  family 
blooms  in  spring,  and  is  found  in  gravelly  soils.  It  is  known  from 
only  four  places  in  the  world— Mason  County,  III.;  the  shores  of 
Lake  Erie,  near  Sandusky,  Ohio;  Manitoulin  Island,  Ont.  (in  Lake 
Huron);  and  the  area  of  our  local  interest:  the  village  of 
Rockdale,  near  Joliet,  in  Will  County,  III.  There  are  good-sized 
colonies  of  the  flower  in  Rockdale,  but  they  occur  on  industrial 
property  very  close  to  actual  industry.  Its  associates  there 
include  beach  wormwood  (Artemisia  caudata),  sand  coreopsis 
{Coreopsis  lanceolata),  shooting  star  (Dodecatheon  meadia), 
purple  coneflower  (Echinacea  pallida),  false  pennyroyal  (Isan- 
thus  brachiatus),  fringed  puccoon  (Lithospermum  incisum), 
marbleseed  (Onosmodium  hispidissimum),  scurfy  pea  (Psoralea 
tenuiflora),  and  hoary  vervain  (Verbena  stricta).  Some  botanists 
place  Actinea  in  the  genus  Hymenoxys. 


Floyd  Swink  is  taxonomist  at  Morton  Arboretum,  Lisle,  III. 


Orange-fringed  orchid  (Habenaria  ciliaris).  This  is  certainly  one 
of  America's  most  beautiful  wildflowers,  whose  blossoms  show 
curious  resemblance  to  witches'  heads.  It  still  occurs  in  good 
numbers  at  the  Pinhook  Bog  in  La  Porte  County,  Ind.  Formerly,  it 
occurred  in  the  Goose  Lake  area  of  Porter  County,  Ind.,  until  that 
area  was  taken  over  by  industry.  Probably  the  only  existing 
Illinois  locality  today  is  in  one  of  the  Cook  County  forest 
preserves,  where  a  number  of  plants  still  persist  very  close  to  a 
well-traveled  interstate  highway.  Here  the  plants  associate  with 
rattlesnake  master  (Eryngium  yuccifolium),  alum  root  {Heuchera 
richardsonii  grayana),  wild  quinine  (Parthenium  integrifolium), 
chokeberry  (Pyrus  melanocarpa),  and  prairie  cord  grass  (Spartina 
pectinata). 


Mead's  milkweed  (Asclepias  meadii).  This  is  one  of  our  country's 
rarest  plants.  Only  two  localities  were  ever  known  in  the  Chicago 
area.  One  was  at  Crown  Point,  Ind.,  where  it  was  collected  by  a 
Mr.  Brannon  in  July,  1888.  The  other  was  a  fairly  recent 
discovery,  made  by  William  Rommel,  in  1966,  near  Palatine,  in 
Cook  County.  Unfortunately,  this  colony  has  recently  been 
destroyed.  Associates  there  include  wild  onion  (Allium 
canadense),  thimbleweed  (Anemone  cylindrica),  smooth  blue 
aster  (Aster  laevis),  pasture  thistle  (Cirsium  discolor),  wild 
sunflower  (Helianthus  maximiliani),  hoary  puccoon  (Lithosper- 
mum  canascens),  purple  prairie  clover  (Petalostemum  pur- 
pureum),  Seneca  snakeroot  (Polygala  senega),  blue-eyed  grass 
(Sisyrinchium  albidum),  stiff  goldenrod  (Solidago  rigida),  Indian 
grass  (Sorghastrum  nutans),  prairie  dropseed  (Sporobolus 
heterolepis),  and  porcupine  grass  (Stipa  spartea). 


Milk  vetch  (Astragalus  neglectus).  This  is  our  rarest  species  of 
milk  vetch,  and  was  thought  for  many  years  to  be  extinct  in  this 
area.  Norman  Fassett,  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  recorded 
that  it  had  been  collected  at  Barnes  Prairie  near  Racine,  Wis.,  in 
1880  and  1881  by  J.  J.  Davis,  and  that  by  1934  the  prairie  had 
been  destroyed  and  placed  under  cultivation.  This  was  our  only 
local  record  until  1971,  when  Ray  Schulenberg  and  Catherine 
Ciolac  of  the  Morton  Arboretum  discovered  another  locality  for 
this  rare  plant  near  Somers  in  Kenosha  County,  Wis. 
Confirmation  of  the  identification  was  made  by  Duane  Isely  of 
Iowa  State  University. 

Dragon's  mouth  (Arethusa  bulbosa).  This  beautiful  orchid  is  now 
extinct  in  the  Chicago  area,  but  it  still  frequently  occurs  in  the 
boggy  areas  of  our  northern  states  and  Canada.  It  formerly  grew 
in  several  areas  near  Gary,  Ind.  Perhaps  the  last  observation  of 
this  plant  in  that  state  was  recorded  by  Edwin  Hull,  writing  in 
1935  in  the  American  Botanist  (Vol.  41,  p.  29): 

In  1933  several  specimens  were  found  in  a  bog  at  New 
Chicago  ...  in  1934  this  number  had  dwindled  to  two,  and 
these  were  in  a  rather  poor  condition  though  flowering, 
growing  in  pure  Sphagnum,  and  in  the  shade  of  Poison 
Sumac.  It  seems  worthwhile  to  make  a  record  of  this 
orchid,  since  the  two  mentioned  are  probably  the  last 
specimens  in  the  Indiana  dune  region,  and  possibly  for  the 
entire  state. 


Orange-fringed  orchid  (Habenaria  ciliaris) 


Field  Museum  ouMetin  13 


Buffalo  berry  [Shepherdia  canadensis). 
Locally,  this  is  one  of  our  rarest  shrubs, 
although  it  becomes  common  farther 
north.  Perhaps  only  one  specimen  sur- 
vives in  all  of  Indiana,  near  Clark  Road  in 
Gary.  Only  a  few  plants  survive  near  the 
lake  Michigan  beach  at  Clencoe,  III.,  and 
in  nearby  Highland  Park.  Contrasting 
with  this  rarity,  substantial  numbers 
occur  on  Chicago's  periphery,  near 
Crestview,  in  Racine  County,  Wis.  There 
it  is  found  on  calcareous  clay  bluffs, 
growing  with  spreading  dogbane  [Apocy- 
num  androsaemifolium),  paper  birch 
(Betula  papyrifera),  climbing  bittersweet 
(Celastrus  scandens),  round-leaved  dog- 
wood {Cornus  rugosa),  stiff  gentian 
(Cent/ana  quinquefolia  occidentalis), 
witch-hazel  {Hamamelis  virginiana),  red 
honeysuckle  (Lonicera  dioica),  Canada 
mayflower  [Maia'nthemum  canadense 
interius),  hop  hornbeam  [Ostrya  vir- 
giniana), wood  betony  [Pedicularis  can- 
adensis), and  basswood  [Tiliaamericana). 


Fame  Flower  [Talinum  rugospermum). 
This  pretty  member  of  the  purslane 
family  is  exceedingly  rare  here.  For  years, 
only  two  localities  were  known,  both  in 
Lake  County,  Ind.,  in  parts  of  what  is  now 
Gary.  These  localities  were  known  about 
100  years  ago;  but  both  localities  are  now 
extinct.  Then,  in  August  29,  1962, 
Richard  Wason  discovered  this  species  in 
a  Cook  County  forest  preserve.  It  prefers 
a  sandy  soil,  and  some  of  its  original  Gary 
associates  were  little  bluestem  grass 
[Andropogon  scoparius),  three-awn  grass 
[Aristida  tuberculosa),  butterfly  weed 
(Ascelepias  tuberosa),  sand  coreopsis 
[Coreopsis  lanceolata),  flowering  spurge 
[Euphorbia  corollata),  rockrose  [Helian- 
themum  canadense),  June  grass  [Koeleria 
cristata),  fall  witch  grass  (Leptoloma 
cognatum),  rough  blazing  star  (Liatris 
aspera),  horse  mint  (Monarda  punctata 
villicaulis),  sand  primrose  [Oenothera 
rhombipetala),  prickly  pear  cactus 
[Opuntia  humifusa),  sand  club  moss 
[Selaginella  rupestris),  and  hoary  pea 
[Tephrosia  virginiana). 


Thismia  americana.  Unquestionably  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  plants  of  the 
American    flora,    this    species    occurred 


Dragon's  mouth  [Arethusa  bulbosa) 


only  at  Chicago  (near  Lake  Calumet),  and 
nowhere  else  in  the  world.  It  has  not 
been  seen  alive  in  more  than  sixty  years, 
and  is  now  certainly  extinct.  By  the  use 
of  a  map  supplied  by  Norma  Pfeiffer,  the 
plant's  discoverer,  I  was  able  to  discover 
the  old  habitat,  and  found  that 
Selaginella  apoda  and  most  of  the  other 
associates  mentioned   by   Pfeiffer   [Bot. 


Gaz.  57:124,  1914)  were  still  present. 

For  a  number  of  years  the  area  was 
searched  for  Thismia,  but  without  suc- 
cess. Unfortunately,  the  land  has  been 
usurped  by  industry.  To  make  the  story 
even  more  fascinating,  this  interesting 
plant  of  the  Burmannia  family  has  as  its 
closest  relative  a  species  that  occurs  only 
in  New  Zealand  and  Tasmania. 


May  1975 


Kankakee  mallow  {lliamna  remota).  The 
only  place  in  the  world  where  this 
species  occurs  as  a  native  plant  is  on 
Altorf  Island  in  the  Kankakee  River  in 
Kankakee  County.  Other  populations, 
such  as  the  one  in  Elkhart  County,  Ind. 
were  introduced  by  man.  The  closely 
related  lliamna  corei,  which  occurs  on 
Peters  Mountain  in  Virginia,  may  actual- 
ly be  a  variation  of  /.  remota.  At  any  rate, 
this  population  occurs  naturally  nowhere 
else  in  the  world.  The  phytogeographic 
implications  of  these  two  disjunct  species 
are  of  profound  interest.  Altorf  Island  has 
been  badly  abused  by  farming  and 
grazing,  but  a  goodly  number  of  lliamna 
plants  continue  to  survive  there.  Earl 
Sherff  has  written  interestingly  about 
lliamna  in  Rhodora  (Vol.  48,  p.  89,  1946). 


Leafy  prairie  clover  {Petalostemum  folio- 
sum).  Until  quite  recently,  this  species 
was  thought  to  be  locally  extinct.  It  had 
originally  occurred  in  four  northeastern 
Illinois  counties,  as  well  as  in  areas  near 
Nashville,  Tenn.,  and  Russellville,  Ala. 
Robert  Betz,  of  Northeastern  Illinois 
and  a  Research  Associate  at  Field 
Museum,  obtained  information  on  the 
Tennessee  population  from  Elsie  Quarter- 
man  of  Vanderbilt  University,  and  was 
able  to  observe  the  plants  in  their  native 
habitat.  Then,  last  August,  came  the 
remarkable  rediscovery  of  our  local 
plants  by  Cerould  Wilhelm  of  the  Morton 
Arboretum,  near  Lockport  in  Will  County. 


Corn  salad  (Valerianella  chenopodifolia). 
Tens  of  thousands  of  these  plants  occur 
along  Trail  Creek  south  of  U.S.  20  near 
Michigan  City  in  La  Porte  County,  Ind. 
They  were  originally  reported  by  Earl 
Sherff  in  Rhodora  (Vol.  48,  p.  96,  1946) 
where  he  stated  that  one  stand  of  them 
covering  more  than  a  quarter  of  an  acre 
was  so  dense  that  it  resembled  a  field  of 
buckwheat  in  bloom.  In  spite  of  all  this 
abundance,  the  plant  is  to  be  found 
hardly  anywhere  else  in  the  Chicago 
region 


Death  camass  (Zigadenus  glaucus).  This 


species  occurs  locally  in  Berrien  County, 
Mich— the  Michigan  county  closest  to 
Chicago.  In  the  nearer  Chicago  area  it  is 
only  found  at  one  locality  in  La  Porte 
County,  Ind.,  and  at  one  locality  near 
Elgin,  in  Kane  County,  III.  The  latter 
colony  is  in  special  jeopardy,  as  it  is 
sandwiched  between  a  railroad  track  and 
the  Fox  River,  in  a  very  narrow  area.  This 
is  a  species  of  calcareous  springy  places, 
and  its  associates  include  swamp  thistle 
{Cirsium   muticum),  cotton   grass    (Erio- 


phorum  angustifolium),  Joe  Pye  weed 
{Eupatorium  maculatum),  boneset  (Eupa- 
torium  pertoliatum),  gay  feather  [Liatris 
spicata),  narrow-leaved  loosestrife 
{Lysimachia  quadriflora),  .winged  loose- 
strife {Lythrum  alatum),  grass  of  Par- 
nassus {Parnassia  glauca),  shrubby  cin- 
quefoil  {Potentilla  fruticosa),  Ohio  gold- 
enrod  {Solidago  ohioensis),  swamp  gold- 
enrod  (Solidago  patula),  Riddell's  gold- 
enrod  {Solidago  riddellii),  and  valerian 
{Valeriana  ciliata).  Q 


Kankakee  mallow  {lliamna  remota) 


Field  Museum  Bulletin  15 


books 


PLANTS  OF  THE  CHICAGO  REGION,  A  Check  List  of  the  Vascular  Flora  of  the 
Chicago  Region  with  Notes  on  Local  Distribution  and  Ecology. 


Second  Edition 
By  Floyd  Swink 
Published  by  the  Morton  Arboretum. 


$5.00. 


The  Chicago  region  presents  many 
difficulties  for  the  student  of  its 
flora  and  vegetation.  Its  early  land 
forms  were  complex  and  resulted  from 
the  work  of  glaciers  that  formed  mo- 
raines, outwash  plains,  drainage  chan- 
nels, deltas,  distributary  channels,  flood 
plains,  lakes,  lake  beaches,  and  complex 
dune  formations.  This  early  and  varied 
landscape  supported  a  rich  flora  and 
fauna.  Beginning  with  settlement,  the 
early  vegetation  was  vastly  modified  by 
man-induced  changes  in  the  land  forms 
as  well  as  by  introductions  of  foreign 
species  and  the  elimination  of  native 
species  through  habitat  modification. 
This  already  complex  landscape  was 
further  modified  by  the  development  of  a 


great  city  with  its  surrounding  network  of 
industries  and  services. 

For  thirty-five  years  Floyd  Swink  has 
been  making  careful  observations  and 
field  notes  on  the  vascular  flora  and  the 
nature  of  plant  communities  in  the 
twenty-two  counties  which  have  more 
than  half  their  area  located  within  a 
seventy-five  mile  radius  of  downtown 
Chicago.  This  tremendous  catalogue 
consists  of  over  2,000  species  of  vascular 
plants,  both  native  and  introduced, 
which  have  been  found  growing  wild  in 
the  Chicago  region.  Nearly  100  of  these 
are  rare  species,  while  many  others  are 
common  to  every  county. 

In  1969  the  Morton  Arboretum 
published  Floyd  Swink's  catalogue  as  the 
first  edition  of  Plants  of  the  Chicago 
Region,  particularly  recognizing  its  value 
as  a  documentation  of  plants  in  a  giant 
industrial  region  where  change,  including 
devastation  of  nature,  is  a  daily  occur- 
rence. The  first  edition  of  five  hundred 
copies  was  exhausted  within  three  years, 
and  continued  requests  for  the  book, 
along  with  a  significant  accumulation  of 
new  data,  have  encouraged  the  produc- 
tion of  a  second  edition.  Like  the  first 
edition,  it  will  serve  as  a  research  tool  for 
botanists,  ecologists,  and  planners  for. 
today  and  tomorrow;  it  will  serve  as  a 
guide  to  the  local  plants  for  the  citizen 
who  yet  holds  hope  for  a  better 
environment;  it  will  serve  as  a  reminder 
of  the  effects  of  civilization  and  indus- 
trialization on  nature  to  men  of  the 
future. 

This  new  edition  includes  about  80 


new  kinds  of  plants  which  had  not  been 
recorded  in  1969,  over  2,000  new  county 
distribution  records,  new  ecological  data, 
especially  association  lists  for  many 
plants  that  had  not  been  studied  suffi- 
ciently by  1969,  and  blooming  dates  for  a 
substantial  number  of  the  flowering 
plants.  The  alphabetical  organization  of 
the  first  edition  is  retained,  with  the 
thought  that  it  will  allow  convenient 
everyday  use  by  any  student  of  the 
intermediate  level  or  above  and  at  the 
same  time  permit  it  to  serve  as  a  good 
reference  work  for  professionals. 

The  catalogue  includes  plants  from 
parts  of  four  states:  Wisconsin,  Illinois, 
Indiana,  and  Michigan.  Considerable 
information  that  has  been  scattered  in 
botanical  literature  is  brought  together 
here  in  one  volume  along  with  the 
observations  by  Floyd  Swink  and  his 
assistants  concerning  incidence,  frequen- 
cy, associated  species,  and  habitats  for 
any  wild  plant  within  the  twenty-two 
county  area. 

Floyd  Swink  is  taxonomist  at  the 
Morton  Arboretum.  For  many  years  he 
has  been  widely  recognized  as  an 
authority  on  the  taxonomy  of  plants  of 
the  Chicago  region.  He  studied  with 
eminent  leaders  in  this  field,  among 
them  the  late  Charles  Deam  of  Indiana 
and  Julian  Steyermark,  formerly  of  Field 
Museum. 

—  Marion  Hall,  director  of  Morton  Arboretum 


Plants  of  the  Chicago  Region  is  available  at 
the  Museum  bookstore. 


Mav  1975 


SCANNING 

ELECTRON 

MICROSCOPY 

SUMMER  WORKSHOP 
July  14  -  August  8 


Flea's  foot  as  viewed  through  scanning  electron  microscope 


Upper-level  high  school  students  and 
freshmen  or  sophomore  college 
students  will  have  the  unusual  oppor- 
tunity to  study  the  scanning  electron 
microscope  and  its  operation  first-hand, 
during  a  four-week  workshop  this  sum- 
mer at  Field  Museum.  They  will  spend 
one  month  working  with  staff  scientists, 
during  which  they  will  learn  the  basics  of 
scanning  microscope  theory  and  opera- 
tion, specimen  preparation  techniques, 
and  participate  in  biological  or  geo- 
logical research. 


Each  student  will:  1)  prepare  materials 
for  study,  2)  spend  three  half-days  at  the 
scanning  microscope  making  observa- 
tions and  photographs  with  the  SEM 
technician,  and  3)  work  with  a  Museum 
scientist  in  interpreting  results  of  his 
studies. 

The  areas  of  research  in  which  a 
student  may  specialize  are:  flowering 
plants,  liverworts,  insects,  mollusks, 
mammals,  Paleozoic  invertebrate  fossils, 
and  Tertiary  invertebrate  fossils. 


Enrollment  for  the  workshop  is  limited 
to    eight    students;    the    fee    is    $125. 

Applications  must  be  in  by  May  20,  and 
should  consist  of  a  letter,  stating  the 
applicant's  area  of  interest  and  back- 
ground, and  include  a  letter  of  recom- 
mendation from  a  science  teacher.  The 
application  should  be  sent  to:  Betty  Deis, 
Department  of  Education,  Field  Museum 
of  Natural  History;  Roosevelt  Road  at 
Lake  Shore  Drive;  Chicago,  III.  60605. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


field  briefs 


Lelooska  performers  (above  and  opposite) 


Lelooskas  Return 


Last  year,  Field  Museum  was  fortunate  in 
being  able  to  host  the  Lelooskas,  an  Indian 
family  of  skilled  woodcarvers  and  silversmiths 
who  also  gave  dramatic  presentations  of 
legends  and  masked  dances  of  Northwest 
Coast  Indians.  This  year  the  Lelooskas  will 
return  to  the  Museum  for  performances  and 
demonstrations  on  Members'  Nights  (May  1 
and  2)  and  on  Saturday,  May  3. 

The  Lelooska  (which  means  "he  who  cuts 
with  a  knife,"  or  "whittling  boy")  family 
comes  to  is  from  Portland,  Oregon,  where 
they  areaftihated  with  the  Oregon  Museum  of 
Science  and  Industry.  Permission  to  perform 
the  dances  a:     art  out  legends  was  granted  to 


Lelooska  by  Indian  families  around  Northern 
Vancouver  Island  and  principally  by  Chief 
lames  Sewid,  heriditary  Chief  of  the  Kwatkiutls 
at  Alert  Bay.  It  is  in  this  context  that  the 
Lelooskas  have  recreated  a  Kwatkiutl  village, 
including  a  potlach  house,  where  the  family 
lives  and  works  near  Portland.  Here  the 
ancient  traditions,  songs,  and  stories  are  also 
presented  to  thousands  of  Portland-area 
school  children  each  year. 

Lelooskas  art  is  a  living  art.  Lelooska  feels 
"an  unconscious  force  seemed  to  draw  me 
towards  that  art  because  I  didn't  want  to  see  it 
die  out."  Visitors  to  Field  Museum  will  be  able 
to  see  the  artists  at  work,  and  also  be  able  to 
buy  the  products  of  their  crafts  Following  is 
the  schedule  of  events  that  will  take  place  in 
Stanley  Field  Hall: 


Thursday,  May  1;  10:00-12:00  a.m.;  1:00- 
3:00  p.m.:  Tsungani  will  carve  masks;  Shona 
Ha  will  create  character  dolls  which  depict 
the  life  and  activities  of  the  tribe;  Patty  Fawn 
will  carve  and  fashion  jewelry  from  silver, 
ivory,  and  bone;  Na  Que  Se  will  create  apple 
dolls;  Yana  will  carve  animals  from  pine.  At 
1:00  p.m.  Lelooska  will  lead  a  public  tour  of 
the  Northwest  Coast  exhibits  in  Hall  10  At 
7:00  to  9:30  p.m.  the  artists  will  again 
demonstrate  their  crafts  (described  above). 
From  7:30  to  8:30  p.m.  legends  and  masked 
dances  of  the  Northwest  Coast  will  be 
performed  in  Stanley  Field  Hall. 

Friday,  May  2,  10:30  a.m.  to  11:30  a.m., 
legends  and  masked  dances  of  the  Northwest 
Coast  will  be  performed  in  Stanley  Field  Hall. 
At  1:00  p.m.  there  will   be  a  public  tour  of 


'•■  ■    1975 


Northwest  Coast  exhibits  in  Hall  10.  From  1:00 
to  4:00  p.m.  the  artists  will  demonstrate  their 
crafts.  From  7:00  to  9:30  p.m.  legends  and 
masked  dances  of  the  Northwest  Coast  will  be 
performed. 

Saturday,  May  3,  11:00  a.m.  to  1:00  p.m., 
demonstrations  by  the  artists.  From  2:00  to 
3:00  p.m.,  dances  of  the  Northwest  Coast  and 
legends  will  be  performed  in  Stanley  Field 
Hall. 


Slide  Program  on  Birds 

"Away  with  Wings"  is  the  title  of  a  special 
program  to  be  given  during  the  May  13 
(Tuesday)  evening  meeting  of  the  Nature 
Camera  Club  of  Chicago.  Presented  by  Alma 
and  Benjamin  Goldstein,  noted  Chicago-area 
bird  photographers,  the  program  will  feature 
slide  sequences  depicting  how  birds  feed, 
breed,  and  relate  to  their  habitat,  to  each 
other,  and  to  man.  The  program  begins  at 
7:30,  in  the  Lecture  Hall,  and  is  open  to 
nonmembers  as  well  as  to  members  of  the 
Nature  Camera  Club  of  Chicago. 

Museum  Editor  Honored 

Patricia  M.  Williams,  managing  editor  of  Field 
Museum's  scientific  publications,  has  recently 
been  honored  by  the  Friends  of  American 
Writers,  a  Chicago-based  organization,  in 
recognition  for  her  book  Museums  of  Natural 
History  and  the  people  who  work  in  them.  The 
organization's  Juvenile  Book  Award  Commit- 
tee presented  a  $100  special  award  of  merit  to 
Mrs.  Williams  at  an  awards  luncheon  held 
April  9  at  the  Lake  Shore  Club  of  Chicago. 
Mrs.  Williams  book,  which  is  on  sale  at  the 
Museum  bookshop,  was  published  in  1974  by 
St.  Martin's  Press. 


Hirohito  Book  Received 

The  latest  monograph  on  marine  biology  by 
Japan's  Emperor  Hirohito  is  Some  Hydrozoans 
of  the  Bonin  Islands.  A  complimentary  copy 
of  the  55-page  work  has  been  given  Field 
Museum  by  the  Japanese  government.  The 
subject  of  the  book,  Hydrozoa,  is  a  class  of  the 
invertebrate  phylum  Coelenterata,  and  most 
commonly  exemplified  by  the  freshwater 
hydra  or  the  saltwater  Portuguese  man-of-war. 
The  Bonin  Islands,  the  locale  of  Hirohito's 
study,  lie  about  1,000  miles  south  of  Tokyo 
Bay. 

Hirohito  is  widely  recognized  as  an 
amateur  marine  biologist.  The  Museum  library 
already  has  two  of  his  earlier  works:  one  on 
seashells  of  Sagami  Bay  (Japan),  the  other  on 
Sagami  Bay  sea-stars.  Like  the  earlier  two, 
Some  Hydrozoans  of  the  Bonin  Islands  is  a 
technical  treatise,  of  primary  interest  to  the 
specialist. 


Urban  Streams  Course 


A  five-week  course  on  the  character  and 
ecology  of  Chicago-area  streams  will  be 
offered  by  Field  Museum  from  July  21  through 
August  22.  The  course,  limited  to  twenty 
participants,  will  be  predicated  on  work  done 
twenty  years  ago  by  Field  Museum's  curator  of 
fishes.  Student  research  teams  will  revisit 
selected  streams,  conduct  faunal  surveys,  and 
make  comparative  studies  and  analyses  of 
twenty  years  of  stream  changes.  The  course 
will  aim  not  only  to  provide  an  academic 
approach  to  the  subject  at  hand,  but  will  also 
attempt  to  give  the  student  an  opportunity  to 
experience  the  rigor  and  the  standards  that  are 
involved  in  a  real-world  research  project. 


The  course  will  entail  one  week's 
instruction  in  field  skills,  three  weeks  of 
experience  in  the  field,  and  a  final  week  for 
preparation  of  a  slide  show  and  a  report. 

The  teaching  staff  will  include  James 
Bland,  an  instructor  in  Field  Museum's 
Department  of  Education;  John  Dorkin,  a 
graduate  student  at  the  University  of  Illinois; 
and  Anita  Belik,  science  teacher  in  the 
Bourbonnais,  Illinois,  school  system.  Several 
guest  lecturers  have  also  been  invited.  Loren 
Woods,  Field  Museum  curator  of  fishes,  is 
consultant  to  the  program.  The  fee  for  the 
five-week  program  is  $25. 

Applications  may  be  obtained  by  calling 
922-9410,  Ext.  352,  or  by  writing  James  Bland, 
Department  of  Education,  Field  Museum  of 
Natural  History,  Roosevelt  Road  at  Lake  Shore 
Drive,  Chicago,  III.  60605. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


19 


ILLINOIS  NATURAL  HISTORY 
SURVEY  LIB  RM  196 
NATURAL  RESOURCES  BUILDING 
URBANA  ILL  61801 


MAY  and  JUNE  at  Field  Museum 


EXHIBITS 

Continuing: 

Ancient  Ecuador:  Culture,  Clay,  and  Creativity,  a  special  bilingual 
exhibition,  continues  through  August  5.  Hall  9. 

The  exhibition  includes  some  600  objects  dating  from  3000-300 
B.C.,  and  reveals  a  civilization  at  least  1,000  years  older  than  any 
previously  known  in  the  Western  Hemisphere. 

Field  Museum's  Anniversary  Exhibit  continues  indefinitely.  "A 
Sense  of  Wonder"  offers  thought-provoking  prose  and  poetry  asso- 
ciated with  the  physical,  biological,  and  cultural  aspects  of  nature; 
"A  Sense  of  History"  presents  a  graphic  portrayal  of  the  Museum's 
past;  and  "A  Sense  of  Discovery"  shows  examples  of  research  con- 
ducted by  Museum  scientists.  Hall  3. 


SPECIAL  PROGRAMS 

Continuing: 

Craft  Demonstrations  and  Discussions 

"African  Patterns,"  10:00  a.m.  to  12:00  noon,  Mondays,  Wednes- 
days, and  Fridays.  Entrance  to  Hall  27.  Through  June. 

"The  Ways  of  Our  Ancestors:  Traditions  of  Native  North  America," 
10:00  a.m.  to  12:00  noon  and  2:00  to  5:00  p.m.  Fridays.  Hall  4. 
Through  )une. 

Weaving  demonstration  by  members  of  the  North  Shore  Weavers' 
Guild  from  10:00  a.m.  to  12:00  noon  on  Mondays,  Wednesdays, 
and  Fridays.  Spinning  also  shown  on  the  first  and  third  Mondays 
of  each  month.  South  Lounge.  Through  May  16. 

Saturday  Discovery  Programs 

A  series  of  tours,  demonstrations,  and  participatory  activities  offered 
by  Museum  volunteers  between  11:00  a.m.  and  3:00  p.m.  includes 
Ancient  Egypt,  Prehistoric  Man,  Reptiles,  Jewelry  in  Other  Cultures, 
and  Northwest  Coast  Art.  For  information  on  time,  place,  and  topic 
inquire  at  Museum  entrances. 

Field  Museum's  Ray  A.  Kroc  Environmental  Program  series,  "Man 
Uses  the  Land,"  continues: 

Adult  Field  Trips:  May  3,  7,  "Looking  at  Landscapes,"  preserving 
natural  communities  becomes  more  difficult  as  suburbia  grows. 
May  10,  14,  "Farm  Futures"  life  on  suburban  farms  caught  in  the 
rural  and  urban  interface.  May  17,  21,  "Guarding  the  Future," 
Forest  preserves  try  to  balance  the  often  conflicting  needs  for 
recreation  and  presevation.  May  24,  28,  "Challenging  Changes," 
garbage  plus  gravel  makes  a  ski  hill  and  an  abandoned  railroad 
right-of-way  becomes  a  nature  trail.  May  31,  "Creating  Diversity," 
a  native  prairie  is  threatened  by  development,  and  an  overused 
forest  preserve  is  transformed  into  an  environmental  education 
center. 


Programs  for  Teachers:  May  10,  "The  Stream,"  the  varied  char- 
acter of  Saw  Mill  Creek  is  observed.  May  17,  "The  Lake,"  a  slide 
presentation  on  history  and  problems  of  Lake  Michigan,  fol- 
lowed by  dipping  net  into  Burnham  Harbor.  May  24,  The 
Prairie,"  an  opportunity  to  explore  Wolf  Road  Prairie,  and  en- 
dangered prairie  remnant. 

Family  Field  Trips:  May  17,  24,  "The  Farm,"  a  visit  to  hog  farm 
and  a  dairy  farm.  May  31,  "The  Forest,"  explore  a  pond,  a  forest, 
and  other  ecological  communities  in  Palos  Park. 


May  1  and  2: 

Members'  Nights:  the  annual  open  house  for  members  of  the 
Museum  features  special  programs  of  entertainment,  films,  and 
behind-the-scenes  activities  in  the  scientific,  education,  and  exhibi- 
tion departments  from  6:00  to  10:00  p.m. 

May  1,  2,  3: 

Lelooska  Carvers,  from  the  state  of  Washington,  perform  Native 
American  dances,  dramatize  Indian  legends,  and  demonstrate 
woodcarving  and  silversmithing;  their  artwork  will  be  available 
for  purchase. 

CHILDREN'S  PROGRAM 

Continuing: 

Spring  Journey  for  Children,  "People  of  the  Salmon  and  Cedar,"  a 
free,  self-guided  tour,  routes  youngsters  to  Museum  exhibits  relat- 
ing to  the  Northwest  Coast  tribes.  All  boys  and  girls  who  can  read 
and  write  may  participate  in  the  program.  Journey  sheets  in  English 
and  Spanish  available  at  entrances.  Through  May  31. 


May  2,  8:00  p.m., 
May  13,  7:00  p.m., 
May  14,  7:00  p.m., 
May  14,  7:30  p.m., 

May  18,  2:00  p.m., 


MEETINGS 

Chicago  Anthropological  Society 
Nature  Camera  Club  of  Chicago 
Chicago  Ornithological  Society 
Windy  City  Grotto,  National  Speleological 

Society 
Chicago  Shell  Club 


COMING   IN  JUNE 

Ancient  Ecuador:  Culture,  Clay,  and  Creativity,  3000-300  B.C. 

Exhibition  continues. 

Field  Museum's  Anniversary  Exhibit  continues. 

Craft  demonstrations  and  discussions 

Saturday  Discovery  Programs 

Weaving  demonstrations 


MUSEUM   HOURS 

Open  9:00  a.m.   to  6:00  p.m.  Saturday  through  Thursday  and  9:00  a.m.   to  9:00 
p.m.  Friday. 

The   Museum  Library   is  open   9:00   a.m.    to  4:00   p.m.    Monday   through    Friday. 
Please  obtain  pass  at  reception  desk,  main  floor  north. 
Museum  telephone:  922-9410 


June 
1975 


L 


Field  Museum  of  Natural  History  Bulletin 


Field  Museum 
of  Natural  History 
Bulletin 


June  1975 
Vol.  46,  No.  6 

Editor/Designer:  David  M.  Walsten 
Production:  Oscar  Anderson 


3  HUNTING  BEHAVIOR  IN  TWO  SIMILAR 

SPECIES  OF  CANIDS 
by  L.  David  Mech 

6  THE  GYPSY  MOTH  COMES  TO  ILLINOIS 

by  David  M.  Walsten 

8  A  CAT  IN  BRONZE 

by  Paul  Remeczki 

14  OUR  ENVIRONMENT 

17  FIELD  BRIEFS 

18  ART  IN  ANCIENT  ECUADOR 
AND  MODERN  AFRICA 


19 


DONUTS  AND  GOBBOONS 


Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 
Founded  1893 

Director:  E.  Leland  Webber 


back  JUNE  AND  JULY  AT  FIELD  MUSEUM 

cover  Calendar  of  Coming  Events 


COVER 

Red-eyed  tree  frog  {Agalychnis  callidryas),  found  in 
southern  Mexico  and  Central  America.  Specimen  shown 
was  photographed  in  Costa  Rica  by  Hy  Marx,  curator  of 
reptiles  and  amphibians;  enlarged  about  3X.  The  frog 
inhabits  humid,  usually  montane  forests,  where  it  breeds  in 
woodland  pools.  Maximum  body  length  attained  is  about 
2.5  inches. 


Board  of  Trustees 

Blaine  J.  Yarrington, 

President 
Gordon  Bent 
Harry  O.  Bercher 
Bowen  Blair 
Stanton  R.  Cook 
William  R.  Dickinson,  Jr. 
Thomas  E.  Donnelley  II 
Mrs.  Thomas  E.  Donnelley  II 
Marshall  Field 
Nicholas  Galitzine 
Paul  W.  Goodrich 
Remick  McDowell 
Hugo  J.  Melvoin 
William  H.  Mitchell 
Charles  F.  Murphy,  Jr. 
John  S.  Runnells 
William  L.  Searle 
Edward  Byron  Smith 
Mrs.  Hermon  Dunlap  Smith 


Robert  H.  Strotz 
John  W.  Sullivan 
William  G.  Swartchild,  Jr. 
E.  Leland  Webber 
Julian  B.  Wilkins 

Life  Trustees 

William  McCormick  Blair 
Joseph  N.  Field 
Clifford  C.  Gregg 
Samuel  Insull,  Jr. 
William  V.  Kahler 
Hughston  M.  McBain 
J.  Roscoe  Miller 
James  L.  Palmer 
John  T.  Pirie,  Jr. 
John  G.  Searle 
John  M.  Simpson 
Louis  Ware 
J.  Howard  Wood 


Photo  Credits  - 

Pages  3-5:  Museum  staff  photos;  pp.  6,  7:  U.S.  Forest 
Service;  pp.  8-13:  Museum  staff  photos;  p.  14:  U.S. 
Department  of  the  Interior,  Fish  and  Wildlife  Service,  p.  17 
(top):  Jim  Swartchild;  p.  17  (bottom):  Russ  Kemp;  p.  19 
(top):  D.  Walsten 


Field  Museum  ol  Natural  History  Bulletin  is  published  monthly, 
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Hunting  Behavior  in 
Two  Similar  Species 
of  Social  Canids 


by  L.  David  Mech 

The  Canidae  as  a  family  of  carnivores 
has  been  remarkably  successful  in 
colonizing  most  of  the  land  area  of 
the  earth.  With  some  14  living  genera, 
family  representatives  thrive  on  every 
continent  except  Antarctica.  Individual 
member  species  occupy  remarkably  di- 
verse ecological  niches,  with  some 
species  functioning  basically  as  hunters 
and  others  as  scavengers.  Some  are 
almost  tiny,  and  others  much  larger. 
Several  are  solitary-living,  whereas  a  few 
are  social. 

Two  of  the  social  species,  the  gray 
wolf  [Canis  lupus)  and  the  African,  or 
Cape,  hunting  dog  [Lycaon  pictus),  stand 
out  in  occupying  similar  ecological 
niches  but  on  opposite  sides  of  the  globe. 
The  wolf  originally  inhabited  most  of  the 
North  Temperate  and  North  Frigid  Zones 
in  North  America  and  Eurasia,  whereas 
the  hunting  dog  lives  in  the  Torrid  and 


South  Temperate  Zones  of  Africa.  Thus, 
the  climate,  soils,  flora,  and  fauna  differ 
substantially  in  the  ranges  of  these  two 
canids.  Nevertheless,  both  the  wolf  and 
the  hunting  dog  face  the  same  problem: 
securing  a  livelihood  by  preying  on  large 
ungulates. 

Because  of  the  similarity  of  the 
ecological  problem  but  in  the  light  of 
differences  in  the  environmental  cir- 
cumstances faced  by  the  wolf  and  the 
hunting  dog,  it  should  be  enlightening  to 
examine  the  behavioral  and  ecological 
solutions  that  the  two  species  have 
evolved.  Therefore,  the  wolf  and  the 
hunting  dog  will  be  compared  here  in 
terms  of  their  traits  and  habits  most 
related  to  the  problem  of  hunting,  killing 
and  feeding  upon  large  ungulates. 


Physical  Attributes 

Physically,  the  wolf  and  the  hunting  dog 
are  quite  similar,  being  long-legged  and 
larger  than  most  of  the  other  canids. 
Adult  wolves  weigh  from  60  to  120 
pounds  (27  to  54  kg),  with  175  pounds  (80 
kg)  being  the  heaviest  on  record.  Adult 
hunting  dogs  range  from  40  to  60  pounds 
(18  to  27  kg).  The  faces  of  each  species 
are  typically  canid,  but  hunting  dogs 
have  much  larger  ears,  while  wolves 
possess  longer  noses. 

These   differences    in    the    external 
portions    of    the    sensory    organs    may 


The  African,  or  cape,  hunting  dog;  male  [left]  and  female 


reflect  differences  in  the  relative  impor- 
tance of  the  various  senses  of  these  two 
species.  Wolves  in  wooded  areas  rely 
considerably  on  their  sense  of  smell  to 
locate  prey,  although  in  open  areas 
vision  sometimes  becomes  important. 

Hunting  dogs,  coursing  the  open 
plains  of  Africa,  depend  primarily  on 
vision  and  presumably  hearing  to  locate 
and  follow  their  prey,  although  in  bush 
country  they  may  also  use  their  olfactory 
sense.  Probably  their  heavy  reliance  on 
vision  is  the  cause  of  their  basically 
diurnal  hunting.  Wolves  hunt  day  or 
night. 


Social  Behavior 

Both  wolves  and  hunting  dogs  hunt  in 
packs,  which  allows  them  to  locate, 
chase,  kill,  and  consume  large  animals 
most  efficiently.  Most  packs  of  wolves 
range  in  size  from  2  to  12,  and  the  largest 
pack  reliably  reported  contained  36.  For 
hunting  dogs,  Estes  and  Coddard  con- 
cluded that  4  to  6  would  be  the  minimum 
effective  pack  size,  and  packs  of  21  or 
more  are  known. 

In  wolves,  packs  are  basically  family 
groups,  with  several  successive  litters  or 
occasionally  concurrent  litters  making 
up  the  larger  packs,  and  this  probably  is 
also  true  of  hunting  dogs.  Thus,  in  both 
species  the  skills  of  stalking  and  killing 
prey  are  easily  learned  as  the  pups  and 
yearlings  accompany  the  adults  on  their 
hunting  forays. 

Within  packs  both  of  wolves  and  of 
hunting  dogs  a  dominance  hierarchy  not 
only  helps  maintain  order  but  also  aids  in 
hunting.  I  have  observed  that  the  lead 
wolf  in  a  pack  of  15  is  the  most  highly 
motivated  in  pursuit  of  moose  [Alces 
a/ces),  and  Estes  and  Coddard  noted  that 
it  was  the  lead  hunting  dogs  that  singled 
out  certain  members  of  herds  of  prey.  By 
concentrating  on  an  individual,  a  pack 
can  focus  all  it  attention  on  that 
individual  and  thus  increase  the  chances 
of  success.  This  requires  that  some  pack 
member  must  be  commonly  accepted  by 

L.  David  Mech  is  a  wildlife  research  biologist, 
U.S.  Bureau  of  Sport  Fisheries  and  Wildlife. 

"Hunting  Behavior  in  Two  Similar  Species  of 
Canids"  is  from  The  Wild  Canids,  edited  by 
M.  W.  Fox.     ©I975  by  Litton  Educational  Pub- 
lishing, Inc.    Reprinted  by  permission  of  Van 
Nostrand  Reinhold  Company. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


Gray  woli,  male  yearling 

the  others  as  the  one  to  single  out  the 
prey  animal. 

As  part  of  their  social  natures, 
wolves  and  hunting  dogs  communicate 
within  their  packs  through  a  rich 
repertoire  of  vocalizations,  and  these 
also  add  to  the  species'  hunting  success. 
Howling  among  wolves  helps  separated 
pack  members  to  get  together  quickly 
and  the  same  appears  to  be  true  of  the 
"contact  call"  or  "hooing"  of  hunting 
dogs.  "Twittering"  by  hunting  dogs  just 
before  or  during  a  chase  is  thought  to 
foster  concerted  pack  action.  Similarly,  it 
is  widely  believed  by  laymen  that  wolves 
"yip"  when  pursuing  prey,  although  this 
contention  has  not  yet  been  documented. 

Both  wolves  and  hunting  dogs  also 
communicate  through  scent-marking  by 
urine  and  feces.  Scent-marking  is  thought 
to  help  advertise  and  reinforce  the 
dominant  pack  members  and  thus 
strengthen  the  social  order,  and  also  to 
mark  areas  used  by  each  pack  and 
perhaps  help  exclude  neighboring  packs. 


The  exact  nature  of  the  spacing  of 
adjacent  packs  is  unknown  for  both 
wolves  and  hunting  dogs.  However,  an 
increasing  amount  of  evidence  is  accu- 
mulating that  wolf  packs  are  basically 
territorial,  with  pack  territories  ranging  in 
size  from  approximately  64  to  384  square 
kilometers  (25  to  150  square  miles)  in 
Minnesota,  for  instance.  In  Alaska,  where 
the  degree  to  which  wolf  packs  are 
territorial  has  not  yet  been  established, 
one  pack  traveled  an  area  of  some  12,800 
square  kilometers  (5,000  square  miles). 

Much  less  is  known  about  the 
spacing  and  home  range  sizes  of  hunting 
dog  packs.  The  van  Lawick-Coodalls 
believe  that  these  packs  are  not  strictly 
territorial  but  that  several  packs  may 
wander  over  a  large  area.  They  give  range 
sizes  of  1,280  to  3,840  square  kilometers 
(500  to  1,500  square  miles)  for  individual 
packs,  but  do  imply  that  when  one  pack 
is  occupying  a  certain  area  temporarily 
other  packs  will  not  intrude  there. 
Whatever  the  case,  it  is  apparent  that 
both  the  spatial  territories  of  wolves  and 
the  postulated  spatiotemporal  territories 
of  hunting  dogs  would  be  of  considerable 
advantage  in  reducing  competition  for 
prey. 

Food  Utilization 

Because  hunting  dogs  are  somewhat 
smaller  than  wolves,  on  the  average  it 
would  be  expected  that  they  would 
require  somewhat  less  prey  to  sustain 
themselves,  and  this  actually  seems  to 
the  case.  Estimated  food  consumption 
rates  for  wolves  vary  from  2.6  kg  (5.6 
pounds)  to  6.3  kg  (13.9  pounds)  per  wolf 
per  day.  For  hunting  dogs,  the  estimated 
rates  are  2.0  to  4.0  kg  (4.5  to  9.0  pounds) 
per  dog  per  day.  When  put  on  a  common 
base,  however,  the  estimated  consump- 
tion rates  for  both  wolves  and  hunting 
dogs  compare  very  favorably  (0.09  to 
0.19  kg  food  per  kg  of  wolf  and  0.11  to 
0.15  kg  food  per  kg  of  dog). 

It  should  be  obvious  from  the  traits 
discussed  above  of  both  the  wolf  and  the 
African  hunting  dog  that  they  are  very 
similar  animals.  Therefore,  it  should  not 
be  surprising  that  the  actual  hunting 
behavior  of  these  two  canids  is  also  very 
much  alike. 


Hunting  Behavior 


Wok 


.olves  and  hunting  dogs  engage  in   a 
similar  type  of   social    behavior   before 


beginning  a  hunt.  Murie  described  the 
ritual  in  wolves  as  follows:  "Considerable 
ceremony  often  precedes  the  departure 
for  the  hunt.  Usually  there  is  a  general 
get-together  and  much  tail-wagging," 
and  this  ceremony  sometimes  terminates 
in  a  group  howl.  For  hunting  dogs,  Estes 
and  Coddard  described  similar  behavior: 
"Play  and  chasing  tended  to  become 
progressively  wilder  and  reached  a 
climax  when  the  whole  pack  milled 
together  in  a  circle  and  gave  the 
twittering  call  in  unison." 

After  this  group  ceremony,  which  is 
very  similar  to  the  food-begging  cere- 
mony of  pups  and  which  may  serve  to 
motivate  the  leaders  to  the  hunt,  the 
pack  members  trot  off  in  search  of  prey. 
At  this  time,  individuals  of  either  species 
may  snatch  small  prey  and  devour  it 
immediately.  However,  the  packs  are 
clearly  programmed  to  concentrate  on 
large  animals. 

In  an  earlier  study  (1970)  I  classified 
the  hunting  behavior  of  solves  into 
several  stages,  and  it  is  evident  from  the 
accounts  of  Estes  and  Coddard  that 
comparable  stages  exist  in  the  hunts  of 
the  African  dogs.  The  first  stage  is  prey 
location.  As  discussed  earlier,  in  open 
areas  both  species  use  their  vision,  but  in 
wooded  areas  they  resort  to  olfaction, 
and  perhaps  to  hearing.  Little  has  been 
reported  about  the  distance  that  hunting 
dogs  can  smell  prey,  but  wolves  can 
detect  certain  prey  at  distances  of  a 
kilometer  or  more. 

After  sensing  prey,  the  packs  of  both 
canids  begin  the  stalk,  during  which  the 
individuals  approach  deliberately,  with 
their  attention  focused  on  the  prey.  "The 
dogs  appeared  to  be  attempting  to  get  as 
close  as  possible  without  alarming  the 
game,  and  certainly  the  flight  distances 
were  much  less  than  when  the  pack 
appeared  running.  "The  wolves  sneak  as 
close  as  they  can  to  the  prey  without 
making  it  flee." 

The  next  stage  of  the  hunt  is  the 
encounter,  when  the  prey  and  predator 
confront  each  other,  often  at  a  distance. 
With  larger  prey  of  either  the  wolf  or  the 
hunting  dog,  for  instance,  moose  and 
wildebeest  (Connochaetes  taurinus),  re- 


1.  Estes,  R.  D.  and  Goddard,  J.   See  "Additional 
Readings,"  below. 

2.  Mech,  L.  D.  (1970).  See  "Additional  Read- 
ings," below. 


June  1975 


spectively,  the  prey  may  stand  their 
ground  as  the  predators  approach  and 
may  aggressively  defend  themselves. 
Smaller  prey  species,  however,  usually 
flee.  The  moment  they  do,  this  activity 
triggers  the  urge  in  the  hunters  to  bolt 
after  them,  in  the  rush  stage  of  the  hunt. 

The  rush  gives  the  hunters  their  best 
head  start  toward  the  prey  and  may 
determine  the  ultimate  outcome.  Usually 
this  stage  continues  into  the  chase. 
During  the  chase,  hunting  dogs  and 
wolves  perform  quite  comparably,  run- 
ning at  speeds  of  35  to  40  mph  (56.3  to 
64.4  kmph).  The  lead  animals  direct  the 
pursuit,  with  most  of  the  other  members 
following.  If  in  a  group  of  fleeing  prey 
certain  individuals  falter  or  fall  behind, 
they  are  the  ones  likely  to  be  attacked. 
Murie  documented  this  with  wolves 
chasing  caribou  (Rangifer  tarandus),  and 
van  Lawick-Goodall  concluded  from 
watching  numerous  hunts  by  hunting 
dogs  that  they  "select  an  individual  from 
the  herd  that  is,  in  some  way,  weaker  and 
slower  than  his  fellows." 

The  chases  by  either  wolves  or 
hunting  dogs  do  not  usually  last  long  or 
cover  great  distances.  Generally  wolves 
give  up  if  not  successful  within  about  3 
km  (2  miles),  and  only  rarely  do  they 
persist  for  more  than  about  5  km  (3 
miles).  Hunting  dog  chases  cover  an 
average  of  1.6  to  3.2  km  (1  to  2  miles). 

Of  course,  neither  wolves  nor  hunt- 
ing dogs  succeed  during  every  hunt. 
Wolves  hunting  the  solitary  moose  on 
Isle  Royale  in  Lake  Superior  during 
winter  had  a  success  rate  of  about  8 
percent.  Wolves  preying  on  deer 
{Odocoileus  virginianus)  in  Ontario  suc- 
ceeded in  an  estimated  25  percent  of 
their  hunts  during  one  winter  and  in  63 
percent  during  another,  although  these 
estimates  may  be  higher  than  the  actual 
success  rates.  Hunting  success  figures 
reported  for  the  hunting  dog  range  from 
about  34  percent  to  85  percent.  It  must 
be  stressed  that  success  rates  reported  for 
wolves  are  usually  from  hunts  involving 
only  single  prey  animals  or  those  in 
groups  of  up  to  four,  whereas  the  figures 
from  hunting  dogs  usually  involved 
attacks  upon  herds  of  prey,  where  there 
were  many  more  prey  individuals  that 
might  be  vulnerable. 

When  packs  of  hunting  dogs  or 
wolves  do  catch  up  with  prey,  they 
attack  the  animals  in  similar  fashion. 
Both  generally  throw  down  smaller  prey 


such  as  deer  or  gazelles  (Gazella  thomp- 
sonii)  and  tear  at  them  anywhere. 
Usually  they  attack  larger  animals  such 
as  moose  or  wildebeest  from  behind,  in 
the  rump,  flank,  or  hindlegs. 

Parellels  even  exist  in  a  further,  very 
specific  tactic  used  by  both  wolves  and 
hunting  dogs  when  attacking  larger  prey. 
One  wolf  will  often  grab  a  moose  by  the 
nose  and  hold  it,  while  the  rest  of  the 
pack  works  on  its  rump.  Compare  this 
with  the  following  description  of  hunting 
dogs  attacking  a  zebra  {Equus  burchelli) 
from  van  Lawick-Goodall:  "One  dog 
seizes  the  upper  lip  and  pulls  hard  whilst 
the  rest  of  the  pack  disembowels  the 
prey." 

In  feeding,  both  wolves  and  hunting 
dogs  bite  into  the  rump  and  the  abdomen 
of  their  prey.  They  arrange  themselves 
side-by-side  around  the  carcass  and  tear 
at  it  in  every  direction.  With  large  packs, 
even  the  largest  prey  may  be  devoured  in 
minutes. 

At  this  point,  a  further  similarity  in 
the  ecological  niches  of  these  two  large 
social  canids  becomes  apparent:  both 
species  have  their  attendant  mammalian 
and  avian  scavengers  that  share  their 
prey  with  them.  In  keeping  with  the 
greater  diversity  of  the  tropical  eco- 
systems, more  species  of  scavengers  are 
associated  with  hunting  dogs,  but  the 
basic  parallel  remains.  Hyenas  (Crocuta 
crocuta)  and  jackals  {Canis  spp.)  dart  in 
and  out  among  the  dogs,  snatching 
pieces  of  the  carcass,  and  various 
vultures  descend  upon  it  from  the  sky. 
With  wolves,  such  species  as  foxes 
(Vu/pes  spp),  fishers  [Martes  pennanti), 
and  wildcats  {Lynx  spp.)  share  the  spoils, 
although  they  usually  wait  until  the 
wolves  are  resting  at  a  distance.  Ravens 
{Corvus  corax)  and  eagles  {Haliaeetus 
leucocephalus)  float  above  the  kills  of 
the  wolves,  and  I  once  watched  a  lone 
wolf,  an  eagle,  and  several  ravens  all 
sharing  a  fresh  carcass. 


Conclusions 

The  similarities  outlined  above  in  the 
ecological  niches  of  the  wolf  and  the 
hunting  dog,  in  the  social  behavior  of 
these  two  species,  in  their  basic  physical 
attributes,  and  in  their  hunting  behavior 
are  striking.  There  is  no  question  that 
each  species  is  the  direct  ecological 
counterpart    of    the    other     in    distant 


geographic  areas.  Despite  the  widely 
different  environmental  circumstances 
faced  by  both,  they  have  solved  the  same 
ecological  problem  in  remarkably  similar 
ways. 

Indeed,  the  similarities  in  the  be- 
havior of  the  wolf  and  the  hunting  dog 
even  call  into  question  the  taxonomic 
status  of  the  two  species.  Although 
placed  in  separate  genera,  they  seem  to 
be  so  similar  that  one  wonders  if  they 
should  both  be  considered  Canis.    D 


Additional  Readings 

Burkholder,  B.L.  (1959).  Movements  and 
behavior  of  a  wolf  pack,  journal  of  Wildlife 
Management,  23,  1-11. 

Estes,  R.D.  and  Coddard,  J.  (1967).  Prey 
selection  and  hunting  behavior  of  the  African 
wild  dog.  journal  of  Wildlife  Management,  31, 
52-70. 

Jordan,  P.A.,  Sheldon,  PC,  and  Allen,  D.L. 
(1967).  Numbers,  turnover  and  social  struc- 
ture of  the  Isle  Royale  wolf  population. 
American  Zoologist,  7,  233-252. 

Kolenosky,  C.B.  (1972).  Wolf'predation  on 
wintering  deer  in  eastcentral  Ontario,  journal 
of  Wildlife  Management,  36,  357-369.  van- 
Lawick-Goodall,  H.  and  ).  (1971).  The  Inno- 
cent Killers,  Houghton-Mifflin,  Boston. 

Mech,  L.D.  (1966).  The  wolves  of  Isle  Royale. 
U.S.  National  Parks  Service  Fauna  Series  7, 
Washington  DC. 

Mech,  L.D.  (1970).  The  Wolf:  the  Ecology  and 
Behavior  or  an  Endangered  Species,  Double- 
day  and  Co.,  Garden  City,  New  York. 

Mech,  L.D  and  Frenzel,  L.D.,  Jr.  (1971). 
Ecological  studies  of  the  timber  wolf  in 
northeastern  Minnesota.  USDA  Forest  Service 
Research  Report  NC-52. 

Mech,  L.D.  and  Frenzel,  L.D.,  Jr.  (1971).  The 
possible  occurrence  of  the  Great  Plains  wolf 
in  northeastern  Minnesota.  USDA  Forest 
Service  Research  Report  NC-52.  60-62. 

Murie,  A.  (1944).  The  wolves  of  Mount 
McKinley.  U.S.  National  Parks  Fauna  Series  5, 
Washington,  DC. 

Pimlott,  D.H.  Shannon,  J. A.  and  Kolenosky, 
C.B.  (1969).  The  ecology  of  the  timber  wolf  in 
Algonquin  Provincial  Park.  Ontario  Depart- 
ment of  Lands  and  Forest  Research  Report 
{Wildlife)  No.  87. 

Rausch,  R.A.  (1967).  Some  aspects  of  the 
population  ecology  of  wolves,  Alaska.  Amer- 
ican Zoologist,  7,  253-265. 

Schenkel,  R.  (1947).  Expression  studies  of 
wolves  (Ausdrucksstudien  an  Wolfen).  Be- 
haviour, 1,  81-129.  (Translation  from  German 
by  Agnes  Klasson.) 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


The  Gypsy  Moth  Comes  to  Illinois 


by  David  M.  Walsten 

It's  taken  more  than  a  century,  but 
the  gypsy  moth  (Porthetria  dispar) — that 
scourge  of  shade,  fruit,  and  woodland 
trees — has  finally  chewed  its  way  into 
Cook  County.  In  1869,  the  European 
moth  was  brought  to  the  United  States 
for  experimental  purposes — and,  un- 
fortunately, some  of  the  insects  escaped. 
Within  a  few  years  the  moth  established 
itself  as  one  of  our  most  destructive  in- 
sect pests,  gradually  spreading  north, 
west,  and  south  of  Medford,  Mass., 
where  it  first  gained  freedom. 

In  1973,  gypsy  moths  were  seen  for 
the  first  time  in  Illinois.  All  were  caught 
in  traps  located  in  Will  County,  Palos 
and  Worth  Townships  (Cook  County), 
Springfield,  and  Rock  Island — one  moth 
in  each  location.  In  1974,  15,000  to  20,- 
000  traps  were  set  up  throughout  Illinois, 
and  eleven  moths  were  captured — all  in 
southern  Cook  County.  The  captured  in- 
sects, all  males,  were  baited  with  syn- 
thetic sex  attractant  of  the  type  secreted 
by  the  female.  (Female  gypsy  moths  are 
so  heavy-bodied  that  they  are  unable  to 
fly;  thus,  they  are  not  easily  trapped.) 
According  to  a  formula  based  on  ob- 
served gypsy  moth  increases  in  other 
areas,  Illinois  Department  of  Agriculture 
entomologists  expect  about  40  gypsies 
to  be  trapped  in  Illinois  in  1975.  Both 
Wisconsin  and  Missouri  reported  one 
moth  captured  in  1973  and  none  in  1974. 
Indiana   reported    none    for   1974. 

In  the  eastern  tier  of  states  the  insect 
continues  rampant,  but  the  area  defoli- 
ated by  the  gypsy  moth  fluctuates  greatly 
from  year  to  year.  In  1953,  1,487,000 
acres  were  defoliated,  but  two  years  later 
the  total  affected  area  was  only  52,000 
acres.  In  1969,  the  figure  was  255,800 
acres,  and  in  1973,  1,773,846  acres  were 


defoliated.  Deciduous  trees  are  not  al- 
ways killed  by  defoliation,  but  they  are 
rendered  especially  vulnerable  to  the 
shoestring  fungus  (Armillaria  mellea) 
and  to  attack  by  a  beetle,  the  two-lined 
chestnut  borer  (Argilus  bilineatus).  Ever- 
greens will  die  if  completely  defoliated, 
since  they  are  unable  to  replace  their 
needles.  A  century  of  devastating  New 
England's  forestland  has  significantly  af- 
fected the  ecological  balance  of  that  re- 
gion. Most  tree  stands  susceptible  to 
gypsy  moth  feeding  have  been  greatly 
reduced  and  replaced  by  species  more 
resistant  to,  or  not  favored  by,  the  moth. 

A  number  of  environmental  factors 
have  a  significant  effect  on  gypsy  moth 
populations;  and  these  factors,  in  turn, 
will  vary  in  intensity  from  one  year  to  the 
next.  Winter  temperatures  below  —  20°F 
kill  gypsy  moth  eggs  that  are  unprotected 
by  snow  or  other  cover.  Late  spring 
frosts  may  destroy  newly  hatched  larvae. 
Many  caterpillars  die  of  starvation  when 
they  have  eaten  up  the  available  foilage. 
Various  predators,  such  as  parasitic  in- 
vertebrates, birds,  and  small  mammals, 
add  to  the  toll.  Viral  and  bacterial  'dis- 
eases also  affect  the  larvae. 

The  caterpillars  are  very  easy  to  please 
when  it  comes  to  diet.  Like  most  other 
defoliators,  though,  they  have  distinct 
food  preferences.  All  larval  stages  grow 
and  develop  best  on  oaks,  willows,  pop- 
lars, most  birches,  larch,  linden,  and  ap- 
ple. The  older  larvae,  but  not  the  early 
instars,  also  thrive  on  chestnut,  hemlock, 
pines,  and  spruces.  A  single  2-inch  cater- 
pillar eats  a  square  foot  of  leaf  surface 
every  24  hours.  In  heavily  infested  areas, 
whole  trees  may  be  stripped  overnight. 
Larvae  are  able  to  survive,  but  few 
thrive  on,  cherries,  elms,  hickories,  ma- 


ples, or  black  or  yellow  birch.  Even  when 
they  are  starving,  however,  they  usually 
turn  up  their  noses  at  butternut,  walnut, 
locust,  sycamore,  yellow  poplar,  and  ash. 

The  female  lays  her  eggs  in  masses  of 
100  to  1,000  or  more  in  midsummer. 
Most  often  they  are  deposited  on  bark, 
fallen  trees,  in  cavities  in  branches  or 
tree  trunks,  or  on  stones.  If  they  are  laid 
on  automobiles,  trailers,  or  on  the  tents 
of  campers,  they  may  be  transported 
hundreds  of  miles  and  start  new  colo- 
nies. "Hitchhikers"  have  been  found  as 
far  south  as  Georgia  and  Alabama  and  as 
far  west  as  California.  The  egg  mass  is 
covered  with  buff-colored  hair  and 
scales  from  the  moth's  body.  The  follow- 
ing spring  the  eggs  hatch,  and  by  late 
June  or  early  July  the  larvae  are  full 
grown.  Tiny  caterpillars  can  be  carried 
by  the  wind  as  far  as  twenty  miles.  The 
full-grown  male  caterpillar  is  about  IV2 
inches  long;  the  female  may  grow  to 
more  than  2  inches.  The  caterpillar  body 
has  an  irregular  mottling  of  black,  gray, 
and  cream,  creating  a  general  grayish  ef- 
fect. Tufts  of  brown  or  black  bristles  ex- 
tend from  each  body  segment.  The  bris- 
tles, like  the  hair  of  many  caterpillars, 
are  highly  irritating  to  human  skin. 

The  reddish-brown  pupal  stage  lasts 
for  about  10  to  15  days.  The  male  moth, 
about  IV2  to  2  inches  in  wingspread,  is 
light  to  dark-brown.  The  forewings  of 
the  slightly  larger  female  are  mostly 
white,  with  wavy,  thin,  brown  bands. 
Mating  occurs  shortly  after  the  moths 
emerge.  The  males  fly  vigorously  in  a 
zigzag  course  on  warm  days  and  may 
travel  a  considerable  distance  in  locat- 
ing the  female.  There  is  one  generation  a 
year. 

The  safest  insecticide  for  use  against 


June   1975 


the  gypsy  moth  over  large  areas  is  car- 
baryl,  which  is  applied  by  mist  blower 
or  aircraft.  It  is  poisonous  to  man,  how- 
ever, and  especially  toxic  to  bees.  For  a 
smaller  number  of  trees  a  highly  effec- 
tive, but  expensive  weapon  is  the  bac- 
terium Bacillus  thuringiensis,  commonly 
known  as  Bt;  like  carbaryl,  Bt  is  applied 
as  a  spray.  Unlike  carbaryl,  it  is  harmless 
to  most  forms  of  life,  including  man. 

Other  control  techniques  currently  be- 
ing used  by  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture and  state  agencies  include  (1)  the 


importation,  rearing,  and  release  of  pred- 
ators and  parasites  that  help  control 
gypsy  moth  numbers  in  other  parts  of 
the  world;  (2)  quarantines  to  prevent 
the  movement  of  infested  goods  and 
materials  that  might  spread  the  pest  to 
new  areas;  (3)  the  treating  of  camp- 
grounds in  the  infested  Northeast  to 
eliminate  the  pests  before  they  can 
hitchhike  on  recreational  vehicles;  (4) 
limited  aerial  and  ground  treatments 
where  necessary  to  protect  valuable 
recreation  and  timber  resources;  and  (5) 


the  use  of  sex  lure  traps  to  keep  track 
of  pest  population  buildups  and  spread. 
Three  species  of  gypsy  moth  parasites 
— a  fly  and  two  wasps — were  recently 
introduced  from  Spain  for  establishment 
in  the  United  States.  Prior  to  introduc- 
tion they  were  evaluated  by  Department 
of  Agriculture  entomologists  to  ensure 
that  they,  too,  would  not  become  pests. 
Disease-producing  organisms  and  the 
use  of  male  moths  made  sterile  by 
gamma  radiation  are  also  being  explored 
as  possible  control  measures.  D 


The  gypsy  moth  (Porthetria  dispar)  in  various  life  stages.  The  caterpillar,  upper  left, 
shown  about  twice  natural  size,  is  mottled  with  black,  gray,  and  cream.  The  adult 
male  moth,  upper  right,  is  P/i-2  inches  in  wingspread.  The  adult  female,  lower  right,  is 
slightly  larger  in  wingspread  than  the  male  but  is  unable  to  fly.  The  egg  mass,  lower 
left,  shown  about  twice  natural  size,  may  contain  as  many  as  1,000  eggs.  Shown  on 
facing  page  are  a  female  pupa  and  a  cast  larval  skin,  about  natural  size. 


■#**•" 


,'6bj 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


Bronze  statue  of  cat 
from  ancient  Egypt; 
47  cm.  high.  Cat.  No. 
30286.  On  view  in 
Case  76,  Hall  I.  Be- 
tween the  ears  is  a 
scarab  amulet  of  sil- 
ver, now  mostly  oxi- 
dized. Gift  of  Watson 
F.  Blair. 


A  Cat 
in  Bronze 


by  Paul  Remeczki 

Each  time  she  glanced  at  me  the 
moonlight  was  mirrored  in  her  eyes. 
I  would  have  drawn  her  into  my 
arms,  but  she  pushed  me  away 
saying,  "Do  you  not  know  why  Bast, 
the  goddess  of  love,  is  portrayed  as  a 
cat?" 

"I  care  neither  for  cats  nor 
gods,"  said  I,  reaching  out  to  her,  my 
eyes  blurred  with  desire.  She  pushed 
my  hands  aside. 

"Quite  soon  you  may  touch 
me  .  .  .  but  first  you  shall  listen  to 
me  and  learn  why  a  woman  is  like  a 
cat  and  why  passion,  too,  is  like  a 
cat.  Its  paws  are  soft,  but  they  hide 
claws  that  rip  and  tear  and  stab 
mercilessly  into  your  heart  .  .  ."1 

This  explanation  by  the  celebrated 
Finnish  novelist  Mika  Waltari  of  why 
Bastet,  the  ancient  Egyptian  goddess  of 
love,  was  portrayed  in  the  guise  of  a  cat 
may  seem  fanciful,  but  it  may  also  be 
accurate.  It  is  well  known  that  the. 
Egyptian  pantheon  included  many  divini- 
ties with  human  torsos  topped  by  the 
head  of  some  animal  that  was  deemed 
sacred.  In  some  cases  it  is  easy  to 
connect  or  relate  the  attributes  of  a 
particular  animal  to  the  characteristics  of 
a  certain  deity;  in  other  instances  the 
logic  of  the  ancient  mind  remains  to  us 
obscure.  In  a  few  cases  there  may  be 
historically-based  reasons  for  the  associa- 
tion of  a  god  with  a  particular  animal. 

Although  we  can  only  guess  the 
reasons,  we  do  recognize  that  the 
domestic  cat  was  sacred  to  Bastet,  the 
ancient  Egyptian  goddess  of  physical  and 
romantic  love,  of  pleasure,  joy,  festivity, 
music,  and  the  dance.  There  were  other 
Egyptian  goddesses  of  love,  most  notably 
Isis     and     Hathor,     but     their     special 

Paul  Remeczki  is  a  specialist  in  Egyptian  archae- 
ology and  has  served  as  a  volunteer  in  the   De- 
partment of  Anthropology. 


June  1975 


province  was  familial  love— such  as 
wifely  and  motherly  love— and  in  that 
should  not  be  confused  with  the  role  of 
Bastet.  Our  cat-headed  goddess  was  also 
regarded  as  a  protective  divinity,  perhaps 
partly  because  the  cat  helped  to  keep  the 
farmer's  fields  and  home  clear  of  pests 
such  as  snakes  and  rodents;  she  kindly 
protected  man  against  contagious  dis- 
eases and  evil  spirits.  Also,  she  was 
considered  to  represent  the  benevolent 
force  of  the  sun's  radiating  light  and 
heat;  she  presided  over  its  ability  to  give 
warmth  and  illumination,  to  help  the 
crops  to  grow  and  to  be  of  general 
benefit  to  mankind  in  varous  ways.  In 
this  she  should  not  be  confused  with 
another  feline  deity,  the  lion-  or  lioness- 
headed  Sekhmet,  the  Egyptian  goddess 
of  wrath  and  vengeance,  who  had 
dominion  over  the  destructive  aspects  of 
the  sun.  Actually  it  is  simple  enough  to 
equate  the  tame  domestic  cat  with  joy, 
love,  and  benevolence  and  its  leonine 
cousin  with  the  related,  though  opposite, 
principles  of  destruction,  hatred,  and 
violence.  Although  there  is  a  relation 
between  Bastet  and  Sekhmet,  that  very 
tangled  and  touchy  problem  of  Egyptian 
religion  is  beyond  the  scope  of  this 
discussion,  and  we  can  only  comment 
summarily  on  the  presence  of  the  various 
members  of  the  cat  family  in  the 
mythology  and  art  of  ancient  Egypt. 

The  earliest  known  representations 
of  felines  on  Egyptian  artifacts  date  from 
Dynasty  I  (ca.  3100  B.C.).  At  the 
beginning  of  this  century  the  noted 
archaeologist  Sir  W.  M.  Flinders  Petrie 
was  excavating  the  archaic  royal  tombs 
at  Abydos.  In  the  tomb  of  the  Pharaoh 
Den  he  found  two  fragments  bearing 
depictions  of  catlike  animals  climbing  up 
standards;  the  identification  of  these  two 
vague  animals  as  cats  is  likely  but  not 
absolutely  certain.  Also  among  his  finds 
from  the  I  Dynasty  tombs  at  Abydos 
come  two  joined  fragments  of  a  crystal 
cup  on  which  is  named  and  pictured  the 
earliest  known  feline  goddess  of  ancient 
Egypt,  the  leonine  Mafdet.3 

A  few  other  depictions  of  Mafdet 
occur  in  early  Egyptian  art  and  there  is 
mention  of  her  name  in  early  inscrip- 
tions, possibly  even  indicating  that  she 
was  regarded  specifically  as  a  cat 
goddess  by  the  late  Old  Kingdom,4  but 
the  first  mention  of  the  goddess  Bastet, 
the  divinity  we  are  primarily  concerned 
with  here,  seems  to  be  in  the  III  Dynasty 


tomb  of  the  royal  son  Nefermaat  at 
Meidum,  where  he  refers  to  himself  as  a 
priest  of  Bast.  The  name  Bast  has  been 
translated  as  "the  soul  of  I  sis."5  Our  first 
actual  picture  of  her,  from  two  dynasties 
later,  is  found  at  the  temple  of  King 
Ni-user-re  at  Abusir,  where  she  is 
depicted".  .  .  as  a  plain-robed,  lion- 
headed  deity,  honored  as  'Bastet,  Lady  of 
Ankh-Taui'."6  The  earliest  cat  and  cat- 
headed  amulets  seem  to  date  from  the 
First  Intermediate  Period,7  but  the  first 
actual  coupling  of  the  name  of  Bastet 
with  the  cat— as  opposed  to  the  lion  — 
doesn't  seem  to  be  of  any  earlier  than 
some  scarabs  of  the  XVIII  Dynasty,  and 
the  earliest  known  depiction  of  her  as  a 
cat-headed,  human-bodied  goddess 
seems  to  be  somewhat  later  in  the 
Papyrus  of  Dirpu.8 

Bastet  soared  to  prominence  as  a 
great  national  divinity  during  the  XXII 
Dynasty  when  pharaohs  of  Libyan  origin 
ascended  the  throne  and  made  the  city 
of  Bubastis  in  the  Delta  their  capital. 

Bubastis  was  the  capital  of  a  nome, 
or  province,  of  Lower  Egypt  and  had 
been  the  primary  cult  center  of  the 
goddess's  worship.  The  name  is  a  Greek 
corruption  of  Per-Bast,  or  "House  of 
Bast." 

The  worship  of  Bastet  was  also 
particularly  prominent  during  the  XXVI 
Dynasty,  and  many  of  the  artifacts 
related  to  cats  and  to  the  deity's  worship 
exhibited  in  museums  today  date  from 
this  period.  The  popularity  of  her  cult 
continued  throughout  antiquity  and 
didn't  officially  end  until  A.D.  392  when 
the  Christian  Byzantine  Emperor  Theo- 
dosius  I  outlawed  all  paganism. 

For  many  centuries,  however,  the 
cat  goddess  Bastet  was  an  important  one 
to  the  Egyptian  populace.  So,  too,  was 
the  sun  god  Re  in  his  guise  as  the  male 
cat;  in  this  form  he  slays  the  nefarious 
serpent  Apophis,  whose  evil  intent  was  to 
swallow  the  sun  and  so  deprive  man  of  its 
great  benefit. 

Bastet  was  regarded  as  daughter  to 
Re  and  wife  to  Ptah,  the  great  creator  god 
of  Memphis,  and  she  and  Ptah  were 
usually  considered  as  the  parents  of  the 
gods  Nefertem  and  Mahes,  although 
Sekhmet  at  times  replaced  her  in  these 
feminine  roles  in  the  Memphite 
pantheon. 

Even  though  she  was  an  important 
goddess  at  Memphis  and  On,  her  major 
cult  center  remained  at  Bubastis  where 


she  was  regarded  as  wife  to  Temu,  a  solar 
god.  There  was  her  splendid  temple 
which  was  the  abode  of  the  living 
domestic  cats  sacred  to  her.  The  cat  in 
ancient  Egypt  was  sacrosanct,  and  killing 
one  could  mean  the  murderer's  death. 
When  cats  did  die  they  were  regularly 
embalmed,  often  placed  in  coffins  and 
buried  with  due  ceremony  in  special 
cemeteries  consecrated  to  them.  The 
huge  cat  necropolis  at  Bubastis  was 
famous,  as  was  the  one  in  Middle  Egypt 
at  Beni  Hasan.  At  the  latter  place  the 
goddess  was  worshipped  as  Pasht  or 
Pakhet;  on  the  east  bank  a  rock-cut 
temple  known  in  Classical  times  as  the 
Speos  Artemidos  was  dedicated  to  her. 

The  cemetery  at  Beni  Hasan  was 
accidentally  discovered  in  the  summer  of 
1888  by  a  farmer  who  was  digging  a  hole 
near  the  ancient  shrine;  his  spade 
suddently  exposed  the  mummies  of  cats. 
An  apparent  eyewitness  describes  the 
unscientific— not  to  say  sacrilegious- 
excavation  of  the  site  by  the  native 
peasants: 

The  plundering  of  the  cemetery 
was  a  sight  to  see,  but  one  had  to 
stand  well  to  windward.  The  village 
children  came  from  day  to  day  and 
provided  themselves  with  the  most 
attractive  mummies  they  could  find. 
These  they  took  down  to  the  river 
bank  to  sell  for  the  smallest  coin  to 
passing  travelers.  Often  they  took  to 
playing  or  fighting  together  with 
them  on  the  way,  and  then  the 
ancient  fur  began  to  fly  as  for  three 
thousand  years  it  had  never  been 
called  upon  to  do.  The  path  became 
strewn  with  mummy  cloth  and  bits 
of  cats'  skulls  and  bones  and  fur  in 
horrid  profusion,  and  the  wind  blew 
the  fragments  about  and  carried  the 
stink  afar.  This  was  only  the  illicit 
part  of  the  business.  The  bulk  of  the 
old  totems  went  another  way.  Some 
contractor  came  along  and  offered 
so  much  a  pound  for  their  bones  to 
make  into  something— soap  or 
tooth-powder,  I  dare  say,  or  even 
paint.  So  men  went  systematically  to 
work,  peeled  cat  after  cat  of  its 
wrappings,  stripped  off  the  brittle 
fur,  and  piled  the  bones  in  black 
heaps  a  yard  or  more  high,  looking 
from  the  distance  like  a  kind  of 
rotting  haycocks  scattered  on  the 
sandy  plain.  The  rags  and  other 
refuse,  it  appears,  make  excellent 
manure,  and  donkey  loads  of  them 
were  carried  off  to  the  fields  to  serve 
that  useful,  if  unromantic,  purpose. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


ii 


*£* 


Bronze  statuette  of  lion-headed  goddess  on 
view  in  Case  76,  Hall ),  67  cm.  high.  Cat.  No. 
31642.  Oblique  view  shown  on  facing  page. 


It  cannot  be  too  much  regretted 
that  no  responsible  Egyptologist 
watched  the  excavation  of  this 
extraordinary  burying-place.  ThE 
fellahin  were  left  to  do  it  after  their 
own  fashion.  Fortunately  they  know 
that  every  'antica'  has  a  money 
value,  and  these,  therefore,  they 
hoard  for  sale.  But  no  record  as  to 
how  they  were  buried  is  forth- 
coming.  .  .  . 9 

The  salvaging  of  some  of  the  cat 
mummies  from  the  various  cemeteries 
has  allowed  for  anatomical  study,  which, 
coupled  with  representations  in  art,  gives 
us  more  precise  knowledge  of  the  type  of 
cat  that  actually  lived  in  ancient  Egypt. 

It  is  generally  believed  that  two 
somewhat  distinct  types  of  cat  occurred 
in  Egypt.  The  one  which  was  earlier 
attested  in  art  was  a  largish  wild  or  semi- 
wild  cat  with  long  ears  and  a  sharp  nose. 
The  earliest  uncontestable  depiction  of 
this  animal  in  Egyptian  art  is  in  a  bas 
relief  scene  of  wildlife  in  the  marshes 
dating  from  the  V  Dynasty;  that  relief  is 
now  preserved  at  The  Vatican.  The 
predatory  wild  cat  is  shown  climbing 
among  the  papyrus  as  it  stalks  a  nest  of 
fledglings10  The  other  cat  variety  is  a 
slightly  smaller  domesticated  animal 
with  shorter  ears  and  a  blunter  nose. 
Various  mammalogists  have  attached 
.different  zoological  labels  to  the  cats  of 
ancient  Egypt;  however,  they  seem  likely 
to  be  classified  as  Fe//s  maniculata  and  F. 
maniculata  var.  domestical1 

A  tabby  coat  of  yellowish  tan  with 
dark  markings  was  the  most  common; 
although  other  coats,  especially  gray, 
were  also  to  be  found.  It  would  appear 
that  the  modern  breed  most  closely 
resembling  the  common  cat  of  ancient 
Egypt  is  that  which  today  is  known  as 
Abyssinian. 

It  may  be  that  the  complicated 
patterned  wrappings  of  certain  cat 
mummies  in  which  alternating  bands  of 
light  and  dark  linen  are  alternated  may 
be  an  attempt  at  quasi-abstract  represen- 
tation of  the  pattern  of  the  cat's  fur. 
Several  examples  of  this  may  be  seen  in 
Field  Museum's  collection  of  mummified 
fauna  in  Case  6  of  Hall  ),  the  gallery  of 
Egyptian  antiquities.  Actually  only  three 
of  the  twelve  cat  mummy  bundles  on 
display  here  contain  the  complete  re- 
mains of  deceased  cats.  Two  are  almost 
complete;  four  more  include  some  feline 


remains,  but  the  other  three  are  total 
shams,  faked  by  the  ancient  embalmers 
for  their  own  purposes. 

Where  the  Egyptian  cat  originated  is 
not  definitely  known,  but  most  evidence 
seems  to  point  to  Libya.  When  it  actually 
arrived  in  Egypt  is  also  uncertain. 
Evidence  pointing  to  dates  as  early  as  the 
1st  Dynasty  remains  unconvincing.  Cats 
do  uncontestably  appear  on  relief  sculp- 
ture of  the  Vth  Dynasty,  but  these  seem 
wild  rather  than  domestic.  The  earliest 
inscriptional  evidence  is  from  the  Vlth 
Dynasty.  Except  for  the  amulets  of  the  1st 
Intermediate  Period  noted  above,  no 
other  items  of  inscriptional  or  artistic 
evidence  are  known  until  the  Middle 
Kingdom.  These  include  a  group  of  cats 
from  a  tomb  at  Abydos  which  were 
buried  alongside  small  pots  containing 
offerings  of  milk,  indicating  that  the  true 
domestic  cat  was  present  at  least  as  early 
as  the  Middle  Kingdom.  It  does  not 
become  common,  however,  until  the  eve 
of  the  New  Kingdom  when,  in  the  XVlllth 
Dynasty,  small  felines  at  last  seem  to 
have  attained  wide  popularity  as  house- 
hold pets. 

As  such,  the  domestic  cat— known 
onomatopoetically  as  miu  in  the  Egyp- 
tian language— figures  often  in  the 
decorative  murals  painted  in  Theban 
tombs,  where  it  magically  helps  per- 
petuate the  familiar  life  of  this  world  in 
the  beyond.  Many  paintings  from  the 
New  Kingdom  portray  the  feline  pet 
seated  beneath  his  master's  chair.  In  the 
tomb  of  Nakht  for  instance,  is  depicted  a 
scrawny  tawny  tabby  munching  away  on 
a  brightly  colored  fish. 

Probably  the  most  celebrated  an- 
cient Egyptian  painting  of  a  cat  is  one 
that  appears  on  a  fragment  now  in  The 
British  Museum  (No.  37977).  This  mag- 
nificent creature  has  gone  afowling  in 
the  marshes  with  his  master  and  is 
helping  to  retrieve  the  bird  brought  down 
in  the  hunt,  a  rather  stunning  act  caught 
splendidly  by  the  artist. 

An  interesting  bit  of  art  history 
concerns  the  arresting  adult  cat  painted 
in  the  tomb  of  Ipuy.  The  ancient  artists 
who  painted  the  tomb  walls  couldn't 
afford  costly  papyrus  on  which  to  do 
preliminary  sketches  so  they  drew  on  free 
and  abundant  ostraca:  old  potsherds  and 
bits  of  limestone  flaked  off  in  the  hewing 
of  the  nearby  rock-cut  sepulchres.  Back 
in  the  1930s  while  French  archaeologists 


June  1975 


were  excavating  at  Deir  el  Medineh,  the 
village  where  the  Theban  necropolis 
workers  lived,  they  came  across  the  very 
ostracon12on  which  was  delineated  the 
original  sketch  for  the  representation  of 
this  cat  by  the  artist  of  over  3,000  years 
ago. 

Egyptian  artists  depicted  cats  else- 
where also.  They  are  shown,  for  example, 
in  satirical  papyri  performing  human 
acts;  they  were  engraved  on  ivory 
magical  wands  used  in  rituals  against 
serpents;  they  figure  as  ornamental 
elements  in  furniture  and  jewelry  design 
and  were  carved  in  miniature  as  the 
marking  pieces  moved  about  in  certain 
games  played  on  boards. 

Their  most  frequent  appearance  in 
sculpture-in-the-round,  however,  is  in 
connection  with  the  cult  of  Bastet. 
Figures  of  cats  were  fashioned  in  many 
materials,  including  precious  metals, 
bronze,  stone,  wood,  and  faience.  Life- 
size  statues  of  cats  in  bronze  are  to  be 
seen  in  many  museums  today,  and  it  is 
one  such  that  originally  prompted  the 
writing  of  this  article. 

Actually,  the  main  reason  for  this 
brief  treatise  on  the  cat  in  ancient  Egypt 
is  a  deeper  appreciation  by  a  larger 
number  of  persons  of  one  of  the  great 
treasures  of  the  Field  Museum.  Any 
sensitive  visitor  to  Hall  J  cannot  but  be 
struck  when  walking  past  Case  16  by  the 
large  bronze  cat  (Cat.  No.  30286)  staring 
out  from  its  barrier  of  glass  and  time. 

It  has  an  immediate  appeal,  partly 
because  the  object  is  the  image  of  a  cat, 
but  largely  because  of  the  profound  skill 
of  the  masterful  sculptor  who  fashioned 
this  unspeakably  superb  creation  of  the 
art  of  ancient  Egypt. 

As  a  magnificent  object  of  art  it 
readily  demands  appreciation.  Here  the 
artist  has  Raptured  for  all  time  the  true 
essence  of  the  cat.  It  sits  in  dignity  and 
yet  in  repose.  It  is  eminently  conscious 
and  alert  and  yet  serene.  It  is  awesome  in 
aspect  and  yet  approachable.  One  is 
intrigued  by  the  graceful  elegance  of  its 
sinuous  lines.  The  spectator  looks  at  its 
noble  features  and  can't  help  feeling  that 
the  creature  knows  something  that  he 
does  not.  The  cat  itself,  however,  does 
not  return  the  glance  of  the  viewer,  even 
at  eye-level;  for  it  gazes,  not  at  one,  but 
through  and  beyond  one.  In  its  presence 
one  is  aware  of  both  the  beautiful  and 
the  divine 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


The  lovely  creature  is  a  testimony  to 
the  aesthetics  and  piety  of  ancient  Egypt. 
As  an  artifact  it  tells  us  even  more  of  the 
long  distant  culture  which  engendered  it. 
X-ray  examination  has  revealed  that  its 
interior  apparently  contains  a  bundle. 
Such  large  hollow  figures  of  cats  were 
often  cast  to  serve  as  the  coffins  of  the 
mummified  cats  interred  in  the  holy 
cemeteries  such  as  those  at  Bubastis  and 
Beni  Hasan.  Others  were  used  in  do- 
mestic worship  of  Bastet  or  were 
dedicated  as  ex-votes  in  her  temples. 

Such  statuary  was  at  times  be- 
jeweled,  and  our  cat  sports  a  scarab  on 
its  forehead  and  an  uskh  necklace  and 
udjet-eye  pendant  as  amulet  engraved 
around  its  throat;  it  may  once  have  worn 
gold  loop  earrings. 

There  are  other  stately  Egyptian  cats 
in  art  museums  throughout  the  world, 
but  Field  Museum's  ranks  among  the  very 
finest,  comparing  favorably  with  those  to 
be  seen  anywhere  else. 

Besides  this  rather  predominant 
statue,  there  are  several  other  bronze 
sculptures  concerning  the  cat  on  view  in 
the  Egyptian  hall.  Two  are  exhibited 
directly  behind  the  large  cat  in  Case  16. 


Just  to  its  rear ,  is  to  be  seen  a 
charming  little  miniature  group  of  an 
adult  cat  with  two  kittens  (Cat  No. 
30285).  This  is  also  of  the  Saite  Period 
and  probably  had  a  connection  with 
Bastet. 

The  goddess  herself  is  portrayed 
next  in  line  in  a  bronze  statuette  (Cat. 
No.  30287).  She  is  shown  cat-headed  and 
wearing  a  tight  gown.  Bastet  was 
portrayed  either  entirely  as  a  cat,  as  a 
human  but  with  the  head  of  a  cat,  with  a 
human  body  but  with  cat's  head  and  hind 
legs,  or  with  a  human  body,  cat's  head, 
and  cat's  forelegs  and  hind  legs,  with  or 
without  tail.  This  particular  statuette 
represents  her  holding  her  usual  attri- 
butes; with  a  basket  slung  over  one  arm, 
she  carries  her  "aegis"  in  one  hand  and  a 
sistrum  in  the  other. 

The  purpose  of  the  basket  is 
unknown.  Sir  Flinders  Petrie  suggested 
that  it  was  used  for  carrying  the  sacred 
cats  or  kittens  around  in  the  temple?3 
however,  knowing  the  independent 
nature  of  the  animal,  one  tends  to  doubt 
this  explanation. 

The  aegis  consists  of  a  device  of  a 
head    wearing    a    headdress    and    uskh 


collar.  The  meaning  of  this  piece  of  the 
deity's  iconography  is  quite  vague,  and 
an  investigation  of  it  is  beyond  our  scope 
here. 

Her  third  item  is  a  sistrum,  the  rattle- 
like musical  instrument  played  during 
various  Egyptian  religious  rituals. 

Indeed,  the  fourth  cat-related  object 
on  exhibition  in  Hall )  is  an  actual  bronze 
sistrum  (Cat.  No.  173239)  to  be  seen  in 
Case  24.  It  is  decorated  with  figures  of 
various  divinities,  and  at  the  very  top 
reclines  a  mother  cat  with  her  litter  of 
kittens.  Bastet  has  associations  with 
some  of  these  other  divinities,  especially 
with  the  folk  god  Bes. 

The  fascinating  cat  goddess  of 
ancient  Egypt  is  thus  represented  by  a 
small  but  interesting  variety  of  objects  in 
Field  Museum's  collection.  We  are 
curious  to  hear  the  sound  of  the  sistrum; 
we  are  amused  by  the  appealing  mother 
cat  and  her  kittens;  we  are  intrigued  by 
the  iconography  of  the  semi-animalistic 
representation  of  Bastet,  but  ultimately  it 
is  the  large  bronze  figure  of  the  cat  that 
captivates  us.  We  are  allured  and  baffled 
by  its  mein.  We  look  upon  its  expression 
and    are    not   quite   sure    just   what    to 


Assorted  cat  mummies    in    Field   Museum's 
collection. 


12  lune  1975 


think— or  feel— or  believe.  We  feel  that 
the  cat  is  conscious  of  our  presence  but 
pays  us  not  much  mind.  It  is  intent  upon 
its  own  affairs  as  it  sits  gracefully  and 
serenely  in  its  case  gazing  out  into 
eternity.14  D 


1.  Mike  Waltari,  The  Egyptian,  C.  P. 
Putnam's  Sons,  New  York,  1949,  p.74. 

2.  N.  and  B.  Langton,  The  Cat  in  Ancient 
Egypt,  Cambridge  University,  Cambridge, 
England,  1940,  pp.  1-2;  Sir  W.  M.  Flinders 
Petrie,  The  Royal  Tombs  of  the  First  Dynasty, 
Egypt  Exploration  Fund,  London,  1900-1901, 
vol.  I,  pi.  XXXII,  no.  39  and  vol.  II,  pi.  VII,  no. 
7. 

3.  Langton,  Cat,  p.  2;  Petrie,  Royal 
Tombs,  vol.  I,  pi.  VII,  no.  4  and  vol.  II,  pi.  VII, 
no.  10. 

4.  Alan  H.  Gardiner,  "The  Mansion  of  Life 
and  The  Master  of  the  King's  Largess,"  lournal 
of  Egyptian  Archaeology,  vol.  XXIV,  part  1, 
June  1938,  pp.  89-90. 

5.  Neville  Langton,  "Bast— The  Cat 
Goddess,"  Antiquarian  Quarterly,  vol.  I,  no.  4, 
Dec.  1925,  pp.  93-4. 

6.  Langton,  Cat,  p.  64. 

7.  Langton,  Cat,  p.  2. 

8.  Langton,  Cat,  p.  64. 

9.  Wm.  Martin  Conway,  Dawn  of  Art  in 
the  Ancient  World,  Percivalt  &  Co.,  London, 
1891,  pp.  182-3. 

10.  Hermann  Ranke,  The  Art  of  Ancient 
Egypt,  Phaidon,  Vienna,  1936,  pi.  189. 

11.  So  Claude  Gaillard  and  Georges 
Daressy,  La  Fauns  ,  momifiee  de  I'antique 
Egypte  (^Catalogue  General  .  .  .),  L'lnstitut 
Francais  d'Archeologie  Orientale,  Cairo,  1905, 
p.  8  and  L.-C.  Lortet  and  C.  Gaillard,  La  Faune 
momifiee  de  I'ancienne  Egypte  ( =  Archives  du 
Museum  d'histoire  naturelle  de  Lyon,  vol.  8, 
no.  2),  Henri  Georg,  Lyon,  1903,  pp.  21  ff.; 
these  two  works  should  be  consulted  for  a 
zoological  discussion  of  the  cat  in  ancient 
Egypt;  cf.  also  Langton,  Cat,  p.  5. 

12.  Ostraca  nos.  2809  and  2810,  cf. 
Jeanne  Vandier  d'Abbadie,  Catalogue  des 
Ostraca  figures  de  Deir  el  Medineh  [  =  Docu- 
ments de  fouilles  .  .  .  ,  vol.  II),  I.  F.  A.  O., 
Cairo,  1936,  1937,  1946,  1959. 

13.  Langton,  Cat,  p.  73. 

14.  This  short  article  is  certainly  not 
meant  to  be  a  definitive  study  of  the  cat  in 
ancient  Egypt;  for  further  information,  inter- 
ested readers  are  referred  to  the  works  by 
Neville  Langton,  mentioned  above,  plus 
several  of  his  other  articles:  "Cats  in  Egypt,"  A. 
Q.,  vol.  I,  no.  3,  Sept.  1925,  pp.  68-74;  "Further 
Notes  on  Some  Egyptian  Figures  of  Cats,"  ).  E. 
A.,  vol.  XXIV,  pt.  1,  June  1938,  pp.  54-8  and 
"Notes  on  Some  Small  Egyptian  Figures  of 
Cats,"  I.  E.  A.,  vol.  XXII,  1936,  pp.  115-120. 


X-ray  of  cat  mummy 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


our  environment 


Alaskan  Musk  Oxen  Airlifted  to  Siberia 

Forty  musk  oxen  were  recently  captured  on 
Nunivak  Island,  west  of  the  Alaska  mainland, 
and  airlifted  by  Soviet  air  transports  to  Siberia 
where  they  are  extinct,  in  fulfillment  of 
another  part  of  the  U.S.-U.S.S.R.  Environ- 
mental Protection  Agreement  of  1972.  Other 
cooperative  efforts  with  the  Soviets  deal  with 
cooperative  polar  bear  and  caribou  studies, 
banding  and  dyeing  snow  geese  that  migrate 
between  the  two  countries,  a  trip  by  American 
scientists  to  Russia  to  study  the  Siberian 
polecat  and  ground  squirrels,  and  a  trip  by 
Soviet  scientists  to  wildlife  research  facilities 
in  this  country  involving  the  migration  of 
birds. 

The  original  population  of  the  musk  ox  in 
Alaska  was  hunted  to  extinction  by  the  middle 
of  the  last  century.  The  re-establishment  of 
the  animal  began  in  the  1930s  when  31  of  the 
oxen  purchased  from  Greenland  were  placed 
on  Nunivak  Island,  which  had  been  reserved 
as  a  national  wildlife  refuge.  The  Nunivak 
herd  today  numbers  about  700. 

The  U.S.  Fish  and  Wildlife  Service 
cooperates  with  the  Alaska  Department  of 
Fish  and  Came  in  the  management  of  musk 
oxen.  Originally,  the  herd  was  completely 
protected  on  Nunivak  National  Wildlife 
Refuge,  but  as  it  reached  the  limit  of  its  food 
supply,  population  control  measures  became 
imperative.  The  immediate,  but  temporary, 
solution  to  controlling  the  population  was  to 
transplant  excess  animals  to  their  original 
ranges  in  arctic  Alaska.  Thus,  the  transfer  of 
these  40  to  the  Soviet  Union  will  provide 
further  benefit  to  the  Alaska  herd. 


Musk  ox 

Musk  oxen  have  proved  easier  to  capture 
than  many  other  animals.  Eskimos,  on  their 
swift  snow  machines,  can  quickly  corner  a 
herd  and  capture  any  selected  animal  by 
placing  a  large  net  over  it.  It  is  then  sledded  as 
far  as  50  miles  to  the  Eskimo  village  of 
Mekoryuk,  where  it  is  temporarily  penned  to 
await  transport  to  the  mainland  by  aircraft. 
The  musk  oxen  airlifted  by  the  Russians  were 
placed  along  the  easternmost  coast  of  Siberia 
across  from  Alaska. 

The  habitat  of  the  musk  ox  is  so  remote 
that,  until  a  short  time  ago,  knowledge  of  its 
behavior  and  way  of  life  depended  on  tales  of 
early  hunters,  hearsay  accounts,  or  reports  of 
brief  encounters  by  explorers.  Scientists  call  it 
Ovibos,  literally  "sheep-cow,"  but  it  is  neither, 
nor  is  it  very  closely  related  to  either  of  these 
animals.  Its  closest,  but  still  distant,  Irving 
relative  is  the  takin  of  Tibet  and  Burma. 

Ancestors  of  the  musk  ox  evolved  on  the 
arctic  prairies,  steppes,  or  tundra  of  north- 
central  Asia  about  a  million  years  ago.  During 
the  ice  ages,  when  vast  glaciers  lowered 
oceans,  musk  oxen  crossed  to  North  America 
on  the  land  bridge  which  joined  Asia  and 
Alaska.  They  moved  south  with  the  glaciers  as 
far  as  Iowa  and  New  York,  4iving  then  in 
habitat  similar  to  that  which  they  now 
occupy.  As  the  glaciers  retreated,  habitats  in 
southern  latitudes  changed,  and  musk  oxen 
survived  only  in  the  northernmost  tundra 
regions  of  North  America  and  Greenland.  It 
became  extinct  in  Asia  and  Europe,  perhaps 
because  of  changes  in  climate,  but  many 
scientists    believe   that    primitive    man    con- 


tributed significantly  to  its  demise  there  as  in 
Alaska. 

When  white  men  first  penetrated  arctic 
regions,  they  found  the  musk  ox  abundant 
along  coasts  of  northern  and  eastern  Green- 
land, and  in  tundra  areas  of  northern  Canada, 
particularly  in  the  arctic  islands  of  that 
country.  As  more  white  men,  mostly  whalers 
and  traders,  penetrated  the  arctic,  and 
Eskimos  were  provided  with  firearms,  musk  ox 
populations  were  rapidly  depleted.  Between 
1850  and  1920,  they  were  killed  indis- 
criminately for  food,  or  merely  for  robes, 
which  were  exported  by  hundreds  from 
Canada  and  Greenland.  Explorers  slaughtered 
large  numbers  on  the  arctic  islands  to  sustain 
their  expeditions. 

Protection  was  initiated  in  some  areas  of 
Canada  at  the  opening  of  the  century,  but 
measures  were  not  effective  in  most  regions 
until  after  1920.  After  several  decades  of 
protection,  the  recovery  of  the  population  is 
virtually  complete,  and  numbers  in  most 
portions  of  their  range  probably  equals  that 
when  white  men  first  intruded.  In  mainland 
areas  of  Canada  there  are  now  more  than 
1,500  musk  oxen,  in  Canada's  arctic  islands 
more  than  5,000,  and  perhaps  as  many  in 
Greenland.  They  also  have  been  introduced 
into  Norway  and  Spitzbergen. 

The  favored  habitat  of  the  musk  ox  is  a 
land  that  ecologists  call  the  "high  arctic."  This 
is  the  extreme  northern  fringe  of  tundra, 
bordering  on  polar  seas,  where  night  and 
winter,  or  day  and  summer,  are  synonymous. 
Plant  life  is  frequenlty  sparse  and  much  of  the 
ground  surface  may  be  bare.  All  vegetation  is 
low-growing  and  even  shrubs  are  dwarfed  or 
creeping. 

Amazingly,  an  important  factor  permit- 
ting their  existence  is  lack  of  snow.  The  high 
arctic  is  a  virtual  desert,  with  annual 
precipitation  of  less  than  10  inches.  Snowfall 
may  be  less  than  10  inches  and  is  seldom  more 
than  30.  Strong  winds  deposit  huge  drifts  in 
sheltered  areas,  leaving  much  of  the  ground 
bare.  In  the  few  arctic  regions  of  deep  snow, 
musk  oxen  do  not  occur. 

Physical  adaptations  of  musk  oxen  to 
their  habitat  are  chiefly  those  which  protect  it 
from  cold.  Most  important  is  its  coat,  which 
consists  of  a  thick  layer  of  cashmere-like 
wool,  called  "quiviut."  The  quiviut  is  protect- 
ed by  an  outer  coat  of  long,  coarse  hair  which 
may  reach  three  feet  or  more  in  length,  and 
gives  the  shaggy  appearance  which  is  perhaps 
the  basis  of  its  Eskimo  name,  Oomingmuk,  or 
"bearded  one." 

Musk  oxen  are  a  social  animal  and  graze 
in  small  herds  usually  varying  from  three  to  15 
animals,  but  sometimes  many  more.  During 
summer,  herds  consist  of  an  adult  bull  with  his 
harem  of  cows,  calves,  and  immature  animals. 
Adult  bulls  which  do  not  possess  harems  are 
usually  found  as  singles,  having  little  tolerance 


June  1975 


for  each  other  at  this  season.  In  winter,  extra 
bulls  may  sometimes  be  permitted  to  join 
harem  groups,  but  most  form  into  bachelor 
bands  which  are  isolated  from  other  animals. 

Calves  are  born  during  April  or  May  when 
weather  may  still  be  severe  in  arctic  regions. 
Within  a  few  hours  they  can  follow  the 
mother  during  her  normal  movement  with  the 
herd.  Growth  is  rapid  and  a  calf  weighting  20 
pounds  at  birth  may  reach  as  much  as  200 
pounds  at  one  year.  The  rate  of  growth 
gradually  declines,  but  full  size  is  not 
achieved  until  the  age  of  five  or  more  years, 
when  bulls  may  weight  700  pounds  and  femals 
about  a  third  less. 

Musk  oxen  have  few  natural  enemies. 
Polar  or  grizzly  bear  may  occasionally  attack 
them,  but  probably  are  seldom  a  danger. 
Wolves  are  a  more  significant  threat,  parti- 
cularly to  lone  animals  and  to  calves. 
Behavior  patterns  of  musk  oxen  when  faced 
with  danger  suggest  wolves  were  their  chief, 
natural  enemy.  When  pursuers  approach  and 
escape  is  impossible,  musk  oxen  whirl  with 
military  precision  and  present  a  veritable 
array  of  horns  that  present  some  difficulty  to 
an  attacking  wolf  pack.  There  is  a  constant 
shuffling  about,  as  each  animal,  even  calves, 
attempts  to  take  a  position  in  the  front  line. 
Sometimes,  in  open  terrain,  the  defense 
formation  takes  the  form  of  a  circle  or  ring. 
More  frequently,  the  line  forms  on  the  edge  of 
a  cliff  or  against  a  bank. 

At  present,  other  factors  are  more 
important  causes  of  mortality  than  predators 
or  man.  Most  deaths  occur  in  late  winter  when 
shortage  of  food  or  other  stresses  may  cause 
the  death  of  animals  which  are  sick,  injured, 
or  perhaps  merely  old  and  past  their  prime. 
Particularly  severe  weather  conditions,  espe- 
cially deep  snow  or  icing,  may  cause  the  loss 
of  large  numbers  of  animals  by  starvation,  and 
entire  herds  have  been  lost  in  this  manner, 
particularly  on  islands  where  the  food  supply 
was  limited. 

Despite  the  many  natural  causes  of 
death,  adult  mortality  under  normal  condi- 
tions is  low  and  many  animals  may  live  to  old 
age.  So  few  animals  have  been  marked, 
however,  that  the  single  record  of  longevity  is 
of  a  female  that  died  in  an  accident  when  23 
years  old. 

Red  Wolf  Study  Inaugurated 

One  of  the  most  endangered  mammals  in 
North  America,  the  red  wolf,  may  have  a 
better  chance  for  survival  in  the  wild  through 
establishment  of  a  cooperative  federal-state 
recovery  team.  Appointment  of  the  team 
comes  on  the  heels  of  reports  that  the  red 
wolf,  which  is  imperiled  by  both  human 
persecution  and  hybridization  with  the  related 
coyote,  is  in  an  even  more  precarious 
situation  than  had  been  thought.  In  the  early 


Publication  cost  of  this  section  on 
Our  Environment  has  been  under- 
written, in  part,  by  the  Ray  A.  Kroc 
Environmental  Education  Fund. 


1970s  there  were  hopes  that  a  last  remnant 
population  in  extreme  southeastern  Texas 
could  be  stablized  and  saved  from  inter- 
breeding with  the  coyote.  Specimens  col- 
lected in  1974,  however,  indicate  that  the 
hybridization  process  now  has  spread  even 
into  this  population.  The  recovery  team  may 
soon  initiate  new  conservation  measures, 
possibly  including  evacuation  of  red  wolves 
from  some  areas  and  introduction  into  others. 

The  red  wolf,  the  only  one  of  its  kind  in 
the  world  (all  other  wolves  in  the  world  are 
subspecies  of  the  gray  wolf),  was  one  of  six 
endangered  species  that  the  U.S.  Fish  and 
Wildlife  Service  selected  for  priority  treat- 
ment when  it  appointed  separate  recovery 
teams  for  each  animal  recently.  The  five  other 
endangered  animals  are:  Delmarva  fox  squir- 
rel, Indiana  bat,  Kirtland's  warbler,  dusky 
seaside  sparrow,  and  the  Mississippi  sandhill 
crane. 

The  red  wolf  {Canis  ruius)  is  a  close 
relative  of  the  gray  wolf  (Canis  lupus)  and  the 
domestic  dog  [Canis  familiaris).  Before  the 
coming  of  European  man,  the  red  wolf  was 
found  throughout  the  southeastern  quarter  of 
North  America,  from  central  Texas  to  the 
Atlantic,  and  from  the  Gulf  Coast  north  to  the 
Ohio  Valley  and  Pennsylvania.  As  was  the 
case  with  other  large  predatory  animals,  the 
red  wolf  was  intensively  hunted,  trapped,  and 
poisoned  by  farmers  and  ranchers  because  of 
its  threat  to  domestic  livestock.  In  the  early 
20th  century,  after  the  species  had  been 
largely  eliminated  east  of  the  Mississippi 
River,  federal  and  state  governments  joined  in 
the  extermination  effort.  By  the  early  1970s, 
when  it  finally  was  legally  protected,  the  red 
wolf  was  thought  to  survive  only  in  a  narrow 
strip  of  coastal  marsh  and  prairie  in  extreme 
southeastern  Texas  and  southwestern 
Louisiana. 

Despite  human  persecution,  the  red  wolf 
might  have  been  able  to  survive  in  a  few 
remote  areas  had  it  not  been  for  the  critical 
hybridization  problem.  Prior  to  the  impact  of 
modern  man,  the  range  of  the  red  wolf  was 
largely  separate  from  that  of  its  western 
relative,  the  coyote  (Canis  latrans).  When 
settlers  cleared  forests  and  killed  off  red 
wolves,  they  inadvertently  opened  the  way  for 
the  coyote  to  extend  its  range  eastward.  As 
the  small,  adaptable  coyote  moved  in,  some 
interbreeding  occurred  between  it  and  surviv- 
ing red  wolves.  These  initial  crosses  set  in 
motion  a  massive  process  of  hybridization 
which  eventually  spread  throughout  much  of 
the  former  range  of  the  red  wolf. 

The  presence  of  coyotes  and  hybrids  led 
many  persons  to  think  that  the  red  wolf  still 
survived.  Examination  of  many  old  and  new 
specimens,  however,  has  enabled  biologists  to 
trace  the  decline  of  the  true  red  wolf  across 
the  continent.  Before  1920,  hybridization  was 
largely  restricted  to  central  Texas.  In  the  1930s 


and  1940s  the  same  phenomenon  engulfed 
Arkansas,  eastern  Oklahoma,  and  southern 
Missouri.  By  the  1960s,  much  of  eastern  Texas 
and  Louisiana  had  also  been  taken  over  by 
coyotes  and  hybrids,  and  it  appeared  that  the 
red  wolf  survived  only  to  the  south  and  east  of 
Houston  in  Texas,  and  in  parts  of  southern 
Louisiana.  By  1970,  the  only  known  pure  red 
wolf  population  was  found  in  Jefferson  and 
eastern  Chambers  Counties,  Texas,  but  now 
this  population  is  in  immediate  jeopardy. 

Hard-pressed  federal  agents  in  southeast 
Texas  have  for  several  years  been  attempting 
to  slow  the  tide  of  interbreeding  by  trapping 
coyotes  and  hybrids  on  and  near  red  wolf 
range.  These  men  also  have  been  live- 
capturing  stock-killing  red  wolves  in  order  to 
moderate  ill  feelings  by  local  stockmen,  as 
well  as  to  establish  a  captive  breeding  pool. 
The  new  recovery  team  may  continue  these 
and  other  conservation  operations,  and  also 
will  try  to  develop  new  methods.  Some 
authorities  have  suggested  a  large-scale  live- 
capture  and  reintroduction  effort  in  which 
some  of  the  last  pure  red  wolves  would  be 
removed  from  southeast  Texas  and  released 
on  certain  offshore  islands  or  in  other  suitable 
areas  far  from  the  range  of  the  coyote.. 

Coyotes  and  Sheep:  New  Data 

A  Montana  study  is  providing  additional 
information  on  the  old  and  sometimes  heated 
controversy  related  to  coyote-sheep  relation- 
ships, according  to  the  Wildlife  Management 
Institute.  Data  collected  from  the  study 
indicated  that  the  coyote  can  inflict  sigificant 
damage  to  unprotected  domestic  sheep  herds. 

The  study  was  initiated  by  the  University 
of  Montana  on  an  8,500-acre  ranch  in  the 
Bitterroot  Valley  south  of  Missoula.  Funded 
by  the  US.  Fish  and  Wildlife  Service,  the 
investigation  was  designed  to  record  all  sheep 
losses,  both  by  predators  and  from  natural 
mortality. 

From  March  to  October  1974,  no  controls 
were  placed  on  the  coyotes.  The  predators 
were  allowed  to  take  as  many  sheep  as  they 
would  However,  61  coyotes  were  killed  on 
the  area  shortly  before  the  study  began.  About 
2,000  sheep  were  exposed  to  predation  during 
the  six-month  reporting  period.  Coyotes  killed 
429  sheep,  364  of  which  were  lambs.  That 
amounted  to  about  86  percent  of  the  total 
sheep  deaths.  Two  sheep  were  killed  by 
golden  eagles,  and  two  by  feral  dogs.  The  dogs 
also  wounded  11  more. 

Although  the  predator  kills  were  high, 
researchers  said  that  lack  of  control  was  part 
of  the  cause.  "What  we  have  shown,"  the 
researchers  said,  "is  that  coyotes  under 
certain  circumstances  do  kill  sheep.  .  .  .People 
who  want  to  latch  onto  our  study  and  flaunt  it 
as  proof  against  coyotes  are  mistaken.  We  are 
just  printing  the  results  of  a  baseline  study 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


which  had  little  or  no  controls  placed  on  the 
coyotes.  We  are  not  using  our  data  to  make 
generalizations  on  the  coyote-sheep  problem 
everywhere." 

The  researchers  said  the  coyote  problem 
varies  from  area  to  area.  In  some  places  they 
are  no  problem  at  all  — in  others  they  are. 
There  has  to  be  selective  control,  they  added, 
and  new  devices  are  being  developed  to  help. 


What  Happened  to  the  Blue  Pike? 

A  unique  fish,  commercially  harvested  by  the 
ton  as  recently  as  the  1950s,  has  disappeared. 
Under  authority  of  the  Endangered  Species 
Act,  a  team  of  experts  is  trying  to  learn  where 
the  blue  pike  went  and  what  might  be  done  to 
bring  it  back  — if  it  ever  existed  at  all 
biologically. 

The  mysterious  blue  pike  resembles  the 
well-known  walleye  in  all  respects  except  its 
smaller  size  and  bluish,  instead  of  yellowish, 
coloring.  It  once  filled  the  trap  nets  of 
commercial  fishermen  in  Lake  Erie's  eastern 
basin,  where  blues  were  often  caught  in  the 
same  net  hauls  as  walleyes.  Oldtimers  recall 
boats  docking  in  Erie's  eastern  ports  with  tons 
of  blue  pike  heaped  on  board. 

Then,  some  unexpected  change  in  Lake 
Erie's  environment  or  some  other  unknown 
factor  caused  a  sudden  crash  in  blue  pike 
populations.  In  recent  years,  although  sport 
fishermen  have  occasionally  reported  catch- 
ing blue  pike,  not  one  of  these  reports  has 
been  verified.  In  fact,  some  authorities  feel 
that  verification  is  impossible,  that  the  blue 
pike  is  nothing  more  than  an  unusual  color 
phase  of  the  walleye. 

So  the  first  mission  of  the  blue  pike 
recovery  team  is  to  prove  that  the  fish  exists. 
To  do  this,  they  may  offer  a  reward  for  the  live 
capture  of  the  fish  so  that  "true  blues"  can  be 
bred  in  captivity  40  prove  their  genetic 
identity.  If  attempts  to  find  and  propagate 
blue  pike  are  successful,  an  attempt  may  be 
made  to  reintroduce  them  to  selected  parts  of 
their  original  range. 

Captive  Whoopers  Lay  First  Eggs 

Two  eggs  were  laid  in  late  April  by  captive 
whooping  cranes  at  the  Patuxent  (Maryland) 
Wildlife  Research  Center,  a  facility  of  the  U.S. 
Fish  and  Wildlife  SErvice.  The  two  layings 
—  ten  days  apart— are  the  first  known  layings 
by  this  species  while  in  captivity.  Government 
biologists  described  the  layings  as  "major 
events  of  scientific  importance." 

Because  the  eggshells  are  too  thick  to 
candle,  it  is  not  known  if  either  egg  is  viable. 
Whooping  crane  eggs  require  about  one 
month  to  hatch;  meanwhile,  they  are  being 
artificially  incubated. 

The  parent  birds  were  hatched  from  eggs 


taken  from  the  nest  of  wild  whoopers  in 
northern  Canada  in  1968.  The  captive  flock 
was  established  at  the  Patuxent  center  in 
hopes  of  restoring  wild  populations.  Only  49 
of  the  species  were  counted  in  the  wild  during 
the  1974-75  annual  winter  census. 

Elsewhere,  in  early  April,  several 
whoopers  were  exposed  to  a  commonly  fatal 
disease  while  en  route  to  their  northern 
nesting  grounds.  Nine  of  the  birds  were  forced 
to  earth  at  the  Sacramento-Wilcox  Game 
Refuge,  in  Nebraska,  by  a  sleet  storm.  Their 
arrival  coincided  with  an  epidemic  of  avian 
cholera  that  killed  at  least  15,000  waterfowl  at 
the  refuge.  It  was  unknown  whether  the 
whoopers  caught  the  disease,  since  the  birds 
remained  in  the  area  for  only  36  hours.  The 
incubation  period  for  avian  cholera  is  24  to  48 
hours.  From  shortly  after  the  birds'  arrival,  a 
crew  of  state  and  federal  game  officers  went 
about  the  area  trying  to  chase  them  away. 

"This  is  the  first  anyone  can  remember 
them  coming  through  this  area,"  remarked 
one  of  the  officers.  "Who  would  have 
believed  the  biggest  bunch  ever  would  have 
picked  such  a  little  spot,  the  worst  spot,  of  all 
the  places  to  land?" 

Aerial  surveys  of  the  crane's  nesting 
grounds  in  Canada  showed  that  fifteen  chicks 
hatched  last  summer.  But  only  two  immature 
birds  were  seen  among  the  forty-nine 
whoopers  counted  in  early  December  at 
Aransas  National  Wildlife  Refuge  in  Texas. 
That  is  an  increase  of  one  bird  over  the 
1973-74  count,  but  still  far  below  the  record 
fifty-nine  reported  from  Aransas  in  1971. 
Biologists,  meanwhile,  are  puzzled  over  the 
poor  survival  rate  of  nestlings. 


These  Animals  Have  Come  Back! 

The  media  have  given  substantial  attention  in 
recent  years  to  the  plight  of  animal  species 
threatened  with  extinction,  pointing  out  that 
man  must  mend  his  ways  if  they  are  to 
survive.  We  hear  little  about  those  that  have 
survived  just  such  a  crisis.  As  recently  pointed 
out  by  the  Wildlife  Management  Institute, 
however,  a  number  of  species  have  made 
remarkable  comebacks  — thanks  to  human 
endeavor— since  the  turn  of  the  century. 
Some  outstanding  examples  are  the  following: 


•  Beaver:  1900—  Eliminated  from  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley  states  and  all  eastern  states 
except  Maine;  common  only  in  Alaska  and  a 
few  localities  in  the  Pacific  Northwest  and 
Rockies.  Today:  Common  to  abundant  in 
nearly  all  states  except  Hawaii. 

•  Pronghorn  antelope:  7925— Authorities  esti- 
mated 13,000  to  26,000  in  U.S.A.,  most  in 


Wyoming  and  Montana.  Today-  Minimum 
population  in  all  western  states  is  500,000. 

•  Bison:  7895—800  survivors.  Today:  Popula- 
tion more  than  35,000  in  North  America. 

•  Elk:  7907— Common  only  in  and  around 
Yellowstone  National  Park;  estimated  total 
south  of  Canada,  41,000.  Today:  About  1 
million  in  16  states. 

•  White-tailed  deer:  7895-About  350,000 
south  of  Canada;  extirpated  from  more  than 
half  the  states.  Today:  Approximately  12 
million  in  48  states. 

•  Wild  Turkey:  7930— Common  in  only  a  few 
southern  states,  eliminated  from  most.  Today: 
Restored  to  43  states,  including  establishment 
in  several  outside  original  range  of  species. 

•  Fur  seal:  7977— Official  census  in  Pribilof 
Island  showed  215,900.  Today:  Herd  main- 
tained at  around  1.5  million  under  a  scientific 
management  program. 

•  Egrets  and  herons:  7920— Several  species  on 
the  brink  of  extinction  because  of  slaughter 
on  their  nesting  grounds  by  feather  collectors 
to  supply  the  millinery  trade.  Today:  Most 
species  common  to  abundant  over  most  of  the 
United  States. 

•  Trumpeter  swan:  7935—73  survivors  south 
of  Canada  on  one  wildlife  refuge.  Today: 
Thriving  populations  on  two  national  parks 
and  several  national  wildlife  refuges.  Removed 
from  the  endangered  status  in  the  late  1960s. 

•  Wood  duck:  7975— Greatly  reduced  in 
numbers  and  considered  a  candidate  for  early 
extinction.  Today:  The  most  common  breed- 
ing waterfowl  in  eastern  U.S.A. 

•  Sea  otter:  7907— Nearly  extinct;  a  few 
survivors  in  Alaska's  Aleutian  chain  and  in 
coastal  California.  Today:  Minimum  of  50,000; 
successfully  restored  to  waters  of  mainland 
Alaska,  Oregon,  Washington,  and  British 
Columbia,  increasing  and  extending  range  in 
California. 


ri 


* 


In  Sapporo,  Japan,  eight  persons  successfully 
sued  for  damages  when  their  sunlight  was  cut 
off  by  the  erection  of  an  eleven-story 
apartment  building. 

A  geologist  reports  that  the  recent  collapse  of 
a  number  of  castles  and  other  ancient 
monuments  in  Sweden  was  caused  by 
detergents  that  turned  supporting  clay  to 
mud. 


16 


June  1975 


field  briefs 


Director  E.  Leland   Webber 
Celebrates  25th  Year 

June  1  is  the  anniversary  of  E.  Leland  Webber's 
25th  year  with  Field  Museum.  Since  1962  he 
has  been  this  Museum's  director.  He  is  also 
one  of  its  greatest  assets:  warm  spokesman  for 
the  Museum,  effective  fund-raiser  and  staff- 
builder,  dynamic  human  who  has  strength- 
ened the  Museum's  position  as  one  of  the 
leading  natural  history  museums  in  the  world. 
Have  you  met  him?  If  not,  introduce 
yourself  at  the  next  membership  function.  He 
does  have  a  special  affection  for  his  Museum's 
members;  you'll  know  it  the  moment  you 
shake  hands 

Record  Crowds  for  Members'  Nights 

Members'  Nights,  May  1  and  2,  attracted 
record-breaking  crowds,  with  a  total  of  15,551 
members  and  guests  for  the  two  evenings.  The 
previous  high  attendance  for  members'  nights 
was  12,092,  in  1974. 

Coinciding  with  Thursday's  open  house, 
on  May  1,  was  the  long-awaited  full  restora- 
tion of  the  north  steps  for  daily  public  use.  For 
more  than  a  year,  repair  and  waterproofing 
work  had  continued  on  the  steps  as  part  of  the 
Museum's  $25  million  rehabilitation  program. 
Similar  work  at  the  Museum's  south  entrance 
was  completed  several  months  ago. 

Walter  F.  Kean  Succumbs 

The  Museum  was  grieved  to  learn  of  the 
sudden  death  of  Walter  F.  Kean  on  February 
24,  1975,  in  his  home  near  Santa  Fe,  New 
Mexico.  Walt  was  a  retired  electronics 
engineer,  and  a  former  resident  of  Riverside, 
Illinois.  It  was  back  in  1964  that  he  became 


£.  Leland  Webber 

associated  with  the  Museum,  cutting  and 
faceting  numerous  gemstones  from  the  rough 
gem  specimens  that  had  been  acquired  over 
the  decades  in  the  Museum  collections. 

Walt  did  not  begin  active  interest  in 
gem-cutting  until  1960  Being  an  engineer,  he 
looked  critically  at  the  available  gem-cutting 
equipment  on  the  market  at  the  time,  found  it 
wanting  in  the  kind  of  precision  he  de- 
manded, and  decided  to  design  his  own.  After 
four  different  designs  he  finally  came  up  with 
a  faceting  machine  that  was  precise  enough  to 
satisfy  his  standards.  The  results  were  spec- 
tacular—stones that  were  brilliantly  polished 
in  precise  geometrical  forms. 

Walt  was  never  happy  to  simply  facet  a 
stone  according  to  some  standard  design.  He 

Walter  F.  Kean 


studied  each  stone,  looked  up  its  optical  and 
physical  properties,  and  designed  the  geom- 
etry of  the  facets  to  take  best  advantage  of  the 
particular  piece  in  hand.  To  him  it  was  both 
art  and  science.  The  gemological  community 
in  the  United  States  was  not  indifferent  to  this 
kind  of  approach.  In  1963  he  received  prize 
trophies  in  a  Chicago-area  competition,  and 
repeated  this  performance  in  1964.  In  1965  he 
won  five  awards  in  competition  that  covered 
entries  from  the  whole  midwestern  region. 
The  culmination  came  in  1967  when  he  won 
the  national  trophy  for  gem-faceting  in  the 
master's  class.  After  that,  Walt  stopped 
entering  competitions,  but  he  continued  to 
lecture  widely  on  all  aspects  of  faceting. 

After  his  retirement  he  became  active  in 
lapidary  circles  in  the  Santa  Fe  and  Los 
Alamos  areas,  and  continued  to  facet  stones 
for  the  Museum.  Over  the  years  he  did  such  a 
thorough  job  of  faceting  rough  gem  spec- 
imens from  the  Museum's  collections  that  we 
have  literally  run  out  of  rough  stones  of  the 
quality  that  are  worthy  of  faceting.  Numerous 
examples  of  Walt's  work  can  be  seen  on 
exhibit  in  the  Higinbotham  Hall  of  Cems.  On 
the  label  of  each  piece  he  faceted  for  us  is 
printed,  "Faceted  by  Walter  F.  Kean." 

Over  the  decade  that  Walt  was  an 
Associate  in  Mineralogy  in  the  Department  of 
Geology  he  performed  a  service  the  Museum 
could  not  obtain  any  other  way.  Commercial 
gem-faceting  companies  cannot  economically 
handle  the  larger  and  exotic  gem  specimens 
that  are  the  standards  for  museum  exhibition. 
It  was  only  through  the  voluntary  services  of  a 
person  like  Walt  Kean  that  we  were  able  to 
add  these  superbly  cut  stones  to  our  gem 
exhibit.  He  will  be  missed  by  the  Museum, 
and  especially  by  the  staff  members  who 
knew  him  personally. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


17 


Art  in  Ancient  Ecuador  and  Modem  Africa 


Ancient  Ecuador       EI  Ecuador 


Culture,  Clay  and  Creativity 
3000-300  B.C. 


Cultura.  Ceramics  y  O 
3000-300  A.C. 


Mail  orders  for  the  catalogs  should  be 
addressed  to  the  Field  Museum  Book  Shop. 
Museum  members  receive  a  10-percent 
discount. 


> 
Two  handsome  catalogs,  featuring  artifacts  displayed  in  two  major 
exhibitions  at  Field  Museum,  are  now  available  at  the  Museum 
bookstore.  Ancient  Ecuador:  Culture,  Clay,  and  Creativity  3000-300 
B.C.  is  a  110-page,  9x12-inch  catalog  with  photos  and  detailed 
descriptions  of  each  of  the  604  artifacts  on  view  at  the  exhibition, 
which  continues  in  Hall  9  until  August  5.  The  entire  text  and  catalog 
sections  are  bilingual  — in  Spanish  and  English.  The  text  is  by  Donald 
W.  Lathrap,  professor  of  anthropology  at  the  University  of  Illinois, 
Urbana;  the  catalog  is  jointly  written  by  Donald  Collier,  Field 
Museum's  curator  of  Middle  and  South  American  archaeology  and 
ethnology,  and  by  Helen  Chandra,  of  the  Museum's  Department  of 
Exhibition.  Price  of  the  catalog  is  $5.95. 

The  pottery  featured  is  the  earliest  known  from  North  or  South 
America  and  represents  a  level  of  culture  known  as  the  Formative 
stage.  In  Ecuador  this  stage  began  prior  to  3000  B.C.— a  millenium 
before  the  Formative  in  Peru  or  Mexico.  The  text  of  the  catalog  has 
chapters  on  the  appearance  and  the  economy  of  the  stage,  the 
ceramics  of  the  period,  the  figurine  tradition,  life  in  Formative 
Ecuador,  and  influence  of  the  Formative  on  the  emerging  civilizations 
of  Mesoamerica    and  Peru.  Six  full-color  plates  accompany  the  text. 


Contemporary  African  Arts,  ($5.00)  by  Maude  Wahlman, 
who  was  recently  consultant  in  African  ethnology  at  Field 
Museum,  was  published  in  conjunction  with  the  contem- 
porary African  arts  exhibition,  on  view  at  the  Museum  in 
1974.  The  124-page  catalog  features  essays  on  the  various 
art  forms  of  contemporary  Africa.-  Separately  covered  in  13 
chapters  are  pattern-dyed  textiles,  woven  textiles,  pottery, 
calabash  carving,  sculpture,  counter-repousse  panels, 
graphics  and  painting,  leatherwork,  architecture,  bead- 
work,  music,  dance,  literature,  and  the  film.  An  extensive 
bibliography,  twelve  color  plates  and  120  black-and-white 
photos  supplement  the  text. 

The  wealth  of  text  material  sets  this  book  apart  as 
much  more  than  just  a  catalog.  It  is  quite  possibly  the  most 
comprehensive  work  on  the  arts  of  contemporary  Africa 
now  available. 


lune  1975 


unnatural  history 

mong  field  Museum's  rare  artifacts  not  on 
public  view  is  the  curious  relic,  at  right, 
vintage  ca.  7970  and  identified  as  a  glazed 
donut  by  the  eminent  gastroethnologist 
A.  Cruller-Dunquer.  The  location  of  the 
priceless  object,  notable  for  its  crudiform 
patina,  is  known  to  only  a  few  of  the 
Museum's  anthropology  staff.  The  artifact  is  even  more 
unusual  within  its  genre  for  the  astonishing  planarity  of 
the  upper  right  quadrant— almost  as  though  it  had 
tumbled  willy-nilly  into  a  microtome  and  been  partially 
sectioned  like  some  hapless  chunk  of  salami.  Charac- 
teristic of  this  vintage  is  the  aesthetically  delightful 
central  depression,  the  fossa  bronsonus  (bronsonian 
fossa).  Pieces  lacking  this  oldenburgian  feature  are 
commonly  described  by  berlinologists  as  bonapartean 
{rarely  napoleon).  Provenience  unknown.  Catalog 
number  pending  description  in  the  technical  literature. 


Through     History     -with 
The    Gobboon 


II  Julius  Caesar.  De  Bello  Gallico,  Book  vi. 
Having  thrown1  a  bridge  across  the  river,  Vercingetorix  came 
into  the  Province  of  Sanctimonium  to  yield  his  armies  to  Caesar. 
.  .  .  That  evening,  Vercingetorix  built2  a  party  for  Caesar  and 
served  xlvii  roast  gobboons3. 

1.  Ponte  trans  flumcn  lactate  (abl.  abs.).  Almost  cercainly,  Vercingetorix  built  or 
constructed  that  bridge;  he  lacked  the  technology  to  throw  it. 

2.  Convivium  fecit  in  honortm  Catsaris.  Almost  certainly,  Vercingetorix  threw  that 
party;  one  doesn't  build  or  make  parties. 

3.  Gobunos  (zee.  pi.,  masc.) 


2 


',  Caius  Plinius  Iocunuus.  Historta  Naturalis,  Book  v. 
The  animal  of  southern  Europe  most  similar  to  the  gobboon  is 
the  wartwolf  of  Tuscania1.  But  the  gobboon  is  much  smaller, 
with  a  strikingly  different  head  and  postcranial  anatomy.  .  .  .2 
The  true  gobboon  of  the  German  woodlands  bears  a  tridentate 
barb  on  its  tail,  with  which  it  spears  elvers. 

1.  The  last  wartwolf  was  killed  by  Leonardo  the  Scruffy,  son  of  Leonardo  the 
L'nclean,  in  1567    Neither  of  the  Leonardos  ever  even  saw  a  gobboon. 

2.  Omission  of  four  sentences  of  balderdash. 

j!  Adam  Bede.  Historia  Universalis  she  libri  xde  Vitibus  Sanctorum 
Germanorum,  Book  iv. 

The  men  who  dwell  in  these  woods  catch  the  gobboon1,  which 
they  roast2  by  wrapping  the  freshlv  killed  animal  in  an  eagle's 
nest  and  burying  it  beneath  the  coals  of  a  ceremonial  fire.  The 
flesh  of  the  gobboon  is  garnished  with  acorns,  and  the  hide  is 
used  for  shields  and  for  the  soles  of  their  boots.  It's  not  necessary 
to  hobnail  the  soles3,  for  the  hide  is  tough  and  hard. 

1.  Gobbunam  (ace.  sing.,  fern .)  The  change  of  gender  and  the  doubling  of  the  b 
simply  show  that  the  editio  princeps  of  Bede  was  based  upon  a  corrupt  text. 

2.  Roast  is  only  an  approximation  for  this  process.  Bede  has  immolant. 

3.  Solos  cothornostibere  vecesse  non  est.  Bede  has  latinized  a  rare  Late  Hellenic  verb, 

KodopVO<TTI.0ttV. 


4i  Saint  Gildas.  Annates  Sanctorum  hibernicorum,  Book  iii. 
Padraic  well  knew  that  the  gobbiiner  of  northern  Westphalia 
would  hunt  down  and  destroy  any  snakes1  they  could  rind.  So 
he  bought  thirty  of  these  animals  and  took  them  with  him  to 
Hibernia  in  his  coracle2.  .  .  .  King  Brian  Boru  maintained  a  herd 
of  more  than  a  hundred  ghaughbbhughns3  under  the  care  of  his 
Keeper  of  the  Mistletoe. 

1.  The  original  MS,  in  the  library  of  Trinity  College,  is  in  shorthand;  the  reading 
snakes  could  equally  well  be  snares.  Padraic  had  a  horror  of  snares,  and  soon  after 
he  landed  on  Hibernia  he  issued  orders  for  the  elimination  of  snaring.  There  is, 
of  course,  no  record  of  a  gobboon  having  ever  been  ensnared — anywhere. 

2.  The  size  of  Padraic's  coracle  has  not  been  fully  appreciated.  Even  30  lemmings 
would  swamp  the  average  coracle. 

3   The  proper  Gaelic  spelling  (not  ghaubhbhughn 

01  Wulfstan  of  Cork.   Plethora  Historiarum,  Book  ii. 
It  pleased  the  master  builder  to  design  new  and  strange  capitals 
for  the  columns  of  the  transept,  and  on  them  may  still  be  seen 
the  simulacra  of  the  animals  of  the  nearby  forest:  capricorns  and 
loaches  and  gobboons  and  herissons. 


A  fossil  Gobboon  bone  from  Thomas 
Jefferson's  collection,  Philadelphia 

The  gobboon,  supposed  to  be  extinct,  has  received  little  notice 
in  modern  bestiaries.  The  few  extracts  above  represent  about  all 
that  is  known  on  the  subject.  Since  the  works  quoted  are  readily 
available  in  any  village  library,  only  the  briefest  extracts  are 
given.  And,  in  order  not  to  detract  from  the  forthcoming  eagerly 
awaited  monograph  by  R.  L.  Ulrich,  only  the  barest  minimum 
of  learned  footnotes  has  been  included. 

"Through  History  with  The  Gobboon"  (slightly  reduced  here  in  size)  is 
said  to  be  from  a  rare  volume  on  natural  history,  of  which  no  complete 
copies  are  known.  Since  all  extant  copies  lack  the  title  page  and  colophon, 
it  is  impossible  to  cite  the  reference.  This  work  was  brought  to  our  atten- 
tion by  The  Vanishing  Press,  operated  as  an  avocation  by  Eugene  S. 
Richardson,  curator  of  fossil  invertebrates. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


19 


ILLINOIS  NATURAL  HISTORY 
SURVEY  LIB  Rf    1V6 
NATURAL  RESCURCES  BUILDING 
URBANA  ILL  61801 


JUNE  and  JULY  at  Field  Museum 


EXHIBITS 


Continuing 


Ancient  Ecuador:  Culture,  Clay  and  Creativity,  a  special 
bilingual  exhibition  continues  through  August  5.  The 
exhibition  includes  some  600  objects  dating  from  3000- 
300  B.C.,  and  reveals  a  civilization  at  least  1,000  years 
older  than  any  previously  known  in  the  Western  Hemi- 
sphere. All  display  labels,  as  well  as  a  lavishly  illustrated 
catalogue,  are  in  Spanish  and  English.  Hall  9. 

Field  Museum's  Anniversary  Exhibit  continues  indef- 
initely. "A  Sense  of  Wonder"  offers  thought-provoking 
prose  and  poetry  associated  with  the  physical,  biological, 
and  cultural  aspects  of  nature;  "A  Sense  of  History"  pre- 
sents a  graphic  portrayal  of  the  Museum's  past;  and  "A 
Sense  of  Discovery"  shows  examples  of  research  con- 
ducted by  Museum  scientists.  Hall  3. 

SPECIAL  PROGRAMS 

Continuing 

Craft  Demonstrations  and  Discussions 

"African  Patterns,"  10:00  a.m.  to  12:30  p.m.,  Mondays, 
Wednesdays,  and  Fridays.  Entrance  to  Hall  27. 

"The  Ways  of  Our  Ancestors:  Traditions  of  Native  North 
America."  10:00  a.m.  to  12:00  noon  and  2:00  to  5:00 
p.m.,  Fridays.  Hall  4. 

Saturday  Discovery  Programs 

A  series  of  tours,  demonstrations,  and  participatory  ac- 
tivities offered  continuously  from  11:00  a.m.  to  3:00 
p.m.,  include  Ancient  Egypt,  Prehistoric  Man,  Reptiles, 
Northwest  Coast  Art,  and  The  World  of  Animals.  For 
details,  inquire  at  Museum  entrances. 


MEETINGS 

June    3,  7:30  p.m.  Kennicott  Club 
June    8,  2:00  p.m.  Chicago  Shell  Club 
June  10,  7:00  p.m.  Nature  Camera  Club  of  Chicago 
June  11,  7:00  p.m.  Chicago  Ornithological  Society 
7:30  p.m.  Windy  City  Grotto,  National 
Speleological  Society 
June  12,  8:00  p.m.  Chicago  Mountaineering  Club 
June  20,  7:30  p.m.  Mid-West  Russian  Blue  Association 

COMING  IN  JULY 

"African  Patterns"  continues.  Entrance  to  Hall  27. 

Anniversary  Exhibit  continues. 

Ancient  Ecuador:  Culture,  Clay  and  Creativity  exhibit 
continues. 

Summer  Journey  for  Children,  "All-Time  Favorites"  con- 
tinues. 

MUSEUM  HOURS 

The  Museum  opens  daily  at  9:00  a.m.  and  closes  at  6:00 
p.m.  Saturday  through  Thursday,  and  9:00  p.m.  Fridays. 
From  June  21  through  Labor  Day  the  Museum  remains 
open  until  9:00  p.m.  Wednesday,  Friday,  Saturday,  and 
Sunday. 

The  Museum  Library  is  open  9:00  a.m.  to  4:00  p.m. 
Monday  through  Friday.  Please  obtain  pass  at  reception 
desk,  first  floor  north. 

Museum  telephone:  922-9410 


CHILDREN'S   PROGRAMS 

Begins  June  1 : 

Summer  Journey  for  Children,  "All  Time  Favorites,"  a 
free,  self-guided  tour  focusing  on  Museum  exhibits.  All 
boys  and  girls  who  can  read  and  write  are  invited  to 
participate.  Journey  sheets  in  English  and  Spanish  are 
available  at  the  Information  booth. 


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Field  Museum  of  Natural  History  Bulletin 


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Field  Museum 
of  Natural  History 
Bulletin 


CONTENTS 


FIELD  REPORT  ON  SEA  SNAKES 
by  Harold  and  Helen  Voris 


July/August  1975 
Vol.  46,  No.  7 


Editor/Designer:  David  M.  Walsten 
Production:  Oscar  Anderson 


11 


FIELD  MUSEUM'S  AGUSAN  GOLD  IMAGE 
by  Bennet  Bronson 

"MUSEUM  TRADESCANTIANUM" 
by  W.  Peyton  Fawcett 

THE  RAY  A.   KROC  ENVIRONMENTAL 
EDUCATION   PROGRAM 


18         OUR  ENVIRONMENT 

22  FIELD  BRIEFS 

23  JULY  AND  AUGUST  AT  FIELD  MUSEUM 
Calendar  of  Coming  Events 


COVER 


Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 

Established  1893 

Director:  E.  Leland  Webber 


Woodland  pond,  photo  by  Charles  F.  Davis,  of  Oak 
Park,  III.  Mr.  Davis  recently  taught  a  nature  photography 
course  at  Field  Museum.  Reproduced  in  300-line  photo- 
lithography by  Parkway  of  Batavia,  III. 


Board  of  Trustees 

Blaine  J.  Yarrington, 

President 
Gordon  Bent 
Harry  O.  Bercher 
Bowen  Blair 
Stanton  R.  Cook 
William  R.  Dickinson,  Jr. 
Thomas  E.  Donnelley  II 
Mrs.  Thomas  E.  Donnelley  II 
Marshall  Field 
Nicholas  Galitzine 
Paul  W.  Goodrich 
Remick  McDowell 
Hugo  ).  Melvoin 
William  H.  Mitchell 
Charles  F.  Murphy,  )r. 
lames  H.  Ransom 
John  S.  Runnells 
William  L.  Searle 
Edward  Byron  Smith 
Mrs.  Hermon  Dunlap  Smith 


Robert  H.  Strotz 
John  W.  Sullivan 
William  G.  Swartchild,  Jr. 
Mrs.  Theodore  D.  Tieken 
E.  Leland  Webber 
Julian  B.  Wilkins 


Life  Trustees 

William  McCormick  Blair 
Joseph  N.  Field 
Clifford  C.  Gregg 
Samuel  Insull,  Jr. 
William  V.  Kahler 
Hughston  M.  McBain 
|.  Roscoe  Miller 
lames  L.  Palmer 
lohn  T.  Pirie,  Jr. 
lohn  G.  Searle 
John  M.  Simpson 
Louis  Ware 
|.  Howard  Wood 


Photo  Credits 

Pages  3,  4:  courtesy  of  Harold  Voris;  p.  5:  Museum 
Staff  photo;  p.  6:  Copyright  by  National  Portrait  Gallery; 
pp.  7-10,  16,  22:  Museum  staff  photos. 


Field  Museum  of  Natural  History  Bulletin  is  published  monlhly, 
except  combined  July/August  issue,  by  Field  Museum  of  Nalural 
History,  Roosevelt  Road  at'Lake  Shore  Drive,  Chicago,  Illinois  60605. 
Subscriptions:  $6  a  year;  $3  a  year  for  schools.  Members  of  the 
Museum  subscribe  through  Museum  membership.  Opinions 
expressed  by  authors  are  their  own  and  do  not  necessarily  reflect  the 
policy  of  Field  Museum.  Unsolicited  manuscripts  are  welcome. 
Postmaster:  Please  send  form  3579  to  Field  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  Roosevelt  Road  at  Lake  Shore  Drive,  Chicago,  Illinois  60605. 
ISSN:  0015-0703.  Second  class  postage  paid  at  Chicago,  III. 


Using  long-handled  tongs,  Harold  Voris  separates  highly  venomous  sea  snakes  from  catch  of  fish  and  prawns. 

Sea  Snakes:  A  Field  Report 


by  Harold  and  Helen  Voris 

Well  over  fifty  years  ago,  in  1917, 
Malcolm  Smith  made  the  world's 
first  extensive  collection  of  sea 
snakes,  for  the  British  Museum.  This 
spring,  in  Kuala  Kurau,  Perak,  Malaysia, 
we  met  an  elderly  Malay  fisherman  who 
had  collected  snakes  for  Smith.  Smith's 
collections  and  monographs  have  stood 
for  many  years  as  the  major  work  on  sea 
snakes;  but  soon  Field  Museum  will  have 
an  even  larger  sea  snake  collection  as 
one  result  of  a  year-long  study  in  the 
Straits  of  Malacca  and  the  South  China 


Harold  Voris  is  assistant  curator  of  reptiles 
and  amphibians. 


Sea.  The  work  is  supported  in  part  by  the 
Allen-Heath  Foundation  and  the  Philip  K. 
Wrigley  Marine  Biological  Research 
Fund. 

The  sea  snakes  are  a  family  of  about 
fifty  species  of  marine  and  estuarian 
snakes;  they  are  related  to  the  cobras  and 
coral  snakes  but  are  even  more  venom- 
ous. All  true  sea  snakes  have  flattened, 
oarlike  tails,  and  most  have  nostrils 
positioned  — like  those  of  crocodiles— on 
the  top  of  the  head.  By  far  the  greatest 
number  of  species  occurs  in  the  tropical 
areas  of  South  East  Asia;  as  many  as 
seventeen  species  may  be  found  in  our 
main  study  area,  the  Straits  of  Malacca, 
which  lie  between  the  Malay  Peninsula 


and  Sumatra. 

Although  a  large  general  collection  of 
sea  snakes  is  of  value  to  the  Museum,  it  is 
only  one  product  of  the  research  we  have 
under  way  here.  The  main  focus  of  our 
work  is  on  the  ecology  of  these  highly 
specialized  marine  creatures.  So  far,  our 
observations  indicate  that  the  seventeen 
or  so  species  of  sea  snakes  occurring  in 
the  straits  are  not  all  distributed  through- 
out the  straits,  but  form  unique  assem- 
blages of  only  six  or  seven  species  at 
each  of  our  collecting  sites.  In  view  of 
this,  we  are  trying  to  find  out  who  lives 
with  whom,  and  where  and  why.  How  do 
these  species  which  live  in  the  same  area 
divvy  up  the  resources  such  as  food  and 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


space?  To  help  answer  these  questions 
we  are  looking  at  what  each  species  eats 
by  examining  their  stomach  contents. 
We  have  found  some  species  to  be 
generalists,  eating  a  large  variety  of  fish 
and  cuttlefish.  Others  are  specialists, 
concentrating  exclusively  on  fish  eggs  or 
eels,  for  example.  We  are  also  looking  at 
reproduction  patterns  — Do  all  the  differ- 
ent species  at  a  locality  give  birth  to  their 
young  at  one  time?  Is  there  synchrony 
within  a  single  species  at  two  separate 
localities?  If  so,  what  environmental  cues 
are  used  in  these  habitats  that  lie  directly 
on  the  equator? 

We  obtain  our  collections  of  sea 
snakes  by  working  with  the  local 
fishermen  who  regularly  catch  and 
release  them  in  the  course  of  their 
normal  fishing  activities.  At  two  local- 
ities, Sungai  Buloh  and  Parit  Botak, 
trawling  is  the  predominant  fishing 
method.  We  go  out  with  the  trawlers 
collecting  data— as  well  as  snakes—  on 
salinity,  turbidity,  bottom  type,  and 
water  depth,  in  order  to  try  to  charac- 
terize the  habitat  in  which  each  species 
of  snake  lives.  At  Muar,  our  third  major 
collecting  site  on  the  straits,  we  are 
working  with  fishermen  who  use  the  river 
stake  net,  or  pukit  togok. 

The  togok   net  is  suspended   from   a 

bamboo  stake  frame  permanently  planted 

in  the  mud  at  the  mouth  of  the  river.  As 

(Continued  on  p.  21) 


Top:  Local  fisherman  lowers  togok  net  as  tide 
begins  to  run  out.  Bottom:  Downstream  from 
a  raised  togok  net  at  Muar. 


4  July/August  1975 


FIELD  MUSEUM'S 
AGUSAN  GOLD  IMAGE 

"The  most  spectacular  find  yet 
made  in  Philippine  archeology7' 

by  Bennet  Bronson 


D 


isplayed  in  a  wall  case  in  the 
Museum's  Hall  of  Gems  is  a  small 
statue  of  solid  gold,  roughly  but 
boldly  cast,  in  the  form  of  a  seated  and 
haloed  woman.  While  easy  to  overlook, 
it  is  a  famous  piece.  In  the  words  of  H. 
Otley  Beyer,  for  decades  the  dean  of 
archeologists  in  the  Philippines,  this 
statue  is  "the  most  spectacular  single 
find  yet  made  in  Philippine  archeology." 
It  is  said  to  have  been  found  in  1917  by 
an  anonymous  woman,  probably  of  the 
Manobo  tribe,  while  walking  through  a 
little-frequented  ravine  in  Agusan  Pro- 
vince in  the  southern  Philippines.  After  a 
series  of  narrow  escapes  from  the  gold 
dealer's  melting  pot,  the  statue  chanced 
to  come  to  Beyer's  attention.  Immedi- 
ately recognizing  its  importance,  he  tried 
unsuccessfully  to  persuade  the  (Amer- 
ican) colonial  government  to  purchase  it 
for  the  National  Museum  in  Manila  and 
then  turned  for  help  to  three  private 
individuals:  Faye-Cooper  Cole,  then 
Southeast  Asian  curator  at  this  museum; 
Shaler  Matthews,  professor  of  religion  at 
the  University  of  Chicago;  and  Mrs. 
Leonard  Wood,  wife  of  the  governor- 
general  of  the  Philippines.  Through  the 
efforts  of  these  three  the  money  was 
raised.  The  statue  arrived,  still  in  good 
condition,  at  Field  Museum  in  1922. 

The  statue  is  five  and  a  half  inches 
high  and  weighs  almost  four  pounds— a 
substantial  quantity  of  gold.  However,  its 
historical  importance  greatiy  exceeds  its 
value  as  bullion,  for  it  symbolizes  the 
start  of  a  major  era  in  Philippines  history. 
Before  the  statue  was  made,  about  A.D. 
1000-1300,  the  Philippines  were  isolated 
from  the  mainstream  of  world  events. 
Other  parts  of  Southeast  Asia  had  been 
closer  to  the  developed  parts  of  Eurasia 

Bennet  Bronson  is  assistant  curator,  Asiatic 
archaeology  and  ethnology. 


and  Africa  and  had  begun  to  show  the 
effects  of  this  contact— the  use  of 
writing,  of  imported  art  styles,  and  of 
outside  political  and  religious  ideas— as 
early  as  A.D.  100.  In  the  Philippines,  on 
the  other  hand,  this  process  of  "Asian- 
ization"  began  so  late  that  some  have 
doubted  that  it  occurred  at  all,  maintain- 
ing that  the  islands  remained  effectively 
isolated  until  the  arrival  of  Muslim 
traders  and  Spanish  conquerors  in  the 
early  1500s.  Yet,  evidence  is  now 
accumulating  to  the  contrary.  Vast 
quantities  of  Chinese  and  Thai  ceramics 
are  being  found,  showing  that  the 
Philippines  were  commercially  linked  to 
the  rest  of  the  world  by  A.D.  1000  at  the 
latest.  Specialists  are  begining  to  take 
new  interest  in  the  fact  that  many 
Philippines  people  possessed  the  art  of 
writing  long  before  the  arrival  of  the 
Conquistadors,  apparently  borrowed 
from  India  at  an  early  date.  And 
occasional  objects  are  discovered  which 
show  that  the  ancient  Filipinos  were  not 
passive  spectators  of  the  contact  process. 
The  Agusan  Gold  Image  is  prime 
evidence  of  this. 


What  else  the  image  is  remains  a 
puzzle.  It  is  clearly  a  Hindu  or  Buddhist 
female  deity:  according  to  the  Filipino 
expert  Juan  Francisco,  perhaps  a  sakti  or 
a  tara.  But  it  is  quite  atypical  by  the 
standards  of  most  Hindu-Buddhist  ar- 
tistic traditions  including  that  of  ancient 
Java,  to  which  it  seems  distantly  to 
belong.  Perhaps,  as  Otley  Beyer  himself 
suggested,  the  statue  was  made  in  the 
Philippines  by  Javanese  miners,  not 
necessarily  expert  in  their  own  artistic 
traditions,  while  engaged  in  working  the 
placer  gold  deposits  in  the  Agusan  area. 
Or  perhaps,  as  the  great  Dutch  historian 
F.  D.  K.  Bosch  once  hinted,  the  statue  is 
atypical  in  style  because  it  was  made  by 
native  Filipinos.  Like  other  Filipinos,  the 
Manobos  of  Agusan  have  a  long  tradition 
of  excellent  metal-working,  as  is  shown 
by  several  of  the  exhibits  in  Hall  G  at 
Field  Museum.  A  Manobo  artist  in,  say, 
A.D.  1100  might  have  been  quite 
capable  of  producing  the  statue.  How- 
ever, no  such  speculation  can  be  proved 
at  present.  We  will  not  know  definitely 
who  made  it  until  many  more  Philippines 
excavations  have  been  performed.  □ 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


John  Tradescant  the  Younger.  Painting  attributed  to  Emanuel  de  Critz;  31  x  23  inches.  National  Portrait  Gallery,  London. 


"MusaeumTfadescantianum" 

a  rare  gift  to  field  museum 


by  W.  Peyton  Fawcett 

Christopher  Legge,  custodian  of 
collections  in  the  Department  of 
Anthropology  (retired),  recently 
returned  from  a  visit  to  England.  He 
immediately  came  to  me  with  the  news 
that  he  had  a  gift  from  Mrs.  Fuller  that  he 
had  been  reluctant  to  trust  to  the  mails 
and  had  hand-carried  across  the  Atlantic. 
As  Field  Museum  librarian,  one  of  my 
duties  is  to  receive  and  record  the  many 
books  and  other  materials  that  are 
donated  to  the  library.  It  is  always  a 
pleasure  to  receive  these  gifts  and  a 
special  one  if  the  works  are  historically 
interesting  or  rarely  encountered.  When 
Mr.  Legge  mentioned  the  name  of  Mrs. 
Estelle  W.  Fuller  I  knew  that  I  was  about 
to  receive  a  most  interesting  work;  for 
she  has  given  numerous  rare  volumes  to 
the  library  over  the  years.  I  was  not 
disappointed! 

Mr.  Legge  handed  me  a  small,  leather- 
bound  volume  published  in  London  in 
1656,  bearing  the  title:  Musaeum  Trades- 
cantianum:  or,  A  Collection  of  Rarities. 
Preserved  at  South-Lambeth  near  London 
by  )ohn  Tradescant.  It  is  a  list  of  the 
contents  of  the  museum  known  popu- 
larly as  "Tradescant's  Ark"  and  of  the 
plant  species  growing  in  the  attached 
garden.  The  museum  was  founded  by 
John  Tradescant  the  elder  and  continued 
by  his  son  John,  who  is  the  author  of  the 
catalog.  Both  men  were  noted  travelers, 
collectors,  and  gardeners  and  their 
museum  contained  the  natural  history 
specimens,  anthropological  and  archeo- 
logical  objects,  specimens  of  industrial 
art,  coins,  and  curios  that  they  had 
amassed  as  a  result  of  their  travels  and 

W.  Peyton  Fawcett  is  Field  Museum  librarian. 


passion  for  collecting,  and  as  gifts  from 
their  friends.  The  collection  included 
such  diverse  items  as  the  "Dodar  (dodo), 
from  the  Island  Mauritius;  it  is  not  able 
to  flie  being  so  big."  "A  Cherry-stone, 
upon  one  side  S.  Ceo:  (St.  George)  and 


the  Dragon,  perfectly  cut:  and  on  the 
other  side  88  Emperours  faces,"  "Anne  of 
Bullens  (Anne  Boleyn's)  silke  knit- 
gloves,"  and  "Shooes  to  walk  on  Snow 
without  sinking." 

The  attached  garden  contained  exotic 


Fngraving  of  lohn  Trades- 
cant the  Younger.  Artist 
unknown. 


loiumncv   TrJtiofc.iu.tu.*  Flint*   <J<*mt    iii^riujti 
p.itpi-iu  vcrw  uetfw,  reuchnn  lUji  raniUI  viuiirt 
ocmp«"U:J''1!M-  thrljirruiu.  iplr  plitriuiimL  .ni.ur\it 
et  in..MiL?r"o  IjmbemMBO  an  «*  vilrnrurm  atblb<*t. 


H :  toliM 


l  J ' 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


plants  from  all  over  the  world.  The 
Tradescants  collected  plants  with  the 
same  avidity  as  they  did  curios  and  are 
credited  with  introducing  many  into 
England,  including  the  lilac  and  acacia. 
The  Ark  was  a  great  attraction  in  its  day 
and  no  visit  to  London  was  considered 
complete  without  a  view  of  "John 
Tradeskin's  rarities."  After  the  death  of 
the  younger  Tradescant  in  1662  the 
contents  were  acquired  by  Elias  Ashmole 
and  incorporated  into  his  own  collection. 
The  whole  passed  by  gift  to  Oxford 
University  in  1682  and  was  the  founda- 
tion of  the  great  Ashmolean  Museum. 
Some  of  the  rarities  can  still  be  seen 
there,  including  the  cloak  of  Pocahantas' 
father,  described  as:  "Pohatan,  King  of 
Virginia's  habit  all  embroidered  with 
shells,  or  Roanoke." 


Below:    Title  page  of  Musaeum  Tradescantianum  and  opening  page  of  introductory  essay. 
Complete  text  of  introduction  is  given  on  p.  9  (opposite). 


OR, 

A  COLLECTI 

RARITIE  S- 

PRESERVED 

I  At  South-Lambeth  neer  Londo^ 

By 

JohnTrade  scant. 


London, 

Printed  by  John  Grifmond,  and  arc  to  be  fold  I 
N«than*tl  Brnkf  at  the  Angel  in  Cornbiil, 

M.  DC,  iVl-i 


■  H   -  J.    |i.»   M  "—I 


To  the  Ingenious 

%EA<DE(K< 

Or  fome  reafons  I  ap- 
prehend my  felf  enga- 
ged to  give  an  account  of 
mo  things,that  refer  to  the 
venfuing  piece :  The  one, 
for  not  fuhlijhmg  this  Ca~ 
talogue  untill  now :  The 
other,  of  the  mode  <3c  man* 
ner  thereof ,  Bfeing  partly 
\Laiinet  and  partly  Bnglifh.^ 
Aboui^three  yeares  a- 


luly/August  1975 


To  the  Ingenious  Reader. 


For  some  reasons  I  apprehend  my  self  engaged  to 
give  an  account  of  two  things,  that  refer  to  the 
ensuing  piece:  The  one,  for  not  publishing  this 
Catalogue  until  now:  The  other,  of  the  mode  & 
manner  thereof,  heing  partly  Latine,  and  partly 
English. 

About  three  yeares  agoe,  (by  the  perswasion 
of  some  friends^)  I  was  resolved  to  take  a  Catalogue 
of  those  Rarities  and  Curiosities  which  my  Father 
had  scedulously  collected,  and  my  selfe  with  con- 
tinued diligence  have  atigmented,  &  hitherto  pre- 
served together:  They  then  pressed  me  with  that 
Argument,  That  the  enumeration  of  these  Rarities, 
(heing  more  for  variety  than  any  one  place  known 
in  Europe  could  afford)  wotdd  he  an  honour  to 
our  Nation,  and  a  benefit  to  such  ingenious  per- 
sons as  would  become  further  enquirers  into  the 
various  modes  of  Natures  admirable  worh.es,  and 
the  curious  Imitators  thereof:  I  readily  yielded  to 
the  thing  so  urged,  and  with  the  assistance  of  two 
worthy  friends  (well  acquainted  with  my  design,) 
we  then  began  it,  and  many  examinations  of  the 
materialls  themselves,  &  their  agreements  with 
severall  Authors  compared,  a  Draught  was  made, 
whith  they  gave  into  my  hands  to  examine  over. 
Presently  thereupon  my  onely  Sonne  dyed,  one  of 
my  Friends  fell  very  sick  for  about  a  yeare,  and 
my  other  Friend  by  unhappy  Law-suits  much  dis- 
turbed.  Upon  these  accidents  that  first  Draught 


lay  neglected  in  my  hands  another  year.  After- 
wards my  said  Friends  call  again  upon  me,  and  the 
designe  of  Printing,  a-new  contrived,  onely  the 
prefixed  Pictures  were  not  ready,  and  I  found  my 
kinde  friend  Mr  Hollar  then  engaged  for  about 
tenne  Moneths,  for  whose  hand  to  finish  the 
Plates,  I  was  necessarily  constrained  to  stay  untill 
this  time. 

Now  for  the  materialls  themselves  I  reduce 
them  unto  two  sorts;  one  Naturall,  of  which  some 
are  more  familiarly  known  &  named  amongst  us, 
as  divers  sorts  of  Birds,  foure-footed  Beasts  and 
Fishes,  to  whom  I  have  given  usual  English 
names.  Others  are  lesse  familiar,  and  as  yet  un- 
fitted with  apt  English  termes,  as  the  shell- 
Creatures,  Insects,  Mineralls,  Outlandish-Fruits, 
and  the  like,  which  are  part  of  the  Materia  Medica; 
(Encroachers  upon  that  faculty,  may  try  how  they 
can  crack  such  shels.)  The  other  sort  is  Artificialls, 
as  Utensills,  Houscholdstuffe,  Habits,  Instruments 
of  Warre  used  by  severall  Nations,  rare  curiosities 
of  Art,  &c.  These  are  also  expressed  in  English, 
(saving  the  Coynes,  which  would  vary  but  little 
if  Translated)  for  the  ready  satisfying  whomsoever 
may  desire  a  view  thereof.  The  Catalogtie  of  my 
Garden  I  have  also  added  in  the  Conclusion  (and 
given  the  names  of  the  Plants  both  in  Latine  and 
EnglisK)  that  nothing  may  be  wanting  which  at 
present  comes  within  view,  and  might  be  expected 
from 


Your  ready  friend 
John  Tradescant 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


MEMOIRS 


HENRY  OBOOKIAH, 

A  NATIVE  OF  OWHYHEE, 

AM)  A  MEMBER  OF  THE 

FOREIGN  MISSION  SCHOOL; 

wno  HU  AT 
CORNWALL,  CO.NS   FEB.  17, 1811, 
AGED  26  TKAU. 


aim   ■IkJe  -?-—  .it% 

NEW-HAVEN : 

rOLISRXD  AT  THE   OFFICE  Of  TBI 
RELIGIOUS  INTELLIGENCER. 

isia 

_~s    4            '    ^.^. 

Above:  The  Tradescant  house,  in 
South  Lambeth.  The  garden  is  en- 
closed by  wall  to  right.  As  a  storehouse 
of  exotic  plants,  animals,  and  anthro- 
pological curiosities,  the  Tradescant 
home  was  one  of  the  first  natural 
history  museums.  Left:  Title  page  of 
the  Memoirs  of  Henry  Obookiah 
(slightly  reduced),  with  facing  por- 
trait. Published  1818.  Book  is  among 
several  recently  given  to  Field  Muse- 
um by  Mrs.  A.W.F.  Fuller. 

(Continued  on  p.  15) 


July/August  1975 


The  Ray  A.  Kroc 
Environmental 
Education  Program 

for  August,  September,  and  October 


An  overview  of  the  role  of  natural  ecosystems  in  the  economy  of  life 


The  Ray  A.  Kroc  Environmental 
Education  Program  at  Field 
Museum  for  August,  Septem- 
ber, and  October,  1975,  explores  the 
importance  of  natural  communities 
from  a  pragmatic,  as  well  as  an 
aesthetic  viewpoint.  Man  is  depen- 
dent on  a  viable  biosphere  to  provide 
such  services  as  pure  air,  drinking 
water,  natural  resources,  and  food. 
Our  local  native  communities  have 
much  to  show  us  about  these,  and 
other  often  unrecognized  functions 
performed  by  natural  ecosystems.  >■ 


Left:  Field  Museum  diorama  of  Illinois 
■        woodland,  Hall  29  (Plant  Families) 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


THE  RAY  A.  KROC  ENVIRONMENTAL  EDUCATION  PROGRAM.  .  . 


Indiana  dunes -the  unique  ecosystem  of  this  region  will  be  the  subject  of  field  trips  on  September  13  and  17. 


FAMILY  NATURE  HIKE 

Illinois  Beach  State  Park 

Join  your  children  in  an  exploration  of  this  unique  community. 
Observation  will  be  the  theme,  and  we  will  hope  to  see  August 
flowers  as  well  as  ants,  ant-lions,  toad-bugs,  damsel  flies,  and 
other  local  wildlife  on  our  way  to  the  Dead  River  and  along  its 
winding  banks. 

Meet  at  the  site  and  bring  your  own  lunch  and  beverage 
Detailed  instructions  will  be  sent  with  confirmation  A 
nonrefundable  fee  of  $2  for  adults  and  $1  for  children  will  hold 
advance  reservation.  Priority  will  be  given  to  parents  and  their 
children.  Minimum  age:  8  years.  Limited  to  25. 

10:00  a.m. 
Saturday,  August  9 

Leader:  Betty  Deis,  Field  Museum 

ADULT  FIELD  TRIPS 

All  adult  field  trips  leave  from  Field  Museum  North  Parking  lot 
regardless  of  weather.  A  non-refundable  fee,  covers  lunch  and 
transportation  and  holds  your  reservation.  Saturday  adult  trips 
are  limited  to  40  people  per  trip. 

Morton  Arboretum  Prairie  and  Wetlands 

View  a  native  prairie  restoration  as  a  small  replica  of  the  once 
extensive  grassland  ecosystem,  and  as  a  disappearing  part  of 


our  Illinois  heritage.  Examine  the  ecological  role  of  arboretum 
river  and  ponds.  $5.00  for  members.  $6.00  for  nonmembers. 

9:00  a.m. 
Saturday,  August  30 

Leader:  Ray  Schulenberg,  Morton  Arboretum 

Starved  Rock  State  Park 

Enjoy  fall  color  in  this  beautiful  native  forest,  and  discover  that 
trees  are  more  than  potential  newspapers.  $5.00  for  members, 
$6  00  for  nonmembers. 

8:00  a.m. 

Sunday,  September  28 

Saturday,  October  4  (repeat) 

Leader:  John  A.  Wagner,  Kendall  College 

Illinois  Beach  State  Park 

Learn  about  the  value  of  marsh  and  lakeshore  and  meet  some 
interesting  inhabitants  of  these  wetland  communities.  $5.00  for 
members,  $6.00  for  nonmembers. 

9:00  a.m. 

Wednesday,  September  10 

Sunday,  September  14  (repeat) 

Leader:  Harry  Nelson,  Roosevelt  University 


luly/August  1975 


THE  RA  Y  A.  KROC  ENVIRONMENTAL  EDUCA  TION  PROGRAM.  .  . 


Indiana  Dunes 

Hike  the  dunes  and  discover  how  this  unique  ecosystem  is 
much  more  than  a  recreational  facility.  $5.00  for  members, 
$6  00  for  nonmembers. 

9:00  a.m. 

Saturday,  September  13         Wednesday,  September  17  (repeat) 

Leader:  Floyd  Swink,  Morton  Arboretum 

COURSE  FOR  TEACHERS 

Introduction  to  Community  Ecology 

This  course,  consisting  of  four  field  trips  and  a  museum 
workshop,  will  explore  communities  reflecting  both  urban  and 
natural  ecology  Resource  materials,  field  techniques,  and 
ideas  for  organizing  and  conducting  school  field  trips  will  be 
presented  A  nonrefundable  fee,  $22.00  for  members  and 
$27  00  for  nonmembers,  holds  advance  reservation  and  covers 
lunch  and  transportation  for  field  trips.  Areas  studied  include 
the  dunes,  a  vacant  lot,  a  stream,  a  prairie,  and  Lake  Michigan. 

Two  semester  hours  of  graduate  credit  are  offered  for  this 
course  (listed  as  #34-581  workshop  in  Outdoor  Education)  by 
the  National  College  of  Education.  Tuition  for  credit  is  $74.00  in 
addition  to  the  Museum  fee,  and  is  payable  at  the  first  session. 
All  sessions  meet  at  the  North  Door  of  the  Museum  Limited  to 
30.  An  official  degree  transcript  will  be  required  to  receive 
credit.  For  further  information  call  Jim  Bland,  922-9410,  ext.  203. 

9:00  a.m. 

Saturdays  September  13,  20,  27;  October  4  and  11. 

Leader:  Jim  Bland,  Field  Museum 


FIELD  TRIPS  FOR  GEOLOGY  BUFFS-ADULT 
Pit  11 

Hunt  for  fossils  and  see  how  an  ecosystem  of  300  million  years 
ago  affects  our  life  in  the  twentieth  century.  Bring  sack  and 
hammer.  $5.00  for  members,  $6.00  for  nonmembers.  Meet  at 
Museum  North  Parking  Lot.  Limited  to  40. 


8:30  a.m. 

Saturday,  September  27 


Wednesday,  October  1  (repeat) 
Sunday,  October  5  (repeat) 


Leader:  Eugene  Richardson,  Field  Museum 

FIELD  TRIPS  FOR  GEOLOGY  BUFFS 

12,  13, 14  years  old 
Pit  11 

Take  a  trip  to  a  strip  mine  to  find  fossil  evidence  of  an  ancient 
coal  forest.  Bring  sack  and  hammer.  $5.00  for  members,  $6.00 
for  nonmembers.  Meet  at  Museum  Information  Desk  for 
introductory  program.  Limited  to  30. 


9:00  a.m. 

Sunday,  September  21 


Leader:  Martha  Lussenhop 


|Q  eservations  for  all  programs  must  be  made  in  advance  by 
f^  mail.  Confirmations  will  be  sent  in  order  of  receipt  of  coupon 
on  following  page  (or  facsimile)  and  check.  We  reserve  the  right 
to  cancel  programs,  in  which  case  we  will  notify  you  and  refund 
your  fee.  Otherwise,  all  fees  are  nonrefundable. 

This  program  is  made  possible  by  the  Ray  A.  Kroc 
Environmental  Fund,  which  was  established  at  Field 
Museum  by  his  friends  to  honor  Mr.  Kroc,  chairman  of 
McDonald's  Corporation,  on  his  70th  birthday.  Other  events  of 
this  program  will  be  presented  in  coming  months  and  years. 
For  further  information  call  Lorain  Stephens,  Field  Museum 
922-9410;  ext.  360  or  361. 


Lite-size  diorama  {Hall  38)  of  swamp  forest  as  it  appeared  millions  of  years  ago,  when  today's  coal  was  still  in  the  form  of  living  plants.  Participants 
in  a  September  21  field  trip  will  search  for  fossil  evidence  of  such  an  ancient  forest. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


13 


THE  RA  Y  A.  KROC  ENVIRONMENTAL  EDUCA  TION  PROGRAM.  . 


Field  Museum— Environmental  Program 
Roosevelt  Road  at  Lake  Shore  Drive 
Chicago,  Illinois  60605 

Please  enroll  me  in  the  following  programs  at  Field  Museum: 


Enclosed  is  my  check  for  $_ 


. ,  payable  to  Field  Museum. 


Name 


Program 

date 

time 

Program 

date 

time 

Program 

date 

time 

Program 


date 


Address 


City 


State 


Zip  code 


Phone:                   Daytime 
Museum  Member:      Yes 


Evening 


No_ 


Field  Museum— Environmental  Program 
Roosevelt  Road  at  Lake  Shore  Drive 
Chicago,  Illinois  60605 

Please  enroll  me  in  the  following  programs  at  Field  Museum: 


Enclosed  is  my  check  for  $_ 


,  payable  to  Field  Museum. 


Name 


Program 

date 

time 

Program 

date 

time 

Program 

date 

time 

Program 


date 


Address 


City 


State 


Zip  code 


Phone:  Daytime 

Museum  Member:      Yes  — 


Evening 


No. 


Field  Museum— Environmental  Program 
Roosevelt  Road  at  Lake  Shore  Drive 
Chicago,  Illinois  60605 

Please  enroll  me  in  the  following  programs  at  Field  Museum: 


Enclosed  is  my  check  for ! 


Name 


,  payable  to  Field  Museum. 


Program 

date 

time 

Program 

date 

time 

Program 

date 

time 

Program 


date 


Address 


City 


State 


Zip  code 


Phone:                   Daytime 
Museum  Member:      Yes 


Evening 


No. 


luly/August  1975 


Akotfucnta 


Pa/ik 


our 


r<^ 


Left  and  below:  Illustrations  from  Nouvelle  Relation 
de  la  France  Equlnoxiale  [1743),  by  Pierre  Barrere,  a 
French  naturalist  and  physican. 


TRADESCANTIANUM  (Con't  from  p.  10) 

Mr.  Legge  informed  me  that  an  additional 
work— too  heavy  and  cumbersome  to  be  conveni- 
ently hand-carried  from  England— was  in  the  mail 
to  the  Museum;  and  shortly  it  arrived:  An  Album  of 
the  Weapons,  Tools,  Ornaments,  Articles  of  Dress, 
&  of  the  Natives  of  the  Pacific  Islands,  by  James 
Edge-Partington.  This  valuable  work  was  issued  in 
three  series  between  1890  and  1898  in  a  limited 
edition  of  150  copies  of  the  first  two  series  and  175 
of  the  third.  It  consists  of  reproductions  of  pen 
drawings  of  the  objects  together  with  concise 
description  of  each.  The  plates  were  lithographed 
from  the  author's  manuscript.  The  purpose  of  the 
work  is  to  illustrate  a  great  number  of  types  and  to 
assist   collectors    in    identifying   their   specimens. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


15 


16  July/August  1975 


Above:  Mrs.  A.W.F.  Fuller;  right:  the  late 
Capt.  A.W.F.  Fuller;  facing  page:  Clifford  C. 
Gregg,  former  director  of  Field  Museum,  and 
the  late  Stanley  Field,  former  president  of  the 
Museum,  examine  artifacts  purchased  by  the 
Museum  from  Capt.  Fuller  in  1958.  One  of  the 
world's  most  comprehensive  collections  of 
ethnological  materials  from  the  South  Pacific, 
it  includes  more  than  6,500  specimens.  A 
great  number  of  these  are  currently  on  exhibit 
in  Hall  F  {Peoples  of  Polynesia  and  Micro- 
nesia). 


Arriving  about  the  same  time  as  the 
Edge-Parti ngton  was  an  additional  parcel 
containing  three  more  works:  Nouvelle 
Relation  de  la  France  Equinoxiale,  by 
Pierre  Barrere  (Paris,  1743);  Memoirs  of 
Henry  Obookiah,  a  Native  of  Owhyhee 
(Hawaii),  and  a  Member  of  the  Foreign 
Mission  School;  Who  Died  at  Cornwall, 
Conn.  Feb.  17,  1818,  Aged  26  Years  (New 
Haven,  1818);  and  Museum  Leverianum, 
Containing  Select  Specimens  from  the 
Museum  of  the  Late  Sir  Ashton  Lever,  by 
George  Shaw,  London,  1792.) 

The  volume  by  Pierre  Barrere,  a  French 
naturalist  and  physician,  is  a  description 
of  French  Guiana  and  contains  a  great 


deal  of  anthropological  data.  It  supple- 
ments his  Essai  sur  I'Histoire  Naturelle  de 
la  France  Equinoxiale  (Paris,  1741)  and 
fills  a  notable  gap  in  our  collection.  The 
"Memoirs"  of  Henry  Obookiah  is  a 
curious  book  that  recounts  the  life  and 
conversion  to  Christianity  of  a  native  of 
what  were  then  called  the  Sandwich 
Islands.  It  appears  to  be  quite  rare.  The 
last  of  the  volumes  is  part  one  of  a 
six-part  work  consisting  of  colored  plates 
of  birds  and  mammals  contained  in  the 
Leverian  Museum,  with  descriptive  text 
in  Latin  and  English.  The  interesting 
history  of  the  Leverian  Museum  has  been 
described   by  Christopher  Legge   in    his 


article  "Tale  of  a  Tiki"  (Field  Museum  of 
Natural  History  Bulletin,  Vol.  38,  No.  8; 
Aug.,  1967). 

The  five  works  received  from  Mrs. 
Fuller  are  from  the  library  of  her  late 
husband,  Capt.  A.  W.  F.  Fuller,  and 
contain  numerous  notes  in  his  hand  on 
the  provenance,  history,  and  other 
features  of  the  volumes.  The  Edge- 
Partington  work,  in  particular,  is  a  useful 
supplement  to  the  Fuller  Collection  of 
Pacific  Artifacts  now  in  the  Field 
Museum.  All  of  the  volumes  are  useful 
additions  to  our  library  and  it  is  a 
pleasure  to  thank  Mrs.  Fuller  again  for 
her  continuing  benefactions.  □ 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


our  environment 


Are  These  Species  Endangered, 
Threatened,  or  Safe?  Vertebrates, 
Invertebrates,  and  Plants 
Under  Consideration 


Ten  animals— two  fish,  one  reptile,  four 
mammals,  and  three  birds— are  being  pro- 
prosed  for  inclusion  on  the  List  of  Endangered 
and  Threatened  species  by  the  U.S.  Fish  and 
Wildlife  Service.  Acceptance  of  the  proposal 
would  bring  the  total  number  of  threatened 
and  endangered  species  in  the  United  States 
to  119. 

The  ten  animals  under  consideration  for 
the  list  include  the  Mexican  wolf,  the  Cedros 
Island  mule  deer,  the  peninsular  pronghorn 
antelope,  the  United  States  population  of  the 
American  crocodile,  the  gray  bat,  the  bayou 
darter,  the  Scioto  madtom,  the  po'o  uli,  the 
Hawaii  creeper  and  Newall's  Manx  shearwater. 

The  animals  proposed  for  addition  to  the 
endangered  list  meet  at  least  one  of  five 
criteria  mandated  by  the  Endangered  Species 
Act  of  1973.  These  criteria  are: 

•  The  present  or  threatened  destruction, 
modification,  or  curtailment  of  its  habitat  or 
range. 

•  Overutilization  for  commercial,  sporting, 
scientific,  or  educational  purposes. 

•  Disease  or  predation. 

•  The  inadequacy  of  existing  regulatory 
mechanisms. 


The  illustrations  on  pages  18-21  are  from 
woodcuts  executed  by  Konrad  Cesner  (7576- 
7565),  a  Swiss  naturalist  and  physician.  In  his 
time  the  creatures  shown  here  were  believed 
to  actually  exist.  While  some,  such  as  the  sea 
monsters,  were  based  on  fragmentary  infor- 
mation or  imaginative  tales,  others,  such  as 
the  butterfly  and  the  white  stork  (p.  20),  are 
reasonable  representations. 


•  Other  natural  or  manmade  factors  affect- 
ing its  continued  existence. 

VERTEBRATES.  .  . 

•  The  Mexican  wolf  was  formerly  common 
in  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  southwestern  Texas, 
and  much  of  Mexico.  In  the  20th  century  the 
animal  declined  substantially  in  numbers  and 
distribution  because  of  habitat  loss  and  sport 
hunting.  A  recent  survey  of  this  dark 
wolf  — the  smallest  in  North  America- 
indicated  that  there  are  fewer  than  200  in 
Mexico,  where  they  are  protected  by  national 
law.  Enforcement,  however,  is  difficult  and 
many  wolves  are  thought  to  be  killed  illegally. 
These  animals  exist  in  widely  scattered  packs 
which  are  subject  to  intensive  human 
pressure.  In  the  United  States,  the  Mexican 
wolf  now  occurs  only  as  a  rare  wanderer,  and 
there  have  been  few  reports  of  its  presence 
since  1960. 

•  The  Cedros  Island  mule  deer  is  known  to 
exist  only  on  Cedros  Island  off  the  western 
coast  of  Baja  California.  Only  a  few,  perhaps 
less  than  a  dozen,  are  thought  to  survive  in 
restricted  sections  of  the  island.  Although  it  is 
illegal  to  hunt  this  deer,  poaching  continues 
and  has  been  an  important  factor  in  the  deer's 
reduced  population.  Predation  by  feral  dogs  is 
also  thought  to  have  been  a  major  factor  in 
the  deer's  decline. 

•  Peninsular  pronghorn  antelopes  once 
inhabited  most  of  Baja  California,  but  their 
range  has  been  greatly  reduced,  and  only  two 
or  three  small  remnant  groups  survive. 
Competition  with  domestic  livestock  for 
forage  reduced  the  antelope's  numbers. 
Excessive  illegal  hunting,  some  of  it  by  visitors 
from  the  United  States,  also  seems  to  have 
contributed  to  this  animal's  decline. 

•  The  scioto  madtom,  a  catfish,  lives  only 
in  one  locality  in  the  lower  portion  of  Big 
Darby  Creek,  tributary  to  the  Scioto  River, 


Pickaway  County,  Ohio.  Its  habitat  is  a  riffle 
area  with  moderate  to  fast  current,  where  the 
bottom  consists  of  gravel,  sand,  silt,  and 
boulders.  The  scioto  madtom  has  declined 
because  of  the  pollution  and  siltation  of  its 
habitat.  Two  proposed  impoundments  on  Big 
Darby  Creek  also  threaten  its  limited 
population. 

•  The  po'o  uli,  a  sparrow-sized  Hawaiian 
bird  with  a  black  mask,  was  discovered  only  in 
1973.  It  is  restricted  to  a  small  area  of  forest 
on  the  northeastern  slope  of  Haleakala 
Volcano  on  the  island  of  Maui.  The  po'o  uli, 
which  is  Hawaiian  for  "black-faced,"  has  an 
unknown  history,  but  its  decline  was  pre- 
sumably caused  in  part  by  habitat  alteration 
and  by  competition  with  non-native  birds. 

•  The  sparrow-sized  Hawaii  creeper  was 
endemic  to  the  island  of  Hawaii  and  was 
common  through  the  19th  century.  Sub- 
sequent changes  to  its  native  grounds  and 
competition  with  non-native  birds  restricted  it 
primarily  to  a  small  area  of  forest  between 
5,000  and  6,000  feet  elevation.  The  Hawaii 
creeper's  population  was  also  reduced  by  rat 
predation  and  by  transmission  of  avian 
diseases  by  an  introduced  mosquito.  The  bird 
is  now  rare  and  vulnerable  to  further 
environmental  disruption. 

•  Newell's  Manx  shearwater  is  a  medium- 
sized,  black  and  white  seabird  that  once  bred 
on  all  of  the  main  Hawaiian  Islands.  Now  its 
breeding  activity  is  restricted  to  an  isolated 
part  of  Kauai.  This  fish-  and  squid-eating  bird 
is  thought  to  have  been  exterminated  from 
most  of  its  range  by  the  introduction  of 
predatory  mongooses,  dogs,  pigs,  and  rats. 
The  bird's  attraction  to  lights  also  increases  its 
mortality  as  it  is  killed  from  collisions  with 
cars  and  lighted  towers.  Nonetheless,  it  is 
thought  to  number  in  the  low  thousands,  and 
does  not  appear  to  be  in  immediate  danger  of 
extinction. 

•  The  gray  bat  is  quite  vulnerable  and  in 
danger  of  extinction,  although  several  large 
colonies  still  exist.  Large  numbers  of  the  bats 
are  needed  to  maintain  a  minimum  breeding 
population. 

The  gray  bat  uses  certain  kinds  of  caves 
in  southeastern  and  south-central  United 
States  for  roosting,  breeding,  and  hibernating 


18 


)uly/August  1975 


activities.  Perhaps  no  other  bat  is  more 
dependent  upon  caves  for  its  existence,  and  it 
is  the  only  bat  in  the  eastern  United  States 
that  normally  requires  caves  in  summer  as 
well  as  in  winter.  Moreover,  this  species 
apparently  can  only  use  caves  with  specific 
temperature  levels.  Wintering  caves  are  in 
short  supply;  approximately  65  percent  of  the 
entire  known  population  hibernates  in  a  single 
cave,  and  about  90  to  95  percent  of  the  entire 
population  is  restricted  to  only  five  caves. 

Over  the  past  20  years  at  least  five  other 
major  wintering  caves  have  been  destroyed. 
Several  major  groups  of  bats  were  dislocated 
when  their  caves  were  commercialized, 
vandalized,  or  flooded.  In  some  cases  the  bats 
were  deliberately  destroyed  by  explorers, 
scientists,  or  vandals.  Most  of  the  remaining 
major  bat  colonies  live  in  caves  readily 
accessible  to  humans.  Several  of  these  caves 
face  future  commercialization  and  probable 
abandonment  by  resident  bats— a  normal 
reaction  to  human  disturbance. 

Although  gray  bat  populations  have  not 
been  greatly  reduced  by  natural  predation  and 
disease,  these  problems  could  become  more 
significant  as  mortality  factors. 


•  The  bayou  darter  is  a  small,  silvery  fish 
known  to  exist  only  in  the  Bayou  Pierre 
drainage,  a  small  river  tributary  to  the 
Mississippi  River  in  west  Mississippi.  The 
bayou  darter  inhabits  clean,  silt-free,  gravel 
riffle  areas,  but  in  recent  years  gravel  pit 
operations  and  poor  agricultural  practices 
have  damaged  its  habitat  and  reduced  its 
numbers,  the  Soil  Conservation  Service  has 
proposed  a  watershed  project  which  would 
further  degrade  the  bayou  darter's  habitat  by 
adversely  altering  the  water  chemistry  and 
contributing  additional  silt  to  the  stream.  This 
would  pose  a  serious  threat  to  the  continued 
existence  of  the  bayou  darter. 


•  The  American  crocodile  was  once  a 
common  species  in  southern  Florida,  and  old 
records  suggest  that  it  was  occasionally 
present  farther  north  on  both  the  Atlantic  and 
Gulf  coasts.  By  the  early  20th  century  the 
crocodile  was  still  common  throughout 
Biscayne  Bay  as  well  as  along  the  shores  of 
Florida  Bay  and  in  the  Florida  Keys. 

Development  of  southern  Florida  elimi- 
nated much  of  the  crocodile's  habitat  and  also 
led  to  excessive  killing  by  man.  In  the  1950/5 
there  was  still  significant  nesting  on  Key  Largo 
and  on  islands  to  the  south  of  Florida  Bay, 
but  human  pressure  has  eliminated  most  of 
this  activity.  The  last  suitable  areas  on  Key 
Largo  are  rapidly  being  destroyed  by  com- 
mercial development.  At  present  there  are 
thought  to  be  only  about  10  to  20  breeding 
females  in  Florida,  with  most  of  these 
concentrated  along  the  northeast  shore  of 
Florida  Bay  in  Everglades  National  Park. 

Raccoons  prey  heavily  on  the  eggs  and 
young  of  crocodiles,  and  probably  destroy  the 
great  majority  of  the  annual  increment. 
Raccoon  numbers  are  thought  to  have 
increased  considerably  after  man  largely 
eliminated  natural  predators,  including  the 
adult  crocodiles  themselves. 

Poaching  for  skins  and  eggs  still  some- 
times occurs,  and  crocodiles  are  occasionally 
shot  for  "sport"  from  passing  boats.  Although 
crocodiles  are  protected  by  state  law,  and  by 
federal  law  in  Everglades  National  Park  where 
most  of  the  population  occurs,  enforcement  is 
difficult.  Most  nest  sites  and  adult  crocodiles 
are  found  in  exposed  areas  that  cannot  be 
constantly  guarded  in  the  face  of  increasing 
human  presence.  Furthermore,  present  regula- 
tions do  not  restrict  the  destruction  of  habitat 
outside  the  park. 

Other  natural  and  human  activities  pose 
additional  threats  to  the  crocodile.  The 
possibility  of  a  hurricane  or  other  major 
natural  disaster  is  a  real  threat  to  such  a  small, 
isolated  population.  Increasing  human  devel- 
opment in  southern  Florida  has  restricted  the 
flow  of  fresh  water  to  the  Everglades.  This  may 
greatly  affect  the  crocodile  population  be- 
cause young  crocodiles  swim  upstream  and 
depend  for  a  period  on  water  with  low  salt 
content. 


The  leopard  and  the  clouded  leopard  are  to  be 
the  subjects  of  two  separate  surveys  by  the 
U.S.  Department  of  the  Interior  to  determine 
if  the  animals  should  be  listed  as  endangered 
or  threatened  species.  The  department  is 
seeking  the  views  of  governments  of  all 
countries  in  which  the  leopard  and  clouded 
leopard  occur. 

In  1972  the  department  declared  the 
leopard  {Panthera  pardus)  to  be  an  endan- 
gered species  throughout  its  natural  range, 
primarily  because  of  commercial  exploitation 
which  brought  about  a  serious  decline  in  the 
numbers  and  distribution  of  the  animal.  This 
designation  as  endangered  ended  the  legal 
importation  of  leopards  and  their  skins  into 
the  United  States. 

Scientific  evidence  accumulated  since 
1972  suggests  that  the  leopard  may  not  be 
endangered  throughout  its  entire  range.  The 
department  now  has  sufficient  evidence  to 
warrant  a  review  of  the  leopard  to  determine 
whether  it  should  be  reclassified  as  a 
threatened  species  in  any  part  of  its  range. 
This  would  allow  some  legal  exploitation  of 
the  animal. 

This  species  of  leopard  has  the  greatest 
range  of  any  big  cat.  Found  throughout  most 
of  Africa  and  Asia,  it  inhabits  a  variety  of 
regions  from  tropical  forests  and  rocky  areas 
with  heavy  or  scattered  vegetation  to  the 
high,  cold  regions  of  the  Himalayas.  Colora- 
tion is  cinnamon-buff  with  a  rosette  pattern. 
The  "black  panther"  is  a  color  phase  of  this 
species.  In  rocky  areas  the  leopard  lives  in 
caves.  In  forested  regions  it  lives  in  dense 
vegetation.  The  leopard  is  active  and  agile  in 
trees,  often  springing  on  its  prey  from 
overhanging  limbs.  It  usually  travels  in  pairs, 
but  sometimes  family  groups  of  four  to  six  are 
noted. 

The  clouded  leopard  [Neofelis  nebulosa), 
a  smaller  relative  of  the  leopard,  is  not 
currently  listed  as  either  threatened  or 
endangered.  Recent  evidence,  however,  in- 
dicates it  may  have  declined  to  a  point  where 
its  survival  is  in  jeopardy. 

The  species  is  found  only  in  Asia;  it 
occurs  in  Nepal  and  Sikkim  eastward  to 
southern  China,  Hainan,  and  Formosa,  In- 
dochina, and  Borneo.  It  frequents  jungles  and 
shrub  and  swampy  areas. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


OUR  ENVIRONMENT  (continued) 


INVERTEBRATES.  .  . 

Fifty-seven  species  of  freshwater  crustaceans, 
including  shrimp,  scud,  and  crayfish,  will  be 
studied  by  the  federal  government,  24  states, 
and  the  District  of  Columbia  to  determine  if 
any  of  them  should  be  added  to  the 
endangered  or  threatened  species  list.  The 
National  Speleogical  Society  of  Washington, 
D.C.,  affiliated  with  the  American  Association 
for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  has  peti- 
tioned the  Department  of  the  Interior  to 
review  the  status  of  these  crustaceans,  most  of 
which  are  found  in  caves  or  springs.  The 
crustaceans  are  an  integral  part  of  their 
ecosystems  and  in  several  instances  they  are 
the  primary  food  of  threatened  or  endangered 
fish,  such  as  pupfish,  which  share  the  same 
habitat.  Two  of  the  57  species  are  threatened 
by  the  construction  of  dams,  but  for  most  of 
the  species  being  studied  ground-water  pollu- 
tion is  the  greatest  problem.  Other  habitat 
losses  can  be  attributed  to'  lowered  water 
tables,  development,  flooding,  and  strip 
mining. 

The  spiny  cave  scud  is  common  only  to 
the  Creenbriar  Valley,  a  tributary  of  the  New 
River  in  West  Virgina.  Strip  mining  is  the 
greatest  threat  to  this  shrimplike  animal.  It  is 
estimated  that  90  percent  of  the  state's 
freshwater  mussels  have  been  lost  because  of 
strip  mining  and  other  environmental 
disturbances. 

In  Texas,  the  Pecos  scud  is  also  in 
trouble.  This  scud,  which  can  have  either 
reddish  or  greenish  bands,  is  found  only  in 
Willbanks  Spring  northwest  of  Fort  Stockton. 
It  formerly  lived  in  many  other  areas  along  the 
Pecos  River  system,  but  the  pumping  of 
subsurface  water,  particularly  in  New  Mexico, 
wiped  out  those  populations.  Currently  the 
isolated  habitat  of  this  scud  is  threatened  by 
oil  drilling,  a  lowered  water  table  and  by 
pollution. 


PLANTS.  .  . 

The  first  review  of  plants  for  possible 
inclusion  on  the  Endangered  Species  List  has 
been  begun  by  the  U.S.  Fish  and  Wildlife 
Service  for  four  species  of  wildflowers. 

The  plants  are  Monkshood  (Acontium 
novaeboracense)  found  in  Iowa,  Ohio,  New 
York,  and  Wisconsin;  Sullivantia  [Sullivantia 


renifolia)  found  in  Illinois,  Iowa,  Minnesota, 
Missouri,  and  Wisconsin;  Bird's-eye  Primrose 
(Primula  mistassinica)  found  in  Illinois,  Iowa, 
Maine,  Michigan,  New  York,  Wisconsin,  and 
Canada  (Laborador,  New  Brunswick,  Quebec, 
Ontario);  and  Forbe's  Saxifrage  [Saxifraga 
forbesii)  found  in  Illinois,  Iowa,  Minnesota, 
Missouri,  and  Wisconsin.  All  of  the  species 
occur  in  very  small  numbers  in  highly  isolated 
areas. 

The  wildflowers  primarily  inhabit  the 
"driftless  area"  of  Illinois,  Iowa,  Minnesota, 
and  Wisconsin.  The  region  was  so  named  by 
geologists  and  biologists  because  its  native 
plants  and  animals  are  quite  unlike  those  of 
the  surrounding  area.  The  region  is  actually  an 
unglaciated  island  of  terrain  in  the  midst  of  a 
glaciated  zone.  The  favorite  habitat  of  these 
species  appears  to  be  the  moist  sandstone 
cliffs  and  rock  ledges  of  the  Kickapoo  River 
gorge  in  Wisconsin. 

White  Stork  on  Decline 

Once  a  familiar  sight  throughout  much  of 
Europe,  the  white  stork  appears  to  be  on  the 
decline.  Now  rarely  seen  in  Belgium,  France, 
and  the  Netherlands,  the  bird  has  vanished 
completely  from  Sweden.  The  cause,  says 
James  Baird,  a  Massachusets  Audubon  Society 
ornithologist,  is  the  use  of  DDT  and  other 
chlorinated  pesticides.  Only  forty  pairs  of  the 
species  bred  in  Denmark  last  year,  compared 
with  200  breeding  pairs  counted  fifteen 
years  ago. 

New  Mosquito  Killer 

A  new  pesticide  recently  registered  by  the 
Environmental  Protection  Agency  (EPA)  for 
mosquito  control  is  Altosid  SR-10,  a  growth 
regulator  that  prevents  mosquito  juveniles 
from  maturing  into  adults.  The  insects  are 
trapped  by  chemical  action  in  their  larval  or 


pupal  stages  until  they  die.  The  pesticide  is 
specific  for  mosquitoes,  is  effective  in 
small  amounts,  and  degrades  rapidly,  re- 
ports the  EPA. 

$50,000  Conservation  Prize 

Nominations  are  now  being  accepted  for  the 
second  $50,000  J.  Paul  Getty  Wildlife  Con- 
servation Prize  to  be  awarded  in  February, 
1976,  to  an  individual  or  organization  chosen 
by  an  international  jury  for  outstanding 
achievement  or  service  of  benefit  to  mankind 
in  the  conservation  of  wildlife,  plants,  or 
animals.  The  first  Getty  prize  was  awarded  last 
January  to  Felipe  Benavides,  of  Peru.  The 
$50,000  prize  is  the  largest  amount  ever 
awarded  for  wildlife  conservation. 

Chairman  of  the  international  award  jury 
of  thirteen  will  be  Prince  Bernhard,  of  the 
Netherlands,  who  is  also  president  of  the 
World  Wildlife  Fund  International. 

Continuation  of  the  prize,  Bernhard  said, 
will   focus  attention    on    conservation    as   a 


20 


July/August  1975 


world  priority,  and  will  provide  inspiration 
and  encouragement  not  only  to  those  already 
at  work  in  the  field  but  also  to  those  who  may 
be  thinking  of  becoming  involved  in  this 
critically  important  work. 

Candidates  are  considered  for  a  diversity 
of  accomplishments.  These  include  work 
toward  the  conservation  of  rare  or  endangered 
species  and  habitats,  toward  increasing  public 
awareness  of  the  importance  of  wildlife  and 
nature  through  scientific,  educational,  or 
aesthetic  contributions,  and  toward  the 
establishment  of  legislation  or  an  organiza- 
tion or  society  of  unusual  importance  to  wild- 
life conservation.  The  candidate's  achieve- 
ment must  be  pioneering  and  substantial,  so 
that  recognition  accorded  by  the  award  will 
increase  public  appreciation  of  the  signi- 
ficance of  wildlife  and  its  conservation.  Felipe 
Benavides,  a  Peruvian  conservationist,  was 
awarded  the  first  Getty  Prize  for  his  successful 
promotion  of  international  cooperation  to 
save  the  endangered  vicuna  and  other  Latin 
American  species  and  natural  habitats.  Bena- 
vides is  using  the  award  funds  to  establish  a 
research  institute  at  Paracas,  on  the  coast  of 
Peru,  and  proposes  that  a  marine  park  be 
established  at  that  location. 

New  Aids  for  Endangered  Warbler 

Kirtland's  warbler  (Dendroica  kirtlandii),  also 
known  as  the  jack  pine  warbler,  is  being  aided 
in  a  new  program  this  summer  in  its  fight 
against  extinction.  In  a  joint  effort  by  the  U.S. 
Fish  and  Wildlife  Service,  The  U.S.  Forest 
Service,  and  the  Michigan  Department  of 
Natural  Resources,  forest  lands  in  Huron 
National  Forest,  located  in  the  northeastern 
part  of  Michigan's  lower  peninsula,  will  be 
burned  over  in  order  to  stimulate  the  growth 
of  new  jack  pines,  the  trees  in  which  the 
warbler  nests. 

Kirtland's  warbler  requires  jack  pines 
from  5  to  18  feet  in  height  for  nesting.  Fire 
pops  open  the  cones  of  the  jack  pine  which 
grow  to  a  size  attractive  to  warblers  within  a 
few  years. 

Since  1971,  the  U.S.  Fish  and  Wildlife 
Service  has  been  trapping  and  removing 
brown-headed  cowbirds  from  warbler  nesting 
areas  to  help  ensure  nesting  success.  The 
female  cowbird  does  not  build  a  nest  of  her 
own,  but  lays  her  eggs  in  the  nests  of  other 
birds,  relying  on  the  host  species  to  hatch  and 
raise  the  young  cowbirds.  Before  the  trapping 
program  began,  cowbird  parasitism  was  found 
in  59  percent  of  the  Kirtland's  warbler  nests 
examined,  and  nesting  success  was  greatly 
reduced  by  the  presence  of  young  cowbirds. 
The  trapping  program  has  been  successful  in 
reducing  cowbird  parasitism  to  about  9 
percent,  and  increasing  the  number  of 
warblers  fledged  from  0.81  to  2.84  young  per 
nest. 


This  summer  will  be  the  first  that  Kirt- 
land's warbler  nesting  areas  will  be  closed 
to  the  public;  this  is  being  done  to  preclude 
interference  with  nesting  success.  Nesting 
areas  will  be  closed  from  May  1  to  August  15 
to  protect  the  warbler  from  human 
disturbance. 


Federal  Eagle-Trapping  Program 

Golden  eagles  are  being  trapped  by  the  U.S. 
Fish  and  Wildlife  Service  in  order  to  protect 
the  eagle  itself— an  endangered  species  — as 
well  as  newborn  lambs.  The  eagles  trapped  in 
southwestern  Montana's  Beaverhead  County 
are  being  relocated  to  other  areas  of  Montana 
and  to  Colorado. 

Heavy  predation  of  spring  lambs  by 
eagles  led  ranchers  to  request  authority  last 
year  to  shoot  the  birds.  Two  ranchers  reported 
losses  of  almost  one  quarter  to  one  third  of 
their  spring  crop  of  lambs  to  the  eagles.  The 
Montana  Cooperative  Wildlife  Research  Unit 
was  assigned  the  task  of  examining  lamb 
carcasses  to  determine  the  cause  of  the  kills. 
Of  58  carcasses  examined  last  year,  44  kills 
were  determined  to  have  been  caused  by 
eagles. 

Under  an  agreement  between  the  ranch- 
ers and  the  wildlife  agency,  the  ranchers 
withdrew  their  request  and  the  agency  agreed 
to  trap  and  relocate  the  birds.  It  also  agreed  to 
reimburse  ranchers  for  documented  cases  of 
eagle-caused  lamb  kills.  Sixty-four  golden 
eagles  were  trapped  and  relocated  prior  to  this 
year's  mid-May  lambing  season.  However,  a 
spokesman  for  the  federal  agency  was  non- 
committal about  the  projected  success  of  the 
experiment. 


SEA  SNAKES  (Con't  from  p.  4) 

the  tide  comes  in,  large  volumes  of  sea 
water  go  up  the  river.  Just  as  the  tide 
starts  to  run  back  out  of  the  river,  the 
nets  are  lowered  into  the  flow  and  a 
variety  of  marine  and  brackish  water 
creatures  are  caught  in  the  nets.  Although 
this  method  of  fishing  is  not  as  efficient 
as  trawling,  it  is  excellent  for  catching 
sea  snakes.  Just  after  Chinese  New  Year, 
in  February  of  this  year,  we  were 
delighted  to  obtain  large  numbers  of 
newly  born  "beaked  sea  snakes"  [Enhy- 
drina  schistosa),  which  are  rarely  found 
in  collections.  For  the  first  time,  we  are 
learning  where  the  young  live  and  what 
they  eat,  and  we  are  attempting  to 
monitor  their  growth  and  survival  rate 
over  the  first  months  of  their  lives.  We 
have  even  been  able  to  maintain  some 
baby  snakes  in  an  aquarium  in  our 
laboratory  and  observe  their  feeding 
behavior. 

Our  work  in  Malaysia  is  being  done  in 
collaboration  with  Lim  Boo  Liat,  head  of 
the  Medical  Ecology  Division  of  the 
Institute  for  Medical  Research  (I.M.R.)  in 
Kuala  Lumpur.  What  we  can  learn  about 
the  habitats,  feeding,  and  living  condi- 
tions of  sea  snakes  will  be  of  use  to 
I.M.R.  in  its  newest  project,  the  establish- 
ment of  a  snake  farm  in  Perak,  Malaysia. 
If  we  can  solve  the  problems  of  main- 
taining sea  snakes  adequately  for  long 
periods  in  captivity,  some  further  avenues 
of  research  will  be  opened.  □ 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


field  briefs 


African  Arts  Festival 

A  five-day  summer  festival,  "Discovering  the 
Arts  of  Africa,"  will  be  featured  in  Stanley 
Field  Hall  July  21  through  July  25.  Financial 
support  for  th  festival  has  been  provided  by 
the  Albert  Kunstadter  Family  Foundation, 
Wieboldt  Foundation,  and  Woods  Charitable 
Fund,  Inc. 

•  The  Royal  African  Puppet  Theatre,  under 
the  direction  of  Baba  Alabi  S.  Ayinla,  will 
appear  on  Monday,  July  21;  performances  at 
10:00  a.m.  and  1:00  p.m.  (repeat  performances 
on  Friday,  July  25). 

•  Angie  Ihejirika,  textile  demonstrations; 
Tuesday,  July  22,  10:00  a.m.  and  1:00  p.m. 

•  African  dances,  by  John  Jantuah  of  Ghana; 
Wednesday,  July  23,  performances  10:00  a.m. 
and  1:00  p.m. 

•  Richard  Mosley  (Musa)  will  perform  on 
African  drums  on  Thursday,  July  24,  at  10:00 
a.m.  and  1:00  p.m. 

•  The  Royal  African  Puppet  Theatre,  under 
the  direction  of  Baba  Alabi  S.  Ayinla,  will 
appear  on  Friday,  July  25;  performances  at 
10:00  a.m.  and  1:00  p.m. 

Volunteer  Opportunities 

For  persons  who  wish  to  be  volunteer  teachers 
at  Field  Museum,  a  training  course  will  be 
held  one  day  each  week  beginning  the  first 
week  of  October  through  the  second  week  of 
December.  The  course  will  cover  general 
Museum  orientation,  offer  concentration  in  a 
specific  area:  geology,  botany,  zoology,  or 
anthropology,  and  provide  skills  required  to 
give  Museum  visitors  programs  related  to 
collections  on  exhibit.  The  course  is  limited  to 
twenty  adults.  Preference  will  be  given  to 
persons  with  a  strong  interest  and/or  back- 
ground in  one  of  these  areas  of  natural 
history. 

There  are  also  volunteer  openings  in 
anthropology,  geology,  botany,  and  zoology 
for  those  who  are  interested  in  familiarizing 
themselves  with  specimens,  artifacts,  and 
publications,  and  who  can  give  one  weekday 
per  week  at  the  Museum.  For  further 
information  call  or  write  Carolyn  Blackmon, 
Field  Museum,  922-9410,  extension  361. 

Greg  Casserly  Joins  PR  Staff 

The  Public  Relations  Department  of  Field 
Museum  has  recently  added  Gregory  W. 
Casserly  to  its  professional  staff.  A  native 
Chicagoan,  Mr.  Casserly  is  a  graduate  of  the 
University  of  San  Diego  and  most  recently  was 
senior  account  executive  at  the  Public 
Relations  Center,  Inc.,  in  Chicago.  Earlier,  he 
held  positions  in  the  corporate  public 
relations  departments  of  Sears,  Roebuck,  and 
Co.,    and  Michigan  Avenue  National  Bank. 


Kudos  for  Museum  TV  Commercial 

A  10-second  "ID"  (identification)  commercial 
for  Field  Museum  recently  won  first  place  in 
the  15th  annual  International  Broadcasting 
Awards  competition  sponsored  by  the  Holly- 
wood Radio  and  Television  Society.  The 
commercial  advertised  Field  Museum  as 
"Chicago's  Time  Machine,"  and,  with  voice- 
over  by  actor  Rod  Serling,  strikingly  showed 
how  Field  Museum  exhibits  take  the  visitor 
back  into  prehistoric  times. 

Museum  director  E.  Leland  Webber, 
above,  receives  the  IBA  "Spike"  award  from 
Laurence  Senten,  senior  vice  president  and 
director  of  creative  services,  D'Arcy-Mac- 
Manus  &  Masius,  Inc.,  producers  of  film. 
William  Wood-Prince,  Jr.,  senior  vice  presi- 
dent and  director  of  client  services  for  the 
advertising  firm,  accompanied  Mr  Senten  and 
presented  a  copy  of  the  awards  dinner 
program  to  Mr.  Webber. 

A  30-second  version  of  the  film  won 
honorable  mention  — as  one  of  the  10  best— in 
the  public  service  announcement  category. 
D'Arcy-MacManus  &  Masius,  Inc.,  supervised 
production  of  both  films  and  contributed 
creative  talents  of  the  firm. 

There  were  3,400  entries  in  all  contest 
categories,  from  advertising  agencies  in  42 
countries,  in  the  1974  competition.  The 
"Spike"  awards  were  established  in  1960  by 
HRTS,  a  society  of  broadcasting,  and  broad- 
cast advertising  and  programming  executives. 


Insect-Collecting  for  Children 

Children  with  an  interest  in  collecting  and 
studying  insects  will  have  an  opportunity  to 
do  so  during  a  special  two-week  course  at 
Field  Museum  this  summer.  The  program  is 
limited  to  fifteen  participants,  age  10 
through  12. 


The  class  will  meet  from  10:00  a.m.  to 
2:30  p.m.,  Monday,  Wednesday,  and  Friday 
from  July  21  through  August  1.  Collecting  will 
be  done  in  the  Museum  area  in  the  mornings 
and  the  catch  will  be  examined  and  identified 
in  the  Museum  in  the  afternoons.  One  full  day 
will  be  spent  collecting  in  some  more  distant 
area.  Students  will  also  be  taught  how  to  rear 
insects  and  how  to  make  a  permanent 
collection. 

Each  child  should  bring  his  or  her  own 
lunch  and  beverage.  A  nonrefundable  fee  of 
$25  for  the  course  will  also  hold  the 
reservation.  Application  should  include  child's 
name,  address,  and  telephone  number,  and 
should  be  sent  with  check  to  Environmental 
Programs,  Field  Museum. 

Attention  Frog-Callers! 

Some  organizations  have  hog-calling  con- 
tests; Field  Museum,  however,  is  sponsoring  a 
frog-calling  contest!  The  winner  will  receive  a 
$10  gift  certificate  redeemable  at  the  Museum 
gift  shop. 

The  reason  for  the  contest,  believe  it  or 
not,  is  in  connection  with  the  Museum's 
rehabilitation  program;  as  part  of  the  program, 
an  audiovisual  display  on  frog  calls  is  being 
added  to  the  Hall  of  Amphibians  and  Reptiles 
(Hall  19).  The  display  will  include  recorded 
calls,  color  slides  of  frogs,  and  an  oscilloscope 
(an  instrument  that  can  make  sound  waves 
visible).  Visitors  will  be  able  to  see  as  well  as 
hear  the  differences  between  the  calls  of 
various  frog  species.  But  the  exhibit,  sched- 
uled to  open  in  late  summer,  needs  a  title. 
What  would  you  call  it?  Send  your  sugges- 
tion^) (four  words  or  less)  to  Kathleen 
Brennan,  Department  of  Exhibition,  Field 
Museum  of  Natural  History,  Roosevelt  Road 
at  Lake  Shore  Drive,  Chicago,  III.  60605. 
Entries  must  be  postmarked  no  later  than 
July  31. 


22 


July/August  1975 


JULY  and  AUGUST  at  Field  Museum 


SUMMER  FESTIVAL 

"Discovering  the  Arts  of  Africa."  One-hour  programs 
for  children  and  adults,  Monday,  July  21  through  Fri- 
day, July  25,  performances  at  10:00  a.m.  and  1:00  p.m. 
The  festival  includes  demonstrations  on  how  to  wear 
authentic  African  fashions  featuring  colorful  Yoruba 
and  Hausa  textiles,  and  the  art  of  African  drum  carving. 
Baba  Alabi  S.  Ayinla's  Royal  African  Puppet  Theatre, 
known  for  unique  hand-carved  wooden  puppets,  will 
present  Yoruba  songs,  folk  tales  and  dance;  John  Jan- 
tuah,  of  Ghana,  will  perform  African  dances.  Stanley 
Field  Hall. 


SPECIAL  PROGRAMS 

Continuing: 

Craft  Demonstrations  and  Discussions 

"African  Patterns,"  10:00  a.m.  to  12:30  noon,  Mondays, 
Wednesdays,  and  Fridays.  Entrance  to  Hall  27. 

Weaving  demonstration  by  members  of  the  North  Shore 
Weavers'  Guild,  from  10:30  to  11:30  a.m.  and  12:00 
to  1:00  p.m.,  Fridays,  through  September  26.  South 
Lounge. 

Saturday  Discovery  Programs 

A  series  of  tours,  demonstrations,  and  participatory 
activities  offered  continuously  from  11:00  a.m.  to  3:00 
p.m.,  include  Ancient  Egypt,  Prehistoric  Man,  Reptiles, 
Northwest  Coast  Art,  and  The  World  of  Animals.  For 
details,  inquire  at  Museum  entrances. 


TOURS 

Introductory  Highlight  Tours,  conducted  by  Museum 
education  staff  and  volunteers,  Monday  through  Friday, 
July  7  through  August  29,  at  2:00  p.m.  Meet  at  the 
Information  Booth. 

Tours  of  the  "Ancient  Ecuador:  Culture,  Clay  and 
Creativity,  3000-300  B.C."  exhibit,  will  be  conducted 
every  Tuesday  and  Friday  through  August  5,  at  11:00 
a.m.  and  1:00  p.m.  The  Friday  1:00  p.m.  tours  are  in 
Spanish.  Meet  at  the  Information  Booth. 


CHILDREN'S   PROGRAMS 


Continuing: 


Summer  Journey  for  Children,  "A  Short  Walk  Through 
Time  and  Places,"  is  a  self-guided  tour  focusing  on 
Museum  exhibits.  All  boys  and  girls  who  can  read  and 
write  are  invited  to  participate.  Journey  sheets  in  English 
and  Spanish  are  available  at  the  Information  Booth. 

MEETINGS 

July    9,7:30     Windy  City  Grotto,  National 
Speleological  Society 

July  15,  7:30     Chicago  Audubon  Society 


MUSEUM  HOURS 

The  Museum  opens  daily  at  9:00  a.m.  and  closes  at  6:00 
p.m.  Monday,  Tuesday,  and  Thursday.  Until  Labor  Day 
the  Museum  will  remain  open  until  9:00  p.m.  on  Wednes- 
day, Friday,  Saturday,  and  Sunday. 

The  Museum  Library  is  open  9:00  a.m.  to  4:00  p.m. 
Monday  through  Friday.  Please  obtain  pass  at  reception 
desk,  first  floor  north. 

Museum  Telephone:  922-9410 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


23 


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September 
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Field  Museum  of  Natural  History  Bulletin 


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Papilio  aristodemus  ponceanus.  Top 
left  and  right:  female,  upper  and 
lower  surfaces,  respectively;  bottom 
left  and  right:  male,  upper  and  lower 
surfaces.  Photos  courtesy  Allyn  Mu- 
seum of  Entomology,  Sarasota,  Fla. 
See  p.  15. 


September  1975 


Field  Museum 
of  Natural  History 
Bulletin 


September  1975 
Vol.  46,  No.  8 


Editor/Designer:  David  M.  Walsten 
Production:  Oscar  Anderson 


CONTENTS 

4      THE  FLORIDA  CROCODILE:  Will  It  Survive? 
By  Jeffrey  W.  Lang 

10       FIELD  BRIEFS 

12  OUR  ENVIRONMENT 

13  ADULT  EDUCATION  PROGRAM:  New  Courses  for  Fall,  1975 

14  MAN'S  ONE  WORLD:  Film-Lecture  Series  on  Impact  of 
Ecological  Disturbances  on  Human  Cultures 

15  THREATENED  STATUS  FOR  TWO  BUTTERFLIES? 

19  "GETAWAY"  WEEKEND  FOR  FIELD  MUSEUM  MEMBERS 

20  SUGARING  FOR  MOTHS 
By  W.  J.  Holland 

back      SEPTEMBER  AT  FIELD  MUSEUM 
cover      Calendar  of  Coming  Events 

COVER 


Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 

Established  1893 

Director:  E.  Leland  Webber 


Iris  bulbosa  latifolia,  watercolor  by  CD.  Ehret  (1757).  Painting  is 
among  123  illustrations  of  plants  to  be  exhibited  at  Field  Museum 
(Hall  9)  September  15  through  November  16.  The  works,  in  a  variety 
of  media,  were  executed  by  39  staff  artists  and  botanists  at  the 
Royal  Botanic  Gardens,  Kew,  England,  since  the  mid-18th  century. 
The  exhibit  will  be  of  special  interest  to  historians,  gardeners,  and 
illustrators,  as  well  as  to  botanists  and  artists.  The  beauty  of  the 
exhibit  will  be  further  enhanced  by  plant  models  from  Field 
Museum's  collection  and  by  fresh-cut  flowers  provided  by  the 
Garden  Club  of  Lake  Forest. 


Board  of  Trustees 

Blaine  J.  Yarrington, 

President 
Gordon  Bent 
Harry  O.  Bercher 
Bowen  Blair 
Stanton  R.  Cook 
William  R.  Dickinson,  Jr. 
Thomas  E.  Donnelley  II 
Mrs.  Thomas  E.  Donnelley  II 
Marshall  Field 
Nicholas  Calitzine 
Paul  W.  Goodrich 
Remick  McDowell 
Hugo  J.  Melvoin 
William  H.  Mitchell 
Charles  F.  Murphy,  Jr. 
lames  H.  Ransom 
|ohn  S.  Runnells 
William  L.  Searle 
Edward  Byron  Smith 
Mrs.  Hermon  Dunlap  Smith 


Robert  H.  Strotz 
John  W.  Sullivan 
William  G.  Swartchild,  Jr. 
Mrs.  Theodore  D.  Tieken 
E.  Leland  Webber 
Julian  B.  Wilkins 


Life  Trustees 

William  McCormick  Blair 
Joseph  N.  Field 
Clifford  C.  Gregg 
Samuel  Insull,  Jr. 
William  V.  Kahler 
Hughston  M.  McBain 
J.  Roscoe  Miller 
lames  L.  Palmer 
John  T.  Pirie,  Jr. 
John  G.  Searle 
John  M.  Simpson 
Louis  Ware 
I.  Howard  Wood 


PHOTO  CREDITS 

Cover:  Museum  staff  photo;  2:  Allyn  Museum  of  Entomology;  4,  5, 
6,  8,  9:  Jeffrey  W.  Lang;  10  (lower  left):  Jim  Bland;  10  (upper  right): 
Hy  Marx;  11  (lower  left):  Jim  Swartchild;  11  (lower  right):  Museum 
staff  photo;  22,  23:  Allyn  Museum  of  Entomology. 


The  cost  of  this  enlarged  issue  of  the  Field 
Museum  of  Natural  History  Bulletin,  which 
stresses  important  environmental  issues,  was  in 
part  underwritten  by  the  Ray  A.  Kroc  Environ- 
mental Fund. 


Field  Museum  ot  Natural  History  Bulletin  is  published  monthly, 
except  combined  July/August  issue,  by  Field  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  Roosevelt  Road  at  Lake  Shore  Drive,  Chicago,  Illinois  60605. 
Subscriptions:  S6  a  year;  $3  a  year  for  schools.  Members  of  the 
Museum  subscribe  through  Museum  membership.  Opinions 
expressed  by  authors  are  their  own  and  do  not  necessarily  reflect  the 
policy  of  Field  Museum.  Unsolicited  manuscripts  are  welcome. 
Postmaster:  Please  send  form  3579  to  Field  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  Roosevelt  Road  at  Lake  Shore  Drive,  Chicago,  Illinois  60605. 
ISSN:  0015-0703.  Second  class  postage  paid  at  Chicago,  III. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


~ 


THE  FLORIDA  CROCODILE:  Will  It  Survive? 


by  Jeffrey  W.  Lang 

Finding  a  crocodile  in  Florida  is  not 
easy.  Clouds  of  mosquitoes  en- 
gulfed us  whenever  the  boat 
stopped.  We  had  searched  miles  of 
coastline  without  seeing  a  single  eyeshine 
—the  conspicuous  yellow-orange  reflec- 
tion we  knew  would  signal  "crocodile." 
As  our  small  skiff  skimmed  over  the  calm 
waters  of  Florida  Bay  in  Everglades 
National  Park,  a  spotlight  in  the  front  of 
the  boat  created  eerie  figures  among  the 
tangled  mangrove  roots  that  reached  into 
the  water  from  shore.  Suddenly  a  faint 
glimmer  appeared  in  the  distance,  just 
offshore.  As  we  approached,  I  was  sure 
that  at  any  moment  the  eye  glowing  in 
the  darkness  would  drop  out  of  sight.  But 
we  glided  closer,  and  other  features 
came  into  view:  a  light,  tan-colored  head 
and  a  long,  tapering  snout  with  a  tooth 


protruding  upwards  from  the  lower  jaw 
several  inches  from  the  tip  of  the  snout. 
A  large  American  crocodile  {Crocodylus 
acutus)  swam  slowly  off  the  bow  of  the 
boat,  only  an  arm's  reach  away. 

Today  crocodiles  are  rarely  seen  in 
the  park,  even  though  their  presence 
there  has  been  known  for  years.  Unlike 
the  alligator,  which  is  widely  distributed 
throughout  the  southeastern  United 
States,  the  crocodile  is  restricted  to  the 
southeastern  coast  of  Florida.  A  century 
ago,  the  species  ranged  from  about  Lake 
Worth  on  the  east  coast  south  into  the 
Miami  area  and  west  through  the  Florida 
Keys.  At  present,  crocodiles  occur  on 
North  Key  Largo  and  in  eastern  Florida 
Bay,  with  scattered  records  from  the 
lower  Florida  Keys.  Recent  estimates 
place  the  entire  population  in  the  United 


States  at  between  200  and  400  individ- 
uals; of  these,  only  25  or  less  are 
breeding  females. 

For  us,  getting  so  close  to  a 
crocodile  was  a  pleasant  surprise  and  an 
encouraging  sign.  On  previous  nights, 
we'd  looked  in  vain  for  hours.  When  we 
did  see  a  crocodile,  it  would  dive  out  of 
sight  before  we  could  approach.  It  was 


Jeffrey  W.  Lang  is  a  doctoral  candidate  in  the 
Department  of  Ecology  and  Behavioral  Biol- 
ogy at  the  University  of  Minnesota.  His 
research  on  crocodilians  has  been  supported 
by  the  New  York  Zoological  Society,  the 
Dayton  Natural  History  Fund  of  the  Bell 
Museum  at  the  University  of  Minnesota,  the 
Bache  Fund  of  the  National  Academy  of 
Sciences,  and  the  Society  of  Sigma  Xi. 


Seplember  1975 


[  Crocodile  hatchlings  with  radio  transmitters 
attached. 


late  July  of  1973;  and  I  was  collaborating 
with  John  Ogden,  a  research  biologist 
with  the  park  staff,  on  a  pilot  project  to 
mark  and  study  the  crocodiles  in  Florida 
Bay.  Several  rangers  who  had  handled 
alligators  were  assisting  us.  Because 
crocodiles  tend  to  be  more  aggressive 
and  dangerous  than  alligators,  experi- 
enced helpers  were  welcome. 

As  our  boat  headed  for  shore,  the 
crocodile  unexpectedly  climbed  out  of 
the  water  onto  a  high  marl  bank  and 
went  crashing  through  the  brush.  We 
scrambled  after  it,  dropping  our  gear  and 
grabbing  for  headlamps.  After  a  brief 
chase,  the  crocodile  was  surrounded, 
hissing  at  us  whenever  we  approached. 
Finally,  one  of  the  rangers  pinned  down 
its  head  with  a  long  pole  and  held  its  jaws 
closed,  while  two  of  us  gently  eased  onto 
its  back  and  tail.  Carefully,  the  crocodile's 
snout  was  taped.  Amazingly,  the  croco- 
dile didn't  struggle.  I'd  read  that,  once 
captured,  crocodiles  become  lethargic; 
in  this  instance,  I  was  happy  to  confirm 
it.  With  two  men  sitting  on  the  croco- 
dile's back,  we  quickly  took  body 
measurements,  marked  several  tail  scutes 
in  a  distinctive  pattern,  and  released  the 
eight-foot  female  unharmed— our  first 
crocodile  was  marked. 

Investigations  of  the  biology  of  the 
American  crocodile  are  long  overdue. 
Surprising  as  it  may  seem,  throughout  the 
species'  range  — in  Florida,  the  Greater 
Antilles,  and  parts  of  Central  America 
and  northern  South  America— very  little 
is  known  about  its  natural  history.  For 
instance,  what  do  crocodiles  eat?  Where 
do  they  live?  When  are  they  active?  Are 
crocodiles  social?  How  do  they  breed? 

Exciting  answers  to  some  of  these 
questions  are  beginning  to  emerge  from 
the  studies  conducted  by  John  Ogden  in 
the  Everglades  National  Park.  Starting  in 
1969,  his  first  efforts  involved  searching 
for  nests  and  patiently  waiting  for 
glimpses  of  the  animals  that  made  the 
nests.  Within  several  years,  eight  nesting 
sites  were  located,  but  the  crocodiles 
were  almost  never  seen.  So,  at  a  few  of 

Baby    crocodile    emerges     from    egg    after  >■ 
three-month  incubation.  An  egg  tooth  at  tip  of 
upper    jaw    serves    to    puncture    the    inner 
leathery  shell.  The  brittle  outer  shell  cracks 
away  at  hatching. 


the  nests,  remote-control  cameras  were 
set  up  to  monitor  the  crocodiles  when 
they  visited  the  nests.  The  resulting 
photographs  document  many  of  the 
behaviors  associated  with  nest-building, 
nest  attendance,  and  hatching.  1 

Over  a  period  of  weeks,  every  April 
and  May,  female  crocodiles  construct 
their  nests  along  the  sandy  beaches  and 
marl  banks  of  eastern  Florida  Bay.  Some 
are  large  mounds  of  sand  that  are  visible 
a  quarter-mile  away;  others  are  mere 
holes  in  the  ground  that  are  barely 
distinguishable  from  the  surrounding 
terrain.  Each  female  lays  about  20  to  60 
eggs,  and  then  visits  her  nest  frequently, 
often  at  night.  At  the  end  of  the  100-day 
incubation  period,  she  excavates  the 
nest,  carrying  newly-hatched  young  to 
the  water  in  her  mouth. 

Such  attentive  care  of  the  young 
may  be  typical  of  birds  and  mammals, 


but  it  is  a  rare  trait  among  reptiles. 
Compared  to  the  other  reptilian  groups, 
crocodilians  show  exceptional  care  for 
their  eggs  and  young.  Females  even 
guard  their  hatchlings  against  predators, 
according  to  one  report  on  another 
species.  We  were  anxious  to  learn  how 
long  a  female  crocodile  stays  with  her 
young.  Marking  a  family  of  American 
crocodiles  at  nesting  time  looked  like  a 
good  way  to  find  out. 

We  hoped  to  capture  a  female  near 
her  nest,  equip  her  with  a  miniature  radio 
transmitter,  and  then  tag  the  young  when 
they  hatched.  In  this  way,  we  could 
follow  the  mother  and  her  young  with  a 
portable  radio  receiver,  document  their 
behavior,  and  identify  the  habitats  they 
preferred.  Importantly,  the  study  would 
also  give  us  a  chance  to  develop  and 
evaluate  techniques  for  learning  more 
about  these  shy  and  unusual  reptiles. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


Day-old  crocodile  hatchling.  Weight:  about  3 
ounces;  length:  11  inches. 


The  business  end  of  an  adult  American 
crocodile.  Its  narrow,  tapering  snout  and  light 
coloration  distinguish  it  from  the  American 
alligator.  Adults  sometimes  reach  15  feet  in 
length  and  may  weigh   half  a  ton. 


4-  -/**• }'' . 


September  1975 


Apparently,  our  first  marked  croco- 
dile did  not  have  a  nest  in  the  vicinity,  so 
we  looked  for  another  candidate  for 
attaching  the  telemetry  equipment.  A 
few  days  later,  a  second  female  was 
trapped  near  her  nest  and  outfitted  with 
a  transmitter.  But  "Black  Betsy,"  named 
for  the  key  where  she  nested,  wasn't  very 
cooperative.  After  weeks  of  searching, 
we  were  still  never  able  to  relocate  her. 
The  radio  may  have  malfunctioned,  or 
perhaps  the  disturbance  so  close  to  the 
time  of  hatching  scared  her  away. 

Fortunately,  her  young  were  more 
willing.  Altogether,  we  tracked  28  hatch- 
lings  for  periods  of  2  to  15  days.  At  first 
the  young  clustered  within  several  feet  of 
each  other  on  the  shoreline  near  the  nest. 
But  after  several  weeks,  they  had 
dispersed,  some  as  far  as  200  yards  from 
the  nest.  The  baby  crocodiles  spent  most 
of  the  daytime  hiding  among  mangrove 
roots  and  under  leaves  and  debris  near 
the  water.  At  night,  particularly  between 
dusk  ^.nd  midnight,  they  were  more 
active 

Contrary  to  predictions,  the  hatch- 
lings  seemed  to  tolerate  salt  water  quite 
well;  some  workers  have  suggested  that 
the/  move  into  fresh  water  soon  after 
hatching.  In  general,  the  young  preferred 
shallow,  protected  areas  on  the  inland 
side  of  the  key.  As  we  expected, 
predation  was  very  high,  at  least  for  these 
young  without  a  mother  around.  Various 
tracks  and  signs  near  the  radios  we 
recovered  suggested  that  racoons  were 
the  villains.  Ironically,  raccoons  have 
become  abundant  in  south  Florida  since 
many  of  their  predators,  including  cro- 
codiles, have  been  reduced  in  numbers 
or  eliminated  by  man. 

Following  crocodiles  in  the  wild  is 
not  the  only  way  to  study  their  behavior. 
At  a  unique  alligator  farm,  known  as 
"Gatorama,"  in  south  central  Florida,  I 
have  been  observing  and  filming  the 
behavior  of  captive  American  crocodiles. 
Within  the  large,  spacious  enclosure, 
adult  crocodiles  cruised  around  a  three- 
acre  lake  and  went  about  their  daily 
business  of  feeding,  basking,  and  social- 
izing. Actually,  a  casual  first  glance 
didn't  reveal  the  complex  social  structure 
that  really  existed.  But  as  I  watched  day 
after  day,  I  saw  frequent  encounters 
between  animals  and  subtle  behaviors 
that  I  hadn't  noticed  initially.  Many  of 
the  crocodiles  had  distinctive  markings, 


and  I  marked  certain  others.  In  this  way,  I 
was  able  to  identify  individuals  and 
watch  their  behavior  for  several  months 
at  a  time. 

Like  many  animals,  crocodiles  are 
territorial  during  the  breeding  season. 
Three  large  males  divided  up  the 
enclosure  early  in  the  spring;  and  each 
resident  male  patrolled  his  territory 
often,  excluding  other  males.  Territorial 
boundaries  served  as  neutral  zones 
where  the  nonterritorial  males  sought 
refuge,  but  the  females  moved  from  one 
territory  to  the  next  with  impunity.  A 
crocodile's  whereabouts  was  circum- 
scribed largely  by  his  relative  position  in 
the  "pecking  order."  Consequently,  every 
crocodile  that  I  could  identify  had  a 
predictable  pattern  of  basking,  feeding, 
and  moving  within  the  enclosure.  I  had  a 
feeling  as  I  watched  that  each  individual 
noticed  and  distinguished  among  its 
neighbors  and  acted  accordingly. 

Resident  males  advertised  their  pres- 
ence by  "headslapping."  In  this  display, 
the  head  is  lifted  up  and  then  slapped 
suddenly  onto  the  surface  of  the  water. 
Simultaneously,  the  jaws  are  opened  and 
closed  quickly  as  the  head  hits  the  water. 
The  cumulative  effect  is  a  popping  sound 
audible  some  200  yards  away  and  loud 


enough  to  wake  a  sound  sleeper.  The 
resident  males  I  watched  headslapped 
one  to  three  times  in  rapid  succession, 
usually  in  response  to  a  neighbor's 
headslap  or  when  an  intruder  entered  a 
resident's  territory. 

Social  interactions  occurred  more 
frequently  during  the  breeding  season, 
but  fighting  was  observed  only  rarely 
among  these  American  crocodiles. 

On  one  occasion,  two  males  of 
similar  size  squared  off,  lunged  at  each 
other  with  opened  jaws,  grappled  briefly, 
and  then  separated.  Each  displayed  the 
"arched-back"  posture  in  which  the  back 
is  arched  and  the  body  inflated.  The 
purpose  of  this  display  seems  to  be 
intimidation  of  the  opponent.  Another 
display,  tail  wagging,  was  performed  by 
the  dominant  male  just  prior  to  his 
attack.  But  usually,  subordinate  males 
were  chased  hastily  out  of  an  occupied 
territory  by  the  resident  male.  Biting, 
when  it  did  occur,  was  stereotyped:  the 
attacker  would  grasp  its  opponent  by  the 
base  of  the  tail  with  its  jaws,  then  quickly 
release  its  hold.  Only  minor  damage  was 
inflicted  during  these  skirmishes,  but  the 
message  seemed  to  be  clear. 

Submission  was  signalled  by  the 
"head-up"  gesture.    In   this  display,  the 


Lake  Worth 


Everglades  National  Park 


Florida  Bay 


Key  West-, 


Field  Museum  Bulletin  7 


head  is  lifted  out  of  the  water,  and  the 
snout  pointed  upward  at  an  acute  angle 
to  the  water.  Often,  the  jaws  are  held 
open,  exposing  the  bright  yellow  interior 
of  the  mouth.  Females  and  possibly 
subordinate  males  lifted  their  snouts 
when  they  were  approached  by  a  large 
male,  particularly  a  resident.  If  the  initial 
gesture  failed  to  halt  an  advance,  the 
snout  was  lifted  higher,  and  lowered,  and 


lifted  again.  Paradoxically,  a  crocodile's 
open  jaw  in  this  context  signaled 
appeasement  rather  than  aggression. 

Courtship  was  a  relaxed,  yet  complex 
activity.  The  sequence  of  events  was 
quite  variable  and  often  continued 
intermittently  for  days.  Typically,  the 
female  approached  a  potential  suitor, 
usually  one  of  the  resident  males,  with 
her  snout  lifted  upward  in  the  "head-up" 


Typical  Florida   Bay  shoreline  of  a   Florida  key,   where  mangrove  prevails.   Baby  crocodiles 
sometimes  conceal  themselves  in  seaweed  washed  up  onto  the  shore. 


Crocodile  nest  {dark  area  at  center)  on  North  Key  Largo.  In  1973  this  nest  produced  hatchlings 
despite  nearby  construction  project.  In  1974  the  road  at  lower  right  was  constructed  and  the  nest 
was  abandoned. 


posture.  If  the  male  remained  stationary, 
the  female  lifted  her  head  onto  his  neck 
and  back,  circled  behind  him,  and  then 
repeated  the  performance  on  his  other 
side.  Eventually,  the  male  assumed  a 
characteristic  posture  with  his  head  and 
tail  out  of  the  water.  A  period  of 
elaborate  circling  by  both  partners 
followed;  their  heads  were  lifted  and  in 
contact.  Circling  continued  until  the 
male  swung  around  on  top  of  the 
female's  back;  with  the  female  almost 
completely  submerged,  copulation  took 
place  underwater. 

As  I  watched  the  crocodiles  court,  I 
was  reminded  of  the  elaborate  courtship 
patterns  of  many  species  of  birds.  In 
some  respects,  the  behavior  of  birds  and 
crocodilians  is  remarkably  similar.  For 
instance,  both  groups  vocalize.  Alligators 
engage  in  a  variety  of  bellows,  growls, 
purrs,  hisses,  and  grunts,  all  of  which 
appear  in  certain  contexts  and  probably 
convey  specific  messages.  Other  species, 
like  the  American  crocodiles  I  watched, 
only  growl  occasionally  as  adults.  But  in 
all  species  studied  so  far,  vocalizations 
are  important  in  the  mother-young 
relationship.  When  a  baby  crocodile 
grunts,  adults  as  well  as  other  young 
respond.  Some  observers  have  likened  a 
"pod"  of  grunting,  hatchling  crocodiles 
to  a  brood  of  quacking  ducklings.  Care  of 
the  young,  as  noted  earlier,  is  another 
behavioral  characteristic  that  crocodi- 
lians share  with  birds.  Although  at  this 
point  we  are  not  sure  just  what  kind  of 
parents  crocodiles  make,  the  degree  of 
parental  care  they  show  is  impressive,  at 
least  for  reptilians.  Possibly,  the  be- 
havioral affinities  between  birds  and 
crocodilians  reflect  the  past  evolutionary 
history  of  the  two  groups.  Crocodilians 
share  their  archosaurian  ancestry,  dating 
back  some  200  million  years  ago,  with 
the  birds  and  the  dinosaurs.  Perhaps  the 
extinct  dinosaurs  also  cared  for  their 
grunting  young  as  the  crocodilians  do 
today. 

But,  in  order  to  generalize  about 
crocodilian  behavior,  we  need  to  know 
much  more  than  we  do  now.  Of  the 
twenty-one  species  of  crocodiles,  alli- 
gators, and  gavial  living  today,  only  a  few 
species  have  been  studied  in  any  detail. 
Already  we  know  that  certain  displays, 
such  as  the  "headslap"  seen  in  the 
American  crocodile,  are  performed  by 
the    Nile    crocodile    and    the    American 


September  1975 


alligator  as  well.2  Future  comparisons 
between  species  should  prove  interest- 
ing. Studies  on  captive  animals  are  a 
valuable  first  step  in  understanding 
behavior;  but,  ultimately,  field  studies 
such  as  the  one  we  initiated  in  Florida 
Bay  will  be  necessary  in  order  to 
appreciate  the  role  of  behavior  in  natural 
populations.  As  a  matter  of  immediate 
concern,  information  of  this  sort  is 
essential  for  making  wise  decisions  about 
the  management  and  preservation  of  the 
species. 

We  will  have  to  act  soon.  Habitat 
destruction  threatens  the  continued  exis- 
tence of  the  American  crocodile  in 
Florida.  Today,  crocodiles  occupy  only  a 
fraction  of  their  former  range.  Unfor- 
tunately, this  narrow  strip  of  land  is 
within  an  area  that  is  being  modified 
intensively  by  man.  Crocodiles  once 
lived  on  the  shores  of  Key  Largo  and 
throughout  the  Miami  area,  but  these 
localities  have  been  altered  so  extensively 
that  there  are  simply  no  longer  any 
habitats  or  crocodiles  left.  Suitable 
habitat  is  protected  within  the  Everglades 
National  Park.  Even  so,  we  don't  know 
enough  about  the  habitat  requirements 
of  crocodiles  to  say  with  certainty  that 
the  area  within  the  park  is  large  enough 
to    support     a     stable     population. 

Outside  the  park,  crocodiles  still 
occur  in  the  North  Key  Largo  area.  In  the 
spring  of  1973,  I  found  crocodile  nests 
from  previous  years  at  two  localities 
there.  By  the  middle  of  the  summer,  a 


dredge-and-fill  project  was  underway  at 
one  site.  As  I  searched  for  a  nest  I'd  seen 
in  the  spring,  I  realized  that  it  was  buried 
beneath  the  road  I  was  standing  on. 
Somehow,  a  few  crocodiles  were  able  to 
nest.  In  early  August,  I  discovered  fifteen 
hatchlings  in  the  water  near  a  recently 
hatched  nest.  Less  than  100  yards  away,  a 
diesel  dragline  was  scooping  up  the 
mangroves,  apparently  paving  the  way 
for  another  seaside  trailer  court.  The  fate 
of  these  young  crocodiles  certainly 
looked  bleak. 

For  years,  crocodiles  in  Florida  were 
hunted  and  killed  for  their  hides.  Writing 
about  Florida  Bay  in  1908,  A.W.  Dimock 
said:  "Before  every  crocodile  cave,  a 
picket  fence  tells  of  an  attempt  to 
capture  its  occupant. "3 

By  the  early  1940s;  a  museum 
curator  thought  it  noteworthy  that  he 
took  two  trips  through  Florida  Bay  with 
an  experienced  crocodile  hunter  before 
finding  a  single  adult.  By  the  1950s,  the 
number  of  crocodiles  in  Florida  had  been 
reduced  dramatically;  finally,  some  res- 
pite was  afforded  with  the  creation  of 
Everglades  National  Park.  In  the  1960s, 
killing  a  crocodile  was  prohibited  under 
state  law;  but  there  was  little  attempt  by 
the  state  to  protect  those  that  remained, 
presumably,  by  then,  crocodiles  were 
thought  to  be  too  scarce  to  warrant  much 
attention. 

Tragically,  the  killing  goes  on. 
Crocodiles  are  shot  deliberately  by 
construction  workers  as  the  mangroves 


Mutilated  carcass  of  77'9"  American  crocodile  killed  illegally  in  April,  1975  on  North  Key  Largo. 
Law  officers  who  participated  in  the  shooting  removed  the  belly  skin  and  chiseled  teeth  out  of  the 
skull  for  souvenirs. 


are  cleared.  Each  year,  others  die  on  the 
busy  highways.  In  early  April  of  this  year, 
local  law  officers  captured  and  shot  an 
11'9"  adult  male  crocodile  while  they 
were  searching  for  evidence  of  a  crime  in 
a  shallow  lake  on  North  Key  Largo. 4 
When  questioned  about  why  the  croco- 
dile had  been  killed,  they  offered 
conflicting  explanations  about  the  safety 
of  their  divers,  the  need  for  an  examina- 
tion of  the  stomach  contents,  and  the 
poor  health  of  the  crocodile.  On  subse- 
quent examination,  it  was  determined 
that  the  crocodile  was  in  good  health  and 
that  its  stomach  was  empty.  Simply 
restraining  the  animal  (since  it  had  been 
captured)  would  have  been  ample  pro- 
tection for  the  divers.  This  senseless 
shooting  was  clearly  illegal  under  Florida 
law,  but  state  authorities  were  reluctant 
to  prosecute.  To  some,  killing  a  large 
crocodile  must  seem  quite  heroic  when, 
in  fact,  it  involves  little  risk  and  takes 
minimal  courage  to  shoot  these  shy,  if 
powerful,  animals. 

Shortly  after  the  incident  on  North 
Key  Largo,  the  U.S.  Fish  and  Wildlife 
Service  announced  that  the  American 
crocodile  is  endangered  in  the  United 
States. 5  By  early  fall,  crocodiles  will  be 
afforded  federal  protection  under  the 
Endangered  Species  Act  of  1973.  Our  first 
priority  should  be  to  identify  the 
crocodile  habitats  outside  the  park  — 
primarily  in  the  North  Key  Largo  area  — 
and  take  steps  to  preserve  these  habitats 
and  to  protect  our  remaining  crocodiles 
vigorously.  The  Endangered  Species  Act 
contains  provisions  for  land  acquisition 
should  this  prove  necessary.  Perhaps, 
with  more  public  education  and  govern- 
mental cooperation,  on  a  future  visit  to 
the  Florida  Keys,  one  might  be  able  to 
see  signs  reading:  "Caution:  Crocodile 
Crossing  Ahead."  Q 


1.  "Night  of  the  Crocodile"  by  J.C.  Ogden, 
and  C.  Singeletary,  Audubon  75(3):32-37 
(May,  1973).  An  article  by  Ogden  {Animal 
Kingdom  74:7-11,  Dec,  1971)  summarizes 
research  on  Florida  Bay  crocodiles. 

2.  Alligator  social  behavior  is  described  by 
L.D.  Carrick  in  Animal  Kingdom  78(2):8-8 
(April/May,  1975). 

3.  Florida  Enchantments  by  A.W.  and  Julian 
A.  Dimock  (Outing  Publ.  Co.  New  York, 
1908),  p.  298. 

4.  Miami  Herald,  April  10,  1975. 

5.  Federal  Register  40(77):  17590-91  (April 
21,  1975). 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


field  briefs 


Bulletins,  1930-75,  Available 

Conrad  Lachel,  manager  of  publications  at 
Field  Museum,  reports  that  back  issues  of  the 
Bulletin  are  available  (with  few  exceptions) 
from  1930  to  the  present.  They  may  be 
ordered  from  the  Division  of  Publications  at 
75c  each,  postpaid. 


Quetico  Canoists  Return 

The  idyllic,  misty  view  below,  left,  was  taken 
by  Jim  Bland,  instructor  with  Field  Museum's 
Department  of  Education,  during  the  recent 
canoe  trip,  sponsored  by  the  Museum,  in 
Ontario's  Quetico  wilderness.  Thirty-five 
young  people  (ages  15  through  18)  and  five 
Field  Museum  staff  persons  made  the  exciting 
eight-day  trip. 


Frog  Photo  Now  Available 

Following  publication  of  the  June,  1975, 
Bulletin,  the  magazine  office  received  a  large 
number  of  requests  for  reproductions  of  that 
month's  cover  photo  of  the  red-eyed  Central 
American  tree  frog  (above,  right) .  We  are 
pleased  to  report  that  8x10  glossy  color 
reproductions  of  the  photo  (by  curator  Hy 
Marx),  suitable  for  mounting,  are  now 
available  by  writing  the  editor.  The  price  is 
$4.00  each,  postpaid.  Check  or  money  order 
should  be  payable  to  Field  Museum. 


Easter  Seal  Society  Award 

Field  Museum  was  the  recent  recipient  of  the 
first  annual  National  Awareness  Week  Award, 
given  by  the  Easter  Seal  Society  of  Metropol- 
itan Chicago.  The  basis  of  the  award  was  the 
Museum's  ongoing  program  to  make  the 
bulding  and  its  facilities  barrier-free  and  easily 
accessible  to  handicapped  persons. 


In  accepting  the  award,  Museum  Director  E. 
Leland  Webber  observed  that  "this  award 
really  belongs  to  the  late  Dr.  Eleanor  Leslie  for 
her  bequest,  and  to  Stanley  S.  Kresge,  William 
H.  Baldwin,  and  the  Kresge  Foundation  for  a 
generous  grant,  which  will  allow  us  to  make 
Field  Museum  barrier-free  to  the  physically 
handicapped.  So,  with  appreciation  for  their 
vital  financial  help,  I  thank  the  Easter  Seal 
Society  for  honoring  Field  Museum." 

Staff  Notes 

August  1  was  a  red-letter  day  for  John  Bayalis, 
head  of  Field  Museum's  Division  of  Photo- 
graphy, for  it  marked  the  beginning  of  his 
second  half-century  with  the  Museum.  On 
that  date,  in  1925,  18-year-old  John  was  hired 
as  "flower,  foliage,  accessory  worker,  Harris 
Extension."  In  1948  he  transferred  to  Photo- 
graphy, where  he  has  been  head  since  1950. 

Matthew  Nitecki  was  promoted  to  curator, 
fossil  invertebrates,  on  July  1.  Dr.  Nitecki 
joined  the  Museum  as  assistant  curator  in 
1965  and  in  1970  was  made  associate  curator. 

The  latest  addition  to  the  Department  of 
Botany  staff  is  Helen  A.  Kennedy,  who  has 


10  September  1975 


been  named  assistant  curator  of  botany.  She 
received  her  doctorate  at  the  University  of 
California,  at  Davis,  in  1974,  and  subsequently 
held  a  fellowship  at  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, Washington,  D.C. 

Ronald  A.  Testa,  who  most  recently  was  a 
photography  instructor  in  New  York  City,  has 
been  named  Field  Museum  photographer. 
Ron  holds  a  BFA  in  photography  from  the 
Cleveland  Institute  of  Art  and  an  MA  in 
photography  from  the  Visual  Studies  Work- 
shop, Rochester,  N.Y.  He  has  also  been  a 
photographer  for  the  Cleveland  Institute  of 
Art,  the  Cleveland  Museum  of  Art,  and  the 
United  States  Navy. 

Field  Museum  Staff  Party 

Below,  left,  Nika  Semkoff  (Public  relations/ 
Education)  and  Bob  Kosturak  (Exhibition) 
provide  vocal  entertainment  at  a  recent 
dinner  party  given  by  and  for  Field  Museum 
staff.  Entertainment  also  included  renaissance 
and  bagpipe  music  and  demonstrations  of 
magic.  Dancing  rounded  out  the  evening. 


William  Beecher  to  Speak 

William  Beecher,  director  of  the  Chicago 
Academy  of  Sciences,  will  be  special  guest  of 
the  Nature  Camera  Club  of  Chicago  at  its 
monthly  meeting,  Tuesday  evening,  Sept.  9,  at 
7:30  p.m.,  at  Field  Museum.  A  well  known 
ecologist  and  ornithologist,  Dr.  Beecher  will 
speak  on  "Photographing  Birds  at  High 
Altitudes."  Guests  are  welcome. 


Pupeteer  Baba  A.S.  Ayinla  Performs 

At  right,  puppeteer  Baba  Alabi  S.  Ayinla  with 
his  Royal  African  Puppet  Theatre  is  shown 
performing  in  Stanley  Field  Hall  during  a 
recent  five-day  summer  festival,  "Discovering 
the  Arts  of  Africa." 


Volunteers  Catalog  Sea  Snakes 

Below,  right,  Alan  Resetar,  a  volunteer  in  the 
Division  of  Amphibians  and  Reptiles,  catalogs 
some  of  the  many  sea  snakes  recently 
collected  in  the  Straits  of  Malacca  by  Harold 


Voris,  assistant  curator  of  amphibians  and 
reptiles.  Volunteers  Gretchen  Anderson  and 
Sandra  Walchuk  also  assisted  in  the  catalog- 
ing of  the  snakes.  (See  July/August  1975 
Bulletin.) 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


our  environment 


Sea  Turtles  in  Trouble? 


Three  more  species  of  sea  turtles  have  been 
pushed  closer  to  extinction  because  of 
increased  development  of  coastal  shorelines 
and  overuse  for  commercial  purposes. 

The  green  {Chelonia  mydas),  loggerhead 
(Caretta  caretta),  and  Pacific  ridley  [Lepido- 
chelys  olnacea)  sea  turtles  have  been 
proposed  in  the  Federal  Register  to  be  added 
to  the  U.S.  List  of  Threatened  Wildlife  by  the 
U.S.  Fish  and  Wildlife  Service,  Department  of 
the  Interior,  and  the  National  Marine  Fisheries 
Service,  Department  of  Commerce.  The 
proposal  came  after  a  joint  status  review  by 
both  agencies  found  seriously  decreased 
populations  of  these  species  throughout  the 
world.  The  leatherback,  hawksbill,  and  Atlan- 
tic ridley  sea  turtles  are  already  on  the  U.S. 
List  of  Endangered  Wildlife. 


Sea  turtles,  which  can  grow  to  1,500 
pounds,  rarely  come  on  land  except  to  lay 
eggs.  Human  development  of  coastal  areas  for 
industry  and  tourism  has  destroyed  many  of 
these  nesting  sites.  Along  some  shorelines, 
bright  city  and  highway  lights  confuse 
hatchlings  and  attract  them  inland  where  they 
die. 

The  green  sea  turtle  is  probably  the  most 
commercially  valuable  reptile  in  the  world 
and  one  of  the  most  heavily  hunted.  Its  meat, 
eggs,  and  calipee  (cartilage  used  in  soup) 
have  been  eaten  for  centuries,  its  skin  has 
been  used  for  leather,  its  shell  has  been  used 
for  jewelry,  and  its  oil  has  been  used  in  the 
cosmetics  industry.  An  international  market  in 
turtle  products  now  exists,  with  the  United 
States  being  among  the  largest  consumers. 

In  the  last  few  years  there  has  been  a  rise 
in  the  commercial  take  of  the  Pacific  ridley, 
stimulated  by  the  development  of  a  market 
for  a  turtle  leather,  partly  as  a  substitute  foi 
alligator  hides. 

Both  the  green  and  loggerhead  are  found 
around  the  world,  with  some  populations 
nesting  on  various  shores  and  coastal  islands 
in  the  southeastern  United  States  and  its 
territories  and  possessions.  The  Pacific  ridley 
also  nests  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  but  is 
not  known  to  nest  in  the  continental  United 
States. 

Although  most  states  where  the  turtles 
are  found  protect  the  reptiles,  other  countries 
either  permit  or  cannot  prevent  the  commer- 


cial taking  of  turtles  and  eggs.  The  lack  of 
restrictions  on  importing  turtle  products  into 
this  country  may  be  encouraging  this  exploi- 
tation. 

If  adopted,  the  new  regulations  would 
prohibit  the  taking,  import,  and  export  of  the 
species  and  would  halt  the  United  States 
involvement  in  the  sale  in  interstate  the 
foreign  commerce  of  these  turtles  and 
products  made  from  them. 

There  would  be  certain  exceptions  to  the 
prohibitions.  Sea  turtles  could  be  taken  by 
permit  for  scientific  purposes,  enhancement 
of  propagation,  or  survival.  The  incidental 
catch  of  sea  turtles  during  fishing  or  research 
activities  would  be  exempted  provided  that 
the  turtles  were  immediately  returned  to  the 
sea  and  that  the  fishing  was  not  taking  place 
in  an  area  of  substantial  breeding  and  feeding 
by  these  species.  Permits  would  be  authorized 
for  mariculture  operations  (scientific  breeding 
and  raising  of  sea  creatures  for  commercial 
use)  for  two  years  if  there  is  a  showing  of 
significant  progress  toward  a  goal  of  creating 
a  captive  breeding  population  that  is  com- 
pletely self-sustaining  and  independent  of 
wild  stocks.  After  two  years  permits  would  be 
available  only  if  turtles  were  taken  from 
captive  bred  populations  completely  self- 
sustaining  and  independent  of  wild  stocks. 
Certain  live  specimens  and  products  held  on 
the  date  of  the  regulatory  proposal  would  be 
exempted  from  the  prohibition. 

The  prohibition  on  interstate  commerce 
would  not  take  effect  until  one  year  after  the 
regulations  become  effective,  thereby  allow- 
ing owners  to  distribute  inventory  lawfully 
possessed.  Permits  would  also  be  available  for 
economic  hardship. 


Federal-State  Aid  for  Everglades  Kite 

The  Florida  Everglade  kite's  chances  for 
survival  in  Florida  have  been  enhanced  by  the 
establishment  of  a  cooperative  federal-state 
team  of  experts  who  will  give  priority  to 
restoring  the  populations  of  this  hawk. 

The  team's  primary  objective  is  to 
coordinate  actions  to  restore  the  Everglade 


kite  to  as  much  of  its  former  range  as  possible, 
after  drawing  up  a  detailed  plan  which  will 
schedule  specific  actions  needed. 

The  Everglade  kite  (Rostrhamus  sociabilis 
plumbeas)  is  a  predatory  bird,  similar  to  a 
marsh  hawk,  and  related  to  the  falcon.  It  is 
one  of  several  kinds  of  snail  kites  that  occur  in 
Central  and  South  America.  At  one  time  the 
Florida  Everglade,  or  snail,  kite  was  distrib- 
uted throughout  peninsular  Florida  in  fresh- 
water marshes.  At  present  it  is  restricted 
primarily  to  southeastern  Florida  and  is 
thought  to  number  less  than  100  individuals. 

The  original  population  was  severely 
reduced  because  of  destruction  of  habitat  and 
shooting.  Drainage  of  marshes  for  agricultural 
and  residential  use  continues  to  be  a  major 
factor  in  the  decline  of  this  bird.  These 
problems  plus  drought  and  fire  have  reduced 
populations  of  the  large  apple  snail  {Pomacea 
paludosa)  on  which  the  kite  depends  for  food. 
The  major  threat  to  the  remaining  kite 
population  involves  maintenance  of  proper 
water  levels  in  its  habitat  for  snail  production 
and  maintenance  of  nesting  cover.  In  recent 
years  the  flow  of  water  from  Lake  Okeecho- 
bee to  the  Everglades  has  been  reduced  by 
drought  and  diversion  to  agricultural  areas. 

Some  constructive  steps  have  been  taken 
to  assist  the  kite.  Educational  programs  by  the 
Florida  Came  and  Fresh  Water  Fish  Commis- 
sion, the  U.S.  Fish  and  Wildlife  Service,  and 
the  National  Audubon  Society  are  intended  to 
discourage  indiscriminate  shooting  and  pub- 
licize the  plight  of  the  kite.  Numerous  signs 
depicting  this  bird  dot  the  marshes  of 
southern  Florida.  Sanctuaries  and  known 
nesting  areas  are  regularly  patrolled.  Portions 
of  the  Loxahatchee  National  Wildlife  Refuge 
where  kites  nest  are  closed  to  entry  during  the 
nesting  season. 

Research  is  also  underway  in  the  field 
and  at  the  Fish  and  Wildlife  Service's  Patuxent 
Wildlife  Research  Center  to  ascertain  the 
status  of  the  kite,  to  determine  conservation 
methods,  and  to  develop  techniques  for 
increasing  production  of  apple  snails.  South 
American  snail  kites,  one  of  four  subspecies 
of  Everglade  kite,  are  being  reared  at  Patuxent 
to  develop  information  on  snail  kite  habitat 
requirements. 


Adult  Education  Programs 
Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 
Roosevelt  Road  at  Lake  Shore  Drive 
Chicago,  I L  60605 


Enclosed  is  my  check  for  $ 

Course  title 

Name  


,  payable  to  Field  Museum. 


Address  . 
City 


-State  . 


Zip_ 


Phone 


daytime 


evening 


September  1975 


fyrMuM 


Thursday  Evenings 
October  16-November  20 


ANEW 


series  of  courses  in  the 
natural  sciences  and  an- 
thropology is  being  offered  at  Field 
Museum  beginning  in  October.  Each 
course  is  designed  to  give  participants 
maximum  exposure  to  the  Museum's 
main  resource  — real  things.  Thus,  indi- 
viduals will  learn  about  fossils  by 
studying  real  fossils,  or  learn  about  a 
culture  by  studying  the  artifacts  that 
reflect  that  culture's  values  and  beliefs. 


These  noncredit  courses  are  offered 
at  an  introductory  undergraduate  level 
and  are  open  to  anyone  over  18.  Fall 
courses  will  be  held  on  six  consecutive 
Thursday  evenings,  from  7  to  9  p.m., 
beginning  October  16.  Additional  courses 
will  be  offered  in  winter  and  spring. 

A  registration  fee  of  $25.00  for 
Museum  members,  and  $30.00  for  non- 
members,   is   required   for  each   course. 


Advance  registration  by  mail  is  re- 
quested, but  registration  will  be  accepted 
during  the  hour  preceding  the  first 
meeting  if  the  course  is  not  filled. 
Courses  are  limited  to  30  participants, 
minimum  enrollment  15. 


For  further  information,  write 
ADULT  EDUCATION  PROGRAMS,  at 
Field  Museum,  or  call  922-9410,  ext.  351 


REPTILES  AND  AMPHIBIANS 

Charles  Kroon,  Committee  on  Evolutionary  Biology,  University  of  Chicago 


the  Plains,  the  Northwest  Coast,  and  the  Eastern  Woodlands.  These 
cultures  will  be  approached  through  investigation  of  artifacts  from 
Museum  collections  and  exhibits,  with  a  final  session  devoted  to 
demonstration  of  various  crafts  techniques  and  preparation  of 
traditional  foods. 


An  ecological  approach  to  the  biology  of  reptiles  and  amphibians. 
Topics  include  the  evolution,  geographic  distribution,  ecology,  and 
behavior  of  these  cold  blooded  vertebrates. 


OCEANOGRAPHY 


FLOWERS  AND  POLLINATION 


Helen  Kennedy,  assistant  curator  of  botany 

An  introduction  to  the  biology  and  .reproduction  of  flowering  plants.  The 
course  will  focus  on  the  interactions  between  flowers  and  their 
pollinators,  including  butterflies,  moths,  birds,  bats,  and  bees.  Examples 
will  be  drawn  from  the  tropics  as  well  as  from  temperate  areas. 


CULTURES  OF  NATIVE 
NORTH  AMERICA 

John  White,  Native  American  Program,  Department  of  Education 

A  survey  of  Native  American  cultures  with  emphasis  on  the  Southwest, 


Robert  lohnson,  assistant  curator  of  fishes 

This  course  will  incorporate  aspects  of  geology,  chemistry,  physics,  and 
biology  to  provide  an  overview  of  marine  systems.  Topics  for 
investigation  will  include  the  origin  and  evolution  of  oceans,  marine 
ecology,  and  food  production  in  the  sea. 


ROCKS,  FOSSILS,  AND  MAN 

Katherine  Krueger,  Department  of  Geology 

Specimens  from  the  Museum's  geology  collections  will  be  used  in 
laboratory  sessions  devoted  to  methods  of  identifying  minerals,. rocks, 
and  fossils.  Laboratory  work  will  be  supplemented  by  discussions  of  the 
evolution  and  classification  of  major  fossil  groups,  with  final  emphasis 
on  paleoecology  and  economic  geology. 


TO  REGISTER,  USE  COUPON  ON  FACING  PAGE  (OR  FACSIMILE) 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


Mian's  One  World 


A  film-lecture  series  focusing  on  the  impact  of  ecological  disturbance  upon  a  number  of 
traditional  cultures.  Anthropologists  will  lead  discussions  and  answer  questions  about 
these  pressures  and  changes. 


October  3,4 

The  Tribe  that  Hides  from  Man" 

Speaker:  Bennet  Bronson,  assistant  curator,  Asiatic  archaeology 
and  ethnology.  An  expeditionary  search  strikes  terror  into  the 
Kreen-Akore  tribe  in  Brazil's  Amazon  jungle;  the  purpose  of  the 
search  is  to  aid  the  Indian  against  the  encroachments  of 
civilization. 


October  10,  11 

"The  Turtle  People" 

Speaker:  Mary  W.  Helms,  lecturer  in  anthropology,  Northwestern 

University    The  coastal  Miskito  Indians  of  eastern   Nicaragua 

have  depended  on  the  green  sea  turtle  to  sustain  them  for  more 

than  350  years.  This  program  offers  a  unique  perspective  on  the 

ecology  of  economics. 


October  17,  18 

"The  Last  Tribes  of  Mindanao" 

Speaker:     Phillip    Lewis,     acting     chairman,     Department    of 

Anthropology;    and    curator,    primitive    art    and    Melanesian 

ethnology.  A  small   group   of   aborigines,   the  Tasaday,   lived 

undisturbed  by  civilization  for  more  than  400  years  in  the  rain 

forest    of    Mindanao,    the    Philippines.    In    1971,    they    were 

discovered.  This  documentary  may  be  the  last  chance  to  see  the 

Tasaday's  way  of  life  before  outside  contacts  and  pressures  bring 

about  changes. 


'November  8,  9 
"The  Village" 

Speaker:  Paul  Hockings,  associate  professor  of  anthropology, 
University  of  Illinois,  Chicago.  Filmed  by  Dr.  Hockings  and  Mark 
McCarty  in  1967,  the  village  of  Dunquin,  Ireland,  is  shown  as  an 
intimate  study  of  people  molded  by  several  environmental 
factors.  This  film  and  discussion  are  about  a  language,  customs, 
and  subsistence  techniques  of  the  past,  possibly  presented  for 
the  last  time. 


November  14,  15 

"Ishi  in  Two  Worlds" 

Speaker:  John  White,  consultant,  Native  American  program.  This 

film  presents  the  story  of  the  Yahi  Indians  of  California  and  of 

Ishi,  the  last  Yahi.  By  1911  he  was  the  sole  survivor  of  his  people. 

How  could  this  happen? 


November  21,  22 

"Sky  Chief" 

Speaker:  Donald  Collier,  curator,  Middle  and  South  American 

archaeology  and  ethnology.  The  third  world:  Ecuador.  A  film 

discussion  about  the  cultural  and  economic  clash  of  different 

forces  and  the  ecological  disruption  that  follows. 


October  24,  25 

"The  Ice  People" 

Speaker:  James  VanStone,  curator,  North  American  archaeology 

and  ethnology.  Man  adapted  to  the  Arctic  more  than  10,000years 

ago;    now    he   must   adapt   again.    What    happens    to    Eskimo 

traditions  and  skills,  to  strong  family  ties,  and  a  life  of  sharing, 

where  freedom  and  individuality  are  prized? 


October  31,  November  1 

"Man  of  the  Serengeti" 

Speaker:  Glen  Cole,  curator,  prehistory.  Nearly  400  years  ago 

Masai  warriors  fought  their  way  from  the  Upper  Nile  to  the 

Serengeti  Plains.  Most  Masai  descendants  consider  themselves  as 

"warriors,"  with  their  spears  and  traditions.  Must  they  inevitably 

lose  their  final  battle  against  time  and  change? 


The  Saturday,  Nov.  8,  program  at  2:30  p.m.,  will  be  for  members 
only,  in  conjunction  with  the  opening  of  the  "Man  in  his  Environment" 
exhibit  and  related  special  programs.  The  Sunday,  Nov.  9,  program  at 
2:30  p.m.,  will  be  open  to  Museum  visitors  as  well  as  to  members. 

All  programs  (except  the  Nov.  8  and  9  programs,  noted  above)  will 
be  given  in  the  ground  floor  lecture  hall  on  Fridays  at  7:30  p.m.  and 
repeated  on  Saturdays  at  2:30  p.m.  All  programs  will  be  free  to 
nonmembers  (except,  as  noted  above,  on  Saturday,  Nov.  8).  Total 
attendance  for  each  day's  program  limited  to  225  adults.  Previous 
programs  have  been  presented  in  the  larger  lames  Simpson  Theater.  That 
area  is  currently  being  renovated,  however,  in  order  to  provide 
barrier-free  access  to  the  building  for  the  handicapped. 

Food  service  will  be  available  in  the  Museum  cafeteria  until  7:30 
p.m.  on  Friday  evenings  during  this  series. 


This  project  is  partially  funded  by  a  gift  from  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Ray  A. 
Kroc  and  grants  from  National  Endowment  for  the  Humanities,  Field 
Foundation  of  Illinois,  and  the  Charles  E.  Merrill  Trust. 


14 


September  1975 


Threatened  Status  forTwo  Butterflies? 

A  Proposal  by  the  U.S.  Department  of  the  Interior  and  an  Entomologist's  Rebuttal 


The  status  of  two  American  butter- 
flies has  suddenly  become  a  cause 
celebre,  at  least  among  entomo- 
logists and  environmentalists.  In  the 
Federal  Register,  April  22,  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Interior  proposed  that 
Schaus'  swallowtail  (Papilio  aristodemus 
ponceanus)  and  the  United  States  popu- 
lation of  the  Rahama  swallowtail  {Papilio 
andraemon  bonhotei)— two  of  the  show- 
iest and  most  beautiful  of  the  American 
butterflies  — be  listed  as  threatened 
species.  They  would  thus  become  the 
first  invertebrates  in  the  United  States  to 
be  so  classified. 

On  May  23,  Lee  D.  Miller,  a  Field 
Museum  research  associate  and  curator 
of  the  Allyn  Museum  of  Entomology, 
Sarasota,  Fla.,  responded  in  a  letter  to  the 
Department  of  the  Interior,  urging  that 
the  matter  be  considered  further.  The 
thrust  of  Miller's  argument  is  that  it  is  the 
habitats,  not  the  butterflies,  that  might 
be  considered  "threatened." 

The  USDI  proposal  had  come  as  no 
surprise  to  butterfly-watchers,  for  both 
insects  and  their  scarce,  irregular  occur- 
rence had  been  the  subject  of  publicity 
for  a  good  many  years.  Most  recently, 
National  Parks  &  Conservation  Magazine 
(July,  1974)  had  carried  a  feature  article, 
"Haven  for  Rare  Butterflies,"  by  Larry  N. 
Brown.  A  specialist  in  terrestrial  verte- 
brate ecology  and  associate  professor  at 
the  University  of  South  Florida,  Tampa, 
Brown  related  the  scarcity  of  both 
species  to  "overzealous  collecting  activ- 
ities by  man.  .  .  .  The  greatest  threats  to 
their  populations  seem  to  be  habitat 
destruction  by  man  or  hurricane  and 
overcollecting  by  dealers  and  lepidop- 
terists.  Because  their  prime  habitat  is 
now  fully  under  the  control  and  protec- 
tion of  the  National  Park  Service,  there 
seems    little    chance    of    total    habitat 

For  color  photos  of  Papilio  aristo- 
demus ponceanus  and  P.  andrae- 
mon bonhotei  see  inside  front  and 
back  covers. 


destruction  due  to  man's  activities." 
Brown  concludes  that  "Because  of  their 
limited  habitat  and  the  impending  threat 
of  increased  collecting  and  destruction 
due  to  increased  accessibility  and  devel- 
opment of  the  islands,  the  Department  of 
the  Interior  should  list  the  Schaus'  and 
Bahaman  swallowtails  as  endangered  or 
threatened  species." 

Following  is  the  text  of  the  USDI 
proposal  as  it  appeared  in  the  April  22 
Federal  Register: 


Background.  The  United  States  Fish  and 
Wildlife  Service  has  evidence  that  the 
following  species  of  insects  are  threatened 
species  as  defined  by  the  Endangered  Species 
Act  of  1973  (16  USC  1531-43;  87  Stat.  884): 
Schaus  Swallowtail  (Papilio  aristodemus  pon- 
ceanus); and  the  United  States  population  of 
the  Bahama  Swallowtail  {Papilio  andraemon 
bonhotei). 

Section  4(a)  of  the  Endangered  Species  Act 
of  1973  states  that  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior 
may  determine  a  species  to  be  an  endangered 
species,  or  a  threatened  species,  because  of 
any  of  five  factors.  These  factors,  and  their 
application  to  the  Schaus  Swallowtail  and  the 
Bahama  Swallowtail,  are  as  follows: 

1.  The  present  or  threatened  destruction, 
modification  or  curtailment  of  its  habitat  or 
range.  — Schaus  Swallowtail.  The  original 
range  of  this  butterfly  in  the  United  States  was 
from  South  Miami  south  through  the  offshore 
islands  and  larger  keys  to  Lower  Matecumbe 
Key,  including  Elliot  Key,  Sands  Key,  Key 
Largo,  Lower  Matecumbe  Key,  Old  Rhodes 
Key,  Totten  Key,  and  possibly  Lignum  Vitae 
and  Adams  Keys.  The  occurrence  of  the 
butterfly  is  dependent  on  the  native  Torch- 
wood  {Amyris  elemifera),  its  caterpillar  food 
plant. 

The  South  Miami  population  has  been 
extinct  for  many  years,  and  the  Key  Largo 
population  is  now  strongly  reduced  due  to 
commercial  development  there. 

Bahama  Swallowtail.  This  butterfly  occurs 
in  the  Bahama  Islands  and  in  extreme  South 
Florida.  In  Florida  it  may  have  occurred  in  the 
South  Miami  area  where  it  is  now  extinct.  In 
1972  a  colony  of  the  butterfly  was  discovered 
on  Elliot  Key  within  the  confines  of  Biscayne 
National  Monument.  Its  required  habitat  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  Schaus  Swallowtail 
except  that  its  caterpillar  food  plant  is  Key 
Lime  (Citrus  aurantifolia)  and  Sour  Orange 
(Citrus  aurantium). 


2.  Overutilization  for  commercial  sporting, 
scientific,  or  educational  purposes.  — Schaus 
Swallowtail.  There  are  reports  that  single 
specimens  of  this  butterfly  have  been  sold  to 
amateur  butterfly  collectors  for  as  much  as 
$150.  There  are  also  reports  that  some  zealous 
collectors  have  thoroughly  searched  its  food 
plant  for  caterpillars  so  that  specimens  might 
be  procured.  Intensive  searching  of  food 
plants  for  caterpillars  is  believed  to  be  the 
most  serious  threat  to  all  populations  on  keys 
in  Biscayne  National  Monument.  A  proposed 
ferry  service  to  these  islands  would  allow 
amateur  collectors  ready  access  to  these 
populations.  Taking  of  the  adult  butterflies, 
however,  is  not  considered  as  serious  a  threat, 
and  no  exportation  to  foreign  countries  is 
known. 

Bahama  Swallowtail.  These  butterflies  are 
highly  desired  by  collectors  and  their  com- 
mercial value  is  considerable. 

3.  Disease  or  predation.  — Schaus  Swallow- 
tail. Not  applicable  Bahama  Swallowtail.  Not 
applicable. 

4.  The  inadequacy  of  existing  regulatory 
mechanisms.  — Schaus  Swallowtail.  Although 
this    species    is    Federally    protected    within 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


15 


Biscayne  National  Monument,  it  is  not 
protected  in  other  portions  of  its  range. 

Bahama  Swallowtail.  Not  applicable.  (The 
species  occurs  only  in  Biscayne  National 
Monument,  where  it  is  federally  protected.) 

5.  Other  natural  or  man-made  factors 
affecting  its  continued  existence.  —  Schaus 
Swallowtail.  In  the  past,  hurricanes  have  been 
reported,  at  least  temporarily,  to  have 
eliminated  some  populations  of  this  species. 

The  areas  from  which  the  butterfly  was 
eliminated  were  subsequently  recolonized 
from  adjoining  populations.  The  smaller  the 
range  of  this  species  becomes,  however,  the 
greater  the  risk  that  a  single  natural  event 
(hurricane  or  freeze)  could  cause  the  species 
to  become  extinct. 

Bahama  Swallowtail.  Although  there  are  no 
previous  reports  of  this  species  having  been 
affected  detrimentally  by  hurricanes,  the 
potential  does  exist.  The  small  range  of  the 
species  makes  it  highly  vulnerable  to  natural 
calamity. 

These  species  are  proposed  as  "Threatened" 
species  rather  than  as  "Endangered"  species 
because  major  portions  of  their  range  are 
within  Biscayne  National  Monument  where 
they  are  protected  by  Federal  law. 

All  prohibitions  of  section  9(a)  of  the 
Endangered  Species  Act  of  1973  shall  apply, 
with  the  exception  of  the  following  permitted 
act: 

(1)  The  taking  of  adult  Schaus  Swallowtail 
(Papilio  aristodemus  ponceanus)  on  Key  Largo 
for  non-commercial  purposes  in  compliance 
with  State  laws  and  regulations. 

The  part  of  Miller's  April  23  reply 
that  dealt  with  the  two  swallowtails  is 
reproduced  below.  His  communication 
also  considered  at  some  length  42 
butterfly  species  which  had  been  the 
subject  of  a  notice  published  in  the 
March  20,  1975,  Federal  Register.  This 
had  stated  that  the  USDI  "has  evidence 
on  hand  to  warrant  review  (of  these 
species)  to  determine  whether  they 
should  be  proposed  for  listing  as  either 
endangered  or  threatened  species."  The 
segment  of  Miller's  reply  dealing  with 
these  42  species  is  omitted  from  the 
following  text  (a  table  listing  these 
species  is  shown  on  p.  18). 

To  Mr.  Lynn  A.  Greenwalt,  Director, 
U.S.  Fish  and  Wildlife  Service,  U.S. 
Department  of  the  Interior: 

I  wish  to  comment  upon  your 
proposed  rule  50  CFR  Part  17,  as 
published  in  Federal  Register,  40(78): 
p.  17757  [April  22,  1975],  and  the  "Review 
of  Status:  United  States  Butterflies",  FR 
Doc.  75-7233,  as  published  in  Federal 
Register,  40(55):  p.  12691  [March  20, 
1975]. 

Several  factors  must  be  considered 
before   placing   insects    (or  other   orga- 


nisms, for  that  matter)  on  either  the 
"Endangered"  or  the  "Threatened"  lists. 
As  will  be  brought  out  later  in  this  letter, 
I  do  not  believe  that  many  of  these 
factors  have  been  researched  sufficiently 
to  warrant  the  butterflies'  placement  on 
either  list. 

One  consideration  which  must  be 
made  is  whether  or  not  organisms 
included  on  these  lists  are  native  species. 
This  factor  seems  relatively  elementary, 
but  in  several  instances  it  has  not  been 
considered  in  the  compilation  of  the 
lists.  It  is  counterproductive  to  declare 
non-native  species  as  "endangered"  or  as 
"threatened"  at  a  time  when  we  still  do 
not  know  what  species  are  found  within 
the  confines  of  the  United  States,  either 
as  natives  or  as  strays.  Placement  of 
these  exotic  insects  on  the  protected  lists 
will  simply  discourage  the  reporting  of 
other  new  records  for  the  country  at  a 
time  when  we  are  just  beginning  to  get  a 
rudimentary  idea  of  what  occurs  and  has 
occurred  here.  Another  fundamental 
consideration  in  this  regard  is  that  all 
species  have  portions  of  their  ranges 
where  conditions  are  marginal  for  sur- 
vival; hence,  they  are  rare  in  these 
peripheral  areas:  this  is  the  condition  in 
which  vicariant  populations  find  them- 
selves in  the  vast  majority  of  cases. 

This  factor  brings  the  second  fun- 
damental consideration.  Care  must  be 
taken  to  avoid  designation  of  a  particular 
organism  as  "threatened"  or  "endan- 
gered" on  the  basis  of  its  tenuous  hold  in 
a  specific  locality.  In  FR  Doc.  75-7253 
there  are  several  species  listed  solely  on 
the  basis  of  one  or  a  few  of  many  habitats 
being  in  such  a  critical  state.  It  must  be 
obvious  that  preservation  of  the  entire 
gene-pool  of  an  insect  throughout  a 
broad  area  is  not  only  impossible,  but 
may  be  completely  unrealistic,  or  even 
undesirable. 

A  third  criterion  which  must  be 
considered  is  whether  the  species  in 
question  is  confined  to  a  very  limited 
area.  This  is  the  opposite  situation  to  that 
mentioned  above,  because  if  the  entire 
range  of  the  organism  is  restricted  to  a 
very  small  colony  then  it  could  be 
subjected  to  pressures  which  could 
involve  its  extirpation.  Very  small  popul- 
ations are  subjected  to  many  different 
environmental  pressures  which  can  lead 
to  extermination,  the  least  important  of 
which  could  be  over-collecting. 


16  September  197S 


A  factor  which  then  must  be 
considered  is  whether  the  habitat  is 
being  threatened  or  not.  Most,  if  not  all, 
organisms  cannot  be  collected  to  extinc- 
tion, but  if  their  habitats  are  destroyed 
they  will  become  extinct,  no  matter  what 
controls  are  placed  upon  collectors.  The 
real  problem  for  most  "endangered"  or 
"threatened"  species  cannot  be  laid  at 
the  feet  of  collectors,  no  matter  how 
zealous  they  may  be,  but  are,  rather, 
attributable  to  the  destruction  of  their 
habitats  by  man  or  natural  catastrophes. 
Federal  lands  already  have  the  potential 
for  protection  by  edict  and  without  the 
necessity  of  attempting  to  declare  species 
upon  them  "threatened"  or  "endan- 
gered," whether  this  decision  is  reached 
on  the  basis  of  facts  or  simply  capri- 
ciously. It  is  to  be  hoped  that  such 
determinations  will  not  adversely  affect 
legitimate  scientific  research  and  will  be 
administered  in  an  even-handed  manner. 

It  should  be  stated  here  also  that 
extinction  is  a  natural  phenomenon,  as 
well  as  a  man-caused  event.  Not  all 
organisms  are  "fit"  (in  a  genetic  sense)  to 
compete  with  others  and  survive.  Perhaps 
man  is  being  a  bit  arrogant  if  he  feels  he 
can  prevent  such  random  extirpations, 
especially  when  the  causes  cannot  be 
attributed  to  him.  There  are  some  poorly 
adapted  organisms  in  the  list  in  FR  Doc. 
75-7253  which  cannot  be  expected  to 
survive,  chiefly  because  of  the  natural 
modification  of  the  climate.  There 
probably  is  nothing  that  can  be  done  for 
such  species,  and  calling  attention  to 
them  may  actually  be  doing  them  a 
disservice. 

Destruction  of  the  habitats,  generally 
unknowingly  and  never  with  malice  of 
forethought,  by  man's  activities  can  be 
stopped,  of  course,,  in  several  ways,  most 
of  them  contrary  to  the  expressed  goal  of 
"free  enterprise"  espoused  by  the  govern- 
ment and  by  most  of  the  citizens  of  the 
United  States.  Government  agencies  can, 
naturally,  stop  all  development  of  "en- 
dangered" habitats,  but  this  is  tanta- 
mount to  seizure  of  the  property  without 
due  compensation.  A  more  honest,  but 
still  abhorrent,  approach  is  to  simply 
seize  the  property  "in  the  public  good" 
by  local,  state,  or  national  agencies,  an 
approach  which  usually  leaves  a  discon- 
tented significant  portion  of  the  popu- 
lace. Private  or  governmental  bodies, 
acting  together  or  singly,  can  purchase 


"endangered"  habitats,  but  this  can 
become  economically  unjustifiable  for 
the  preservation  of  a  single  species, 
especially  an  insect.  Not  too  surprisingly, 
many  of  the  species  being  considered  for 
"Endangered"  or  "Threatened"  status  are 
found  in  areas  of  growing  population  and 
skyrocketing  property  values.  Who  can 
blame  the  property  owner  for  accepting  a 
developer's  offer  of  many  times  what  the 
government  or  the  Nature  Conservancy  is 
willing  and  able  to  pay  for  his  land? 
Certainly  I  cannot  blame  him,  even 
though  I  should  prefer  to  see  the  habitats 
preserved,  but  economic  considerations 
being  what  they  are,  a  property  owner 
has  no  choice. 

It  is  far  easier,  and  certainly  much 
more  politically  expedient,  to  merely 
place  restrictions  on  the  collecting  of 
various  species,  but  such  controls  will  do 
nothing  to  preserve  an  insect  population. 
What  the  controls  will  accomplish, 
however,  is  clandestine  collecting  activ- 
ities in  areas  pinpointed  for  such 
collectors  by  federal  edict  and  the 
concomitant  mislabeling  of  specimens 
by  such  unscrupulous  individuals.  The 
regulations  will  also  hamper  meaningful 
scientific  research,  inasmuch  as  these 
researchers  will  be  the  ones  who  will 
assiduously  observe  the  rules;  the  poten- 
tial research  by  these  scientists  might 
give  an  idea  of  what  factors  control  these 
populations  and  the  intelligent  ways  by 
which  they  might  be  preserved.  I  am  very 
much  afraid  that  the  imposition  of  these 
regulations  will  do  nothing  to  preserve 
the  species,  inasmuch  as  the  emphasis  is 
on  collecting  rather  than  upon  preserva- 
tion of  the  habitats.  The  net  effect  of 
these  rules  will  be  a  self-perpetuating 
bureaucracy  which  can  accomplish  none 
of  its  originally  constituted  goals,  but 
which  can  look  upon  imposition  of 
various  regulations  as  a  justification  of  its 
existence. 

Now  that  I  have  discussed  what  I 
consider  to  be  the  cogent  general 
considerations,  I  should  like  to  make 
specific  comments  upon  the  status  of  the 
species  included  in  the  two  lists,  begin- 
ning with  50  CFR  Part  17.  With  regard  to 
the  proposed  "Threatened  Status"  of 
Papilio  aristodemus  ponceanus  and  P. 
andraemon  bonhotei,  I  seriously  ques- 
tion the  advisability  of  placing  either  in 
this  category,  with  different  reasons  for 
each  species,  as  enumerated  below. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


P.  aristodemus  ponceanus  is  a  rather 
common  insect  in  southern  Florida  in 
some  years  and  is  exceedingly  rare  in 
others,  perhaps  as  a  result  of  drier  or 
wetter  winters  in  the  range.  Several 
colonies  are  known  at  present  in  Dade 
and  Monroe  counties,  and  all  seem  to  be 
correlated  with  outside,  natural  condi- 
tions in  their  cyclic  abundance.  The 
observations  leading  to  various  state- 
ments about  the  "rarity"  of  this  insect 
were  taken  during  years  of  cyclic  decline 
in  the  populations,  without  taking  these 
cycles  into  account.  The  chief  reason 
that  this  species  has  been  considered  rare 
and  threatened  with  extinction  was  a 
1940  article  by  Mrs.  Florence  Grimshawe 
that  appeared  in  Nature  Magazine.  It  is 
less  well  known  that  Mrs.  Grimshawe  was 
a  professional  Lepidoptera  collector  and 
dealer  both  before  and  after  publication 
of  her  article,  and  the  seriousness  with 
which  the  article  was  viewed  resulted  in 
the  inflated  prices  collectors  were  willing 
to  pay  her  (virtually  the  only  supplier  of 
ponceanus  at  the  time)  for  her  speci- 
mens! Thus,  she  alone  accounted  for  the 
fallacious  idea  of  the  rarity  of  the 
butterfly  and  for  the  commercial  value 
placed  upon  it.  Yet,  the  myth  of  the 
near-extinction  of  ponceanus  has  sur- 
vived despite  the  careful  work  of  such  as 
Covell  and  Rawson,  who  stated  ".  .  . 
ponceanus  seems  to  be  well  established 
on  at  least  two  of  the  islands  in  the 
Biscayne  National  Monument.  .  .  the 
Schaus  Swallowtail  seems  safe  from  real 
or  imagined  threats  of  extinction.  .  ." 
This  paper  seems  to  have  been  ignored 
by  those  who  are  concerned  with  the 
"preservation"  of  this  insect.  Since  the 
range  of  this  butterfly  lies  partially  within 
the  confines  of  the  Biscayne  National 
Monument,  it  is  obvious  that  it  can  be 
preserved  without  formal  designation  as 
"Threatened"  by  the  simple  expedient  of 
controlling  collecting  and  "development" 
on  the  keys  of  the  monument.  If 
anything  short  of  natural  disaster  is  likely 
to  extirpate  other  colonies  of  this 
butterfly  on  nonfederal'  lands  it  will  not 
be  the  casual  collector  of  insects,  but 
rather  the  bulldozing  and  "development" 
of  the  habitats  in  which  it  now  flies. 
Should  preservation  of  these  other 
habitats  be  deemed  necessary,  the  only 
logical  way  would  be  the  purchase  of 
them  by  governments  or  interested 
private  parties.   I  would  be  unalterably 


opposed  to  the  confiscation  of  such 
properties  by  local,  state  or  federal 
governments. 

It  has  been  stated  that  commercial 
collecting  and  sale  of  this  insect  could 
act  to  endanger  it.  I  question  the  validity 
of  this  conclusion,  but  even  should  it  be 
deemed  valid,  there  is  a  simple  and 
reasonably  inexpensive  alternative  to 
collecting  restrictions.  The  butterfly  is 
easily  raised  in  captivity,  and  mass- 
rearing  of  even  a  few  hundred  individual 
specimens  and  offering  them  to  col- 
lectors for  a  reasonably  modest  exchange 
could  immediately  "defuse"  whatever 
commercial  market  may  exist  for  this 
species.  We  have  anticipated  such  a  plan 
for  a  couple  of  years  and  feel  that  it  can 
be  done  with  a  minimum  of  expense  and 
a    maximum    of   good    to    the    species. 


BUTTE  RFL  Y  SPECIES 
CURRENTL  Y  UNDER 
REVIEW  BY  THE 
U.S.  DEPARTMENT 
OF  THE  INTERIOR 
TO  DETERMINE 
WHETHER  THEY 
SHOULD  BE 
PROPOSED  FOR 
LISTING  AS  EITHER 
ENDANGERED  OR 
THREA  TENED. 


Should  restrictive  practices  become  law, 
however,  we  must  and  will  abandon 
future  thought  of  this  project,  probably 
to  the  detriment  of  ponceanus. 

The  situation  with  Papilio  and- 
raemon  bonhotei  is  quite  different,  and 
this  species  warrants  "Threatened  Status" 
even  less  than  does  ponceanus.  This 
insect  is  presently  known  only  from  the 
confines  of  the  Biscayne  National  Monu- 
ment within  the  confines  of  the  United 
States;  therefore,  there  is  no  concern 
about  preserving  its  habitat,  assuming 
that  the  National  Park  Service  does  its 
job.  Secondarily,  but  this  should  be  a 
pivotal  concern  when  considering  a 
species  for  the  "Endangered"  or  the 
"Threatened"  lists,  bonhotei  is  a  vicariant 
species  which  probably  never  has  be- 
come well  established   in   this  country. 


Scientific  name 

Common  name 

Where  found 

Parnassius  clodius  strohbeeni 

Strohbeen's  parnassian 

California 

Anthocharis  cethura  catalma 

Catalina  orange  tip 

Do 

Euchloe  hyantis  andrewsi 

Andrews'  marble 

Do 

Eurema  dina  dina 

Dina's  yellow 

Florida  and  Cuba. 

Euptychia  mitchellii 

Mitchell's  satyr 

Indiana,  New  Jersey  and 
Michigan. 

Ceryonis  meadi  alamosa 

Mead's  satyr 

Colorado. 

Oenius  chryxus  valerata 

Chryxus  Arctic 

Washington 

Speyeria  nokomis  nokomis     . 

Great  Basin  silverspot 

Utah. 

Speyeria  nokomis  apacheana 

Apache  silverspot 

California  and  Nevada. 

Speyeria  nokomis  nitocris 

Mountain  silverspot 

Arizona. 

Speyeria  nokomis 

caerulescens 

Blue  silverspot 

Arizona,  New  Mexico  and 
Mexico. 

Speyeria  zerene  myrtleae 

Myrtle's  silverspot 

California. 

Speyeria  zerene  hippolyta 

Oregon 

Speyeria  adiaste  adiaste 

Unsilvered  fritillary 

California. 

Speyeria  adiaste  clemencei 

Clemence's  fritillary 

Do. 

Speyeria  adiaste  atossa 

Atossa  fritillary 

Do 

Speyeria  egleis  tehachapina 

Tehachapi  Mountain 

silverspot 

Do 

Euphydryas  editha  wrighti 

Wright's  checkerspot 

Do 

Euphydryas  editha  monoensii 

Mono  checkerspot 

Do. 

Poladryas  minuta 

Minute  checkerspot 

Texas 

Ltmenitis  archippus  obsoletu* 

Obsolete  viceroy 

Arizona,  California,  and 
Nevada. 

Eumaeusatala  Honda 

Atala 

Florida  and  Cuba 

Callophrys  moss;  bayensis 

San  Bruno  elfin 

California. 

Callophrys  moss/  doudoroffi 

Doudoroff's  elfin 

Do. 

Callophrys  mosst  windi 

Wind's  elfin 

Do 

Callophrys  lanoraieensis 

Bog  elfin 

Maine  and  Canada 

Callophrys  hesseli 

Hessel's  hairstreak 

Connecticut,  Delaware, 

Maryland,  New  Jersey,  New 
York,  North  Carolina  and 
Virginia. 

Vaga  blackburni  Hawaiian  hairstreak  Hawaii 

Lycaena  arota  nubila  Clouded  tailed  copper  California 

Lycaeides  melissa  samuelis       Karner  blue  New  York  and  Canada 

iycaeides  argyrognomon  lotis  Lotis  blue  California. 

Icaricia  icarioides 
missionensis  Mission  blue  Do 

Icaricia  icarioides  pheres  Pheres  blue  Do. 

Icaricia  icarioides  moroensis     Moro  Bay  blue  Do. 

Philotes  enoptes  smithi  Smith's  blue  Do 

Philotes  battoides  (fcl  Segundo 
Population). 

Apodemia  mormo  langei  Lange's  metalmark  Do. 

Stallingsia  maculosus  Maculated  manfreda  skipper     Texas 

Megathymus  coloradensis 
kendalli  Kendall's  yucca  skipper  Do 

Hesperia  dakotae  Dakota  skipper  Iowa,  Minnesota,  South 

Dakota,  and  Canada 

Problema  bulenta  Rare  skipper  Georgia,  North  Carolina,  South 

Carolina,  and  Virginia. 

Panoquma  panoqumoides 
errans  Salt  marsh  skipper  California  and  Mexico 


(Continued  on  p.  22) 


18 


September  1975 


"Getawa\;"Weekend  for  Museum  Members 


'd.  .0  *"  <*■»  — * 


Devil's  Lake,  Wisconsin 


A  weekend  field  trip,  sponsored  by  Field  Museum,  will 
leave  the  Museum  at  8:00  Saturday  morning,  Sept.  27, 
and   return   Sunday,   Sept.    28,   at  about   7:00  in   the 
evening. 

Enjoy  the  beauty  of  Wisconsin's  Baraboo  Range  with  its 
fall  colors  and  invigorating  crisp  weather  — ideal  for  hiking. 


Dr.  Matthew  Nitecki,  Curator,  fossil  invertebrates— who 
has  led  many  other  Field  Museum  tours— will  conduct  a 
geology  field  trip  through  the  range  and  along  the  shores  and 
hinterland  of  beautiful  Devil's  Lake. 

The  Baraboo  Range  is  of  special  interest  as  a  monadnock 
—what  is  left  of  an  ancient  mountain  range  and  which  now 
stands  out  above  the  younger  rocks  and  sediments.  The  range 
consists  of  quartzite  — more  than  one  billion  years  old— which, 
although  compressed  in  places  into  vertical  folds,  retains  the 
original  sedimentary  structures.  The  mountains  were  further 


modified  by  glaciers,  forming  the  lake  and  the  picturesque 
glens,  and  changing  the  course  of  rivers. 

The  cost  of  this  educational  weekend  is  $50.00  per 
person,  and  includes  all  expenses  of  transportation  on  a 
charter  bus  and  overnight  accommodations  in  a  first  class 
resort  motel.  (Price  is  based  on  double  occupancy,  with  twin 
beds.  An  extra  fee  will  be  charged  for  single  facilities.)  The  fee 
also  includes  all  meals  and  gratuities,  except  personal  extras 
such  as  alcoholic  beverages  and  special  food  service. 
Saturday  evening  will  be  free  for  you  to  enjoy  the  motel's 
swimming  pool  or  other  recreational  facilities. 

Hiking  clothes  are  strongly  recommended  for  the 
scheduled  hikes.  The  trip  is  not  suitable  for  children,  but 
young  people  interested  in  natural  history  are  welcome. 

For  further  details  write  or  call  Dorothy  Roder,  Field 
Museum  922-9410,  ext  219. 


Field  Museum  Geology  Field  Trip 
September  27-28,  1975 


I  wish. 


(how  many) 


.reservations  for  the  Baraboo  Range  Field  Trip. 


Name 

Address  . 

City 


_v    State- 


Zip. 


Telephone:  

Amount  enclosed 


(make  checks  payable  to  Field  Museum) 


Field  Museum  Bulletin  19 


Sugaring  for  Moths 


by  W.  J.  Holland 


A  TURN-OF-THE-CENTURY 
LEPIDOPTER 1ST STALKS 
MOTHS  WITH  SUGAR, 
BEER,  AND  RUM! 


The  day  has  been  hot  and  sultry. 
The  sun  has  set  behind  great 
banks  of  clouds  which  are  piled 
up  on  the  northwestern  horizon.  Now 
that  the  light  is  beginning  to  fade,  the 
great  masses  of  cumulus,  which  are 
slowly  gathering  and  rising  higher  toward 
the  zenith,  are  lit  up  by  pale  flashes  of 
sheet-lightning.  As  yet  the  storm  is  too 
far  off  to  permit  us  to  hear  the  boom  of 
the  thunder,  but  about  ten  or  eleven 
o'clock  to-night  we  shall  probably  expe- 
rience all  the  splendor  of  a  dashing 
thundershower. 

Along  the  fringe  of  woodland  which 
skirts  the  back  pastures  is  a  path  which 
we  long  have  known.  Here  stand  long 
ranks  of  ancient  beeches;  sugar  maples, 
which  in  fall  are  glorious  in  robes  of 
yellow  and  scarlet;  ash  trees,  the  tall  gray 


trunks  of  which  carry  skyward  huge 
masses  of  light  pinnated  foliage;  walnuts 
and  butternuts,  oaks,  and  tulip-poplars. 
On  either  side  of  the  path  in  luxuriant 
profusion  are  saplings,  sprung  from  the 
monarchs  of  the  forest,  young  elm  trees 
planted  by  the  winds,  broad-leaved 
papaws,  round-topped  hawthorns,  vibur- 
nums, spreading  dogwoods,  and  here  and 
there  in  moist  places  clumps  of  willows. 
Where  the  path  runs  down  by  the  creek, 
sycamores  spread  their  gaunt  white 
branches  toward  the  sky,  and  drink 
moisture  from  the  shallow  reaches  of  the 
stream,  in  which  duckweed,  arrow-weed, 
and  sweet  pond-lilies  bloom. 

The  woodland  is  the  haunt  of  many 
a  joyous  thing,  which  frequents  the 
glades  and  hovers  over  the  flowers. 
To-night  the  lightning  in  the  air,  the 
suggestion  of  a  coming  storm  which  lurks 
in  the  atmosphere,  will  send  a  thrill 
through  all  the  swarms,  which  have  been 
hidden  through  the  day  on  moss-grown 
trunks,  or  among  the  leaves,  and  they 
will  rise,  as  the  dusk  gathers,  in  troops 
about  the  pathway.  It  is  just  the  night 
upon  which  to  take  a  collecting  trip, 
resorting  to  the  well-known  method  of 
"sugaring." 

Here  we  have  a  bucket  and  a  clean 
whitewash  brush.  We  have  put  into  the 
bucket  four  pounds  of  cheap  sugar.  Now 
we  will  pour  in  a  bottle  of  stale  beer  and 
a  little  rum.  We  have  stirred  the  mixture 
well.  In  our  pockets  are  our  cyanide  jars. 
Here  are  the  dark  lanterns.  Before  the 
darkness  falls,  while  yet  there  is  light 
enough  to  see  our  way  along  the  path,  we 
will  pass  from  tree  to  tree  and  apply  the 
brush  charged  with  the  sweet  semi- 
intoxicating  mixture  to  the  trunks  of  the 
trees. 

The  task  is  accomplished!  Forty 
trees  and  ten  stumps  have  been  baptized 
with  sugar-sweetened  beer.  Let  us  wash 
our  sticky  fingers  in  the  brook  and  dry 


them  with  our  handkerchiefs.  Let  us  sit 
down  on  the  grass  beneath  this  tree  and 
puff  a  good  Havana.  It  is  growing  darker. 
The  bats  are  circling  overhead.  A 
screech-owl  is  uttering  a  plaintive  lament 
perhaps  mourning  the  absence  of  the 
moon,  which  to-night  will  not  appear. 
The  frogs  are  croaking  in  the  pond.  The 
fireflies  soar  upward  and  flash  in 
sparkling  multitudes  where  the  grass 
grows  rank  near  the  water. 

Now  let  us  light  our  lamps  and  put  a 
drop  or  two  of  chloroform  into  our 
cyanide  jars,  just  enough  to  slightly 
dampen  the  paper  which  holds  the  lumps 
of  cyanide  in  place.  We  will  retrace  our 
steps  along  the  path  and  visit  each 
moistened  spot  upon  the  tree-trunks. 

Here  is  the  last  tree  which  we 
sugared.  There  in  the  light  of  the  lantern 
we  see  the  shining  drops  of  our  mixture 
clinging  to  the  mosses  and  slowly 
trickling  downward  toward  the  ground. 
Turn  the  light  of  the  lantern  full  upon  the 
spot,  advancing  cautiously,  so  as  not  to 
break  the  dry  twigs  under  foot  or  rustle 
the  leaves.  Ha!  Thus  far  nothing  but  the 
black  ants  which  tenant  the  hollows  of 
the  gnarled  old  tree  appear  to  have 
recognized  the  offering  which  we  have 
made.  But  they  are  regaling  themselves 
in  swarms  about  the  spot.  Look  at  them! 
Scores  of  them,  hundreds  of  them  are 
congregating  about  the  place,  and  seem 
to  be  drinking  with  as  much  enjoyment 
as  a  company  of  Germans  on  a  picnic  in 
the  wilds  of  Hoboken. 

Let  us  stealthily  approach  the  next 
tree.  It  is  a  beech.  What  is  there?  Oho! 
my  beauty!   Just   above  the   moistened 


W.I.  Holland's  The  Butterfly  Book  ( 1898)  and 
The  Moth  Book  ( 7903)  were  for  many  years 
the  chief  reference  works  for  amateur 
lepidopterists.  The  latter  work,  from  which 
"Sugaring  for  Moths"  is  reproduced,  is  again 
available,  under  the  imprint  of  Dover  Publi- 
cations. 


20  September  1975 


patch  upon  the  bark  is  a  great  Catocala. 
The  gray  upper  wings  are  spread, 
revealing  the  lower  wings  gloriously 
banded  with  black  and  crimson.  In  the 
yellow  light  of  the  lantern  the  wings 
appear  even  more  brilliant  than  they  do 
in  sunlight.  How  the  eyes  glow  like  spots 
of  fire!  The  moth  is  wary.  He  has  just 
alighted;  he  has  not  yet  drunk  deep. 
Move  cautiously!  Keep  the  light  of  the 
lantern  steadily  upon  him.  Uncover  your 
poisoning  jar.  Approach.  Hold  the  jar  just 
a  little  under  the  moth,  for  he  will  drop 
downward  on  the  first  rush  to  get  away. 
Clap  the  jar  over  him!  There!  you  have 
done  it!  You  have  him  securely.  He 
flutters  for  a  moment,  but  the  chloroform 
acts  quickly  and  the  flutterings  cease. 
Put  that  jar  into  one  pocket  and  take  out 
another.  Now  let  us  go  to  the  next  tree.  It 
is  an  old  walnut.  The  trunk  is  rough, 
seamed,  and  full  of  knotted  excres- 
cences. See  what  a  company  has 
gathered!  There  are  a  dozen  moths,  large 
and  small,  busily  at  work  tippling.  Begin 
with  those  which  are  nearest  to  the 
ground.  When  I  was  young  my  grand- 
father taught  me  that  in  shooting  wild 
turkeys  resting  in  a  tree,  it  is  always  best 
to  shoot  the  lowest  fowl  first,  and  then 
the  next.  If  you  shoot  the  gobbler  which 
perches  highest,  as  he  comes  tumbling 
down  through  the  flock,  he  will  startle 
them  all,  and  they  will  fly  away  together; 
but  if  you  take  those  which  are  roosting 
well  down  among  the  branches,  those 
above  will  simply  raise  their  heads  and 
stare  about  for  a  moment  to  find  out  the 
source  of  their  peril,  and  you  can  bag 
three  or  four  before  the  rest  make  up 
their  minds  to  fly.  I  follow  the  same  plan 
with  my  moths,  unless,  perchance,  the 
topmost   moth   is   some   unusual    rarity, 


worth  all  that  suck  the  sweets  below  him. 

Bravo!  You  have  learned  the  lesson 
well.  You  succeeded  admirably  in  bottl- 
ing those  Taraches  which  were  sucking 
the  moisture  at  the  lower  edge  of  the 
sweetened  patch.  There  above  them  is  a 
fine  specimen  of  Strenoloma  lunilinea. 
Aha!  You  have  him.  Now  take  that 
Catocala.  It  is  amasia,  a  charming  little 
species.  Above  him  is  a  specimen  of  cara, 
one  of  the  largest  and  most  superb  of  the 
genus.  Well  done!  You  have  him,  too. 
Now  wait  a  moment!  Have  your  captives 
ceased  their  struggles  in  your  jar?  Yes; 
they  seem  to  be  thoroughly  stunned. 
Transfer  them  to  the  other  jar  for  the 
cyanide  to  do  its  work.  Look  at  your 
lantern.  Is  the  wick  trimmed?  Come  on 
then. 

Let  us  go  to  the  next  tree.  This  is  an 
ash.  The  moist  spot  shows  faintly  upon 
the  silvery-gray  bark  of  the  tree.  Look 
sharply!  Here  below  are  a  few  Geometers 
daintily  sipping  the  sweets.  There  is  a 
little  Eustixis  pupula,  with  its  silvery- 
white  wings  dotted  with  points  of  black. 
There  is  a  specimen  of  Harrisimemna,  the 
one  with  the  coppery-brown  spots  on  the 
fore  wings.  A  good  catch! 

Stop!  Hold  still!  Ha!  I  thought  he 
would  alight.  That  is  Catocala  coccinata 
—  a  fine  moth  — not  overly  common,  and 
the  specimen  is  perfect. 

Well,  let  us  try  another  tree.  Here 
they  are  holding  a  general  assembly. 
Look!  See  them  fairly  swarming  about 
the  spot.  A  dozen  have  found  good 
places;  two  or  three  are  fluttering  about 
trying  to  alight.  The  ants  have  found  the 
place  as  well  as  the  moths.  They  are 
squabbling  with  each  other.  The  moths 
do  not  like  the  ants.  I  do  not  blame  them. 
I  would  not  care  to  sit  down  at  a  banquet 
and  have  ants  crawling  all  over  the 
repast.  There  is  a  specimen  of  Catocala 
relicta,  the  hind  wings  white,  banded 
with  black.  How  beautiful  simple  colors 
are  when  set  in  sharp  contrast  and 
arranged  in  graceful  lines!  There  is  a 
specimen  of  Catocala  neogama,  which 
was  originally  described  by  Abbot  from 
Georgia.  It  is  not  uncommon.  There  is  a 
good  Mamestra,  and  there  Pyrophila 
pyramidoides.  The  latter  is  a  common 
species;  we  shall  find  scores  of  them 
before  we  get  through.  Do  not  bother 
with  those  specimens  of  Agrotis  Ypsilon; 
there  are  choicer  things  to  be  had.  It  is  a 
waste  of  time  to  take  them  to-night.  Let 


them  drink  themselves  drunk,  when  the 
flying  squirrels  will  come  and  catch 
them.  Do  you  see  that  flying  squirrel 
there  peeping  around  the  trunk  of  the 
tree?  Flying  squirrels  eat  insects.  I  have 
seen  them  do  it  at  night,  and  they  have 
robbed  me  of  many  a  fine  specimen. 

Off  now  to  the  next  tree! 

And  so  we  go  from  tree  to  tree.  The 
lightning  in  the  west  grows  more  vivid. 
Hark!  I  hear  the  thunder.  It  is  half-past 
nine.  The  storm  will  be  here  by  ten.  The 
leaves  are  beginning  to  rustle  in  the 
tree-tops.  The  first  pulse  of  the  tornado  is 
beginning  to  be  felt.  Now  the  wind  is 
rising.  Boom!  Boom!  The  storm  is  draw- 
ing nearer.  We  are  on  our  second  round 
and  are  coming  up  the  path  near  the 
pasture-gate.  Our  collecting  jars  are  full. 
We  have  taken  more  than  a  hundred 
specimens  representing  thirty  species. 
Not  a  bad  night's  work.  Hurry  up!  Here 
are  the  draw-bars.  Are  you  through?  Put 
out  the  light  in  your  lantern.  Come 
quickly  after  me.  I  know  the  path.  Here  is 
the  back  garden  gate.  It  is  beginning  to 
rain.  We  shall  have  to  run  if  we  wish  to 
avoid  a  wetting.  Ah!  here  are  the  steps  of 
the  veranda.  Come  up! 

My!  what  a  flash  and  a  crash  that 
was!  Look  back  and  see  how  the  big  trees 
are  bowing  their  heads  as  the  wind 
reaches  them,  and  the  lightning  silhou- 
ettes them  against  the  gray  veil  of  the 
rain.  We  may  be  glad  we  are  out  of  the 
storm,  with  a  good  roof  overhead. 
To-morrow  morning  the  sun  will  rise 
bright  and  clear,  and  we  shall  have  work 
enough  to  fill  all  the  morning  hours  in 
setting  the  captures  we  have  made. 
Good-night!      d 


Field  Museum  Bulletin  21 


(Con't  from  p.  18) 

The  metropolis  of  this  insect  is  the 
Bahama  Islands,  and  in  all  probability 
this  butterfly  has  been  introduced  into 
this  country  from  that  reservoir  many 
times  in  the  past,  flourished  briefly,  then 
died  out  for  one  reason  or  another  only 
to  be  reintroduced  into  the  United  States 
at  a  later  date.  The  most  recent 
information  that  I  have  is  that  bonhotei 
may  no  longer  be  present  on  Elliot  Key. 
Before  the  turn  of  this  century  three 
vicariant  swallowtails  were  reported  from 
southmost  Florida  which  did  not  appear 
in  later  collections:  P.  andraemon  bon- 
hotei, Eurytides  celadon  and  Battus 
devilliers.  The  last  two  are  Cuban  insects, 
bonhotei  is  Bahaman,  and  for  several 
years  doubt  was  expressed  in  the 
literature  as  to  the  authenticity  of  the 
earlier  records.  It  is  only  in  recent  years 
that  bonhotei  has  reappeared  in  Florida 
collections;  the  other  two  still  have  not. 
Probably  all  three  swallowtails  were 
present  in  small,  marginal  populations 
during  the  last  part  of  the  19th  Century 
but  were  extirpated  in  the  great  freeze  of 
1899  which  extended  below  freezing 
temperatures  into  the  northern  keys; 
statistically  such  freezes  are  inevitable  in 
the  future.  Accordingly,  if  bonhotei  is 
listed  as  a  "Threatened"  species,  celadon 
and  devilliers  should  be,  too,  but  it 
would  be  a  pity  to  prevent  collecting 
these  insects  when  their  collection  could 
confirm  some  old  records  which  have 
received  some  possibly  unwarranted 
criticism  in  recent  years.  .  .  . 

.  .  .In  general,  butterflies  are  not 
"Threatened,"  but  habitats  are.  The 
situation  for  insects  is  different  from  that 
of  large  mammals,  birds,  etc.,  but  the 
habitat  problems  are  similar  for  all. 
Insects  have  a  much  briefer  generation 
time,  the  flight  period  of  the  imagines  is 
much  shorter  and  populations  higher  for 
unit  of  area. 

The  root  cause  of  most  butterfly 
extirpation  in  the  past  and  whatever 
threats  there  are  toward  it  now  is 
destruction  of  the  habitat  The  means  for 
preservation  become  obvious  when  this 
is  realized,  the  acquisition  of  "Threat- 
ened" habitats.  Such  habitats  should  be 
established,  however,  for  more  than 
single  species,  at  least  whenever  possible. 
This  results  in  a  lower  per  species  cost  for 
preservation  and  is  easier  to  justify  to 
funding  agencies,  etc.  .  .  . 

Strangely   enough,    if   the    habitats 


were  preserved  there  would  be  no  need 
to  control  casual  insect  collecting.  The 
collectors  are  being  used'  as  scapegoats 
for  actions  that  are  not  their  fault.  I  can 
state  categorically,  and  will  challenge 
anyone  to  prove  me  wrong,  that  no 
insect  has  ever  been  extirpated  by 
collectors  —  many  have  been  by  indis- 
criminate habitat  destruction.  The  situa- 
tion is  different  for  other  groups  of 
animals,  most  of  which  have  a  lower 
density  per  unit  of  habitat,  and  certainly 
for  plants,  since  they  cannot  escape.  One 
begins  to  feel  that  since  there  are  so  few 
butterfly  collectors  in  the  United  States 
and  since  most  of  them  are  not 
politically  active,  that  they  are  "safe" 
targets  for  special  restrictive  legislation 
and  regulation.  The  fact  that  butterfly 
collectors  long  have  been  considered  the 
"lunatic  fringe"  of  society  (note  the 
many  cartoons  to  this  effect)  no  doubt 
makes  them  popular  targets,  but  those  of 
us  in  the  science  have  long  attempted  to 
counteract  this  image.  It  might  also  be 
stressed  that  in  entomology,  as  in  few 
other  sciences,  the  knowledgable  ama- 
teur has  made  great  and  significant 
contributions.  .  .  . 

The  entire  problem  of  "preservation" 
is  one  inextricably  tied  to  emotion.  The 
"Sierra    Club    syndrome"    of    "when    in 


doubt,  preserve"  without  regard  to  or 
feeling  of  necessity  for  real  knowledge 
on  the  organism  involved  is  a  popular 
one  and  one  which  receives  headlines. 
Misguided  activities,  no  matter  how  well 
intentioned,  are  bound  to  fail  when  not 
based  on  research  results.  We  simply  do 
not  know  enough  about  insect  popula- 
tion structures,  nor  do  we  know  enough 
about  their  ranges.  The  only  way  we  shall 
ever  find  these  things  out  will  be  by 
collection,  not  only  of  specimens,  but 
also  of  data.  Then,  and  only  then,  will  we 
know  enough  to  make  intelligent  deci- 
sions about  the  future  of  the  organisms 
involved.  In  the  meantime,  habitats 
should  be  preserved  and  responsible 
research  encouraged  (and  possibly  even 
supported)  to  determine  what  action 
needs  to  be  taken. 

Precipitous  action  may  please  a  few 
proponents  of  greater  and  greater  con- 
trols, but  it  will  do  nothing  for  the 
insects.  I  have  the  serious  feeling  that  the 
proposed  controls  have  been  poorly 
researched  and  perhaps  hastily  contrived 
as  a  justification  for  a  bureaucracy.  I 
wish  I  could  feel  otherwise,  but  I  simply 
lack  the  faith,  apparently,  to  deny  my 
own  analyses. 

-LeeD.  Miller 


Lee  D.  Miller,  curator  of 
the  Allyn  Museum  of  En- 
tomology, Sarasota,  Fla. 


22 


September  1975 


Papilio  andraemon  bonhotei.  Top 
left  and  right:  male,  upper  and  lower 
surfaces,  respectively;  bottom  left 
and  right:  female,  upper  and  lower 
surfaces.  Photos  courtesy  Allyn  Mu- 
seum of  Entomology,  Sarasota,  Fla. 
See  p.  15. 


ILLINOIS  NATURAL  HISTORY 
SURVEY  LIB  PK  i96 
NATURAL  RESOURCES  BUILDING 
URBANA  ILL  61801 


SEPTEMBER  at  Field  Museum 


SPECIAL  EXHIBIT  OPENS  SEPTEMBER  15 

"BEAUTY  IN  DETAIL:  ILLUSTRATIONS  BY  ARTISTS  FROM 
THE  ROYAL  BOTANIC  GARDENS,  KEW,  ENGLAND"  in- 
cludes 123  plant  illustrations  ranging  from  mushrooms  to 
orchids.  The  illustrations  are  the  work  of  39  staff  members 
at  Kew  during  a  span  of  200  years  (mid-1 700s  to  present). 

Pen-and-ink  and  watercolor  are  the  dominant  media. 
Hand-colored  lithographs  and  several  etchings  of  Kew  Gar- 
dens are  also  included.  Three-dimensional  plant  models 
from  the  Field  Museum's  outstanding  collection  add  their 
own  form  of  illustration.  The  Garden  Club  of  Lake  Forest  is 
supplying  fresh  flowers  to  further  enhance  the  beauty  of  the 
exhibit.  Hall  9. 

PROGRAMS 

Continuing: 

THE  ANCIENT  ART  OF  WEAVING,  demonstrated  by  mem- 
bers of  the  North  Shore  Weavers'  Guild  on  a  two-harness, 
handcrafted  Mexican  floor  loom.  Demonstrations  every 
Monday,  Wednesday,  and  Friday  from  10:30  to  11:30  a.m. 
and  from  noon  to  1 :00  p.m.  On  Mondays,  September  1  and 
15,  the  demonstrations  include  spinning.  South  Lounge, 
second  floor. 

SATURDAY  DISCOVERY  PROGRAMS,  consisting  of  tours, 
demonstrations,  and  participatory  activities,  are  offered 
continuously  from  11:00  a.m.  to  3:00  p.m.  Topics  vary,  but 
often  include  an  ancient  Egyptian  tour,  ideas  about  prehis- 
toric man,  live  reptiles,  Northwest  Coast  art,  and  the  world 
of  animals.  For  location  details,  inquire  at  Museum  en- 
trances. 

FALL  JOURNEY  FOR  CHILDREN 

"PLANTS  THAT  GROW  ON  OTHER  PLANTS,"  a  free,  self- 
guided  tour  focuses  on  the  museum's  botany  halls.  All  chil- 
dren who  can  read  and  write  are  invited  to  participate. 
Journey  sheets  in  English  and  Spanish  are  available  at  the 
information  booth.  Bring  pen  or  pencil. 

RAY  A.  KROC  ENVIRONMENTAL  EDUCATION 
PROGRAM 

ADVANCE  REGISTRATION  is  required  for  participation  in 
the  autumn  series,  which  provides  an  overview  of  the  role 
of  natural  ecosystems  in  the  economy  of  life.  A  $5  per- 
person  fee  (nonrefundable)  covers  lunch  and  transporta- 
tion. For  further  information  call  Lorain  Stephens,  922-9410, 
ext.  360  or  361. 

Sept.  10:  "Illinois  Beach  State  Park."  Learn  about  the  value 
of  marsh  and  lakeshore,  and  meet  some  interesting  inhabi- 
tants of  these  aquatic  communities. 

Sept.  14:  repeat  of  above. 

5ept.  17:  "Indiana  Dunes."  Hike  the  dunes  and  discover  a 
unique  ecosystem  that  is  far  more  than  a  recreational  fa- 
cility. 

Sept.  21:  "Pit  11,"  for  ages  12,  13,  and  14.  Take  a  trip  to  a 
strip  mine  to  find  fossil  evidence  of  an  ancient  coal  forest. 


ANOTHER  KROC  PROGRAM  IS  "INTRODUCTION  TO 
COMMUNITY   ECOLOGY,"    A   COURSE    FOR   TEACHERS. 

Fee:  $22  per  person.  Graduate  credit  is  available  for  an 
additional  fee  of  $74  per  person.  The  course,  consisting  of 
four  field  trips  and  a  museum  workshop,  will  explore  com- 
munities reflecting  both  urban  and  natural  ecology.  Empha- 
sis is  on  teaching  techniques.  Meets  Saturdays,  Sept.  13,  20, 
27;  Oct.  4  and  11.  For  further  information  call  Jim  Bland, 
922-9410,  ext.  203. 

VOLUNTEER  OPPORTUNITIES 

OPENINGS  ARE  STILL  AVAILABLE  for  those  interested  in 
Field  Museum's  volunteer  training  course.  Please  call  922- 
9410,  ext.  247  for  an  appointment. 


MEETINGS 

Sept.    2,7:30  p.m.     Kennicott  Club 

Sept.    9,  7:00  p.m.     Chicago  Nature  Camera  Club 

Sept.  10,  7:00  p.m.     Chicago  Ornithological  Society 

7:30  p.m.    Windy  City  Grotto,  National 
Speleological  Society 

Chicago  Mountaineering  Club 

Chicago  Shell  Club 

Chicago  Audubon  Society 


Sept.  11,8 
Sept.  14,  2 
Sept.  16,  7 


00  p.m. 
00  p.m. 
30  p.m. 

COMING  IN  OCTOBER 


MAN    IN   HIS   ENVIRONMENT   LECTURE   SERIES:    "MAN'S 

ONE  WORLD."  A  film-lecture  series  focusing  on  the  impact 
of  ecological  disturbance  upon  a  number  of  traditional  cul- 
tures. Anthropologists  will  discuss  the  films  and  answer 
questions  about  these  pressures  and  changes. 

Oct.    3,    4:  The  Tribe  that  Hides  icgm  Man 

Oct.  10, 11 :  The  Turtle  People 

Oct.  17, 18:  The  LastTribes  of  Mindanao 

Oct.  24,  25 :  The  Ice  People 

Oct.  31,  Nov.  1 :  Man  of  the  Serengeti 

Nov.    8,    9:  The  Village 

Nov.  1 4, 1 5 :  Ishi  in  Two  Worlds 

Nov.  21,22:  Sky  Chief 

SEPTEMBER  HOURS 

The  museum  opens  daily  at  9:00  a.m.  and  closes  at  5:00  p.m. 
Saturday  through  Thursdays.  Fridays  to  9:00  p.m.  Food  service 
areas  open  weekdays  11:00  a.m.  to  3:00  p.m.,  weekends  to  4:00 
p.m. 

The  museum  library  is  open  9:00  a.m.  to  4:00  p.m.  Monday 
through  Friday.  Please  obtain  pass  at  reception  desk,  first  floor 
north. 

Museum  Telephone:  922-9410 


Field  Museum  of  Natural  History  Bulletin 


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Field  Museum 
of  Natural  History 
Bulletin 


CONTENTS 

3      BUYING  TIME  IN  THE  ENERGY  CRISIS 
By  Edward  Olsen 


October  1975 
Vol.  46,  No.  9 


Editor/Designer:  David  M.  Walsten 
Production:  Oscar  Anderson 


6       A  TIBETAN  BUDDHIST  SAINT 

Field  Museum's  Padmasambhava  Painting  from  Tachienlu 
By  Bennet  Bronson 

8       LOWER  TETRAPODS  OF  V*  BILLION  YEARS  AGO 
Smaller  than  Dinosaurs,  but  Equally  Interesting 
By  John  Bolt 

12       THE  SMALL  CHILD  AND  THE  BIG  MUSEUM 
Preparing  for  the  First  Visit 
By  Barbara  Reque 

14  OUR  ENVIRONMENT 

15  FIELDIANA:  An  Excerpt  about  Coffee 
18       FIELD  BRIEFS 


back       OCTOBER  &  NOVEMBER  AT  FIELD  MUSEUM 
cover       A  Calendar  of  Coming  Events 


Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 

Founded  1893 

Director:  E.  Leland  Webber 


COVER 

Interdunal  lagoon  in  old  age,  Gary,  Indiana.  Photo  by  Charles  F. 
Davis,  of  Oak  Park,  Illinois.  Mr.  Davis  has  taught  nature  photo- 
graphy at  Field  Museum. 


Board  of  Trustees 

Blaine  |.  Yarrington, 

President 
Gordon  Bent 
Harry  O.  Bercher 
Bowen  Blair 
Stanton  R.  Cook 
William  R.  Dickinson,  )r. 
Thomas  E.  Donnelley  II 
Mrs.  Thomas  E.  Donnelley  II 
Marshall  Field 
Nicholas  Galitzine 
Paul  W.  Goodrich 
Remick  McDowell 
Hugo  ).  Melvoin 
William  H.  Mitchell 
Charles  F.  Murphy,  Jr. 
lames  H.  Ransom 
lohn  S.  Runnells 
William  L.  Searle 
Edward  Byron  Smith 
Mrs.  Hermon  Dunlap  Smith 


Robert  H.  Strotz 
John  W.  Sullivan 
William  G.  Swartchild,  Jr. 
Mrs.  Theodore  D.  Tieken 
E.  Leland  Webber 
Julian  B.  Wilkins 


Life  Trustees 

William  McCormick  Blair 
Joseph  N.  Field 
Clifford  C.  Gregg 
Samuel  Insull,  Jr. 
William  V.  Kahler 
Hughston  M.  McBain 
I.  Roscoe  Miller 
lames  L.  Palmer 
lohn  T.  Pirie,  Jr. 
lohn  G.  Searle 
lohn  M.  Simpson 
Louis  Ware 
I    Howard  Wood 


PHOTO  CREDITS 

All  photos  by  Field  Museum  staff  except  where  otherwise  noted. 


Field  Museum  of  Natural  History  Bulletin  is  published  monthly,  except 
combined  July/August  issue,  by  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History,  Roosevelt 
Road  at  Lake  Shore  Drive,  Chicago,  Illinois  60605.  Subscriptions:  $6  a  year; 
S3  a  year  for  schools.  Members  of  the  Museum  subscribe  through  Museum 
membership.  Opinions  expressed  by  authors  are  their  own  and  do  not 
necessarily  reflect  the  policy  of  Field  Museum.  Unsolicited  manuscripts  are 
welcome.  Postmaster:  Please  send  form  3579  to  Field  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  Roosevelt  Road  at  Lake  Shore  Drive,  Chicago,  Illinois  60605. 
ISSN:  0015-0703.  Second  class  postage  paid  at  Chicago,  III. 


BUYING  TIME 

InThe  Energy  Crisis 


by  Edward  Olsen 


Waste  not,  want  not,  is  the  maxim  I  would  teach. 

Let  your  watchword  be  dispatch,  and  practice  what  you  preach : 

Do  not  let  your  chances  like  sunbeams  pass  you  by, 

For  you  never  miss  the  water  till  the  well  runs  dry. 

—  Rowland  Howard 


One  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago  the 
typical  American  heated  his  home 
and  cooked  his  food  with  heat 
energy  from  burning  wood.  The  wood 
had  to  be  cut  by  hand,  transported  by 
horse-drawn  wagon,  and  manhandled 
into  sheds  or  piles  to  keep  it  more  or  less 
dry  through  an  entire  winter.  Obtaining 
his  heat  energy  requirements  was  a 
sufficiently  impressive  chore  that  it  was 
used  in  sparing  fashion,  a  part  of  a  whole 
life  style  and  ethic  that  came  to  be  called 
"Yankee  conservatism." 

This  ethic  never  really  died,  though 
it  has  certainly  waned.  It  survived  into 
the  early  part  of  this  century  in  rural 
areas,  and  the  Great  Depression  of  the 
1930s  forced  it  upon  even  the  most 
cavalier  city  dweller.  America  moved 
from  using  wood  to  using  coal,  natural 
gas,  and  oil  products  by  the  turn  of  the 
century.  It  is  interesting  that  John  D. 
Rockefeller,  with  his  Standard  Oil  Com- 
pany, accumulated  his  fabulous  millions 
before  1900,  when  the  automobile  was 


tdward  Olsen  is  curator  of  mineralogy. 


still  an  experimental  novelty.  Most  of  his 
oil  was  sold  for  lighting  and  heating 
purposes. 

Gas  and  oil  have  the  nice  properties  of 
being  easy  to  handle  and  transport. 
When  they  occurred  in  abundance  the 
forces  of  a  free  economy  market  made 
them  less  expensive,  and  less  impressive 
upon  the  average  person's  mind  than  the 
hard-won  pile  of  wood  in  the  woodshed 
of  his  grandfather.  Thus,  we  have 
evolved  into  a  nation  of  energy  con- 
sumers, few  of  whom  concern  ourselves 
with  the  conservation  of  that  energy.  It  is 
the  exceptional  American  today  who 
turns  off  a  light  bulb  (which  operates  at 
less  than  5  percent  efficiency)  when  he 
leaves  a  room  unoccupied  for  a  period  of 
time. 

We  are  currently  dependent  upon 
petroleum  products  that  are  dwindling 
domestically,  and  we  find  ourselves  in 
the  difficult  position  of  having  to  rely 
upon  imported  sources.  This  reliance  has 
negative  effects  on  our  economy  (bal- 
ance of  payments),  political  abilities,  and 
national  security.  We  do  have  some 
additional  domestic  petroleum  resources, 
very  large  coal  resources,  and  an 
inventive  technology  that  can  tap  novel 
sources  of  energy;  however,  in  each  case 


we  face  what  is  called  "lead  time."  It 
takes  about  seven  years  from  the  time  a 
new  oil  field  is  discovered  to  start  it  into 
production  on  a  commercial  basis. 
Depending  on  the  circumstances,  a  new 
coal  mine  can  take  more  than  five  years 
to  get  into  production.  New  energy 
sources,  such  as  solar,  wind,  tidal, 
geothermal  (wet  and  dry),  water- 
temperature-gradient  systems,  fuel  cells, 
atomic  fusion,  and  so  on  will  take 
decades  to  become  major  factors  in  the 
energy-supply  picture.  Thus,  we  are 
faced  with  a  problem  of  buying  time 
until  additional  sources  can  be  devel- 
oped. The  only  way  to  do  this  is  to 
stretch  what  we  have  now  and  return  to 
the  old  conservation  ethic  that  was  a  part 
of  our  national  life  style  when  this 
country  was  young. 


Energy  Conservation 

At  present  we  use  over  25  percent  of 
all  our  energy  in  commercial  and 
residential  heating  (including  water  heat- 
ing), cooking,  refrigeration,  and  air- 
conditioning.  Great  savings  of  energy 
can  be  made  in  this  sector.  Insulation  of 
and     floors,    and    the 


walls,    ceilings, 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


addition  of  window  and  door  weather- 
stripping  and  storm  windows,  would  save 
42  percent  of  the  energy  used  in  heating 
alone.  In  terms  of  our  national  energy 
total  this  comes  to  a  saving  of  about  7.5 
percent  or  over  1.4  quadrillion  calories  — 
the  equivalent  of  about  one  billion 
barrels  of  oil  each  year. 

Most  space-heating  furnaces  today, 
whether  burning  oil,  gas,  or  coal,  lose 
about  one  fourth  of  their  heat  up  the 
chimney  if  they  are  well  maintained. 
Most  are  not,  however,  and  they  lose  50 
to  65  percent  of  their  heat  to  the  outside. 
Although  an  electric  heater  is  close  to 
100  percent  efficient  at  the  point  where  it 
is  operating,  when  electrical  line  trans- 
mission losses  are  considered,  and  the 
inefficiencies  inherent  in  present  elec- 
trical generating  facilities,  the  electric 
space  heater  comes  out  only  about  30 
percent  efficient. 

Thus,  great  conservation  can  be 
attained  by  insulating  older  buildings  as 
much  as  possible  (and  it  is,  of  course, 
impossible  to  insulate  them  completely 
without  dismantling  and  rebuilding 
them),  and  requiring  that  new  construc- 
tion be  fully  insulated.  By  tax  incentives, 
individuals  and  companies  could  be 
encouraged  to  maintain  their  heating 
equipment  so  that  their  best  efficiencies 
can  be  achieved. 

In  the  area  of  refrigeration,  it  is 
known  that  self-defrosting  refrigerators 
use  50  percent  more  electricity  to 
operate  than  the  kind  that  require 
manual  defrosting.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  energy  lost  in  manually  shutting 
down  a  refrigerator  and  then,  later, 
running  it  excessively  to  achieve  cooling 
temperatures  again,  could  balance  out 
the  difference  in  apparent  operating 
costs  if  the  manual  refrigerator  requires 
defrosting  several  times  each  year.  This 
depends  on  the  simple  matter  of  how 
well  the  door  seals  are  maintained  and 
on  whether  the  door  is  left  open  for  long 
periods  of  time  during  meal  preparation. 
Leaving  the  door  open,  especially  in 
humid  summer  months,  can  cause  frost 
to  build  up  rapidly,  lower  the  efficiency 
of  the  food-cooling  unit,  and  require 
more  frequent  defrostings.  It  comes  thus 
to  the  matter  of  developing  more 
cautious  personal  habits. 

In  this  regard,  there  is  the  erroneous 
notion  abroad,  that  a  light  bulb  has  its 
life  shortened  if  it  is  repeatedly  turned 
off  and  on,  and  that  it  is  cheaper,  in  the 


TABLE  1 
Energy  Consumption  for  Passenger  Transportation* 


Means  of 
Transportation 


Calories  Per  Passenger  Mile 
Urban  Travel  Intercity  Travel 


Bicycle      50 

Walking     75 

Bus  925 400 

Railroad 725 

Automobile 2.025 850 

Airplane 2.100 

After  E.  Hirst,  Oak  Ridge  National  Laboratory 


long  run,  to  leave  it  on  if  one  is  going  out 
of  a  room  for  moderate  periods  of  time. 
This  is  not  true.  The  old  habit  (of 
depression  years)  of  turning  bulbs  off 
when  leaving  a  room,  even  for  a  few 
minutes,  saves  energy  in  the  long  run.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  lifetime  of  a 
fluorescent  tube  can  be  shortened  by 
repeated  turnings  off  and  on.  A  fluores- 
cent tube  uses  about  one  fourth  as  much 
energy  to  operate  per  unit  of  light  as  does 
a  bulb.  Deciding  whether  or  not  to  turn 
off  a  light  should  be  determined  by  how 
long  one  plans  to  be  out  of  a  room. 

Home  gas  ovens  and  stoves,  gas- 
fired  furnaces,  gas-fired  water  heaters, 
and  gas  clothes  driers,  all  use  significant 
amounts  of  natural  gas  just  to  keep  their 
pilot  lights  burning.  Gradually  these 
might  be  phased  out  in  favor  of  units  that 
use  electronic  spark  ignition  devices.  By 
the  same  token,  gas  lamps  that  serve  to 
merely  decorate  the  front  lawns  of 
residences  will  have  to  go. 

The  current  trend  in  large  cities, 
such  as  Chicago  and  New  York,  is  to 
build  gigantic  office  buildings  with 
"internal  climates."  These  have  smoky 
glass  windows  to  diminish  the  sun's  light, 
air-conditioning,  heating  and  humidity 
control,  and  uniform  lighting.  There  is, 
then,  a  certain  amount  of  light  per  square 
yard,  whether  or  not  persons  are  working 
in  that  square  yard,  as  opposed  to  the  old 
system  of  individual  desk  lamps.  In  fine 
weather  there  is  no  way  to  open  a 
window,  nor  any  way  to  let  in  natural 
light.  Thus,  a  building  such  as  the  World 
Trade  Center  in  New  York  City  uses  more 
energy  than  the  entire  city  of  Sche- 
nectady, New  York,  population  100,000! 


Transportation,  especially  personal 
transportation,  is  a  big  factor  in  energy 
conservation.  It  takes,  for  example,  27 
times  more  energy  to  drive  to  a  store  to 
buy  a  loaf  of  bread  than  it  does  to  walk 
there  and,  surprisingly,  40  times  more 
energy  than  to  bicycle  there!  Table  1 
shows  some  comparative  values  of 
calories  per  passenger  mile.  For  those 
who  wish  to  lose  weight,  walking  is  a  far 
better  deal  than  biking.  Suburban  com- 
munities and  their  shopping  centers,  that 
have  built  up  over  the  past  few  decades, 
are  based  on  the  automobile.  The  ability 
to  drive,  inexpensively,  to  shop  is  the 
reason  they  can  exist.  As  fuel  prices 
increase,  suburbanities  will  have  to 
consider  more  efficient  shopping  prac- 
tices, that  is,  waiting  to  shop  until  they 
get  a  long  list  of  items  to  purchase, 
perhaps  car-pooling  with  neighbors,  and 
encouraging  suburban  bus  routes.  In 
addition,  the  average  American  car  gets 
only  about  12  miles  per  gallon,  whereas 
the  average  European  car  gets  about 
twice  that  mileage.  The  trend  to  more 
efficient  cars  has  started  in  the  United 
States  and  will  certainly  continue. 
Chrysler  Corporation  has  already  an- 
nounced that  it  intends  to  phase  out  all 
of  its  full-size  autos  and  produce  only 
compact  models. 

In  both  private  and  commercial 
sectors  the  use  of  air-conditioning  has 
increased  enormously  over  the  past 
decade.  The  efficiency  of  air- 
conditioning  units  varies  widely  from  as 
little  as  1.2  calories  of  cooling  (i.e.,  heat 
removed)  for  each  watt  of  electricity 
used  per  hour,  to  as  much  as  4.1  calories. 
This  is  about  a  340  percent  difference! 


October  1975 


This  large  difference  involves  several 
factors;  however,  it  is  clear  that  the 
average  efficiency  of  such  units  will  have 
to  increase  toward  the  higher  number  of 
calories  removed.  It  is  estimated  that  if 
all  home  window  air-conditioning  units 
could  be  upgraded  to  about  2.5  calories 
of  cooling  per  watt  of  electricity  for  each 
hour  of  operation,  it  would  total  up  to  a 
saving  of  13.6  trillion  calories  per  year  in 
the  United  States. 

Further,  more  careful  use  could  be 
made  of  air-conditioning  units.  In  private 
homes  the  use  of  attic  fans  can  diminish 
heat  build-up  during  hot  summer  days 
and  reduce  the  need  for  air-conditioning. 
As  simple  a  measure  as  having  a  few 
deciduous  trees  shading  a  house  roof  in 
the  summer  can  make  a  big  difference,  as 
the  dwellers  of  homes  in  the  Old  South 
learned  a  long  time  ago.  Also,  these  trees 
lose  their  leaves  in  winter,  which  allows 
the  winter  sun  to  warm  the  roof,  reducing 
some  of  the  heating  needs  at  those  times. 

In  housing,  there  has  been  a 
dramatic  rise  in  the  sale  of  premanu- 
factured  homes  — mobile  homes  and 
similar  prefabricated  units.  About  25 
percent  of  all  new  housing  in  the  United 
States  consists  of  mobile  homes.  These 
are  thin-walled  and  usually  poorly  in- 
sulated. They  are  high  users  of  energy, 
winter  and  summer.  Obviously,  stricter 
standards  are  going  to  have  to  be  applied 
to  the  construction  of  such  homes. 

Industry  is  likely  to  respond  to 
energy  shortages  more  rapidly  than 
individuals.  Industry  consumes  about  40 


percent  of  the  energy  used  in  the  United 
States.  For  example,  between  1960  and 
1968  the  energy  needed  to  produce  a  ton 
of  steel  went  from  7.5  million  calories  to 
6.5  million  calories,  a  drop  of  13  percent. 
Much  of  this  was  due  to  increased 
efficiency  of  blast  furnaces.  New  furnace 
designs  are  expected  to  effect  even  more 
dramatic  reductions. 

In  the  electrical-generating  utilities, 
the  efficiency  of  converting  coal  (in 
coal-fired  generators)  to  electricity  was 
only  5  percent  in  1900.  That  is,  95 
percent  of  the  energy  of  the  burning  coal 
was  lost  in  the  process.  The  current 
efficiency  is  about  38  percent,  and  likely 
to  improve.  Most  present  nuclear  power 
plants  (light  water  reactors)  produce 
electricity  at  about  31  percent  efficiency. 
By  innovations  in  this  area,  this  can 
increase  to  about  50-60  percent. 

Many  industries  are  currently  look- 
ing into  systems  to  recover  wasted  heat, 
to  recycle  it,  and  increase  their  overall 
efficiency.  For  example,  if  a  company 
uses  diesel  electrical  generators,  present 
practice  is  to  vent  the  engine  heat  to  the 
outside.  This  heat  can  be  used  to  heat 
water  or  ducted  air  for  their  own  space 
heating  needs.  Similarly,  companies  that 
require  steam  for  a  process  (as  in 
paper-making)  could  use  the  waste  steam 
to  run  electrical  generators  to  provide  for 
their  own  electrical  needs  and,  in  some 
cases,  have  enough  to  sell  to  adjacent 
industries.  Such  systems  are  called 
cogeneration  systems.  They  are  being 
examined  by  a  number  of  large  industries 
to  cut  fuel  costs  and  conserve  energy. 


TABLE  2 
Energy  Consumption  for  Freight  Transportation* 

Means  of 
Transportation  Calories  per  Ton  Mile 

Pipeline     112 

Railroad 168 

Ships,  barges,  etc 170 

Truck 950 

Airplane 10,500 

After  E.  Hirst,  Oak  Ridge  National  Laboratory 


Incentives  for  Conservation 


How  we  came  to  be  a  nation  that 
forgot  its  Yankee  conservative  ethic  is  a 
complicated  history  of  personal,  com- 
mercial, industrial,  and  governmental 
practices.  For  example,  because  the 
government  has  subsidized  road-building 
and  airports,  the  public  has  responded  by 
using  these  inherently  inefficient  means 
of  transportation.  Such  trends  will  have 
to  be  reversed.  Individuals,  as  well  as 
industry,  respond  to  increased  prices 
rapidly.  Tax  incentives  to  promote  sales 
of  smaller,  more  efficient  automobiles 
are  clearly  needed.  Similarly,  tax  and 
interest  rate  incentives  can  promote  the 
better  insulation  of  new  and  old  housing. 
Special,  low  natural  gas  and  electrical 
rates  by  utilities  to  large  users  must  be 
reviewed  and  new  practices  established 
depending  on  the  nature  of  the  use. 
Federal  railroad  regulations,  many  dating 
back  100  years,  hamstring  railroad  com- 
panies and  limit  their  ability  to  compete 
with  other  forms  of  transportation  and 
cargo  hauling— and  even  with  them- 
selves. In  many  other  industries,  accel- 
erated depreciation  allowances  would 
promote  the  installation  of  new,  more 
efficient  equipment. 

A  strong  energy  conservation  pro- 
gram by  government  and  industry  is 
clearly  the  only  way  we  can  buy  time  to 
the  point  where  domestic  energy  produc- 
tion and  consumption  balance,  and 
permit  a  modest  annual  growth.  Volun- 
teerism  will  not  be  enough. 

In  the  private  sector  we  are,  each  of 
us,  going  to  have  to  increase  activities 
that  do  not  require  much  energy, 
especially  petroleum.  Long,  cross-country 
trips  in  motor  homes  that  get  less  than  10 
miles  per  gallon  will  have  to  be  replaced 
with  excursions  using  public  transporta- 
tion—something Europeans  learned  long 
ago.  Further,  such  low  energy  consump- 
tive activities  as  handicrafts  and  arts, 
volunteer  programs  to  help  the  aged,  the 
young,  and  the  sick;  teaching,  and 
involvement  in  political  and  public 
affairs,  will  all  be  avenues  for  individuals, 
rather  than  the  more  energy-consumptive 
free-time  activities  of  the  present.  Energy 
conservation  will  have  many  personal 
repercussions.  We  may  even  get  to  know 
our  neighbors  again— another  Yankee 
tradition  revisited.  □ 


field  Museum  Bulletin 


6  October  1975 


A  TIBETAN 
BUDDHIST 
SAINT 

Field  Museum's 
Padmasambhava 
Painting  from 
Tachienlu 


By  Bennet  Bronson 

The  superb  scroll  painting,  or 
thanka,  shown  opposite,  now 
hangs  in  the  northernmost  case  of 
Hall  32  on  the  second  floor  of  Field 
Museum.  It  was  acquired  for  the  Museum 
in  May,  1909,  by  the  late  Berthold  Laufer 
(curator  of  the  Department  of  Anthro- 
pology 1915-34)  during  his  1908-10 
expedition  to  Tibet  and  China,  and  was 
found  at  the  town  of  Tachienlu,  or 
K'ang-tung,  situated  on  the  ethnic  border 
between  Chinese-  and  Tibetan-inhabited 
lands  in  Central  Western  China. 

Laufer  himself  did  not  seem  to  have 
been  greatly  interested  in  Tachienlu, 
regarding  it  as  a  mere  jumping-off  point 
for  his  projected  travels  into  the  Tibet 
interior.  However,  the  town  had  many 
Tibetan  residents  and  so  Laufer  was  able 
to  do  some  collecting  while  waiting 
impatiently  for  red  tape  to  be  cleared 
and  his  caravan  organized.  With  the  help 
of  a  friendly  missionary,  he  had  the 
objects  packed  and  shipped  off  on  the 
long  route  by  which  they  would  even- 


Berthold  Laufer,  photographed  in  China  during  his  1908-10 expedition. 


Bennet  Bronson  is  assistant  curator,  Asiatic 
archaeology  and  ethnology. 


tually  reach  Chicago.  Then  he  forgot 
them.  His  letters  and  later  writings  show 
no  awareness  that  among  his  casually 
collected  Tachienlu  acquisitions  was  one 
of  the  finest  Tibetan  paintings  ever 
brought  to  the  United  States. 

It  is  executed  in  gold  on  a  red 
ground,  its  details  showing  an  astonish- 
ing delicacy  and  skill  in  draftsmanship. 
Its  18th-century  maker,  anonymous  like 
most  Tibetan  artists,  was  a  great  master 
of  Tibetan  techniques  of  light-on-dark 
rendering.  Notice,  for  instance,  how 
powerfully  the  central  subject  is  project- 
ed forward  from  the  surrounding  scenes. 

This  central  subject  represents  not  a 
god,  but  a  historical  person,  the  great 
teacher  Padmasambhava,  or  Rinpoche, 
said  to  have  been  the  first  to  carry  the 
Buddhist  religion  northward  from  China 
into  the  mountains  of  Tibet.  The  back- 
ground depicts  events  in  Padmasamb- 
hava's  life  that  are  well  known  to  every 
Tibetan  — his  teachings,  blessings,  and 
struggles  against  the  demons  whose 
worshippers  held  sole  control  over  Tibet 
before  his  coming.  The  central  figure  is 
the  saint  in  an  attitude  of  meditative 
compassion,   holding  the   symbolic   ob- 


jects by  which  he  is  recognized  in 
Tibetan  iconography,  a  thunderbolt  in 
his  right  hand,  a  skull  cup  in  his  left 
hand,  and  a  sacred  staff  behind  him. 

The  purity  and  precision  of  the 
artist's  work  make  the  painting  one  of  the 
most  approachable  of  the  Tibetan  art 
objects  in  the  Museum's  collection.  We 
may  quite  properly  admire  it  for  its 
esthetic  qualities.  But  we  should  not 
forget  that  the  painting  was  not  originally 
meant  as  "art"  as  westerners  understand 
the  word.  Partly  it  was  meant  to  show  off 
the  wealth  and  sanctity  of  the  monastery 
that  first  commissioned  it.  And  partly  it 
was  designed  as  a  psychological  tool, 
contemplation  of  which  would  produce 
the  psychic  state  necessary  for  a  part- 
icular sort  of  meditation.  The  man  who 
made  it  might  well  have  denied  that  the 
painting  was  important  for  its  beauty.  He 
might  even  have  denied  that  it  was  more 
beautiful  than  any  other  object  in  the 
world.  But  he  would  have  maintained 
that  it  had  profound  importance  none- 
theless, as  a  memorial  to  a  teacher  more 
revered  than  any  teacher  can  be  in  our 
society,  and  as  a  mental  aid  to  eventual 
enlightenment.  D 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


LOWER  TETRAPODS  OF  1/4  BILLION  YEARS  AGO 


by  John  Bolt 


Smaller  than  Dinosaurs,  but  Equally  Interesting 


Dinosaurs  are  popular  with  paleon- 
tologists as  well  as  with  the 
public.  It  would  be  natural,  then, 
to  assume  that  a  large  natural  history 
museum  such  as  Field  Museum  has  many 
dinosaur  specimens  in  addition  to  those 
on  display,  and  that  the  curator  of  fossil 
reptiles  (and  amphibians)  does  research 
on  dinosaurs.  In  fact,  interesting  as 
dinosaurs  are,  I  do  not  do  research  on 
them.  This  would  be  difficult  in  any  case, 
since  (again  contrary  to  expectations) 
Field  Museum  has  few  dinosaurs  other 
than  those  on  display,  and  dinosaur 
specimens  can  hardly  be  borrowed  from 
other  institutions  via  parcel  post.  This 
dearth  of  dinosaurs  is  compensated  by 
the  excellence  of  the  collection  in  other 
areas. 

Most  large  natural  history  museums 
have  a  collection  of  fossil  vertebrates, 


lohn  Bolt  is  assistant  curator,  fossil  reptiles 
and  amphibians. 


usually  including  lower  tetrapods  (rep- 
tiles and  amphibians).  Within  the  seem- 
ingly narrow  limits  implied  by  "fossil 
lower  tetrapods,"  even  very  good  collec- 
tions of  various  museums  may  differ  in 
emphasis.  For  instance,  a  strong  point  in 
Field  Museum's  collection  is  the  excellent 
material  from  the  Lower  Permian  of 
(mostly)  Texas  and  Oklahoma.  Most  of 
this  material,  though  housed  at  Field 
Museum,  actually  belongs  to  the  Univer- 
sity of  Chicago.  In  fact,  all  of  the 
university's  paleontological  collections 
are  here,  reflecting  a  recent  centripetal 
trend  of  university  museum  collections 
of  all  kinds  into  a  few  large  museums. 
The  collection  of  Lower  Permian  tetra- 
pods is  excellent  largely  because  paleon- 
tologists associated  with  the  University 
of  Chicago  have  been  collecting  and 
studying  this  material  since  the  nine- 
teenth century. 

The  Lower  Permian  is  an  interval  in 
geologic  time  currently  thought  to  range 


from  about  255  to  270  million  years  ago. 
This  is  considerably  earlier  than  even  the 
most  primitive  dinosaurs,  which  ap- 
peared some  200  million  years  ago  during 
the  Upper  Triassic.  The  largest  dinosaurs 
are  confined  to  the  Jurassic  and  Creta- 
ceous periods,  which  together  span  the 
time  from  180  million  to  70  million  years 
ago.  A  number  of  typical  Lower  Permian 
vertebrates  are  displayed  in  Hall  38, 
including  perhaps  the  most  famous  (and 
one  of  the  largest)  —  Dimetrodon,  a  "sail- 
backed"  pelycosaur.  Pelycosaurs,  which 
were  primitive  mammal-like  reptiles, 
commonly  occurred  in  the  Lower  Permi- 
an. Their  contemporaries  included  a 
number  of  much  more  primitive  reptiles, 
very  similar  to  the  earliest  reptiles 
known,  and  a  variety  of  large  and  small 
amphibians.  One  of  the  largest  Lower 
Permian  amphibians,  Eryops,  is  also  on 
display  in  Hall  38.  Many  of  the  amphibian 
groups  disappeared  by  the  end  of  the 
Lower  Permian.  Paradoxically,  this  period 


October  1975 


Left:  Concentration  of  fossil  bone  from  Agate 
Springs  locality,  of  Lower  Miocene  age. 
Width:  78  inches. 


is  nevertheless  a  source  of  specimens 
which  tell  us  much  about  primitive 
amphibians,  the  first  land-dwelling  verte- 
brates. Amphibians  originated  some  350 
million  years  ago,  approximately  at  the 
time  of  the  transition  from  the  Devonian 
period  to  the  Mississippian,  but  relatively 
few  specimens  this  old  have  been  found. 
The  Lower  Permian  amphibian  fauna  is 
naturally  not  the  same  as  that  of  early 
Mississippian  time.  However,  the  simi- 
larities are  strong  enough  to  make  the 
Lower  Permian  a  valuable  source  of 
information  about  these  much  earlier 
amphibians. 

Lower  Permian  tetrapod  specimens 
tend  to  be  rather  unspectacular  in 
appearance,  and  difficult  to  study.  One 
reason  for  this  difficulty  is  their  relatively 
small  size;  but  just  as  important  is  the 
usual  type  of  preservation.  Most  speci- 


mens, even  those  a  paleontologist  would 
consider  quite  good,  are  more  or  less 
crushed  and  incomplete.  Often  they 
have  been  chemically  altered  in  ways 
which  make  it  hard  to  study  them. 
Finally,  but  very  important,  is  the  fact 
that  many  are  found  in  fairly  hard  rock. 
This  must  be  removed  by  a  preparator, 
generally  using  dental  tools  to  chip  and 
grind  away  the  rock.  In  the  process,  no 
matter  how  skillful  the  preparator, 
specimens  are  inevitably  damaged  to 
some  extent.  In  general,  the  smaller  the 
specimen  the  more  serious  the  damage 
will  be.  Some  areas  of  small  specimens, 
such  as  the  braincase  and  palate,  cannot 
be  cleaned  very  thoroughly. 

As  a  result,  even  my  fellow  paleon- 
tologists are  liable  to  comment  on  some 
of  my  specimens  in  such  terms  as  "Yuck! 
How  can  you  make  anything  out  of 
that?"  To  tell  the  truth,  sometimes  I 
can't.  But  often  a  combination  of 
approaches  will  yield  a  surprisingamount 
of    information    from   even    poorly    pre- 


served specimens.  A  particularly  helpful 
approach  is  to  use  very  well  preserved 
material  to  interpret  the  morphology  of  a 
different  but  related  species.  Fortunately, 
Field  Museum  has  some  truly  spectacular 
Lower  Permian  material.  In  this  article  I 
will  describe  a  unique  Lower  Permian 
locality  which  has  produced  large  num- 
bers of  excellent  reptile  and  amphibian 
specimens.  I  will  refer  to  it  as  the  Kiowa 
locality  since  it  is  in  southwestern 
Oklahoma,  the  home  of  many  Kiowa 
Indians. 

The  Kiowa  locality  is  a  mass 
occurrence  of  fossil  lower  tetrapods; 
The  photo  on  page  8  shows  typical  Kiowa 
material.  Compare  this  to  a  concentra- 
tion of  fossil  mammals  from  the  Lower 
Miocene  (about  20  million  years  ago), 
shown  below.  In  each  case  the  bones  are 
shown  in  the  positions  in  which  they 
were  found,  although  some  of  the 
covering  sediment  has  been  removed. 
Bones  from  both  the  Miocene  and  Lower 
Permian  locality  are  comparably  well 
preserved.  They  are  of  very  different 
sizes,  however.  The  Miocene  fossils  are 
about  the  size  one  would  expect;  the 
width  of  the  area  shown  is  78  inches.  The 
width  of  the  Kiowa  specimen,  which  also 
includes  many  bones  (not  easily  visible 
here),  is  about  1.4  inches.  The  number  of 
individuals  represented  at  the  Kiowa 
locality  is  undoubtedly  in  the  tens  of 
thousands,  and   may   be  much  greater. 

What  accounts  for  such  an  unusual 
concentration?  The  Kiowa  locality  is  a 
Lower  Permian  fissure  fill  in  Ordovician 
limestones  (roughly  470  million  years 
old).  Under  the  proper  conditions, 
limestone  deposits  may  develop  an 
extensive  system  of  interconnected  fis- 
sures and  caves,  due  to  weak  organic 
acids  which  dissolve  the  limestone. 
Where  fissures  open  at  the  surface,  they 
may  form  traps  for  animals.  Probably 
most  of  the  animals  at  the  Kiowa  locality 
were  trapped  in  this  way.  It  is  possible, 
however,  that  some  of  them  lived  in  the 
caves  which  were  probably  part  of  the 
fissure  system.  Except  for  one  locality  a 
few  miles  from  the  Kiowa  site,  I  know  of 
no  other  fissure  locality  this  old  which 
has  produced  any  fossil  tetrapods. 


Left:  Concentration  of  fossil  bone  from  Kiowa 
Locality,  of  Lower  Permian  age.  Width:  1.4 
inches. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


Aside  from  the  abundance  and  small 
size  of  specimens,  the  Kiowa  locality  has 
other  remarkable  features.  Most  impor- 
tant is  the  fact  that  the  fissure  fills  are 
mostly  soft  clay.  Specimens  can  therefore 
be  prepared  with  a  minimum  of  damage, 
often  simply  by  gently  washing  them 
with  water  in  a  screen-bottomed  box.  The 
amount  of  detail  thus  revealed  is 
astonishing.  The  specimens  shown  on 
this  page  will  give  some  idea  of  this.  The 
photo  reproduced  below  shows  minute 
teeth  from  the  roof  of  the  mouth  in  a 
fossil  amphibian.  These  teeth  have  a 
zone  of  weak  calcification  near  their 
base,  a  discovery  which  I  believe  points 
to  the  origin  of  the  living  amphibians 
from  a  Lower  Permian  group.  Such  teeth 
are  usually  (and  unavoidably)  removed 
in  preparation  even  of  much  larger 
specimens,  from  other  localities.  It  is  just 
not  possible  to  clean  between  fragile 
teeth  a  millimeter  or  so  apart,  when  they 


Left:  Scanning  electron  microscope  photo- 
graph of  a  nearly  complete  bone  (vomer)  from 
roof  of  mouth  of  fossil  amphibian  (Doleser- 
peton  annectens)  round  at  Kiowa  locality. 
Width:  about  2  mm. 


Right:  Scanning  electron 
microscope  photograph  of 
several  denticles  from  roof 
of  mouth,  same  amphi- 
bian species  as  shown 
above.  Enlarged  about 
100  times. 


October  1975 


are  imbedded  in  hard  rock.  Thin  sections 
of  Kiowa  bone,  when  examined  under  a 
microscope,  show  growth  lines  within 
the  tiny  bones,  the  spaces  (lacunae)  once 
occupied  by  bone  cells,  and  calcified 
cartilage  at  the  ends  of  long  bones.  The 
shape  and  surface  features  of  these 
ancient  bones  can  be  studied  just  as  well 
as  those  of  recently  cleaned  modern 
bones.  And  as  a  bonus,  the  Kiowa  bones 
are  quite  strong  and  can  be  handled  with 
little  chance  of  damage. 

The  Kiowa  fauna  is  diverse;  I 
estimate  that  there  are  at  least  a  dozen 
species  of  small  reptiles  and  amphibians 
present.  It  is  clear  that  for  at  least  some 
species,  a  growth  series  is  present.  Shown 
below  is  a  series  of  jaws  from  a  small 
reptile,  Captorhinus  aguti,  which  is  by  far 
the  most  common  species  at  the  locality-. 
C.  aguti  has  an  unusual  dentition, 
recently  studied  by  myself  and  Robert 
DeMar  of  the  University  of  Illinois  at 
Chicago  Circle  campus.  We  were  inter- 
ested in  certain  aspects  of  tooth  replace- 
ment for  which  C.  aguti  might  provide  a 
model— but  only  if  such  perfectly  pre- 
served material  was  available.  C.  aguti 
exemplifies  another  important  aspect  of 
the  Kiowa  fauna:  its  terrestrial  nature, 
which  in  the  case  of  C.  aguti  can  be 
confirmed  from  other  localities  where 
the  species  occurs.  Most  known  Lower 
Permian  tetrapods  were  inhabitants  of 
rather  low-lying  areas  in  a  widespread 
system  of  deltaic  sediments  (that  is, 
sediments  deposited  as  river  deltas  near 
the  point  where  ancient  rivers  entered  a 
sea).  The  majority  of  Lower  Permian 
tetrapod  faunas  therefore  include  stream- 
and  pond-dwellers,  and  terrestrial  ani- 
mals which  lived  in  close  proximity  to 
water.  The  faunas  of  better-drained  areas 
are  not  so  well  known.  The  Kiowa  fauna, 
however,  consists  almost  entirely  of 
terrestrial  animals;  aquatic  species  are 
extremely  rare. 

The  Kiowa  locality  has  been  known 
to  paleontologists  since  1938.  There  are 
considerable  collections  of  this  material 
in  a  number  of  museums,  although  I 
believe  the  collection  in  Field  Museum  is 
now  the  most  extensive.  In  view  of  the 


Three  lower  jaws  of  the  small  reptile 
Capthorinus  aguti,  from  Kiowa  locality. 
Enlarged  about  3  times. 


description  above,  one  might  think  that 
this  material  has  been  thoroughly  studied. 
In  fact,  surprisingly  few  papers  have 
dealt  with  Kiowa  specimens.  One  reason 
for  this  may  be  the  small  size  of  the 
animals.  This  is  suggested  by  a  story  I 
heard  about  a  well-known  paleontologist 
who,  among  other  interests,  had  studied 
the  Lower  Permian  for  years;  the  Kiowa 
locality  was  discovered  toward  the  close 
of  his  long  and  distinguished  career.  He 
obtained  some  of  the  material,  but  never 
worked  on  it  because  it  was  "just  little 
stuff." 

Small  size,  however,  is  not  the  major 
reason  for  the  relative  lack  of  interest  in 
Kiowa  material.  The  problem  is  the 
disarticulated  condition  of  almost  all  of 
it:  There  are  innumerable  individual 
bones,  but  few  skulls,  either  complete  or 
partial;  and  entire  skeletons— skull,  ver- 
tebral column  (backbone),  and  limbs- 
are  almost  nonexistent.  I  know  of  more 
than  one  person  who  began  work  on  the 
fauna  but  eventually  gave  it  up  because 
of  the  difficulty  in  determining  just 
which  pieces  belonged  together.  The 
mixture  of  numerous  species,  some  of 
them  undoubtedly  new,  and  at  various 
growth  stages,  was  just  too  hard  to 
untangle. 


I  would  like  to  report  that  by  sheer 
brilliance  I  have  succeeded  in  overcom- 
ing these  problems.  This,  alas,  is  not  the 
case.  I  have,  however,  been  able  to  learn 
quite  a  lot  about  the  fauna  by  more 
prosaic  methods.  Although  specimens 
(other  than  C.  aguti)  with  even  a  few 
bones  in  their  natural  association  are 
very  rare,  they  do  occur.  Each  such 
fragment  makes  it  possible  to  assign 
many  individual  bones  to  a  single 
species.  And  sometimes  a  nearly  com- 
plete specimen  is  found.  I  was  fortunate 
to  find  several  such  specimens  at  the 
beginning  of  my  study  several  years  ago, 
and  others  have  shown  up  since.  As  a 
result,  although  I  also  collect  and  study 
other  areas,  I  am  still  excited  about  this 
unique  locality.  The  association  of  most 
of  the  disarticulated  bones  is  still 
uncertain,  but  I  think  that  many  more 
bones  can  eventually  be  assigned  to  the 
proper  species.  There  is  no  better  source 
of  information  on  the  small  terrestrial 
tetrapods  of  the  Lower  Permian,  and  the 
importance  of  the  locality  is  bound  to 
increase  as  more  associations  are  made. 
Thus,  despite  the  small  size  of  Kiowa 
animals— or  perhaps  because  of  it— the 
search  is  just  as  exciting  as  a  dinosaur 
hunt.  □ 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


' 


THE  SMALL  CHILD  AND  THE  BIG  MUSEUM 

Preparing  for  the  First  Visit 


By  Barbara  Reque 

To  describe  Field  Museum  with 
superlatives  such  as  "huge,"  "e- 
normous,"  or  'vast,"  is  still  in- 
dulging in  understatement,  especially  if 
it  is  viewed  through  the  eyes  of  a  small 
child.  A  visit  to  the  Museum  can  be  a 
frightening  and  confusing  experience  for 
the  preschooler  or  even  older  child  who 
is  unprepared.  But  with  some  guidance, 
that  child's  visit  can  be  rich,  exciting,  and 
immensely  rewarding. 

The  Museum  is  unique  in  a  great 
many  ways,  and  it  offers  the  young  child 
a  marvelous  opportunity  to  discover  the 
world.  For  example,  it  is  the  only  place 
in  Chicago  where  children  can  see  all 
four  seasons  at  the  same  time,  meet 
creatures  and  cultures  that  don't  live  any 
more,  and  find  out  what  Chicago  was  like 
200  years  ago. 

How   the   child   is   oriented   before 


Barbara  Reque  is  a  senior  program  developer 
in  the  Department  of  Education. 


coming  will  have  a  great  deal  to  do  with 
how  he  or  she  responds  to  the  visit.  It 
should  be  made  clear  that  the  animals  on 
exhibit  are  no  longer  alive,  that  they  are 
mounted  and  arranged  just  to  show  what 
animals  look  like.  The  child  should  be 
told  that  the  Museum  doesn't  go  about 
killing  animals,  that  animals  that  die  at 
zoos  are  sent  to  the  Museum. 

The  kinds  of  exhibits  that  will  be 
seen  should  be  discussed,  with  emphasis 
on  one  subject  of  general  interest  to  all 
of  the  children  involved  in  the  trip.  The 
teacher  or  group  leader  should  study 
reference  materials  about  this  subject 
before  visiting  the  Museum.  The  more 
preparation  that  is  made,  the  more 
rewarding  the  trip  will  be. 

Before  I  joined  the  Field  Museum 
staff,  I  was  involved  with  an  early 
childhood  program  in  a  Chicago  public 
school.  We  hoped  to  augment  the 
children's  appreciation  for  their  own 
culture,  and  to  help  them  to  understand 
that  different  societies  solve  the  same 
problems  in  different  ways,  depending 


upon  what  materials  are  available  to 
them.  One  of  our  activities  at  the  school 
was  to  study  the  ways  of  the  Stone  Age 
people.  We  brought  in  bones,  leather 
strips,  rocks,  tree  branches,  and  asked 
the  children  how  they  would  use  these 
natural  materials  to  make  the  tools  they 
would  need  if  they  had  to  live  as  Stone 
Age  people.  The  children  reinvented  the 
wheel,  the  rock  hammer,  the  slingshot, 
the  spear,  and  the  chisel.  Expectedly, 
their  creations  did  not  always  work  out  as 
well  as  their  designs.  At  first  the  rocks  on 
their  rock  hammers  came  loose  when 
they  tried  to  use  them,  their  wheels  fell 
off  their  carts,  and  their  stick  house 
(which  looked  remarkably  like  Eeyore's 
house  in  Winnie-the-Pooh)  fell  apart 
everytime  anyone  tried  to  move  in.  After 
a  certain  amount  of  trial  and  error, 
however,  the  rocks  stayed  put,  the 
children  gave  up  on  wheels  (they 
decided  to  use  sledge-like  vehicles),  and 
they  abandoned  the  stick-house  idea  — 
moving  under  a  table  (which  they  called 
a  cave). 


12 


Oclober  1975 


As  a  result,  when  they  visited  the 
Stone  Age  Man  exhibits  at  Field  Museum 
they  expressed  a  great  deal  of  respect  for 
these  resourceful  people  who  had  the 
skills  to  make  tools  that  remained  intact. 
The  children  also  expressed  a  great  deal 
of  satisfaction  that  they,  too,  had 
developed  the  skills  to  do  this.  Although 
this  was  a  school  project,  it  could  also  be 
an  activity  for  the  individual  or  for  the 
entire  family.  Such  a  project  can  focus 
on  any  culture.  We  continued  the  school 
program  with  units  on  American  Indians, 
Africans,  and  contemporary  Americans. 


At  the  Museum 

When  you  come  to  the  museum, 
you  may  discover  that  you  are  taking  a 
trip  quite  different  from  the  one  you 
planned.  Stanley  Field  Hall,  with  its  great 
elephants  and  dinosaurs  and  fascinating 
fountains,  may  be  as  far  as  you  get  for 
awhile.  Leave  time  to  stop,  look  at,  anc 
absorb  these  and  other  things  that  catch 
the  children's  interest  as  you  pass  on 
the  way  to  your  special  subject.  When 
you  come  with  a  group  of  children,  each 
child  will  frequently  want  to  see  some- 
thing different.  One  way  to  handle  this 
problem  is  to  look  at  each  of  these  things 
in  turn.  Your  own  interest  as  well  as  the 
pre-visit  activities  should  help  the  chil- 
dren to  maintain  an  interest  in  the 
principal  subject  of  your  visit.  With  one 
child  you  can  stop  to  look  at  anything 
that  may  interest  him;  his  interest  (and 
your  participation  to  extend  that  interest) 
will  set  the  pace  for  your  visit.  One 
exhibit  or  even  a  segment  of  an  exhibit 
may  completely  fascinate  a  child. 

On  one  occasion  a  four-year-old  girl, 
Darbi,  and  I  began  our  tour  at  one  of  the 
fountains  in  Stanley  Field  Hall.  Darbi 
and  I  looked  at  one  fountain  for  half  an 
hour.  We  ran  out  of  conversation  about 
the  fountain  after  about  ten  minutes,  but 
Darbi  did  not  run  out  of  interest.  After 
another  ten  minutes  I  asked  if  she  was 
ready  to  move  on,  and  she  replied  that 
she  wanted  to  stay  to  watch  the  fountain 
some  more.  After  another  ten  minutes  I 
remarked  that  we  really  should  go  to  see 
other  things,  but  she  said  no,  she  wanted 
to  wait  there.  I  asked  why  she  wanted  to 
wait,  and  she  asked  "When  is  it  going  to 
fill  up?"  After  I  explained  that  the 
fountain  would  not  fill  up  but  would  just 


keep  on  splashing  so  it  would  look  pretty, 
she  said  that  was  very  nice  and  could  we 
look  at  the  other  one. 

Ways  to  Get  Involved 
in  Museum  Exhibits 

Even  though  the  Museum  exhibits 
are  behind  glass,  children  can  get  very 
involved  in  them.  By  means  of  questions 
and  suggestions  you  can  encourage 
children  to  touch  the  exhibits  with  their 
imaginations.  When  children  ask  ques- 
tions about  the  exhibits,  respond  by 
asking  them  to  help  you  find  the  answers. 
Look  together  at  different  features  of  the 
presentation.  There  is  much  in  the 
exhibits  for  you  as  well  as  for  the  children 
to  learn  from.  In  one  of  the  Indian 
dioramas  which  Darbi  and  I  studied  (we 
finally  got  past  the  fountains),  she  was 
able  to  identify  the  roles  of  the  various 
persons  represented  and  what  kind  of 
tasks  they  were  involved  in. 

She  wanted  to  know  how  they 
entered  the  teepee;  before  I  could 
answer,  she  had  already  located  the 
teepee  entrance.  She  also  discovered 
something  that  had  always  escaped 
me:  the  inside  of  the  teepee  is  furnished. 
On  another  visit  with  a  group  of  children 
to  the  Indian  exhibits,  I  learned  again 
how  much  there  is  to  observe  and 
discover  in  the  dioramas.  The  youngsters 
informed  me  that  the  children  in  one 
diorama  were  making  a  model  house  just 
like  the  big  house  that  the  father  was 
constructing.  It  was  a  detail  that  I  had 
never  noticed.  The  children  also 
commented  that  this  was  a  way  of 
learning,  just  as  they  learned  how  to  do 
things  from  their  parents  at  home. 

During  her  visit,  as  we  walked  past 
some  statues,  Darbi  showed  me  another 
way  to  become  involved.  She  put  her 
own  body  in  a  posture  imitating  the 
statue's.  I  think  she  even  got  to  feel  like 
that  statue,  since  a  very  similar  smile 
came  to  her  face.  In  the  Contemporary 
African  Arts  Exhibit  she  picked  out  her 
favorite  statue,  one  of  an  ant-bear,  and 
all  at  once  we  had  Darbi  the  ant-bear. 
She  stopped  to  draw  a  picture  of  the 
ant-bear.  Drawing  in  the  museum  is  an 
activity  open  to  young  children  as  well  as 
to  older  students  and  professional  artists. 
It  is  an  activity  that  we  think  should  be 
encouraged  at  all  museums. 


Bring  paper  and  crayons  along  when 
you  come  so  that  the  children  will  be 
able  to  have  the  pleasant  experience  of 
drawing  pictures  in  the  museum.  When 
they  get  down  on  the  floor  to  draw,  the 
vast  museum  suddenly  becomes  a  very 
intimate  place.  If  the  children  want  to 
draw  what  they  see  they  will  benefit  in  at 
least  three  ways:  They  will  learn  to 
observe  what  they  see  more  carefully; 
they  will  get  a  chance  to  stay  in  one  spot 
and  relax  and  discuss  what  they  see;  and 
they  will  have  a  picture  to  keep  following 
the  visit  to  remind  them  of  their 
discovery.  Be  sure  to  write  the  name  of 
the  subject  on  the  picture  so  you  can 
identify  it  later.  The  children  will 
probably  remember,  but  you  might 
forget.  Some  of  the  pictures  may  look 
very  much  like  elaborate  smudges,  and 
the  colors  may  be  inaccurate,  but  the 
children  will  have  recorded  their  im- 
pressions. The  giraffe  may  look  like  a 
bird,  the  elephant  may  be  a  large  black 
rectangle  with  no  feet,  and  the  lion  may 
be  a  pink  explosion.  The  accuracy  isn't 
as  important  as  the  perceptions  ex- 
pressed. In  the  large  rectangle  the  child 
expresses  the  elephant's  great  size;  the 
pink  explosion  represents  the  lion's 
impressive  mane. 

Some  children  will  not  want  to  draw, 
or  they  will  want  to  draw  only  briefly. 
That's  not  a  hindrance  to  the  other 
children.  As  some  children  continue  to 
draw,  the  nondrawers  can  talk  to  them 
about  their  pictures,  go  up  to  the  cases  to 
look  more  closely,  and  think  of  questions 
and  answers  about  the  exhibits.  One 
question  can  lead  to  a  lot  of  discoveries. 
One  group  1  worked  with  spent  an  hour 
finding  out  what  kinds  of  feet  different 
animals  have. 

Today's  very  young  museum  visitor 
is  the  potential  museum  "regular"  of  the 
future.  I  hope  that  through  positive 
experiences  at  Field  Museum,  children 
will  learn  to  look  to  museums  for 
learning  with  pleasure. 


For  information  or  materials  to  help 
teachers,  parents,  and  group  leaders  to 
plan  museum  experiences  for  children 
write  to  Harris  Extension,  Department  of 
Education,  at  Field  Museum. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


our  environment 


Kirtland's  Warbler  Increase 


According  to  the  latest  census,  the  world's 
population  of  Kirtland's  warblers  now  totals 
358,  an  increase  ot  24  over  last  year.  The 
census  was  made  by  the  Michigan  Depart- 
ment ot  Natural  Resources,  the  U.S.  Fish  and 
Wildlite  Service,  and  the  Michigan  Audubon 
Society  The  population  of  the  warbler  is 
determined  by  walking  through  prime  nesting 
areas  and  counting  the  songs  of  the  male  bird. 
Because  the  bird  is  essentially  monogamous 
and  territorial  in  nature,  each  singing  male 
counted  is  considered  to  represent  one  pair  of 
warblers. 

The  Kirtland's  warbler  is  an  endangered 
species  which  nests  only  in  the  jack  pine 
country  in  northeastern  Michigan.  Each  year, 
after  nesting  and  raising  its  young,  the  bird 
returns  to  its  winter  range  in  the  Bahama 
Islands  Since  1903,  the  Kirtland's  warbler  has 
been  recorded  nesting  in  about  a  dozen 
counties  of  north  central  Lower  Michigan. 

Modern  forest  fire  control  has  prevented 
the  creation  of  new  habitat  suitable  for  the 
Kirtland's  warbler  and  several  areas  have  been 
designated  as  management  areas.  In  these 
sites,  controlled  burnings,  timber  harvesting 
and  special  plantings  are  made  to  produce  the 
voung  pine  needed  by  the  bird.  Also, 
parasitism  by  the  brown-headed  cowbird,  a 
major  problem,  is  being  halted  by  trapping. 
The  cowbird  lays  its  eggs  in  the  warbler  nest 
and  the  warbler,  unwittingly  hatches  them. 
The  young  cowbirds  emerge  earlier  than  the 
warbler's  own  young  and  eventually  take  over 
the  nest. 


Wildlife  Conservation:  Another  View 

The  following  statement  by  Paul  M.  Kelsey, 
New  York  State  Regional  Conservation  Edu- 
cator, appeared  recently  in  Conservation 
Comments,  a  publication  oi  the  New  York 
Department  oi  Environmental  Conservation. 
It  is  reproduced  here,  not  as  an  endorsement 
oi  Kelsey's  views,  but  to  acquaint  Bulletin 
readers  with  yet  another,  well  iniormed 
approach  to  wildliie  conservation. 

There  are  many  people  with  the  well-being 
of  wildlife  at  heart  who  honestly  think  that 
hunting  should  be  abolished.  If  their  wish 
should  become  true,  what  effect  would  it 
have  on  wildlife  populations  — both  game  and 
non-game? 

"If  big  game  hunting  were  to  be 
abolished,  the  deer  herd  would  increase  very 
rapidly,  more  than  doubling  its  size  in  two 
years  in  the  better  parts  of  its  range.  If  you  do 
not  know  the  implications  of  this  statement,  it 
sounds  just  fine.  At  some  point— and  starting 
with  the  fairlv  large  deer  herd  that  we  already 
have  [in  New  York  state],  it  would  not  be  very 


long— the  deer  would  so  overbrowse  their 
range  that  all  the  reasonably  good  deer  foods 
would  be  severely  damaged  or  destroyed. 
With  nothing  left  to  eat  but  poorer  quality 
food,  they  would  suffer  malnutrition  and 
starvation.  Ultimately  the  population  would 
stablize  at  a  much  lower  level  than  we  have 
now 

Agricultural  crops,  which  even  now  are 
often  seriously  damaged,  would  be  very 
severely  hit  in  the  absence  of  good  natural 
foods  Increased  numbers  would  also  mean 
many  more  car-deer  accidents  with  their 
financial  and  lethal  potential. 

"If  small  game  hunting  were  stopped, 
there  would  be  little  noticeable  effect 
immediately,  for  60  to  80  percent  of  all  small 
game  is  lost  every  year  due  to  normal  causes. 
With  few  exceptions,  hunting  is  part  of  this 
normal  mortality,  not  in  addition.  Hunters 
provide  over  $90  million  each  year  through- 
out the  nation  from  their  hunting  licenses  for 
wildlife  management  programs.  Much  of  this 
goes  to  acquire  and  maintain  upland  game 
habitat.  This  year  about  $6.5  million  will  be 
paid  in  license  fees  to  hunt  big  and  small 
game  in  New  York  state  alone.  The  end  result 
would  be  a  reduction  in  wildlife  numbers 
because  of  the  loss  of  habitat. 

"The  effect  of  abolishing  hunting  might 
be  more  dramatic  in  the  case  of  waterfowl 
than  for  small  game  because  their  habitat  is 
more  vulnerable  to  habitat  destruction  and 
deterioration.  In  addition  to  the  license 
money  mentioned  above  which  also  is  used 
for  wetland  areas,  the  sale  of  duck  stamps, 
required  to  hunt  waterfowl,  brings  in  over  $3 
million  each  year  specifically  for  waterfowl 
management  activities. 

"Not  all  the  money  for  waterfowl  from 
the  sportsmen's  pockets  is  channeled  through 
the  government  Each  year  they  donate  over 
$2  million  to  private  groups  such  as  Ducks 
Unlimited  to  help  restore  and  maintain 
wetland  areas,  particularly  the  critical  ones  in 
the  Canadian  prairie  provinces  where  a  large 
percent  of  the  country's  waterfowl  are  reared. 

"The  key  to  maintenance  of  waterfowl 
populations  is  continual  maintenance  of  good 
breeding  grounds,  resting  grounds  along  the 
migration  routes  and  wintering  grounds. 
Without  adequate  habitat  in  all  three  situa- 
tions, waterfowl  would  quickly  dwindle  in 
numbers  These  are  purchased  and  managed 
with  hunter's  dollars. 

"Came  lands  and  wetlands  supported  by 
hunter's  dollars  not  only  support  the  game 
upon  which  their  sport  is  based,  but  as  a 
by-product  also  support  a  myriad  of  other 
wildlife.  Wetlands  saved  for  waterfowl  are 
also  vital  to  many  aquatic  forms  of  life  which 
depend  on  them  as  nursery  areas. 

"Much  of  the  research  work  being  carried 
out  on  wildlife  is  supported  by  the  excise  tax 
on  sporting  arms  and  ammunition.  Funds  for 


this  too  would  dry  up  as  soon  as  hunting 
is  eliminated. 

"All  across  the  country  most  of  the 
conservation  laws  are  enforced  by  personnel 
paid  mainly  from  fish  and  game  license 
money.  Without  hunting,  some  of  the  law 
enforcement  problems  would  be  eliminated, 
but  not  the  hard  to  control  problems,  such  as 
poaching. 

"The  prohibition  of  hunting  would  change 
the  obvious  hunting  mortality  among  wildlife 
to  a  less  obvious  mortality  of  disease, 
predation  and  starvation.  There  might  be 
some  initial  increases  in  wildlife  populations 
if  hunting  was  banned,  but  because  of  the 
decrease  in  the  quality  of  habitat  through  the 
loss  of  license  dollars,  there  would  be  an 
ultimate  decrease  in  the  amount  of  all  types 
of  wildlife." 


Wood:  The  Ultimate  Fuel! 

Wood  was  very  likely  the  first  fuel  used  by 
early  man.  Only  in  the  past  200  years  or  so  has 
it  been  substantially  displaced  by  coal,  oil, 
and  gas.  But  now  with  the  energy  crisis,  rising 
costs  of  fossil  fuels,  and  greater  concern  for 
the  atmospheric  pollutants  they  produce, 
there  is  plenty  of  reason  to  use  more  wood  for 
fuel  — at  least  for  domestic  heating— besides, 
wood-burning  is  more  fun!  The  wood-burning 
fireplace  is  very  "in"  today. 

The  substantive  advantages  of  wood  are 
really  considerable.  It  is  much  lower  in 
irritating  pollutants  than  most  fuels— it  has  a 
low  ash  content  and  usually  burns  cleanly, 
giving  off  water  and  carbon  dioxide  and 
leaving  only  a  minimum  of  ash  as  waste.  The 
ash  can  be  applied  to  the  soil  as  garden 
fertilizer.  Wood  is  also  relatively  inexpensive. 

Coal,  gas,  and  oil  are  limited  resources 
that  can't  be  replaced  once  they  are  used. 
They  require  expensive  equipment,  man- 
power, and  energy  to  locate,  extract,  and 
process  Wood,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a 
renewable  resource,  and  good  forestry  prac- 
tices can  improve  wildlife  habitat. 

Trees  that  are  diseased,  poorly  formed,  or 
which  are  little-used  or  considered  weed 
species  occupy  valuable  growing  space,  and 
the  planned  cutting  of  healthy  trees  is  an 
integral  part  of  forest  management.  Firewood 
may  often  be  found  at  landfills  and  in 
municipal  dumps  in  the  form  of  tree  trunks 
and  branches  that  have  been  cut  down  and 
partially  sawn  up. 

Industrial  scrap  may  be  another  source  of 
firewood.  Sawmills  accumulate  slabs,  trim, 
and  edging  in  their  millyards.  Power  com- 
panies may  also  offer  the  logs,  limbs,  and 
treetops  that  result  from  their  powerline 
maintenance. 

The    amount    of    heat    produced    by    a 


(Continued  on  p.  18.) 


October  1975 


FIELDIANA 


An  Excerpt  about  Coffee 


l«tg\  *jto/ 


Fieldiana  is  a  continuing  series  of 
scientific  papers  and  monographs 
.dealing  with  anthropology,  bot- 
any, geology,  and  zoology  intended 
primarily  for  exchange-distribution  to 
museums,  libraries,  and  universities,  but 
also  available  for  public  purchase. 

Field  Museum's  Annual  Report  of 
the  Director  for  1895  introduced  the 
series  which  would  one  day  be  called 
Fieldiana  as  "the  medium  of  presenting 
to  the  world  the  results  of  the  research 
and  investigation  conducted  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Museum.  .  .  ."  Since 
then,  more  than  1,200  issues  of  Fieldiana 
have  been  published. 

The  series  has  reflected  not  only  the 
growth  and  development  of  Field  Muse- 
um, but  of  the  various  sciences  as  well. 
For  example,  anthropology  was  just 
emerging  as  a  professional  discipline  in 
the  United  States  at  the  time  of 
Fieldiana's  introduction  and  some  of  the 
most  important  early  anthropologists 
contributed  to  the  series. 

Any  title  of  Fieldiana  —  dated  1895 
or  1975— can  be  examined  in  the 
Museum  library.  All  that  are  not  out  of 
print  are  available  for  purchase. 

In  this  age  of  imperative  relevance, 
Fieldiana  is  relevant.  It  describes  and 
interprets  our  world  and  its  inhabitants  as 
it  was  and  is.  For  conservationists  of  both 
human  and  natural  resources,  Fieldiana 
provides  a  record  of  what  was  so  that  we 
can  measure  what  we  have  changed, 
improved,  or  destroyed.  Fieldiana  has 
been  pure  science  as  well— irritating  to 
those  who  demand  "But  what  can  you 
use  it  for?"  but  inspiring  to  those  who 
appreciate  and  desire  knowledge  for  its 
own  sake. 

Among  the  most  ambitious  and 
comprehensive  of  the  Fieldiana  mono- 


graphs is  "Flora  of  Guatemala,"  a  series 
on  the  flowering  plants  of  that  country 
which  had  its  inception  almost  30  years 
ago.  Several  volumes  in  the  series  have 
appeared  thus  far,  with  a  total  of  nearly 
6,000  pages  and  about  1,500  botanical 
illustrations. 

"Flora  of  Guatemala"  is  unquestion- 
ably one  of  the  most  comprehensive 
studies  of  the  plants  of  a  particular 
geographic  region  in  the  history  of 
publishing.  The  text  reproduced  here  is 
from  the  most  recent  volume  to  be  issued 
(Vol.  24,  Part  XI,  Nos.  1  to  3,  by  Paul  C. 
Standley  and  Louis  O.  Williams;  283  pp., 
68  illus.)  The  excerpt  will  be  of  special 
interest  to  coffee-lovers  who  have  been 
disturbed  by  news  of  recent  freezes 
affecting  coffee-producing  areas  of  Bra- 
zil, the  source  of  much  of  the  coffee 
consumed  in  the  United  States. 

This  volume,  as  well  as  the  rest  of 
the  Fieldiana  series  still  in  print,  is 
obtainable  by  writing  Field  Museum's 
Office  of  Publications.  Catalogs  are  also 
available  for  each  of  the  principal 
disciplines:  anthropology,  botany,  geo- 
logy, and  zoology. 


COFFEA  Linneaeus.  Coffee 

Shrubs  or  small  trees,  usually  glabrous,  the 
branchlets  subterete;  stipules  rather  broad, 
persistent,  acuminate;  leaves  opposite,  mem- 
branaceous or  subcoriaceous,  sessile  or 
petiolate;  flowers  axillary,  glomerate,  sessile 
or  short-pedicellate,  white,  fragrant,  the 
pedicels  bracteolate,  the  bractlets  often 
forming  a  cupule;  hypanthium  subcylindric  to 
turbinate,  the  calyx  short,  truncate,  dentate, 
or  lobulate,  persistent,  often  glandular  within; 
corolla  salverform  or  funnelform,  the  tube 
short  or  elongate,  glabrous  or  villous  in  the 


throat,  the  limb  5-8-lobate,  the  lobes  oblong, 
obtuse,  spreading,  contorted  in  bud;  stamens 
usually  5,  inserted  in  the  throat  of  the  corolla, 
the  filaments  short  or  none;  anthers  dorsifixed 
near  the  base,  linear,  obtuse  or  acute, 
included  or  exserted,  ovary  2-celled,  the  style 
filiform  or  thickened,  glabrous,  the  2  branches 
linear  or  subulate;  ovules  solitary  in  the  cells, 
affixed  to  the  middle  of  the  septum;  fruit 
baccate,  globose  or  oval,  dry  or  fleshy, 
containing  2  nutlets,  these  coriaceous  or 
chartaceous,  convex  dorsally,  sulcate 
ventrally. 

About  40  species,  in  tropical  Asia 
and  Africa,  some  of  them  now  grown  in 
all  tropical  regions  of  the  earth. 

Flowers  5-parted C.  arabica. 

Flowers  6-8-parted C.  liberica. 

Coffea  arabica  L.  Sp.  PI.  172.  1753. 
Cafe;  coffee.  Figure  45. 

Native  of  tropical  Africa,  now  grown 
in  most  tropical  regions  of  the  earth  for 
its  seeds;  planted  in  all  Guatemalan 
departments  except  probably  Totonica- 
pan,  rarely  spontaneous  in  virgin  forests. 


A  glabrous  shrub  or  small  tree  as  much  as 
5.5  m.  tall  with  thin  gray  bark;  wood  white, 
moderately  hard  and  fine-grained;  leaves 
short-petiolate,  oval  or  elliptic,  7-20  cm.  long, 
3-7.5  cm.  broad,  acuminate,  cuneate  at  the 
base,  subcoriaceous,  usually  persisting  for 
three  years,  with  7-12  pairs  of  lateral  nerves; 
flowers  in  clusters  of  2-9  or  more,  sessile  or 
nearly  so,  12-18  mm.  long;  bractlets  ovate,  the 
inner  ones  connate  at  the  base  of  the  pedicel, 
shorter  than  the  5-denticulate  calyx;  corolla 
lobes  equaling  or  exceeding  the  tube;  anthers 
exserted;  fruit  about  1  cm.  long,  at  first  green, 
then  red,  finally  blue-black. 


Commercially    coffee    is    the    most 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


15 


Coffea  arabica.  A,  branch 
with  immature  fruits  and 
flowers,  X  V4;  B,  partially 
dissected  segment  of  in- 
florescence, x  5;  C,  cross- 
sections  of  fruits,  x  1;  D, 
seedling,  x  Vi. 


important  plant  of  Guatemala  and  local 
prosperity  is  dependent  primarily  upon 
the  coffee  crop  and  its  market.  When 
coffee  production  is  good  and  the  price 
is  high,  Guatemala,  like  other  Central 
American  countries,  is  prosperous.  When 
its  price  in  the  world  market  is  low,  hard 
times  prevail.  Foreign  credit  for  the 
purchase  of  essential  imports  is  heavily 
dependent  upon  the  money  received 
from  export  of  the  coffee  crop.  Coffee 
was  introduced  into  Cuatemala  around 
the  middle  of  the  18th  century,  but  its 
cultivation  did  not  have  more  than  local 
importance  until  about  1875.  Coffee  and 


bananas  now  make  up  the  major  portion 
of  Guatemalan  exports. 

Guatemala  has  long  been  celebrated 
for  the  quality  of  its  coffee  and  it  is  the 
leading  Central  American  producer  of 
this  product.  According  to  statistics  of 
the  Asociacion  Nacional  del  Cafe  of 
Guatemala,  the  crop  in  1970-1971  a- 
mounted  to  2,800,000  hundredweight  or 
quintales  de  oro.  All  of  the  departments 
produce  coffee  except  Totonicapan 
where  the  land  is  too  high  for  the 
production  of  coffee,  as  are  the  high- 
lands of  some  of  the  other  departments. 
The     leading     departments     in     coffee 


production  are  listed  as:  Escuintla,  6,256 
metric  tons;  Santa  Rosa,  12,604  metric 
tons;  Quezaltenango,  16,468  metric  tons; 
Suchitepequez,  14,996  metric  tons;  San 
Marcos,  25,668  metric  tons;  Alta  Verapaz, 
6,302  metric  tons.  It  is  thus  apparent  that 
the  bocacosta  region  of  five  western 
departments  produced  much  more  than 
half  of  the  crop,  while  the  Coban  region, 
which  is  sometimes  assumed  to  produce 
most  of  the  coffee  of  Guatemala  actually 
produces  only  a  small  percentage  of  it. 
The  yield  in  some  of  the  departments  is, 
of  course,  very  small.  The  lowest 
producers  are  Peten,  Izabal,  and  El 
Progreso,  all  of  whose  land  is  too  low  for 
commercial  cultivation.  Most  Guate- 
malan coffee  is  grown  on  the  lower  or 
middle  slopes  of  the  mountains,  at  600  to 
1,500  m.,  but  some  is  planted  as  high  as 
1,800  m.,  near  Chimaltenango.  The 
coffee  of  Antiqua  (1,500  m.)  is  noted  for 
its  excellence.  Guatemalan  coffee  is 
considered  a  delicacy  in  many  nations 
around  the  world;  the  resulting  high 
price  for  the  coffee  has  encouraged  an 
increasing  cultivation  of  the  crop  to  the 
extent  that  it  comprised  (1972)  approxi- 
mately 46  per  cent  of  Guatemalan 
exports  with  a  value  of  $92,000,000. 

Almost  all  the  coffee  of  Guatemala 
is  grown  shaded,  at  lower  elevations  for 
protection  from  the  sun,  at  high  eleva- 
tions for  protection  from  the  cold. 
Several  species  of  Inga  usually  are  used 
to  provide  shade.  Often  tall  forest  trees 
are  left  when  the  land  is  cleared,  and 
various  kinds  of  fruit  trees  are  planted  in 
the  cafetales.  The  valley  of  Antigua  as 
well  as  the  coffee-growing  regions  of  the 
Chimaltenango  uplands  are  unique  in 
that  the  coffee  shade  consists  of  Crevillea 
trees,  which  are  said  to  be  the  best 
protection  against  cold  winds  and  fogs. 
At  these  high  elevations  the  harvest 
I  ?gins  January  1  or  even  later,  when  all 
the  lowland  coffee  has  long  been 
gathered.  In  the  Pacific  bocacosta, 
especially  at  lower  elevations,  as  well  as 
in  Alta  Verapaz,  bananas  and  plantains 
are  much  used  for  shade,  with  the 
production  of  two  saleable  crops  on  the 
same  land.  Some  of  the  most  unusual 
plantations  are  found  in  the  higher  parts 
of  Quezaltenango,  between  San  Martin 
Chile  Verde  and  Colomba,  where,  at 
about  1,500  m.,  the  cafetales  are  without 
shade  and  the  soil  consists  of  the  loose 
whie  sand  characteristic  of  this  region. 


Oclober  1975 


On  the  Pacific  slope,  as  well  as  in 
Alta  Verapaz,  much  coffee  is  planted  on 
the  exceedingly  steep  slopes  of  quebradas 
and  barrancos,  to  which  it  is  difficult 
even  to  climb'on  foot.  The  lower  and 
more  level  land  of  these  barrancos 
usually  is  devoted  to  maize,  sugar  cane, 
and  other  crops.  At  lower  elevations  the 
coffee  harvest  begins  soon  after  the  rainy 
season,  but  at  high  elevations  the  coffee 
ripens  much  later.  Therefore,  taking  the 
country  as  a  whole,  the  some  129,000 
metric  tons  of  pure  coffee  that  was 
produced  in  1970-1971  was  harvested 
throughout  much  of  the  dry  season. 

Traveling  from  one  part  of 
Guatemala  to  another,  it  is  possible  in 
almost  any  season  to  find  ripe  berries  on 
the  bushes.  Flowers  are  another  matter, 
and  are  seldom  seen,  unless  one  is  in  the 
proper  locality  on  just  the  right  day.  A 
cafetal  in  flower  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  sights  imaginable,  accentuated 
by  the  delightful  fragrance  pervading  the 
air.  All  the  bushes  burst  into  bloom  on 
the  same  day,  and  in  two  or  three  days 
the  flowers  have  disappeared.  The  date 
of  flowering  is  not  constant  for  any 
locality,  it  depends  largely  on  rainfall.  In 
Alta  Verapaz,  where  there  is  constant 
moisture,  the  blooming  extends  over 
several  months,  and  the  harvest  likewise 
is  prolonged,  while  in  other  regions  the 
berries  are  gathered  at  one  time. 

In  all  the  markets  of  Guatemala 
coffee  is  offered  for  sale  for  home 
consumption,  and  at  Antigua,  for  in- 
stance, excellent  coffee  is  sold  quite 
inexpensively.  Apparently,  no  coffee  that 
passes  through  a  beneficio  is  wasted,  for 
the  beans  thrown  out  when  coffee  is 
cleaned  for  export  are  all  offered  for  sale 
in  the  markets  for  a  very  low  price.  Cheap 
as  it  is,  there  are  many  Guatemalans  who 
cannot  afford  the  beverage,  but  use  in  its 
place  atol  or  other  drinks  prepared  from 
maize  and  other  substances.  Also,  various 
seeds,  especially  those  of  Cassias,  are 
used  for  adulterating  or  substituting  for 
coffee.  In  times  past  coffee  was  often 
served  in  Guatemala  in  the  form  of 
esenc/a— essence— which  was  obtained 
by  boiling  the  pulverized  beans.  The 
concentrated  essence  was  then  diluted 
by  adding  hot  water  or  milk  to  suit  the 
taste  of  the  user.  Today  essence  of  coffee 
is  rarely  seen  and  coffee  made  in  pots  is 
the  order  of  the  day.  Instant  coffees  are 
becoming  more  popular  and  are  often 


served  in  hotels  and  restaurants.  Where 
American  tourists  abound  coffee  is  made 
to  American  taste  and  often  is  no  better 
than  that  served  in  American  hotels  or 
cafes— or  in  homes,  for  that  matter.  Some 
of  the  best  coffee  anywhere  is  served  by 
the  National  Coffee  Association  at  the 
airport  in  Guatemala  City. 

Official  "propaganda"  for  all  coun- 
tries from  Mexico  to  Peru  indicates  that 
the  best  coffee  in  the  world  comes  from 
the  country  being  propagandized— and 
this  may  be  true.  The  junior  author, 
having  been  Consul  of  Guatemala  in 
Chicago  for  many  years,  is  quite  sure  that 
no  coffee  quite  compares  in  flavor  or 
aroma  to  that  of  Guatemala! 

The  names  coffee  and  cafe  are  both 
derivities  of  the  Arabic  word,  kahweh, 
signifying  wine.  Coffee  is  a  vegetable 
product  of  relatively  recent  introduction 
into  the  civilized  world.  It  is  believed 
that  it  reached  Arabia  from  Africa  during 
the  fourteenth  century,  and  did  not 
attain  common  use  in  Europe  until 
around  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  It  did  not  become  a  common 
crop  in  Central  America  until  after  the 
middle  of  the  nineteenth  century. 


Coffea  liberica  Bull,  Retail  List  New, 
Beautif.  and  Rare  PI.  No.  97:  4.1874.  Cafe 
robusta;  Liberian  coffee. 

Native  of  Liberia  and  adjacent 
regions  of  West  Africa;  cultivated  on  a 
small  scale  in  Guatemala. 


A  glabrous  shrub  or  tree,  sometimes  10 
m.  high  but  usually  much  lower,  at  least  in 
cultivation;  leaves  short-petiolate,  coria- 
ceous, lustrous,  mostly  elliptic-obovate,  12-30 
cm.  long,  5-12  cm.  broad,  short-acuminate, 
acute  or  obtuse  at  the  base,  the  lateral  nerves 
8-12  paris,  domatiate  in  their  axils;  flowers 
several  in  a  cluster,  subsessile,  2.5  cm.  long; 
bractlets  connate,  shorter  than  the  subtrun-, 
cate  calyx;  corolla  lobes  about  as  long  as  the 
tube;  anthers  exserted;  fruit  2-2.5  cm.  long  or 
even  larger,  yellowish  red,  turning  black. 


This  species  is  said  to  be  planted  in 
various  regions  of  Guatemala,  but  is  little 
esteemed.  We  have  noted  but  one 
plantation  of  any  size,  in  Retalhuleu  near 
Chivolandia,   but  there   are   said   to   be 


others  in  the  Pacific  bocacosta  and  in 
Alta  Verapaz.  In  its  habit  of  growth 
Coffea  liberica  differs  noticeably  from  C. 
arabica.  The  leaves  are  twice  as  large  and 
rather  handsome.  Flowering  is  continued 
through  much  of  the  year  and  the  berries 
hang  upon  the  bushes  for  a  long  time  (in 
C.  arabica  they  soon  fall  if  not  picked). 
Liberian  coffee  is  said  to  produce  better 
at  lower  elevations  that  C.  arabica,  and 
to  be  less  susceptible  to  fungus  diseases. 
However,  it  never  has  become  popular  in 
American  countries. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  in 
Guatemala  Coffea  liberica  is  known 
among  even  the  laborers  as  Cafe  robusta, 
but  it  is  not  Coffea  robusta  Linden  of 
tropical  Africa,  which  often  is  known  as 
"robusta  coffee." 


Coffea  excelsa  A.  Chev.  Rev.  Cult. 
Col.  12:  258.1903. 

Shrubs  said  to  be  of  this  species 
were  seen  growing  in  the  grounds  of  the 
Direccion  de  Agricultura  in  Guatemala 
years  ago.  It  is  an  African  species  that 
produces  low-grade  coffee,  and  is  culti- 
vated in  some  regions  of  Africa. 

Coffea  corymbulosa  Bertol.  Fl.  Guat. 
410.  1840. 

This  was  based  upon  material  col- 
lected by  Velasquez  at  some  unspecified 
locality  in  Guatemala.  Bertoloni  states 
that  "Coffea  arabica  differs  from  this  in 
its  acuminate  leaves  and  subsessile 
flowers."  It  is  suspected  that  the  plant  so 
named  may  be  merely  Coffea  arabica, 
but  it  may  be  a  representative  of  some 
different  genus.  This  cannot  be  deter- 
mined without  examination  of  the  type 
specimen,  in  the  Bertoloni  herbarium  in 
Italy.  .  .  . 


Field  Museum  Bulletin  17 


field  briefs 


Environmental  Films 

In  conjunction  with  the  Man  in  His  Environ- 
ment exhibit,  opening  November  9,  a  series  of 
films  will  be  offered  by  the  Department  of 
Education;  each  deals  with  a  specific  environ- 
mental problem  or  topic  not  dealt  with  in  the 
exhibit  The  selection  of  films  represents  a 
distillation  of  more  than  350  considered  for 
the  series.  Screenings  will  be  in  the  Meeting 
Room,  second  floor  north,  on  Fridays, 
Saturdays,  and  Sundays  at  11:00  a.m.  and 
again  at  1:00  p.m. 

NOVEMBER  Ecosystems:  Films  dealing 
with  a  variety  of  natural 
communities.  Nov.  9,  14,  15, 
16.  "Mzima:  Portrait  oi  a 
Spring."  Nov.  21,  22,  23: 
"High  Arctic  Biome,"  "Billion 
Dollar  Marsh."  Nov.  28,  29, 
30:  "Survival  on  the  Prairie." 

DECEMBER  Adaptations  for  Survival: 
Special  adaptions  of  flora  and 
fauna,  their  relationships  to 
each  other  and  to  the  en- 
vironment. Nov.  5,  6,  7: 
"Baobab:  Portrait  of  a  Tree." 
Nov  12,  13,  14:  "Hunters  in 
the  Reef"  Nov.  19,  20,  21: 
"Strange  Creatures  of  the 
Night."  Nov.  26,  27,  28: 
"Bird's  Paradise:  The  Wad- 
densea." 

JANUARY  The    Vanishing    Wilderness: 

Films  by  Shelley  Grossman, 
film  producer  for  Field  Mu- 
seum's Man   in   His   Environ- 


ment exhibit,  that  deal  with  a 
variety  of  ecosystems  and  the 
political,  economic,  and  so- 
cial changes  that  must  occur 
if  wilderness  areas  are  to  be 
saved.  Jan.  2,  3,  4:  "Of 
Broccoli  and  Pelicans  and 
Celery  and  Seals."  Nov.  9,  10, 
11:  "Chain  of  Life."  Jan.  16, 
17,  18:  "No  Room  for  Wilder- 
ness." Jan.  23,  24,  25:  "Santa 
Barbara— Everyone's  Mistake." 
Jan.  30,  31,  Feb.  1:  "Will  the 
Cator  Clades  Survive?" 

FEBRUARY  Human  Alternatives:  Key  en- 

vironmental problems  that 
we  now  must  face.  Feb.  6,  7, 
8  "Pollution— A  Matter  of 
Choice."  Feb.  13,  14,  15: 
"Multiply  and  Subdue  the 
Earth."  Feb.  20,  21,  22:  The 
Great  Sea  Farm,"  "Should 
Oceans  Meet?"  Feb.  27,  28, 
29:  "But  Is  This  Progress? 


MARCH  The  Question  of  Tomorrow: 

Documentary  and  fantasy 
versions  of  what  the  future 
can  hold  for  us  March  5,  6,  7: 
"Future  Shock,"  Feb.  12,  13, 
14:  "The  Unexplained." 
March  19,  20,  21:  "Techno- 
logy: Catastrophe  or  Com- 
mitment,""Urbanissimo." 
March  26,  27,  28:  "Energy  to 
Burn,"  "Man  in  the  Second 
Industrial  Revolution." 


J.  Eric  Thompson,  1898-1975 


How  Astronomy  Influenced  Botany 

A  unique  exhibit  (below)  on  view  in  the  South 
Lounge,  shows  how  the  world  of  plant 
study,  especially  in  England,  was  influenced 


by    the    successes    of     astronomy     in     the 
seventeenth  century. 

The  exhibit  features  displays  on  classic 
studies  of  respiration  in  plants  by  Stephen 
Hales  (1677-1761)  and  Robert  Hooke's  (1635- 
1703)  study  of  microscopic  structure  in  plants 
and  animals.  The  exhibit  was  provided  and 
mounted  by  IBM. 


Sir  J.  Eric  Thompson,  a  research  associate  in 
Central  American  archaeology  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  Anthropology  and  one  of  the 
foremost  authorities  on  the  Maya  civilization, 
died  September  9  in  Cambridge,  England.  He 
was  76.  Sir  Eric,  recently  made  a  Knight 
Commander  of  the  British  Empire,  was 
appointed  to  the  Field  Museum  anthropology 
staff  in  1926.  At  the  time  of  his  resignation,  in 
1935,  he  was  assistant  curator  of  middle  and 
South  American  archaeology. 

He  was  the  author  of  many  research 
monographs  and  books  published  by  Field 
Museum,  the  Carnegie  Institution  of  Wash- 
ington, and  the  University  of  Oklahoma  Press. 
His  most  widely  read  works  are  Maya 
Hieroglyphic  Writing,  an  Introduction;  The 
Rise  and  Fall  of  Maya  Civilization;  Maya 
History  and  Religion;  and  The  Civilization  of 
the  Mayas.  The  latter  work  was  first  published 
by  Field  Museum  in  1927,  a  seventh  revised 
edition  in  1973. 

Sir  Eric  was  last  at  Field  Museum  in  1967, 
when  the  Women's  Board  honored  him  with  a 
luncheon  in  celebration  of  the  fortieth 
anniversary  of  the  first  printing  of  The 
Civilization  of  the  Mayas. 

OUR  ENVIRONMENT    (from  p.  14.) 

fireplace  log  depends  on  the  relative  percent- 
ages of  woody  material,  resin,  water,  and  ash. 
A  standard  cord  of  dry  hardwood  weighs 
about  two  tons  and  gives  as  much  heat  as  a 
ton  of  coal,  200  gallons  of  fuel  oil,  or  24,000 
cubic  feet  of  natural  gas. 

Cedar,  pine,  spruce  or  hemlock  ignite 
quickly  and  therefore  make  good  kindling. 
Softwoods  like  pine,  spruce,  hemlock,  or  fir 
burn  rapidly  and  produce  quick,  warming  fires 
with  hot  flames  that  die  quickly.  Hardwoods 
like  ash,  maples,  birch,  and  oak  burn  less 
vigorously  and  produce  steady,  glowing  coals 
and  a  long-lasting  fire.  Woods  of  fruit  or  nut 
trees  such  as  apple,  hickory,  cherry,  and 
beech  give  a  pleasant  fragrance  when  burned. 


18 


October  1975 


Jim  Swartchild 
Mrs.  Hermon  Dunlap  Smith,  Mrs.  Harold  Crumhaus,  and  Mrs.  Stanton  R.  Cook  [I.  to  r.)  prepare 
invitations  to  "Man  in  His  Environment"  preview. 


"Man  in  His  Environment"  Preview 

Field  Museum's  major  new  permanent  hall, 
"Man  in  His  Environment,"  will  open  Friday 
evening,  November  7,  with  a  smashing 
preview,  reception,  and  dinner.  Sponsored  by 
the  Women's  Board  and  headed  by  Mrs.  J. 
Harris  Ward,  this  gala  event  has  been 
designated  the  Museum's  Bicentennial  Cele- 
bration with  the  theme  "In  Praise  of  Our 
Planet." 


Together  with  Mrs.  Ward,  Mesdames 
Henry  D.  Paschen,  )r.  (Maria  Tallchief),  Mrs. 
Noel  Seeburg,  Jr.,  and  Mrs.  Wesley  M.  Dixon 
have  arranged  a  program  of  music  and 
entertainment  featuring  the  arts  of  song, 
dance,  and  painting.  Also  assisting  were 
Mesdames  Vernon  Armour,  Edwin  R.  Blom- 
quist,  James  R.  Coulter,  Cordon  Lang,  John 
Runnells,  and  Thomas  S.  Tyler.  At  their 
homes,  Mrs.  Philip  K.  Wrigley  and  Mrs.  John 
Nuveen  hosted  all-day  sessions  addressing 
invitations  for  the  preview. 


PREVIEW 
Man  in  His  Environment 


Name 
Street 
City  _ 
State _ 


Zip 


Phone . 


No.  of  tickets  at  $32.50  each: 
Check  enclosed  for  $ 


I  am  unable  to  attend  but  wish  to 
contributes . 

Please  make  check  payable 
to  Field  Museum. 

Seating  to  be  arranged. 


Ribbonwork  Workshop 

A  group  of  students  at  Field  Museum  (lower 
left)  concentrate  intently  as  one  of  them 
tries  her  hand  at  ribbonwork,  a  craft  long 
practiced  by  woodland  tribes  of  eastern  North 
America.  An  example  of  this  craft  is  shown  at 
lower  right.  The  girls— all  students  at  Chicago's 
Goudy  Elementary  School  — were  partici- 
pating in  summer  activities  of  the  O-wai-ya- 
wa  program,  an  extension  of  that  school. 

Ribbonwork  instructor  was  Sarah  Keahna, 
of  the  Mesquakie  (Sac  and  Fox)  Tribe. 
Examples  of  this  craft,  on  exhibit  in  Hall  5 
(Indians  of  eastern  North  America)  were 
followed  as  the  girls  sought  to  duplicate  the 
delicate  artwork.  John  White,  coordinator  of 
Native  American  programs  at  Field  Museum, 
was  resource  person  for  the  workshops.  The 
Max  Goldenberg  Foundation,  administered  by 
Harris  Trust  and  Savings  Bank,  provided 
funding. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin  19 


ILLINOIS  NATURAL  HISTORY 
SURVEY  LIB  RM  196 
NATURAL  RESOURCES  BUILDING 
URBANA  ILL  61801 


OCTOBER  at  Field  M 


useum 


Oct. 

3, 

4: 

Oct. 

10, 

11: 

Oct. 

17, 

18: 

Oct. 

24, 

25: 

Oct. 

31, 

Nov 

Nov 

8 

9: 

Nov 

14 

15: 

Nov 

21 

22: 

NEW  PROGRAMS  AND  EXHIBITS 

MAN  IN  HIS  ENVIRONMENT: 

"MAN'S  ONE  WORLD" 

A  FILM-LECTURE  SERIES  focuses  on  the  impact  of  ecological  distur- 
bance upon  traditional  cultures.  Anthropologists  will  discuss  the  films 
and  answer  questions  about  these  pressures  and  changes.  Ground  floor 
lecture  hall,  Fridays  7:30  p.m.,  repeated  on  Saturdays,  2:30  p.m. 

"The  Tribe  that  Hides  from  Man" 

"The  Turtle  People" 

"The  Last  Tribes  of  Mindanao" 

"The  Ice  People" 

"Man  of  the  Serengeti" 

"The  Village"  (Saturday,  Nov.  8,  members  only) 

"Ishi  in  Two  Worlds" 

"Sky  Chief" 

ADULT  EDUCATION 

NONCREDIT  COURSES  for  persons  over  18  in  the  natural  sciences 
and  anthropology.  The  fall  courses  (the  first  of  a  series  of  three)  will  be 
offered  on  six  consecutive  Thursday  evenings,  7-9  p.m.,  beginning 
October  16,  and  run  simultaneously.  Course  subjects  are  "Flowers  and 
Pollination,"  "Oceanography,"  "Cultures  of  Native  North  America," 
"Reptiles  and  Amphibians,"  and  "Rocks,  Fossils,  and  Man."  Registra- 
tion is  limited  to  25  persons  per  course.  Member's  fee:  $25;  non- 
member's  $30.  For  further  information  see  September  Bulletin  (p.  13) 
or  write  or  call  Adult  Education  Programs  (922-941 0,  ext.  351 ). 

CONTINUING  PROGRAMS  AND  EXHIBITS 

SPECIAL  BOTANICAL  ILLUSTRATIONS  EXHIBIT 

TWO  HUNDRED  YEARS  OF  BOTANICAL  ILLUSTRATIONS  FROM 
KEW  GARDENS,  ENGLAND,  includes  123  plant  illustrations  ranging 
from  mushrooms  to  orchids.  Pen-and-ink  and  watercolor  are  the 
dominant  media.  Hand-colored  lithographs  and  several  etchings  of  Kew 
Gardens  are  also  included.  Three-dimensional  plant  models  from  the 
Field  Museum's  outstanding  collection  add  their  own  form  of  illustra- 
tion. Eighteenth  century  music  is  played  continuously  to  further 
enhance  the  beauty  of  the  exhibit.  Hall  9,  through  Nov.  16. 

SATURDAY  DISCOVERY  PROGRAMS 

TOURS,  DEMONSTRATIONS,  AND  PARTICIPATORY  ACTIVITIES 
are  offered  continuously,  every  Saturday,  11:00  a.m.  to  3:00  p.m. 
Topics  vary,  but  often  include:  DINOSAURS:  Clay  modeling  in  the 
Hall  of  Dinosaurs.  Make  a  dinosaur  to  take  home.  EARLY  MAN: 
A  tour  that  traces  major  trends  in  man's  physical  and  cultural  evolu- 
tion. FOODS  OF  THE  SOUTHWEST  NATIVE  AMERICANS:  Try  free 
samples  of  foods  from  Hopi,  Navajo,  and  Zuni  peoples.  Free  recipes 
are  available.  ANCIENT  EGYPT:  Half-hour  tour  of  our  Egyptian 
collection  includes  an  explanation  of  the  "how's"  and  "why's"  of 
mummy-making.  THE  WORLD  OF  ANIMALS:  Touchable  animal 
specimens  on  display.  Learn  how  animals  are  prepared  for  exhibits. 
For  specific  programs  and  locations,  inquire  at  entrances. 

THE  ANCIENT  ART  OF  WEAVING 

WEAVING  ON  A  TWO-HARNESS,  HANDCRAFTED  MEXICAN 
FLOOR  LOOM,  demonstrated  by  members  of  the  North  Shore  Weavers' 
Guild  every  Monday,  Wednesday,  and  Friday,  10:30  -  1 1 :30  a.m.,  and 
12:00  -  1:00  p.m.  On  Mondays,  Oct.  6  and  20,  the  demonstrations 
include  spinning.  South  Lounge,  second  floor  south. 


FALL  JOURNEY  FOR  CHILDREN 

"PLANTS  THAT  GROW  ON  OTHER  PLANTS,"  a  free,  self-guided 
tour  focusing  on  the  museum's  botany  halls.  All  children  who  can  read 
and  write  are  invited  to  participate.  Journey  sheets  in  English  and 
Spanish  are  available  at  the  information  booth.  Bring  pen  or  pencil. 

SPECIAL  PROGRAMS  FOR  GROUPS 

MONDAY  THROUGH  FRIDAY,  ALL  YEAR  (except  Christmas  and 
New  Year's  Day)  free  educational  programs  are  offered  to  preregistered 
groups  of  ten  or  more.  Your  child's  teacher  or  community  group  leader 
may  be  interested  in  the  many  educational  opportunities  available  at 
the  Field  Museum.  For  a  free  educational  program  brochure,  please 
write:  Group  Programs,  Field  Museum. 


SPECIAL-INTEREST  MEETINGS 

00  p.m.  Chicago  Anthropological  Society 

30  p.m.  Kennicott  Club 

30  p.m.  Windy  City  Grotto,  National  Speleological  Society 

00  p.m.  Chicago  Shell  Club 

00  p.m.  Chicago  Nature  Camera  Club 

00  p.m.  Chicago  Mountaineering  Club 

00  p.m.  Chicagoland  Glider  Council 

30  p.m.  Chicago  Audubon  Society 


Oct. 

3 

8 

Oct. 

7 

7 

Oct. 

8 

7 

Oct. 

12 

8 

Oct. 

14 

7 

Oct.  21,7 


COMING  IN  NOVEMBER 


MAN  IN  HIS  ENVIRONMENT,  opens  to  the  public  Nov.  9  (members' 
preview  Nov.  8).  This  compelling  new  permanent  exhibition  explores, 
through  a  series  of  graphic,  three-dimensional,  and  audiovisual  experi- 
ences, the  impact  of  our  society  on  the  natural  processes  of  life. 

"ENVIRONMENT:  THE  SUM  OF  ITS  PARTS,"  A  film  series  in  con- 
junction with  the  Man  in  His  Environment  exhibit,  offered  November 
9,  1975  through  March  28,  1976.  Topics  are:  "Ecosystems"  (Novem- 
ber), "Adaptations  for  Survival"  (December),  "The  Vanishing  Wilder- 
ness (January),  "Human  Alternatives"  (February),  and  "The  Question 
of  Tomorrow"  (March).  (See  p.  18  for  details.)  Viewings  are  at  11:00 
am.  and  1 :00  p.m.  on  Fridays,  Saturdays,  and  Sundays  in  the  Meeting 
Room,  second  floor  north. 


OCTOBER  HOURS 

THE  MUSEUM  opens  daily  at  9:00  a.m.  and  closes  at  5:00  p.m.  every 
day  except  Friday.  On  Friday,  year-round,  the  museum  is  open  to  9:00 
p.m.  Food  service  areas  are  open  weekdays  11:00  a.m.  to  3:00  p.m., 
weekends  to  4:00  p.m. 

THE  MUSEUM  LIBRARY  is  open  9:00  a.m.  to  4:00  p.m.,  Monday 
through  Friday.  Please  obtain  pass  at  reception  desk,  first  floor  north. 

MUSEUM  TELEPHONE:  922  9410 


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Field  Museum 
of  Natural  History 
Bulletin 


CONTENTS 

3       MAN  IN  HIS  ENVIRONMENT 
New  Exhibit  Opens 


November,  1975 
Vol.46,  No.  10 


6       ANATOMY  OF  A  SCULPTURE 
by  William  Pasek 

10       EXHIBIT  MURAL  (detail) 
Artist:  Kinuko  Y.  Craft 


12       FIELD  BRIEFS 


Editor/Designer:  David  M.  Walsten 
Production:  Oscar  Anderson 


13       MAN  AND  TORTOISE 

The  Search  for  a  Little-Known  Mexican  Reptile 
and  Its  Curious  Relationship  with  Man 

by  Ray  Pawley 


19       NOVEMBER  AT  FIELD  MUSEUM 
Calendar  of  Coming  Events 


Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 

Founded  1893 

Director:  E.  Leland  Webber 


Board  of  Trustees 

Blaine  |.  Yarrington, 

President 
Gordon  Bent 
Harry  O.  Bercher 
Bowen  Blair 
Slanton  R.  Cook 
William  R.  Dickinson,  Jr. 
Thomas  E.  Donnelley  II 
Mrs.  Thomas  E.  Donnelley  II 
Marshall  Field 
Nicholas  Calitzine 
Paul  W.  Goodrich 
Remick  McDowell 
Hugo  J.  Melvoin 
William  H.  Mitchell 
Charles  F.  Murphy,  |r. 
lames  H.  Ransom 
lohn  S.  Runnells 
William  t.  Searle 
Edward  Byron  Smith 
Mrs.  Hermon  Dunlap  Smith 


Robert  H.  Strotz 
John  W.  Sullivan 
William  G.  Swartchild,  Jr. 
Mrs.  Theodore  D.  Tieken 
E.  Leland  Webber 
Julian  B.  Wilkins 


Life  Trustees 

William  McCormick  Blai 
Joseph  N.  Field 
Clifford  C.  Gregg 
Samuel  Insull,  Jr. 
William  V.  Kahler 
Hughston  M.  McBain 
|.  Roscoe  Miller 
lames  L.  Palmer 
lohn  T.  Pirie,  Jr. 
lohn  G.  Searle 
lohn  M.  Simpson 
Louis  Ware 
I    Howard  Wood 


COVER 

Detail  of  pen-and-ink  drawing  by  Kinuko  Y.  Craft,  Chicago  artist. 
The  complete  drawing  depicts  six  principal  biomic  types:  tundra, 
woodland,  grassland,  desert,  tropical  jungle,  and  marine.  The  seg- 
ments showing  tropical  jungle  and  desert  are  reproduced  on  the 
front  and  back  covers,  respectively.  Pages  10-1 1  show  tundra,  wood- 
land, and  grassland.  The  drawing,  enlarged  as  a  mural,  is  on  view  in 
area  6  of  the  Man  in  His  Environment  exhibit,  opening  to  the 
public  November  9. 


PHOTO  CREDITS 

Photos    on    pages    13-18    by    Alan    Levine;   all    others    by    Field 
Museum  staff. 


Field  Museum  of  Natural  History  Bulletin  is  published  monthly,  except 
combined  July/August  issue,  by  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History,  Roosevelt 
Road  at  Lake  Shore  Drive,  Chicago,  Illinois  60605.  Subscriptions:  $6  a  year; 
$3  a  year  for  schools.  Members  of  the  Museum  subscribe  through  Museum 
membership.  Opinions  expressed  by  authors  are  their  own  and  do  not 
necessarily  reflect  the  policy  of  Field  Museum.  Unsolicited  manuscripts  are 
welcome.  Postmaster:  Please  send  form  3579  to  Field  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  Roosevelt  Road  at  Lake  Shore  Drive,  Chicago,  Illinois  60605. 
ISSN:  0015-0703.  Second  class  postage  paid  at  Chicago,  III. 


ft 

1 


■  if  ►  "  I  (t  ■   ikfli 


Man  In  His 
Environment 

A  New  Exhibit  that  May  Disturb 
and  Motivate  as  well  as  Inform 


Man  in  His  Environment  will  be  open  exclusively 
to  Field  Museum  members  and  their  guests  during 
the  entire  day  of  Saturday,  November  8.  On  the 
following  day,  Sunday,  November  9,  the  exhibit 
will  be  opened  permanently  to  the  public. 


By  David  M.  Walsten 

Man  in  His  Environment,  Field  Museum's  Bicentennial  exhibit, 
could  well  be  the  most  significant— and  most  disturbing— exhibit 
mounted  at  the  Museum  since  the  institution  first  opened  its  doors 
more  than  eighty  years  ago.  The  exhibit  is  unique  in  that  it 
integrates— as  facets  of  ecology— the  separate  disciplines  of 
zoology,  botany,  and  anthropology;  but  the  most  significant  aspect 
of  Man  in  His  Environment  is  that  it  does  not  merely  inform,  it  asks 
the  visitor  to  consider  the  implications  for  earth's  future.  How  is  the 
quality  of  life  on  our  planet  changing?  What  are  the  consequences 
for  man  if  he  does  not  choose  wisely  among  the  options  that  are  yet 
open  to  him?  The  ultimate  hope  of  those  who  conceived  the  exhibit 
is  that  the  visitor  will  come  away  from  it  with  a  heightened  concern 
not  only  for  present  realities,  but  for  future  probabilities,  and  that 
he  will  be  motivated  to  take  individual  action  toward  a  solution  of 
our  environmental  dilemma. 

The  fundamental  concepts  of  the  exhibit  were  first  elucidated 
in  Man  in  the  Environment  (Knopf,  1975),*  a  book  by  Ruth  Moore. 
The  purpose  of  this  book,  in  fact,  was  to  establish  a  conceptual 
basis  for  the  exhibit,  and  Ruth  Moore's  explication  of  man's 
environmental  dilemma  is  both  lucid  and  compelling. 

Exhibit  Areas 

The  exhibit  space  for  Man  in  His  Environment  is  the 
8,000-square-foot  area  of  Hall  18,  on  the  first  floor,  which  has  been 
named  the  "Ray  A.  and  Joan  M.  Kroc  Hall."  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Kroc  were 
major  donors  to  the  funding  of  the  exhibit. 

In  Area  1  (see  diagram,  p.  5),  Sphere  of  Life— Earth's  Diversity, 
a  large,  multifaceted  sphere  briefly  characterizes  each  of  five 
biomes,  or  types  of  environment.  In  Area  2,  Ecological 
Realities  — Natural  Laws  at  Work,  Theater  I  shows  a  15-minute, 
continuous-loop,  color  film  produced  exclusively  for  the  exhibit. 
The  film  explains  how  mineral  nutrients  are  cycled,  how  energy 

'Available  at  the  Field  Museum  Book  Shop. 
■<  Portion  of  salt  marsh  diorama  in  area  3. 

Field  Museum  Bulletin 


flows  through  a  food  chain,  and  how  animal  populations  are 
controlled. 

Area  3,  Salt  Marsh  Ecology— Natural  Laws  at  Work  in  a  Salt 
Marsh,  features  a  central  diorama  which  may  be  viewed  from  any  of 
four  sides.  A  salt  marsh— a  reproduction  of  that  on  Sapelo  Island, 
Georgia  — is  the  subject  of  the  diorama,  with  many  of  the  vertebrate 
and  invertebrate  inhabitants  of  the  marsh,  as  well  as  plant  life, 
represented:  several  bird  species,  raccoons,  butterflies,  mollusks, 
and  crabs.  The  diorama  is  a  visualization  of  principles  and  processes 
discussed  in  the  film  shown  in  Theater  I. 

Area  4,  Toolmaker's  Progress— The  Increasing  Complexity  of 
Our  Food  Production  Tools,  features  a  life-size  sculpture  of  a  lion 
and  a  primitive  man,  both  feeding  at  carcasses  of  two  wild 
pigs— one  predator  eating  by  means  of  claws  and  teeth,  the  other 
aided  by  a  stone  tool.  It  shows  man's  kinship  with  animals,  but 
reveals  that  he  is  different  by  virtue  of  his  culture,  represented  by 
the  tool.  (See  "Anatomy  of  a  Sculpture,"  p.  6.)  The  area  continues 
with  a  representation  of  the  development  of  culture  in  three 
episodes  through  the  use  of  a  prehistoric  stone  chopper,  a  medieval 
plow,  and  a  modern  plow. 

Area  5,  The  Choice  Is  Ours  — Our  Impact  on  the  Earth,  consists 
of  Theater  II,  which  shows  a  20-minute,  continuous-loop,  color  film. 
The  film  deals  with  the  present  status  and  alternatives  for  the 
growth  of  the  human  population,  the  use  of  natural  resources,  and 
the  disruption  of  natural  checks  and  balances  by  our  present 
agricultural  practices.  Questions  concerning  the  implications  of 
these  alternatives  for  our  social  institutions  are  posed. 

Area  6,  Message  from  Other  Cultures,  is  a  circular  room,  the 
walls  of  which  are  dominated  by  an  eight-foot-high  mural  (two 
segments  of  which  are  reproduced  on  this  month's  Bulletin  cover). 
The  mural,  created  by  Chicago  artist  Kinuko  Y.  Craft,  depicts  six  of 
earth's  major  biomic  types:  tundra,  temperate  forest,  grassland, 
desert,  tropical  jungle,  and  marine.  Also  on  view  in  Area  6  are  a 
selection  of  artifacts  from  pre-industrial  cultures.  These  may  suggest 
that  there  are  certain  alternatives  for  modern  man  in  his  attempt  to 
relate  harmoniously  to  the  environment. 


Education  Programs 

The  new  exhibit  is  but  one  facet  of  an  ongoing  Man  in  His 
Environment  program,  which  includes  activities  in  the  Chicago  area 
as  well  as  a  traveling  exhibit.  Locally,  the  program  offers  a  series  of 
environmental  films  (for  November  showings  at  Field  Museum  see 
"November  at  Field  Museum,"  inside  back  cover),  lectures,  field 
trips,  workshops,  school  programs,  museum  kits  (for  school 
classrooms  and  other  nonprofit  community  organizations),  various 
printed  materials,  and  courses  (including  topics  such  as  winter 
botany,  land  use,  amateur  geology,  etc.).  Additional  information 
about  local  programs  is  available  by  writing  or  calling  the 
Department  of  Education,  Field  Museum. 


Traveling  Exhibit 

A  traveling  Man  in  His  Environment  exhibit,  developed  by  the 
Field  Museum  staff  and  to  be  circulated  by  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  Traveling  Exhibit  Service,  covers  most  of  the  subject 
matter  of  the  two  films  shown  at  the  Field  Museum  exhibit.  It  is  de- 


* 


[Portion  of  salt  marsh  diorama  in  Area  3. 


A  grouping  in  Area  1,  with  specimens  of  fox  squirrel,  blue  jay,  sugar  maple, 
and  dogwood. 


signed  for  general  visitors  to  small  and 
medium-size  museums  throughout  the 
United  States. 

Funding 

The  Man  in  His  Environment  project 
was  made  possible  by  a  major  gift  from 


Mr.  and  Mrs.  Ray  A.  Kroc  and  grants  from 
National  Endowment  for  the  Humanities, 
National  Science  Foundation,  Field 
Foundation  of  Illinois,  and  The  Charles  E. 
Merrill  Trust;  funding  for  certain  con- 
struction elements  was  also  provided  by 
the  Chicago  Park  District  and  by  the  Field 
Museum  Capital  Campaign. 


■<  Floor  plan  of  Man  in  His  Environment  exhibit 


Man  in  His  Environment  symbol. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


The  Anatomy  of  a  Sculpture 


By  William  Pasek 

The  curious  thing  about  even  the 
most  simple  work  of  art  is  that  it 
belies  the  complexity  of  its  crea- 
tion. The  original  sculpture  in  the  Man  in 
His  Environment  exhibit  is  a  good 
example. 

Early  in  the  development  of  the 
exhibit  design,  we  decided  that  a 
dramatic  sculpture  would  be  the  medium 
to  introduce  man,  the  unique  animal. 
The  sculpture  would  occupy  a  prominent 
place  in  the  critical  transition  area  where 
the  focus  of  the  exhibit  shifts  from 
natural  systems  to  man  and  his  relation- 
ship to  the  world  around  him.  The 
important  concept  we  wanted  to  illus- 
trate is  that,  although  man  is  not 
independent  of  the  natural  laws  that 
govern  all  life,  his  culture  distinguishes 
him  from  other  animals. 

To  exemplify  this  concept  we  ad- 
vanced the  idea  of  showing  a  man  and  an 
animal  engaged  in  the  same  activity.  The 
project  was  assigned  to  Martin  Wanserski, 
Field  Museum  preparations  sculptor 
(now  a  member  of  the  art  department 


William    Pasek    is    acting    chairman    of    the 
Department  of  Exhibition. 


faculty  at  the  University  of  South 
Dakota).  Wanserski  developed  the  idea 
into  alternate  approaches  and  sculpted 
three  preliminary  models  of  the  subject 
in  clay. 

The  chosen  version,  shown  above, 
depicts  a  lion  and  a  primitive  man 
tackling  the  universal  problem  of  getting 
food.  The  lion  is  using  its  teeth  to  tear  the 
flesh  of  a  wild  pig,  while  at  its  side,  the 
man  is  cutting  the  carcass  of  another  pig 
with  a  crude  stone  tool.  The  torsos  of  the 


man  and  lion  are  joined,  illustrating  their 
common  origins,  while  the  ways  they  are 
attacking  their  food  illustrate  their 
differences. 

One  result  of  man's  special  abilities 
is  represented  here  in  the  various  steps 
taken  to  create  this  sculpture.  The 
life-size  figures  were  first  sculpted  in  clay 
by  Wanserski,  and  finally  rendered  into 
polyester  resin  with  the  aid  of  John 
Cannon,  acting  chief  preparator,  and 
Kevin  Williams,  preparator. 


November  1975 


(7)  Preparatory  to  executing  life-size 
sculpture,  Marty  Wanserski  makes  V*- 
size  clay  maquette,  or  model.  (2)  Arma- 
ture, or  metal  spine,  supports  clay  of 
full-size  sculpture.  (J)  Finished  clay 
sculpture.  (4)  Rubber  molding  com- 
pound is  brushed  onto  clay  form  in 
sections.  (Con't  on  p.    8) 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


Bffi^W 

■  1 

4)       ^  jgL  f 

(5)  Wansersfc/  applies  fiber  glass  jacket 
over  rubber  mold.  (6)  After  fiber  glass 
has  set,  it  is  removed  in  sections,  leaving 
rubber  mold.  (7)  Rubber  mold,  bearing 
detailed  impressions  from  clay  base,  is 
peeled  away  from  clay.  Clay  base  is 
discarded.  (8)  Rubber  mold  sections  are 
fitted  back  into  corresponding  sections 
of  fiber  glass.  (9)  The  latter  sections 
provide  support  as  several  coats  of 
polyester  resin  are  applied  to  inner 
surface  of  rubber  mold.  (70)  The  rein- 
forced sections  of  polyester  resin  are 
assembled.  (7  7)  Fiber  glass  jacket  is 
removed  and  rubber  molding  peeled 
away,    leaving   polyester   resin    casting. 

(72)  Surfaces  are  sanded  and  finished. 

(73)  Color  is  applied.  (14)  The  finished 
sculpture. 


November  1975 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


Three  of  earth's  major  biomes  —  tundra,  deciduous  forest,  and  grassland  —  as 
depicted  by  Chicago  artist  Kinuko  Y.  Craft.  The  segment  shown  here  is  part  of  a 
drawing  which  also  depicts  desert,  jungle,  and  marine  biomes.  (The  desert  and 
jungle  biomes  are  reproduced  on  this  month's  Bulletin  cover.)  The  entire 
work  —  48  feet  long  and  nearly  8  feet  high  —  is  on  view  as  a  mural  in  area  six 
of  the  newly  installed  Man  in  His  Environment  exhibit.  Mrs.  Craft  executed  the 
original  work  in  pen  and  ink.  The  drawing  was  then  enlarged  photographically 
to  produce  the  mural.  Copyright  ©  1975  by  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History. 


November  1975 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


field  briefs 


Leon  L.  Pray  putting  the  finishing  touches  on  his  model  of  a  mesembriornis,  or  terror  bird,  a 
prehistoric  species. 


Leon  L.  Pray,  1882-1975 

"A  genius,"  was  the  way  Clifford  C.  Gregg, 
former  director  of  Field  Museum,  once 
described  Leon  L.  Pray,  distinguished  artist 
and  taxidermist  at  Field  Museum  from  1901  to 
1947  Mr.  Pray  died  Sept.  18  in  Aurora,  III.,  at 
the  age  of  93.  During  his  near-half-century  at 
Field  Museum  Mr.  Pray  mounted  hundreds  of 
animal  specimens  which  are  still  on  exhibit  at 
Field  Museum.  But  he  was  also  a  highly 
creative  technician  who  invented  a  number  of 
devices  and  processes  for  mounting  and 
preserving  animals.  Chief  among  these  were 
borax  solution  mothproofing  (replacing  arse- 
nic and  corrosive  sublimate),  fish  models  in 
place  of  mounted  fish  skins,  a  hollow,  built-in 
mannikin  for  mounting  small  mammals,  and 
mounting  large  mammals  or  mannikins  with- 
out the  use  of  clay  models  or  plaster  casts. 

Mr.  Pray  was  born  at  Dowagiac,  Mich.,  in 
1882,  and  attended  the  Art  Institute  of 
Chicago.  He  first  came  to  the  Field  Museum 
(then  located  in  Hyde  Park)  in  1901,  at  the  age 
of  19,  and  was  to  remain  there  almost  without 
interruption  until  1947,  when  he  retired  at  the 
age  of  65.  He  wrote  a  large  number  of  books 
and  magazine  articles  on  animal  mounting 
procedures  and,  in  addition  to  his  work  in  the 
Museum,  participated  in  a  number  of  expedi- 
tions, including  trips  to  various  parts  of  North 


America  and  to  the  Bahamas.  Mr.  Pray  is 
survived  by  a  daughter,  Mrs.  Ellen  P.  Coewey, 
and  two  grandchildren. 


Voris  Returns  from  Southeast  Asia 

After  te/i  months  of  collecting  and  related 
research  on  the  sea  snakes  of  Southeast  Asia, 
Harold  Voris,  assistant  curator  of  reptiles  and 
amphibians,  has  returned  to  Field  Museum. 
(See  "Sea  Snakes:  A  Field  Report,"  July/August 
Bulletin.)  The  main  purpose  of  Voris's  trip  was 
to  learn  more  about  the  geographic  and 
ecological  distributions  of  the  venomous 
marine  snakes  of  Malaysia  and  to  investigate 
phenomena  such  as  migration,  reproductive 
cycles,  and  food  habits.  During  the  trip  he  was 
also  able  to  collect  more  than  3,000  marine 
and  estuarian  snakes  representing  17  species. 
One  of  the  species  is  new  to  the  Museum 
collection  and  several  of  the  species  are  now, 
for  the  first  time,  represented  with  adequate 
study  samples. 

The  trip  also  included  a  three-month 
investigation  of  the  reptiles  and  amphibians 
of  a  Sumatran  rain  forest.  This  yielded  a 
collection  of  more  than  900  specimens  of 
frogs,  toads,  turtles,  snakes,  and  lizards  and  a 
species  total  of  about  70.  The  Sumatran 
specimens  are  a  particularly  valuable  addition 


to  the  Museum's  collection,  since  no  exten- 
sive collecting  has  been  done  in  that  region. 
Dr.  Voris  was  assisted  on  the  trip  by  Mrs. 
Voris.  Lim  Boo  Liat,  of  the  Institute  for 
Medical  Research,  at  Kuala  Lumpur,  Malaysia, 
collaborated  with  the  Vorises.  Funding  was 
provided  in  part  by  the  Allen-Heath  Founda- 
tion, the  Philip  K.  Wrigley  Marine  Biological 
Research  Fund,  and  the  Ray  A.  Kroc 
Environmental  Fund. 

Kennicott  Club 

Forty-five  years  ago  the  Kennicott  Club  was 
founded  to  promote  the  study  of  natural 
history;  it  was  names  after  Robert  Kennicott 
(1835-1866),  the  Chicago  pioneer  naturalist. 
The  club  sponsors  lectures  by  members  and 
guests  and  regularly  meets  at  Field  Museum 
on  the  first  Tuesday  of  each  month  at  7:30 
p.m.  Persons  interested  in  the  subject  of  the 
evening's  talk  are  cordially  invited  to  attend. 
At  the  November  4  meeting,  Leslie 
Freeman,  associate  professor  of  anthropology 
at  the  University  of  Chicago,  will  speak  on 
"The  Training  of  the  Professions  in  the 
People's  Republic  of  China  —  an  Anthro- 
pologist's View."  Dr.  Freeman  recently  return- 
ed from  a  visit  to  mainland  China.  At  the 
December  2  meeting  Robert  Johnson,  associ- 
ate curator  of  fishes  at  Field  Museum,  will 
speak  on  "A  Profusion  of  Predators:  Aspects 
of  the  Biology  of  Deep-Sea  Fishes." 


Ownership  and  Circulation 

Filing  date:  Sept.  30,  1975.  Title:  Field 
Museum  of  Natural  History  Bulletin.  Frequen- 
cy of  publication:  monthly,  except  combined 
July/August  issue.  Office:  Roosevelt  Rd.  at 
Lake  Shore  Dr.,  Chicago,  III.  60605. 

Publisher:  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History. 
Editor:  David  M.  Walsten.  Known  bond- 
holders, mortgagees,  and  other  security 
holders:  none.  Nonprofit  status  has  not 
changed  during  preceding  12  months. 


Total  copies  printed 
Mail  subscriptions 
Total  paid  circulation 
Free  distribution 
Total  distribution 
Office  use,  left  over 
Total 


Av.  No. 

Copies 

Each  Issue 

Preceding 

12  Months 

26,600 

21,677 

21,677 

1,636 

23,313 

3,287 

26,600 


Actual  No. 

Copies 

Single  Issue 

Nearest  to 

Filing  Date 

26,900 

22,315 

22,315 

1,370 

23,685 

3,215 

26,900 


I  certify  that  the  statements  made  by  me 
above  are  correct  and  complete.  —  Norman 
W.  Nelson,  Assistant  Director,  Administration. 


November  1975 


Viewed  from  a  cave  —  typical  "tortuga  grande"  country  in  Chihuahua,  Mexico.  The  author,  left,  visits  the  site  with  Mexican  guide. 


Man  and  Tortoise 


The  Search  for  a  Little- Known 
Mexican  Reptile  and  Its 
Curious  Relationship  to  Man 


By  Ray  Pawley 
Photographs  by  Alan  Levine 

A  relatively  late  arrival  in  the  zoo- 
logical literature  was  the  scientific 
description  of  the  yellow-mar- 
gined, or  bolson,  tortoise  {Copherus 
flavomarginatus),  of  north  central  Mex- 
ico; it  was  not  officially  described  until 
sixteen  years  ago.1  The  failure  of  science 
to  record  the  species  until  so  recently  is 
remarkable  on  a  number  of  counts:  The 

Ray  Pawley  is  curator  of  birds  and  reptiles  at 
Brookfield  Zoo. 

■<  A  large  specimen  of  Copherus  flavomargina- 
tus —  "la  tortuga  grande"  of  north  central 
Mexico. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


NEW  MEXICO 


UNITED       STATES 


Foothills  near  Hacienda  de  los  Remedios 


habitat  of  the  yellow-margined  has 
virtually  no  natural  cover  and  the  terrain 
offers  few  places  for  a  ten-pound, 
sixteen-inch  animal  to  hide;  it  is  not 
especially  wary,  and  neither  its  markings 
nor  its  coloring  serve  as  good  camou- 
flage; nor  is  it  nocturnal  in  habit. 
Furthermore,  some  burrow  "colonies"  of 
the  tortoise  are  within  easy  view  of  a 
much-traveled  highway. 

On  the  other  hand  it  would  have 
been  easy,  without  further  investigation, 
to  surmise  that  any  tortoise  in  the  area 
belonged  to  one  of  two  other  gopher 
tortoise  species— the  desert  tortoise 
{Copherus  agassizii)  or  the  berlandier 
tortoise  (C.  berlandieri),  both  of  which 
occur  in  the  Southwest. 

Perhaps  even  more  startling  than  its 
delayed  discovery  is  the  tortoise's  con- 
tinued survival  in  a  singularly  hostile 
environment.  This  may  be  due  less  to  the 
animal's  natural  tenacity  than  to  a  simple 


14  November  1975 


01 


- 


d  ; 


# 


Senora  Dado  entices  tortoise  with  bits  of  clover. 


conservation  program  practiced  for  un- 
known generations  by  the  scattered 
community  of  humans  who  eke  out  a 
living  in  that  barren  region. 

During  a  three-way  conversation 
with  Monroy  and  Pescal,  I  mentioned 
some  discarded  carapaces,  or  back 
shells,  of  the  yellow-margined  that  I  had 
seen  on  a  nearby  refuse  heap.  Monroy 
said  that,  contrary  to  my  suggestion,  the 
animals  were  not  rare;  but  their  colonies, 
he  said,  were  widely  separated.  Local 
residents,  I  was  told,  sometimes  ate  the 
animals.  The  lieutenant  then  produced  a 
strapping  eight-pound  tortoise  that  was 
almost  ready  to  be  dumped  into  the  stew 
kettle.  With  some  reluctance,  Monroy 
agreed  to  part  with  the  animal  in 
exchange  for  several  pesos. 

Several  years  after  its  formal  discov- 
ery, photographer  Alan  Levine  and  I  were 
in  the  city  of  Torreon,  in  the  state  of 
Coahuila,  asking  local  residents  where 
we  could  find  specimens  of  C.  flavomar- 
ginatus.  Our  two-week   search   for  this 


".  .  .we  were  shortly  to  discover  two  baby) 
tortoises,  each  no  larger  than  a  hen's  egg." 


Field  Museum  Bulletin  15 


species  was  part  of  an  extensive  "Vam- 
pire Bat  Expedition"  that  carried  us 
across  the  length  and  breadth  of  Mexico 
in  search  of  bats  and  other  mammals, 
birds,  reptiles,  and  plants  for  Brookfield 
Zoo.2  Mexico's  Department  of  Conserva- 
tion kindly  granted  us  permission  to 
collect  specimens  for  exhibition  and 
captive  breeding  purposes. 

In  Torreon,  a  physician  who  was  also 
an  expert  on  the  local  natural  history,  Dr. 
Manuel  Medina  C,  put  us  in  touch  with 
Manuel  "Pescal"  Galvoza  Lora,  a  bilin- 
gual guide.  Pescal,  in  turn,  introduced  us 
to  acquaintances  who  knew  of  la  tortuga 
grande  first-hand,  and  he  patiently 
interpreted  for  us  an  endless  exchange  of 
questions  and  answers  about  the  reptile 
and  its  lifestyle. 

Later  he  guided  us  100  miles 
northwest  into  the  state  of  Chihuahua, 
where  we  turned  off  the  highway  to 
travel  yet  another  30  axle-torturing  miles. 
Our  destination  was  a  remote  army  post, 
Hacienda  de  los  Remedios,  where  we 
were  greeted  by  the  commandant,  Lt. 
Florez  Monroy.  Since  Monroy's  assign- 
ment to  the  lonely  post  several  years 
earlier,  we  were  only  the  second  party  of 


gringos  to  come  that  way,  and  we 
received  the  full  measure  of  Mexican 
hospitality:  horseback  riding,  visiting  a 
cave  with  ancient  wall  paintings,  sam- 
pling bottles  of  Monroy's  vintage  mescal 
(some  fortified  with  insects  and  guaran- 
teed to  restore  sexual  powers),  and 
luxuriating  in  a  hot  springs— hence  the 
name  "House  of  Remedies." 

Our  rescued  tortoise  was  not  at  all 
shy,  and  declined  to  retract  his  head 
even  when  lightly  tapped.  The  yellow- 
edged  carapace  and  plastron,  or  lower 
shell,  was  unusual  (compared  to  those  of 
other  species)  in  that  they  bore  no 
blemishes  or  worn  surfaces  at  all;  but  the 
tortoise's  most  arresting  feature  was  its 
gleaming  yellow  eyes. 

Monroy  went  on  to  say  that  the  local 
residents  were  very  solicitous  of  their 
hard-shelled  friends  and  careful  not  to 
over-harvest  them,  culling  only  a  few 
each  year  for  their  food  supply.  At 
approximately  one- or  two-week  intervals 
a  pickup  truck  loaded  with  fresh  greens 
would  be  driven  a  circuit  of  several  miles 
across  the  desert,  and  some  of  the  load 
dropped  off  at  each  of  various  tortoise 
colonies.  In  return  for  their  largess,  the 


Adult  yellow-margined  tortoise  in  excavated  burrow. 


provisioners  extracted  payment  from 
time  to  time  by  selecting  a  big,  healthy 
tortoise  for  their  own  dinner  tables. 

To  maintain  this  unusual  conserva- 
tion program,  the  local  people  imposed 
no  licenses  or  controls  upon  themselves 
and  there  was  no  poaching,  since 
"everyone  knew  everyone"  and  a 
snitched  tortoise  would  soon  be  common 
gossip. 

Here,  then,  was  a  system  of  cultiva- 
tion and  cropping  of  a  wild  animal  that 
had  long  ago  been  worked  out  according 
to  an  efficient,  albeit  simple  set  of  rules. 
In  all  likelihood,  the  community's  prac- 
tice—comparable to  programs  in  mid- 
western  United  States  of  providing  food  in 
winter  for  deer  — long  antedated  sophis- 
ticated game  management  systems.  On 
the  basis  of  evidence  offered  by  refuse 
left  centuries  ago  in  local  caves  by 
pre-Columbian  Indians,  Dr.  Medina 
speculated  that  the  tortoise  has  been  a 
human  food  staple  there  for  centuries; 
and  it  is  not  difficult  to  assume  that  even 
at  that  distant  time,  a  kind  of  symbiotic 
relationship  existed  between  Homo  sap- 
iens and  Copherus  flavomarginatus.  If 
the  yellow-margined  has  indeed  come  to 
depend  on  man  for  food,  it  is  most 
assuredly  the  only  reptile  that  continues 
to  survive  under  such  remarkable  pa- 
tronage. 

Back  in  Torreon,  we  visited  the 
home  of  the  Dado  family,  where  a  pair  of 
yellow-margineds  had  been  domiciled  as 
pets  for  more  than  two  years.  These 
tortoises,  too,  were  destined  for  the 
family  dinner  table,  but  fortunately  for  us 
(to  say  nothing  of  the  tortoises),  that 
event  seemed  to  be  one  of  perpetual 
postponement. 

The  animals  had  dug  two  burrows 
some  distance  apart,  with  entrances  at 
the  bottom  of  the  courtyard  wall.  They 
extended  beneath  it,  passed  under  the 
sidewalk  outside  the  wall,  and  presum- 
ably extended  out  under  the  street. 

At  midday,  when  we  arrived,  the 
tortoises  were  deep  inside  their  burrows. 
They  would  emerge,  we  were  told, 
"perhaps  this  evening,  perhaps  in  two  or 
three  days,  perhaps  in  a  month." 
However, Senora  Dado  boasted  that  she 
was  able  to  call  them  from  their  burrows 
any  time  she  wished.  To  demonstrate, 
she  placed  a  handful  of  fresh  clover  in 
front  of  the  two  entrances.  Indicating  for 
us  to  remain  at  a  distance,  she  began 
tapping  the  ground  and  softly  calling.3 


16  November  1975 


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Excavated  tortoise  burrow 

After  several  minutes,  Senora  Dado 
whispered  that  a  tortoise  had  ap- 
proached to  about  three  feet  inside  the 
entrance.  The  animal  would  come  no 
closer,  she  explained,  because  it  knew 
that  strangers  were  present.  Peering  into 
the  spacious  burrow,  we  could  indeed 
make  out  the  hulk  of  a  large  tortoise, 
turned  at  an  angle  as  though  pondering 
whether  it  was  safe  to  come  further. 
Inserting  a  snake  hook  into  the  hole,  I 
got  a  hold  on  the  animal  (a  female)  and 
gently  pulled  it  out.  Moments  later  I  also 
got  the  male. 

For  me,  the  thrill  of  acquiring  the 
two  superb  specimens  was  made  even 
more  meaningful  by  the  opportunity  to 
observe  first-hand  this  example  of  inter- 
specific behavior  between  man  and 
tortoise— the  animal's  response  to  Seno- 
ra Dado's  calling  and  tapping.  But  the 
best  was  yet  to  come;  we  were  shortly  to 
discover  two  baby  tortoises,  each  no 
larger  than  a  hen's  egg,  also  living  in  the 
burrows.  There  is  no  question  in  my  mind 
that  we  were  the  first  outsiders  ever  to 
see  a  baby  yellow-margined  tortoise.  The 
Dados  graciously  presented  the  tiny 
creatures  to  us  as  a  gift,  even  though  they 
had  been  special  pets  of  the  Dado 
children,  and  one  was  painted  pink!  (The 
latter  died  just  a  few  days  later,  after  we 
carefully  flaked  off  the  paint.)  The  little 
ones  had  apparently  hatched  from  eggs 
laid    in   one   of    the    burrow    chambers. 


Unfortunately,  the  Dados  could  tell  us 
nothing  about  the  number  of  eggs  laid, 
their  size,  exactly  where  they  had  been 
laid,  or  the  period  of  incubation;  nor  had 
they  witnessed  any  courtship  or  mating 
behavior.  Much,  therefore,  was  left  to 
our  speculation. 

Not  until  we  later  arrived  at  an 
actual  tortoise  den  site,  in  the  desert, 
were  we  able  to  make  further  observa- 
tions about  the  animals'  lifestyle.  With 
Pescal  as  "navigator"  and  myself  at  the 
wheel  of  our  station  wagon,  we  bounced 
over  another  stretch  of  gravelly,  roadless 
desert.  Finally,  Pescal  pointed  to  a 
light-colored  patch  of  gravel  a  few 
hundred  yards  distant.  Its  pale  color,  he 
explained,  indicated  that  it  had  been 
freshly  exposed  and  was  not  sufficiently 
weathered  to  match  the  prevailing 
gray-brown  of  the  surrounding  area.  We 
could  hardly  contain  our  excitement,  for 
here,  at  the  base  of  a  slope,  was  a 
half-acre  cluster  of  perhaps  twenty 
tortoise  burrows,  with  signs  of  recent 
activity.  The  burrows  were  mostly  six  to 
twelve  feet  apart— a  proximity  in  marked 
contrast  to  the  interval  of  many  miles 
between  colonies. 

Dr.  Medina  subsequently  informed 
us  that  an  underground  communal 
network  is  formed  by  the  burrows  of  the 
yellow-margined  tortoise,  and  that  a 
single  entrance  may  be  used  by  any 
number  of  them.  But  our  excavation  of 


one  burrow  revealed  no  such  network, 
although  the  tunnel  forked  and  reforked 
for  a  total  length  of  22  feet,  terminating 
in  four  dead  ends.  Its  structure  differed 
markedly  from  that  of  the  gopher 
tortoise,  which  is  usually  unbranched. 
Sloping  gradually  downward,  the  tunnel 
penetrated  several  feet  into  the  hillside, 
with  the  terminal  branches  at  least  six 
feet  below  the  surface. 

In  the  case  of  the  gopher  tortoise, 
the  burrow  diameter  is  only  slightly  wider 
than  the  animal's  shell,  and  the  shells  of 
adults  always  show  some  wear  around 
the  edges.  The  yellow-margined,  on  the 
other  hand,  enlarges  its  burrow  so  that 
there  is  ample  room  for  the  animal  to 
turn  around  or  even  to  stand  on  all  fours, 
with  several  inches  of  clearance  above 
and  to  the  sides;  its  shell  rarely  shows 
any  sign  of  wear.  Perhaps  stories  that 
came  to  us  of  gigantic  yellow-margineds 
("larger  than  a  saddle")  were  sheer 
speculation  based  on  the  size  of  burrow 
entrances  rather  than  on  specimens  that 
had  actually  been  seen. 

Among  other  tortoise  species,  the 
presence  of  juveniles  is  often  indicated 
by  narrow  burrows,  but  all  burrows  in  the 
colony  we  studies  were  at  least  six  inches 
wide— considerably  larger  than  what 
might  be  expected  for  tiny  baby  tor- 
toises. In  the  case  of  gopher  tortoises  it  is 
not  unusual  to  find  very  small  burrows  in 
the  company  of  large  ones,  indicating 
that  even  the  very  young  animals  dig 
their  own  burrows.  It  is  tempting  to 
speculate  that  perhaps  yellow-margineds 
lay  their  eggs  in  an  end  chamber  and  that 
the  young  use  the  parents'  burrow  until 
they  are  larger  and  able  to  dig  their  own. 
Unlike  the  cramped  quarters  of  the 
gopher  tortoise,  there  would  be  ample 
room  for  adult  and  young  yellow- 
margineds  to  share  the  space,  moving 
around  or  even  crawling  over  each  other. 
The  absence  of  small  burrows  may  not 
necessarily  mean  a  reproduction  decline. 

Standing  on  a  hilltop  overlooking 
the  colony,  it  was  obvious  to  me  that  an 
expanse  of  water  had  once  covered  many 
square  miles  of  what  was  now  desert.  A 
remnant  of  the  slowly  vanishing  lake 
could  still  be  seen  some  miles  to  the 
north.  Why  yellow-margineds  selected 
this  site  for  their  colony  was  of  special 
interest  to  us.  Curiously,  they  had  not 
built  on  the  desert  (dry  lake)  floor,  where 
they   would    have    been    closer    to    the 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


edible  ground  cover  which  sprouts  forth 
after  one  of  the  infrequent  cloudbursts. 
Perhaps  some  lingering  instinct  prevent- 
ed their  constructing  burrows  on  a  dry 
lake  floor  which,  generations  before,  had 
been  subject  to  flooding  and  inundation. 
Nor  did  they  choose  to  build  higher  on 
the  slopes,  which  would  have  placed 
them  closer  to  shrubs,  also  edible.  Their 
chosen  site  seemed  to  place  them  a  few 
hundred  yards  from  either  available  food 
source. 

The  adaptation  of  the  yellow-mar- 
gined tortoise  to  a  progressively  drier 
environment  is  not  unique;  the  closely 
related  desert  tortoise  of  our  own 
Southwest  has  also  made  remarkable 
adjustments.  Tortoises  can  go  for  months 


without  food,  thanks  to  a  low  metabolic 
rate;  and  their  exceptionally  thick  skin  is 
an  effective  protection  against  loss  of 
body  moisture. 

Additional  protection  against  the 
burning  heat  of  summer  days  and  the 
freezing  cold  of  winter  nights  is  provided 
by  the  yellow-margined's  burrow.  In  fact, 
the  tortoises  rarely  emerge  from  their 
burrows,  according  to  our  informants  at 
Hacienda  de  los  Remedios,  but  spend 
most  of  their  lives  underground.  Being 
vegetarians,  they  are  inconvenienced 
less  by  food  scarcity  in  dry  periods  than 
are  meat-eaters.  Moisture  from  the  green 
plants  they  eat  is  ample  for  their  needs, 
and  like  certain  other  tortoise  species, 
yellow-margineds   may   never   require   a 


Carapace  of  tortoise  freshly  removed  from  excavated  burrow  is  convenient  writing  desk 


*-**~      1, 


drink  of  water  in  an  entire  lifetime.  We 
were  told  that  the  tortoises  would  remain 
relatively  dormant  during  prolonged 
spells  of  heat  and  cold,  surfacing  only  for 
brief  periods  at  sunrise  or  sundown, 
particularly  during  a  heavy  dew  or  during 
one  of  the  infrequent  rains.  Judging  by 
the  habit  of  captive  yellow-margineds  of 
rapidly  browsing  on  the  nearest  available 
greenery,  it  is  likely  that  they  also  do  this 
in  the  wild  state  in  order  to  keep  their 
outside  time  to  a  minimum. 

There  are  a  great  many  questions 
about  the  yellow-margined  that  remain 
unanswered,  and  a  general  natural 
history  survey  of  the  species  is  now 
urgently  needed;  we  should  learn  more 
about  its  diet,  subterranean  lifestyle, 
activity  cycles,  and  the  animal's  territo- 
rial and  reproductive  behavior.  Ques- 
tions about  population  changes  and  the 
extent  to  which  traditional  management 
practices  are  affecting  their  numbers 
need  answering,  and  comparisons  should 
be  made  between  tended  and  untended 
colonies. 

It  is  gratifying  to  see  the  kind  of 
regard  the  Mexicans  of  this  region  have 
for  the  yellow-margined  tortoise,  even 
though  their  ultimate  motives  are  in  their 
own  interest.  In  all  likelihood,  the  animal 
would  already  be  extinct  were  it  not  for 
their  concern  and  solicitude.  But  the 
tortoises  may  be  waging  a  losing  battle.  It 
would  be  especially  sad  if  this  species 
long  associated  with  man,  yet  only 
recently  "discovered,"  were  to  soon 
become  extinct. 


1  By  John  Legler,  in  University  of  Kansas 
Publications,  Museum  of  Natural  History,  Vol. 
11,  No.  5,  pp.  335-43,  April  24,  1959. 
Specimens  had  been  collected,  but  not 
formally  described,  as  early  as  1918,  when 
Elswood  Chaffee  collected  a  specimen  which 
is  now-  in  the  collection  of  the  U.S.  National 
Museum.  In  1888  A.  Duges  described  two 
specimens  which  he  believed  to  be  the  gopher 
tortoise  (C.  polyphemus),  restricted  to  south- 
eastern United  States.  The  characters  he 
described,  however,  generally  agree  with 
those  of  C.  flavomarginatus. 

-Sponsored  by  the  Chicago  Zoological  Soci- 
ety, with  transportation  provided  by  the 
former  Ted  Borak  Pontiac  dealership,  of  Blue 
Island,  III. 

3  Tortoises  are  known  to  have  good  hearing. 
While  in  their  burrows  they  can  also  detect 
the  presence  of  other  animals  through 
vibrations  in  the  ground. 


18  November  1975 


NOVEMBER  at  Held  M 


useum 


NEW  PROGRAMS  AND  EXHIBITS 


WEAVING  DEMONSTRATIONS 


"MAN  IN  HIS  ENVIRONMENT"  EXHIBITION 

A  COMPELLING  NEW  EXHIBITION,  "MAN  IN  HIS  ENVIRON- 
MENT," opens  to  the  public  November  9  (members'  preview  November 
8).  This  dramatic,  permanent  exhibition  explores,  through  a  series  of 
graphic,  three-dimensional,  and  audiovisual  experiences,  nature's  mag- 
nificient  system  of  checks  and  balances  and  the  impact  of  man  and 
society  on  environmental  processes.  The  exhibit  also  raises  serious 
thought-provoking  questions  about  man's  role  in  preserving  the  quality 
of  life  on  our  planet. 

FILM  SERIES 

"ENVIRONMENT:  THE  SUM  OF  ITS  PARTS,"  offered  now  through 
spring  1976.  The  November  series,  "Ecosystems"— Africa  to  the  Arctic, 
a  marsh  to  a  prairie,  shows  a  variety  of  natural  communities  and  the 
effect  of  environmental  problems  on  their  built-in  system  of  checks  and 
balances.  Films  are  shown  at  1 1 :00  a.m.  and  1 :00  p.m.  in  the  Meeting 
Room,  second  floor  north. 

Nov.  9,14,15,16    "Mzima:    Portrait  of  a  Spring" 

Nov.  21 ,  22,  23  "High  Arctic  Biome"  and  "Billion  Dollar  Marsh" 

Nov.  28,  29,  30  "Survival  on  the  Prairie" 

CONTINUING  PROGRAMS  AND  EXHIBITS 

SPECIAL  BOTANICAL  ILLUSTRATIONS  EXHIBIT 

TWO  HUNDRED  YEARS  OF  BOTANICAL  ILLUSTRATIONS  FROM 
KEW  GARDENS,  ENGLAND,  includes  123  plant  illustrations  ranging 
from  mushrooms  to  orchids.  Pen-and-ink  and  watercolor  are  the  dom- 
inant media.  Hand-colored  lithographs  and  several  etchings  of  Kew 
Gardens  are  also  included.  Three-dimensional  plant  models  from  the 
Field  Museum's  outstanding  collection  add  their  own  form  of  illustra- 
tion. Live  plants  and  eighteenth  century  music,  played  continuously, 
further  enhance  the  beauty  of  the  exhibit.  Hall  9,  through  Novem- 
ber 16. 

FILM/LECTURE  SERIES 

"MAN'S  ONE  WORLD,"  a  film/lecture  series  on  the  impact  of  ecolog- 
ical disturbance  upon  traditional  cultures.  Anthropologists  will  discuss 
the  films  and  answer  questions  about  these  pressures  and  changes. 
Ground  floor  lecture  hall,  Fridays  at  7:30  p.m.,  repeated  Saturdays  at 
2:30  p.m. 

Nov.    8,    9:  "The  Village"  (Saturday,  November  8  members  only) 

Nov.  14,15:         "Ishi  in  Two  Worlds" 
Nov.  21,22:         "Sky  Chief" 

SATURDAY  DISCOVERY  PROGRAMS 


THE  ANCIENT  ART  OF  WEAVING  on  a  two-harness,  handcrafted 
Mexican  floor  loom,  demonstrated  by  members  of  the  North  Shore 
Weavers'  Guild  every  Monday,  Wednesday,  and  Friday,  10:30-  11:30 
a.m.  and  12:00  -  1:00  p.m.  On  Mondays,  November  3  and  17,  the 
demonstrations  include  spinning.  South  Lounge,  second  floor. 

FALL  JOURNEY  FOR  CHILDREN 

"PLANTS  THAT  GROW  ON  OTHER  PLANTS,"  a  free,  self-guided 
tour  focuses  on  the  museum's  botany  halls.  All  children  who  can  read 
and  write  are  invited  to  participate.  Journey  sheets  in  English  and 
Spanish  are  available  at  the  information  booth.  Bring  pen  or  pencil. 

SPECIAL  PROGRAMS  FOR  GROUPS 

MONDAY  THROUGH  FRIDAY,  ALL  YEAR  (except  Christmas  and 
New  Year's  Day)  free  educational  programs  are  offered  to  preregistered 
groups  of  ten  or  more.  Your  child's  teacher  or  community  group  leader 
may  be  interested  in  the  many  educational  opportunities  available  at 
the  Field  Museum.  For  a  free  educational  program  brochure,  please 
write:  Group  Programs,  Field  Museum. 

SPECIAL-INTEREST  MEETINGS 

Nov.    4,7:30  p.m.    Kennicott  Club 

Nov.    7,8:00  p.m.   Chicago  Anthropological  Society 

Nov.    9,2:00  p.m.   Chicago  Shell  Club 

Nov.  1 1 ,  7:00  p.m.    Chicago  Nature  Camera  Club 

Chicagoland  Glider  Council 

Windy  City  Grotto,  National  Speleological  Society 

Chicago  Mountaineering  Club 

Chicago  Shell  Club 


8:00  p.m. 
Nov.  12,7:30  p.m. 
Nov.  13,8:00  p.m. 
Nov.  16,2:00  p.m. 
Nov.  18,  7:30  p.m.    Chicago  Audubon  Society 


COMING  IN  DECEMBER 

"19TH    CENTURY    ALASKAN     ESKIMO    ART"    EXHIBIT.    In    the 

language  of  the  Eskimo  there  is  no  word  for  "art"  because  producing 
aesthetically  beautiful  objects  from  raw  materials  (caribou  antler,  drift- 
wood, walrus  ivory,  and  baleen)  relates  closely  to  all  aspects  of  Eskimo 
daily  life.  Fine  examples  of  19th  and  early  20th  century  Eskimo  sculp- 
ture, mostly  ivory,  and  traditional  graphic  designs  go  on  exhibit  Decem- 
ber 11  in  Hall  27. 

ESKIMO  LIFE  AND  ART  FILM  PROGRAM.  Three  films,  "The 
Eskimo  in  Life  and  Legend,"  "Eskimo  Artist  Kenojuak,"  and  "Kalvak," 
will  be  shown  to  the  public  daily  at  12:00  noon  in  the  Exhibit  Studio, 
rear  of  Hall  27. 


TOURS,  DEMONSTRATIONS,  AND  PARTICIPATORY  ACTIVITIES 

are  offered  continuously,  every  Saturday,  11:00  a.m.  to  3:00  p.m. 
Topics  vary,  but  often  include:  DINOSAURS:  Clay  modeling  in  the 
Hall  of  Dinosaurs.  Make  a  dinosaur  to  take  home.  EARLY  MAN:  A  tour 
that  traces  major  trends  in  man's  physical  and  cultural  evolution. 
NATIVE  AMERICAN  FOODS:  Try  free  samples  of  foods  from  Hopi, 
Navajo,  and  Zuni  peoples.  Free  recipes  are  available.  ANCIENT 
EGYPT:  Half-hour  tour  of  our  Egyptian  collection  includes  an  explana- 
tion of  the  "how's"  and  "why's"  of  mummy-making.  THE  WORLD  OF 
ANIMALS:  Touchable  animal  specimens  on  display.  Learn  how  animals 
are  prepared  for  exhibits. 

For  specific  programs  and  locations,  inquire  at  entrances. 


NOVEMBER  HOURS 

THE  MUSEUM  opens  daily  at  9:00  a.m.  and  closes  at  4:00  p.m.  week- 
days and  5:00  p.m.  weekends.  On  Friday,  year-round,  the  museum  is 
open  to  9:00  p.m.  Food  service  areas  are  open  weekdays  1  1 :00  a.m.  to 
3:00  p.m.,  weekends  to  4:00  p.m. 

THE  MUSEUM  LIBRARY  is  open  9:00  a.m.  to  4:00  p.m.  Monday 
through  Friday.  Please  obtain  pass  at  reception  desk ,  first  floor  north. 

MUSEUM  TELEPHONE:  922-9410 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


ILLINOIS  NATURAL  HISTORY 
SURVEY  LIB  RM  196 
NATURAL  RESOURCES  BUILDING 
URBANA  ILL  61801 


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Field  Museum 
of  Natural  History 
Bulletin 


CONTENTS 

NINETEENTH  CENTURY  ALASKAN  ESKIMO  ART 

A  New  Exhibit  Opens  December  1 1 

By  James  W.  VanStone,  curator  of  North  American  archaeology 
and  ethnology 


December,  1975 
Vol.  46,  No.  1 1 


OF  NYES,  MURMURATIONS,  AND  CETES 
And  Other  Nouns  of  Assembly 


OUR  ENVIRONMENT 


Editor/Designer:  David  M.  Walsten 
Production:  Oscar  Anderson 


11  FIELD  BRIEFS 

12  APPOINTMENT  CALENDAR  FOR  1976 

With  captions  and  explanatory  text  by  Phyllis  Rabineau,  custodian  of 
collections,  Department  of  Anthropology 


back 
cover 


DECEMBER  AT  FIELD  MUSEUM 
Calendar  of  Coming  Events 


Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 

Founded  1893 

Director:  E.  Leland  Webber 


COVER 

Wolf  mask,  probably  from  St.  Michael,  Alaska.  Used  in  the  Messenger 
Feast,  a  socio-religious  ceremony  in  which  the  residents  of  one  Eskimo 
village  entertain  those  of  another  and  exchange  gifts.  Collected  in  1897. 
24.5  cm  high  (without  feathers).  Catalog  No.  1  3433.  Photo  by  Ron 
Testa,  Field  Museum  photographer.  The  mask,  together  with  other 
19th  century  Alaskan  Eskimo  art  works,  may  be  seen  at  Field  Museum 
in  a  new  exhibition  opening  December  1 1.  See  pages  3-7. 


Board  of  Trustees 

Blaine  I.  Yarrington, 

President 
Gordon  Bent 
Harry  O.  Bercher 
liowen  Blair 
Slanton  R.  Cook 
William  R.  Dickinson,  Jr. 
Thomas  E.  Donnelley  II 
Mrs.  Thomas  E.  Donnelley  II 
Marshall  Field 
Nicholas  Calitzine 
Paul  W.  Goodrich 
Remick  McDowell 
Hugo  J.  Melvoin 
William  H.  Mitchell 
Charles  F.  Murphy,  Jr. 
lames  H.  Ransom 
lohn  S.  Runnells 
William  L.  Searle 
Edward  Byron  Smith 
Mrs.  Hermon  Dunlap  Smith 


Robert  H.  Strotz 
John  W.  Sullivan 
William  G.  Swartchild,  Jr. 
Mrs.  Theodore  D.  Tieken 
E.  Leland  Webber 
Julian  B.  Wilkins 


Life  Trustees 

William  McCormick  Blair 
Joseph  N.  Field 
Clifford  C.  Gregg 
Samuel  Insull,  Jr. 
William  V.  Kahler 
Hughston  M.  McBain 
|.  Roscoe  Miller 
lames  L.  Palmer 
lohn  T.  Pirie,  Jr. 
lohn  G.  Searle 
lohn  M.  Simpson 
Louis  Ware 
|.  Howard  Wood 


Field  Museum  of '  Xatural  History  Bulletin  is  published  monthly,  except 
combined  July/August  issue,  by  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History,  Roosevelt 
Road  at  Lake  Shore  Drive,  Chicago,  Illinois  60605.  Subscriptions:  $6  a  year; 
S3  a  year  for  schools.  Members  of  the  Museum  subscribe  through  Museum 
membership.  Opinions  expressed  by  authors  are  their  own  and  do.not 
necessarily  reflect  the  policy  of  Field  Museum.  Unsolicited  manuscripts  are 
welcome.  Postmaster:  Please  send  form  3579  to  Field  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  Roosevelt  Road  at  Lake  Shore  Drive,  Chicago,  Illinois  60605. 
ISSN:  0015-0703.  Second  class  postage  paid  at  Chicago,  III. 


Wooden  box  in  the  shape  of  a  whale  for  harpoon 
blades.  There  is  an  opening  on  the  underside. 
Length  31  cm. 


Nineteenth  Century  Alaskan 


Art 


By  James  W.  VanStone 


Eskimos  for  decades  have  excited 
curiosity  and  stimulated  the 
imagination,  primarily  because  of 
their  adaptation  to  a  rigorous  and,  to 
residents  of  southern  temperate  zones, 
inhospitable  northern  environment.  Their 
traditional  lands  extend  for  5,000  miles, 
from  eastern  Siberia  across  Alaska  and. 
Canada  to  Greenland.  The  total  popula- 
tion of  less  than  50,000  is  thinly 
distributed  and  generally  concentrated 
along  the  coasts,  for  most  Eskimos  are 
primarily  hunters  of  sea  mammals.  The 
resources  of  the  land,  without  the  bounty 
of  the  sea,  could  support  only  one-tenth 
of  the  total  Eskimo  population. 


James  W.  VanStone  is  curator  of  North 
American  archaeology  and  ethnology. 


Indications  are  that  Eskimo  culture 
may  be  as  much  as  5,000  years  old,  and 
our  knowledge  of  prehistoric  Eskimo  art 
derives  from  extensive  archaeological 
excavations  carried  out  in  recent  years 
throughout  the  circumpolar  regions. 
Although  all  Eskimos,  according  to 
archaeological  evidence,  created  distinc- 
tive art  throughout  prehistoric  times  and 
into  the  period  when  they  first  came  in 
contact  with  Europeans,  the  most  active 
artists  — those  who  made  the  finest 
sculptures  and  conceived  the  most 
intriguing  forms  — lived  in  the  western 
Eskimo  area,  particularly  along  the  coast 
of  Alaska  from  the  Gulf  of  Alaska  to 
Point  Barrow. 

A  high  point  in  Eskimo  art  was 
achieved  by  the  peoples  of  the  Bering 
Sea  area  in  the  nineteenth  and  early 
twentieth  centuries.  Western  civilization 
came    late    to    the    inhabitants    of    this 


region  and  they  were  thus  able  to 
maintain  their  original  way  of  life  up  to 
the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  longer  than  any  other  Eskimos  in 
Alaska.  It  is  to  this  area  and  time  period 
that  the  exhibition  "Nineteenth  Century 
Alaskan  Eskimo  Art,"  opening  December 
11,  is  devoted  —  a  time  when  some  of 
the  first  extensive  collections  of  Eskimo 
material  culture  were  obtained  by  the 
world's  museums.  The  early  collectors, 
often  among  the  first  Euro-Americans  to 
visit  the  Bering  Sea  Eskimos,  frequently 
did  not  record  the  provenience  of  each 
specimen  collected.  Most  of  the  exam- 
ples of  Bering  Sea  Eskimo  art  featured  in 
this  exhibition  were  acquired  by  Field 
Museum  in  the  1890s,  during  the  first 
decade  of  the  institution's  existence.  All 
were  made  by  Eskimos  living  along  the 
vast  stretch  of  coast  between  Port 
Clarence  and  Point  Barrow. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


Point  Barrow 


Although  the  nature  of  Eskimo  art 
has  been  determined  to  some  extent  by 
the  materials  available  to  the  artists  and 
craftsmen,  it  is  probably  accurate  to  say 
that  the  Eskimo  artist  worked  more 
within  the  limitations  of  his  tools  and  the 
uses  of  his  objects  than  within  the 
limitations  of  his  materials.  Seldom 
anywhere  in  the  world  has  art  been  so 
intimately  related  to  technology  as  it  was 
in  the  Bering  Sea  area  among  both 
prehistoric  and  historic  Eskimos. 

The  most  abundant  raw  materials 
available  to  the  Eskimo  artist  in  his 
environment  were  caribou  antler,  drift- 
wood, walrus  ivory,  and  baleen  (whale- 
bone). The  latter  is  a  pliable,  plasticlike 
substance  which  hangs  in  long  strips  in 
the  mouths  of  rorquals  and  right  whales. 
Through  these  strips,  the  great  animals 
strain  the  tiny  sea  creatures  on  which 
they  feed.  Ivory,  in  particular,  has  always 
been  closely  associated  with  Eskimo  art, 
and  the  majority  of  objects  displayed  in 
the  exhibit  are  fashioned  from  this 
material.  It  is  a  durable  substance  but 
difficult  to  work  even  using  modern 
tools.  Ivory  becomes  a  lustrous,  deep 
brown  color  when  buried  in  the  ground, 
and  nineteenth  century  carvers  fre- 
quently used  old  walrus  tusks  recovered 
from  archaeological  sites.  Since  Eskimo 


carvers  and  engravers  were  invariably 
men,  the  content  of  this  exhibition  is  a 
distinctly  male  art.  Women,  however, 
were  expert  weavers  and  skin-sewers, 
making,  in  addition  to  clothing,  finely 
woven  grass  mats  and  superbly  crafted 
skin  workbags  with  embroidered  decora- 
tion. 

Metal  tools  were  available  to  Alas- 
kan Eskimos  from  the  twelfth  or  thir- 
teenth centuries  through  trade  with 
Siberian  peoples.  There  is  almost  cer- 
tainly a  relationship  between  the  east- 
ward spread  of  metal  from  Asia  to 
America  and  the  fact  that  the  Eskimos  of 
northwest  Alaska  have  an  art  style  that  is 
technically  more  refined  and  complex 
than  that  in  other  Eskimo  areas.  Much 
later,  beginning  in  the  early  1700s,  metal 
knives  and  other  tools  were  systema- 
tically traded  from  Russian  trading  posts 
in  eastern  Siberia  across  Bering  Strait  to 
the  peoples  of  northwestern  Alaska. 
Metal  tools,  particularly  saws,  adzes, 
knives,  and  bow  drills,  were  used  by  the 
artists  who  fashioned  the  objects  in  this 
exhibition. 

There  is  no  word  for  art  in  the 
Eskimo  language;  the  reason  for  this  is 
that  the  manufacture  of  aesthetically 
beautiful  objects  was  closely  related  to 
all  aspects  of   Eskimo   life,   particularly 


religion,  ceremonialism,  and  magic. 
Most  traditional  art  was  religious,  and 
objects  which  we  are  likely  to  consider 
aesthetically  pleasing  were  made  for  the 
very  practical  purpose  of  honoring  or 
personifying  spirits  and  deities.  This  was 
done  in  an  effort  to  lessen  anxiety  toward 
the  unknown  universe  and  to  ensure 
personal  and  community  well-being  and 
safety  in  a  demanding  and  unpredictable 
environment. 

In  aboriginal  times,  the  religious  and 
ceremonial  life  of  the  Eskimos  of 
northwestern  Alaska  centered  around  the 
significant  supernatural  relationship  be- 
tween men  and  animals.  Eskimos  con- 
sidered it  important  to  honor  the  spirits 
of  game  animals  that  were  vital  to  the 
economy.  People  realized  that  super- 
natural forces  were  at  work  manipulating 
the  basic  needs  of  subsistence  as  well  as 
life  itself,  and  these  supernatural  forces 
needed  to  be  placated  and  made  aware 
of  the  wants  and  needs  of  human  beings. 
The  carvings  on  hunting  implements  and 
other  utilitarian  objects  in  this  exhibition 
were  fashioned  to  influence  specific 
animal  spirits.  Thus,  one  of  the  most 
important  aspects  of  religious  art  was  the 
necessity  of  creating  an  object  that  was 
as  aesthetically  pleasing  as  possible. 
Certainly  the  Bering  Sea  Eskimos 
displayed  skill  in  naturalistic,  repre- 
sentational carving  unequaled  in  the 
arctic  and  equaled  by  few  other  people 
anywhere  in  the  world  at  any  time. 

Although  most  Eskimo  art  was 
religous,  some  of  the  animal  and  bird 
sculptures  in  this  exhibition  were  prob- 
ably carved  for  no  other  purpose  than  to 
give  pleasure  to  the  carver,  his  friends, 
and  relatives.  Other  sculptures,  however, 
may  have  belonged  to  shamans,  the 
traditional  medical  and  religious  prac- 
titioners, and  thus  possessed  religious 
significance  as  charms  or  amulets.  These 
forms  were  usually  differentiated  by  their 
use.  A  charm  was  used  to  influence 
hunted  animals  or  to  direct  destiny  in  a 
way  provided  by  the  power  of  the  charm. 
An  amulet  was  a  more  personal  object.  It 
was  worn  as  protection  against  bad 
spirits  or  to  bring  a  certain  kind  of  luck 
such  as  good  health  or  love. 

Elaborately  carved  and  painted 
masks  were  one  of  the  outstanding 
achievements  of  Alaskan  Eskimo  art.  The 
most  elaborate  ones  were  made  by 
Eskimos  in  the  area  south  of  St.  Michael, 
particularly  along  the  lower  Yukon  and 


December  1975 


Kuskokwim  rivers.  Even  north  of  this 
area,  however,  fine  masks  were  also 
made.  Those  from  Seward  Peninsula  and 
other  areas  close  to  St.  Michael  have 
attached  appendages  in  the  form  of 
feathers  or  fur  and  are  likely  to  be 
painted.  Those  further  north  were  un- 
painted  and  simpler,  but  the  effect  of  the 
representation  and  the  skilled  carving  is 
nevertheless  impressive. 

Eskimo  masks  not  only  display 
technical  virtuosity,  but  give  significant 
insights  into  religious  beliefs  and  con- 
ceptions of  the  universe.  They  were  used 
principally  in  religious  ceremonies  that 
honored  and  propitiated  the  spirits  of 
game  animals  and  of  personal  helping 
spirits  to  ensure  success  in  hunting;  they 
were  also  used  to  ward  off  evil  spirits 
threatening  the  individual  or  community. 
Masks  were  usually  made  by  shamans  or 
carvers  working  under  their  direction. 
They  were,  therefore,  the  embodiment  of 
a  shaman's  vision  and  each  mask  was 
different  because  of  the  almost  infinite 
variety  of  visions  that  a  shaman  could 
have.  In  Eskimo  cosmology  almost  every 


Top  left:  Ivory  seal  drag  handle.  The  handle  is 
attached  to  one  end  of  a  sealskin  line  and  the 
other  is  fastened  to  the  dead  animal.  The  seal 
can  thus  be  easily  dragged  back  over  the  ice  to 
the  hunter's  camp  or  village.  Length:  9  cm.  Top 
right:  Ivory  box  with  decoration  in  the  modi- 
fied engraving  style.  Length  9  cm.  Lower  right: 
Baleen  bucket  with  handle  and  attachments  of 
ivory.  Height  11.4  cm. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin  5 


Top:  Ivory  bow  drill  with  decoration  in  the 
old  engraving  style.  Length  40.6  cm.  Bottom: 
Walrus  tusk  with  decoration  in  the  western 
pictorial  style.  Length  40  cm. 

object,  animate  or  inanimate,  possessed 
a  spirit.  Thus,  a  blade  of  grass,  a  walrus, 
or  a  rock  could  be  the  subject  of  all  or 
part  of  a  mask.  Also,  according  to  the 
Eskimo  belief  system,  all  animals  had  the 
ability  to  turn  into  human  beings  at  will. 
Thus,  representation  of  the  human  form 
is  common  in  art,  particularly  in  masks. 
Also  common  are  animal-human  faces 
which  serve  to  emphasize  a  duality  that 
is  deeply  rooted  in  tradition  and  folklore. 
In  the  making  of  masks,  the  range  of 
creative  possibilities  was  virtually  limit- 
less. 

About  200  years  ago  a  new  Eskimo 
art  style  began  in  the  Bering  Strait  area.  It 
consisted  of  small  silhouette  engravings 
on  ivory  that  illustrated  every  aspect  of 
Eskimo  life:  men  in  skin  boats  har- 
pooning whales,  caribou  being  hunted 
with  bow  and  arrow,  men  driving  dog 
teams,  hunters  creeping  up  on  basking 
seals,  masked  men  dancing,  and  many 
other  subjects.  With  rare  economy  of  line 
the  graphic  artist  interpreted  his  know- 
ledge of  the  human  body  and  the  animals 
and  birds  around  him.  This  pictorial  art, 
narrowly    restricted    in    its    range,    was 


produced  only  along  the  coast  from 
Norton  Sound  to  Kotzebue  Sound. 
Although  originating  in  late  prehistoric 
times,  it  reached  its  highest  development 
in  the  second  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century. 

Nineteenth  and  early  twentieth  cen- 
tury engraving  can  be  divided  into  three 
principal  styles;  these  have  been  called 
old,  modified,  and  western  pictorial  en- 
graving. The  old  engraving  style  is 
confined  almost  entirely  to  drill  bows 
and  bag  handles.  In  this  style  the  artist 
drew  heavily  on  suggestion  for  expressing 
the  many  variations  of  human  and 
animal  attitudes.  As  one  authority  has 
noted,  the  artist  used  a  minimum  of 
detail  to  create  a  maximum  of  action. 
The  ivory  background,  which  was  never 
painted,  offered  a  sharp  contrast  to  the 
black  silhouetted  figures.  The  incisions 
were  filled  with  black  ash  mixed  with  oil. 

The  modified  engraving  style  was 
used  on  large  ivory  pipes  and  whole 
walrus  tusks  that  were  sold  as  souvenirs 
to  Euro-Americans  who,  after  1850,  came 
to  Alaska  in  increasing  numbers  as  gold 
miners,  commercial  whalers,  and  mem- 


--  *  ■ 


bers  of  exploring  and  scientific  expedi- 
tions. Engravers  applied  essentially  the 
same  techniques  and  subject  matter  of 
the  smaller  surfaces  to  the  larger  ones 
but  the  human  figures  were  less  sticklike, 
larger,  and  more  rounded  out  represen- 
tations of  three-masted  schooners  and 
Euro-Americans  with  firearms  were' added 
to  the  subject  matter. 

In  the  1890s  the  art  underwent  a 
more  profound  change.  The  western 
pictorial  style  was  used  first  on  whole 
walrus  tusks  and  cribbage  boards,  a  form 
of  souvenir  that  was  especially  popular 
from  the  days  of  the  Yukon  and  Nome 
gold  rushes  in  1898  and  1902  until  about 
1925.  Human  and  animal  figures  became 
fine-line,  realistic  etchings;  sea  ice  and 
landscapes  were  shown  in  accurate 
perspective.  The  western  pictorial  style, 
although  a  legitimate  outgrowth  of  the 
earlier  indigenous  styles,  was  heavily 
influenced  by  the  whalers'  scrimshaw 
carvings.  Some  Eskimo  artists  created 
real  tours  de  force,  utilizing  copies  of 
photographs  and  magazine  illustrations 
along  with  original  subject  matter.  For 
the  first  time,   individual   artists  signed 


6  December  1975 


their  names  to  their  works.  As  interest  in 
cribbage  boards  declined,  the  western 
pictorial  engraving  style  was  used  on  a 
variety  of  other  souvenirs  such  as  napkin 
rings,  letter  openers,  knife  handles,  and 
ivory  jewelry. 

The  first  Euro-Americans  who  came 
to  northwestern  Alaska  in  the  nineteenth 
century  purchased,  as  souvenirs,  items  of 
material  culture  which  the  Eskimos  had 
made  for  their  own  use.  As  demand 
increased,  the  Eskimo  carvers  went  to 
work  to  carve  items  specifically  for  trade, 
but  their  work,  for  the  most  part,  was 
devoted  to  traditionally  based  sculptures 
and  engravings  in  ivory.  Later,  the 
carvers  and  engravers  were  asked  to 
imitate  foreign  knickknacks;  when  they 
made  cribbage  boards,  toothpick  hold- 
ers, gun  stock  decorations,  and  fancy 
handles  for  canes  they  were,  more  often 
than  not,  carving  things  which  they  had 
never  actually  seen.  Thus,  traditional 
Eskimo  sculptures  and  engravings  are 
today  no  longer  made  within  a  magical 
or  religious  framework.  The  artists  do, 
however,  continue  to  produce  a  new  art 
for  a  wholly  commercial  market. 


Wooden    hat    with   ivory  and  feather  attach-  A 
ments.   Worn  by  a  hunter  in  his  kayak.  Height 
21  cm. 


Top:  Seal  scratcher.  A  seal's  claw  is  attached  to 
an  ivory  handle.  As  the  hunter  approaches  a 
seal  basking  on  the  ice,  he  scratches  the  ice 
with  the  tool,  creating  a  sound  which  reassures 
the  wary  animal.  Length  26.7  cm.  Below:  Club 
for  killing  wounded  seals.  The  head  is  of  bone. 
Length  40  cm. 


SUGGESTED   READINGS 

Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections, 
Vol.  LXXXI,  No.  14,  "Prehistoric  Art  of  the 
Alaskan  Eskimo,"  by  H.B.  Collins,  1929. 

Artists  of  the  Tundra  and  the  Sea,  by 
D.J.  Ray,  University  of  Washington  Press,  1961. 

Eskimo  Masks:  Art  and  Ceremony,  by 
D.J.  Ray,  University  of  Washington  Press,  1967. 

U.S.  Department  of  the  Interior,  Indian 
Arts  and  Crafts  Board,  Native  American  Arts  2, 
"Graphic  Arts  of  the  Alaskan  Eskimo,"  by  D.J. 
Ray,  1969. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


Nyes,  Murmurations,  and  Cetes 


And  Other  Nouns  of  Assembly 


English  has  long  been  reviled  or  ridiculed  by 
those  who  prefer  their  language  neat,  clean, 
and  orderly.  Vernacular  English,  declare  its 
harshest  critics,  often  seems  a  rag  bag  of 
bruised  syntax,  dislocated  grammar,  and 
vocabulary  that  is  badly  in  need  of  repair.  All 
of  which  may  be  true.  But  even  purists  must 
agree  that  the  extraordinary  assemblage  of 
words  comprising  our  language  is  a  unique 
treasure  of  gems  rich  in  history.  And  if  the 
patina  of  modern  usage  is  rubbed  away,  one 
can  discover  facets  of  meaning  and  nuance, 
long  disused,  vivid  with  image,  inviting  to  the 
mind. 

A  category  of  such  history-laden  words- 
like  a  drawerful  of  forgotten  specimens— is 
occasionally  pulled  into  view,  scrutinized, 
and  savored  by  the  etymologist  or  casual 
word-fancier.  But  to  no  purpose;  when  a  word 
has  fallen  out  of  use,  no  force  of  man  can 
artificially  resurrect  it;  only  certain  nether 
powers,  never  human  design,  can  restore  a 
word  to  its  former,  functional  role. 

A  sampling  of  such  a  curious  collection  — 
chosen  for  relevance  to  natural  history— has 
been  tumbled  onto  these  two  pages,  with  no 
more  profound  purpose  than  to  offer  a  chance 
to  savor,  contemplate,  and  possibly  cherish 
them.  These  "nouns  of  assembly,"  or  "terms  of 
venery,"  belong  for  the  most  part  to  the  rich 
past  of  our  language.  A  few,  it  will  be  noted, 
are  still  in  vogue;  even  these  may  date  to  the 
time  of  Chaucer  or  before. 

The  earliest  known  list  of  nouns  of 
assembly  is  The  Edgerton  Manuscript,  publish- 
ed in  England  about  1450.  In  1476  a  more 
ambitious  list,  under  the  title  The  Hors,  Shepe, 
&  Ghoos,  appeared,  with  106  such  terms. 
Probably  the  best  known  early  compilation  is 
The  Book  of  St.  Albans,  published  in  1486;  it 
contained  a  list  of  164.  The  book's  accredited 
author  was  one  Dame  Juliana  Barnes.  Some 
historians  argue  that  "Dame  Juliana"  was  in 
reality  several  men  who  chose  the  collective 
now  de  plume  for  reasons  we  can  only 
surmise.  The  selection  given  here  is  from  a 
variety  of  sources,  including  the  above- 
mentioned,  Farmers  Almanac,  and  Illustrated 
London  News,  among  others. 

BIRDS 

A  jubilation  of  starlings 

A  muster  of  peafowl 

A  charm  of  goldfinches. 

A  watch  of  nightingales 

A  nye  of  pheasants 

A  paddling  of  ducks  (at  rest) 


A  team  of  ducks  (in  flight) 
A  fall  of  woodcock 
A  sege,  or  sedge,  of  herons 
A  herd  of  swans 
A  spring  of  teal 
A  covert  of  coots 
A  gaggle  of  geese  (at  rest) 
A  skein  of  geese  (in  flight) 
A  company  of  widgeon 
A  trip,  or  plump,  of  wildfowl 
A  rush  of  pochard 
A  bevy  of  quail 
A  covey  of  partridge  or  grouse 
A  murmuration  of  starlings 
A  pack  of  grouse 
A  gathering  of  coveys 
A  congregation  of  plover 
A  walk  of  snipe  (at  rest) 
A  wisp  of  snipe  (in  flight) 
A  building  of  rooks 
A  tok  of  capercaillie 
A  band  of  jays 
A  tidings  of  magpies 
An  exaltation  of  larks 
A  pitying  of  doves 
An  unkindness  of  ravens 
A  murder  of  crows 
A  rafter  of  turkeys 
A  fling  of  ox  birds 
A  hill  of  ruffs 
A  convocation  of  eagles 
A  dropping,  or  dapping, 
of  sheldrake 


A  clowder  of  cats 


A  cast  of  hawks 
A  main  of  blackcock 
A  chattering  of  choughs 
A  sord,  bord,  or  suit 
of  mallard 


MAMMALS 

A  skulk  of  foxes 

A  cete  of  badgers 

A  singular  of  boars 

A  pride  of  lions 

A  sleuth,  or  sloth,  of  bears 

A  gang  of  elk 

A  herd  of  harts 

A  bevy  of  roes 

A  sounder  of  pigs 

A  rout  of  wolves 

A  richesse  of  martins 


A  couple  of  rabbits 
A  brace,  or  lease, 

of  bucks,  foxes,  or  hares 
A  pace  of  asses 
A  clowder  of  cats 
A  kendel  of  kittens 
A  tribe  of  goats 
A  mob  of  kangaroos 
A  harass  of  horses 
A  lepe  of  leopards 
A  husk,  or  down,  of  hares 
A  stud  of  mares 
A  drove  of  oxen 
A  troop  of  monkeys 
A  colony,  gam,  pod  or 

school  of  whales 
A  rookery  of  seals 
A  heft  of  sheep  (60  to  160) 
A  hirsel  of  sheep  (4  hefts) 
A  business  of  ferrets 
A  crash  of  rhinoceros 
A  laboring  of  moles 
A  drey  of  squirrels 
A  mute  of  hart  hounds 


A  singular  of  boars 


There  is  also  a  special  vocabulary  of  verbs- 
most  no  longer  in  use— for  scaring,  or 
dislodging,  animals  from  cover: 

To  start,  or  move,  a  hare 

To  rear  a  bear 

To  raise  a  wolf 

To  rouse  a  buck 

To  bolt  a  covey 

To  find,  or  unkennel,  a  fox 

to  bag  a  marten 

To  vent  an  otter 

To  dig,  or  find,  a  badger 


And,  believe  it  or  not,  there  were  in  merrie 
Englande  special  terms  for  the  droppings  of 
animals: 

Hare:  croteys,  crotels,  crotishings 

Hart  and  hind:  fumes,  fewmets,  fewmishings 

Boar:  freyn,  fiants,  lesses 

Wolf:  freyn,  fiants,  lesses,  fuants 

Buck:  cotying,  fewmets,  fewmishings 

Fox:  waggying,  billetings,  fiants,  fuants 

Marten:  dirt,  fiants,  fuants 

Otter:  spriats,  spraints 

Badger:  werdrobe,  fiants,  fuants 


December  1975 


our  environment 


Pelican  Decline  Puzzles  Experts 


The  eastern  brown  pelican,  whose  populations 
took  a  mysterious  nosedive  in  the  1960s,  will 
receive  top  priority  attention  by  a  team  of 
federal,  state,  and  private  bird  experts 
recently  appointed  by  the  U.S.  Fish  and 
Wildlife  Service. 

At  one  time,  colonies  estimated  to  total 
more  than  75,000  birds  dotted  the  coastlines 
of  South  Carolina,  Florida,  Louisiana,  Texas, 
and  Mexico,  nesting  on  sand  bars  or  coastal 
islands  and  feeding  on  the  abundant  fish  of 
the  shoreline.  Pelicans  were  so  numerous 
along  the  Gulf  Coast  of  Louisiana  that  it  was 
named  the  "Pelican  State."  In  1960,  however, 
the  birds  went  into  a  sudden,  mysterious 
decline,  virtually  vanishing  from  Louisiana 
and  Texas  and  becoming  severely  reduced  in 
South  Carolina.  The  California  brown  pelican, 
a  separate  subspecies,  also  experienced  a 
disastrous  decline  in  the  late  1960s. 

Today,  in  spite  of  much  research  and  some 
limited  management  efforts,   the  birds  con- 


tinue to  be  rare  throughout  their  former  range, 
numbering,  some  scientists  estimate,  20,000- 
25,000.  Only  in  Florida  do  the  birds  seem  to  be 
successfully  breeding  and  keeping  up  with 
their  former  abundance.  The  birds  disap- 
peared so  quickly  that  the  cause  of  their 
decline  could  not  be  pinpointed.  They  were 
gone  before  most  biologists  even  realized 
what  was  happening.  It  now  appears  that 
pesticides,  particularly  DDT  and  endrin,  were 
probably  the  principal  culprits,  for  these 
chemicals  have  been  shown  to  be  the  cause  of 
heavy  mortality  of  adults  and  young  today. 

In  Louisiana  a  program  was  begun  in  1968 
to  transplant  birds  into  the  State  from  the 
healthy  Florida  population.  It  was  hoped  that 
this  program  would  either  succeed  in  re- 
establishing pelicans  in  the  "Pelican  State"  or 
else  shed  more  light  on  the  cause  of  the 
original  dieoff.  At  first  the  transplanted  birds 
did  well,  and  50  to  100  birds  were  brought  in 
each  year.  Then  this  spring  many  suddenly 
died.  Chemical  analysis  has  revealed  lethal 
levels  of  endrin  in  the  dead  birds'  tissues. 
Endrin,  which  is  heavily  used  in  the  cotton 


belt  in  the  lower  Mississippi  River  drainage, 
may  also  have  been  involved  in  the  original 
decline. 

In  South  Carolina,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
birds  did  not  experience  a  sudden  crash,  but 
rather  a  slow  reduction  in  numbers  and 
reproductive  success  which  continues  today. 
These  birds  have  thin  eggshells  and  high 
residues  of  DDE,  a  breakdown  product  of 
DDT,  in  their  bodies.  In  many  other  birds, 
DDE  has  been  shown  to  cause  reproductive 
failure  by  interfering  with  normal  nesting 
cycles  and  producing  thin-shelled  eggs  which 
break  easily  during  incubation.  Recently,  the 
DDE  levels  in  South  Carolina  pelicans  have 
begun  to  drop,  but  the  birds  are  not  out  of 
danger  yet. 

It  is  possible  that  in  some  cases,  several 
adverse  environmental  factors  have  worked 
together  to  produce  the  decline.  Birds  already 
weakened  by  DDT,  endrin,  or  some  other 
pesticide,  for  example,  might  have  more 
difficulty  surviving  or  successfully  nesting 
when  faced  with  food  shortages  or  adverse 
weather. 


Books  for  Dinosaur  Buffs! 

The  Midwest's  most  complete  selection  of 
dinosaur  books  for  children  is  to  be  found  at 
the  Field  Museum  Book  Shop.  There  is 
something  for  every  age  group,  as  well  as  for 
adults,  all  within  a  very  modest  price  range. 

Prehistoric  Monsters  Did  the  Strangest 
Things  ($2.50),  by  Leonora  and  Arthur 
Hornblow,  published  by  Random  House,  is  for 
the  child  who  has  just  learned  to  read  and  is 
part  of  the  "Step-up  Book"  series  (the  other 
separate  volumes  on  animals,  birds,  fish, 
insects,  and  reptiles  are  also  carried  by  the 
Book  Shop).  Its  65  brightly  illustrated  pages 
also  deal  with  sloths,  sabre-tooth  tigers,  and 
even  cave  men. 

In  the  Days  of  the  Dinosaurs  ($2.95),  by 
Roy  Chapman  Andrews  — the  most  famous 
dinosaur-hunter  of  all  time— is  also  published 
by  Random  House  and  probably  ideal  for 
third-  or  fourth-graders.  Its  82  pages  include 
carefully  executed  two-color  drawings  and  an 
illustrated  glossary  of  the  better  known 
dinosaurs. 

Discovering  Dinosaurs  ($4.95),  by  Glenn 
O.  Blough,  48  pages,  is  published  by 
McGraw-Hill  and  intended  for  the  same  age 
group  as  the  above.  Dr.  Blough  was  formerly  a 
specialist  in  elementary  education  with  the 
U.S.  Office  of  Education. 

Dinosaurs:  Giants  of  the  Past  ($1.50),  by 
Eileen  Daly  and  published  by  the  Golden 
Press,  20  pages.  Its  large  format  (914  x  12V2 


inches),  slick  cover,  and  impressive  color 
drawings  of  dinosaurs  would  make  it  useful 
for  first-  and  second-graders,  but  the  text  is 
probably  best  for  children  two  or  three  years 
older. 

Dinosaurs  and  Other  Prehistoric  Reptiles 
($3.95),  by  Jane  Werner  Watson,  also  publish- 
ed by  Golden  Press,  is  a  large  format  book  (12 
x  10 V4  inches)  of  60  pages  with  excellent  four- 
color  artwork,  world  maps  showing  dinosaur 
distribution,  and  time  lines  — which  show 
when  the  various  dinosaur  species  appeared. 
Best  for  fourth-  and  fifth-graders. 

Dinosaurs  and  Other  Prehistoric  Animals 
($3.95),  by  Darlene  Geis,  is  published  by 
Grosset  and  Dunlap  and  has  105  pages  of  text 
and  artwork.  As  the  title  indicates,  the  book 
also  deals  with  other  prehistoric  animals  as 
well  as  the  science  of  paleontology.  Fourth 
and  fifth  grade. 


Dinosaurs  (79c),  by  Alice  Fitch  Martin 
and  Bertha  Morris  Parker,  is  a  paperback  book 
of  48  pages,  also  published  by  Golden  Press, 
and  is  a  marvelous  buy.  It  has  an  evolutionary 
tree,  featured  on  a  two-page  spread,  that 
clearly  shows  the  time  of  emergence  and 
interrelationsips  of  dinosaurs  and  other 
vertebrates.  Fourth  to  sixth  grade. 

The  Dinosaur  Book  ($5.95),  by  Edwin  H. 
Colbert,  published  by  McGraw-Hill,  has  156 
pages  of  text,  drawings  and  photos  suitable  for 
sixth-graders  up  to  the  adult  level.  Dr.  Colbert 
is  perhaps  the  most  eminent  living  paleonto- 
logist and  was  formerly  curator  of  fossil 
reptiles  and  amphibians  for  the  American 
Museum  of  Natural  History. 

Days  of  the  Dinosaurs  (25c),  by  Delia  Cox 
Weaver,  and  published  by  Field  Museum,  is  a 
16-page,  paperback  introduction  to  dinosaurs 


that  is  neither  too  difficult  for  fourth-graders 
nor  too  elementary  for  adults. 

About  Dinosaurs  ($1.35),  by  Margery 
Morris,  is  a  48-page  paperback  booklet 
published  by  Penguin.  Sixth  grade  through 
adult. 

The  Age  of  Dinosaurs  (paper,  $2.95),  by 
Bjorn  Kurten,  255  pages,  is  published  by 
McGraw-Hill  and  primarily  for  the  high 
school-through-adult  market.  Generously  illus- 
trated. Dr.  Kurten  is  lecturer  in  paleontology 
at  the  University  of  Helsinki 

ACTIVITY  BOOKS  ON  DINOSAURS  INCLUDE 

Dinosaurs  (39c),  Western  Publishing  Co., 
80  pages;  a  coloring  book. 

Dinosaurs  Color  and  Activity  Book  (69c), 
Western  Publishing  Co.,  128  pages;  some 
drawings  are  designed  for  cutting  out. 

Tiny  Dinosaur  Museum  Press-Out  (59c), 
Western  Publishing  Co.,  7  pages  of  precolored 
press-outs. 

The  Colden  Stamp  Book  of  Animals  of 
the  Past  (89c),  Western  Publishing  Co.,  48 
pages  plus  4  pages  of  stamps  to  be  pasted  into 
the  line  drawings. 

Dinosaurs:  Prehistoric  Wonders  of  the 
World  (79c),  Western  Publishing  Co.,  seven 
pages  of  colored  cut-outs  and  12  pages  of  line 
drawings. 

In  addition  to  books  on  dinosaurs,  the 
Museum  gift  shop  carries  jigsaw  puzzles  of 
dinosaurs  and  three-dimensional  models  in 
various  sizes,  materials,  and  prices.  For  $14.25 
you  can  even  have  a  kit  for  building  your  own 
three-foot  model  of  a  Tyrannosaurus  rex,  with 
eyes,  teeth,  and  claws  that  glow  in  the  dark! 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


For  Christmas, 

'Vive  Field  Museum" 


Whether  you  are  trying  to  decide  on  a 
Christmas  gift  for  the  small  child  or 
for  "the  man  who  has  everything/'  a. 
gift  of  membership  in  Field  Museum 
is  always  appropriate.  And  for  the 
budget-minded  shopper  it's  one  of 
those  unusual  finds— a  gift  that  costs 
no  more  than  it  did  a  few  years  ago! 
For  the  adult,  a  membership  pro- 
vides a  wealth  of  opportunities  to 
further  explore  the  realm  of  natural 
history;  for  the  child  it  can  open  the 

Clip  and  mail  this  coupon  or  facsimile 


doors  to  a  lifetime  of  scientific  interest 
or  professional  endeavor.  Infinitely 
more  than  a  storehouse  of  fascinating 
specimens  and  exhibits,  Field  Museum 
offers  to  its  members  at  every  age 
level  a  varied  selection  of  exciting 
learning  experiences  via  the  class- 
room, workshop,  film,  or  field  trip. 
Perhaps  equally  important:  with  a 
Field  Museum  membership  you  are 
giving  a  shared  relationship,  for  Field 
Museum  is  indeed  its  members. 


to:  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History, 

Roosevelt  Rd.  at  Lk.  SHore  Dr..  Chicago,  III.  60605 


wish  to  send  gift  memberships  to  the  following: 


Gift  recipient's  name 


Address 


City 


State 


Zip 


D  Annual  $15  □  Life  $500 

□  Send  bird  prints  to  gift  recipient;  or 

Q  Send  bird  prints  to  me 


Gift  recipient's  name 


My  name 


Address 


Address 


City 


State 


Zip 


City 


State 


Zip 


D  Annual  $15  D  Lite  $500 

□  Send  bird  prints  to  gift  recipient;  or 

D  Send  bird  prints  to  me 


□  Check  enclosed  payable  to  Field  Museum 
Q  Please  bill  me 

□  Send  gift  card  announcement  in  my  name 


December  1975 


field  briefs 


J 


Man  in  His  Environment 

Staff  members  who  were  principally  respon- 
sible for  the  new  exhibit,  Man  in  His 
Environment,  recently  gathered  for  press 
photographers  at  the  entrance  to  Hall  18, 
where  the  exhibit  opened  to  the  public  on 
November  9.  From  left  to  right,  in  the  above 
photo,  are  Robert  F.  Inger,  assistant  director, 
science  and  education,  and  chief  spokesman 
for  the  exhibit  content;  Robert  S.  Kosturak, 
exhibit  designer,  Department  of  Exhibition.  E. 
Leland  Webber,  director  of  Field  Museum; 
Paul  A.  Hummer,  project  manager;  and  Glen 
Cole,  curator  of  prehistory,  Department  of 
Anthropology.  The  striking  geodesic  structure 
at  the  entrance  to  the  exhibit,  representing 


"the  sphere  of  life"  (shown  behind  the  group), 
briefly  characterizes  earth's  major  types  of 
environment. 

Adult  Courses  Resume  In  January 

Keep  an  eye  on  your  mailbox  for  our  ADULT 
COURSES  announcement  for  Winter  1976.  A 
whole  new  set  of  courses  in  anthropology, 
geology,  and  biology  will  be  offered  starting 
January  15,  Brochures  describing  these  course 
offerings  are  being  mailed  separately  to 
Museum  members.  Because  class  enrollment 
is  limited,  many  people  had  to  be  turned 
down  for  our  Fall  courses.  We  recommend 
that  you  register  early. 


Bulletin  Cover  Design  Honored 


The  cover  design  of  the  June  1975  Bulletin 
(showing  a  red-eyed  Central  American  tree 
frog)  was  recently  honored  by  the  American 
Institute  of  Graphic  Arts  by  being  selected  for 
its  AIGA  Cover  '75/Catch  the  Eye  show.  The 
remarkable  photo  was  taken  by  Hy  Marx, 
curator  of  reptiles  and  amphibians.  The 
exhibit  opened  in  New  York  on  November  18 
and  will  also  be  shown  throughout  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  Copies  of  the  frog  photo  (8 
x  10  color,  glossy),  suitable  for  mounting,  may 
be  obtained  ($4.00  each,  postpaid)  by  writing 
the  editor  of  the  Field  Museum  of  Natural 
History  Bulletin. 


Field  Museum  Bulletin 


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and  1:00  p.m. 

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Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  11:00  a.m. 
and  1:00  p.m. 

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Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  11:00  a.m. 
and  1:00  p.m. 

31 

Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  11:00  a.m. 
and  1:00  p.m. 

Saturday  Discovery 
programs  11:00  a.m. 
to  3:00  p.m. 

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Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  11:00  a.m. 
and  1 :00  p.m. 

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Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  11:00  a.m. 
and  1:00  p.m. 

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Man  in  His  Environment 
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and  1 :00  p.m. 

23 

Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  11:00  a.m. 
and  1:00  p.m. 

30 

Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  11:00  a.m. 
and  1:00  p.m. 

1 

NEW  YEAR'S  DAY 
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"Focus:  People  in  the 
Mainstream"  2:30  p.m. 

Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  11:00  a.m.  and 
1:00  p.m. 

13 

Illustrated  lecture— 
"Focus:  People  in  the 
Mainstream"  2:30  p.m. 

Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  11:00  a.m. 
and  1:00  p.m. 

20 

Illustrated  lecture— 
"Focus:  People  in  the 
Mainstream"  2:30  p.m. 

Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  11:00  a.m. 
and  1:00  p.m. 

27 

Illustrated  lecture— 
"Focus:  People  in  the 
Mainstream"  2:30  p.m. 

Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  11:00  a.m. 
and  1:00  p.m. 

APRIL 
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1       2       3 
4       5       6       7       8       9     10 
11     12     13     14     15     16     17 
18     19     20     21      22      23      24 
25      26     27      28      29     30 

Saturday  Discovery 
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12 

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Man  in  His  Environment 
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Man  in  His  Environment 
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19      20     21      22      23      24      25 
26     27      28      29      30 

Saturday  Discovery 
programs  11:00  a.m. 
to  3:00  p.m. 

■s 

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Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  11:00  a.m. 
and  1:00  p.m. 

13 

Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  11:00  a.m.  and 
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20 

Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  11:00  a.m. 
and  1:00  p.m. 

27 

Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  11:00  a.m. 
and  1:00  p.m. 

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15 

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22 

Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  11:00  a.m. 
and  1:00  p.m. 

29 

Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  11:00  a.m. 
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Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  11:00  a.m. 
and  1:00  p.m. 

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films,  11:00  a.m. 
and  1:00  p.m. 

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films,  11:00  a.m. 
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Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  11:00  a.m. 
and  1:00  p.m. 

DECEMBER 
S      M      T      W      T       F       5 
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5       6       7       8       9     10     11 
12     13     14     15     16     17     18 
19     20     21     22     23     24     25 
26     27      28      29     30     31 

Saturday  Discovery 
programs  11:00  a.m. 
to  3:00  p.m. 

5 

Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  11:00  a.m. 
and  1:00  p.m. 

12 

Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  11:00  a.m. 
and  1:00  p.m. 

19 

Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  11:00  a.m. 
and  1:00  p.m. 

26 

Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  11:00  a.m. 
and  1:00  p.m. 

OCTOBER 
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10      11      12      13      14      15      16 
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and  1:00  p.m. 

21 

Man  in  His  Environment 
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films,  11:00  a.m. 
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11 

Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  11:00  a.m. 
and  1:00  p.m. 

18 

Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  11:00  a.m. 
and  1:00  p.m. 

25 

CHRISTMAS  DAY 
Museum  closed 

Saturday  Discovery 
programs  11:00  a.m. 
to  3:00  p.m. 

3 

Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  11 :00  a.m. 
and  1:00  p.m. 

ILLINOIS  ENTERED 
UNION,  1818 

10 

Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  11:00  a.m. 
and  1:00  p.m. 

17 

Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  11:00  a.m. 
and  1:00  p.m. 

FIRST  DAY  OF 
HANUKKAH 

24 

Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  11:00  a.m. 
and  1 :00  p.m. 

31 

Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  11:00  a.m. 
and  1:00  p.m. 

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16      17      18      19      20     21      22 
23      24      25      26      27      28      29 
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21      22      23      24      25      26      27 
28     29      30 

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MOON   PHASES 
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©   Last  Quarter,  14th 
0  New  Moon,  20th 
3  First  Quarter,  28th 

5 

Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  11:00  a.m. 
and  1 :00  p.m. 

12 

Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  1 1:00  a.m. 
and  1:00  p.m. 

19 

Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  11:00  a.m. 
and  1 :00  p.m. 

26 

Man  in  His  Environment 
films,  11:00  a.m. 
and  1:00  p.m. 

ILLINOIS  NATURAL  HISTORY 
SURVEY  LIB  RM  196 
NATURAL  RESOURCES  BUILDING 
URBANA  ILL  61801 


DECEMBER  at  Field  Museum 


NEW  PROGRAMS  AND  EXHIBITS 

ESKIMO  ART  EXHIBIT 

"19TH  CENTURY  ALASKAN  ESKIMO  ART"  EXHIBIT  opensDecem- 
ber  11.  In  the  language  of  the  Eskimo  there  is  no  word  for  "art" 
because  producing  aesthetically  beautiful  objects  from  raw  materials 
(caribou  antler,  driftwood,  walrus  ivory,  and  baleen)  relates  closely  to 
all  aspects  of  Eskimo  daily  life.  Fine  examples  of  19th  and  early  20th 
century  Eskimo  tools,  weapons,  household  and  other  items  of  everyday 
use  (many  with  engraved  designs)  will  be  exhibited  in  Hall  27,  through 
June  30,  1976.  A  don't  miss. 


SATURDAY  DISCOVERY  PROGRAMS 

TOURS,  DEMONSTRATIONS,  AND  PARTICIPATORY  ACTIVITIES 

are  offered  continuously,  every  Saturday,  11:00  a.m.  to  3:00  p.m. 
Topics  vary,  but  often  include:  DINOSAURS— clay  modeling  in  theHall 
of  Dinosaurs:  make  one  to  take  home.  EARLY  MAN— a  tour  that  traces 
man's  physical  and  cultural  evolution.  NATIVE  AMERICAN  FOODS- 
free  samples  of  food  from  Hopi,  Navajo,  and  Zuni  peoples  plus  free 
recipes.  ANCIENT  EGYPT— half-hour  tour  of  our  Egyptian  collection 
includes  an  explanation  of  the  "how's"  and  "why's"  of  mummy-making 
THE  WORLD  OF  ANIMALS-touchable  specimens  on  display:  learn 
how  they're  prepared  for  exhibits. 

For  specific  programs  and  locations,  inquire  at  entrances. 


ESKIMO  FILM  SERIES 

ESKIMO  ART  AND  ARTISTS  are  illustrated  in  three  films.  The  series 
begins  December  11.  All  films  are  shown  daily  at  12:00  noon  in  the 
Exhibit  Studio  at  the  rear  of  Hall  27,  through  June  30. 
Eskimo  in  Life  and  Legend  (23  min.)  The  story  of  a  great  hunter  who 
carved  the  image  of  his  wish  from  a  chosen  piece  of  stone-and  saw 
the  wish  come  true. 

Eskimo  Artist  Kenojuak  (19  min.)  Kenojuak,  artist,  wife,  and  mother, 
makes  her  drawings  when  she  is  free  of  the  duties  of  trail  or  camp.  Her 
thoughts  are  spoken  as  commentary  for  the  film  and  add  to  our  under- 
standing of  the  images  she  creates. 

Kalvak  (20  min.)  As  a  child,  Kalvak,  now  a  sixty-eight-year-old  Eskimo 
woman,  travelled  on  many  long  hunting  trips  with  her  parents.  She  uses 
the  subjects  of  these  experiences  which  give  her  beautiful,  sensitive 
drawings  a  strong  environmental  emphasis. 


WINTER  JOURNEY  FOR  CHILDREN 

"NOMADS  OF  THE  MYSTIC  MOUNTAINS,"  a  free  self-guided  tour 
through  the  museum's  colorful  Tibet  exhibit.  All  children  who  can 
read  and  write  are  invited  to  participate.  Journey  sheets  in  English  and 
Spanish  are  available  at  the  information  booth.  Bring  pen  or  pencil. 


WEAVING  DEMONSTRATIONS 

THE  ANCIENT  ART  OF  WEAVING  on  a  two-harness,  handcrafted 
Mexican  floor  loom,  demonstrated  by  members  of  the  North  Shore 
Weavers'  Guild  every  Monday, Wednesday , and  Friday,  10:30-1 1:30a.m. 
and  12:00-1:00  p.m.,  through  December  12.  On  Monday,  December  1, 
the  demonstration  includes  spinning.  South  Lounge,  second  floor. 


CONTINUING  PROGRAMS  AND  EXHIBITS 

BICENTENNIAL  EXHIBIT 

MAN  IN  HIS  ENVIRONMENT,  a  major  new  permanent  exhibit  in  a 
major  new  exhibition  hall.  This  dramatic,  8,000-square-foot  exhibition 
(2  movie  theatres  plus  several  areas  of  three-dimensional  displays) 
explores  nature's  magnificent  system  of  checks  and  balances  and  man's 
dependence  on  this  system.  The  exhibit  also  deals  with  man's  activities 
and  their  effects  on  the  quality  of  life  on  our  planet,  and  asks  visitors 
to  consider  the  implication  for  earth's  future. 


SPECIAL-INTEREST  MEETINGS 

Dec.    2,7:30  p.m.  Kennicott  Club 

Dec.    5,8:00  p.m.  Chicago  Anthropological  Society 

Dec.    9,7:00  p.m.  Chicago  Nature  Camera  Club 

8:00  p.m.  Chicagoland  Glider  Council 

Dec.  10,  7:30  p.m.  Windy  City  Grotto,  National  Speleological  Society 

Dec.  1 1 ,8:00  p.m.  Chicago  Mountaineering  Club 

Dec.  16,7:30  p.m.  Chicago  Audubon  Society 


ENVIRONMENTAL  FILM  SERIES 

ENVIRONMENT:  THE  SUM  OF  ITS  PARTS,  offered  now  through 
spring  1976.  The  December  series,  "Adaptations  for  Survival,"  illustrates 
special  adaptations  of  flora  and  fauna,  and  their  relationships  to  each 
other  and  to  the  environment.  Films  are  shown  at  11:00  a.m.  and 
1 :00  p.m.  in  the  Meeting  Room,  second  floor  north. 

Dec.    5,    6,    7:  Baobab:  Portrait  of  a  Tree  (53  min.) 

Dec.  12,  13,  14:  Hunters  in  the  Reef  (25  min.) 

Dec.  19,  20,  21 :  Strange  Creatures  of  the  Night  (52  min.) 

Dec.  26,  27,  28:  Bird's  Paradise:  The  Waddensea  (27  min.) 


DECEMBER  HOURS 


THE  MUSEUM  opens  daily  at  9:00  a.m.  and  closes  at  4:00  p.m.  week- 
days and  5:00  p.m.  weekends.  On  Friday,  year-round,  the  museum  is 
open  to  9:00  p.m.  Food  service  areas  are  open  weekdays  11:00  a.m. 
to  3:00  p.m.  weekends  to  4:00  p.m. 

THE  MUSEUM  LIBRARY  is  open  9:00  a.m.  to  4:00  p.m.  Monday 
through  Friday.  Please  obtain  pass  at  reception  desk ,  first  floor  north. 

MUSEUM  TELEPHONE:  922-9410 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS-URBANA 


507.05FI 


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FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY  BULLETIN 
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