Field Museum of Natural History bulletin

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FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY BULLETIN

January 1984

AMILY FEATURE: Make your own Chinese Shadow Puppets, Jan. 14 and 15_

E HUMAN FACE OF CHINA—Film Series Coming Feb. 5: Famous YUEH LUNG SHADOW TH

Field Museum
of Natural History
Bulletin

Published by

Field Museum of Natural History
Founded 1893

President: Willard L. Boyd
Director: Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.

Editor : David M. Walsten
Production Liaison: Allen Ambrosini
Staff Photographer: Ron Testa

BOARD OF TRUSTEES

James J. O’Connor
chairman

Mrs. T. Stanton Armour

George R. Baker

Robert O. Bass

Gordon Bent

Bowen Blair

Willard L. Boyd

Frank W. Considine

Stanton R. Cook

O.C. Davis

William R. Dickinson, Jr.

Thomas E. Donnelley II

Marshall Field

Richard M. Jones

Hugo J. Melvoin

Leo F. Mullin

Charles F. Murphy, Jr.

Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.

Robert A. Pritzker

James H. Ransom

John S. Runnells

Patrick G. Ryan

William L. Searle

Edward Byron Smith

Robert H. Strotz

William G. Swartchild, Jr.

Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken

E. Leland Webber

Julian B. Wilkins

Blaine J. Yarrington

LirE TRUSTEES

Harry O. Bercher
Joseph N. Field
Clifford C Gregg
William V. Kahler
William H. Mitchell
John W. Sullivan

J. Howard Wood

Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin (USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined
July/August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive,
Chicago, Il. 60605. Subscriptions: $6.00 annually, $3.00 for schools. Museum membership
includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not neces-
sarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Museum
phone: (312) 922-9410. Notification of address change should include address label and be sent to
Membership Department. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural His-
tory, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Il. 60605. ISSN:0015-0703.

CONTENTS

January 1984
Volume 55, Number 1

January Events at Field Museum 3
The 1992 Fair: Catalyst for Chicago’s Future 5
by Willard L. Boyd, president of Field Museum

Shadow Theatre in the Land of the Dragon 8
by Jo Humphrey

Ceramics of the Song Dynasty 16
by Yutaka Mino

Why Are There So Many Kinds of Plants and

Animals? 20
by William Burger, chairman, Department of Botany

Tours for Members 25
Our Environment 26
Index to Volume 54 (1983) 27
COVER

Procession of honor guard figurines. Polychrome pottery, Ming

dynasty (1368-1644 A.D.). These and more than 200 other art objects

and artifacts are on view through February 14 in the exhibition

“Treasures from the Shanghai Museum—6,000 Years of Chinese
Art.”

Organized by the Shanghai Museum of the People’s Republic of

China, and the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco. Principally

Foods Corp.

Photo by Ron Testa. Cover design by Allen Ambrosini.

funded by Control Data Corp., Sargent & Lundy, and Consolidated

EVEN

WINTER FUN 1984

Drive away the winter doldrums! Treat
your children (or grandchildren) to weekend
workshops at Field Museum during January
and February. Young people ages 4 to 14 can
participate in classes that range from “Dinosaurs
—the Terrible Lizards” and “Chocolate Chip
Geology” to “Gorillas High and Low” and “Fos-
sil Coal Forest of Illinois.”

Special classes highlighting our current exhibit.
“Treasures from the Shanghai Museum: 6,000
Years of Chinese Art,” include “Spirits and
Demons in Chinese Opera,” “Chinese Dragon
Robes,” and “Crickets: Chinese Music Boxes.”

Anthropologists, zoologists, archaeologists,
paleontologists, botanists, artists, and writers
bring their talent and expertise to create new,
informative, and creative experiences. See the
Winter Fun brochure for a complete schedule
or call 322-8854, Monday-Friday, 9:00am-
4:00pm.

WY
WAU MY ;
a7

FAMILY FEATURE

Chinese Shadow Puppets

Saturday and Sunday,
January 14 and 15, 1:30pm
Hall 32, South, Second Floor

Shadow puppet figures have been used in pop-
ular Chinese theatre for over 2,000 years.
Chinese Shadow Theatre was brought to Amer-
ica in the 1850s by the Chinese immigrants
who helped build the railroads and work the
gold fields. Discover this ancient folk art by
watching a play designed to enhance children’s
understanding of our special exhibit, “Treasures
from the Shanghai Museum: 6,000 years of
Chinese Art.” Children can make shadow fig-
ures from Chinese legends and join together to
invent their own shadow play.

This program is supported by the National En-
dowment for the Humanities, a federal agency.
Family Features are free with Museum admis-

sion and tickets are not required.

Plants of the World photo
contest winners are on view
in Hall 25, Second Floor.

The Human Face of China

Film Series

These films explore the many faces of China—
from acrobats in the Shensi Provincial
Acrobatic Troupe to members of the People’s
Commune in Guangdong Province.

January 14 and 15, 1:30pm

One Hundred

Entertainments

A behind-the-scenes look at the Shensi Pro-
vincial Acrobatic Troupe training, performing,
and explaining their 2,000-year-old art form.

Mind, Body and Spirit

East and West, old and new come together in
this exciting portrayal of China’s health care
system in action.

January 21 and 22, 1:30pm

It’s Always So in the World

An intimate view of urban life in China’s largest
city, Shanghai, portrays communal society in
China today.

Something for Everyone

A fascinating mosaic of a People’s Commune in
Guangdong Province, pieced together from the
daily activities of the people who share in this
lifestyle.

These films are free with Museum admission
and tickets are not required. This program is
supported by the National Endowment for the
Humanities, a federal agency.

January Weekend Programs

Each Saturday and Sunday you are invited to explore the
world of natural history at Field Museum. Free tours,
demonstrations, and films related to ongoing exhibits at
the Museum are designed for families and adults. Check
the Weekend Passport upon arrival for the complete
schedule and program locations. The programs are par-
tially supported by a grant from the Illinois Arts Council.

January
7 11:30am Ancient Egypt. Investigate the traditions
of ancient Egyptian civilization from everyday life to
mummification and the promise of an afterlife.

8 12:30pm Museum Safari. Seek out shrunken heads
from the Amazon, mummies from ancient Egypt, and
big game from Africa.

14 1:00pm Red Land/Black Land. Focus on the geog-
raphy of the Nile Valley and its effects upon the Egyp-
tian people during 4,000 years of change in religion
and culture. Examine the pharaoh’s lifestyle and the
religious practices of priests.

21 2:30pm Discoveries from the Bronze Age.
Splendid bronzes and recent tomb discoveries illu-
minate the making of a great civilization in this slide
lecture of Chinese treasures.

22 12:30pm Museum Safari. Seek out shrunken heads
from the Amazon, mummies from ancient Egypt, and
big game from Africa.

2:30pm China’s Great Wall and the Silk Road.
Slide lecture takes you on a journey, west along the
Great Wall and the caravan roads. Travel back to Chi-
na’s ancient capitals and follow the course of
empires, arts, and faiths.

29 12:30pm Journey Through China. Enjoy the sce-
nic beauty and romance of today’s China in this slide
lecture which carries you from the modern cities of
Shanghai and Suzhou to the ancient imperial capital,
Xian.

2:30pm Arts and Inventions of China. Explore
the cultural and technological achievements of class-
ical China in a slide lecture of magnificent art forms
and ingenious inventions.

These weekend programs are free with Museum admis-
sion and tickets are not required.

Coming Next Month

Yueh Lung
Shadow Theatre

Sunday, February 5

1:00pm and 2:30pm
James Simpson Theatre

Shadow, theatre is a performing art more than 2,000
years old. The Yueh Lung Shadow Theatre is the only
one of its kind in the United States. The company uses
Beijing-type figures constructed by troupe members.
These are exact replicas of those collected in China by
former Field Museum anthropologist Berthold Laufer in
1902 and 1904. ;

The performances feature Chinese shadow puppets ma-
nipulated by professionals and illuminated on a screen.
The puppets recreate stories of Chinese life and legend.
The puppet theatre was originally designed as a com-
munication system to convey messages to remote Chinese
villages. In many cases this was the only connection vil-
lage people had with the outside world. By the mid 1930s
this traditional Chinese art form had all but disappeared.
During performances, the stories and the use of the pup-
pets are explained.

Because the number of seats available for each perform-
ance is limited, advance purchase of tickets is recom-
mended. These performances are partially funded by a
grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities,
a federal agency.

Members: $3.00
Nonmembers: $5.00

Use coupon below to order tickets.
Fees are nonrefundable.

Graphics by Allen Ambrosini

Registration Program Tile

Member Nonmember Total mo
Tickets Tickets Tickets sb sano
#Requested #Requested #Requested :

Please complete coupon for your program
selection and any other special events. Com-

plete all requested information on the applica-
tion and include section number where appro-
priate. If your request is received less than one

week before program, tickets will be held in
your name at West Entrance box office until

one-half hour before event. Please make
checks payable to Field Museum. Tickets will

be mailed on receipt of check. Refunds will be
made only if program is sold out.

Total

For Office Use:

Date Received Date Returned

Return complete ticket application with a self-addressed

stamped envelope to:

State

Zip Public Programs: Department of Education

Daytime Evening

Have you enclosed your self-addressed stamped envelope?

Field Museum of Natural History
Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive
Chicago, IL 60605-2497

The 1992 Fair:
Catalyst for Chicago’s Future

by WitLarp L. Boyp
President of Field Museum

The following text is from an address given by Dr. Boyd
before the Chicago Central Area Committee at the
1992 Chicago World’s Fair Seminar on November 3 at
the University of Illinois at Chicago. The text of an
earlier address by Boyd on the Fair, “1992 and Be-
yond,” appeared in the March 1983 Bulletin (pp. 6-7).

As Mr. Ayers* has repeatedly pointed out, the 1992
Fair was conceived as a means to a greater end. That
end is a more vigorous Chicago and Illinois; more
vigorous economically, socially and culturally. Too
many people are writing Chicago off as the declining
capitol of America’s frostbelt. Like the Columbian
Exposition of 1893, the 1992 Fair is a response to a
basic problem. The Columbian Exposition was the
major stimulus in rebuilding Chicago after the 1871
fire into a city of national and international con-
sequence. Nineteen-eighty-three again finds Chicago
and Illinois facing a basic challenge. How can we re-
tain and increase our role as a major world center? If
that cannot be accomplished, the heyday of this city
and this state is over.

Our vision of this Fair must not be limited only
to the exposition itself. Our vision must also be con-
cerned with the future of Chicago and Illinois. We
must build a more vigorous and humane climate in
which people can work and live and serve the entire
world. A universal world’s fair can be a crucial factor
in developing that vigorous and humane climate.

The key to developing that climate is the process
itself. As the discussion groups stressed in the April
meeting [of the Chicago Central Area Seminar], the
process before, during and after the Fair could be the
greater end of which Tom Ayers speaks.

Equality of opportunity is the foremost goal of
our times. American democracy is becoming more
and more participatory. We take pride in our plural-
ism. As more diverse persons with more diverse
points of view become effectively involved in our
society, consensus will be more difficult to achieve.

We must understand that challenge and argumenta-
tion will be the norm. We must accept the fact that
there may be more than one right solution to any eco-
nomic or social problem. Each of us must have the
opportunity to present his or her case in an open and
fair forum. Given that opportunity, we must be pre-
pared to support a resulting decision even though it
does not initially command a cohesive majority.

While we must, of necessity, fix Fair responsibil-
ity on a managing board of limited size, we must also
have a participatory process which is open-minded,
open-ended, open to all. In doing so, we must recog-
nize that today’s eccentric ideas are tomorrow’s prac-
tical solutions. Too often, planning is a straight line
projection of the present without regard for unfore-
seen and ever-changing circumstances. It is a con-
servative process which defends the present. Econo-
mic and social vitality require new ways and new
ideas which involve risks. We must be venturesome
even though we are captives of our own experiences.

As we look to the Fair and its residuals, we must
be concerned with the development process. The De-
partment of Commerce environmental scoping hear-
ing and the ultimate impact statement are one means.
The Mayor’s Committee hearings have been another.
As the city and state governments now move to the
forefront of the planning process, the Fair Authority
must be designed to encourage participation and at
the same time recognize that there must be closure on
issues after a reasonable period of time.

Much of the process discussion currently focuses
on creating and financing the Fair. Of greater impor-
tance is the process needed to address the impact of
the Fair and the site on nearby neighborhoods and the
entire city and state.

The Fair offers the opportunity to create an

*Thomas G. Ayers is chairman of the Executive Committee of
Commonwealth Edison Company and chairman of the Chicago
World’s Fair—1992 Authority.

6

urban planning process which reflects the needs of
diverse citizens. In planning for diverse uses, new
patterns can be developed so that urban planning mis-
takes are not repeated. More importantly, a planning
and implementation process must be designed to
assure that there are no losers. Development must not
mean displacement. We have the opportunity to
show that Chicago and Illinois can lead in the next
century in humane concerns as well as commerce.

In recent years, Chicago’s Center City Planning
has focused on the north Loop and the near-north
side. The Fair will focus attention on the south Loop
and the near south and west communities. The resi-
dents of these areas reflect the many circumstances
and aspirations of all Chicagoans. The apprehension
of these neighborhood residents was reflected in the
hearings before the Mayor’s Committee. On the one
hand, they are supportive of the Fair. On the other
hand, they are concerned about what the con-
sequences will be for them before, during, and after
the Fair.

City government, the private sector, both profit
and not-for-profit organizations, and neighborhood
residents must now formulate a planning process so
that the citizens of these neighborhoods will be ben-
eficiaries, not victims, of the Fair. Diverse commercial
and housing requirements must be met. In doing so,
we can imaginatively pursue energy conservation,
efficient transportation systems, and other urban
needs. A planning process should emerge which
could set a pattern for other neighborhoods to use in
meeting other needs.

There must also be a planning process which
looks to the use of the south lakefront site after the
Fair. How can the site be designed to achieve the most
significant permanent residuals. Only San Francisco
and Rio de Janeiro can rival the beauty of our lake-
front. But even they cannot rival Chicago in public
access and public use of the waterfront. And yet since
1933, we have destroyed Daniel Burnham’s* concept
of a great south lakefront: (a) we have built an air-
port; (b) we have built an outer drive which chops up
the park from Field Museum south to McCormick
Place and further isolates the south lakefront from
the Loop and the neighborhoods to the west; and (c)
we have increased the use of Soldier Field and
McCormick Place without regard for the impact on
other lakefront uses.

*Daniel H. Bumham (1846-1912) was an architect and city plan-
ner and chief planner of the World’s Columbian Exposition.

The 1992 Fair gives us the opportunity to recre-
ate Daniel Burnham’s park. It can become a neighbor-
hood park. To make it a neighborhood park, we must
physically tie the south lakefront to the south and
west neighborhoods. Our south lakefront can also be
a park for the entire city, state, and indeed, the nation,
in much the same way as Ontario Place on the To-
ronto waterfront has become the pride of all Canada.

The 1992 World’s Fair affords us the opportun-
ity to redesign the south lakefront, to make it into a
pedestrian park, and to provide expansion space for
existing and future cultural institutions and to give
us a central gathering place for all Chicagoans. This
area can become Chicago’s front yard and the state-
wide gateway for increasing visitors and con-
ventioneers. Residents and tourists alike will be able
to bring their families for the day to the south lake-
front as they now go to Lincoln and other parks. This
site can be both a neighborhood and a national park
unrivaled in beauty and public access.

And yet, there is no process now in place to
accomplish these ends. To do so requires the joint
planning of the Chicago Park District, the World’s
Fair Authority, the affected institutions, the nearby
neighborhoods, and include the over-all city and state
point of view. Coordinated planning can be under-
taken which will assure mutually harmonious de-
velopment for park district sports, McCormick Place,
and the cultural institutions. We must develop
pedestrian campuses for the cultural and sports areas,
provide adequate parking, and assure the space for
the Park District, McCormick Place, and the cultural
institutions to develop in support of each other rather
than to the detriment of each other as they are now
developing.

A redesigned lakefront resulting from the Fair
must also be oriented to the west as well as to the
north and south. It must be integrated into the city. In
addition to good public transportation to the Loop,
there must be direct east/west access. Access from
the west must encompass automobiles, public trans-
portation, and pedestrian needs. Over time we must
build community land bridges across the Illinois Cen-
tral tracts.

An east/west access is vital to the success of the
Fair. It is essential to the long-term future of the near
south and west communities and the lakefront.

Too often we think of the lakefront on a north/
south axis. If we look at it on an east/west axis, we see
a major corridor of vital neighborhoods, and of educa-
tional, research, and cultural institutions. Starting in

Grant Park with what has been described by histo-
rian Carl Condit as “the largest, oldest and arch-
itecturally most-impressive cultural center in the
United States,” we move to the south Loop where
within four blocks of the Goldblatt Building there are
27,000 students enrolled in institutions of higher
education, further west lies the University of Illinois
at Chicago, beyond it the health center of the Univer-
sity of Illinois, Rush Presbyterian 5t. Luke’s Medical
Center and Cook County, on to Brookfield Zoo, the
Naperville research route, and Fermi Laboratory.
The areas involved are important and diverse neigh-
borhoods with additional educational and cultural
institutions. Our vision of the next century must in-
clude this east/west strength. Our vision will be lim-
ited by today’s experiences and finances, yet our
vision must allow for future generations.

The physical legacies of the 1992 Fair, while
tangible, must be based on intangibles. These under-
lying intangibles should be those you espoused as the
theme of the Fair: interdependence, the inter-
relatedness of people and nature, the recovery and
rediscovery of our city and of our neighborhoods.
How can these fundamental themes be exemplified in
a Fair?

What is the “Age of Discovery?” To what ex-
tent are we going to celebrate the Columbian Quin-
centennial in 1992? Are we tied to Columbus and to
the times between 1492 and now? To what extent is
the Fair a means to our future?

In 1992, the state of Florida will commemorate
“the discovery.” Already they are involved in
archeological digs at St. Augustine and in the Carib-
bean to ascertain the impact of Columbus’s arrival
and with it the Spanish influence in the New World.
Ironically, the influence of the discovery of the New
World commenced in 1492 but not until 1493 for the
Old World when it learned of the discovery. We
need also to remember that the first people to come to
North America came across the Bering land bridge
and were here to welcome Columbus. Will we exam-
ine how the 1492 discoverers treated the residents of
this New World? Indiana University has organized a
major center for the Columbian Quincentennial
which will serve as a clearing house for observances
throughout the country. That center suggests that the
Columbian focus might well be on life in the New
World between 1492 and 1776, since we have only
recently marked the bicentennial of the United States

and will soon do the same for the United States Con-
stitution.

We should join with the Spanish to look for-
ward to a new age of discovery. Our Fair must serve
as a world marketplace of ideas and ideals for the
twenty-first century. It must be more than a showcase
for high tech and space exploration, more than a
financial success. The Fair must deal with our lives as
we live them in the neighborhoods of the world.
Theme pavilions can complement national pavilions
as they do now at Epcot. Yet, too often Epcot resorts
to psychodelic lights to depict the future rather than
thoughtfully; Kraft, on the other hand, addresses the
future with its land pavilion and its experimental
greenhouse. In 1992, we must get beyond the episodic
nature of “Future Shock.” The Fair itself can have a
lasting impact on all who attend. As in the case of the
earlier two fairs, it can educate and entertain for a
lifetime.

The Fair can be a time for cerebration as well as
celebration. During the next century, human initia-
tive and human creativity must be fostered. The 1992
World’s Fair needs to tap the talents and aspirations
of people everywhere. This can be done sim-
ultaneously on the Fair site and in the neighborhoods
of the world. It can be done in Fair buildings; it can be
done in neighborhood halls; it can be done at home by
television and computer and we can be linked across
the planet by satellite.

Chicago, Illinois, and the Middle West are
second to no place in the world of talent. For exam-
ple, the greatest concentration of the nation’s
research universities is in the Middle West, not on
Route 128 or in Silicon Valley. It is up to us to demon-
strate that Chicago, Illinois, and the Middle West are
an international center of human talent second to
none. During 1992, a series of discovery seminars and
congresses is being planned which will bring together
the talent of the world under the auspices of Chicago
and Illinois host institutions. We can rivet the atten-
tion of the world on Chicago as a place of creativity,
as a place concerned with the future.

Only eight and one-half years remain before the
Fair. We have much to do within that brief time. We
have the opportunity to demonstrate to the world
through the Fair, the discovery congresses and
through the tangible and intangible residuals that we
are still pioneers and that discovery is our never-
ending frontier. L]

SHapow LHEATRE
In the Land of the Dragon

by Jo Humphrey

Ho Hsien-ku, one of eight immortals; from Sichuan. Collection
of Field Museum. Photo by Jo Humphrey.

hadow theatre is an exotic performing
art that reflects its mysterious Asian heri-
tage. Its animated figures have universal
appeal as they act out age-old legends on

a back-lit screen.

The exact origin of this art form is impossible to
pinpoint, but it probably began with simple hand
8 shadows cast on a cave wall by the light of a flicker-

ing fire. Because of its popularity in many Asian and
Mideastern countries, from the Pacific to the
Mediterranean, shadow theatre may very well have
begun independently and concurrently in a number
of regions.

Jo Humphrey is director of The Yueh Lung Shadow Theatre, Jack-
son Heights, New York.

Some scholars believe that shadow theatre had
its beginnings in the area where the most intricate
style of figures are to be found; the longer history,
they propose, would have allowed for greater de-
velopment. According to such reasoning, China
may well have been the country of origin.

The first written reference in China to such use
of shadow images was in the second century B.C.
The Emperor Wu Ti is said to have been so grief-
stricken over the loss of his favorite concubine that
he could no longer carry out his imperial duties. To
ease the emperor’s sorrow, a court magician created
a shadow figure of the deceased, projecting it on the
wall of the imperial garden pavilion. The shadow
was so lifelike, according to the account, that the
emperor's grief was assuaged.

Like other Asian shadow traditions, those of
China were originally associated with religious
rituals. The shadow was thought to be one’s soul
and shadow figures were supposedly inhabited by
departed spirits. Even today there is an aura of mys-
ticism in shadow theatre, and as those experienced
in this art form will attest, the figures sometimes
seem to have a will of their own.

According to Chinese scholars, the first sha-
dow figures were an outgrowth of papercutting,
paper having been invented in China long before it
was known in the West, and decorative papercut-
ting having predated the development of shadow
theatre. Silhouettes made of paper performed at
night on a wall or side of a tent, illuminated by a
torch. In time, figures moved behind a screen where
their shadows were cast by an oil lamp. Jointed fi-
gures were created, making possible more action,
though the figures remained black silhouettes.

By the twelfth century, the figures were being
made of translucent animal skins—from sheep,
donkeys, cows, even fish—that seemed to glow
against the light. Further color was provided by
means of vegetable dyes; modern figures are colored
with ink.

For the Chinese there was a clear distinction
between puppetry and shadow theatre. The two art
forms did, in fact, originate independently, the
former from three-dimensional sculpture, the latter
from two-dimensional graphics. Shadow theatre is a
ritualistic event as well as an educational and enter-
taining experience. Even in modern-day shadow

Figure of deer, possibly from Southwest China, 18th century.
Collected by C.F. Bieber in the 1930s and donated to the
Field Museum collection. Photo by Diane Alexander White
and David Rundell.

theatre we can see remnants of ancient ritual, such
as greetings from gods and immortals as intro-
ductions to performances.

The hips, arms, and legs of all figures are
jointed, and the limbs moveable. The head is detach-
able so that costumes may be changed; but in
accordance with ancient supersitition, heads must
be joined with bodies only during performances so
that a character does not come alive except in the
hands of the man or woman who manipulates it.
The same superstition prevails in China’s puppet
and marionette theatres.

This forerunner of modern audiovisual media
spread over the length and breadth of China. Some
general features of the art form were to be found in
all regions. Unlike Western drama, characters in
Chinese shadow theatre were, for the most part,
types rather than realistic figures endowed with
individual personalities. But there are exceptions to
this, which include certain supernaturals such as the
Monkey King, a common character in traditional
dramas.

Stylized, idealized facial characteristics were
provided only in the carved profile. Comic charac-
ters had white circles around their eyes. Characters
with complex personalities or supernatural powers
had painted faces. Those who dwelt in heaven had

Backstage of
shadow theatre.
Photo by Evelyn

Mei-huang.

uncarved features. Audiences could readily distin-
guish between almond-eyed heroes and round-eyed
villains.

Costumes and headdresses represented specific
periods, the most common being of the Ming
and Qing dynasties; these were carved in
three-quarters view. Perforations accented design
details. Officials wore so-called “jade belts”—large
hoops about their waists. Generals had four flags on

Left to right: Mo Li-hai, one of the four heavenly kings. Wang Chi-chen, female figure in “The White Snake.” Ts'ing She, the Black Snake in
“The White Snake.” Chung-li Ch'uan, one of the eight immortals. All in the collection of Field Museum. Photos by Diane Alexander White

and David Rundaell.

oO

a ee ea

Four generals of heaven. East-city type figures (painted face characters). Gest Collection of Princeton University. Photo by Jo
Humphrey.

their backs. Southern warriors wore pheasant The Western tradition (Yueh Qing) is close-
plumes in their helmets. Proper ladies had small, ly allied to operatic forms of the Western regions of
bound feet while those of peasant women remained China, and the music is the same as that of local
unbound. operas. Shadow theatre of these Western regions, in
Performances were invariably accompanied by fact, is known as the “little opera.” The 26-inch-high
music. Each region of the country developed its par- figures from the western province of Sichuan
ticular style of music as well as its own distinctive (Szechuan) are some of the largest, while those of
type of figure and performing tradition. Three basic Shaanxi (Shensi) and Shanxi (Shansi) Provinces,
traditions of shadow theatre are still being per- just northeast of Sichuan, include some of the small-
formed: Western, Southern, and Eastern. est. Western figures consist of 14 or 15 separate

-YUEH LUNG
SHADOW THEATRE
eS Sunday, February 5
Two Performances: 1:00pm and 2:30pm
: : James Simpson Theatre

Members: $3.00
_Nonmembers: $5.00 —

To order tickets use coupon on page 4

The White Snake. West-city type figure, carved by Yu Dze-an
in 1850s. Collection of Field Museum. Photo by Jo Humphrey.

parts, including jointed hands, removeable hats, and
beards of real hair; the faces have very rounded fea-
tures and the outlines remain uncolored.

Three rods are used to manipulate these figures.
A central control rod is attached across the shoul-
ders, with the handle coming off the back. The other
two rods are attached to the first joint of each hand.

Spotted deer.
Collection of
Field Museum.
Photo by Diane
Alexander White
and David
Rundell.

The Field Museum has an extensive collection of
Sichuan and other Western-style figures, collected
for the most part by former Field Museum curator
Berthold Laufer during his 1910-12 expedition to
China. Some of these are on permanent view in
Hall 32.

The Southern, or Chien Chao, tradition was
centered mainly in the coastal provinces of Fujian
(Fukien) and Guangdong (Kwangtung) and in the
inland province of Hubei (Hupeh). In the beginning,
Chien Chao was used only for religious rituals, in-
cluding funerals and exorcisms. In use until about
1900, Fujian shadow figures were supplanted then
by so-called “shadows in the round,” represented by
an exquisite form of horizontal rod puppet. Fujian
culture came to what is now the island of Taiwan
(formerly Formosa) over 400 years ago, and the Fu-
jian shadow tradition has continued to survive in
the city of Tainan, in the southern part of the island.

Southern figures are controlled by two rods,
have fewer parts than most others, and only one
moveable arm. There are various methods of rod
attachment in these figures, the most common being
the so-called “Fujian style,” in which the rods are
horizontal. One rod is attached through the top of
the arm and shoulder, the other through the hand
and wrist.

The Eastern, or Beijing, shadow theatre
tradition was centered in the cities of Luanchou

Scene from “Romance of Three Kingdoms.” Photo by Jo Humphrey. Emperor and concubine; West-city type figures carved by

and Laoting in Hebei (Hopei) Province. In these
cities guilds of craftsmen made shadow figures for
many troupes. Possibly the oldest of the three tradi-
tions, the Eastern developed out of storytelling.

Figures of the so-called east-city type, formerly
made in Luanchou but now made primarily in Tang-
shan, are 10 to 12 inches high. The black outline of
the face emphasizes the long, sloping forehead and
oval nostril. The eyebrow sweeps in a large arc that
joins the outside corner of the eye with the fore-
head.

One of the largest collections of the east-city
type is at the American Museum of Natural History,
in New York City. This set was collected by Bert-

Yu Dze-an in 1850s. Collection of Field Museum. Photo by Jo

Humphrey.
hold Laufer between 1902 and 1904 before taking up
his curatorial post at Field Museum, which also has
a good representation of this type in its collection.

Laoting was the home of the west-city type,

which is slightly larger than that from Luanchou—
14 to 16 inches high. The eyebrows arch sharply into
the straight forehead. Nostrils are not joined with
the uncolored outline of the face. Perforations are
more rounded than those of the east-city figures.
The Lederschaft Museum in Offenbach, West Ger-
many, has one of the largest collections of west-city
figures, but in the Field Museum collection are
several rare figures of this type made by Yu Dze-an,
a craftsman of the mid-1800s. In east-city as well as

Lion figure.
Collection of
Field Museum.
Photo by Diane
_ Alexander White
» and David
8 Rundell. is

Left to right: Tu Ti, a local god disguised as a comic old man; East-city type figure made by Liu Chi Lin. Hsu Hsien (White Snake's
husband) made by Hsien Yang Arts and Crafts Factory, Shaanxi Province in 1982. Fan Li-hua, female general, with her husband,
Shi Ting-shan, East-city type figures made by Liu Chi Lin of Beijing Arts Factory. All figures from the collection of Jo Humphrey.

Photos by Jo Humphrey.
west-city type figures the control rod is attached ideology. Then, during the Cultural Revolution of
to the front of the collar and additional rods are the 1960s and 1970s, shadow theatre was virtually
attached to each hand. annihilated. After the Cultural Revolution the
Modern techniques in the Eastern shadow theatre flourished anew and a number of shadow
tradition were developed in Changsha, Hunan players began rebuilding their troupes. They pat-
Province, in the 1940s. New figures with modern terned figures and stages after the Hunan style,
clothes were created to represent contemporary which was the only one to survive the turbulent 60s

themes. Folk tales were rewritten to express Maoist and 70s. Figures and shadow screens were enlarged

Scene from “The
Mountain of

Fiery Tongues.”
Photo by

|}4 Jo Humphrey.

——— —E ———— — — er a

to accommodate larger audiences. Older traditions
were also revived, thanks to surviving shadow mas-
ters (those in charge of troupes or who operated
their own one-man theatres) and craftsmen.

Today there are at least 15 professional troupes
that tour China, using newer-size figures illumin-
ated by banks of fluorescent lights. Hundreds more
semiprofessional and amateur troupes perform in
almost every province. Only Xizang (Tibet) and the
predominantly Moslem province of Xinjiang (Sin-
kiang) in extreme Western China have no shadow
theatre.

Until recently, shadow theatre was the only
Chinese performing art to use realistic scenery. Part
of the enjoyment of watching a performance is to see
the stories unfold in beautiful settings. Lovers meet
in moonlit gardens, battle strategies are planned in
elegant war tents, and plots are hatched behind red
pillars carved with dragon motifs.

Shadow dramas reflect the whole scope of
Chinese literature—folk tales, religious epics, and
historic sagas. The typical shadow troupe had a rep-
ertoire of several hundred plays. Each shadow mas-
ter interprets the literature in his or her own unique
way, whether operatic or spoken. Audiences could
often request their favorite plays. In The Legend of
the White Snake a couple meet their fate in a drama
illustrating Buddhist and Taoist principles. Dashing
knights pit their military skills against invaders from
other kingdoms in episodes from the great historical
novel A Romance of the Three Kingdoms. During the

Scene from “The Fisherman's Revenge.” Photo by Jo Humphrey.

The
mischievous
Monkey King,
rendered in
modern
Changsha style.
Collection of
Jo Humphrey.
Photo by

Jo Humphrey.

Yuan dynasty (1271-1368) plays such as The Orphan
of Chao and Autumn in the Han Palace were
adapted for the shadow stage. Authors of other dra-
mas of the same period wrote specifically for the sha-
dow theatre. These plays often deal with social
issues. A Ming dynasty novel, Journey to the West,
provided numerous plots involving the mischievous
Monkey King. His free spirit is symbolic of the
unlimited potential for education and entertainment
that Chinese shadow theatre offers. ]

CERAMICS OF THE SONG DYNASTY
(A.D. 960-1179)

by Yutaka Mino

Photos courtesy of the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco
except where noted

Stoneware bowl, jun ware. Jin dynasty (1115-1234 a.0.). Height 8.9cm. Collection of the Shanghai Museum.

ong ceramics represent a culmination in the his-

tory of China’s ceramic tradition, and in them we
see a coming together of technical mastery and artistic
sensitivity. The ceramics of this time cannot be re-
garded as a discreet body of material which appeared
suddenly in full perfection, but rather as a high point
in a continuum of development and as an expres-
sion of accumulated knowledge in the working of clay
and glazes.

Song ceramic bodies are generally thinly thrown.
Shape and thickness of rim and foot and detail work
are carefully finished. The shapes of vessels, while
widely varied and reflecting a willingness to experi-
ment, are controlled throughout by a highly sophisti-

16 cated aesthetic sense. In contrast to the abruptly turn-

ing and vigorously swelling outlines of Tang vessels,
those of the Song for the most part seem quieter, more
gently curvilinear and more stable.

The glazes of this period are of a subtlety never
since matched. The serene colors and textures of the
glazes and the restrained decorations used together
with the simple, elegant forms produce a harmonious
and graceful entity.

Many different methods of decoration were em-
ployed. Carving, engraving, combing (decorating the

Yutaka Mino is curator of Oriental Art at the Indianapolis
Museum of Art and is serving as Field Museum’s visiting
curator for the exhibition ‘Treasures from the Shanghai
Museum: 6,000 Years of Chinese Art.

Jizhou ware vase. Jin dynasty (1115-1234 A.D.). Collection of Mr. and Mrs. Donald
Heller. Photo by Robert Wallace, courtesy Indianapolis Museum of Art.

semidry clay with a comb), moulding, painting under
and over the glaze and sgraffiato techniques (cutting
away surfaces areas to reveal other color) including
curving and scraping, were all used.

The Song dynasty saw a tremendous expansion
in production of ceramics, a phenomenon which can

be explained by a number of developments in China
during this period. With the reunification of China
under the Northern Song (960-1126), government
sponsorship of mining and metalwork spurred the
growth of industries. Coal was exploited as an impor-
tant fuel in the North. The demand for high-quality 17

Vase, porcellaneous guan ware. Southern Song dynasty
(1127-1279 ao.). Height 13.9cm. Collection of the Shanghai
Museum.

ceramics in the imperial court served as an impetus to
the production of ever finer wares. Many kilns
flourished around the area of the capital at Bianliang
(modern Kaifeng).

As the country increased in wealth, more people
were able to afford fine ceramic vessels for their own
use. Patronage spread to the landowners and scholar-
officials and also to the growing merchant class.
Widely varied tastes can be seen in the numerous
types of decorations used. Shape became more fluid
and more functional and drew away from the forms
of ceremonial wares used for funerary or tributary
purposes.

The fame of Song wares spread and increasingly
large numbers of ceramics were exported. These wares
were produced primarily in southern China within
reach of the seaports on the southern and southeast-
ern coast. Many kilns were established in Fujian,
Zhejiang, and Guangdong Provinces to supply the
foreign trade. Port cities of Hangzhou, Ningbo, and
Wenzhou in Zhejiang; Chuanzhou in Fujian; and

18 Canton in Guangdong were lively ports which provided

the government with sizable revenues in the form of
customs duties.

The porcelaneous stoneware which predomi-
nated in the first years of the Song dynasty was Yue
ware, produced in the state of Wuyue in southern
China. When the King of Wuyue, Qian Shu, surren-
dered to the Northern Song dynasty in A.D. 978, Yue
ware was at a peak in the history of its manufacture. In
that year many objects were made in commemoration
of the event, and these were to have a profound influ-
ence on the decoration of early Northern Song wares.
Made for tribute and for the personal use of the
Wuyue ruler, Yue ware waned in importance and
deteriorated in quality after his abdication; but it con-
tinued to-be produced well into the Song dynasty, as
evidenced by a piece in the Percival David collection
in London, dated the third year of Yuefeng (A.D. 1081).
The rise of Longquan kilns in the South further con-
tributed to the decline of Yue ware and can be traced
in the decoration of Northern Song ceramics. In the
early period of the dynasty, deeply carved relief
decoration can be seen on celadons (ceramic ware
notable for pale blue to pale greenish color) from
Yaozhou, Shaanxi Province, and Cizhou-type ware
found at Dengfeng Xian and Jiaozuo, Xiuwu Xian in
Henan. Slightly later pieces of Yaozhou ware were not
as deeply carved. Another important northern celadon
ware, produced at Linru Xian, Henan Province, con-
sisted mostly of moulded and stamped pieces. Ding
ware, which originated in the late Tang, was essential-
ly a plain white ware with bluish-white glaze. In the
early Song it, too, was carved, at first quite deeply and
later more lightly. Moulded and stamped decorations
also appear on later Ding ware. This interesting paral-
lel in the development of the different types of ware
shows that their development was not altogether dis-
tinct one from another, as might easily be inferred
from the fact that they came from separate kilns.

The development of other ceramic wares pro-
duced in the North was not influenced by Yue ware.
For instance, Jun ware, first manufactured in the
Northern Song period, was produced at a number of
kilns, notably that at Yu Xian in Henan Province, and
reflects no southern influence.

In the South many kilns grew up to feed the for-
eign market. After the court moved south to Linan
(modern Hangzhou), ceramic production received an
added stimulus. Just before the withdrawal from the

North, during the reign of Huizong (1101-25), the
manufacture of ceramics had flourished along with
other areas of artistic and cultural achievement.
Under Huizong the highly acclaimed Ru and North-
ern Guan wares were perfected. After being driven
south by the Jurchens and reestablishing the capital at
Hangzhou in 1127, the Emperor Gaozong ordered the
construction of new Guan kilns on the outskirts of the
capital at Xiuneisi and later at Jiaotanxia.

Potters from the North were also imported to the
South. The influence of northern styles is apparent at
Jizhou kilns in southern Jiangxi.* Feng Xianming, of
the Palace Museum of Beijing, has pointed out the
possibility that potters from the kilns producing
Cizhou type ware went to Jizhou potteries. The latter,
in turn, influenced the decoration of early blue and
white ware of nearby Jingdezhen later in the Yuan
period. Ceramic production of both white wares
and celadon at Jingdezhen is known to have begun
in the late ‘Tang period. In the Song dynasty Jing-
dezhen was the center of production of Qingbai, or
Yingqing, ware.

Celadons were produced in large quantities in
the Longquan area in southern Zhejiang Province and
also around Chuanzhou and Dongan in Fujian Prov-
ince. Countless thousands of pieces were exported
to Japan, Southeast Asia, and the Near East during
the Song dynasty and through the Ming period
(1368-1644).

So-called black Jian ware was made in Fujian
Province, and developed especially in connection
with the growing emphasis on tea bowls. It is dis-
tinctive for its purplish brown, nearly black, body and
the uncanny glaze effects, known as “oil spot” and
“Hare’s fur,” induced during firing. Large numbers of
Jian tea bowls were sent to Japan.

After 1127, as the center shifted to the South, the
North saw a decline in the previously high standards
of ceramic craftsmanship. Kilns continued to operate
but their products were cruder, appealing more to pop-
ular tastes and needs. This trend continued into the
Yuan dynasty (1171-1378), when ornament of a more
forceful and naturalistic character appeared.

In many areas of artistic and cultural activity, the
Song dynasty was a highly productive period with ele-

“The finest assemblage of Jizhou ware outside of China is to
be found in the collection of Field Museum.

Porcelain plate with molded design of dragon and clouds;
ding ware. Northern Song dynasty (960-1127 ao.). Diameter
23.3cm. Collection of the Shanghai Museum.

vated artistic standards and sophisticated tastes. The
ceramics of this period embody those qualities in their
simple, elegant shapes and luminous monochrome
glazes. Technique, though highly developed, was sub-
ordinated and controlled by a restrained sense of
beauty. Virtuousity was never displayed for its own
sake, as is often the case in later Chinese ceramics. 0

Porcellaneous vase with pierced ears; ge ware. Southern
Song dynasty (1127-1279 a.o.) Height 10.1cm. Collection of the
Shanghai Museum.

Why Are there So Many King

by William Burger
Chairman, Department of Botany

Photos by the author

I n 1959 G. Evelyn Hutchinson, noted authority on
freshwater life, published a scientific paper titled
“Homage to Santa Rosalia, or why are there so many
kinds of animals?” Hutchinson had visited Sicily, where
he had come upon the shrine of Santa Rosalia. Below the
shrine in a small pool he found and collected two species
of water beetles, one somewhat smaller than the other.

The discovery of these beetles coexisting in the
same small body of water set him to thinking and even-
tually led to his writing the article. Few scientific papers
ask the really big questions (fewer still are dedicated to
saints), but Hutchinson's article proved to be especially
stimulating and has been followed by a great number of
studies and articles devoted to aspects of the question he
raised. No matter where one looks, whether in a midwest-
ern prairie, a deciduous forest, or a tropical rain forest,
the world seems incredibly rich with different kinds of
plants and animals.

How can we approach such a broad subject as spe-
cies diversity or, to be a bit more precise, species richness?
Perhaps the simplest way is to divide the broad question
into two that are more narrowly phrased: (1) how do a
great many species manage to live together in the same
biological community, and (2) what factors caused such
diverse communities to come into being? The following
discussion concentrates on the first question; we can leave
the second question for another time.

Among the many points made by Hutchinson in his
article was that life on land far outnumbers the species of
plants and animals living in the oceans. Despite the fact
that our planet's surface is only about 30 percent land,
perhaps 80 percent of all species are terrestrial. Beetles
alone number over a quarter-million named kinds, and
since the vast majority of these and other insects are
terrestrial, it is easy to account for the relatively large size
is Beach State Park. Many prairie

Ss over the May-to-September
JS reducing competition for pollinating

fe
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Ss
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of the land biota. A more fundamental reason for this dis-
parity is that the land surface has a far greater variety of
habitats than does the ocean. Within the medium of
ocean water, there is nothing equivalent to the seasonally
dry habitats or the great variety of temperature and rain-
fall patterns that prevail on land. The ocean, further-
more, is continuous; there are no totally separate parts.
The land, on the other hand, is fragmented and dis-
continuous. There is no marine biota as distinctive as the
land biota of Australia. In any event, we do no injustice to
the topic of diversity by confining ourselves to life on
land; that is where the greatest numbers occur.

Even confining the discussion to land communities

22 gives us a multifaceted problem. The late plant ecologist

Robert Whittaker suggested that we keep separate the di-
versity we find in a particular woods or prairie or moun-
taintop from the diversity we encounter as we move from
one kind of habitat into another. It seems easy to under-

stand that different species will inhabit only swamp, or

woodland, or open field. It is the local diversity of a single
habitat, which he called ‘alpha diversity,’ that merits our
attention. How is it that a great many species seem able
to live together in the same habitat at the same time?
Careful studies by numerous biologists have given
us a partial answer to this question: many species may be
living together, but they are not utilizing the same re-
sources in the same way. The disparity in size of the two
water beetles found by Hutchinson in the little pool indi-

cated that they were utilizing the resources of that pool in

different ways. Similarly, lions, leopards, cheetahs, and
the smaller cats of the African plains tend to hunt differ-
ent classes of prey and hunt in different ways. Also, many
species are specialists. The chemical defenses of the
monarch butterfly’s caterpillar can detoxify the chemical
defenses of its food plant, the milkweed; one rarely finds
the monarch caterpillar feeding elsewhere and one rarely
finds other kinds of caterpillars chewing on milkweeds.
Though it is often difficult to see, many plants are best
adapted to a particular soil type, type of exposure or
climatic zone.

In addition to utilizing different resources or differ-
ent microhabitats, plants and animals can also divide the

Open grasslands in East Africa support a great variety of
large mammals. Different ways of utilizing the vegetation and
different ways of hunting allow diverse herbivores and
carnivores to share the same habitat.

year amongst themselves. Plants of our prairies avoid
competition for pollinators by dividing the flowering sea-
son. One cannot appreciate the flowers of the prairie in a
single visit; every few weeks new species come into
bloom as others finish their period of flowering. In the
evergreen tropics such flowering periodicity can occur
throughout the year or take place in very irregular inter-
vals over a number of years. But the message is the same:
it is the division of resources, in time as in space, that
allows many plants and animals to share the same
environment.

Little animals provide many fine examples of divid-
ing the habitat. We ourselves are sometimes inhabited
by two species of lice; their names tell us where to look
for them: the head louse and the body louse. Many
insects feed exclusively on certain plant parts with the
same selectivity as animal parasites. It has been estimated
that two common species of oak trees in England are
essential to the completion of the life histories of 128
different species of insects, each of which utilizes a
particular part or parts of the oak plant in its individual
way.

But can we explain local diversity entirely on the
basis of each coexisting species having slightly different
requirements? Probably not, especially in plants which
are passively dispersed and cannot move once they are
rooted. As one walks through a forest rich in species of
trees, one has the impression that most trees are not site-
specific and that a given site, if cleared, might support
any number of species. This is especially true in some
tropical rain forests where as many as 300 different kinds
of trees coexist within a few acres on similar soil and
slope. One explanation offered to explain this richness of
trees is that insect predators, specializing on the seeds of
particular species of trees, destroy the seeds that have
fallen near the parent tree, resulting in a widely scattered
pattern of species occurrence. A few researchers have
found support for this view; most analyses, however,
report clumped patterns of tree species occurrence,
contradicting the seed-predation hypothesis. In fact many
studies have found irregular, almost random patterns of
species distributions within these tropical forests. These
nearly random patterns suggest that chance events may
play an important role in the success of these tropical 23
trees.

Why should chance play an important role in the

life of a giant tropical tree? It appears that in many
instances the success of a small seedling or sapling on the
floor of the rain forest will be determined by whether or
not a nearby forest giant comes crashing to the ground.
These canopy trees create light gaps when they fall, and
being near the source of bright light may be the most
important factor in the further growth of rain forest
seedlings and saplings. The tree falls, which are largely
unpredictable, may be a major reason why so many large
trees can coexist; you don’t have to be a specialist or a
superior competitor when success is largely a matter of
chance. A similar argument has been made for the
diversity of some fishes on coral reefs. Unpredictable
tropical storms can break up parts of the reef, and being
the first to recolonize may be largely a matter of chance.
On land, larger scale disruption, such as that caused by
landslides or major floods, also promotes diversity by
ripping apart mature vegetation and beginning the
process of revegetation all over again.

Chance disruption and unpredictable variations in
temperature and rainfall may help explain why “superior
competitors” haven’t taken over more of the landscape.
Without disruptive fires, many of our midwestern
prairies would revert to woodland. Without storm and
flood, fewer open sites would be available for pioneer
species. We may grumble about our weather and how it
varies, but such variation is essential to maintaining the
diversity of life around us. If it were not for the year that
was unusually cold, unusually wet, unusually dry, or

unusually changeable, we might not have so many species

24 of plants and animals living in the same environments.

Milkweed plants
are protected by
chemical toxins in
their milky sap. The
caterpillar of the
Monarch butterfly
is able to sequester
these toxins; few
other insects have
this ability.

Too much disruption, however, can cause drastic
declines in the number of species. Africa is relatively poor
in the number of plant species, a condition that may be
the result of a severe dry period in the past. Areas in
Southeast Asia subject to recurrent seasonal typhoons
(which are very similar to our hurricanes) have forests
poorer in species than areas outside the typhoon zone.
Likewise, excessive predation or overgrazing can cause
severe reduction in species numbers. But smaller
amounts of predation and light grazing activity seem
to enhance species richness. Careful observations in
England showed that fields decreased in plant diversity
when rabbits were removed or reduced by disease. The
rabbits apparently browsed some of the more vigorous
and dominant plant species, thus allowing other plants
to maintain themselves. The conclusion from these and
many other similar observations is that too little
disruption reduces diversity (the top competitors take
over) and too much disruption also reduces diversity
(a majority of species cannot survive).

To sum up, the answer to our question seems to be a
multifaceted one. Different specializations and different
requirements allow many species to live together. In addi-
tion, predation, disease, and minor disturbance keep the
superior competitors in check, providing openings for
others. All this takes place in an environment in which
rainfall and temperature also vary, often unpredictably.
Taken together, these many factors result in a highly
dynamic biota, and it is these dynamic, often
unpredictable, components that support the great
richness of plants and animals we find in many

environments. L_]

TOURS FOR MEMBERS

EcGyPt
Wonders of the Nile
January 31-February 16
$3,375

An unforgettable in-depth visit to the Land
of the Pharaohs, including an 8-day Nile
cruise aboard the luxurious Sheraton Nile
Steamer. The tour leader is Dr. Bruce Wil-
liams, a distinguished U.S. Egyptologist.
Dr. Williams is an expert in archaeology and
ancient history. He will travel with the tour
throughout, including the Nile cruise, and
personally conduct all lectures and sight-
seeing. Highlights of our tour will be the
pyramids and Sphinx of Giza, little-visited
monuments of Middle Egypt, King Tut’s
tomb, the holiday resort of Aswan, and a
visit to Abu Simbel.

ALASKA NATURAL HIsTory TOUR
June 1984
$4,185

Experience the Great Land. Descriptions of
Alaska are filled with superlatives—a state
more than twice the size of Texas with a
population less than that of Denver, 33,000
miles of coastline, 119 million acres of forest,
14 of the highest peaks in the United States
culminating in Mt. Denali (formerly Mt.
McKinley), at 20,320 feet. Alaska is equally
a land of wildlife superlatives, from her great
herds of caribou to swarming seabird
rookeries to surging salmon in migration.
When one thinks of Alaska one thinks of
wilderness, of nature still fresh and un-
domesticated, of experiences dreamed of but
mostly unavailable to us of the lower 48.
Join us in June 1984 for an Alaskan

odyssey through a wide range of habitats
from the rockbound fur seal and sea bird
colonies of the Pribilofs, to the dripping for-
est and calving glaciers of the southeast, to
the grandeur of the Alaskan Range, to the
Fjordlike quiet and beauty of the inland
passage.

Our travels will be by plane, train, bus,
boat, horseback, and foot—whatever best
enhances our experience. Emphasis will be
on the land, its history, its wildlife. Inter-
pretation combined with direct observation
will provide an enjoyment and quality of
experience unavailable to the casual visitor.
Whatever your interest in natural history—
marine mammals, birding, mountains,
photography, flowers, forests, glaciers, rivers
—this tour will show you Alaska in all its di-
versity and splendor.

The tour will be led by Dr. Robert Karl
Johnson, Chairman of the Department of
Zoology of Field Museum.

TROPICAL MARINE BIOLOGY
Exploration of Isla Roatan

February 15-24
$1,450

Crystal clear water, magnificent coral reefs,
and a fantastic diversity of marine life are
characteristics of the coast of Roatan, the
largest of the Bay Islands in the Gulf of
Honduras and some 30 miles off the Central
American coast. Field Museum will conduct
a 10-day tour to Roatan especially for divers
that will combine superlative diving, expert
instruction in marine natural history, and an
opportunity to observe or actively partici-
pate in the scientific collecting of fishes.

An outstanding attraction for divers
is spectacular “drop-offs” whose tops ex-
tend into depths as shallow as 25 feet.

For additional information on any tour, please call
Tours Manager Dorothy Roder at 322-8862 or write
Field Museum Tours, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore
Drive, Chicago, IL 60605.

Leading the tour will be two ichthyolo-
gists with more than 10 years experience

in the Caribbean as teachers, divers, and
researchers: Dr. Robert Karl Johnson,
curator of fishes and chairman of Field
Museum’s Department of Zoology; and Dr.
David W. Greenfield, professor of biological
sciences and associate dean of the Graduate
School at Northern Illinois University. Illus-
trated talks about marine ecosystems will be
combined with field trips to observe habitat
types.

Accommodations will be at the Reef
House diving resort on Roatan. The price of
$1,450 covers all travel, lodging, and meals
at the Reef House, and two or three tank
dives per day.

GRAND CANYON ADVENTURE
May 25 - June 3

An exciting 280-mile cruise down the Col-
orado River by motorized rubber raft,
camping outdoors under the stars. Dr. Ber-
tram G. Woodland, curator of petrology,
will lead the tour. Group limited to 25. For
additional information call (322-8862) or
write the Tours Office.

ADDITIONAL TOUR GEMS
SLATED FOR 1984

@ China and Tibet

@ Kenya

@ Peru

@ England’s Old Inns, Old Homes, Old
Castles, and Old Gardens. Please ask to be
on our mailing list if any of these tours 1s
of interest you.

25

OUR ENVIRONMENT

Study of Children’s Attitudes
Toward Animals

If you think kids and wild creatures natur-
ally go together, think again. A recent
study among school children in Con-
necticut suggests that, like many a love
affair, the one between children and ani-
mals is bittersweet, at best. The pioneer-
ing study, sponsored by the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service and Yale University, did
not attempt to analyze the attitudes of
children nationally, but provides a pro-
vocative glimpse into how our per-
ceptions of wildlife may evolve through
the childhood years.

The study of “Children’s Attitudes,
Knowledge, and Behaviors Toward Ani-
mals” was conducted by Stephen R.
Kellert of Yale’s School of Forestry and
Environmental Studies and Miriam O. Wes-
tervelt of the Fish and Wildlife Service. It
included nearly 300 second, fifth, eighth,
and eleventh grade students who repre-
sented all major demographic and geo-
graphic divisions within Connecticut. The
survey was the final phase of a large, five-
part study of Americans’ knowledge and
attitudes toward wildlife commissioned
by the Interior Department agency.

The survey found:

@ Like adults, the most common attitude
among children was a “humanistic” one—
that is, a strong affection for individual
animals, mainly pets;

@ The “naturalistic” appreciation for wild-
life and the outdoors was much more com-
mon in children, especially eleventh grad-
ers, than in adults. For example, 59 percent
of eleventh graders indicated a preference
for being near wild animals while camp-
ing, against only 36 percent of adults sur-
veyed by Kellert in an earlier study;

@ Children were just as likely to express a
general dislike or fear of animals as that
“naturalistic” appreciation, however.
Younger children feared wild animals to a
much greater degree than did older class-
mates.

@ Children, particularly those in the up-
per grade levels, disapproved of sport
hunting. Like adults, they approved of
hunting for meat, however. Fully 81 per-
cent of eleventh graders (and 62 percent of
adults) opposed sport hunting, while 60
percent of all children (and 85 percent of
adults) approved of hunting for meat;

e@ Although children’s knowledge of
animals was relatively limited, in certain
specialized areas, like insects, children
knew more than adults. Seventy-eight
percent of children knew that spiders are
not 10-legged creatures, as against 50 per-
cent of adults, for example.

26 @ There are distinct stages through which

children’s attitudes toward animals
evolve, the authors suggest. Between
second and fifth grades, children showed
a dramatic increase in their concern, sym-
pathy, and affection for animals. Interests
in animals became less narrow and early
childhood fears began to disappear. Be-
tween fifth and eighth grades, factual
knowledge about animals showed its
greatest increase. From eighth to eleventh
grades, children gained a deepening con-
cern for wildlife protection, a greater
understanding of ecological concepts, and
a relatively high moral concern for animal
rights and cruelty issues.

@ Girls expressed a greater emotional
affection for animals than did boys, and
whites had a greater general interest in
animals, particularly wildlife, than did
nonwhites. Boys, whites, and rural resi-
dents possessed far greater factual know-
ledge about animals than did groups of
other children.

®@ Most children said they go to the zoo (93
percent), own a pet (87 percent), go fish-
ing (87 percent), learn about animals in
school (83 percent), feed birds (82 per-
cent), and read about animals (76 per-
cent). Whites were more likely than non-
whites to participate in activities involving
animals, in general. Rural children en-
gaged in more domestic animal activities,
as well a hunting, fishing, and trapping.
Girls exceeded boys in their participation
in only one activity—birdwatching.

Sampson’s Pearly Mussel

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Fws)
has proposed that the Sampson’s pearly
mussel be removed from the endangered
species list in the face of overwhelming
evidence that the creature no longer
exists. Originally identified and described
in 1861, the mussel inhabited the lower
reaches of the Wabash River in Illinois and
Indiana, and possibly parts of the Ohio
River in the general vicinity of the Wabash
and Ohio confluence. It was placed on the
U.S. list of Endangered and Threatened
species on June 14, 1976.

Extensive searches have failed to turn
up a living specimen during the past 50
years, leading to the conclusion that it is
extinct. The mussel apparently occupied
only gravel and sand bars, which were
destroyed over the years by siltation that
resulted from dredging and the con-
struction of dams. A decline in water qual-
ity as a result of an inflow of chemicals
from industry and agriculture is also be-
lieved to have contributed to the mussel’s
extinction.

Stephen didn’t think
he needed a will.
He was only 51....

Stephen intended to have his will drawn
up someday; first, there were things to
get done. He had no idea he would need
a will anytime soon—before he got
those “things” done. A will is like life
insurance: when you need it, it’s too
late to do anything about it.

Now, Stephen’s family is facing
unnecessary delays, confusion, and
extra expenses in settling his estate.

Don’t make the same mistake.
Send for our complimentary booklet
giving all the reasons why a will is
important and how you can plan an
effective will.

To: Planned Giving Office
Field Museum of Natural History
E. Roosevelt Rd. at Lake Shore Dr.
Chicago, Illinois 60605

(__) Please send me my free copy of “Seven
Reasons Why Your Will is Still Important.”

NAME

ADDRESS.

CITY. STATE. ZIP.

I can be reached at:
Phone: Bus. (_) Res.(_)

Index to Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin, Volume 54 (1983)

Articles

Archaeological Reconnaisance in Southern Peru, by Charles Stanish
and Irene Pritzker: Je 6

Archaeology around the Shores, by Kevin McGowan and Thomas J.
Riley: My 20

Athapaskan Indian Clothing in the Collections of Field Museum, by
James VanStone: A 22

Biennial Report for 1981-82: J/A 5

Botanical World in Replica, The, by Michael O. Dillon and Beverly
Serrell: S5

Bryophyte Collecting in the Bolivian Andes, by Marko Lewis: S 11

Clean-up for the Mediterranean, by Norman Myers: F 34

Collecting in the Upper Amazon, by Timothy Plowman: Mr 8

Earliest Plants on Land, The, by Peter R. Crane: O 20

Eastern and Western Traditions in Hand Papermaking, by Timothy
Barrett: My 10

Ecological Studies of Tropical Cicadas, by Allen M. Young: Je 20

El Nino: Recent Effects in Peru, by Robert Feldman: S 16

Fuertes in Abyssinia, by R. M. Peck: A 6

Geology and Creationism, by David M. Raup: Mr 16

Industrial Miracle in a Golden Age, An: the 17th Century Cloth
Exports of India, by Bennett Bronson: Ja 12

Inside Story on Fossil Plants, The, by Peter R. Crane: N 10

Journal of Wilfred Osgood, The; intro. by Bruce Patterson: F 8

Layman’'s Guide to Resources, Reserves, and Recovery, by Edward
Olsen: Ja8

Patronage of Tz’u Chou Type Wares, by Yutaka Mino: My 16

Plants of the World Photography Competition: O 11

Plants that Lie and Cheat (Well Almost), by William Burger: F 23

Precolumbian Murals in a Mexican Church, by Terry Stocker and
Barbara Jackson: F 14

Remarkable Maguey, The: Myth and Reality, by Terry Stocker and
Barbara Jackson: S 19

Sea Snakes: Mark, Release, Recapture, by Harold Voris, Helen Voris,
and William B. Jeffries: O5

Sixth Annual Anthropology Film Festival: N 13

Thinsections: A Natural Art Form, by Edward Olsen: A 19

Tradition of Chado—The Way of Tea: My 8

Treasures from the Shanghai Museum—6,000 Years of Chinese Art, by
Yutaka Mino and Katherine R. Tsiang: N5

Authors

Barrett, T.: Eastern and Western Traditions in Hand Papermaking,
My 10

Bronson, B.: An Industrial Miracle in a Golden Age: the 17th Century
Cloth Exports of India, Ja 12

Burger, W.: Plants that Lie and Cheat (Well Almost), F 23

Crane, P.R.: The Earliest Plants on Land, O 20

—: The Inside Story on Fossil Plants, N 10

Dillon, M.O.: The Botanical World in Replica, S5

Feldman, R.: El Nirio: Recent Effects in Peru, S 16

Jackson, B.: Precolumbian Murals in a Mexican Church, F 14

— The Remarkable Maguey: Myth and Reality, S 19

Jeffries, W.B.: Sea Snakes: Mark, Release, Recapture,O5

Lewis, M.: Bryophyte Collecting in the Bolivian Andes, S 11

McGowan, K.: Archaeology around the Shores, My 20

Mino, Y.: Patronage of Tz‘u Chou Type Wares, My 16

—— Treasures from the Shanghai Museum—6,000 Years of
Chinese Art, N5

Myers, N.: Clean-up for the Mediterranean, F 34

Olsen, E.: A Layman’s Guide to Resources, Reserves, and Recovery,
Ja8

— Thinsections: A Natural Art Form, A 19

Patterson, B.: The Journal of Wilfred Osgood (intro.), F 8

Peck, R.M.: Fuertes in Abyssinia, A 6

Plowman, T.: Collecting in the Upper Amazon, Mr 8

Pritzker, I.: Archaeological Reconnaisance in Southern Peru, Je 6

Raup, D.M.: Geology and Creationism, Mr 16

Riley, T.J.: Archaeology around the Shores, My 20

Serrell, B.: The Botanical World in Replica, S5

Stanish, C.: Archaeological Reconnaisance in Southern Peru, Je 6

Stocker, T.: Precolumbian Murals in a Mexican Church, F 14

———: The Remarkable Maguey: Myth and Reality, S 19

Tsiang, K.R.: Treasures from the Shanghai Museum—6,000 Years of
Chinese Art, N5

VanStone, J.: Athapaskan Indian Clothing in the Collections of
Field Museum, A 22

Voris, Harold: Sea Snakes: Mark, Release, Recapture, O5

Voris, Helen: Sea Snakes: Mark, Release, Recapture,O5

Young, A.M.: Ecological Studies of Tropical Cicadas, Je 20

27

FreLp Museum Stores
AMONG B. offer a selection of
6,000 ‘ ‘ quality reproductions

YEARS ft 3 ; ' and other items related to
OF ( ‘A the outstanding exhibit
CHINESE | ‘ a “"TREASURES FROM THE
ART | 4 j SHANGHAI Museu.”

Magnificent registered
reproductions created in
China by the workshop

of the Shanghai Museum

Official exhibit :

catalogs and posters

A wide selection of other
fine items, including
jewelry, antique pieces,

and wall hangings

Field Museum
(312) 922-9410
Celephone orders accepted

VISA, MasterCard

er _@ ©&.% 2 Oe 7,*.9.% 9° F © 2.9.97.% 77? "W.*.Ft.%7*" * "WaltetaO * ” ” " Va'’a"ad” ~~" "Ya oa? . .. . "8 Oe? «ec a. *F™* & & oe.” " 7%

Field Museum
of Natural History
Bulletin

Published by

Field Museum of Natural History
Founded 1893

President: Willard L. Boyd
Director: Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.

Editor: David M. Walsten
Production Liaison: Pamela Stearns
Staff Photographer: Ron Testa

BOARD OF TRUSTEES

James J. O'Connor
chairman

Mrs. T. Stanton Armour

George R. Baker

Robert O. Bass

Gordon Bent

Bowen Blair

Willard L. Boyd

Frank W. Considine

Stanton R. Cook

O.C. Davis

William R. Dickinson, Jr.

Thomas E. Donnelley II

Marshall Field

Richard M. Jones

Hugo J. Melvoin

Leo F. Mullin

Charles F. Murphy, Jr.

Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.

Robert A. Pritzker

James H. Ransom

John S. Runnells

Patrick G. Ryan

William L. Searle

Edward Byron Smith

Robert H. Strotz

William G. Swartchild, Jr.

Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken

E. Leland Webber

Julian B. Wilkins

Blaine J. Yarrington

LiFE TRUSTEES

Harry O. Bercher
Joseph N. Field
Clifford C Gregg
William V. Kahler
William H. Mitchell
John W. Sullivan

J. Howard Wood

Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin (USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined
July/August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive,
Chicago, II. 60605. Subscriptions: $6.00 annually, $3.00 for schools. Museum membership
includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not neces-
sarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Museum
phone: (312) 922-9410. Notification of address change should include address label and be sent to
Membership Department. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural His-
tory, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, II. 60605. ISSN:0015-0703. Second class
postage paid at Chicago, II.

CONTENTS

February 1984
Volume 55, Number 2

February Events at Field Museum 3

Eskimo Art and Culture 5
Coming March 10: Inua: Spirit World of the Bering Sea
Eskimo and Grasp Tight the Old Ways: The Klamer

Family Collection of Inuit Art

Images of Yap 20
by Robert B. Pickering
Program Developer, Department of Education

Sealskin Bags of Unusual Construction from the
Bering Strait Region 23
by James W. VanStone

Curator of North American archaeology and ethnology

Field Museum Tours 27

Cover

Spirit with Young, green stone and ivory sculpture by Shorty
Killiktee. 24.5 xv 14.3 x 14.4cm. This sculpture is among 175
contemporary prints, drawings, wall hangings, and other sculpture
that will be on view at Field Museum March 10 through May 27.
Entitled “Grasp Tight the Old Ways: The Klamer Collection of Inuit
Art,” the exhibit comes from the Art Gallery of Ontario and will be
shown concurrently with “Spirit World of the Bering Sea Eskimo,”
organized by SITES, Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition
Service. See pages 5-19.

Photo courtesy Art Gallery of Ontario, gift of the Klamer Family,
1978. Reproduction restricted. Copyright held by sculptor and
protected by Canadian Eskimo Arts Council, Ottawa, Canada.

VOLUNTEER OPPORTUNITIES: If you have a
good mind for detail and can give one day a week,
there may be a volunteer job for you in our Zoolo-
gy or Geology department. Other volunteer oppor-
tunities include jobs in Membership, Building
Operations and departmental libraries. Clerical
skills are needed in almost every area of the
Museum.

Events

Yueh Lung Shadow Theatre

Sunday, February 5
1:00pm and 2:30pm
James Simpson Theatre

Shadow theatre is a performing art more than 2,000
years old. The Yueh Lung Shadow Theatre is the only
one of its kind in the United States. The company uses
Peking-type figures which are constructed by members
of the troupe. The performances feature Chinese shad-
ow puppets maneuvered by professionals and illumin-
ated ona screen. The puppets recreate stories of Chinese
life and legend. During the performance, the stories and
the use of the puppets are explained.

Because the number of seats for each performance is
limited, advance purchase of tickets is recommended.
These performances are partially funded by a grant
from the National Endowment for the Humanities, a

federal agency.

Members: $3.00
Nonmembers: $5.00

Use coupon to order tickets.
Fees are nonrefundable.

“African Lifestyles’—Film Series

Africa is a land whose population has more distinct cultures than any other continent. These free films focus upon the
diversity of African lifestyles.

February 11, 1:00pm

Masai: Warrior Between Two Worlds (30m)

Traditional culture clashes with the modern world in
this documentary of life among the Masai of East
Africa.

Nawi (22m)

During the dry season, the Jie of Uganda leave their
homesteads and take their cattle to temporary camps,
the nawi.

February 18, 1:00pm

Talking Drums (17m)

An intimate view of a master drum-carver examines the
significance drums hold for the Ashanti of West Africa.

Dance of West Africa

Najwa Dance Corps
Sunday, February 19, 2:00pm
James Simpson Theatre

In an exciting mixture of dance, music, drama, and his-
tory, Najwa Dance Corps brings to you a performance
which preserves the styles and techniques of different
eras in African history. Najwa I is an internationally
acclaimed dancer who has continued a tradition of

Gelede: A Yoruba Masquerade (24m)

An impressive, colorful Nigerian mask dance-drama is
enacted to combat the forces of witches and to reinforce
definitions of men’s and women’s roles.

February 25, 1:00pm

The Nuer (60m)

Life among these East African herders revolves largely
around their cattle, supplying their basic material and
spiritual needs. Portrayed are a bride price dispute, a
ghost marriage, a revivalistic ceremony to combat
smallpox, and a young man’s initiation.

These films are free with Museum admission and tickets are
not required. Use West Entrance.

teaching, performing, and artistic endeavors through
the Najwa Dance Corps. The Corps performs the fol-
lowing suite of dances: “Diolli” and “Saba” from Sene-
gal; “Liendien” from Gambia; “Manjaani,’ a social dance
of West Africa; and “Wolofsodun,” a slave dance from
Mali.

Members: $3.00
Nonmembers: $5.00
For further information call (312) 322-8854.

CONTINUED

CONTINUED FROM PAGE 3

February Weekend
Programs

Each Saturday and Sunday you are invited to explore
the world of natural history at Field Museum. Free
tours, demonstrations, and films related to ongoing
exhibits at the Museum are designed for families and
adults. Listed below are only a few of the numerous
activities available each weekend. Check the Weekend
Passport upon arrival for the complete schedule and pro-
gram locations. The programs are partially supported
by a grant from the Illinois Arts Council.

February
5 12:00noon Traditional China. Examine the
timeless imagery and superb craftsmanship
represented by Chinese masterworks in our
permanent collection.

11 1:00pm ‘Tibet Today. Slide lecture shows
Lhasa and other towns now open to tourists,
as well as Tibetan refugees who have carried
their religion into the mountainous areas
surrounding this ancient religious center.

12. 12:00pm Museum Safari. Seek out shrunken
heads from the Amazon, mummies from
ancient Egypt, and big game from Africa.

18 11:30am = Ancient Egypt. Investigate the tradi-
tions of ancient Egyptian civilization from
everyday life to mummification and the pro-
mise of an afterlife.

25 1:30pm Himalayan Journey: A Faith in
Exile. Slide lecture focuses upon the strong-
holds of Tibetan refugees in India: Dharamasla
(home of the Dalai Lama), Darjeeling, and
Sikkim.

26 = 12:30pm Museum Safari. Seek out shrunken
heads from the Amazon, mummies from
ancient Egypt, and big game from Africa.

These weekend programs are free with Museum admission and
tickets are not required.

Events

Family Feature
African Rhythms: A Living History

Babu Atiba, Musician
Saturday and Sunday,
February 4 and 5
12:00 noon, Hall E,
Cultures of Africa

The voices of African instruments sing history as well as
music. The drum is considered essential throughout
Africa and its sounds are often said to “talk.” Babu Atiba
is a well-known Chicago drummer who specializes in
the music of West Africa. Join us as he shares his music
and demonstrates such drums as the djimbe and the djun
djun. Examine the variety of horns, harps, flutes, lutes,
and drums in our collection and learn some of the
rhythms that are the heartbeat of West Africa’s music.

Family features are free with Museum admission and tickets
are not required.

. . Member Nonmember Total
Amount
Program Title Tickets Tickets Tickets
Reg istration 2 #Requested #Requested #Requested Enclosed
Please complete coupon for your program
selection and any other special events. Com-
plete all requested information on the applica-
tion and include section number where appro-
priate. If your request is received less than one
week before program, tickets will be held in
your name at West Entrance box office until
one-half hour before event. Please make
checks payable to Field Museum. Tickets will
be mailed on receipt of check. Refunds will be
made only if program is sold out.
Total:
For Office Use:
Date Received Date Returned
Name ; Ps :
Return complete ticket application with a self-addressed
Street stamped envelope to:
City State Zip Public Programs: Department of Education
eae : Field Museum of Natural History
Telephone Daytime Evening Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive

Have you enclosed your self-addressed stamped envelope?

Chicago, IL 60605-2497

Eskimo Art and Culture

Bear-man transformation
Ivory

3.81cm x 8.83cm
Smithsonian Institution

Two major exhibits
On view March 10 through May 27

INUA: SPIRIT WORLD OF THE BERING SEA ESKIMO

from The Smithsonian Institution

and

GRASP TIGHT THE OLD WAYS: THE KLAMER FAMILY COLLECTION OF INUIT ART
from the Art Gallery of Ontario

PHOTOBYJOELBREGER 3

'"S/iis#a x < sac - = era. a

PHOTO BY JOEL BREGER

VISITORS TO FIELD MUSEUM THIS SPRING will have an oppor-
tunity to view two interesting exhibitions of Eskimo art
and culture which open on March 10 and close on May 27.
They encompass a wide area of the North American arctic
and a period extending from the late nineteenth century to
the present.

The first of these exhibits, curated by William Fitz-
hugh and Susan Kaplan, originated at the Smithsonian
Institution. It is devoted to a collection of ethnographic
material from the coast of western Alaska made for the
National Museum of Natural History between 1877 and
1881 by Edward William Nelson.

Nelson went to Alaska as a weather observer and was
assigned to the village of St. Michael on the coast north of
the mouth of the Yukon River. During his tour of duty he
traveled extensively and made a superb collection of
ethnographic specimens numbering more than 10,000
items. These he described and illustrated in an important
publication entitled The Eskimo About Bering Strait, pub-
lished by the Bureau of American Ethnology of the
Smithsonian in 1899.

Most of the artifacts collected by Nelson have never
before been exhibited to the public. They include exam-
ples of the elaborate sea mammal hunting equipment
characteristic of Eskimo culture, carefully constructed
bentwood boxes painted with intricate designs having
ceremonial significance, beautifully woven grass bags
and baskets, carved ivory ornaments worn as personal
adornment, and, most spectacular of all, the elaborate
face masks of infinite variety which were an important
part of the enactment of myths and stories and ceremo-
nial presentations held in the qasig, or ceremonial house.

The Nelson collection is the largest and most com-
plete assemblage of nineteenth century ethnographic
material ever made in Alaska. The exhibit includes a repre-
sentative sample of more than 250 specimens, many of
which are among the finest examples of nineteenth-
century Alaskan Eskimo art.

The second exhibit, entitled “Grasp Tight the Old
Ways,” was curated by Jean Blodgett and originated at the
Art Gallery of Ontario in Toronto. It consists of selections
from the Klamer family collection of contemporary Cana-

Wedge for slitting feather quills
Ivory
19cm

Inua: Spirit World of the Bering Sea Eskimo Float plugs
from the Edward W. Nelson Collection of 6 mee

The National Museum of Natural History/National Museum of Man

Smithsonian Institution

Photos courtesy Smithsonian Institution

dian Eskimo (Inuit) art. Mr and Mrs. Harry Klamer were
first attracted to Eskimo art more than twenty years ago
and became enthusiastic patrons. They not only acquired
pieces of contemporary sculpture and graphics at exhibi-
tions, but traveled to the north to meet native artists. Their
desire to document the accomplishments of Eskimo artists
and to make their works known to a wider audience led
them to donate a portion of their collection to the Art
Gallery of Ontario in 1978.

Most of the 175 pieces in the Klamer collection are
contemporary prints, drawings, wall hangings, and sculp-
tures made for sale by artists from some twenty Canadian
Eskimo communities. Since the late 1940s and early 1950s,
when Canadian Eskimos were first encouraged to produce

sculpture and graphic art for a commercial market, there
has been a tremendous increase in the interest in this
unique art on the part of collectors, galleries, and museums
all over the world. The Klamer collection is an excellent
introduction to exciting art forms in which the artist's
interpretation, although intensely personal, is rooted in the
cultural traditions of the past.

The Inua and Klamer exhibits can be viewed in Hall
26 on the second floor. Authoritative and beautifully pro-
duced catalogs are available for both exhibits. The visitor
may wish to compare the fine examples of Eskimo art and
material culture exhibited in Hall 26 with those in the
museum's new permanent exhibit “Maritime Peoples of
the Arctic and Northwest Coast” in Hall 10. Fim

—ewweaeeEe@w me EB eB Ae et 7h. *

Food tray and ladle —
Wood with stone inlay
35.5cm (tray), 26.5cm (ladle)

Mask
Wood, feathers, root lashing
50cm

Flying bird effigy Male and female dolls
Wood and feathers Bone, skin, and fur
53cm 17cm, 15cm
Snuff box

Wood, ivory inlay

10cm

Mask
Wood, feathers, and quills
48cm

Seal inua (spirit) mask
Wood, reindeer skin, fur
29cm

Bear inua (spirit) mask
Wood
30cm

eS eee eee —= =wTs.. . «x . S*A"AY OVS Le a

Caribou Head

Green stone and antler
by Osuitok Ipeelee
54.7 x 31.5x 45.6cm

Sea Goddess

(7 ras ~p Tig ht the Old Ways y Dark green stone, ivory, and baleen
lhe Klamer Family Collection of Inuit Art 22.5 % 26.0.» 10.9¢m
from the Art Gallery of Ontario

Photos (pp. 14-19) courtesy Art Gallery of Ontario,
nit ot the Klamer Family, 1978.
oproduction restricted. Copyrights held by artists
{ protected by Canadian Eskimo Arts Council, Ottawa, Canada.

15

i:

Mother and Child with Kudlik
Dark green stone, ivory, light green stone, black stone, bone, and blacking

by Elijassiapik
14.0 x 21.5 x 24.7cm

Oiviuq’s Fourney

Stonecut and stencil

by William Noah and Martha Noah
64.0 x 94.0cm

LL

LISK

Bird with Colow ful Plumage
Felt-tip pen

by Kenojuak

SO.7 « 66.3¢m

Six Birds

Felt-tip pen and graphite
by Kingmeata

50.7 x 66.5cm

Images of Yap

by Robert B. Pickering

Program Developer, Department of Education
Photos by the author, courtesy Nawrocki Stock Photo

Above: Figrag, high chief of Lamaer, one ot three high-cast
villages on the island. Yap is one of the few communities out-
side of India where a rigid caste structure remains intact. Left:
Gravestone of Japanese soldier is silent reminder of the early
1940s, when the island was occupied by Japanese forces.

ap is a 28-square-mile island in the Pacific’s

Western Caroline group and located about
800 miles due north of New Guinea. It recently
became a member of the Federated States of
Micronesia. The population is about 5,000.

In 1980, when Yap was still a U.N. Trust Terri-
tory, I had the opportunity to visit the island for five
months, directing a federally funded mortuary site
archaeology project. This was part of an environ-
mental impact study prior to the construction of a
proposed airstrip. In the course of my research there,
I interviewed a large number of older Yap residents
about mortuary customs. I also came to learn a great
deal about their life in general—ceremonial activi-
ties, politics, and social structure, their economy,
crafts, and other aspects of daily life that have re-
mained little affected by inroads from developed
parts of the world.

The photos reproduced here offer a glimpse
of the beauty and character of this proud island
community.

The girl above and the boy at left are participants in a gamel,
or bamboo dance. A standing dance adapted from the outer
islands in the Yap district, it is unusually vigorous and done to
the accompaniment of bamboo sticks struck together.

Enormous carved “wheels” of ray ningocol, or stone money—
Yap's principal claim to world renown. This form of currency is
used, for example, to buy a wife or to compensate the family
of someone the payer has killed. The stone is quarried in
Palau, some 300 miles to the southwest.

Left: Man and wife: 70-year-old Falanug and 58-year-old
Mangayog before their neatly thatched sleeping house.
Lower left: Basket-making can be done almost anytime, any-
where. Using palm fronds, these men fashion carrying bas-
kets as they wait for a dance to begin. Their nimble fingers
can create a large basket in 15 minutes. Below: Everyone
comes to the dance—to perform or just to watch.

Sealskin Bags of Unusual Construction
From the Bering Strait Region

by James W. VanStone
Curator of North American Archaeology and Ethnology

raditional Alaskan Eskimo bags and baskets were
fd Beet made from the skins of land and sea mam-
mals or of dried grass. North of Norton Sound (see map)
oblong, flat bags or satchels made of caribou or sealskin,
usually with the hair on, were designed for holding tools
and implements of all kinds. They had slightly arched
handles of bone, ivory, or antler stretched lengthwise
across the open mouth of the container.

From Norton Sound to the mouth of the Kuskokwim
River, Eskimo women, using a simple twining technique,
made mats and bags of dried grass. Large mats served as
curtains to partition off part of a room or sleeping area
while smaller ones were placed as seats in the manholes of

176°

kayaks. Most baskets fashioned by the Eskimos of western
and southwestern Alaska were made by the coiling tech-
nique and intended to contain small household items. The
technique of coiling appears to have developed relatively
late since coiled baskets were not offered for sale to early
explorers. In the early twentieth century, however, Eskimo
women made them by the hundreds in response to a grow-
ing demand for souvenirs.

Four sealskin bags in the collections of Field Museum
are of special interest because of their unusual con-
struction. These bags do not resemble any of the forms just
mentioned nor are similar containers described or illus-
trated in the existing literature on the material culture of

148° 136° 124°
L \ x

SIBERIA |
. sp ALASKA
fess of a
62" & ey sys J
Br SEWARD _ ae
PENINSULA ~\ 3
ST. LAWRENCE cate NORTON SOUND
BERING SEA
A {++
Lee) OB ce
Pak o o a LF ,

7
172"

Fig. 1 PHOTO BY RON TESTA N108076

Alaskan Eskimos or the Eskimos and Chukchi of adjacent
northeastern Siberia. Three of these bags were collected at
Nome between 1900 and 1913 and purchased by the
Museum in 1917. They are described in the catalog of the
Department of Anthropology as “work or trinket boxes of
skin.” It is possible that they were containers for sewing
equipment or jewelry.

Narrow strips of tanned bleached and unbleached seal-
skin, with the hair removed, were used in these containers.
A detailed description of one of them will serve to make
clear the unusual method of construction. This bag (cata-
log No. 27727, approx. 18cm high) has a flat bottom made
from a single piece of unbleached sealskin (fig. 1). The
sides flare evenly and constrict near the neck with an addi-
tional outward flare at the rim. The round sealskin lid is
flat at the edges, raised and rounded toward the center, and
has a vertical round knob at the top.

The bag is constructed of 24 narrow, folded strips of
bleached and unbleached skin with the two colors alternat-
ing. Between each strip is a narrow welt of unbleached skin
and the pairs of strips with intervening welts are sewn with
sinew as shown in figure 2. The lid is similarly constructed
of seven strips of skin separated by welts. A recessed eighth
strip extends below the lid and fits into the bag opening.
Figure 3 illustrates how the center section of the lid is built

24 up to a round piece at the top. The knob consists of five

short strips of skin, the top one being wide and the others
narrow and separated by welts.

Decoration on this container consists of appliquéd
pieces of tanned sealskin (fig. 1). Unbleached pieces are
used on the bleached strips and bleached pieces on the
unbleached strips. Some of the decorative elements are
sewn on with a running stitch, in several places with red
thread rather than sinew although the color is hardly visi-
ble. Others are woven into strips in an over-under pattern.
On some of the very narrow strips, decorative pieces,
usually simple rectangles or squares, are simply held in
place by the welts on either side. The lid is decorated in the

Fig. 2 DRAWING BY ZBIGNIEW JASTRZEBSK! N109057-A

same manner except that a very narrow strip of bleached
skin around the rim is cut in a zigzag pattern and held in
place by the sinew stitching (fig. 3).

The other two bags in this group are constructed in
much the same manner and are approximately the same
size. The first (catalog No. 27726, approx. 18cm high) con-
sists of a flat bottom piece of unbleached skin and 28 alter-
nating strips of bleached and unbleached skin with inter-
vening welts of the same material (fig. 4). The lid is made
of nine strips which shorten toward an ivory knob at the
top. A recessed strip extending below the lid fits into the
bag opening. Most of the decorative pieces are held in
place by the welts, but a few are woven into the strips in an
over-under pattern. All sewing is with sinew.

The third bag (catalog No. 27728, approx. 13.5cm

Fig. 3 DRAWING BY ZBIGNIEW JASTRZEBSK! N109056-A

high) has a flat bottom and is constructed of 24 narrow
strips of skin separated by welts (fig. 5). A slightly flaring
rim is a single piece of unbleached skin folded over at the
edge and sewn with a running stitch. All sewing is with
sinew. There is a broken carrying strap of unbleached skin.
The nearly flat lid consists of two pieces separated by a
welt, with a narrow loop of unbleached skin in the center.
All appliquéd decoration on this container is held in place
by the welts. There are also five beaded decorative ele-
ments, spot-stitched and sinew-sewn, at intervals on a
wide unbleached strip just below the rim of this bag. The
bead colors are pink, white, blue, and green.

Fig. 4 PHOTO BY RON TESTA N108075

Fig. 5 PHOTO BY RON TESTA N108077

It is interesting to speculate on the provenience of the
three bags in this group. The fact that they were collected
at Nome does not provide any reliable clues as to where
they were made and used. The village of Nome was estab-
lished by gold miners in 1898 and quickly became an eco-
nomic center for a large area of northwest Alaska, particu-
larly following the discovery of gold on the beaches in front
of the community in 1902. Native peoples from Alaskan
settlements were attracted to Nome by opportunities to
trade with gold miners and other visitors. Handicrafts
from even more distant areas, including northeastern
Siberia, reached Nome through native and nonnative trad-
ing patterns and routes.

The style of decoration on the bags described sug-
gests that they were made either by Eskimos on St. Law-
rence Island or the coast of Siberia, or by the Chukchi of
coastal Siberia. In all three areas, the use of alternating light
and dark tanned sealskin was characteristic, as were appli-
quéd designs similar to those on the Field Museum bags. It
would not have been difficult for a collector at Nome to
obtain examples of St. Lawrence Island or Siberian crafts
either directly from native visitors or as a result of trade
networks.

The fourth bag was collected by the Borden-Field
Museum Alaska Arctic Expedition in 1927. It is identified
in the catalog as a “woman’s bag” and was obtained at Cape

Prince of Wales on Seward Peninsula. Like the other three 25

26

containers, this one was probably also intended to hold
sewing equipment, jewelry, or small household items.

This bag (catalog No. 177780, approx. 23cm high,
excluding strap) has a flat bottom of tanned unbleached
sealskin and sides that flare evenly toward a slightly con-
stricted neck (fig. 6). It is constructed from 24 narrow
strips of bleached skin with welts of the same material be-
tween every other strip (fig. 7). Two strips near the opening
and the rim are of unbleached skin. Six of the strips and
every other welt are dyed red. Additional decoration in-
cludes three vertical strands of light blue, dark blue, and
translucent yellow beads, spot-stitched and thread-sewn,
which are attached at intervals around the bag; and dangles
of blue beads toward the center of the bag between the
vertical strands. The bag has a loop carrying strap of
bleached skin. Sewing throughout, with the exception of
the beaded strands and dangles, is with sinew; the bottom
piece is attached to the lowest strip by means of a whip
stitch.

Fig. 6 PHOTO BY RON TESTA N108691

Fig. 7 DRAWING BY ZBIGNIEW JASTRZEBSKI N109056-8

Although all four bags are now stiff and inflexible,
the strips of sealskin would have been soft and pliable
when the containers were being sewn. After the strips and
welts were sewn, the finished bag was turned inside out so
that the sewing and untrimmed edges were on the inside.
Thus, most of the appliquéd decoration had to be in place
before the bag was turned.

Since the construction of the bags described here is
perhaps unique, or at least extremely rare, it is difficult to
draw any specific conclusions concerning the significance
of these particular specimens. Although apparently rare as
a bag-making technique, welting was used frequently by
Eskimo women in the construction of footgear. Regardless
of rarity, however, it would not be surprising to find bags of
the same design on both sides of Bering Strait since hand-
icrafts in the two areas were derived from a common heri-
tage and a long period of cultural exchange. FM

TOURS FOR MEMBERS

GRAND CANYON ADVENTURE
May 25 - June 3

Many of us have beheld the Grand
Canyon from the rim or while flying
overhead, and some of us have hiked
partway down to the Colorado River.
But there is another Grand Canyon that
relatively few have experienced: Field
Museum is offering you the opportunity
to see and experience the canyon from
the river.

The 280-mile trip will be by two
motorized rubber rafts. We'll sleep on
sandy beaches under the stars and our
meals will be excellent. Along the way,
we'll hike to places of unusual geologic
and anthropologic interest, sometimes
through the most pleasant and enchant-
ing stream beds and valleys, at times
along the waterfalls. We'll see and
study more geology in this one brief
period than can be seen anywhere else
in comparable time. Dr. Bertram Wood-
land, curator of petrology, will be our
tour leader.

The trip will begin on Friday, May 25,
with a flight to Las Vegas, where we
will remain overnight. The evening of
our arrival, we’ll have a briefing about
the river trip and will receive our river
equipment. Saturday morning we'll
leave by deluxe bus for Lees Ferry,
where we'll board the rafts. The trip
will end 9 days later, at Pierce Ferry,
near the head of Lake Mead. We'll re-
turn to Chicago, via Las Vegas, Sunday,
June 3.

You needn’t be a “rough rider” to join
this expedition—you needn’t even
know how to swim. Persons of any age
can enjoy the river with equanimity,
and come out proud and happy to have
experienced this extraordinary adven-
ture.

The cost (to be announced) per per-
son covers all expenses (including air
fare, board fees, waterproof bags for
gear, sleeping bags, etc.), and all meals.
The trip is limited to 25 participants.

AALASKA NATURAL HISTORY
TOUR

June 1984
$4,185

Experience the Great Land. Descrip-
tions of Alaska are filled with superla-
tives—a state more than twice the size
of Texas with a population less than
that of Denver, 33,000 miles of coast-
line, 119 million acres of forest, 14 of the
highest peaks in the United States cul-
minating in Mt. Denali (formerly Mt.
McKinley), at 20,320 feet. Alaska is
equally a land of wildlife superlatives,
from her great herds of caribou to
swarming seabird rookeries to surging
salmon in migration. When one thinks
of Alaska one thinks of wilderness, of
nature still fresh and undomesticated, of
experiences dreamed of but mostly un-
available to us of the lower 48.

Join us for an Alaskan odyssey
through a wide range of habitats from
the rockbound fur seal and sea bird col-
onies of the Pribilofs, to the dripping
forest and calving glaciers of the south-
east, to the grandeur of the Alaskan
Range, to the Fjordlike quiet and beauty
of the inland passage.

Our travels will be by plane, train,
bus, boat, horseback, and foot—what-
ever best enhances our experience.
Emphasis will be on the land, its history,
its wildlife. Interpretation combined
with direct observation will provide an
enjoyment and quality of experience un-
available to the casual visitor. Whatever
your interest in natural history—marine
mammals, birding, mountains, photogra-
phy, flowers, forests, glaciers, rivers—
this tour will show you Alaska in all its
diversity and splendor.

The tour will be led by Dr. Robert
Karl Johnson, Chairman of the Depart-
ment of Zoology of Field Museum.

For additional information on any tour,
please call Tours Manager Dorothy Roder at
322-8862 or write Field Museum Tours,
Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive,
Chicago, IL 60605.

TROPICAL MARINE BIOLOGY
Exploration of Isla Roatan

February 15-24
$1,450

Crystal clear water, magnificent coral
reefs, and a fantastic diversity of marine
life are characteristics of the coast of
Roatan, the largest of the Bay Islands in
the Gulf of Honduras and some 30 miles
off the Central American coast. Field
Museum will conduct a 10-day tour to
Roatan especially for divers that will
combine superlative diving, expert
instruction in marine natural history,
and an opportunity to observe or
actively participate in the scientific
collecting of fishes.

An outstanding attraction for divers
is spectacular “drop-offs” whose tops
extend into depths as shallow as 25 feet.
Leading the tour will be two ichthy-
ologists with more than 10 years
experience in the Caribbean as teachers,
divers, and researchers: Dr. Robert Karl
Johnson, curator of fishes and chairman
of Field Museum’s Department of
Zoology; and Dr. David W. Greenfield,
professor of biological sciences and
associate dean of the Graduate School at
Northern Illinois University. Illustrated
talks about marine ecosystems will be
combined with field trips to observe
habitat types.

Accommodations will be at the Reef
House diving resort on Roatan. The
price of $1,450 covers all travel, lodging,
and meals at the Reef House, and two or
three tank dives per day.

ADDITIONAL TOUR GEMS
SLATED FOR 1984

te China and Tibet

ce Kenya

ce Peru

te England’s Old Inns, Old Homes,
Old Castles, and Old Gardens. Please
ask to be on our mailing list if any of
these tours is of interest to you.

27

LISS MARITA MAXEY
411 N GREENVIEW
HICAGO IL 60626

YUEH LUNG
SHADOW THEATRE

Sunday, February 5
Two Performances: 1:00pm and 2:30pm
James Simpson Theatre
Members: $3.00
Nonmembers: $5.00

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY BULLETIN

March 1984

“SHUTTLE DIPLOMACY: 8 THE CR
Lecture by George Archibald, Mat

ESKIMO ART & CULTURE LECT
“Inua: Spirit World of the Beri ia a

by William W. Fitzhugh, Mare 1¢

“The Elegance and Drama of Eskimo Art: N otable Achievements” ie
by. Dorothy Jean Ray, March'17_

CONTINUED FROM PAGE 3

Events

March Weekend Programs

hunters of the arctic fashion beautiful objects
to honor spirits and the animals upon which
their lives depend. This tour of our per-

Each Saturday and Sunday you are invited to explore the world of natural history at Field Museum. Free tours,
demonstrations, and films related to ongoing exhibits are designed for families and adults. Check the Weekend
Passport upon arrival for complete schedules and program locations. The programs are partially supported by a
grant from the Illinois Arts Council.

March

10 12:00noon Continents Adrift. (lecture/ manent Eskimo collection serves to heighten
demonstration) Why have fossils of similar understanding of our current special exhibit
dinosaur species been found on continents “Eskimo Art & Culture.”
Dae eee Bice Nigra nee Go ERe of 24 1:30pm. Tibetan Borderlands: Ladakh.

Ee OS is illustrated with (slide lecture) Examine the religious ritual,

ae tae an) ae folk music, and daily lives of the people of
1:30pm. Tibetan Borderland: Bhutan and Ladakh, “Land of Many Passes.”
Prepalisnide caus) Ee perigee aka 3:00pm. China’s Great Wall and the Silk
ke uae rte eee fs Road. (slide lecture) Travel west, along the
ida Paadke ee ne sis asian Great Wall and caravan roads, to China’s
eg er neat ancient capitals. Follow the course of

11 12:30pm Museum Safari. (tour) Seek out Chinese empires, arts, and faiths.
Beane Cu needs Ont Eee) aaa 25 12:30pm. Museum Safari. (tour) Seck out
mies from ancient Egypt, pad big game shrunken heads from the Amazon, mum-
ee aE mies from ancient Egypt, and big game

fF 2:30pm. Treasures From the Totem Forest. from Africa.
(tour) A walk through Museum exhibits 2-00 aes ;
, ‘ 00pm. Life in Ancient Egypt. (tour) In-
ae Aoneh a foe : sisters freee . vestigate the objects and practices, including
LOTS BOL SUAT OS ROVE PLEVEN eB of 80 mummification, which illustrate ancient life
and masks proclaim their pride of rank and sathe Nile Valle
mystical ties to animals and spirits. us

18 2:30pm. Eskimo Art and Life. (tout) The 31 1:00pm. Traditional China. (tour) Exam-

ine the timeless imagery and superb crafts-
manship represented by Chinese master-
works in our permanent collection.

These weekend programs free with Museum admission; tickets not required.

. . Member Nonmember Total
Reg 1S tr, ation Program Title Tickets Tickets Tickets dete
#Requested #Requested #Requested
Please complete coupon for your program
selection and any other special events. Com-
plete all requested information on the applica-
tion and include section number where appro-
priate. If your request is received less than one
week before program, tickets will be held in
your name at West Entrance box office until
one-half hour before event. Please make
checks payable to Field Museum. Tickets will
be mailed on receipt of check. Refunds will be
made only if program is sold out.
Total:
For Office Use:
Date Received Date Returned
Name
Return complete ticket application with a self-addressed
Street stamped envelope to:
City State Zip Public Programs: Department of Education
Field Museum of Natural History
4 Telephone Daytime Evening Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive

Have you enclosed your self-addressed stamped envelope? Chicago, IL 60605-2497

FIELD BRIEFS

Ray A. Kroc

Ray A. Kroc
1902-1984

Ray A. Kroc, a generous donor to Field Mu-
seum, died on January 14 in San Diego, CA at
the age of 81. Mr. Kroc had distinguished him-
self in the business world as founder of
McDonald’s Corporation, which he served as
senior chairman of the board at the time of his
death. He was also owner of the San Diego
Padres baseball team.

In 1972 Mr. and Mrs. Kroc made a gift to
Field Museum—one of several made in Chi-
cago in observance of his seventieth birthday.
The gift was to provide major funding for
“Man in His Environment,” a new hall opened
in 1975 calling attention to man’s effect on
the biota.

Another gift followed in 1975 to establish
the Joan and Ray Kroc Environmental Educa-
tion Fund. A major thrust of the fund was to

fi

Ron Testa

|

Peter R. Crane

initiate an adult education program at Field
Museum. (See pages 24-26.) It is of interest
that from that small beginning has grown a
broad-based adult course and field trip pro-
gram that served 4,900 registrants in 1983.
Further, the program is largely self-
supporting. The growth and success of the
adult segment of Field Museum’s educational
program is in keeping with Mr. Kroc’s own
entrepreneurial spirit.

Mr. and Mrs. Kroc’s gifts to Field Museum
totalled well over $1 million. They are among
those generous donors who have helped to
shape the Museum’s course in the last quarter
century. Ray Kroc’s memory will be per-
petuated in the Joan B. and Ray A. Kroc
fund at Field Museum, which will ensure
continued support of the Museum that he
helped to build.

British Award for Peter Crane

Assistant Curator Peter R. Crane of the
Department of Geology was honored in
December by the British Palaeontological
Association. At its annual meeting, the
association awarded Crane the President’s
Prize for the best paper given by a research
worker under the age of 30. Crane’s presenta-
tion concerned his research on fossils of some
of the earliest known flowering plants.

Crane joined the Field Museum staff in
September 1982. His paleobotanical research
is directed towards clarifying the evolution of
flowering plants (angiosperms), which today
dominate the world vegetation with more
than a quarter of a million extant species. In
particular, his studies have focused on the
reproductive structure and biology of the
earliest flowering plants, and the enigmas sur-
rounding the origin and early diversification
of the group. Later phases in angiosperm
evolution are being examined through
National Science Foundation-supported
research on the early fossil history and evolu-
tion of selected flowering plant families.

President Boyd Honored

The Law School Admission Council pre-
sented awards in January to five law school
graduates who have used their legal educa-
tion in a variety of ways; among the five was
Willard L. Boyd, president of Field Museum.
The award was for “accomplishment and
achievements as an inspiration to others at
the threshold of a career choice.” Boyd’s
outstanding accomplishments have been
in higher education, the arts, and cultural
institutions.

Boyd received his law degree from the

Willard L. Boyd

University of Minnesota and LL.M. and
SJ.D degrees from the University of Michi-
gan. Before coming to Field Museum in 1981
he was at the University of Iowa since 1954,
serving the university as president for his
final twelve years there.

Terrell Promoted to Curator

John Terrell, who joined Field Museum’s
Department of Anthropology in September
1971, has been promoted from the rank of
associate curator to that of full curator. A
specialist in human biogeography and Pacific
Islands archaeology and ethnology, Terrell’s
scholarly contributions focus on the study of
human diversity and on innovating ways of
explaining scientifically the peopling of the
Pacific. In announcing this promotion, Lorin
I. Nevling, Jr, director, noted also Terrell’s in-
strumental role in bringing the first main-
frame mini-computer to the Museum, his
leadership of the Center for Advanced Stud-
ies during one of its most active priods, and
his leadership also in the production of Field
Museum’s popular traveling exhibition “Pat-
terns of Paradise.”

John Terrell

Ron Testa

DANCING
for the
DEAD

by David M. Walsten

heir body dynamics and de-

lightful expressions catch
our attention as we stroll through
the Hall of Ancient China. The
style of these terra-cotta figurines
bears an astonishing similarity to
the uninhibited choreographics of
our own contemporary youth.
Yet, these pieces of inspired mod-
elling were fashioned more than
1,000 years ago, during the Tang
dynasty.

The function of the statu-
ettes—averaging about 14 inches
in height—was not to decorate
the precincts of the living, but to
provide perpetual entertainment
for the dead, and we see them
now much as their real-life coun-
terparts must have appeared dur-
ing the sumptuous festivals that
accompanied the funerals of Tang
gentry.

Through eternity, the mis-
sion of these effigies was to
accommodate the spirit of the
man or woman in whose tomb
they had been placed. In addition
to performers of assorted types
(actors, mimes, singers, jugglers,
tumblers, boxers), figures of sol-
diers and servants also were

Figurine of mime. Ht. 34.5 cm. Collected by
Curator Berthold Laufer 1908-10. #118020.
N98626.

placed in burial chambers, as well
as those serving spiritual needs—
exorcists, shamans, and sorcerers.
But it is these performers,
seemingly modelled from life,
who project so effectively from
their modern glass case.

efore the interring of effigies

as attendants for the dead
was generally practiced, humans
were sacrificed for this purpose.
As early as the Shang dynasty
(16th-11th centuries B.C.), the
fidelity of servants as well as
wives was rewarded by permit-
ting them to join their masters in
eternity. The Duke of Qin, who
died in 678 B.C., is reported to
have invited 66 of his henchmen
to accompany him as servants in
the other world; it is improbable
that his invitations were declined.
In 588 B.C., real horses and real
chariots as well as flesh-and-blood
servants accompanied the Duke
of Song into the tomb. As late as
the Han dynasty, which ended
(Eastern Han) in A.D. 220, the
bodies of male and female ser-
vants were said to have been
secured with nails to tomb walls
—before or after death is not
made clear.

Much earlier, however, dur-
ing the time of Confucius (551-
479 B.C.), crude effigies of straw
had sometimes been buried with
the dead. Confucius disapproved
of more exact replicas, believing
that faithful representation made
it easy to lapse into the barbarism
of human sacrifice. The custom of
placing clay figures in tombs be-
gan in the Zhou, increased greatly
in the Qin and Han, and reached
a climax during the Tang (A.D.

Figurine of mime. Ht. 36.2 cm. Collected by
Curator Berthold Laufer 1908-10. #118021.
N98639.

618-907). By then, the sacrificing
of humans had long since been
discontinued.

The rank of the deceased,
not unexpectedly, determined the
number of human effigies to
accompany him in the afterlife.
An official above the fourth rank
(a relatively high station), for ex-
ample, could have a platoon of 90;
above the sixth rank, 60 pieces;
above the tenth rank, 40. Com-
mon folk had to be content with
no more than 15, and the height of
these could not exceed 8 inches.
The higher one’s rank, the taller
his clay attendants, the maximum
being life-size. Field Museum visi-
tors who viewed the 1980 exhibit
“The Great Bronze Age of China”
will recall the spectacular life-size
clay cavalrymen and horses that
had been disinterred from the
stadium-size excavations in the
precincts of the tomb of the
Emperor Qin Shihaungdi
(221-210 B.C).

f small, the clay figures were

arranged in a niche made for
the purpose in a wall of the tomb,
or they were placed on shelves
along the walls. If large, they
were commonly stood on the
tomb floor at the head of the cof-
fin. The graves of the wealthy
sometimes had a special ante-
room entirely filled with clay
images of animals as well as men.
There were also models of utili-
tarian objects such as kitchen
utensils, strong boxes, storage
bins for grain, and even pig sties.

It is not known just when

the placing of effigies in tombs
was no longer “in,” but the
Emperor Dai Zi (A.D. 951-960),

Figurine of mime. Ht. 35.8 cm. Collected by
Curator Berthold Laufer 1908-10. #118022.
N98638.

who most certainly was aware of
tomb depredations, ordered only
his body and coffin occupy his. To
make his tomb less attractive to
thieves, he gave instructions that
all the customary tomb furniture
—-statuettes of men, horses, and
tigers as well as weapons—be left
on the outside of the grave.

ut not everyone followed
Dai Zi’s suit; graves as

recent as the Ming dynasty (1368-
1644) have yielded statuettes.
Notable among these are the 66
polychrome glazed pottery figu-
rines, representing an honor
guard, that were recently on view
as part of the exhibit “Treasures
from the Shanghai Museum:
6,000 Years of Chinese Art,’ and
featured on the cover of the Jan-
uary Bulletin. These pieces, it has
been determined, were made
sometime after 1516.
Below: Dwarves, popular with Tang royalty,

‘o represented in tombs. This

f a female dwarf. Ht. 10.9cm.
98643. Right: Figurine of mime

Ht. 33.6cm. #118023. N98627. These

figurines were collected by Curator Berthold
Laufer 1908-10.

v5:

The massive ceiba tree. Widely cultivated in the American tropics, the ceiba was a prime symbol of the
erse for the ancient inhabitants of Mexico and Central America. Photo by William Burger.

THE TREE, THE KING AND THE COSMOS
Aspects of Tree Symbolism in Ancient Mesoamerica

by Alan L. Kolata
Research Associate, Department of Anthropology

Fine line drawings, except where noted, by Sara Scherberg

n November 8, 1519, a Spanish expeditionary

force led by Hernan Cortés crossed over an

ancient lake bed on a magnificent elevated cause-
way into Tenochtitlan, the great native capital of the Mex-
ica, or Aztec nation. The Spanish were astonished by that
splendid city’s vast marketplace burgeoning with exotic
commodities from throughout the Mexica realm, by its
sumptuous, exuberantly ornamented palaces and temples,
and by the broad, regular avenues and waterways that inte-
grated the entire metropolitan zone. These adventurers
found themselves submerged in an alien world where even
the most fundamental natural, social, and religious notions
of the structure of man’s universe were radically different
from those that the Europeans held certain and sacred.

In many respects, the Aztecs inhabited a cosmos with
an architecture that, to the European, was inchoate and
almost entirely incomprehensible. It is not surprising,
then, that the Spanish, upon completing their political con-
quest, quickly embarked upon a systematic program of
cultural conquest as well, dismantling the temples of the
Aztec state religion and destroying the monumental art
that visually embodied the “barbaric” cosmological doc-
trines which they perceived as subversive and threatening
to the Christian world view.

Today, those of us who are products of modern in-
dustrial culture feel perhaps even more estranged from the
ancient Mexica frame of reference than the Spanish. The
Aztecs’ philosophical and religious conceptions were born
of and firmly rooted in a rich agrarian heritage and in a
palpable sensitivity to the agricultural cycle of the seasons

Portions of this article are excerpted from Dr. Kolata’ forthcoming mono-
graph, Tree Symbolism in Ancient Mesoamerica. Research for this work
was conducted while the author was a senior fellow at Dumbarton Oaks
Research Library of Harvard University in Washington, D.C.

that to us is little more than a fading memory embedded in
a nostalgic, rural mystique. We can spontaneously appreci-
ate the monumentality and vigor of Aztec art, but in order
to truly understand the nature and meaning of that art,
together with the social information it conveyed, we must
learn to perceive it in its own terms: as the product of an
ancient, persevering cultural landscape of which the tech-
nology, sociology, and ritual of farming was the pivot.

Analyzing the symbolism encoded in the iconogra-
phy of Aztec art furnishes us with a touchstone for com-
prehending the multiple and even more ancient cultural
and artistic streams that together make up a general Pre-
Columbian Mesoamerican tradition. For the Aztec period
alone are we provided with an abundance of literary and
pictorial documents (first-hand descriptions of indigenous
cultures by Europeans and native codices, or screenfolds)
that elaborate and comment upon the meaning of native
Mexican religion, ritual, and custom. In attempting to
grasp the fundamental meaning of ancient Mesoamerican
art, our point of departure then is this final and most ac-
cessible period of Pre-Columbian cultural expression.

One of the primary notions concerning the spatial
structure of the cosmos held by the Mexica (and, as we
shall see, by other Mesoamerican peoples as well) was a
heirarchical arrangement in which the earth was seen as a
vast, thin disc floating in the primeval ocean. Growing
through the center of the earth-disc was a giant tree, the
roots of which ran deep into the surrounding sea while its
uppermost branches reached the highest layers of the
heavens. This cosmic tree was the axis mundi,supporting
and defining both the vertical and horizontal framework of
the multilayered universe.

A particularly graphic representation of this cosmic

view appears on a beautiful Mexica ceremonial mosaic

1]

12

shield housed in the collections of the British Museum (fig.
2). The iconography of this shield has been decoded
recently in some detail by the art historian Richard
Townsend.*

In brief, the circular shape of the shield itself would have
immediately evoked in the viewer the image of the earth-
disc. Portrayed in wonderfully compressed fashion on the
surface of the shield are images of the celestial and infernal

SUN DISC WITH RAYS AT

Fig. 2. The im f
g mage O! THE CARDINAL DIRECTIONS

the sacred tree as
cosmogram rendered
in a brilliant turquoise
and shell mosaic on
the surface of an
Aztec ceremonial

of the shield). Viewed in this way, the shield becomes a
remarkably compact, yet complex rendering of the tree
as cosmogram.

We know that shields as splendid as this were
designed expressly for the most exalted rulers of the Mex-
ica nation who used them for display on occasions of state
ceremony. Frequently the mosaic designs on these shields
were emblematic of both the individual and his office. In

FLOWERING BRANCHES
OF THE COSMIC TREE

shield. Once the
property of an impor-

tant Aztec dignitary,

this shield is now
housed in the collec- SKY-
tions ofthe BEARERS

British Museum.

CHTHONIC SERPENT CONNECTING
THE COSMIC REALMS

realms, connected by a giant flowering tree. The heavens
are represented by the disc of the sun with red coral rays
pointing to the cardinal directions, by the four ritually
attired sky-bearers with arms held aloft and, at the summit
of the cosmos, by the flowering branches of the tree. The
underworld is represented by an immense chthonic ser-
pent rising from the base of the cosmic tree and looping
around its trunk to the heavens. Townsend suggests that
the four toothlike elements pendant from the lower body
of the serpent represent an abbreviated Tlaltecuhtli
mouthmask, symbolic both of the earth and of the
entrance to the underworld. Finally, at the base of the
shield is a downward projecting bifid element that Town-
send believes is a serpent's tongue, but that I believe may
also represent the roots of the cosmic tree sunk in the
underworld abyss.

This whole ensemble of images on the surface of the
shield was meant to be conceptualized spatially as the
vertical component of a three-dimensional array (that
is, rotated 90 degrees to form an axis through the center

*Townsend, Richard F. 1979. State and Cosmos in the Art of Tenochtitlan.
Studies in Pre-Columbian Art and Archaeology, No. 20. Dumbarton
Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, Washington, D.C.

Yr SULOSS,
Ssh: (SEE >:
Ronnie

SKY-BEARERS

=
ROOTS OF THE
COSMIC TREE

wearing the shield with the world-tree cosmogram, a Mex-
ica lord was making an implicit comparison between him-
self as the ruler of his nation and the great tree as the order-
ing principle of the cosmos. The political message of the
shield is clear: the king is to the state as the great tree 1s to
the cosmos. Both provide order, one to the politi-
cal chaos of earth, the other to the physical chaos of
the universe.

This important metaphorical association of kings and
trees is confirmed and extended by traditional Nahuatl
(the Aztec language) discourses that were delivered on the
occasion of important events in the lives of the Mexica
royal household. These discourses were preserved and re-
corded in the original by the Spanish clerics Duran and,
more importantly, Sahagun.

One such discourse was made by Nezahualcoytl, king
of Texcoco, to the Mexica king Moctezuma the Elder upon
the latter's accession to the throne of Tenochtitlan in
1440:

I have come here, O Lord, to tell you of the misery, the
affliction that reigns in your province of Texcoco. In your
greatness deign to lift it and enable it and shelter it from
other nations. You well know, great prince, that all your
vassals, nobles as well as common people are under your

shade and you have been planted here like a great cedar
under which men wish to rest.'
Another discourse, likewise addressed to a new

monarch upon his installation, again compares the ruler
metaphorically to a great tree and further charges him with
the care of his subjects:
May thou perform thy office, may thou do thy work. Be
diligent with that which is heavy, the burden, the uncon-
frontable, the insupportable. And extend thy wings, thy
tail feathers. May thy common folk those whom thou gov-
ernest, enter into thee. May they enter into thy shade, into
thy shadow, for our lord hath made thee to be the great,
the circular shade, the silk cotton tree,* the cypress. May
the governed be rich, be prosperous.*
This passage stresses that the ruler must be prepared to
bear an almost unsupportable burden. The nature of that
burden is clarified in a second formal admonition to the
new ruler:

THOU HAST UNDERTAKEN TO SHOULDER A BUNDLE OF
PEOPLE, A CARRYING-FRAME LOAD OF PEOPLE.

This saying was said of him who had been installed as
ruler or set up as a lord. Thus he was told: “Thou has
undertaken to shoulder a bundle of people, a carrying
frame load of people. Thou wilt find heavy, thou wilt find
tiring the common folk, for great is the burden which thou
has shouldered, which thou has undertaken.*

Taken together, these passages define the primary
duty of the Mexica king: the protection, care and nurturing
of the governed. Metaphorically, they describe the king
who has successfully discharged this office as a great ceiba
tree and as a carrying frame of the common people. These
passages state clearly that there is a symbolic identity be-
tween the king who supports his subjects and the great tree
that supports the unimaginable burden of the cosmos, the
central world tree that was most often conceptualized as a
ceiba. Just as that great tree, to avoid physical chaos in the
universe, must not fail in its task as the carrying frame of
the cosmos, so too the king must not fail to support his
subjects if he is to avoid political chaos in the state (and, by
implication, precipitous loss of his office).

Other Nahuatl adages extend the metaphor of the
king as world tree in an important direction. Among the
Mexica not only was the ruler seen as the framework and
core of the state, providing political protection for his sub-
jects, but also, quite literally, as the provider of daily suste-
nance for the common people:

(The silk cotton tree) shades, it gives shadow, it shades
one. Hence, for this reason, it is called the “governor,” for
he becomes as a silk cotton tree, a cypress. It bears fruit, it
produces fruit.*

Some passages directly compare the ruler and his family to
the plants that sustained the common people: “the maguey,
the nopal, the (fruit) trees.”° During the Feast of Tlaloc, the
king impersonating the “god” Tlaloc, personification of the
life-giving rains, is described as,

that which fresheneth, that which is tender, that which
sprouteth, that which blossometh; the plants, those
which come from thee; thy flesh, thy freshness ... the

nourishment whereby the world remaineth alive, ...

the sustenance.’

What these proverbs, adages, and discourses are
referring to in metaphoric fashion is the role of the Mexica
king as the ultimate guarantor of agricultural success. One
of the primary cult obligations of the royal household was
to perform a continuing, seasonally regulated set of agri-
cultural rituals that were, in effect, increase ceremonies for
food crops, especially maize. The feast of Tlacaxipe-
hualiztli (the “Skinning of Men”) and the aforementioned
Feast of Tlaloc, for example, were presided over by rulers
of the Mexica nation and were explicitly conducted for the
purpose of securing agricultural fertility. The rituals of
these feasts express all of the metaphorical associations of
kings, trees, and agricultural fertility discussed here: blood
sacrifices for agricultural success were made by the “chief
dignitaries and sovereigns” to “Tota, ‘Our Father,’” whose
image was represented by a huge tree specially erected for
the ceremony.®

Returning to our mosaic shield for a moment, the
carefully depicted flowering branches of the cosmic tree
towering above the brilliantly colored disc of the sun
evoke this same extended metaphor. In this aspect, the
cosmic tree on the shield is seen as the tree of life with its
roots drawing water from the primeval ocean to nourish
and sustain the cosmos. Therefore, when worn by one of
the lords of Tenochtitlan, to the political message of the
shield (the king, like the cosmic tree, gives order and
stability) can be added the economic message that, like the

1. Duran, Fray Diego. 1971. Book of the Gods and Rites and the
Ancient Calendar. Translated by Fernando Horcasitas and Doris Heyden,
88. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.

2. The silk cotton tree is a ceiba (C. pentandra).

3. Sahagun, Fray Bernardino de. 1951-70. Florentine Codex:
General History of the Things of New Spain. Translated by Arthur J. O.
Anderson and Charles Dibble, Book 6:58. Monographs of The School of
American Research, The School of American Research and the University of
Utah, Santa Fe.

4. Sahagun 1951-70, Book 6:258

5. Sahagun 1951-70, Book 11:109

6. Sahagun 1951-70, Book 6:91

7. Sahagun 1951-70, Book 6:36

8. Duran 1971:161 and plate 14

13

14

tree of life, the king nourishes and sustains the common
people: through direct intercession and indentity with the
divine forces of nature he will guarantee agricultural suc-
cess for the nation.

It is clear, even from so brief an overview, that there
was among the peoples of the Valley of Mexico in Pre-
Hispanic times a metaphorical association of rulers and
trees, one most specifically expressed in terms of a sym-
bolic identity between the king and the world tree. Two
trees in particular, the ceiba (pochotl) and the cypress
(aueuetl) were explicitly referred to as “father, mother, lord,
capitan, or governor.” Conversely the Mexica kings and
great magnates were ritually described and addressed as
the ceiba that towers above all else. According to Duran,”
the sovereign of the city-state Amecameca even took the
name Cuauhteotl, “Divine Tree.”

By adopting a symbolic association with trees, and
more specifically with the world tree/tree of life, these
sovereigns were claiming a ritual identity with the ordering
principle of the cosmos, the principle that nourishes and
sustains all life. The Mexica kings were consciously using
the generally acknowledged image of the tree as cosmo-
gram as an emblem of their right to rule. The tangible
interplay between religious symbolism and secular politics
could not be more clear.

Fig. 3. Simplified drawing of
the image on page 53 of the
Borgia Codex, a native-style

Was this particular set of cosmological symbols an
invention of the Aztec state, or can we trace its roots even
deeper in other Mesoamerican political and cultural tradi-
tions? I believe that we can, in fact, discern the same con-
ceptual association of rulers, trees, and agricultural rites of
intercession in other places, at other times, and among
other peoples in Mesoamerica. I would argue that this
association was a recurring central metaphor in the
ideological structure of Mesoamerican civilization, and
therefore a principal leitmotiv of public art commissioned
by royal households to commemorate their government.
Although in this brief essay it is not practical to document
the entire range of occurrence of this symbolic set, or the
various political, social, and ideological meanings with
which it was imbued, a few well-chosen examples of the
same ruler-tree-agricultural ritual association from non-
Aztec Mesoamerica will serve to clarify and emphasize the
pervasive nature of this concept which, in the native mind,
intimately bound the world of nature with the social order.

An extraordinary rendering of this symbolic set
appears in one of the precious native-style manuscripts, or
codices, that remain to us from Pre-Hispanic times (the

9. Duran 1971:97

manuscript from the Mixtec

region of western Mexico

folded pages of these manuscripts were usually strips of
deer hide that were cut to size, sewed together, coated with
gesso, and painted in multiple colors). The image in ques-
tion was painted on what scholars have designated as page
53 of the Borgia Codex (fig. 3). This manuscript comes to
us from the Mexican state of Oaxaca, center of the ancient
Mixtec region. Here elaborately dressed rulers, apparently
personifying deities of natural forces, are engaged in auto-
mutilation, drawing blood from their own bodies with
sharp bone awls in order to fertilize the roots of a great tree
from which spring enormous, marvelously exaggerated
cobs of corn. This tree, emerging from the belly of a skele-
tal figure reclining on the plane of the earth’s surface,
graphically evokes a sense of agricultural fertility: it is the
archetype of vegetal abundance, the Tree of Life. The pro-
found role of the ruler in assuring the continuing regenera-
tion and vigor of this tree of life, which was emblematic of
the agricultural abundance that sustained the common
folk, is portrayed with uncommon frankness. The
monarch must sacrifice some of his own life-giving blood

Be: COR Seg CT)
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to ritually nourish the earth and thereby coax from it a
bountiful harvest for his people.

The truly intimate symbolic connections between
rulers and trees finds its ultimate expression in an ancient
tradition from this same Mixtec region which relates that
the old Pre-Hispanic kings and their ruling lineages were
originally born from trees growing in the Mixtec high-
lands. A Mixtec origin myth recorded during early Spanish
Colonial times explicitly states that the Mixtec people
emerged from the center of the earth, but that the Mixtec
kings and gods were born from trees. The anthropologist
Jill Furst* has documented many vivid visual representa-
tions of this oral myth in Mixtec manuscripts. Frequently
in these manuscripts a royal couple, attended by two elab-
orately garbed deities, is portrayed emerging from a cleft
in the swollen trunk of a tree (fig. 4). In some illustrations
of tree birth, the emergent royal figure is still attached to

*Furst, Jill Leslie. 1977. The Tree Birth Tradition in the Mixteca, Mexico.
Journal of Latin American Lore 3:2, 183-226.

‘ Sl,
Ce Sis Ga
> A

\NYS Sg 1/8

es *. 7
=) yey Sp

Fig. 4. The birth of a royal cou-
ple from a sacred tree as por-
trayed on page 37b of the
Vienna Codex, a Pre-Hispanic
manuscript from the Mixtec
region

15

16

the sacred tree by a kind of umbilical cord (fig. 5). The
birth of an entire royal lineage from a lush tree appears in
startling detail on the intricately carved surface of a bone
discovered in an elite tomb at the ruins of Monte Alban,
the ancient paramount city of the Mixtec region (fig. 6).
This remarkable carving not only confirms the pre-
sumptive antiquity of the tree birth myth, but further gives
richer meaning to the term “genealogical tree.”

Fig. 5. An elabo-
rately masked male,
identified by his
calendrical name as
“2 Grass Skull,”
emerges from the
crown of a magical
tree entwined with
serpents. Note the
umbilical cord
which still connects
“2 Grass Skull" to
the tree of his birth.
Page 2-1 of the
Selden Codex.

century A.D. The lid of Pacal’s sarcophagus is carved elab-
orately with heiroglyphic texts along the border and with
the image of the dead Pacal himself, seated on a throne
within the jaws of the mythical chthonic serpent, symbol of
the earth and the underworld (fig. 9) Rising behind Pacal
(or perhaps emerging from his body) is a stunning render-
ing of a tree surmounted by a fantastic masked bird, most
likely a quetzal or eagle, symbolically associated with the

LISS
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In death, as in birth, the image of the cosmic tree, as
axis mundi and as tree of life, remained an emblem of cen-
tral importance to the Pre-Hispanic kings of Mesoamerica.
At the Classic Maya site of Palenque in Yucatan, there is a
tomb hidden deep within an elegant pyramidal structure
called the Temple of the Inscriptions. Within that tomb
lies a massive stone sarcophagus which holds the remains

of a Mayan king named Pacal, who died in the seventh

Fig. 6. The birth of a royal lineage from a sacred tree as carved on the surfac
n the Mexican state of Oaxaca. The first of seven figures is attached t

Alban

celestial realm. The entire ensemble of images on the sar-
cophagus strongly suggests that the intended message of
the sculpture was to exemplify the elevation of the dead
king to divine status, and that this apotheosis of Pacal was
to be visually expressed and confirmed by identifying the
king with the world tree.

Although the sarcophagus of Pacal is perhaps the

most striking example, other key commemorative monu-

io. Saw, Sard
aoe ; at ed pad
SESS —-
- Bf. . = ad ae

e of a bone discovered in tomb 7 at the ancient ritual center of Monte
o the tree by an umbilical cord.

ments at Palenque, placed within temple precincts, ritually
associate sacred images of the world tree/tree of life with
the secular status, power, authority, and obligations of
these regional Maya rulers. Like the Axtec nobility, then,
the Maya kings used the image of the cosmic tree as an
emblem legitimizing their right to rule.

Even in the centuries before Christ, we can identify
this seemingly obsessive concern of native Mesoamerican
rulers to ritually associate themselves with prominent and
visually impressive images of trees as cosmograms and as
symbols of agricultural abundance. The corpus of art
referred to as the Izapa style, consisting most notably of
carved stone sculptures and stelae from the Pacific coastal
regions of Guatemala and the Mexican state of Chiapas,
contains multiple and repeated images of trees, many of
which are clear iconic references to our two primary sym-
bolic manifestations: the world tree and the tree of life.

One sculpture at the site of Izapa itself, Stela 25, dat-
ing between about 300 B.C. to A.D. 250, combines all of the
convergent metaphorical associations of kings and trees
that we have seen embodied in the Aztec shield. The
design on this stela illustrates the two interrelated sym-
bolic representations of the sacred tree: in its aspect as the
axis mundi or world tree, and in its aspect as the archetype
of vegetal abundance or tree of life (fig. 7). At the left is the
image of fertility and abundance, an upended cayman
whose vertically oriented body becomes the trunk of a tree,
while its tail is transformed into the luxuriant branches and
leaves of the tree’s crown. A small bird with plumed head
perches on this cayman-tree, and a conch shell is placed
behind the snout of the cayman. The conch shell associates
the cayman-tree with the underworld and the watered
earth, while the bird associates it with the heavens—both
essential elements in the symbolic representation of the
tree of life. On the right side of the design field is an image
of the world-tree as a pillar, or more precisely a staff with
three crosspieces, probably intended as a symbol of the
multilayered universe. A human figure, clearly of elite sta-
tus, and, significantly enough, adorned with a headdress of
sprouting vegetation, holds the staff which emerges from a
globular vessel. Surmounting this tree-as-staff is a spec-
tacular masked bird which gazes toward its counterpart on
the cayman-tree. To complete and interweave the two im-
ages, a snake winds down from the crosspieces of the staff,
loops around the body of the cayman-tree and hangs freely
with its head at the base of the staff-tree.

Viewed in this way, Stela 25 becomes a sculptural
statement by the sovereign at Izapa who commissioned it

Fig. 7. Stela 25 from the site of Izapa. Drawing by Genaro Barr.

that reads: “this place is sacred because it is the center of
the universe; my staff is the symbol of the center and I am
its ruler. Because I am its ruler, I can provide for the suste-
nance of my people.” This is the exact statement made
by the kings of Tenochtitlan some 1,500 years later when
on state occasions they mounted the great temples of
the capital, resplendent in their royal garments and
armed with ritual shields displaying the emblem of the
world-tree.

How can we account for the remarkable continuity
and coherence of this conceptual association of rulers—
trees—agricultural ritual over wide expanses of space, time,
and cultural tradition? The choice of the tree as the central
symbol of this association is neither fortuitous nor particu-
larly surprising. Trees, by their very nature, are impressive
features of the natural landscape. Trees like the ceiba
possess towering size, strength, and longevity; they have
substantial root systems that reach deep into the earth and
magnificent crowns that seem to form a canopy against the
sky. What better symbol could there be for the metaphor of
the axis mundi, the pillar that sustains the universe? These
natural and symbolic qualities of trees were of prime inter-
est to the sovereigns of ancient Mesoamerica who wished
to ritually appropriate and publicly identify themselves
with these same qualities.

Ui

18

But, for these native kings and ruling households,
there was an even more compelling reason to seize upon
the tree as an emblem of legitimate power. The states that
these elite classes governed were economically dependent
upon systems of intensive agriculture. Often the fate of
central government in these preindustrial states was linked
to its agricultural success. Accordingly, the ruling house-
holds of these states invested heavily in the construction
and maintenance of large-scale reclamation projects de-
signed to intensify agricultural production. However,
building and sustaining these agricultural systems was not
simply an economic proposition, requiring merely appro-
priate technology and a coordinated labor force. In the
Mesoamerican worldview, to ensure agricultural success
and thereby economic survival, these food producing sys-
tems had to be ritually sanctioned and maintained at key
intervals in the agricultural calendar as well.

It is precisely here that the metaphor of the king as
the cosmic tree reveals its full symbolic force. The yearly
transformational cycle of trees, lying dormant in the winter
(or dry season), surging to life in the spring (or onset of the
rainy season), and gradually returning to dormancy in the
fall, shedding their leaves, seeds, and fruits, closely mimics
the agricultural cycle of the seasons exploited by man (the
fields lie fallow, they are prepared and planted; the plants

flourish and mature and finally they are gathered in the
autumn harvest).

By identifying themselves metaphorically with the
natural qualities of trees, these kings of ancient Mesoamer-
ica, who were charged with the obligation of ensuring the
agricultural success of their nations, were ritually assuring
the people they governed that, like the perpetual yearly
regeneration of the great trees of nature, the vast fields of
the realm would not fail to produce an abundant harvest.
In this way, the world tree/tree of life became an emblem of
both political authority and economic prosperity: the king
was at the center, governing and sustaining the state. But
most importantly, through ritual intercession, he con-
tinually guaranteed the agricultural health of his nation.

To the mind of the ancient Mesoamerican, then, the
tree and the cosmos, the king and the nation were
metaphorically one. Their qualities were merged and their
functions identical: they were simply different reflections
of the same order that was expressed in both the natural
and social worlds. It is by understanding the fundamental
principle of the unity of these worlds that underlies the
religious philosophy of ancient Mesoamerica, a principle
anchored firmly in the bedrock of agrarian tradition, that
we can seek to reconstruct the worldview of peoples now
lost to us. FM

“Fig. 8. The great trunk and crown of the ceiba tree silhouetted against the evening sky. The ancient rulers of
Mesoamerica ritually and symbolically appropriated the impressive natural qualities of this tree, employing it as an
emblem of their authority. Photo by William Burger.

ne ioe
an

Fig. 9. The sarcophagus cover of the Maya king “Pacal,” who ruled from the city of Palenque in the
seventh century 4.0. Photo by Merle Greene Robertson and Lee Hocker. Courtesy Princeton University

Press, which published the photo in The Sculpture of Palenque, Vol. |: The Temple of the Inscriptions
(1983).

ashy

Common cranes over the Himalayas

These awesome giants of the bird kingdom are being aided by the

International Crane Foundation in their struggle to survive

by George Archibald

photos courtesy the International Crane Foundation

ry to imagine that you are nearing the summit of

Mount Everest, oxygen mask intact, layers of insula-
tion protecting you from the intense cold. Suddenly you
hear trumpetlike noises overhead. Gazing up, you see a
V formation of large, dazzling white birds with black
necks and flight feathers. Cranes! They must be flying at
over 30,000 feet above sea level, over the formidable

Himalayas.

George Archibald was a cofounder and is a director of the International

20 Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wisconsin.

At dawn, these common cranes might have been
nesting in the shallows of a Tibetan lake. As mid-morning
sunshine bathed the plains, columns of rising warm air, or
thermals, began to form. Using them to gain altitude, the
cranes began the last stage of their long migration from the
Siberian tundra to the Gangetic plain of India. With their
wings fixed, the cranes spiralled up in loosely organized
groups, effortlessly riding the thermals to breathtaking
altitudes. High above the Tibetan plateau, they formed
broad V's and began a fixed-wing glide to the south. They
gradually lost altitude, covering scores of miles in a shallow

dive. When they had descended to a few hundred feet
above land, they began their first flapping flight. Their
great eight-foot wingspans thrust them forward, until they
found another thermal to carry them up for yet another
gliding advance.

Soon the great Himalayan peaks were beneath them.
The bright reflection from the snow reflected back off their
light-gray body feathers, making them appear blinding
white from below. By late afternoon the peaks were behind
them, and the flock was over green foothills. Finally, the
lakes and rivers of the northern Gangetic plain came into
view. Parachuting downward, they alighted in the shallows
of a broad wetland, and began a welcomed refueling. The
cranes had returned to a landscape visited by some older
birds for decades—a home to the ancestors of this flock for
millions of years. When cranes pass overhead, people be-
low realize a new season has come. From Tibet to India
and beyond, cranes are considered auspicious birds. Good
fortune rides on the sweeping strength of their wings.
Their graceful postures, fidelity to mates, size, and wild-
ness have endeared the crane to Cro-Magnon cave painters
as well as to modern man.

How, then, is it possible that half of the world’s
fifteen crane species are now endangered? The wetlands
on which the cranes nest and rear their young have
been drained — destroyed to produce more farmland.
Cranes have been hunted for food and sport. Egg collec-
tors took a toll in the early decades of this century. By 1941
the whooping cranes of North America were reduced to
14 individuals.

A decade ago a nonprofit organization called the
International Crane Foundation (ICF) was established near
Baraboo, Wisconsin, with the sole aim of helping the
cranes. Two graduate students from Cornell University,
George Archibald and Ronald Sauey, were cofounders. Mr.
Sauey’s parents, Norman and Claire Sauey, donated the use
of their farm as headquarters for ICF’s captive breeding
center. Baraboo became ICF’s thermal —a place to gain
altitude and fly.

ICF has had an eventful 10-year history. Zoos and gov-
ernments sent rare cranes to ICF With careful manage-
ment, pairs formed and started to breed—several species
for the first time in captivity. Today, ICF owns a place of its
own, supports a staff of 10 and a collection of 78 cranes of
14 species, and has a membership of several thousand
enthusiastic supporters.

ICF’s most noteworthy achievements, however, have
not been in aviculture or public education programs head-

"Shuttle Diplomacy: Aiding the Cranes of Asia”

Dr George Archibald, director

International Crane Foundation,

will deliver this lecture on Saturday, March 24, 2:00 pm, in James
Simpson Theatre. Members $3.00; nonmembers $5.00. Tickets
may be ordered with coupon on page 4. This lecture is supported
in part by the Ray A. Kroc Environmental Fund.

Red-crowned crane, adult

| 21

quartered in the Midwest, but in promoting crane con-
servation overseas. Cranes are found in North America,
Eurasia, Africa, and Australia. ICF’s cofounders have been
busy in a spectrum of nations on these continents. For
example, it is cr which conveys ornithological news be-
tween China and the USSR. Despite recent political
traumas in Iran, ICF still keeps in close contact with col-
leagues there. Cranes are a common interest — a bond
across borders.

For example, ICF is now involved in a long-term,
ambitious attempt to establish a new and more secure flock
of Siberian cranes in west Asia. There are fewer than 300 of
these snow-white cranes alive. In winter they feed on plant
tubers found in shallow wetlands in Iran, India, and China.
These wetlands are as endangered as the cranes. If the last
habitats are lost to development, the cranes will probably
starve.

But on the vast uplands of those same countries, com-
mon cranes feed on abundant agricultural wastes. Because
of their adaptability, they number in the tens of thousands.
If Siberian cranes could learn to feed with the common
cranes, their wintering range could expand enormously.
Foraging behavior is learned in cranes. Crane chicks stay

George Archibald with red-crowned crane chick

\*

ROAR

|

Red-crowned crane, juvenile

with their parents for ten months, and are often offered
food by the adults. ICF wants to capitalize on this aspect of
crane behavior through a cooperative venture with the
USSR. Siberian crane eggs, produced in captivity at ICF and
sister centers, are being substituted into the nests of wild
common cranes in the boreal forests of the USSR. The com-
mon cranes will raise the Siberian chicks, lead them on
their migration route, and teach them to feed in agricultu-
ral fields on the wintering grounds. Through restocking
programs of this kind, a captive-breeding program can
restore crane populations in the wild.

In an era when war could destroy life on earth as it is
known, it is critical that men from divided camps cooper-
ate on projects of mutual interest. Cranes have proven to
be a vehicle for such cooperation. As we help these
mysterious, majestic birds continue their pilgrimages over
the mountains, perhaps they may, in turn, help us under-
stand and trust each other. FM

Red-crowned crane over Korea's demilitarized zone

Common cranes in Iran

;

\

Participants enjoyed the class on Lake Michigan limnology which took place on board the Research Vessel Rachel Carson.

Adult Education Program

by Robert B. Pickering

Program Developer, Department of Education

s an educational institution, Field
Au possesses certain special
advantages. It has no football
team. It gives no course credits or course
examinations and awards no degrees....
Formal education, moreover, in schools,
colleges and universities is something you
finish. It is like the mumps, measles,
whooping-cough or chicken-pox. Having
had education once, you need not, indeed
you cannot, have it again. ... The Museum
is free from this regrettable tradition. ...
The Museum is seductive. Perhaps be-
ca t does not employ compulsion, but
voos the learner with artful wiles, it con-
ies to deceive him into educating him-
f as long as he lives. (From an address

photos by the author

by Robert Maynard Hutchins, president
of the University of Chicago, September
15, 1943.)

Field Museum’ Adult Education Pro-
gram began in 1975, with 134 partici-
pants enrolled in 5 classes. By 1983 four
terms were in place and the number of
courses had jumped from 5 per term to
over 30, with a total of 3,000 persons en-
rolled. During seven years the program
has grown rapidly, and the participants
have learned that Field Museum is a
place to find unique opportunities that
are both informative and fun. The great-
er appeal is the ambience offered for self-
directed adult learners.

The 1970s saw increasing interest in

adult education and in life-long learning
opportunities. People began taking
courses in subjects as diverse as wine
tasting and fly-tying. Previously, adults
had favored courses designed for pro-
fessional advancement, then interests
shifted to courses for enjoyment and self
improvement. The communication
explosion, rapid transportation, televi-
sion, and computers have opened vistas
never before explored. People want to
know about the Mayas, myths of origin,
animal behavior, reproductive strategies
—subjects that reveal the mysteries of life
and people.

Field Museum’s Adult Education pro-
gram sets high standards for teaching.

Subject mastery is the minimum require-
ment; but beyond that, the instructor
must be able to communicate with en-
thusiasm and quickly assess group ex-
perience and interests. Each course fo-
cuses on an aspect of natural history or
anthropology —the strengths of the col-
lections. The courses present topics that

base resource for courses. People are
amazed at how much more they can ob-
serve when they have the chance to dis-
cuss specimens or artifacts with a
specialist. Each object takes on a new
importance.

Many instructors are Museum scien-
tists or are specialists recommended by

Top: An intimate look at fishes includes viewing them in their natural habitat and examining pre-

served specimens in research collections.

cannot be addressed in programs offered

Bottom: Dave Willard, collection manager of birds,
discusses fine points of identification with students.

tion discussed in class is often more
recent than the material found in the
popular press or in the latest textbooks.
Participants often examine specimens
which are not on exhibit and are able to
use facilities that the public has limited
access to.

Where else can one learn about the
evolution of various life forms and have
such a wealth of specimens to examine?
Courses focus on the diversity and beau-
ty of the world around us. They provide
new ways to view natural and human
history. Clusters of related courses are
offered to provide a wide range of experi-
ence on specific subjects. For example,
the subject of textiles — from fiber pro-
perties to kinds of dyes—may be covered.
Weaving equipment from different re-
gions is compared, while courses on tex-
tile conservation develop skills for the
proper storage and care of one’ own pre-
cious fabrics.

Why do people take courses at Field
Museum? Past participants say that they
try to stay current with developments in
their field of academic interest. Many are
graduates in anthropology, history, or the
social sciences, but do not work in these
fields. They may instead be brokers,
lawyers, or in business. Courses help
people stay in touch with interests, new
and old. Meeting new people who have
similar interests and wish to exchange
information is another advantage. Tak-
ing a class is often an introduction to a
network of involved people.

“Field Museum courses are as special
as Field Museum itself.” This is the main
standard of the Adult Education pro-
gram, and one that program participants
should expect.

In order to continually improve our
program, we ask you to complete and
send in the questionnaire on the follow-
ing page. Your answers will help us to
know whether we are providing the kind
of program that Museum members want.
Your cooperation is important. Please
send the completed form to: Adult
Education, Department of Education,
Field Museum of Natural History,
Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive,

the MuseumS scientific staff. They are
well informed about the latest develop-
ments in their respective fields. Informa-

Chicago, IL 60605. For more informa-
tion, please call 322-8855. The spring
courses begin the week of April 9. 25

by other institutions. The Museum’s ex-
hibits and research collections are the

Adult Education Member Survey

26

Mail to: Adult Education, Dep't of Education, Field Museum, Roosevelt Rd. at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL 60605

Age — Sex _ Occupation Zip Code
How long have you been a member of Field Museum?

Less than 2 years _ Two to 5 years _ More than 5 years _

Were you aware that Field Museum offers courses for adults? Yes __ No —

When you receive the courses for adults brochure in the mail do you:
— Look for a subject that is of interest to you

_— Flip through the brochure and look at the illustrations

_— Discard the brochure

_ Pass the brochure on to a friend who might be interested

_— Other (explain):

Have you ever taken an adult class at Field Museum? Yes _ NO:

Which statement best describes how often you take classes?

_ Never _— At least twice a year __ When a subject of interest to me is offered
__ Once __ Almost every term _— When the weather is good

__ When | can persuade a friend or spouse to take a class also

| have never taken a class at Field Museum because:

_— Inconvenient class times _— Transportation difficulties

_— Tuition cost _ Subjects

_— Other (explain)

Have you taken classes elsewhere in the Chicago area? Yes __ Nes:

If yes, where?

Why do you take classes here or elsewhere?

_— Long-term interest in a particular subject — General enjoyment
_— Just for something to do _—_ Occupational advancement

— Opportunity to meet others with similar interests

What courses would you like to see offered in Field Museum's program?

When would it be most convenient for you to attend classes?
__ Once a week on a weekday evening __ Once a week on a weekday afternoon
__ Once a week on a weekend during the day _ All day Saturday and/or Sunday

TOURS FOR MEMBERS

ALASKA NATURAL HISTORY
TOUR

June 1984
$4,185

Experience the Great Land. Descrip-
tions of Alaska are filled with superla-
tives—a state more than twice the size
of Texas with a population less than
that of Denver, 33,000 miles of coast-
line, 119 million acres of forest, 14 of the
highest peaks in the United States cul-
minating in Mt. Denali (formerly Mt.
McKinley), at 20,320 feet. Alaska is
equally a land of wildlife superlatives,
from her great herds of caribou to
swarming seabird rookeries to surging
salmon in migration. When one thinks
of Alaska one thinks of wilderness, of
nature still fresh and undomesticated, of
experiences dreamed of but mostly un-
available to us of the lower 48.

Join us for an Alaskan odyssey
through a wide range of habitats from
the rockbound fur seal and sea bird col-
onies of the Pribilofs, to the dripping
forest and calving glaciers of the south-
east, to the grandeur of the Alaskan
Range, to the Fjordlike quiet and beauty
of the inland passage.

Our travels will be by plane, train,
bus, boat, horseback, and foot—what-
ever best enhances our experience.

Ron Testa

Emphasis will be on the land, its history,
its wildlife. Interpretation combined
with direct observation will provide an
enjoyment and quality of experience un-
available to the casual visitor. Whatever
your interest in natural history—marine
mammals, birding, mountains, photogra-
phy, flowers, forests, glaciers, rivers—
this tour will show you Alaska in all its
diversity and splendor.

The tour will be led by Dr. Robert
Karl Johnson, Chairman of the Depart-
ment of Zoology of Field Museum.

GRAND CANYON ADVENTURE
May 25 - June 3

Many of us have beheld the Grand
Canyon from the rim or while flying
overhead, and some of us have hiked
partway down to the Colorado River.
But there is another Grand Canyon that
relatively few have experienced: Field
Museum is offering you the opportunity
to see and experience the canyon from
the river.

The 280-mile trip will be by two
motorized rubber rafts. We'll sleep on
sandy beaches under the stars and our
meals will be excellent. Along the way,
we'll hike to places of unusual geologic
and anthropologic interest, sometimes
through the most pleasant and enchant-
ing stream beds and valleys, at times
along the waterfalls. We'll see and
study more geology in this one brief
period than can be seen anywhere else

in comparable time. Dr. Bertram Wood-
land, curator of petrology, will be our
tour leader.

The trip will begin on Friday, May 25,
with a flight to Las Vegas, where we
will remain overnight. Saturday we’ll
leave by deluxe bus for Lees Ferry,
where we'll board the rafts. The trip
will end 9 days later, at Pierce Ferry,
near the head of Lake Mead. We'll re-
turn to Chicago, via Las Vegas, Sunday,
June 3.

You needn’t be a “rough rider” to join
this expedition—you needn’t even
know how to swim. Persons of any age
can enjoy the river with equanimity,
and come out proud and happy to have
experienced this extraordinary adven-
ture.

The cost (to be announced) per per-
son covers all expenses (including air
fare, board fees, waterproof bags for
gear, sleeping bags, etc.), and all meals.
The trip is limited to 25 participants.

ADDITIONAL TOUR GEMS
SLATED FOR 1984

te China and Tibet

ce Kenya

ce Peru

te England’s Old Inns, Old Homes,
Old Castles, and Old Gardens.

For additional information on any tour,
please call Tours Manager Dorothy Roder at
322-8862 or write Field Museum Tours,
Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive,
Chicago, IL 60605.

Seiginne Ales & Culicanre

At Field Museum March 10 through May 27
Comprising two superb exhibits:
“Grasp Tight the Old Ways:
The Klamer Family Collection of Inuit Art,”
Featuring 20th-century Eskimo Art
and
“Inua: Spirit World of the Bering Sea Eskimo,”
Featuring Eskimo art and artifacts collected a century ago

Special lectures on Eskimo Art and culture March 10 and 17
(see pages 3 and 4)

Members’ Preview
Friday March 9, 5:30-8:00 pm

With special events for children

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY BULLETIN

April 1984

+. iY ms FP Reve
Exhibit: “Black Folk Art in America: 1930-1980” April 14-July 15

“What is Folk Art? Symposium” April 14
Black Folk Art Lectures: April 28, May 5, 19
Family Feature: “Flights of Fancy”—Birds, Kites & Kids April 1

Field Museum
of Natural History
Bulletin

Published by

Field Museum of Natural History
Founded 1893

President: Willard L. Boyd
Director: Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.

Editor: David M. Walsten
Production Liaison: Pamela Stearns
Staff Photographer: Ron Testa

BOARD OF TRUSTEES

James J. O'Connor
chairman

Mrs. T. Stanton Armour

George R. Baker

Robert O. Bass

Gordon Bent

Bowen Blair

Willard L. Boyd

Frank W. Considine

Stanton R. Cook

O.C. Davis

William R. Dickinson, Jr.

Thomas E. Donnelley II

Marshall Field

Richard M. Jones

Hugo J. Melvoin

Leo F. Mullin

Charles F. Murphy, Jr.

Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.

Robert A. Pritzker

James H. Ransom

John S. Runnells

Patrick G. Ryan

William L. Searle

Edward Byron Smith

Robert H. Strotz

William G. Swartchild, Jr.

Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken

E. Leland Webber

Julian B. Wilkins

Blaine J. Yarrington

Lire TRUSTEES

Harry O. Bercher
Joseph N. Field
Clifford C Gregg
William V. Kahler
William H. Mitchell
John W. Sullivan

J. Howard Wood

Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin (USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined
July August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive,
Chicago, Il. 60605. Subscriptions: $6.00 annually, $3.00 for schools. Museum membership
includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not neces-
sarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Museum
phone: (312) 922-9410. Notification of address change should include address label and be sent to
Membership Department. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural His-
tory. Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, II. 60605. ISSN:0015-0703.

CONTENTS
April 1984
Volume 55, Number 4

April Events At Field Museum 3

Fossil Plant Collections at the Field Museum
by Martha S. Bryant, collection manager of fossil invertebrates 5

and fossil plants, and Peter R. Crane, assistant curator
of paleobotany

Black Folk Art in America 1930-1980
by Richard Powell, guest curator and consultant 11

Market Art from Northeastern Asia

A 19th-Century Siberian Souvenir 19
by James W. VanStone, curator of North American archaeology
and Ethnology

Environmental Field Trips
by Keith Mason, program developer, Department of Education 22

Field Briefs 26
Field Museum Tours for Members 27
COVER

Crucifixion, 1940, by Elijah Pierce. Carved and painted wood on painted wood
panel, 47 x 30%." From the Elijah Pierce Art Gallery, Columbus, Ohio. The work of
Pierce is among that of 19 other painters, sculptors, and graphic artists in the new
exhibition, “Black Folk Art in America 1930-1980,” on view at Field Museum April
14 through July 15. See pages 11-18 and, for schedules of related events, the back
cover.

This exhibition was organized by the Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington,
D.C.,and sponsored by grants from Atlantic Richfield Foundation and the National
Endowment for the Arts, Washington, D.C. The Chicago showing of this exhibit was
made possible by a grant from the Atlantic Richfield Foundation.

Cover photo courtesy Corcoran Gallery of Art.

Eskimo Art and Culture

comprising two exhibits:
“Inua: Spirit World of the Bering Sea Eskimo”
and
“Grasp Tight the Old Ways:
The Klamer Family Collection of Inuit Art”
continues on view through May 27

a

Events |

Black Folk Art Symposium
and Lecture Series

This series is designed to complement the special exhibit “Black
Folk Artin America: 1930-1980.” The lectures are funded by a
grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities, a federal
agency.

“What is Folk Art?: Symposium”
Saturday, April 14, 2:00-5:00pm, James Simpson Theatre,
West Entrance

This symposium explores the varied and often contradictory
viewpoints of a social historian, a museum curator responsible for
an institution’s collections, a contemporary gallery owner, and a
private collector.

Each member of the panel presents his or her own view of
“What is Folk Art?” After a brief question-and-answer period
from the audience, the symposium continues with the panel
members discussing their opposing viewpoints.

Symposium Panel: Sterling Stuckey, professor of history,
Northwestern University; Lynda Roscoe Hartigan, assistant cura-
tor, 20th century painting and sculpture, National Museum of
American Art, Smithsonian Institution; Phyllis Kind, Phyllis Kind
Galleries, Chicago and New York; James T. Parker, private collec-
tor. Moderator: Richard Powell, guest curator, “Black Folk Artin
America: 1930-1980,” Field Museum.

“Indelible Icons: The Black Atlantic Visual Tradition”
Robert Farris Thompson, professor, history of art,

Yale University

Saturday, April 28, 2:00pm, James Simpson Theatre,

West Entrance

Following the slave trade routes from the west coast of Africa to
Brazil north to the United States, Robert Thompson describes
various cultural phenomena—dance, music, street festivals.
Emphasizing religion and performance, he illustrates how these
same phenomena reemerge in the Americas. Though a serious
scholar, Dr. Thompson's classroom persona is part preacher, part
dance-hall leader and performer. His research is concentrated on
cultures from the west coast of Africa.

“Origins and Development of Black American
Folk Art”

Regenia A. Perry, professor of art history, Virginia
Commonwealth University

Saturday, May 5, 2:00pm, James Simpson Theatre,
West Entrance

The earliest surviving examples of black American folk art include
pottery, quilts, wood carving, basketry, iron work, and painting.
Dr. Perry traces the development of this art through the 18th, 19th,
and 20th centuries, explaining the remarkable persistence of cer-
tain “Africanisms” throughout the course of black American folk
art history. Dr. Perry is an avid collector of black folk art and is
responsible for the essay “Origins and Development of Black
American Folk Art,” in the exhibit catalog Black Folk Art in Amer-
ica: 1930-1980.

“Memory and Sense of Place in Black Folk Art”
William Ferris, director, Center for the Study of
Southern Culture

Saturday, May 19, 2:00pm, James Simpson Theatre,
West Entrance

Family, region, and place influenced traditional African artists and
continues to influence the black American folk artist today. Wil-
liam Ferris looks at the contributions of black culture to the Amer-
ican experience, focusing on folk artists of the rural south. The
Center for the Study of Southern Culture is located on the campus
of the University of Mississippi and is a clearinghouse for informa-
tion on regional studies of southern culture. As a folklorist who
talks to the folk as well as studying their artifacts, Dr. Ferris has
found Mississippi a vital research area.

Series Tickets—Symposium and Individual Lectures: $17.00 (Members:
$10.00). Individual Tickets for each program: $5.00 (Members: $3.00).
Fees are nonrefundable. Please use coupon to order tickets. For further
information please call (312) 322-8854.

Drinker with Hat and Bottle, 1939-42. Compressed charcoal pencil on paper, 1312x
758” Collection of Mr and Mrs. Joseph H. Wilkinson. On view in “Black Folk Art in
America: 1930-1980." April 14-July 15

CONTINUED: >

CONTINUED FROM PAGE 3

Edward E. Ayer Film Lectures

Travel the world on Thursdays in April, at 1:30pm in James
Simpson Theatre. Admission is free. Doors open at 12:45pm.
Members please bring membership card for priority seating
privilege.

“Colorado—Where the West Comes Alive”
with Frank Nichols

12 “Superior”
with Tom Sterling

19” <Peru™
with Alan Hubbard

26 “Israel— The Holy Land - Past and Present”
with Clay Francisco

April 5

Family Feature

“Flights of Fancy”
Sunday, April 1; Hall 21, Birds

Kites have been used in weather watching, boat towing, bridge
building, and even military spying since 1000 B.C. Yet their flight
patterns only compare to one of the many forms used by birds.
Join us for a tour of the bird halls to find out about the different
kinds of bird flight. Then with the help of the Chicagoland Skylin-
ers Kite Club, make a kite of your own and decorate it like your
favorite bird. Participants should bring a large #20 brown paper
bag. After making your own kite, watch Stanley Field Hall fill
with flying colors as the Skyliners demonstrate their special indoor
kites.

Family Features are free with Museum admission; tickets not required.

Events

April Weekend
Programs

Each Saturday and Sunday you are invited to explore the world of
natural history at Field Museum. Free tours, demonstrations, and
films related to ongoing exhibits at the Museum are designed for
families and adults. Listed below are only a few of the numerous
activities available each weekend. Check the Weekend Passport upon
arrival for the complete schedule and program locations. These
weekend programs are free with Museum admission and tickets
are not required. The programs are partially supported by a grant
from the Illinois Arts Council.

April
7 11:30am. Ancient Egypt. Tour the Museum’s Egyp-
tian exhibit and investigate the traditions of ancient
Egyptian civilization from everyday life to
mummification and the promise of an afterlife.

8 12:30pm. Museum Safari. Seek out shrunken heads
from the Amazon, mummies from ancient Egypt,
and big game from Africa.

14 2:00pm _— Spring Wildflowers. A slide lecture featur-
ing the wildflowers found in Chicago’s woods,
meadows, and prairies.

15 12:30pm. Highlights of Field Museum. Tour some
of Field Museum’s most famous exhibits, from an
African watering hole to the tombs of the Egyptians.

1:00pm. Spring Wildflowers. A slide lecture featur-
ing the wildflowers found in Chicago’s woods,
meadows, and prairies.

21 2:00pm Red Land/Black Land. Tour the Egyptian
exhibit focusing on the geography of the Nile Valley
and the effect it had on the Egyptian’s lifestyle.

29° 12:30pm. Museum Safari. Seek out shrunken heads

from the Amazon, mummies from ancient Egypt,
and big game from Africa.

Walking Stick, by William Rogers, 1939. Wood 3314” high. Collection of Dr. and Mrs. William Bascom. On view in “Black Folk Art in America: 1930-1980.” April 14-July 15

Have you enclosed your self-addressed stamped envelope?

5 2 Member Nonmember Ae Armour
eg Tith Tickets Tickets ickets

R istration eee ee # Requested #Requested # Requested Enclosec
Please complete coupon for your program
selection and any other special events. Com-
plete all requested information on the applica-
tion and include section number where appro-
priate. If your request is received less than one
week before program, tickets will be held in
your name at West Entrance box office until
one-half hour before event: Please make
checks payable to Field Museum. Tickets will
be mailed on receipt of check. Refunds will be
made only if program is sold out. ae

For Office Use:

Date Received Date Returned

Name ek

Return complete ticket application with a self-addressed
Street stamped envelope to:
City State Zip Public Programs: Department of Education

Field Museum of Natural History

4 Telephone Daytime Evening Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive

Chicago, IL 60605-2497

Carboniferous forest reconstruction in the Ernest R. Graham Hall (Hall 38) of the Field Museum. 75400

he definition of a museum, in almost any dictionary,

will simply refer to a building with exhibits. As far as it
goes, this is a definition within which the Field Museum is
certainly included, but it is inadequate for effectively con-
veying the diversity of educational, exhibit, and research
activities in which the Field Museum is engaged. The Field
Museum of Natural History is fundamentally different
from most other museums in its concern not only with the
dissemination of knowledge, but also with basic research
by which our understanding of Man, and the world in
which he lives, is increased. Our exhibits represent a mi-
nute fraction of the Museum’s total collection, which pri-
marily serves as a major resource for original research by
Museum staff and the international scientific and scholarly
community.

The exhibits of fossil plants which can be found in the
Plants of the World Hall (Hall 29) and the Hall of Inverte-
brate Paleontology (Hall 37) are merely a tiny sample of
the 50,000 specimens comprising the paleobotanical col-
lections. The collection is curated and administered by the
Department of Geology and occupies 125 steel cabinets in
a storage facility constructed in 1965 with the support of
the National Science Foundation. Although no precise
inventory of paleobotanical resources has ever been taken
in the United States, the collection at the Field Museum is
certainly among the five largest in the country.

Martha S. Bryant is collection manager of fossil invertebrates and fossil
plants; Peter R. Crane is assistant curator of paleobotany.

Unlike collections in other areas of the Museum, the
fossil plants are not arranged according to a classification
of different groups of organisms, but in a stratigraphic
sequence, that is, according to their geologic age. This is
preferred because of the difficulties of precisely classifying
many of the plant remains and the importance of retaining
as much information as possible about which plants were
associated in the same fossiliferous sediments. The collec-
tion begins with the remains of simple algae from the Pre-
Cambrian Era over 1,000 million years ago, and ends with
plants of the Pleistocene Ice Ages only a few thousand
years before the present. A short walk through the collec-
tion is a walk through time, and a casual glance in occasion-
al drawers is enough to graphically illustrate most of the
major events in the evolution of plant life on this planet.

The fossil plant collection is the single common
denominator at the center of paleobotanical activity at the
Field Museum, providing specimens for professional sci-
entific research as well as materials for exhibits and teach-
ing. These activities also extend beyond our own Museum.
We have material on display, for example, at the Smithso-
nian Institution and the Milwaukee Public Museum, and
specimens are regularly used for courses taught at the Uni-
versity of Chicago.

The collection is a resource which has grown steadily
for over ninety years, as specimens have gradually been
accumulated by staff, amateurs, and other professionals
associated with the Museum. In 1965 its size was almost
doubled, and its scientific importance substantially en- 5

6

Adolph C. Noé. szese Theodor K. Just. 0331

hanced, by the incorporation of the classic Walker
Museum collections from the University of Chicago. Since
the late 1960s the collection has remained almost dormant,
but in the last eighteen months, the level of activity has
risen dramatically, with a renewed commitment to
paleobotany at the Field Museum. A full-time professional
paleobotanist has been appointed to the scientific staff and
the number of specimens acquired, the number of visitors
to the collections, the number of loans made to other in-
stitutions, and the number of scientific studies using Field
Museum specimens have all begun to increase. A start has
also been made on computerizing information about parts
of the collection. Keeping track of 50,000 specimens is not
always a straightforward proposition!

It is perhaps not surprising that a major strength of
the paleobotanical collection is plants of the Pennsylvanian
period (310-280 million years ago). At that time much of
Illinois was covered by shallow seas, fetid deltas, and
swampy luxuriant forests. The remains of these forests
formed the coals on which much of the industrial strength
of the central and eastern United States has traditionally
been based. About sixty percent of the paleobotanical
collection is from the Pennsylvanian, and the full spectrum
of “Coal-Age” plants is represented by specimens which
are often spectacular and unusually well preserved. About
half are from the world-famous nodule localities of Will,
Grundy, Livingstone, and Kankakee counties in northeast-
ern Illinois. The best known of these are along the banks of
Mazon Creek, and the fossil plants from this whole area
have come to be known as the “Mazon Creek flora.”

The nodules which contain the plants are concretions

George Langford, Sr. 80771

of fine mud and silt cemented together by various iron
minerals. They formed quickly as muddy deltas gradually
expanded over areas once covered by swamp forest, and
they contain a variety of plant fragments such as seeds,
leaves, cones, bark, and roots. The rapidity of preservation
has prevented many of the fossils from being compressed,
and they are beautifully preserved in three dimensions. In
many cases minerals have been deposited in the cavities
left as the plant tissues rotted; but occasionally, the tissues
themselves are impregnated with calcium carbonate or
iron pyrite and fine details of internal structure are preserved.

Specimens preserved in calcium carbonate can be
easily studied using the coal ball peel technique (see “The
Inside Story on Fossil Plants,” November, 1983 Bulletin),
but it is only recently that new methods of preparation
have revolutionized research on pyrite plant fossils. As
many of the Mazon Creek plants are pyritic, this has done
much to enhance the scientific importance of the Field
Museum collection. Several other large collections of these
nodules are housed in museums and universities through-
out the country, including Harvard University, the Illinois
State Geological Survey, and the Illinois State Museum;
but the outstanding collection at the Field Museum num-
bers over 15,000 specimens and is probably the most exten-
sive and most important in the world.

The very earliest studies of Pennsylvanian plants
from Illinois were made by the pioneering North Amer-
ican paleobotanist Leo Lesquereux (1806-89), between
1866 and 1884. Much of his original material came from
Mazon Creek itself, but in the first two decades of this

century increased coal-mining activity provided the stimu-

lus for more intensive investigations of these fossils and
their use in tracing and correlating coal deposits. Some of
the most important early research was carried out in con-
junction with the newly formed Illinois State Geological
Survey between 1906 and 1909 by Charles David White,
then curator of paleobotany at the United States National
Museum; but during the 1920s White’s work was con-
tinued by Adolph C. Noé at the University of Chicago.

Noé (1873-1939) gained his paleobotanical training at
the University of Graz, Austria under the eminent Euro-
pean paleobotanist Constantin von Ettingshausen, but in
1899 he emigrated to the United States and obtained his
doctorate in Germanic languages at the University of Chi-
cago. He remained on the language faculty until 1923,
when he was appointed assistant professor of paleobotany
in the Botany and Geology Departments. In the following
year he took on additional responsibilities as curator of
fossil plants in the Walker Museum, and most of the speci-
mens he curated, as well as those used in his research, are
now part of the Field Museum collection.

Noé had an engaging personality and developed a
close association with his scientific colleagues at the Field
Museum. In 1933 he was appointed a research associate on
the staff of the Botany Department. Noé’s link with the

Left: Lepidostrobus. A complete cone of an extinct club-moss tree
still attached to two shoots bearing leaves. Middle Pennsylvanian,
Vermilion County, Illinois. The cone is about 60 mm long. Field
Museum Paleobotanical Collections, PP 23918. Center: Alethopteris.
Leaf from an extinct “seed-fern.” Middle Pennsylvanian, northeastern

Field Museum provides a perfect example of the kind of
close relationship between research, education, and exhibi-
tion which is rarely possible at most universities and
museums. His expertise and familiarity with Pennsylva-
nian plants derived from his scientific work on Mazon
Creek and other collections was expressed directly in the
magnificent Carboniferous forest reconstruction in the
Ernest R. Graham Hall (Hall 38). This outstanding diora-
ma was constructed by the same team of expert craftsmen
responsible for the models in the Plants of the World Hall
(see “The Botanical World in Replica,” September 1983
Bulletin), and with Noé providing the essential paleobota-
nical advice and encouragement. The result is an irreplace-
able masterpiece of scientific illustration which remains as
one of the most realistic representations of what coal forest
plants may have looked like. Although we have learned a
great deal about Pennsylvanian plants and their paleoecol-
ogy since the diorama was completed in 1931, and might
wish to alter some interpretations, this extraordinary
achievement is still the most meticulous and atmospheric
rendering of Pennsylvanian vegetation in existence. It has
been illustrated in countless articles and textbooks and has
perhaps contributed more than anything else to the pop-
ular image of what a coal swamp might have looked like.

Illinois. The leaf is about 20cm long. Field Museum Paleobotanical
Collections, PP 30099. Right: Calamostachys. A complete cone of an
extinct horsetail tree from the Middle Pennsylvanian of Illinois. The
cone is 110mm long. Field Museum Paleobotanical Collections, PP
2604.

Ser tn st s a Oe ‘ ee

Triphyllopteris. Leaves of an extinct fernlike plant from the Early Mis-
sissippian; Price Formation, Virginia. Specimen recently obtained on
exchange. Each leaf is about 10mm long. Field Museum Paleobota-

nical Collections, PP 33643.

Perhaps Noé's major contribution to paleobotany was
his recognition during the early 1920s that coal balls pre-
viously known only from Europe also occurred in North
America. Some of his many students went on to pioneer
the study of North American coal ball plants and laid open
the way for many of the major paleobotanical advances of
the last fifty years. Some of the specimens used in these
classic investigations at the University of Chicago are now
housed at the Field Museum.

Other students of Noé devoted their energies to
Mazon Creek plants, and one of these, Richard E. Janssen,
did much to stimulate the interest of local amateur collec-
tors. Janssen first met Noé while employed as a preparator
at the Field Museum, working on the Carboniferous forest
reconstruction. As his interest in fossil plants developed,
he studied under Noé for a Ph.D. at the University of Chi-
cago, before going on to establish his own academic career.
With Noé’s encouragement, Janssen utilized specimens
now in the Illinois State Museum and Field Museum in
providing the first popular guide for collectors to Penn-
sylvanian plant fossils. George Langford, Sr. (1876-1964)
was one of the most avid of these amateurs and went on to
accumulate the bulk of the Field Museum Mazon Creek
8 collection.

s

Sphenophyllum. Whorled leaves from an extinct horsetail. Penn-
sylvanian, “Mazon Creek flora” of northeastern Illinois. Each whorl is
about 12mm wide. Field Museum Paleobotanical Collections, PP
25083.

Langford had worked intermittently, as an amateur, at
the Field Museum for many years, but did not join the staff
until 1947 at the age of 71. With the same energy and
vitality which had sustained him through a spectacular
career in engineering involving over 75 U.S. patents, he
applied himself tirelessly to the collection, curation, and
study of Mazon Creek fossil plants. In total, Langford esti-
mated that he must have collected about one quarter of a
million specimens, of which he only kept the best, about
one tenth—a mere 25,000! In addition to his truly pro-
digious collecting activities, Langford also found time to
write two popular books on the flora and fauna of the
Mazon Creek area. These were published by the Earth
Science Club of Northern Illinois and in conjunction with
that of Janssen have served as the indispensable handbooks
of local collectors for the last twenty years.

Eugene S. Richardson, Jr. (1916-83), a curator of in-
vertebrate paleontology at the Field Museum for over 30
years, collected closely with Langford. Although his
Mazon Creek research focused on the uniquely preserved
animal fossils, Richardson also made important additions
to the fossil plant collections. Perhaps his greatest influ-
ence, however, was indirect, through his unrivalled rapport
with the many highly motivated amateurs of northern IIli-

nois. Richardson gave freely of his time and expertise, and
his friendships ultimately led the late Jerry Herdina and
many others too numerous to mention by name to gener-
ously contribute significant personal collections of fossil
plants.

The Field Museum's Mazon Creek collection built up
by Noé, Langford, Richardson, and others has provided
material for a wide range of scientific studies. William C.
Darrah (formerly of Harvard University and Gettysburg
College) used the collection in a major review of Penn-
sylvanian floras in eastern North America which empha-
sized the use of the plants in geological correlation. Her-
mann W. Pfefferkorn (University of Pennsylvania), ‘Tom
L. Phillips (University of Illinois), Russell A. Peppers (IIli-
nois State Geological Survey), and William A. DiMichele
(University of Washington) have described specimens
which are either totally new to science or preserved in an
unusual and botanically informative way. Andrew C. Scott
' (University of London) and Thomas N. Taylor (Ohio State
University) have used the collection to draw some fascinat-
ing inferences on the interactions between plants and
animals during the Pennsylvanian, and Langford and Jans-
sen have described and illustrated Field Museum speci-
mens in compiling their guides for amateurs. These few
examples illustrate something of the diversity of research
which the Field Museum Mazon Creek collection has sup-
ported and will continue to support for many years to
come.

As well as the collection of Illinois nodule floras,
there are also Pennsylvanian plants from a large number of
other localities in eastern North America and Europe.
Although only a small proportion of these are spectacular
“exhibit quality” specimens, many are of considerable sci-
entific interest. For example, those collected by Ralph D.
Lacoe (1824-1901) were identified by Charles David White
and Leo Lesquereux, and provide a rare and important
insight into the ideas of two of the major figures in the
early days of North American paleobotany.

About half of the Field Museum collection of fossil
plants consists of specimens which are younger than Penn-
sylvanian in age. Some of the most spectacular of these are
specimens from the Cerro Cuadrado Petrified Forest in
Argentina, collected by Elmer S. Riggs (1869-1963) on
Field Museum expeditions to Patagonia. Riggs came to the
Museum from Princeton University in 1898 to become the
first curator of vertebrate paleontology. The South Amer-
ican adventures during the 1920s were just two of sixteen
collecting expeditions which he conducted for the

Lepidodendron. Three-cimensionally eyeaaried leaf-cushions of an
extinct club-moss tree. Middle Pennsylvanian, Grundy County, Illi-
nois. Each leaf-cushion is about 5mm long. Field Museum Paleobota-
nical Collections, PP 16432.

Museum, the primary goal of which was to collect large
fossil vertebrates. Some of these are now on display in the
Ernest R. Graham Hall. Almost as an incidental interest,
Riggs and his party accumulated a very large collection of
petrified “pine cones” which, along with a similar collec-
tion in the British Museum of Natural History, is the most
important of its kind in the world.

The specimens which Riggs brought back included
cones, fragments of wood, and even seedlings which had
been petrified under the influence of volcanic activity.
Beautifully preserved in silica, the specimens were first
studied by George R. Wieland of Yale University and
Bertha S. Darrow, a student of Noé, during the 1920s and
1930s. They were originally thought to be of early Tertiary

Araucaria mirabilis. Silicified cone very similar to the living bunya nut
tree of Queensland, Australia. Jurassic of Sierra Madre y Higa,
Argentina: collected by E. S. Riggs, 1924. The cone is about 75 mm
long. Field Museum Paleobotanical Collections, PP 33688.

10

a wo weRRe to Se
Neuropteris rarinervis. Leaf from an extinct “seed-fern” figured by
Noé in his “Pennsylvanian Flora of Northern Illinois.” Pennsylvanian,
Bureau County, Illinois. The leaf is about 20 cm long. Field Museum
Paleobotanical Collections, PP 33685.

age (approximately 60 million years old), but are now
thought to be much older and probably Jurassic (approx-
imately 170 million years old).

The collection contains two different kinds of cones.
The most recent research by Ruth Stockey of the Univer-
sity of Alberta has revealed that they contain extremely fine
details of embryos and other reproductive structures which
are very rarely preserved in most fossil plants. Stockey has
also shown that the two cones represent quite different
evolutionary situations in relation to the living families of
conifers. One (Pararaucaria patagonica) shows a peculiar
mixture of features found today in a range of different
living families, and exactly how it is related to modern
forms is unknown. However, the other (Araucaria mirabi-
lis) is very clearly related to the living conifer family
Araucariaceae, which includes the kauri pines, monkey
puzzles, and other trees sometimes grown as ornamentals
in the northern hemisphere. Today the family occurs only
in the southern hemisphere, and the fossil is closely similar
to the living species Araucaria bidwillit (the bunya nut),
native to southern Queensland, Australia.

The Patagonian material provides a good example of

< + z
Annularia. Whorls of leaves from an extinct horsetail tree. Middle
Pennsylvanian, “Mazon Creek flora” of northeastern Illinois. Each

whorl is about 45mm in diameter. Field Museum Paleobotanical Col-

_lections, PP 16935.

the international coverage of the paleobotanical collection,
which also includes specimens from the Devonian of West
Germany, the Permian of China, the Jurassic of Mexico,
the Eocene of Australia, the Cretaceous of Czechoslovakia,
and the early Tertiary of England. Among the treasures of
the collection is a small but fascinating suite of Jurassic
plants from the Rajmahal Hills of India obtained during
the late 1940s by Theodor K. Just (1904-60), then chief
curator of the Botany Department. Although Just was not
a practical paleobotanist in the sense of routinely working
with fossil specimens, he was intensely interested in the
fossil record of plant evolution. As an early stalwart in the
Paleobotanical Section of the Botanical Society of America,
he did much to influence the growth of North American
paleobotany as well as encourage the development of the
Field Museum collections.

The Upper Cretaceous and early Tertiary plants at
the Museum (approximately 100 to 40 million years ago)
together account for over a quarter of the total number of

Continued on p. 24

Pregnant Woman, by Steve Ashby, 1970s. Painted wood
and mixed media, 25 x 13 x 8” Collection of Herbert W.
Hemphill, Jr.

“Black Folk Art in America 1930-1980” will be
on view at Field Museum April 14 through July
15. For schedules of lectures on Black Folk Art
and other related programs see back cover
and “Events,” page 3.

“Black Folk Art in America 1930-1980” was organized
by the Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. and
sponsored by grants from Atlantic Richfield Founda-
tion and the National Endowment for the Arts,
Washington, D.C. The Chicago showing of this exhibit
was made possible by a grant from Atlantic Richfield
Foundation.

Photos courtesy the Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.

Black Folk Art
in America

1930-1980

by Richard Powell
Guest Curator and Consultant

\ \ ) illiam Dawson, a soft spoken retiring
senior citizen of Chicago, carves the most

amazing things out of wood. His human figures
come in a rainbow of complexions and tempera-
ments, and are always dressed to a “T” in colorful
outfits. Bears, pigs, elephants, birds, and an occa-
sional anteater make up the menagerie in his living
room, and stand as testaments to his Lincoln Park
Zoo “Adopt-an-Animal” certificate on the wall.
Carved “totems” of smiling and frowning faces,

William Dawson

capped with a single bird feather, a shock of hu-
man hair, or a carved animal head, are especially
dramatic.

Often forsaking anatomical precision for an ex-
pressive artistic license, Dawson’s work represents a
tradition of visually oriented Americans who have
worked and continue to work in communities across
the United States despite critical disdain or neglect.
This body, generically referred to as “folk” artists,
are represented in an extraordinary exhibition,
Black Folk Art in America: 1930-1980, organized
by the Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.

Following record-breaking viewings in Wash-
ington, D.C., Brooklyn, Los Angeles, Houston, De-
troit, and Birmingham, Black Folk Art in America

Jesse Aaron

og, by Jesse Aaron, 1969. Cedar, fiber-
glass and bone, 25% x 12% x 26” Stuart and

Mary Purser Collection

William Edmondson

G.H. McNeal in Year 1929, by Leslie Payne, 1970s. Painted wood and
mixed media, 33% x 52 x 10” Collection of Herbert W. Hemphill, Jr.

completes its U.S. tour at Field Museum. William
Dawson, along with 19 other painters, sculptors,
and graphic artists literally transforms a Field
Museum exhibition hall into an environmental art
space. Individual in life experience, yet collective in
this society’s perception of them, these artists add
another dimension to American art, and expand
that prevailing picture to include other visions and
agendas.

Despite the range of techniques, subjects, and
visual objectives in Black Folk Art in America, cer-
tain characteristics stand out that bring these
artworks together. For instance, the reliance on
“found” materials suggests a common outlook
among the three-dimensional artists in this show.
Jesse Aaron’s selection of zoomorphically shaped
wood for his animal carvings is similar to William
Edmondson’s choice of limestone blocks for religious
subjects. The first black artist to have a solo exhibi-
tion in New York’s Museum of Modern Art (1937),
Edmondson conceived of his sculpture as the
“Lord’s work.” Certainly his monolithic “Preachers”

Emancipation House, by George White, 1964.
Painted wood and mixed media construction,
19% x 23% x 18%” National Museum of Amer-
ican Art, Smithsonian Institution.

Sister Gertrude Morgan

; ra

Ne ee wa

and “Angels” speak to this idea. Sister Gertrude
Morgan’s creations on discarded window shades
and cardboard are in fact art and evangelism. Her
conception of God, angelic choirs, and herself are al-
ways clothed in saintly white robes and didactically
overlayed with scriptural text. Interestingly, her
self-imposed separation in later years from the secu-
lar world coincided with her calling to paint.
Perhaps the most important work on view in
Black Folk Art in America is a portion of James
Hampton’s Throne of the Third Heaven of the Na-
tions Millenium General Assembly. Discovered in a
garage in Washington, D.C. after Hampton’s death
in 1964, this 180-piece assemblage of furniture parts,
cardboard, lightbulbs, and silver and gold foil was
conceived by Hampton as a monument to Jesus.
Hampton’s Throne is a classic example of a “collage
sensibility” in Afro-American art—a style-current

Farmhouse with Air-
planes, by Ulysses
Davis, 1943. Carved
and painted relief,
13 x 15%”. Collec-
tion of Ulysses
Davis. ®

that runs through quilts, outdoor environmental art,
and in more obvious “art” examples as done by
Romare Bearden, Benny Andrews, and others.

The greater part of the Throne is on permanent dis-
play at the National Museum of American Art,
Smithsonian Institution, where pilgrims of both
artistic and spiritual persuasion experience Hamp-
ton’s profound vision.

Aside from featuring 20 men and women with
exceptional talents, Black Folk Art in America
addresses some other issues. In grouping these artists
under the rubrics of “black” and “folk,” curators
Jane Livingston and John Beardsley open up a Pan-
dora’s box of aesthetic discourse. One might ask
“What are the criteria, besides race and the absence

Yellow Chicken,
by Bill Traylor,
1939-42. Pencil,
crayon and
gouache on
paper, 13% x 8%"
Collection of
Charles Shannon.

of so-called formal art instruction on the part of each
artist, that qualifies their work as Black Folk Art?”
One part of the answer might dwell in recurring

16 motifs and themes that also exist among various

West and Central African peoples. Reptiles, specif-
ically snakes, appear in a number of pieces, and like
their African antecedents, they often communicate
mediation between spheres of existence (land/water,

Bill Traylor

the world of the living/the world of the dead). Bill
Traylor’s drawings of snakes and serpentine people
capture a West African feeling for nature and man’s
ever-changing relationship with it. On the “folk”
side of this categorizing, the many artists in this
exhibition who knowingly embrace sensibilities
which their communities maintain as the aesthetic
ideal merit a “folk” heading as well. Inez Nathaniel-
Walker’s eloquent drawings of coiffed, bejeweled,
and assertive women cognate with real life por-
trayals. In spite of her tendency to exaggerate
certain features, Nathaniel-Walker is in tune with
community or “folk” sentiments concerning fem-
inine style and comportment.

Another accomplishment for this exhibition is
its celebration of creativity in one’s old age. Com-
prised of works by artists predominantly sixty and
older, Black Folk Art in America throws a wrench
into the wunderkind complex that possesses so much
of the contemporary art scene. That these elders are
capable of exerting an influence on younger genera-
tions of artists is witnessed in the careers of several
Black Folk Art in America exhibitors. One such
artist, Joseph Yoakum, created elegant pen and pas-
tel drawings of landscapes (real and imagined) while
living on Chicago’s South Side in the 1960s. Yoakum
and his drawings eventually caught the attention of
Chicago’s most promising painters in the sixties,
artists like Roger Brown, Jim Nutt, Christina Ram-
berg, and others. These artists befriended Yoakum,
purchased his drawings, and helped to promote him
among serious art collectors. Yoakum’s almost sur-
real approach to nature and his intuitive sense of

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Two Figures, (red and brown) by Inez Nathaniel-Walker (detail),

1976. Crayon and colored pencil on paper, 29% x 41 “Ae” Webb
and Parsons Gallery, New Canaan, Connecticut.

Inez Nathaniel-Walker

18

Mt. Thousand Lakes in Bryce Canyon National
Park Near Hanksville Utah, by Joseph Yoakum,
1968. Pen and pastel on paper, 12 x 19” Collec-
tion of Christina Ramberg and Philip Hanson.

Joseph Yoakum

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color captivated his “discoverers” and furnished
visual data for what is now internationally known
as the “Chicago school of painters.”

The 320 art works and the accompanying
artist’s biographies in Black Folk Art in America not
only please the artistic palate and educate the
mind’s eye, but raise the audience’s level of con-
sciousness about cultural resiliency. It is nothing less
than the pure power of the spirit that those so-called
“deprived” members of our society—the poor and
the elderly—would prove their inner strength and
aesthetic tenacity through art. Of course, the artists
in this exhibition have no need of critical approval,
since their reasons for creating art have less to do
with art markets than with personal-spiritual assur-
ances. Students of all ages, artists, academics, art en-
thusiasts, and the average museum visitor can and
will gain much from Black Folk Art in America. Au-
diences will gain because the canon that the artists
live by is generosity, and that sense of giving per-
meates the breadth of their lives as well as their
visual contributions. F™

MARKET ART FROM NORTHEASTERN ASIA
A 19th-Century Siberian Souvenir

By James W. VanStone
Curator of North American Archaeology and Ethnology

I n frontier areas of the world it was explorers,
traders, missionaries, and government adminis-
trators who created the first demand for native
crafts as souvenirs. At first these travelers to remote
lands purchased, as mementos of their experiences
among exotic peoples, items of material culture
made by natives for their own use. As the demand
increased, however, native craftsmen produced
items specifically for trade. New materials, foreign
to the native environment, sometimes made their
appearance, but for the most part the form of these
souvenirs was firmly rooted in native cultural
tradition.

In the early twentieth century, Alaskan Eskimo
women manufactured excellent coiled grass baskets

Fay 4
Okhotsk

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SEA OF x
OKHOTSK iF
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& BERING SEA

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by the hundreds, while men engraved ivory pipes,
carved animal and human figures from the same
material, and made models of traditional artifacts

in response to the demand of gold miners, commer-
cial whalers, and members of exploring and scientific
expeditions for souvenirs (see the Bulletin, Novem-
ber 1982, pp. 12-15).

Along the frontiers of northeastern Asia in the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries a demand for
souvenirs was created by members of the elaborate
bureaucracy which administered Russia’s far-flung
Siberian empire and collected tribute from the na-
tive peoples. Field Museum’s ethnographic collec-
tions contain an unusual example of Siberian market
art dating from the late nineteenth century and per-
haps made tobe sold to one of the czar’s represen-
tatives in the city of Okhotsk, an important trading
and administrative center on the Sea of Okhotsk
opposite the Kamchatka Peninsula (see map).

In the catalog of the Department of Anthropol-
ogy, this interesting artifact is described as a “table
covering.” It was purchased by the Museum in the
late 1890s as part of a large ethnographic collection
from various locations in northeastern Siberia, par-
ticularly from the area around the city of Okhotsk
and the island of Sakhalin.

This table covering was made by an Evenk
craftsperson, probably a woman. In the nineteenth
century the Evenks, formerly known as the Tungus,
were the largest and most widely scattered language
family in northeastern Asia. They were divided into
two large groups separated from each other ter-
ritorially and practicing different forms of subsist-
ence. The reindeer-breeding and hunting Evenks,
makers of this covering, occupied an enormous terri-
tory stretching from the Yenisey River in north-

central Siberia to the Sea of Okhotsk, while pastoral
and farming Evenks lived much further south in the
Transbaikal as well as in neighboring areas of north-
eastern China and Mongolia.

This Evenk covering (cat. no. 32140) is virtual-
ly square, measuring 51cm by 68cm, and made from
numerous pieces of brown and white reindeer skin
sewn together in an overcast stitch with sinew. It is
very fragile, the irregularly shaped light areas in the
photograph (fig. 1, front) indicating where the hair
has fallen off. The center panel consists of two
pieces of brown skin of approximately equal size

Fig. 1.

sewn together vertically down the middle. A 13cm
tear in the upper left hand corner has been carefully
repaired (fig. 2, back). This center panel is bordered
by a narrow band consisting of triangular pieces of
alternating brown and white skin. Around this is a
much wider band consisting of numerous pieces of
brown skin sewn together. At the edges are two nar-
row borders. The inner one is similar to the band
around the center panel, consisting of a pattern of
alternating triangular pieces of brown and white
skin. According to information in the catalog, the
edges were trimmed with short pieces of squirrel,
gray fox, ermine, and otter skin. However, only frag-
ments of squirrel and otter skin remain.

The decorative figures on the covering are

20 made of white reindeer skin which at first appear to

be appliquéd but actually are cut out and sewn into
holes of corresponding size and shape in the cover-
ing. Presumably the figures were first cut out and
then their outlines traced onto the previously sewn
center panel and surrounding bands. In the four cor-
ners of the center panel there are floral and leaf
ornaments. Veins in the leaves are sewn in a chain
stitch with brown perle cotton thread. In the middle
of the center panel is a chum, the Evenk skin-
covered tent, with smoke ascending through an
opening in the roof. On one side of the tent is the
figure of a man chopping wood and on the other a

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reindeer tethered to a tree. Sections of the tent
covering are outlined with black thread sewn ina
chain stitch. The smoke rising from the tent, the
reindeer’s tether, and needles on the tree are tan
thread, while the wood chopper’s clothing and fea-
tures are indicated with black and badly faded red
thread.

Above the roof of the tent the words OKHOTS-
KAGO OKRUGA (“from the Okhotsk District”) have
been stitched in Cyrillic letters with perle cotton
thread sewn with a filling stitch. In the late nine-
teenth century the Okhotsk District included an area
around the city of Okhotsk, whose population
was primarily Evenk reindeer herders and hunters.

In the wide band around the center panel are
depicted two sleds of the east Siberian type, each

drawn by six dogs. There is a man on one sled and a
woman on the other. Parts of the outlines of the hu-
man figures are delineated with black thread and the
sides of the sleds are decorated with triangle pat-
terns in red thread. Dog harnesses are also shown in
red, while the traces are tan thread. All the thread
sewing on this band is in chain stitch.

Two noted authorities on the cultures of north-
eastern Asia, Dr. I. S. Gurvich of the Institute of
Ethnography, Moscow, and Dr. I. S. Vdovin of the
Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography,
Leningrad, have examined photographs of this

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Evenk covering and both are agreed that its pro-
totype was the small, square cover for pack bags
worn by reindeer as the herds were moved by the
herders in search of better grazing areas. When not
protecting reindeer pack bags, such coverings were
sometimes used to sit on. Traditionally they were
made of white skin taken from the legs of reindeer
and brown skin from elsewhere on the body.

The traditional reindeer pack bag cover was
undecorated except for a unique ornamental pattern
which the Russians call “fur mosaic,” achieved by
selecting small pieces of skin of contrasting colors to
form a dark design on a light background or vice ver-
sa. The narrow bands of alternating triangles of
white and brown reindeer skin on the Museum’s
covering are good examples of this form of tradition-

al ornamentation which was also characteristic of
Koryak, Chukchi, Siberian Eskimo, and other north-
eastern Siberian skin workers.

The traditional reindeer skin pack bag cover
was easily converted to a wall hanging, rug, or table
covering when Russian administrators and travelers
to northeastern Siberia created a demand for native
crafts as souvenirs. In a recent Russian publication
devoted to the decorative arts of northern Siberian
peoples, there is an illustration of a rectangular rein-
deer skin rug which has an elaborate fur mosaic bor-
der and on which, in white reindeer skin, are de-

Diane Alexander-White. N109248

picted scenes of native life similar to those on Field
Museum’s table covering. Along the lower edge,
also in white reindeer skin, is the date 1904. This rug
was made by the Koryak, northeastern neighbors of
the Okhotsk District Evenks.

Fur rugs and wall hangings in a great variety of
shapes and sizes are made today by many northern
peoples in the Soviet Union. The craftsmanship of
skin sewers that impressed the early Siberian travel-
ers, explorers, and administrators, has continued to
attract the interest of European Russians who, since
the end of World War II, have sought employment
in northeastern Siberia in ever-increasing numbers.
Decorative skin working is truly a contemporary art
form which has its roots in the traditional cultures
of the past. Fea

22

5

195%

Above: Tall dune grasses capture the attention and imagina-
tion of a participant in search of hidden flora and fauna.
Opposite, above: Environmental field trips provide the oppor-
tunity to pause and reflect, examine and enjoy. Opposite, be-
low: A hike through a local marsh transforms a simple spring
day into a memorable adventure.

Environmental
Field Trips

by Keith Mason
Program Developer,
Department of Education

hile trying to rationalize his dissent for man’s

assault on America’s wilderness in the name
of “recreation,” Aldo Leopold wrote, “The only true
development in American recreational resources is
the development of the perceptive faculty in Amer-
icans.” Leopold, author of A Sand County Almanac
and a leading conservationist of the 1930s, was not
the first to note the value of promoting an ecological
awareness among us—he was only pleasantly ahead
of his time. In the 1960s and ’70s, his concerns be-
came real concerns for a growing majority of Amer-
icans who realized that our use of land and its re-
sources might indeed contain some misuses and mis-
takes. From the first “Earth Day” in 1970 and the
“Keep America Beautiful” campaign of that same
era, environmental education has seen substantial
development. Field Museum has been a strong parti-
cipant in that development.

Beginning in 1973, Field Museum established a
program of environmental field trips designed to fos-
ter an awareness of the environment in which we
live. As part of a larger educational context that in-
cluded lectures, film series, teacher workshops, and
the installation of a major permanent exhibit, “Man
In His Environment,” the environmental field trip
program initially helped participants in understand-
ing how their complex industrial society could coex-
ist with fragile surrounding landscapes such as the
Indiana Dunes.

Interest in environmental education soon ma-
tured. The public desired to explore intricate en-
vironmental relationships in more detail and Field

Museum’s environmental field trip program ex-
panded to meet these interests. Since 1973, some
10,000 people have enjoyed a day in the out-of-doors
with old friends or meeting new ones. Designed for
family or adult groups, the field trips have some-
thing for everyone. One need not be interested in
freshwater aquatic succession to enjoy walking
down a cool creek on a colorful autumn afternoon.
A person does not have to be able to differentiate a
viceroy from a monarch butterfly to stroll through
one of the many remnants of Illinois’ namesake—the
virgin prairie. But, if you would like to discover how
a tiny marine shrimp came to be imbedded in the fos-
silized rock you are holding in your hand or why a
tamarack tree, usually found in Canada, is growing
right here in northeastern Illinois, Field Museum
field trips are just for you. Field trip leaders all pos-
sess a special knowledge about the trip destinations

and are enthusiastic about sharing that knowledge
with you. The active interests of Field Museum
scholars and others with appropriate expertise are
an integral part of the program.

Field trips depart from Field Museum’s West

Entrance on Saturdays and Sundays in the spring
and fall. The trips designed for families are activity
oriented and participatory learning experiences are
used extensively. The adult trips are designed for
those with a casual interest in nature and also for
the serious student of the environment. They pro-
vide the perfect opportunity to get away for a day,
learn something new and arrive home with a re-
newed sense of awareness.

This spring marks the tenth year of the field
trip program. The schedule provides exciting and
new opportunities for all who participate. You can
hike through the canyons of Starved Rock State
Park or explore the glacial geology of Lake County.
Your whole family can enjoy a collecting trip for
wild foods or take part in a scientific sampling of fos-
sils collected at Chowder Flats. If Chicago’s cultural
history is of interest to you, join us for a tour of our
unique ethnic communities. These and many other
trips are planned for the spring session which begins
the weekend of May 5. For further information con-
sult the Spring Field Trip brochure or call 922-9410,
ext. 362. FM

FOSSIL PLANTS con't from p. 10

Asterotheca. Fern leaf showing spore producing areas (sori) from the
Middle Pennsylvanian, “Mazon Creek flora” of northeastern Illinois.
The leaf is about 80mm long. Field Museum Paleobotanical Collec-
tions, PP 28530.

paleobotanical specimens, and consist mainly of leaves and
other remains of flowering plants. Today, flowering plants
dominate the world’s vegetation, but we understand very
little about how they arose and evolved. They appear to
have undergone a major radiation during the mid-
Cretaceous (about 120-90 million years ago), then sub-
sequently diversified throughout the Upper Cretaceous
and Tertiary. In conjunction with an understanding of liv-

ing plants, research on Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary fos-

24 sils is beginning to clarify exactly how the quarter of a

million living species of flowering plants may have arisen.

Large collections from the Eocene clay pits of Ken-
tucky and Tennessee were accumulated by George Lang-
ford, his son, and Eugene Richardson. In addition to the
ubiquitous leaves, there are also fruits, catkins, and even
flowers, many of them from localities that are no longer
available for collecting. These specimens have been used
extensively by David L. Dilcher of Indiana University in
some of the most detailed studies of Eocene fossil plants
ever carried out. In the last fifteen years Dilcher has estab-
lished his laboratory as a major center for the study of early
Tertiary fossil plants and has drawn freely on the Field
Museum collections. Steven R. Manchester, a former stu-
dent of Dilcher’s, has produced a classic synthesis of the
evolution of the walnut family (Juglandaceae) which is cur-
rently the most detailed account available of the fossil his-
tory and evolution of a single flowering plant family.
Throughout his work, Manchester has benefitted con-
siderably from the extensive coverage of early Tertiary
material in our collections.

Other Tertiary plant fossils come from many differ-
ent areas, but the western United States is particularly well
represented. Among the collections from Colorado, Mon-
tana, Wyoming, and elsewhere is a large series of speci-
mens from the Eagle Creek Formation (Oligocene, 30 mil-
lion years ago) of the Columbia River Gorge. These are
part of the first paleobotanical collections made by Ralph

W. Chaney.
Chaney was a native of the Chicago suburb of

Brainerd, and following his keen interest in natural history,
went to study at the University of Chicago where he met
Noé and many other prominent geologists and biologists
of the day. Chaney had a particular fascination with ecol-
ogy, and introduced an ecological dimension into the study
of Tertiary fossil floras. He carefully compared fossil com-
munities with their living counterparts and, by extrapola-
tion, began to assemble a picture of the ecological condi-
tions under which the fossil plants may have been growing.

The work on the Eagle Creek Formation was carried
out at the University of Chicago, and Chaney went on to
teach first at the University of Iowa and later at the
University of California. As professor of paleontology at
Berkeley, Chaney and his students extended their ecologic-
al approach and applied it to a range of fossil floras in
western North America. They were remarkably successful
in constructing a broad overview of the vegetational and
climatic changes in western North America over the last 50

million years. Our understanding of the long-term vegeta-

tional history in this region is now more detailed than for
any other area in the world. Although some of Chaney’s
concepts have come under increasing criticism in recent
years, he was the major force in broadening the scope of
Tertiary paleobotany to address ecological questions.

The reexamination of Chaney's ideas is just one small
example of a basic reorientation which has begun to occur
throughout paleontology in the last decade. Much of what
has been traditional is being challenged; but whatever
changes new methods, new concepts, and new dogma bring,
the fundamental importance of specimens and the value of
collections will not diminish. In 1973 Tom Phillips, Her-
mann Pfefferkorn, and Russell Peppers provided an excel-
lent review of the “Development of Paleobotany in the IIli-
nois Basin” (published by Illinois State Geological Survey).
They showed very clearly how Illinois, and the Midwest in

Leaves of Glossopteris from the Permian of New South Wales, Austra-
lia. Each leaf is about 100mm long. Field Museum Paleobotanical
Collections, PP 33686.

general, has always been in the forefront of the historical
development of North American paleobotany. The collec-
tions at the Field Museum are an integral part of this his-
torical legacy and are an important part of the paleobota-
nical resources in the United States.

The collections are now undergoing their most rapid
expansion in over two decades through a broadening pro-
gram of exchanges with other institutions and active
collecting. In the last eighteen months, Cretaceous mate-
rial from Alabama and Georgia, as well as early Tertiary
material from Oregon, Idaho, North Dakota, Wyoming,
British Columbia, and Europe has all been incorporated.
Most of these specimens will never go on public display.
Their purpose is to enhance the primary role of our collec-
tion as a continuing resource for original research by Field
Museum staff and other scientists. FM

Quercus clarnensis. Oak leaf from the Oligocene Bridge Creek
Formation, Oregon. The leaf is about 60mm long. Collected by R. W.
Chaney. Field Museum Paleobotanical Collections, PP 33687.

FIELD BRIEFS

b

Assembled before Progress of Mind, now hanging in Field Museum, are friends of the late artist,
Floyd E. Job: (I. to r.) Clifford Buzard, the Museum's Planned Giving officer, Thomas F. Croke, Rita
Coyle, Golden M. Walser, Mark Rosner, Beatrice L. Priess, Sophia Nelson, Kathy Marie Garness, Don
Llanuza, Larry Lubeck, Pauline Blair, and Mary Hein.

Artist Floyd E. Job
Honored by Friends,
Was Donor of His Own Painting,
Progress of Mind

Friends of the late Chicago artist Floyd E. Job
recently gathered on the first anniversary of
his death to view his painting, Progress of
Mind, which he bequeathed to Field
Museum in addition to a generous gift to the
Museum’s Endownment Fund. Mr. Job, a
member of Chicago’s Palette and Chisel Aca-
demy of Fine Art, for more than 30 years was
concurrently head designer at both Marshall
Field & Co. and at the Merchandise Mart.

The story of man’s thoughts—conscious,
unconscious, subconscious, past, present, and
future—and their effects on man’s life and
actions—all has been captured in Job’s 5/2 x
8-foot oil painting, now hanging in the recep-
tion area of Field Museum’s ground floor
administrative suites.

Ironically, Progress of Mind is just about
the only painting of his extant, for the hun-
dreds of Job’s paintings that have hung in
exhibitions were burned by him. “They were
mere extensions or reflections of this one
work,” Job remarked. “For 35 years, I carry
‘Progress of Mind’ in my soul, my body, my
own mind. This is all I] wanted to do, but I
was too busy. This painting was the only
thing I ever wanted to do, for through it, I felt
I could give a child to the world.

“I have always loved the mind. While I
know thousands of people, I never care who
the person is, or what he is; initially, I have
loved his mind. So, likewise, I have loved the

26 mind of mankind, and felt that the story of the

mind of man should be captured in a single
painting.”

It is a heroic painting, containing hun-
dreds of human figures. Each figure is a vig-
nette of man’s life; each tells its own story.
Progress of Mind is basically simple: while the
hundreds of scenes incorporate biology, phy-
sics, psychiatry, chemistry, religion, inherited
memory, and cultural and educational aspects
of life, the picture as a whole starkly reveals
that man yet does not understand himself and
that his basic nature has not changed since
the beginning of human life itself.

DIANE ALEXANDER-WHITE

Clark Fossil Collection
Cataloged by Volunteers

When John Clark, former curator of
sedimentary petrology, retired in 1973 from
the Department of Geology, he left a legacy of
13,154 paleontological specimens waiting to
be cataloged. Now, thanks to the efforts of 16
volunteers, the collection of fossil mammals
(mainly Oligocene— 38 million to 22.5 mil-
lion years old), as well as fossil plants, fishes,
birds, and reptiles, has been entirely cata-
loged and curated—a task of four years, two
months that required 2,124 actual hours of
volunteer time.

Volunteers who participated in the
project included Joseph Levin (who alone
contributed nearly 796 hours), Cathy
Agnone, Turpin Ballard, Susan Boynton,
Benny Daniel Dombeck, Carol Hallow,
Wally Hastings, Ellen Hyndman, Paul Jen-
sen, Susan Knoll, Gary M. Kocanda, Joan
Maynard, Holly Morgan, Steffi Postol, Bar-
bara Roob, and Thelma Schwartz.

The Department of Geology recently
hosted a reception for these volunteers in
recognition of their achievement. Dr. Clark,
who now resides near Rockford, Illinois, was
also present to view the volunteers’ impres-
sive achievement.

The project was so successful that the
department is now planning the cataloging of
several tens of thousands of fossil mammals
from the Australian latest Tertiary and Pleis-
tocene (5 million to 10,000 years ago), again
utilizing volunteer help. Persons interested in
this project should call Joyce Matuszewich,
volunteer coordinator, for further details.

Retired Curator of Sedimentary Petrology John Clark (2nd from rt.) inspects some of the 13,154 fossil
specimens that were cataloged and curated by volunteers, and with him are volunteers who assisted
in the project (I. to r.): Mrs. Susan Knoll, Joseph Levin, Clark , and Benny Dombeck

RON TESTA

TOURS FOR MEMBERS

ie Wank.

ALASKA NATURAL HISTORY
TOUR

June 1984
$4,185

Experience the Great Land. Descrip-
tions of Alaska are filled with superla-
tives—a state more than twice the size
of Texas with a population less than
that of Denver, 33,000 miles of coast-
line, 119 million acres of forest, 14 of the
highest peaks in the United States cul-
minating in Mt. Denali (formerly Mt.
McKinley), at 20,320 feet. Alaska is
equally a land of wildlife superlatives,
from her great herds of caribou to
swarming seabird rookeries to surging
salmon in migration. When one thinks
of Alaska one thinks of wilderness, of
nature still fresh and undomesticated, of
experiences dreamed of but mostly un-
available to us of the lower 48.

Join us for an Alaskan odyssey
through a wide range of habitats from
the rockbound fur seal and sea bird col-
onies of the Pribilofs, to the dripping
forest and calving glaciers of the south-
east, to the grandeur of the Alaskan
Range, to the Fjordlike quiet and beauty
of the inland passage.

Our travels will be by plane, train,
bus, boat, horseback, and foot—what-
ever best enhances our experience.

Ron Testa

Emphasis will be on the land, its history,
its wildlife. Interpretation combined
with direct observation will provide an
enjoyment and quality of experience un-
available to the casual visitor. Whatever
your interest in natural history—marine
mammals, birding, mountains, photogra-
phy, flowers, forests, glaciers, rivers—
this tour will show you Alaska in all its
diversity and splendor.

The tour will be led by Dr. Robert
Karl Johnson, Chairman of the Depart-
ment of Zoology of Field Museum.

GRAND CANYON ADVENTURE
May 25 - June 3

Many of us have beheld the Grand
Canyon from the rim or while flying
overhead, and some of us have hiked
partway down to the Colorado River.
But there is another Grand Canyon that
relatively few have experienced: Field
Museum is offering you the opportunity
to see and experience the canyon from
the river.

The 280-mile trip will be by two
motorized rubber rafts. We'll sleep on
sandy beaches under the stars and our
meals will be excellent. Along the way,
we'll hike to places of unusual geologic
and anthropologic interest, sometimes
through the most pleasant and enchant-
ing stream beds and valleys, at times
along the waterfalls. We'll see and
study more geology in this one brief
period than can be seen anywhere else

in comparable time. Dr. Bertram Wood-
land, curator of petrology, will be our
tour leader.

The trip will begin on Friday, May 25,
with a flight to Las Vegas, where we
will remain overnight. Saturday we’ll
leave by deluxe bus for Lees Ferry,
where we'll board the rafts. The trip
will end 9 days later, at Pierce Ferry,
near the head of Lake Mead. We'll re-
turn to Chicago, via Las Vegas, Sunday,
June 3.

You needn’t be a “rough rider” to join
this expedition—you needn’t even
know how to swim. Persons of any age
can enjoy the river with equanimity,
and come out proud and happy to have
experienced this extraordinary adven-
ture.

The cost (to be announced) per per-
son covers all expenses (including air
fare, board fees, waterproof bags for
gear, sleeping bags, etc.), and all meals.
The trip is limited to 25 participants.

ADDITIONAL TOUR GEMS
SLATED FOR 1984

te China and Tibet

te Kenya

t= Peru

te England’s Old Inns, Old Homes,
Old Castles, and Old Gardens.

For additional information on any tour,
please call Tours Manager Dorothy Roder at
322-8862 or write Field Museum Tours,
Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive,
Chicago, IL 60605.

201

EDITH FLEMING

Black Folk Art in America: 1930-1980

5, Saturday, 2000m

ZI

6, Sunday, 200om

June
3, Sunday, 2:00pm

Sunday, 2D00pm

93, Saturday, 2-00om

April 14-July 15

“What ts Foik Art?: Symposium”
Pane!: Lynda Roscoe Hartigan, Phyllis Kind, James Parker,
Sterling Stuckey: moderator: Richard Powe

Lecture: “indelible icons: The Black Atiantic Visual Tradition”
by Robert Fams Thompson, professor of art history, Yale University

Lecture: “The Ongins and Development of Black American Folk Art”
by Regenia Pery, professor of art history, Virginia Commonwealth University

Performance: “Gospel Music: Spirit of the People”
by 180 choi members of Tnnity United Church of Christ of Chicago

Performance: “A Teller of Tall Tales, Jack Tales and Ghost Tales”
by Jacke Torrence, Granite Quarry, N.C

Lecture: “Memory and Sense of Place in Black Folk Art”
by William Fems, Girector, Center for the Study of Southem Culture,
University of MISSISSIDD:

Performance: “Blues Chicago Styie”
by Chicago musicians; moderators: Amy and Jim O'Neal, editors of
Living Biues, journal of the black Amencan blues tradition

Performance:” West African Rhythms”
by Mandingo Gnot Society of Chicago

Performance: “Adventures in Rhythm and Sons,”
by Elia Jenkins, Chicago folk singer

Performance: “Africa's Gift to the Worid,”
by Dariene Blackourn Dance Troupe, Chicago

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African Insights: Sdurces for Afro-American At ad |
_jexhibit opens April 29}! — %

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Field Museum
of Natural History
Bulletin

Published by

Field Museum of Natural History
Founded 1893

President: Willard L. Boyd
Director: Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.

Editor: David M. Walsten
Production Liaison: Pamela Stearns
Staff Photographer: Ron Testa

BOARD OF TRUSTEES

James J. O’Connor
chairman

Mrs. T. Stanton Armour

George R. Baker

Robert O. Bass

Gordon Bent

Bowen Blair

Willard L. Boyd

Frank W. Considine

Stanton R. Cook

William R. Dickinson, Jr.

Thomas E. Donnelley II

Marshall Field

Richard M. Jones

Hugo J. Melvoin

Leo F. Mullin

Charles F. Murphy, Jr.

Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.

Robert A. Pritzker

James H. Ransom

John S. Runnells

Patrick G. Ryan

William L. Searle

Edward Byron Smith

Robert H. Strotz

Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken

E. Leland Webber

Julian B. Wilkins

Blaine J. Yarrington

LirE TRUSTEES

Harry O. Bercher
Joseph N. Field
Clifford C Gregg
William V. Kahler
William H. Mitchell
John W. Sullivan

J. Howard Wood

Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin (USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined
July/August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive,
Chicago, Il. 60605. Subscriptions: $6.00 annually, $3.00 for schools. Museum membership
includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not neces-
sarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Museum
phone: (312) 922-9410. Notification of address change should include address label and be sent to
Membership Department. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural His-
tory, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, I]. 60605. ISSN:0015-0703. Second class
postage paid at Chicago, Il.

CONTENTS

May, 1984
Volume 55, Number 5

May Events at Field Museum 3

African and Afro-American Art:

Call and Response 5
by Richard J. Powell, guest curator, Department of
Anthropology

Field Museum Tours 26

COVER

Hammock (detail), made by the Sherbro or Mende people of
Sierra Leone and woven of dyed and natural cotton. Late
19th or early 20th century. The piece was collected in Sierra
Leone in 1901 and acquired by Field Museum in 1929. Cat.
175957. A photo of the entire piece may be seen on page 5. It
will also be on view in Hall 9 from April 29 through Decem-
ber 31 as part of the exhibit “African Insights: Sources for
Afro-American Art and Culture? See pages 5-25. Photo by
Diane Alexander-White. N109326.

Eskimo Art and Culture

comprising two exhibits:
“Inua: Spirit World of the Bering Sea Eskimo”
and
“Grasp Tight the Old Ways:
The Klamer Family Collection of Inuit Art”
continues on view through May 27

-Events_

Black Folk Art Programs

These programs are designed to complement the
special exhibit “Black Folk Art in America 1930-
1980” and are funded in part by a grant from the
National Endowment for the Humanities, a federal
agency.

Fees are nonrefundable. Please use coupon to order
tickets. For further information please call
(312) 322-8854.

Black Folk Art Lectures

“Origins and Development of Black American
Folk Art”

Regenia A. Perry, Professor of Art History,

Virginia Commonwealth University

Saturday, May 5, 2:00pm; James Simpson Theatre,
West Entrance

The earliest surviving examples of black American folk art
include pottery, quilts, wood carving, basketry, iron work,
and painting. Dr. Perry traces the development of this art
through the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, explaining the
remarkable persistence of certain “Africanisms” through-
out the course of black American folk art history. Dr. Perry
is an avid collector of black folk art and is author of the
essay “Origins and Development of Black American Folk
Art,” in the exhibit catalog Black Folk Art in America
1930-1980.

Tickets: $5.00 (Members: $3.00).

“Memory and Sense of Place in Black Folk Art”
William Ferris, director,

Center for the Study of Southern Culture

Saturday, May 19, 2:00pm; James Simpson Theatre,
West Entrance

Family, region, and place influenced traditional African
artists, and continue to influence the black American folk
artist today. William Ferris looks at the contributions of
black culture to the American experience, focusing on folk
artists of the rural South. Located on the campus of the
University of Mississippi, The Center for the Study of
Southern Culture is a clearinghouse for information on re-
gional studies of southern culture. Asa folklorist who talks
to the folk as well as studying their artifacts, Dr. Ferris has
found Mississippi a vital research area.

Tickets: $5.00 (Members: $3.00).

Please use coupon to order tickets. For further information
please call (312) 322-8854.

Gospel Music: Spirit of the People

Sanctuary Choir of Trinity United Church of Christ and
members of the Jewel McLaurin Dance Company
Sunday, May 6, 2:00pm; Stanley Field Hall

“The spiritual is the community in rhythm, swinging to

the movement of life.” Over 150 members of the Sanctuary
Choir of Trinity United Church of Christ present a musical

program that explores the origins and evolution of black
religious music. This performance illustrates with song and
dance the slave hunt, capture, and ultimate departure of
ships to the Americas, life working the fields of the South,
and the celebration of religion in black churches today. The
choir performs African chants, spirituals composed while
working in the fields, and traditional and contemporary
gospel songs, including calypso, samba, and reggae
rhythms. The children’s choir of Trinity United Church of
Christ accompanies the Sanctuary Choir on selected pieces.
This performance is free with Museum admission and
tickets are not required.

Blues: Chicago Style

Moderated by Jim and Amy O’Neal, editors of
Living Blues

Sunday, May 20, 2:00pm; James Simpson Theatre,
West Entrance

“Well the blues ain’t nothing but a good man feeling bad
just sitting down thinking about the good times he once
had,” from “Goin’ Away Baby,” by Jim Brewer.

It is generally agreed that Chicago is the blues capital
of the world. No other city has so much blues activity or so
many hot players on the local scene. Join us for an after-
noon of blues that traces the history of this Chicago
phenomenon.

With: Jim Brewer, acoustic blues guitarist
Eddie Taylor Blues Band, traditional blues
Jimmy Johnson Band, contemporary blues

Tickets: $5.00 (Members: $3.00)

Black Folk Art: Film Series

A special program of film has been designed to accompany
the exhibition “Black Folk Art in America: 1930-1980.”
Films are screened on Saturdays in May and June, begin-
ning at 1:00pm. Film notes are available. These films are
free with Museum admission, and tickets are not required.

May 5: “Sermon’s in Wood” (27m)
“Nellie’s Playhouse” (14m)
May 12: “Always for Pleasure” (58m)
May 19: “Two Black Churches” (20m)
“Possum O Possum” (28m)
May 26: “The Performed Word” (58m)

Family Feature

“Jack Tales, Ghost Tales, and Tall Tales”
with Jackie Torrence, the Story Lady,
Granite Quarry, North Carolina.

Sunday, May 13, 2:00pm, Stanley Field Hall

Young and old alike are held spellbound as Jackie Torrence
spins her Jack Tales, Ghost Tales, and Tall Tales. The telling
of tall tales and legends was formerly a dying folk tradition,
but today it is experiencing a revival all over the country,
thanks to storytellers like Jackie Torrence. Jackie is saving
an important part of our heritage... and the result is a good
time for all!

Her stories transfix the audience, immobilizing them
as if they were frozen under a magician’s wand. With ex-

CONTINUED: >

4

Events

CONTINUED FROM PAGE 3

pressive hands and a rich resonant voice she becomes in
turn, a young girl, a croaking frog, and a demon snake.
When her tale is told, spellbound listeners shake themselves
and discover they are breathless.

Settle down to hear an afternoon of stories told by one
who loves them all—the story, the people, and the charac-
ters she shares. This program is free with Museum admis-
sion, and tickets are not required.

May Weekend Programs

Each Saturday and Sunday you are invited to explore the world of natural history at Field Museum. Free tours, demon-
strations, and films related to ongoing exhibits at the Museum are designed for families and adults. Listed below are only a
few of the numerous activities available each weekend. Check the Weekend Passport upon arrival for the complete schedule
and program locations. The programs are partially supported by a grant from the Illinois Arts Council.

and slide lecture examines the life and works of
Malvina Hoffman, concentrating on the Por-
traits of Mankind collection.

20 12:30pm Museum Safari. Seek out shrunken
heads from the Amazon, mummies from
ancient Egypt, and African animals.

26 1:00pm Red Land/Black Land. Examine the
geography of the Nile Valley, and its effect on
the life style of the pharaohs, religious prac-
tices of the priests, and the reason for
mummification.

May 5. 1:00pm Ancient Egyptians. Examine the lives of
the pharaohs and the Egyptian people, from
Predynastic times to Cleopatra. Explore their
culture and beliefs, from daily life to death and
mummification.

1:30pm Tibet Today. Slide lecture shows Lhasa
and other cities and towns now open to tour-

ists, as well as Tibetan refugees who have car-
ried their religion into the mountainous areas

surrounding this ancient religious center.

2:30pm Himalayan Journey: A Faith in Exile.
Slide lecture focuses upon the strongholds of
Tibetan refugees in India: Dharamasla (home
of the Dalai Lama), Darjeeling, and Sikkim.

6 12:30pm Museum Safari. Seek out shrunken
heads from the Amazon, mummies from
ancient Egypt, and African animals.

27 12:30 Welcome to the Field. Enjoy a sampling of
our most significant exhibits as you explore
Field Museum.

These weekend programs are free with Museum admission
and tickets are not required.

12 11:30am Ancient Egypt. Explore the traditions
of ancient Egypt from everyday life to myths
and mummies.

Coming Next Month

“West African Rhythms”
The Mandingo Griot Society and Foday Musa Suso
Sunday, June 3, 2:00pm, James Simpson Theatre

13 12:30pm Welcome to the Field. Enjoy a sam-
pling of our most significant exhibits as you
explore Field Museum.

19 2:00pm Malvina Hoffman: Portraits in Bronze.
Discover the origins of the magnificent bronze
works lining the halls of Field Museum. Film

Join us for an afternoon of West African music blending
Mandingo traditional songs and original compositions.

Tickets: $6.00 (Members: $4.00)

A Gg Member Nonmember Total
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Please complete coupon for your program
selection and any other special events. Com-
plete all requested information on the applica-
tion and include section number where appro-
priate. If your request is received less than one
week before program, tickets will be held in
your name at West Entrance box office until
one-half hour before event: Please make
checks payable to Field Museum. Tickets will
be mailed on receipt of check. Refunds will be
made only if program is sold out.
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stamped envelope to:
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lephone Daytime Evening Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive

Have you enclosed your self-addressed stamped envelope? Chicage, I 6060572407

Fig. 1. Hammock Sherbro or Mende, Sierra Leone. Cotton, dyed
and natural. Late 19th/early 20th century. Field Museum collection,
cat. 175957, N109326. Photo by Diane Alexander White.

African and

Afro-American
Art: Call and
Response

by RICHARD J. POWELL
guest curator,

African Insights: Sources for
Afro-American Art and Culture

I was astonished to see women... do a sort of weaving,
circular motion with their bodies, a kind of queer
shuffling dance which expressed their joy in a quiet,
physical manner. It was as if they were talking with the
movements of their legs, arms, necks, and torsos; as if
words were no longer adequate as a means of com-
munication; as if sounds could no longer approximate
their feelings; as if only the total movement of their
entire bodies could indicate in some measure their ac-
quiescence, their surrender, their approval.

And then I remembered: I'd seen these same,
snakelike, veering dances before ... Where? Oh, God,
yes; in America, in storefront churches, in Holy Roller
Tabernacles, in God’s Temples, in unpainted wooden
prayer-meeting houses on the plantations of the Deep
South... How could that be?

—Richard Wright!

ollowing a 1953 tour of Ghana, Afro-
American novelist and essayist Richard
Wright described his first impressions of his
“ancestral homeland” in the book Black Power.

This essay was written as an accompanying text for the exhibi-
tion, African Insights: Sources for Afro-American Art and Cul-
ture, on view at the Field Museum of Natural History from April
29 until December 31, 1984. I heartily thank the many organiza-
tions and individuals who helped to realize this project, and who
guided an inquiring scholar through the storerooms, archives,
and mindsets of black creativity: the staff at the Field Museum of
Natural History, especially the Anthropology, Education, and
Exhibition Departments; the Illinois Humanities Council; the
Dusable Museum of African American History; Richard Hunt;
and Robert Farris Thompson.—R_J.P.

© 1984 Field Museum of Natural History 5

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Fig. 2. Lewis Miller, Virginia Sketchbook, 1853: “Spinning wool” and “Lynchburg-negro dance, ca. 1853.
Watercolor, ink, and pencil on paper. Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Folk Art Center, Williamsburg, Va.

Wright was taken aback by the differences and sim-
ilarities between Africans and black Americans. The
shared characteristics were particularly puzzling for
Wright, since he had long assumed that the centuries
which had transpired and the traumatic experience
of slavery obliterated any possibilities for African
“survivals” in America. However, his face-to-face
encounter with West African dance, gestures, and
cultural patterns recalled similar traditions in the
United States.

Wright’s acknowledgement of “some kind of
link,” along with the same realization by anthropol-
ogists and historians form the ideological core for the
Field Museum of Natural History’s exhibition Afri-
can Insights: Sources for Afro-American Art and
Culture? The connections between various African
peoples and their Afro-American descendants are
often not immediately apparent. Layers of time, as
well as cross-cultural influences, refashion African
expressions into American statements. But the indel-
ible mark of several West African civilizations con-
tinues through time and over the dominant culture,
expressing itself in an outlook and style that is
essentially “Black Atlantic” The arts and cultures
that exist along Africa’s west coast—from Senegal’s
Cape Verde to just below the mouth of the Congo
River—are reinvented among black populations in
South America, the Caribbean, and the United
States with striking results.

This art survey, drawn largely from the Field
Museum’s African collection, closely examines the
African cultures that contributed to a black presence
in the Americas, especially in the United States. The
major cultural areas of Africa represented in North
America-bound slave ships include Kongo and Ango-
lan peoples; Africans from the Niger Delta area (pre-
dominantly Igbo and Cross River groups); Akan cap-
tives from the “Gold Coast” (present day Ghana);
peoples from the West Atlantic and Mande-
influenced regions of Senegambia, Guinea, Sierra
Leone, and parts of Mali; and “Slave Coast” inhabi-
tants: Ewe from Togo, Fon from the Republic of Be-
nin (formerly Dahomey) and Yoruba from South-
western Nigeria’ These ethnic groups, as represented
in the assembled artworks and cultural artifacts, car-
ried genetic and aesthetic information across the
Atlantic into the sewing rooms, plantations, and
ateliers of black America.

ne vivid example of aesthetic information

from West Africa stands out in a Mande-

influenced textile from the Mende or Sher-
bro people (cover photo and figure 1). Collected in
Sierra Leone in 1901 and acquired by the Field
Museum in 1929, this hammock consists of five long
strips of hand-spun cotton, woven and sewn together
with a subtle, staggered design. The trademark of
these heavyweight “country cloths,” is the conscious
manipulation of corresponding and contrasting pat-
terns, via the use of natural or dyed yarns, weft-faced
weaves, and supplementary tapestry techniques.
Though a “broad-loom” width is the objective in sew-
ing the strips together, “breaks” in the prevailing de-
sign suggest that accentuation and occasional suspen-
sion of the design “beat” is equally important.‘

That African-born and African-descended
slaves were encouraged in textile-related crafts is
attested to in countless slave narratives and surviving
visual documents. An 1853 drawing from the sketch-
book of Lewis Miller, a German-American artist (fig.
2), illustrates, among other things, the spinning of
wool by one of Virginia’s slave population. Although
black American artisans had access to Western Euro-
pean looms and weaving techniques, they frequently
chose West African design units and color com-
binations in the manufacturing of cloth for home use.’
Very few slave-era textiles have survived to the
present day, but modern examples of traditional,
Afro-American cloth art demonstrate the persistence
of an African approach to textiles. Black American
“patchwork” artistry—borne out of economic necess-
ity and visual ingenuity—is represented in a classic,
“Spider Leg” quilt (fig. 3) by Mississippi artist Pecolia
Warner.® The narrow (i.e., “spider leg” width) strips
of cloth are sewn together in alternating (dark/light
and patterned/solid) schemes that hearken back to
visual ancestors like the Sierra Leonean “country
cloth.”

Perhaps the most well-known African ancestor
to traditional black American arts and crafts is the
coiled-grass basket. On both sides of the Atlantic
these baskets serve in many capacities, functioning as
food containers, storage bins, and even head gear. But
it is in the role of agricultural tool that African and
Afro-American coiled-grass baskets especially show a
shared form and function’

When British settlers discovered that colonial

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Fig. 3. Pecolia Warner, “Spider Leg” Quilt ca. 1970. Cotton. Center for Southern Folklore, Memphis, Tenn. Photo by Diane Alexander White.

South Carolina and Georgia had the climate, terrain,
and natural vegetation to sustain large scale rice
cultivation, it wasn’t very long before the Atlantic
slave trade was escalated, and thousands of West
Africans were being shipped into North America as
cheap labor. These African slaves, many of whom
were already knowledgeable about growing rice, also
brought to America the know-how for making the
wide and shallow “rice fanner” (fig. 4), an essential
tool for the tropical and semitropical farmer®
Wilfred Hambly, former curator of ethnography
at the Field Museum, collected several coiled-grass
baskets during an expedition to Angola in 1929? In
one of the photographs from that expedition (fig. 5),
an Ovimbundu woman is shown making one of these
baskets. Her low-to-the-ground, seated position, and

her obvious dexterity in coiling the varied lengths of
grass mirror the work procedures and woven pro-
ducts of her South Carolina Sea Island sister (fig. 4),
shown here in a turn-of-the-century photograph.

f course, other New World countries that

developed under plantation economies also

reflect the cultural legacies of Africa. In
contrast to the statistics for the United States, the
overall numbers for slave importations into Cuba,
Haiti, Dominican Republic, Suriname, and Brazil are
much higher, and extend over a longer period of time.
These combined factors result in aspects of Carib-
bean and South American life that are much closer to
West African societies than the cultural patterns of
blacks in the United States.°

A classic example of this cultural fidelity to Afri-
ca is witnessed in the art and culture of Suriname.
During the 17th and 18th centuries, this small area on
the northeastern coast of South America was con-
sidered one of the most profitable sugar-producing
colonies in the Western Hemisphere. Consequently,
5.5 percent of all African slaves imported into the
Americas were shipped into the “Guianas” (present-
day Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana)" Slaves
frequently escaped from the coastal plantations and
sought refuge (and companionship with other
escapees, or “Maroons”) in the heavily forested and
water-coursed interior. These bands of self-liberated
men and women, armed with the traditions of their
African past, developed communities, religious
activities, languages, culinary arts, and other folk-
ways that relied strongly on selected African
correspondents”

A comb attributed to the Saramaka people of
Suriname (fig. 6) features a central floral pattern, an
overlapping and joined ribbon design, engraved
areas, and “owl” and “jaguar” eye openings.* These
motifs and the carved openwork convey symbolic ele-
ments and illustrate the use of visual metaphors in
Maroon abstract design. One might correlate the
aesthetic sensibilities that govern this Saramaka
comb with those that operate in the combs of South-
eastern Ghana (figs. 7 and 8). Also utilizing intersect-
ing bands, engraved patterns, and symbolic animal
forms, combs by the Akan peoples of Ghana are vir-
tual lexicons of illustrated proverbs and traditional
beliefs. Engraved on one side of the Akan comb are a
rooster, a hen, the sun, acrescent moon, and a “sacred
heart” (borrowed from Christian iconography): all
symbols of love.* The meaning of the engraved fish on
the opposite side of the lower handle defies immedi-
ate interpretation, but it possibly refers to a local say-
ing, or to a personal symbol of either the carver or the
recipient of the comb.

As gifts from men to their wives, fiancees, sis-
ters, or mothers, the Akan and Saramaka combs are
tokens of esteem out of two societies that are singular-
ly preoccupied with aesthetic issues. From the
sensuous, organic forms of the Saramaka comb, to the
round-headed symbol of fecundity and beauty on the
Akan comb, the visual ideal centers on life-giving
forces.

SNS

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Fig. 4. South Carolina woman fanning rice, from Outlook magazine,
Oct. 24, 1908. N83619A.

Fig. 5 Ovimbundu woman making coiled-grass basket, ca. 1929-30.
N67871.

or many New World blacks the only African ly African ways that slaves prayed among their own,

traditions that could be maintained without conducted their own systems of social interaction,
chastisement from their white owners were mourned their own dead, dressed, cooked, made
conceptual ones — closely-held beliefs, community music, and danced. That the canons of an African
mores, and the manner in which work and recreation aesthetic could be called upon across the boundaries
were performed» Unknown to the master, the “mis- of a specific medium, via these deep-seated concepts,
sus; and the plantation overseer were those inherent- is attested to in numerous examples of recent black

a 6. . Comb. pubcoeulhighiad rent (Saramaka). Wood. 20th century. Field Museum collection, cat. 191682, N109323. Figs. 7, 8 (center
and right, representing front and back). Comb. Akan, Ghana. Wood, beads. 20th century. Field Museum collection, cat. 221468. N1092
N109285A. Photos by Diane Alexander White. ic Bee

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American choreography, music, literature, and visual
art.

A concept that addresses this cultural extension
is the important standing that women maintain in
society. Notwithstanding a system of rigidly defined
sex roles, many West African women enjoy economic
independence from their husbands, and the related
decision-making powers, social prestige, and influ-
ence over fellow community members”* A standing
female figure (fig. 9), collected in southwestern
Nigeria before 1893, embodies much of this West
African-based “feminism” in its realistically-designed
head tie, frozen facial expression, erect posture, and
overall characterization. Although it is difficult to de-
termine which cult this shrine image was used for by
the Yoruba, its confidence and physical presence
loudly proclaims female assertiveness. In a different
vein, the Ibibio of southeastern Nigeria portray a
youthful and physically striking woman (fig. 10), ona
carved headdress from the turn of the century. Possi-
bly depicting one of the candidates for female initia-
tion rites, headdresses like this one were used in
marionette-like performances by troupes of dancers
and actors!” The Yoruba and Ibibio representations of
vital, power-wielding women both have a distant,
though conceptually close counterpart in con-
temporary, Afro-American images of womanhood.
For instance, artist Inez Nathaniel-Walker’s draw-
ings of black women (fig. 11) unconsciously pick up
on these West African traits of female dynamism.
Nathaniel-Walker’s emphasis on surface activity, an
elaborate hairstyle, and a searing expression in
Woman and Purple Curtain transforms her subject
into aggression itself, but like the Yoruba and Ibibio
sculptures, she tempers this aggression with beauty
and potentiality.*

Another concept that crossed the Atlantic is the
metaphoric use of snakes. The Fon people of the Re-
public of Benin (fortherly the Kingdom of Dahomey)
encorporate the benevolent snake, or Dan, in many of
their religious ceremonies, believing that the python’s
ability to traverse land and watery realm entitles it to
special deference’? Among several categories of Fon
charms, or gbo, is a hammered piece of iron shaped
like a snake (fig. 12) and used by travelers as a por-
table altar” Dan’s capacity for ensuring health, pro-
sperity, and good will is harnessed both ritually and
sculpturally in this concrete desire for mediation. At

Fig. 9. Female Figure. Yoruba, Awori area, Nigeria. Wood, pigment.
Late 19th century. Field Museum collection, cat. 28545, N109325.

Photo by Diane Alexander White.

11

12

Fig. 10. Headdress. |bibio, Nigeria. Wood, basketry, pigment, mirrors.
Late 19th century. Field Museum collection, cat. 25036, N98087.

least fifty years later and across the Atlantic Ocean in
World War II-era Alabama, artist Bill Traylor uti-
lizes snake imagery in a similar fashion. In an enigmat-
ic drawing by Traylor (fig. 13), the undulating move-
ments of a snake are doubled, and fixed to a central
horizontal line. A gesturing man, a woman supported
by a walking stick, and a gravity-defying cat (all ren-
dered in silhouettes) flank this snake construction.
This collection of seemingly disparate elements, like
other works by Bill Traylor, suggest observed and im-
agined phenomena. Possibly referring to an old Afro-
Alabaman belief about encountering snakes along the
road?! Traylor’s drawing dialogues with the Daho-
mean image with an allegiance, and proffers that Fon
influences may have entered the United States via
the Caribbean-Louisiana migration route”

In regard to specific African influences in the
United States, an overwhelming amount of evidence
points towards Kongo and Kongo-related peoples as a
major cultural factor. Although historians differ on
the approximate number of Kongo peoples imported
in total, there is a consensus that in the final “boom”
years of the legal U.S. slave trade (ca. 1783 through
1807), the slavers received most of their human cargo
from the southernmost part of the trading region:
present day People’s Republic of the Congo, Zaire,
and Angola. The large number of imported Kongo
peoples (estimated between one-third and one-fourth
of all Africans imported into the U.S.)* and their sta-
tus as the last, en-masse, cultural group of Africans to
enter the United States in these genesis years for
Afro-America, warrant a close consideration of Kon-
go culture in this study.

Also central to any discussion about traditional
Afro-America is the acknowledging of social prac-
tices and beliefs that sustained black Americans in
the midst of an oppressive system. Self-assurance dur-
ing those years of enslavement, reconstruction, and
disenfranchisement came about as a result of an in-
creased awareness of one’s history and of one’s
spirituality. This double-barreled source for inner
freedom and power expresses itself in slave testimon-
ies, statements concerning Afro-American religious
vocation, and descriptions of various leaders (minis-
ters, midwives, and other community therapists).

The famous Afro-American walking cane (fig.
14) by the mid-nineteenth-century carver Henry
Gudgell epitomizes this Kongo-influenced will to-

Fig. 11. Inez Nathaniel-Walker, Woman in Purple Curtain, 1975. Pencil and colored pencil on paper. Phyllis Kind Gallery, New York and
Chicago.

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Fig. 12. Snake charm (gbo). Fon, Republic of Benin. Iron. Late 19th century. Field Museum collection, cat. 28539, N109324. Photo by Diane
Alexander White.

wards self-confidence and knowledge. Carved reptil- the larger world. What this message generally
ian motifs, along with plant, human (fig. 15), and ab- addresses is the idea of prestige and power (as repre-
stract elements of decoration, join forces in com- sented in the swirling finial) being a God-given state,
municating a message to the owner of the cane and to and that the healing potential (i.e., the medicinal leaf)

Fig. 13. Bill Traylor, Snake at the Crossroads, ca. 1939-42. Drawing. Private collection, courtesy Carl Hammer Gallery, Chicago. Photo by
Cheri Eisenberg.

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a spi — rane

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Fig. 14. (left). Henry Gudgell, Carved Cane with Figural Reliefs, ca. Fig. 16. Standing Male Figure with Staff Kongo, Zaire. Wood, pig-
1863. Wood, pigment. Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven, Conn. ment, glass. Late 19th century. Field Museum collection, cat. 43906,
Fig. 15. (right). Detail of cane. Both photos by Joseph Szaszfai. N102999.

oe

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— : “ | Fig. 18. (left). Carved Cane. Afro-American, United States (Cherry Val-
Fig. 17. Staff with Figurated Top. Coastal Kongo, Congo or Cabinda. ley, Ark.). Wood, rhinestone inlay, cloth. Ca. 1916. Lent by Dr. Adell

Wood, pigment. Late 19th century. Field Museum collection, cat. Patton, Jr., Courtesy Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven, Conn.
28229, negative N102996 (detail). Fig. 19. (right). Detail of cane. Photos by Joseph Szaszfai.

Fig. 20. Figurated Pipe. Coastal Kongo, Congo or Cabinda. Wood, leather. 19th century. Field Museum collection, cat. 210465, N109214. Photo by
Fleur Hales Testa.

of such an appointment is contingent with com-
munication between this world (symbolized by the
man) and the spirit world (symbolized by the snake,
turtle, and lizard)» This panoply of carved symbol-
ism, envisioned by a black American artisan who was
probably no more than several generations removed
from Africa, recalls its Kongo ancestors with remark-
able visual recollection. In a Kongo sculpture of a
man balancing a walking cane with both hands (fig.
16), the same concept of high-ranking status and
mediation are encoded in the cane’s serpentine carv-
ing and in the sculpture’s air of ritual readiness?’
The moral height that this 19th-century Kongo

figure ascends to has a Machiavellian counterpart in
another Kongo figure (fig. 17), carved on top of a
wooden staff, and also dating from the 19th century.
Depicting a Dutch seafarer, the figure sports a marin-
er’s cap, moustache, jacket, trousers, and wooden
shoes. In much of the Kongo art that hails from the
colonial period, or from the coastal regions where
contacts with European traders were frequent, carv-
ers use the image of the European as a symbol of mate-
rial wealth and influence”

A figure also crowns an early 20th-century
walking stick from Cherry Valley, Arkansas (fig. 18).
Standing stoically over a carved, winding staff, the

18 Fig. 21. Figure Holding Bowl Afro-American, United States (Fayetteville, N.Y.). Carved Pine. Ca. 1860. Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Folk Art Center,
Williamsburg, Va.

PPPs 2 2:9 ©? , Bt Y

w, Untitled, 1983. Mixed media assemblage on wood. Carl Hammer Gallery, Chicago. Photo by Cheri Eisenberg.

Fig. 22. Simon Sparro

19

Fig. 23. Oatt } ealin tury. Field Museum collection, cat. 91300, N109327. Fig. 24 (opposite)
Zaire. Wood, Clay, fiber, metal, pigment, cowrie shell. Late 19th cen- shows detail N109329. Photos by Diane Alexander White

N
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Fig. 25. Doris Ulmann, Decorated Grave in the Carolina Sea Islands,
ca. 1930. Photo courtesy William Clift.

suited male figure incarnates his own version of emi-
nence. Holding a book (possibly a bible) in his right
hand, while his left hand is hidden in his jacket pock-
et (fig. 19), he recalls the contained gestures of the
Kongo “Dutchman” But unlike the representation of
the Dutchman-as-economic/political might, this
Afro-American walking stick equates the authority
of its upper figure with secular and/or spiritual in-
sight.

The Kongo walking stick came to Chicago in
1893, when collector and dealer Carl Hagenbeck sold
a large number of artifacts to the Columbian Museum
of Chicago, now known as the Field Museum of
Natural History?’ Subsequent acquisitions of Kongo
art have expanded the museum’s holdings from this
region of Africa, making extensive museum-based

research into Kongo aesthetics and material culture
possible. One of those subsequent Kongo acquisitions
is a carved wooden pipe (fig. 20), a gift to the Field
Museum from the celebrated, London collection of
Captain A. W. FE. Fuller?’ In addition to classic, Kon-
go designs encircling the pipe, a rapacious bird
appears on the stem, and a male figure straddles and
clutches the drumlike bowl. Though essentially con-
ceived in the proportions of a Western-style smoking
pipe, the figurative elements and implied gestures of
generosity and contemplation push this implement
into the parameters of Kongo ethics and cosmology.”
The same sense of meditative giving filters through
the placid expression of an Afro-American carving
from Fayetteville, New York, circa 1860 (fig. 21). Pur-
portedly done as a token of appreciation by a fugitive

slave enroute to freedom, this carving of a seated man
holding a vessel conveys a reciprocity that is also very
much a part of the Kongo pipe’s directive—that man
must ultimately give of himself in this world.

Aspects of African religions, such as the pre-
sence of vital forces throughout the universe, an inti-
mate and personal Supreme Being, or the inevitable
retribution for actions both good and bad gave Afri-
can captives a basis for embracing those aspects of
Christianity that also promoted these ideals. The syn-
cretic nature of traditional black religion also allowed
for African symbols to become Christian ones—a fact
of creolization that explicitly shows itself in the Afro-
Catholic shrines of Brazil, Haiti, and Cuba. But this
conversion was not limited to the Catholic Americas,
as evidenced in the ritual and style of older black Pro-
testant churches in the American South?!

Afro-U.S. religion reveals its more expressive
side in a recent mixed media assemblage by Wiscon-
sin artist Simon Sparrow (fig. 22). Consisting of old
costume jewelry, buttons, beads, and various bric-a-
brac, all glued on a wooden board in a carefully-
conceived format, Sparrow’s creation indulges in
visual swoops and collaged shouts that rival the gos-
pel artistry of an Alex Bradford or Clara Ward”
Sparrow’s particular attention to symbolic accretions
—as seen in a cross and “spirit hound” rendered in
glitter and pearls, or in the strategic placement of a
huge shell—is an aesthetic impulse that most likely
draws on his New Bern, North Carolina roots, and
on that region’s cultural debt to Kongo-influenced
cemetery ornamentation and charm-making”*

One of the finest examples of a sculpted Kongo
charm, or Nkisi N’Kondi (fig. 23), illustrates the
visual ancestor for Sparrow’s meaningful but elusive
assemblage. Collected in Bas-Zaire and acquired for
the Field Museum in 1907, this oath-taking and heal-
ing figure carries in its whole being the basic tenets of
Kongo beliefs and judiciary law.* Clients present
their arguments, illnesses, and various problems be-
fore a ritual expert, who in turn, addresses the solu-
tions, remedies, and oaths to the Nkisi N’Kondi.
Each nail, blade, and screw represents an important
matter that was resolved by hammering the iron
staves into the figure. The massive swelling in the
abdomen symbolizes a negative force that can only be
brought under control with the moral righteousness
and entrée of a shell or piece of glass: metaphors for an

African Insights:
Sources for Afro-American
Art and Culture

will be on view in Gallery 9
April 29 through December 31, 1984

eternal, parallel world. The shimmering bits of jewel-
ry and large white seashell in Simon Sparrow’s work
is echoed on the shell- and tinsel-decorated graves
from cemeteries in coastal Carolina and Georgia com-
munities (fig. 25). From a related use of shells, porce-
lain, and/or reflecting glass in Kongo charms and
graveyards, to an overall Black Atlantic “collage
sensibility,” Simon Sparrow’s untitled opus to creativ-
ity and the Creator displays all of the necessary
accumulative powers through what Robert Farris
Thompson calls the “Flash of the Spirit” Just as the
Nkisi N’Kondi is a glorification of the judge, healer,
and policing agent, so too is Sparrow’s assemblage an
homage to the previous owners (and ultimate Own-
er) of the rings, chains, necklaces, and other gems of
the universe.

he African and Afro-American objects dis-
cussed in this essay, and the rest of the visual
statements from African Insights: Sources for
Afro-American Art and Culture can be viewed as a
gathering of past and present lives, carved in history,
and based on the needs of village associations, royal
artisans, uprooted slaves, inspired freedmen, and
ingenious men and women. This exhibition not only
represents an art historical case of aesthetic giving
and taking, but also the timeless phenomenon of turn-
ing idea, act, and impulse into concrete philosophy:
concepts that are held up, displayed, worn, danced,
and passed down from generation to generation.
Though the context for singling out selected, Black
Atlantic images is intentionally didactic, the objects
and the accompanying stories of cultural transmis-
sion make the looking and learning process a gratify-
ing, trans-Atlantic sojourn: a rite-de-passage avail-
able to one and all. Fm

23

24

NOTES

1. Richard Wright, Black Power (New York: Harper and Broth-
ers, 1954), p.56.

2. Ofcourse, Richard Wright’s statement is a personal observa-
tion on African and Afro-American linkages. One of the earliest,
and perhaps the most controversial scholarly investigation into
this subject is Melville J. Herskovits, The Myth of the Negro Past
(New York: Harper and Brothers, 1941). Though debated at the
time of its publication, Herskovits’s study of African influences
in the New World has had reverberations on subsequent writers,
most notably James A. Porter, “The Trans-Cultural Affinities of
African Negro Art? in Africa Seen by American Negroes, ed.
John A. Davis (Paris: Presense Africaine, 1958), pp. 119-130, and
Robert Farris Thompson, “African Influences on the Art of the
United States? in Black Studies in the University, eds. Armstead
L. Robinson, Craig Foster, and Donald H. Ogilvie (New Haven:
Yale University Press, 1969), pp. 122-170. Thompson’s most re-
cent book on trans-Atlantic art and culture, Flash of the Spirit:
African and Afro-American Art and Philosophy (New York: Ran-
dom House, 1983) provides contemporary readers with addi-
tional data that traces specific African traditions (Yoruba, Kongo,
Dahomean, Mande, and Ejagham) to various New World
communities.

3. The best source for the percentages and origins of African
slaves in the Americas are Philip D. Curtin, The Atlantic Slave
Trade: A Census (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press,
1969), and James A. Rawley, The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade: A
History (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1981).

4. The “reading” of West African textiles as woven and dyed
discourses on rhythm occurs in Roy Sieber, African Textiles and
Decorative Arts (New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 1972),
p. 190, and Robert Farris Thompson, African Art in Motion (Ber-
keley: University of California Press, 1974), pp. 10-13. Jules
Staub discusses the looms, weaving techniques, and types of
cloth among the Mende in Beitrdge zur Kenntnis der Materiellen
Kultur der Mendi in der Sierra Leone (Solothurn: Buchdruckerei
Vogt-Schild AG., 1936), pp. 28-35. Still, another fine analysis of
Mende textiles appears in John Picton and John Mack, African
Textiles (London: The Trustees of The British Museum, 1979),
pp. 103-106.

5. Dominic Parisi conducted a series of interviews with older
black quilters in Eastern Kentucky during the summer of 1979.
Among the many conclusion that were drawn from that study
was the overwhelming preference among the quilters for a high
contrast of colors: a basic canon for Western Sudanic textiles as
well. Conversations with Black Women who live and quilt in East-
ern Kentucky, unpublished manuscript by Dominic Parisi, 1979.
Also see Pascal James Imperato, “Bamana and Malinke Covers
and Blankets,’ African Arts, vol. 7, no. 3 (1974), pp.56-67, 91.

6. William Ferris, “Pecolia Warner, Quilt Maker? in Afro-
American Folk Art and Crafts, ed. William Ferris (Boston: G.K.
Hall and Company, 1982), pp. 98-108, and Maude Southwell
Wahlman and Ella King Torrey, Ten Afro-American Quilters
(University: The Center of the Study of Southern Culture/
University of Mississippi, 1983) discuss Pecolia Warner's artis-
try in the context of classic, Afro-American quilt making. I am
especially indebted to Maude Wahlman for bringing to my atten-
tion the ex-eptional Warner quilt (figure 3) presently in the
collection ©: he Center for Southern Folklore, Memphis,
Tennessee.

7. Mary Twin:.... “Harvesting and Heritage: A Comparison of
Afro-American and African Basketry,” Southern Folklore Quar-
terly, vol. 42 (1978), pp. 159-174.

8. The cultural impact of Senegambian, Windward coast, and
Kongo/Angolan peoples on colonial South Carolina is addressed
in Peter Wood’s landmark book Black Majority: Negroes in Colo-

nial South Carolina from 1650 through the Stono Rebellion (New
York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1974).

9. Wilfred Hambly, The Ovimbundu of Angola/Frederick H.
Rawson Field Museum Ethnological Expedition to West Africa
(Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History,1934), pp. 169-172.

10. Herskovits, op. cit. and Pierre Verger, Notes sur le culte des
Orisa et Vodun a Bahia, la Baie de tous les saints, au Brésil et a
l'ancienne Cote des esclaves en Afrique (Dakar: IFAN, 1957).

ll. Curtin, op. cit., pp. 89-91.

12. Discussing the juncture between West African civilizations
and an emerging Afro-American culture in Suriname, two
anthropologists hold the opinion that the early Maroons “did
share certain general cultural orientations that, from a broad
comparative perspective, characterized West and Central Afri-
can societies as a whole” Sally and Richard Price, Afro-American
Arts of the Suriname Rain Forest (Berkeley: University of Cali-
fornia Press, 1980), p. 196.

13. I thank Christopher Healy, who specializes in the art and
culture of Suriname’s Maroon populations, for sharing his exper-
tise on this Saramaka comb.

14. The objects of much creative energy in Ghana, combs like
this one are appreciated for their formal beauty and power to
communicate, as discussed by Janet Adwoa Antiri in “Akan
Combs,’ African Arts, vol. 8, no. 1(Autumn 1974), pp. 32-35, and
Herbert M. Cole and Doran H. Ross in The Arts of Ghana (Los
Angeles: Museum of Cultural History/University of California,
1977), pp. 48-53.

15. Daniel J. Crowley, “Negro Folklore, An Africanist’s View,”
The Texas Quarterly, vol. 5, no. 3 (Autumn 1962), p. 67.

16. Foran in-depth study of the multiple roles that women play
in traditional societies, see Judith Hoch-Smith and Anita Spring,
eds. Women in Ritual and Symbolic Roles (New York: Plenum
Press, 1978). The novels of two outstanding Nigerian writers,
Flora Nwapa and Buchi Emecheta, also explore women’s issues.
Flora Nwapa, Idu (London: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd.,
1970) and Buchi Emecheta, The Slave Girl (New York: G. Brazil-
ler, 1977).

17. John C. Messenger, “Ibibio Drama; Africa, vol. 41, no. 3
(1971), pp. 208-222.

18. A major area of research for art historian Sylvia A. Boone
has been the perception of beauty in Africa and Afro-America.
Conversations with Professor Boone, 1981-82, and the exhibition
catalog by Roslyn A. Walker, African Women/African Art (New
York: The African-American Institute, 1976) have greatly con-
tributed to my understanding of this area.

19. For a thorough interpretation of Fon religion and society,
see Melville J. Herskovits, Dahomey, an Ancient West African
Kingdom, vols. I and II (Evanston: Northwestern University
press, 1967). Discussions of snake imagery also appear in P. Mer-
cier, “The Fon of Dahomey,’ in African Worlds, ed. Daryll Forde
(London: Oxford University Press, 1954), pp.220-222, and
Robert Farris Thompson, Flash of the Spirit: African and Afro-
American Art and Philosophy (New York: Random House, 1983),
pp. 176-179.

20. This small piece of iron, shaped like a snake and decorated
with a brown feather, is inserted into the ground by the traveler.
Libations of palm-oil, alcohol, red kola, and drinking water are
made to it, and the ritual is completed with a prayer. Herskovits,
ibid., vol. II, p. 282. The iron snake and the related rituals of the
Fon were brought to Haiti during the slave trade, as seen in the
worship of snake deities throughout Haiti, and in the use of iron
snakes in Vodun ceremonies. Alfred Metraux, Voodoo in Haiti
(New York: Schocken Books, 1972).

21. “...crossing the road where a snake has crossed will give
you a backache unless you turn around and walk backwards over
the spot” — Newbell Niles Puckett, Folk Beliefs of the Southern

Negro (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press,
1926), p. 436. The connections between snakes, traveling, and
one’s physical state of well-being are not only observed in this old
saying from Alabama, Bill Traylor’s drawing, and in various Fon
rituals, but among the Angolan peoples as well. Wilfred Hambly
mentions carved snakes in divination, serpents as either good or
bad omens, and the wearing of snake vertebrae as a cure for
rheumatism. Hambly, op. cit., pp. 138, 275, and 298.

22. Bill Traylor and Inez Nathaniel-Walker are discussed at
length in Jane Livingston and John Beardsley, Black Folk Art in
America: 1930-1980 (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi/
Center for the Study of Southern Culture, 1982), pp. 138-145,
104-109. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, thousands
of Cuban and Haitian immigrants poured into Louisiana.
Though differing in race, caste, and class, these immigrants
brought to North America their Caribbean traditions, many
which were the products of strong, African influences. Samuel
Wilson, New Orleans Architecture, vol. IV: The Creole
Faubourgs (Gretna: Pelican Publishing Company, 1974), pp. 25-
36, and H.E. Sterkx, The Free Negro in Ante-Bellum Louisiana
(Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1972).

23. Philip Curtin, op. cit., pp. 156-158, and Robert Farris
Thompson and Joseph Cornet, The Four Moments of the Sun:
Kongo Art in Two Worlds (Washington, D.C.: National Gallery
of Art, 1981), pp. 147-151.

24. Ina forthcoming work by Ramona Austin, the aesthetic
effects of Kongo staffs are convincingly traced to figurated walk-
ing sticks and “conjuring” canes in the black United States. | am
grateful to Ms. Austin for sharing her ideas about these canes
during a conversation, 6 February 1984. The Gudgell cane was
first mentioned and illustrated in James A. Porter, Modern Negro
Art (New York: Dryden Press. 1943), pp. 27, 201. Robert Farris
Thompson, “African Influences on the Art of the United States?
op. cit., discusses the Gudgell cane in the context of other early,
Afro-American masterpieces.

25. Aclose comparison between this Kongo figure and a Kongo
figure illustrated in Kurt Krieger, Westafrikanische Plastik, I
(Berlin: Museum Fur Volkerkunde, 1969), Pl. 187 and p. 91, sugg-
est that one school, or even one carver created both works. This is
very likely, since the collectors for the Berlin and Chicago figures
traveled in the same area of Central Africa at about the same
time.

26. Fora discussion about depictions of Europeans in African
art, see Phillip H. Lewis, “Primitive Artists look at Civilization,”
Chicago Natural History Museum Bulletin, vol. 32, no. 7 (July
1961), pp. 2-3, 8, and Roslyn A. Walker, The Stranger Among Us
(Washington, D.C.: National Museum of African Art/
Smithsonian Institution, 1982).

27. The details concerning this transaction are found in the cor-
respondence from Carl Hagenbeck’s Zoological Arena and
World’s Museum, to the Columbian Museum of Chicago, Au-
tumn 1893, Accession File 81, Anthropology Department, Field
Museum of Natural History.

28. Fora brief synopsis of Captain A.W. F. Fuller’s career as a
collector, see Philip J. C. Dark, The Art of Benin: A Catalogue of
an Exhibition of the A.W.F. Fuller and Chicago Natural History
Museum Collections of Antiquities from Benin, Nigeria (Chicago:
Chicago Natural History Museum, 1962), pp. 1-2, 1718.

29. Smoking in many African societies is looked upon as both
recreational pasttime and ritual act. Wilfred Hambly recounts a
legend on the origins of smoking from the Bushongo, a people
who live to the east of the Bakongo:

“A man...astonished his tribesmen by producing a pipe from
the trade goods brought from distant places. While smoking in the
center of a curious circle, he proceeded to explain the value of
tobacco by saying, “When you have had a quarrel with your
brother, you may wish to kill him; sit down and smoke a pipe. By the

time this is finished you will think that death is too great a punish-
ment for your brother's offence, and you will decide to let him off
with a thrashing. Relight your pipe and smoke on. As the smoke
curls upward, you will think that a few harsh words would serve
instead of blows. Light your pipe once more and, when the bowl is
empty, you will ready to go to your brother and forgive him.’
Berthold Laufer, Wilfred D. Hambly, and Ralph Linton, Tobacco
and its Use in Africa, Leaflet 29 (Chicago: Field Museum of
Natural History, 1930), p.23. While one might consider the Field
Museum pipe to be an aberrant, tourist item, based on its West-
ern form and unusual figuration, other pipes from the Kongo area
raise the spectre of an indigenous, figurated pipe tradition. For a
similar pipe form from the Kongo area, see a Teke pipe from the
Goteborg Museum, illustrated in Raoul Lehuard, Statuaire du
Stanley-pool (Villier-le-Bel: Arts d’Afrique Noire, 1974), p. 171.
30. John S. Mbiti, African Religions and Philosophy (New York:
Praeger, 1969), and Dominique Zahan, The Religion, Spirituality,
and Thought of Traditional Africa (Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press, 1979).

31. Rev. Joseph A. Brown brilliantly assesses the “Africaniz-
ing” process in “Voices Stirring the Waters: Reflections on the
Religious Impulse of Afro-American Art” (M.A. thesis, Yale
University, May 1983).

32. Concerning the seemingly excessive decoration of a Mobile,
Alabama home, one anthropologist concluded that “... the feel-
ing in back of such an act is that there can never be enough beau-
ty, let alone too much.” This point-of-view is also quite applicable
to the art of Simon Sparrow. Zora Neale Hurston, “Characteris-
tics of Negro Expression,’ in Negro Anthology, ed. Nancy Cunard
(London: Wishart and Company, 1934), p. 40. Ken Hodorowski,
Director of Carl Hammer Gallery, generously brought to my
attention the talents of Simon Sparrow.

33. Elizabeth A. Fenn, “Grave Decorations in Coastal North
Carolina? unpublished paper delivered in the graduate seminar,
Space and Architecture of the Black Atlantic World, Yale Uni-
versity, April 1983. In addition to Ms. Fenn’s excellent survey of
decorated graveyards in North Carolina, there are literally scores
of studies that examine this largely southern phenomenon. Of
special note are: Puckett, op. cit., pp. 104-108; Samuel Miller
Lawton, The Religious Life of South Carolina Coastal and Sea
Island Negroes (Ph.D. dissertation, George Peabody College for
Teachers, 1939); John M. Vlach, The Afro-American Tradition in
Decorative Arts (Cleveland: The Cleveland Museum of Art,
1978), pp. 139-147; and Robert Farris Thompson and Joseph Cor-
net, op. cit., pp. 181-203.

34. Specific references to the Field Museum Nkisi N’Kondi
appear in Ezio Bassani, “Kongo Nail Fetishes from the Chiloango
River Area,” African Arts, vol. 10, no. 3 (April 1977), pp. 36-40,
88, and Robert Farris Thompson, “The Grand Detroit N’Kondi?
Bulletin of the Detroit Institute of Arts, vol. 56, no. 4 (1978), pp.
206-221.

35. Thompson, Flash of the Spirit/op. cit. A discussion of the
“collage sensibility” and other aspects of Afro-American art are
addressed in Richard J. Powell, “The Blues Aesthetic: Afro-
American Culture as an Instrument of Style in Modern Amer-
ican Painting” (M.A. thesis, Yale University, May 1982).

25

TOURS FOR MEMBERS

An exciting, adventurous and in-
depth safari carefully planned under
the expert guidance of our leader,
Audrey Faden. She served on the
Field Museum Volunteer staff and
has done field research and general
collecting of plants in Kenya. A na-
tive of Kenya, Audrey is a former
staffer of the National Museum of
Kenya, and her keen interest in
wildlife, conservation, and plant life
makes her a natural to lead our tour.
If you have an inquisitive mind and
would like to learn about the wild-
life, ecology, and plant life, this
safari should be your choice. Photog-
raphy will be a major objective on
this tour and our specially equipped
safari vehicles will provide clear
visibility for all tour participants.
Our itinerary will include a day
stop-over in London on both the
outbound and return flights. We'll
fly direct from London to Nairobi,
Kenya. During our stay in Kenya
we'll visit Amboseli National Park
(justly famous for its big game and

KENYA

September 8-27, 1984
$3,595
(per person, double occupancy)

superb views of Mount Kili-
manjaro), Tsavo National Park,
Aberdare National Park, Samburu
game reserve, and the Northern
Frontier district, spending two
nights at the famous Mount Kenya
Safari Club. We'll visit Lake
Naivasha, where the birdlife is spec-
tacular. It is estimated that there are
over 500 bird species on this Rift
Valley lake. We'll spend two nights
at Kichwa Tembo Safari Camp,
where we'll enjoy two full days of
game viewing in Maasai Mara Game
Reserve.

The tour price includes hotel
and camp accommodations, three
meals each day, except in Nairobi

Audrey Faden

Audrey Faden

where full breakfast only is in-
cluded, plus a special cocktail party
and welcome and farewell dinners.
No meals in London. Air transporta-
tion via British Airways, plus all
transfers, baggage handling, safari
vehicles, entrance fees, hotel taxes
and all gratuities. An advance de-
posit of $50.00 per person will en-
sure your reservation on this East
African Safari. Please make checks
payable to Field Museum. For fur-
ther information, please call or write
Dorothy Roder: (312)322-8862.

COMING

«> Peru Tour (October), with an overnight
stay at Machu-Picchu.

« China Tour, which will include Beijing
(Peking) and Sian.

Last call for Field Museum's June tour to
Alaska. If interested, please call
Dorothy Roder now (322-8862).

Black Folk Art in America: 1930-1980

April

14, Saturday, 2:00om:

28, Saturday, 2:00pm:

May
5, Saturday, 2:00pm:

6, Sunday, 2:00pm:

13, Sunday, 2:00pm:

19, Saturday, 2:00pm:

20, Sunday, 2:00pm:

June
3, Sunday, 2:00pm:

17, Sunday, 2:00pm:

93, Saturday, 2:00pm:

April 14-July 15

“What Is Folk Art?: Symposium”
Panel: Lynda Roscoe Hartigan, Phyllis Kind, James Parker,
Sterling Stuckey. moderator: Richard Powell

Lecture: “Indelible Icons: The Black Atlantic Visual Tradition”
by Robert Farris Thompson, professor of art history, Yale University

Lecture: “The Origins and Development of Black American Folk Art”
by Regenia Perry, professor of art history, Virginia Commonwealth University

Performance: “Gospel Music: Spirit of the People”
by 180 choir members of Trinity United Church of Christ of Chicago

Performance: “A Teller of Tall Tales, Jack Tales and Ghost Tales”
by Jackie Torrence, Granite Quarry, N.C.

Lecture: “Memory and Sense of Place in Black Folk Art”
by William Ferris, director, Center for the Study of Southem Culture,
University of Mississippi

Performance: “Blues Chicago Style”
by Chicago musicians; moderators: Amy and Jim O'Neal, editors of
Living Blues, journal of the black American blues tradition.

Performance:* West African Rhythms”
by Mandingo Griot Society of Chicago

Performance: “Adventures in Rhythm and Song,”
by Ella Jenkins, Chicago folk singer

Performance: “Africa’s Gift to the World,”
by Darlene Blackourn Dance Troupe, Chicago

“Fish,” painted wood and metal sculpture by Leslie Payne, 13 x 45% x 7%" (1970s), on view in exhibit “Black Folk Art in America
1930-1980,” April 14 through July 15.

ete tee TIM DE XL POX Dd POS late TO IO lene RA TS

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY BULLETIN

June 1984

Adventures in Rhythm and Song by Ella Jenkins: June 17
Darlene Blackburn Dance Troupe: June 23

———> —— <1 —— — ———_—__—_— - —-— a a

Field Museum
of Natural History
Bulletin

Published by

Field Museum of Natural History
Founded 1893

President: Willard L. Boyd
Director: Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.

Editor: David M. Walsten
Production Liaison: Pamela Stearns
Staff Photographer: Ron Testa

BoarD OF TRUSTEES

James J. O'Connor
chairman

Mrs. T. Stanton Armour

George R. Baker

Robert O. Bass

Gordon Bent

Bowen Blair

Willard L. Boyd

Frank W. Considine

Stanton R. Cook

William R. Dickinson, Jr.

Thomas E. Donnelley II

Thomas J. Eyerman

Marshall Field

Richard M. Jones

Hugo J. Melvoin

Leo F. Mullin

Charles F. Murphy, Jr.

Earl L. Neal

Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.

Robert A. Pritzker

James H. Ransom

John S. Runnells

Patrick G. Ryan

William L. Searle

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Robert H. Strotz

Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken

E. Leland Webber

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Lire TRUSTEES

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Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin (USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined
July/August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive,
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CONTENTS

June 1984
Volume 55, Number 6

June Events at Field Museum 3

Fort Ancient: Citadel Or Coliseum?

by Patricia S. Essenpreis, research associate in 5
Anthropology, and Michael E. Moseley, curator of Middle

and South American archaeology and ethnology

In Pursuit of Amphibians and Reptiles in East Malaysia

A report from the field by Robert F. Inger, curator, 11
Division of Amphibians and Reptiles

William G. Swartchild, Jr., in Memoriam 13
STICI: A Training Program for Teachers

by Carolyn Blackmon, chairman, Department of Education, 14
Maija Sedzielarz, coordinator of the Joyce Foundation Teacher
Training Program, and Helen H. Voris, special projects writer,
Department of Education

Volunteers Honored 18
Tours for Members 27
COVER

Chinese snuff bottles: 32 representatives (front and back cover) from Field Museum's extensive
collection. A large selection of these beautiful objects have recently been placed on permanent
exhibit in Hall 24 (“Ancient China”).

The art of fashioning snuff bottles in China came about as the result of a gift from Louis
XIV of France in 1692 to the Emperor Kang Hsi (1662-1722): a set of striking, gold-enameled
boxes for holding snuff. The emperor was more intrigued by the gemlike boxes than their con-
tents, and he invited Jesuit artists to Peking to demonstrate how to reproduce certain colors
used on the boxes. However, it remained for Kiang Hsi’s grandson, the Emperor Ch’ien Lung
(1735-95), to bring about a vogue for snuff and snuff bottles.

A large number of the Museum’s snuff bottle collection were the gift, in 1936, of Mrs.
Frances Gaylord Smith, and all of those shown here were given by her, except one (top row, front
cover, second from left—the gift of Mr. Sidney Teller).

Front cover, row by row, from top left: C232447: porcelain, stopper of imitation coral.
C233421a: lacquer-covered brass. C232420: porcelain, stopper of coral. C232424: blue glass
painted with enamel, stopper of rose quartz. C232193: glass, quartz stopper. C232403: glass
painted on inside, stopper of jade. C232154: glass, jade stopper. C232266: brown onyx, stopper
of jade. C232339: chalcedony, stopper of glass. C232324: stone, stopper of quartz. C232291:
agate, stopper of jade. C232371: agate, stopper of glass. C232034: porcelain, coral stopper.
232238: quartz, stopper of coral and turquoise. C232480: ivory (made in Japan, probably for
the Chinese market). C232221: cinnabar lacquer, stopper of lacquer.

Back cover: C232206: glass, stopper of glass. C232175: glass, stopper of quartz. C232165:
glass, jade stopper. C232178: glass, glass stopper. C232410: brown stone, jade stopper. C232092:
glass, coral stopper. C232400: agate, stopper of coral and turquoise. C232478: porcelain, stop-
per of imitation coral. C232134: porcelain, glass stopper. C232110: glass, stopper of jade.
C232469: porcelain, stopper of quartz. C232043: glass, stopper of coral and glass. C232259:
rock crystal, jade stopper. C232429: porcelain, stopper of lapis lazuli. C232217: walrus tusk
(stained), quartz stopper. C232054: glass, stopper of glass.

Photos of snuff bottles by William C. Bentley, a volunteer.

Events

Black Folk Art Programs

These programs are designed to complement the special exhibit “Black Folk Art in America 1930-1980.’ The
programs are funded by a grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities, a federal agency.

West African Rhythms

The Mandingo Griot Society and Foday Musa Suso

Sunday, June 3, 2:00pm
James Simpson Theatre, West Entrance

In Western Africa, griots form a special group of master
musicians, oral historians, praise singers, poets, and keepers
of tradition. Since its formation in 1977, the Mandingo Griot
Society has captivated audiences throughout Europe and the
United States with its unique blending of African and West-
ern musical styles. In addition to bass, tap drums, and guitar,
the society uses a wide range of ethnic instruments, includ-
ing the kora, the 21-string harp played exclusively by the
Mandingo griots. Join us for this performance, which blends
Mandingo traditional songs and original compositions.

Tickets: $6.00 (Members: $4.00)
Please use coupon on p. 4 to order tickets.

Adventures in Rhythm and Song
Ella Jenkins, singer and songwriter
Sunday, June 17, 2:00pm

Stanley Field Hall

Ella Jenkins would like to teach the world to sing—and per-
fect harmony doesn’t matter! Ella Jenkins is a magician with
children of all ages and devotes her life to demonstrating her
extraordinary musical talents to people all over the world.
Along with her harmonica and ukulele she encourages every-
one to snap fingers, clap hands, stomp feet, hum, and whis-
tle, creating a spontaneous and impromptu sing-along con-
cert. Join us for this high-spirited concert as Ella sings and
gets folks a-singing!

This program is free with Museum admission, and
tickets are not required.

Africa’s Gift to the World
Darlene Blackburn Dance Troupe
Saturday, June 23, 2:00pm

Stanley Field Hall

Since 1967, the Darlene Blackburn Dance Troupe has per-
formed to enthusiastic audiences the world over. In this two-
part program the troupe performs numerous West African
Dances, including Ju Ju Social Dance, the Fetish Priest
Dance, and Adowa, a funeral dance done by the Ashanti
people. The second part highlights Darlene Blackburn’s ori
ginal choreography and features Raw Soul, From Africa to
America, Female Ritual, and the St. Thomas Calypso.

This performance is free with Museum admission, and
tickets are not required.

d
The Mandingo Griot Society
Black Folk Art: Film Series

Films are screened on Saturdays in June, beginning at
1:00pm. On Saturday, June 23 children’s films are featured.
Film notes are available. These films are free with Museum
admission and tickets are not required.

June 2: “Maxwell Street Blues” (56m)

June 9: “Du Cote de Memphis” (58m)
“Hush Hoggies Hush” (4m)

June 16: “Bottle Up and Go” (18m)
“The Blues According to Lightnin’ Hopkins”
(28m)

June 23: “A Boy Creates” (10m)
“Legend of John Henry” (11m)
“George Dumpson’s Place” (8m)
“A Story, A Story” (10m)

June 30: “Sermons in Wood” (27m)
“Nellie’s Playhouse” (14m)

CONTINUED

‘@

CONTINUED FROM PAGE 3

June Weekend Programs

Each Saturday and Sunday you are invited to explore the world of natural history at Field Museum. Free tours, demonstra-
tions, and films related to ongoing exhibits at the Museum are designed for families and adults. Listed below are only a few of
the numerous activities available each weekend. Check the Weekend Passport upon arrival for the complete schedule and
program locations. These weekend programs are free with Museum admission and tickets are not required. The programs are
partially supported by a grant from the Illinois Arts Council.

June 9

June 10

June 16

June 17

June 23

2:30pm Traditional China (tour). Examine the
timeless imagery and superb craftsmanship rep-
resented by Chinese masterworks in our per-
manent collection.

12:00 noon Welcome to the Field (tour). Enjoy a
sampling of our most significant exhibits as you
explore the scope of Field Museum.

2:30pm Treasures From the Totem Forest (tour).
A walk through Museum exhibits introduces
the Indians of southeast Alaska and British Col-
umbia, whose totem poles and masks proclaim
their pride of rank and mystical ties to animals
and spirits.

2:30pm China: The Golden Age (slide lecture).
Look at the achievements of several early dynas-
ties of traditional Chinese civilization.

2:30pm Life in Ancient Egypt (tour). Focuses on
the objects and practices, including mummifica-
tion, which illustrate ancient life in the Nile
Valley.

11:30am Ancient Egypt (tour). Tour the
Museum’s Egyptian exhibit and investigate the
traditions of ancient Egyptian civilization from
everyday life to mummification and the promise
of an afterlife.

1:30pm Tibet Today (slide lecture). See Lhasa
and other towns now open to tourists, as well as
Tibetan refugees who have carried their religion
into the mountainous areas surrounding this
ancient religious center.

2:30pm Bhutan: Land of the Thunder Dragon
(slide lecture). Experience a Himalayan journey

June 24

June 30

Ella Jenkins,
Sunday, June 17 2

Events

as you explore Bhutan, “Land of the Thunder
Dragon”

3:30pm Tibet (tour). A closer look at Field
Museum’s Tibetan exhibit.

12:00 noon Welcome to the Field (tour). Enjoy a
sampling of our most significant exhibits as

you explore the scope of Field Museum.
2:30pm Chinese Ceramic Traditions (tour). This
45-minute tour of masterworks in the per-
manent collection explores 6,000 years of
Chinese ceramic art.

2:30pm China and the Silk Roads (slide lec-
ture). Travel the ancient caravan routes and fol-
low the course of empires, arts, and faiths.

= - Member Nonmember Total
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Please complete coupon for your program
selection and any other special events. Com-
plete all requested information on the applica-
tion and include section number where appro-
priate. If your request is received less than one
week before program, tickets will be held in
your name at West Entrance box office until
one-half hour before event. Please make
checks payable to Field Museum. Tickets will
be mailed on receipt of check. Refunds will be
made only if program is sold out
Total
For Office Use:
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Return complete ticket application with a self-addressed
Street stamped envelope to:
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Chicago, IL 60605-2497

ForRT ANCIENT: CITADEL OR COLISEUM?

Past and Present Field Museum Explorations
Of a Major American Monument

by PATRICIA S. ESSENPREIS and MICHAEL E. MOSELEY

. > we th i Bie J sae =

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<5 a : é ie ee
Se oe. eel in.

Fig. 1. Warren K. Moorehead (center, white suspenders) with his crew of excavators in Ohio during explorations for the World's Columbian
Exposition in 1891. Although a self-taught archaeologist, Moorehead discovered more about Fort Ancient than any other investigator, past or

present. Photo courtesy Ohio Historical Society.

THE MONUMENT

Fort Ancient is a vast, remarkable earthwork erected more
than 2,000 years ago by Hopewell inhabitants of south-
western Ohio. It encloses the spacious summit of a mesa
towering 80 m above the Little Miami River, where it flows

through a deep, narrow canyon. Monumental construction

Patricia S. Essenpreis is a research associate, Department of Anthro-
pology; Michael E. Moseley is curator, Middle and South American

archaeology and ethnology.

entailed the building of linear earthen embankments up to
7 m high and 21 m wide, over a distance of 5.7 km. These
walls run strategically along the crest of a figure 8-shaped
mesa to form large northern and southern enclosures con-
nected by a narrow, elongated middle or central enclosure
(figs. 2 and 3).

At the time the great embankments were constructed
and for almost a millennium thereafter, Fort Ancient was
one of the largest monuments in North America. The nat-

ural topography is interrupted on such a vast and forceful

ARB ap
AD. AIN CHT

cale 2s peel per inch

Cnonga Livre

a | Pe

Fig. 2. (left). Map of Fort Ancient drawn in 1891 for the World's Colum-
bian Exposition under Moorehead’s supervision (572 feet per inch). A
parallel-walled enclosure (not shown) once extended % mile to the
northeast from the two mounds by the road in the upper right. Fig. 3
(above). Recent topographic map of Fort Ancient State Memorial
(3,280 feet per inch). The site and museum are open to the public
Wednesdays through Sundays, Memorial Day through Labor Day.

scale that the earthwork has long commanded admiration.
Interest began when the youthful United States Congress
opened Ohio to settlement by awarding land grants to
Revolutionary War veterans and political supporters.
When the main stage road between Cincinnati and
Chillicothe, Ohio, was built at the beginning of the
nineteenth century, it ran through the north enclosure of
Fort Ancient and descended to the river along an ancient
graded way. By straddling a major thoroughfare the co-
lossal earthwork attracted wide public attention. In 1809
the Philadelphia Port Folio printed a story and sketch map
of the monument. Thereafter, many of the nation’s most
distinguished scholars and institutions became involved in
the nineteenth-century explorations of Fort Ancient.
These early explorations account for much of what is pres-
ently known about this imposing architectural complex
and led to the ruins being protected as Ohio's first state
park in 1891. Appropriately, the World’s Columbian
Exposition of 1893, which led to the founding of Field

Museum, played a significant role in the exploration of

Ohio earthworks, including the mapping of Fort Ancient.

Mapping a monument the size of Fort Ancient is not
an easy task. The earthworks follow a tortuous path and
encircle an area of 51 hectares (about 30 city blocks, or 1/5
square mile). There are at least 72 passages through the
embankments, including 3 so-called “great gateway” com-
plexes with causeways and attendant mounds. Within the
three enclosures there are moatlike ditches adjacent to the
embankments, flagstone pavings that probably served as
roadways, a few small flagstone circles and several col-
lapsed rock structures of unknown use, as well as 11 small
free-standing mounds of oval and crescent form. However,
the vast interior areas are basically vacant and lack evi-
dence of Hopewell houses or remains of a resident popula-
tion. Exterior to the embankments, artificial terraces were
cut into the mesa sides, and below the south enclosure
there are several “great terraces,’ each 4 m wide and up-
wards of 500 m long. Seven small mounds dot the plateau
to the east, while a small circular earthwork sits atop the

bluff across the river.

Fig. 4. After bending and pounding more than 50 copper breast-
plates, earspools, and other ornaments out of shape, the Hopewell
covered them with sheets of mica and buried them as a ceremonial
offering in a small hole. This object was an embossed breastplate.
Ohio Historical Society Cat. 23989.

Fig. 5. Aerial view of the south, or “old,” fort, looking northeast. The embankment can be seen as a faint light line following the bluff edges. The
arrow points to the great gateway, the main entry connecting the middle to the south enclosure.

THe Mounp Bur_per-RED MAN War

During the nineteenth century and at the time the Co-
lumbian Exposition was organized, scholars generally rec-
ognized three great New World civilizations: the Inca, the
Aztec, and the more ancient and mysterious “Mound
Builders,” whose many great earthworks confronted the
nineteenth century public. Mound Builder monuments
fascinated the nation’s greatest minds. Thomas Jefferson
ranks as the first naturalist to systematically excavate and
record an ancient earthwork when he supervised the open-
ing of a mound on his Virginia estate prior to 1781. Europe
was equally intrigued by the engineering and architectural
achievements of the “lost civilization”; and two of the earli-
est ground plans of Fort Ancient were published in Ger-
many and in France during the first decades of the 1800s.
Fort Ancient and other monuments attributed to the
Mound Builders were correctly viewed as the works of a
truly great civilization. Yet, this civilization was incorrectly

thought to have been sacked and exterminated by the “bar-

baric Red Man,” and thus was not ancestral to the Amer-
ican Indian. This interpretation was a product of the polit-
ical climate of the times.

Following the Revolutionary War the greatest “for-
eign” foes of the United States were not European powers,
but native societies battling colonization and expropriation
of their territory by the new nation. The states rationalized
westward expansion by espousing the notion that the na-
tives were rude savages unworthy of occupying the terri-
tory they held. The prevalent sentiment was succinctly
expressed in the simple motto, “The only Good Indian is a
Dead Indian.”

In driving the Red Man from the land, yet finding the
land occupied by imposing works of a great civilization, the
idea of the earthworks as evidence of Indian accomplish-
ment was intellectually untenable. However, they could
easily be accepted as the ruins of a vanished civilization
that had been destroyed by the Indians. This explanation
did two things. First, it separated ancient civilization from

Indian ancestry. Second, it “proved” that Indians were sav-

—l—)

Ain
nity
O00

ZBIGNIEW JASTRZEBSK!

age interlopers who did not deserve the lands they occu-
pied because they had acquired them by annihilating a
great civilization.

Permeating nineteenth-century thinking, this inter-
pretation—known today as the “Mound Builder myth’—
carried with it notions of a protracted war between Mound
Builders and Red Men. This fabled war shaped early
explorations and explanations of Fort Ancient. In essence,
by portraying the earthwork as a great citadel of van-
quished civilization, the fictitious war with the nihilist Red
Man was demonstrated, and the Mound Builder myth thus
substantiated.

The tenor of nineteenth-century interpretation was
set by Caleb Atwater in the Transactions of the American
Antiquarian Society of 1820. As a forefather of American
archaeology, Atwater visited, described, and classified a
variety of significant Mound Builder monuments. These
included a number of flat hilltops enclosed by linear
embankments about which he concluded: “On the whole, I
have ventured to class them among ‘Ancient Fortifica-
tions, to which they appear to have higher claim than most
any other, for reasons too apparent to require recital.” Dis-
missing the many entrances and gateways as gaps left by
incomplete construction, Atwater's assertion that Fort
Ancient represented a defensive structure was based en-
tirely upon its strategic castlelike setting and upon his con-
viction that “I have always doubted whether any people of
sane minds would ever have performed quite so much
labour in mere sport.”

The setting of the monument is indeed dramatic and
impressive. The earthwork has a commanding view of the
Little Miami River, where it has cut a deep, narrow canyon
through a wide plain flattened by Pleistocene glaciers. The

x
fhe Jato ae Be

ae poy Bie

Fig. 6 (drawing). Fig. 7 (photo). The great gateway even today funnels
traffic into the south enclosure. A prehistoric stone pavement now
buried beneath the sod connects the small mound left of the road toa
deep ditch next to the wall and continues to the point from which the
photographer took this photo.

mesa enclosed by artificial walls is a remnant of this wide
plateau, isolated by two streams, Randall and Cowen
Runs. These streams arise less than 200 m apart at two
springs some 100 m east of the north enclosure. Fort
Ancient’s builders treated the springs as very important,
erecting a high, circular mound near each to create so-
called “twin mounds.” Although Randall and Cowen Runs
have cut deep valleys along most of their courses, they are
not deeply incised near the springs, leaving a wide natural
land bridge between the mesa and the plateau to the east.

At the time of Atwater’s observations, a very distinc-
tive geometric structure still survived on the plateau.
Beginning at the base of the twin mounds, two long, low
earthen embankments extended inland in parallel for more
than one-half mile to enclose a single small mound. The
embankments were approximately 1 m high, 4 m wide,
and 20 m apart with a flagstone pavement between them.

9

Fig. 8. Moorehead excavated a number of stone graves in the valley
below Fort Ancient. He assumed that these villagers built Fort
Ancient and fled there for refuge during enemy attacks. We now
know, however, that these burials belong to a later culture. Photo
courtesy Ohio Historical Society.

Although structurally unlike the rest of Fort Ancient, sim-
ilar parallel-walled structures were built at other monu-
ments. Atwater advanced the interpretation that these
were roadways for playing ceremonial games: “If the roads
were for footraces, the mounds were the goals from
whence the pedestrians started, or around which they ran.”

This ceremonial explanation did not suggest to
Atwater that other structures at the monument might be of
similar character, or at least nondefensive in nature. The
great terraces below the south enclosure are massive fea-
tures noted on the earliest site maps. Yet, seeing Fort
Ancient as akin to a Rhineland castle, Atwater felt the ter-
races were of a military nature, having been “designed for
persons to stand on, who wished to annoy those who were
passing up and down the river.”

Subsequent to Atwater’s observations, Professor John
Locke of Cincinnati and a party of a dozen engineers spent
two days surveying and measuring the monument. Pub-
lished in 1843 and reissued in 1848 in Volume I of the
Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, the resulting map
and short accompanying article remained the most
authoritative statement about the earthwork for decades.

Locke also interpreted Fort Ancient as a defensive
work, even though his survey demonstrated many facts
that today make the site untenable as a fort. There are no
interior quarters that might have garrisoned troops. Yet,
the multitudes of troops needed to defend the 5+ km

perimeter of earthworks would number in the tens of thou-

sands. Moats are located inside embankments rather than
defensively outside. The steep sides of the mesa are cut by
deep narrow gulleys that alternate with gently sloping
ridges and spurs (fig. 17). The embankments were placed so
as to block and close off the heads of the gulleys, yet pro-
vide passages opening onto the ridges. In turn, the ridges
were often graded and partly paved, and probably served
as routes of access from valley bottom to the principal
enclosures. With more than 70 passages opening on access
routes, the architecture is hardly defensive in design.

Locke correctly identified this multitude of passages;
yet, by asserting that each passage held a wooden block-
house or bastion, he supported the prevailing notion that
only a great fort could command such a strategic setting.
However, while the embankments may have supported

wooden structures atop their wide summits, excavations in

Continued on p. 20

Fig. 9. Exotic artifacts, such as this mica cutout of a human hand from
the Hopewell group, are common at geometric enclosures, but rare
at hilltop enclosures like Fort Ancient. Cat. 110132. N90925.

REPORT FROM THE FIELD:

In Pursuit of Amphibians

And Reptiles in East Malaysia

A Letter from Curator Robert F Inger, Division of Amphibians and Reptiles,
to Field Museum President Willard L. “Sandy” Boyd

t7.

Dy

ema aa

“
idle |

Traveling by motorized canoe on the Mengiong River; Paul Walker at
left.
Nanga Tekalit
Sarawak

March 18, 1984
Dear Sandy:
It has been raining continually but lightly since late
yesterday evening, forcing us to postpone work in the for-
est this morning and giving me a chance to write some
letters. We haven’t had much time for that activity.

Nanga Tekalit isn’t on many maps—and for a good
reason. There's nothing here, so far as cartographers are
concerned, except the junction of a large creek with a riv-
er, and that is what gives this spot its name: Nanga is an
Iban word meaning “stream mouth? and Tekalit is the
name of this treacherous creek, though it is lovely. We are
about as far from the coast of Sarawak (the west coast of
Borneo) as one can be without falling out of the country
into Kalimantan, the Indonesian part of Borneo. This is
not the first time I’ve worked at Nanga Tekalit. I set up a
camp here in 1962 and left a small party here for a year. I
returned again in 1970 for a short while. And now once
more. I’m beginning to think of making a homesteading
claim.

The reasons for coming here in the first place were
the existence of a large area of primary rain forest (the
main reason) and the existence of the last longhouse
about 30 miles downriver, a source of good, essential
labor. No one lives upriver on the Mengiong (which the
Tekalit meets here). After that first year, I had enough

data to answer a few questions, such as how many species
of amphibians and reptiles live in one place (approx-
imately 150). More importantly, additional questions
cropped up and I became aware of the potential of this
place as a site for investigating the structure and organi-
zation of a rain forest community of amphibians and
reptiles.

One of the issues we hope to get reasonably con-
clusive data for is fluctuation in population size of lizard
species in these forests. We already have good samples
from three rain forest sites in Sarawak, including this one.
Simply comparing these three samples tells us that pop-
ulation size varies from place to place. By obtaining a
good sample from here, we hope to obtain an estimate of
variation over time (a 20-year interval) at one place.

Curator Inger at camp site.

Above: Associate Curator Harold Voris processes specimens in
camp. The artfully tattooed back belongs to an Iban tribesman, one of
six local helpers. Right: Frog specimen collected on forest floor
(about lifesize).

We also hope to learn something about changes
over time in the frog populations living along creeks here.
I published a paper on these populations in 1969. Collect-
ing frogs, which we do by wading up streams at night
using headlamps and our hands, is tiring but rewarding.
We see and collect so much, and the creeks are beautiful,
crystal-clear water (except after rain), with rocky bottoms
over-arched by the forest. On moonlit nights, the scene is
spectacular. But after a heavy rain, these streams are not
so nice; in fact, it could be worth your life to step into
one. When we work on them, however, we are able to
concentrate on frogs—several of the smaller species form
large aggregations of calling males and ripe females, and
most of the larger species spread out along the banks.
One of the observations that intrigues me is finding that
the same species use the very same pools for breeding
sites as in 1962. Although that is in a sense not surprising,
it establishes a sort of stability and predictability that I
find satisfying. But why these particular pools and not
others on the same creeks? And how far do these particu-
lar species move away from these pools in the interval be-

tween breeding bouts? We did learn, by marking frogs

and toads in 1962-63, that individuals return to the same
pool where they were first marked.

Another general topic we are working on is the
density of amphibians and reptiles on the forest floor.
Most people have the notion that rain forests are filled
with these creatures, that one must watch out for fear of
stepping on a snake or frog. Not here! We've seen only
four snakes in ten days and it isn’t because we haven't
been looking.

The procedure we are using for estimating density
is to lay out a square 25 feet on a side marked by twine
and, then, working inward from all sides, to remove care-
fully all the dead leaves and debris, capturing all the
frogs, lizards and snakes we uncover. We've been very
lucky so far and have found one animal per quadrat (as
these square plots are known in ecology). By scattering
the location of quadrats in random fashion and doing a
large number of them, we will be able to estimate dens-
ity. I’ve done this kind of work before at this site, in
northeastern Thailand, and in south India. Repeating the

process here provides a check on our earlier results. Then

Walker (left) and Voris process the night's catch.

William G. Swartchild, Jr.

1909-1984

The death of William G. Swartchild, Jr.,
former chairman of Field Museum’s
Board of Trustees, on March 15, was a
loss beyond measure to Field Museum
and its trustees, Women’s Board, and
staff.

Mr. Swartchild was born in Chica-
go in 1909. After graduating from Dart-
mouth, where he was elected to Phi
Beta Kappa, he entered Swartchild &
Company, a family business of which
he was president at the time of its sale
in 1973. Although he devoted a great
deal of his time to public service
throughout his life, his retirement from
active business responsibilities freed
him to devote full time in service to oth-
ers—service which continued until his
death.

He was elected a trustee of Field
Museum in 1966. Typical of his sense of
commitment to any institution with
which he became associated, he quick-
ly took an active leadership position
among the trustees. In 1972-73 he was a
member of a trustees’ committee that
developed a reorganized Board struc-
ture. Upon that reorganization he be-
came vice chairman of the Board, head-
ing the important Program Planning
and Evaluation Committee. He was
elected chairman of the Board of Trust-
ees in 1978, serving in that capacity until
1982. Following his chairmanship, Mr.

Swartchild served as vice chairman,
Internal Affairs, and as a member of the
Nominating Committee.

William Swartchild had an ex-
traordinary understanding of the
dynamics of nonprofit institutions and
the various constituencies comprising
the institution. At Field Museum this
was evidenced by the complete con-
fidence in him on the part of the staff,
Women’s Board, and trustees.

He was active and equally re-
spected in the American Association of
Museums, serving as a vice chairman
of the Trustees’ Committee and as a
member of the Commission on
Museums for a New Century —a na-
tional planning effort for the years
ahead. He was instrumental in prepar-
ing American Association of Museums’
Museum Trusteeship and Museum Ethics.

Active for many years in the field
of health care, Mr. Swartchild served as
Trustee of Michael Reese Hospital,
Children’s Memorial Hospital, and
McGaw Medical Centers and he was
chairman of Children’s and McGaw, as
well as the Council on Governance of
the Illinois Hospital Association, at the
time of his death. He had served as a
director of Blue Cross and Blue Shield
of Illinois and of HMO Illinois. Mr.
Swartchild was also a trustee of the
Brookfield Zoo.

8
William G. Swartchild, Jr.

Beyond all of his achievements in
business and philanthropy, he was a
warm and thoughtful person who
cared about people. He brought a qual-
ity of excellence and humanity to any-
thing he touched. He was a model of
dedication of personal energy for the
public good. The City of Chicago is a
better place because of William Swart-
child’s life.

we will feel better about comparing results from forests
all over tropical Asia.

Maybe I should explain use of the plural pronoun.
As you know, Harold Voris [associate curator of amphib-
ians and reptiles], is here, having joined me in Singapore
after his work on sea snakes in west Malasia. The other
“Westerner” is Paul Walker, a graduate student at Leeds
University, in England. The Sarawak Museum in Kuch-
ing (by the way, that institution is slightly older than the
Field Museum) has an interest in this project and has
attached one of its collectors, Bidai, to our party. Bidai
worked with me in 1956. (Heavens! I’ve known him
most of his life.) Our labor force consists of 6 Ibans from
“our” longhouse. Good people, strong, hard working,
knowledgeable in the forest, and pleasant to be with.

Our living accommodations, if I may dignify them
that way, consist of an open-walled shack made of poles
lashed together with vines and topped by red-white-and-
blue striped plastic and a detached cook stand. We've
used nails almost exclusively for hooks to hang clothing
and miscellany, which seems to be a very large category.

The camp clearing is, perhaps, 100 x 50 feet and on
a steep 25 x 50 foot bank. The forest surrounds us except
for the river front. That steep bank is essential to a good
camp site here—though the Mengiong is about 200 feet
wide at this point, it can rise 20 feet in 4-6 hours. Our
food, like our dwelling, is simple and a bit monotonous,
but we didn’t come for gourmet food. We hope things are
well at the Museum. Harold will see you early in April
and I in early June. My best to everyone. —Bob

iS

STICI:
A Training Program for Teachers

by Carolyn Blackmon, Maija Sedzielarz, and Helen H. Voris

9?

hat’s wobbly as an egg?

... Silvery as fish
scales? ... heavy as a pancake at mid-
night? If you answered, “a wok? you may

have been talking to one of the participants in Field

Museum’s “Student/Teacher Internship in a Cultural

Institution”

“STICI? as it’s known for short, is the Education

Department’s program of workshops and field trips

designed to train Chicago teachers in the special
object-based skills needed to teach effectively in
museums. The two-year program, funded by The

Joyce Foundation, offers groups of teachers the

opportunity to participate in a two-week workshop
at Field Museum followed by a field trip to the
Museum with their classes.

The goal of the STICI program is to develop

A stici teacher brings her class to the Museum for the field trip portion of the program.

teachers’ confidence and competence in using
museums as extensions of their classrooms. To bring
excitement and life to subjects that students can
otherwise only read about, the program stresses the
importance of “getting students inside the exhibits”
and of fully integrating museum experiences with
classroom studies. To accomplish these goals, the pro-
gram trains teachers to develop focused field-trip ex-
periences that require students to interact with the
exhibits by observing, questioning, hypothesizing,
comparing and contrasting, drawing conclusions,
and creating verbal, written, or artistic expressions of
their experiences.

The workshops begin with behind-the-scenes

Carolyn Blackmon is chairman of the Education Department,
Maija Sedzielarz is coordinator of The Joyce Foundation Teacher
Training Program, and Helen Voris is writer for special projects in
the Education Department.

Diane Alexander White

tours of the Museum to enable the participants to
learn about its extensive research collections and the
work of its scientist-scholars. The participants have
the opportunity to see how scientific specimens —
from clay pots to nuthatches—are documented, pre-
pared, and stored, forming a “library” of reference
material used by.scholars throughout the world.

In the Exhibition Department they see how ex-
hibits are developed, prepared, and mounted. They
also learn how to analyze exhibits to determine how
they communicate, and how to develop field-trip
themes and exhibit-based experiences to teach almost
any subject. Math concepts of size and proportion, for
example, take on reality for elementary school chil-
dren who try to see how many can fit inside the out-
line of the whale skeleton on the floor of the skeletal
structure hall, or how much of the Apatosaurus, in
the fossil vertebrate hall, is tail!

The participants receive special introductions to
the Education Department, where they meet key

15

16

sTic! teachers learn how to use museums to help their students develop life-long learning skills.

staff members and learn of the many programs and
materials provided for teachers and their classes.
They visit special teaching facilities in the Museum—
the Place for Wonder and the Pawnee Earth Lodge—
and they explore offerings in the Museum’s free loan
program, including portable exhibit cases, experience
boxes (“hands-on” specimens and artifacts), and au-
diovisual and printed materials — slide sets, film-
strips, videotapes, discovery units, posters, and
curriculum coordination guides.

“Getting to Know You, a self-guided tour
developed especially for the STICI teachers, enhances
their familiarity with the public areas of the Museum
as they explore its furthest corners to find clues in
answer to such questions as “What is the design on
the Indian Mic-Mac dice?” or “What skeletal struc-
ture is unique to all marsupials?” In this process they
learn how to ask effective questions to get students to

look closely at the objects in the exhibits, and they
learn about practical matters important to any
teacher with a large group of small children—such as
how to get to the nearest restroom from any point in
the Museum! Participants also take trips to other
museums to learn about additional resources avail-
able to teachers and students in Chicago’s other
cultural institutions.

Getting back to the observation that a wok is as
wobbly as an egg — how does that fit in? Teachers
participate in a variety of exercises designed to help
them (and eventually their students) develop abilities
to observe and question; these abilities, in turn, will
enable them to learn from objects— anthropological
artifacts, biological and geological specimens, and
works of art. In one exercise, teachers are asked to
devise food similes for describing a wok, which is one
of ten objects set up around a classroom. Observa-

Diane Alexander White

tional as well as language skills are involved in the
responses, but there is more to it than that. For stu-
dents, the observations and interest generated by the
exercise could serve as the basis for further questions
and investigation about the wok: its materials, con-
struction and function, and the significance of its
fuel-conserving design in Chinese culture.

During the sessions, teachers develop and try
out activities to use with their classes before and after
a field trip to the Museum. Subsequently they plan
and carry out their class field trips, using free bus
transportation provided by the STICI program. The
teachers have been delighted and often surprised at
the results of their STICI training: the absence of prob-
lems on their class field trips, their own confidence
and ease in the Museum, and, most of all, the chil-
dren’s responses.

Many teachers have found that shy children
open up with the excitement of learning in the
museum and that this continues later in the class-
room; that children who can be discipline problems in
the classroom often adopt different attitudes in the
museum; and that children who have trouble reading
and writing develop new confidence in themselves by
using observational and verbal skills at the museum.

STICI teachers acknowledge that they put more
time and planning into their field trips than before,
but they overwhelmingly feel it is worth it. “I never
knew a field trip could be relaxed? “Even the parent
chaperones enjoyed the trip? and “Many children
who had been to the Museum before had such a dif-
ferent experience this time that they wanted to bring
their parents back” are typical comments made in
follow-up sessions.

Teachers often remark that children remember
details of their field trip experiences and bring them
up in class discussions long after the trip is over. One
first grader, after studying plants and animals from
Hawaii and Alaska on an early fall field trip to Field
Museum, asked his teacher as Christmas approached,
“Do you think Rudolf the Red-Nosed Reindeer might
really be a caribou?” One teacher summed it up best:
“Children never forget what they really enjoy, and at
the Museum they can both learn and enjoy.”

Field Museum will be offering four more ses-
sions of the STICI program this summer to Chicago
teachers. Interested teachers should contact the
Education Department, 922-9410, extension 365.FM

Program participants learn a variety of ways to use objects in their
teaching, such as the wok, shown here.

Stephen didn’t think
he needed a will.
He was only 51...

Stephen intended to have his will drawn up someday;
first, there were things to get done. He had no idea he
would need a will anytime soon—before he got those
“things” done. A will is like life insurance: when you
need it, it’s too late to do anything about it.
Now, Stephen’s family is facing unnecessary de-
lays, confusion, and extra expenses in settling his
estate.

Don’t make the same mistake. Send for our com-
plimentary booklet giving all the reasons why a will is
important and how you can plan an effective will.

CLIP AND MAIL TODAY
To: Planned Giving Office
Field Museum of Natural History
E. Roosevelt Rd. at Lake Shore Dr.
Chicago, Illinois 60605

(__ ) Please send me my free copy of “How to Protect Your
Rights with a Will”

NAME

ADDRESS

CITY. STATE (AQ
I can be reached at:

Phone Bus._(_) Res. (Gea)

Gail Stern

17

18

Volunteers Honored

Field Museum’s 321 volunteers were honored for their
1983 service at a reception on February 14, held in Stan-
ley Field Hall. Collectively, the volunteers had given
41,454 hours of dedicated service to the Museum dur-
ing the calendar year, including 2,252 hours in connec-
tion with the special exhibit, “Treasures from the
Shanghai Museum,’ which opened November 5.

Field Museum Director Lorin I. Nevling, Jr. gave
an introductory welcome to the volunteers, and James
J. O'Connor, chairman of the Board of Trustees, spoke
of the great diversity of specialized talents brought to
the institution by volunteers. Dr. Nevling then pre-
sented a special award to Lorain Stephens Olsen, who
had given fifteen years of continuous service. Carolyn
Blackmon, chairman of the Education Department,
and Melvin A. Traylor, Jr., curator emeritus of Birds,
whose departments were primary beneficiaries of
Mrs. Olsen’s service, spoke of her dedication and par-
ticular projects.

Mrs. Olsen first came to Field Museum as a staff
member, serving as a biology instructor on the Edaca-
tion Department, where she developed and presented
programs to school classes. Although she relin-
quished this position to raise a family, Field Museum
had become an important part of her life, and she re-

Volunteers Who Served 500 Hours or More

Sophie Ann Brunner, Zoology, Reptiles Division: skeleton
preparation, organization, and maintenance.

Pat Dodson, Anthropology: manuscript editing and proof-
ing, correspondence and research.

Margaret Martling, Botany: worked with reprint collection,
helped select negatives for type photograph program, de-
veloped indices for museum publication, maintained
nomenclature reference files.

Gary Ossewaarde, Education: researched and-conducted
weekend tours on Egypt and China, “Treasures From the
Shanghai Museum” volunteer, assisted in special events
and workshops.

Llois Stein, Anthropology: researched and cataloged
Oceanic, Malaysian, and African collections; assisted in
Pacific storeroom reorganization; assisted with cataloging
the gamelan collection.

Susan Saric, Anthropology: assisted in cataloging Oliphant
collection of artifacts from Cameroun; Geology: worked on
mammalian biogeography project; Planning and Develop-
ment: researched foundations and corporate prospects.

Over 400 hours
Sol Century, Anthropology: cataloging, general projects in
Asian Division.

Nancy Evans, Education: helped plan and implement Sum-
mer Fun Children’s workshops, developed weekend Fami-
ly Feature.

Peter Gayford, Anthropology: research and cataloging of

turned in 1968 as an Education volunteer. Hired in
1974 again as a staff member to organize the Kroc Field
Trip program, Mrs. Olsen continued her volunteer
activities.

In 1975 she began assisting Mr. Traylor, who, in
partnership with the Bird Department of the Museum
of Comparative Zoology at Harvard, was preparing
bird locality gazetteers of South American countries.
She assisted in completing the gazetteer for Columbia,
then became involved in that for Peru as her special
concern. After many years of research and writing,
she completed the manuscript as coauthor with Mr.
Traylor. Currently she is assisting in preparing the
Guyanas gazetteer. In 1977 Mrs. Olsen was made an
associate of Field Museum’s Bird Division, to which
she has given a minimum of 250 hours annually since
1976.

Following the special presentation to Mrs. Olsen,
Dr. Nelving presented gifts to volunteers who had
contributed more than 500 hours during 1983. Con-
cluding remarks were made by Joyce Matuszewich,
volunteer coordinator, who expressed gratitude to
volunteers as well as to staff supervisors for their joint
achievements during the year.

the Egyptian and sub-Saharan material in the McCormick
collection.

Dorothy Oliver, Library: indexed Museum’s annual re-
ports, assisted with interlibrary loan requests, filed new
book cards, retrieved books for visitors; special projects.

Forman Onderdonk, Education: conducted programs for
school groups and public for the “Treasures From the
Shanghai Museum” exhibit and in the Indian halls and
Pawnee earth lodge, assisted with children’s workshops
and special events.

Jean Seiler, Geology: research in variation of dental charac-
teristics of neotropical primates, photography, measure-
ments of teeth and jaws, statistical analysis of data.

Over 300 hours

Jackie Arnold, Education: clerical assistance for several de-
partments, “Treasures From the Shanghai Museum” volun-
teer; assisted in special events and children’s workshops.
Margaret Axelrod, Education: conducted programs for
school groups and public for the “Treasures From the
Shanghai Museum” exhibit and in the Place for Wonder,
designed puppets for shadow puppet theatre program.

Dennis Bara, Membership: weekend membership
representative.

Audrey Burns, Exhibition: assisted as exhibit preparator,
fabricating and installing exhibits.

Louva Calhoun, Anthropology: assisted in cataloging of
specimens from Isimilia prehistoric site in Tanzania, a pro-
ject involving 7,500 specimens which she began in 1977 and
finished in December 1983.

pep a "a2 8 F-.” .% Sa aVatete4 2 db & OO U.S PF. 7"

Connie Crane, Anthropology: assisted in correspondence
regarding Maritime Peoples of the Northwest Coast ex-
hibit, research assistant.
Jeannette DeLaney, Anthropology: textile conservation,
worked with pre-Columbian Peruvian textiles; Education:
“Treasures From the Shanghai Museum” volunteer.

Jeyson Daniel, Botany: worked on taxonomic revision of
the Agaricales mushroom in Cryptogamic Herbarium.
Halina Goldsmith, Education: conducted programs for
school groups and public for the “Treasures From the
Shanghai Museum” exhibit, Maritime Peoples Hall and in
Place for Wonder; assisted with special events.

Evelyn Gottlieb, Education: gave programs to school
groups and public in Egyptian halls, gave Highlight tours,
assisted with special events and children’s workshops.
Carol Landow, Education: conducted programs for school
groups and public in Place for Wonder; assisted with spe-
cial events, “Treasures From the Shanghai Museum”

volunteer.

Carolyn Moore, Anthropology: researched special projects

in Asian Division.

50 hours
or more

Neal Abarbanell
Paul Adler
Gretchen Ainley
Cathy H. Agnone
Dolores Arbanas
Arden Frederick
Jacqueline Arnold
Terry Asher
Margaret Axelrod
Gail Bahl
Beverly Baker
Dennis M. Bara
Lucia Barba
Gwen Barnett
Winifred Batson
Dodie Baumgarten
Virginia Beatty
William C. Bentley
Lawrence Berman
Elaine K. Bernstein
Blanche Blumenthal
Sandra Boots
William Borth
Hermann C. Bowersox
Charles Braner
Carol Briscoe
Linda Brown
Sophie Ann Brunner
Janet Bry

’ Teddy Buddington
Mary Ann Bulanda
Laurel Bunce
James Burd
Audrey Burns
Eleanor Byman
Joseph Cablk
Kathy Cagney
Louva Calhoun
Donna Compeol
Deborah Carey
Sol Century
Margaret Chung
Barbara Clauson
Charlotte Cram
Connie Crane

Jeyson Daniel
Margaret Davis
Margaret DeJong
Eleanor DeKoven
Jeannette DeLaney
Carol Deutsch
Violet Diacou
Marianne Diekman
Phyllis Dix
Patricia Dodson
John E. Dunn
Stanley Dvorak
Lynn Dyer
Carolyn Eastwood
Linda Egebrecht
Ruth Egebrecht
Anne Ekman
Agatha Elmes
Bonnie Engel
Sara Erve
Jean Ettner
Nancy Evans
Nancy Fagin
Martha Farwell
Dolores Fetes
Louise Fields
Marie Fischl
Michael Fisher
Ruth Fouche
Brad Foxen
Gerda Frank
Richard Frank
Arden Frederick
Ruth Fritz
Janina Fuerst
Shirley Fuller
Miriam Futransky
Bernice Gardner
Suzanne Garvin
Andrea Gaski
Peter Gayford
Donald Gemmel
Marty Germann
Audrey Gilman
Elizabeth Louise
Girardi
Delores Glasbrenner
Carla Goldsmith

Halina Goldsmith
Paul Goldstein
Melanie Goldstine
Evelyn Gottlieb
Julie Gray

Loretta Green
Henry Greenwald
Cecily Gregory
Mary Lou Grein
Ann B. Grimes
Karen Grupp
Michael J. Hall
Patricia Hansen
Nancy Harlan
Curtis M. Harrell
Calvin Harris
Mattie Harris
Nancy Hartnett
Ollie Hartsfield
Noreen Haslinger
Shirley Hattis
Margaret Helbing
Audrey Hiller
Clarissa Hinton
James Hitz

Peggy Hoberg
Harold L. Honor
Zelda Honor
Scott Houtteman
Claxton Howard
Ruth Howard
Ellen Hyndman
Delores A. Irvin
Doug Jacobs

Paul Jensen
Micki Johns
Mabel S. Johnson
Nancy Jonathan
John Jones
Malcolm Jones
Carol Kacin
Elizabeth Kaplan
Dorothy Karall
Mansura Karim
Dorothy Kathan
Shirley Kennedy
Barbara Keune
Joyce Kieffer

Jennifer Newman, Public Relations: newsclip compilation
and research, media liaison, updated mailing and contact
lists, filled media requests, typed, helped with mailings.
Eddie Nodzenski, Zoology, Division of Amphibians and
Reptiles: collection management, cataloging of specimens
and scanning electron microscope work.

Dagmar Persson, Botany: research on Costa Rican species

of the mint family.

Florence Selko, Education: gave programs for school
groups and public in Egyptian halls and Maritime Peoples
Hall, “Treasures From the Shanghai Museum” volunteer,
assisted in children’s workshop and special events.

James Skorcz, Library: worked in reading room, filled inter-
library loan requests, filed cards in card catalog, retrieved
books for visitors, compiled statistics, special projects.

Osa Theus, Public Relations: promotion research, media
liaison, writing, typing, and mailings.
Mary Wenzel, Education: conducted programs for school
groups and public in the Place for Wonder, “Treasures From
the Shanghai Museum” volunteer, assisted with special
events; Zoology, Insects Division: handled correspondence,
typed field notes and loan invoices, other office duties.

Dennis Kinzig
Alida Klaud
Susan Knoll
Glenda Kowalski
Anita Landess
Carol Landow
Barbara Latondress
Marion Lehuta
Anne Leonard
Frank Leslie
Joseph F. Levin
Laura Lewis
James Lowers
Ruth Luthringer
Susan Lynch
Gabby Margo
Barbara Marion
James A. Marshall
Margaret Martling
David Matusik
Marita Maxey
Melba Mayo
Faye McCray
Carole McMahon
Withrow Meeker
Ixtaccihuatl
Menchaca
Beverly Meyer
Jerry Meyer
Robyn Michaels
Micki Johns
Rosanne Miezio
Lenore Miller
Alice S. Mills
Star Mitcheff
Carolyn Moore
Holly Morgan
Eileen Morrow
George Morse
Charlotte Morton
Anne Murphy
Charlita A. Nachtrab
Mary Naunton
Jean Nelson
John Nelson
Mary Nelson
Louise Neuert
Jennifer Newman

Ernest Newton
Herta Newton
Edwardine Nodzenski
Sandra Nuckolls
Dorothy Oliver
Lorain Stephens
Olsen
Forman Onderdonk
Joan Opila
Marianne
O’Shaughnessy
Gary M. Ossewaarde
China Oughton
Anita Padnos
Michelle Parker
Raymond Parker
Frank M. Paulo
Christine Pavel
Dagmar Persson
Mary Anne Peruchini
Trace Petravick
Dorothea
Phipps-Cruz
Philip Pinsof
Steffi Postol
Georgianne Prather
Jacquelyn Prine
Martin Pryzdia
Sylvia Rabinkoff
Elizabeth Rada
Lee Rapp
Ann Ratajczyk
Ernest Reed
Sheila Reynolds
Lucille Rich
Elly Ripp
William E. Roder
Mary Anne Rogers
William Rom
Barbara Roob
Beverly R. Rosen
Sarah Rosenbloom
Marie Louise
Rosenthal
Anne Ross
Ann Rubeck
Helen Ruch
Lenore Ruehr

Linda Sandberg
Susan Saric
Marian Saska
Everett
Schellpfeffer
Marianne Schenker
Sara Scherberg
Sylvia Schueppert
Thelma Schwartz
Jean Seiler
Florence Selko
Jessie Sherrod
Judith Sherry
James Skorcz
Beth Spencer
Irene Spensely
Christopher
Spurrier
Llois Stein
Robyn Strauss
Mary Alice Sutton
Gloria Taborn
Elisabeth Taylor
Jane Thain
Lorraine Thauland
Osa Theus
Cathy Tlapa
Mark Tokarz
Ann C. Underriner
Karen Urnezis
Lillian Vanek
Dalia Varanka
Rita Veal
Barbara Vear
Virginia Vergara
Charles A. Vischulis
David Walker
Harold Waterman
Alice Wei
David Weiss
Mary Wenzel
Ann West
Lisa Wibel
James Wilber
Char Wiss
Reeva Wolfson
Zinette Yacker
Laury Zicari

19

FORT ANCIENT, con't from p. 10

the openings have produced absolutely no evidence of
structures closing off the passages.

Many early observers noted the numerous embank-
ment openings and other features that would make Fort
Ancient very difficult to defend. Yet the presumably defen-
sive nature of the architecture was never seriously ques-
tioned because it was vital to nineteenth-century intel-
ligentsia that the monument be a great bastion of the
Mound Builders. When interpreted as a fort, the mesa top
earthwork provided tangible proof of the Mound Builder-
Red Man wars. This, in turn, confirmed the notion that the
noble Mound Builder had been defeated and driven from
the land by the savage Indian, who was thus the true
scourge of all civilizations, both past and present. “Fort
Ancient, which would have held a garrison of 60,000 men,

with their families and provisions, was one of a line of

fortifications which extended across this state, and served
to check the incursions of the savages of the North in their
descent on the Moundbuilder’s country,” is how Professor
John T. Short viewed Fort Ancient in his North Americans
of Antiquity in 1879.
EXPLORATIONS FOR THE WORLD'S
COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION

In 1887 Warren K. Moorehead, a precocious young man of
21 with a passion for archaeology, began excavating at Fort
Ancient. Largely self-taught, Moorehead sold antiquities
to support his great passions, which were field work and
collecting artifacts. He argued that although many authors
had poured out copious thoughts about the great hilltop
enclosures, few had ever sunk spade to earth to produce
the facts necessary for making sound interpretations. With
youthful ardor, Moorhead, set about correcting the
situation, and, in the course of four years, spent a total of
43 weeks exploring the monument and digging, both alone
and with crews. Although similar to other great enclosures
of irregular form built upon high ground, Fort Ancient
produced few artifacts of commercial value; but the
destitute Moorehead carried out more work at the
monument and learned more about it than has any other
scholar.

The World's Columbian Exposition was a centennial

Fig. 10 (left). Partially excavated, stone-faced embankment.

Fig. 11 (below). /n this drawing of a cross-section through an
embankment wall, differential shading shows successive construc-
tion stages. Stone was used in several ways: as a rock core, to face
the outer slope, and to build short walls for retarding erosion and
slumping.

ZBIGNIEW JASTRZEBSKI

Fig. 12. The purpose of stone circles such as this one, excavated by William C. Mills in 1908, is unknown, but they are one of the few features
discovered in the 126-acre interior of Fort Ancient. Photo courtesy Ohio Historical Society.

celebration of exploration and development in the
Western Hemisphere. To acquire objects, specimens, and
materials for public exhibition, the fair occasioned and
supported scientific expeditions to explore the ancient
civilizations of the Americas. Professor Frederic Ward
Putnam of Harvard University was retained to organize
and coordinate these expeditionary programs. His
long-term vision was singularly important in transforming
the exposition into the Field Museum, the enduring
world-class museum that Chicago now enjoys. Director of
the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology,
Putnam was a distinguished scholar with wide research
experience that included directing field projects at various
monuments in Ohio and adjacent states. Because there
were no academically trained archaeologists at the time, he
Mound Builder

explorations in Ohio for the exposition. However, the

retained Moorehead to carry out
eastern professor was suspicious of the “country boy’s”
excavation techniques, and demanded both improved
note-taking and an end to Moorehead'’s selling of artifacts.

For the purposes of the 1893 exposition, and central
to laying foundations for a great museum, Putnam was
concerned with collection building. From his own experi-

ence with Mound Builder excavations this insightful scien-

tist knew that the so-called forts, such as Fort Ancient,
while architecturally impressive, produced few objects of
note. Experience demonstrated that artifacts were more
abundant at valley-bottom settlements and at geometric
earthworks laid out as complexes of circular and square
embankments. Putnam therefore encouraged his young
Ohio correspondent to excavate sites producing graves and
artifacts.

With this prompting, Moorehead turned his atten-
tion to an ancient settlement located on the banks of the
Little Miami River immediately below the north enclosure
of Fort Ancient. Although artifact accompaniments were
neither rich nor common, digging yielded numerous
graves, lined and covered with limestone stabs. Moore-
head also excavated on the North Fork of Paint Creek, ina
complex of geometric enclosures and mounds. He encoun-
tered elite burials with truly spectacular accompaniments,
ranging from stone pipes sculpted in the form of animals
and birds, through fine artifacts chipped from obsidian
imported from Yellowstone Park, to elaborate headgear
and ornaments fashioned from copper. These magnificent
discoveries rank among the finest pieces in the Museum's
New World archaeological collections.

The high-yielding complex of geometric enclosures,

21

22

Fig. 13. William C. Mills (left) excavated a number of small mounds at Fort Ancient in 1908 but failed to find the elaborate burials that are typical of
geometric Hopewell sites. Here Mills and helpers are investigating a small stone mound near the great crescent. Photo courtesy Ohio Historical
Society.

named Hopewell after the local landowner, became the
archaeological type site for an early phase of monument
building and occupation in Ohio. The settlement in the
valley below Fort Ancient, now known as Anderson Vil-
lage, became the archaeological type site for the late
occupation of the Little Miami region. This occupation,
however, is called the “Fort Ancient tradition” because
Moorehead and later William C. Mills, who named the
archaeological cultures and traditions, wrongly thought
that the village was contemporaneous with and a satellite
of the great hilltop enclosure. Thus, Fort Ancient the
earthwork was built at an early Hopewell date, but mis-
takenly supplied the name for a late archaeological phase,
found at Anderson Village.

Although collections were important to the 1893
Exposition, Putnam was a scholar of perception who also
recognized the architectural significance of Fort Ancient
and the importance of having an accurate map of the
monument. Although Moorehead had previously hired
surveyors to plot the ruins, Putnam placed little trust in the
accuracy of the measurements and demanded that the
monument be professionally resurveyed. Upon comple-
tion of his excavations Moorehead turned his notes, col-
lections, and the new map over to the Exposition. Unfortu-
nately, this very important document has been overlooked
for decades, and is here published for the first time (fig. 2).

Field studies of the earthworks initiated by Patricia
Essenpreis in 1980 have involved systematic “ground
truth” checking of the Field Museum’s Fort Ancient
ground plan. This has entailed confirmation of structural
identifications, such as accurately locating openings and
assessing their origin: constructed by Hopewell or eroded
by nature. The acturacy of the 1891 map and the instru-
ment readings upon which it is based have also been field
checked with the assistance of engineer James Marshall.
Erosion and poor preservation make measurements on
embankment width questionable. In other respects, how-
ever, the 1891 survey notes are quite accurate and, as yet,
there is no better ground plan of the monument. In the
following effort to interpret the monumental architecture,
we draw upon the map and its field checking, as well as
upon early excavations, to describe the construction and

positioning of the embankments and the passages.

THE EMBANKMENTS

There are two distinct classes of embankments. Massive
linear “mounds,” segmented by passages, define the prin-
cipal mesa-top enclosures. In contrast, an extremely low,
wide, continuous embankment defines the parallel-walled

enclosure of geometric form which begins at the Twin

Mounds and extends for nearly one-half mile to the north-
east. The segmented embankments of the large enclosures
have a total length of 5.7 km, today stand from 2 to 7 m
high, have wide, flat summits, and comprise a total volume
of construction material variously estimated at 117,500 to
480,000 cubic yards of earth and stone. There are two
types of segmented earthworks: contour embankments
and straight embankments. The former type contours
along the sinuous edge of the mesa and, statistically speak-
ing, comprises the longest embankments with the fewest
passage segments. With the most passage segments,
straight embankments are wider, higher, shorter, and in
layout only roughly approximate the sinuous mesa edge by
making sharp, angular bends near ridges and gulleys. The
first embankment type was used to build the south and
middle enclosures, and sections of the north enclosure,
while the second type was employed in constructing the
northernmost portion of the monument.

The contour embankments are more eroded and less
well preserved than the straight structures. This supports
Moorehead’s observation that the southern enclosure,
which he called “the old fort,” was built and used before
construction of the northern “new fort.” From its layout
and outlying positioning, it is evident that the parallel-
walled enclosure was erected after the north enclosure.
Thus, Fort Ancient encapsulates three stages of an
architectural history in which the layout of enclosures pro-
gressed from irregular contour embankments, through
straight angular embankments, to linear geometric forms.

The differences between contour and_ straight

embankments may include not just preservation and

Fig. 14. At the Hopewell group, this mica cutout of an eagle claw was
found with an elaborate burial over which a mound was later built.
Moorehead also investigated the Hopewell group for the Columbian
Exposition; many exotic artifacts from this site are on view at the Field
Museum. Cat. 110131.

Fig. 15. The northeast gateway, with its twin mounds and parallel-walled enclosure, was Fort Ancients most elaborate gateway. Ditches up to
two meters deep connected each twin mound to a stream, funneling traffic along a paved stone walkway between the parallel walls.

ZBIGNIEW JASTRZEBSK

23

structural form, but construction technique as well, with a
rock core present in the latter but not the former. Moore-
head trenched a straight embankment at the north end of
the north enclosure, where the earthworks have their long-
est straightline course. He encountered evidence of multi-
ple construction stages that began with a “core” of large
blocks of limestone and sandstone (each weighing 70 kg)
that had been “heaped in” with the earth to form the wall

base.
In transecting the embankment he also encountered

areas of small limestone slabs that had been laid upon or
fitted over the exterior face of the earthwork, presumably
to stabilize the earthen face which had a slope of 52 de-
grees. Guarding the inclined earthwork faces against ero-
sion and slumping was, no doubt, a conscious architectural
concern. Erosion has largely stripped the original exterior
surfaces of the earthworks. Yet, remnants of flagstone fac-
ing, in the form of low, masonry walls that were apparently
stepped one above another, are not uncommon at Fort
Ancient. Structurally, these acted as retaining walls for the
earth fill, which had slopes of 35 to 43 degrees on the
embankment exteriors. Architecturally, the stone facing
and masonry terraces no doubt cast a very impressive if not
imposing facade.

A trench through the interior half of a contour
embankment in the south enclosure cut in 1940 by Richard
G. Morgan of the Ohio Historical Society did not reveal a
stone core of the type Moorehead found in the northern
straight embankment. Instead the contour earthwork was
found to consist of several distinct layers of clay, with clear
evidence that these had been deposited there from baskets.
The surfaces of some layers appeared weathered, with a
thin band of humus capped by clay layers of later construc-
tion. During early phases of construction and use, faces of
the lower interior embankment faces were nearly vertical
and extended down to connect with adjoining moats or
ditches. This transect combines with that excavated by
Moorehead in indicating that the earthworks assumed
their final form through cycles of construction and use.

Ditches, termed moats by early explorers, parallel the
interior faces of the large enclosures. Excavation has
shown that ditches were often paved with flagstone or
gravel. Morgan's 1940 cut revealed substantial infilling
with sediments eroded from the adjacent contour embank-
ment. Interestingly, moat fill has produced more artifacts
than have larger excavations in the open interior of the
enclosure. This suggests that a great deal of past activity

24 went on atop the flat embankment summits.

PASSAGES AND GATEWAYS

Our recent field studies indicate 72 embankment openings
at Fort Ancient that can be securely identified as
architectural features constructed by the prehistoric build-
ers. They average 3 to 5 m wide, and tend to be slightly
elevated above adjacent interior surfaces. Topography in-
fluenced the placement of both embankments and their
openings. The steep sides of the Fort Ancient mesa are cut
by deep ravines that alternate with gently sloping ridges.
Embankments were erected across the heads of the ravines
and systematically block access from the gulleys. In con-
trast, a majority (45) of the embankment passages were
built adjacent to ridges or opened onto terraces and gently
sloping land. Moorehead was the first to observe that the
ridges served as routes of access, and his excavations
showed that some spurs adjacent to passages had been arti-
ficially graded and paved with stone slabs. In most cases,
openings were not blocked by an interior ditch or moat,
and thus they provided passage to the enclosure interiors
as well as to the embankment summits.

Although most passages are simply lower sections of
the embankment wall, 10 percent are more elaborate. They
include complex structures that early explorers called
“gateways,” although there is no evidence that they were
ever closed by gates. The distinguishing feature of gate-
ways is that each side of the passage is demarcated by a
mound or by an unusually high section of embankment.
The basic pattern is eloquently, but simply, expressed by
the twin mounds that form the entrance to the parallel-
walled enclosure (fig. 15).

In the main enclosures, the gateway pattern is most
often expressed as elevated embankment sections bracket-
ing each side of a major entrance. Significantly, the greatest
architectural elaboration occurs in the small middle enclo-
sure that forms the narrow, elongated passage between the
large north and south enclosures. Here Moorehead investi-
gated two interrelated complexes that he named the “cres-
cent gateway” and “the great gateway.”

The former consists of two low crescent-shaped
mounds, each about 10 m long and 1.5 m high, erected a
few meters apart, and more or less end-to-end per-
pendicularly across the narrow isthmus linking the prin-
cipal enclosures (fig. 17). The convex sides of the crescents
face north, and in layout they were apparently designed to
funnel traffic moving from north to south through the pas-
sage between the mounds. A small circular mound was set
within the curve of the east crescent.

Fig. 16. Passages opened onto spurs and ridges which were sometimes paved, providing ready access to the valleys below.

The funneling effect of the crescent gateway brought
traffic into alignment with the great gateway, which con-
stituted the principal entrance to the south enclosure. The
gateway is formed by two circular mounds, 6 m tall and 3
m apart, that are connected to the adjacent elevated
embankments. Passage between the mounds and embank-
ments was across a low platform, 1.2 m. high. On the inte-
rior, immediately southwest of the entrance there was a

small circular mound connected by stone paving to the

nearby embankment ditch (fig. 6, 7). In overview, the great
gateway, the crescent gateway and the narrow middle
enclosure apparently functioned in concert as an elaborate
passageway leading to the southern enclosure. The cres-
cents and mounds are neither high nor suggest that they
supported defensive parapets. Rather, as at other early
earthworks, they serve to embellish major passageways
and distinguish these from the smaller, more numerous
entries.

Fig. 17. The crescent gateway restricted access to the middle enclosure ana, with the great gateway, regulated entry into the south, or “old,”

enclosure.

ZBIGNIEW JASTRZEBSKI

ZBIGNIEW JASTRZEBSK

NO
nn

26

f
be
5

Fig. 18. These three flint blades (14-16cm long) were part of a ceremonial deposit discovered in a field near the parallel wails. The reason for

deliberate burial of exotic goods by Hopewell peoples is not known.

CONCLUSIONS

Commanding a strategic and imposing mesa, Fort Ancient
derived its name and its general interpretation as a great
bastion from early explorers who explained the vast earth-
works in terms of Mound Builder-Red Man wars.
Although the Mound Builder Myth fell into disrepute
around the turn of the century, the impression that the
monument was a fort has been more persistent. This
romantic notion, however, is simply not compatible with
the architecture of the great ruins. The 5.7 km length of the
earthworks creates an enormous and very impractical pe-
rimeter that would require tens of thousands of defenders
to secure and hold. Yet, there is no evidence of large pop-
ulations residing within the enclosures.

In publishing the Fort Ancient map commissioned
for the Columbian Exposition and in commenting upon its
field checking, we have noted that multiple entries and
interior moats or ditches are not compatible with
achitecture of defensive design. We stress, however, that
both multiple embankment openings and interior ditches

are found as an interrelated complex of architectural forms

at other Hopewell earthworks laid out in the form of

geometric circles and squares. The geometric earthworks
are interpreted as centers of pageantry and ceremony, and
are frequently associated with magnificent ritual artifacts
fashioned from exotic materials imported over great
distances.

Two caches of such exotic objects have been dis-

covered in the vicinity of the parallel-walled enclosure.
One cache contained more than 100 cut sheets of Appa-
lachian mica lying atop 54 ritually destroyed objects of na-
tive copper imported from the Upper Peninsula of Michi-
gan. The copper imports include 35 breastplates, 16 ear-
spool fragments, 2 celts (ax heads), 1 reel-shaped gorget
(throat guard), and 1 bracelet. A second cache was recently
discovered by a local landowner while plowing fields that
now overlie the parallel-walled enclosure. It comprised
ritual artifacts flaked from exotic stone, including 17 spear
points and curved knives of obsidian procured from Yel-
lowstone Park, Wyoming; 11 large ceremonial blades, each
approximately 20 cm long, of finely crafted Wyandotte
chert acquired from southern Indiana; and 5 magnificent
blades, each some 7 cm long, of clear quartz crystal secured
from an unknown locality.

We conclude that the exotic caches complement the
embankment architecture in removing Fort Ancient from
classification as a fort and placing the monument securely
within the mainstream of early ceremonial construction.
That the vast earthwork served not as a great citadel, but as
a colossal coliseum detracts neither from the splendor nor
the importance of the monument. It simply indicates that
the Hopewell erected one of America’s largest monu-
ments, not under duress of war, but in pursuit of religious
and ceremonial beliefs similar to those that motivated the
major architectural works erected by other great civiliza-
tions of antiquity. Exploration of these early Hopewell be-
liefs and practices forms the current focus of the Field

Museum's research at Fort Ancient. Fre

TOURS FOR MEMBERS

Archaeological Tour of Peru

And of La Paz, Bolivia
October 7 to 24
$3,195

Discover the cultural and natural
diversity of Peru (and a little

bit of Bolivia too), under the
guidance of a Field Museum
archaeologist/anthropologist who
has lived and worked in that
country. Tour participants will
be drawn into the fascinating,
seemingly alien world of the orig-
inal inhabitants of the South
American continent by walking
among the ruins of their once-
great cities. Our leader will help
you experience much more than
what is encountered by the con-
ventional sightseer as you view
the incredible wonders of ancient
Cuzco, Colonial Lima, and the
Inca ruins of Puruchuco. An over-
night excursion to the famous
“lost city’ of Machu Picchu, as
well as a visit to the Chinchero
Sunday market will be a memor-
able weekend.

An added bonus will be our
pioneering two-day stop at the
recently discovered archaeological
site in the Moquegua Valley in
which Field Museum will play
a major research role. We'll com-
plete our tour with a visit to Boli-
via, a hydrofoil ride across Lake
Titicaca, and a visit to the city of
La Paz. Here we'll tour the near-
by ruins of the Tiahuanaco
civilization. We invite you to join
us and to get an insider's view of
the past and present.

Our tour leader will be Dr.

Robert A. Feldman, research
archaeologist for the Field
Museum Ancient Irrigation
Project and currently director of
“Programa Contisuyu. He has
done field work in the U.S. and
Peru. Before joining the Field
Museum project, Dr. Feldman
conducted excavations at a 4,000-
year-old fishing village on the
Peru coast, uncovering some of
the earliest monumental archi-
tecture in South America.

Ancient Capitals
Of China

September 22 to October 13
$3,550

We are pleased to again offer our
unique itinerary for China, with
the addition of a two-day visit to
Wuxi and Nanjing and a Grand
Canal cruise from Wuxi to
Suzhou. This program also
includes the most significant sites
of early Imperial China and will
provide an opportunity to
explore in depth the civilization
which characterized one of the
oldest and longest-lived societies
on earth.

Following our direct flight
from Chicago to Tokyo, where we
will spend the night, we will visit
Beijing for three days, then to
Xian for three days. Successive
points in the itinerary then
include Luoyang, Zhengzhou,
Kaifeng, Nanjing, Wuxi, Suzhou,
and Shanghai.

Mr. Phillip H. Woodruff,
Ph. D. candidate in Chinese his-
tory at the University of Chicago,

will be our guest lecturer. Mr.
Woodruff has recently returned
to Chicago after two years of
research at Beijing University.
His experience of living in China,
his fluency in Chinese, and excel-
lent rapport with the Chinese
guides are a superb supplement
to his leadership skills. This is the
fifth China tour he has led for
Field Museum.

Kenya

September 8 to 27
$3,595

You are invited to join us for an
exciting 19-day safari to East Afri-
ca accompanied throughout by
Audrey Faden, experienced lec-
turer and tour guide, plus local
guides. Game is still plentiful and
this tour is scheduled to coincide
with the animal migration. It will
be Spring in Kenya. The time to
go is now! A trip to Kenya is a
vacation that never ends. We
hope you will make your reserva-
tion now.

Start planning now for...

Tour of Egypt
February, 1985

If you wish to be placed on the
mailing list for this perennially
popular tour, or if you have ques-
tions about any of the other
tours, please write or call Tours
Manager Dorothy Roder, Field
Museum, Roosevelt Rd. at Lake
Shore Dr., Chicago, Il 60605.
Phone: 322-8862.

27

a) qh ee a —— ee eee e./htt " * ” A's &* . og

Field Museum
of Natural History

Bulletin

Published by

Field Museum of Natural History

Founded 1893

President: Willard L. Boyd
Director: Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.

Editor: David M. Walsten
Production Liaison: Pamela Stearns
Staff Photographer: Ron Testa

BoarD OF TRUSTEES

James J. O’Connor
chairman

Mrs. T. Stanton Armour

George R. Baker

Robert O. Bass

Gordon Bent

Bowen Blair

Willard L. Boyd

Frank W. Considine

Stanton R. Cook

William R. Dickinson, Jr.

Thomas E. Donnelley II

Thomas J. Eyerman

Marshall Field

Richard M. Jones

Hugo J. Melvoin

Leo F. Mullin

Charles F. Murphy, Jr.

Earl L. Neal

Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.

Robert A. Pritzker

James H. Ransom

John S. Runnells

Patrick G. Ryan

William L. Searle

Edward Byron Smith

Robert H. Strotz

Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken

E. Leland Webber

Julian B. Wilkins

Blaine J. Yarrington

LiFE TRUSTEES

Harry O. Bercher
Joseph N. Field
Clifford C. Gregg
William V. Kahler
William H. Mitchell
John W. Sullivan

J. Howard Wood

Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin (USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined
July/August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive,
Chicago, Il. 60605. Subscriptions: $6.00 annually, $3.00 for schools. Museum membership
includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not neces-
sarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Museum
phone: (312) 922-9410. Notification of address change should include address label and be sent to
Membership Department. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural His-
tory, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Il. 60605. ISSN:0015-0703. Second class

postage paid at Chicago, Il.

CONTENTS

July/August 1984
Volume 55, Number 7

July and August Events at Field Museum

Books, Business, and Buckskin

the life of Edward E. Ayer, Field Museum’s first president

by E. Leland Webber, president emeritus of Field Museum

5

The Search for Paleontology’s Most Elusive Animal:
The Conodont Animal
by Derek E. G. Briggs

11

Tours for Field Museum Members

26

COVER

Scene at Illinois’ Starved Rock State Park.
Photo by John Kolar.

VOLUNTEER OPPORTUNITIES: Do you like to work
with children and can give one day a week during the school
year? Field Museum's Education volunteers give programs to
school groups on everything from dinosaurs to Indians. A\
background in education or natural history is preferred; a fall
training program is required. Year-round Education volunteers
are also needed to staff the Place for Wonder and Pawnee
earth lodge, weekdays as well as weekends. Weekday
volunteers with typing skills are needed in many departments
Interested persons should contact Joyce Matuszewich,
volunteer coordinator, at 929-9410, extension 360.

PICNIC PLUS THREE
Earth, Sky and Sea
Saturday, August 11, 3:00-8:00pm

Field Museum, Shedd Aquarium, and Adler
Planetarium invite you to a summer picnic
celebration.

Bring your own food or buy it here —Eat on the lawns —
Enjoy special evening hours at each institution. On this occe-
sion your Field Museum membership card admits you free to
the aquarium and the planetarium as well.

For additional information please call (312) 322-8859

r

Events

Family Features—July

African Clay Pots

Saturday and Sunday, July 14, 15
1:00-3:00 pm

Cultures of Africa and Madagascar,
Ground Floor

Clay pots are found in African market places
in a variety of shapes and sizes. By examining
those like the tiny ink pots from Nigeria and
the enormous water jugs used in all the Afri-
can villages, we can learn a lot about the peo-
ple who made them. Explore the different
techniques used to make these African pots
and create your own clay pot to take home.

Dahomey Appliqué

Saturday and Sunday, July 28, 29
1:00-3:00 pm

Cultures of Africa and Madagascar,
Ground Floor

The Dahomey men of Africa cut symbols
from pieces of brightly colored cloth. The
symbols were arranged to tell stories about
their kings and then appliquéd on cloth.
Learn the meanings behind some of these
ancient symbols and then create your own
story picture.

Family Features are free with Museum
admission; tickets not required.

Berry baskets made of red cedar by Tlingit Indians (NW coast).

Family Features—August

Painting with Bone

Saturday and Sunday, August 4, 5
1:00-3:00 pm

Pawnee Earth Lodge, Main Floor

Historical events of the Plains Indians were
often recorded in colorfully painted picto-
graphic scenes on animal skins. Printed
geometric and symbolic designs richly deco-
rated their clothing, containers, war shields,
and drums. Experiment with the traditional
painting techniques of the Plains Indians
using a real animal bone as your brush for
decorating an animal skin robe.

Native American Baskets

Saturday and Sunday, August 11, 12
1:00-3:00 pm

Indians of Western North America Hall,
Main Floor

Baskets made by Native Americans are
among the most beautiful in the world. Take a
look at some Pomo Indian baskets that are
big enough to hide in and some that are as
tiny as the tip of your smallest finger. Watch
demonstrations of different weaving tech-
niques, then try your hand at weaving a
basket of your own.

Plains Indian Parfleches

Saturday and Sunday, August 18, 19
1:00-3:00 pm

Indians of Western North America Hall,
Main Floor

Plains Indians relied on the buffalo for their
subsistence, and travelled constantly to keep
up with the herds. Pottery was too breakable
to be used for food storage, so they made
folded leather containers called parfleches.
Look at some of these bags used by the
Cheyenne, Pawnee, Sioux, and Crow. Make a
parfleche to keep your own travel supplies in,
decorating it with the beautiful geometric
designs used by these tribes.

These features are free with Museum admis-
sion; tickets not required. CONTINUED)

Events

July/August Weekend Programs

CONTINUED FROM PAGE 3

Each Saturday and Sunday you are invited to
explore the world of natural history at Field
Museum. Free tours, demonstrations, and
films related to ongoing exhibits at the
Museum are designed for families and adults.
Listed are only a few of the numerous activi-

July

7 11:30 am. Ancient Egypt (tour). Investigate
the traditions of ancient Egyptian civiliza-
tion from everyday life to mummification
and the promise of an afterlife.

12:30 pm. African Mammals (tour). Exam-
ine the lifestyles of various African mam-
mals and the adaptations they have made to
survive in their harsh environment.

1:30 pm. Disaster at Pompeii (slide lecture/
tour). Explore the civilization of Pompeii be-
fore its devastation by Mt. Vesuvius.

15 1:00 pm. Welcome to the Field (tour). Enjoy
a sampling of our most significant exhibits
as you explore the scope of Field Museum.

21 = 11:00 am. African Mammals (tour). Examine
the lifestyles of various African mammals
and the adaptations they have made to sur-
vive in their harsh environment.

1:30 pm. Red Land/Black Land (tour).

Tour the Egyptian exhibit focusing on the
geography of the Nile Valley and the effect it
had on Egypt.

28 12noon. Disaster at Pompeii (slide lecture/
tour). Explore the civilization of Pompeii be-
fore its devastation by Mt. Vesuvius.

ties available each weekend. Check the
Weekend Passport upon arrival for the com-
plete schedule and program locations. The
programs are partially supported by a grant
from the Illinois Arts Council.

August

4 11:30 am. Ancient Egypt (tour). Investigate
the traditions of ancient Egyptian civiliza-
tion from everyday life to mummification
and the promise of an afterlife.

1:00 pm. Welcome to the Field (tour). Enjoy
a sampling of our most significant exhibits
as you explore the scope of Field Museum.
12 = 2:30 pm. China and the Silk Roads (tour).

Travel the great caravan routes and follow
the course of empires, arts, and faiths.

vw

18 1:30 pm. Treasures from the Totem Forest
(tour). An introduction to the Indians of
British Columbia and southeastern Alaska,
and the totem poles and masks so important
to their cultures.

19 1:00 pm. Welcome to the Field (tour). Enjoy
a sampling of our most significant exhibits
as you explore the scope of Field Museum.

26 1:00 pm. Traditional China (tour). Examine
the timeless imagery and superb craftsman-
ship represented by Chinese masterworks
in our permanent collection.

Books, Business, and Buckskin

by E. Leland Webber
President Emeritus of Field Museum

Assy great American city is the result of the work
of generations of committed visionaries. Some build
only in the industrial and commercial realm. Others
contribute in the nonprofit sector. But the great
builders we usually recall are those who make their

“Books, Business, and Buckskin” is adapted from an address
recently given by E. Leland Webber before Chicago's Fortnightly
Club.

Painting (detail) by
unknown artist of
Edward Ayer in liv-
ing room of his Lake
Geneva home, sur-
rounded by memor-
abilia of his travels
and his beloved
books. Most of his
books are now in
the Newberry
Library. The thou-
sands of archaeo-
logical and ethno-
logical artifacts he
collected in his
world travels are
now for the most
part in the collection
of the Field
Museum.

money in the business world and then through con-
tribution of time or money, or both, work to build the
city outside of their day-to-day business life. In Chi-
cago we quickly think of the University of Chicago

The author and the editor are particularly grateful to the staff of the
Newberry Library for assistance in researching the life of Edward
E. Ayer and for making available previously unpublished photos.
A main source of information on Ayer life was The Life of Edward
E. Ayer, by Frank C. Lockwood, published by A. C. McClurg &
Company, 1929.

and John D. Rockefeller, Walter Newberry of the
Newberry Library, the Field Museum and Marshall
Field, the Museum of Science and Industry and Julius
Rosenwald, and so on across the rich fabric that
makes Chicago one of the world’s great cities.

collectors. Even during his lifetime, the Field
Museum was a principal beneficiary of Edward Ayer’s
zealous collecting — an activity that served to in-
spire many of his contemporaries to do likewise. He is
also to be remembered as a generous donor of funds to

Ayer, left, as a
young man, pos-
sibly in the Utah
quartz mine where
he worked briefly in
1860. Photo cour-
tesy Newberry
Library.

There are also those who don’t leave their name
on an institution, but in some respects have had a
more profound effect on the city than some whose
names have been institutionally perpetuated. So it is
with Edward Everett Ayer, one of the really remark-
able men in our city’s history. A trustee and builder of
the Field Museum, Ayer was one of the world’s great

the Museum. Other Chicago institutions that be-
nefitted from Ayer’s largesse as well as his guidance
include the Newberry Library, the Art Institute of
Chicago, and the Chicago Historical Society.

Ayer was born in Southport, now Kenosha,
Wisconsin in 1841. In 1846 his father, Elbridge Gerry
Ayer, bought 200 acres of land 30 miles west of

Kenosha, and established a combination general store
and blacksmith shop. By the mid-1850s the Chicago
and Northwestern Railroad was building a line
northwest out of Chicago, eventually to reach Wil-
liams Bay, Wisconsin, and beyond. Elbridge Ayer,

pocket, and obtained work sawing wood with a
bucksaw.

Meanwhile, the Civil War had broken out. Cali-
fornia joined the Union and young Ayer enlisted in
August 1861 in the first California unit—a cavalry

Early engraving of Cerro Colorado Mine, near the Mexican border, where Edward Ayer was stationed for several months
during the Civil War.

seeing an opportunity, sold his store and land, bought
400 acres five miles south and in 1856 laid out the
town of Harvard, Illinois. The railroad soon came,
Ayer prospered, and he became a leading citizen of
that rural part of Illinois south of Lake Geneva.

His son, Edward, in the meantime, lived a typi-
cal rural life. He was no student, apparently loathing
the “3 R’s” that were the curriculum of the day; he
attended school only three months or so a year until
he was eleven or twelve. He then worked on the
farm, took wagon trains of grains to Kenosha, and
generally helped his father in business. At 18 he
caught the wanderlust and in April 1860 with his
father’s permission, set out for California. He joined a
wagon train, but left it in Utah to work in a quartz
mine, 11 hours a day for $4, staying only long enough
to save the fare to San Francisco. He arrived there
five months after leaving Illinois, with only 25¢ in his

company—to be sworn into service. By the following
spring, Ayer’s company was assigned to southern Ari-
zona, and Ayer was put in charge of a detail to protect
a mine near the Mexican border. How often fate, or
chance, intervenes in a small incident that may liter-
ally change our lives. This is what happened to Ayer
at the mine. In the small library set up for the use of
mine employees, Ayer came upon William H. Pre-
scott’s The Conquest of Mexico. Until this time, Ayer
had never read a book in his life. He later wrote, “I
read those three volumes of Prescott’s through twice
while I was at the mine. They seemed to open an
absolutely new world to me” What they did was
nothing less than change the course of Ayer’s life—
gave him a love of books, an opening of the intellect,
and coupled with his war travels a life-long love of
the American West and its history.

To emphasize this incident, I shall move the nar-

rative forward about two years: A month after Ayer’s
discharge from the Army, he walked into a Chicago
bookstore and asked for The Conquest of Mexico.
(Ayer had still read no other work.) The bookseller
brought out an 1864 edition in five volumes, contain-
ing not only The Conquest of Mexico but also Pre-

volumes remained his greatest personal treasure.
Now, back to the Southwest and the war. Ayer
spent the next two years in Arizona, New Mexico,
and northern Mexico, and he saw much of the region
from northern Mexico to Santa Fe and Indian pueb-
los. It was life in the saddle, often requiring rides of

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The adobe building at Cerro Colorado Mine, where Ayer was introduced to Prescott's The Conquest of Mexico. The first book
Ayer ever read, he later credited it with radically influencing his life.

scott’s The Conquest of Peru. “How much are they?”
“$17.50”? “What?” Ayer responded. “$17.50? came
the reply. “I’m so disappointed. I didn’t think they
could be more than 50¢ a volume?’ Ayer was desper-
ate; he wanted those books more than he had ever
wanted anything in his life. Finally he said, “My
name is Edward Ayer. I have been four and a half
years on the Plains and in the war three years. I just
got back a month ago after four years among the Indi-
ans. My father has given me a $1,000 interest in his
store at Harvard Junction. I want that first volume
on Mexico awfully bad, and if you will let me have it,
I will pledge myself as a gentleman and economize
and save $3.50 a month, and in five months I will
have paid for the rest.” The bookseller looked at Ayer
a moment and replied “Young man, you can take the
whole set right home with you. Give me $3.50 now
and $3.50 each month until they are paid for.” Of all
the things Ayer later owned in life, those five

several hundred miles, and was one of those periods
in life that was certain either to enchant or repel. En-
chant young Ayer it did; he acquired a life-long
absorption with the West and a passion for travel.
A commission came in 1863, discharge the next
year. The $400 fare back to Chicago, new clothes,
and unexpected delays en route combined to leave
Ayer with $1.80 in his pocket as he arrived in Chi-
cago. A friendly railroad man gave him a pass to Har-
vard, and on July 1, 1864, Lt. Ayer returned home.
Ayer, Sr. gave a one-third interest in his store to
his son, but storekeeping was too confining, and
Edward soon began buying timber lots to supply
cordwood for the wood-burning locomotives of the
Chicago and Northwestern. In a year or two he was
employing 60 or 70 woodchoppers. In 1867 he con-
tracted with the Chicago and Northwestern to sup-
ply 60,000 railroad ties and obtained another con-
tract with the Union Pacific, which was pushing for

a transcontinental tie-up (achieved in 1869). His life’s
work was set and his fortune ensured. By 1871, at the
age of 30, young Ayer was selling almost a million ties
a year, travelling almost incessantly, and spending
nearly half of the nights a year on Pullman sleepers.
Fortunately, Ayer had time for some romance be-

and even Alaska. He also began buying books about
Indians, an interest that expanded to include original
source material — manuscripts, maps, paintings,
drawings, and pamphlets—about the early history of
America. The Indian collection later went to the
Field Museum and the books and associated materials

fore he got into the railway tie business and began his
travels. In September 1865 he married Emma Bur-
bank, a young lady who had been brought up in the
East and was well educated for a woman of that time.
The marriage was of two people with remarkably
similar interests and abilities, and was to last more
than 60 years. Within five years of his marriage, Ayer
was well established in his career and, while not rich,
was well enough off to pay attention to matters other
than railroad ties. About 1871 he went to Denver and
Omaha, where he bought a great deal of Indian bead-
work and garments. In 1880 he again visited the
Plains, saw the striking changes in Indian life and be-
gan urgent collecting of Indian material—from Mex-
ico, the Southwest, the Plains, the Northwest Coast,

Edward E. Ayer in about 1880. He
was already a successful busi-

. nessman. Photo courtesy the
Newberry Library.

to the Newberry Library.
But Ayer was not just a collector of things.
He read his books and he read broadly. While travel-
ling on the Pullman he read omnivorously, seemingly
frantic to make up for the education he had missed.
Shakespeare, Burns, Scott, Thackeray, Dickens,
Cooper, Holmes, Gibbon’s Decline and Fall of the Ro-
man Empire and The Conquest of Granada; Allison’s
History of England in 31 volumes; the Iliad and the
Odyssey; Plutarch’s Lives—all of these acquired be-
fore he was 40 and read as he travelled the rails.
Ayer made a lot of money, but apparently he did
not aspire to immense wealth. He had opportunities
to branch out, to speculate, but he seems to have been
one of those who prefer to do a few things superbly

10

rather than many things well, regardless of the finan-
cial opportunities lost. The following vignettes may
further illuminate the character of the man:

The Mexican Central Railroad, begun in 1881,
was laying track simultaneously southward from El
Paso, Texas and northward from Mexico City, and
for this project Ayer secured a contract for 70,000
ties. He delivered, the ties were selected and
approved by a railroad company representative. But
subsequently the railroad’s chief owner wrote from
Boston to complain of the quality and performance of
the contract. Ayer responded, sending a copy of the
contract and pointing out that the railroad’s own
inspector had approved the ties delivered. He felt
blameless and under no legal obligation, but wrote
that he would honor any draft in adjustment drawn
against him. The draft came through and Ayer paid.
Thereafter, every tie used in the building of the Mex-
ican Central, some six or seven million, was supplied
by Ayer, in addition to lumber for bridge construc-
tion, depots, and other purposes.

In 1882 the Santa Fe Railroad gave Ayer an op-
tion on 87 square miles of land south and west of
Flagstaff, Arizona. He went out to look. The railroad
had stopped at Winslow until a bridge across Canyon
Diablo — an open truss structure 541 feet long and
223 feet high—could be completed. Ayer surveyed

Sawmill built by
Ayer at Flagstaff,
Arizona, in 1882.

the area on horseback and determined that he had to
build a sawmill on the other side of the canyon to
supply ties and telephone poles for completion of the
Mexican Central and the extension of the Santa Fe to
California. Forty-five years later, A.G. Wells, a Santa
Fe vice president wrote:

The erection of the steel (for the bridge over
Canyon Diablo) delayed track laying for six months.
This delay to his operations did not harmonize with
Ed Ayer’s conception or the fitness of things. There
was timber waiting to be cut, and the machinery for
the sawmill on cars at Canyon Diablo. With
characteristic energy Mr. Ayer imported men, teams,
wagons, and commissary, brought his mill stuff
across the canyon, and installed it, and put it into
operation long before the first locomotive whistled
into Flagstaff, and this through a country uninha-
bited and which did not afford a drop of water for
men or mules.

As his drive and integrity increased his wealth,
Edward Ayer had more time to travel, visiting Mex-
ico more than twenty times and travelling constantly
through the Southwest. In the mid-eighties he made
his first trip to Europe, and for the next quarter-
century spent about three months a year abroad.
Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, and eventu-
ally around the world Ayer and his wife went, often
with their friends, the Martin Ryersons, the Charles
Hutchinsons, the Daniel Burnhams, the Wells,

Continued on p. 19

THE SEARCH

For Paleontology’s
Most Elusive Entity:
The Conodont Animal

By Derek E. G. Briggs

uch of the excitement of paleontology lies in

collecting fossils. It is akin to searching for buried

treasure; the bounty beautiful to look at, and
highly coveted by other collectors. Even more exciting 1s
the possibility of discovering something rare or unusual—
perhaps even new to science. If you take your prize speci-
men to the museum for identification, more often than not
the curator will show you a drawer full of them—or at least
produce an illustration in some scientific monograph.
Occasionally, however, you hit the jackpot—like the many
collectors of Mazon Creek* fossils who have generously
donated specimens for scientific study over the years. But
did it ever occur to you that collecting in the field is not the
only way to find fossils new to science? Sometimes, already
found and stored away in museum collections, they may
remain for years before being recognized as previously un-
known. This happens even in the best curated collections
of museums and other research institutions, until some-
body stumbles upon them almost by accident.

Museum collections are not only repositories for
“type” material, those specimens upon which the original
description ofa fossil was based, nor are they just reference
collections to aid in the identification of fossils brought in
by collectors. They are also warehouses, storing important
material until the day when it is needed to test a new idea
or theory, or to yield new information to a different
approach or more advanced technique, or simply until the
manpower is available to go through the time-consuming
processes of preparation, description, and interpretation.

EN eT: 3
‘Mazon Creek is a world-famous fossil occurrence an hour’ drive southwest

of Chicago.

Two unique specimens, central to the development of our
understanding of an important group of microfossils called
conodonts, were discovered in collections in this way.

The origin of these toothlike microfossils has been
one of the longest standing puzzles in paleontology since
they were first reported over 125 years ago. Conodonts
occur in rocks ranging in age from Cambrian (about 520
million years ago) to Triassic, a total span of about 300
million years; they became extinct about 200 million years
ago. They are usually extracted by dissolving limestones
which contain them in acetic acid. The conodonts are
composed of a phosphatic mineral which is more acid-
resistant than the rock and they are picked from the resi-
due by means of a fine brush. During the last 25 years
detailed sampling and documentation have shown that
conodonts evolved relatively rapidly; therefore, they are
good index fossils for correlating rock sequences in differ-
ent areas. That is, they are useful in biostratigraphy. Until
very recently, however, the soft parts of the animal to
which conodonts belonged were unknown. Indeed, Klaus
Miiller of the University of Bonn noted in the revision of
the conodont section of the Treatise on Invertebrate
Paleontology published in 1981 that “The origin of con-
odonts is considered by many paleontologists to be one of
the most fundamental unanswered questions in systematic
paleontology.”

A lack of information regarding the nature of the con-
odont animal has been little hindrance to using conodonts
in correlating rock sequences. For the most part, they
might as well be nuts and bolts, provided each type is con-
fined to a different segment of time as represented in the
rock record. A knowledge of the biology of fossils used in
correlation is useful, however, to provide some indication
of likely controls on their distribution and occurrence in
different sedimentary rocks. In addition, the majority of
paleontologists are interested in evolutionary biology as
well as in biostratigraphy so, as conodonts have become
more useful, speculation about their affinities has in-
creased.

Conodonts were discovered, and documented for
years, as isolated individuals — or elements, as they are
now called. Each type of element was described as a sepa-

Derek Briggs is a principal lecturer in geology and deputy dean of
science and mathematics at Goldsmiths’ College, University of Lon-
don. He recently spent several months at Field Museum under the
Department of Geology’s Visiting Scientist Program, investigating
exceptionally preserved fossil faunas and giant extinct arthropods.

11

12

A selection of conodonts, showing diversity of form. About 17X.

rate species, and a system of classifying these species into
genera, families, and orders was developed. A major
breakthrough in our understanding of conodonts came in
the 1930s with the independent discovery by H. W.
Schmidt in Germany, and Harold Scott at the University of
Illinois, Urbana, of groups of different conodont elements
preserved in a bilaterally symmetrical arrangement. It then
became clear that each conodont animal included an
assemblage of several different elements making up an
apparatus —a number of different conodont species and
genera, as previously defined, actually belonged to the
same organism. These groups were found in black shales—
fine-grained sedimentary rocks laid down in very quiet
water—so that decay of the soft tissues had taken place,
leaving the conodonts in their original position and undis-
turbed by water currents.

This discovery, fifty years ago, that individual con-
odonts were arranged in an apparatus, was the first mile-
stone in the search for the conodont animal and ultimately
led to a change in the method of classifying conodonts;
conodont species are now based on apparatuses rather
than individual elements. The reconstruction of conodont
apparatuses did not, however, provide any clue to the na-
ture of the animal to which they belonged. Conodonts
have been variously attributed to a whole variety of groups,
from plants through a range of minor invertebrate phyla to

the molluscs, annelid worms, lophophorates, arrowworms
(chaetognaths) and vertebrates (including the gill supports
or teeth of different kinds of fish). The difficulty paleontol-
ogists have experienced in finding a taxonomic “home” for
the conodonts emphasizes their uniqueness. Structures
similar to the conodonts are unknown in any living group
of animals.

A second milestone in the search for the conodont
animal seemed at first to confirm that conodonts are a
unique group. In the late 1960s Bill Melton of the Univer-
sity of Montana discovered an extraordinary animal in the
Carboniferous (about 320 million years old) Bear Gulch
Limestone of Montana. The specimens show a long,
flattened, cigar-shaped body with a finlike structure at the
posterior end; in the central part of the animal conodonts
were found. Melton brought his fossil to the first North
American Paleontological Convention (N.A.P.C.), which
was held at the Field Museum in 1969. There it was shown
to Harold Scott who 35 years earlier had described the first
conodont assemblages discovered in North America. Scott
considered that the elusive conodont animal had at last
been found, and his informal announcement was surely
the sensation of the meeting. Believers and skeptics alike
stood in long lines for a view of the fossil under a micro-
scope. One evening during the convention the event was

A Carboniferous conodont apparatus. The comblike elements at the
front are followed by a pair of flat, ‘arched blade’ elements, then a pair
of stout platform elements. About 17X.

Dy
a

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Soe aera

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immortalized in a song composed by Tom Dutro and
Mackenzie Gordon, Jr, of the U.S. Geological Survey:

Ah, sweet mystery of conodonts, I've solved thee!

So you really had a body after all.

It was firm and roly-poly, flat and flabby;

"Twas like a worm, echinoderm, or jelly ball.

Now the guessing game is over and we're certain

You were sexless, winged, six-sided, more or less.

Did a notocord support your velum curtain?

Yes, we're certain you were just a mess!!
Melton and Scott cooperated in studying the Bear Gulch
discovery, but their full description was not published un-
til 1973. They were impressed by linear structures at the

gut

‘ oe a
Sank. & “ s Pico

Se

Montana collections, UM 6027.

front of the animal which they interpreted as a nerve cord
and notostyle, characteristic features of a chordate. They
therefore called the animal a conodontochordate.

Unfortunately the reign of the conodontochordate as
conodont animal was short-lived. Although an alternative
interpretation was suggested by some paleontologists from
the outset, it was left to Simon Conway Morris of the Uni-
versity of Cambridge to restudy the specimens and
demonstrate the true nature of the conodontochordate.
The gut of some of the specimens contained a mixture of
different conodont apparatuses, others included structures
such as possible worm jaws, still others revealed no con-
odonts at all. The conodontochordates had clearly been
feeding’ on conodont animals — surely one of the
most unfortunate examples of carnivory in the annals of
paleontology.

Although the Bear Gulch fossils are not the elusive
conodont animal, their discovery is of outstanding import-
ance nonetheless. They are representatives of a totally dis-
tinct body plan with no living relatives. Melton and Scott

had discovered a new extinct phylum! There is now good
evidence that the major radiation of life in the seas during
late Precambrian and early Cambrian time (around 590
million years ago) gave rise to a great many more phyla
than are present today. Their number was gradually
reduced by extinction through geologic time. Many of
these now extinct early phyla are preserved at a world-
famous fossil locality of middle Cambrian age (ca. 540 mil-
lion years), the Burgess Shale in-southern British Colum-
bia. The locality was discovered by Charles Walcott, secre-
tary of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., in
1909. Walcott’s unrivalled collection of more than 60,000

begs aera Be 2

e

The conodonto-chordate from the Bear Gulch Limestone of Montana. About 2X. Photo by S. Conway Morris. University of

specimens, which was amassed over a period of several
years, is held by the National Museum of Natural History
in Washington. It was while working through Walcott’s
collections that Simon Conway Morris discovered a
unique fossil which was to prove a third milestone in the
hunt for the conodont animal.

The specimen discovered by Conway Morris is a
wide, flat animal about 6 cm long with an annulated, or
ringed, trunk. In the head region a small central horseshoe-
shaped outline around the mouth is defined by cone-
shaped structures which resemble some Cambrian con-
odonts and conodontlike microfossils. Conway Morris
named the animal Odontogriphus, “toothed riddle,” and
suggested that it is an example of a conodont animal. Un-
fortunately no skeletal material has survived and the cones
are preserved only as impressions—their true nature can-
not be determined. Conway Morris interpreted the cone-
shaped structures in Odontogriphus as supports for the soft
tentacles of a feeding device, or lophophore, around the
mouth. Odontogriphus may belong with other groups

13

14

which have a lophophore such as the bryozoans (moss-
animals) and brachiopods (lampshells).

True conodonts, or euconodonts, do not appear in
the fossil record until the upper Cambrian (about 520 mil-
lion years ago), after Odontogriphus. Two similar groups of

mouth of Odontogriphus remained uncertain the possibility
of a relationship to true conodonts could not be verified.

The search for the true conodont animal was still on, and
the likelihood was that it would look different from
Odontogriphus.

microfossils, protoconodonts, and paraconodonts, appear
earlier than Odontogriphus in the late Precambrian (about
600 million years ago). Both are essentially simple cones,
but Stefan Bengtson of the University of Uppsala has
shown that they can be distinguished from each other and
from true conodonts by their microstructure and the way
they grow. Paraconodonts may be ancestral to true cono-
donts, but protocondonts are different. Thus, as long as
the nature of the cone-shaped structures around the

x

Walcott Quarry, the world-famous Cambrian fossil locality in Yoho National Park,
British Columbia. Mt. Wapta (2,779 m) in background. Photo by D. Briggs.

The fourth and most recent milestone in the search
for the conodont animal was the discovery of a specimen in
the collections of the Institute of Geological Sciences in
Edinburgh, Scotland. The Scottish animal, like Odonotog-
riphus, awaited discovery in an existing collection, and
both are known only from single specimens, but there the
similarity ends. Euan Clarkson of the University of Edin-
burgh and I have been working for several years on well
preserved fossil shrimps from the Carboniferous (about

340 million years old) of southern Scotland. One of our
localities is actually within the boundaries of the city of
Edinburgh, along the Firth of Forth at Granton. Here a
thin unit of laminated limestone yields a variety of
shrimps, one of which, Waterstonella, is abundant and

pair of flat ‘arched-blade’ elements and finally a group of
eight to ten comblike elements which were normally con-
sidered to lie at the rear. In our animal the sequence is
reversed, the comblike elements are first, followed by a
pair of arched-blade elements, one on each of the opposing

lophophore

annulations

Reconstruction by S. Conway Morris of Odontogriphus from Walcott Quarry, Yoho National
Park, British Columbia, showing lophophore around mouth, with tentacles supported by

about 25 cone-shaped structures. About 1.7X.

known only from this immediate area. In addition to the
shrimps we have found branching organisms (which are
probably hydroids), worms, and rare nautiloids and fish.
The conodont animal specimen came to light while Clark-
son was searching the collections from the same locality in
the Institute of Geological Sciences for well preserved
shrimps and examples of the other animals which occur
with them. It wasn’t immediately obvious what had been
found, but the wormlike fossil which had probably been
collected by a survey geologist, D. Tait, in the 1920s, clear-
ly was not a shrimp.

Although the specimen is 40 mm (1.6”) long, it is
only 2 mm wide, so the details only became apparent
under a microscope. It is easy to distinguish front from
rear, however, as along the margin at one end are a row of
parallel lines which clearly must have been some kind of
rays that supported fins. At the anterior end are the con-
odont elements, just behind two lobes flanking the mouth.

Complete assemblages of conodont elements of
about this age were well known long before the Edinburgh
discovery. Was the arrangement in the soft-bodied fossil
the same? Most Carboniferous apparatuses are made up of
a pair of stout elements known as platforms, followed by a

slabs (part and counterpart) which separated to reveal the
fossil. The platforms were not obvious, however, although
the broken ends of two structures were evident in about
the expected position. Could we demonstrate that a nor-
mal apparatus was present? Very early one spring morning
in 1982, shortly after I first saw the specimen, I trimmed a
fine paint brush down to one or two bristles and, working
with a microscope, applied a tiny drop of weak acid around
the poorly exposed conodont elements, painstakingly
removing grains of the surrounding matrix with a needle.
It proved possible to expose sufficient of the conodont to
show, without doubt, that they were indeed the expected
platforms, although precisely which species they belong to
remains uncertain. Clarkson and I had an apparatus in the
expected position at the front of the specimen!

The evidence was good, but two other possibilities
had to be eliminated before we could be confident that we
had indeed found the long-sought conodont animal.
Could the presence of the conodonts be simply the result
of an accidental superimposition—a conodont animal ly-
ing on top of some other wormlike fossil? This seems un-
likely; there is no sign of the outline of another creature,
and the apparatus is complete and in the expected position

15

16

at the front of the animal. If the conodonts have not been
superimposed could they perhaps have been eaten? (That,
after all, was the fate of the conodonts found in the ‘con-
odontochordate’ animal from Montana.) Specimens of fish
choking on their prey are known from the fossil record,
although such examples of terminal gluttony are very rare.

» ts

There is, in addition, no sign of prey projecting out of the
mouth of the Scottish fossil and the chances of such an
occurrence getting preserved must be remote. The
possibility that the Edinburgh fossil represents either a
chance association or a predator eating prey is therefore
minimal, but only the discovery of a second specimen can
completely rule out either.

Euan Clarkson and I asked Dick Aldridge of the Uni-

versity of Nottingham, an expert on conodonts, to help us

The Edinburgh conodont animal. About 5X. Photo by J.K. Ingham.

with the detailed study of the apparatus. Paleontologists
like Aldridge who work on conodonts (conodontologists as
they are sometimes called), have long suffered a kind of
identity crisis when faced with the question of what they
work on! Would the Edinburgh specimen provide any
solution to their problem? The conodont animal is clearly

—

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ae
“| axiatling :

‘4

not related to either Melton and Scott's conodon-
tochordate or to Odontogriphus. It shows striking similari-
ties to the classic primitive chordate, a little animal called
the lancelet, or amphioxus: the flattened elongate body, the
trunk divisions, a median line which might be a nerve cord
or notochord (characteristic chordate features), and the
fins. But chordates are not the only animals with a similar
suite of characters. A group of small swimming marine

invertebrates, the chaetognaths, or arrowworms, are also

elongate and flattened and have fins. Arrowworms even
have a median mesentery which divides the body into two
halves and might be represented by the axial line in the
conodont animal. And arrowworms have an array of
grasping spines in the head region which are very similar to
those in Cambrian protoconodonts (although, as already
pointed out, protoconodonts may not be related to true
conodonts).

Is it possible to decide between a chordate or
chaetognath affinity for the conodont animal? Primitive
chordates are eellike, laterally flattened with vertical fins,
whereas arrowworms are dorso-ventrally flattened with
lateral fins. But it is impossible to reconstruct an extinct
animal in three-dimensions on the basis of a single com-
pacted specimen. As a swimming creature with fins, the
conodont animal was almost certainly flattened in life, but
laterally or dorso-ventrally? — we cannot be sure. The
biggest problem of all in determining the relationship of
the conodont animal is the conodont elements themselves.
Conodonts are unique—if there were any obviously sim-
ilar structure in a living group there would not have been
the wide-ranging debate about conodont affinities, a de-
bate which reached no satisfactory conclusion in over 100
years. Since our work on the Edinburgh specimen was
published, early in 1983, the commentators (in print) have
fallen into two groups—Stefan Bengtson of the University
of Uppsala considers arguments for an affinity to the
chaetognaths strengthened; Phillippe Janvier of the Uni-
versity of Paris and Keith Rigby Jr. of Notre Dame Univer-

oe: P : Se
Head of the conodont animal, showing the conodont apparatus as
preserved on the slab opposing that shown in photo on page 16 be-
fore preparation in order to reveal the platform elements more clearly.
About 23X. Photo by J. K. Ingham.

ee

sity independently favor a chordate relationship. The evi-
dence for either assignment is inconclusive. Conodont ele-
ments remain unique to the conodont animal, and we pre-
fer until we have evidence to the contrary, to place the

grasping
spines

trunk anterior lateral fins

posterior lateral fins

median mesentery

gonads

tail fin

head

trunk divisions

(myomeres) gonads

ventral fin

Diagrams illustrating features of two groups which show similarities to the conodont animal. Top: The arrowworm
Sagitta, ventral view. About 2.6X. Bottom: The chordate amphioxus, left anterior view, with a central portion cut
away to reveal internal features. About 5X.

17

conodont animal in its own separate phylum. Others also
favor our interpretation: David Clark of the University of
Wisconsin preferred phylum Conodonta in the 1981 revi-
sion of the conodont section of the Treatise on Invertebrate
Paleontology which predated our discovery, and Stephen
Jay Gould of Harvard University has endorsed our view in

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a= ag

Pats. 2 —s

and alternative functions cannot be ruled out. What we
need are more specimens.

Study of the microscopic structure of the laminated
limestones in which the conodont animal was found has
revealed that they were formed as stromatolites, layers of
sediment-trapping algae, probably in a highly saline inter-

Thin-section of limestone from Granton, Edinburgh, which yielded the conodont animal. The rock was formed as a
stromatolite; the dark bands are organic rich and represent layers of algae, which helped to bind the intervening
layers of lime-rich mud. The light-colored ‘speckles, most frequent in a central band, were created by voids caused
by trapped gas bubbles, which formed as some of the organic material decayed. About 5.7X. Photo by T. Easter.

a recent article in Natural History (July 1983).

Harold Scott, as already noted, announced the Mon-
tana ‘conodontochordate’ at the first N.A.P.C. in 1969 at
the Field Museum. I made the first announcement of the
Edinburgh conodont animal on the American side of the
Atlantic at the third N.A.P.C. in 1982 in Montreal. My talk
was a last-minute addition to an appropriate symposium
on problematic fossils which, coincidentally, was orga-
nized by Matthew Nitecki, curator of fossil invertebrates at
Field Museum. The wheel had turned almost full circle.
More evidence is required to allow a full restoration of the
conodont animal and confirm its biological position. We
interpret the conodont elements as teeth—the comblike
elements for grasping, the arched-blade elements for
shearing or cutting, the platforms for grinding —but the

details of food capture and processing need clarification

tidal environment. Although this has provided conditions
suitable for the preservation of the soft parts of the animal,
it is an unusual place to find conodonts. They normally
occur in rocks of more open marine origin. A search of
existing collections from the locality has failed to turn up
any more specimens of the conodont animal. Dissolving
the limestone in acid yields relatively few isolated con-
odont elements. Dick Aldridge has a grant from the British
Natural Environment Research Council to investigate the
conodonts from the Edinburgh locality further His
research includes collecting from what little outcrop re-
mains in the original area and splitting layer by layer in
search of more specimens. Up to this time none has come
to light, and until one does, either in Edinburgh or else-
where, many of our conclusions regarding the elusive con-

odont animal will remain unproven. FM

AYER continued from p. 10

Wheelers, and Blairs. And gradually, the trips be-
came the vehicle for collecting, collecting, collecting.

By 1893 the Columbian Exposition had come to
Chicago. One of the features of the exposition was
great collections—ethnology, natural history, miner-
als, gems—probably finer collections than had ever

before been brought together for a fair. Included was
Ayer’s Indian collection. Ayer and others began to
talk of securing the exhibited material for a new
museum of natural history — an opportunity that
would never again present itself and must not be
allowed to pass. Ayer wrote:

Of course Marshall Field was the richest man
we had among us in those days, so during our fishing
trips and on social occasions when I would meet Mr.
Field, I began to talk to him (and others did, too)
about giving a million dollars to start with. He al-
ways responded, ‘I don’t know anything about a
museum and I don’t care to know anything about a
museum. I’m not going to give you a million dollars?

Finally it was only a month until the fair’s clos-
ing and the group decided to give up, raise what
money and buy what they could, and distribute the
material to the new University of Chicago, North-
western University, the University of Illinois, and
Beloit College. A friend wrote Ayer, asking if he

Edward E. Ayer in his fifties.
Photo courtesy the Newberry
Library.

would not see Marshall Field once more. To return to
Ayer’s words:
I wrote back that I would do so, but that I did
not believe it would do an atom of good.
The next morning I was in Mr. Field’s office
when he arrived at about half past nine. I said:
“Marshall Field, I want to see you tonight after
dinner.”
“You can’t do it; he replied, “I have a dinner
party and shall be late”
“Well, the next night?”
“No, I have another engagement then”
“Well I have to see you right away; it is
important.’
“You want to talk to me about that darned
museum, was his reply to this.

19

20

“Yes” I admitted.
“How much time do you want?”
I replied, “If I can’t talk you out of a million
dollars in fifteen minutes, I’m no good, nor you
either.”

He got up, closed the door, came back, and said,
“Fire ahead”

I commenced in this way, “Marshall Field, how
many men or women twenty-five years of age or
younger know that A.T. Stewart ever lived?”

“Not one?’ he replied.

I continued, “Marshall Field, he was a greater
merchant than you, or Claflin, or Wanamaker,
because he originated and worked out the scheme
that made you all rich; and he is forgotten in twenty-
five years. Now, Marshall Field, you can sell dry
goods until Hell freezes over; you can sell it on the ice
until that melts; and in twenty-five years you will be
just the figure A.T: Stewart is—absolutely forgotten.
You have an opportunity here that has been vouch-
safed to very few people on earth. From the point of
view of natural history you have the privilege of be-
ing the educational host to the untold millions of

people who will follow us in the Mississippi Valley.
I talked fast and steady. Finally, he took out his
watch and said, “You have been here forty-five min-
utes—you get out of here”
I replied, “Marshall Field, you have been better
to me than you ever have been before; you have al-
ways said No, and you haven’t this time—yet. Now I

Mrs. Edward E. Ayer

want you to do me a personal favor: I want you to go
through this World’s Fair with me and let me show
you the amount of material that is there —I mean
exactly what there is that can be used in a natural
history museum; for the collections can be gotten
very cheap, much of the material for nothing. I want
you to go through the World’s Fair with me before
you say No.”

“Well, Ed? he replied, “I should like to go
through with you. George Pullman told me you had
shown him through and that he had been astounded
himself at the quantity of material that was there.
My brother Joe is here and I should like to have you
go with us. We will do it tomorrow morning at ten
o'clock?

We went through the whole exhibition. When

we came out a little before one o’clock, I said, “Can
Norman Ream and I come to your office tomorrow
morning at half-past nine and see you about this
matter?”

“ ”

Yes” he answered.

We were there promptly, and he gave the mil-

lion dollars with which to start the Museum.

—a practice which continued for decades. The Ayer
ornithological library at Field Museum is today one
of the finest in the country.

In 1894 Mr. and Mrs. Ayer booked a trip to the

Near East, travelling with the Lyman Gages, neigh-
bors of the Ayers, and the Daniel Burnhams. A stop-

Ayer's Chicago home at
the corner of State and
Banks streets. The exterior
was constructed of granite
boulders from the fields
where he had roamed as a
boy. The photo was taken
in 1918, but the house
remains there today.

Ayer was elected the first president of Field
Museum, beginning a devotion to the institution that
continued until his death in 1927. He collected con-
stantly in his travels. The first of more than 100 acces-
sions of the Museum, secured by or as the gift of Ayer,
was his Indian collection, one of the finest of that
time. The next gift was his ornithological library,
containing nearly all of the great volumes of colored
bird plates. And joy of a librarian’s joy, he ordered
that anything necessary be bought and charged to him

over in Cairo captivated Ayer and he promptly
dropped out of the party to spend several weeks
collecting in Egypt for the Museum.

March 26, 1894. Shepheards Hotel, Cairo. “Dear

Skiff (the Director), I have purchased about 20
mummies, all the mummy shoes, 25 canopic jars, a lot
of wooden and stone images ... and the best lot of
Greek and Roman bronzes that I believe ever left
Egypt?”

The curator of the Anthropology Department,

George A. Dorsey, did not welcome the material, or

22

=

fe.

Excavating the tomb chapel of Unis-ankh, one of two acquired for Field Museum by Ayer during his 1908 trip to Egypt.
(See photo opposite.) 48660

Ayer, when they returned. He had no interest in wish you would please see the trustees personally, or
building an Egyptian collection. But Ayer, as pre- a majority of them, and get permission and if they
sident, thought differently. On through the years he CODEEE Ss Sik te vite dees of them, cable me here, ...
bought. He must have converted Dorsey. salar ie ae
: : The answer was “Yes” and today two fine tomb
February 9, 1908. The Egyptian Hotel, Cairo. chapels are on exhibition in Field Museum. There is

“Dear Mr. Skiff: Dorsey made connections here all
right and is having the time of his life. We have
bought about $2,500 worth and, of course, have got

nothing like them in this country outside the Metro-
politan Museum of Art and probably nowhere else in

good things. This thing is drawing to a close fast and this hemisphere. Through all these years, Ayer did
every year things get scarcer and higher, and it is very the buying of Egyptian material himself, by his own
necessary that I have at least $3,000 more. I believe I admission totally untrained. Yet it is a superb collec-
can get a very fine tomb from the government now tion — one of the finest in the country. “He had a

for about that money and in a very short time no great eye. He knew what was good” commented
money could buy one. | expect they will thoroughly

exoavate one wesw yesterday. whileswe are up the Ruth Butler, the former curator of the collection of

Nile, so we can see it all and I feel, and so, of course, the Newberry Library.
does Dorsey, that it is imperative that we buy it. I In 1899 Ayer resigned as president of the Field

The tomb chapel of Unis-ankh as it may be seen today in Hall J.

Museum because of an unexplained “difference in
policy with one of my fellow trustees” But the mea-
sure of the man comes through in his letter of resigna-
tion in which he stated, “I hope that you will not for
one moment imagine that I have lost faith or interest
in our beloved museum. Individuals and their actions
are unimportant. The Museum is one of the very
great ones of the world, and is here to stay. ...I love
the Museum from A to Z and always shall be as inter-
ested in its growth and as gratified at its prosperity as
Mr. Field himself, and shall always do all I can to
improve it and further its interests”

And he was true to his word. His loyalty and
generosity to the Museum continued until his death.

Meanwhile, Ayer had continued to build his
collection of source material on Indians and Western
Americana. He became a trustee of the Newberry
Library in the 1890s. In 1898 the Ayers were in
Venice when the Spanish American War and news of
the Battle of Manila broke out. He immediately
wrote to his agents in Europe, South America, and
North America, asking for lists of everything they
had on the Philippines, whether printed or in manu-
script. Within weeks after his return to Chicago he
was possessor of the largest private collection of
material on the Philippines in North America. He
added through the years. Today the Ayer Philippine

books ahd manuscripts are at the Newberry. The
incredible thing about it is that Ayer was frank that
he knew next to nothing about the Philippines until
Dewey took Manila. But if it was important to the
United States it was important enough for Edward
E. Ayer.

Mr. Ayer later became a member of the U.S.
Board of Indian Commissioners.

I had some fear, as I read and looked through
letters and manuscripts of what I would find, because
the board and other federal agencies dealing with na-
tive Americans have not earned themselves high re-
gard in the minds of many, including most Indians.
But my fears were unfounded. His sensitivity to the
Indians and the moral questions of our treatment of
them are clear and unequivocal. In 1892 he wrote,
“Our government’s treatment of its Indian wards
have (sic) been almost as bad as any; treaty after
treaty made only to be broken; scarcely an agreement
left in 400 years; certainly very few in our day....I
served during the war of the rebellion in New Mex-
ico and Arizona for three years. Every Indian was
hostile from California to Mississippi; or nearly so,
and we had a hard time of it. Of course, I came in
contact with tribes of Indians that every man’s hand
had been against for over 300 years and they hated us.
I don’t think any one hated an Indian worse than I or

23

knew less of the subject. Since I have commenced to
read about him, and put myself in his place, my views
have changed very materially. We have simply
destroyed a great race of human beings, in many of
the virtues our superiors. ...”

In 1915 he wrote to Mrs. Edwin Winter of New
York City when sending her a report on the Meno-
minee Reservation in Wisconsin, “An island has
been described as a body of land surrounded by water.
An Indian reservation has been described as a body of
land owned and occupied by Indians and surrounded
by thieves.” To outwit the thieves he established a
sawmill on the Menominee Reservation so that the
Indians could profit from their own resource. It is
hard for us today, familiar as we are with the cause of
Indian rights, to realize what extraordinary senti-
ments these were in Ayer’s time.

With all of his travels, Ayer was first and last a
Chicagoan. He lived for years at State and Banks
Streets, but early in his career he bought 12 acres of
land on Lake Geneva’s south shore. He had spent
much time at the lake as a boy, swimming and fishing
in it and hiking the surrounding forests. He later
added about 1,000 acres. On the shore he built a cot-
tage and in the woodlands a series of roads and paths.
It was on Lake Geneva that he spent the happiest
days of his life, with his family and friends and the
accumulated memorabilia of a lifetime of travel.

The Ayers’ closest friends seem to have been the
Charles Hutchinsons—he was president of the Art
Institute for 41 years, the Martin Ryersons — he
served on the University of Chicago Board for 30
years, and the Daniel Burnhams. I’ve looked at the
correspondence to and from these friends. The
warmth and sentiment expressed in these letters is of
a nature almost unknown today. And it extended
beyond his immediate close circle. Stanley Field
wrote, “You of all the men I know, have learned how
to get the most out of life”

To Julius Rosenwald Ayer wrote, “If I had 10
sons and each of them had 10 sons my greatest wish
would be that each of them would be like you”
Rosenwald’s response, “It makes life worth living to
have bestowed upon one such cordial and whole
souled friendship as I receive from you. If I merit one
half of it, I shall feel like patting myself on the back”
At one of Mr. Ayer’s birthday celebrations Rosen-

24 wald appeared at the door, threw his arm around his

friend and said, “Edward, I love you. I want to give
you a birthday gift — $25,000 which I want you to
spend for what you think best for the Field Museum”
That fund still remains one of the Field Museum
endowment funds.

The record shows that Ayer in turn made major
gifts to the University of Chicago in honor of Martin
Ryerson, to the Art Institute in honor of Charles
Hutchinson.

The character of Edward Ayer was best summed
up in a fiftieth wedding anniversary note from Emma
Ayer to her husband on September 7, 1915. One might
hold a wife’s writings suspect, but they reflect the
writings of others that I read many times over. She
wrote, “Each year lived with you has deepened my
love and increased my respect and admiration for
you. I have discovered in these years in you qualities
of mind and heart I did not know you possessed when
we set out to travel life’s path together. In you I have
found tenderness to those you love, loyal devotion to
friends, strict uprightness in your business relations, a
fine and correct artistic taste for all that is beautiful,
courage and patience in bearing pain....”

What do we make of a life such as Edward
Everett Ayer’s? What does it mean to us today, 57
years after his death? To put it into perspective, I
think that we have to go back in time.

The city was smaller and concentrated. There
was no green belt of corporate headquarters around
Chicago. Luncheon at the Chicago Club con-
centrated the business and professional power of the
city in one building. Living was less dispersed. Sum-
mer at Lake Geneva brought most of the well known
names of the city together year after year. Travel by
train and by ship was slow and companionable.

These people loved their city and its institu-
tions. In April 1903 Mr. Ayer wrote Director Skiff
from Venice about some Etruscan frescoes and other
objects he had purchased: “... nothing of the kind
ever found before and it makes them very fine for our
dear museum. ...” Now imagine anyone talking about
a “dear museum” today! In 1911 he wrote Stanley
Field from Algiers, “I have your somewhat dis-
couraged letter of April 21. You certainly have had
many trials in connection with our city. But you also
have the love, confidence, and gratitude of all your
associates in the grand work and of course the final
outcome will be one of the great museums of the

world and all of the untold millions that come after us
will be provided with a chance to become conversant
with the sciences. So you can readily see how much
you are coming out ahead”

Three years later Martin Ryerson wrote Stanley
Field from Rome that Ayer had left photos of some
bronzes with him when Ayer left for Sicily and had
asked Ryerson to follow through. Ryerson wrote
“The bronzes look to me like important pieces which
we should have in our collection. I think Mr. Ayer
counts on being able to pay for them by subscription
without burdening the budget of the Museum”

In Chicago, in Lake Geneva, in North Africa,
and Rome, on the train to New York, their thoughts
and their conversation was on the Field Museum, the
Art Institute, the Newberry, and the University of
Chicago. Their enthusiasm might today be thought a
bit provincial or naive. Today, even families spend lit-

tle time together, much less friends. If friends travel
together the couples sit across the aisle from each
other on a 747, not in deck chairs or Pullman cars.
Our corporate offices are spread from Oakbrook to
Waukegan and corporate leaders move from job to
job and from city to city like members of the consular
corps.

No exercise in nostalgia will bring back the past,
but the past and those who lived it can teach us what
it is that builds great and liveable cities—and what
keeps them great. We have a Chicago today that
needs thoughtful and considered dedication.

A look at the life of Edward Everett Ayer and his
friends who built Chicago may give us pause and may
move us to commit just a bit of our time and our trea-
sure to Chicago. As Ayer wrote to Stanley Field in
1911, you can readily see how much we will come
out ahead. FIM

25

nO

On

TOURS FOR MEMBERS

a ~ PP

Peru's fabled “lost city” of Machu Picchu.

Archaeological Tour of Peru
And of La Paz, Bolivia

October 7 to 24
$3,195

Discover the cultural and natural
diversity of Peru (and a little

bit of Bolivia too), under the
guidance of a Field Museum
archaeologist/anthropologist who
has lived and worked in that
country. Tour participants will
be drawn into the fascinating,
seemingly alien world of the orig-
inal inhabitants of the South
American continent by walking
among the ruins of their once-
great cities. Our leader will help
you experience much more than
what is encountered by the con-
ventional sightseer as you view
the incredible wonders of ancient
Cuzco, Colonial Lima, and the

Inca ruins of Puruchuco. An over-
night excursion to the famous
“lost city” of Machu Picchu, as
well as a visit to the Chinchero
Sunday market will be a memor-
able weekend.

An added bonus will be our
pioneering two-day stop at the
recently discovered archaeological
site in the Moquegua Valley in
which Field Museum will play
a major research role. We'll com-
plete our tour with a visit to Boli-
via, a hydrofoil ride across Lake
Titicaca, and a visit to the city of
La Paz. Here we'll tour the near-
by ruins of the Tiahuanaco
civilization. We invite you to join
us and to get an insider's view of
the past and present.

Our tour leader will be Dr.
Robert A. Feldman, research
archaeologist for the Field

Hermann C. Bowersox

Museum Ancient Irrigation
Project and currently director of
“Programa Contisuyu. He has
done field work in the U.S. and
Peru. Before joining the Field
Museum project, Dr. Feldman
conducted excavations at a 4,000-
year-old fishing village on the
Peru coast, uncovering some of
the earliest monumental archi-
tecture in South America.

Ancient Capitals
Of China

September 22 to October 13
$3,550

We are pleased to again offer our
unique itinerary for China, with
the addition of a two-day visit to
Wuxi and Nanjing and a Grand
Canal cruise from Wuxi to
Suzhou. This program also

TOURS FOR MEMBERS

includes the most significant sites
of early Imperial China and will
provide an opportunity to
explore in depth the civilization
which characterized one of the
oldest and longest-lived societies
on earth.

Following our direct flight
from Chicago to Tokyo, where we
will spend the night, we will visit
Beijing for three days, then to
Xian for three days. Successive
points in the itinerary then
include Luoyang, Zhengzhou,
Kaifeng, Nanjing, Wuxi, Suzhou,
and Shanghai.

Mr. Phillip H. Woodruff,
Ph.D. candidate in Chinese his-
tory at the University of Chicago,
will be our guest lecturer. Mr.
Woodruff has recently returned

China Tour, Sept. 22 to October 13.

to Chicago after two years of
research at Beijing University.
His experience of living in China,
his fluency in Chinese, and excel-
lent rapport with the Chinese
guides are a superb supplement
to his leadership skills. This is the
fifth China tour he has led for
Field Museum.

Kenya

September 8 to 27
$3,595

You are invited to join us for an
exciting 19-day safari to East Afri-
ca accompanied throughout by
Audrey Faden, experienced lec-
turer and tour guide, plus local
guides. Game is still plentiful and

pier

%,

Stanton R. Cook, courtesy Chicago Tribune

oe
? Ne

Kenya Tour, September 8-27.

this tour is scheduled to coincide
with the animal migration. It will
be Spring in Kenya. The time to
go is now! A trip to Kenya isa
vacation that never ends. We
hope you will make your reserva-
tion now.

Start planning now for...

Tour of Egypt
February, 1985

If you wish to be placed on the
mailing list for this perennially
popular tour, or if you have ques-
tions about any of the other
tours, please write or call Tours
Manager Dorothy Roder, Field
Museum, Roosevelt Rd. at Lake
Shore Dr., Chicago, Il 60605.
Phone: 322-8862.

27

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| 0017195-00

Miss Marita Maxey
741i N Greenview
Chicago. IL 60626

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Field Museum
of Natural History
Bulletin

Published by

Field Museum of Natural History
Founded 1893

President: Willard L. Boyd
Director: Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.

Editor: David M. Walsten
Production Liaison: Pamela Stearns
Staff Photographer: Ron Testa

BOARD OF TRUSTEES

James J. O’Connor
chairman

Mrs. T. Stanton Armour

George R. Baker

Robert O. Bass

Gordon Bent

Bowen Blair

Willard L. Boyd

Frank W. Considine

Stanton R. Cook

William R. Dickinson, Jr.

Thomas E. Donnelley II

Thomas J. Eyerman

Marshall Field

Richard M. Jones

Hugo J. Melvoin

Leo F. Mullin

Charles F. Murphy, Jr.

Earl L. Neal

Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.

Robert A. Pritzker

James H. Ransom

John S. Runnells

Patrick G. Ryan

William L. Searle

Edward Byron Smith

Robert H. Strotz

Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken

E. Leland Webber

Blaine J. Yarrington

Lire TRUSTEES

Harry O. Bercher
Joseph N. Field
Clifford C. Gregg
William V. Kahler
William H. Mitchell
John W. Sullivan

J. Howard Wood

Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin (USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined
July/August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive,
Chicago, Il. 60605. Subscriptions: $6.00 annually, $3.00 for schools. Museum membership
includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not neces-
sarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Museum
phone: (312) 922-9410. Notification of address change should include address label and be sent to
Membership Department. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural His-
tory, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, II. 60605. ISSN:0015-0703. Second class

postage paid at Chicago, Il.

CONTENTS

September 1984
Volume 55, Number 8

September Events at Field Museum 3
William Duncan Strong and the Rawson-MacMillan
Subarctic Expedition of 1927-1928 5
by James W. VanStone

Curator of North American Archaeology and Ethnology
Field Briefs 11
Pill Millipedes from the Coal Age 12
by Joe Hannibal

What Museums Are Good For a
by Rudolph H. Weingartner

Field Museum Tours 26
COVER

Scene in Warren Woods, Michigan. Photo by William Burger.

Events

The Caribbean Connection

with Clemente Steel Band,
The Rafo International Combo, and
Take One Reggae Band

Saturday, September 29
1:00-4:00pm
Stanley Field Hall

The cultural lure of African music has had

a pervasive effect in America—from the
founding of jazz and blues to laying the
groundwork for rock and roll. There is a pur-
ity and durability in this music that proudly
carries its heritage, paying homage to time-
honored values. The Caribbean Connection
is a celebration of West African musical
traditions that have reemerged in the Carib-
bean Islands—Trinidad, Haiti, Jamaica,
Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Dominican
Republic.

Listen to the pulsating rhythms of the
Clemente Steel Band, a truly unique group
that performs with instruments made’
from 55-gallon oil drums. Steel drum
bands originated in Trinidad and are now
common throughout the Caribbean.

Dance to the music of Haitian musician
Rafael St. Vil and his group The Rafo Interna-
tional Combo. This group performs a variety
of material including calypso, salsa, cumbias,
compa (the traditional music of Haiti), and
mambo. Rafo seeks out the connection be-
tween Brazilian salsa, American jazz, and
Haitian compa.

Share the experience of “a people’s
music” with Chicago’s Take One Reggae
Band. Reggae music plays a central role in
Jamaica’s history, religion, and politics. It
evolved from Caribbean calypso and ska
music from the 60s.

These performances are offered in con-
junction with Field Museum’s special exhibit,
African Insights: Sources for Afro-American

Paul Hansen

The Rafo International Combo, with The Caribbean Connection,
September 29

Art and Culture. This exhibit presents over
70 pieces from the Museum’s major African
collection. These pieces help the viewer
understand the influence of African culture
as it moved through the slave trade into the
Americas.

African Insights is partially supported by
the Illinois Humanities Council. This program
is free with Museum admission, tickets are
not required.

Family Feature
September

Fall Foliage: A Pressing Matter
Saturday and Sunday, Sept. 15, 16
1:00 to 3:00pm

Plants of the World Hall, 2nd Floor

This program is free with Museum admis-
sion, tickets are not required. Illinois is home
to a wide variety of trees and at no time are
they more beautiful than in the fall. Examine
leaves from many different kinds of local
trees. Find out how to identify trees using
their leaves. See how leaf samples from
around the world are pressed by the botan-
ists at Field Museum. Finally, press some
leaves and make a leaf-identification note-
book of your own.

CONTINUED: >

CONTINUED FROM PAGE 3

September Weekend Programs

Each Saturday and Sunday you are invited to explore the world of natural history at Field
Museum. Free tours, demonstrations, and films related to ongoing exhibits at the Museum

are designed for families and adults. Listed are only a few of the numerous activities available
each weekend. Check the Weekend Passport upon arrival for the complete schedule and pro-
gram locations. The programs are partially supported by a grant from the Illinois Arts Council.

September
1 12:00 noon. Continents Adrift (lecture/
demonstration). Discover why fossils of
similar dinosaur species have been
found on continents separated by vast
oceans.

2 1:00 pm. Welcome to the Field (tour).
Enjoy a sampling of our most significant
exhibits as you explore the scope of
Field Museum.

8 1:00 pm. Red Land/Black Land (tour).
Tour the Egyptian exhibit , focusing on
the geography of the Nile Valley and the
effect it had on Egypt.

1:30 pm. People of the Long House (slide
lecture). Examine the Iroquois: the con-
tinuity of their culture, their rela-
tionships with Europeans, and their
survival with both adaptability and
grace.

9 12:30 pm. Museum Safari (tour). Seek
out shrunken heads from the Amazon,
mummies from ancient Egypt, and big
game from Africa.

15 11:30 am. Ancient Egypt (tour). Investi-
gate the traditions of ancient Egyptian
civilization from everyday life to
mummification and the promise of an
afterlife.

16 1:00 pm. The Brontosaurus Story (tour).
Look at some of the newest discoveries
about the “thunder lizard” and other
larger dinosaurs.

1:00 pm. Welcome to the Field (tour).
Enjoy a sampling of our most significant
exhibits as you explore the scope of
Field Museum.

22 1:00 pm. Ancient Egyptians (tour). View
ancient Egyptian artifacts from Pre-
dynastic times to Cleopatra.

23 12:30 pm. Museum Safari (tour). Seek
out shrunken heads from the Amazon,
mummies from ancient Egypt, and big
game from Africa.

29 12:00 noon. Treasures from the Totem
Forest (tour). An introduction to the In-
dians of British Columbia and south-
eastern Alaska, and the totem poles and
masks so important to their cultures.

23 2:00 pm. Traditional China (tour).
Examine the timeless imagery and
superb craftsmanship represented by
Chinese masterworks in our permanent
collection.

These weekend programs are free with
Museum admission and tickets are not
required.

Edward E. Ayer Film Lectures

Travel the world on Thursdays in September
at 1:30 p.m. in James Simpson Theatre.
Admission is free. Doors open at 12:45 p.m.
Members please bring membership card for
priority seating privilege.

September 6 “Bavaria—Magnificent
World of the Mountain
King,”

with Howard and Lucia
Meyers

“China,”

with Ray Green

“Black Hills...Mystic
Mountains of the Plains,”
with Allen King

“Wales and the Lakes of
England,”

with Ken Lawrence

September 13

September 20

September 27

William Duncan Strong
and

the Rawson-MacMillan
Subarctic Expedition
of 1927-1928

by James W. VanStone
Curator of
North American Archaeology and Ethnology

A Ithough Field Museum maintained an interest in
the natural history of the arctic and subartic from its
earliest years, it was not until 1926 that Museum staff
members were actively involved in a northern
expedition. In that year, Commander Donald Baxter
MacMillan, a noted arctic explorer, proposed an
expedition to Labrador and Greenland with scientific
research as the sole purpose, and he approached Field
Museum to secure a sponsor. Stanley Field, then pres-
ident of the Museum, persuaded Frederick H. Raw-
son, a Chicago banker, to underwrite the expedition.
As a result of Rawson’s support, the Rawson-
MacMillan Subarctic Expedition of 1926 sailed from
Wiscasset, Maine on June 19 with stops along the
coast of Labrador, the west coast of Greenland as far
north as Disko Island, and Baffin Island before
returning to Wiscasset 11 weeks later. Field
Museum’s representatives on the expedition were a
bird taxidermist, an assistant curator of fishes, and a
geologist from Cornell University who went along to
collect geological specimens for the Museum (see the
Bulletin, August 1982, pp. 4-11).

At the conclusion of the expedition, which was
declared a success because of the large number of
specimens obtained for the Museum’s collections,
Commander MacMillan persuaded the Museum and
Frederick Rawson to sponsor a second expedition.
This much more ambitious undertaking, beginning

Fig. 1. William Duncan Strong in 1928. Neg. 108960.

the following summer, was to last for 15 months. It
was planned that a representative of each of the
Museum’s four scientific departments would accom-
pany the expedition and it was for this purpose that
William Duncan Strong, who had recently com-
pleted his graduate studies at the University of Cali-
fornia, Berkeley, joined the staff of the Department of
Anthropology as an assistant curator (fig. 1).

With the idea in mind that a winter camp for
Field Museum scientists would be established on the
coast of Labrador, the various scientific departments
made plans for their participation in the Rawson-
MacMillan Subarctic Expedition of 1927-1928. In a
memorandum to Museum Director D.C. Davies,
Berthold Laufer, Chief Curator in the Department of
Anthropology, recommended two seasons of
archaeological work at Eskimo sites on the coast and
went on to present a plan for ethnological research:

But in addition, special efforts would be made to
study the nomadic Naskapi [Indians]. These people
are almost unknown to science, and it is highly
important that they be fully studied, as they still fol-
low the old customs and live largely on the caribou
herds that are very numerous in the interior of Lab-
rador. During the summer friendly relations with

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LAWRENCE

those coming to the coast to trade would be estab-
lished, and a good interpreter and guide secured. In
the autumn a trip would be taken into the interior in
their company, living and hunting with some
selected group. Thus it would be possible to obtain a
good account of their mode of life, their social organi-
zation, shamanistic practices, folk-lore, language,
and religious beliefs ... Whenever the opportunity
offered, good specimens of their weapons, clothing
and religious equipment would be secured, and in

addition typical plant and animal species collected so
that their culture and close relationship to their

environment might be more vividly exhibited in the
museum’s collections.

To a very large degree, but not without overcoming
considerable difficulties, Strong was able to carry out
successfully the research proposals outlined by
Laufer.

Commander MacMillan’s schooner, the Bow-

Fig. 2. Davis Inlet band and Barren Ground band Indians at Davis Inlet, 1928. Neg 79906 (Geology).

doin, along with the schooner Radio and the power
boat Seeko, left Wiscasset, Maine on June 25, 1927
reaching Hopedale on July 18 where Strong was able
to undertake some brief archaeological investiga-
tions. From there the expedition proceeded to Nain,
where a winter station was to be constructed about
20 miles northwest of that community (see map). All
members of the expedition, including the scientific
staff, were immediately put to work unloading sup-
plies. Strong estimated that about three months of
house-building, wood-cutting, and other labors
would be necessary before the scientific work of the
expedition could begin. But he was already con-
cerned, as he wrote Laufer, about the problem of
obtaining specimens:
As for getting a collection I don’t know where the
funds will come from. MacMillan has some trade
goods, but apparently no actual cash to pay for speci-
mens. It is hard to get a representative collection un-
less one has direct control of funds to purchase it with
—however, | trust that our trade goods will suffice,
or that later Capt. MacMillan can let me have two or
three hundred dollars in cash to purchase direct from

the Indians. This winter I hope to get an interpreter
and go in and stay with the Naskapi for several
months but now all is manual labor and scientific
work must wait.

Strong also looked forward to collecting a large
amount of skeletal material from old Eskimo graves to
augment the “scanty phys. anthrop. collections in the
Museum.” In the same letter to Laufer he shows
signs of anxiety about the future success of his
research, feelings with which all ethnographers will
sympathize:

I am well aside from a few bad boils caused by in-
fected mosquito bites, and enjoy the hard work. All
our supplies had to be landed from the ships in dories
—including 29,000 feet of lumber, 40 tons of coal, a
great bulk of food and house supplies, etc., but that is
mostly finished at present and now we must build
the big station; as there are only twelve of us to do all
the work, no one is excepted and our other interests
are in abeyance. Can’t say I think much of Labrador
either as a collecting field or as asenic [sic] location
—the black flies, gnats and mosquitos are terrible,
and the country unbelievably lifeless and desolate. I

only hope that the winter may yield material worthy
of the effort, time and expense. At present I am not
overly optimistic.

On August 7, without having completed the
winter station, the Bowdoin left on a three-week
cruise around Frobisher Bay on Baffin Island. During
the course of the trip, Strong met a camp of Eskimos
who were living in “quite primitive style” but he was
frustrated in his attempts to obtain specimens by the
absence of an interpreter and a lack of trade goods. In
a letter to Stanley Field, he complained about the lack
of trade goods and purchase funds, indicating that he
had not yet discussed the matter with Commander
MacMillan. “...as I really know nothing concerning
what we have to trade and have no funds to purchase
material I feel rather helpless, for without money one
cannot get collections.”

Although Strong collected some archaeological
material on the Frobisher Bay trip, he considered
these collections severely limited not only because of
the paucity of sites, but because the Bowdoin moved
frequently and there was no opportunity to work at
any site for more than a day. Having experienced this
frustration, it is no wonder that, in a letter to Field, he
looked forward to winter when

I hope to receive trade goods from Captain MacMil-
lan and acquire a representative collection ... This
winter’s work seems entirely a gamble, but if I can
acquire a good interpreter and dog driver combined,
the chances for interesting material and data should
be good.

On the basis of having met a few Naskapi at the win-
ter station (fig. 2), he considered them “a rather surly
and untrustworthy group so I anticipate several
thrills this winter.”

The Bowdoin returned to the site of the winter
camp on August 29 and the next month was spent in
constructing houses, cutting a winter’s supply of fire-
wood, and preparing the boats for wintering. As he
contemplated a month of hard work unrelated to
anthropology, Strong’s initial pessimism returned. He
wrote Field that

I hate to seem entirely pessimistic but must admit
that there is not much of promise in sight as regards
either the acquisition of anthropological collections
or scientific data. The country is unbelievably deso-
lute, the Labrador Eskimo thoroughly civilized and
the Naskapi culturally poverty striken.
The ethnographer was looking forward impatiently
to the time when freeze-up would make interior
travel possible and he would have an opportunity to
meet Indians.

Strong was also extremely dissatisfied with his
archaeological accomplishments so far and, in the let-
ter to Field just quoted, attributed his lack of success
to being tied to a permanent base and preordained
cruise where “most of the time is spent cruising in
barren places instead of working steadily in the pro-
ductive regions” In any event, his concern about hav-
ing funds to purchase specimens must have been
relieved when, in early September, he received a let-
ter from Laufer informing him that Commander Mac-
Millan had set aside $1,000 for the purchase of spec-
imens. It is not clear why the obvious mis-
understanding with regard to trade goods and pur-
chase funds was allowed to continue as long as it did.
Certainly it would seem that Strong could have set-
tled the matter by simply making direct inquiries of
MacMillan.

On September 29 Strong left on a trip south to
Big Bay and up Hunt River in the hope of locating a
band of Naskapi reported to be in that area. On this
trip he had with him an eighteen-year-old interpreter
who, as it turned out, had never been in the area be-
fore and could not locate the Indians. The trip of
nearly 100 miles was made by canoe and although the
main purpose was not achieved, old camps were vi-
sited and photographed and the ethnographer
learned a great deal about interior travel. Before
returning to the winter station on October 15, the
travelers encountered severe snowstorms and ice in
the lakes. Strong felt that he had returned to the coast
just in time. This experience convinced him that the
Indians might be difficult to locate since they were
always on the move following the irregularly migrat-
ing caribou. Winter clearly would be the best time to
intercept the Naskapi since rapid travel by dog team
in the interior would be possible.

It was apparently at this time that Strong
learned about Joe Rich (Shushebish) with whom he
was to live during his stay with the Davis Inlet band
and who was to be his chief informant (fig. 3).
Although he did not meet Rich until later, he began
to make definite plans for work after freeze-up. It was
probably this activity rather than any definite accom-
plishments that encouraged the ethnographer and
brightened his frame of mind when he wrote Laufer
that “on the whole I feel that prospects for valuable
work, both as regards specimens and acquisition of
scientific data, are much improved” During his
travels along the coast on the way to the Hunt River,
Strong reported a number of interesting archaeologic-
al sites and also made a collection of Eskimo skeletal

material. He planned further investigations and ex-
cavations for the following summer.

From mid-October until early January, 1928
was, for the most part, a period of inactivity for
Strong and other members of the expedition. Since
ice was forming, travel was virtually impossible and
most of the time was spent working on the houses at

he was not able to accomplish a great deal. The Indi-
ans were apparently members of the Davis Inlet band
but Joe Rich was not among them.

On Tuesday, January 17, 1928 Strong left for the
interior with members of the Davis Inlet band, hav-
ing arranged room and board with Joe Rich for $1.00
per day. On that day he exclaimed enthusiastically,

the winter station and performing other chores. Be-
tween December 11 and 14, however, Strong, accom-
panied by one man and a dog team, was able to visit a
Naskapi camp about 15 miles northwest of the winter
station. Some photographs and specimens were
obtained but the visit was prematurely terminated
when the Indians decided to move their camp to a
new site near the station. From December 15 to mid-
January Strong had some contact with these Indians
at their new camp, but since there was no interpreter

Fig. 3. Joe Rich (Shushebish), Strong's chief informant. Neg. 61680.

“My work has begun!” Among his companions were
men who were to become his best informants, includ-
ing Edward (Mistanapish), and Tommy (Shinabest).
Crowded in a small tent with as many as ten Indians,
eating what they ate, helping haul toboggans and
hunting with the men, Strong’s introduction to field
ethnography was an arduous one. His diaries clearly
show the periods of encouragement and discourage-
ment, depression and exhilaration, certain to occur
under such circumstances, which are familiar to

10

>

Fig. 4. Edward Rich demonstrating use of the single-headed drum as
Strong and Shinabest observe. Neg 61538.

ethnographers who have worked in the arctic and
subarctic in winter.

After approximately one month with the Davis
Inlet band, Strong, Joe Rich, and other Indians made
a brief trip to Davis Inlet for supplies. He was thus
able to send a radiogram to Davies:

Just back from month with Indians living in country
good specimens photographs and considerable
information secured. They are living in tents and eat-
ing caribou and trout in old Indian style making
snowshoes, tanning skins etc. ... Will probably live
with them all through spring and early summer. If I
am able to stay with them for a long period my stud-
ies should be unique and valuable (fig. 4).

Strong went on to note that since game was scarce
during the winter, the Indians were more willing

than usual to have a white man join the band. He
apparently brought with him some food as well as
cash and trade goods with which to pay for specimens
and information. After resting up at the winter sta-
tion for about a week working with his interpreter, he
returned to the camp of the Davis Inlet band which,
at that time, was located about 120 miles southwest
of the winter station.

Strong’s sojourn with the band ended sooner
than he had anticipated. Because of the scarcity of
caribou, the Indians returned to the coast and the
vicinity of the trading post April 5. Nevertheless, the
ethnographer had spent nearly three months with the
band collecting more than 500 ethnographic speci-
mens and taking a large number of photographs.

The months of April, May, and most of June
were devoted to collecting anthropometric data from
Eskimos at Hopedale, Nain, Okak, and Hebron.
With the return of navigation in late June, archaeolo-
gical surveys and excavations were undertaken on
Hunt River, Big Bay, at Hopedale, and on the islands
east of Nain. The expedition left the Labrador coast
on August 23 and arrived at Wiscasset on September
8, 1928 after an absence of almost exactly 15 months.

Although Strong frequently found it difficult
and frustrating to work within an expedition
framework, and although MacMillan was apparently
somewhat authoritarian at times, both were eventu-
ally pleased with the anthropological results of the
second Rawson-MacMillan Subarctic Expedition.
Strong expressed his satisfications, as well as his frus-
trations, in his diaries, field notes, and letters to
Museum personnel. MacMillan’s opinions were
offered in a letter to Stanley Field which constituted
a final report on the expedition:

The principal reason for locating our headquarters...
no farther north than Nain was to establish and
maintain constant communication with the little
known Nascopie Indian tribe. In this we were
eminently successful and Dr. Strong’s report and
ethnological collection will speak for themselves. |
feel that the Expedition has brought back more than
all other expeditions or anthropologists combined;
that is, something really authentic and of real value.

In August, 1929 William Duncan Strong
resigned his curatorial position and for the next three
years taught at the University of Nebraska, where he
developed a life-long interest in Plains archaeology.
In 1931 he became senior anthropologist at the
Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institu-
tion. He moved to Columbia University in 1937,
where he remained until his death in 1962. Fr

FIELD BRIEFS

Women’s Board Presidents, Past and Present. Shown at the May 9 Women’s Board Annual Meeting

are (|. tor.) Mrs. O. Macrae Patterson (president 1974-76), Mrs. Joseph E. Rich (1976-78), Mrs. Philip
D. Block III (newly-elected president), Mrs. T. Stanton Armour (1982-84), and Mrs. Edward F. Swift
(1978-80). Not shown are Mrs. Edward Byron Smith (1970-72), Mrs. B. Edward Bensinger (1972-74),
and Mrs. Robert Wells Carton (1980-82). The Women’s Board was founded by the late Mrs. Hermon
Dunlap Smith, who served as first president, 1966 to 1970.

New Women’s Board Officers

The new president of Field Museum’s
Women’s Board is Mrs. Philip D. Block III,
elected at the board’s annual meeting,
May 9. Mrs. Block succeeds Mrs. T. Stan-
ton Armour, elected in 1982. Other new
officers elected at the meeting were Mrs.
Charles S. Potter, vice president; Mrs.
Howard J. Trienens, vice president; Mrs.
Edward Hines, recording secretary; Mrs.
James J. Glasser, corresponding secretary;
Mrs. John H. Leslie, board member-at-
large; and Mrs. E. Norman Staub, board
member-at-large.

Continuing in their respective offices
are Mrs. James J. O’Connor, vice pre-
sident; Mrs. William D. Frost, treasurer;
and Mrs. Frederick G. Jaicks, board
member-at-large.

Peter Crane Honored

Peter R. Crane, assistant curator in the
Department of Geology, was recently
awarded the Bicentenary Medal of the
Linnean Society of London. The Linnean
Society is the premier society for pro-
fessional biologists in the United King-
dom and makes the award annually in
recognition of scientific work done by a
biologist under the age of 40. The silver
medal was first struck in 1978 in com-
memoration of the 200th anniversary of
the death of Carolus Linnaeus, the
eighteenth-century naturalist who first

proposed the system of naming plants
and animals that is still in use today.

Crane, 30, joined the Field Museum
staff in September of 1982 after a year of
research at Indiana University and three
years on the faculty of the University of
Reading, England. His research is current-
ly supported by the National Science
Foundation and involves paleobotanical
studies of fossil flowering plants from
southern England and North America.
Crane is a member of the Committee on
Evolutionary Biology at the University of
Chicago and is coeditor of the paleontolo-
gical journal Paleobiology.

at ee
LINNABUS *:

a

Diane Alexander White

Reverse side of Bicentenary Medal of the Lin-
nean Society of London, awarded to Peter
Crane.

Who's Responsible
2

Do you want the state to be
responsible for distriouting your
estate?

It will be, if you do not have a
will.

Do you want your loved ones to
settle your estate in the midst of
unnecessary cost and confusion?

They will, if you do not have a
will.

Do you want to be responsible
for distributing your Own prop-
erty in a caring and efficient man-
ner, and distriouted to where and
to whom you want it to go?

You can be, if you have a properly
prepared will.

For further information on the im-
portance of having a will, send
for the complimentary booklet
offered below.

TO: Clifford Buzard
Planned Giving Officer
Field Museum of Natural History
Roosevelt Road at Lakeshore Drive
Chicago, IL 60605

( ) Please send my free copy of
“How to
Protect Your Rights with a Will.

Name |

Address |
City State Zip |
Phone: __(Bus.) (Res.) |
Best time to call _ (day) (hour) |

|

iS

by Joe Hannibal

PILL MILLIPEDES
From The Coal Age

|

One of the larger modern pill millipedes, Sphaerotherium, from Afri-
ca. The small first tergum, the large second tergum, and the thir-
teenth tergum, a rounded terminal plate, are labeled 1, 2, and 13.
(Modified from R. F. Lawrence. 1953. The Biology of the Cryptic Fauna

of Forests, fig. 26A.)

D uring much of the Carboniferous Period (360-
285 million years ago), lush tropical forests and
swamplands covered a large part of what is now
temperate North America and Europe. Extraordi-
narily well-preserved fossils from the Mazon Creek
area, an hour’s drive south of Chicago, provide us
with a glimpse of the animal life which inhabited
these regions at that time.

A host of different animals, some familiar to us,
some very strange, are preserved in concretions
(sometimes called ironstone nodules) found in rock
outcrops along Mazon Creek and in the nearby spoil
piles of strip mines. This fauna is justifiably world
famous, and several of the terrestrial animals in the
Mazon Creek fauna are the earliest, or among the
earliest, of these types in the entire fossil record.

Among the more fascinating of these animals is
the pill millipede, so-named for its remarkable ability
to curl into a tight ball when threatened. Pill mil-
lipedes (also known as oniscomorphs) share this tal-
ent with a variety of other animals, including the pill-
bug, and the armadillo, a mammal. Though they bear
some similarities, the pill millipede and the pillbug
belong to separate classes (Diplopoda and Crustacea,
respectively), and can most readily be distinguished
from one another by the number of legs — pillbugs
have only seven pair, pill millipedes many more.

In addition to Mazon Creek, only a handful of
Coal Age sites in North America and Europe have
yielded fossil pill millipedes. Outside of these early
occurrences (except for a possible pill millipede re-
ported from the Cretaceous—135 to 65 million years

Pill millipedes are so named because of their ability to coil into a tight
sphere. The head and small first tergum are tucked inside, while the
rest of the terga interlock. This is a photo (side view) of Arthro-
sphaera, a modern pill millipede of moderate size from Sri Lanka.

Joe Hannibal is associate curator of invertebrate paleontology for
the Cleveland Museum of Natural History.

One of the specimens of Amynilyspes from Bohemia as illustrated
by Anton Fritsch in his Fauna der Gaskohle und der Kalksteine der
Permformation BOhmens. Above is the entire specimen. Below is a
more detailed look at the front of the fossil, including what Fritsch
interpreted as a “head,” complete with an “eye.” (The original speci-
men is in the National Museum, Prague.)

ago) they are not again encountered as fossils until
the Oligocene, in the 30 million-year-old Baltic am-
ber deposits.

Today the pill millipede occurs almost world-
wide, though it is no longer found in Illinois. The
Coal Age forms differ from their modern counter-
parts, but not as much as some scientists formerly
believed. In order to interpret the fossil evidence for
these animals, we must first look at the living forms.

Modern pill millipedes belong to two major
groups, the glomerids and the sphaerotheriids. Gener-
ally smaller than the sphaerotheriids, the glomerids
have 11 or 12 dorsal body plates known as terga. The
first tergum is small, the second very large, and the
last is prominent and rounded. Usually less than an
inch long, glomerids are common in parts of Europe
and Asia, and they occur as well in Mexico, Califor-
nia, North Carolina, and in adjacent Eastern states.

The body plan of sphaerotheriids is generally
similar to that of glomerids, but the former are distin-
guished by having 13 terga. Some sphaerotheriid spe-
cies, known as giant pills, when coiled are the size of a
golf ball. Largely tropical to subtropical in distribu-
tion, this group is found in Asia, Australia, southern
Africa, and on islands near these continents.

The first Coal Age pill millipede to be described
was discovered over a century ago in a concretion
from Mazon Creek. Samuel Scudder (1837-1911), an
American scientist best known for his work on
butterflies, described this millipede in 1882, ascribing

Amynilyspes, a spinous pill millipede from Mazon Creek. This speci-
men is about an inch long; the head area is at the right. This photo of a
three-dimensional specimen was taken by the late Eugene Richara-
son, former curator of invertebrate fossils at the Field Museum. (Field
Museum Invertebrate Paleontology Collections, PE 13947)

ks}

Another specimen of Amynilyspes from Mazon Creek. Fhis specimen
is a bit more than an inch long. Though the fossil is flattened, most of
the spines and body segmentation of the animal are visible. The small
first tergum of the millipede is at the right. This photo is of a latex cast
made of a Field Museum specimen. Photo by Bruce Frumker, Cleve-
land Museum of Natural History. (Field Museum Invertebrate
Paleontology Collections, PE 12802.)

to it 10 or 11 segments, then believed to represent the
anterior, or front part, of the animal. The name Scud-
der chose for it was Amynilyspes wortheni, Amynily-
spes being loosely translated as “spiny creeper,” and
wortheni, the species name, honoring a nineteenth-
century paleontologist, Amos Worthen. Scudder la-
ter wrote that the animal was rather broad and had
spines, features that seemed to separate it from mod-
ern pill millipedes; he therefore did not classify it
with pill millipedes (the oniscomorphs), but with
another group. Scudder noted, however, that Amy-
nilyspes might eventually prove to be a pill millipede,
a prediction which later proved accurate.

Anton Fritsch (1832-1913), a prominent Euro-
pean zoologist and paleontologist, described two

additional species of Amynilyspes at the turn of the
century. Fritsch’s specimens were from the Gaskohle,
of Nyrany, Bohemia, now in Czechoslovakia. Basing
his classification on the study of more complete speci-
mens, Fritsch assigned Amynilyspes to the onisco-
morphs. Fritsch also described several types of
nonspinous fossil pill millipedes, placing these in two
new genera, Archiscudderia and Glomeropsis. The
first he named for Scudder, the second for the modern
pill millipede Glomeris.

Fritsch made great strides in the interpretation
of fossil pill millipedes, describing features such as
pleura (rectangular ventral plates) that clearly re-
vealed their affinity with modern forms. But some of
Fritsch’s interpretations were incorrect. He found for
instance, that Amynilyspes had a very large “head?
complete with an “eye,” even though such a large
head could never have been tucked under when the
animal coiled, as modern pill millipedes are able to do.
So until quite recently, Amynilyspes had generally
been thought to lack the ability to completely roll up
when threatened.

It has now been shown that Fritsch’s “head” is

not the actual head of the fossil, but the millipede’s
large second tergum, a segment which, furthermore,
bears no eye.

Modern reconstruction of the spiny Amynilyspes, primarily based
upon specimens from Mazon Creek.

We know by examining the shape and structure
of their body parts that Amynilyspes and other pill
millipedes had the ability to coil. A Mazon Creek
specimen bears segments which, as in modern forms,
are shaped in a way that would permit coiling.
Another Mazon Creek specimen shows the small first
segment of the millipede clearly. Occasional speci-
mens from Mazon Creek also show parts of the ven-
tral surface of the millipede, including pleura.

Fritsch overestimated the number of segments
on some of the fossil pill millipedes from the Gas-
kohle. He found some, including Amynilyspes, to
have 15 terga, although most specimens of fossil pill
millipedes from the Gaskohle — and from other

Hypothetical view of a completely coiled Amynilyspes. This recon-
struction is based upon study of the morphology of the millipede,
which indicates that it could coil.

ai

be me
a

ge",
veer

a
f

One of Fritsch’s illustrations of the nonspinous fossil pill millipede,
Archiscudderia. This specimen is incorrectly shown with 15 terga,
though it actually has 14, as do most Carboniferous pill millipedes.
(The original specimen is in the National Museum, Prague.)

Carboniferous Age rocks — actually have 14. Some
Mazon Creek fossils of nonspiny pill millipedes seem
to have 13; but being incompletely preserved, the
actual number cannot be established with certainty.
These, too, might have had 14 terga.

Since the pioneering work of Scudder and
Fritsch, a few investigators have reported additional
well-preserved specimens of fossil pill millipedes from
the same general period. Dietrich von Schlechtendal,
in a 1912 study of Coal Age arthropods, illustrated
two specimens of fossil pill millipedes, which he
assigned to the genus Paraglomeris. B.N. Peach, a
British paleontologist, reported a fairly well pre-
served pill millipede from Great Britain in 1914, nam-
ing this nonspinous specimen Palaeosphaeridium. A
specimen of Amynilyspes was reported from Ger-
many’s Saar region by paleontologist Reinhard Fors-
ter in the 1970s. In 1981 Rodney Feldmann, of Kent

15

16

oe

Placement of the continents during the Upper Carboniferous. Out-
lines show approximate boundaries at that time of present-day con-
tinents. The stippled area represents seas; the white areas represent
land masses. Labeled localities at which fossil pill millipedes have
been found (Mazon Creek, Illinois; Nyrany, Czechoslovakia) are indi-
cated by black dots. The unlabeled dots represent localities in Ohio,
Great Britain, and Germany. (Modified from Scotese et al., 1979,
Paleozoic base maps. J. Geol., figs. 32-33.)

State University, and I redescribed Scudder’s original
specimen of Amynilyspes as well as described new
specimens from Mazon Creek.

More recently, John Almond, a doctoral candi-
date at the University of Cambridge, England, has
located both spinous and nonspinous varieties of fos-
sil pill millipedes in British museum collections. And
last year David Hamilla of Youngstown, Ohio, dis-
covered fossil pill millipedes in that state.

According to modern reconstructions of the con-
tinents during the Carboniferous, all of the above-
mentioned localities from which fossil pill millipedes
have been reported belonged to the same land mass
during that period. These localities were also tropi-
cal, within 10 degrees or so of the equator.

Roaming these same equatorial forests and
swamplands were a host of predators: giant scor-
pions, primitive spiders, and a good number of amphi-
bians (one of the chief predators of millipedes today).

Coiling seems to have been the first line of de-
fense for pill millipedes against their predators, a de-
fense tactic that is still remarkably effective. Some pill
millipedes, the glomerids, have another defense
mechanism—an offensive fluid exuded from pores on
certain segments. There is no evidence of such pores
on any of the fossil pill millipedes, though these struc-
tures could well have been present.

Amynilyspes had an important additional means
of defense—its large, stout spines. These spines have

no counterpart in modern pill millipedes, though
some living species do bear tubercles, ridges, or very
small spines on their terga. Since many modern forms
of pill millipedes burrow in leaf litter and soil, spines
of any size would greatly interfere with such activity.
Perhaps the spiny Amynilyspes lived in more open
habitats than most of its modern relatives. It may
have found the spines useful in situations where it
could not coil, as when crawling on plants.

It is only by careful study of additional well-
preserved specimens, such as those from Mazon
Creek, that we can begin to better understand the
nature of prehistoric animals such as Amynilyspes
and other fossil pill millipedes. Only then can we
begin to unravel the relationships of the fossil forms
with the modern fauna. FM

A nonspinous pill millipede from Mazon Creek, preserved with fronds
of Pecopteris, a Coal Age fern. This specimen from the Field Museum
collection has been regarded as a possible sphaerotheriid because
it seems to have 13 terga. The fossil millipede is about % inch long.
(Field Museum Invertebrate Paleontology Collections, PE 29386.)

What Museums
Are Good For

by Rudolph H. Weingartner

A Boy Scout troop can meet conveniently under
the sponsorship of the town’s historical museum; the
lecture hall of its art museum might readily house a
stimulating course on Hindu thought. But is that
what museums are for? One can poke holes into the
soil passably well with a Phillips screwdriver and
thus plant seeds at the right depth; that tool will also
do if one lacks an icepick. It is fairly difficult, though,
to find a substitute when a Phillips screwdriver is
needed to do what only it can do. Many implements
can be put to numerous uses, but most have charac-
teristics that make them especially capable of per-
forming functions that are distinctively theirs. That
distinctiveness confers a special value on an object.

Museums are vastly more complex than man-
ufactured tools. Still, a look at the characteristics and
functions that are peculiarly theirs will yield a better
understanding of what museums are good for.

What do museums in fact have in common, con-
sidering the immense differences among the great
palaces that are devoted to works of art, the modest
rooms occasionally set aside for displays of the history
of brewing or printing, rooms that exhibit skeletons
of prehistoric animals and rooms that display regional
costumes of 19th-century Croatia? All such museums
house objects, collections of real things, pertaining to
some given domain or theme. Principles of coherence
of collections may be numerous and tenuous; but it al-
ways matters to museums that their holdings are as

Reprinted with permission. Copyright 1984, American Associa-
tion of Museums. Museum News, August 1984.

Editorial conventions followed in this article are those of the
original, as it appeared in Museum News, and do not necessarily
reflect those of the Bulletin. —Ed.

Rudolph H. Weingartner is dean of the College of Arts and Sci-
ences and professor of philosophy at Northwestern University.

“The Artist in His Museum" (detail), self-portrait by Charles Willson
Peale (1741-1827). As well as being one of the nation’s great early
portraitists, Peale distinguished himself by establishing the first
important public museum in the United States, opening it in Phila-
delphia in 1786. First named for himself, the museum was later re-
named the Philadelphia Museum. “The Artist in His Museum” is in
the Joseph and Sarah Harrison Collection of the Pennsylvania Aca-
demy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia

17

Three Early Fathers of the Modern Museum. Swiss physician Philip-
pus Paracelsus (1493-1541), above left; German mineralogist Geor-
gius Agricola (1494-1555), above right; and Elector Augustus | of
Saxony (1526-86), below, were collectors of natural history speci-
mens who sought to arrange their material according to some kind
of scientific order. The Dresden palace of Augustus | had seven
rooms occupied by his museum material. Illustrations courtesy His-
torical Pictures Service—Chicago.

real as the physical things in one’s own home. The im-
itations one finds in some museums, the reproduc-
tions, the models, prove this rule, since immense care
is taken to create verisimilitude.* The common dis-
tinctive characteristic of museums, then, is their role
as keepers of actual physical objects—not of descrip-
tions or depictions of objects—that prior to their
imprisonment had careers outside museum walls.
With this in mind, we will learn more about
what museums are good for if we imagine a world in
which one would not expect to find them. The 16th-
century French village to which Martin Guerre re-

*A museum of scale models of railroads is not a railroad museum; it

is known as a museum of model railroads: a museum of real models,

not of surrogate locomotives and cars.

4,

re \
frurprnara }— Wc

Typical of seventeenth-century natural history museums was this
“wonder room” of Olaf Worm, a Copenhagen physician and famous
student of natural history. From a woodcut made for the frontispiece
of Worms's 1655 catalog.

turned surely is sucha place. Every painting known
to the villagers looked more or less like a Breughel;
one person’s experience with natural objects and arti-
facts was hardly distinguishable from another’s;
every villager had essentially equal access to the
mysteries of the crafts and trades. Distant lands with
different dress, weapons, implements, houses, flora
and fauna, and customs were at best dimly known to
exist. Nor was there genuine access to a past different
from the 16th-century present. What point, then,
would there have been to single out a set of special ob-
jects for contemplation by the villagers? No more
than converting one’s own living room, today,
indistinguishable from one’s neighbor’s, intoa
museum. There may have beenanexception

in the village of Martin Guerre, but it, too, would
prove the rule: a cabinet of curios in the richest man’s
house; the hairs and bones of alocal saint in the
church’s reliquary.

In the world in which there are museums, life
experiences differ from each other, depending on
where and when people live, on their occupations,
roles and stations. Museums, in this familiar world,
bring us into the presence of objects that belong to
lives different from ours and give us an opportunity
to become directly acquainted with them.

When we read accounts or see depictions of
other times and places, our knowledge is extended
beyond our own experience. The words we read and
the pictures we see convey to us something of what
those places, distant in time and space, are like. But
when we are brought into the presence of actual ob-
jects, our own experience is extended more directly
than it is by description or picturing. Hence the im-

20

Seventeenth-century painting of the South Lambeth (England) home
of the Tradescant family, popularly known as “Tradescant's Ark,”
which served as a repository for natural history specimens as well as
for coins, objects of historic interest, and sundry manufactured

portance of authenticity. Only real things will really
stretch our experience. Authenticity, therefore, be-
comes more important, not less, in a world that has
become ever better at simulating and reproducing
with remarkable verisimilitude natural objects, arti-
facts and even works of art.

On this account, the distinctive trait of a
museum is to be a repository of authentic objects from
different times, places and domains. But what, then,
is the function of museums? What is the point of our
direct encounter with the things they house? Three
broad, interrelated functions seem to me distinctive
of museums, granted that there is as much variety
within them as there are different types of museums. I
distinguish a scholarly mission, an entertainment
function, and an educative one.

To get a sense of the scholarly importance of
museum collections requires understanding the role
of firsthand experience in scholarship generally.
Anthropological inquiry, to take an example, rests on

goods. Acquired by Oxford University in 1682, the Tradescant collec-
tion formed the foundation of the Ashmolean Museum. A copy of the
Tradescant 1656 catalog is in the Field Museum collection

direct observation. Typically, anthropologists live
with the people they study and write about. Histo-
rians, who cannot travel in time, must work with
reports about the past, especially accounts con-
temporary with their subject matter. More important
still are primary sources—the actual traces left by the
past, whether in the form of documents, artifacts or
buildings. Art historians are notoriously dependent
in their work on the physical survival of the objects of
their concern, with copies or reproductions largely
unavailable until the invention of photography and
related techniques and still inadequate for serious
scholarship.

How museum collections support scholarly pur-
suits like these is quite obvious. Archeological and
anthropological collections extend the range of a field
worker’s experience. Museums of many different
kinds offer precisely the repositories of different kinds
of spoors of the past that constitute the primary evi-
dence for the constructing of historical inference

chains. Without art museums art history, as that dis-
cipline is conducted, would be unthinkable.

A visit to a museum, with magnifying glass,
measuring devices and other instruments of examina-
tion, is in many ways not as good as being on the scene
itself. On the other hand, a museum also improves on
original situations because it offers to a scholar a
coherent collection of objects otherwise temporally
and spatially scattered. But in any case, direct
encounters with authentic objects belonging to the
experience of other lives are a powerful and neces-
sary supplement to the paler evidence of reports.

Entertainment of a certain kind is a quite differ-
ent function of museums. While I hesitate to use that
word (for fear of being thought frivolous), it is surely
justified, assuming Mozart divertimenti are properly
so-called and that we are entertained when we see
A Midsummer Night’s Dream. In a similar way, a
visit to a museum can be amusement, an occasion of
pleasure.

We want to be sure about two characteristics of
this entertainment associated with museums. First,
like any real entertainment, it must be enjoyable in
itself. Whatever we may learn from a visit to a
museum (or whatever other desirable consequences
that occasion may have), we are talking about the
experience of looking at a museum display insofar as
it is itself pleasurable. Second, we must insist that the
only pleasure which is here relevant is one that has its
source in the collections of museums; only entertain-
ment with roots in what properly belongs to
museums is distinctive of those institutions.

Many different kinds of enjoyment may of
course be derived from the objects exhibited in
museums. Esthetic pleasure having its origin in look-
ing at the paintings and sculptures of an art museum
is a clear example, though such pleasure need not
only stem from what is conventionally referred to as
“art. Esthetic pleasure, or something very akin to it,
also has its source in works of craft. Take beautiful
Indian baskets or gorgeous ceremonial robes but also
vintage automobiles or gleaming models of
nineteenth-century steam engines. Very similar re-
sponses may be evoked by objects of nature, such as in
displays of the plumage of tropical birds or collections
of semiprecious stones.

Indeed, things need not be beautiful or even
pretty to be ingredients in an experience that is val-

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hattan in the 1850s. More carnival than museum, Barnum’s enter-
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21

ued for its own sake. (Is King Lear beautiful? Picas-
so’s Guernica?) We prize the interestingness of
things, for example, their startling differentness from
the familiar; we enjoy quaintness. Perhaps such val-
ues are not near the top of the moralist’s scale, but
they certainly play an important role in our lives and
they are an ingredient in the entertainment function
of museums.

The third function of a museum is educative.
With it, that institution has its broadest social im-
pact. I want briefly to look at some different ways in
which museums educate, while remembering
throughout that all museum learning must be char-
acterized by the presence of authentic objects.

Visits to museums teach us quite specific things.
We say about this unproblematic sense of “educa-
tion” that, as we peruse an exhibit, we acquire
information about some segment of the past: about an
industrial process, about the art of medieval Siena or
about the festive dresses of Scottish Highlanders. But
that repeated “about” is misleading. Books give
information about their subject matter; discourse ref-
ers, is about, things. Museums, instead, make us ac-
quainted with things, so that we get to know those
objects, rather than just learn about them. While we
infer information from our viewings and derive it
directly from labels and explanatory materials, the
special quality of this learning resides in the direct-
ness of our experience.

Museums also educate in a broader sense,
although that sense assumes and includes the specific
function just mentioned. Because in museums we are
confronted by objects that are especially collected
and selected for display, the direct experience of
which I spoke is not readily found outside museum
walls. A visit to a museum, when it works well, is like
a voyage into different times or places, or even like a
trip into regions that are subdivisions of a conceptual
map rather than a geographic one. Like real travel,
such experiences can stretch the mind and enlarge
the imagination by acquainting us with possibilities
that lie beyond our own time: and place-bound expe-
riences. If travel is educational, so are visits to
museums.

The educative function of museums can help
combat two all-too-familiar responses to the percep-
tion of real differences in the world, whether in dress
or custom, moral values or ways of conducting daily

“Museums. ..make us acquainted with things, so that we get to
know those objects, rather than just learn about them.”

life, or artistic styles. One such response is provincial:
supposing that what is different from the familiar is to
be dismissed or even scorned. Museums can help,
literally, to open our eyes and give us a bit of precisely
that direct experience which creates familiarity and
thus contributes to that understanding of differences
which leads to appreciation.

Museums can help in combating a second, more
modern, conventional response to differences: call it
mindless cosmopolitanism. This attitude takes every-
thing to be equally good and finds no differences of
value in the immense variety of customs, modes of
life, and styles that have been generated by a world
that never stays the same.

Our discussion has moved us into the broader
aspect of education that we might call the inculcation
of taste. Because managing successfully in a post-
industrial society calls for a great deal of information
and for a goodly number of complex intellectual
skills, we think that all education must produce such
results. But in the daily choices we make in moral,
political esthetic matters, we reflect both the values
we have acquired and our ability to discriminate,
judge and evaluate. Making judgments and evalua-
tions, too, is something that is learned, so that educa-
tion is relevant to this formation of taste in the broad
sense.

Here again, museums are relevant. Taste is ac-
quired in the experiencing of objects, whether wines
or paintings, and not simply by means of discourse
about things and situations. The role of art museums
is obvious in a person’s acquisition of taste in works of
art; but the numerous other worlds that are opened
up to the museum visitor can play a similar role in our
ability to discriminate, assess and judge. The museum
helps to form taste, because it is only once-removed
from an unfettered world and can thus play a signifi-
cant role in the shaping of our evaluative faculties.

The distinctive role of museums, I have said,
consists of the interrelated functions of particular
kinds of scholarship, entertainment and education. A
number of things follow about what museums should
be doing if they are to play their roles well.

First, they should undertake those things that
will support an appropriate form of scholarship. Here
the most fundamental task is to collect in a systematic
way the objects that belong to the museum’s domain
—paintings, fossils, printing presses or whatever.
Without collections, a museum is nothing. But pack
rats are not yet curators. To build a collection requires
a viewpoint as to what does and does not matter.
Collecting itself is a scholarly activity. Astute selec-
tion of objects belonging to a domain can itself make
important contributions to knowledge and insight.
What is collected must be preserved. The main-
tenance, repair, restoration and housing of collections
call for more care and feeding than are needed by
thoroughbred horses. There is no point in collecting,
if these jobs are not well done.

Ifa museum’s collection is to be of use to scholars
within or outside the museum, yet another set of
handmaidenly activities (that are themselves schol-

arly) are required. The notion of a collection not only
implies principles of coherence; access to it pre-
supposes order. A heap, however well its components
were selected, does not support scholarship, and
shrewd juxtaposition provides more insight than
mere mechanical exposition. But even an ordered
collection can be more or less intelligible. This is
where the complex job of identifying, labeling and
cataloging comes in: the basic and necessary scholarly
activities of museums. If museums do not perform
them, they are not likely to be performed at all.

The second function of museums I have singled
out is entertainment, with the pleasure provided by
the museum’s collections. The basic museum activity
relevant here is exhibiting. Well-designed exhibits
make a museum’s objects attractive to the public —
the notion of design covering everything from the
very conception of an exhibit and the selection of the
objects to be displayed, to placement, lighting and
labeling. Without attractive packaging, the public—
which lavishes only short spurts of time on museum
collections—will not be entertained.

Museums, | believe, are right to cater to the pub-
lic and to mount pleasantly or even dramatically
designed exhibits of their wares. They should remem-
ber, however, that the functions of entertaining and
educating overlap. It is far better to amuse with a
display that also fulfills a higher teaching role than by
means of one whose educational role is trivial.

The entertainment function of museums can be
a trap, because it is all too easy to forget the museum
in that formula. Then, as elsewhere in the entertain-
ment industry, the clicks of the turnstile become the
measure of success: magicians, comedians or chefs for
the eye or tongue become the magnet that makes
those turnstiles move. When this happens, museums
find themselves in futile competition with entertain-
ers who are much more skilled and far better paid,
while at the same time they arouse expectations in
the public that make it ever harder for them to return
to their own mission.

The educational function of museums is the
broadest, since it encompasses the other two. It is also
the primary concern of many of the professionals who
staff museums, as well as of the institutions, public
and private, which support them. That educative
function, I have said, consists of informing and
enlightening by means of the museum collections.

23

Another quick look is needed at the special character
of this transaction, if we are to see what needs to be
done to have the educative function performed well.

The objects themselves, I repeat, should educate
by having the learner become directly acquainted
with them. This special character of education in the
museum is also the source of a weakness. Things do
not speak for themselves; they must have a spokes-
man, they must be referred to in discourse. Two poles
of a continuum might thus be characterized, neither
pole describing the educational activity of a museum.
One end consists of a heap of objects that, however
well collected, remains unintelligible and therefore
cannot educate. At the opposite pole is pure dis-
course. It is intelligible and thus informs and teaches,
but because it does not provide direct experience of
objects, such discourse is not an education that is dis-
tinctive of museums.

The educational activities of museums lie be-
tween these two poles. We move away from the pole
of incomprehensibility by introducing not only
coherent ordering of objects, but also labeling and
explanatory phrases—the guideposts that permit us

“The [museum's] most fundamental task is to collect in a systematic
way...." Melvin A. Traylor, curator emeritus of Birds, shown in earlier
photo while unpacking shipment of bird skins.

to derive understanding from objects. Things don’t
mean; discourse does. An exhibit that educates uses
words to release the power of things by having us
come to know just what we are becoming acquainted
with.

As we move further towards the pole of dis-
course, we reach the exhibition catalog, on the one
hand, and the docent’s lecture, on the other. Both are
discourse that refers to, and is illustrated by, the real
objects that are part of the basic world of the
museum.

But this way of looking at the educational func-
tions of museums suggests an entire area that at this
time remains sadly underdeveloped. Our museums
reverberate with the noise made by crowds of chil-
dren from primary schools, led from display to display
by their teachers or members of the museum’s staff.
These goings-on can readily be located on our con-
tinuum: words illustrated by objects; objects

informed by a meaning provided by a discourse that
explains and links them. But why is this valuable
activity arrested barely above the level of sixth grade?
It would seem that the educative activity most cen-
tral to museums is to have their collections play a role
in all of education, but especially in learning in secon-
dary school and undergraduate study, as well as in the
specialized pursuits of graduate work. What we take
for granted about libraries —that they must be inte-
grated into all facets and levels of education — is
equally appropriate for museums, or at least for many
of them.

The educational programs of museums all too
often ignore the distinctiveness of their role. Fre-
quently, their lectures and courses are merely more or
less adequate imitations of those properly developed
in educational institutions of various levels. To the
extent that museums mount educational programs
that are indistinguishable from those of other institu-
tions, they divert energies and resources from their
proper educational mission, and to that degree leave
this distinctive function unperformed.

Conventional education is very word-
dependent, and conventional educators seldom have
the ability and training to break far out of the web of
discourse. It is in the world of museums that we find

persons who have the knack of teasing information
out of things, who know how to marry discourse and
direct experience of physical objects. We are depen-
dent on the staffs of museums to take the initiative in
making acquaintance with objects of nature and arti-
facts a more important part of education at all of its
levels. Such integration is at the center of the distinc-
tive educative function of museums.

Museums are not as unitary in their distinctive
mission as Phillips screwdrivers: there are many
things that only museums can do or that only
museums can do reasonably well. Nevertheless, there
are limits to the proper function of museums, and
straying beyond them exacts its price. Chopping ice
with that screwdriver mars its blades. The pursuit of
irrelevant goals hampers the effectiveness of
museums. The issue of resource allocation is clear:
what is devoted to the peripheral is not there to be
spent on the central, and an important function re-
mains unperformed. More subtly, confusion within
the museum infects a broader public outside it and
fosters the belief that nothing of value is distinctive of
that institution, that others can readily do what it
does. What museums are good for is important.
Reflecting on that mission may help the better to ful-
fill it. Fea

“Direct encounters with authentic objects belonging to the experience of other lives are a powerful and necessary supplement to the paler
evidence of reports.”

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country. Tour participants will
be drawn into the fascinating,
seemingly alien world of the orig-
inal inhabitants of the South
American continent by walking
among the ruins of their once-
great cities. Our leader will help
you experience much more than
what is encountered by the con-
ventional sightseer as you view
the incredible wonders of ancient
Cuzco, Colonial Lima, and the

Inca ruins of Puruchuco. An over-
night excursion to the famous
“lost city” of Machu Picchu, as
well as a visit to the Chinchero
Sunday market will be a memor-
able weekend.

An added bonus will be our
pioneering two-day stop at the
recently discovered archaeological
site in the Moquegua Valley in
which Field Museum will play
a major research role. We'll com-
plete our tour with a visit to Boli-
via, a hydrofoil ride across Lake
Titicaca, and a visit to the city of
La Paz. Here we'll tour the near-
by ruins of the Tiahuanaco
civilization. We invite you to join
us and to get an insider's view of
the past and present.

Our tour leader will be Dr.
Robert A. Feldman, research
archaeologist for the Field

Hermann C. Bowersox

Museum Ancient Irrigation
Project and currently director of
“Programa Contisuyu. He has
done field work in the U.S. and
Peru. Before joining the Field
Museum project, Dr. Feldman
conducted excavations at a 4,000-
year-old fishing village on the
Peru coast, uncovering some of
the earliest monumental archi-
tecture in South America.

Ancient Capitals
Of China

September 22 to October 13
$3,550

We are pleased to again offer our
unique itinerary for China, with
the addition of a two-day visit to
Wuxi and Nanjing and a Grand
Canal cruise from Wuxi to
Suzhou. This program also

TOURS FOR MEMBERS

includes the most significant sites
of early Imperial China and will
provide an opportunity to
explore in depth the civilization
which characterized one of the
oldest and longest-lived societies
on earth.

Following our direct flight
from Chicago to Tokyo, where we
will spend the night, we will visit
Beijing for three days, then to
Xian for three days. Successive
points in the itinerary then
include Luoyang, Zhengzhou,
Kaifeng, Nanjing, Wuxi, Suzhou,
and Shanghai.

Mr. Phillip H. Woodruff,
Ph. D. candidate in Chinese his-
tory at the University of Chicago,
will be our guest lecturer. Mr.
Woodruff has recently returned

China Tour, Sept. 22 to October 13.

to Chicago after two years of
research at Beijing University.
His experience of living in China,
his fluency in Chinese, and excel-
lent rapport with the Chinese
guides are a superb supplement
to his leadership skills. This is the
fifth China tour he has led for
Field Museum.

Kenya

September & to 27
$3,595

You are invited to join us for an
exciting 19-day safari to East Afri-
ca accompanied throughout by
Audrey Faden, experienced lec-
turer and tour guide, plus local
guides. Game is still plentiful and

Stanton R. Cook, courtesy Chicago Tribune

7s a
Kenya Tour, September 8-27.

this tour is scheduled to coincide
with the animal migration. It will
be Spring in Kenya. The time to
go is now! A trip to Kenyais a
vacation that never ends. We
hope you will make your reserva-
tion now.

Start planning now for...

Tour of Egypt
February, 1985

If you wish to be placed on the
mailing list for this perennially
popular tour, or if you have ques-
tions about any of the other
tours, please write or call Tours
Manager Dorothy Roder, Field
Museum, Roosevelt Rd. at Lake
Shore Dr., Chicago, Il 60605.
Phone: 322-8862.

27

oo01F 288 ;

Edith Fleming

946 Pleasant

Oak Pk; IL 60302

j
iS)
i)
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Field Museum
of Natural History
Bulletin

Published by

Field Museum of Natural History
Founded 1893

President: Willard L. Boyd
Director: Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.

Editor: David M. Walsten
Production Liaison: Pamela Stearns
Staff Photographer: Ron Testa

BOarD OF TRUSTEES Lire TRUSTEES

James J. O’Connor Harry O. Bercher
chairman Joseph N. Field
Mrs. T. Stanton Armour Clifford C. Gregg
George R. Baker William V. Kahler

Robert O. Bass William H. Mitchell
Gordon Bent John W. Sullivan
Bowen Blair J. Howard Wood
Willard L. Boyd

Frank W. Considine

Stanton R. Cook

William R. Dickinson, Jr.

Thomas E. Donnelley II

Thomas J. Eyerman

Marshall Field

Richard M. Jones

Hugo J. Melvoin

Leo F. Mullin

Charles F. Murphy, Jr.

Earl L. Neal

Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.

Robert A. Pritzker

James H. Ransom

John S. Runnells

Patrick G. Ryan

William L. Searle

Edward Byron Smith

Robert H. Strotz

Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken

E. Leland Webber

Blaine J. Yarrington

Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin (USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined
July August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive,
Chicago, Il. 60605. Subscriptions: $6.00 annually, $3.00 for schools. Museum membership
includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not neces-
sarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Museum
phone: (312) 922-9410. Notification of address change should include address label and be sent to
Membership Department. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural His-
tory, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, II. 60605. ISSN:0015-0703. Second class
postage paid at Chicago, Il.

Ownership, Management and Circulation

Filing date: Sept. 14, 1984. Title Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin. Publication no. 898940. Frequency of
publication: Monthly except for combined July/August issue. Number of issues published annually: 11, Annual subscrip-
tion pnice: $6.00. Office: Roosevelt Rd. at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL. 60605-2496

Publisher: Field Museum of Natural History. Editor: David M. Walsten. Known bondholders, mortgages, and other
secunty holders: none. Nonprofit status has not changed during the preceding 12 months

Actual no copies
single issue nearest

Av. no. copies each
issue preceding

12 mos to filing date

Total copies printed 33,070 30.500
None None

28.889 26.454

28.889 26.454

578 578

29,467 27.032

Office use Lover 3.603 3.468
Tot. 33,070 30.500

mace by me above are correct and complete. Jimmy W. Croft. vice president for Finance and

CONTENTS

October 1985

Volume 55, Number 9

October Events at Field Museum 3
Members’ Nights 5

Pacific Research Lab: A New Look, Thanks to NSF 6

Social and Unsocial Behavior in Dinosaurs 10
byJohn H. Ostrom
Pigeon Whistles
by Berthold Laufer 22
Field Museum’s Planned Giving Program 24

by Clifford Buzard, Planned Giving Officer

Field Museum Tours pA

COVER

Fossilized skeleton of dinosaur Protoceratops andrewsi, on view in
Hall 38. October is “Dinosaur Month” at Field Museum. Check
“Dinosaur Days” (Oct. 20, 21) activities in “Events” section, pp. 3,4.

Invitation for Volunteers

| Field Museum needs people with special skills who
can volunteer one day a week with a minimum com-
mitment of one year. If you are interested in sharing
your love of natural history with youngsters, you might
become a “Place for Wonder” volunteer. The Pawnee
earth lodge needs volunteers with public speaking
ability and a special interest in Native American
culture.

Zoology needs weekday volunteers who can
type or who are willing to work with alcohol speci-
mens in the Fishes or Reptiles Divisions. Weekday
volunteers are also needed in Membership, Public
Relations, and Planning and Development.

For more information please contact the Volun-
teer Coordinator at 922-9410, extension 360.

Events

Dinosaur Days—Feature Lectures
“Dinosaurs: An Alternate Evolutionary Experiment”

Dr. Dale Russell, Chief, Paleobiology Division

National Museum of Natural Sciences, Ottawa, Ontario
Saturday, Oct. 20, 2:00pm, James Simpson Theatre

Dinosaurs may have vanished abruptly approxi-
mately 65 million years ago. What brought about
their demise? There are numerous theories. Accord-
ing to one viewpoint, this mass extinction may have
been aided by a huge asteroid hitting the earth’s sur-
face. The great extinction of reptiles prevented them
from further evolution. It can be speculated that they
would have achieved human levels of brain complex-
ity had they survived extinction. Join us as paleo-
biologist Dr. Dale Russell presents his provocative
theories of the process of evolution—what dinosaurs
would look like today and whether or not life evolves
in the exotic biospheres of distant stellar systems.

o-

$5.00 (Members: $3.00) Jim Gary
Moderator: Dr. Dale Russell
National Museum of Natural
Sciences, Ottawa

This program is funded in part by the Ray A. Kroc
Environmental Foundation. Fees are nonrefundable.

“New Fossils—New Evidence”

A Conversation with the Curators Panel: Dr. John R. Bolt
Sunday, Oct. 21, 2:00pm, James Simpson Theatre Reta Meany or ator
Dr. James O. Farlow

Recently new dinosaur fossils have been discovered :
Indiana-Purdue at Fort Wayne

that give us clues and information about how these
creatures behaved. Nests, eggs, skin impressions and Dr. James A. Hopson
the fossils of juvenile dinosaurs are providing evi- University of Chicago
dence about the everyday lives of dinosaurs. In an

: eee see Dr. Jack Sepkowski
informal conversation, leading scientists discuss these

: : University of Chi
new discoveries and present current theories about ake | pare
life during the “Age of Reptiles”. (For more on Dinosaur Days programs—Oct. 20, 21
This program is free with Museum admission. —see page 17)
Family Feature
Halloween Legends and Masks
Saturday and Sunday, October 27 and 28, 1:00-3:00pm
Stanley Field Hall, Main Floor
Halloween celebrations began more than 2,000 years legends and customs that have accompanied the
ago, in what is now Great Britain. The Celtic people celebration of this holiday throughout the centuries.
held a festival in honor of Samhain, the Celtic lord of | Make a mask ofa character that you can trace to these
Death. During their celebration, people wore cos- ancient legends for your own Halloween celebration.

tumes made of animal skins and told fortunes of the
coming year. This celebration of Halloween has
changed tremendously over the years. Listen to the

Family Features are free with Museum admission and
tickets are not required.

CONTINUED: >

CONTINUED FROM PAGE 3

October Weekend Programs

from the Illinois Arts Council.

October

6 11:30am. Ancient Egypt. (Tour) Explore the tradi-
tion of ancient Egypt from everyday life to myths
and mummies.

7 12:30 pm. Museum Safari. (Tour) Seek out shrunk-
en heads from the Amazon, mummies from
ancient Egypt, and big game from Africa.

13 1:30 pm. Red Land/Black Land. (Tour) Examine
the geography of the Nile Valley and its effect on
the lifestyle of the pharaohs, the religious prac-
tices of the priests, and the reason for
mumumification.

2:00 pm. Traditional China. (Tour) Examine the
timeless imagery and craftsmanship represented
by Chinese masterworks in our permanent
collection.

14 12:00 noon. World of Dinosaurs. (Tour) Focus on
the Museum’s public dinosaur collection and cov-
er the basic facts plus some speculation about
these ancient reptiles.

1:00 pm. People of the Long House. (Slide lecture)
Look at Iroquois culture, relationships with
Europeans and other native groups and their sur-
vival with both adaptability and grace.

Events

Each Saturday and Sunday you are invited to explore the world of natural history at Field Museum. Free
tours, demonstrations, and films related to ongoing exhibits at the Museum are designed for families and
adults. Listed below are only a few of the numerous activities each weekend. Check the Weekend Passport upon
arrival for the complete schedule and program locations. The programs are partially supported by a grant

21 1:00 pm. Welcome to the Field! (Tour) Enjoy a
sampling of our most significant exhibits as you
explore the scope of Field Museum.

28 12:30 pm. Museum Safari. (Tour) Seek out shrunk-
en heads from the Amazon, mummies from
ancient Egypt, and big game from Africa.

These weekend programs are free with Museum
admission and tickets are not required.

Edward E. Ayer Film Lectures

Travel the world on Thursdays in October at 1:30 pm

in James Simpson Theatre. Admission is free. Doors .
open at 12:45 pm. Members please bring membership
card for priority seating privilege.

October 4 “South American Venture,”

with Rudy Thuran

“Timbuktu and Beyond,”
with William Stockdale

“Argentina,”
with Clay Francisco

October 11

October 18

October 25

“Switzerland and the Alps,”
with Andre de la Varre

H y Member Nonmember Total
Registration Program Title Tickets Tickets Tickets Re daactiaN
#Requested # Requested # Requested co
Please complete coupon for your program
selection and any other special events. Com-
plete all requested information on the applica-
tion and include section number where appro-
priate. If your request is received less than one
week before program, tickets will be held in
your name at West Entrance box office until
one-half hour before event. Please make
checks payable to Field Museum. Tickets will
be mailed on receipt of check. Refunds will be
made only if program is sold out
Total
For Office Use:
= Date Received Date Returned
Name
- Return complete ticket application with a self-addressed
Street stamped envelope to:
City State Zip Public Programs: Department of Education
fen aaa = = = Field Museum of Natural History
elephone Daytime Evening Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive

Have you enclosed your self-addressed stamped envelope?

Chicago, IL 60605-2497

“Night of the Living Field’
Friday, October 12
5:00 to 10:00pm

Come and unearth the wonders of a night in the living field. We’ll be
turning over the timeless treasures buried in our “Back 40” (a.k.a.
Stanley Field Hall), especially for you. They'll be dinosaurs and
daguerrotypes, curators, and cocktails, mummies and music, appealing
activities, and acres and acres more.

And if that’s not enough, you come prepared to dig a little, and
we'll plant some good seeds of our own with the annual Behind-the-
Scenes activities (from 5:00 to 9:00pm). You'll meet our scientific and
creative teams and visit those staff only areas the general public never
sees, as you begin to cultivate your own ideas abut how natural history
can really work for you.

So, put this Members’ Night on your calendar: Night of the Living
Field—it might just be food for thought.

Added Attractions:

te Live music will be provided in Stanley Field Hall by the Franz
Benteler Orchestra under the baton of Ted Knight.

te The Museum Stores will be open 5:00 to 9:00pm, with an exclusive
Mark McMahon poster of Field Museum available in the main shop.

te Enjoy fully catered dinners or short-order meals and snacks in our
specially prepared Ground Floor dining areas. Full food service will be
available 5:00 to 9:00pm.

ts Members wishing to bring a guest may do so for the general admis-
sion fee, payable at the north or south entrance.

ts Special arrangements for the disabled can be made by calling:
922-9410, ext. 454, October | to 9.

te Free parking is available in the Museum’s north lot and the Soldier
Field lot: Just show your member card and the parking is on us.

ts For those not arriving by car, we suggest our free round trip charter
bus service operating between The Loop and our south door. CTA
busses marked “FIELD MUSEUM” originate at the Canal Street entr-
ance of Union Station (Canal at Jackson), and stop at the Canal Street
entrance of Northwestern Station (Canal at Washington); Washington
and State; Washington and Michigan; Adams and Michigan; and Balbo
and Michigan. Buses will run circuits beginning at 4:45 PM and con-
tinue at 20-minute intervals until the Museum closes at 10:00 PM
(Buses will travel to the train stations until the departure of the last
train.) You may board the free ‘Field Museum” CTA bus by showing
your membership card.

A NEW LOOK
for the
PACIFIC RESEARCH LAB

National Science Foundation Grant
Underwrites the Improvement
Of an Important Research Facility

Photos by Ron Testa

major advance in the storage of anthropolog- Micronesia, Indonesia/Malaysia, and Madagascar.
ical materials at the Field Museum has now been The important project, initiated in 1981, was
achieved with the reorganization and renovation of made possible by a $168,800 grant from the National
the Pacific Research Laboratory, a facility with some Science Foundation. Codirectors of the project were
35,000 objects from Australia, Melanesia, Polynesia, Phillip Lewis, curator of primitive art and Melane-

Phillip Lewis examines barkcloth headdress-mask from the Baining of the Gazelle Peninsula of New Britain. Large, unwieldy objects are sus-
pended from lightweight conduit and chains with cotton gauze and cheesecloth slings.

Tapa storage, showing barkcloth strips from the Pacific rolled around acid-free cardboard tubes, wrapped in plastic, hung on conduit. Flat tapas
are stored below.

sian ethnology, and Phyllis Rabineau, custodian of
collections, Department of Anthropology. Staff mem-
bers who worked on the project were Kathleen
Christon, Christine Gross-Taterka, E.B. O’Malley,
Beth Koenen-Seelbach, Maryanne Schoch, and Col.
Millard Rada.

Before reorganization the Pacific Research Lab
was equipped with 10,525 sq. ft. of shelving, an in-
sufficient amount to properly accommodate the
collection. In many cases fragile objects were stacked
up in layers, resulting in abrasion to wood, fibre, and
delicately painted surfaces. Other objects were given
insufficient support to maintain their structural sta-
bility. Plaited mats were folded in several places,
causing breakage of their constituent fibres. Oversize
tapa cloths were draped over rods and in danger of

stretching. Feather ornaments were crushed in in-
sufficient drawer space.

During the grant-funded reorganization project,
shelf area was increased by almost 70 percent. Three
thousand sq. ft. of new shelving were purchased, and
this was supplemented with 4,000 sq. ft. of used
shelving already on hand, interleaving the additional
shelves within the old arrangement. This increase in
shelf area virtually eliminated the need to stack ob-
jects. Specialized storage equipment was also pur-
chased or manufactured to accommodate objects that
could not be placed on shelves: drawers for small ob-
jects, racks for vertical storage of spears and shields,
horizontal racks for storage of rolled mats and tapa
cloth. These units were fitted into the shelving sys-
tem. Such equipment enables the museum to store

?

Collections Assistant Christine Gross-Taterka with New Guinea
shields in special wooden racks. Horizontal steel angle iron is wrap-
ped with bubblepak.

each object in a manner that best suits its physical
needs, and in addition makes it easily accessible for
research.

Additional specialized storage mounts were
made to support fragile objects; polyethylene sheet-
ing and foam, museum board, and bubblepak were
used to protect some of these. The existing shelf
uprights have fairly sharp edges and these were
wrapped with bubblepak in areas where large items
are stored, thereby reducing chances of damage
through abrasion.

Many items within the Museum’s Pacific collec-
tion are bulky or oddly-shaped. These include
monumental house posts, very wide tapa cloths, large
and delicate costumes made from tapa or bast,
feather-trimmed flax cloaks, wooden feast bowls, and
many other types. It was found that the proportion of
such large and unwieldy objects was much higher for

the Pacific collection than for any other segment of
the Museum’s holdings. Unusual storage methods
were required for these items, challenging the exper-
tise and ingenuity of the Museum’s seasoned staff,
but these problems were successfully solved during
the project. In the most extreme example, delicate
items were placed in muslin slings and suspended
from the ceiling because there was no other way to
properly distribute their weight. Very large racks
were built in carefully chosen locations not only to
accommodate large items but also to ensure that they
could be removed from the room as needed.

Lighting throughout the storage area was
improved by adding new fluorescent fixtures and
installing ultraviolet filters.

All objects in the PRL were cleaned and their
storage arrrangement was shifted to a rational
arrangement based on provenience data. During the
process of reorganization, recent acquisitions, which
had been squeezed into unrelated spaces, were inte-
grated in the proper sequence. A shelf numbering sys-
tem was initiated and every object assigned a num-
bered location. When an object is removed from a

Phillip Lewis examines custom-built drawers built into shelving up-
rights. The drawers contain small items from Micronesia and
Melanesia.

Christine Gross-Taterka inspects New Guinea spears in custom-built
racks. Spear bundles are secured with cotton twill ties.

shelf its storage number can now be noted ona special
form; a copy of the form is left in place of the object.
This procedure facilitates the return of objects to
their proper location. When data entry is completed
on the computerized catalog, storage location num-
bers will be a part of each item entry.

The departmental computerized catalog is not
yet in service, so automated data retrieval and sorting
is not yet possible. However, work is progressing on
this important process. Data entry and location
updating have resumed, and the museum is planning
an expansion of its computer facility. The PRL
reorganization project, like the earlier storeroom ren-
ovations, used the results of work on a computerized
catalog. The work teams used a computer printout
containing all the contents of the storeroom in
numerical order. As each artifact was handled, its
catalog number was located in the printout, descrip-
tive data checked, and its numbered storage location
was entered. Thus, the new storage numbers are
ready for input into the computer, and when updat-

ing is completed the computer will be able to generate
shelf lists and other useful data sorts about the
collection.

In addition to the tasks funded by the NsF grant,
several other improvements were carried out with
museum resources:

@ Interior walls of the storage area were painted.

@ The concrete floor was sealed.

@ The work area just outside the storage area of PRL
was redesigned to be used for processing accessions
and loans, and as research space.

@ The climate control system in PRL was retrofitted
to assure an absolutely stable temperature and
humidity (70°F and 50% RH). The techniques used to
stabilize climate control in PRL will be used to help
redesign other heating and airconditioning systems in
the building.

The reorganized PRL is now much easier to work
in. Objects are accessible, and can easily be located
for research or exhibition. The staff is confident that
the results of the grant will be of benefit to the collec-
tion for many years. Beyond supplying the actual cost
of the tasks proposed in the original grant proposal,
the NSF grant has stimulated additional efforts to
improve conditions for this important collection.

Storage bay for oversize specimens such as canoe prows and
carved posts from New Guinea.

10

Social and Unsocial Behavior in Dinosaurs

by John H. Ostrom

T. speculate about behavior among extinct animal spe-
cies is dangerous business. Speculation about dinosaur be-
havior is even more hazardous, since paleoethologists are
condemned to indirect evidence: the usually fragmentary
skeletal remains, the sometimes conflicting taphonomic
data (fossil associations and conditions of burial and pre-
servation) and trace fossils (footprints and trails). Like
beauty, the resulting interpretations are in the eyes of the
beholder. Some dinosaurian carnivores seem to have been
solitary hunters, while others apparently hunted in packs.
A few, it is suspected, were limited to scavenging. Parental
care of hatchlings may have been common practice, and
group and herding behavior seems to have been wide-
spread. Whether warm: or cold-blooded, there is even
some evidence of rutting behavior in a few kinds, and both
visual and acoustical display activity may have prevailed
in others. As we intuitively suspected, dinosaurs seem to
have behaved in ways not unlike those of many modern

rT eT Toe fatsa Nyce
nc rT Nese tien,

species, relying on behavioral adaptations that promoted
feeding, survival, and propagation.

Ethology, the study of animal behavior, is a respected,
albeit complex discipline that is securely based on direct
observation and measurement. Of course that does not
mean that the conclusions reached by all observers are in
full agreement, but at least direct observation is possible.

John H. Ostrom is professor of geology and curator of vertebrate
paleontology at Yale University.

“Social and Unsocial Behavior in Dinosaurs” is adapted from a
paper of that title presented at Field Museum’s 1984 Spring Sys-
tematics Symposium on the Evolution of Behavior. The papers of
the symposium are to be published in 1985 by the University of
Chicago Press.

Pity the poor paleoethologist who has no observational
data—no record of time budgets: no record of time spent
in foraging versus resting; in hunting versus courting;
guarding of territory and clan—or just hanging around.

At first glance, speculating about behavior of any
kind—in any kind of extinct animal—would seem futile.
A pure ethologist no doubt would categorize speculations
on dinosaur behavior as absurd—just fantasies. The safest
conclusion that I can come to is that dinosaur behavior
must have been as diverse as the dinosaurs themselves,
which came in many shapes and sizes. Included were car-
nivores and herbivores, quadrupeds and bipeds, terrestrial
kinds and others that are thought by some to have been at
least amphibious, if not fully aquatic. Most were huge, as
we all know, but some (although perhaps juveniles —or
even hatchlings) were small—the smallest were perhaps
the size of a robin. So we should anticipate a correspond-
ing diversity of behavior.

PN POET TEIN oS ete

Approximately 300 genera of dinosaurs have been
named (not all of them wisely) and placed in one of two
orders, the Saurischia and the Omithischia. Traditionally,
the saurischians are further divided into three suborders:
the prosauropods, the sauropods, and the theropods. The
prosauropods were largely, if not exclusively, herbivorous
and capable of standing or walking on their hind legs as
well as on all fours (facultative bipeds); the sauropods,
which includes the largest known dinosaurs, such as
Brachiosaurus, were herbivorous and obligate quadrupeds
(i.e., confined to four-legged stance or locomotion); the
theropods were carnivorous, obligate bipeds (i.e., unable
to stand or walk on all fours).

The order Ornithischia consists exclusively of
herbivorous kinds allocated to four or five subcategories:
the facultative bipedal ornitho and sometimes sepa-
rated near-relatives, the pachycephalosaurs; the plated ste-
gosaurs; the armored ankylosaurs; and the horned ceratop-
sians. The stegosaurs, ankylosaurs, and ceratopsians were

all obligate quadrupeds. Within this array, we can draw

Reconstruction by R.T. Bakker of
the pack-hunting theropod
Deinonychus. Noteworthy are the
long claw-bearing hands and
arms and the large sicklelike claw
on each foot.

inferences about a few kinds of behavior for some, and
other behavior in others—depending upon the quality of
the available evidence.

Exactly what is the nature of the evidence that per-
tains to dinosaurian behavior? Briefly, it falls into three
categories: anatomic—the fossilized skeletal remains (usu-
ally very incomplete), taphonomic, and trace fossils. All of
these are indirect evidence only. No behavior patterns or
time budgets can be observed. From these indirect data we
can only infer—and what inferences any two observers
will draw from these data may not be the same.

Behavioral Categories

Behavior may be a solitary activity or it may involve
other members of the same species or others of differ-
ent species. Both types of behavior can be categorized
into several distinct kinds, such as feeding, defense,
movement (pursuit, escape, migration, etc.), mating
and courting, nursery maintenance, and so on.
Because evidence is not available for all possible
activities of all the main dinosaurian varieties, the fol-
lowing exercise is organized in terms of behavioral
activities rather than by taxonomic groups.

Feeding Behavior

As Edwin H. Colbert has observed, “there is a defi-
nite relationship between the morphology of an ani-
mal and its behavior,” and “Much of the behavior of
animals is determined to a considerable degree by
their physical adaptations.”’ Consequently, most of
our inferences about dinosaur behavior derive from
their skeletal remains and inferred functional
morphology. That is nowhere more evident than in
the dentition and is why we can say more about feed-
ing behavior than any other activity. As is evidenced
by tooth morphology, there were both flesh-eating
and plant-eating dinosaurs. There is nothing new in
this observation, but the figure on page 12 illustrates
the obvious reasons for that conclusion.

The ornithischians all appear to have been herbi
vores, although recently discovered fragments which
may be referrable to the genus Troodon might be an
exception.” Nearly all ornithischian teeth were blunt
without serrations and many show distinct grinding
surfaces. Among the ornithischians, stegosaurs and
ankylosaurs are enigmas as far as feeding habits or

2

Comparison between teeth of plant-eating and flesh-eating dinosaurs. The three above are the blunt, grinding teeth of the herbivorous ornithopod
Iguanodon. Below are the right lower jaw and serrated, steak knife-like teeth of the carnivorous theropod Megalosaurus.

preferences are concerned. Both were bulky quad-
rupeds that carried their heads low—presumably for
browsing on low shrublike vegetation. Their jaws
bore broad horny bills most likely used for plucking
foliage, but the teeth behind were few in number and
surprisingly small for such bulky animals. Whatever
kind of vegetation they ate, it could not have been
well chewed. Beyond this, we can deduce little about
their feeding activity.

The bipedal ornithopods, on the other hand,
were quite different. Their bipedal stance and pro-
gression could have increased their vertical foraging
range, and may also have increased their running
speeds. But it is their dentition that attracts atten-
tion. Early ornithopods of the Late Triassic and Earli-
est Jurassic—heterodontosaurs—featured surprising
tooth differentiation: small nipping incisorlike front
teeth, followed by prominent caninelike tusks, in
turn followed by batteries of special grinding teeth
behind.* The larger ornithopods of Early to Late
Jurassic times had many robust teeth that commonly
display distinct wear facets indicative of some degree

of mastication. The Late Cretaceous ornithopod vari-
eties (“duckbills,” or hadrosaurs) featured highly spe-
cialized dental equipment and jaw mechanics. The
dentitions show a high degree of occlusal wear and
efficient tooth replacement, clear evidence of a soph-
isticated method of chewing food.* This is surprising
in a reptile—by comparison with living reptiles. Some
of the hadrosaurs reached large sizes, up to 5 m (near-
ly 17 feet) in bipedal height, and well designed for
browsing on high conifers that were abundant in
Late Cretaceous forests. Footprint evidence suggests
they may have browsed in groups’.

By contrast, the related ceratopsians, or horned
dinosaurs, were heavy quadrupeds with very large
heads carried close to the ground. Here too, the jaws
featured specialized dental batteries located behind
cutting, parrotlike beaks. The tooth batteries, though
similar to those of the duckbills, display vertical
occlusal wear facets that clearly indicate the denti-
tion was for shearing or slicing, rather than for
grinding.® We can only speculate about the preferred
food, but it most probably was highly fibrous plant

tissue—perhaps low-growing cycads or palms. That
image of a cycad-browsing Triceratops may be en-
hanced by noting the “enlarged” size of the skull with
its posterior bony extension or frill. In some ceratop-
sians, this frill is more than half the total skull length.

more in Brachiosaurus, they must have been pro-
digious consumers—even if they were not endother-
mic, or warm-blooded. Paradoxically, they possessed
no obvious dental specializations or other adapta-
tions that might have enhanced their feeding

Dental battery of a
hadrosaur (Anato-
saurus breviceps,
YPM. #1779),
showing the dis-
tinct occlusal sur-
face (above) and
the remarkable
supply of replace-
ment teeth (below)
beneath the worn
functional teeth.

Commonly the frill has been interpreted as a protec-
tive shield covering the vital neck region.’ It has also
been interpreted as an expanded muscle attachment
site, allowing space for larger jaw muscles and adding
power to the shearing mechanism.® The frill may well
have served both roles, but some investigators have
suggested that it had a display function.”

The most demanding vegetarians among the
dinosaurs must have been the giant sauropods. With
weights ranging from perhaps 10 tons up to 60 tons or

efficiency.'° Their elongated necks have traditionally
(but not universally) been explained as an adaptation
to permit breathing from a deep underwater position.
A more realistic interpretation is that the long neck
permitted browsing on high foliage.'! That would
seem to be an appropriate adaptation in the Jurassic-
Early Cretaceous world, where nearly all other herbi-
vores (stegosaurs, ankylosaurs, and most ornitho-
pods) were low-level feeders.

The carnivorous dinosaurs, or theropods, have

formally been categorized (I think incorrectly) as
large or small animals in two separate infra-orders,
Carnosauria and Coelurosauria. That they both fed
on flesh is evident from their teeth, which are slightly
Skeleton of the chicken-
size theropod Comp-
sognathus containing the
articulated skeleton of a
lizard (Bavarisaurus).

The skeletal proportions

of the consumed lizard
skeleton compare most
closely with modern fast-
running ground-adwelling

lizards such as
Cnemidophorus.

recurved, laterally compressed, and bladelike with
serrated edges. With very few exceptions, there is no
hard evidence that any particular species was a pred-
ator or a scavenger. Likewise, for most kinds there is
no evidence about hunting strategy or killing tech-
niques.

J.O. Farlow has speculated about the diet and
foraging behavior of theropods, relying on analogies
of Recent predators (crocodilians, the Komodo moni-
tor, and several other lizards, mammals, and birds).!”
The actual fossil evidence, though, is sparse. Tapho-
nomic evidence suggests that some theropods may
have foraged in groups. For example, the famed
Coelophysis Quarry at Ghost Ranch, New Mexico
contained numerous skeletons of the small carnivore

14 Coelophysis, but very little else. The few other spe-

cies recovered there were also carnivorous types. By
contrast, the Cleveland-Lloyd Quarry of Utah has
produced vast numbers of bones of Allosaurus of all
size classes associated with several kinds of herbi-

vores. The Allosaurus remains greatly outnumbered
bones of the herbivorous kinds (Camptosaurus and
Stegosaurus). W.L. Stokes has explained the dis-
proportionate abundance of carnivore remains in the
Cleveland-Lloyd Quarry as a Rancho La Brea-type
“predator trap,” where Allosaurus was attracted in
numbers to feed on mired-down dying or dead
herbivores.'* The Coelophysis Quarry, however, is
not so easily explained. There, only carnivores are
preserved and they are almost exclusively the re-
mains of Coelophysis, at a ratio of about 30 to 1. The
remains of Coelophysis include both young and adults
and are preserved as articulated skeletons that are
partial or complete. This suggests the expiration of a
clan, perhaps at a drying-up water hole, but does pre-
clude their demise by flood at a clan scavenging feast.

The taphonomic evidence is inconclusive.

While these two sites may appear ambiguous,
there is persuasive evidence at another site that at
least one kind of theropod, Deinonychus, probably
hunted in packs. At the Yale Deinonychus Quarry in
Montana, were recovered remains of at least four
individuals of Deinonychus associated with frag-
ments of a single much larger herbivore,
Tenontosaurus.'* The unabraded condition of the del-
icate Deinonychus remains argues that these were
preserved at or very close to the site of death. A
tempting conclusion is that these several 70-kg (154
lb.) predators were killed during an attack on the
much larger prey animal (ca. 600-700 kg), Tenonto-
saurus. Isolated, presumably shed, teeth of Deinony-
chus have been found associated with a number of
other Tenontosaurus skeletons, suggesting that this
particular ornithopod was favorite prey for the much
smaller Deinonychus.'? The multiple remains at the
Yale site and the pronounced size disparity between
the two animals strongly indicate pack-hunting in
Deinonychus.

In contrast to group predation, there are at least
two theropod specimens that could be interpreted as
evidence of solitary predation, Compsognathus and
Coelophysis. The classic specimen of the chicken-size
Compsognathus in the Bavarian State Collections in
Munich clearly reveals the skeleton of a much smaller
animal within its rib cage. Amazingly, this partial but
still articulated skeleton is identifiable as that of an
apparently cursorial (adapted for running) lizard,
Bavarisaurus.'° Although this lizard may have been

The skull of Corythosaurus casuarius (A.M.N.H. #5240), with its
prominent nasal crest. The dental batteries are of special interest.

flushed by group foraging, it obviously was caught
and consumed by just one predator. (It appears to
have caused fatal indigestion.) The evidence in
Coelophysis, on the other hand, is not so clear. Within
the body cavity of one adult skeleton is a mass of dis-
articulated small bones that appear to be those of a
very young Coelophysis, although that is not certain.
It is not even clear whether these belong to one indi-
vidual or include parts of several. This could be a case
of group cannibalism, or perhaps scavenging, with
these consumed incomplete remains evidence of more
than one consumer.

The only convincing evidence of solitary preda-
tion among dinosaurs is footprint evidence reported
from Texas,'” Queensland, Australia,'* and possibly
Colorado.'? In these reports, the authors note the
occurrence of one or two trackways of large ther-
opods paralleling trackways of various herbivorous

dinosaurs. There is no way to establish whether these
different trackways were made at the same time, but
the fact that the predator trackway, in some in-
stances, parallels a herbivore’s trackway strongly sug-
gests that one was stalking the other.

Concerning the killing tactics of the various
theropods, there is very little evidence. But the bizar-
re anatomy of Deinonychus provides us with remark-
able clues about a peculiarly aggressive predator.
Hunting in packs, as noted earlier, these animals
apparently grasped the prey with clawed forelimbs
and slashed at vulnerable regions with large, sharp,
sickle-like hind claws. This hypothesized tactic was
confirmed by a remarkable discovery in Mongolia of a
near relative of Deinonychus—Velociraptor.”° It was
preserved in fatal combat with its intended prey
(Protoceratops), the lethal pedal claw imbedded in
the midsection and the hands grasping the head of
Protoceratops. To my knowledge, this is the only
direct evidence available that clearly documents the

method of kill by any theropod, and thus the only
certifiable evidence of theropod predation, as
opposed to scavenging.

Speculations abound concerning the feeding
habits of giant theropods such as Tyrannosaurus and
Tarbosaurus. Their sheer size alone, together with
their miniscule and seemingly useless forelimbs, sug-
gests a scavenging mode, but we don’t know. Yet it is
difficult to visualize a five-ton Tyrannosaurus suc-
ceeding in pursuit of any prey.

Mating Behavior

Not surprisingly, there is no evidence at all for most
dinosaur kinds concerning mating behavior other
than the obvious fact that all kinds did succeed in
mating. Clutches of eggs of several varieties have
been found, notably the Mongolian ceratopsian Pro-
toceratops,”*' the French sauropod Hypselosaurus,7*
and most recently the duckbill Maiasaura from

The skull of Triceratops brevicornus (B.S.P Munich), illustrating the frill extension and facial horns. The dental batteries are also of special interest.

Montana,”? plus several other unidentifiable kinds.?4
John Horner’s discoveries are among the most impor-
tant and exciting dinosaur finds in decades. Not only
has he recovered several different kinds of eggs in
clutches, he has also found multiple nests of what
appear to be the same kind in a single horizon,
suggesting “colonial nesting.” The same kind has also
been found in different horizons. Horner interprets
the latter as evidence of “site fidelity” —the gravid
females returning to the same nesting site year after
year.” Even more important is Horner’s discovery of
nests of very young duckbills apparently huddled
together like bird hatchlings in a nest. But these
young are too large to be very recent hatchlings.
Moreover, their teeth show sign of wear. The ques-
tion that cannot be answered: Did these young forage
for food on their own and return to the shelter of their
nest, or is there a suggestion here of parental care
with the parents bringing food to the nestlings?
Horner’s discovery of this multi-species dinosaur
nesting ground in Montana gives us a new window
on dinosaurian biology.

The duckbill dinosaurs have prompted the most
speculation about dinosaur mating or courting be-
havior, chiefly because of their peculiar nasal appara-
tus and the variety of cranial crests in some. J.A. Hop-
son presented a convincing hypothesis (first sug-
gested by C. Wiman in 1931) that the cranial crests of
certain hadrosaurs were visual cues and that the hol-
low crests containing loops of the nasal passages were
vocal resonating structures — all of which presum-
ably promoted successful intraspecies identification,
thus serving as a premating genetic isolating mech-
anism.”° He argued further that the large depressions
enclosing the external nares in the crestless hadro-
saurs housed “inflatable” diverticulae of the nasal
passages that similarly served as display organs. Had-
rosaurs had well developed eyes,?” and ears”®; en-
hanced olfaction”® perhaps provided by the expanded
nasal tracts, may also have played a role in hadrosau-
rian species recognition (or approaching predators),
but D.B. Weishampel has reinforced the resonating
hypothesis, arguing that vocalization in the hollow-
crested duckbills was for parent-offspring com-
munication, rather than mate signalling.*° If one,
why not both?

Turning to the horned dinosaurs, J.O. Farlow
and P. Dodson pondered the variety of frill shapes and

DINOSAUR
DAYS

Saturday and Sunday, Oct. 20, 21
11:00am to 4:00pm

Dinosaurs have “come into their own” in
recent years. Join us for two days of fun
devoted to these astounding behemoths
of the past.

New Jersey artist Jim Gary will be on
hand with his “Twentieth Century Dino-
saurs,” including a 37-foot Apatosaurus
ingeniously constructed from more than
500 recycled auto parts, and a low-slung,
lumbering Ankylosaurus built to scale
and sporting a 25-year-old Volkswagen
roof for its shell, two oil pans for its head,
leaf springs for its ribs, and countless
other discarded parts to complete the
astonishing resemblance.

Bamities can learn the story of dinosaurs
through activities in the Museums halls,
illustrated lectures and demonstrations.
Giant puzzle pieces illustrate continental
drift, the enormous size of some dino-
saurs, and their estimated speeds. Make
your own prehistoric puppets, participate
in a play, and design a Stegosaurus or
Dimetrodon. “Dinosaur Days” promises to
be an exciting and information-packed
time for all ages.

Dress programs are free with Museum
admission—no tickets required. A com-
plete schedule of activities is available on
the days of the events. For more informa-
tion, call (312) 322-8854.

17

18

sizes together with variations in the nasal and brow
horns.*! They concluded that these differences in cra-
nial morphology reflect differences in intraspecific
agonistic and courtship behavior, somewhat
analogous to behavior in modern horned ungulates
and some horned lizards. The earliest ceratopsians
featured short frills and only a single nasal horn, or
none at all. Farlow and Dodson suggested that the
frill served as a “visual dominance rank symbol” and
that the nasal horn was used in intraspecific combat
with the snout and horn being swung against the
competitor’s flanks. According to these authors, later
ceratopsians had larger frills that enhanced the dis-
play function, and the more complex arrays of multi-
ple facial horns were used in frontal combat with
adversaries of their own kind. The possibility of a pair
of rutting Triceratops bulls squaring off against each
other to win potential mates or to achieve dominance
of the group makes much more sense than the usual
explanation of a threatened Triceratops fencing off a
hungry Tyrannosaurus.

Rutting behavior seems to have been true of
another group of dinosaurs, the bipedal pachycepha-
losaurs, or “dome heads.” Members of this group of
ornithopods are characterized by massively thick-
ened bony skull caps. P.M. Galton has argued per-
suasively that this thickened bony dome was used in
intraspecific contests in frontal head-butting
analagous to that of American bighorn sheep.*” Pre-
sumably, this activity was by rutting males in compe-
tition for mates or to establish dominance over the
herd.

R.E. Molnar has given an interesting review of
the analogies in modern ungulate mammals and the
various ornithischian dinosaurs to test some of the
above inferences about structure and inferred
behavior.**

Defensive Behavior

Defensive strategy among dinosaurs undoubtedly
was as varied as the size and appearance of the ani-
mals themselves. While the use of some structures
seems obvious, the evidence is sometimes ambiguous.
The horned dinosaurs, for instance: were their nasal
and brow horns for active defense against predators,
as frequently claimed, or were they for intraspecific
sparring to establish dominance within the herd, as
Farlow and Dodson maintained?** Among the

armored dinosaurs, defense seems to have been chief-
ly passive, the animals being well shielded beneath
thick bony scutes and spikes. Yet some, like Ankylo-
saurus, carried spikes or macelike clubs at the end of
the tail, suggesting a more active mode of defense.

The large erect bony plates along the back of the
Stegosaurus have long been interpreted as defensive
structures which made the animal appear larger in
profile. Recent examination by Farlow et al of the
internal structure of these plates, combined with
experimental studies, indicates that these bony struc-
tures probably served as thermal regulating devices
rather than for protection.** They were highly vas-
cularized and likely to have been heavily perfused
with blood—probably to dissipate excess body heat.
But Stegosaurus was also armed with large bony
spikes at the end of the tail, suggesting an aggressive
or active mode of defense.

Despite these apparently active defense adapta-
tions, the predominant defensive behavior must have
been by fleeing. Or perhaps safety in numbers was the
dominant defensive strategy. Roland Bird reported
and illustrated a most informative series of dinosaur
trackways preserved in Early Cretaceous strata in
Bandera County, Texas.*° Here were parallel track-
ways of 23 sauropods all heading in the same direc-
tion or, as Bird remarked, “all were headed toward a
common objective.” Bird stated that these animals
passed as a single herd. Except for von Huene’s
suggestion of migrating behavior in the prosauropod
Plateosaurus, this is the first explicit statement
known to me of group activity (social or otherwise)
to be founded on substantial evidence.*” In 1968, R.T.
Bakker expanded on Bird’s report, claiming that
Bird’s herd actually was a “structured” herd that
included young as well as adult sauropods, with the
young surrounded by the adults, as though for pro-
tection.°® Bakker did not document his claim,
though, and no one has yet re-analyzed Bird’s track-
ways at Davenport Ranch. Despite these notices, the
idea of group activity in dinosaurs has received little
published attention until recently, possibly because
few believed that any evidence could document this.
In 1972, the idea came to life again, resurrrected by
this author in a description of a long-known site in
Massachusetts, where several dozen trackways are
preserved. I will return to that evidence later. But the
evidence at Davenport Ranch must be carefully

Map of Roland Bird's sauropod trackway field at Davenport Ranch, Texas. Of special interest is the mix of large and small footprints and the fact that
they are all headed in approximately parallel traverses. Although it has been claimed (by R. T. Bakker, 1968) that the small footprints occur only in the
center of the “herd” and the large ones only on the periphery, that is not entirely evident even in the right-hand cluster, where large and small animals

occurred together near the center. In the left-hand cluster the evidence of herd structure is even more ambiguous.

examined to test Bakker’s interpretation of group de-
fensive behavior in that passing herd.

It is obvious in living animals that flight from
danger is the most common form of defense. To the
best of my knowlege, there is only one clear paleonto-
logical example of this in dinosaurs: a footprint site in
Queensland, Australia reported by Thulborn and
Wade.*? They describe a series of trackways record-
ing a “stampede” of more than 150 bipedal dinosaurs,
identified as both ornithopods and coelurosaurs, that
ran at speeds of up to 16 km per hour. Associated with
the stampede tracks is the trackway of a much larger
theropod — an animal perhaps the size of Tyranno-
saurus. Thulborn and Wade suggest that it was the
presence of this large predator that triggered the

flight of so many smaller animals—whose trackways
are all closely parallel.

The 16 km-per-hour estimated speed of the flee-
ing Australian dinosaurs is not particularly impress-
ive, but perhaps it was sufficient to avoid the grasp of
the much larger and less fleet theropod that sent them
running. More importantly, that is significantly faster
than the velocities estimated by Alexander,*° Tucker
and Burchette,*! Kool,*” Mossman and Sarjeant,**
and Currie,** using Alexander’s formula on trackway
data at various sites, all of which indicate slow walk-
ing speeds of usually less than 10 km per hour. Such
evidence of slow speeds is not surprising, since anim-
als walk much more than they run, and the probabil-
ity of preservation of the trackway of a running ani-

19

20

mal is far less than that recording a casual stroll.
Coombs,** on anatomical evidence, and Thulborn,*®
on anatomical and trackway evidence, have theo-
rized about cursorial speeds and gaits in a variety of
dinosaurs and conclude that maximum running
speeds in dinosaurs ranged from 6 to 7 km per hour in
ankylosaurs and stegosaurs to 43 km per hour in the
ornithopod Dryosaurus and 56 km per hour in the
coelurosaur Gallimimus. A recent report by Farlow
of trackways at a site in Kimble County, Texas
appears to substantiate their conclusions.*” He docu-
ments trackways of three mediumvsize theropods that
indicate velocities of nearly 30, 40, and 43 km per
hour. While not as fleet as a race horse, here is good
evidence that some dinosaurs, as we all suspected,
were capable of respectable speeds of pursuit or
escape.

Group Or Social Behavior

Although instances of multiple dinosaur remains
have been reported from a number of sites (for exam-
ple, the Cleveland-Lloyd Quarry of Utah, the Carne-
gie Quarry at Dinosaur National Monument, the
Yale Quarry #1 at Garden Park, Colorado, and the
famed Brachiosaurus Quarries in Tanzania), these
contained a variety of dinosaur kinds and appear to
be postmortem accumulations. There are, however,
several mass assemblages that are intriguing because
they are mono-specific. There is the mass burial of
more than three dozen skeletons of the ornithopod
Iguanodon recovered from a coal mine near Bernis-
sart, Belgium in 1878,** as well as the several dozen or
more individuals of the prosauropod Plateosaurus
recovered at Trossingen, West Germany.*? The
Coelophysis Quarry of New Mexico may be another
example, except that it is not quite mono-specific.
The two European sites have long been tacitly
accepted as evidence of group congregation in those
two varieties of dinosaurs. Von Huene even ventured
to explain the concentration of Plateosaurus
skeletons at Trossingen as mass mortality of a herd
during migration. Convincing as these several
assemblages may seem, indicating that social con-
gregation occurred in at least some dinosaur species,
it is still possible that these concentrations resulted
from factors other than social assembly.
However one chooses to assess those mass

mortalities, the best evidence in support of gregarious
habits among dinosaurs is found in the fossil footprint
record — trace fossil data that have often been
maligned. Many occurences of multiple dinosaur
tracks have been reported from around the world, but
with the exception of Bird, until recently, no infer-
ences had been drawn about possible gregariousness
from such footprints evidence.°° Bird, as noted
above, reported and illustrated a remarkable site on
Davenport Ranch in Bandera County, Texas, that re-
vealed trackways of several dozen sauropods with
nearly parallel orientation. In 1968, as also noted
above, Bakker went one step further, commenting
that “these animals were not merely a disorganized
mob of reptiles [which Bird had neither stated or
implied], but rather they were socially arranged in
what appears to have been a true herd. The very larg-
est footprints were made only at the periphery of the
herd; the very smallest were made only in the center
of the herd.” While there may be some truth to Bak-
ker’s structured herd interpretation of the Davenport
Ranch evidence, that evidence is not as free of
ambiguity as Bakker’s statements assert. Bird’s map of
the Davenport site clearly shows that.

Structured or not, the herding behavior of dino-
saurs was first shown and recognized by Bird at
Davenport Ranch and substantiated by the remark-
able record preserved at Holyoke, Massachusetts,
which shows the traverses of 28 individuals, 20 of
which are nearly parallel-trending in a generally
westerly direction.*! All of the nearly parallel track-
ways appear to have been made by the same kind of
bipedal animal, to which the footprint name Eu-
brontes has been applied. Of the eight other track-
ways that do not parallel the group, half appear to
have been made by a different kind of dinosaur. The
conclusion seems inescapable: here is clear evidence
of a herd of one species of dinosaur strolling together
across the Connecticut Valley landscape.

Since the Holyoke site was reported, several sim-
ilar records have been recognized and previously re-
ported sites have been reexamined. These multiple
records of near-parallel traverses by numerous indi-
viduals provide the most convincing evidence avail-
able that several kinds of dinosaurs did in fact
congregate and move in groups. But there are some
question marks. For example, a few sites record
noticeably “symmetrical” traverses, with most track-

ways oriented in opposing directions with either nw
or sz bearings. There is no evidence that any barriers
existed confining those travelers to a “sidewalk”
pathway, but that possibility cannot be ruled out. Yet,
the number of trackway sites around the world that

show preferred trackway orientation is surprising.
We can only speculate on these intriguing sites and
what they portray about social behavior and how
structured dinosaurian community life may have
been. Fea

NOTES

1. Colbert, E.H. 1958. Morphology and Behavior. In Roe and
Simpson, eds. Behavior and Evolution, 27-47.

2. Baird, D. 1980. Personal communication.

3. Crompton, A.W. and A_J. Charig. 1962. A new ornithischian
from the Upper Triassic of South Africa. Nature, 196: 1074-1077.
4. Edmund, A.G. 1960. Tooth replacement phenomena in the
lower vertebrates. Contrib. Roy. Ontario Mus. 52: 1-190; Ostrom,
J.H. 1961. Cranial morphology of the hadrosaurian dinosaurs of
North America. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 122: 33-186.

5. Currie, PJ. 1983. Hadrosaur trackways from the Lower
Cretaceous of Canada. Acta Palaeo, Polonica 28: 63-73; Lockley,
M.G., B.H. Young and K. Carpenter. 1983. The Mountain Geol.
20: 5-14.

6. Ostrom, J.H. 1964. A functional analysis of jaw mechanics in
the dinosaur Triceratops. Yale Peabody Mus. Postilla 88: 1-35.

7. Lull, R. S. 1908. The cranial musculature and the origin of the
frill in the ceratopsian dinosaurs. Amer. Jour. Sci. (4) 25: 387-399.
8. Haas, G. 1955. The jaw musculature in Protoceratops and in
other ceratopsians. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. Novitates 1729: 1-24;
Ostrom, op. cit.

9. Farlow, J.O. and P. Dodson. 1975. The behavioral significance
of frill and horn morphology in ceratopsian dinosaurs. Evolution
29: 353-361.

10. Colbert, E.H. 1962. The weights of dinosaurs. Amer. Mus.
Nat. Hist. Novitates 2076: 1-16.

11. Bakker, R.T. 1968. The superiority of dinosaurs. Discovery,
(New Haven) 3:2: 11-22.

12. Farlow, J.O. 1976. Speculations about the diet and foraging
behavior of large carnivorous dinosaurs. Amer. Midl. Nat. 95:
186-191.

13. Stokes, W.L. 1961. Dinosaur Quarry near Cleveland, Utah.
Proc. Utah Acad. Sci. 38: 132-133.

14. Ostrom, J.H. 1969. Osteology of Deinonychus antirrhopus, an
unusual theropod from the Lower Cretaceous of Montana. Bull.
Yale Peabody Mus. 30: 1-165.

15. . 1970. Stratigraphy and paleontology of the Cloverly
Formation (Lower Cretaceous) of the Bighorn Basin area,
Wyoming and Montana. Bull. Yale Peabody Mus. 35: 1-234.

16. . 1978. The osteology of Compsognathus longipes Wag-
ner. Zitteliana, 4: 73-118.

17. Bird, R.T. 1941. A dinosaur walks into the museum. Natural
History 47(2): 74-81.

18. Thulborn, R.A. and M. Wade 1979. Dinosaur stampede in
the Cretaceous of Queensland. Lethaia 12: 275-279; 1984. Dino-
saur Trackways in the Winton Formation (Mid Cretaceous) of
Queensland. Mem. Queensland Mus. (In Press).

19. Lockley, M.G., B.H. Young and K. Carpenter. Op cit.; Prince,
N.K. 1983. Late Jurassic dinosaur trackways from S.E. Colorado.
Univ. Colo. at Denver Geol. Dept. Mag. 2: 15-19.

20. Ostrom, J.H. 1969. Op. cit.

21. Brown, B. and E.M. Schlaikjer. 1940. The structure and rela-
tionships of Protoceratops. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 40: 133-266.

22. Matheron, P. 1869. Note sur les reptiles fossiles des depots
fluvio-lacustres cretaces du bassin a lignite de Fuveau. Bull. Soc.
geol. France (2) 26: 781-795.

23. Horner, J.R. 1982. Evidence of colonial nesting and site fidel-
ity among Ornithischian dinosaurs. Nature 297: 675-676; Hor-

ner, J.R. and R. Makela. 1979. Nest of juveniles provides evidence
of family structure among dinosaurs. Nature 282: 296-298.

24. Horner, J.R. 1984. The nesting behavior of dinosaurs. Sci.
Amer. 241(4): 130-137.

25. Horner, J.R. 1982. Op cit.; 1984. Op Cit.

26. Hopson, J.A. 1975. The evolution of cranial display struc-
tures in hadrosaurian dinosaurs. Paleobiology, 1: 21-43.

27. Ostrom, J.H. 1961. Op cit.

28. Colbert, E.H. and J.H. Ostrom. 1958. Dinosaur stapes. Amer.
Mus. Nat. Hist. Novitates 1900: 1-20.

29. Colbert, E.H. 1962. Op cit.; Ostrom, J.H. 1962. The cranial
crests of hadrosaurian dinosaurs. Yale Peabody Mus. Postilla 62:
1-29.

30. Weishampel, D.B. 1981. Acoustic analyses of potential
vocalization in lambeosaurine dinosaurs (Reptilia: Ornithischia).
Paleobiology 7: 252-261.

31. Farlow, J.O. and P. Dodson. 1975. Op. cit.

32. Galton, P.M. 1970. Pachycephalosaurids — dinosaurian
battering rams. Discovery (New Haven) 6(1): 23-32.

33. Molnar, R.E. 1977. Analogies in the evolution of combat and
display structures in ornithopods and ungulates. Evol. Theory 3:
165-190.

34. Farlow, J.O. and P. Dodson. Op. cit.

35. Farlow, J.O., C.V. Thompson, and D.E. Rosner. 1977. Plates
of the dinosaur Stegosaurus; forced convection heat loss fins?
Science 192: 1123-1125.

36. Bird, R.T. 1944. Did Brontosaurus ever walk on land? Natural
History 52(2): 60-67.

37. Huene, FE von. 1928. Lebensbild der Saurischer-Vorkommens
im obersten Keuper von Trossingen in Wurttemberg. Pelaeobiolo-
gie 1: 103-116.

38. Bakker, R.T. 1968. Op. cit.

39. Thulburn, R.A. and M. Wade. 1979. Op cit.: 1984. Op. cit.
40. Alexander, R. McN. 1976. Estimates of speeds of dinosaurs.
Nature, 1961: 129-130.

41. Tucker, M.E. and TP. Burchette. 1977. Triassic dinosaur foot-
prints from South Wales: their context preservation. Paleo.,
Paleo., Paleo., 22: 286-291.

42. Kool, R. 1981. The walking speed of dinosaurs from the Peace
River Canyon, British Columbia, Canada. Can. Jour. Earth Sci.
18: 823-825.

43. Mossman, D.J. and W.A.S. Sarjeant. 1983. The footprints of
extinct animals. Scientific American 248: 74-85.

44. Currie, PJ. Op. cit.

45. Coombs, W.P. 1978. Theoretical aspects of cursorial adapta-
tions in dinosaurs. The Quart. Rev. Biol. 53: 393-418.

46. Thulborn, R.A. 1982. Speeds and gaits of dinosaurs. Paleo.,
Paleo., Paleo., 38: 227-256; 1984. Preferred gaits of bipedal dino-
saurs. Alcheringa 8: (In Press).

47. Farlow, J.O. 1981. Estimates of dinosaur speeds from a new
trackway site in Texas. Nature 294: 747-748.

48. Dollo, L. 1882. Premiere note sur les dinosauriens de Bernis-
sart. Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat. Belgique 1: 161-180.

49. Huene, FE von. Op. cit.

50. Bird, R.T. 1944. Op. cit.

51. Ostrom, J.H. 1972. Were some dinosaurs gregarious? Paleo.,
Paleo., Paleo., 11: 287-301.

21

Pigeon Whistles

by Berthold Laufer

This article originally appeared in the September 1934
Field Museum News, as the Bulletin was then called.
The author, Berthold Laufer (1874-1934), then curator
of the Department of Anthropology, was a world re-
nowned authority on cultures of the Far East. The pi-

geon whistles he describes may be seen today in Hall 32.

—Ed.

The Chinese have trained carrier pigeons for

more than a thousand years, but never on a large scale
or intensively. However, they have added to the art of
pigeon-training an attractive means of amusement.
As they were the first who communed with the air by
means of kites, they also were the first who created
“music on the air,” long before anyone ever dreamed
of such a thing as radio. This was accomplished by
means of whistles, extremely light in weight,
attached to the pigeon’s tail feathers. These whistles

Pigeon whistles on view in Hall 32

consist two, three, or five reed tubes of graded length
in the shape of a Pandean pipe, varnished yellow,
brown, or black; or of a small gourd into which reed
pipes are inserted.

A complete collection of these whistles, some
engraved with the names of the makers, is on view in
a case illustrating the musical instruments of China
in Hall 32 on the West Gallery.

The whistles are fastened to the tail feathers of
the birds while they are still young. Then a flock of
pigeons flies up, the wind strikes the apertures of the
instruments, sets them to vibrating, and produces a
not unpleasing opervair concert the charms of which
are heightened by the fact that the whistles used in
the same flock are tuned differently.

The Chinese explain that the sounds of the
whistles are intended to keep the flocks together, and
to protect the birds from onslaughts of hawks and
other birds of prey. This rationalistic interpretation,

however, is not convincing. It is not known, and
seems at least doubtful, whether such music makes an
impression on either pigeon or hawk, and whether it
would really prevent famished pirates of the air from
making a swoop at their quarry. Even supposing that
this might happen once in a while, we must consider
that this music constantly fills the atmosphere year
by year, and the unrelenting foes of the pigeon would
gradually become accustomed to it and disregard it.

It seems more plausible that this quaint custom
has no rational origin, but is rather the outcome of
purely emotional and artistic tendencies. It is not the
pigeon that profits from the aerial music, but the hu-
man ear that feasts on the wind-blown tunes and de-
rives esthetic enjoyment from them. On a serene day
one can hear this concert in Peking all day even in
one’s house. The pigeons which fly about with whis-
tles attached to them are termed poetically “mid-sky
beauties.”

23

PLANNED GIVING PROGRAM ENHANCES
MUSEUM’S ENDOWMENT

Both Planned Giving and Year-End Giving
Work to the Donor’s Benefit, Too.

By Clifford Buzard
Planned Giving Officer

G Bee years ago this fall, Field Museum launched
its Planned Giving Program as a division within the
Office of Development that would devote its energies
to building up the Museum’s endowment funds
through bequests and other types of “deferred” gifts
such as charitable remainder life income trusts.

When starting the program, the Museum knew
of 36 Members who had remembered the Museum in
their wills. Today, the Museum has been informed of
110 such “bequest expectancies.” Further, the
Museum now has an active Pooled Income Fund for
donors that has approximately $250,000 in assets; it
also knows of several charitable remainder annuity
trusts that total $800,000—all assets that eventually
will go into the Museum’s endowment funds.

Only this past January, a charitable annuity
trust with a principal of $250,000 was successfully
negotiated and executed between the Planned Giv-
ing Office and a donor. The donor received an im-
mediate income tax deduction (with the five-year
roll-over privilege) and now receives a quarterly in-
come from the trust for life. Bequests can take many
forms, and charitable life income trusts can take var-
ious forms.

The idea of “planned giving,” however, has put a
different perspective on the entire field of philan-
thropy, in that through it, many persons have dis-
covered the fact that there are numerous ways to give

the Museum in forms other than cash, and that
ther forms often can be to their better

nis October issue of the Bulletin, it is not

too early to begin planning a year-end-giving pro-
gram, in order to get the highest possible benefits of
income tax deductions for 1984. While it is true that
year-end gifts most often are in the form of cash,
because they are unplanned, impulse gifts, consider
the number of other possibilities for ways of giving,
some of which can be substantial, and very much to
the donor’s benefit.

Gifts of Stock

Over the years, many friends of the Museum have
found it to their advantage to give stock and other
securities to the Museum instead of cash. One reason
for this is that in the proper circumstances the tax
laws may make it less costly to give stock or securities
than an equivalent amount of cash. One’s own partic-
ular situation will determine whether this applies.
But, here’s how it works:

1. Giving stock that has increased in value:
When you sell a security that has increased in value,
there is a capital gains tax to pay, even if all the pro-
ceeds are given to Field Museum. On the other hand,
you can give the appreciated securities themselves to
the Museum, and take a charitable deduction for the
total value, including the appreciation, without
recognizing any capital gain for tax purposes.

2. Giving only the appreciation: The “bargain
sale.” Sometimes a person wishes to retain his original
investment, but wants to give his “gain” to the
Museum. Such a person can sell the stock to the
Museum at its original cost; the person is, in effect,

making a gift of the capital gain and retaining his orig-
inal investment. A person doing this does incur a par-
tial capital gains tax, and should be well advised by
an accoutant or tax attorney.

3. Giving stock that has decreased in value. It is
not always better to give securities to the Museum;
sometimes it is better to sell the security and make a
gift of the proceeds. If a person owns a “poor per-
former” (a stock that has gone down in value) and
wants to eliminate it from his portfolio and make a
gift to the Museum as well, that person should sell
the stock and give the proceeds to the Museum. By
doing that, a claim for a charitable deduction for the
total amount of the proceeds and a claim for a capital
loss can be made on the tax return at the same time—
a kind of “double deduction.”

A donor interested in giving stock as a year-end
gift should contact the Development Office; and, in
all cases, particularly the “bargain sale” situation, he
should check first with his accountant or financial
adviser.

Gifts of Real Estate

Most any type of real estate can bea fine and advanta-
geous form of charitable gift: a building, an interest in
a building, a farm, summer cottage, or one’s own
home. A person can make arrangements to give his
home and retain a life interest in it; that is, although
giving the home, he can live in it, rent-free, for life
(although he would be responsible for upkeep and
any property assessments or taxes), yet take an im-
mediate income tax deduction.

Gifts of Life Insurance

Many persons are unaware that under today’s federal
estate tax law, life insurance policies, while they do
not have to go through probate, are counted into the
gross amount of the estate for estate tax purposes.
Many persons let life insurance policies lie fallow
long past the early years of their family when such
protection was more greatly needed.

You can remove life insurance from your taxable
estate by giving the policy to Field Museum or nam-
ing Field Museum as the beneficiary.

Besides the advantage of removing the face
value from your estate, by giving the policy to the

Museum now, you can receive an immediate income
tax deduction for the cash surrender value.

Even if you are still paying premiums, if you
assign the policy to Field Museum irrevocably, you
may deduct from your income tax the annual pre-
miums you pay each year as well as the cash surrender
value.

Field Museum urges Members also to consider
naming the Museum as contingent beneficiary on
their life insurance policies. Field Museum also
appreciates being named the contingent beneficiary
to pension plans and to individual retirement
accounts (IRAs).

Gifts-in-Kind: Other Property

Any asset, anything a person owns, can be considered
“giveable” Some items, not usually thought of in
terms of charitable gifts, however, can make valuable
gifts to Field Museum: automobiles, trucks, boats,
furniture, art, jewelry, antiques, artifacts, and collec-
tions of stamps, coins, or gems, to mention only a few
possibilities. Often Field Museum is the recipient of
valuable additions to its Library through gifts of rare
books on various aspects of natural history. The tax
deductions on gifts-in-kind can be tricky; for exam-
ple, the tax laws make distinctions between a gift
“to” an institution and a gift “for the use of” an
institution. Therefore, a person wanting to make
such a gift should seek advice from his attorney or tax
consultant.

Giving Gifts for Income

Giving gifts that return a life income to the donor
take the form of trusts. Basically, there are three forms
of life income trusts: the Pooled Income Fund, the
Charitable Remainder Unitrust, and the Charitable
Remainder Annuity Trust.

A great beauty of these forms of life income
trusts is that a person can make a substantial and very
self-satisfying gift during lifetime, yet retain the
security of a life income from that gift.

Charitable life income trusts also unlock and
free up capital gains, on which the donor can still
receive income. But, being part of the gift, just as in a
outright gift of stock, the capital gain is not recog:
nized and, therefore, is not taxable.

Charitable life income trusts also provide pro-

25

26

fessional money management. This is often the very
great advantage of setting up such a trust in a will: it
protects the spendthrift heir from himself or herself;
it can also can protect an heir from cunning relatives
and unscrupulous businessmen.

The two major types of charitable remainder
trusts are the annuity trust and the unitrust. An
annuity trust pays the donor/beneficiary a fixed dol-
lar amount quarterly; the unitrust pays out quarterly
a fixed percentage of the fair market value of the
trust, based on an annual evaluation. By law, neither
trust can pay out less than 5 percent. The annuity
trust is a fixed instrument, in that principal cannot be
added to it; the principal of a unitrust may be added
to at any time.

The Pooled Income Fund pays to a donor/
beneficiary only the income of his share of the Fund.
A person may participate with a minimum gift of
$10,000, and he may add to it in $1,000 increments at
any time. At the time of the gift, the value is trans-
lated into numbers of “units” in the Fund. Payments
are made on a pro-rata basis of the number of “units”
in the Fund in which he has an interest.

The Pooled Income Fund is inclined to grow,
since only income is paid out; capital gains are
reinvested for the Fund. Conceivably, the donor/
beneficiary could continue receiving a higher
income. While the annuity trust payout is a fixed dol-
lar amount, the payout of both the Pooled Income
Fund and the unitrust can vary, up or down; but,
generally, the two types of trust arrangements are
considered to be hedges against inflation.

In all such life income trusts, at the death of the
donor/beneficiary, what is left in the trust — the
“remainder”—reverts to the Museum and its Endow-
ment Fund. On the death of the donor/beneficiary in
a Pooled Income Fund, only the underlying principal
representing that person’s income interest reverts to
the Museum; the Pooled Income Fund continues to
provide income for the surviving donors/
beneficiaries.

Members interested in either of these forms of
trusts should consult with the Field Museum’s
Planned Giving Office and their own attorneys.
Working with the attorney, the Planned Giving
Office will be happy to help by providing suggested
forms to follow.

Gifts By Bequest

Just as there are several forms of life income trusts,
there are many ways in which a person can give to the
Museum by will. He can make a general bequest of a
specific dollar amount or percentage of his estate; he
can give a specific bequest, such as a collection, arti-
cle, or artifact; or he can give real estate through a
bequest. A person can also set up any of the forms of
life income trusts for the benefit of a heir, with the
residual going to the Museum’s endowment fund
upon the heir’s death. There are several other tech-
nical types of bequests that are possible. Any inter-
ested Member is welcome to call the Planned Giving
Office for information, (312) 322-8858, and ask for a
copy of a brochure on “How to Remember Field
Museum in Your Will.”

Tax Deductions for 1984

Even persons who use the “short form” of income tax
return can now take deductions for charitable gifts.
For 1984, a person not itemizing may deduct 25 per-
cent of the first $300 of a gift, deducting up to a max-
imum of $75. Persons itemizing their tax returns may
deduct up to 50 percent of their adjusted gross in-
come, if giving cash; up to 30 percent of their adjusted
gross income if giving appreciated stock or other
appreciated property such as real estate or gifts-in-
kind. In all cases, if the gift exceeds the maximum
percentage allowed, the person has a five-year carry-
over privilege; in other words, he may deduct
amounts of that gift each year for five years that he
has not already deducted — actually a total of six
years to take the deduction. By all means, a donor to
the Museum should consult with his tax accountant
or attorney, for neither the Museum nor its employees
can give legal advice nor guarantee its accuracy and
currency.

Regardless of tax deductions, the greatest bene-
fit from giving to the Museum is the self-satisfaction
of having helped a great institution. The Museum
began its “count-down” to its 1993 centennial this
year, and all gifts—immediate or deferred—will be
appreciated all the more, as every little bit will help
ensure the future of Field Museum for the people of
the Museum’s second century.

TOURS FOR MEMBERS

Sailing the Lesser Antilles
Aboard the Tall Ship

Sea Cloud
February 716, 1985

Our itinerary offers a superb sampling
of the Caribbean’s best—Antigua, St.
Barts, Saba, Martinique, and Iles des
Saints. With the professional leadership
of Dr. Robert K. Johnson, a Field
Museum marine biologist, you will see
and experience a great deal more than
the conventional sightseer. Dr. Johnson
is a topnotch tour lecturer, and your
trip will be greatly enhanced by
stimulating lectures and field trips.
Price range (contingent on cabin se-
lection): $3,455-$5,755. per person
(includes round-trip air fare from
Chicago, hotel accommodations in

St. John’s, Antigua, and full board
while on the Sea Cloud).

The largest private ship ever built,
the steel-hulled Sea Cloud is 316 feet in
length and has four Diesel engines with
total power of 6,000 B.H.P. The ship
accommodates 75 guests in air-

conditioned staterooms, each with two
beds. The cuisine is in the best tradition
of the great yachts of the past. Expert
European chefs provide exquisitely
prepared meals accompanied by vin-
tage wines. A crew of 40 German offic-
ers and men, plus 20 cadets sail the Sea
Cloud. There is ample deck space for
sunning and enjoying the spectacle of
the sails. Life aboard is informal and re-
laxed, and cruise participants may join
in the operation of the sails.

Archaeological Tour of Egypt
Including 5-day Nile Cruise

February 15-March 4, 1985

An unforgettable in-depth visit to the
Land of the Pharoahs, including a 5-
day Nile cruise aboard the luxurious
Hilton Steamer. An Egyptologist will
accompany the tour throughout,
including the Nile cruise, and person-
ally conduct all lectures and sightsee-
ing. Tour highlights will include the
pyramids and Sphinx of Giza, little-
visited monuments of Middle Egypt,
King Tut’s tomb, the holiday resort of
Aswan, and a visit to Abu Simbel.

for 1985
Galapagos Islands. China and Tibet. Alaska and Pribilof Islands.

Colonial South
April 13-20, 1985

Now you can be among the first
passengers to visit the legendary Colo-
nial South in the comfort of a relaxing,
yacht-like cruise ship, with a friendly
American staff to serve you. Our ports
of call will be Savannah and St. Simon
Island, Georgia; Beaufort, Charleston,
and Hilton Head Island, South Caro-
lina; with disembarkation at Savannah.

Dr. Lorin I. Nevling, director of
Field Museum and a distinguished
botanist, will accompany the tour,
sharing his professional expertise on
the flora of the exquisite gardens we'll
visit. Our tour is planned to coincide
with the spring explosion of color in
daffodils, tulips, dogwoods, and
azaleas—a welcome treat after Chi-
cago’s long winter. Local historians
will provide us with talks on historic
buildings of the region and on Civil
War history. The Nantucket Clipper will
cruise through the peaceful waters of
the intra-coastal waterways, allowing
you to spend each evening in town
enjoying the port experience to its full-
est, and affording even greater variety
in this delightful cruise experience.

For further information or to be placed on our
mailing list, call or write Dorothy Roder, Tours
Manager, Field Museum, Roosevelt Rd. at Lake
Shore Dr., Chicago, IL 60605. Phone:
322-8862. 27

0017195-00

Miss Marita Maxey
7411 North Greenview
Chicago, IL 60626

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY BULLEF

November 1984

16, 17

INDRANI and SUKANYA
Perform Classical Indian Dance

RAVI SHANKAR

Performs Nov.

Nov. 24

“se hs

Field Museum
of Natural History
Bulletin

Published by

Field Museum of Natural History

Founded 1893

President: Willard L. Boyd
Director: Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.

Editor: David M. Walsten
Production Liaison: Pamela Stearns
Staff Photographer: Ron Testa

BoarD OF TRUSTEES Lire TRUSTEES
James J. O’Connor Harry O. Bercher
chairman Joseph N. Field
Mrs. T. Stanton Armour Clifford C. Gregg
George R. Baker William V. Kahler
Robert O. Bass William H. Mitchell
Gordon Bent John W. Sullivan
Bowen Blair J. Howard Wood

Willard L. Boyd

Frank W. Considine
Stanton R. Cook
William R. Dickinson, Jr.
Thomas E. Donnelley II
Thomas J. Eyerman
Marshall Field

Richard M. Jones

Hugo J. Melvoin

Leo F. Mullin

Charles F. Murphy, Jr.
Earl L. Neal

Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.
Robert A. Pritzker
James H. Ransom

John S. Runnells
Patrick G. Ryan
William L. Searle
Edward Byron Smith
Robert H. Strotz

Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken
E. Leland Webber
Blaine J. Yarrington

Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin (USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined
July/August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive,
Chicago, II. 60605. Subscriptions: $6.00 annually, $3.00 for schools. Museum membership
includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not neces-
sarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Museum
phone: (312) 922-9410. Notification of address change should include address label and be sent to
Membership Department. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural His-
tory, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Il. 60605. ISSN:0015-0703. Second class

postage paid at Chicago, Il

CONTENTS

November 1984

Volume 55, Number 10

November Events at Field Museum 3
December Events at Field Museum 5
Adult Education Update ai

by Robert B. Pickering, program developer,
Department of Education

On the Trail of the Finest Metallurgy of the 10
Ancient New World: How Old Is the Classic

Quimbaya Style?

by Donald W. Lathrap,John S. Isaacson, and Colin McEwan

My Life, My Music 20
by Ravi Shankar
The Right Gift at the Right Time: 24

Jack C. Staehle Makes a Difference
by Glenn Paré, grants officer, Planning and Development

Field Museum Tours ae

COVER

World renowned Indian composer-musician Ravi Shankar
performs at Field Museum with Alla Rakha, Nov. 16, 17. Photo
by Steven E. Gross.

A special invitation for Museum Members to

wet A FAMILY CHRISTMAS TEA AT FIELD MUSEUM “4 f

Thursday. December 13

te A FAMILY CHRISTMAS TEA AT FIELD MUSEUM ¢2% of

Thursday, December 13, 1984
5:00 to 7:00 p.m.

WAY Cet

The Junior League “Mad Hatters”
On Stage Chicago

The Westminster Bellringers
Village Presbyterian Church of Northbrook

RSVP Wizzo the Magician and Cooky the Clown
oe Chicago Public Library Storybook Characters in Person
Museum Games and Activities for Children
Santa Claus
The Stu Hirsh Orchestra

An Assortment of Christmas Treats
Holiday Libations

Kan an

Illustration from St. Nicholas, December, 1906.
Courtesy of the Newberry Library, Chicago.

Detach
here
for
reservation

—— | Meent s | eG

Classical Arts of India:
A Renaissance

Renaissance and Tradition
in Dance and Music

Saturday, Nov. 10, 2:00pm, James Simpson Theatre
Dr. Joan L. Erdman

South Asia Language and Area Center

University of Chicago

The discovery and rebirth of Indian classical per-
forming arts began in the early 20th century, when
Ted Shawn and Ruth St. Denis brought Indian
themes into their dances. In the early 1930s famed
ballerina Anna Pavlova brought dancer Uday Shan-
kar to the public stage. It was Uday’s younger
brother, Ravi, who became the bearer of India’s per-
forming arts tradition. Dr. Joan Erdman discusses
these major artists and their work.

This lecture is free with Museum admission;

no tickets required.

Ravi Shankar

Friday, Nov. 16, 8:00pm

Saturday, Nov. 17, 2:00pm

James Simpson Theatre

Performing on the sitar: Ravi Shankar;
on the tabla: special guest Alla Rakha

Ravi Shankar is a singular phenomenon in the clas-
sical music world of the East and West. His impact
on American music in the last decade has been more
profound than that of any other non-Western musi-
cian. As a composer, Ravi Shankar has written exten-
sively for ballet, film, and the concert hall in the
United States, Canada, Europe, and India. His poign-
antly moving score for Satyajit Ray’s celebrated film
trilogy, Pather Panchali, Aparajito and The World of
Apu, raised film music to a new standard of excell-
ence. The score for the film Gandhi, which premiered
in 1983, has won him critical acclaim. He is a figure
much beloved of young people throughout the world
today, just as he was to the generation of the 1960s
who sustained their hope for world peace through
the inspiration of his music.

India’s great master of sitar and his brilliant
associate on the tabla, Alla Rakha, join together for
two stunning performances of their country’s music-
al heritage.

Tickets: $12.00 (Members: $10.00). Fees are
nonrefundable.

James Simpson Theatre, Sunday, November 24

Classical Dance of India
with Indrani and Sukanya

Saturday, Nov. 24, 2:00pm, James Simpson Theatre

Indrani and Sukanya have delighted international
audiences with their performance of Indian classical
dance. Indrani, one of India’s most distinguished and
vibrant dancers, is the daughter of the famous dancer
Ragini Devi, who pioneered India’s dance revival.
Sukanya, the daughter of Indrani, carries on her
family tradition of dancing. She dances with a won-
derful suppleness and joy—at one moment flinging
her flexed feet out with abandon, at the next, assum-
ing the tight-lipped expression of the God Rama.

Indrani and Sukanya perform classical dances
based on traditions 3,000 years old. Dance has always
been an important part of religious ceremonies in
India. Body movement, symbolic hand gestures,
and mime accompany incantations and songs.
Drawn from the great Indian epics Ramayana and
Mahabharata, these dances are essentially love songs
to the gods. Together, Indrani and Sukanya have
done much to captivate American audiences with the
beauty and refined sensuousness of classical dance.
Their subtlety of expression and arresting move-
ments make this performance an unforgettable intro-
duction to Indian dance.

Tickets: $8.00 (Members: $6.00). Fees are

nonrefundable. CONTINUED:>

@

November

CONTINUED from p. 3

November Weekend Programs

Council.

November

3 11:30 am Ancient Egypt (tour). Investigate the tradi-
tions of ancient Egyptian civilization from everyday
life to mummification and the promise of an afterlife.

4 1:00 pm Welcome to the Field (tour). Enjoy a sampling
of our most significant exhibits as you explore the
scope of Field Museum.

11 1:00 pm Red Land/Black Land (tour). Tour the
Egyptian exhibit, focusing on the geography of the
Nile Valley and the effect it had on Egypt.

24 12:00 noon. Traditional China (tour). Examine the
timeless imagery and superb craftsmanship rep-
resented by Chinese masterworks in our permanent
collection.

25 1:00 pm Ancient Egyptians (tour). Explore artifacts
from predynastic times to Cleopatra, focusing on
the lives of the pharaohs and the Egyptian people.

Events

November

Each Saturday and Sunday you are invited to explore the world of natural history at Field Museum. Free tours,

demonstrations, and films related to ongoing exhibits at the Museum are designed for families and adults. Listed
are only a few of the numerous activities available each weekend. Check the Weekend Passport upon arrival for the
complete schedule and program locations. The programs are partially supported by a grant from the Illinois Arts

Family Feature

Egypt Festival
Sunday, Nov. 25, 11:00am—4:00pm

The civilization of ancient Egypt was in its glory
5,000 years ago. Field Museum’s Egypt Festival
explores this extraordinary culture. Find out about
the latest archaeological discoveries by touring our
Egyptian Hall. Watch demonstrations of papyrus
making. Enjoy the film classic The Mummy and laugh
at the old myths of the cursed tombs.

Family features are free with Museum admission;
no tickets required.

; ry Number of Amount

R eg. Lf str ati on Tickets Enclosed
Program Requested
Please complete all requested information on
the application. If your request is received less Ravi Shankar, Nov. 16, 8:00 pm
than one week before program, tickets will be
held in your name at West Entrance box office. Ravi Shankar, Nov. 17, 2:00 pm
Please make checks payable to Field Museum. : : 2
Tickets will be mailed on receipt of check. Re- Classical Indian Dance: Indrani and Sukanya
funds will be made only if program is sold out. = —
a Please check appropriate box: Member: (] Nonmember: (1) Total
. American Express/Visa/MasterCard number:
Name Signature Expiration date
Street
Se - For Office Use:

te State Zip Date Received Date Returned
dglepnete Daytime Evening Return complete ticket application with a self-addressed

stamped envelope to:

Public Programs: Department of Education
Field Museum of Natural History
Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive

Have you enclosed your self-addressed stamped envelope?

Chicago, IL 60605-2497

December

Events

December

Seventh Annual Anthropology Film Festival

Field Museum, West Entrance

Saturday, Dec. 1, 10:00 am—5:00 pm
Sunday, Dec. 2, 10:00 am—5:00 pm

A special invitation to explore the rich diversity of world
culture on film. This year’s festival consists of more than 50
films grouped into seven subject areas—The Film Fare of
Les Blank, The Aboriginal Film Studies of David and
Judith MacDougall, Northwest Coast Indians and Eski-
mos, Central and South America—The Past Ten Years,
The Caribbean: Dreams and Realities, Back in the U.S.A.,
and Through Native American Eyes.

On Saturday, filmmaker Les Blank introduces his lat-
est release, “In Heaven There Is No Beer.” This, as with
other Blank films—‘“Always For Pleasure” and “God
Respects Us When We Work—But He Loves Us When
We Dance,” conveys the imperative of life over death
and a recognition that pleasure is a human necessity.

On Sunday, the recent works of David and Judith
MacDougall are featured. The Australian Institute for
Aboriginal Studies was established 20 years ago. Its pur-
pose has been to create enduring records of the ways that

Animal Anties

Through stories, films, cartoons, and a play, parents
and children can discover how a multitude of creatures
live in the wild and in the world of fantasy. These pro-
grams are free with Museum admission, tickets not
required.

Animal Stories
Saturdays and Sundays, Dec. 8, 15, 16, 22, and 23,

at 11:00am
Hall 17, Asian Animals

How did the leopard get his spots? Why does the camel
have a hump? How did the elephant get a trunk? Story-
tellers relate some of these famous animal tales for the
delight of young and old.

The Rabbit Who Wished for Red Wings

The National Marionette Company
Saturday and Sunday, Dec. 29 and 30; 2:00 pm
Stanley Field Hall

With a flick of his wrist and a gentle wave of the hand,
puppeteer Ralph Kipness controls the taut strings that
bring life to a delightful cast of animal creatures.

Little Rabbit is always wishing for things. When his
wishes start to come true, he is, at first, elated. All too
soon, he is in for a big surprise. Join us at the “Story

different groups of aboriginal people live, think, and act in
this important period of their history. A selection of these
film include “Takeover,” “A Walbiri Fire Ceremony:
Ngatjakula,” and the newly released “Stockman’s Strategy”
and “Collum Calling Canberra.”

Additional festival highlights include “Dream of a Free
Country: A Message from Nicaraguan Women” and “I'd
Rather Be Pow Wowing,” a story of a Northern Plains In-
dian whose life in the modern world has not kept him away
from his origins in the Native American world. A special
series of Northwest Coast Indian films document these
people from the first footage shot by Edward F. Curtis to
the recent cultural and artistic renaissance.

Films are screened by subject area in three theatres
located at the West Entrance of Field Museum—James
Simpson Theatre, Lecture Hall One, and Lecture Hall
Two. Tickets may be purchased for a single-day screening
or the two-day series. The festival schedule is subject to
change. A final film schedule and complete film descrip-
tions are available on the days of the festival. Call (312)
322-8854 for details.

Tickets: One day: $7.00 (Members: $6.00)
Series: $12.00 (Members: $10.00)

Shop” as this southern folk tale, written by Carol
Cerwin Baily, unfolds.

“Polar Potluck” —a participatory play
Saturdays, Dec. 8 and 15, at 1:00pm
Hall 18

Your family is cordially invited to a farewell party for
Karl and Katy Caribou, who are getting ready to mi-
grate south. Pandora Polar Bear, Samantha Seal, and
Walter Walrus are planning a big party to send them
on their way. Participate in this play about arctic
animals and bid the Caribou bon voyage!

Animals on Film: Fantasy and Fact
Saturdays, Dec. 8, 15, & 22; 2:00-4:00pm
Hall 18

“Donald Duck” selected cartoons
“Konrad Lorenz: Science of Animal
Behavior,” “Wings of an Eagle”

December 8

December 15 “Chilly Willy” selected cartoons

“White Wilderness”

December 22
cartoons, “Born Free”

CONTINUED<>

“Sylvester” and “Felix the Cat” selected

December

CONTINUED from p. 5

grant from the Illinois Arts Council.

December

2 12:30 pm Museum Safari (tour). Seek out shrunken
heads from the Amazon, mummies from ancient
Egypt, and big game from Africa.

8 12:00 noon Continents Adrift (lecture). Why have
fossils of similar dinosaur species been found on
continents separated by vast oceans? The concept
of “moving” continents is illustrated with enor-
mous puzzle pieces.

1:30 pm Tibet Today (slide lecture). See Lhasa and
other cities now open to tourists.

2:45 pm A Faith in Exile: Darjeeling, Sikkim, Dharam-
asla (Home of the Dalai Lama) (slide lecture). Focus
upon Tibetan refugees in India.

3:45 pm Bhutan (slide lecture). Explore the land of
the Thunder Dragon.

15 1:00 pm Red Land/Black Land (tour). Tour the
Egyptian exhibit focusing on the geography of
the Nile Valley and the effect it had on Egypt.

16 12:30 pm Museum Safari (tour). Seek out shrunken
heads from the Amazon, mummies from ancient
Egypt, and big game from Africa.

Events

December Weekend Programs

December

Each Saturday and Sunday you are invited to explore the world of natural history at Field Museum. Free
tours, demonstrations, and films related to ongoing exhibits at the Museum are designed for families and
adults. Listed are only a few of the numerous activities available each weekend. Check the Weekend Passport
upon arrival for the complete schedule and program locations. The programs are partially supported by a

1:00 pm Welcome to the Field (tour). Enjoy a sam-
pling of our most significant exhibits as you
explore the scope of Field Museum.

29 1:30 pm Ancient Egyptians (tour). Explore artifacts
from Predynastic times to Cleopatra, focusing on
the lives of the pharaohs and the Egyptian people.

Family Feature

Active Animals

Thursday and Friday, Dec. 27, 28; 1:00-3:00 pm
Stanley Field Hall, Main Floor

Some animals run, others crawl. Some animals fly,
and others swim. How would the animal of your
dreams move? Design an animal of your own, based
on fact or fantasy, and make it do what you want it to
... roll, hop, slither, or fly.

Family features are free with museum admission and
no tickets are required.

- q ] Seventh Annual Anthropology | Member | Nonmember Total Amount
Registration pat eae | acters @ Tickets | = nets Enclosed

Please complete coupon for your program

| Saturday & Sunday Series

| Sunday only

your name at West Entrance box office until
one-half hour before event: Please make

selection and any other special events. Com- |
plete all requested information on the applica- T
tion and include section number where appro- Saturday only |
priate. If your request is received less than one T
week before program, tickets will be held in

|

|

———

checks payable to Field Museum. Tickets will
be mailed on receipt of check. Refunds will be

(oot Cer!

made only if program is sold out. i
Please check appropriate box: Member: [] Nonmember: ()
American Express Visa/MasterCard number:
Name Signature Expiration date
Street
- For Office Use:
Cty State Zip Date Received Date Returned
Telephone Daytime Evening

Have you enclosed your self-addressed stamped envelope?

Return complete ticket application with a self-addressed
stamped envelope to:

Public Programs: Department of Education
Field Museum of Natural History
Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive
Chicago, IL 60605-2497

In the “Textile Conservation” course, workmanship of a fine old quilt (ca. 1870) is examined and methods for preserving its beauty are discussed.

Adult Education Update

by Robert B. Pickering
Program Developer, Department of Education

photos by the author

Ae March 1984 Bulletin included an article on
Field Museum’s Adult Course program together
with a questionnaire requesting comments from
readers about the program. Returned questionnaires
have been tabulated and analyzed, and some
changes are being made in the program as the result
of the suggestions. Many of those who responded
had complimentary things to say about the program
and appreciated the variety and quality of the
courses offered. People also told us why they do or
do not take courses at Field Museum.

Two-thirds of the people responding were en-
rolled in or had taken courses at Field Museum.
Almost 75 percent have taken courses at other in-
stitutions in or around Chicago. Field Museum
members are an education-oriented group and have
an interest in a wide variety of subjects, from Egyp-
tian hieroglyphics to real estate to dog training.
Over 55 other Chicago-area institutions were men-
tioned as offering courses taken by members. Institu-
tions in the greater Chicago area offer a vast assort-
ment of opportunities for adult continuing educa-

A student in “The Art of Papermaking” uses a portable press to
remove excess water from a sheet of paper that he has just made.

tion experiences, providing thereby tremendous
competition for Field Museum’s own program. Com-
petition puts pressure on our program to continually
improve the quality of the courses and make them
more appealing.

The many complimentary statements about the
course program are appreciated, but the comments
of those who do not take courses at Field Museum
also provided valuable insights into how our pro-
gram could be improved. For example, 45 percent
reported that 7:00—-9:00pm was an inconvenient
time to attend courses. As a result of this response,
we are now offering more daytime courses on
weekends. Weekend courses are usually intensive
courses with all of the instruction given in one or
two days rather than over a six-week period. For
those who prefer early evening courses, we have
added an earlier time to our schedule. Courses are
now offered on weekday evenings between 5:30 and
7:00pm as well as at 7:00—9:00pm.

Another major change in scheduling accommo-
dates those who do not like to take courses during
the winter months of January and February or dur-
ing the summer vacation period. The first quarter of
the year will now begin at the end of February or

the first of March, when most of the extreme winter
weather is over for the year. The second quarter will
be in May and June, the third in September and
October, with the final quarter of the year occurring
in November and December.

Thirty-seven percent of the respondents wrote
that they did not take courses here because public
transportation was unreliable. Some commented
that they had to wait too long for buses. While this
is a situation that the Museum cannot correct by
itself, we have initiated escort service for partici-
pants to the nearby bus stop following evening clas-
ses. We informed the CTA of our new service and
told them that a museum guard would remain with
the students until the arrival of the bus, and would
record the arrival time. With this new monitoring
system, the buses have been much more faithful to
their schedules.

A small number of respondents, ten percent,
cited the cost of tuition as an obstacle. The typical
program course includes 12 hours of instruction and
costs $40.00 for members, or $3.33 per instruction

Watercolorist Chuck Schenk compares the different techniques
used in two paintings. In-class demonstration and critique of
student's work improve their ability.

The study skin of a large fruit bat and a much smaller relative are
compared by instructor Barb Clauson (left) and students.

Lance Grande, assistant curator of fossil fishes, demonstrates the
proper technique for exposing a fossil fish from a 50-million-year-old
limestone deposit.

hour, a cost which has not increased since 1980.
When compared with fourteen other institutions in
the Chicago area that offer noncredit adult courses,
Field Museum’s charge is less than ten of the others.
Many of the other institutions offer shorter courses.
Although our rates are lower, the longer courses
mean the tuition rates appear higher.

We continue to work on improving the quality
of our offering and on remaining sensitive to the
needs of our participants. Those who are currently
participating in our program are already aware of
many of these changes and the response has been
very positive. For those of you who have wanted to
take a course here but have not, we hope to see you
in the near future in an adult course at Field Museum!

he

eva Era site on the western Andean slopes occupation, the Nueva Era Phase, dates between 1500 and 500 B.C.
2arly shows two meters of volcanic ash _ Volcanic activity rendered the area uninhabitable for 500 to 1,000
oric occupations. The most recentoccupa- years and radically affected the course of cultural evolution in the

lates between A.D. 800 and 1600; the earliest New World.

oo-

-so—

On the Trail of the Finest Metallurgy

Of the Ancient New World:
How Old Is the Classic Quimbaya Style?

by Donald W. Lathrap, John S. Isaacson, and Colin McEwan

A. Chicago plans to host yet another World’s Fair, it is
well to look back at the amazing heritage that the city
received from the World’s Columbian Exposition, 1893.
The fascinating biography of Edward Ayers, which
recently appeared in the Bulletin, described how the very
existence of the Field Museum resulted from this Exposi-
tion. So vast is this heritage that it still contains surprises
for the diligent researcher.

100 & 98 Ee
98 NW 98

Lote Prehistoric Occupation

NUEVA ERA

S:O.071 He EA; Coe

° 50 100
J

CM

By the beginning of the last decade of the last century,
planning was already well underway for two major inter-
national expositions with worldwide involvement
celebrating the 400th anniversary of the discovery of the
New World. One of these expositions was to be in Madrid,
Spain, and the other in Chicago. Planning, however, ran
somewhat behind schedule, and nothing opened until
1893.

In Colombia a single commission was appointed to
assemble the exhibit that would travel to both of these
expositions. The head of this commission was Vicente Res-
trepo, Knight of the Grand Cross of the Order of Saint
Gregory the Great, a wealthy aristocrat and devoted schol-
ar. At a time when archaeology was only starting to emerge
as a distinct discipline, he was Colombia’s leading
archaeologist. Evidently he used professional tomb looters
to assemble a very large collection of artifacts of
unquestionable authenticity. Restrepo had a handwritten
catalog prepared, the original of which exists in English in
the archives of the Field Museum. The catalog detailed all
of the specimens in the travelling exhibit. Presumably,
there still exists a version in Spanish in Bogota and Mad-
rid, and a comprehensive set of photographs covering all
specimens was also prepared. Several photographs of this
set are in the negative file in the Field Museum and it is
hoped that the full set can still be found in Bogota or
Madrid.

At some point after this catalog was prepared to be
used with the travelling exhibit in both cities, there was a
change of plans, and the most spectacular gold pieces were
presented as a gift from the government of Colombia to the
queen of Spain. Presumably this was a symbolic repayment

Profile (sidewall) of lsaacson’s excavation at Nueva Era site (photo at
left), showing stratigraphic relationship between the two prehistoric
occupations and the deep fall of volcanic ash.

Donald W. Lathrap is professor of anthropology at the University
of Illinois, Urbana, and a Field Museum research associate,
Department of Anthropology. John S. Isaacson and Colin
McEwan are doctoral candidates in anthropology at the Univer-
sity of Illinois, Urbana.

su

2

of the gold Isabella gave to Columbus. Since the Chibcha-
Muisca gold style was by far the most common, a large
number of specimens in this style ultimately arrived at the
Field Museum and are still in the collections, but all the
larger gold pieces in the style which has come to be known

Lime flasks of tumba-
ga, gold-copper alloy,
cast in the lost-wax
technique with golad-
enriched surface.
These exemplify
Classic Quimbaya
style. They form part
of the Restrepo
exhibition given to the
queen of Spain and
now in the Museo de
América, Madrid.
Lime was used in
conjunction with the
sacrimental chewing
of coca leaves. The
print is duplicated
from one in the origi-
nal Restrepo catalog.

Tunjos, votive offerings, of
gold-copper alloy, with gold-
enriched surface, cast by
means of the lost-wax tech-
nique. These are typical of the
rather rustic, state-enforced
style of the Chibcha kingdoms
encountered by the Spanish.

as Classic Quimbaya remained in the Museo de América,
Madrid. This treasure presently represents more than 75
percent of all specimens known in this style. It would
appear that Spain kept very few of the ceramic pieces, com-
prising some 1,300 items, so that the full collection, minus

the most spectacular gold pieces, arrived in Chicago and
was installed in the Colombian Pavilion at the Chicago’s
World Colombian Exposition. That collection never left
Chicago and, like much of the other ethnographic and
archaeological materials assembled for the exposition,

remained to become the permanent collections of the
Field Museum.

In the early 1930s, the then curator of Middle Amer-
ican and South American archaeology (1927-1935), the late
Sir J. Eric Thompson (later to become the outstanding
Maya scholar of his generation) reorganized the South
American archaeological exhibits (Halls 8 and 9), and pre-
pared an illustrated guide. With his eye, well trained to
the nuances of Mesoamerican archaeology, Thompson rec-
ognized the stylistic unity of a small number of ceramics
from the Quimbaya area, correctly pinpointed their
Formative or Proto-Classic nature and segregated them in
the exhibit cases. Striking confirmation of Thompson’s
intuition is now made possible by piecing together a veri-
table jigsaw of different pieces of evidence.

The great stylistic diversity of Colombian gold work
has long claimed the attention of New World scholars and
given rise to a very large literature. All of these studies
have recognized the distinctive nature of “Classic Quim-
baya.” There has been much speculation concerning its
relationship either as an antecedent to, or outgrowth of,
various other styles. The late William Root reasoned that,
since Peru was always more advanced than Colombia, and
since gold working does not appear in northern Peru until
about 400 B.C, all Colombian gold working, especially
styles with the technological sophistication of Quimbaya,
must be considerably later. He assigned the guesstimate of
A.D. 400-800 for the span of Classic Quimbaya. This guess
has since been repeated frequently and uncritically over
the years.

Given the volume of the literature and the superb
quality of the illustrations, it is surprising that there is, to
date, only one study which attempts to build a chronology

of the Colombian gold styles on internal evidence and
which uses an operationally sound method as exemplified
by the qualitative seriation first applied by G.M.A. Rich-
ter to Attic Red Figured vases. Charles Bolian, of the Uni-
versity of New Hampshire, using qualitative seriation, has

Specimens of “In-
cised Brownware.”
The beer mug (right)
in the shape of a cai-
man, the South Amer-
ican crocodilian, is of
great importance in
demonstrating the
time depth of South
American Indian
cosmologies. It is
analogous to the
sacred beer mugs of
the Inca empire.

presented a chronology of the Darien gold style which
must not be ignored, and has given temporal direction to
his seriated sequence by such securely dated points as its
appearance in the sacred cenote at Chichén Itza, the May-

Sketch of ceramic urn in “Incised Brownware’” in the collection of the
Museo Nacional, Bogota (after Bruhns, 1969-70). Note the stylistic
identity between the modelled human figure on this burial urn and the
female figures on the Classic Quimbaya lime flasks (p. 12, top). Note
also the distinctive convex, arcaded bosses shared by the urn and
the cast tumbaga vessels.

14

Cast tumbaga figurine in the collection of the Cleveland Museum of
Art. The characteristics of this unique piece link the beginnings of the
Darien style to Classic Quimbaya style. Photo courtesy the Cleveland
Museum of Art, gift of Mr. and Mrs. Raymond Henry Norweb.

an sacrificial site in Yucatan. His suggestion for the begin-
ning of the Darien style at around 200 B.C. appears to us to
be well motivated. A unique specimen in the Cleveland
Museum of Art firmly links the Quimbaya style to the be-
ginnings of the Darien style, an observation which antic-
ipates our own conclusions and which should have ren-
dered them less startling. Had the range of Colombian gold
styles been studied by an artistic genius such as the late
Miguel Covarrubias, we believe that he would have
instinctively identified the Quimbaya style as the “mother
style” comparable to the position of the Olmec in
Mesoamerican artistic evolution. Thus, he would have
placed Quimbaya at the base of a branching evolutionary
tree. The Vicus gold style of northern Peru, though
executed in a less sophisticated hammered and soldered
technology, is stylistically derivative of Classic Quimbaya.
Vicus dates to around the time of Christ, a further
indication that Root’s guess was far too conservative.

At the Society for American Archaeology meetings in
Milwaukee in 1969, Karen Bruhns presented a paper
describing a particular style of pottery which she, follow-
ing a summary paper by Wendell C. Bennett, designated
Brownware Incised (we prefer, and will continue to use,
the term “Incised Brownware” until an appropriate geo-
graphical designation is agreed on). Most importantly she
demonstrated that the “high relief? human figures that
occurred on some Incised Brownware urns were identical
to the human figures on Classic Quimbaya gold. She illus-
trated a number of pieces mainly from collections in Co-
lombia, but made no mention of the Field Museum’s mate-

rials, the largest collection of these ceramics outside of Co-
lombia. We equate the Field Museum series with “Incised
Brownware,” although it also includes white-slipped
polychromes and zoned-red pieces. Shared identities in the
execution of modelling and incision on both slipped and
unslipped examples make this equation secure.

The logic of Bruhns’s argument is impeccable. There
can be no doubt that Classic Quimbaya gold and Incised
Brownware come from the same cultural matrix. She dis-
cusses the difficult problems raised by the dating of Incised
Brownware:

... the Brownware Incised pottery cannot belong to the
historic Quimbaya. Because the places where these urns
have been found often fall well within the known Quim-
baya territory, it seems likely, then, that they predate the
Quimbaya [as they are known ethnohistorically].... How
much before this date is anybody’s guess. Sometime before
500 A.D. but perhaps after the turn of the millenium [sic]
would be reasonable. This date corresponds to Root’s
guess dates of 400-700 A.D. [sic] for what he calls ‘Classic
Quimbaya’ in metal.
Though she equivocates, it is to Bruhns’s credit that her
estimate of A.D. 1-500 is the first to place in question Root’s
conservative guess of A.D. 400-800. Her thinking was in
the right direction.

During his many trips to the Field Museum while
assisting in the preparation of the exhibit Ancient Ecuador,
1972-74, coauthor Donald W. Lathrap looked at the speci-
mens that had been segregated by Thompson and noted
both the identity of spout form between these vessels and
his Late Tutishcainyo ceramics from the Central Ucayali
River in Eastern Peru, and the identity of rim treatment
between the Chicago materials and the Cave of the Owls
fine ware from the famous oil bird cave near Tingo Maria
in eastern Peru. As Lathrap remembers:

It was clear to me that this pottery ought to date as early as
1500 B.C. in terms of its close relationships to well-dated
styles in the tropical lowlands east of the Andes. Each time
I passed the cases, I said to myself that I must check the
accession records and find precisely where this pottery
came from; but I never allocated the time.

Starting in 1980 and continuing through 1983,
archaeological excavations at the Nueva Era site in the
western Andean foothills of northern Ecuador were con-
ducted by coauthor John S. Isaacson. He remembers that
his thinking about the project had an interesting evolution:

I had originally gotten involved in the Tulipe Project to
study the large, Late Period settlements in the Tulipe Val-
ley, first discovered by Frank Salomon [1978]. After a test
excavation of a small house platform in 1980, I realized
that a large scale project focused on the Late Prehistoric
occupation of the valley was feasible. The major drawback
was that the Late Period ceramics from Tulipe were gener-
ally plainwares which exhibit very little change over long
periods of time. As I was preparing to return to the U.S.
after the 1980 field season, my Ecuadorean coinvestigator,
Holguer Jara, who was reconstructing a number of large
stone structures for the Museo Arqueolégico del Banco

Caribbean Sea

Pacific Ocean “*
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GUATAVITA

Major Volcanoes of the Northern Andes
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major volcano
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zone where previous finds of Incised Brownware
and Classic Quimbaya gold are concentrated

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16

Donald W. Lathrap “rediscovering” “incised Brownware” in a Field
Museum storeroom. This vessel shows the rim treatment typical of the
early Amazonian style “Cave of the Owls Fineware” and the distinc-
tive arcaded bosses, which link “Incised Brownware” not only to the
cast tumbaga flasks of Classic Quimbaya, but also to the earliest
Formative pottery of Southeastern Mesoamerica, Barra and Ocos.

Central del Ecuador, discovered a buried soil surface some
3 meters below the present ground surface. His interests
were in the reconstruction of the Late Period structures
and so he sent me the few ceramic sherds which he
recovered from the buried surface. I analyzed these at the
University of Illinois and quickly saw the importance of
this material, relating it to Formative Period ceramics
recovered from sites in the highlands of Ecuador. I felt that
the problems presented by the earlier material and its stra-
tigraphic context under such a deep column of volcanic ash
presented more challenging archaeological problems than
the Late Prehistoric Period.

It was while I was back in the field in 1981 that I
decided to direct my energies to an expanded excavation of
these earlier materials. I was fortunate to stay, while in
Tulipe, with Teniente Eustorgio Rosero Arturo and his
family on Hacienda Nueva Era, and I have named the site
Nueva Era after the Hacienda as an expression of my eter-
nal gratitude for the warmth and hospitality of Eustorgio
and his family. I have defined two prehistoric occupations
at the Nueva Era site separated by more than 2 meters of
sterile volcanic ash. The most recent occupation dates be-
tween A.D. 800-1600, and I have named it the Tulipe
Phase. This is a component of the numerous Late Period
sites which dot the Tulipe Valley landscape. Below this
occupation and the deep column of volcanic ash, is the

much older archaeological component, Nueva Era Phase,
which dates between 1500-500B.C.

The Nueva Era stratum produced a number of domes-
tic structures with associated hearths and floor refuse, pro-
ducing a surprisingly wide range of Middle Formative
pottery. Even more startling are the differences between
this material and the Middle Formative pottery buried
under a much thinner layer of the same volcanic ash at the
site of Cotocollao, 40 km to the southeast, in what is today
suburban Quito. Ongoing ceramic analysis in the South
American laboratory at the University of Illinois is clarify-
ing this difference. While the Middle Formative of the
Quito basin is most closely related to the Tutishcainyo
traditions of the Amazon, the Nueva Era ceramics are
clearly an extension of the very early Colombian Forma-
tive of Momil I on the Sint floodplain in northern
Colombia.

In consultation with Lathrap, Isaacson recognized
several sherds made of what appear to be exotic clays, and
with a style of decoration otherwise absent at the Nueva
Era village. These exotic sherds, they now realize, are none
other than Karen Bruhns’s “Incised Brownware.” Isaac-
son’s careful excavations make it clear that these materials
date in the 1500-600 B.C. time range, demonstrating for the
first time a clear chronological placement for “Incised
Brownware,” and, by extension, Quimbaya gold.

These excavations, those of Petersen and Porras at
Cotocollao and the well-published surveys of Bray and
associates covering several segments of the Cauca Valley
have all revealed stratigraphic profiles with deep ash lenses
frequently superimposed over cultural strata. From this we
conclude that the entire zone of recent volcanic activity
extending from well south of Quito to the lower Cauca
Valley was in violent eruption. The dating of all the indi-
vidual eruptions remains to be determined, but we can
safely infer that most of these clustered in the period 600
B.C. to AD. 1.

In retrospect, we can note that students of Colombian
archaeology showed a remarkable lack of curiosity about
what might lie under the blanket of volcanic ash upon
which all of the Late Period sites rest. Again, as was the
case with Root’s dating of Quimbaya, there seems to have
been a misplaced reliance on authority—on the sanctity of
what had been published only as opinion. In 1942 the late
James A. Ford made a moderately detailed survey of the
Upper Cauca Valley, finding only Late Period sites, and
relatively few of those. Ford made the suggestion that the
rich valley bottom of the Cauca could not have been ex-
ploited without labor intensive agricultural techniques, a
suggestion which is correct when applied to the pampas
around Buenos Aires, and even the Sabana de Bogota, a
waterlogged grassland. The ghost of that brilliant and iron-
ic archaeologist is probably both amused and angered that
his modest suggestion became a charter for casual thinking
anda lack of curiosity about the paleoecology of the Cauca
on the part of his followers.

The few tombs which have produced Classic Quim-
baya must be buried beneath this heavy volcanic mantle.
As we take this as an hypothesis and turn to Bruhns’s map
of the sites which have produced Incised Brownware, we
find that, as would have been predicted, all such sites are
located uniquely on the downwind slope of the greatest
concentration of recently active volcanoes in Colombia.
From all these bits of information it follows that the most
sophisticated lost-wax casting of gold-copper alloy in the
New World was being practiced in the Cauca Valley of
Colombia and predates 600 B.C. The people responsible for
this civilization were wiped out or driven away by an
immense outburst of volcanic activity which involved
not one but a series of Pompeii-like volcanic disasters.

For the first time we have an explanation why, since
the time of the Restrepo collection, so few further exam-
ples of Classic Quimbaya gold have appeared. In 1910
the British Museum acquired 17 fine pieces. A modest
collection is on exhibit in Berlin. There are two frequently
illustrated specimens in the museum of the University of
Pennsylvania, and single specimens are scattered in a few

Cast tumbaga beads from the Restrepo exhibition, now in the collec-
tion of Field Museum. These beads are from the same necklace as
examples in the Museo de América, Madrid.

Human effigy vessel with red-on-white painting. The orange unslip-
ped ceramic adds a third color to the decorative scheme. This
remarkable specimen was illustrated in the catalog prepared some
50 years ago by Field Museum curator J. Eric Thompson, but was not
subsequently exhibited.

17

18

other museums. But in its extensive collecting of gold, the
Museo del Oro, Banco de la Reptiblica, Bogota, Colombia,
has obtained few further large examples in the Classic
Quimbaya style. It cannot be accidental that Restrepo’s
campaign of excavations in the 1880s produced the only
collection that contains both large numbers of Classic
Quimbaya gold objects and a major assemblage of Incised
Brownware vessels.

Isaacson is presently analyzing volcanic ash samples
from the ash column at the Nueva Era site in Ecuador and
comparing these to source material from the numerous vol-
canoes in the vicinity of that site provided by Minard Hall
of the Escuela Politécnica Nacional in Quito. These cor-
relations of volcanic ash will represent the first attempt
at constructing a tephrochronology (mineralogical
“fingerprinting” of volcanic ash) of the northern Andes.

On May 31, 1984, Lathrap made a trip to Chicago
with coauthor Colin McEwan, a long-time fieldworker
and colleague of Warwick Bray (Institute of Archaeology,
London), the world’s foremost expert on Colombian gold.
Their immediate purpose was to verify the orientation and
size of certain Chavin and pre-Chavin temples in consulta-
tion with the Museum’s curator of Mesoamerican and
South American archaeology, Michael E. Moseley. This
task was quickly finished, and on a hunch, stimulated by
Isaacson’s discoveries, Lathrap insisted on examining the
South American storage area. In the course of this search,
Lathrap, McEwan, and Field Museum Research Associate
Ronald Weber stumbled across approximately fifteen
more pieces of “Incised Brownware.” Recalled McEwan
afterwards: “Lathrap was as excited as if we had broken
into a previously undisturbed tomb.” Among these pieces
was a spectacular polychrome example illustrated by
Thompson but thereafter placed in storage.

A ceremonial beer mug in the shape of an alligator
was particularly intriguing to Lathrap, who has long been
fascinated with the mythological importance of the giant
South American crocodilian, the black caiman. Ronald
Weber assisted Lathrap and McEwan in recording both
the specimens in storage and those on exhibit that had been
correctly segregated by Thompson as early and quite dis-
tinct from the other ceramics from the Cauca Valley. With
these catalog numbers they then returned to the accession
records and archives and examined the minutely detailed
catalog prepared by Restrepo in 1893—the first time these
materials had been examined in several decades. From this
catalog it becomes almost certain that the “Incised Brown-

Top and center: Cast tumbaga rattles from the Restrepo exhibition,
now in the collection of Field Museum. The human representations
are diagnostic of Classic Quimbaya style.

Bottom: Cast tumbaga seashell with gold-enriched surface from the
Restrepo exhibition, now in the collection of the Field Museum.

ware” pottery at the Field Museum comes from the same
tombs (probably numbering not more than five or six) that
produced the Classic Quimbaya gold pieces now in
Madrid.

Expanding the search within the Field Museum, the
few negatives from the full “photographic record” of the
Restrepo catalog were located, and several small but ex-
quisite examples of classsic Quimbaya gold work from Res-

’ ;

=

Guatavita, the most awesome of the five sacred lakes of the Chibcha States. Votive offerings were dumped here at

itself and the ritual immediately bring to mind the sacred
cenote at Chichén Itza, where both gold and virgins were
periodically offered for the health and stability of the com-
munity. We now suggest that Lake Guatavita offers the
legitimate historic antecedent from which the Maya ritual
at Chichén Itza developed.

Dense occupations of the Sabana de Bogota and the
Chibchan States, as such, are relatively late, but some of

e t 3 i “

the coronation of each Chibcha ruler. The crater was formed by the collapse of a dissolved salt dome. Photo cour-

tesy Warwick Bray.

trepo’s tombs rediscovered. Beads in the form of human
heads are identical to specimens in Madrid and probably
come from the same necklace. Two small rattles have the
same distinctive human representations. A gold seashell
effigy is small, but is as stunning an example of lost-wax
casting as can be found anywhere. In short, the area of the
New World which had attained the most sophisticated
metalworking techniques, and was certainly highly
advanced in other aspects of culture, was rendered
uninhabitable for a period of between 500 to 1,000 years.
In the future, archaeologists must reckon with the far-
reaching effects of this catastrophe on the course of cultu-
ral evolution in the New World.

There are a number of fascinating implications that
immediately come to mind once the above scenario has
been accepted. One of the most colorful of these concerns
the great round crater lake, Guatavita, in the highlands
near Bogota, where the coronation of the Chibchan ruler
was consecrated by offerings of vast quantities of gold. The
Spanish chroniclers give details of this ritual in which val-
uable items of all kinds were thrown in the lake. The lake

the ceramics recovered from the dredging of Guatavita are
clearly in the Incised Brownware tradition; and a carbon
14 assay on carbon from the core of a cast gold specimen
from the lake is A.D. 645 + 95, far earlier than the origin of
the Chibchan States. The sanctity of Guatavita dates back
to the Middle Formative. This observation should be cou-
pled with Reichel-Dolmatoffs excavations at Monst.
Here on the Magdalena flood plain we find communities
with intensive agriculture and fancy pottery fully 1,500
years before similar developments in either Mexico or
Peru. Indeed, stylistically the pottery is a plausible antece-
dent for the earliest pottery in both Mexico and Peru. That
the basic structure of the religions of Mexico and Peru was
already fully formulated in Colombia by 3500 B.C. is now
moved from the realm of science fiction and into the realm
of probability. Examples of gold work in the Darien style, a
clear outgrowth of the Quimbaya style, have been
recovered from both sacred lakes, showing that both were
“Meccas” in the same overarching religious system. This
network of religious pilgrimage underscores the essential
unity of New World high civilizations.FM

19

My Life, My Music

by Ravi Shankar

| | in the Field Museum brings back In looking back on these 52 years of experi-
my first visit to Chicago in January 1933 with ence with American audiences, I can say that
my late brother Uday Shankar’s Troupe of Hin- their appreciation and understanding of the arts
du Dancers and Musicians. We made a brave of India has grown enormously. My brother,
effort to walk from the Congress Hotel to Uday, was the first pioneer to bring dance and
Orchestra Hall in a blizzard at 10 degrees music from India to the West from 1930 to 1938.
above zero. I was more of a dancer in his troupe, but I also

played several instruments for background
music to the dance numbers.

In 1935 Uday brought one of our greatest
musicians from India—Ustad Allauddin Khan
—as soloist, playing sarod. He toured with us for
only about ten months, mainly in Europe. While
touring, I started learning music from him—
mainly vocal music and sitar. After that, he went
back to India and I was torn between choosing
dance and music. Should I go back to India with
Baba Allauddin Khan and devote many years of
orthodox and rigorous musical training, or

=

SE OO GREE SE PITS
Sa ei a ara a a

should I spend more time in the West as a
dancer, touring and enjoying all the glitter,
glamour, and freedom it offered? But I guess the
advent of World War II changed my brother’s
plan; it also helped me to choose my career and
to take music as my main course in life.

After many years of studying Indian classi-
cal music on sitar under Baba Allauddin Khan
and becoming quite well known in India (as a
composer and performer of ballet, film, and
orchestral music), I thought of bringing our
serious form of classical music to the West. I did
my own pioneering work, beginning in 1956.

There wasn’t a large audience initially, but it
gradually grew with each visit. I performed,
gave lecture-demonstrations and interviews,
and cut many albums, including an anthology of
Indian music. By the late 1950s I was performing
in all the major concert halls in Europe, the
U.S.A., and Canada—a first, indeed, for any In-
dian musician. It was a thrilling experience for
me, and I was elated that I could transmit the
spirit and depth of

eA
- TOA Aan.

ing the sitar, with Alla Rakha The charismatic Ravi Shankar first performed in Chicago more than
rmer at right is a student 50 years ago

our music to the people of the West. For most of
them, our music had been like a museum piece—
bracketed in the “ethnic” group of art form—and to
others merely “esoteric” and “exciting.”

In the early 1960s my association with my dear
and esteemed friend Yehudi Menuhin had wonder-
ful results. In particular, I wrote a few pieces based
on pure ragas and talas, which we first performed at
festivals in England; later our recording of this
received the Grammy award. In the following years
I made two more albums and performed all over the
world with the great Menuhin. Another favorite
musician with whom I composed and recorded was
Jean Pierre Rampal, the renowned flutist.

Then there came the big phase in the mid-
sixties. I was catapulted into Superstardom in the
“pop” sense when George Harrison of the Beatles
became my student. This lasted five or six years.
Unfortunately, it was such a mixed-up period of
hippies, drugs, Vietnam, Yoga, Tantra, and
Kamasutra. But despite the fact that the approach of
the young and immature was superficial, it was also
true that millions of these young people all over the
world came to know for the first time about sitar
and Indian music in general. The fad died gradually,
and the innumerable listeners dwindled away—but
the very few that remained (quite a large number
actually) are still there today and are devoted
listeners to Indian music.

The two sitar concertos with symphony orches-
tra that I wrote (1970, 1981) also introduced to our
music a large number of people who usually go to
hear only Western classical music. There are various
universities in the West where Indian music is
taught in “world music studies.” Unfortunately,
however, some schools continue to offer it under the
category of “ethnic” music (“ethnomusicology”),
along with Chinese, Indonesian, Vietnamese, and
African music. I would like to clarify my objection
to this. I strongly believe that these others are tradi-
tional music; some are folk music. Their develop-
ment stopped quite some time ago. There are only
two types of classical music that exist today. They
are the Western classical and Indian classical music
—the latter started from hymns of Vedas about
2,500 years ago from a religious basis. Indian clas-
sical music has gradually developed into the per-
forming arts, being influenced to some extent by folk

Ravi Shankar, together with Alla Rakha, per-
forms November 16 and 17 in James Simp-
son Theatre. See pp. 3, 4 for details.

and regional music that existed in earlier periods.
Being an oral tradition, it was passed down from
guru to disciple—at times from father to son. And it
has been enriched through innovations and develop-
ments that are still going on. But Indian classical
music has always maintained a very sound and
scientific basis. The two main elements are the
ragas (“melody” forms) and talas (“rhythmic” cy-
cles). The most important thing is the amount of
improvisation one does while performing, keeping to
the strict rules. It is a music that is alive and still
growing, without influence by alien music.

Western classical music also started from a
religious base—the church, Gregorian chants. The
only difference is that instead of relying solely on
oral tradition, it developed a written notation
system, and great composers through the last few
centuries have been able to create music consisting
of fixed compositions for solo, duo, trio, quartet,
chamber, or symphony orchestra. These immortal
compositions will endure, though they may vary
slightly because of the individual musician’s or
conductor’s interpretation. Western music is also
enriched by chords, harmony, counterpoint,
modulation dynamics, and so forth. The highlights
of Indian music are in its melodic richness and high-
ly sophisticated, intricate application of rhythm. It is
also said that the notes used in Indian music are in
curved lines ~-~_~), whereas in Western music
the notes are cornered (\/\“’), which means that
instead of staccato or legato we use meend and
gamak—where one note slides or merges into the
other note in a special manner that is different from
the Western glissando.

To be able to understand and appreciate Indian
music one must listen to it with all these things in
mind, letting one’s heart and emotion take over in
the beginning—before going into mere technicali-
ties. The spiritual aspect of our music, especially in
the first part of a concert, is also something that can
be very relaxing and meditative. This is why the
Indian sages have always emphasized nada Brahma
—an old saying meaning “sound is God.” Fm

24

The Right Gift at the Right Time
Jack C. Staehle Makes a Difference

by Glenn Paré
Grants Officer, Planning and Development

“To give away money is an easy matter and in any man’s power. But, to decide to whom to give it, and how much and when, and
for what purpose and how, is neither in every man’s power nor an easy matter. Hence it is that such excellence is rare, praise-

worthy and noble.”—Aristotle

a Re activities Field Museum undertakes are as
varied, diverse, and important as the collections we
house, the exhibits we display, and the audiences we
serve. Field Museum exists to preserve, increase,
and disseminate knowledge of natural history; and
attempting to fulfill this mission is an expensive en-
deavor. In large part, much of who we are and what
we do is dependent upon the many gifts and grants
we receive in support of research, collection main-
tenance, educational programs, and special projects.
Aristotle foresaw this support when he called such
inspired giving “praiseworthy and noble.” Because
this giving is integral to our operation, we intend to
overview grant-supported activities on a somewhat
regular basis here in the Bulletin.

Enumerating these noble efforts by individuals,
foundations, corporations, and other public and pri-
vate agencies illustrates the vast scope of Field
Museum while underscoring the important differ-
ence the right grant at the right time can make. Per-
haps a good place to begin, and a prime example of
this kind of support, is Jack C. Staehle’s two recent
grants to the Department of Botany totalling
$32,754. Through the years, Staehle has been a close
friend and strong supporter of Field Museum. Now,
because he is interested in South America and is
concerned about preserving and enhancing our
knowledge of ourselves and the world, he is support
ing the work in Botany, helping to ensure that
important collecting and cataloging is complete be-
fore time and nature make these tasks impossible.
That he would be concerned enough to support the

department’s collecting and research at this level is
not surprising when one has the good fortune to
know Staehle.

Staehle’s interests in scientific collecting began
at an early age and were specifically enhanced in
high school when he studied zoology and botany,
among other subjects, under E.E. Hand. Professor
Hand, whose extensive shell collection today is
housed at Field Museum, encouraged the collecting
interests of his students by promising better grades
for those who could collect quotas of assigned spe-
cies. Staehle recalls his own youthful passion for
collecting and smiles when he talks about the jars
full of insects and other specimens he and his class-
mates collected.

Later in life, Staehle also began to develop a
personal interest in South America. As a vice presi-
dent for Aldens, one of the nation’s largest mail
order catalog firms, he was recruited by the U.S.
State Department to conduct management seminars
for corporate executives in many developing coun-
tries such as Argentina, Peru, Chile, Ecuador, and
Venezuela. In all, he has made some eleven trips to
South America and has enjoyed the experience,
especially in trying to understand better the cultural
differences and similarities between us and our
neighbors to the South. Along these lines, he has de-
voted considerable time to studying the Aztec and
Inca civilizations, only to be impressed by their cul-
ture, craftsmanship, and their technical knowledge
evidenced by elaborate buildings and extensive
highway systems. Drawing comparisons, according

MEL ILIN'

to Staehle, is the key to understanding the present
cultures and peoples of South America; hence, bet-
ter understanding their interrelationship with us.

His combined interests in collecting and in
South America, however, may go back still further;
perhaps they are in his blood. In 1817, Staehle’s
great-grandfather collected live specimens of “rare
and curious Creatures from the Four Corners of the
Globe,” and took the menagerie to South America
on a money-making tour. When he later returned to
this country and settled into farming in southern
Wisconsin, he brought with him animals no more
exotic than a small flock of merino sheep.

Today, Staehle still spends time on the family
farm, but several years ago, in an airport in Are-
quipa, Peru he made an unusual and pleasant dis-
covery. When he stopped to purchase souvenirs for
his wife and daughter the shopkeeper offered him
two gold medallions. Pictured on one was a llama,

aC
T TS

Jack C. Staehle (rt.) with Timothy Plowman, associate curator of
Botany, in Plowman’s laboratory.

native to the area; on the other, surprisingly, was an
elephant. According to local legend, an American
had once brought a circus through the area and don-
ated his elephant to the local people to start a zoo.
The elephant, a big hit, lived a good number of years
and became such a local favorite that his popularity
long outlived him. Haunted by the coincidence and
familiar ring to some of the tale, Staehle pieced
through family documents and the original pass-
ports, and discovered that the elephant’s donor was
none other than his great-grandfather.

Like his ancestor, Staehle thinks big. His cur-
rent concern is with putting natural history and the
entire world into proper perspective. He is, and has
been for some time, engaged in compiling and writ-
ing a “Chronology of the Earth” covering the past

Ron Testa

25

26

20 billion years, from formation of the earth and
moon to the present day; parallel to this, he is
attempting to complete and maintain an encyc-
lopedic indexing of “Patterns: Peoples, Places and
Diseases.” His grant to the Department of Botany is
a natural extension of his interests and concerns and
the support is an important resource for the depart-
ment’s study and work relative to South America.

The department holds more than 2.5 million
plant specimens widely representative of the earth’s
vegetation; the collection is particularly strong in
the flora of Central and South America. For more
than fifty years, Field Museum botanists have been
committed to taking a census of and cataloging the
flora of this region, especially the countries of Peru
and Costa Rica. This massive undertaking, now
nearing completion, has earned the Department of
Botany a well-respected reputation worldwide.
Staehle’s grant support is assisting Museum botan-
ists in their collecting and fieldwork as well as aid-
ing and improving their productivity back in their
Museum laboratories.

Importantly, Staehle’s grant will help Botany
develop a comprehensive study of the ethnobotany
of the Amazon tribes in eastern Peru and the adja-
cent areas of Ecuador, Bolivia, and Brazil before the
natural areas are destroyed and the native cultures
dissolved. The jungles of the Amazon basin contain
perhaps 60,000 species of plants. Native Indians
have a profound knowledge of this flora and, over
thousands of years, have discovered a myriad of uses
for the local plants, including plant medicines. The
rapid absorption of the native groups into modern
culture and the development and deforestation of
land areas, however, threaten to eradicate this un-
tapped knowledge and the very plants themselves.

Associate Curator Timothy Plowman is utiliz-
ing some of the funding for his ongoing studies in
the coca family. This work includes research on the
evolutionary relationships and geographical distri-
butions of the tropical American species and the
ethnobotany, chemistry, and medicinal uses of culti-
vated varieties of coca. His research is important not
only for organizations attempting to control illegal
cocaine production in South America, but also for
governmental agencies in Peru, Bolivia, and else-
where that are attempting to find legitimate medi-
cinal uses for the coca plant.

The support from Staehle’s grants will allow
Plowman to continue work such as that just com-
pleted with William Vickers, of Florida Interna-
tional University—a comprehensive study of the
useful plants of the Siona and Secoya Indians of
Amazonian Ecuador, based on plant collections
made by anthropologist Vickers in 1973. This de-
tailed study of the plants used by a single cultural
group in the western Amazon will serve as a model
for similar studies among the numerous disappearing
tribes throughout Amazonia. Plowman’s work will
also provide a unique opportunity to compare plant
uses among linguistically unrelated tribes living in
the same habitats containing many of the plant spe-
cies. Plowman and Vickers have recently published
their research findings in Fieldiana, Field Museum’s
continuing series of scientific monographs.

Assistant Curator Michael O. Dillon, with sup-
port from Staehle’s grants, is studying isolated plant
communities in the coastal desert of western Peru
and northern Chile. While the desert is considered
one of the world’s driest, fog drifts in from the Pacif-
ic and settles on low coastal hills forming islands of
vegetation called lomas. When the fog or dew is of
sufficient quantity and remains long enough, plants
remarkably bloom and flourish. Many plant species,
several genera, and at least one entire family, are
found nowhere else.

Dillon is conducting research to provide a thor-
ough survey of these “islands” in an attempt to
answer several biological and evolutionary ques-
tions relating to the origin of loma plants and the
formations themselves. In 1982 and 1983 the un-
usual weather pattern of “El Nirio” brought heavy
rains to the lomas causing rare plants, perhaps never
before seen by man, to flower. Dillon is currently in
Peru collecting and conducting fieldwork to study
the long-term dynamics of these unusual formations.

Jack C. Staehle is making a difference. With his
grant support, Museum botanists are working on
projects and carrying out tasks to a greater extent
than would be possible during these times of limited
research funding. With his support, Field Museum
is answering Staehle’s concerns for preserving and
enhancing our knowledge of ourselves and the
world in which we live. His strong continued sup-
port and the recent grants of $32,754 are what we
consider “praiseworthy and noble.”Fm

TOURS FOR MEMBERS

conditioned staterooms, each with two
beds. The cuisine is in the best tradition
of the great yachts of the past. Expert
European chefs provide exquisitely
prepared meals accompanied by vin-
tage wines. A crew of 40 German offic-
ers and men, plus 20 cadets sail the Sea
Cloud. There is ample deck space for
sunning and enjoying the spectacle of
the sails. Life aboard is informal and re-
laxed, and cruise participants may join
in the operation of the sails.

Archaeological Tour of Egypt
Including 5-day Nile Cruise

February 15-March 4, 1985

An unforgettable in-depth visit to the
Land of the Pharoahs, including a 5-
day Nile cruise aboard the luxurious
Hilton Steamer. An Egyptologist will
accompany the tour throughout,
including the Nile cruise, and person-
ally conduct all lectures and sightsee-
ing. Tour highlights will include the
pyramids and Sphinx of Giza, little-
visited monuments of Middle Egypt,
King Tut’s tomb, the holiday resort of
Aswan, and a visit to Abu Simbel.

Sailing the Lesser Antilles
Aboard the Tall Ship

Sea Cloud
February 7-16, 1985

Our itinerary offers a superb sampling
of the Caribbean’s best—Antigua, St.
Barts, Saba, Martinique, and Iles des
Saints. With the professional leadership
of Dr. Robert K. Johnson, a Field
Museum marine biologist, you will see
and experience a great deal more than
the conventional sightseer. Dr. Johnson
is a topnotch tour lecturer, and your
trip will be greatly enhanced by
stimulating lectures and field trips.
Price range (contingent on cabin se-
lection): $3,455-$5,755. per person
(includes round-trip air fare from
Chicago, hotel accommodations in

St. John’s, Antigua, and full board
while on the Sea Cloud).

The largest private ship ever built,
the steel-hulled Sea Cloud is 316 feet in
length and has four Diesel engines with
total power of 6,000 B.H.P. The ship

accommodates 75 guests in air-

for 1985

Yo Re Fk ee | i er yf haere

Ae a. ee ee

Colonial South
April 13-20, 1985

Now you can be among the first
passengers to visit the legendary Colo-
nial South in the comfort of a relaxing,
yacht-like cruise ship, with a friendly
American staff to serve you. Our ports
of call will be Savannah and St. Simon
Island, Georgia; Beaufort, Charleston,
and Hilton Head Island, South Caro-
lina; with disembarkation at Savannah.

Dr. Lorin I. Nevling, director of
Field Museum and a distinguished
botanist, will accompany the tour,
sharing his professional expertise on
the flora of the exquisite gardens we'll
visit. Our tour is planned to coincide
with the spring explosion of color in
daffodils, tulips, dogwoods, and
azaleas—a welcome treat after Chi-
cago’s long winter. Local historians
will provide us with talks on historic
buildings of the region and on Civil
War history. The Nantucket Clipper will
cruise through the peaceful waters of
the intra-coastal waterways, allowing
you to spend each evening in town
enjoying the port experience to its full-
est, and affording even greater variety
in this delightful cruise experience.

For further information or to be placed on our
mailing list, call or write Dorothy Roder, Tours
Manager, Field Museum, Roosevelt Rd. at Lake
Shore Dr., Chicago, IL 60605. Phone:
322-8862.

rr wee... 2 eee

27

Ravi Shankar performs Nov. 16, 17

i performs classical Indian dance Nov. 24

indran

SSOUD ‘3 N3A3LS

JOHN ISAAC

OVVS! NHOF

Sukanya performs classical Indian dance Nov. 24

th Ravi Shankar Nov. 16, 17

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY BULLETIN

December 1984

1985 CALENDAR
“The Year of the Gemstone”

Field Museum
of Natural History
Bulletin

Published by

Field Museum of Natural History
Founded 1893

President: Willard L. Boyd
Director: Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.

Editor: David M. Walsten
Production Liaison: Pamela Stearns
Staff Photographer: Ron Testa

BOARD OF TRUSTEES LiFE TRUSTEES
James J. O'Connor Harry O. Bercher

chairman Joseph N. Field
Mrs. T. Stanton Armour Clifford C. Gregg
George R. Baker William V. Kahler
Robert O. Bass William H. Mitchell
Gordon Bent John W. Sullivan
Mrs. Philip D. Block III J. Howard Wood
Willard L. Boyd

Frank W. Considine
Stanton R. Cook
William R. Dickinson, Jr.
Thomas E. Donnelley II
Thomas J. Eyerman
Marshall Field

Richard M. Jones

Hugo J. Melvoin

Leo F. Mullin

Charles F. Murphy, Jr.
Earl L. Neal

Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.
Robert A. Pritzker
James H. Ransom

John S. Runnells
Patrick G. Ryan
William L. Searle
Edward Byron Smith
Robert H. Strotz

Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken
E. Leland Webber
Blaine J. Yarrington

oO and Cir

Filing date: Sept. 14, 1984. Title Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin. Publication no, 898940. Frequency of publication:
Monthly except for combined July/August issue. Number of issues publi y: Il. Annual subscription price:
$6.00. Office: Roosevelt Rd. at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL. 60605-2496.

Publisher: Field Museum of Natural History. Editor: David M. Walsten. Known bondholders, mortgages, and other
security holders: none. Nonprofit status has not changed during the preceding 12 months.

Av. no. copies each Actual no. copies

issue preceding single issue nearest

12 mos. to filing date

Total copies printed....... ees ee eed Orbe h, Waheasteket per ys - 30,500

Paid Circulation (sales through
dealers, vendors, carriers) ...... Ae eiiog ee

Total paid circulation. ..... RRL peteaesirtas te

Free distribution ........ Me Fe ney
PRL Gist AON 55655: xe Les na nee ce heee x
Office use, left over..........

Total Re Soraneres

I certify that the statements made by me above are correct and complete. Jimmie W. Croft, vice president for Finance and
Museum Services

CONTENTS

December 1984
Volume 55, Number 11

1985: The Year of the Gemstone
Appointment calendar featuring specimens from Field
Museum’s gemstone collection.

COVER

The Chalmers Topaz (5,890 carats) will be on view in the
new Gem Hall. Photo by Ron Testa. 84618

Typesetting by Tele/Typography Inc.

Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin (USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined
July/August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive,
Chicago, II. 60605. Subscriptions: $6.00 annually, $3.00 for schools. Museum membership
includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not neces-
sarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Museum
phone: (312) 922-9410. Notification of address change should include address label and be sent to
Membership Department. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural His-
tory, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, II. 60605. ISSN:0015-0703. Second class
postage paid at Chicago, Il.

1985
The Year of the Gemstone

The Gem Hall is one of the most popular exhibits at the Field Museum. Soon-
er or later, virtually every adult who enters the Museum gravitates to the gems.
Installed in its present location in 1921, the Gem Room has been renovated on
two occasions. Since the last renovation there have been significant advances in
lighting methods that bring out the full richness of color and internal “fire” in
gemstones. Late in 1983 it was decided to completely redesign the gemstone
exhibit in order to take advantage of these state-of-the-art exhibition tech-
niques. The new design is a radical departure from the one it replaces. Lights,
rich in the colors of the spectrum, are combined with attractive groupings; dis-
plays slowly rotated on turntables add movement and glitter to the room.

Traditionally, museums exhibit gems as things of beauty unto themselves.
Little or no information is provided about them other than their names—it is
thus in every major museum in the world. Yet, it has been our experience at
Field Museum, based on decades of inquiries by the public, that people are
eager for basic information about the gems they own, have inherited, or plan to
buy. Departing from tradition, the new exhibit will add a fresh dimension to the
viewing of gems. Each grouping of gemstones will have a modest amount of
label copy describing those aspects that experience has shown us are of particu-
lar interest to the public. In addition, one section of the exhibit will be devoted
to a general explanation of the gem-cutting art, display popular styles of cut
stones, and provide a few basics about gem terms.

From ancient times to the present, certain gems have been regarded as
endowed with magical or curative powers. One portion of the new exhibit will
show examples of stones associated with such myths and superstitions.

The Field Museum calendar for 1985 offers on the following pages a brief
sampling of gemstones to be seen in this newly designed exhibit.

—Edward Olsen, curator of mineralogy.

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